The Faculty Mentor's Wisdom: Conceptualizing, Writing, and Defending the Dissertation

The Faculty Mentor’s Wisdom Conceptualizing, Writing, and Defending the Dissertation

Edited by Raymond L. Calabrese Page A. Smith

ROWMAN & LITTLEFIELD EDUCATION A division of Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc. Lanham • New York • Toronto • Plymouth, UK

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Published by Rowman & Littlefield Education A division of Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc. A wholly owned subsidiary of The Rowman & Littlefield Publishing Group, Inc. 4501 Forbes Boulevard, Suite 200, Lanham, Maryland 20706 http://www.rowmaneducation.com Estover Road, Plymouth PL6 7PY, United Kingdom Copyright © 2010 by Raymond L. Calabrese and Page A. Smith All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any electronic or mechanical means, including information storage and retrieval systems, without written permission from the publisher, except by a reviewer who may quote passages in a review. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Information Available Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Faculty mentor’s wisdom : conceptualizing, writing, and defending the dissertation / edited by Raymond L. Calabrese, Page A. Smith. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references. ISBN 978-1-60709-876-8 (cloth : alk. paper) — ISBN 978-1-60709-877-5 (pbk. : alk. paper) — ISBN 978-1-60709-878-2 (ebook) 1. Dissertations, Academic. 2. Mentoring in education. I. Calabrese, Raymond L., 1942- II. Smith, Page A., 1953LB2369.F33 2010 378.2'42—dc22 2010017392

⬁ ™ The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of American National Standard for Information Sciences—Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSI/NISO Z39.48-1992. Printed in the United States of America.

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To one whose life defines all that is good—Barb Calabrese —Ray To Ike—Whose metronome tail beats constantly to my writing —Page

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Contents

Acknowledgments

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Introduction

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PART I

DISSERTATION—UNDERSTANDING THE PROCESS

1

Doctoral Students and the Dissertation Process Dr. Philip T. K. Daniel, The Ohio State University

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The Dissertation Process Dr. C. John Tarter, The University of Alabama

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Challenges, Professorial Advice, and Doctoral Student Dilemmas Dr. John L. Keedy, University of Louisville

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Moving from Concept to Completion Dr. James H. Stronge, The College of William and Mary

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Strategies for Dissertation Writing Success Dr. Frances Kochan, Auburn University

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Contents

PART II

THE DISSERTATION TOPIC

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It’s Your Dissertation—It’s Your Topic Dr. Michael DiPaola, The College of William and Mary

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Identifying and Focusing a Dissertation Topic: Baseball as a Cognitive Heuristic Dr. Bob L. Johnson Jr., University of Utah

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The Dissertation Journey: Strategizing for Success Dr. Linda C. Tillman, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill

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Paying Forward: Returning Kindness and Passing on Advice Dr. Juanita Johnson-Bailey, University of Georgia, Athens

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Know Your Passion: Selecting a Dissertation Topic Dr. Margaret Terry Orr, Bank Street College

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The Wrong Shoes or the Wrong Feet? Being Changed by the Research Process Dr. Angela Calabrese Barton, Michigan State University

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Identifying a Dissertation Research Topic Dr. Martha N. Ovando, The University of Texas at Austin

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Connecting the Dots: Choosing a Dissertation Topic Dr. Susan Printy, Michigan State University

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PART III SELECTING A CHAIR AND COMMITTEE

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Selecting a Dissertation Chair Dr. I. Phillip Young, University of California, Davis

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Choosing a Dissertation Supervisory Committee and Dissertation Topic Dr. Diana G. Pounder, University of Central Arkansas

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Seeking an Advisor as a Mentor Dr. Raymond L. Calabrese, The Ohio State University

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When Choosing a Major Professor, Go Slow to Go Fast Dr. George J. Petersen, California Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo

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Choosing a Major Professor Dr. Sally J. Zepeda, University of Georgia, Athens

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Dancing with Elephants: Forming Your Dissertation Committee Dr. Lance D. Fusarelli, North Carolina State University

PART IV PREPARING THE DISSERTATION PROPOSAL

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Preparing a Dissertation Proposal: So, Now You’re Ready to Write! Dr. Ada Demb, The Ohio State University

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Preparing a Dissertation Proposal Dr. Robert Donmoyer, University of San Diego

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Writing Your Dissertation Proposal: It’s Easier Than You Think Dr. Carolyn Hughes, Vanderbilt University

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Preparing Your Dissertation Proposal Dr. Kathryn R. Wentzel, University of Maryland, College Park

PART V

WRITING THE DISSERTATION

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How to Write Your Dissertation: A Top Ten List! Dr. Jeffrey S. Brooks, University of Missouri

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Writing the Dissertation: Begin with the End in Mind Dr. Tricia Browne-Ferrigno, University of Kentucky

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Writing Your Dissertation Dr. Paula A. Cordeiro, University of San Diego

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One Sentence, One Paragraph, and One Page at a Time Dr. Cynthia L. Uline, San Diego State University

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PART VI

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DEFENDING THE DISSERTATION

What the Graduate Student Handbook Doesn’t Tell You About Defending Your Dissertation Dr. Patrick B. Forsyth, The University of Oklahoma Defending Your Dissertation Dr. John R. Hoyle, Texas A&M University

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It’s Up to You

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About the Editors and Contributors

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Acknowledgments

As editors of The Faculty Mentor’s Wisdom: Conceptualizing, Writing, and Defending the Dissertation, we are indebted to the 29 professors and dissertation advisors from the most prestigious universities in the United States for taking time from their demanding schedules to contribute to this book. The book is a product of their collective wisdom, passion, and experience linked to mentoring doctoral students. They provided us with significant hope for the future of doctoral education in the United States. We acknowledge Dr. Thomas F. Koerner, editor for Rowman & Littlefield Education. Tom is the exemplar of an exceptional mentor, and we appreciate and acknowledge his mentoring throughout this project. One of the editors of this book has been fortunate to have had Tom as a mentor for several years, beginning when the editor was a middle school and high school principal and Tom was the executive director for the National Association of Secondary School Principals. Like the stories in this book, this mentoring relationship continues.

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Introduction

The core of this book focuses on bringing the power of faculty mentoring to doctoral students in the dissertation stage of their program. For doctoral students, a mentor is a person who points toward the goal, helping the students chart a course to advance their career. For the mentor, it is a means of paying it forward, helping doctoral students become self-sufficient contributors to society. Mentoring contains several aspects: The relationship is reciprocal, it is caring, and the process transforms both mentor and student (Healy & Welchert, 1990). Quality mentoring of doctoral students provides significant benefits for faculty and students. For faculty, mentoring is a generative activity that allows the faculty member to give back to society. The mentoring relationship between the faculty member and doctoral student encourages the student’s growth as a researcher, serves as an important induction process into academia or professional practice, and leaves a legacy with the student to pay it forward when the student assumes the mantle of mentor. Doctoral students who have vigilant mentors are more likely to successfully defend their dissertations and advance their careers. These doctoral students have a head start in a highly competitive culture to further their careers and make significant contributions to society. As editors, we believe each doctoral student deserves to benefit from excellent mentoring. xi

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xii

Introduction

We believe that faculty have a responsibility to share their wisdom to forthcoming generations of scholars and practitioners who pursue doctoral studies. We believe quality faculty purposefully seek out mentoring opportunities to pass on what they received from their mentors. When we recruited the highest quality faculty to contribute to this book, we were overwhelmed by their response. They saw the book and their contribution as another opportunity to contribute to society through mentoring and advancing the careers of doctoral students. This collection of mentoring chapters showcases 29 professors and dissertation advisors from the most prestigious universities in the United States. They give doctoral students an extraordinary range of mentoring advice related to aspects of the dissertation process that speak directly to them. They answer the timeless question: How do doctoral students successfully conceptualize, write, and defend the dissertation? In this book, doctoral students receive the wisdom of these faculty mentors—the same wisdom that these experienced mentors would give their advisees. Each chapter addresses a piece of the dissertation process that represents how these exceptional faculty best mentor their doctoral students. Faculty contributions exemplify diverse perspectives of mentoring: Some faculty are direct and forthright, pointing the mentee toward a successfully defended dissertation; some faculty share personal experiences, offering mentoring advice from the perspective of someone who has traveled a similar path; and some faculty structure a dialogue between the faculty as mentor and the doctoral student. In all cases, they open possibilities to successfully defend the dissertation. This book is organized in a linear process, with six sections covering conceptualizing, writing, and defending the dissertation: (1) Dissertation—Understanding the Process, (2) The Dissertation Topic, (3) Selecting a Chair and Committee, (4) Preparing the Dissertation Proposal, (5) Writing the Dissertation, and (6) Defending the Dissertation. Each chapter within a section addresses a professional or personal component of the dissertation process that represents the mentoring wisdom of these exceptional faculty. Review the table of contents, identify the sections and chapters, and select the mentoring advice that is most beneficial.

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As editors, we are honored to have our names on this remarkable mentoring book that you are about to read. We hope you uncover the secrets that will make you successful and advance your career.

REFERENCE Healy, C. C., & Welchert, J. (1990). Mentoring relations: A definition to advance research and practice. Educational Researcher, 19(9), 17–21.

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Part I DISSERTATION—UNDERSTANDING THE PROCESS

This section of The Faculty Mentor’s Wisdom: Conceptualizing, Writing, and Defending the Dissertation is dedicated to providing an overview of the dissertation process. The mentoring advice offered by our contributors speaks specifically to doctoral students at various stages of the dissertation process. These contributors share the nuances of the dissertation process and prepare a map for you to successfully complete and defend your dissertation. • Dr. Philip T. K. Daniel, Doctoral Students and the Dissertation Process • Dr. C. John Tarter, The Dissertation Process • Dr. John L. Keedy, Challenges, Professional Advice, and Doctoral Student Dilemmas • Dr. James H. Stronge, Moving from Concept to Completion • Dr. Frances Kochan, Strategies for Dissertation Writing Success

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1 Doctoral Students and the Dissertation Process Dr. Philip T. K. Daniel The Ohio State University

Many potential candidates for doctoral study decide to advance their desires because of respect for or need of further education. Others gravitate toward addressing a burning policy issue requiring substantial research and the possibility of contributing a solution with positive implications for the betterment of society. Whatever the reason, some information about the process of a dissertation and penumbral elements to consider may be important before pursuing what will become a major part of your life. The purpose of these few points of information is to give some guidance to the process of engaging in dissertation research and to rise to the challenge of what can be a stimulating and thought-provoking intellectual exercise in which a student is personally interested. The accomplishment of a doctoral education represents the apex of a higher education process requiring an achieved bachelor’s degree, more often than not the successful completion of a master’s degree, foundation course work in required academic content, and a written document called a thesis or the aforementioned moniker of “dissertation.” The actual requirements for a dissertation will vary depending on the university and the subject matter; this will include such items as citation styles, bibliography, and length of the document. As such, students should inquire as to the appropriate guidelines from the respective university graduate school,

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department, school, college, and, importantly, the dissertation adviser, for this information.

THE PROCESS Doctoral study is a process that involves research or the systematic study of a topic, including definitions, descriptions, and explanations of the subject matter and how it is different from, or perhaps similar to, other subject matter. Those engaging in research must acquire the ability to critically assess various other inquiry approaches or studies, including similarities and differences, and issues that the topic has generated. This requires appropriate reading and critical analysis of prevailing claims and assumptions on the topic leading to outcomes that are as timely and accurate as possible at the time of degree completion. It is important to note that a successful dissertation requires a level of original creativity where the author decides upon the pertinent questions to pose, the research to pursue, and the reasoning and analysis that support conclusions. Writing a dissertation is largely an independent, selfmotivating process. There will be little of the hard structure of required examinations. Instead it will be you, and perhaps your adviser, who settles on the originality of your research and what the subject matter will be. You will settle on the essence of the information you put forth, what you will probe and explore, why it is worthy of examination, and how you will go about establishing your questions and rendering your analysis. It may be that some students are dismayed by the procedures and operations involved. There may be questions of what to write about, what a suitable topic is, or what will aid in sustaining the initial motivation for such an exercise. In such circumstances, the best advice is to concentrate on aspects of concern that are interesting and that require some comment, but where there are abundant research sources or where there is clear controversy on solutions. Is this an area where you can have a clear impact? In addition, ask such questions as: (a) Do I already have sufficient knowledge of this topic? (b) Is there adequate time available to me for the

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necessary work involved? and (c) Have I provided enough of a focus for a relevant study? On the other hand, if you find yourself in a situation where you are devoid of ideas, you might approach a research professor with some expertise in your general area of interest. The person may be aware of research that is already highlighted in either primary or secondary sources that could provide ideas for further study. Although such a contact could be useful, it is important to maintain that the dissertation, in the final analysis, is yours—and you will be the one with the responsibility for its completion and its message. Think strategically about the theme and be diligent in providing the foundation questions: • What is important enough for me to invest the time and energy to engage in this research? • What are the objectives of this investigatory quest? • Why do I want to engage this research? • How can the objectives be realized? • What will be required in the review of extant research similar to this topic? • What research methodology is best applicable to the activity? If you then desire to proceed, you must settle on key as well as marginal issues and their relative importance, both of which may be modified as the research progresses. Be prepared for the unexpected. What was at one time central may become marginal and vice versa. In any case, attempt to settle on a critical evaluation of what you perceive to be your core research questions and be prepared to demonstrate the significance of your findings through appropriate references and supportable arguments. If you undertake this process, you will find that it will promote the acquisition of important skills of inquiry and simultaneously generate confidence and self-esteem. In addition, the various academic exercises involved will aid in the refinement of time-management skills and foster the ability to be self-motivated and disciplined. Said differently, successful completion of a dissertation reveals evidence of the ability to (Salter & Mason, 2007)

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Dr. Philip T. K. Daniel

• Identify a subject that actually warrants research. • Undertake research on an issue by carrying out a literature-based search or fieldwork. • Locate pertinent sources and select, organize, and prioritize information from those sources. • Formulate and analyze various arguments contained within the available academic literature. • Write in a clear, critical, and logically structured fashion. • Analyze data quantitatively and qualitatively (keeping in mind legal aspects). • Present a persuasive argument.

DISSERTATION ADVISER Working with faculty in your respective area of study will be beneficial. Your principal adviser may be significant to both your academic development and your ultimate success after the dissertation has been completed. As noted, it may be desirable to pair with someone who shares your interests and who has expertise in your chosen research area. You’ll need to investigate this person’s research background, including whether his or her research involves current and ongoing publication. After all, this person will be providing guidance to you, and it is advantageous if he or she is aware of the contemporary research. Equally important is this person’s knowledge of university guidelines and time sequences for the accomplishment of the dissertation and the awarding of the doctoral degree. One illuminating indicator of a successful experience is whether the professor has knowledge of the subject matter and is enthusiastic about the possibilities of your research proposal. This would include published research as well as teaching responsibilities. Just as meaningful is the amount of time a faculty member is prepared to devote to your inquiry. Time is an important common denominator, and there will be contact periods of a one (student) to one (professor) ratio. Choose an adviser who shares commonalities with you and who is willing to devote the requisite time and energy to your study.

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Conjunctive questions to be asked include: (a) Does this person have advising experience in my area of study? (b) Will the person be available for direct talks during the school year and other important times in which the university is in session? and (c) Has this person scheduled periods of time away from the institution that will constrain the progress of my research and the completion of my degree?

INSTITUTIONAL REVIEW BOARD RESEARCH APPROVAL In addition to issues of previous education, skills, desire, time, and expertise, it may be necessary to address ethical considerations that require formal approval of your study. Many dissertations involve research on human subjects. As such, both the national Food and Drug Administration and the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services require colleges and universities to establish Institutional Review Boards (IRBs) for the purpose of evaluating proposals to ensure that they comply with federal regulations. Federal law (Criteria for IRB Approval of Research, 2008) provides that: 1. Risks to human subjects are minimized; 2. Research to subjects are reasonable in relation to anticipated benefits . . . and to the importance of the knowledge that may reasonably be expected to result; 3. Selection of subjects is equitable [with particular cognizance] to vulnerable populations such as children, prisoners, pregnant women, mentally disabled persons, and economically or educationally disadvantaged persons; 4. Informed consent will be sought from each prospective subject or the subject’s legally authorized representative . . . ; 5. . . . [T]he research plan makes adequate provision for monitoring the data collected to insure the safety of subjects; 6. . . . [T]here are adequate provisions to protect the privacy of subjects and to maintain the confidentiality of data.

It must be noted that no study may be approved involving human subjects unless the investigator has obtained legally effective informed consent of the participants; moreover, consent documents may not contain

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language releasing the researcher from liability or in any way encourage the research subject to waive any right (General Requirements of Informed Consent, 2008). The IRB has the responsibility of assessing the validity of each research proposal involving human subjects. The ethical codes and guidelines promoted by the federal government provide a wealth of detail about standards of approval and supervision over studies, including not only original applications but also those that are ongoing; according to the guidelines, review boards must revisit approved protocols at least annually and more frequently if the risk demands it. This information informs you of this important obligation, which is manifested in three ways: (a) All researchers of human subjects must take an IRB exam and pass with a minimum score of 80% before the board will review the proposal; (b) The same obligation is imposed upon your dissertation adviser, who will serve as the principal investigator of your study; and (c) All researchers of human subjects must submit a proposal that satisfies all of the obligations imposed by the aforementioned federal offices and your institution’s Institutional Review Board.

COPYRIGHT Another important area affecting the conduct and accomplishment of a dissertation is copyright law. Section 102 of the U.S. Copyright Act (U.S. Copyright Act, 2008) recognizes copyright protection in university research, including the conduct of doctoral dissertations. Students engaged in such research often quote protected works and, as such, it is important to identify the rights of copyright holders. Copyright protections address (a) the reproduction of any copyrighted work, and (b) the protection of derivative works based on the original publication. Protection extends regardless of the tangible form of the product, and hence, encompasses works in the electronic media. For all protected work, copyright attaches as soon as it is fixed in a tangible form such as hard copy or appearance on the Internet. The legislation contains exception clauses directly applicable to work in educational institutions, however. Copyright involves commercial production, and information may be used in secondary publications as long as the original

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work of another author is appropriately cited and there is no negative effect or impact of the use on the potential market value of the original work. It is important that due diligence is taken relative to the production of the dissertation bibliography. Moreover, to the extent that the dissertation may have further utility during matriculation or after graduation, any publication of the document or future research associated with it must contain the requisite copyright permissions. Consistent with copyright law and the protection of students, all dissertations may be copyrighted upon completion and fulfillment of the requirements for the doctoral degree. My hope is that this information has been helpful and will allow you to make an informed choice about choosing doctoral study. Good luck.

REFERENCES Criteria for IRB Approval of Research, 45 C.F.R. § 46.111 and 21 C.F.R. § 56.111 (2008). General Requirements of Informed Consent, 45 C.F.R. 46.116 and 21 C.F.R. § 50.20 (2008). Salter, M., & Mason, J. (2007). Writing law dissertations: An introduction and guide to the conduct of legal research. Essex: Pearson Education. U.S. Copyright Act, 17 U.S.C. § 102(a); 17 U.S.C. § 103; 17 U.S.C. § 201(d) (2008).

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2 The Dissertation Process Dr. C. John Tarter University of Alabama

I

regard anecdotes and general tales from the field with suspicion. Nonetheless, I offer an anecdotal guide to starting the dissertation on the notion that graduate students at that stage have taken research courses and have dealt with scholarly approaches to the task. What I suggest here is drawn from working directly with graduate students in the beginning stages of the dissertation. And while I tell my students to beware of samples of one, I give this set of admonitions based mostly on my experience. Don’t read for free. Reading is the beginning of writing a dissertation. Whether your research problem is drawn from the field or emerges from a class or a provocative book or article, you can’t know much about the question until you begin to read. Writing abstracts or extended notes of articles forces a consideration of the article. Capturing in written form a description of the theory being tested, the hypotheses involved, the research questions posed, and the course of their resolution builds a frame of reference for all the articles you read. Write a 600- or 700-word analysis of each article you read. You will get better and faster at doing summaries as you read more. After 20 or so articles, you will begin to recognize the bare structure of research and, one hopes, catch the rhythm of research from problem proposal to resolution. After 80 articles with accompanying notes, you will be an expert on a chunk of the literature. If you don’t write about what 10

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you read, you are essentially reading for free and not paying the toll that a researcher must pay to enter the scholarly road. Pull on that thread. Bibliographies tell you the intellectual origins of research. As you read research in a given area, you will notice that certain articles or books are cited so often as to become commonplace in the literature. Clearly, those are the writings to which you should pay close attention. When you find a bibliographic citation that is unusual, track it down. That source may give you a useful insight into the researcher’s frame of reference or the theoretical context of the entire undertaking. Citations to Parsons, Homans, Bales, Blau, and Mintzberg, for example, are common in the organizational literature, even though these scholars produced little original research; they provide a general explanatory framework for the research pieces that you read. Reading them is a little like going to the winery after you had a favorable experience with a particular wine: You find out the landscape of the grapes. One should follow potential leads from bibliographies. Connect method and content. Read to understand why somebody says something. How an author knows what he or she knows is inextricably woven into what is known. The connection between the structure of the evidence and the finding should be seamless for you. On the quantitative side of the literature, the choice of a t-test, correlation, or structural equation model determines what kind of finding is described as surely as the hypothesis anticipates it. On the qualitative side, the type and perspective of sources, written or oral, exert an influence on the interpretation of events that ends up as published research. Historians, anthropologists, economists, and sociologists, for example, all approach research problems from a subspecialty within their respective disciplines. You should be able to articulate the connection; that is, actually say it out loud in a sentence or two. A cognitive psychologist could give a coherent account of the connections of reading, writing, and speaking to the development of an intellectual framework, but, as I said earlier, I am drawing on anecdote. Find the gaps. Professor Edwin Bridges has been quoted by his Stanford students as suggesting that research starts by finding the gaps in the literature. Another influential scholar, Professor Wayne Hoy at The Ohio State University, advises his students to read 100 articles in developing a dissertation.

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Dr. C. John Tarter

Reading substantial amounts of the literature, keeping notes about the articles, and thinking about the connections may well bring you to a point where you are looking for an article that connects some concepts of interest to you. Rejoice when your search turns up nothing: You have found a gap in the literature, and a dissertation, perhaps yours, is probably needed to fill it. Be creative. Push those concepts around. Make drawings—literally. Find an empty classroom and put the concepts on the board. How do things fit together? Why should one concept be related to another? As you put these concepts on the board, think about what they mean in practice. What would a mindful school be like? How would people act? What connections would mindfulness, to use a concept emerging into the literature, have to other concepts? Think beyond school achievement. How would mindfulness affect other parts of the school? If you were a teacher or administrator in the school, how would you act? Capture your answers in concepts and put them on the board and, whenever possible, discuss them with your colleagues. It is important to be respectful of research ideas, but you should find ways to play with them. Put them on the board. Move them around. Take them apart and put them back together. Have a good time with them. Don’t write the introduction just yet. First, write the review of the literature. The review is a research history of the concepts you are using in your dissertation. As you write the review, direct the review toward a convergence where all the concepts come together. This is where you give an explanation of how the concepts work together—the theoretical heart of the dissertation. When you know where you are going in the dissertation, you can write the introductory chapter. You cannot give directions to the reader if you are unsure of the path. Similarly, the methods section virtually writes itself after you have a command of how previous scholars have carried out research. Get to the point. Don’t link your dissertation to grand-scale solutions of social problems. Avoid the clichés of “meeting the challenges of the 21st century,” “in this age of accountability and globalization,” and “it is imperative to move boys and girls to the sunny uplands of self-actualization.” Be something of a mechanic about writing: How does this word fit into what I am writing? Do I need it? Where am I going with this phrase or sentence? Engaging in research opens all sorts of possibilities, but you

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should fight against material that is not relevant to your study. Save it for another day, and don’t clutter your work with the extraneous. Get to the point. Make the structure. Finally, you have to make the structure. There is a difficult transition from course work to dissertation writing. The course work is structured, writing is not. In a sense, you don’t have to be smart anymore; you have to have endurance and structure. For some, it means writing a little everyday. Others make different routines. Without a plan, however, the danger of ABD grows. Still, take heart. The dissertation is an account of how you emerged as a working scholar. Sometimes, the doctorate is considered a union card in a way that disparages both unions and the degree. I think of it as a guild license from an order more than a thousand years old; students trod the same path in Salamanca, Bologna, and Paris. Such an excellent tradition; how can you not take up the task?

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3 Challenges, Professorial Advice, and Doctoral Student Dilemmas Dr. John L. Keedy University of Louisville

I describe a scenario of writing a dissertation from an interactive perspective between the professor, as dissertation chair, and the doctoral student over the course of several meetings typical in the writing process.

BACKGROUND TO SCENARIO I have known Cathy Clarke for three years; she has taken my courses on organization theory as well as the two-course sequence in qualitative research, in which she studied elementary principalship from the symbolic interaction perspective (Mead, 1934). She is an avid student and enjoys the intellectual challenge of PhD work, but she seems insecure about her own abilities (and like many of us, she often underestimates them). She has been an elementary principal for five years and has ambitions to “move up” to a small-district superintendency.

ORGANIZATION MEETING AT A LOCAL COFFEE SHOP Professor Keedy (PK): “Hi Cathy, how was your day?” Cathy Clarke (CC): “Exhausting; we had a bomb scare and now the board wants to implement all kinds of security measures, like hiring a full-time 14

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police officer and eliminating backpacks in the classroom, and it is even considering installing a metal detector.” PK: “Metal detectors sound a bit extreme, but if there were ever a bomb threat carried out . . .” CC: “I find the whole thing really stressful, but I am hoping that ‘This too shall pass.’” (Cathy has now seemed to be easing up on herself. We have only an hour before she has to return for an open house so I know enough to plunge in and get business accomplished so Cathy can leave with clarity about the task in front of her.) PK: “Are we ready to begin the writing process for your dissertation?” CC: “Yes, it’s now or never, I suppose. But Dr. Keedy, I am really nervous about ever finishing it! Writing as many as 400 pages [often needed for a qualitative dissertation] is really unnerving me. What happens if I get to Chapter 4 and just run out of gas?” PK: “Trust me. I have chaired 20 of these and by now, I have a sixth sense about who will finish. You will finish because you are motivated and always have gotten your work done in good shape and on time. You have a huge advantage in that you write well—your writing is clear, concise, and fluid, and you can create scenes that convey distinct impressions to the reader. I do tell my students directly that if they have writing problems they either learn quickly (as in the first two major drafts of Chapter 2) or they tend to quit or ‘go over to the other side’ to the experimental/correlation designs. The most important question right now is whether you can accept critique from me, your chair?” CC: “Actually, this is the major reason why I chose you as my major professor. I do realize that without the willingness both to accept critique from your major professor (and not take it personally) and to act upon it and improve the next draft accordingly, one will never get the draft polished and ready to go to the entire committee for the proposal and final defense.” PK: “OK, good. Let’s discuss Chapter 2, your literature review. How are your research articles in ELFH 780–781 coming along?” CC: “Professor Jones has been really good about critiquing my reportouts and then suggesting ways that each major section of Chapter 2 can

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flow from one summary and transition to the next. By the way, he appreciates that you as the major professor know the literature on school improvement and the principalship.” PK: “How many sections do you envision comprising Chapter 2?” CC: “Probably an initial section on policy and the national and statelevel policy pressure for schools to become more collegial in increasing their instructional capacity to succeed with all learners; then a section on the principalship and how it has evolved from manager to instructional leader to a leader among other major players within the school—namely, the teachers who are instructional leaders; and last, a section on informal interaction within organizations by examining the literature from Malinowski (1932) to Blau and Scott (1962), Homans (1958), and Gouldner (1960) and on to the school as having its influence distributed throughout the organization (Keedy & Simpson, 2002; Ogawa & Bossert, 1995), which provides the conceptual framework for the study.” PK: “That’s excellent, Cathy. You only need from three to four major sections in Chapter 2. We might decide that as you finish your third section, we will need to add a fourth section. Then, I suggest that you copy and paste and ‘drag’ all your section summaries to Chapter 1 so that you can use them in introducing your topic, and in annotating some major study findings so that you can guide the reader toward identifying the research problem.” CC: “Thanks for your direction, Dr. K. Can we set a date for our next meeting?” [We now fast-forward 6 months to when Cathy has an acceptable draft of her Chapters 1 through 3.] PK: “Don’t you think that you are ready to defend your proposal? Your chapters are ‘tightly conceptualized’; there is a clear logical flow from your study rationale to the research problem that has its grounding in Chapter 2; you have three cogent research questions. In Chapter 3, you outline (a) your data collection (mainly interview and observation of the informal interactions among the principal and the teacher leaders), (b)

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your analysis (constant comparative analysis), and (c) the five ways you provide plausibility for your findings. It makes sense to me.” CC: “Yes, I did not think so until the last draft in which I focused on tightening up the conceptual clarity. And by the way, the best decision I made during the past 6 months is to hire an editor. I mean, you see this stuff so many times and make so many revisions that, in effect, your mind is ‘scripted,’ and you need another set of eyes.” [Now we fast-forward a year’s time and at the last meeting before her final defense.] PK: “Cathy, do you think you are ready to defend your study and if so, why do you think you are ready?” [I always ask this question to ensure that doctoral students are confident enough in their writing to “take the big and last step.”] CC: “Yes, and only because you are an absolute stickler about making sure that I directly answered each research question through the revision process. It really helped me to have the three questions in big print right above my computer. I used a 4" x 6" piece of paper to ‘sketch out’ how I answered the questions by visualizing how the study’s main pieces were fitting together and how they provided plausibility so that, given the data, the answers ‘made sense to the reader.’ It helped to start a separate file for Chapter 5 while I was working on Chapter 4 so I could then use this information as the major pieces in discussing the findings, in making connections to previous studies as a way of generalizing my findings, and in making suggestions for policymakers, researchers, and practitioners. Otherwise, I would have been kicking myself because for sure so many of those golden nuggets quickly disappear when I stared writing that night or early morning.” PK: “So, Cathy, what have you learned about writing, now that you are finishing your dissertation?” CC: “I was able to internalize the reflection that you often modeled for me at the beginning of the writing process. I found myself thinking back on the previous night’s writing and putting myself in the position of the committee members: Would they understand what I was saying? So

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often, I realized that I had assumed I was being clear but in going back and rereading I realized that the writing was far from clear. Without this reflection, we are doomed to being inarticulate and who needs that? By the way, Dr. K, the local board over in Norwood wants me to write out some questions they had about my candidacy for the superintendency. I am one of three finalists, and I predict that they will offer me the position because through the dissertation writing process, I have been able to practice the connections among writing, thinking, listening, and speaking.”

REFERENCES Blau, P. M., & Scott, W. R. (1962). Formal organization: A comparative approach. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Gouldner, A. W. (1960). The norm of reciprocity: A preliminary statement. American Sociological Review, 25, 161–178. Homans, G. C. (1958). Social behavior as exchange. American Journal of Sociology, 63, 597–606. Keedy, J. L., & Simpson, D. S. (2002). Principal priorities, school norms, and teacher influence: A study of sociocultural leadership in the high school. Journal of Educational Administration and Foundations, 16, 10–41. Malinowski, B. (1932). Crime and custom in savage society. London: Paul, Trench, Trubner. Mead, G. H. (1934). Mind, self, and society. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Ogawa, R. T., & Bossert, S. T. (1995). Leadership as an organizational quality. Educational Administration Quarterly, 31, 203–223.

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4 Moving from Concept to Completion Dr. James H. Stronge The College of William and Mary

So you want—or need—to write a dissertation. Where do you start? What is the first step? And what is the next, and so forth? How do you go from nebulous idea to finished product? These are questions that every doctoral student since the invention of the dissertation has fretted over. In the following few short pages, I would like to offer a few suggestions to consider as you start down this well-traveled road. One of the first things that I do when a doctoral student asks my advice about a potential dissertation topic is to have her or him apply a threepronged litmus test:

TEST 1: IS THE TOPIC VALUABLE TO YOU? This first test may sound simplistic, but in practical ways it is nontrivial and essential. You are going to delve intensely into this area of research, virtually live and breathe it for an extended period of time, and ultimately have your name permanently attached to the study. Thus, is this topic and are these particular research questions the ones in which you are willing to immerse yourself and intensely invest your own intellectual capital? Another way to ask this question might be: Are you excited by the prospects of investigating this topic and are you willing to begin building your reputation on it? 19

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TEST 2: IS THE TOPIC VALUABLE TO OTHERS? By this question, I am asking the student to forecast whether the potential research project will be well received by both practitioners and scholars. This issue sometimes is posed as: So what? So you plan to conduct a study that is of interest and importance to you; what will the world of practitioners and scholars do with the results? What potential does the study hold for advancing our field in some identifiable way? A few suggestions for satisfying this prong of the litmus test include: • Overresearched topics: If an abundance of studies have been conducted on the topic and another replication study doesn’t appear needed, or if you don’t have an aspect of the topic that deserves additional research, then would one more study add to our understanding? • Underresearched topics: The lack of adequate research actually may be an entrée into a good topic selection, but if there exists little or no research on your topic of interest, proceed with caution. In the absence of extant studies, you likely would be hard-pressed to ground your study on any justifiable or defensible foundation. The dissertation is not necessarily the place to pioneer where others have not ventured. • Esoteric topics: I’m afraid that too much research is innocuous and too frequently irrelevant to advancing useful educational theory and practice. This concern is expressed well in the following quote: Most research goes as unnoticed as the proverbial tree falling in the forest. For example, the 2006 Annual Meeting of the American Education Research Association included 1,946 substantive panels, at which 8,361 papers were presented. A search on LexisNexis found that, in the months immediately following the meeting, only seven articles focusing on research presented at that meeting appeared in U.S. print media. (Henig, 2008, p. 9)

One plausible approach to avoiding this pitfall is to ask yourself, What will we learn that helps our profession support better teaching and learning or other worthy goals?

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TEST 3: CAN YOU DO IT? Even if the idea is of value to both the profession and you, if it isn’t feasible, you still don’t have a viable topic. No matter how well intentioned, if you can’t do it, attempting to proceed is futile. Conducting a feasibility study is standard practice for good business planning. Before launching a start-up company, expanding into a line of service, or on a personal level buying a car or home, it can be enlightening—or even essential. A useful illustration can be taken from fiction and travel writer, Paul Theroux. In his book Ghost Train to the Eastern Star, Theroux (2008) retraced his passage by train across Europe and Asia—a trip he first took some 30 years earlier. Unfortunately, in his planning for the new adventure, he encountered a few insurmountable obstacles (e.g., visa not available for an American to travel through Iran, threat to personal safety in Afghanistan and Sri Lanka) that forced him into altering his itinerary. Ultimately, however, he arrived at his intended destination with a story to tell. By the same token, embarking upon a dissertation journey requires the same careful planning, forethought, and consideration of the possibilities and pitfalls. What resources do you need? What is the time commitment? Will you have access to the data set you need? Will others participate and respond, if required in your study design? Will the data give you the information you need to actually answer your research questions or test your hypotheses? These and myriad other questions must be contemplated and addressed before you proceed. The perfect study might not exist, but you most definitely do not want substantive surprises to inhibit your path once you do proceed. If a potential dissertation topic doesn’t pass all three tests, what should you do? The short answer is: Keep searching for a dissertation topic.

FIVE RULES FOR WRITING (AND THINKING ABOUT) THE DISSERTATION Once you have a general—or more specific—topic in hand, you should be ready to proceed with the essential steps entailed in dissertation

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building: background review, proposal development, detailed design considerations, data collection, and so forth. Let me offer a few thoughts to consider as you progressively move toward your goal. Rule 1: Start with a Good Idea

The premium is always on the good idea. No good idea—no study. In my opinion, it’s that simple. First and foremost, the underlying idea—the topic you want to tackle, the question you want to research—must be worthy. Ultimately, if the dissertation project isn’t worth doing, it doesn’t matter how well you do it. Creative, exciting, worthy ideas are the essence of a good book or a good article—indeed, any good writing project, including a dissertation. Einstein is credited with saying, “Imagination is more powerful that knowledge.” Applied to our discussion, thinking about (i.e., imagining) and then planning an interesting, worthwhile project is the foundation of a good dissertation. Remember: Always start with a good idea. A few literature examples of building on a good idea might include To Kill a Mockingbird (Harper Lee), The Grapes of Wrath (John Steinbeck), and The Trilogy (J. R. R. Tolkien)—all have in common the seed of a great idea, a great story. Good writing based on good ideas makes me think, causes me to consider possibilities that may be novel, and encourages me to be a better person (e.g., improve my practice, improve my life). The same concept applies to a good dissertation. Rule 2: There Is an Abundance of Great Ideas; You Just Need to Find One

So where do you get ideas for your dissertation? A few brief suggestions might include: • Build on your own work. One thing you do not want to attempt with a dissertation is launching into uncharted content territory. Investigate topical areas that you know something about—perhaps ones you already have researched and written about in earlier papers.

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• Build on the work of others. Find a well-respected research paper and think about what else can be done with the topic. How can it be extended to a different setting (e.g., a different age group, a different location)? In fields such as medicine, extensive replication is the hallmark of quality research on important matters such as promising prescription drugs. Thus, don’t be afraid to consider replicating the work of others. • Make connections. Connect practice with research. For example, if you have teaching in your background, connect your teaching experiences with your research interests. Another excellent source for quality studies is through crossover ideas. Read research reports from other fields—business, sciences, and so forth—and think about “what if this concept or theory were applied to my field . . . ?” Crossover ideas can bring fresh perspectives to old problems. Simply keep your eyes—and mind—open for good dissertation topics. • Make it timely. Ideas for a worthy dissertation need to offer contemporary approaches to contemporary issues. This doesn’t suggest that historical, descriptive, or other types of studies can’t be timely. Indeed, the opposite is true. Consider, for example, Thomas Friedman’s best-seller, The World Is Flat (2005), in which he explored the changes in how global business is occurring because of rapid advances in technology and communications. It’s a fresh look at ageold issues (free market, competition, internationalization) built upon a historical and contemporary review of what is happening globally with businesses and individuals. The real hallmark of the book? It was timely. Likewise, look for a timely topic for your study. Rule 3: Develop Your Idea

Once the idea is in hand, the rest is technical and creative. First, the creative side: Tell a good story. A good article, a good book, even a good dissertation, will tell a good tale. An enticing beginning, logical story line, well-connected threads woven throughout the story, and a sensible (not contrived) ending make up the touchstone of good writing. Consider Jane Austin’s Pride and Prejudice. In the book, there is no mention of the Napoleonic wars, no mention of nation building, just a

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timeless story of the heart. Although you aren’t setting out to write a great novel, the same basic tenets of story-telling hold true for a dissertation. Now, let’s consider the technical side of writing the dissertation. As with any good writing, the dissertation should be clear and easy to read. What is the study saying? And, technically, make sure you: • Build on a solid conceptual framework. • Create an outline in your mind. • Create a literal, detailed outline and write to it. • Rewrite. • Work from a technically sound basis. • Do a literature search. • Gather and analysis data. • Ensure that it is technically accurate (grammar, APA, etc.). Rule 4: Follow the Road Pioneered by Others

Although dissertation writing is a new path for you, it is a well-trodden one and many have preceded you. It may seem that the dissertation success of so many former students has no bearing on you, but it most assuredly does. Especially in terms of process, the dissertation path is well marked, and this fact will facilitate your own work. Drawing on the rich history of dissertation development in the field of education—for good or bad—the dissertation process is relatively rigid and standardized, including such key facets as: • • • • • • • •

The format and chapter organization The statement of a problem to investigate The precision required for writing research hypotheses or questions The presentation of a review of the extant research on the topic of interest The selection of applicable and appropriate research methods The processes for collecting, recording, and analyzing data The proper (i.e., acceptable) ways for presenting the study findings The degree of latitude you have to interpret and discuss what the study means

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Given these established routines and protocols, your advisor will have a clear understanding of the process of dissertation building—from conception to completion—and will be able to offer substantive and timely guidance in your own step-wise progression. Rule 5: Build on Precedent

As you envision it, your dissertation may be new, innovative, and original, but don’t make it too new, too innovative, or too original. Please don’t mistake my intention with this suggestion; indeed, we need fresh ideas and the testing of innovative theories and practices. Nonetheless, I would admonish you to build on the solid work of others. Some dissertation advisors call this idea of building on the well-established precedent in a given field of inquiry as placing a brick in the wall of knowledge, and not attempting to build a completely new wall.

CLOSING THOUGHTS In bringing these few remarks to a close, let me offer reassurance: You obviously have been successful in many academic venues—otherwise, you wouldn’t be at this point in your life (and this book most assuredly wouldn’t be on your leisure reading list). If you have the capacity to reach this critical juncture in your academic path, you most certainly can reach your destination.

AUTHOR’S NOTES The ideas and suggestions shared in the chapter are drawn substantially from the trials and triumphs of the many gifted doctoral students with whom I have had the pleasure of working. Their insights have enriched my own teaching and research throughout my career, and I hope you may glean some value as well. The concept of worthiness relates to the “Is it valuable?” litmus test—and is discussed in Rule 1: Start with a good idea, and Rule 2: There is an abundance of great ideas; you just need to find one.

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REFERENCES Friedman, T. L. (2005). The world is flat: A brief history of the twenty-first century. New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux. Henig, J. R. (2008, December/2009, January). The spectrum of education research. Educational Leadership, 66(4) 6–11. Theroux, P. (2008). Ghost train to the Eastern Star: On the tracks of the great railway bazaar. New York: Houghton Mifflin.

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5 Strategies for Dissertation Writing Success Dr. Frances Kochan Auburn University

Writing a dissertation is a challenging and rewarding experience. It requires the writer to focus on the task for a concentrated period of time (Rudestam & Newton, 2007). Many who start the process never finish. In my experience, engaging in careful planning and organization at the onset of the process will help ensure that you meet the end goal of completing the dissertation in a timely manner. Five strategies will establish a foundation for success. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Become familiar with the process. Carefully select an advisor and committee members. Identify your topic area and methodology. Create a structured schedule and processes to foster completion. Develop systems of support.

I will deal with each of these in detail. The order in which one addresses each area is not important; that is dependent upon the situation, the way in which the advisor functions, and the mores of the institution.

BECOME FAMILIAR WITH THE PROCESS Before and while embarking upon this adventure, it is essential to become as familiar with the process as possible. It is vital, therefore, to read books 27

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about writing a dissertation. In fact, that is what you are doing right now. I strongly recommend identifying two or three other books (such as Clark, 2007; Rudestam & Newton, 2007) and scanning for articles (Belcher & Hirvela, 2005; Strachan, Murray, & Grieson, 2004) that provide tips on how to prepare for the process, execute the study, and write the final product. It is valuable to keep a notebook of meaningful things and to review them as you engage in the research and writing process. Talk to students in your program who have recently completed their dissertations. I suggest asking them what they would do differently if they were going through the process again, the most valuable lesson they learned, and any tips they might have for aiding you in completing the process in a timely manner. Reading dissertations, particularly from your department or subject area, can be helpful in familiarizing yourself with the process and in enabling you to become comfortable with the task. Some colleges offer courses or seminars that provide guidance in preparing the dissertation proposal and completing the study. These activities are useful and I recommend participating in them prior to submitting a proposal. Know the specific university, college, or departmental rules and expectations up front so that you will not run into problems once you get started. For example, understand the Institutional Review Board (IRB) process and when and how to proceed to get approval. You need to know about stylistic issues in writing the manuscript, and follow them from the beginning so you will not have to revise them at some later date.

CAREFULLY SELECT YOUR ADVISOR AND COMMITTEE One of the most vital decisions you will make is selecting your advisor. Your success or failure will be largely dependent on this decision. Students often begin their university careers with an assigned advisor. Many believe that they have to keep that person, even if they are not comfortable with him or her. It is important to understand the standards of the university and to follow them when selecting your major professor, but you will have a difficult time completing the dissertation if you have an advisor whom you do not trust or with whom you cannot communicate. If you are in that

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predicament, speak with a faculty member you trust and determine how to make a change. Talking to other students about their advisors is helpful. Some faculty members have a reputation for ensuring that students complete this task, while others do not. Consider this as you enter the process. Take time to talk with various people who have an interest and expertise in your research area. In some instances, you may find someone you can work with and who cares about you but who does not have expertise in your area, while someone who does is difficult to work with and does not display an interest in you. This is a difficult situation to be in and the decision about what to do must be yours. What is essential is that you think this through and base your decision on what is going to be most advantageous to you. I always tell my students if they want to change advisors, they should feel free to do so. If I do not think I have the expertise needed to assist them, I will suggest someone else or discuss expanding the committee to be sure they have what they need. Once you have selected your advisor, it essential to formalize your advisory committee. It is helpful to your advisor if you have some people in mind. You may select committee members because they have expertise in the methods you are planning to use, because they know the topic, because they are good writers or editors, or any other myriad of reasons. Some advisors are open to allowing students to form their committees. Others like to pick the members. Share information with your advisor that might be relevant, but trust the advisor on this and never select someone with whom the advisor is not comfortable. There are too many cases where students get caught between committee members who have differing perspectives or work habits. Your advisor is the person who should help guide you through this selection process. Talk to your advisor about the role he, she, or the advisory committee will take in the process. Some advisors have all committee members approve all steps and even have them read some first drafts. Others use the committee to fill a specific role such as giving advice on a particular method you might be using. Some have committee members involved only toward the end of the process. It is essential that you and everyone on the committee understand the committee’s role.

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IDENTIFY THE TOPIC AND METHODS TO EMPLOY One of the most important elements of success in completing the dissertation is identifying the topic area, refining it, and determining the methodological approach you will take. The topic and methods are interwoven parts of a whole and must be developed in tandem with one another. I often have students start out their conversation about their dissertation by saying something like, “I want to do a qualitative study, because I enjoy that approach to research.” While I understand that most of us have an affinity for quantitative or qualitative research, the primary approach one uses must be connected to the purposes of the study. This decision is one that should be made as the study begins to take shape. The most important rule regarding your topic is that it must be something you are passionate about—something that you want to know and understand. If it is something someone else has imposed upon you, or something that you thought was a good idea but for which you have no deep interest, it will be difficult to stay the course. If it is about something you care deeply about, it will be exciting and interesting, and even in tough times, your passion will keep you going.

CREATE A STRUCTURED SCHEDULE AND PROCESSES TO FOSTER COMPLETION One of the most helpful processes in ensuring your success is to develop a schedule and structures for writing and completing the dissertation at the onset. When I was writing my dissertation, I was working full-time. Someone suggested to me that I think of my dissertation as a part-time job and establish working hours for completion. Prior to getting that advice, I was consistently guilty about not working to determine my topic, conducting my research, or writing the dissertation. Once I established a schedule, I was able to relax. For example, I decided that I would not work on my study on Friday nights, so I felt free to go to a movie or go out to dinner. Even those who are going to school full-time should establish a work schedule. It will make life reasonable and set parameters for everyone to whom you are connected. It is imperative to determine how much time

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you will spend on this activity, when you will do it, and then stick to it. Family members and friends should be given the schedule and asked not to contact or interrupt you during your “working hours” except in an emergency. Getting agreement from everyone will save a lot of difficulty and misunderstanding. Organization is a major issue in completing the dissertation. If you take time to prepare and organize before you actually begin the process, you will find it to be much easier to proceed. For example, you should become familiar with bibliographic and data analysis systems, determine which ones you will use, and become adept at using them. Investigate purchasing services that might help speed up the process—for example, a copyeditor, data entry person, or transcriber. Another important consideration in organizing is to determine your filing strategy. A final organizational strategy is to determine a planned completion date. This will give you a sense of purpose and help you to stick to your work schedule. Once you identify your completion date, become familiar with the university calendar for completion. You usually have to schedule your defense early in your proposed graduation semester. Check on availability dates with committee members to ensure everyone can be present. Once you determine a proposed graduation date, you can organize your work. Select a date to complete Chapter 1, your literature review, and your methods section. Establish a calendar for data collection and analysis as well as dates for completing the writing. Work with your advisor to ensure that your timelines are reasonable. In addition, schedule meetings with your advisor to hold you accountable for completing the project on time. Establishing a timeline with benchmarks will be an excellent tool in moving you toward completion. If it is necessary to amend the timelines because of an unexpected barrier, work with your advisor in this process.

ESTABLISH SYSTEMS OF SUPPORT Establish systems of support that will assist you in completing this process. Believe in yourself. If you are at the dissertation stage, you have proven that you have the capability to complete this task. No matter what happens, you must not allow yourself to lose faith in your ability to complete it.

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Get a quote, an idea, a thought that will capture this notion for you. Put it near your computer and read it whenever you are feeling discouraged. It might be something as simple as Churchill’s graduation speech in which he stated, “Never give up!! Never give up!!! Never give up!!!” It is important to understand from the beginning that there will be days of discouragement, so you must plan for dealing with them and not allow this to prevent you from proceeding. It is valuable to identify others who believe in you and your ability to complete your program. Make a list and talk to them about being there for you and ensure that you can call upon them when needed. This may seem like a frivolous idea or something that is not necessary, but I strongly urge you to think about this and prepare yourself to be willing to reach out to others for support when needed. Some students set up a buddy system with others who are working on their dissertation and they help each other when needed. Another system of support is personal. You should think about where you can get sustenance or support and place yourself in situations to use them. Some people depend on a spiritual dimension and use prayer, reflection, or meditation to keep them grounded. Others might use exercise, relaxation techniques, or yoga to ensure their balance. Build this support mechanism into your calendar and schedule times to use it. Thinking this through and planning for it will strengthen you and make the way easier as you embark on this exciting and sometimes frustrating journey. Throughout the process, it is important to remember what I said earlier. This is your dissertation. Take ownership by preparing and doing all that is necessary to complete it. At the same time, you must take advantage of the wisdom and experience of others and seek guidance and support whenever possible. Planning and preparation are the keys to success. If you incorporate the five strategies that I have proposed into the preparation process, you will be wearing that cap and gown and glowing in the knowledge that you have met your goal.

REFERENCES Belcher, D., & Hirvela, A. (2005, July). Writing the qualitative dissertation: What motivates and sustains commitment to a fuzzy genre. Journal of English for Academic Purposes, 4(3), 187–205.

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Clark, I. L. (2007). Writing the successful thesis and dissertation: Entering the conversation. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. Rudestam, K. E., & Newton, R. R. (2007). Surviving your dissertation: A comprehensive guide to content and process (3rd ed.). Los Angeles: Sage. Strachan, R., Murray, R., & Grieson, H. (2004, May). A web-based tool for dissertation writing. British Journal of Educational Technology, 35(3), 369–375.

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Part II THE DISSERTATION TOPIC

This section of The Faculty Mentor’s Wisdom: Conceptualizing, Writing, and Defending the Dissertation is dedicated to guiding doctoral students through the challenging task of discovering their dissertation topic. The mentoring advice offered by our contributors speaks specifically to doctoral students, making sure the topic resonates with the doctoral student’s passion. These exceptional faculty provide insights into the topic selection process and how the choice of topic will shape the doctoral student’s research and career. • Dr. Michael DiPaola, It’s Your Dissertation—It’s Your Topic • Dr. Bob L. Johnson Jr., Identifying and Focusing a Dissertation Topic: Baseball as a Cognitive Heuristic • Dr. Linda C. Tillman, The Dissertation Journey: Strategizing for Success • Dr. Juanita Johnson-Bailey, Paying Forward: Returning Kindness and Passing on Advice • Dr. Margaret Terry Orr, Know Your Passion: Selecting a Dissertation Topic • Dr. Angela Calabrese Barton, The Wrong Shoes or the Wrong Feet? Being Changed by the Research Process • Dr. Martha N. Ovando, Identifying a Dissertation Research Topic • Dr. Susan Printy, Connecting the Dots: Choosing a Dissertation Topic 35

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6 It’s Your Dissertation—It’s Your Topic Dr. Michael DiPaola The College of William and Mary

I am amused when doctoral students, nearing the end of course work, introduce themselves in class and comment that they are “almost finished.” In reality, they are about to embark on the challenging part of their journey to the doctorate—the dissertation. Throughout various courses in the curriculum, my colleagues and I encourage students to identify possible dissertation topics. We urge them to keep their future dissertation projects in mind as they explore the literature related to various course assignments and independent projects. I recommend that students keep a log of “potential areas of inquiry” as they work though their courses. As they read, students should record relevant references in areas of personal interest that they may want to explore in the dissertation. Reading literature in the field is the best way to harvest ideas for future research. My colleagues and I urge students to develop a system of organizing and cataloging critical ideas and quotations from the outset, so that they do not waste valuable time searching for citations later. We feel it is imperative for students to begin exploring potential research problems during their course work, but many students fall short of this ideal. For most doctoral students, identifying and defining a problem that is interesting, significant, and answerable—and then developing a credible research design for the dissertation study—presents a real challenge. 37

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Dr. Michael DiPaola

When students complete their course work and pass their comprehensive exams, they are confronted with the challenge of designing their dissertation proposals. On occasion, a student will reach candidacy and have no idea what to study. Many turn to their advisor, hoping someone else can suggest a topic to sustain their interest through the dissertation process. When this happens to me, I ask the student to describe areas of personal interest. With this information, I generally recommend several well-written and well-executed dissertations. Reviewing them familiarizes the student with the format and process, and helps generate some viable ideas for research. The suggestions for further research offered in exemplary dissertations often help fledging students see gaps in existing knowledge. When reviewing prior dissertations falls short, I help the student explore interests in areas where I conduct research. In these areas, I can identify areas in need of study and guide the student through the literature. This sequence of events occurs both in individual consultations and in the dissertation seminar course that we offer. This seminar is required for students in some programs and optional for others. The faculty in my program initially designed this course to provide a forum for students to explore the current literature associated with their research interests as well as to assess resources for conducting research. We have found that the seminar helps candidates confront the problems encountered in conceiving, designing, and executing original research in their fields of inquiry. The ultimate goal of participation in the seminar is to have a solid outline of their first three dissertation chapters. Leading the seminar is akin to coaching a team—in a team sport with individual specialists. Established methods and paradigms represent the plays. In class, we run the plays under different scenarios and apply the boilerplate solutions to various situations. I coach candidates individually, in each student’s own specialty area. It also provides the opportunity to coach the candidates as a group, since they can learn from actively engaging in a range of relevant issues. They provide feedback to one another, becoming more facile by participating in team discussions, and their individual proposals grow stronger by considering issues in multiple ways. At the point that a doctoral candidate has identified a topic, I ask the student to describe the potential topics in 100 words or less. The student then shares the topics with me and, for those in the seminar course, with

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peers as well. Substantive discussions concerning the conceptual underpinnings as well as the significance of the potential topics follow. Candidates often feel disillusioned after the discussions, which I attribute to the fact that most have ignored the “keep it simple” principle. My colleagues and I remind them that the best dissertation is a “done dissertation.” Many candidates propose to do too much within a single dissertation study. They initially propose complex topics that raise too many research questions or that would require too much time to complete. Most are passionate about their topics but have not thought through how the topic could be transformed into a credible study. Through rich, lively discussion, candidates begin to think through their potential studies and become more purposeful. Such discussions help candidates focus on how their topics can be converted to research problems that are significant. I urge them to answer the “So what?” question. I ask them to identify how investigating the proposed problem will contribute to what is known. I ask about its potential to enhance professional practice. At the crux of the matter is the essential question: Why is this worth doing? Since candidates certainly will have to convince the members of their dissertation committees that their proposed topics are worthwhile, they should develop responses early on in the process. Discarding ideas that lack sufficient merit will help them preserve their time and energy for defining and conducting their dissertation study. It also helps them from getting sidetracked or lost in the process. Once a candidate is passionate about a topic and convinced that it passes the “So what?” test, the next step is to develop the topic into a problem statement. This statement should include potential research questions. This constitutes a sort of funneling process that forces students to narrow the focus of inquiry (by formulating a research problem and research questions they will answer) in order to address the stated problem. They present their problems and the research questions that they have developed to me and to a group of their peers. In this process we explore other important issues: Is the problem clear and researchable? Is the problem nested within the context of prior research? Is it conceptually sound? Are the research questions viable vehicles to sufficiently explore the problem? Are they conceptually linked to the problem and supported by the literature?

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To help clarify issues and potential relationships further, I ask students to represent their ideas graphically. The challenge of creating a diagrammatic “conceptual framework” is often a daunting task, but this exercise is useful for most proposed studies. It has two primary functions. First, it illustrates the connections among the variables being studied. Second, it helps identify the methods that will be employed for exploring the research questions. It helps identify underlying assumptions, and it helps elicits more active dialogue from other students. Determining suitable methods for answering the research questions often presents another major challenge. It constitutes the next big test in the form of the question: Is this doable? The dissertation will be completed in a real-world setting (that is, in the field of practice rather than in a controlled, laboratory setting). Candidates often have unrealistic expectations about conducting the study. They frequently underestimate the quantity or availability of data required to complete their studies. I ask them to develop viable strategies for identifying sizable, accessible samples. With this accomplished, they can develop methods that flow logically from their problem statements and research questions. In a quantitative study, methods address the exact steps that will be followed to answer the research questions. My goal is for a student’s proposal to include a methods section that describes the exact procedures that will be executed to answer the research questions. Considerations of all relevant factors—such as sample, measures, and how the data will be analyzed—must be addressed. Finding valid, reliable measures of the variables a student is attempting to investigate is often a problem. I urge students to use instruments that have been developed and tested—instruments with an established record in the literature—whenever possible. In some situations, however, a measure must be modified or even developed. This requires additional steps, including fieldwork and analyses, before the actual dissertation study can begin. In such cases, a clear rationale and procedures for these processes must be developed and included in the methodology. The final step in developing the initial proposal for students using quantitative methods involves determining appropriate ways to analyze the data in ways that will directly addresses each of the research questions.

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Although qualitative studies tend to have less-structured research designs, the methods section of the proposal must provide an understanding of what the candidate intends to study and how. The proposal should discuss thought processes underlying the study and describe links between the research problem, methods, and results. Issues such as the focus of the inquiry, the fit of a paradigm, and the relationship of the paradigm employed to the various theories guiding the study should be addressed. Candidates must identify sources for data collection, instrumentation, and phases of the study. Finally, methods for analyzing the data must be specified. When this process is complete, candidates most often have a viable dissertation proposal and a sound foundation for conducting their studies.

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7 Identifying and Focusing a Dissertation Topic: Baseball as a Cognitive Heuristic Dr. Bob L. Johnson Jr. University of Utah

Among the many challenges associated with completing a dissertation are those of identifying and adequately focusing a topic. What will the topic of my dissertation be? How can I focus it in a way that is doable? Although related, both questions are distinct and foundational to the dissertation process. One can’t focus a dissertation until a topic has been identified. Neither can it be assumed that once this topic is identified that it is sufficiently focused. Just as the viability of a building depends on the integrity of its foundation, so the quality of one’s dissertation rests on the thought given to these questions. Underattending to both has grave implications for the final product. In an effort to provide a systematic means of addressing these foundational issues, this chapter outlines a heuristic that has worked well with my students over the years. In offering it, I understand that there are many ways of “skinning” the proverbial cat. It is not offered as the strategy but as a strategy. Harkening back to my days as a player, a baseball metaphor is used. Identifying and focusing a dissertation topic can be conceptualized as a series of iterative decisions. The ultimate goal of identifying a topic and focused research question is to get to home plate. To bat, one has to get to the plate! Yet prior to this, one has to find the ballpark and get on the field. Identifying and focusing a dissertation thus involves three sequential steps: 42

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1. Getting to the ballpark. 2. Getting on the field. 3. Getting to home plate as a batter.

GETTING TO THE BALLPARK: TOPIC IDENTIFICATION Identifying a dissertation topic is analogous to getting to the ballpark. To play, one must first get to the park. The park of interest—Wrigley Field, home of the Chicago Cubs, for example—has a specific location. Depending on my current location, this means that I must proceed in a direction (e.g., east) to that location. Once this topic is identified, the general direction one must go is narrowed. I can head north, south, east, west, or a variant of each, such as north by northeast. Identifying a topic points to a specific direction to the exclusion of other trajectories. There are many topics in education from which to choose, many directional possibilities. Declaring an interest in the topic of school organizations, for example, points me in the direction of a specific ballpark. It is the first step in narrowing one’s focus. There are several things I do to facilitate this initial step toward topic identification and focus with students. First, I talk with them about their interests. This involves multiple discussions peppered with probes about subjects and topics that excite them and evoke passion. During this process, I ask them to keep a running list of ideas, topics, and subjects to which they are drawn. Ideally, this list is compiled over time as the student experiences various readings, ideas, courses, and professors. Ideas for topics can come from a variety of sources: professional experiences, course work, books read, current or perennial issues, and so forth. Students should remain open to such encounters. Each topic of interest should be entered as a succinct and concise phrase in one’s running list, such as these: • • • •

Schools as organizations Schools and educational reform Teachers and educational reform Change in schools

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• Successful school change • Teacher resistance in schools It is this running list that provides the basis for subsequent focusing efforts. After several weeks, students are asked to narrow their interest further by inductively analyzing this list. Are there larger themes across these topics to which this list points? What are the common themes? Although one’s list should contain many more entries than the working list above, an inductive analysis of this list points to the following topic: change processes in school organizations. By identifying it, we have moved in a definite direction and arrived at specific ballpark.

GETTING ON THE FIELD: WHAT ABOUT THE TOPIC IS OF INTEREST? Yet arriving at the ballpark does not mean that the dissertation topic is adequately focused. Among the many places one could go in a park, the field and plate are specific locations. To become a player, our goal is to not only get on the field but to get to the plate. One can’t do the latter without doing the former: The field must be traversed to get to home plate. Getting on the playing field involves addressing the following question: What specifically about the topic is of interest? Questions such as this facilitate efforts to sharpen the focus of one’s topic. Rather than the more general question of what topic is of interest, this question takes a further step and asks what specifically about the topic is of interest. As with the identification strategy outlined in Step 1, a similar cognitive process is now used to help students increase their focus. Brainstorming again over an extended period of time, students are asked to identify in question form (yes, like Jeopardy) specifically what about their topic is of interest to them. At this point, any and all questions are welcomed. This second list provides the means for increasing topical focus. A hypothetical, abbreviated list of working responses based on the topic identified in Step 1 (change process in school organizations) is offered here:

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• • • • • •

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Why is change successful in some schools and not others? What can be done to facilitate school change? What hinders change in schools? How do teachers respond to change? What role do teachers play in school change? What role do leaders play in change?

Having given adequate time to brainstorming, students are asked to analyze inductively this second, more refined list in preparation for a discussion of the process and its resultant product with me. Is there a larger question (or more than one question) to which this list points? Where is there convergence or divergence? What questions can be discarded? Much like factor analysis in statistics, this process should yield a more focused question. If greater specificity is needed, students should repeat the process. As an example of a question that can be reasonably induced from this list, consider the following: What teacher factors must be considered when planning change in schools?

GETTING ON HOME PLATE: HOW WILL THE QUESTION BE ANSWERED? On the field with topic and question in hand, the student is now ready to approach home plate and enter the game. Note that this is not the terminal point of the dissertation process; it is only the beginning. Further refinement and specification are needed. The process now shifts to determining how one will go about answering this guiding question or questions. It is here that questions regarding research design are raised. In light of the question guiding one’s study, a research design consists of that set of strategies and tactics chosen to answer this question. The identification and elaboration of these strategies and tactics rest on the specification of three things: (a) the key concepts and relationships embedded in one’s working question, (b) the types and sources of data to be collected on these variables and relationships, and (c) the setting in which these data are to be collected. It is through the specification of these key components that one’s research question is brought into greater focus.

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Specification of the key concepts and relationships embedded in one’s research question means articulating the conceptual and operational definitions of each variable. How will each be defined and measured? How might validity between conceptual and operational definitions be established? Specification of the types and sources of data means determining what form the data on each variable will take (numbers vs. words) and how this will be collected. The focus of one’s guiding question is increased as the specific setting in which these data will be collected is specified (e.g., elementary schools in the state). Considerable thought should be given to these specifying activities.

CONCLUSION My intent here has been to describe a cognitive heuristic used to assist students in identifying and refining a dissertation topic. There are other ways to approach this challenge; this is but one. It involves three distinct yet iterative steps that call for a series of critical decisions to be made over time with a mentor. As you approach the dissertation process, remember that the goal is to get to the plate. Some students never get into the ballpark. Some get into the ballpark but never get on the field. Some get on the field but never get to home plate. How about you? Batter up!

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8 The Dissertation Journey: Strategizing for Success Dr. Linda C. Tillman University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill

Hi Matt. Nice to see you again. During our first meeting, I mentioned that I wanted to meet with you again to talk in more detail about preparing for dissertation work. You’re probably saying to yourself, “Isn’t it too early to be thinking about a dissertation topic?” Most students ask that question, but it’s good to start thinking about your research early in your doctoral program. As your advisor, it’s my responsibility to help guide you through your doctoral studies: helping you to plan your course of study, prepare for the comprehensive examination, and decide on and execute your dissertation research. We’ve talked about your course work and how you might best use your summers so that you can maximize your efforts in preparing for the dissertation proposal. Today, I’d like to continue the conversation and give you some suggestions for preparing for the intense work involved in completing a dissertation. The dissertation is the culminating event in the journey toward the doctorate. I’m sure you’ll be successful, but you will need to stay focused and be persistent. It’s been my experience that doctoral students are usually more successful when they get organized (as much as you can when you’re working full-time and going to school) as soon as they enter the doctoral program. You should have started thinking about possible dissertation topics yesterday! What is your passion? What topics really interest you? What 47

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do you already know about the topic or topics? What is it that you don’t know? The last time we talked you mentioned that based on your work in urban schools, you had an interest in the education and academic achievement of African American males. So relating this topic to school leadership, are you interested in how principals use their leadership practices to facilitate the education and academic achievement of black males? Or are you more interested the role of the principal in designing and implementing programs aimed at raising the achievement levels of black males? There are several angles you could investigate in this area. I know you have a background in special education, so you might want to think about the disproportionate numbers of black males in special education. Just a thought. It’s important to narrow the topic down somewhat, or you might wind up spending too much time on a literature search that’s not directly related to the topic you want to investigate. So this is a strategy that I’d like you to use in trying to decide on your dissertation topic. Of course, you can modify the strategy somewhat to fit your needs. But I’ve found that for the most part the strategy has worked well for my advisees. I know you’ve talked to Charles and Sonya about how they approached their dissertation work, so I think they can verify that my system works pretty well. At any rate, my job is to help you become Dr. Matt in a timely manner. You can start by giving some serious thought to the topics that you think you are interested in (I say think you are interested in because students often change their minds—sometimes several times). Next, start to explore the literature. That means that you’ll need to start looking into databases, exploring educational websites (such as RAND, Wallace Foundation, EdWeek, Daily Administrator), and paying attention to the various local, state, and national education reports. Is there any information in these reports that relates to your topic? What does the latest research say about your topic? What do the latest news reports say about your topic? Becoming familiar with the literature will save you time, especially when it’s time to take the comprehensive exam. Some students and professors (like me) are packrats and are always bookmarking or copying an article or report. It makes for a lot of paper (usually all over the place), but it saves time in the long run. You can categorize the literature by developing a filing system as you collect readings.

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If possible, use some of the literature that you have identified in your doctoral classes. One strategy that students find helpful is to write a paper about their topic in every class, if possible. When given the opportunity to write a paper on a topic of your choice, use that opportunity to your advantage. Explore your topic from various angles. This does not mean that you should write or recycle the same paper in every class! What it means is that after reading several articles, books, book chapters, or reports, you should ask yourself, “What is it that I know? What is it that I don’t know?” By purposely focusing on your topic in most of your classes, you force yourself to not only deal with the topic but to also get feedback about your writing, conceptualization of the problem, use of and understanding of the literature, and the logic of your argument, implications, and recommendations. Most of your classes will provide you with some knowledge and some perspective on your dissertation topic. But writing a paper that you intend to use to develop your literature review and your argument for a researchable topic helps to keep you focused and to narrow down the exact topic for your research. Please, please, please focus on understanding and using various research methods! This might sound simplistic, but one of the mistakes that many students make is to view their classes, and especially their research classes, as a series of isolated events separate from the dissertation process. I often hear students say, “OK, I’m finished with course work. Now what do I do?” For most students, separating course work from thinking about and doing a dissertation leads to some problems and sometimes a delay in completion. It’s true that course work and dissertation work are different, but the dissertation work usually flows more smoothly when you have been planning for it during your course work. I teach the Development of a Research Proposal class (EDUC 841), and in more than a few cases doctoral students come to this class underprepared to begin work on Chapter 3 of the dissertation proposal. And once they realize that they really don’t understand much about research design, they get a little frantic. Actually, Chapter 2 (the literature review) and Chapter 3 of the dissertation proposal cause students problems if they have not been (a) thinking

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about a possible topic or topics and exploring the literature, and (b) learning how to use research methods. So it’s really important that you don’t brush off the methods classes. You need a good understanding of research design in order to conduct research. One other point: students often say to me that they are choosing one method over another because it’s easier (for example, he or she is going to use qualitative methods because he or she is not good at numbers). Don’t be fooled by that! Either method will be problematic for you if you don’t know what you are doing! Thus, there is a need to pay attention in your methods classes. One area that students tend to avoid or procrastinate about is the conceptual and theoretical framework. You should begin now to identify conceptual frameworks and to understand how they are used in studies. Most journal articles are written in a similar format, and the conceptual framework is a part of the article. Make it a point to study how the framework for the study is being used. Here are copies of three articles with good explanations of how the conceptual framework is being used for you. Read them when you get some time. I think they’ll be helpful to you. You should know APA rules the first week of class. That was about a month ago, so I’m sure you now know the APA rules backward and forward. I’m pretty strict about this, so I expect you to know and use the current APA rules. The graduate school requires that all dissertations be formatted in APA 6th-edition style. For some reason, students really procrastinate, avoid, or don’t want to deal with learning APA! Well, you really don’t have a choice. Learn the rules or you’ll spend a lot of time correcting your work. OK, so those are the basic issues I wanted to cover today. Just to recap, I’d like you to: 1. Identify not more than two possible dissertation topics by the time you are ready to take your comprehensive examination. 2. Begin to review a variety of sources of literature related to your proposed topics (journal articles, reports, books, book chapters). 3. Use literature related to your possible topics whenever you can in class assignments. Pay attention to feedback from the professor.

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5. Take your research classes seriously. If you don’t understand concepts, be sure to ask for help. 6. Pay attention to conceptual and theoretical frameworks. 7. Learn the rules of APA. 8. Don’t procrastinate. Oh, I almost forgot. I know you work during the day, but if possible, try to attend at least one dissertation proposal defense and one dissertation defense. Attending a defense will give you some perspective on the process and allow you to see what actually happens in a defense. Most of our students attend at least one defense and find the experience helpful. I have some references for you on the topic of the education of African American males. I’ll e-mail them to you and if I come across any new research, I’ll pass it along to you. So, I’ll see you next semester and we can review your progress and address any questions or concerns you might have. Good luck with your first semester, and be sure to let me know if you have any questions.

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9 Paying Forward: Returning Kindness and Passing on Advice Dr. Juanita Johnson-Bailey University of Georgia, Athens

Whenever I encounter one of my doctoral students in crisis, I am reminded of how my major professor helped me when I was overwhelmed, discouraged, and floundering. There were occasions when I’m sure he was oblivious to the fact that he was rescuing a drowning graduate student, when he thought that we were merely having a conversation. But in reality, he was imparting life-saving advice. Each time I help a student in crisis, I am paying it forward, giving back what I was given. I have combined his advice and my counsel, based on what I learned during my 15 years as a professor. Being stressed out and snowed under in graduate school seems to just be part of the process. Here are my suggestions on how to handle the anxiety in your life as you are attempting to juggle graduate school, family, and your job. First, disregard your instinct to give up. Let me say that I do understand your dilemma. I saw the sun come up many nights during my graduate school days, especially when I was working on my dissertation. My days and nights merged as I tried to burn the candle at both ends. Eventually, it caught up with me and I found myself in stress overload. It’s not a flippant response on my part when I say that this is common. Of the 21 doctoral students for whom I’m been the major professor, I can only think of one who didn’t come to me with this problem. Sometimes I feel as though the universe makes it a point of asking, “How badly do 52

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you want this doctorate?” And your answer has to be, “I am willing to make this a priority and order my life accordingly.” Accepting this as a truth and acknowledging this as something you want and deserve makes persevering easier. This epiphany about prioritizing actually occurred during a class that I was teaching on dissertation completion. My instruction to the students was that they had to be selfish with their time. A young man raised his hand and said, “Dr. Johnson-Bailey, I’m surprised at your response, especially since you are a women’s studies professor. Why do most women that I know think of it as being selfish? Don’t you mean that you have to make yourself a priority? Don’t you mean that you have to take care of yourself since you are asking your body and mind to go the arduous distance? After all, this is a once-in-a-lifetime effort.” And so this young man was right and it was a life lesson that his older and less erudite professor has since passed on to each subsequent doctoral student: Make getting the doctorate a priority in your life. It is not something that you are trying to fit into your life. Unless you are like the few souls that I watch in amazement as they wander across the stage at each graduation ceremony—the ones who are getting their second and third doctorate—this is a momentous and singular event for you. I assure you that this doctoral degree will open doors for you that you never knew existed. So here’s my list of five things to do to relieve and manage your stress. My first bit of advice is to develop a pie chart to direct your good intentions and hard work. In this chart, have sections that represent each significant part of your life. Make sure that the graphic representation has a name and a beginning and ending date—for example, Life Pie Chart, May 2010–May 2011. The sections for your life chart could be: family, job, school, church, recreation/health, and friends/community. To reach the year’s end goal, decide what percentage of effort and time you need to give each one of these items and have the section represent them accordingly. Be sure to list your objective at the bottom of the diagram. Now compare your present expected or needed time expenditures to your actual expenditures. This exercise is doing what my mama called “putting your money with your mouth.”

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If you find a lack of balance between outcomes and intentions, then make adjustments. Be sure to put your pie chart in a place where you can view it often, but where no one else can see it. Referring to it regularly will help to keep you goal oriented. Actually having your life ordered in such a manner will help relieve the stress of how to handle each new demand on your time or the new dilemmas that inevitably arise. You’ll always understand what you want to achieve and you’ll know how you plan to get it done. My second tip is to make sure that you include time for recreation and your health on your chart. You’d be surprised how many students want to just leave that out for the time being because they are too busy, and they can always get to it later. Please don’t do that. This is one of the most important components to keeping everything flowing. Make time to take walks, go to the gym, and have regular health checkups. Exercise will not only relieve stress, but it will also help you manage it better. The endorphins that you will obtain from a brisk 30-minute walk will give you energy for the remainder of the day, help clear your mind while you are exercising, help you solve problems, and of course improve your health. It’s sad to say that there are too many graduate students who finish their degrees in poorer health than when they started, looking older in appearance and frail in stature. As they walk across the stage and are hooded, I wonder, “Was this what they expected? Do they have the energy to do what comes next? More importantly, is this a good way to start your new life or LAD (Life After Doctorate) as my graduate students refer to it? I say emphatically, “No.” You want to be at your best if you are going on the job market. Or you might want to be at the top of your game to be on the ready for all of the good things to come. This third bit of advice is controversial. You will need to decide what you can eliminate or adjust in your life. And what you get rid of or drastically decrease should not be time with your family and friends, as is often the case. Remember, when you finish this degree, they are the ones who will continue to be there for you. Find your balance. Since you can’t do everything, know what’s essential and what goes into the category of “Things I Wish I Could Do” or” Things I’ll Be Certain to Do Later.” On occasion, some family events will fit into this category. Your daughter’s regular weekly softball game fits into this category, but

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your daughter’s state championship softball tournament does not, unless it falls on the same day as a final exam or one of your defenses. Talking on the phone for an hour every night to your best friend is something that you might enjoy but is one of those time-sucks in which you can not indulge. Whereas seeing your best friend for lunch once a month to catch up is a treat that will help maintain the relationship. Having this readily available prioritization will help you explain or justify your choices to yourself and to others. Believe me, it will decrease your stress when your family and circle of friends know your approach and understand that they are not being left out but are being intentionally fit into an overloaded and planned schedule. The fourth recommendation will seem like a no-brainer, but surprisingly most students have difficulty accomplishing this one: Set aside a special amount of time and a specific time for studying, writing, and research. Don’t wait until the mood hits you to write. The muses are fickle and come when they please. Having a regular time and a set number of hours will discipline you as a scholar and lessen the last-minute stress of trying to fit or cram it in somewhere in your day. While studying, exercising, and prioritizing your life are all important, the reason for having a date on your chart is to remain cognizant of the different phases of the doctoral process and as a motivator to remain vigilant about your timeline. And so my next bit of advice as a way of relieving the stress is to establish a clear timeline that works for you. For example, if you are a part-time student, your completion date, the end goal, will be different from that of a full-time student. Remember two things: This is not K–12—you can’t fail the grade and be held back; and the dissertation study has a life and time cycle of its own that is determined by several factors that are beyond your control, such as participant availability, possible travel for data collection, or obtainable resources. So don’t compare yourself to other students. You’ll either be in a position of superiority or inferiority, and neither location is a good place from which to operate—each encompasses its own type of stress. As a final bit of cautionary counsel: Be kind to yourself. Often we can stress ourselves out by not realizing that emergencies will occur regardless of inconvenient timing: Family and friends become ill, data drives crash, and some things are just beyond our control. Adjust, regroup, and go on. Don’t add to your stress level by heaping on “If only I had,” “If I

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had it to do over again,” or the all too common, “How could I be so stupid?” Would you talk to your best friend like this? Well then, don’t place this negativity on your own shoulders. Be kind to yourself and keep in mind what a wondrous journey you are taking. It won’t be accomplished overnight. Take one step at a time in your pursuit of this prize that eludes many. By being flexible and tolerant of life’s unexpected detours, you’ll experience less stress. In addition, your quest will be more rewarding and enjoyable if the person you greet each morning in the mirror likes you, wants what you want, believes in you, and sends you positive messages. So try to use these six suggestions to lessen the stress of your doctoral process. If you forget what I’ve written, refer back to this list or better yet, e-mail or call me. That is what major professors are for. You can’t find your way if you don’t ask for directions. And you’ll never reach your ultimate goal of the doctorate if you don’t seek wise counsel and then have the good sense to accept the guidance that you’ve been given. (Hmm, maybe that’s a seventh tip to relieving stress: Don’t go it alone.)

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10 Know Your Passion: Selecting a Dissertation Topic Dr. Margaret Terry Orr Bank Street College

The initial scenario is frequently the same: A doctoral candidate makes an appointment with a faculty member to talk about his or her dissertation and how to get started. The conversation usually focuses as much or more on the urgency to complete a dissertation quickly (“I hope to graduate in May” or “I would like to apply for a district position, but want to have this done first”) than on a possible topic. When the conversation turns to the topic itself, the conversation often follows one of three courses: a focus on methodology (“I want to do a survey of principals”), a focus on outcomes (“I want to prove that autocratic leadership is ineffective”), or a focus on policy awareness (“I want to know what principals think about NCLB or the new special education policies”). “Slow down,” I often say, “and let’s talk about you first, and what you are most passionate about, and how it relates to your interest in leadership.” Dissertation research is a large, long, and lonely undertaking. For many doctoral candidates, it is the first time they will independently conduct a piece of “real” research from beginning to end. And, for most, it will be a sharp and sudden shift in performance expectations. No longer are candidates preparing papers for a grade; now they must meet high performance standards that are often new and unclear, and most likely will require multiple stages of review and feedback on their proposals and dissertation writing. Navigating this process requires 57

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strong commitment and motivation, not just for the end goal—to be finished—but for the research subject matter itself. Being passionately committed to one’s research is critical. Beginning the dissertation process and selecting a topic starts with finding one’s passion. Selecting the right topic is key to the quality of what a doctoral candidate produces and whether one ever finishes. Building upon a candidate’s core passion and interest advances both the quality of the inquiry and research progress. The more a doctoral candidate’s topic is centered on a core passion, the more energy and persistence he or she has. More important, the stronger a candidate’s interest in and commitment to a topic, the more inquisitive he or she will be about the topic, which is essential for good research. What is a passion? According to the Merriam-Webster online dictionary, passion, as an emotion, is defined as an intense, driving feeling or conviction. As Maxine Greene (1986) explains further: Passion has been called the power of possibility. This is because it is the source of our interests and purposes. Passion signifies mood, emotion, desire: modes of grasping the appearance of things. It is one of the ways of recognizing possibility. (p. 427)

Dissertation research is all about imagining and pursuing possibility— but uncovering one’s passion in pursuing a high-stakes endeavor, like dissertation research, can be complicated and challenging. In working with scores of dissertation candidates, I have learned that initial time spent on discussing candidates’ passions and deeply compelling interests is a critical first step for them and essential to laying a foundation for their topic. In my work, I have learned that there are four dimensions to one’s passion that are essential to unearth for framing and executing a good dissertation study. These are the passions and energy candidates have about: • • • •

An educational dilemma or issue A specific perspective or point of orientation on an issue A conceptual lens that frames the issue A sense of one’s self and future

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I usually explore each of these, and their relationship to each other, in helping a doctoral candidate develop a research area. For some, it is a process of seeing the possibilities within a general area of interest, whereas for others, it is opening up a too narrowly constructed idea into a larger problem that is worthy of their time and effort and would engender commitment. The first step is to identify an issue or dilemma about which a candidate is most passionate. Asking “What are you most interested in?” will not unearth this. Doctoral candidates have many interests and they do not want to appear ill-prepared by not focusing on topics that their program highlights or are currently popular in the field. So, instead, I talk to them about themselves, their career path, and their interest in leadership. Often, passion will become evident in the shape of their career progress and the opportunities of which they have availed themselves. “Tell me a little about yourself,” I will say, “and why you became an educational leader.” Typically, candidates will relax and talk about what got them interested in the field of education in the first place: finding a business career to be unfulfilling, enjoying working with children, or wanting to make a difference in the lives of adolescents. From here, we might explore their career choices, such as becoming a grade-level team leader, a staff developer, curriculum specialist, or athletic coach, and what this reveals about their passions around working with adults, experimenting with instructional and curricular approaches, and developing teams and team capacity. Finally, we explore their interests in leadership and an educational leader career, particularly to surface how they perceive leadership as making a difference in education. For example, one doctoral candidate who worked in pupil personnel services for a school district revealed that she was strongly ambivalent about pursuing an advanced leadership position, primarily because of perceived challenges related to balancing work and family, particularly for women in leadership. Despite her career success so far and how much she enjoyed her work and leadership challenges, she was reluctant to seek further advancement and anticipated insurmountable personal costs. Through our discussions, she turned this ambivalence into a researchable problem that explored the conditions under which more demanding leadership responsibilities may complement rather than compete with

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family and personal responsibilities. Her inquiry took her into research in related fields, leading to a better quality study. The second consideration for a dissertation topic is the perspective that a candidate wants to investigate: whose “voice” he or she wants to reflect and what audience is the research to inform. In terms of voice, each topic can be investigated from different vantage points—such as, the students, teachers, school and district leaders, parents, and community. Whichever perspectives the candidate wants to investigate will shape the actual dissertation research. A candidate, for example, might be interested in improving the effectiveness of dropout prevention and recovery programs. He or she may find that parents’ roles and engagement in such programs is rarely studied and often overlooked but in his or her experience may be critical to student success. So he or she might pursue a study of parental roles in dropout prevention. A related consideration is the audience for the results: Specifically, are these intended to improve practice, inform policy, or add to a body of knowledge about educational conditions or organizational life? Again, a doctoral candidate’s energy may be directed more to policy change or to improving local practice, but each direction suggests different research avenues for the same topic. Using the same example, a candidate may be frustrated over local policies that hinder parental participation and could explore other communities and districts for strategies and alternative policy options. The third consideration in surfacing a candidate’s passion for a dissertation-worthy topic is the conceptual lens that a dissertation candidate might use to frame his or her research. Through doctoral studies, each student is exposed to a range of theories and research related to leadership, learning, social justice, adult learning, organizational behavior, and systems thinking, among others. Surfacing the theoretical or research perspectives that excite a candidate adds a dimension to exploring a possible dissertation topic. Often doctoral candidates have a strong preference for a new theory or perspective that has awakened their thinking and is often one that they are eager to apply in a research study but need guidance on how to do this. The fourth source of one’s passions comes from self-reflection generally and in situating the dissertation research within larger questions of

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personal meaning and purpose, and narrower interests about careers and one’s future post dissertation. For some candidates, exploring a dissertation topic returns them to their own fundamental questions about themselves and doing meaningful work, both through the dissertation and as a means of launching the next stage of their careers. Generally, for all candidates, we spend time discussing how their dissertation research can be instrumental to their career future, and exploring their options, particularly as educational leaders or scholars. In some cases, candidates recognize at this juncture that they would like an academic career, although they may have begun their doctoral program with other aspirations. Linking the research to an area of personal meaning or career direction helps to clarify its purpose and design the research to best serve a candidate’s next career step. One doctoral candidate, for example, had extensive experience in staff development and became interested in questions about leadership development and how she might extend her knowledge of adult learning from one group (teachers) to another group (school leaders). In exploring a potential research topic further, it became clear that she was most interested in the learning needs of new principals of underperforming schools, where being successful was most challenging and of the greatest import. She wanted to undertake solution-oriented research—to develop or investigate practices that make a difference—rather than focus on exploring what new principals need, and to become an academic scholar rather than a district administrator (her initial career goal). By combining these passions and interests, she found an innovative leadership development program for new principals to help pilot and study and became part of a small community of scholars who explore the terrain of adult learning within leadership development approaches. By tapping into their own passions, doctoral candidates can generate the drive and conviction for their dissertation research that can lead to a high-quality product and carry them through the sometimes arduous research, writing, and revision process. Initial time is well spent when exploring the roots of one’s passions before embarking on a dissertation topic, particularly as these relate to one’s commitment to education, desires to make a difference in the field, and belief in the possibilities of leadership as a vehicle for change.

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Harnessing one’s passions can, as Greene suggests, enable one to see possibilities—both for one’s self and for the problem to be investigated, which is what good quality research is all about.

AUTHOR’S NOTE Special thanks to Monica Byrne-Jimenez for her thoughtful suggestions and feedback on an earlier draft.

REFERENCES Greene, M. (1986). In search of a critical pedagogy. Harvard Education Review, 56(4), 427–441. Passion. (n.d.) In Merriam-Webster’s online dictionary. Retrieved from http:// www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/passion (retrieved online, October 1, 2009).

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11 The Wrong Shoes or the Wrong Feet? Being Changed by the Research Process Dr. Angela Calabrese Barton Michigan State University

My mom often tells the story of when my sister was little she said to her, “Dolly, you put your shoes on the wrong feet!” and Dolly said right back, “But Mom, they are the only feet that I have!” I have always found that episode amusing, but as a critical ethnographer in urban settings, I also find that story a powerful reflection on the nature of research and its role in transforming the lives of the researchers. In introducing my doctoral students to what it means to become an educational researcher, I believe that a large part of my role is to help them understand that doing research is about much more than simply finding “answers” to the questions they are interested in or even about bringing change to a situation. Rather, doing research is partly about building relationships and allowing those relationships to help the researcher and the researched to see the world differently. I begin with the story of my sister’s shoes on the wrong feet because it is one that I tell my students quite often. I “grew up” as a researcher in the 1990s—a time when topics like transformative research (Carr & Kemmis, 1986; Cochran-Smith & Lytle, 1993) and catalytic validity (Lather, 1991) gained traction. What I learned then is that research is not only about producing new knowledge but also about working with research participants to foster change in their lives and on their terms. In my work in urban education settings, this stance is particularly important because urban public schools predominantly serve a large 63

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minority population often with limited financial resources and political voice. Yet these populations are vastly underrepresented in the education research and policymaking communities, and so having their voices a part of the research process is essential for research to be productively transformative. In retrospect, I can see that missing from these conversations (and a lesson I learned in my own time) was the idea that any research intent upon bring about “transformation” demands that the researcher, himself or herself, be changed as well. This is where my sister’s feet come in. The process of engaging in research ought to change us (the researchers) enough to see the differences in the stories we think we seek to find (your shoes are on the wrong feet) and the stories our participants try to tell us (but they are the only feet I have!). To shift from talking feet to talking research, I tell my students two more stories of my own experiences conducting research that demanded different kinds of change on my part. The first story takes place about 6 months into my first major multiyear research project after graduate school. I had my first NSF grant, which was focused on understanding how and why urban homeless youth engage in science in out-of-school settings. Part of the research project was for me to design and teach an afterschool science program while studying how youth participated in the program and what they learned about science, their communities, and their roles in society. Several months into the project, I began to interview the teens about their experiences transforming an abandoned lot into a community garden. One of the youths, Kobe, often came to these interviews at the invitation of his friends, listening in from the side, and eventually expressing an interest in being interviewed and in designing and conducting interviews himself. Because participation in the “research” (i.e., the interviews) required parental consent, I went with Kobe to his unit at the shelter to talk to his mother about his participation in the project. On the way to his unit, Kobe asked me if he could carry the video camera I had in my hand. When I told him that was fine, we shared the following exchange: Kobe: How do you know I won’t break it? Or steal it? Angie: I don’t.

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Kobe: How do you know I won’t hurt you? Angie: I don’t. How do you know I won’t hurt you? Kobe: I don’t.

So much was embedded in this short exchange over the camera. On the one hand, Kobe towered at least an entire foot over me. His figure was lanky, as is true for many tall teenage boys, but he was athletically fit and physically aggressive. On the other hand, as an educated middle-class white woman, I carried with me the capital of being middle-class, homed, and white in America. That day was a turning point for me, and perhaps for Kobe. I thought I had worked hard to help the youth at the shelter see that I trusted them, and I challenged myself to put aside the deficit-oriented stereotypes that were constantly thrown my way while I worked there. Indeed, as a prominent researcher at my institution constantly reminded me, “That work must be so hard! Please be careful!” Yet what I had not confronted until that day was how my own presence was really scary to some of the youth. Listening to Kobe helped me to see that even though I might have had the privilege of thinking that the white/black, homed/homeless, center/ margin dichotomies were possible to break down in this project, I had to understand that in many ways I represented a world that was rather unfair to the youth with whom I worked. That short but open conversation put out in the open what it really meant to build a foundation of trust across our differences. And perhaps, more to the point, as a researcher, I began to realize that as a participant in transformative-oriented research, I needed to find ways to become as vulnerable as the youth with whom I worked. Thus, fundamentally at the heart of transformative research is belief in others and a trust that solid, rigorous transformative research can only happen by making oneself, as researcher, vulnerable—by embracing a stance of uncertainty and using that uncertainty to collectively name a new future with others. The second story that I tell my doctoral students is much more recent. This story takes place only a few years ago when I worked with a group of urban elementary-school teachers and parents to design science instruction that was culturally relevant and designed to support teachers and parents in crafting new spaces for parental engagement in schools. We

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formed a collaborative study group to “study” the third- and fourth-grade science curricula materials together in order to adapt them to bring in the cultural knowledge and experiences of the families in the community. The group met biweekly for nearly 14 weeks during the winter and spring, and the focus of our time together was a unit on life cycles. Although the overt project goal was to design effective, culturally relevant science instruction, this was not the only goal that mattered to the parent –teacher teams. They were concerned with the materials that families had access to, with the role of life cycles in their families and communities, and with how children might represent their understanding of life cycles to members of different communities of practice: teachers, peers, and families. Conversation on these topics was just what I had hoped as the researcher would emerge from the study group and inform lesson design. What caught me by surprise was what happened when, about 6 weeks into our curriculum study project, the superintendent of schools for the district announced that there would be no more interdisciplinary teaching in the elementary schools. The superintendent wanted to ensure that time allocated for literacy and mathematics went strictly to those subjects. The district struggled with low test scores only made that much more salient by the No Child Left Behind legislation. The previous year the district had even mandated “curriculum police” as the teachers named it—individuals who roamed schools and made unannounced stops in classrooms to make certain teachers were on the “right page at the right time.” This pronouncement of “no interdisciplinary teaching” led to an ongoing dialogue among teachers and parents in the study group on the inanity of such a decision, and led the teachers and parents to decide to take a stand and “prove the superintendent wrong.” They hatched a plan to expand the life cycles unit in culturally relevant ways by incorporating digital story-telling. This process, according to one of the parents, would connect science and the home but also support the children in enriching their literacy skills. As a researcher, in a real and rather urgent way, I had to learn to see the research process as about a whole lot more than building effective and culturally relevant science instruction. I had to see it as a process of shifting alliances. The parents, who initially were quite silent on issues

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of instruction and unsure of their role in a curriculum study group, urged the teachers to take on an interdisciplinary project because their children needed it. My understandings of the goals of the project had to expand to include how and why shifting alliances mattered in the instructional work of schools. As a researcher, however, I had to come to terms with how this was more than a process of just getting smarter about how this work happens. When teachers and parents opted to work together on the interdisciplinary unit and asked me to help with the plans, I had to take a stance in the shifting alliances in the school and district. I had to “change” at that moment, for the research had become bigger than just building a better unit on life cycles. The participants had told me through their actions that the research was about taking a stance even when that stance was potentially risky. Research is always a process of coming to know. Although these two stories are only two slants on how I have been transformed by the research process, there are many examples in the literature of how and why the transformation of the researcher is not simply a by-product of the research process but rather an urgent ethical and methodological consideration. One good example is Elizabeth Moje’s (2000) compelling narrative of what happened when her collaborative research relationship with a middle school literacy teacher became “rocky” and how together they learned how to “change their minds” and “their bodies” to find a common ground on which they could critically examine the assumptions they brought to transformative action research. Moje teaches us how the process of doing collaborative research in schools for her was also a process of figuring out how to become “somebody” in another person’s classroom. For her, this involved a willingness to explore relationships of power and positioning and to change her thinking and her positioning as a result of the process. Likewise, Ritchie and Rigano (2001) remind us how the process of conducting research is always a process of positioning, and in order to attend to both methodological and ethical concerns one must be willing to become aware of how the researcher–researched positioning invokes relations of power, and how such an awareness shapes what the researcher comes to know. Like my own changing relationship with the teachers and

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parents in the urban elementary school, these authors had to rethink how they positioned themselves as researchers. Change comes in unexpected moments: a simple conversation with a teen on a stairwell or in an effort to survive a rocky research relationship. Being willing to be changed by the research involves allowing these moments to facilitate and even redirect the ongoing process of coming to know the self and one’s role or position in doing research with others. As Brew (2001) reminds us, “If in coming to know myself I also help others to know themselves or to know the world in which we live, so much the better” (p. 184).

REFERENCES Brew, A. (2001). The nature of research: Inquiry in academic contexts. London: Routledge. Carr, W., & Kemmis, S. (1986). Becoming critical: Education, knowledge, and action research. Philadelphia: Falmer Press. Cochran-Smith, M., & Lytle, S. (1993). Inside/outside: Teacher research and knowledge. New York: Teachers College Press. Lather, P. (1991). Getting smart: Feminist research and pedagogy with/in the postmodern. New York: Routledge Press. Moje, E. (2000). Changing our minds, changing our bodies: Power as embodied in research relations. International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education, 13(1), 25. Ritchie, S., & Rigano, D. (2001). Researcher-participant positioning in classroom research. International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education, 14(6), 741–756.

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12 Identifying a Dissertation Research Topic Dr. Martha N. Ovando The University of Texas at Austin

Navigating

doctoral studies can be a challenging journey. Such a journey requires intellectual skills, motivation, and discipline not only to complete a demanding program of studies but also to develop as a scholar. Studies of successful doctoral experiences note that “doctoral students credit their success to additional course work or workshops” (Ovando, Ramirez, & Shefelbine, 2008, p. 47) beyond the required course work. These additional learning experiences are seen as essential and are credited in assisting doctoral students to conceptualize a research project and to enhance their scholarly writing capacity (Ovando et al. 2008). This suggests that the demands and expectations associated with developing a dissertation research study require a thorough knowledge of research paradigms, inquiry capacity, and the ability to critically analyze research and related literature. The experts in the field of research, however, suggest that although individuals may be familiar with different paradigms of inquiry, they do not necessarily know how to actually undertake the task of planning and effectively proposing their own investigations (Locke, Spirduso, & Silverman, 1987). Others affirm that what is important is to ask the right questions, which will give direction to relevant research activities (McEwan &

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McEwan, 2003). Conducting research is a complex, demanding, and time-consuming task. Locke and his colleagues (1987) remind us that: Creating a plan for investigation is hard work, but in the end it demands a different type of intellectual ability and may yield less satisfaction than the process of planning the research and developing the proposal. Creating a plan for research is one fountainhead of the essential fascination that keeps talented men and women at a task more often characterized by frustration and tedium than by romance and excitement. (p. 10)

Given the challenge, complexity, and rigor of conducting research, selecting a dissertation research topic becomes one of the most critical steps in the process of conducting research. This chapter submits that, while conducting research might be a demanding labor of love, aspiring scholars can be successful by initially completing certain sets of activities to select a research topic. So, as doctoral students or aspiring scholars enter the mysteries associated with conducting research, they may benefit from reading extensively, characterizing specific potential topics, identifying a valid research problem, and writing tentative research questions related to a specific educational phenomenon.

READING EXTENSIVELY Doctoral students often start thinking about a promising research topic that is of professional interest, but they usually lack familiarity with the topic’s broader scope. Thus, it becomes imperative that aspiring scholars engage in extensive reading as one of the initial activities in the process of selecting a research topic. Reading extensively really means that one must focus on the overall area surrounding a topic of interest. As one reads, one may select those pieces, articles, or chapters directly related to the topic, paying close attention to the implications derived by the authors and the suggestions made for further inquiry. Specifically, one must try to identify the questions or problems suggested by the authors for further investigation. Once select research-based pieces are identified, one must complete a “close-up” reading to further critique and dissect a research report or manuscript. In doing so, a graphic organizer or matrix might be developed

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that includes the title of the study, date, purpose of the study, research questions, research method and design, sampling techniques, participants or respondents, limitations and delimitations of the study, and major conclusions or propositions. Once such an organizer is complete and the pertinent information is noted from various sources, one is able to locate specific voids in the research, which in turn may suggest existing gaps in the literature, and the candidate may be ready to characterize a potential research topic.

CHARACTERIZING A POTENTIAL TOPIC As one continues with the search for a research topic and is able to isolate one, it becomes imperative to differentiate its distinctive features as reflected in the literature. This will help to confirm that the potential topic might not necessarily be a new phenomenon and therefore might have a historical development or background. However, one needs to discern whether the topic has the potential to enhance, expand, contradict, confirm, or advance a new perspective. Characterizing a topic of research will determine how the research will contribute to knowledge of the field, professional practice, or development of a model or product. While addressing a specific gap in the research of interest, the researcher will certainly raise additional questions or highlight new problems. However, regardless of the methodological shortcomings and scope of the new research, it certainly will be one piece of a larger puzzle. As such, it might only address a single construct through a specific lens or take a comprehensive approach and include various important variables. Therefore, the scope of the potential study should be established, making sure that it addresses a valid research problem.

IDENTIFYING A VALID RESEARCH PROBLEM The research problem is the most important driver of an investigation. Therefore, it must be accurately identified and undoubtedly defined. As Leedy and Ormrod (2005) state:

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The heart of every research project is the problem. It is paramount to the success of the research effort. To see the problem with unwavering clarity and to state it in precise and unmistakable terms is the first requirement in the research process. (p. 43)

It is imperative to read the related literature and to determine exactly what is known and what needs additional inquiry. To delimit further a valid research problem, one needs to establish if the potential research project will address a specific research gap as suggested by the extant literature, focus on different populations and samples, record different behaviors, look at a phenomenon using a different lens, or generate different explanations than previous research (Neuman, 1994). It is important to determine the specific context in which the new research will take place and the research paradigm most appropriate to address the problem. Since the research problem drives an investigation, Leedy and Ormrod (2005) suggest that to delineate further a research problem, one must conduct a thorough literature review, try to see the problem from all sides, use all available tools at your disposal, discuss your research problem with others, hold up your project for others to examine and critique and remember that your project will take time. (p. 62)

Further, narrowing a research problem can be achieved by brainstorming with a group of trusted colleagues or peers who might share similar interests and therefore be familiar with the broader area of research. Peers are in a good position to “provide empathetic listening. Share resources and offer honest and constructive feedback” (Ovando et al., 2008, p. 45). A discussion of the tentative research problem with peers may be completed before actually stating tentative research questions.

WRITING TENTATIVE RESEARCH QUESTIONS Successfully conducting research depends to some extent on the questions that a researcher plans to answer. Therefore, to select a research topic, one

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could state tentative questions in writing and in anticipating outcomes. Stating the right questions will in turn assist in selecting the different research paradigms and activities most appropriate to complete a study. Specifically, Leedy and Ormrod (2005) suggest that “questions provide guidance for the kind of data the researcher should collect and suggest how the researcher should analyze and interpret the data” (p. 54). Thus, it is essential that the tentative research questions be stated in clear terms and that these address the various constructs or variables associated with the potential area of investigation. As one writes appropriate research questions, it is relevant to keep in mind that the resulting findings may lead to various implications to expand knowledge, enhance practice, develop a theoretical model or product, or implement a specific process or program. For instance, according to McEwan & McEwan (2005), research endeavors may address specific questions such as: “Does it work? (the casual question), How does it work? (the process question), Is it worthwhile? (the cost question), Will it work for me? (the usability question), Is it working for me? (the evaluation question)” (p. 6). Further, anticipating research questions may lead to the selection of a research topic that merits attention from researchers or practitioners. Selecting a research topic is one of the initial and critical tasks that doctoral students need to complete before they attempt to actually complete an investigation. By reading extensively, characterizing a potential topic, identifying a valid research problem, and writing tentative questions, they will be able to enhance their scholarly capacity and conduct research that makes significant contributions to a specific field of knowledge or professional practice and leads to personal satisfaction.

REFERENCES Leedy, P. D., & Ormrod, J. E. (2005). Practical research: Planning and design (7th ed.). New York: Macmillan. Locke, L. F., Spirduso, W. W., & Silverman, S. J. (1987). Proposals that work: A guide for planning dissertations and grant proposals (2nd ed.). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.

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McEwan, E. K., & McEwan, P. J. (2003). Making sense of research: What’s good, what’s not and how to tell the difference. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. Neuman, W. L. (1994). Social research methods: Qualitative and quantitative approaches (2nd ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon Ovando, M. N., Ramirez, A. Jr., & Shefelbine, J. (2008). Successfully navigating doctoral studies in school leadership: Diverse minority students’ voices. Journal of Border Educational Research, 7(1), 41–56.

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13 Connecting the Dots: Choosing a Dissertation Topic Dr. Susan Printy Michigan State University

Perhaps you’ve heard me, or someone else, say that taking courses counts for only half of your doctoral education. In terms of time and energy required, the dissertation easily equals or exceeds what you put into your course work. What you take away from completing a dissertation study in terms of knowledge and skills about your topic goes well beyond what you learn from any combination of courses. Thinking about it that way points to the importance of picking your dissertation topic wisely. You will literally live your life around your dissertation for 2 or 3 years. Understand that I’m not a person in favor of forcing the dissertation topic selection early in your program. Doing so narrows your opportunities to learn about education broadly, and I believe a wide exposure to theory, policy, and research is a critical aspect of your doctoral program. Even so, the pressure to choose a dissertation topic is one you will be aware of from the beginning of your program. I’d like to offer four ideas for you to consider as you imagine possibilities and then begin to narrow your choice of a dissertation topic: problems of practice, connections, access to data, and relevance. As I develop these ideas, I’ll share my own experience and how these considerations helped me make important decisions about my own dissertation. In my educational administration department, most of our students come to us with significant professional practice as teachers and school 75

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leaders. Over their years as educators, certain problems of practice nagged at them and are often the impetus for doctoral study. When this is the case, I notice the student weighing new ideas and theories in his mind, searching for how this new learning might apply to the enduring problem that engages his mind, heart, and spirit as an educator. One of my students, as an example, is a curriculum director for a nearby school district, and before beginning her doctoral program, she worked for several years to equalize access to rigorous mathematics content for all students. She arrived at her dissertation proposal stage intent on developing a case study of a school district that reduced tracked classes in mathematics by two thirds across all schools, including the high school. In my case, I didn’t recognize my problem of practice until I began to read the theoretical and research literatures on professional community during my first year of study. As a high school teacher, my experience of community was more “laissez-faire” than “professional.” This experiential gap helped me identify teacher community as a concept I wanted to investigate in my research. Early in your program, you will begin to notice compelling ideas that crop up again and again in your course readings, in conversations with your advisor and other faculty, as you talk with other doctoral students, and in the many presentations and colloquia that you choose to attend on campus. Pay attention to the connections among ideas that gather in your conscious thought. Connections that surface across classes, disciplines, or theoretical paradigms often point to compelling ideas that you can be passionate about and thus happy to spend a good part of your life on, both during the dissertation and after in your eventual career. For me, I love thinking, reading, and writing about leadership and learning, in many configurations. In my first year and a half, I encountered various approaches to thinking about these topics in education courses, public policy courses, and sociology courses, and I was equally drawn to thinking about them as properties of individuals, groups, or organizations. A graphic depiction of my doctoral journey at the end of my first year of study identified the importance of leadership and learning as concepts in my academic work but also signaled the presence of these ideas in many areas of my personal life.

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This was an important early awareness that these topics should be present in my eventual dissertation. So, add leadership and learning to teacher community as concepts I wanted to explore. One of my colleagues regularly points to the fact that our educational administration students can get good school-based data through their professional networks. This is an important consideration to think about early on: Where and how will you get access to data for your study? Are the concepts you are beginning to focus on appropriate for data that you have the ability to collect? Perhaps you are being funded to work on a research project for your advisor or for another professor. Does the study offer the possibility to investigate your concepts? Working closely with your advisor can open other possible data sources, particularly if you connect to a line of work he or she has been part of. In my case, my advisor offered me information about using national data sets and provided me access to the lists of variables available for analysis. Through many conversations over a period of time, she helped me understand how data generated through surveys on a national sample of teachers and administrators could help me to inquire about the learning and leading dynamics of teachers in their communities of practice. Most of my educational administration students are dedicated educators who study part-time and are intent on improving the quality of education for all students in the state of Michigan. As such, they want their dissertation study to have practical relevance in their future careers as superintendents, central office personnel, state agency directors, etc. Having started with a problem of practice, they seek a possible solution strategy: that detracking classrooms makes a difference for students’ attainment in mathematics or that when teachers work together they have more power to raise a school’s level of achievement than when they work alone. In articulating the strategy, a student refines the topic for the dissertation and sets the stage for the study design. My intention was to enter the academy. In addition to shining a light on a strategy for improving teachers’ learning and practice through community participation and leadership, relevance, for me, meant that my study would be an important step in a long-term research trajectory and would demonstrate my competence with advanced quantitative analysis.

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I had an advisee who wanted his dissertation to demonstrate the application to education of a method he had learned while doing cancer research. Writing a dissertation that makes a difference for your future career and influences educational discussions is, as they say, priceless! Maybe some have arrived at their dissertation topics as a result of a moment of pure inspiration. While waiting for that inspiration, try bringing conscious attention to what you are studying. Take the time to read broadly and deeply, and to process your reading slowly and reflectively so that fresh ideas can emerge. Which problems of practice represent compelling ideas? Which ideas can you inquire into with data that are accessible? Which topics and approaches have the most relevance to your career choices post-PhD? Along the way, you will connect the dots . . . and be on your way to a dissertation you can be proud of.

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Part III SELECTING A CHAIR AND COMMITTEE

This section of The Faculty Mentor’s Wisdom: Conceptualizing, Writing, and Defending the Dissertation is dedicated to guiding doctoral students through the task of selecting a chair for the dissertation and committee. The mentoring advice offered by our contributors speaks specifically to the struggles and opportunities that await doctoral students in the chairand committee-selection stage. These exceptional faculty point out a path that will help students select a chair and committee that will work to produce and defend a quality piece of research in the form of completed dissertation. • Dr. I. Phillip Young, Selecting a Dissertation Chair • Dr. Diana G. Pounder, Choosing a Dissertation Supervisory Committee and Dissertation Topic • Dr. Raymond L. Calabrese, Seeking an Advisor as a Mentor • Dr. George J. Petersen, When Choosing a Major Professor, Go Slow to Go Fast • Dr. Sally J. Zepeda, Choosing a Major Professor • Dr. Lance D. Fusarelli, Dancing with Elephants: Forming Your Dissertation Committee

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14 Selecting a Dissertation Chair Dr. I. Phillip Young University of California, Davis

One of the few decisions negotiable in a doctoral program is the choice of a dissertation chair. Unlike undergraduate and entry-level graduate education at the master’s level where advisors are assigned, the choice of a dissertation chair at the doctoral level is discretionary and requires a meeting of minds. That is, a student as well as a professor must concur if this relationship is to be carried out successfully. Clearly, the choice of a dissertation chair is one of the most important decisions made by a graduate student. The dissertation chair serves as a mentor during the dissertation process and as a future reference source once the dissertation is completed. Indeed, a mismatch between a student and a dissertation chair ranks among the worst situations encountered by a student in a doctoral program. In fact, a mismatch may be the determining factor as to whether a student actually completes the dissertation. However, oftentimes the choice of a dissertation chair is made in haste only to be later regretted. To lessen the probability of a mismatch between a student and the dissertation chair, consideration should be given to the topic of investigation and to the type of methodology used. Although these considerations are linked, they are separate concerns when choosing a dissertation chair.

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TOPIC AND METHODOLOGY The topic of a dissertation as well as the methodology used to investigate the topic is a prerogative of the student, but sometimes students get the “cart before the horse.” All professors will not be equally knowledgeable about a specific topic nor will they be equally competent in all methodologies. As such, the pool of potential dissertation chairs may be limited, and because of these shortcomings, I recommend that students put more emphasis on choosing a dissertation chair than either on a dissertation topic or on the methodology. By choosing the dissertation chair first and the topic as well as the methodology second, several advantages can be realized, especially if students follow the research stream of their dissertation chair.

ADVANTAGES One advantage of following the research of a dissertation chair is that a clearly defined research topic will likely emerge. Often, students will view a research question from a contextual point of view, focusing on a particular outcome. However, the current state of knowledge relative to their research question may not have evolved to the state where the outcome is a viable option as a topic of investigation. For example, some students in education might want to identify ways to select a better teacher or ways to improve the job retention of quality teachers. Although these are important issues, research may not have advanced to the stage where valid answers can be provided for these important questions and concerns. For these examples, research is still trying to identify factors influencing the decision making of organizational representatives within the selection process independent of teacher quality and to identify different facets of the job satisfaction construct yet to be related to turnover of successful teachers. Another advantage of choosing a major professor on the basis of expertise concerns the body of literature to be reviewed relative to a particular dissertation topic. When the research topic is within the area of expertise

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of a major professor, references to all seminal as well as current research studies can be provided to the student early in the dissertation process. That is, foundational readings as well as current thought about a topic can be addressed by following the lead of a major professor with expertise in a particular area. Still another advantage is aligning a research question with the specific methodology advocated by a dissertation chair. What would be considered as important from a qualitative perspective may not be considered as meaningful from a quantitative perspective. On the other hand, what is valued as important from a quantitative point of view may be viewed as trivial from a qualitative point of view. Consider as a point of example the research question involving the selection of teachers as previously noted and using the same unit of analysis to assess the reactions of principals within the teacher-selection process. Both qualitative and quantitative paradigms recognize that selection is in part a function of school district policy but each process controls for policy in a different way. From a qualitative approach, school district policy is controlled by selecting a specific school district, and all principals are interviewed within a school district to assess their individual perceptions about teacher candidates. In contrast, from a quantitative approach, school districts are treated as a random variable and only a single principal is selected from any particular school district to assess his or her individual perceptions about teacher candidates. Depending on the orientation of a dissertation chair, a different methodology may be advocated for the same topic. Yet another advantage of choosing a major professor with an area of expertise related to the topic of investigation is the potential for presentation at a learned society or publication in a refereed journal. All students complete a satisfactory research project to get their degree, although only a select few with have their research recognized by a learned society or published in a referred journal. Even though this additional recognition is of less importance to those going into field positions in the public school setting, such recognition is extremely important for those seeking a higher education position as a professor, because it recognizes their potential to do research and aligns them with a particular research stream.

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CONCLUSION For the above reasons, I recommend students choose a major professor first and focus on a topic and a methodology second. Although some may see this decision sequence as “selling out” by not choosing a topic of selfinterest, this same sequence could be viewed as “buying in” to a particular research stream. I suspect the graduation rate is higher for those buying in than for those following a self-interest. As my major professor stated long ago, “Do it the committee’s way; you have the rest of your career to do it your way.”

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15 Choosing a Dissertation Supervisory Committee and Dissertation Topic Dr. Diana G. Pounder University of Central Arkansas

Doctoral students often struggle with two major decisions early in their doctoral study: how to choose a doctoral supervisory committee chair and committee members, and how to decide on a dissertation topic. Having supervised and served on dozens of doctoral committees over the past 25 years, I offer the following advice with respect to these two decisions.

SELECTION OF DISSERTATION CHAIR AND COMMITTEE In my early years as a professor, I often struggled to respond succinctly to students who asked, “How do I choose a doctoral supervisory committee chair and committee members?” After all, this kind of decision is not a perfect science with a specified formula for effectiveness. As I gained more experience, I was able to construct somewhat parsimonious guidelines to help students select a dissertation committee that brings the needed expertise and support to the dissertation study. Specifically, I suggest that students consider four criteria in selecting a dissertation supervisory chair and committee members: (a) conceptual expertise, (b) methodological expertise, (c) practitioner expertise, and (d) healthy interpersonal “chemistry.” Let me explain.

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Conceptual Expertise

Although multiple types of expertise are important to have among the doctoral student’s supervisory committee members, perhaps the most important is the appropriate conceptual expertise to inform the study. For example, if a student is interested in studying socialization processes that shape novice principals’ role adaptation and identification, then selecting a committee chair or committee member who is well read, has taught, and preferably has conducted research on professional socialization processes should be a high priority. The professor’s conceptual expertise is more important than whether he or she has conducted research on school principals specifically—or even what research methods the professor may have used. The professor’s knowledge of relevant literature and theories to study professional socialization will help shape the conceptual framework of the study, which is a critical foundation to the study’s development. Methodological Expertise

Perhaps the second most important type of expertise to consider in selecting a committee chair or members is methodological expertise. One fairly simple way to consider methodological expertise is whether a study’s question lends itself to qualitative research methods or quantitative research methods. For example, if a student’s research question asks “why” or “how” questions to explain an observed phenomenon, often qualitative methods are most appropriate. If so, then it is important that one or more of the committee members are knowledgeable about principles of rigor in qualitative research and have used qualitative methods in their own research. Similarly, if a student’s question is correlational or predictive, using numerical data, then a design employing quantitative methods is probably more appropriate, and one or more committee members with expertise and experience using quantitative methods is important. Although not every member must necessarily have expertise in the study’s methods, it is important that at least one or more committee members can advise the students on the technical intricacies of the appropriate research design and methods to answer the study’s research questions.

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Practitioner Expertise

In applied or professional academic fields such as education, understanding of practitioner work environments is helpful in developing a dissertation study. Supervisory committee members may be helpful in considering the organizational, social, political, financial, or regulatory issues that shape the professional environment in which the study is conducted. A committee member’s knowledge of timely practitioner issues, challenges, policies, and procedures may inform everything from a study’s purpose and research questions to the specific data collection procedures used. Thus, if one is studying university presidents, then committee members familiar with higher education work arenas are probably more helpful than those whose principle work environment has been in K–12 school settings (and vice versa). Healthy Interpersonal Chemistry

The last selection criterion that a student must consider is the interpersonal chemistry between the student and her or his dissertation committee chair, in particular, as well as interpersonal dynamics with the other committee members. It is important that a student feel comfortable with the committee chair because a close working relationship is especially needed with the chair to sustain the somewhat lengthy and intense dissertation research process. A student must feel comfortable asking questions—from the most conceptually complex to the most mundane procedural details. A student must have a sense of trust with the committee chair and be willing to take advisement from that person. It may be advantageous that there is a healthy working dynamic among the various committee members. I have observed almost no examples of tensions among faculty members resulting in adverse conditions for students. Most faculty members are highly professional and have the student’s success as their highest priority. Ultimately, a favorable interpersonal dynamic with committee members results in the student’s development as a genuine colleague of the committee members and mentors. In some instances, a student may identify a faculty member who meets several of these four criteria—in which case the student should probably ask that faculty member to chair the dissertation supervisory committee.

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It is most important that the committee members collectively meet these four important supervisory committee criteria—conceptual expertise, methodological expertise, practitioner expertise, and healthy interpersonal chemistry.

CHOOSING AND REFINING A DISSERTATION TOPIC I often observe doctoral students focusing on a dissertation topic at early stages of doctoral study. Many students do this in response to faculty members’ questions about a student’s research interests or because some feel that if they identify a topic early enough, they can limit most of their reading and study to a narrow focus. If students have considerable doctoral course work to take prior to beginning the dissertation phase of a doctoral program, I encourage them to take some time in identifying their research interests. There is much to learn during the course-work phase that can influence dissertation topic selection and development. It often pays to be open to new ideas and unexplored territory. There are multiple potential sources of dissertation ideas and many strategies to help focus the scope of the study. Sources for Dissertation Ideas

I have identified a number of sources for dissertation ideas; some are probably obvious to students and others may not be as well understood. The first and most obvious is the student’s professional interests—often influenced by past professional experiences, class readings and discussions, or professional conference sessions. It is helpful for a student to keep a notebook of research ideas as they occur. Over time, it is not uncommon for some of these ideas to converge and lead the student to a fruitful dissertation topic. No matter how much the candidate thinks he or she will remember an idea, it is far too easy to forget little “gems” if they are not written down. A second source is to ask professors directly, “What are some of the most important areas of research in our discipline (or subdiscipline)?” I find students are often hesitant to ask such a direct question because they feel they must exercise their creativity in selecting a dissertation topic.

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Most professors are much more familiar with the knowledge base in their field than are novice students—and they often can steer a student to some of the most needed areas of research that have the potential to make a significant impact in their field. Remember, the primary purpose of conducting original research is to contribute to the knowledge base in one’s discipline or subdiscipline. Who should know those areas of need more than experienced academicians and researchers? This is a great opportunity for a student to learn which faculty members are engaging in research similar to the student’s interests. Another source of research ideas can be found in the closing sections of published research articles. Typically, at the end of empirical research articles, the authors will offer a set of recommendations for future research. This section of the manuscript can inform students about needed areas of research related to the published work. If a student finds the area of study engaging, the recommendations for future research can provide fruitful ideas for a dissertation study. Another way to use empirical literature to form research ideas is to think in terms of the potential linkage between qualitative research studies and quantitative research studies. I find that qualitative researchers don’t seem to read much of the work done by quantitative researchers and vice versa. As a result, the linkage between inductively derived knowledge (largely through qualitative methods) is often not tested deductively (largely through quantitative methods). Similarly, findings derived from theory-testing research (typically using quantitative methods) are often not used to revise, fine-tune, or further explain conceptual or theoretical frameworks tested. Thus, students who examine qualitative studies to explore ways that the resulting knowledge could be tested empirically through quantitative methods may identify important areas of dissertation study and knowledge expansion for the field. Or, by contrast, students could examine deductively derived research findings and use qualitative methods to further explore the “how’s and why’s” of those findings using qualitative research methods. This could be especially valuable when quantitative studies yield surprising or even paradoxical findings that don’t “make sense” and warrant further explanation and understanding. In other words, students may find

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rich dissertation ideas by exploring needed connections between inductively and deductively derived knowledge in our field. The literature can be useful in identifying study designs, conceptual frameworks, and methods that a student could use in examining similar research questions but with other study populations, organizational arenas, or research contexts. This type of dissertation can serve to extend the generalizability or relevance of a conceptual or theoretical framework to other contexts. These kinds of dissertation ideas are often found when a student explores research intersections between two bodies of existing literature. Refining Ideas into a Researchable Dissertation

The aim in exploring various dissertation ideas is to ultimately be able to draft a concise and researchable problem statement (i.e., a statement of the study’s purpose) and corresponding research questions (or hypotheses) from which to design a research study. Although a statement of the purpose of a study and the corresponding research questions may only amount to about a half page of writing, it is probably the most important, yet challenging, foundational element of a dissertation study. The task of drafting a problem statement and research questions is an excellent exercise for students to engage in, because it helps them refine their own thinking about their research ideas. Often it is only when students try to draft the problem statement and research questions that they realize exactly what answers they are seeking to uncover through the research process. Another important step in refining one’s research ideas is to read relevant literature to better understand what is known or not known in the field. It does little good to design a research study just to learn that it will not produce new knowledge—only verify or support existing knowledge. A dissertation study should be designed to contribute new knowledge to a discipline or subdiscipline. It should build upon what is already known in the field and expand that knowledge base. Another challenge for students trying to refine their research ideas is what I call the “Goldilocks” process. That is, how do you design a study that is not too big or too small, but just right? Often, students’ initial research intentions are too broad and not sufficiently focused.

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A study whose design would require years of longitudinal data collection is not reasonable for a dissertation study. Instead, if a student is interested in a longitudinal study, he or she should explore the possibility of using preexisting databases that go back several years. A study that requires complex multivariate designs without a specific set of focused research questions related to the study’s conceptual framework could become mired in complex analyses that ultimately do not inform theory or practice. As my doctoral dissertation mentor used to say, “It’s one study . . . it’s not a career” and “Keep it simple.” I have seen a few instances in which a student is thinking too narrowly in his or her study’s purpose and research questions. A study of this sort is unlikely to contribute much, if anything, to the field’s knowledge base and is often anchored in a professional problem that is fairly concrete-specific and lacks sufficient conceptual richness to warrant a dissertation study. So, how does a student design a study that is not too big or too small, but just right? This is where the expertise of the student’s dissertation committee chair is critical. A student should rely heavily on his or her committee chair in getting the appropriate dissertation focus while maintaining sufficient complexity to make a contribution to the knowledge base of the field. Experienced faculty can help narrow or expand a student’s ideas to be “just right” for a doable research study. All in all, refining one’s dissertation ideas requires: (a) active writing and reflection to develop draft problem statements and research questions, (b) iterative exploration of relevant literature to design a study that contributes appropriately to the existing knowledge base in the field, and (c) periodic consultation with one’s dissertation committee chair to keep the study appropriately focused. Although this is not a conclusive or even exhaustive approach to dissertation preparation, I have found that students who follow these general guidelines have a strong start toward their dissertation research.

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16 Seeking an Advisor as a Mentor Dr. Raymond L. Calabrese The Ohio State University

When I work with a doctoral student, I create a professional relationship between my advisee and me driven by a central core purpose: Whatever we do together has a singular purpose of doing quality research that will make a difference in the world. I place this professional relationship with my advisee in a macro frame with three distinct yet interrelated components: 1. My advisee will finish the dissertation in a timely fashion. 2. My advisee’s research will benefit others and instruct future research. 3. I act as a mentor to advance my advisee’s career. To provide you with the greatest possible mentoring advice, I shared this chapter with some of my former doctoral students for their input as well. Having mentored them to completion of their dissertation, I framed this narrative based on my work with them. Perhaps you will hear them speaking to you in the narrative that follows. My advisee has taken several of my classes. My first impression is that she is intelligent, hardworking, and excited about my area of research— appreciative inquiry. At the conclusion of our last class, she asked if I would chair her dissertation committee. I responded by suggesting that we meet to discuss the selection of an advisor-mentor. 92

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I stand up to greet her, “Good morning, Megan. Off to a good day?” “Yes, and this is my favorite coffee shop. I’ll leave my computer on the table and order my drink.” She returns with a chai, sets it to the side, looks at me, and says, “Dr. Calabrese, have you thought about my request to be my dissertation advisor?” “What are looking for in an advisor, Megan?” Megan takes a deep breath. I can tell she hasn’t thought about this question beyond needing an advisor, enjoying my classes, and wanting to learn more about my area of research. “What do you mean?” she asks. “I am honored you asked me to be your advisor. I assume you asked me to advise you because you are interested in appreciative inquiry and want to do your research in this area.” Megan says, “That’s right! I sensed the passion you have for your work right from the first class I took with you. In each class, I found your enthusiasm for appreciative inquiry contagious. I read every one of your research articles and books. I want to get started and learn all I can from you.” “I’m flattered; however, I want you to consider something else for moment. I want you to think of an advisor in terms of a mentor. A mentor is more than an advisor. A mentor expands the advisor’s role to something special. In this sense, a mentor sees you in the light of your potential, the possibilities of your potential contributions to society.” “Isn’t that what an advisor is supposed to do?” “There are differences between a student being mentored and a student being advised. Mentoring expands the notion of advising to nurturing and advancing the advisee’s career. It is an extended professional relationship.” “Oh, looking at it that way, I think I understand what you mean,” Megan says. “The mentor and the doctoral student being mentored both have more complex roles during the dissertation process.” Megan responds, “You know, I never thought of it in that sense. It changes the relationship completely.” “Megan, you hit the target. The doctoral professional relationship between the mentor and advisee is complex. The mentor acts directly to

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assist the advisee on her journey well beyond the defense of the dissertation. This relationship broadens the initial advisor’s role you experienced in graduate studies. The relationship is one of collaboration and will, most likely, develop into a continuing professional relationship after graduation.” “How so, Dr. Calabrese?” “Megan, your mentor should advance your career goals. In addition to advancing career goals and professional growth, the mentor acts to provide a psychological and emotional scaffold. It’s not all one-sided; your mentor will gain insights from you that contribute to his or her growth. The mentor cares deeply to see the advisee graduate and to professionally advance the advisee’s career. “In this relationship, the advisee recognizes that the mentor brings experience, wisdom, and a sustained history of research to benefit the advisee (Clark, Harden, & Johnson, 2000). Oftentimes, the advisee extends and evolves the work of the mentor long after earning the doctorate. In many cases, it is a lasting professional relationship built on mutual trust and respect.” “That sounds like the kind of relationship I envision.” “Megan, not all faculty members think of the dissertation advisor as a mentor. That is neither good nor bad. It’s a choice made by the faculty member. A doctoral student, such as you, may desire that kind of relationship; however, a mentoring relationship occurs because the faculty member chooses to be a mentor.” “Don’t I get a say in the matter, Dr. Calabrese? Can I ask a faculty member to be a mentor too?” “Yes, you get a say in an important way. Your input is through identification of faculty members predisposed to mentoring. You see, mentoring is not part of the job description of faculty. Most faculty members advise their students as they were advised. There is no formal training for becoming a dissertation advisor. “A faculty member watches and learns from other faculty and brings his or her perspective to the process. Dissertation advisors cover a spectrum of possibilities. At one end of the spectrum, they may be punitive and self-centered. At the other end of the spectrum, they are giving, committed to student’s success, and expend considerable effort to help their

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advisee succeed. Most doctoral faculty members are somewhere between these two extremes.” “I want to find that special advisor and mentor. You know—the one at the great end of the spectrum, Dr. Calabrese.” “One way to approach the selection of a great advisor and mentor is to frame your challenge the same way you would your research. You form a problem statement, craft an excellent research question, use the appropriate methodology to collect data, and do a quality data analysis; your findings should identify the advisor and mentor you want. Sounds a bit complicated but, like all good research, it’s simple, not simplistic.” “Dr. Calabrese, the problem statement seems obvious: I am a doctoral student who moved to candidacy. I seek a high-quality dissertation advisor who will act as my mentor from the pool of available doctoral faculty advisors. The purpose of my study is to identify, interview, and agree to terms with a high-quality dissertation advisor who will act as my mentor.” “Megan, let me interrupt for a second. The way I see it, there are four steps in choosing a faculty member who will serve as your advisor and mentor. “Step 1. Let go of mental models (ideas, images, and verbal descriptions) you constructed or inherited about potential faculty dissertation advisors. These mental models limit your thoughts and actions. “Step 2. Broaden your concept of the pool of available faculty members from an N of 1 to all possibilities. You will be surprised at the array of possibilities. “Step 3. Identify the selection criteria to select potential advisors for your pool of finalists. “Step 4. Develop a protocol of interview questions to use when you meet with each of your finalists. “Steps 1 and 2 are personal steps. Treat them openly and trustingly and you will increase your opportunity for discovering the best possible choice. I suggest you rank your finalists in case the first or second choice is overcommitted. What are your thoughts on Steps 3 and 4?” “Dr. Calabrese, I haven’t thought about this process in the formal sense; however, I have thought about it in a general sense. I know that the research area is important to me, yet it is only one aspect of my selection

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criteria. Appreciative inquiry is all about listening to others and respecting their history. “I will develop a protocol of appreciative inquiry interview questions to use when I meet with faculty members. I want an advisor and mentor who listens to students and colleagues. I want an advisor and mentor who will respect me and my ideas. As you pointed out, Dr. Calabrese, I will make sure my potential mentor gets along well with other faculty. “One of my favorite researchers, Nell Noddings (1995), speaks passionately about caring, where caring moves well beyond the superficial and acts in a reciprocal relationship. I want an advisor and mentor whose ego doesn’t get in the way and who will point out the way—like a guide. I want an advisor and mentor who will see in me what I can’t yet see, one who will remove the scales from my eyes to see the blessing I can be to others. Yes, that is what I want.” “How will you collect data to discover this advisor-mentor, Megan?” “Well, I know I will be asking for meetings, requesting feedback, and looking for timely responses. I already know the professors who answer and those who do not answer student’s requests. I already know the quality of communication they offer to me. I remember what I learned in class about Argyris’s (1995) theories of action. There’s a big difference between an espoused theory and theory in use. If the professor is not walking the talk, I’m not interested in that professor as an advisor and mentor.” “One remaining suggestion, Megan, keep your passion alive—don’t let discouragement ever overtake you. You are a bright student and have many positive qualities to share with the world. You are ready to begin your search. Let me know how you make out.” “I’ll do that Dr. Calabrese. By the way, may I set up a time to interview you regarding your thoughts about advising dissertation students?”

AUTHOR’S NOTE I wish to thank, Dr. John Fast, Dr. Crystal Hummel, Dr. Teresa San Martin, Dr. Erica Nance, and Dr. Rae Niles, former doctoral students whose dissertations I chaired, for their comments on this manuscript. Our mentoring relationship continues.

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REFERENCES Clark, R. A., Harden, S. L., & Johnson, W. B. (2000). Mentor relationships in clinical psychology doctoral training: Results of a national survey. Teaching of Psychology 27, 262–268. Noddings, N. (1995). A morally defensible mission for schools in the 21st century. Phi Delta Kappan, 76(5), 365–368.

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17 When Choosing a Major Professor, Go Slow to Go Fast Dr. George J. Petersen California Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo

You’ve got to be very careful if you don’t know where you are going, because you might not get there. —Yogi Berra

To paraphrase the wisdom of Yogi Berra, “If you are not sure what you want or need in a major professor, you might get it.” In this chapter, I share some insights based on my experience, as well as the literature, about professional and personal qualities you should consider prior to soliciting a faculty member to supervise your dissertation. Because universities use different terminology, in this chapter “major professor” is used to refer to a faculty member who serves as the chair of your dissertation committee. A quick tour of the library or an online search will reveal a plethora of books, university user manuals, articles, and Internet sites dedicated to providing guidance in the writing and completion of the doctoral dissertation (Bolker, 1998; D’Andrea, 2002; Daloz, 1999; Davis & Parker, 1997; Foss & Waters, 2007; Glatthorn & Joyner, 2005; Ogden, 2007; Spillett & Moisiewich, 2004; Thomas & Brubaker, 2000). You might also seek advice from colleagues who have recently graduated from the program. Needless to say, these resources, coupled with veteran students’ conventional wisdom, can potentially be valuable as you navigate and comply with the technical aspects of this part of your education. Yet perhaps the most important resource you will need and the deci98

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sion you will make in these final stages of your program is the selection of a major professor who will work with you in the planning and successful writing, defense, and completion of your dissertation.

GO SLOW TO GO FAST In 2004, I was the head coach of a baseball team that won the state championship and was selected by the state athletic association as “Team of the Year.” A significant component of our success was embedded in the players’ ability to consistently hit and drive in runs. It’s tough to win if you don’t score! My coaching responsibilities included working individually with each of the hitters. During our workouts, we would use the mantra, “Go slow to go fast!” In essence, it required each hitter, as he stood in the batters’ box, to stride slowly toward the pitcher, unhurriedly planting his front foot while keeping his hands in the proper position, his head level, and his eyes focused on the ball. Now in the proper position, the hitter is primed as the pitcher is delivering the ball. If it is a good pitch, one that he is able to hit, he is ready to go fast, quickly swinging the bat and driving the ball with power. Going slow to go fast is essential in becoming a successful hitter; it is also an important approach when selecting a major professor.

GOING FAST AND SWINGING AT THE FIRST PITCH—OR, WHAT NOT TO DO Keep in mind that this is a committee project where the work extends over a long period. Your ability to navigate and successfully complete this process is strongly linked to the faculty member you select to serve as you major professor. Consequently, do not go fast during this process or select the first professor you meet. For example, don’t select a major professor because of perceived ease, personal convenience, or what you believe is the absence of other options in the program (Thomas & Brubaker, 2000). Be judicious. Any one of these factors alone or in concert may impede your progress while greatly

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extending your time toward completion. In some cases, choosing the wrong individual may actually devastate your efforts entirely. If you choose an individual because you believe he will “go easy on you,” because she “seems nice,” or a host of other personal qualities, do not be surprised when several months later, you are no further along because this seemingly nice and well-intentioned person rarely comes to campus. Moreover, when he is on campus, he is not inclined to meet with you and spend time focused on your dissertation or when her expertise or interest in your topic is limited because it is not closely aligned with her own area of research. Perhaps the worst-case scenario is when he turns out to be a micromanager and requires you to obtain his formal approval for everything no matter how innocuous, while occasionally flexing his “academic muscle” and asserting his power and authority over you. A few years ago, a promising student in the doctoral program I was associated with, chose a professor because, as he told me later, this faculty member was an engaging teacher. She was the first teacher he had in the program. In addition, he said that his selection was based on the fact that she was a person of color and he wanted to conduct research on issues involving diversity and gender. Although an excellent teacher and colleague, this faculty member did not come to campus often, and returned phone calls and e-mail messages even less frequently. During the course of a semester, this student sent a combined 50 e-mails and phone messages requesting a meeting to discuss his ideas and progress. Needless to say, none of the messages were answered and the phone calls were not returned. As a result, this student’s progress was delayed. Frustrated and bemused, he met with me and I suggested that he select another faculty member to serve as his major professor. He understood that his selection had been based on a few personal qualities of this faculty member and not on more substantive issues that influenced his progress (e.g., availability, interest, and expertise). Changing advisors midstream is an unenviable task fraught with political and personal implications, so go slow and choose wisely.

GOING SLOW AND KEEPING YOUR EYE ON THE BALL Every institution has specific policies and procedures for the formation of the dissertation committee, and while you should follow these guidelines,

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keep in mind that a 2002 study published by Michael D’Andrea indicated that over 80% of major professors wanted to be consulted in the makeup of the dissertation committee. In most instances, your major professor will know which faculty work best together, their research interests and writing strengths, as well as their experience with doctoral dissertations. At this point, you should begin identifying professional qualities you consider important and apply them in your selection of a major professor. Of course, no faculty member possesses every quality, but some traits are more important than others (see Thomas & Brubaker, 2000). Here are a few qualities to consider: How does he or she feel about the type and focus of the investigation you are proposing? Faculty members have areas of interest and your progress can be greatly enhanced if your major professor is interested in what you are investigating. They are more inclined to spend time and monitor your progress when you are examining a topic they feel is important or of special significance. Do you like the individual and does he or she like you? This doesn’t mean are you are necessarily friends, chums, or drinking buddies. What it does imply is a level of mutual professional respect. Do you respect this faculty member and is the respect reciprocal? Are you able to relate to her and can she relate to you? More importantly, does this person know your research interests and professional goals and does he respect your time and efforts? What is his or her advising style? Is his style in working with doctoral students, laissez-faire, hands-on, or is she a benevolent dictator? Does he prefer to communicate through e-mail, phone, face-to-face, or a combination of these? How often will she be available? Will he provide timely feedback and reactions to your work when you need it? Is the feedback consistent? How much decision-making autonomy will you be given and how much are you comfortable with? What is his or her area of expertise? Every faculty member has an area of expertise and in-depth knowledge. It is important for you know your major professor’s primary areas of scholarship and expertise. After reading her writing, does her professional interests align with your research ideas and goals? What types of methodologies does he use in his scholarship and what types are you comfortable with? Is he or she respected and does he or she work well with other faculty? An old African adage is relevant to the dissertation process. It goes

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something like, “When two elephants fight, it is the grass underneath that is torn up.” The ability of a major professor to work well and be respected by other faculty is critical in this committee process. By doing a little investigation and asking former students, you can ascertain whether or not an individual faculty member works well with others in the department, school, or college. If he does not work well with others, then you must seriously consider and weigh the potential benefits and consequences of his participation regardless of his expertise.

PRIMED TO DRIVE THE BALL Once you have developed a list of qualities and characteristics you feel are important, explore the biographies and research interests of the current program faculty. Talking with veteran students is a good idea. From your inquiry and discussions, develop a short list of potential faculty members. Now primed and in proper position, but before you schedule an appointment, take some time and prepare a draft proposal of your preliminary research interests and ideas. This proposal should be short (e.g., one or two pages maximum) and should include a working title of the study, a brief introductory paragraph of the problem to be explored, and potential research questions with an abbreviated reference list. Although just a draft, preparation of this document prior to your meeting permits you to speak intelligently about your interests while demonstrating that you are serious and that you have taken the time to do your homework. A short proposal reveals that you value the time and expertise of the faculty member with whom you are meeting. Keep in mind that it is much easier for a faculty member to respond to something you have written than to a 30-minute conversation about your divergent interests, goals, aspirations, and so forth. A short proposal gives a prospective major professor clearer insights into your intended topic as well as a better understanding of her own interest. If she expresses interest in the topic, you will be in a much better position to interview her about the other characteristics you feel are important. Ask pointed questions regarding availability, types, and frequency of feedback, his expectations for you, and how many other students he is

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currently advising. Candid responses to these types of questions will give you greater confidence in discerning fit and whether or not this individual is the type of major professor who works best with you. If you like what you hear and see, then swing away!

REFERENCES Bolker, J. (1998). Writing your dissertation in fifteen minutes a day: A guide to starting, revising, and finishing your doctoral thesis. New York: Henry Holt. Daloz, L. A. (1999). Mentor: Guiding the journey of adult learners. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. D’Andrea, L. M. (2002, March). Obstacles to completing the doctoral degree in colleges of education: The professors’ perspective. Educational Research Quarterly, 25(3), 42–58. Davis, G. B., & Parker, C. A. (1997). Writing the doctoral dissertation: A systematic approach (2nd ed.). Hauppauge, NY: Barrons Educational Series. Foss, S., & Waters, W. (2007). Destination dissertation: A traveler’s guide to a done dissertation. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. Glatthorn, A. A., & Joyner, R. L. (2005). Writing the winning thesis or dissertation: A step-by-step guide. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. Ogden, E. O. (2007). Complete your dissertation or thesis in two semesters or less. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. Spillett, M. A., & Moisiewich, K. A. (2004, June). Cheerleader, coach, counselor, critic: Support and challenge roles of the dissertation advisor. College Student Journal, 38(2). Retrieved from http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0FCR/ is_2_38/ai_n6146821/?tag=content;co11 Thomas, R. M & Brubaker, D. L. (2000). Theses and dissertations: A guide to planning, research, and writing. West Point, CT: Greenwood.

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18 Choosing a Major Professor Dr. Sally J. Zepeda University of Georgia, Athens

Beginning the doctorate is making a commitment to your future, and making such a commitment requires that you, the doctoral student, be an active learner not only with the content of your studies and the dissertation topic but also as an active member in the processes of getting a doctorate. An active voice from a doctoral student signals engagement in the processes (and there are many) that are often referred to as “jumping through hoops.”

MAKING DECISIONS: WHO WILL BE MY MAJOR PROFESSOR? A doctoral student just beginning in a program needs to be able to make a series of decisions. Some decisions are made in conjunction with the major professor; other decisions are made solo. Perhaps one of the most important decisions you will make is, “Who will be my major professor?” A major professor can either make or break a doctoral student. Before making the decision of whom you want to work with as the major professor, it is advisable to do some homework. Scan the environment of the department. Since the advent of homepages, you can review faculty research interest, publications, and conferences attended, as well as the dissertations that their students have written. 104

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This scan can give you insights about the credentials of the professor; however, this type of scan is incomplete. You need to take the time to interact in order to get a feel for any potential professor you might ask to serve as the major professor.

FINDING A MAJOR PROFESSOR IS NOT A SPECTATOR SPORT You need to get assertive and take the time to talk with professors. After scanning the research interests of the professors in your department or program area, make appointments with the intent to have conversations. These conversations are important as they will give you insights about the professor as a person, as a professional, and as your potential major professor. Be prepared for these conversations. Be prepared to ask questions about a particular article, presentation, or course that the professor teaches. As you narrow the focus on whom you would like to ask to be your major professor, try to answer these questions: • Does this professor have time for one more doctoral student? • How many students has this major professor completed during the course of his or her career? • Does this professor collaborate with students whom he or she has served as a major professor? Collaboration can mean a variety of things—writing together during and after the dissertation is completed, presenting at conferences, and so forth. • Does this professor share the same research interests as I do? At many institutions, a student is assigned to an interim advisor who helps get you started, typically making sure the overall requirements for the degree are explained. Don’t feel obligated to stick with an interim advisor if that person does not help you further your academic and longterm goals. Faculty recognize that a majority of the students for whom they serve as interim advisors will settle in with a topic better handled by or will resonate better with another faculty member. During the first year, you will have the luxury of time—time to take classes and get to know professors within your department, converse with students who are in all phases of their pursuit of the doctoral degree, and

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observe the ways in which professors interact with students and with fellow professors. The sooner you make an informed decision about which professor will be your dissertation chair, the better off you will be in the end. Always think with the end in mind. For you, the end is writing and defending a dissertation alongside a major professor who will nurture and guide you through the process. Don’t get caught up with gossip or the politics among students and professors as you choose the faculty member you seek to chair your dissertation committee. Go by what you experience and observe, and let these experiences serve as your compass in choosing a major professor. You will make a better decision.

RELATIONSHIPS, RELATIONSHIPS, RELATIONSHIPS—BUILDING A RELATIONSHIP WITH YOUR MAJOR PROFESSOR Why is a major professor so important? If you pick the right major professor, you will more than likely experience the development of a long-term relationship with that person. You will be more motivated to continue to collaborate once you graduate, and you will always have a mentor and guide as you move through your career, whether you enter higher education, work in schools, serve in the military, or change careers. The longterm benefits are obvious. Back up to the present and now ask the questions again, “Why is a major professor so important?” It is the care and concern that the major professor provides to the doctoral student. Yes, of course, content matter counts and standing in the field in which you are trying to become an expert counts, but none of these notions count as much as the safety net that a major professor can provide.

TECHNICAL EXPERTISE IS ALSO NEEDED In addition to creating a safe place for you to exert intellectual muscles while developing the dissertation, planning the program of studies, and

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attending to myriad other tasks, the major professor helps you wade through unchartered territories. The unchartered territories include such tasks as helping you form a doctoral committee; helping you plan a program of studies that passes muster with the graduate school; and taking care of critically important tasks such as completing necessary forms, orchestrating the development of written exams (qualifying exams), and convening the doctoral dissertation committee (oral exams, final defense, etc.). The onus will always be on you to be a part of the paperwork process, so be familiar with forms, graduate school deadlines for filing paperwork, and other processes. By working as a team on the technical aspects of getting a doctorate, the major professor can engage you in the real work of the doctorate—supervising your research during the development of the prospectus and then the dissertation. Communicate often with your major professor so that the technical aspects do not stand in the way of your progress. Communication is the cornerstone of building relationships.

MAJOR PROFESSORS SERVE AS THE CHAMPION OF DOCTORAL STUDENTS Essentially, the major professor is your champion and serves as the glue to keep university systems and your work aligned with the processes and procedures (or the hoops) necessary for you to graduate. With you at his or her side throughout the doctoral program, the major professor serves as a buffer to all the noise and distraction (e.g., program area or departmental politics, logistic quandaries related to scheduling defenses and meetings) so that you can finish. One of my doctoral students sent me the following parable, one that she found on a homepage of a professor, Jay E. Aronson, at the University of Georgia. The message in this parable sums up the persistence needed in finding the “right match” for a major professor. Do not be shy—go and find the “right” person to serve as your major professor. Picking your major professor will be the biggest decision you make as you move through the doctoral program.

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A PARABLE FOR DOCTORAL TIMES BY JAY E. ARONSON Note: This can also be found at http://www.terry.uga.edu/~jaronson/doctoralparable.html, with an author’s note by Jay E. Aronson: “I do not claim authorship. Someone had emailed me this many years ago and I want to share it.” Once upon a time, a fox was strolling through the woods. He was surprised to see a rabbit typing on a typewriter [this is an old joke] while sitting upon a rock in front of a cave. The fox approached the rabbit and asked, “Rabbit, what are you doing?” The rabbit responded with, “I’m typing up my dissertation.” The fox inquired, “So rabbit, what is it about?” To which the rabbit replied, “Well, right now I’m typing up the chapter about ‘How Rabbits Eat Foxes.’” Well, the fox was astounded and immediately bellowed at him, “But rabbits don’t eat foxes! Foxes eat rabbits!” He then moved quickly to attack the rabbit, but the rabbit ran into the cave. The fox pursued the rabbit into the cave. From the mouth of the cave, you could hear the sounds of gnashing teeth, biting, and bones scraping. A moment later, a fox pelt flew out of the cave, along with many fox bones. The next day, the rabbit was back at the same place, typing away. A wolf came strolling by. Seeing the rabbit, he exclaimed, “Rabbit, what are you doing?” The rabbit responded with, “I’m typing up my dissertation.” The wolf inquired, “So rabbit, what is it about?” To which the rabbit replied, “Well, right now I’m typing up the chapter about ‘How Rabbits Eat Wolves.’” Well, just like the fox, the wolf was thoroughly astounded and immediately bellowed at him, “But rabbits don’t eat wolves! Wolves eat rabbits!” He then moved quickly to attack the rabbit, but the rabbit ran into the cave. The wolf pursued the rabbit into the cave. From the mouth of the cave, you could hear the sounds of gnashing teeth, biting, and bones scraping. A moment later, a wolf pelt flew out of the cave, along with many wolf bones. The next day, the rabbit was back at the same place, typing away. A bear came strolling by. Seeing the rabbit, he exclaimed, “Rabbit, what are you doing?” The rabbit responded with, “I’m typing up my dissertation.” The bear inquired, “So rabbit, what is it about?” To which the rabbit replied, “Well, right now I’m typing up the chapter about ‘How Rabbits Eat Bears.’”

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Well, just like the wolf and the fox before him, the bear was thoroughly astounded and immediately bellowed at him, “But rabbits don’t eat bears! Bears eat rabbits!” He then moved quickly to attack the rabbit, but the rabbit ran into the cave. The bear pursued the rabbit into the cave. From the mouth of the cave, you could hear the sounds of gnashing teeth, biting, and bones scraping. A moment later, a bear pelt flew out of the cave along with many bear bones. A moment later, the rabbit steps out of the cave with a lion. The lion is smiling and has his paw around the rabbit’s shoulders. The moral is, of course: “The topic of your dissertation is not what is important, nor is the research itself. The most important aspect of your dissertation is the strength of your dissertation chair.”

Choose your chair wisely.

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19 Dancing with Elephants: Forming Your Dissertation Committee Dr. Lance D. Fusarelli North Carolina State University

OK. You’re smart, maybe even brilliant—probably smarter than your professors. You’ve always been successful. You’ve worked hard, gotten straight As in your doctoral program, and are now ready to undertake that little culminating project; you even have a dissertation topic in mind. Now you just have to select a group of faculty to oversee your research project. Piece of cake, right? Well, maybe. But the next step you take is the most critical—putting together your committee. Selecting your chair and putting together your dissertation committee is one of the most important things a doctoral student does in graduate school—more important than course work, comprehensive exams (since nearly everyone passes them anyway), and your dissertation topic. Whether you finish depends largely on your chair and on your committee. That’s why I call it “dancing with elephants”—because it’s an exciting, dangerous, and delicate activity that requires a lot of patience, care, and tact. Look at the diploma on your wall. It probably says something to like “Upon the recommendation of the faculty . . .” Faculty are like large elephants—they take what they do seriously and believe themselves to be rulers of the kingdom. They are the gatekeepers and they decide who gets to join the inner circle and who gets banished off the savannah. Accordingly, I offer Tip #1: When dancing with elephants, never tick them off. Contrary to advice from “pie in the sky” idealists, you are not 110

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the equal of your professors and you won’t be until you successfully defend your dissertation. You are a baby elephant and they are very large elephants. Someday, perhaps, you will successfully complete your dissertation and become a large, ponderous, slow-moving elephant just like them. But not today. Elephants can crush you like a bug if they so desire. And there is little that can stop them. Elephants have tusks, and sometimes they use them to gore baby elephants. So, when dancing with elephants, proceed with caution. Step gingerly and take care not to step on their toes or anger them in any way. Faculty, like elephants, never forget. Your tone, interactions, and exchanges with them matter and can have serious consequences for your career. If faculty members don’t like you, they don’t have to work with you, don’t have to chair your committee, or even serve on your committee. And no one can make them. It’s as simple as that. Years ago, a smart but outspoken friend completed all her course work at a top-ranked university and successfully passed her comprehensive exams. Her next, relatively simple step was to find a chair and form a committee. Unfortunately, in the course of her doctoral studies, she had successfully managed to alienate nearly all the elephants in the herd. She could find no one willing to serve as chair and could not put together a committee. The result? In the wild, elephants in a herd stick together. The herd isolated the baby elephant, threw it out of the herd, and moved on, leaving the baby elephant all alone with nowhere to go. The baby elephant was forced to abandon her studies, leave the program, and begin years later from scratch in another doctoral program. The moral of the story: You don’t have to like the big elephants, but it is vitally important that they not dislike you. Your success—indeed, your doctoral career—depends on it. OK, so you’ve played nice, abided by the rules, and now you are ready to select a chair. Some doctoral programs require students to select a dissertation chair as early as after 1 year of course work. That’s completely asinine, since few students have any clue about research design, have any idea of a suitable topic for a dissertation, or understand the state of research on their topic. It’s best to wait until you have taken courses from most of the faculty. By then, you should have some idea what they are like

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and how well you get along with them, and you have begun to understand their research interests and areas of expertise. While all large elephants look alike from a distance, close up they are quite different. Only by hanging around the herd and getting to know them can you see such distinctions. Your classmates can be great sources of insider information on faculty—who graduates the most students, who are most/least helpful, friendly/mean, and so on. In most programs, you simply ask a faculty member if he or she will serve as your chair. It is important that you consider whether he is around or not (some elephants travel great distances and are busy) and has a reputations for finishing students (some elephants take more interest in their young than others and don’t leave them to fend for themselves as readily as others). It is crucial that you select an elephant whom you can work with and who likes you and takes an interest in you. Some dissertation guides recommend students select tenured professors on the grounds that they are more stable (i.e., less likely to leave, not necessarily more mentally stable) and have more experience supervising doctoral students. While this may in some cases be true, pre-tenured faculty often take more interest in baby elephants and have an incentive to nurture them (they will often coauthor articles with them). In my opinion, pick the elephant you best work with, one from whom you can receive critical feedback, and who is willing to nurture you along in the process. The biggest elephant in the herd isn’t always the best dissertation chair. Remember, baby elephants left on their own don’t survive long in the wild. OK, let’s assume you have been carefully dancing with a big elephant that you like, can work with, and who is willing to chair your dissertation. The next step is to select the rest of your committee. Things to consider include their areas of expertise (particularly methodological), personality, and reputation. This leads me to Tip #2: Never surprise your big elephant! Dissertation chairs are like elephants—they don’t react well to surprises. And one of the biggest surprises is when your big elephant finds out that you’ve asked a few other big elephants to be on your committee, in effect, to join the herd. From the outside, a herd of big elephants looks like a big, united happy family. In reality, sometimes conflicts erupt within the herd; big elephants

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jockey for position over resources, even students, and the elephants may get into ego-driven peeing contests with each other over all types of slights, both real and imagined. It could be as simple and petty as one big elephant reacting to how another big elephant treated one of its babies during a proposal defense or how one big elephant always seems to get more water from the watering hole or more food than the others. Maybe a couple of the male elephants have fought over territory. Just because they are part of a large herd doesn’t mean they are elephant buddies. Elephants never forget. Neither do faculty. Of course, the baby elephant sees none of this conflict. But rivalries in herds sometimes develop (after all, elephants have tusks), which can be dangerous for baby elephants caught in the middle. Sometimes, they gore each other; sometimes, they may try to gore the baby elephant. So, for your sake, ask your dissertation chair whom they recommend serve on your committee. Some don’t care and will let you decide; some have preferences; and some try to get certain combinations of faculty (be it expertise, temperament, gender, whatever). I know of one elephant who would rather have his tusks forcibly pulled from his head without anesthesia than serve on a dissertation committee with another elephant. And the baby elephant would never know. My recommendation: Run everything (including committee membership, research design, chapter drafts, even career advice) through the big elephant first. Never surprise him. An elephant who gets unpleasantly surprised is a dangerous beast. OK, so you’ve managed to smile occasionally, treated the big elephants with deference and respect (even if they didn’t deserve it), and occasionally bit your tongue and kept your thoughts private about what you really think of the big elephants. Now, you need to follow Tip #3: Be patient. Like elephants, faculty move slowly—they can be slow to give feedback or give poor feedback, slow to respond to urgent requests to meet, and difficult to find. Remember, when they look at doctoral students, most faculty see someone who may have dallied far too long in their doctoral program, who may have spent months, even years, putting off working on writing chapters of their dissertation. Elephants won’t suddenly jump when a baby finally kicks it in high gear, decides to grow up, and wants to make rapid progress on his proposal.

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Remember, elephants in the wild usually have more than one youngster to care for. Odds are, you are only one in a rather large herd of baby elephants competing for time and attention. And there is only so much to go around. Despite outward appearances, elephants are busy creatures with lots to do. Sometimes, you just have to wait your turn, which can be exasperating because elephants move slowly! They are slow, ponderous creatures that consume lots of resources. And if you try to rush them or push them along—well, remember that you are a baby elephant and they are very, very large. If they get annoyed and decide to stop, then everything stops (including your progress). No force of nature can make an elephant or a herd of elephants move if they don’t want to. So, while it’s OK to occasionally remind them that you are in the herd and that you exist, never try to rush them. It’s amazing how elephants react to such pressure—maybe your draft gets placed further down in the pile or ignored altogether. Maybe other baby elephants suddenly need attention. Maybe the elephants get busy and can’t get to your work—all sorts of bad things can happen when big elephants feel pressured. Remember this: Elephants are beautiful, majestic creatures. In the zoo, everyone wants to see them. In the wild, when they want to be, they can be gentle, caring, intelligent, warm, even loving creatures. But when angered, they can be obstinate, petulant, petty, unruly, uncontrollable beasts. If you want to survive and join the herd, dance gingerly and carefully with them. The reward is great, while the punishment can be severe.

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Part IV PREPARING THE DISSERTATION PROPOSAL

This section of The Faculty Mentor’s Wisdom: Conceptualizing, Writing, and Defending the Dissertation is dedicated to guiding doctoral students through the task of preparing a dissertation proposal. The dissertation proposal is the doctoral student’s first opportunity to formally present his or her ideas for research to his or her committee. The mentoring advice offered by our contributors speaks specifically to preparing an effective dissertation proposal for doctoral students in this phase of the dissertation process. • Dr. Ada Demb, Preparing a Dissertation Proposal: So, Now You’re Ready to Write! • Dr. Robert Donmoyer, Preparing a Dissertation Proposal • Dr. Carolyn Hughes, Writing Your Dissertation Proposal: It’s Easier Than You Think • Dr. Kathryn R. Wentzel, Preparing Your Dissertation Proposal

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20 Preparing a Dissertation Proposal: So, Now You’re Ready to Write! Dr. Ada Demb The Ohio State University

Arriving at this conversation is a milestone! It means you’ve probably completed your course work, developed a fairly clear idea of your dissertation topic, and either passed or are preparing for your candidacy exam. Writing your proposal is the next step toward becoming a scholar. Now you use the skills you’ve learned during your course work, and exercise your intellectual muscles so that you can really perform! Take time to enjoy the moment. Now, what exactly is the proposal? Typically it consists of the first three dissertation chapters: the introduction, literature review, and methodology. In practical terms, it is the blueprint that guides the conduct of your research. It must explain the logic and content of your research. Each chapter has its own purpose and personality. Your goal for Chapter 1 is to introduce the topic and research questions, and explain the potential significance of your findings. Answer the question, “Why is this research so important?” The first section sets the context by describing the situation, phenomenon, or problem sufficiently so that the reader is ready to appreciate your research questions. Present and state your research questions. After capturing the reader’s attention, in a brief paragraph explain your research approach, such as your choice of quantitative or qualitative methods, your selection of participants, and the research site. The final section offers the punch line: If you were able to produce the kinds of findings 117

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you want, what would the results enable you or others to accomplish? This is the “So what?” question. What is the significance of this project? Chapter 1 is often the most challenging part of proposal writing. This chapter demands that you articulate your research context, purpose, and goals clearly and precisely. People rewrite this chapter more often than any other. It is often rewritten after Chapters 2 and 3 have been completed and yet again after the findings and conclusions have been written (Chapters 4 and 5). Each step of the dissertation generates insights that will affect how best to introduce the research. Chapter 2 reviews and analyzes previous research and literature that is pertinent to your dissertation topic and questions. The purposes are (a) to find and explain existing research that relates to your topic, and (b) to demonstrate through your critical review that your project will take it to a new level (in a new direction, or to a new environment). Writing Chapter 2 is like putting a picture puzzle together—only no one has given you the box with all the pieces, nor is there a picture for easy reference! So the first challenge is to find the pieces of the puzzle by considering all the different types of research and the various researchers who might have generated relevant insights or data. Then, you need to develop a “map” for yourself that shows the interrelationships among the pieces. How do they impact each other? Is there a cyclical, sequential, or even causal dynamic? I strongly recommend “fiddling around” with diagrams, charts, and pictures at this point. Draw boxes and circles with arrows connecting them. See what you learn when you do that. Observe the parts of the puzzle that seem to be missing and go find them. When you review the diagram, list, or chart, ask yourself, over and over again, “What else could I consider?” “What else might be added?” “What might still be missing?” Your goal is to develop as complete a map of puzzle pieces as is possible. Although you already have a good feel for the research that is relevant, I encourage you to push those boundaries. Seek research from disciplines and about populations that might not, at first, seem related. If you are researching K–12 administration, look for analogies from the business, nonprofit, or higher education literature. If you are researching a group of minority students, seek parallel research on other minority groups, women, or older populations. Think in terms of parallels, analogies, meta-

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phors, and any other device than can help you answer the “What else?” questions. The next step is to “chunk” this material according to themes, so that you can present a “thematic” discussion of the research. You are not writing an annotated, article-by-article, or book-by-book bibliography. You need that for yourself. However, this chapter must demonstrate your ability to critically analyze the literature by themes. If you find four themes relevant to your topic, then Chapter 2 will have at least four subsections, each addressing a theme. At the end of each thematic discussion, you will provide your opinion or critique about the overall soundness of the research, appropriateness of methodologies, and gaps in the literature. At the end of the chapter, the “gap” analysis can be used in a summary to reinforce the role of your project. Chapter 3 outlines the way you will conduct this inquiry. This chapter challenges you to make your assumptions explicit about every aspect of the research. What do you think about the nature of knowledge and truth? Is it waiting to be uncovered, or do we create it? What impact will the choice of qualitative vs. quantitative methods have for credibility of your findings? What limitations are inherent in your approach? How will you ensure validity and rigor? How will you deal with generalizability? And who or what will provide the data for your research? If you work with archived material, your description of the database might be more straightforward than someone working with “live” subjects through interviews, focus groups, observations, or surveys. If you will be working with participant data, live or archived, the chapter should first discuss your sampling method. If your participants are live, then you need to address your treatment of them. Where and when will the interview or survey take place? Who chooses the location? How will you handle identity and confidentiality issues for either individuals or an organization? Be sure to include a note in your chapter about the Institutional Research Review process that approved your project! Finally, Chapter 3 challenges you to reflect on your own biases as a researcher and to lay out a plan for dealing with them. If you are a woman researching the success of girls in math classes, you bring deep-seated perspectives that could cloud your ability to see data or hear your participants clearly. This chapter asks for your plan to manage your biases

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through, for example, journaling, triangulating data, or discussions with a writing partner or advisor. Overall, there are four key ideas to keep in mind when writing your proposal: 1. Get the storyline straight! What story you are trying to tell? Think like a movie producer. Imagine that you are Stephen Spielberg. How would you tell the story? Particularly, how would you set it up in the opening scene (Chapter 1), the 90 seconds you have to create an “aha” for your audience? You should be able to describe your research in less than 2 minutes. This is your storyline—the infamous “cocktail” or “elevator” conversation version. 2. Stay focused. There is an unlimited supply of fascinating research “out there.” Ignore everything that does not relate directly to your research questions! Print out the questions in 36-point type, make four copies, and hang them up wherever you will be working! 3. Managing information. The material you will gather as you write Chapters 2 and 3 will cover furniture, fill boxes, and spill onto the floor. You need to be able to sort it, refer to it, and search through it easily. Get a computer-based bibliographic program such as Endnotes or some free equivalent. These programs are invaluable. Each file that you enter for a reference contains basic bibliographic information and fields for your annotated abstract, and your keywords that can be used later to sort articles according to themes. Most programs integrate with Microsoft Word and can generate a reference list, automatically and formatted! 4. Your frame of mind. Writing a research proposal should be a voyage of discovery. While you may know a lot about your subject, it is during the writing of Chapter 2 that you will learn the meaning of the term “to dialogue with the literature.” Each time you find a new reference, there is the possibility that it will challenge your current thinking. Welcome that! Banish impatience! This is a journey where the goal is to learn, refine, and create. The more you learn, the more profound your creation will be!

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21 Preparing a Dissertation Proposal Dr. Robert Donmoyer The University of San Diego

Writing a dissertation proposal is not rocket science. By that, I mean that there are no precise formulas available to produce fool-proof results.

BOTTOM-LINE ADVICE: DO YOUR HOMEWORK! Among other things, the lack of a formula means that you must talk with your chairperson and other members of your dissertation committee about what they expect. For example, using first person in academic writing, including dissertation proposals, is now widely accepted, in part because it leads to less stilted writing than writing about oneself in the third person normally does, and in part because it is more honest and transparent than pretending that the research was or will be done by someone other than the proposal writer, the so-called researcher. Some faculty advisors, however, still will not tolerate the use of first person in dissertation proposals. If your dissertation committee is composed of one or more of these people, it is a good idea to find this out before you begin writing and write in the third person. All men and women are not created equal in dissertation contexts; when it comes to getting a dissertation proposal (and the dissertation itself) accepted, committee members hold the power.

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Before beginning to write, it is a good idea to review other proposals, especially proposals approved by your advisor and committee members. Make sure you ask for copies of the best proposals your advisor and committee members have approved: There is no reason to mimic mediocrity. Although there is no formula to follow when writing a dissertation proposal, there is a generally agreed-upon template that normally is used to structure a proposal. The template has three sections: the Framing section, the Literature Review, and the Methodology section.

THE FRAMING SECTION The framing section normally consists of the following subsections: Background to the Study, Statement of the Problem, Purpose of the Study, and Research Questions. The Background to the Study subsection describes the general issue the dissertation study will address. For example, in a proposal for a study of distributed leadership in high schools, the background section might demonstrate, through references to a variety of academic and even popular literature, that the role of the principal is changing and that, for a variety of reasons (which you would, of course, detail), principals are now expected to be instructional leaders, not merely managers. The Statement of the Problem subsection then articulates a specific problem or a number of related problems associated with the issue that was discussed in the Background section. Many types of problems could be discussed in this section, but the bottom-line problem must be a knowledge problem or, to be more precise, a lack-of-knowledge problem. If there is no knowledge problem, there is no reason to do research. To summarize, the bottom-line message in the problem statement must be something like this: There are things we need to know to solve the other problems that have been articulated. In the distributed leadership example used above, for example, the problem statement might begin by noting (with appropriate references, of course) that, for many, instructional leadership means being in classrooms and directly supervising teachers for a substantial portion of the school

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day. Then a nonknowledge problem could be introduced: This expectation is not functional in high schools for a variety of reasons (which, of course, are detailed). The stage has now been set to introduce the knowledge problem: Currently, there is virtually no research about what effective instructional leadership looks like in high schools. (That claim, of course, would have to be justified, possibly by reviewing the databases you searched and the descriptors that you used in the searches.) This particular problem statement might conclude with a final sentence like the following: Thus, there is a need to study how highly effective high school principals play the instructional leader role. If the Statement of the Problem subsection concludes with a need statement, the Purpose of the Study subsection that follows could begin with the following sentence: The purpose of this study is to begin to respond to the research needs articulated in the discussion above. The remainder of this subsection elaborates on the purpose, though without providing too many details about research procedures, which are discussed in the Methodology section that follows. The final part of the Framing section lists the two or three research questions that will be used to focus the study. Research questions translate the study’s purpose into question form, so there should be a close correspondence between the Purpose and the Research Questions subsections. It is important to note that research questions are not interview or survey questions. Research questions are written in the third person (What do effective secondary principals do . . . ?), while interview and survey questions generally are written in second person (What do you do . . . ?).

THE LITERATURE REVIEW SECTION The literature review should both critique and synthesize what others have said and found out about topics related to the topic you are studying. It should, at least implicitly, make the case that your study is necessary. It does this by mapping out what is already known and by exposing the unanswered questions that remain. Because the study you are proposing addresses at least one of the unanswered questions revealed by your review,

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your review will have situated your work within the existing literature and, in the process, made the case for doing the study you are proposing.

THE METHODOLOGY SECTION The Methodology section is arguably the most important section of your proposal. It provides a general overview of your research design and describes in detail the people you will study, the way they will be selected, and the rationale for your selection procedures; the methods you will use to collect data (including any instruments you will use during data collection); and the methods you will use to analyze data. After reading your Methods section, your committee should be able to picture, in considerable detail, what you will be doing throughout the participant selection, data collection, and data analysis phases of your study. If some decisions about what you will be doing in later stages of your study are contingent on what happens in earlier stages, provide hypothetical examples of what could happen and what you will do if the hypothetical situations occur. In short, demonstrate that you have thought through an array of possibilities and that your committee can trust you to behave thoughtfully and sensibly no matter what occurs. Normally, the Methods section clearly delimits your study (i.e., it articulates what will and what will not be studied). It discusses the limitations that follow from the way the study has been delimited and any other limitations of what you are proposing. (All studies have limitations; they need to be acknowledged.) Finally, after delimitations or limitations have been acknowledged, there is normally a brief subsection that makes explicit the study’s expected significance. Don’t get overly enamored by labeling your study and research design as, say, an ethnography or as phenomenological research. And if you do play the labeling game, make sure you understand fully what the labels mean to different people and stipulate clearly what you mean when you use the label to describe your study. Generally it is best to use labels heuristically, to say, for example, that you will be using certain methods originally developed by ethnographers rather than that you will be doing an ethnography. Anthropologists are

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unlikely to object to the first statement; they almost certainly will vigorously challenge the second. Why fight needless battles?

SUMMARY The template I described has been used to produce both relatively short (20- to 30-page) proposals and much longer and more detailed proposals in which each section I described becomes a first draft for one of the first three chapters of the final dissertation. There are advantages and disadvantages associated with each option. Think carefully about the option that makes most sense for you. Before you do too much thinking, however, understand that some institutions and committee members require students to pursue one option or the other. A final piece of advice: Check with your committee first to determine what options you actually have!

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22 Writing Your Dissertation Proposal: It’s Easier Than You Think Dr. Carolyn Hughes Vanderbilt University

I’m so glad you asked me to meet you here today. This is not only my favorite coffee house (The Flying Saucer), but it’s also one of my favorite topics to talk about: writing. And, in particular, writing something that is really yours—because that’s what the dissertation proposal is: It is your plan for what you intend to study or research, how you intend to execute your study, what you intend to find out, and how you will communicate your findings to the field. What’s that? You say that sounds big and scary? Yes, the dissertation can be intimidating, especially if you focus on the whole thing as one great big project and on how long it will take you to conduct your study and finish the dissertation. Then comes applying for your first postdoctoral job, perhaps move to a new location, and starting all over again doing something brand new to you by whatever date you or your advisor have set for yourself. Take it easy and slow down. Don’t jump ahead of yourself. We’re just talking about one step of the process—writing the proposal. Let’s just take a look at what you need to do, step by step. First, what do you want to spend the next year or so studying and writing about? What is a topic you feel passionate about? It helps to choose a topic that you care deeply about because you will be spending much time with it. And, of course, your advisor may have a lot to say about what your topic is, particularly if you have been funded to work in your advisor’s 126

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research area. However, it is still your dissertation and dissertation topic, and your original research. Maybe you’ve done previous or preliminary studies in an area—say, teaching students with behavior disorders to control their anger—and you’d like to replicate your methods with a different population. Or maybe you’d like to use an analytic procedure you’ve developed to compare the work of authors from the American Romantic versus Renaissance literary periods. In either case, think of what will be the new twist to your study and how it will contribute to the literature in your field. What’s that? You say you don’t have any thoughts or ideas you’re passionate about, you’ve never done a study before, and you don’t have a clue where to start? Well, think about it: I know you’ve lived probably 25 or more years on this planet and you’ve had many different experiences. Spend some time by yourself thinking back through all that time. What did you ever encounter that puzzled you? What challenged you? What did you sometimes lie awake at night thinking about? Of course, your dissertation topic needs to relate to your area of study, but within those parameters, there is likely to be some leeway to choose a topic that relates to your own experience. Or maybe there’s something you studied during your college career—an investigation or experiment you read about in a class text, an author who really turned you on, or an idea that you strongly agreed or disagreed with. For example, I came upon my dissertation topic when I was a part-time master’s student working as a full-time teacher during the day. What I found fascinating was the study of applied behavior analysis and how it could be used to shape human behavior. But, I wondered, what happened when the behavior change agent—the teacher, therapist, or parent—wasn’t around? Could individuals be taught to assess and modify their own behavior using the same behavioral principles? This challenge led me to conduct a few original research studies in the area of self-management among people with disabilities, including my dissertation. I was passionate about learning about the intricacies of self-management—would it be successful with people who couldn’t read or speak? Were there unique twists to the self-management strategies I was teaching that would make them more successful with different populations or

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tasks or in different settings? In fact, the pursuit has become so fascinating that I have continued to study self-management for over 20 years since finishing my dissertation. But, mind you, that before I entered my master’s program at over 30 years of age, I had never even heard of applied behavior analysis or selfmanagement and had never considered doing a master’s thesis, let alone a dissertation. I’ve learned that a burning quest for knowledge on a subject can come along anytime in your life, sometimes when you least expect it. If you can jump on it at the time, like I was able to do, that’s great. If not and you had to put your interest on hold, now is the time to resurrect what it was that hit you, get it down on paper, and propose it as your dissertation topic. OK, now it looks like we have an idea: a topic that interests us that we can live with for a year or two that fits within the parameters of our area of study and is likely to be approved by our advisor and dissertation chair. “Now what?” you say. Remember, we said there are four steps to the proposal: what you’re going to study, how you’re going to study it, what you expect to find out, and how you’re going to communicate your findings. Not much! We’ve already got a start on the first step. However, it’s still only in our head. Now it’s time to put thoughts to paper. “Oh, that’s scary,” you say. Yes, of course that’s scary if you think of the whole entire process all the way through to the completed, signed, and bound dissertation you’re going to present to your advisor. Don’t go there! We’re still at Step 1. All you need to do is start. Now, at this point, please take some advice from one of my heroes, none other than B. F. Skinner, one of the founders of the science of human behavior himself. Skinner (1981) asserted that, when writing, “to stay out of prose as long as possible” (p. 6). The problem arises when we are just trying to gather our thoughts, such as when formulating the topic of our study, but we are expecting to do so in polished, complete, beautiful sentences. However, we are not there yet. And we’re not likely to get there easily if we are mainly focusing on constructing elegant sentences. Going into prose too quickly can limit our thinking. We can get boxed in by our fully constructed sentences before our ideas are well formed. That’s why writers and observers of human behavior like Skinner suggest starting with an outline. It’s much easier to quickly get down your

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thoughts, rearrange them, delete some, and add others when you work in brief phrases and are not locked into complete sentences. It’s too easy to get overly invested in a sentence, not wanting to give it up because it sounds and looks good. But a single sentence put on paper before our thoughts are well-formulated can lead us astray and take the rest of our discourse in a direction we didn’t intend to go. This is why I begin my “serious” and professional writing in “bullets.” I start throwing down my thoughts on the computer screen where it’s easy for me to manipulate them—rearranging and adding or deleting bulleted thoughts as needed. This is an iterative process: I’m thinking and organizing while I’m composing. And I’m not judging the thoughts I throw onto the computer screen. This is really a brainstorming session—everything is fair game and I’m not wedded to anything I put on the screen. And rearranging the windows on my screen allows me to view my thoughts as a whole, helping me to organize them into a logical flow. Only then do I go into sentences embellishing my thoughts, much like I would clothe a stick doll. “So what do I write?” you say. The first thing to do is to find out what format your advisor, department, or college expects. There’s no point spending a lot of time writing only to find out later that a lengthy literature review is not required, that your proposal must be written in the form of chapters, or that it should resemble the introduction and method sections of a journal submission. Save yourself some time and find out these expectations before you begin to write, not after. Although the format varies across disciplines, the content of your dissertation proposal remains the same: what you are going to study, how you are going to study it, what you expect to find out, and how you will disseminate your findings—just as we talked about earlier. Your department may have examples of exemplary dissertation proposals that you can follow for format. If not, I strongly suggest you consult closely with your advisor so that you know the expectations to meet. There is no reason for you to be in the dark; make the effort and take the responsibility to be informed of all steps of the dissertation proposal process. Remember, at some point you will be verbally defending it to your dissertation committee. If you know what’s coming your way, you will be prepared and confident and not surprised or thrown off-guard.

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And, one last tip: As my doctoral advisor always told me, your writing is directly related to your reading. Read, read, and read in your area of interest. Read for ideas, read for unanswered questions, and read for challenges. Reading in your area will force-feed you with research ideas, methods, and findings—everything you need for your dissertation proposal. And, above all, remember that you can do it! At one time, we were all there in your shoes and have lived to tell the tale. One of these days I’ll be visiting The Flying Saucer and will see you too mentoring a student on writing her dissertation proposal just like I am you. It’s easier than you think!

REFERENCE Skinner, B. F. (1981). How to discover what you have to say—A talk to students. Behavior Analyst, 4, 1–7.

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23 Preparing Your Dissertation Proposal Dr. Kathryn R. Wentzel University of Maryland, College Park

Your course work is done, you’ve made it through comprehensive exams, and looming large on the horizon is that one final challenge: your dissertation research. Now what do you do? In this chapter, I describe a set of strategies that can make this new challenge one of intellectual enjoyment rather than of panic and frustration. These strategies are based on some basic “truths” about the process of developing your dissertation proposal. One set of strategies has to do with laying the groundwork in preparation for this new and daunting task. The other has to do with developing the cornerstone of your dissertation, that new and interesting idea. Hopefully, you are reading this as a beginning graduate student and can work on these skills over the course of your graduate career. If not, there is no time like the present to begin cultivating some simple but valuable strategies for making the proposal development process a success.

TRUTH #1: EVERY SUCCESSFUL DISSERTATION BEGINS WITH FACT-FINDING AND SEEKING HELP Developing a dissertation proposal can be a stressful and lonely task. However, careful planning and information gathering can help put your mind at ease and garner support for the journey. Essential to this 131

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process is identifying the kinds of help you will need and who might provide it. A dissertation must be an independent project, but professional and personal resources—as many as you can find—should support the process of completing a dissertation. For scholarly help, always begin with your advisor. She should be your main source of advice and guidance. When you first meet with your advisor to discuss your proposal, make sure you ask several key questions: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

Does she think you are ready to begin your dissertation? What does a proposal include? Are proposals from past students available to examine? What are some examples of appropriate research questions and good ideas? How often is she available to meet with you? What should be the focus of your meetings? What is her role in helping you with your dissertation proposal and what are her expectations of you? Who would be good committee members and which ones should you work closely with while preparing the proposal? What is a reasonable timeline for completing a proposal?

An additional source of help is your professional support group. All students have challenges and limitations when it comes to planning and thinking about research. These can be related to writing, thinking about methods and design issues, statistics, time management, or negotiating the politics of working with faculty. Identifying these challenges can then help you identify people who can provide targeted assistance along the way. Let them know you would like their help and then seek them out when they are needed. Knowing that there is help waiting for you will go a long way in relieving the stresses of proposal writing. Finally, take stock of people you can count on to help you through those dark hours of dissertation despair! Family, friends, and fellow students will be important allies during this process, not only for moral support and invaluable cheerleading sessions but also for help during those unanticipated times when you need things such as child care, some comic relief, or a quiet place to think.

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In short, successful proposal writing is largely dependent on knowing what is expected, being realistic about what you can do, and enlisting help. Be prepared! The more you know about the process before you start, the better you can plan for what is to come.

TRUTH #2: GREAT IDEAS GROW OUT OF HARD WORK AND PERSISTENCE So once you’re prepared to move forward, now what do you do? Where is that great idea going to come from? How does one go about developing interesting research questions or hypotheses? Unfortunately, there are no quick and easy solutions to these questions. However, there are several characteristics of good ideas to keep in mind when searching for that perfect idea for your dissertation. First, your ideas must be of interest to you and to others who will help you. Second, they need to be supported by a theoretical and empirical literature. Finally, they need to have the potential to extend what others have done in meaningful ways. Identify what is “interesting.” The best ideas are always those that have a high degree of personal value; ideas to guide your dissertation research must be motivating enough to sustain interest throughout an often long and arduous process. Without this level of personal investment, research can quickly become a tiresome chore. Therefore, the first prerequisite for identifying interesting ideas is to discern what is fascinating and intriguing on a personal level. In addition, however, what makes a question interesting depends on your audience. Given that a central part of the dissertation process will be enlisting the help of your advisor, your dissertation committee, and most likely practitioners who are gatekeepers to potential subjects, make sure that you can frame your ideas in ways that will be of interest to others who will be asked for help. For the most part, research ideas and questions are likely to be interesting to other scholars if they address puzzling issues or unsolved mysteries, or if they support a set of theoretical assumptions that have been the source of intellectual debate. Questions and ideas are likely to be interesting to others if they lead to concrete solutions to difficult educational

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problems. Finally, research ideas and questions can be interesting if they have the potential to support political agendas or speak to long-standing social issues. Document the literature. Identifying what is interesting to you and others requires knowing which puzzles are currently engaging other scholars or what types of instructional issues are posing challenges for practitioners or policymakers. However, this level of insight and knowledge cannot be acquired in a short amount of time. Indeed, an initial search of the relevant databases might lead you to abandon an idea if the result is hundreds of abstracts on a topic. There are several strategies, however, that can help impose an order on a corpus of empirical findings and that ultimately can lead to interesting and researchable questions. These strategies involve systematic documentation of the literature on your topic and extending old models in new directions by generating new variables to study. Ultimately, a topic needs to be narrowed to a point where it is manageable. At the outset, however, a broad question should guide a search of the literature, such as “What is the association between peer relationships and academic achievement?” A novice to this area would first want to read widely and become familiar with the theories, common questions, and issues pertaining to peer relationships at school, as well as how studies typically are conducted. Perhaps the most straightforward strategy for organizing this search is to document systematically what has been done, with whom, and why. This can be accomplished most easily by creating a table in which all of this information is compiled (see Wentzel, 2006). For instance, a good start would be to document information on theoretical perspectives and specific research questions and hypotheses, sample characteristics, independent and dependent variables, measures, designs, and relevant findings. A careful examination of the table should yield valuable information about where the field has been and where it has yet to go. At this point, your search can be narrowed to answer a more specific question by identifying gaps in the literature. For example, you can look for missing information concerning age groups or specific sample characteristics (e.g., we know a lot about peers and achievement during middle childhood but not during adolescence), assessment strategies

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(e.g., dyadic friendships have been studied frequently but not larger peer groups), or designs (e.g., there are many correlational studies but few are longitudinal). In addition, look for findings that contradict each other and think about how contradictions can be explained as a function of theory, samples, measurement, or design. After compiling all of this information, you might conclude that there is not much left to be done on your topic. Because this is rarely the case, a second basic strategy is to expand your table to include additional types of variables that might be missing. This time, however, your focus should be on extending existing conceptual frameworks to be more complex and more inclusive. This can be done by focusing on three types of variables (see Bronfenbrenner, 1989). First, there are person-level variables that reflect characteristics of individuals, such as IQ, temperament, or other salient attributes. Adding these types of variables to your model might yield interesting questions based on individual differences (e.g., Do associations between peer interactions and achievement differ for high- and low-ability students?). Context variables refer to social address or environmental factors such as socioeconomic status, family size, ethnicity, classroom, or school characteristics. A consideration of additional context variables is especially important if you wish to inform educational policy (e.g., How does the racial diversity of classrooms or schools contribute to students’ ability to learn from peers?). Process variables refer to the mechanisms that produce change, such as the quality of instruction, communication patterns, observational learning, or maturation (e.g., How do different instructional strategies facilitate peer learning?). These variables typically inform basic research and intervention strategies. The use of these two strategies, if done in systematic fashion, enables the identification of an almost limitless number of new and interesting ideas for research. Indeed, by now, you could have a list containing hundreds of interesting questions about your topic, your eyes have glazed over, and you are back where you started—you have no idea how to proceed! How can all of these possibilities help identify a good idea that can be addressed in a single study? How does one go about designing a study that takes all of these issues into account? It is clear that all possible questions cannot be answered at one time. At this point, remind yourself of where

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you started, and take note of one or two ideas that spark personal interest. If you could learn only one new thing about your topic, what would it be? Other questions can always be tackled later. In conclusion, the underlying key to successful proposal writing is careful preparation, hard work, and a commitment to working on a problem despite setbacks or periodic lack of inspiration. In addition, interesting ideas will come from knowing what has been done, what has been discarded, what is taken for granted, what is in vogue, and what ideas others are working on. The only way to know all of these things is to engage in a process of constant intellectual renewal: Read everything possible, talk to people, and listen closely to what interests you as well as what others have to say. Finally, inherent in the notion of commitment is the reality that things take time. As you begin to formulate your ideas for this next major undertaking, let them stew, let them grow, and their time will come.

REFERENCES Bronfenbrenner, U. (1989). Ecological systems theory. In R. Vasta (Ed.), Annals of child development (Vol. 6, pp. 187–250). Greenwich, CT: JAI. Wentzel, K. R. (2006). Searching for and formulating new ideas: Challenges for educational researchers. In C. Conrad & R. Serlin (Eds.), Sage handbook for research in education: Engaging ideas and enriching inquiry (pp. 315–330). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

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Part V WRITING THE DISSERTATION

This section of The Faculty Mentor’s Wisdom: Conceptualizing, Writing, and Defending the Dissertation is dedicated to guiding doctoral students through the task of writing the dissertation. Successfully writing the dissertation is often the difference between being a Dr. and an ABD. The mentoring advice offered by our contributors speaks specifically to writing strategies to competently complete their dissertation. • Dr. Jeffrey S. Brooks, How to Write Your Dissertation: A Top Ten List! • Dr. Tricia Browne-Ferrigno, Writing the Dissertation: Begin With the End in Mind • Dr. Paula A. Cordeiro, Writing Your Dissertation • Dr. Cynthia L. Uline, One Sentence, One Paragraph, and One Page at a Time

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24 How to Write Your Dissertation: A Top Ten List! Dr. Jeffrey S. Brooks University of Missouri

I offer the following list having reflected on my own experience as a dissertation writer and on my experiences chairing and serving students on dissertation committees. Admittedly (and unabashedly), I’m having a bit of fun with my charge of offering advice to students in the form of a top-10 list.

10. KNOW WHAT A HIGH-QUALITY DISSERTATION LOOKS LIKE Before you begin, take the time to find several exemplars—examples of outstanding works you can use for inspiration and guidance. In particular, make sure to look for exemplars that (a) focus on a similar topic to the one you have chosen, (b) employ similar research methods to those you have chosen, and (c) are considered high quality both in your department or at a national or international level. Points (a) and (b) will help inform the way you construct arguments, how you substantiate your claims, and how you understand how much detail to include in your work. Point (c) will help you understand what success looks like, both in your program area and on a national or international level. Many dissertation awards identify outstanding works, but make sure you ask your mentors and fellow students for good, close-tohome examples that don’t have a blue ribbon stuck on the cover. 139

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9. THERE MUST BE SYNERGY BETWEEN ALL PARTS OF YOUR DISSERTATION One of the most common mistakes I see in dissertations is a disconnection between the various chapters and sections. For example, I read about teacher professional development in the literature review and then in the findings I find that all of the sudden I’m reading about gender dynamics of the superintendency. Not all are this dramatic, of course, but I find some level of this disconnection in nearly every supposedly final dissertation draft I’ve read. This is in part due to the fact that students are often encouraged to write chapters in isolation; they write one chapter and then move on to the next. To be sure, this is a completely appropriate and logical way to begin, but there is a crucial step missing if that is all you do—you must seek and create synergy between extant literature, methods, findings, and the discussion—they must be in concert. To help ensure this synergy, after you have written a draft of all chapters, reread them out of sequence; read Chapters 1 and 5 together, read Chapters 2 and 4 together, and so forth. Ask yourself: Are there clear links here? Is it obviously part of same study? Am I introducing superfluous ideas that don’t have a logical place in the final manuscript? There should be an overall coherence and consistency throughout the work.

8. KNOW YOURSELF AS A WRITER As writers, we all have strengths and weaknesses, and it is important to assess concretely what these are. Some of us are great technical writers, with a firm grasp of mechanics, grammar, and construction. Others are “big idea” writers, able to synthesize a great deal of information, understand intricate theories, or see the broad implications of the work beyond what is readily apparent. Conversely, some of us are poor grammarians and some folks can write a part of the whole but have a tough time putting it all together. Of course, this list goes on and on—some people write quickly, some slowly; some write well in the morning and others past midnight; some do their best work when they receive constant feedback throughout the process and oth-

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ers need prolonged isolation; some write well with a good cup of coffee and others after a beer. Guess what? People with each of these styles are world-class writers. There is no one-size-fits-all approach to writing and it is important for you to find what works for you. You are unique, and regardless of your weaknesses, if you build on your strengths and find a rhythm that works, you can be a successful writer.

7. ESTABLISH AND CULTIVATE A MULTITIERED AND A MULTIPURPOSE SUPPORT NETWORK It is important to take stock of the forms of support and resources available to you through your university and in your extant support network. Keep in mind that the person you meet over lunch to vent about the week’s frustrations may not be the best person to edit your manuscript. Take stock of your dissertation committee, fellow students, and university and community resources. Is there a great editor in your network? Is there someone who understands the literature informing your study? Is there a competent and experienced methodologist at your disposal? Do you know the librarians at your university? Are there writing groups in your college? If you take stock of yourself as a writer (see #8, above) and then take stock of the support network around you, you will likely see strengths and weaknesses; do something about them! As a final note, don’t have the illusion that your dissertation chair is your one-stop shop for dissertation maintenance and repair. Be clear and critical about that person’s strengths and weaknesses as well, and understand that they are only part of your network, not your entire universe. Can’t find some of these things at your university? Consider establishing them yourself or enlisting support from somewhere else—for example, the “outside” member of my dissertation committee was from another university.

6. GET ORGANIZED This means something different to everyone, but broadly speaking, if you are unorganized you will take longer than you should to finish your dissertation

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and the quality of your work will suffer. Get a paper filing system, get your computer files into a system that makes sense, make sure your data are in a secure and ordered location, put the date in a header or footer on every draft of your manuscript. Notably, this means that you need to be organized with respect to the document itself and with all paperwork and deadlines for the university, college, and department—those dates are your responsibility.

5. FOCUS Print off your research questions and tape them to the wall in full view so you can refer to them as you type. Every single word and sentence you type should ultimately contribute to answering those questions. If you find a section, paragraph, sentence, or word that does not make such a contribution, get rid of it—the delete button is your friend.

4. DON’T JUST BE A SCHOLAR—BE A PRODUCTIVE SCHOLAR Universities are full of smart people who are unable or unwilling to translate their brilliance into scholarly products. If you want to finish your dissertation, don’t work with those people and don’t be that person. Those folks are scholars, but you want to be a productive scholar, and a productive scholar produces. Every time you sit down to work, every time—whether you are reading an article or working on your methodology section—you should have something you can hold in your hand to show for that time. If you haven’t produced something—a paragraph, three pages, a set of notes that correspond to the article you just read, a rough draft, some free writing, and so on—then you wasted your time. Sitting in a coffee shop and thinking deep thoughts may be a pleasant way to spend an afternoon, but it will not get your dissertation written. If you find you spend your time in an unproductive manner, change your routine, get new friends, write longhand instead of typing—you are in a rut! Do something to get out of it.

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3. THINK ABOUT THE IMPACT OF YOUR DISSERTATION ON THE REST OF YOUR LIFE Some of the best advice I received during my dissertation was from Bill Ayers, who offered over an early morning coffee in Chicago, “Don’t make your family victims of the fact that you chose to be a qualitative researcher.” You can do scholarly work 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. If you let it, this can take a toll on your health, your relationships, and your general happiness. Don’t let the dissertation eat your soul or body! Go jogging, take a day off, eat healthful food, laugh, play, appreciate the people in your life, and pay attention to the world outside of those five chapters—these other things are more important than your dissertation.

2. READ You must make time to read throughout the dissertation-writing phase and approach that reading with a critical eye. This must be critical reading both of new literature and your own work. Pay attention to content and the way other authors construct their arguments, support their claims, and make their recommendations. You will learn something and be able to put it to good use!

1. WRITE As a former language arts teacher, I’m biased, but I strongly believe that all of the things your elementary and middle school teachers taught you work. Use an outline, write a topic sentence and support it with evidence, write something in several ways, use synonyms and antonyms, vary your sentence structure, set deadlines to complete parts of the work and hit them. In part, a scholar’s life is a writer’s life, and there’s no better way to improve as a writer than by writing.

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25 Writing the Dissertation: Begin with the End in Mind Dr. Tricia Browne-Ferrigno University of Kentucky

Writing a dissertation about independently conducted research is a longstanding tradition for earning doctorates. However, for half of those who pass their qualifying examination, writing the dissertation becomes the stumbling block to their success. They earn an ABD (all but dissertation) designation rather than an EdD or PhD. Don’t let that happen to you! Make a commitment to yourself now that you will submit an approved research report to your university and to Dissertations Abstract International, a Web-based site for dissertation dissemination. Writing the dissertation is the culmination of a process that actually begins in your first semester of doctoral studies, and the papers you write in your courses provide opportunities for you to hone the writing skills required to produce a quality dissertation. Read carefully the conventions for academic writing in your field, such as those in the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, and adhere to the conventions whenever you write an academic paper. Seek assistance from your college or university’s writing center and, if available, enroll in academic-writing courses to learn ways to enhance your ability to write, review, and edit your work. My remaining advice for writing a dissertation covers three broad areas. First, I offer suggestions for organizing and structuring the writing process. Second, I share my perceptions about the most important chapters in a dissertation and why they are important. Finally, I provide 144

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a list of books that I used myself or have recommended to my students and advisees.

ORGANIZING THE DISSERTATION-WRITING PROCESS A critical first step to writing a dissertation is organizing information you collect while conducting literature searches, hopefully beginning during your first semester of doctoral studies. Whether you use an electronic storage system (e.g., EndNote) or a document-based system (e.g., annotated bibliography), record all information needed to write complete citations for articles, books, dissertations, reports, and other resources relevant to your dissertation topic. Be sure to note where you can find the resource if you need to retrieve it. Your information-storing system needs to include an abstract and any direct quotes—including page numbers—that you may want to use. A second critical step to successful dissertation writing is creating a place, preferably at home, where you can write without disruptions and where your dissertation materials can be left undisturbed. Doing this may create a temporary inconvenience for others, but it will shorten the time required to write a dissertation. The computer you use should be used only by you, and your dissertation drafts need to be stored in multiple places (e.g., computer hard drive, portable flash drives, electronic mail site). I advise my students to chunk their dissertations into chapters because I prefer to review chapters while the dissertation is under construction. I recommend they save each chapter draft as a new document with the date of the version appearing in the document name and in the header of each page. By saving each draft that way, it is easier to access ideas that may need to be retrieved during the revising and editing phases of dissertation writing. A third organizational strategy that I recommend is creating notebooks to store dissertation-related materials (e.g., study proposal, raw data, analysis reports, copies of chapter drafts edited by advisor). I used this strategy while writing my dissertation and now as a professor for organizing research materials of funded projects.

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When the first page of each notebook lists the overarching and guiding questions for the project, I maintain focus on the study’s purpose. One notebook has a different purpose: It is a place to store notes scribbled whenever ideas or questions emerge, preliminary chapter outlines and graphic organizers, messages from advisory committee members, and such. The objective is to organize dissertation materials so you can quickly locate what you need when you need it.

STRUCTURING THE DISSERTATION-WRITING PROCESS I define structure as the supports you create to ensure you complete the task. A powerful tool for structuring the process is to create a backward calendar, a strategy introduced to me by the editor who facilitated the academic writing courses I took as a doctoral student. At the top of a sheet of white paper, write the month and year you plan to graduate and then draw a line down the center of the page. In the left column, list the required due dates set by your university (e.g., when the dissertation must be submitted prior to graduation, the last day you can sit for oral examination during the semester you want to graduate, the proposed date for oral defense, the date you must deliver dissertation to your committee). Continue inserting benchmark dates until you reach the current date. In the right column, write dates of planned personal events (e.g., family reunions, vacations, weddings) and professional responsibilities (e.g., conference attendance, report writing, end-of-semester grading) that may have an impact on your dissertation-writing time. Convert your backwards calendar into a proposed writing plan and share it with your advisor, family members, and work supervisor. Discuss with them ways to ensure you have blocks of uninterrupted time to dedicate to dissertation writing, as well as time to spend with family and friends. Once you create your writing schedule, post a copy in your dedicated work area, on your refrigerator door, and wherever else it is needed to remind you and others—and then adhere to your schedule. If you are not inspired to write during a scheduled time, then revise or edit previous chapters, outline chapters yet to be written, or prepare other

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required elements of the dissertation. The point is to accomplish something during the allocated time set aside for dissertation writing. Structure includes external support systems, one of which is your advisory committee. Select individuals who (a) have the expertise you need, (b) are readily available for consultation, (c) view advising as a form of mentoring, and (d) provide critical feedback in a timely manner. It may be that tasks will be distributed among your committee members or that you will work closely with only your advisor. Regardless of the support structure, establish norms for working together. It is critical to your success to have the professional support you will need. Be proactive in creating your structure of external support systems. Because peers in your doctoral program can provide important writing support, develop close ties with several of them. They can serve as critical reviewers of chapters, encouragers when you experience stumbling blocks in the writing process, or counselors who simply listen to your frustrations. Remember that you need to reciprocate such services when your peers need support.

IMPORTANT DISSERTATION CHAPTERS I consider the methodology chapter to be the centerpiece of a dissertation: What you write must conform to the traditions of the research paradigm you use and provide all essential information about your study (i.e., who, what, when, where, why, how). My advisor refused to review any other chapters until I delivered a carefully constructed, well-written methodology chapter that he approved. He explained that subsequent chapters in my dissertation—presentation of results, discussion of findings, conclusions, and implications—depended on the trustworthiness of the methods I used and the clarity of my description about those methods. I likewise require my advisees to deliver their methodology chapter before any others. When reviewing dissertations prior to oral examinations, I read the methodology chapter first. If it fails to explain clearly all aspects of the research process as well as provide assurances of validity and reliability and potential limitations of the study, then I do not read any other

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chapters. If I am convinced that the study methods are sound, I then read the first and last chapters. The opening chapter provides an overview about why the study was conducted, what literature was most informative in developing the theoretical or conceptual framework, and how the study was constructed. It is basically an executive summary of the first half of a dissertation. Because the first chapter is typically part of the proposal, it needs careful review and possible revision after the dissertation has been written to ensure it aligns with content and writing style of all other chapters. The last chapter presents a summary of research findings—linked to the literature that framed the study and sometimes recently reviewed literature—and a discussion of those findings with respect to practical application and future research. In other words, it is an executive summary of the second half of the dissertation. The last chapter is often the most difficult for doctoral candidates to write, partly due to writer fatigue but more often due to inability to write appropriate implications. Seek assistance from your advisor if you encounter difficulty in writing the last chapter. I emphasize these three chapters because they serve as the foundation for a manuscript about your study that you need to write once your dissertation has been approved and submitted to your university. It is estimated that nearly 80% of the research concluded in the United States is buried in dissertations. Your dissertation needs to be converted into a paper that you present at a professional conference. Then, once you revise according to discussant and audience feedback, submit it to ERIC and to a refereed journal. Converting your dissertation into a manuscript of presentable or publishable length is an arduous task, one that hopefully is supported by your advisor or another committee member. Despite the work involved, it is the essential final step for ensuring your research contributes to the knowledge base.

RECOMMENDED READINGS Following are several books that offer more specific advice on dissertation writing. Because my long-term research agenda has centered on leader-

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ship preparation, I typically use qualitative methods. The book by Judith Meloy provides guidance in understanding all phases of writing a qualitative dissertation, whereas the one by Karen Golden-Biddle and Karen Locke is about using a storyline. I often refer to both when writing reports. Calabrese, R. L. (2006). The elements of an effective dissertation and thesis: A step-by-step to getting it right the first time. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. Calabrese, R. L. (2009). Dissertation desk reference: The doctoral student’s manual to writing the dissertation. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. Creswell, J. W. (2009). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Golden-Biddle, K., & Locke, K. (2007). Composing qualitative research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Meloy, J. M. (1994). Writing the qualitative dissertation: Understanding by doing. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

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26 Writing Your Dissertation Dr. Paula A. Cordeiro University of San Diego

I hope the advice I’m sharing with you will help to demystify the process of writing a dissertation and make this task less stressful and actually enjoyable. Since writing a dissertation is a significant undertaking, you have to be sure you have a keen interest in, or even, hopefully, a passion for your topic. Keep in mind that different colleges and universities may have different requirements; be sure to consult your advisor or dissertation chair for more specific guidance.

THE STRUCTURE AND ORGANIZATION OF YOUR DISSERTATION What you might want to do first is to review any guidelines your department or college has governing the formatting of a dissertation. Usually this information is in a degree program handbook; it might be published by the department, the college, or the graduate school. It’s also a good idea to review a few dissertations. Select dissertations written by graduates from your department and, if possible, review one that your chair supervised. This will help you to get a better idea for how the dissertation is structured and what material should be placed in which chapters. Most universities have requirements for the formatting of dissertations; thus, there is little room for creativity regarding formatting. The

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organization or structure of the dissertation itself is sometimes more flexible. I have found that no matter the institution, most dissertations usually contain the following: title page; abstract; table of contents; lists of figures, tables, diagrams, charts, illustrations, or photographs; and, if appropriate, a list of definitions. There are certain chapters that are common to most dissertations. The typical dissertation has five chapters: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Introduction Literature Review Methodology Findings Conclusions, Implications, and Recommendations for Future Research

It is possible to have additional chapters. For example, sometimes the findings for a study may be a series of case studies that might each be presented as a separate chapter. Another example is if mixed methods are used; it might make the dissertation more readable if Chapter 4 (the findings) were divided into several chapters. Consult with your committee chair to determine the internal arrangement of the text. Your dissertation chair and the members of your committee will guide you in matters of style for the text section of your manuscript. Some faculty might not have a preference and allow you to have additional chapters. Since your dissertation is, in most cases, your first major research project, some dissertation advisers may want you to limit your dissertation to the five chapters.

FLOW OF CONTENTS It’s important to organize your dissertation so that it flows. A key way to ensure flow from chapter to chapter is to maintain a connection between subsequent chapters; ensure that each section within a chapter leads to the adjoining section and that paragraphs of sections are connected to each other. First, make sure each paragraph has a topic sentence and all of the

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sentences in that paragraph are focused on that topic. Then use bridge words to create a natural transition from one paragraph to another. A bridge word is a word that appears in the final sentence of a paragraph and in the first sentence in the next paragraph. Try using bridge words at the end of a chapter that tell the reader what to expect and then using the same ones at the beginning of a new chapter, reminding the reader of the contents of the previous chapter. Another way to ensure a smooth transition is to keep paragraphs as short as is reasonable. Material that doesn’t contribute directly to the discussion or development of a theme or idea interrupts the flow. Be sure to exclude these superfluous sentences. Finally, avoid one-sentence paragraphs and long sentences. It’s difficult to follow long sentences. If you do have some long sentences, use punctuation to break the sentence into readable chunks. Punctuation can reduce ambiguity and, if used wisely, can increase effect and emphasis.

WRITING THE LITERATURE REVIEW The literature review is a critical review of the research literature. Avoid paraphrasing or simply quoting an article or book that you have reviewed. Briefly summarize the relevant parts of the study, including the methodology, and add your own critique. This will demonstrate your deeper understanding of the topic. Try thinking of the literature review as a series of upside-down triangles; the base of the triangle is at the top and then the triangle narrows to its point. Try to begin with two to four “big” topics with one topic being at the top of each upside-down triangle. Then, as you summarize and critique the research studies under that heading, you will start to narrow down each topic so that it leads the reader to a singular aspect of the topic. For example, if your dissertation topic is looking at male immigrant students who have dropped out of high school during their first or second year, one big upside-down triangle might be a summary of the research studies on dropouts in general. Then as you narrow down the topic, you might critique those studies that focus only on males, and then only on immigrant students, next those who are male immigrant students, and then those male immigrant students who drop out early in high school. If you are unable to find any studies on that narrower topic (the point of the triangle), then this might be part of your rationale for why this study

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needs to be conducted in the first place. You might find that as you narrow down the topic, some of what you thought would be subtopics could become their own upside-down triangles. Remember, the literature review should lead the reader to whatever research questions or hypotheses you have; thus, your review needs to cover the topics in your questions. In a literature review, you only want to include those works relevant to your study. You may have read dozens of articles and books, but there will be some that don’t contribute to the points that you’re trying to make. Because of the time you spent trying to understand these articles and books you may be tempted to incorporate all that you’ve read. Attempting to do this will make what is already a difficult task even more difficult, and weaken your dissertation. It’s important to organize your literature review according to ideas, instead of by summarizing individual studies. Even though your review of the literature is separated into upside-down triangles, some key studies may be cited under more than one topic. You might compare the findings of two or three studies within one paragraph. This helps ensure the smooth flow of contents and readability of the chapter.

STRATEGIES TO HELP YOU PREPARE TO WRITE YOUR DISSERTATION Next, you need to carve out dissertation writing time on a regular basis. Creating a timeline might be helpful. Be sure to find a place to do your writing that doesn’t have too many distractions. Ideally, it’s a place where you can leave all your materials out and they won’t be moved. Next, try to visualize your ideas. Talking about your ideas with colleagues will help you visualize them. Then, finally, it’s time to write and rewrite.

PAULA’S TOP FIVE TIPS FOR WRITING A DISSERTATION 1. Try writing the abstract and introductory chapter last. Once you’ve written the other chapters, it’s a lot easier to summarize your study and to write an overview of the dissertation. 2. Repeating the same words can make a dissertation complicated, and boring, to read. Use a thesaurus to find synonyms to introduce variety.

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Use clear and simple language to explain concepts and present your arguments. There is no need to try to impress your dissertation committee by using pretentious language. 3. Writing in the “active voice” improves the flow of your dissertation. [e.g., “Martinez (2010) conducted a quantitative study involving . . .” versus the passive voice, “A quantitative study was conducted by Martinez (2009) involving . . .”] 4. Visit with the university librarian who specializes in your discipline. Even though you might think you already know the journals that are important to reference in your literature review, ask the librarian for information about publications relevant to your field of study. After you have conducted database searches using keywords, share this with your librarian. Sometimes, if you use different keywords for searching, you find other studies that may be relevant to your literature review. I often hear students say, “There’s nothing in the research literature written about this.” I reply, “Are you absolutely sure that no studies have been done on this topic?” In my own scholarship when I review the literature, I sometimes miss important journals or other sources because I didn’t use different keywords that I might have used to locate research studies. Again, your librarian can be most helpful. 5. When reading research studies as well as other types of possible references, create computer files with the key points as well as a citation for the journal. Be sure to use the citation style required by your department. There are reference management software programs, such as EndNote, that make keeping track of your references much easier.

FINAL THOUGHTS The dissertation is probably your first major publication, and it is the most important work upon which you will be evaluated during your doctoral program. I could provide you with much more advice, but suffice to say, try to enjoy writing your dissertation since you have spent so much hard work designing the study, and collecting and analyzing your data. So, time to start writing. Good luck!

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27 One Sentence, One Paragraph, and One Page at a Time Dr. Cynthia L. Uline San Diego State University

Travelers who are fixed only on destinations choose the shortest distance between points. They avoid obstacles and decline risks in order to be safe and save time. Whether they seek a distant, unknown place or a return to some familiar spot, the real object of their attention, the trek’s end, eclipses their journey. However, travelers who choose to pay attention to the journey need not go aimlessly. With an eye toward some location, these wayfarers may choose to explore possibilities as they arise, may even leave the beaten path. Indeed, spirited travelers remain open to chance encounters, and resilient travelers accept the limitations of their best-laid plans. Throughout their preparations and their journey, these spirited and resilient travelers keep their eyes open, ready to tackle precarious and unpredictable situations encountered along the way. As they commit, engage, and even struggle at times, they come to revel in the movement itself, growing in confidence as voyagers and explorers. Each destination becomes a point of departure for further travel. You are about to embark on a profound journey, one that has the potential to teach you essential things about yourself and your capacities as a thinker, a writer, and a scholar. The journey will require perseverance and some courage as you face down the blank page, the blank computer screen. Let’s face it. Even the simplest writing tasks can sometimes challenge us. Here you face an impressive undertaking. Still, I would ask you to 155

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suspend disbelief and trust that, as you commit yourself to the endeavor, each well-conceived sentence you write will point a way to the next. Of course, you’ll keep you eye on the end goal. This goal will help to clarify your intentions and ensure you remain motivated when the going gets tough. But, for today and each day, attend to the words on the page and try not to get too far ahead of yourself. Work to ensure the quality of each idea, as well as the quality of your writing. Commit talent and creativity to both, and one page at a time, you will write a volume (yes, a volume) that shows you are capable of originating and stimulating growth and development within your field. Across your career, no doubt you have addressed yourself to real-life problems. You have immersed yourself in the work, facing the inherent tensions between complex, often conflicting, roles and responsibilities. As you have experienced these struggles, where the rubber hits the road, you have learned about your field, firsthand. You have come to embrace certain intuitive understandings about the work. You apply your own theories of action, every day. Now you stop to reflect, seeing all knowledge, practical and otherwise, as tentative and thus subject to correction. Your dissertation writing places your work within a forum of open communication and critical discourse. You review and synthesize related research and scholarship, analyzing and critiquing the empirical and theoretical findings emerging from these investigations. You rely upon logic and evidence to tell the story of your project. Reflecting upon your own practice, within a philosophical, theoretical, and empirical context, you begin to give scholarly voice and definition to your evolving theories about your work to this point in your professional journey. We are practitioners, professionals, artisans who aspire to become researchers. In so doing, our renderings must be thoughtful, skillful, and precise. Together, we must subject each idea to as critical an assessment as possible through a process of self-conscious, self-corrective, ongoing inquiry. Our goal should always be writing that is intellectually scrupulous and artful. If we settle for abstruse prose filling space between so many tables and figures, no one will bother to read what we have written. The work will continue, unchallenged and unchanged.

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Instead, we can be scientists and philosophers who apply carefully crafted language as a defense against pessimism and indifference, as the means to stimulate the mind and the imagination. Where skeptics question the potency of human nature, we can refuse to let ourselves off the hook. Our collective inquiry, bolstered and energized by artful communication, moves the human enterprise forward. Others have provided graduate students manuals and references of various kinds to inform their writing. In line with these guides, let me offer you some practical advice. Be sure to strive for clarity. Your first goal is to communicate, not to impress. Use active verbs where possible and appropriate. Omit unnecessary prepositional phrases. Avoid jargon, unexplained acronyms, and colloquialisms. Always read your work at least twice before submitting it. Seek coherence. From the beginning, be clear about how you are going to organize your ideas and then adhere to your organizational plan. Use headings to help the reader know where you are headed. Point the way. Don’t switch lanes without signaling. Be clear when making transitions. Remind the reader about where you’ve taken them and where you’re going next. Likewise, strive for concision. In general, keep sentences and paragraphs short. Avoid redundancies and long-windedness. Eliminate unnecessary words. Be precise. Words matter, as words constitute the building blocks for ideas. Select yours carefully. Choose words that convey precisely your intended meaning. Especially, select verbs with caution. Utilize precise, vivid, and natural prose to paint a strong, clear, and complete picture in the reader’s mind. Finally, strive for professionalism. Be objective and open. Lead the reader to understand you are dispassionately pursuing truth, wherever evidence may lead. Be engaging. Channel your energy and passion for the topic in a manner that makes the text lively and interesting. Be cautious about adjectives that appear subjective. Especially try to avoid superlatives and extreme statements. Salespeople market. Scholars describe. Learn from the edits you receive. Along the way, invite your colleagues to offer their critical responses as the best means of judging the value of your manuscript. Expect that your advisor will provide time, resources, and guidance to pursue your individual inquiry. In conversations with your colleagues and your advisor,

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encourage—indeed, demand—skepticism in the true Socratic tradition of scrutinizing, questioning, and challenging. Ask them to serve as provocateurs, calling you to account and pushing you to engage in accurate and vigorous communication on the page. We are faced with huge challenges. The stakes are high and the resources limited, even as our publics demand noteworthy results. In the face of these challenges, our capacity to remain open and vital turns on our ability to question our own purposes. Our contributions to our fields will only be as good as our deliberative actions summon them to be. We must see our inquiries for all their meaning, for all their possibilities. We must identify problems, ask questions, and direct energetic debate on the page and from the page. It is within vigorous discourse where we build communities of action. Language that fuses the facts of the human experience with the feelings of human experience, each in balance with the other, constitutes art. The process can be painstaking, and yet authentic descriptions of even the simplest life experiences result in artful expression. As you have advanced to candidacy, you have demonstrated your readiness for this journey. There are no shortcuts, no easy paths from which to choose. Yet, if you proceed with confidence and optimism, rest assured you will reach your destination and the journey will be worth all your efforts.

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Part VI DEFENDING THE DISSERTATION

This section of The Faculty Mentor’s Wisdom: Conceptualizing, Writing, and Defending the Dissertation is dedicated to guiding doctoral students through the task of defending the dissertation. The dissertation defense is the doctoral student’s opportunity to demonstrate his or her readiness to be admitted to the society of academic researchers. The mentoring advice offered by our contributors speaks specifically to the dissertation defense, preparing the doctoral student for a successful defense of the dissertation. • Dr. Patrick B. Forsyth, What the Graduate Student Handbook Doesn’t Tell You about Defending Your Dissertation • Dr. John R. Hoyle, Defending Your Dissertation

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28 What the Graduate Student Handbook Doesn’t Tell You About Defending Your Dissertation Dr. Patrick B. Forsyth The University of Oklahoma

Well, next week is your defense. Let me toss out some ideas to you for your consideration. First, let’s talk about what a dissertation defense is. I think dissertation defenses are one of the most important events that take place at a university. Unlike the issuing of professional licenses by the state, which testifies to minimal competence in a field, judging a candidate’s culminating intellectual work provides an opportunity to invite him or her into a tradition of rigorous interrogation of ideas embedded in the Western system of professions and universities for over a thousand years. I know you have taken your research seriously; likewise, the university takes its review of that work seriously, out of respect for you and out of respect for the academic traditions that we represent. At its best, a defense is a celebration of the life of the mind displayed as a robust discussion among intellectually curious people. Approach this event with confidence and humility. I would not let you defend unless you were ready. I used to be fond of telling candidates about to defend that the event was to be held in a darkened gothic hall where they were to be seated at one end of a monstrous oaken table, under a bright spotlight. The committee, dressed in academic regalia, was to be seated at the other end, its scowls just visible in the near darkness. They would shout out questions in Latin, not withholding their disdain for anything but perfect responses delivered 161

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in the same dead language. Unfortunately, this dramatic image didn’t appear to amuse anyone but me; timing is everything. So why am I going on and on about this? I want to convince you that the significance of this event demands respectful preparation. You and I should agree on an order of events of the day. Here is what I usually suggest. You should meet me in my office about 30 minutes before the defense and we will collect all the necessary forms and make certain they are ready for processing at the defense. Then, we can proceed to the room reserved for the defense, where you can set up your place at the end of the conference table in such a way that all members of the committee will be able to see you clearly. When those preparations are finished, you should go outside to the hallway and wait until you are summoned. When the committee has been seated, I will make certain it is ready to proceed, elicit committee agreement on the order of events, and then invite you and any students and your personal guests to join us. By tradition, these meetings are open, public events with advance announcement of the defense, the title of the thesis, and the time and location posted on bulletin boards around the university and announced in graduate classes. An audience testifies to the importance of this event. When all are seated, I will welcome guests and announce, somewhat formally, the purpose of the meeting and then invite you to present your research. Since the committee will have read the paper thoroughly, there is no need to repeat the study in detail. There may be guests and graduate students present who will not have read it, so a brief description should be prepared, one that lasts 20 to 30 minutes at the longest. My preference is that you launch immediately into your presentation, giving appropriate focus to this gathering. This is not a place for you to review how it was that the exuberant praises of your fledgling efforts at scholarship by Mrs. Krebbsbach, your second-grade teacher, are in fact responsible for making this event possible—even if it’s true. Regardless of how many chapters your dissertation has (two or thirty), my recommendation is that you not use the chapters to structure your presentation. Say what you are going to do: that is, announce a brief outline of your presentation. Since dissertations are all about learning the answer to something we don’t know or verifying something we think we know, start with that. I like to call that the “jumping-off place.”

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Next, you will want to comment on the volume and credibility of research related to your focal research question. If there are some interesting discoveries about the literature you reviewed, relate those. Make the presentation interesting to almost everyone. Do not review the literature in this presentation. Then talk about how you narrowed your research to a specific question, hypothesis, or goal, present and explain why you chose a particular conceptual or theoretical framework. Your primary audience knows all about research methods so focus on why you chose particular methods and how they helped you achieve credible results. Do not spend a lot of time on the research design and analytical methods because you don’t have time to do that adequately in this presentation. You can comment on how well you thought the method worked for your research if that can be made interesting. Finally, the findings are most important—present them in a clear, straightforward way—a numbered list often works well. If you have tables and charts, only distribute copies or display the most important few. Then, briefly, talk about what the findings mean and how do they add to or alter what we think we know—reconnect with your conceptual–theoretical framework. You should prepare this presentation carefully and time it so you can do it in 20 minutes or so. I personally don’t like electronic slide-show presentations—the defense is about your scholarship and ideas, not technology. If necessary, the conceptual framework and tables and charts of findings can be put on a single sheet of paper and copies distributed to those in attendance who don’t have the dissertation in their possession. If you feel uncomfortable and nervous, I have no problem if you prepare cards and read your presentation, as long as you can do it with eye contact and energy. Even if you are confident, you might make index cards for backup, just to make sure you don’t leave out an important section. After your presentation, I will thank you and then invite the committee to interrogate you according to the process agreed upon in advance. When asked a question, give pause and think about what you are going to say. If the question is not entirely clear to you, politely ask the questioner for some clarification. When you don’t know an answer, just say so. Some questions will take you beyond your research and the questioner is asking if you have given this or that some thought. A perfectly responsive answer to such questions is that

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you have not, if that is fact. Be parsimonious, clear, precise, and responsive. You are defending your research, not your life history—stay focused. During the questioning, I will take notes related to any substantive issues that arise in the questioning. That will leave you free to maintain an uninterrupted dialogue with committee members. Although the length of these meetings varies by university and committee chair, an hour and a half of questions is not unusual, and they have been known to go more than twice that long (when things are going either very, very well, or very, very badly). When the questions are done, I will thank and dismiss everyone except committee members. At that point, you too will leave the room while the committee deliberates. There are several possible outcomes of a defense: pass unanimously with committee editorial suggestions, pass with changes required by the committee, or fail. In some universities, another option is for the committee to cancel the defense before it begins and explain why the dissertation is not ready for defense. This is quite rare. When the committee has determined its majority and signed the forms indicating assent or dissent from the majority decision, I will invite you to return. If the outcome is positive, I will invite guests back as well. When all are seated, I will announce the formal decision and action of the committee, come to where you are seated, and congratulate you. Other committee members will usually do the same. This is a time for you to thank committee members for their contributions and support as well. Sometimes, depending on the closeness of the relationships, committee members may go out to lunch with the candidate or have some other social celebration at a later date. There are almost always some changes to be made prior to filing the dissertation with the university. If it is convenient, it will be a good idea for you to be prepared to spend at least half an hour with me in my office immediately after the defense where I can review editorial corrections, suggestions, and any substantive changes suggested or required by the committee. It’s good to do this while the details are still fresh in our minds. Sometimes the committee may want the opportunity to review the revised thesis, but usually the committee will entrust the chair to oversee editorial and small substantive changes. Now, go relax! You have made it through a genuine test of character and intellect. Congratulations! Welcome to the academy.

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29 Defending Your Dissertation Dr. John R. Hoyle Texas A&M University

Doctoral degree candidate Bobby Martinez was facing the most frightening event in his professional career—his dissertation defense. Sure, the rigorous course work, night, summer, and weekend classes were demanding and his 3-day written comprehensive and 2-hour oral examinations created hypertension, but his career was hanging on successfully defending his dissertation. His committee chair, Dr. Laura Steger, who had advised him for the past 3 years was, though demanding, a wonderful mentor and outstanding teacher. The other committee members were accomplished scholars in the areas of research methods, organizational theory, and curriculum theory and development, and Bobby had made an A in all classes but research methods, where he made a low B in advanced statistics. In spite of his struggle with advanced statistics, Dr. Steger and Bobby decided during his second year to conduct a quantitative study on the role of elementary principals in the decision-making process. By the end of Bobby’s second year, the proposal and the IRB were approved by the doctoral committee and the Office of Graduate Studies. The title of the study was Problem–Attack Behavior and Its Relationship to Gender, Prior Teaching Experience, and University Preparation of Selected Elementary School Principals. Bobby gathered the data by visiting 30 top-ranked elementary schools, and with committee guidance applied three quantitative methods to his 165

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data analyses. After Dr. Steger required Bobby to revise the study three times, she advised him to take the following steps in preparation for his defense. “First: Submit a hard copy and an e-mail attachment of the document complete with the table of contents, list of tables, figures, appendices, and a one-page biography to each committee member, thanking him or her for help throughout your program. Ask them to review your work and please provide feedback within the next 3 weeks. If one or more committee members contact you for clarification or other concerns, contact me and we will work to correct any concern or problems with the study. “Second: After revisions or changes in the document or after the 3-week period with no suggestions for improvement, contact the committee and request a defense date in the next 12–15 working days. “Third: Once the date is set, contact the department program senior advisor for assistance in announcing the defense date, time, and place.” Dr. Steger asked Bobby to prepare 10 to 14 slides for a PowerPoint presentation that included the dissertation title, introduction statement, problem statement, purpose of the study, research questions, research procedures and methods, research findings, conclusions (linked to the theoretical framework), and recommendations for future study. Bobby prepared hard copies of his PowerPoint slides for each committee member and additional pages with corrections suggested by committee members within the prior 2 weeks. Bobby needed to remember to ask the senior academic advisor to assist in downloading the approval page that would need to be signed by the committee if the defense is successful. Two days before the defense, Bobby sought any last-minute advice from Dr. Steger, who told him to remember that he knew the study better than any committee member, but expect questions about a variety of issues, that is, research questions, data analysis, conclusions, or research procedures. Dr. Steger told him that due to the busy lives of his committee members, he might be asked questions that should have been asked 2 to 3 weeks prior to the defense. She told him not to appear to be offended with these questions or comments, but to thank the committee member for the suggestions. Dr. Steger and Bobby would record them to make sure they were incorporated into the final pages.

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She continued, “To begin the examination, I will make introductions of the committee and any guests and then ask you to provide a brief overview of your life, including your family, education, current job role, and future professional goals. I will then ask you to make your presentation and suggest that the committee hold their questions until you have completed your remarks. At that point, I will ask guests to leave the room and the committee will begin questions or suggestions about your presentation and the entire dissertation. “After committee feedback that may require substantive or cosmetic changes, I will ask for final questions or comments from the committee members. If no more questions are asked, I will ask you to excuse yourself from the room and to go for a drink of water (nothing stronger is allowed). “The committee will then discuss their impressions of your defense that may call for modifications to the study. If these modifications can be completed in reasonable time and the committee agrees that you successfully defended your written document, I will record their vote and signatures on the approval page and the signature page for your dissertation. “At this point, I will go out into the hall and ask you to return to the room. If all goes well, and I believe it will, you will receive our congratulations. When the committee members leave the room, you and I will sit and combine our notes about changes in wording, tables, and so on that you need to address within the next few days. Once the changes are made, we will e-mail them to the committee members for their review.” Bobby did not sleep well the night before his pressure-packed defense. He felt comfortable with his study and was prepared to give a 25-minute PowerPoint presentation. On defense day, Bobby and his spouse arrived 1 hour early to prepare the room and ask technology services to help turn on the projector and insert his flash stick for his PowerPoint presentation. After Dr. Steger greeted the committee and guests, she asked Bobby to share some personal information. Next, Bobby gave an articulate presentation of his study with little interruption from the committee. Dr. Steger then asked the two doctoral students in the audience and Bobby’s spouse to excuse themselves and thanked them for attending. After satisfactorily responding to concerns about two tables in Chapter 4, Bobby was asked if he was sure that his sample was truly representative of elementary principals in the state.

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At that point, Dr. Steger respectfully reminded the committee that they had approved the sampling process during the proposal hearing and it should not be an issue at this stage of the research. When no other comments were made, Dr. Steger asked Bobby to leave the room and go for a drink of water and she would come for him in a few minutes. After Bobby’s departure, she asked each committee member if he or she thought Bobby had successfully defended his written dissertation. After discussion about a few changes, deletions, and additions, Dr. Steger asked for a committee vote. The vote was a unanimous pass and the committee signed the defense approval form and the cover page of the dissertation. Two of the committee members and Dr. Steger then called Bobby “Dr. Bobby Martinez” but reminded him that it was not official until all paperwork was in and he had been “hooded” at graduation. Dr. Steger then congratulated Bobby and told him how proud she was of her new doctoral graduate. She told him to “wear the title with professionalism and great pride.”

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It’s Up to You

Twenty-nine exceptional faculty members, committed to mentoring doctoral students during the dissertation process, contributed to this book. They saw their contribution as an opportunity to pay it forward—something they do each day with their doctoral students at their universities. These faculty members speak to you in an informal tone. They give you the recipe for success. They place the keys to successfully conceptualizing, writing, and defending the dissertation in your hands. It’s now up to you. It is up to you to make a commitment to put the keys to their wisdom to work. This requires self-discipline, delayed gratification, and an ability to visualize your imagined goal. If the reason for wanting to successfully defend your dissertation is big enough, you will find a way. You will find the time. You will find the resources. The keys these exceptional faculty members gave to you will open the door to success. Take your good intentions and commit them to action by using their keys to open the door. Your sustained action to complete your dissertation is significantly advanced with the mentoring advice you received in this book. We believe the mentoring advice here is the best mentoring advice available in the world. Good luck and remember to pay it forward.

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About the Editors and Contributors

THE EDITORS Dr. Raymond L. Calabrese is a professor of educational administration in the School of Educational Policy and Leadership at The Ohio State University. He is recognized as an academic scholar with a rich background across K–12 and higher education. His research focuses on appreciative inquiry—an action-research methodology and change process focusing on identifying the best in people and their organizations. Visit his appreciative inquiry blog at http://people.ehe.ohio-state.edu/rcalabrese/. Dr. Calabrese is the author of five books and coauthor of four books. His recent standalone books include The Dissertation Desk Reference: The Doctoral Student’s Manual to Writing the Dissertation; The Elements of an Effective Dissertation and Thesis: A Step-by-Step Guide for Getting It Right the First Time; and The Leadership Assignment: Creating Change. His published work also includes over 100 refereed articles in educational journals such as the Journal of School Leadership, Journal of Research on Leadership Education, and Journal of Research for Educational Leaders. He is also the principal investigator for several action-research field study reports. He consistently presents his research at educational conferences such as the American Educational Research Association. Dr. Calabrese has received honors for his research, publications, and teaching. He earned his doctorate at the University of Massachusetts at Amherst. Dr. Calabrese can be contacted at [email protected]. 171

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Dr. Page A. Smith is a professor of educational leadership and policy studies at the University of Texas at San Antonio (UTSA). His research pursuits target organizational studies and involve quantitative analysis. Specifically, his scholarly areas of emphasis include organizational climate and health, institutional trust, collective efficacy, student aggression and bullying, and institutional change and influence. Accordingly, his most recent publications (Educational Administration Quarterly, the International Journal of Education Management, Journal of School Leadership, and Journal of Education Administration) reflect his contributions to the field in these areas. He is currently conducting research in the areas of school culture, change orientation, and leadership influence. Dr. Smith pursues an active role in connecting theory to practice via graduate teaching forums, site consultations, professional development initiatives, and school–community liaison service. He serves as the associate dean for graduate studies in the College of Education and Human Development at UTSA. Dr. Smith can be contacted at [email protected].

ABOUT THE CONTRIBUTORS Dr. Jeffrey S. Brooks is an associate professor in the Department of Educational Leadership and Policy Analysis at the University of Missouri and a J. William Fulbright Senior Scholar alumnus. His research interests include high school leadership and reform, teacher leadership, ethics, and sociocultural dynamics of leadership practice and preparation. Dr. Brooks’ work has been published in Educational Administration Quarterly, the Journal of Educational Administration, Educational Policy, the Journal of Cases in Educational Leadership, the International Electronic Journal of Leadership for Learning, Science Education, and the Journal of Values and Ethics in Educational Administration, among other scholarly journals. Dr. Brooks is editor of the Journal of School Leadership, chair of the AERA Leadership for Social Justice SIG, and series editor of the Information Age Publishing Educational Leadership for Social Justice book series. Dr. Brooks can be contacted at [email protected]. Dr. Tricia Browne-Ferrigno is an associate professor in the Department of Educational Leadership Studies at the University of Kentucky. She has published articles and book chapters on diverse aspects of leadership

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preparation, many based on research findings about participants’ experiences while actively engaged in programs. At this writing, she is serving as a member of the design and instructional team for a cross-department EdD cohort program focused on community college leadership, which is part of the Carnegie Foundation Project on the Education Doctorate. Dr. Browne-Ferrigno served as chair of the LTEL SIG of AERA (2007–2010) and is a founding member of the UCEA/LTELSIG Taskforce on Evaluating Educational Leadership Preparation. She received her PhD in educational leadership and innovation from the University of Colorado, Denver. Dr. Browne-Ferrigno can be contacted at [email protected]. Dr. Raymond L. Calabrese is a professor of educational administration in the School of Educational Policy and Leadership at The Ohio State University. He is recognized as an academic scholar with a rich background across K–12 and higher education. His research focuses on appreciative inquiry—an action-research methodology and change process focusing on identifying the best in people and their organizations. Visit his appreciative inquiry blog at http://people.ehe.ohio-state.edu/rcalabrese/. Dr. Calabrese is the author of five books and coauthor of four books. His recent standalone books include The Dissertation Desk Reference: The Doctoral Student’s Manual to Writing the Dissertation; The Elements of an Effective Dissertation and Thesis: A Step-by-Step Guide for Getting It Right the First Time; and The Leadership Assignment: Creating Change. His published work also includes over 100 refereed articles in educational journals such as the Journal of School Leadership, Journal of Research on Leadership Education, and Journal of Research for Educational Leaders. He was also the principal investigator for several action-research field study reports. He consistently presents his research at educational conferences such as the American Educational Research Association. Dr. Calabrese has received honors for his research, publications, and teaching. He earned his doctorate at the University of Massachusetts at Amherst. Dr. Calabrese can be contacted at [email protected]. Dr. Angela Calabrese Barton is a professor in the Department of Teacher Education at Michigan State University. Her research focuses on issues of equity and social justice in science education, with a particular emphasis on the urban context. Drawing from qualitative and critical/feminist methodologies, she conducts ethnographic and case-study research in urban

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settings that targets the science teaching–learning experiences of three major stakeholder groups: upper elementary and middle school youth, teachers learning to teach science for social justice, and parents engaging in their children’s science education. Dr. Calabrese Barton engages in curriculum research and development that links nutrition and science literacies in the upper elementary and middle school classroom. Her work has been published in Educational Researcher, American Education Research Journal, Educational Policy and Practice, the Journal of Research in Science Teaching, Science Education, and Curriculum Inquiry, among others. One of her advisees, Jhumki Basu, won the Division K outstanding dissertation award in 2008. Dr. Calabrese Barton can be contacted at [email protected]. Dr. Paula A. Cordeiro has been dean of the School of Leadership and Education Sciences at the University of San Diego since 1998. Previously, Dr. Cordeiro was the coordinator of the master’s and doctoral programs in educational leadership at The University of Connecticut. She is a former teacher, principal, and school head in international schools in Venezuela and Spain. She is a past president of the University Council for Educational Administration (UCEA), and currently serves on the board of the James Irvine Foundation. Dr. Cordeiro is a former member of the California Commission on Teacher Credentialing and a board member of the International Council for the Education of Teachers. In addition to numerous articles, Dr. Cordeiro has published three books and recently finished the fourth edition of her coauthored text (with William Cunningham), An Introduction to Educational Leadership: A Bridge to Improved Practice. Her research is in the areas of school leadership, somatic learning, and global education. Dr. Cordeiro can be contacted at [email protected]. Dr. Philip T. K. Daniel is the William Ray and Marie Adamson Flesher endowed professor of educational administration and adjunct professor of law at The Ohio State University. His research focuses on educational policy, education reform, school law, higher education law, and special education law. In 1993, Dr. Daniel received Ohio State’s highest honor for faculty, the Alumni Award for Distinguished Teaching, and was subsequently inducted into the university’s Academy of Distinguished Teaching. He was president of the Education Law Association (ELA) 2004–2005

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and served as a member of the ELA Board of Directors from 1999–2005. In 2006 the Education Law Association bestowed upon him the Marion McGhehey Award, the highest award of the organization for his research in education law and policy. Dr. Daniel is the author of numerous refereed articles, law review articles, book chapters, monographs, and reports, and is coauthor of the books Law and Public Education; Education Law and the Public Schools: A Compendium, and the upcoming Law, Policy, and Higher Education. He is a member of the Editorial Advisory Committee of West’s Education Law Reporter and is on the editorial boards of the Brigham Young University Journal of Law and Education, the Journal of Education and Urban Society, the Journal of Juridical Studies, and the Journal of the South African Society for Education. He graduated with a bachelor’s degree in history with honors from Cheyney University of Pennsylvania. He attended the University of Illinois, Champaign-Urbana, earning a master’s of science degree and a doctorate in education. Dr. Daniel did postdoctoral work in higher education administration as an American Council on Education (A.C.E.) fellow at Washington University in St. Louis. He earned a juris doctorate from the Northern Illinois University College of Law, with further study at the Catholic University School of Law. Dr. Daniel can be contacted at [email protected]. Dr. Ada Demb is associate professor of higher education and student affairs in the School of Educational Policy and Leadership of the College of Education and Human Ecology at The Ohio State University. She earned her doctorate at Harvard University. She has served as vice provost for international affairs at The Ohio State, and formerly headed the international program for board members at the International Institute for Management Development in Lausanne, Switzerland. Her scholarly work combines organizational and multicultural perspectives and has focused on the organizational paradoxes of corporate boards, international cooperation, and strategic choices of colleges and universities regarding faculty, technology, and internationalization. She has authored three books and guided more than two dozen students through successful dissertation and thesis research. Dr. Demb can be contacted at [email protected]. Dr. Michael DiPaola is chancellor professor in the Educational Policy, Planning and Leadership Program of the School of Education at William

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and Mary. Professor DiPaola’s career in public education has spanned three decades, including a decade of classroom teaching. He served as an assistant principal in a 7–12 school and as principal of a 10–12 senior high school. Prior to joining the faculty at the university, he was a school district superintendent for 6 years. Dr. DiPaola is the author or coauthor of articles, book chapters, and technical reports on the roles and responsibilities of school administrators. His publications include the text Principals Improving Instruction: Supervision, Evaluation, and Professional Development (2008). Dr. DiPaola is coauthor, with James Stronge, of the Superintendent Evaluation Handbook. His teaching and research interests include social processes in school organizations, improving instruction, and the superintendency. Dr. DiPaola can be contacted at mfdipa@ wm.edu. Dr. Robert Donmoyer currently is professor of leadership studies at the University of San Diego. Previously he served as an assistant, associate, and full professor at The Ohio State University. While at The Ohio State, Dr. Donmoyer served as the director of the School of Education Policy and Leadership; at the University of San Diego, he codirected the Caster Family Center for Nonprofit Research. Dr. Donmoyer has written extensively about research methods, school reform, and school leadership. His most recent articles have appeared in Educational Administration Quarterly, the International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education, and Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly. In recent years, he has had a number of federal research grants and has received research funding from several foundations. His recent consulting activities have included work for the University of Texas at Austin, the Austin Independent School District, and the Ball Foundation. Dr. Donmoyer can be contacted at donmoyer@ sandiego.edu. Dr. Patrick B. Forsyth is a professor at the University of Oklahoma where he studies school trust, academic performance, and structural dimensions of schools. Dr. Forsyth has been active nationally in the reform of leadership preparation, starting in 1984 as executive director of UCEA and his management of the National Commission on Excellence in Educational Administration. As corporate secretary of the National Policy Board for Educational Administration, Forsyth managed the Pugh grants funding the Interstate School Leadership Licensure Consortium (ISLLC) project.

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Internationally, Dr. Forsyth has worked in China, New Zealand, Taiwan, Hong Kong, Australia, Canada, and the United Arab Emirates. His books include Educational Administration: A Decade of Reform, with Joe Murphy; City Schools, with Marilyn Tallerico; and Effective Supervision, with Wayne K. Hoy. Recently he completed a term as Division A vice president of AERA. Since returning to the professoriate in 2000, he has directed an extensive research project focused primarily on the importance of parent trust in schools, teachers, and school leaders. Dr. Forsyth can be contacted at [email protected]. Dr. Lance D. Fusarelli is professor, Department of Leadership, Policy, and Adult and Higher Education, North Carolina State University. He coauthored Better Policies, Better Schools (Allyn & Bacon, 2004) and Effective Communication for School Administrators (Rowman & Littlefield, 2007), and coedited the Handbook of Education Politics and Policy (Routledge, 2008) and The Politics of Leadership: Superintendents and School Boards in Changing Times (Information Age Publishing, 2005). He conducts research on superintendents, No Child Left Behind, and the politics of education. Yet his joy and most useful professional contribution is helping baby elephants successfully navigate through the jungle and join the herd. Dr. Fusarelli can be contacted at [email protected]. Dr. John R. Hoyle is professor of educational administration and future studies at Texas A&M University. He has authored or coauthored over 150 scholarly papers and book chapters and 12 books. Dr. Hoyle was selected as the “First Living Legend” by his NCPEA colleagues, and he was ranked by his colleagues in the United States and Canada as one of the top four “Exceptional Living Scholars” in educational administration. Dr. Hoyle has chaired or cochaired 120 dissertations. Dr. Hoyle can be contacted at [email protected]. Dr. Carolyn Hughes is a professor in the Departments of Special Education and Human and Organizational Development at Vanderbilt University. Her research and teaching are in the areas of transition to adult life for high-poverty youth and youth with disabilities, and self-determination and mentoring strategies for at-risk students and students with disabilities. Dr. Hughes developed the Vanderbilt Mentoring Program, in which university students mentor youth from high-poverty high schools to support them in

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completing high school and attending college. She has managed several secondary transition federally funded projects, including the Metropolitan Nashville Peer Buddy Program, an inclusion program for general education students and their peers with disabilities. In addition, Dr. Hughes has published numerous studies and several books designed to promote the self-directed learning skills of high school students to promote successful postschool outcomes. Finally, she taught elementary and secondary public school for 10 years before joining higher education as a faculty member. She returned to the classroom during the 2001–2002 academic year to teach inner-city youth in New York City. Dr. Hughes can be contacted at [email protected]. Dr. Bob L. Johnson Jr. is professor and director of graduate studies in the Department of Educational Leadership and Policy at the University of Utah. He teaches graduate courses in organizational theory, the politics of education, education policy studies, decision making, and research logic and design. His research interests focus on such issues as schools as organizations, educational reform and change, the politics of education, and educational policymaking. His work has appeared in such journals as Educational Administration Quarterly, Journal of Education Administration, Journal of Education Policy, Journal of Personnel Evaluation, and Journal of School Leadership. He is past president of the Organizational Theory SIG of the American Educational Research Association and former editor of Educational Administration Quarterly (2006–2009). His latest book publication was recently published with SUNY Press, Decision Making for Educational Leaders: Underexamined Dimensions and Issues (SUNY Press, 2009). Dr. Johnson can be contacted at BJohnson@ ed.utah.edu. Dr. Juanita Johnson-Bailey is a professor of adult education and women’s studies at the University of Georgia, Athens. She currently serves as the interim director of the Institute for Women’s Studies. A member of the International Adult and Continuing Education Hall of Fame, Johnson-Bailey’s book, Sistahs in College: Making a Way Out of No Way (2001), received the Phillip Frandson Award for Literature in Continuing and Higher Education and the Sadie Alexander Award for Outstanding Scholarship in Black Women’s Studies. Her forthcoming coedited text, The Handbook on Race in Adult and Higher Education

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(Sheared, Johnson-Bailey, Colin, Peterson, & Brookfield) will be released by Jossey-Bass in April 2010. Dr. Juanita Johnson-Bailey can be contacted at [email protected]. Dr. John L. Keedy is professor at the University of Louisville in the Department of Leadership, Foundations, and Human Resource Education. After receiving his EdD in education administration and supervision from the University of Tennessee in 1983, he was principal of Brookfield Elementary School (Massachusetts) and assistant superintendent for instruction in Galax City Schools (Virginia). Dr. Keedy held positions at the University of West Georgia and North Carolina State University before assuming his current position at the University of Louisville. He has published in the Canadian Administrator, the Journal of Educational Administration, Teaching and Teaching Education, Journal of Educational Research, Journal of School Leadership, and Theory into Practice, among others. He is coordinator of the cooperative doctoral program with Western Kentucky University and is part of the State Action for Educational Leadership Project, a Kentucky consortium of administrators, educators, and policy specialists in cooperation with the Southern Regional Education Board and the Wallace Reader’s Digest Fund. Dr. Keedy can be contacted at [email protected]. Dr. Frances Kochan is dean of the College of Education and professor in educational leadership in the College of Education at Auburn University. Her major research interests are in collaboration at the individual, organizational, and cross-system levels, and organizational change. Dr. Kochan has published in the Journal of School Leadership, the International Journal of Educational Administration, and Studies in Philosophy and Education. She has developed an edited book series on mentoring that examines this collaboration from a variety of perspectives. Dr. Kochan has served on the Holmes Partnership Board and the Board of the University Council for Educational Administration, where she served as president. She presently serves on the Board of the International Mentoring Association. Dr. Kochan can be contacted at [email protected]. Dr. Margaret Terry Orr (PhD, Columbia) is on the faculty of Bank Street College where she directs its Future School Leaders Academy, a multidistrict partnership program, and teaches organizational development and

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research for change. Her primary research interests are (a) on the effects of leadership preparation approaches on graduates and the schools they lead, and (b) the implementation and effects of school and district reform initiatives. She cochairs the UCEA/LTEL-SIG Taskforce on Evaluating Leadership Preparation Programs. Her research has been published widely in research journals and book chapters, and she is coauthor (with Linda Darling-Hammond and others) of the 2009 Jossey-Bass book, Preparing Principals for a Changing World: Lessons from Effective School Leadership Programs. During her academic career, she has sponsored over 80 successful dissertations in educational leadership. Dr. Orr can be contacted at [email protected]. Dr. Martha N. Ovando is currently an L. D. Haskew Centennial Fellow at The University of Texas at Austin. She is professor and graduate advisor in the Department of Educational Administration, College of Education. She has served as mentor and advisor for doctoral students for about 20 years. She is the instructor of record of a dissertation seminar for students who are at the dissertation proposal-writing stage of their doctoral journey. You can contact Dr. Ovando at [email protected]. Dr. George J. Petersen is a professor of educational leadership and administration at the California Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo. He is a codirector for the UCEA Joint Center for the Study of the Superintendency and District Governance. He is the author of two books and over 75 book chapters, professional articles, research papers, monographs, and commissioned reports. Dr. Petersen is an acquisitions editor for Educational Administration Quarterly as well as a member of several other editorial boards of prominent professional journals. Prior to Cal Poly, he was a tenured associate professor at the University of Missouri–Columbia and associate director of the University Council for Educational Administration from 1999–2004. He has chaired 25 doctoral dissertations and served as a member on numerous others. Dr. Petersen can be contacted at [email protected]. Dr. Diana G. Pounder is professor of educational leadership and dean of the College of Education at the University of Central Arkansas. For the past 20 years, she served as professor of educational leadership and policy

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(ELP) at the University of Utah–Salt Lake City. Most recently, she served as Utah’s ELP department chair and immediate past editor of Educational Administration Quarterly (EAQ). Dr. Pounder’s research publications address school leader preparation effectiveness, professor and principal shortages and job desirability, teacher work-group effectiveness, distributed leadership, equity in personnel selection and compensation, and other interests related to attracting, retaining, motivating, and developing professional educators. Her scholarship is largely empirical research studies using correlational and quasi-experimental designs, survey methods, and multivariate quantitative data analysis techniques. She earned her PhD in educational administration from the University of Wisconsin–Madison, after working in K–12 public schools for 10 years. Dr. Pounder can be contacted at [email protected]. Dr. Susan Printy is an associate professor and unit coordinator in the Department of Educational Administration at Michigan State University. She is a former high school teacher and earned her PhD from the School of Educational Policy and Leadership at The Ohio State University. Dr. Printy studies school improvement in large high schools and provides professional development to Title I high schools as part of the Michigan State System of Support to chronically underperforming schools. She authored an article based on her dissertation (2008), Leadership for teacher learning: A community of practice perspective, published in Educational Administration Quarterly. Dr. Printy can be contacted at [email protected]. Dr. James H. Stronge is the Heritage professor in the Educational Policy, Planning, and Leadership Area at the College of William and Mary, Williamsburg, Virginia. His research interests include policy and practice related to teacher quality, and teacher and administrator evaluation. Dr. Stronge has authored, coauthored, or edited 22 books and more than 100 articles, chapters, and technical reports. His recent books include Student Achievement Goal Setting: Using Data to Improve Teaching and Learning and Qualities of Effective Principals. Dr. Stronge has presented his research at state, national, and international conferences, such as the American Educational Research Association, American Association of School Administrators, and the University Council for Educational Administration. Additionally, he has worked extensively with local school

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districts on issues related to teacher quality, teacher selection, and teacher and administrator evaluation. He has been a teacher, counselor, and district-level administrator. His doctorate is in the area of educational administration and planning from the University of Alabama. Dr. Stronge can be contacted at [email protected]. Dr. C. John Tarter (EdD, Rutgers) is professor of educational administration at The University of Alabama. He received a BA from the California State University, San Bernardino, and an MA from the University of California, Riverside, after which he was a high school teacher in Marin County, California. He was an administrator and an adjunct professor of educational administration at Rutgers University. In 1987, he joined the faculty at St. John’s University, New York City, and moved to the University of Alabama in 2006. Dr. Tarter’s research interests are in organizational theory, decision making, and research methodology. He is a coauthor with Wayne K. Hoy and Robert Kottkamp (1991) of Open Schools—Healthy Schools and with Wayne Hoy (2008), Administrators Solving the Problems of Practice. His research has been published in the Educational Administration Quarterly, the Journal of Educational Administration, and the High School Journal. He has chaired more than 30 dissertations. Dr. Tarter can be contacted at [email protected]. Dr. Linda C. Tillman is a professor in the Educational Leadership Program at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. She is vice president of Division A (Administration, Organization, and Leadership) of the American Educational Research Association and former associate director of graduate student development for the University Council for Educational Administration. She served as the director of the Barbara L. Jackson Scholars, a group of over 200 graduate students of color who are being mentored for faculty careers. Her research interests include mentoring faculty, teachers, and administrators; leadership theory; the education of all children, particularly African Americans in K–12 and postsecondary education; and the use of racially and culturally sensitive qualitative research approaches. Dr. Tillman is the editor-in-chief of the Sage Handbook of African American Education, coeditor with Dr. Len Foster of African American Perspectives on Schools: Building a Culture of Empowerment, and coeditor with Dr. James Scheurich of the forthcom-

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ing Handbook of Research on Educational Leadership for Diversity and Equity. She is the 2009 recipient of the Jay D. Scribner Mentoring Award from the University Council for Educational Administration. Dr. Tillman can be contacted at [email protected]. Dr. Cynthia L. Uline is a professor of educational leadership at San Diego State University. She served on the Educational Administration faculty at The Ohio State University from 1995 to 2005. Dr. Uline is codirector of San Diego State’s Education Doctorate in educational leadership. She serves as executive director of San Diego State’s National Center for the 21st Century Schoolhouse (http://edweb.sdsu.edu/schoolhouse/). The center supports the planning, design, and construction of school facilities from a learner-centered perspective through communication, research, and training. Dr. Uline’s research explores the influence of built learning environments on students’ learning, as well as the role the public plays in shaping these learning spaces. Other lines of research focus on school leadership for learning and school reform and improvement. She has published over 25 scholarly articles, monographs, and book chapters. Her work has appeared in journals such as Educational Administration Quarterly, the Journal of Educational Administration, Teachers College Record, and the Journal of School Leadership. Dr. Uline can be contacted at [email protected]. Dr. Kathryn R. Wentzel is a professor in the Department of Human Development at the University of Maryland, College Park. She received her PhD in education at Stanford University. Her research interests focus on parents, peers, and teachers as motivators of adolescents’ classroom behavior and academic accomplishments. She has published over 100 articles and book chapters based on this work and coedited books on achievement motivation. She is currently coeditor of the Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology. Dr. Wentzel is past vice-president of Division E (Counseling and Human Development, AERA) and a fellow of the American Psychological Association, Division 15. Dr. Wentzel can be contacted at [email protected]. Dr. I. Phillip Young is director of a joint doctoral program between the University of California System and California State University–Fresno

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and a professor of education at the University of California–Davis. Prior to this assignment, he held faculty positions at the University of Wisconsin–Madison and The Ohio State University. His areas of interest are human resource management and collective bargaining, focusing on the public school setting. He had three students win the Morphet Dissertation Award given by NCPEA, received the William Davis Award from Educational Administration Quarterly, and received two Outstanding Paper Awards by the California Educational Research Association. Recent publications include a book, The Human Resource Function in Educational Administration, and journal articles in Educational Administration Quarterly, Journal of Research on Leadership Education, and Leadership and Policy in Schools. Dr. Young can be contacted at [email protected]. Dr. Sally J. Zepeda is a professor in the Department of Lifelong Education, Administration, and Policy at the University of Georgia. Her research, teaching, and service focus on supervision, evaluation, and the professional learning and development of principals and other school leaders. Dr. Zepeda has authored 21 books, 40 articles, and numerous book chapters, monographs, and reports that detail research and best practices related to supervision, evaluation, and the work of the principal as instructional leader. She has mentored close to 50 students to completion of the doctorate, and she has served on close to 100 dissertation committees. She believes that working with doctoral students fuels the pipeline of the next generation of scholarly practitioners and higher education scholars in educational administration and policy, and as such, continues to mentor and work alongside her students once they complete the doctorate. Dr. Zepeda believes that working with doctoral students is a commitment to their lifetime success. She is a member of the Council of Professors of Instructional Supervisors (COPIS) and in 2005, she was honored by the University Council of Educational Administration (UCEA) when she received the Master Professor Award, designating her as one of the leading educational leadership professors among the top research Institutions in the United States and Canada. Dr. Zepeda received her PhD from Loyola University Chicago. Dr. Zepeda can be contacted at [email protected].

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