The doctrines of the great Indian educators

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The Doctrines of the Great Indian Educators ii iii THE DOCTRINES OF THE GREAT INDIAN EDUCATORS Yogendra K. Sharma KANISHKA PUBLISHERS, DISTRIBUTORS New Delhi 110 002 iv KANISHKA PUBLISHERS, DISTRIBUTORS 4697/5-21 A, Ansari Road, Daryaganj New Delhi-110 002 Phones: 327 0497, 328 8285 Fax: 91-328 8285 First Published 2002 © Author ISBN 81-7391-505-9 PRINTED IN INDIA Published by Madan Sachdeva for Kanishka Publishers, Distributors, 4697/5-21 A, Ansari Road, Daryaganj, New Delhi 110 002; Lasertypeset by Baba DTP Services, Delhi, and Printed at Nice Printing Press, Delhi. v

Preface The work at hand is the result of the appreciation and admiration by the readers of my previous book "History and Problems of Education" Volume I&II for which I express my heartful thanks, gratitude and indebtness to them and trust that the present work will meet their requirements and expectations. The prime aim of the present work is to make available to the readers doctrines of the great Indian educators to meet the requirements of all the Indian Universities teaching this subject in their faculties of Arts and Education and thus it is a unique work because no other Indian author had ever enlisted all the educators enlisted in the present work. In the present work, Indian educators have been enlisted in the sequence of their birth year and if the birth year of two or more educator is the same, then their early year of death has found first place in the sequence for enlistment in this book, therefore, it should not be understood that the educators have been enlisted as per merit or importance of their contribution, because contribution of each and every educator is important in one way or the other. I express my heartfelt gratitude and indebtness to the authors of great works on the subject, which enhanced my knowledge of the subject and I felt like presenting this work to you. I also thank the publishers of the book for publishing it in the most presentable manner. vi While I tried my best to make this book best textbook for the students and reference book for the teachers, educationists and general readers, I feel that the readers are the best judge of its merit.

Suggestions for improvement are, therefore, cordially invited through the publisher. Yogendra K. Sharma vii

Contents Preface

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Part One INTRODUCTORY 1. Foundations of Indian Education

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• Philosophy of Vedic and Upanishadic Education • Types of Educational Institutions • Discipline • Education in the Ashrama System * Meaning of Ashrama * Number of Ashramas * Interpretation of this Scheme * Brahmacharya Ashrama • Aspects of Vedic Education * Teacher as a Pivot * Method of Instruction • Educator's Duties • Absence of Social Justice * Continuation of Brahmanical Tradition • Difference from Brahmanical System • Value of Buddhist System • Education Under Muslim Rulers * Kinds of Institutions * Discipline * Women Education • Questions for Exercise viii 2. Features and Spirit of Education During Ancient and Medieval India

• Ancient Education—Basic Features • Medieval Education—Basic Features * Muslim Education

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* Hindu Education • Spirit of Education • The Spirit of Indian Philosophy • The Spirit of Education • Questions for Exercise Part Two EDUCATORS 3. Kautilya

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• Education in Kautilya's 'Arthasastra' • Questions for Exercise 4. Jagat Guru Shankar Acharya (788-820)

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• Life Sketch * Shankar Acharya's Philosophy of Vedant * Chief Characteristics of Shankar Acharya's Vedantic Philosophy * Vedantic Philosophy and Education * Aim of Education * Curriculum * Methods of Teaching * Place of Teacher * Place of Child * Concept of Discipline * Establishment of Centres for the Education of Masses * Evaluation of Shankar's Vedantic Philosophy • Questions for Exercise 5. Swami Dayananda (1824-1883)

• Profile of Swami Dayananda's Life • His Vedic Philosophy • Education According to Swami Dayananda * Meaning of Education * Philosophy of Education * His Stand on Major Issues * Basic Principles of Education * Aims of Education * Role of Parents in the Education of Children ix

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* Separate Schools for Boys and Girls * The Scheme of Studies * Teaching in Schools * Testing Knowledge * Dayananda and Women Education * Dayananda on Co-education * Education for Masses * Some Essential Features of Dayananda's System of Education * Evaluation of Educational Philosophy * Some Efforts for Putting Dayananda's Educational Ideas into Practice * Evaluation of Educational Philosophy • Questions for Exercise 6. Annie Besant (1847-1933)

• Her Life * Annie Besant as an Author * Philosophy of Life—Principles of Theosophy • Principles of Theosophy * Ethics of Theosophy * Annie Besant's Philosophy of Education * Objects of Education • Annie Besant's Ideals of Education * All Round Education • Ideas on Education * Aims of Education * Duties of the Teacher * The Ideals for the Student • Annie Besant's Scheme of National Education for India * The General Scheme * The Outline of Studies * An Attitude of Service to be Developed • The Organization of a Village School * An Estimate • Dr. Annie Besant's Contribution • Annie Besant : A Great Educator and Emancipator

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• Questions for Exercise 7. Ravindranath Tagore (1861-1941)

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* Life Sketch * Tagore's Philosophy x * Tagore's Idealism * Education Related with Life • Tagore as an Educationist * Concept of Education * Aims of Education * Basic Principles of Tagore's Educational Philosophy * Curriculum * Methods of Teaching * Teacher * Ancient Indian Ideals * Freedom and Discipline * Tagore's Naturalism * Tagore's Humanism * On Religious Education • Tagore's Vishwa Bharati * Evaluation of Tagore's Philosophy of Education • Questions for Exercise 8. Mahamana Madan Mohan Malaviya (1861-1946)

• His Life * His Philosophy of Practical Life * Religious Ideals * Ideal of Pride for being Hindu * Ideal of Love for Indian Literature * Ideal Social Reforms * Ideals to Re-establish Past Glories * Malaviyaji's Thoughts on Education * Scientific and Technological Education * Scientific Study in Agriculture * Ayurvedic Education

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* Education in Fine Arts * Education for Character Formation * Religious Education * An Estimate • Questions for Exercise 9. Swami Vivekananda (1863-1902)

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• His Life • Criticism of Prevalent Educational System • His Philosophy of Life * His Philosophy of Education * Aims of Education * Qualities for the Teacher xi * Qualities for the Pupil • Medium of Education • Means of Education • Types of Education * Religious Education * Physical Education * Moral Education * Women Education * Education of the Masses * An Ardent Advocate of a National System of Education • Critical Evaluation • Questions for Exercise 10. Gopal Krishna Gokhale (1866-1915)

• Brief Life Profile • His Major Activities * Indian National Congress * Welby Commission * 'Apology' Incident * As an Elected Representative * The Split * Reforms

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* In South Africa * The End • Gokhale as an Educator • Gokhale's Bills (1910-1912) * Gokhale's Bill, 1910 * Gokhale's Bill, 1911 • Government Resolution on Educational Policy (1913) * Introduction to the Resolution * Major Provisions of the Resolution • Progress of Education • Primary Education (1905-1920) * Expansion of Education * Free and Compulsory Education * Gokhale's Efforts • Gokhale's Impact Continued After His Death Too * Compulsory Primary Education in Provinces • National Spirit in Education * National Education * An Evaluation • Questions for Exercise xii 11. Mahatma Gandhi (1869-1948)

• Life Sketch • Philosophy of Life * Gandhiji's Philosophy of Education * Meaning of Education * Basic Principles of Educational Philosophy • Aims and Ideals of Education • Education for Sarvodaya * Sarvodaya Society * Nai Talim * Social Revolution * Non-Violent Education • Wardha Scheme

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• Means of Education • Criticism of the Wardha Scheme • Types of Education • Medium of Education • Characteristics of Gandhian Educational Plan * Gandhiji on Textbooks * Gandhiji on University Education • The Place of Religion in Education • Gandhiji on Women Education * Gandhiji: Adult Education * An Estimate * Greatest Authority on Gandhian Education • Questions for Exercise 12. Sri Aurobindo (1872-1950)

• His Life • Sri Aurobindo's Philosophy • Sri Aurobindo as an Educator • Concept of Education • Basic Principles of Educational Philosophy • Objectives of Education • The True Education * Rational Education * Meeting of East and West * Integral Education * Supramental Education • Aims of Education * The Educational Model • The School • The Teacher xiii * Personality Traits of the Teacher • The Curriculum • A Tentative Educational Plan

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• The Ideal Child • Teaching Methods * Teaching Children * Teaching Very Small Children * How to Teach * Successive Teaching * Education Through Practical Experience * Three Principles of Teaching * Integral Teaching * Observation * Training of Memory and Judgement * Training of Logical Faculty * Training of Imagination * Training of Language * Free Progress System * No Set Distinction • Discipline and Freedom * Kinds of Discipline * Disciplinary Measures * Discipline and Freedom * Code of Conduct * Moral and Religious Education • Evaluation and Examination * Spontaneous Evaluation * Sri Aurobindo Ashram * Evaluation of Aurobindo's Philosophy of Education • Questions for Exercise 13. Sarvapalli Radhakrishnan (1888-1975)

• His Life • Radhakrishnan's Philosophy • On the Concept of Religious and Social Change • On Solutions of Some of Our Problems • Radhakrishnan on Education • Ideals of Education

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• Indian Education Commission or Radhakrishnan Commission (1948-1949) • Recommendations * Aims and Objectives * Unsatisfactory Condition of the Teachers * Standards of Teaching xiv * Curriculum of Courses of Study * Postgraduate Teaching and Research * Professional Education * Teaching Profession * Religious Education * Education of Women * Rural Education or Rural Universities * Medium of Instruction * The System of Examination * Students • Secondary Education • Merits of Recommendations • An Estimate • Questions for Exercise 14. Acharya Vinoba Bhave (1894-1982)

• His Life • Philosophy of Sarvodaya • Foundations of Sarvodaya • Aims of Sarvodaya • Scope of Sarvodaya • Vinoba's Concept of Education * Basic Education * Basic Education and the Government • Objectives of Education • Emphasis on Mental and Physical Development of the Child • Basic Craft as Basis of Education • Universities in Villages • An Hour's a Day Education

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• Education for Satyagraha and Fearlessness • Critical Evaluation • Questions for Exercise 15. J. Krishnamurti—The World Teacher (1895-1986)

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• Introduction • Brief Life Profile • His Philosophy of Life as Spirit of Education for His Follower • An Estimate • Questions for Exercise Bibliography

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Index

368

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PART ONE INTRODUCTORY 1Foundations of Indian Education India is a unique land in the whole world for many reasons. It is the only land where religion of humanity (Manav Dharma) has not only been shaped but perfected and practiced before any civilization came into existence. It is the birth place of many religious faiths such as Sanatan (eternal), Vedic, Buddhism, Jainism, Sikhism and many more but no one preaching hatred against any other faith while preaching its ideology because each religious faith born in India had its roots in the religion of humanity (Manav Dharma). Apart from it, the religious faiths which came to India from outside though at times tried to kill Indian religious faiths yet failed and had to co-exist with original Indian--religious faiths and the religion of humanity while enjoying equal respect for them from Indian masses and thus, they became a part of enlightened Indian culture and civilization. It is this aspect of Indian history, culture and civilization, philosophy and education as well as religion of humanity which had earned India a pride place in the civilization of the world, which deserves to be preserved at all cost for the good of humanity at large and Indians in particular as a land of spirituality and high learning, as it was in the past. During the entire course of history and even prior to it, education has always been and during the entire course in future, till eternity, education will remain the axis of all human 2 developments—be it spiritual, moral, mental, ethical, political economic, social, material, scientific or any other form of it; in all parts of the world. The pivatal center for effecting these developments has always been and will always be the human being, who will shape his thinking and working in accordance to his character, therefore, greater emphasis has to be given to character building through education, which has always been the core of aspect of Indian education system and structure, since early days of human civilization till date. The above discussion clearly outlines the basic features, i.e. essentials, fundamentals, aims, objectives, aspects, nature and goals of Indian education system. Our history of civilization is very old starting from Manav Dharma (Religion of Humanity), Vedic system, Post-vedic system, Brahmanic system—the system of Sutras, Smrities, Purana's, Epics, etc., and thereafter Buddhism, Jainism, etc. each one of these periods had their own system of education alike their philosophies. Concerning God and religious faiths, yet having their roots in Manav Dharma, therefore, their methods though some how different for various human deeds, yet their basic goals were almost the same. There is no text available of the Manav Dharma period of civilization, but it is based on vital and unanimous truth of life, therefore, these values were inherited by all the philosophies and religious faiths which originated in India. This principle is equally applicable to our system of education.

The Rig-Veda is the oldest text available in the world and thereafter other Vedas were composed. Upanishads and other texts of Hinduism originated on much later dates. The linguistic, and literary richness and soundness of perfect philosophical ideals and principles including ideals concerning education are indicative that we enjoyed the fruits of a very advanced culture and civilization in the whole world. Here it needs a mention that in good old days our knowledge was based on listening (Sruti) and learning (Remembering). Reading and writing was not the major aspect of our educational system. In the words of Dr. Radha Kumud Mukherjee: "For thousands of years ... it was considered a sacrilege to reduce the Veda to writing, for learning was not reading but realisation and knowledge was to be in the blood, as an organic part of one's self". Hereunder, we record in brief 3 the account of philosophy of Vedic and Upanishadic education which with some modifications remained in practice during entire periods of ancient and medieval India and to some extent even today.

PHILOSOPHY OF VEDIC AND UPANISHADIC EDUCATION The cause of liberation and bondage, according to Vedic thinker, is the mind or chitta. Therefore, liberation is possible only through the control of the mind. This was known as the technique of chitta-vratti nirodh. The Indian philosophers developed a whole technique for the control of the mind. Equanimity of the mind leads to self-realization. This self is neither individual nor social self but Brahman which is the essence of the individual and the society. The Vedic axiology does not distinguish between the social and the individual values since according to it both are part of the fundamental universal values. The ancient Indian education was even more developed by the Upanishads. While in the field of religion the Upanishads were more introvert and monistic, they continued the tradition of the Vedas. This tradition was oral. In the words of Radha Kumud Mukerjee, "For thousands of years, even up to the time of Kumarila (8th century A.D.) it was considered a sacrilege to reduce the Veda to writing, for learning was not reading but realization, and knowledge was to be in the blood, as an organic part of one's self. Another point to be noted in this connection is that sabda or sound by itself has its own potency and value, apart from its sense, and its intrinsic attributes, its rhythm, and vibrations should be captured. Sabda is Brahma." According to ancient Indian philosophy knowledge may be gained by three steps, Shravan or hearing, Manan or meditation and Nididhyasan or realization. Shravan or hearing was further categorised into six types—(i) upakrama, a formal ceremony performed preceding the study of Veda, (ii) abhyasa, recitation of the texts, (iii) apurvata, a ready grasp of the meaning, (iv) phala, a comprehension of the outcome, (v) arthavada, the reading of elucidatory books, and (vi) upapatti, attainment of final conclusion. 4

TYPES OF EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS Describing the condition of education in ancient India, P.N. Prabhu has said, "Education in ancient India was free from any external control like that of the State or Government or any party politics. It was one of the king's duties to see that the learned pundits pursued their studies and their duty of imparting knowledge without interference from any source whatever. So also education did not suffer from any communal interest or prejudices in India". There were three types of educational institutions: 1. Gurukula. This, as the name indicates, was the family of the teacher and his residence where the students, used to stay during the period of study. Gradually, the Gurukula were extended to include a number of buildings. However, the institution was built up around the family of teacher. The primary duty of the student was to serve the teacher and his family. The students were like sons of the teacher and the whole institution lived like a family. 2. Parishad. These were bigger educational institutions where several teachers used to teach different subjects. This may be compared to a college. 3. Sammelan. Sammelan literally means getting together for a particular purpose. In this type of educational institutions scholars gathered at one place for discussions and competitions, generally on the invitation of the king.

DISCIPLINE The Vedic system of education very much emphasized the importance of discipline in the attainment of knowledge. This,

however, was self-discipline. In fact, it was self control which was realized by observance of rules of the Brahmacharya Ashrama. These rules will be discussed in details in sequence. The Parishads or the local academies were initiated by the king. Therefore, the scholars and aspirants of knowledge gathered at the Parishad with perfect academic order. There was hardly any need for insisting upon rules and regulations as these were laid down by scriptures. No one questioned the scripture's 5 command concerning discipline. Therefore, discipline was self-imposed as a part of self-culture.

EDUCATION IN THE ASHRAMA SYSTEM Education, according to Vedic system, is the sole aim of Brahmacharya Ashrama. All the details concerning education have been given in the context of Brahmacharya Ashrama. Meaning of Ashrama According to Sanskrit Hindi Dictionary of VS. Apte the term 'Ashrama' means stages, monastery, duties, etc. Writing in Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, the German scholar Paul Deussen gives two meanings to the word 'ashram' : (1) That place where people labour or make efforts, (2) To labour or make efforts. The word 'ashrama' comes from the Sanskrit root 'srama' giving the meaning of making an effort. In this way 'Ashrama' literally means a step in the journey of life. In the words of P.V. Kane, "The word 'Ashrama' is derived from 'srama', to exert, to labour and etymologically means a stage in which one exerts oneself". According to Hindu ethics, the final aim of life is liberation. And every 'Ashrama' is a step in the long journey to that aim. "The whole of the life of a human individual is for the Hindu," says P.H. Valvalker, "a kind of schooling and self-discipline". In the Shanti Parva of Mahabharata, Saint Vedavyasa has described Ashrama as a four rung ladder which takes one in the direction of Brahman. Vedavyasa says, "Chatuspadi hi nihsreni brahman yesha Pratishthita I Etanaruhya nihsreni bralunaloke mahiyate" In this way, in each Ashrama the person prepares himself for every succeeding ashrama state. Literally, an ashrama is a halting place. The ashrama system is a means of systematic development for the better life. Dr. P.M. Modi has tried to prove that in the beginning there were only three ashramas and that Vanprastha and Sanyasa were considered as one ashrama. He has cited instances in his favour from Chhandogya Upanishad and Manu Smriti. It is in Jabala Upanishad that one finds the mention of four ashramas for the first time. This scheme of the stages of life during the period preceding Dharmashastras 6 was rather indefinite. They were made definite for the first time by Dharmashastras. The Dharmashastras maintained clearly that each individual should normally pass through the four stages of life known as ashramas. In the second chapter of Manu Smriti, the author has described in details the characteristics and the activities of Brahmacharya Ashrama. The third chapter describes the duties of Grihastha Ashrama. The fourth chapter describes this ashrama in four varnas. The Vanprastha Ashrama has been discussed in chapter sixth. This chapter also discusses the last ashrama known as Sanyasa. Thus, according to Dharmashastras, the stages of human individual's life are four : Brahmacharya, Grihastha, Vanprastha and Sanyasa. Of these, at last three have been described by Upanishads before Dharmashastras. According to P.V. Kane, "The word ashrama does not occur in the Samhitas or Brahmanas. But this cannot be stretched to mean that the stages of life denoted by this word in the Sutras were unknown throughout the Vedic period". Number of Ashramas From the times of the most ancient Dharmasutras the number of ashramas has been four, though there are slight differences in the nomenclature and in their sequence. According to Ap. Dharmasutras, "There are four ashramas, viz. (staying in) the teacher's house, the stage of householder, stage of being a muni, the stage of being a forest dweller". According to Gaut. Dharmasutra, there are four ashramas; brahmachari, grihastha, bhikshu and vaikhanasa. According to Vas. Dharmasutras, there are four ashramas, brahmachari, grihastha, vanaprastha and parivrajaka. According to Manu Smriti there are four ashramas, the last being called Yati and also Sanyasa. According to Manu Smriti the span of human life is 100 years though all do not live to that age. In fact, it is the maximum age one can expect to reach. This has been divided into four parts so that one may lead an all-round integral life. It is not necessary that each of these stages should be lived for 25 years, it may be more or less. However, normally the span of each ashrama was prescribed as 25 years. According to Manu Smriti the first part of man's life is Brahmacharya in which he learns at his teacher's house and after he has finished his study, in the second part of his life he marries and becomes a householder,

7 discharges his debts to his ancestors by begetting sons and to the Gods by performing yajnas. Then, when he sees that his head has grey hair and that there are wrinkles on his body he resorts to the forest, i.e., becomes a vanaprastha. After spending the third part of his life in the forest, for some time he spends the rest of his life as a sanyasin. Similar rules have been laid down by other Dharmashastras with, of course, minor differences here and there. For example, according to Baudhayana Dharmashastra, the stage of sanyasa starts after the 70th year. Interpretation of this Scheme The abovementioned scheme of four ashramas was interpreted from three different point of view, as follows : 1. Samuchchaya (orderly co-ordination). According to this view a person can resort to the four ashramas one after another in order and that he may not drop any one or more and pass on to the next nor may he resort to the householder's life after becoming a sanyasin. This view was primarily supported by Manu. This view lays emphasis upon the householder since the other ashramas depend upon it. Most of the Dharmashastras push the last two ashramas in the background so much so that according to some of them these are forbidden in the Kali age. 2. Vikalpa (option). According to this view there is an option after Brahmacharya, i.e., a man may become a parivrajaka immediately after he finishes his study or immediately after the householder's way of life. This view has been supported by Vashista Dharmashastra, Yajnavalkya Smriti and other. 3. Buddha (annulment or contradiction). According to this view there is really one ashrama and that is that of the householder. The first stage is a mere preparation for this ashrama while the other last two ashramas are inferior to it. This view was supported by Gautama and Baudhayana. According to Gautama, there is only one ashrama. According to Baudhayana the ashramas other than that of householder do not beget off-spring and are therefore not much important. It was due to the influence of this viewpoint that almost all the Dharmashastras praise the ashrama of householder as the highest. This is particularly important from the point of view 8 of provision for social development, progress, stability and justice. In spite of the above three views about the following of the ashrama system, the general view believes that all the four ashramas have their value and details about the activities and duties of all these ashramas have been prescribed by Dharmashastras. Some have clearly pointed out that there is no distinction due to a superiority among the four ashramas. Other maintained that the householder's life was the rule and other ashramas were for the blind and other incapable persons. This view has been vehemently opposed by others. Brahmacharya Ashrama The first of the four ashramas is Brahmacharya Ashrama. It starts with the Upanayana ceremony. Brahmacharya means the leading of the life like a Brahman. In this ashrama, the student or Brahmachari lived upto 25 years of age with his teacher studying the Vedas and leading a life of self-control. The education and control of the Brahmacharya prepared a person for future life. Certain rules and observances are prescribed for all Brahmacharins. They are of two kinds, some are prescribed for a very short time and some have to be observed for all the years of studenthood. The first kind of observances were generally concerned with studies. The second kind of observances, i.e., those which have to be observed throughout this period were concerned with the daily routine and general discipline of the persons in this stage of life. Of the two, the later was definitely more important. These are principally achamana, gurususrusa, vaksamyma (silence), samidhadana. The Smritis have laid down detailed rules about these observances. The rules centre principally around agniparicharya (worshipping fire), bhikslia (begging for food), sandhyopasana, study of Veda and its methods and duration, avoidance of certain foods and drinks and other matters like singing, etc., gurususrusa. (including honouring him and his family and other elders) and the special vratas of the Brahmachari. The rules about different aspects of the students life also fall in the category of the rules about Brahmacharya Ashrama. 9

ASPECTS OF VEDIC EDUCATION

Teacher as a Pivot The pivot of the whole educational system of ancient India was the teacher variously called acharya, guru, upaddhyaya. In Manu and other Smritis there is some divergence about the greatness of the acharya. According to Mamu Smriti, the father (Janaka) and the teacher are called father (Pita) but the father who imparts the sacred Veda is superior to the father who gives birth, since the birth in spiritual learning is for a Brahmin of eternal benefit, here and hereafter. But in another place, Manu says that an acharya is ten times superior to an upadhyaya, the father is superior to a hundred acharyas. According to Gautama, the acharya is the highest among all gurus while according to some, the mother is the highest. According to Yajnavalkya Smriti, the mother is higher than the acharya. The Dharmashastras define the acharya as one who performs the upanayana of the student and imparts the whole Veda to him. The Nirukta defines acharya as follows : he makes the student understand the proper course of conduct, or he collects wealth from the student or gathers together the meaning of words, or he increases the intelligence of the student. According to Ap. Dharmasutra, "The acharya is so-called since the student gathers his duties from him". According to Manu Smriti, the teacher, after performing upanayana, teaches his pupil the rules about saucha (bodily purity), achara (rules of conduct in every day life), the offering of fuel-stick in fire and sandhya or adoration. Though the words acharya, guru and upaddhyaya are very often used as synonyms, ancient writers made a distinction between them. According to Manu Smriti, an upaddhyaya is one who teaches to a student a portion of the Vedas or the Vedangas (subsidiary lores of the Veda) as a means of his own livelihood and a guru is one who performs the samsakars and who maintains the child. This latter definition shows that guru means the father here. According to Yajnavalkya Smriti, the guru is one who performs the samsakars and imparts the Veda. This corroborates the statement made above that originally the father himself taught the Vedas to his son. The word guru is often used in the sense of any elderly person, male or female who is entitled to respect. 10 According to Manu Smriti, whoever confers on another the benefit of knowledge, whether great or small, is the latter's guru. All these praises of the guru by the Dharmashastras show that they held knowledge as the highest value and insisted upon the sense of gratitude in every one who achieved knowledge. Faith in the teacher was a necessary qualification for the achievement of knowledge. It is undeniable that this glorification of the teacher may have left to some of them loosing their needs but in contrast to the modern western philosophy of education it has its advantages. In fact, both these extremes are unjust, the former to the educand and the latter to the educator. In a just system of education both should be given a proper place. The Dharmashastras have not praised the teacher without any reason. They have insisted upon very high qualifications for being a teacher. They have warned about the dangers of entrusting the job of a teacher to persons not worthy of it. According to Ap. Dharmasutra, he whom a teacher devoid of learning, initiates enters from darkness into darkness and he also (an acharya) who is himself unlearned (enters into darkness). It further provides that one should desire a performer of one's upanayana who is endowed with learning and whose family is hereditarily learned and who is serene in mind and that one should study Vedic lore under him up to the end (of Brahmacharya) as long as the teacher does not fall off from the path of dharma. Similar qualifications have been laid down by other Dharmashastras. The teacher had to be a Brahmana, learned in Veda, knowing Dharma, pure, coming from a good family and having an ideal character. In educational system also the Dharmashastras have insisted upon the varna hierarchy. It has been generally maintained that Brahmana should be the teacher. According to the Vayupuran, as to acharya in upanayana must be a Brahmana; as to the study of the Vedas one should ordinarily learn the Vedas from a Brahmana teacher; in times of difficulty (i.e., when a Brahmana is not available) one may learn the Vedas from a Kshatriya or Vaisya teacher; but in such circumstances the only service that a Brahmana student rendered to the guru would be following after the non-Brahmana teacher; he had not to render bodily service (such as shampooing or 11 washing the feet, etc.). The Mit. on Yajnavalkya Smriti remarks that a Kshatriya or Vaisya should teach a Brahmana only when urged by him and not at his sweet will. Manu allowed only teaching to a Kshatriya, but did not allow him to make it a means of his livelihood. In fact, the Indian thinkers prescribed a social structure with definite division of labour and permitted only exceptions in certain cases. They

very much insisted upon keeping the social structure in tact and not violating it. This rigidity had obviously resulted in so many disadvantages but it also facilitated continuity, regularity and order in social system. Method of Instruction The method of instruction of education was generally oral. The first thing that was taught to the boy was the pranava and the vyahrtis and the Gayatri. Then the boy was to be taught other parts of the Vedas. Detailed instructions were laid down about the method of teaching. According to Manu Smriti, the student should sip water (achamana) when about to begin vedic study, should face the north, should fold both hands together (and place them on his knee), should wear light (pure) clothes, should at the beginning and end of vedic study, clasp the feet of the teacher with crossed hands and should touch the right foot of the teacher with his own right and left foot with the left hand, should repeat 'Om' at the beginning and at the end of vedic study. The teacher should say to the pupil 'repeat' and should stop from teaching with the words 'let there be a pause'. The study of the Vedas was the first duty of every twice born person (Dvijati). According to Manu Smriti, the whole Vedas together with Upanishads were to be learnt by every Dvijati. According to Yajnavalkya Smriti, it is Vedas alone that confers the highest bliss upon Dvijatis by enabling them to understand and perform sacrifices, austerities and auspicious acts (like samsakars). Since the literature was very wide, concessions had to be made to the shortness of human life and the weakness of the human mind. Therefore, generally it was prescribed that one should study the Shakha of the Vedas which his ancestors studied and should perform religious rites according to it. As the shady of the Vedas 12 was a duty enjoined upon a Brahmana, so teaching Vedas to another was a duty. This exclusive glorification of the Brahmins very much led to what N.K. Dutt describes as the "pride of scholasticism" among the professed scholars. And it has been rightly pointed out by S. Cromwell Crawford, "Compounded with racial and sacerdotal pride, the pride of scholasticism elevated barriers between Brahmins and non-Brahmins". In this way, the good effect of the strictness of Brahmacharya in specialising learning and in enforcing high moral discipline was neutralised by the increased rigidness and hauteur of caste, which is one of the many factors making India a land of contrasts.

EDUCATOR'S DUTIES It should not be supposed that the Dharmashastras, while insisting upon educands' respect towards the educator, used less strict words while insisting upon educators' duty towards the educand. In fact, the educational relationship was a two-way relationship. It was reciprocal. According to Apastamb Dharmasutra, Loving him like his own son, and full of attention, he shall teach him the sacred science, without hiding anything in the whole law. And he shall not use him for his own purpose to the detriment of his studies, except in times of distress. The pupil who, attending to (teacher), accuses his (principal and first) teacher of ignorance, remains no (longer) a pupil. A teacher also, who neglects the instruction (of his pupil), does no longer remain a teacher. The purport of education was the moral and intellectual growth of the students. These two elements were never separated. Indeed, the later was contingent upon the former. According to the Sacred Law, only the person who is pure may be instructed in the Vedas. Neither (the study of) the Vedas, nor liberality, nor sacrifices, nor any (self-imposed) restraint, nor austerities, ever procure the attainment (of rewards) to a man whose heart is contaminated (by sensuality). Moral culture not only preceded intellectual culture, but was the weightier of the two. A Brahmana, who completely governs himself, though he knows the Savitri only, is better than he who knows the three Vedas, (but) does not control himself. 13

ABSENCE OF SOCIAL JUSTICE The absence of social justice in education is particularly observed in case of partiality towards the education of all the varnas other than Brahmin and also of the women. These were given a secondary place. Literary education among women was in a languishing state. Therefore, there was no question of coeducation. Not much material is available about the education of Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Sudras.

The entire education system was entrusted to Brahmanas. Summing up the state of education in Dharmashastras, P.V. Kane has written, "The salient features of the educational system outlined in the Dharmashastras works are the high and honourable position assigned to the teacher, the close personal contact of the pupil with the teacher and individual attention, the pupil's stay with the teacher as a member of his family, oral instruction and the absence of books, stern discipline and control of emotions and the will, cheapness as no fees were stipulated for". The Ancient Indian system of education during Vedic, post-Vedic and Brahmanical periods, as stated above was almost the same but Buddhism had some reservation on subjects concerning Brahmanical religion, therefore, hereunder a brief account of Buddhist philosophy of life and its philosophy of education is given : Gautama the Buddha revolted against the prevalent Brahmanical religion. He was against the rigid classification according to Varnas. He established equality among people. He particularly pleaded for simplification of life. It is hence that he ignored meta-physical questions and concentrated upon practical ethics. However, it has been rightly pointed out that Buddha was born, lived and died a Hindu. It is hence that one finds a covert continuation of Brahmanical tradition in the Buddhist system of education. Life the ancient Indian philosophy, Buddha also considered Dharma as the highest aim of life. What was preached was known as Dharma. The monasteries and the Buddhist Sangha aimed at the preaching of Dharma. Continuation of Brahmanical Tradition The following may be considered as the characteristics showing continuation of the Brahmanical tradition in the Buddhist system of education : 14 1. Educational institutions. The Buddhist Sangh was parallel to the Gurukula of the Hindus. It was the centre of Buddhist system of education. As R.K. Mukherjee has pointed out, "The Buddhist system is practically that of the Buddhist order or Sangha. Buddhist education and learning centred around monasteries as Vedic culture centred around the sacrifice. The Buddhist world did not offer any educational opportunities apart from or independently of its monasteries. All education sacred as well as secular was in the hand of monks". The following description of Nalanda, the famous Buddhist University by the Chinese traveller Huen Tsang may be equally taken as a description of a Hindu Gurukula : "The priests, to the number of several thousands, are men of highest ability and talent. Their distinction is very great at the present time, and there are may hundreds whose fame has rapidly spread through distant regions. Their conduct is pure and unbearable. They follow in sincerity the precept of moral law. From morning till night they engage in discussions. The old and the young mutually help one another". 2. Going out of home for education. Both the Brahmanical tradition and the Buddhist system of education agreed in the rule that the student had to leave his home and reside with the teacher. This was known as Pabbajja according to the Buddhist tradition. The student in ancient India was known as antevasi or one who lives out of his home. Describing the condition that the student should leave all the marks of their family life while joining an educational institution, the Buddha laid down, "As the great streams, O! disciple, however, may they may be Ganga, Yamuna, Achiravati, Sarayu, Mani—when they reach the great ocean lose their old name and their old descent and bear only one name, the great ocean, so also, my disciple, those four castes, Nobles, Brahmins, Vaishyas and Sudras, when they, in accordance with the law and doctrine which the perfect one has preached, forsake their home and go into homelessness, lose their old name and whole paternity, bear only one designation, ascetics, who follow the son of the Sakya house". One who took the path of Pabbajja was known as Pabbajji or one had become a homeless for the cause of education. 15 3. Minimum age for initiation. Both the Brahmanical system and the Buddhist system of education admitted the age of eight years as the minimum age for initiation in education. Both considered the period of twelve years as the minimum period for studentship. The word Brahamachari corresponds to the Buddhist epithet Samnera, which meant the student who has been initiated. 4. Service of the teacher. Like the ancient Brahmanical system the Buddhist system also insisted upon the duty of the student to serve his teacher by all means. The teacher in both the systems taught only as many students as he could cope with.

DIFFERENCE FROM BRAHMANICAL SYSTEM

In spite of the above similarities with the Brahmanical system of education, the Buddhist system exhibited some fundamental differences. Of these the most important are as follows : 1. Federated institutions. While Gurukula was developed around the family of a single teacher, most of the Buddhist educational institutions were large units including thousands of students and a number of teachers. Thus, Vihar or the Buddhist monastery was a federated educational institution on the patterns of a modern university. Describing this distinction R.K. Mukerjee has maintained, "While Brahmanical culture depended upon the system of individual schools and ideal succession of teachers and disciples, the Buddhist culture was the product of the confederation of such schools into larger monastic institutions comprising a number of teachers and students (sometimes as many as 10000 as at Nalanda) promoting a partaking of a wider, collective, academic life with its own advantages as an educational and educative agency and factor. 2. Opposed to caste system. While some of the Brahmin teachers used to teach only Brahmins, others also considered varna while giving admissions to the student. The Buddhist system of education, on the other hand, insisted that the student may be admitted on his personal merits and not on the basis of family or caste. The Buddhist nuns and monks, therefore, came from all castes. 3. Medium of instruction. While the Brahmanical education was given in Sanskrit, the language of the elite, the Buddhist 16 system of education insisted upon Pali or Prakrat and other popular languages as the medium of instruction. This was another step towards democratisation of education and making it popular. 4. Aim of education. The aim of education according to Buddhist system, was to influence the younger sections of society according to the Buddhist thought. To fulfil this primary aim, its secondary aim was to train monks and nuns for the purpose. Therefore, the system has a missionary aim. However, gradually the monastic schools admitted even the lay students. 5. Curriculum. In concurrence with the above mentioned aim of education, the Buddhist system developed a curriculum around Buddhist religion. However, gradually it also included comparative study of Hinduism and Jainism. The curriculum which initially included theology, philosophy and logic was gradually extended to Sanskrit literature, astronomy, astrology, medicine, law, polity, administration, music, art and technical education concerning so many trades. Thus, the curriculum of the Buddhist universities was almost as much versatile and varied as any of the modern university. Therefore, the institution used to attract students not only from all parts of India but also from distant countries such as Korea, China and Tibet.

VALUE OF BUDDHIST SYSTEM The following points may be noted about the value of the influence of Buddhist system in the history of education in India: 1. Popular education. As has been already pointed out, the Buddhist system of education laid the foundation of popular education in India. The Vihars admitted students from all castes, classes and races. Merit was the basis of admission. As the medium of education was the popular language, therefore, ordinary people were encouraged to send their sons to the educational institutions. The teachings and sermons of teachers were easily followed by the ordinary men and women. 2. Wide based education. By offering educational facilities to men and women of all castes and classes the Buddhist system made education wide based. 17 3. Evolution of medicine and surgery. The Buddhist system evolved medicine and surgery to a very high level. 4. Contribution to logic. The Buddhist scholars made a significant contribution to Indian Logic. 5. Professional Education. The Buddhist system laid down the foundations of professional education in India. It trained pathologists and the logicians besides experts in other trades. Takshshila was famous for medical education. The course of medical education extended to a period of seven years after which practical examination was held for evaluation. Medical Botany was taught by first hand acquaintance with the medical plants. Surgery was developed to a very high level. Thus, the Buddhist institutions trained great physicians and great teachers of medicine, like Nalanda, Kandaraggisama,

Dhanwantari, Angirasa, Kapila, Atula and Pubba Kacchayana. The disciples of these famous teachers were renowned physicians in principal cities of India like Saket, Varanasi and Rajgriha etc. The above brief survey of the Buddhist system of education shows that after the Brahmanical system and before the Muslim system, the Buddhist system of education presented a developed system of education which was well known not only in India but throughout Asia if not the whole world. With the Buddhism the ancient Indian Vedic and Upanishadic system did not end and thereafter till the establishment of Muslim rule in some parts of India in 10th century A.D. both Vedic and Upanishadic as well as Buddhist systems worked well. Hereunder a very brief account of education under Muslim rulers is given as it joined Vedic, Upanishadic and Buddhist systems of education during medieval period of Indian history.

EDUCATION UNDER MUSLIM RULERS The Muslim rule was established in India in 10th century A.D. As the Muslim rulers firmly established their kingdoms in India, they started and patronised educational institutions with the twin purpose of educating the Muslims and the propagation of the Islam among non-Muslims. Even where the propagation of Islam was not a direct aim, the Muslim educational institutions generally concentrated on Islamic education. Thus the aim of 18 education under Muslim rulers was essentially religious. However, it may be remembered in this connection that Akbar, the famous secular king, established Madarsahs where Hindus were taught Hindu religion and literature. This was so since Akbar, as a shrewd politician, did not want to interfere in the religion of the Hindus. However, the general characteristic of education under the Muslim rulers after Akbar, continued to be religious. Aurangazeb, the last Mughal emperor, almost wiped off all traces of secularism from the educational system and made it absolutely religious if not sectarian. Kinds of Institutions Education under the Muslim rulers was given in the following two types of educational institutions : 1. Makatabs. The Makatab was a primary school attached to a mosque. Practically, every mosque had an attached Makatab where the Mullah used to teach the Koran to Muslim children. Koran was primarily remembered orally. This scripture was held as the most sacred preaching of Mohammed the prophet. 2. Madarsah. The Madarsah was a school or college for higher learning. Its products were appointed to important government posts. It also provided for education in arts and crafts, architecture, agriculture, medicine and commerce and so many practical trades. Even now, some popular Madarsahs are great centres of Muslim education in India, such as the Madarsah at Delhi, Rampur, Lucknow, Allahabad, Aligarh, Deoband, to name only a few. The medium of instruction in these institutions was persian which was also the language of the Muslim courts. This facilitated government jobs for those who were educated at the Madarsahs. These educational institutions received huge financial grants from the government besides occasional donations from the rich people. Big libraries were attached to these institutions. The age of admission to the Makatab was four years, four months and four days. The initiation was made through persian script. From the Makatab the student entered the Madarsah. Besides recitation of religious scripture, lecture was the main method of education. Practical training in arts and trades was demonstrated by trainers and learnt by the students under their guidance. 19 Discipline The discipline at the Muslim institutions of education was rigorous. Corporal punishment was given even for minor disobedience. The teachers were adept in torturing the disobedient students in various ways. The teacher-taughtrelationship was far from being informal and intimate. However, normally the students were obedient and therefore there was hardly much disharmony. Women Education While the ancient Indian system of education and the Buddhist system provided for women's education, the Muslim institutions admitted very few girls. Generally in rich families individual tutors were engaged to teach girls with full

observance of the rule of purdah.

QUESTIONS FOR EXERCISE 1. Explain the meaning and ideals of Vedic Education. 2. Describe the characteristics of Vedic Education. 3. What was the aim of Upanishadic Education and write a note on the importance of Teacher in Education? 4. Write a note on the Similarities and Dissimilarities between Buddhist and Brahmanical systems of education. 5. Write a note on the aspects of Vedic Education. 20

2 Features and Spirit of Education During Ancient and Medieval India The study of the first chapter gives almost a comprehensive account of Vedic and Upanishadic education as well as an outline concept of Buddhist and Islamic education which are considered as foundations of Indian education. For better understanding of the nature of entire ancient and medieval Indian education system hereunder a very brief account of the same is presented to bring out the features and spirit of the system, which is the basis of entire thinking about education even to-day and which had always been the prime aspect of thought for almost all great educators included in this book.

ANCIENT EDUCATION—BASIC FEATURES Hindu Society from the earliest times considered the education of its members as one of its primary obligations—this, indeed, was an integral part of the system upon which society was based.The system is know n as Varnarama Dharma according to which life was regulated by its division into different classes (Varnas) and stages (Ashramas). The classes were based upon division of labour and social functions and were marked out as four to start with. Caste distinctions were further reduced by a second principle of social organization which divided life into four stages, each 21 with its own rules and disciplines binding upon everyone. Men belonging to those stages were respectively called Brahmacharin, Grhastha, Vanaprastha (ascetic), and Parivrajaka (a homeless wandering ascetic). The last two stages signify renunciation of the world, the individual no longer engrossed in the cares and concerns of his personal householder's life, devotes himself to his gradual expansion into the Universal (Atman as the sole and only Reality). These stages or Ashramas of life were normal and obligatory for all. Persons belonging to different castes or groups were drawn together by virtue of their conformity to the common rules of the Ashramas in which their social differences and inequalities were submerged. The first period of life, that of a student was made binding upon all by the social system so that even higher education was universal and compulsory. Learning in ancient India was imparted by the teacher to the pupils who gathered around him and came to live in his house as members of his family. The family functioned as a domestic school, an Ashrama or a hermitage where the mental faculties of the pupils were developed by the teacher's constant attention and personal instruction. Education, treated as a matter of individual concern, did not admit of the method of mass production applicable in industry. The making of man was regarded as an artistic and not a mechanical process. Indeed, the aim of education was the developing of the pupil's personality, his innate and latent capacities. This view of education as a process of one's inner growth and self-fulfilment evolved its own technique, its rules methods and practices. It recognized that the making of man was primarily the training of his mind as the instrument of acquiring knowledge, so as to increase its intrinsic potency and creative capacity. The thinking principle, manana sakti, was reckoned higher than the subject of thinking. So the primary subject of education was the mind itself. The great psychologist of ancient India, Patanjali, author of the Yoga-Sutras, analyses the conditions of the mind and points out five stages in its growth. According to the ancient Indian theory of education, the training of the mind and the process of thinking are essential for the acquisition of knowledge. The chase counts more than the game. So the pupil had mainly to educate himself and

achieve his own mental growth. 22 Education was reduced to the three simple processes of Sravana, Manana and Niddhyasana, Sravana was listening to the truths as they fell from the lips of the teacher. Knowledge was technically called Sruti or that was heard by the ear and no what was seen in writing. It was the system of oral tradition by which learning was transmitted from teacher to pupil in an unbroken chain called Guruparamparya. The second process of knowledge called Manana implies that the pupil has to think out for himself the meaning of the lessons imparted to him orally by his teacher so that they may be assimilated fully. The third step known as Niddhyasana means complete comprehension by the pupil of the truth that is taught so that he may live the truth and not merely explain it by word. Knowledge must culminate in realization. The usual type of educational institution in ancient times was the domestic school known as Gurukula or the home of the teacher with whom the pupils came to live as antevasin, members of his family. The admission was made by the formal ceremony of upanayana or initiation by which the pupil left the home of his natural parents for that of the preceptor. In this new home he had a second birth and was called Dvija, twice-born. He had his physical birth at the home of his natural parents but his spiritual birth at the place of his preceptor, where he accepted Brahmacharya with its strict discipline of life, regulations about dress, diet, study, social service and religious practices. Tending the cattle of the Ashrama and begging for alms for the brotherhood were the Brahmacharin's compulsory duties. It was an educative outdoor life. Begging had its moral reactions on the youths. Tending cattle was practical education in dairy farming as a source of nutritive food. Besides these regular schools of instruction, there were special institutions for the promotion of advanced study and research. These are called in the RgVeda as Brahmana-Sanghas. Academies of learned men, whose discussions hammered into shape the very language of the country, the refined language of Sanskrit (Samskrta) as the vehicle of highest thought. These Academies were called Parishads; there is a reference to the Panchala Parishad in the Upanishads, in whose proceedings even kings participated. 23 Learning was also promoted by discussions at public meetings which were a regular feature of rural life, and were addressed by wandering scholars known as Carakas. These scholars toured the country to deliver public discourses and invite discussion. The Upanishads refer to the scholars from East travelling towards the far North in order to contact learned men. A great fillip was given to the spread of knowledge and extension of education by the occasional gatherings of distinguished scholars in conferences. What might count as the earliest literary congress of the world was the Congress of Philosophers which was convened by king Janaka of Videha at his court and helped in the codification of Brahmanical philosophy by discussing the subject under the direction of the master-philosopher, Yajnavalkya. In these deliberations at the highest level, a lady-philosopher named Gargi was a prominent participant besides men like Uddalaka Aruni. Obviously, in those days women were admitted to the highest knowledge and did not suffer from any educational disabilities. There was equality between the sexes in the field of knowledge. The Rg-Veda mentions womenRsis called Brahmavadinis. At the close of the Congress of Philosophers, king Janaka gave royal recognition to Rsi Yajnavalkya by conferring upon him the rich prize of 1,000 cows each of whose horns carried 5 padas or gold-pieces totalling a gift of 10,000 gold-pieces. The best example of India's achievement in education was the Mahavihara or University of Nalanda. To this central institution were affiliated the individual viharas or colleges serving as units of residence. Nalanda was a post-graduate university for advanced study and research and counted on its permanent rolls 8,500 students who were taught by 1,510 teachers. We owe this information to the Chinese pilgrim Hiuen Tsang who was a resident student of the university for five years. Another Chinese scholar named I-tsing spent ten years there. Nalanda was also famous for its "Schools of Discussion" as noted by the Chinese pilgrim. It may be noted that Nalanda as a centre of advanced study included in its enrolment a large proportion of foreign students who hailed from countries like Korea, Mongolia, Japan, China, Tukhara, Tibet and Ceylon. Some of these foreign students

assumed 24 Indian names. For instance, Hiuan Chao called himself Prakasamati, Tao-shing Candradeva and Tao Hi Srideva. Nalanda counted as its teachers master-minds like Silabhadra, the President of the University, Nagarjuna, Arya Deva, Asanga, Vasubandhu, and Dinnaga, some of whom were founders of philosophical system. The university had its own seal bearing the inscription. It had a library which was housed in three buildings one of which was of nine storeys and named Ratnasagara, 'ocean of gems of learning'. Nalanda had hostels (viharas) whose tops "kissed the clouds". The university was maintained by grants of lands. Emperor Harsa made to it a gift of 100 villages. It was a centre of study for humanities, religion and philosophy and also for arts and crafts (silpasthanavidya) including medicine. It produced images in stone and bronze under its great masters. Foreign students had their own hostels. The most renowned was the hostel or vihara for students from Java constructed with a donation from their king Balaputradeva, 'Lord of Suvarna-dvipa and Yava-bhumi'; this is recorded in an inscription of the then reigning king of Magadha, Devapaladeva, to whom the donation was sent. The endowment provided the students with all their necessaries such as food, clothing, accommodation (satra), bed (sayanasana), medicines (bhesajyadi) and pens (lekhanadi) together with their religious needs (bali and caru).

MEDIEVAL EDUCATION—BASIC FEATURES During this period both Muslim and Hindu systems of education remained in force. Brief details concerning these two systems are given hereunder : Muslim Education The traditions of Muslim education as they had developed under the 'Abbasids of Baghdad were the nucleus of the Muslim educational system in India. Within a century of its foundation, the Sultanate of Delhi came to occupy an unrivalled place in the sphere of Muslim education. During the reign of 'Alau'd-din Khalji (A.D. 1296-1316), scholars of Bukhara, Samarqand, Iraq and Khwarazm looked to India for guidance and inspiration in academic matters. Amir 25 Khusraw regarded Indian learning superior to that of such centres as Ray, Isfahan and Rum. According to Dia-u'd-din Barani, the scholars of this country attained the stature of Ghazali and Razi. The basic feature of Muslim educational system was that it was traditional in spirit and theological in content. Its main purpose was to stabilize a body of beliefs. The curriculum was broadly divided into two categories: the manqulat and the ma'qulat, the former dealing with traditional and the latter with rational sciences. The institutions which provided elementary education were known as maktabs, while those of higher learning were called madrasahs. While the maktabs were generally run by public donations, rulers or nobles maintained the higher centres of learning. One comes across the following types of institutions during this period: (a) those established and maintained by the rulers or the nobles; (b) those established by individual scholars with the help of public donations and state assistance; (c) those run by individual scholars exclusively without any outside help; (d) those attached to mosques and financed from mosque funds; (e) those attached to tombs and financed from their endowments; and (f) those attached to the hospices (khanqahs) of Sufi saints. The Mu'izzi, the Nasiri and the Firuzi madrasahs of Delhi, the madrasah of Bibi Raji of Jaunpur, the madrasah of Mahmud Gawan in Bidar, and the madrasah of Abu'l Fadl at Fatehpur Sikri were some of the most renowned centres of higher learning established by the rulers and nobles. Among the institutions established by individuals, the madrasah of Sadiq Khan in Gujarat, Maham Anaga, and Mirza 'Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khanan in Delhi, Shihabu'd-din Daulatabadi at Jaunpur and Qutbu'd din Sihalwi at Lucknow

deserve particular mention. Mutahhar has given a vivid account of Firuz Shah's madrasah at Delhi. It was a double-storyed building standing on the bank of the Haud-i-Khas surrounded by a beautiful garden. Besides numerous lecture-halls, there were spacious hostels for the teachers and the students, guest-houses for casual visitors and a big congregational mosque. The government met all the expenses of the students, including boarding and lodging. The Sirat-i-Firuz Shahi gives the following list of 14 subjects which were taught in the madrasalis established by Firuz Shah 26 Tughluq: (1) Fiah (Jurisprudence); (2) Qir'at (Method of recitation, punctuation and vocalization of the text of the Quran); (3) Usul-i-Kalam (Principles of Scholastic Theology); (4) Usul-i-Fiqh (Principles of Jurisprudence); (5) Tafsir (Exegesis); (6) Ahadith (Traditions of the Prophet); (7) Ma''ani-wa-Bayan (Rhetorics); (8) Nahw-wa-Sarf (Syntax and Etymology); (9) 'Ilm-i-Nazar (Science of observation); (10) 'Ilm-i-Riyadi (Mathematics); (11) 'llm-i-Tavi (Natural Sciences); (12) 'Ilm-iIlahi (Metaphysics); (13) 'Ilm-i-Tibb, (Medicine); and (14) Tahrir-wa-Khat (Calligraphy). From the time of Iltutmish (A.D. 1211-1236) to the days of Sikandar Lodi (A.D. 1489-1517) traditional subjects (manqulat) occupied a more important place than the rationalistic subjects (ma'qulat). A change, however, took place when Shaikh 'Abdullah and his brother Shaikh 'Azizullah of Multan came to Delhi at the invitation of Sikandar Lodi. They introduced the study of philosophy and logic in the curriculum of the day, and thus reduced the religious bias of the existing system. The Hindus now took to learning the Persian language, and a Hindu scholar, Brahmana by name, instructed Muslims. The next significant step in the direction of making the Muslim system of education more rationalistic was taken by Humayun whose madrasah in Delhi laid greater emphasis on the study of mathematics, astronomy and geography. Significant though these steps were, they did not bring about any fundamental change in the content and character of the Muslim education in India. Akbar attempted to reorientate the educational system by introducing subjects like logic, arithmetic, mensuration, geometry, astronomy, accountancy, public administration and agriculture into the curriculum. Fathullah Shirazi displayed keen interest in mechanical and technical education and under his inspiration Akbar built a workshop near his palace and personally supervised its work. This attempt at placing the educational system on a more secular and scientific basis does not seem to have found much favour. A few state-managed institutions changed their syllabi under Akbar's influence, but the general pattern of Muslim education remained unaltered. The syllabus prepared by Maulana Niza-mu'd-din in the middle of the 18th century popularly known as Dars-i-Nizami, merely consolidated the medieval system of education. 27 It is true that some nobles like Danishmand Khan did display interest in the western methods of enquiry, investigation, observation and experiment, but their efforts remained purely personal and did not have any impact on the general system of Muslim education. Instruction in Muslim madrasahs of the middle ages was based on memorization, discussion and writing out the lessons taught. Seminars were considered an integral part of education. Hindu Education In ancient India, the educational institutions of the Hindus were broadly of two categories. The first category comprised the higher centres of learning financed by kings and nobles or temples and mathas. Secondly, there were the village schools maintained by the customary contributions of the villagers at harvest time. The small tols and catuspathis, called by different names in the different parts of the country, continued undisturbed until the beginning of the nineteenth century, when the British system of administration with its centralizing tendencies destroyed the self-sufficient village economy and the system of panchayats. We have an interesting description of a village school in South India by the Italian traveller Pietro Delia Valle in 1623 A.D., where fine sand spread on the floor was used for writing by children and instruction was given by rote.

There is evidence that the standard of literacy was high in different parts of India. As regards the training in arts and crafts, knowledge and skill passed mostly from father to son or was imparted by the master craftsman of the caste group or craft guild. Unlike the village schools, loss of political power by the Hindus and the predominant position attained by Islamic religion and culture had an adverse effect on the traditional system of higher education. However, in Rajasthan, Gujarat and southern India, the Hindus retained something of their political authority. The kings of Vijaynagar, the Yadavas of Devagiri, the Nayakas of Madurai, the Rajas of Travancore, the Rajput princes and other rulers patronized scholars and promoted education. It must also be mentioned that a number of Muslim rulers encouraged Hindu scholars and educational institutions. As regards the important centres of learning during the period, 28 Varanasi retained its pride of place, attracting students and scholars from all over India. The Dharmadhikari, Sesa, Bhatta and Mauni families of Maharashtra and Karnataka settled down here permanently in the beginning of the 16th century A.D. Nadia in Bengal and the three important educational centres at Navadvipa, Santipura and Gopalpara were next in importance only to Varanasi. It was here that the Nadia School of Nyaya was founded by Vasudeva Sarvabhauma (14501525 A.D.)Mithila, the ancient seat of learning, continued to flourish and the Smrti School originating here attained great eminence. Tirhut was famous for Theology, Philosophy and Politics; Multan for Astronomy, Astrology and Mathematics; and Sirhind for Medicine. In Rajasthan and Gujarat, the old system of education maintained a vigorous existence. From the bhandaras (libraries) of the Jaina monasteries of the region, we have inherited large hoards of Prakrt manuscripts, many of them with delightful miniature paintings. In Tamilnadu, Madurai was perhaps the most important educational centre of the times, and Robert De Nobili noted in 1610 A.D. that over ten thousand students thronged the city. Kanchipuram in Chingleput district was another famous centre of learning. The inscriptions of the temple at Suchindram in Kanniyakumari district present a graphic picture of the educational system that flourished there. We have references to other centres of less importance— Adayapalam, Vetur, Virinchipuram and Veppur in North Arcot district, and the grammar school dedicated to Panini at Tiruvorriyur in Chingleput district. We have evidence of the progress of learning under the Rajas of Kerala, and special mention should be made of the Kalaris or military schools that flourished there. Besides the schools run on the traditional pattern, we have the beginning of schools organized by the Christian missionaries. There are references to schools run by Jesuit Fathers at Madurai, Punnei Kayal and Chandragiri in the Vijaynagar period. Again, from the time of Sikandar Lodi, Hindus started learning Persian in Islamic schools, and as years rolled by, this trend gathered momentum since knowledge of Persian was the necessary passport to public employment at higher levels in many parts of the country. 29

SPIRIT OF EDUCATION The study of the first chapters and the features of Indian education during ancient and medieval period of Indian history clearly establish that fundamental aspect of our culture and civilization is that our religious, philosophical and educational ideals are not only interlinked but inter-dependent too and thus development in one field effects the other two fields too. It may be mentioned that the effect of Muslim education and religion on original nature of our religion, philosophy and education was minimum and that also in some parts of the nation, therefore, the spirit of our ancient philosophy and education remained almost intact during Muslim rule in India. Hereunder views concerning the spirit of Indian philosophy

are given in brief :

THE SPIRIT OF INDIAN PHILOSOPHY Indian philosophy is primarily dominated by metaphysical interests. Most Indian thinkers are not satisfied with the consideration of superficial and transitory events; rather, they seek for an unchanging and eternal essence. Indian philosophy deals above all with the problems of reality. Man, in Indian thought, is subordinated to the universe; life itself becomes a pilgrimage, almost an interlude in the cosmic process. The more we study Indian philosophy in its educational implications, the more we shall appreciate its bold ethical teachings and its sublime concept of the nature and destiny of man. World of Being. Noteworthy in Indian thinking is its vast time perspective. The destiny of the individual is evaluated not according to momentary considerations, not even according to historical factors; rather again and again it is pointed out, especially in the Upanishads, that reality is beyond space and time. Thus the world of becoming is subordinated to the world of being. The Indian thinker, tries to grasp reality as a whole. Imbued with the theory of reincarnation, he sees life on earth only as a fragmentary and partial process, as one step in a cosmic drama which has as its goal the extinction of all separateness and individuality. Impersonal Force. This brings us to another salient factor of Indian philosophy—its impersonal basis. The Indian thinkers, from Buddha to Shankara, look upon selfhood as a lower category of being; they believe that the self is in a constant state of flux. 30 According to most Indian thinkers, real education cannot be obtained if we abide by the demands of the individual ego because real education demands the obliteration and absorption of the self in a larger unity. Life of Spirit. For real education, the Indian thinkers recommend, above all, emancipation from material goals and desires. Progress is not to be evaluated according to wealth, fame, or physical power. Social improvement is secondary, for the Indian thinker believes in the cultivation of the spirit and emphasizes cosmic values through which man realizes his essential self. There is a definite contrast in Indian philosophy between the life of the senses and the life of the spirit. The life of the senses gratifies only our physical desires, brings about at best an animal happiness, and is, essentially, a superficial existence. The life of the spirit, which demands constant discipline and unending application, leads to true contentment, gives a knowledge of eternal life, and, in penetrating all appearances and all superficiality, reveals the illusion of multiplicity and the basic oneness of the universe. Tolerance. The Indian system of education permits more variety and tolerance when it treats philosophical conclusions. Again and again, Indian thinkers point out that truth appears on various levels and that it is impossible for one man to have a monopoly on wisdom and scientific knowledge. A generous allowance is made for man's innate limitations; consequently, the categories of reason are frequently subordinated to the demands of intuition and insight. Thus, Indian thinkers do not accept the conclusion of science as absolutely valid, for, in the highest stages of knowledge, science is replaced by mysticism, and reason yields to an intuitive appreciation of reality. Religious controversies have cost millions of lives in the West, but religious debates, at least in earlier times, were carried on in a far more broad-minded spirit in India. Hinduism, especially, was able to absorb a variety of other religious theories. The various gods of India intermingled and thus became extremely cosmopolitan. Pessimism. Indian philosophy has often been charged with being overly pessimistic. The Indians certainly did not accept the optimistic belief that this is the best of all possible worlds. Indian pessimism, however, is not synonymous with a spirit 31 of negativism and placidity. Rather, it is symbolic of a profound dissatisfaction with the existing world. The spirit of pessimism demands transcendence—the conquest of the lower self, of fame, of riches, and of the yearning for social approval. It reminds man of his eternal origin and his eternal destiny. In short, Indian thought presents us with a truly universal perspective. It demands that we turn away from the finite, from all that is transitory and perishable, and that instead we concentrate upon eternal ideas and eternal verities.

THE SPIRIT OF EDUCATION It must be clear to each one of us that the main objective of education in India since the earliest days of civilization had always been man-making who is capable of self-realization because the Indian philosophy is based on speculative insight. There is no essential opposition between faith and reason, between education and religion, between revelation and scientific knowledge. The highest state of knowledge is intuition through which man achieves a realization of the oneness of the universe. Hereunder, we list some of the philosophical and religious objectives which the education had always aimed to achieve and this nature of our education is its spirit, and it is a great contribution for humanity to shape their system of education for the good of the society. 1. The moral education of the Indian thinkers is on the highest plane. Morality, especially in Buddhism, is not based on supernatural foundation, rather it excludes the concept of divine anger and divine providence. There is a heavy emphasis on inwardness; hence, the subjective motive is dominant, both in the Upanishads and in Buddhism. 2. Especially impressive is the concept of compassion which we find in Buddhism. Compassion brings about a sense of identification; the educated man does not isolate himself from the universe but seeks to conquer evil wherever he finds it. His sense of sympathy is so strong that it extends to all beings, even to animals. 3. Indian thought contributes a strain of pacifism, especially in Buddhism and Jainism. Absolute respect for living beings is stressed. It is pointed out that the best way to resist evil is through non-violence, a gospel which Gandhi 32 used so successfully in modern times. 4. Important also in Indian philosophy is the law of Karma, the law of cause and effect. The universe thus is not ruled by the providence of a supreme being, rather by the moral law which punishes all sins and which rewards good deeds. Our character creates its own heaven and its own hell. 5. Indian philosophy teaches the unreality of the material world. Ultimate reality transcends the life of the senses— our mind itself is finite and limited. Where we see multiplicity, as Shankara shows, oneness exists. The best way of life, educationally, is the life of the Yogi whose mind becomes independent of all material desires. 6. Indian thought contributes an impersonal world view. According to the Indian mind, only the untutored think of a creator and of a personal god; the truly educated man, however, sees God beyond space and time and beyond all personal categories. In this way, there is a close relationship between Indian thinkers and Western mystics, like Eckhart and Tauler, who likewise believed that God in his essence is impersonal. 7. There is a strong note of pantheism in Indian thinking. Thus, in the Upanishads we find that Atman and Brahman are one; the subjective self and the objective reality are identified. 8. The goal of Indian thinking is not a personal heaven, rather absorption in the world stream. We may call it Moksha or Nirvana, but in any case it means the loss of all individuality and all separateness. The Indian sage seeks for release from rebirth, for he regards life as a doubtful blessing. 10. Indian philosophy is basically pessimistic. This is brought out most clearly by Buddha who regarded all earthly life as a form of sorrow. But the Indian thinkers agree that this sorrow may be overcome and that evil is not ultimate. In a way, sorrow, according to the Indian mind, has a positive function, for it indicates that man is a wanderer and pilgrim, and that if he wants to find real enlightenment he must conquer all selfishness, all partiality, and all passion for material goods. 33 It is impossible to separate Indian religion, philosophy and education. The Indian teacher is a holy man as well as a man of wisdom. He teaches, by indirection, that attachment to the senses is to be overcome and that worldly strivings are to be subordinated to spiritual ideals. William James recommended that American educators could benefit from the contemplative spirit of the Indian teacher. We are so immersed in action and utilitarianism that we lose sight of ultimate goals and we are often overcome by the idols of immediacy. Indian education teaches us that we find ourselves as we subordinate ourselves to a greater cause; without serenity, calmness, and detachment, education may become a futile process. In The Meeting of East and West, F.S.C. Northrop makes a distinction between Eastern culture, which stresses immediate experience and emphasizes an ineffable "esthetic continuum", and Western culture, which is interested in particular

objects and in the inference and abstraction created by logical thinking. He concludes that the East, especially India, should study Western science, and that the West should study Eastern religion. Still, we must beware of generalizations. Strains of materialism were as evident in India as in the West. The moral idealism which Northrop saw as a manifestation of a universal continuum in Eastern culture was not always evident in practice. Thus Vivekananda maintained that "no society puts its foot on the neck of the wretched so mercilessly as does India". In India, the creative process in education was hindered by the caste system, by extreme poverty, and by the absence of a systematic interest in technology. On the other hand, India pioneered a creative approach towards spirituality. India demonstrated the need for meditation and quiet reflection, if man is to find an abiding meaning in life and in education.

QUESTIONS FOR EXERCISE 1. Give details of Basic Features of Ancient Indian system of Education. 2. Give details of Basic Features of Medieval Indian system of Education. 3. Write a note on the Spirit of Ancient Indian Philosophy. 4. Write a note on the Spirit of Ancient and Medieval systems of Indian Education. 5. Write a note on Muslim Education system as adopted in India. 34

PART TWO EDUCATORS 3 Kautilya Kautilya's date of birth is not known exactly to any one with authority but it is well known to every one that he was the Prime Minister of Chandragupta Maurya and almost all the scholars unanimously agree that 'Arthasastra' is his work. Kautilya's real name was Vishnugupta S/o Shri Charakand therefore also known as Charankya. 'Arthasastra' is a treasure of various branches of knowledge. This great book starts from emphasising importance and nature of education in its chapter one to six, a brief account of which is given below :

EDUCATION IN KAUTILYA'S 'ARTHASASTRA' Kautilya's 'Arthasastra'. The conditions of education in the Sutra period are very clearly, if somewhat succinctly indicated in that famous work, the Arthasastra of Kautilya which is now regarded almost unanimously by all scholars as the work of the minister of the emperor, Chandragupta Maurya. Kautilya indicates the entire circle of the then knowledge as being made up of four divisions called (1) Anvikshaki, (2) Trayi, (3) Varta, (4) Dandaniti. Each of these divisions comprises a number of subjects or sciences. Subjects of Study. The name Anvikshaki stands for the sciences derived from subjective or metaphysical speculation involving keen introspection. Three such different subjects or systems of thought and philosophy are known to Kautilya viz. Samkhya, Yoga, and Lokayata. 35 The division called Trayi; is, of course, made up of the three Vedas, Sama, Rig, and Yajus. The Atharvaveda and Itihasa veda are also known as Vedas. The Vedangas are also enumerated, viz. Siksha, Kalpa, Vyakarana, Nirukta, Chhandas, and Jyotisha. The rules of studentship are clearly mentioned. Studentship was open to the first three castes. The first Ashrama or stage of life obligatory upon all the three castes was that of studentship. The duties of the student comprised (1) repetition of sacred texts, (2) worship of fire, (3) ablution, (4) observance of the vow of begging, (5) service to the teacher to the end of his life and in his absence to his son or to the fellow-disciple.

Certain moral and mental qualities are insisted upon as constituting the eligibility for studentship, implying the duties as mentioned above. Learning is regarded as a process of discipline which cannot operate successfully except upon suitable material [Kriyahi dravyam vinayati nadravyam]. Learning cannot train up any student unless he is intent upon or keen about the following requisites thereof, viz. (1) desire to learn, (2) receiving the lessons daily, (3) understanding them, (4) retaining them in memory, (5) reflection upon them, (6) exercise of judgement or discrimination, and (7) love of truth. The need of a teacher is emphasized. The regulations regarding instruction and discipline will be determined by him according to the subjects of study. Kautilya gives some new information regarding the preliminary training to be given to a child before he is old enough to be admitted to formal studentship. After the ceremony of Upanayana was over, the child was to be taught Writing (lipi) and numbers (i.e. arithmetic, samkhya). The studentship begins with the ceremony of Upanayana. Then the student is introduced to the different subjects of study connected with the four principal divisions of knowledge mentioned above under competent teachers. Kautilya is primarily concerned with the education of the prince belonging to the ruling Kshatriya caste for which the following details are given. The studentship of a prince is to continue only up to his sixteenth year when he must marry. During this necessarily shortterm of his studentship, he is to pursue a threefold course 36 of studies. The first course is in the department of the Trayi and Anvikshaki, i.e. religious and philosophical subjects. The teachers of this course must be Sishtas, i.e. teachers whose authority was acknowledged as much for their character as for their learning. The second course of studies was connected with Varta, i.e. subjects relating to agriculture, cattle-rearing, the trade. The prince must study these subjects under practical experts, viz. the heads of the several actual government departments administering the interests pertaining thereto. The third course for the prince was in Dandaniti or the science and art of government. The teachers should be those who were equally proficient in the theory and practice of administration. Even after his marriage, the prince was to continue his studies for which a time-table is given. In the forenoon he is to receive training in the military arts connected with the four departments of the army, viz. the elephant, the horse, the chariot, and the infantry (which implies training in the art of handling various weapons of war). The afternoon he is to spend in listening to discourses on Itihasa, which included, according to Kautilya the following subjects, viz. Purana, Itivritta, Akhyayiika, Udaharana, Dharmasastra, and Arthasastra. During the available intervals of day and night he is to acquire new and revise old knowledge. In the case of lessons not grasped, he must listen to repeated instruction. Besides these studies, companionship with men of ripe wisdom and culture is also prescribed for the prince as the root of mental and moral growth. In the case of a king, such companionship was afforded by his Purohita whom he is to obey as the pupil his preceptor, the son his father or the servant his master. As regards the qualifications of the Purohita, it is stated that he must have the culture and character of a family well versed in traditional learning, fully educated in the Vedas, the six Vedangas, the science of portents and omens, the art of administration, and able, by his knowledge and application of the Atharvan remedies, to ward off calamities due to divine and human agencies. Schools of Arthasastra. That the Sutra period was an age of specialization leading to the growth of numerous schools of thought in various subjects of study then known is also shown by the evidence of Kautilya. In connection with the special 37 subject of the Arthasastra with which alone he is concerned in the book, he refers to a number of Schools named after their founders which all grew up long before his time. These Schools are called the Manavah, Barhaspatyah, Ausanasah, Parasarah and Ambhiyah. Besides Schools, individual specialists are also mentioned, viz. Bharadvaja, Visalaksha, Parasara, Pisuna, Kaunapadanta, Vatavyadhi, Bahudantiputra, Katyayana, Kaninka-Bharadvaja, Dirgha-Charayana, Ghotamukha, Kinjalka, and Pisunaputra.

QUESTIONS FOR EXERCISE 1. Write a note on the system of education as contained in Kautilya's 'Arthasastra'. 2. Write a note on Kautilya's concept of "Life Long Daily Education for the King".

3. Write short notes on the following concepts of Kautilya— (a) Duties of the student. (b) Pre-requisites of the student. (c) Schools of 'Arthasastra'. 38

4 Jagat Guru Shankar Acharya (788-820) The greatest towering spiritual personality of his times as it is evident from his name—Jagat Guru Shankar Acharya—was a great visionary. He was extra-ordinarily endowed with a keen and penetrating intellect and an enormous capacity of assimilating contents pertaining to different branches of knowledge which made him to learn the secrets of Brahma Vidya from his Guru Govindacharya—an authority on the subject. He was a well read intellectual and an exemplary ovator. Therefore in addition to preaching Vedantic Philosophy, he contributed for a spiritual educational system for the benefit of the future generation. Thus, he was a leader of spirituality for human happiness and social harmony. Here our aim is to understand his philosophy of education, which springs out of Vedantic philosophy, therefore, before we undertake to understand his philosophy and educational philosophy, let us have a peep into his life profile.

LIFE SKETCH Jagat Guru Shankar Acharya was born in 788 A.D. in village Kaldi, in Kernal Pradesh, India. His father Shivaguru was a devotee of Bhagwan Shankar. As such, the home environment of Shankar Acharya was pious and religious. Hence in very early life, Shankar got familiar with rituals, worship, religious 39 ceremonies and also developed interest for the study of religious books. It may be noted that the early education of Shankar was imparted in his homely environment. There is a saying that at the age of two, Shankar was able to read letters and words and at the age of three, he became well versed in ancient epics and Puranic lore. At the age of five, he was formally initiated and was sent to a Gurukul where he mastered History, Puranic Philosophy, Smriti, Mahabharat, Ved-vedangas and the six systems of philosophy. At the age of seven, he returned home as a great scholar. This shows clearly that Shankar was extra-ordinarily endowed with a keen and penetrating intellect and an enormous capacity of assimilating content pertaining to different branches of knowledge. Child Shankar was imbued with a feeling of renunciation from early childhood. Hence he learnt deeply not only the Indian philosophy but also the secrets of Brahma Vidya from his Guru Govindacharya. A few days later, he renounced the world and became a Sanayasi. After attaining the secrets of knowledge regarding 'Brahma', 'Life' and 'Mortal Creation', Shankar began to preach the philosophy of Vedant and reached Kashi. Here, in Kashi he lived upto the age of sixteen engaging himself continuously in academic discussions and duals with the Budhist philosophers and always had his upper hand. Under the instructions of his Guru, Shankar began to travel all over the country with the purpose of gaining world prominence as the supreme teacher. He reached Prayag where he prevailed upon the great scholar Kumaril Bhatt who became his disciple. From Prayag he went to Mahishmati where he prolonged religious discussions against the renowned Budhistic scholar Mandan Mishra. Ultimately he won him over and converted Mandan Mishra to his decipleship. Mandan Mishra, like his Guru, Shankar, started preaching the philosophy of Vedant throughout the country which began to echo the theistic mantras and rituals about the all pervading, eternal and immortal elements of 'Brahma'. Shankar Acharya travelled from North to South, East to West declaring war and wining successes against anti-Vedic 40 doctrines and atheism of various denominations. He established the four seats as centres of Vedantic philosophy of Monoism and Theism. These centres are Badri Nath in the North, Rameshwaram in the South, Dwarka in the West and

Puri in the East. At the age of 32 only, Shankar Acharya died at Kedarnath after attaining the highest position of 'Jagat Guru' or the 'World Teacher'. Shankar Acharya's Philosophy of Vedant Before and after Shankar Acharya many scholars preached the philosophy of Vedant but Shankar Acharya propounded and preached this doctrine with most wonderful genius and argumentative skill. Shankar Acharya has most emphatically advocated that Nature, Life and Physical world are not different but manifest themselves in the form of 'Braham.' Due to ignorance, a human being keeps rotting in misery and is unable to attain salvation. He has made it clear that soul is pure and unblemished and it can not realize the ultimate 'Braham' through only devotion and Karma without true knowledge. It is only through knowledge that soul can attain 'Moksha' or salvation. In his treatise Vedantsar Sri Rama Shanker Tripathi has rightly advocated thus "According to Shankar Acharya, 'Brahma' is the only ultimate Reality. Human life together with material world is only a mirage, unreal and untrue. Due to ignorance (Maya or wrong knowledge) human life and material world appear true and real as we sometimes mistake a piece of rope to be a serpent. When this wrong appearance is removed through knowledge, then the only element which remains is 'Brahma'." According to Shankar's Vedantic philosophy, 'Brahma' is unlimited, formless and attributeless. But reacting with maya, it is able to create life and this material cosmos. The ultimate aim of all human beings is to realize this ultimate Reality or 'Brahama'. This is real self-realization or knowing the self. We call it 'Moksha' or salvation. But the way to 'Moksha' or self-realization is only through true knowledge. 'Sruties', the gems of ancient literature have called out emphatically 'Satyam Gyanam Anantam Brahma' which means that knowledge is to know the 'Self and 'Brahma' as one and the same element. 41 The only way to realize 'Brahma' is to realize or know the nature of self. Devotion and Karma are only helpful in this process as they reform and develop the capacity of soul towards higher and higher reaches leading to the ultimate knowledge or 'gyan'. At this stage the soul, then does not exist in isolation, away from 'Brahma' but merges itself into the ultimate reality, the creator of all or 'Brahma' as we call it. Chief Characteristics of Shankar Acharya's Vedantic Philosophy The following are the chief characteristics of Shankar Acharya's Vedantic philosophy : 1. Only 'Brahma' is ultimate reality. All other things are mortal, unreal and untrue. 2. Soul and 'Brahma' are one and the same. Hence Vedantic doctrine is known as 'Monoism' or 'Advaitavad' also. 3. 'Brahma' is immortal. No body has created it. 4. The nature of 'Brahma' is 'Satya', 'Chit' and 'Anand.' He is the creator, maintainer and destroyer of all creation. 5. 'Brahma' for its own self dynamism creates the cosmos with the help of Nature (Maya). All material things and life are his reflection. 6. All forms of nature and matter are unreal and untrue. 7. It is with the interaction with 'Maya', an attribute of 'Brahma' that this creation has come into being. 'Maya' is neither true nor untrue. It is only an attribute of 'Brahma'. 8. According to Vedant, formless and attributeless 'Brahma' becomes God with the combination of Nature (Maya). 9. Material creation is to be enjoyed, the enjoyer is the living being. This relationship is practical. 10. A living being is full of consciousness and intelligence. Hence, there is dynamism in him. 11. The ultimate aim of human life is to achieve salvation which can be achieved only through real knowledge after breaking the circle of transmigration of soul. 12. The ultimate fusion of soul with 'Brahma' is salvation.

13. The fusion of soul and 'Brahma' is possible only when soul (Jeev) realizes that he is 'Brahma' and nothing else. 42 Vedantic Philosophy and Education Vedantic philosophy is the crown of all other philosophies because it is an authentic treatise of Upnishad philosophy. According to this philosophy, the only ultimate truth is 'Brahma'. This knowledge leads to self-realization or salvation. No other analysis or commentary of a philosophy is more effective and clear cut than the one of Vedant philosophy. Shankar Acharya has clearly exhorted the sermon that only real knowledge can lead us to salvation (Moksha). Hence the ultimate aim of education should be to prepare children to be able to achieve this real knowledge which leads them towards the realization of 'Brahma' or salvation. Aim of Education The following should be the aim of education according to Shankar Acharya's Vedantic philosophy : 1. Realization of Brahma. The ultimate aim of education is to prepare the child for the realization of Brahma (Moksha). According to Shankar Acharya, Soul and God are one and the same element. There is no distinction between the two. Hence education should make the child able to realize his self in all its aspects to the fullest possible extent so that he identifies and realizes the ultimate Reality. For this, education should inculcate in a child the belief that he is 'Brahma' (Aham Brahama Asmi). The child can realize 'Brahma' and become one with this ultimate truth through real knowledge obtained by his own efforts. This is called salvation (Moksha). Curriculum According to Shankar Acharya, reality may be divided into three categories namely—(1) Reflection, (2) Practical, and (3) Spiritual. The first kind of reality appears to be true for the time being, but later on it turns to be unreal as the mirage of a piece of rope appears to be a serpent in a shadow or darkness. But light clears the mirage and one realizes the reality or truth. Practical reality is our normal and natural behaviour with other beings or material things. When the ultimate reality downs, it also becomes unreal and untrue. The spiritual reality is uncontroversial, because it 43 is the reality of 'Brahma'. Keeping in view all the three categories of realities, curriculum should consist of Geography, History, Economics, Sociology, Science, Commerce, Vocational and Technical subjects. Together with these, for those children who do not evince any interest in getting spiritual knowledge, other subjects as Literature, Psychology, Physics, Biology and Philosophy should also be included in the curriculum. Those children who show eagerness about Vedant philosophy, should be afforded full opportunities to understand and study the Vedant philosophy to the best of their capacities. Methods of Teaching Soul is of a pure and conscious nature. Knowledge is its attribute. Shankar Acharya held the view that soul is clouded and chained by ignorance. Knowledge (Gyan) frees it from all bonds and enables it to attain 'Brahma' (salvation). According to Shankar Acharya, there are three kinds of children on the basis of their interests and capacities. They are—(1) superior, (2) average, and (3) inferior. Shankar Acharya assigns the knowledge and study of Vedant for the superior, devotion (Bhagti) for the average and Karma for the inferior ones. Keeping into consideration the three types of children, he has laid emphasis on the following three methods of teaching : 1. Knowledge Centered; 2. Devotion Centered; 3. Karma Centered. 1. Knowledge Centered Method. Knowledge centered method includes the following two kinds of teaching methods : (a) Real Vision;

(b) Logical Conclusion. (a) Real Vision—Through this method, knowledge is imparted about real and true things as well as about the unreal and the untrue ones. For example about rope, the real thing and about serpent, the unreal and the untrue. In the same way, the whole material creation is unreal and untrue and the real one is the 'Brahma'. 44 The teacher by this method strives to make the child understand and believe that the ultimate reality is the soul. It is the intelligence, it is the conscience and it is all matter. Thus through the knowledge of the unreal and untrue, i.e. matter, the knowledge of the real and true, i.e. Brahma is imparted to children by this method. (b) Logical Conclusion—According to this method, by the help of arguments and logical reasoning, it is tried to be established that Soul is entirely distinct from body, mind and intelligence. Thus, step by step all those attributes are removed with which 'Brahma' is surrounded and then only 'Brahma' at the last shines forth as a glorious and pure element of ultimate absolute consciousness. 2. Devotion Centered Method. Devotion (upasana) is nearness to some diety through prayer. This is devotion which merges the 'Self into the ideal. Through this method an individual is able to concentrate all his faculties and focus them on the achievement of 'Brahma'. Thus self-realization is attained through self surrender with the ideal which ultimately leads towards salvation. 3. Karma Centered Method. By this method, through fasting, penance, charity and abstinance, emphasis is laid upon selfpurification and self-realization. But according to Shankar Acharya only Karma centered method will not lead one towards self-realization or attainment of 'Brahma'. From the above discussion, it is clear that according to Jagat Guru Shankar Acharya, devotion centered method is superior to Karma centered method because it emphasizes the worship of godly forms and godly attributes. But the supreme method is the knowledge of formless, attributeless, limitless and ultimate reality which is nothing but 'Brahma'. This knowledge will lead the individual towards salvation (Moksha). Place of Teacher According to Naturalists, the child is at the centre of all educational processes, the teacher occupies a subsidiary role. The teacher should not exercise any authoritarian role over the child. He should provide only such opportunities to the child to develop freely, fully and naturally. To Pragmatists, a teacher is a friend, philosopher and a guide to the child. 45 To the Idealists, the teacher occupies a very important place in the process of education. He should guide the child with full love, affection and sympathy, so that he developes his personality to the fullest extent. According to Vedant philosophy the role and mission of teacher is very high. He should be virtuous, pure in thoughts, words and deeds. Not only this, he should be well versed in 'Brahma Gyan' so that he is able to make the child develop to the full and realize his true and real self which is nothing but supreme self, 'Brahma'. Place of Child According to Vedantic doctrine, a child is 'Brahma' in its real nature. He is endowed with various inherent capacities due to his previous births. Hence there exists diversity in children. This diversity, according to Shankar Acharya, is due to extreme ignorance. Inherently a child is a soul substance. Therefore, when this curtain of ignorance is removed, the real soul element shines forth in all brilliance. Education should strive to remove this curtain of ignorance gradually so that each child grows towards more and more self-fulfilment and self-realization till he attains the highest state of 'Brahma' (salvation). Concept of Discipline Vedant philosophy does not believe in the unrestrained freedom to the faculties and powers of child. These should be kept under discipline, which should be a sort of self-discipline, through real impulses and influences. According to Vedant, a child has four stages of development namely—(1) Indulgent to senses, (2) Slow and gradual control of senses, (3) Control of senses and progress towards concentration and (4) Full concentration. These stages are self-explaining and in the last one when full concentration is achieved, the child identifies his 'T' with 'Brahma'. Hence discipline is very essential for

self-realization. Establishment of Centres for the Education of Masses Shankar Acharya devoted all his energies to his mission of spreading the message of Vedant all over the country. For this mission, he established four centres of learning. In the North 46 he established Jyoti Math at Badri Nath. Its gospel is Atharva Veda. It includes the territories of Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Delhi, Kashmir and all the northern regions. In the South he established Shringeri Math. Its gospel is Yajur Veda and the territory is Karnataka, Andhra, Tamil Nadu, Keral and other parts of South. In the East he established Goverdhan Math, its gospel being Rig Veda and it includes the territories of Assam, Bengal, Orissa, Bihar and other eastern regions. In the West was established the Sharda Math, its gospel being Sam Veda and territories of Sindh, Gujrat, Maharashtra and other western regions. The presiding heads of these Maths are called Shankar Acharyas and Jagat Guru or World preachers is prefixed before their names. All these Shankar Acharyas are erudits scholars, controller of senses, full of highest qualities of abstinance, renunciation, great intelligence and divine insight. These Shankar Acharyas move in their specific territories as well as throughout the land to preach Hindu philosophy of life and knowledge of scriptures for the benefit of all mankind. Evaluation of Shankar's Vedantic Philosophy Shankar Acharya's philosophy is based upon the Upanishad's philosophy of Advaita Vedant. It may be noted that though there were many scholars before Shankar Acharya who defined and explained the philosophy of Vedant in a fairly appreciable way yet the interpretation and commentaries of Shankar Acharya were singular and unique among all the other ones. By establishing the four centres of learning in all the four corners of the country, Shankar Acharya provided for renaissance of the Hindu Nation imparting to the people the right sermon on religion from time to time. Shankar Acharya has emphasized that Vedant is not the renunciation cult meant for only Sanayasis but it is for all to be used as a practical guide and pattern of normal behaviour. Dr. Baldev Upadhyaya in his book 'Bhartiya Darshan' has rightly commented—"Vedant is a practical doctrine". Those who criticise it as an unpractical doctrine are very far from truth. Vedant as a matter of fact emphasizes the existence of 'Brahma' in all the living beings of this creation. When the same 'Brahma' exists in all beings, there is no place for mutual rivalary, enemity and conflict of any sort. 47 Vedant subordinates material pleasures below the spiritual values and inspires all to get ahead and develop more and more towards the attainment of supreme Bliss or 'Moksha'. Vedant despises material pleasures as short-lived and unreal in comparison with the moral and spiritual values which lead mortals towards 'Brahma' (salvation). Further, Vedant preaches that every being is full of inherent unlimited power and capacity to grow and develop more and more to the realization of highest values—the Supreme Good, the Supreme Beautiful and the Supreme Truth. Finally, Vedant raises all living beings above their narrow selfish ends towards international good, brotherhood and prosperity of the whole human family. Thus, Vedant is the most desirable base for all educational schemes for the whole world as it emphasizes human brotherhood. In this way Jagat Guru Shankar Acharya shines forth not only as a great philosopher but an educationist of eminence also for all time and he qualifies the following observation : "Education must enable mankind through its culture to enter more and more into the spiritual realm and also to enlarge the boundaries of the spiritual realm." —Rusk

QUESTIONS FOR EXERCISE 1. Do you agree that Shankar Acharya's Philosophy of Vedanta had been the basis of his philosophy of education? Give reasons for your answer. 2. Write a note on Shankar Acharya's views concerning Methods of Teaching.

3. Write short notes on Shankar Acharya's views on the following: (a) Aim of Education. (b) Place of Teacher in Education. (c) Place of Child in Education. (d) Concept of Discipline. 48

5 Swami Dayananda (1824-1883) Each society, at all times, has had a distinctive philosophy of life which includes historical developments concerning its heritage in political, spiritual, cultural, social, economic and educational systems. All this is known as national or social heritage of the society at a given time and this heritage influences every thinker, philosopher, social reformer, rulers etc. and Swami Dayananda is no exception to it. Therefore, as a prelude to understand the educational philosophies propounded by Swami Dayananda and other modern Indian educators, you have to read the earlier philosophy of Indian educational thought, in previous chapters, which clearly establishes that Hindu Society, from the earliest times, considered the education of its members as one of its primary obligations—this, indeed, was an integral part of the system upon which society was based. Before we undertake to study the educational philosophy and thoughts of Swami Dayananda, it is desirable to know about his life and works concerning his thoughts about philosophy of life.

PROFILE OF SWAMI DAYANANDA'S LIFE Swami Dayananda was born in the native state of Morvi in Kathiawar, Gujarat in 1824. His first name was Mulaji or Mul Samkar. His father's name was Amba Samkar, an orthodox 49 Brahman and a devotee of Lord Siva. Mul Samkar's sacred thread ceremony was completed when he was eight. His Samskrit education began when he was only five. He had an extraordinary memory and could memorise several parts of the Veda and Panini's Samskrit Grammar when he was only fourteen. During the fourteenth year the first crisis in his life occurred, when he watched rats crawling over the idol of Lord Siva in a temple. He doubted whether that idol could be the great Deity. He urged his father to clear his doubts, but he could not be satisfied by his father's explanation. This incident was a turning point in the life of Mul Shamkar and consequently he decided to fight against idol-worship. Thus, at the age of fourteen, he decided to make a wholesole attack on idol-worship in his later life, and for this Arya Samaj was founded by him which disregarded the experiences and feelings of millions of Hindus. In fact, this feature of the Arya Samaj has been both its strength and weakness. During his boyhood, occurred the death of his sister and uncle whom he loved most. This incident was most painful to him and he decided to attain salvation through Yoga with a view to conquer death. He continued his studies with redoubled zeal. His parents, after knowing his mind, decided to get him married and fixed a day for his wedding. But Mul Samkar ran away from home and later became Sanyasi and changed his name to Swami Dayananda. After renouncing the world, Swami Dayananda wandered here and there for over fifteen years in search of truth and knowledge. During these years, he came in contact with people of all ranks and castes, rich and poor, princes and priests. Only to know that the so-called custodians of the Hindu traditions, learning and religion had gone down to a deplorable level. He found Hindu society torn into numerous factions and castes. Dogmas, superstitions and inventions of the selfish priesthood had tarnished the fair name of religion. So he became restless to bring to his people the noble traditions and beliefs of the ancient times. He decided to prepare himself to do this task, and for this he practised Yoga and studied the Vedanta philosophy. But he was restless for finding a real Guru of his own heart. In Virajananda of Mathura he found one of his desire in 1862. 50 Virajananda made clear to him his (Dayananda's) mission in life. He taught him to dedicate his life to the dissemination of

truth and to wage a war against the falsehood of Pauranic Hinduism and to bring back the real teaching of the Vedas. Swami Dayananda left his Guru in 1863 and devoted his next twelve years to the preparation for the arduous task set before him. During this period he visited various places in Northern India; and in Bengal he met the leaders of the Brahmo Samaj—Maharsi Debendranath Tagore and Keshub Chander Sen. He could not be converted to the Brahmo Samaj beliefs and parted company with them and proceeded to Bombay. He, however, accepted a suggestion, from the Brahmo Samaj leader Keshub Chander Sen, to deliver his lectures in Hindi and not in Sanskrit. This enabled him to come in direct contact with people amongst whom he gradually became more popular. By establishing the Arya Samaj on April 10, 1875 in Bombay, he gave a definite shape to his movement. He declared the following as the official creed of the Arya Samaj : 1. All true knowledge comes from God. He is the cause of everything. Everything should be regarded as His. 2. To God alone worship is due, because He is All-Knowledge, All-Truth, All-Beatitude, Incorporeal, Just, Unbegotten, Almighty, Merciful, Unchangeable, Infinite, Immortal, Without a Beginning (Anadi), Incomparable, Omniscient, Eternal (Sanatana), Imperishable, Holy, Supreme, Exempt from Fear, Lord of All. 3. It is the duty of every Arya, to learn, teach and preach the Vedas. 4. One should not be afraid of declaring untruth as untruth and truth as truth. The truth should be accepted and untruth renounced. 5. It is only after a thorough consideration of right and wrong that all actions should be performed, i.e., actions must conform to virtues. 6. The Arya Samaj wants to improve the physical, social and spiritual condition of mankind. 7. Love and Justice should guide one's conduct. Due regard should be paid to one's merits. 51 8. Ignorance should be eradicated and knowledge disseminated. 9. One can be happy only when others are happy, so one's prosperity should be considered as included into that of others. 10. In personal matters one may enjoy freedom to act but in matters which concern the general social well-being, one should discard all differences. After establishing the Arya Samaj on April 10, 1875 in Bombay, he gave a definite shape to his movement. From now on he devoted his time mainly in organizing the branches of Arya Samaj at various places in the country and in translating the Vedas into Hindi and writing a commentary on the Rig Veda in Hindi. Thus Dayananda tried to base his creed on universally accepted axioms. He being deeply versed in the Vedic learnings, regarded the Vedas as the divine revelation. He, therefore, accepted them as the source of all knowledge and tried to prove that even some of the modern inventions are mentioned in them. In our own days, Sri Aurobindo Ghose, has defended Dayananda's contentions by asserting that "there is...nothing fantastic in Dayananda's idea that Veda contains truth of science as well as truth of religion. I will add even my own conviction that Veda contains other truths of a science the modern world does not at all possess, and in that case Dayananda has rather understated than overstated the depth and range of the Vedic wisdom". Dayananda was not a Hindu fanatic. He fully realised the value of studies in comparative religions. So he did not want his supporters to follow him blindly. He did not attack Hinduism alone. He resisted and attacked evils wherever he found them. The Christian Missionaries and the Mohammedan friends, unfortunately, could not understand that Dayananda was not reformer of Hindu religion alone, but a lover of mankind and world redeemer. Dayananda says : "Though I was born in Aryavarta (India) and live in it, yet just as I do not defend the falsehoods of the faiths and religions of this country, but expose them 52 fully; in like manner I deal with the religions of other countries. I treat the foreigners in the same way as my own countrymen, so far as the elevation of the human race is concerned."

Dayanand wanted to eradicate the evils which existed in Hinduism and other faiths that were prevalent in India at that time. He did not hate those who followed other faiths. He himself declared : "The Arya Samaj was meant to be, and is an essentially Hindu organisation, yet it is open to every one regardless of caste, colour or nationality, who subscribes to its principles and desires to be enrolled as a member. Once a member, he has all rights and privileges of a member whether he is a Hindu or not." He had rightly realised that the cause of India's sufferings was disunity. So national, social and religious integration of India had become an ideal very dear to his heart. For this purpose, he wanted to abolish the foreign rule, eliminate the caste and class distinctions, and integrate India on the basis of religion by substituting the Vedic religion in place of the various sects and beliefs, that had disintegrated the people into a number of splinted groups. For fulfilling this purpose he dedicated his whole life. In 1878 Colonel Clcott and Madame Blavatsky proposed a union of the Theosophical Society and the Arya Samaj. Swami Dayananda consented. The leaders of the two movements had many meetings and exchange of views, but differences arose and in 1881 the two groups decided to remain separate. Swami Dayananda died in Ajmer at the age of fiftynine on October 30, 1883. The tribute paid by the Theosophist, the official organ of the Theosophical Society on the premature death of the Swami, is too long to be quoted here in full. But an extract from it is worth giving here : "We bear in mind but his life-long devotion to the cause of the Aryan regeneration, his ardent love for the philosophy of his forefathers; his relentless, untiring zeal in the work of the projected social and religious 53 reforms.... He threw, as it were, a bombshell in the midst of the stagnant masses of degenerated Hinduism and fired, with love for the teachings of Rishis and Vedic learnings, the hearts of all who were drawn within the influence of his eloquent oratory...." This gives the profound impression of the impact that the Swami created in the minds of the Theosophists, and it also hints at his life work. Dayananda considered superstitions and dogmas as impediments to the forces of progress. So he decided to bring about a social regeneration on the basis of the Vedas. A deep study of the Vedas had convinced him that it was wrong to believe that English education and Western ideas alone could give a person progressive ideals. So he raised the voice "Back to the Vedas". By giving a call to the nation to go back to Vedas, he in fact wanted to check the growing tendency of materialism and a kind of blind imitation of the Western civilisation which was increasingly catching the fancy of our younger generation. He, therefore, emphasised the study of the Vedas, the Upanishads, the Gita, the tenets of Manu and other ancient literature so as to imbibe the spirit of true Indian civilisation and culture including religion. Swami Dayananda condemned idol-worship and priestcraft, which, in his opinion, had degenerated Hinduism. He wanted to re-establish the Vedic religion for social reconstruction in the country. But reconstruction of the Indian society was not possible without studying the prevailing conditions in the country. The British rule had brought into existence certain new forces, which had to be studied, and only then rejected or accepted on merits. So the educated Hindus began to study critically the environment in which they were placed. The problem before them was how to achieve a synthesis between old and new and a fusion of the best ideas of the East and the West. This was the problem which Dayananda and the Arya Samaj took to their hearts to solve. Towards the attainment of this ideal the Arya Samaj made an all-round attack on the prevailing evils of Hindu society, viz., caste-system, untouchability, child 54 marriage, enforced widowhood and degenerating bondage of the womenfolk. The Arya Samaj regarded education as one of the means for regenerating India and it wanted to base this education on the Vedic traditions. For this the Arya Samaj adopted various methods such as lecturing, discussing, intelligent persuading, widow marriage, eradicating untouchability and social distinction between caste and sex, etc. We are concerned with the educational philosophy that the Samaj adopted for the regeneration of India. So now we shall

restrict our discussion only to this feature of Dayananda's work. His educational philosophy, very naturally, originates from his Vedic philosophy. So in order to understand his educational ideals, we must first understand his Vedic philosophy.

HIS VEDIC PHILOSOPHY Educational ideals propounded by Swami Dayananda are dependent on his Vedic philosophy as hinted below. Swami Dayananda holds that God permeates the whole universe. He is a personification of Sat, Chit, and Ananda (Existence, Knowledge and Bliss.) He is formless, infinite, and almighty. He creates, sustains, and dissolves the universe. He gives to all souls the fruit of their deeds according to absolute justice. The soul is immortal and eternal. Its capacity for knowledge is limited. It has consciousness and feelings of pleasure and pain. God and the soul are two distinct entities. They have both similar and dissimilar attributes and characteristics. They cannot be separated from each other. Prakrit! (Nature) is the material cause of the universe. According to the Yoga of philosophy, Swami Dayananda believes that God, the soul and Prakriti are Anadi—beginningless. They and their attributes are eternal. The creation of the universe is the natural exercise of the creative energy of God. Due to ignorance the soul is in bondage in this world. This ignorance is the cause of sin. Salvation lies in the emancipation of the soul from pain and suffering, and the enjoyment of extreme happiness. To him the enjoyment of material happiness is Svarga (Heaven), and Naraka (Hell) is 55 the undergoing of sufferings. Swami Dayananda believed that Heaven and Hell are here on this earth, and they are not separate Lokas (worlds) as conceived by Puranas (Hindu mythologies). Swami Dayananda bases his above philosophy on the four Vedas which to him are the words of God. He regards all other works (like the Brahmanas, the six Vedangas, the six Upangas, the four Upavedas and the eleven hundred and twentyseven Shakhas) as secondary sources which may be relied on so far as they agree with the teachings of the Vedas. To Swami Dayananda religion (Dharma) is bringing into practice equitable justice in terms of truthfulness in thought, word and deed (Manasa, Vacha and Karmana). He believes that one may attain salvation through the worship of God, the performance of righteous deeds, the acquisition of true knowledge by practising brahmacharya (celibacy), and by keeping the society of the wise, the learned and the virtuous. He thinks that there are sixteen Samskaras (sacred ceremonies) in a man's life. These are those rites which contribute to the physical, mental and spiritual development of man. Hence, every one must observe these rites. But nothing should be done for those who are dead. To Dayananda, Four Vedas are the words of God. He regards them as flawless and an authority in themselves. He thinks that the Samhita alone comprises the Vedas. The Brahmanas, the six Vedangas, the six Upangas, the four Upavedas and the eleven hundred and twentyseven Sakhas offer only expositions of the Vedic texts. Hence he regards these as secondary sources. These should be considered reliable in so far as they agree with the teachings of the Vedas. Therefore, he considers the Vedas as a determinant of right conduct. According to him, the Vedas are not to be studied for the sake of study alone, but because they help in determining the right conduct. He writes : "Those who are desirous of knowing righteousness should ascertain it from the Vedas. What is righteous and what is not cannot be rightly determined without the help of the Vedas." He mentions four determinants of right conduct : "First the Vedas; second the Smritis made by master minds and in agreement with the Vedas such as 56 Manusmritis; third the conduct of the righteous persons which has come to us as traditions from the beginning of the Universe, i.e., conduct enjoined by God through the Vedas; fourth, that which conforms with our conscience, e.g., truthfulness." Therefore, Swami Dayananda wants to make the Vedas available to all. He considers every one worthy of studying them. In his opinion: "... all persons should read and hear the Vedas, increase their knowledge, accept good things, quit bad habits, and be happy.... Does not God want to do good to the Sudras? Is God so partial that he permits the reading of the Vedas only to the twiceborn and not to the Sudras? Had God designed to prohibit teaching in the case of the Sudras, he

should not have endowed them with tongues and ears. Just as God has made the earth, water, fire, and air, the moon, the sun, and other objects for all, similarly he has revealed the Vedas, too, for all." Swami Dayananda holds that God pervades the whole universe. He is a personification of Sat, Cit, and Ananda (Existence, Knowledge and Bliss). He is Formless, Infinite, and Almighty. He creates, sustains, and dissolves the universe. He gives to all souls the fruits of their deeds according to absolute justice. Swami Dayananda holds that the soul is immortal and eternal. Its capacity for knowledge is limited. It has consciousness and feelings of pleasure and pain. To Swami Dayananda religion (Dharma) means bringing into practice equitable justice in terms of truthfulness in thought, word and deed (Mansa, Vacha and Karmana). He thinks that 'Artha' or wealth should be righteously acquired. The wealth that is obtained by foul means is 'Anartha' (sin). Kama is the enjoyment of legitimate desires by means of the wealth honestly obtained. Merits alone should determine one's class and order, i.e., the 'Varna' and 'Ashrama'. The wise and the learned are 'Devas' (righteous people). Therefore, Devapuja (honour and devotion) should be offered to the wise and the learned to one's mother and father, to the teacher, to a ruler showing justice and righteous conduct, to those who lead honest lives, to women who are faithful to their husbands, and to the men who are faithful to their wives. 57 The foolish and the ignorant should be regarded as 'Asuras', the wicked and the sinful as 'Raksasas' and the filthy in habits as Pisachas'. Swami Dayananda regards marriage as a union between a man and a woman through mutual agreement according to the laws specified in the Vedas and Sastras. He, however, mentions that 'Niyoga' is a temporary union between a man and a woman for the raising of issue to be accepted only in unavoidable circumstances. He believes that one may attain salvation through the worship of God, the performance of righteous deeds, the acquisition of true knowledge, by practising Brahmacharya (celibacy), and by keeping the society of the wise, the learned and the virtuous. He recognizes three stages in the worship of God—'Stuti' (glorification), Prarthana' (prayer) and 'Upasana' (communion). 'Stuti' means praising the attributes and powers of God in order to fix up the same in one's own mind for developing love for God. 'Prarthana' stands for praying to God for obtaining the highest knowledge and other boons. 'Upasana' is directed towards having a direct cognition of God. In this process one has to conform to the Divine Spirit in holiness and purity and in feeling. His presence in one's heart through the practice of Yoga. Each of these three stages of worship are classified into 'Saguna' and the 'Nirguna' kind. In the 'Saguna Upasana' one resigns oneself to God and His Will, and finds him as having attributes that are in harmony with His Nature. In the 'Nirguna Upasana' one resigns himself to God and His Will and regards Him as devoid of attributes that are not akin to His Nature. He says that there are sixteen Samskaras (sacred ceremonies) in a man's life. These are those rites which contribute to the physical, mental and spiritual development of man. Hence, every one must observe these rites. But nothing should be done for those who are dead. Swami Dayananda commends 'Agnihotra' (fire-offering) because it acts towards the purification of air and vegetables and helps the well-being of all sentient beings. He places 'Yajna' (sacrifice) and Tirtha-Yatras' (visiting sacred places) on a moral basis and does not regard them as belonging to the realm of rituals. 58 He recommends that 'Yajna' should consist in showing due respect to the learned and wise people and in the application of the principles of chemistry and physical sciences to the various domains of life and in the spread of culture and knowledge. He thinks that Tirtha-Yatras' should not be regarded as going to sacred places on land or water. In fact, 'Tirtha-Yatras' are the means through which the ocean of misery may be crossed. They comprise of the acquiring of true knowledge, the practising of truthfulness in speech, living in the society of the wise, spreading of knowledge, performing of various kinds of good works and following the principles of 'Yamas', which are as follows : 1. The non-infliction of pain (Ahimsa).

2. The practice of truth (Satya). 3. Non-stealing (not even mental) of other's property (Asteya). 4. Non-attachment (Asang). 5. Modesty (Hri). 6. Want of storing for the future (Asanchaya). 7. Faith in religion (Astikya). 8. Abstinence (Brahamacharya). 9. Silence (Maun). 10. Steadiness (Sthairya). 11. Forgiveness (Kshama). 12. Fearlessness (Abhaya). After giving a short account of Swami Dayananda's Vedic philosophy, it is in fitness of things to come below to his ideals of education. In this attempt he speaks also of the kind of education which should be given to children so that the foundation of the society may be laid on a stronger ground as the ancient Aryan forefathers in India envisaged. Therefore, the ideals and the process of education as laid down by him are really based on his Vedic philosophy. Hence, what he speaks out about education is not fundamentally different from the type of education which generally existed in the ancient Gurukul or the forest-school of India. However, he does give a reorientation to the same in the light of the modern society as he could see them. Below is given a short 59 account of the ideals and process of education as advocated by Swami Dayananda. This account is based on his Satyarth Prakash, first published in 1882, an epitome of all he stands for as a reformer of the modern society.

EDUCATION ACCORDING TO SWAMI DAYANANDA Meaning of Education According to Swami Dayanand, education imparts true and real knowledge about matter, self-development and welfare of all living beings. In other words, it should inculcate a spirit of service and help to others. As such, education is that process of gaining real knowledge about all material and divine entities by slow and steady development of good qualities, making one's own life and life of others happy and cheerful. In this way, according to Swamijee, education is a supreme and most important moral process for the development of mankind. Swami Dayanand says—"A man without education is only a man in name. It is a bounden duty of a man to get education, become virtuous, be free from malice and preach for the well-being of people advancing the cause of righteousness." Philosophy of Education The founder of Arya Samaj, Swami Dayanand Saraswati, was a great scholar of Vedic literature, an extra-ordinary religious preacher and a great social reformer. Much before his time the priestly class of Brahmins had started, for their own selfish ends, preachings of untrue knowledge and blind dogmas to hoodwink the illiterate, credulous and religious minded Hindus of the country. This narrow education and preachings of blind dogmas, rituals and customs had aroused in the minds of many a spirit of revulsion against this falsehood and blind faith with the result that the Christian missionaries began to reap a good harvest of conversion of Hindus into the Christian fold by various allurements of Western culture, material pleasures and monetary benefits. At such critical times, Swami Dayanand began to preach the gospel of Vedic culture and civilization and gave the clarion call to the masses of India to return to Vedic scholarship and Vedic life of peace and happiness.

60 To retrieve the Hindus from the religious, social, educational and cultural stagnation and slow decay, he preached education of the masses, both males and females according to Vedic learning and Vedic knowledge. Swami Dayanand, in a nutshell, was the great teacher, guide, social reformer and a true saviour of Hindus. His mantra was 'Back to Vedas'. His Stand on Major Issues Before we begin to study Swami Dayananda's views on education in detail, it will be helpful to mention here in brief the points that he specially emphasised in the education of boys and girls. In their education, amongst other things, he laid stress on parents' role, religious and moral training, chastity and Brahmacharya (celibacy), personal hygiene, the study of Vedas, Upavedas, Vedant, Shastras and Upanishads, fatherly relation between the teacher and the student, abandonment of foreign language in favour of the mother-tongue as the medium of education, State responsibility for education from the primary to the highest stage, location of schools and colleges amidst natural surroundings away from the allurements of city life. In the following sections we shall see how he has advocated the cause of education according to his line of thinking. For obvious reasons, we may not agree with some of his views as detailed below, but it will be difficult to discard all of them. There can be no denying that he, as a true emancipator, looked at all the aspects of human life and considered education as a true remedy for many social evils. Basic Principles of Education The fundamental principles of education as preached by Swami Dayanand are given below : 1. Mother should be careful about the informal education of the child from the very stage of conception. 2. Before and after conception, parents should not use wine or other intoxicating things. 3. Parents should take pure food items and keep pious thoughts in their minds. 4. The early education of the child should be conducted by parents. 61 5. Parents should teach the child social courtesy and sweet behaviour. 6. The supreme mantra 'Gayatri' should be taught to the child after the age of five and it should be learnt by him by heart. 7. Parents should be careful about right knowledge, good company and control of senses by the child while educating him. 8. Education should be based on Ashram and Dharam. 9. Formal education of the child should be after the sacred thread wearing ceremony (Upanayan Samskar). 10. At the age of eight, boys and girls should be sent to schools. 11. There should be separate schools for boys and girls. 12. Schools should be located about five miles far from the town in a healthy and attractive surroundings enjoying seclusion also. 13. Schools should be based on philosophy of life. 14. All sections and castes of society should receive education. In other words, education should be made compulsory for all. 15. During the period of educational discipleship, absolute Brahmacharya should be practised by the child and all desires of worldly enjoyment should be discouraged. 16. Children should receive a balanced diet suited to their physical requirements. 17. While awarding punishment to a child, parents and teachers should not be swayed by passions of jealousy and envy.

18. Education should be logical and inculcate reasoning and argumentation. 19. Teacher-pupil relationship should be similar to those of ancient times. 20. In the curriculum Vedic literature, Vedant, Upnishads and other religious literature based upon sound reason and Vedic philosophy, should be included. Aims of Education According to Swami Dayanand, the following are the aims of education : 62 1. Self-realization. Like the Rishis of ancient India, Swami Dayanand advocated self-realization as the first aim of education. Self-realization means knowing the self. To achieve this aim, Swamijee emphasized the complete development of personality through the spread of universal education for all boys and girls so that each individual is able to have a true knowledge of his self. 2. Revival of Vedic Religion and Culture. In the times of Swamijee, more and more people, in revulsion of dogmatic and narrow ritualistic Hindu religion, were embracing Christianity as a refuge from priestly cruelties. Swami Dayanand preached the revival and renaissance of old Vedic learning, culture and civilization to halt this process of proselytisation and save Hindus from decay and eventual destruction. In this way, Sawamijee advocated the revival of old Vedic learning, religion and culture as the second aim of education. He believed that education will spread the light and learning of Vedas among the masses and this will save Hindus from changing their religion to Christianity. 3. Physical Development. The third aim of education, according to Swamijee, is the physical development of the child to the fullest extent. He emphasized that both boys and girls should observe strict abstinence and celibacy during the period of study. He believed that—"Brahmacharya, if well observed, conduces to strength of body, mind and soul." 4. Mental Development. According to Swamijee, the fourth aim of education is mental development. For this, the mother should teach the child upto the age of five years and the father upto the age of eight years at home, by their own efforts. After this, children should be sent to school. 5. Moral Development. Swami Dayanand was of firm belief that a child can follow the path of truth only when he gets moral development in the real sense of the term. Hence according to him, the fifth aim of education is moral development of the child. In 'Wit and Wisdom' Swami Dayanand writes—"Our only object is that mankind may progress and prosper, man may know what truth is, they may forsake untruth and accept truth." 6. Formation of Ideal Character. The sixth aim of education according to Swami Dayanand, is the formation of an ideal 63 character of the child. For this, it is essential that mother, father and the teacher all possess a strong character and by their own ideals, values and effective teachings try to mould the character of the child and develop his personality to the full. Role of Parents in the Education of Children Swami Dayanand spoke about the education and upbringing of children as that upto the age of five, the mother and upto the age of eight, the father should be responsible for the early education of their children. They should shield their children from evil habits with great care and teach them social behaviour and courteous manners. They should see that children are not indolent and waste their time in triflings, but teach them self-control of senses, abstinence and selfdiscipline. In his famous book 'Wit and Wisdom' Swami Dayanand writes—"The parents should inculcate in children the habit of self-restraint, love of learning and good company. Pernicious games, unnecessary weeping and laughing, quarrel, pleasure, moreseness, undue attachment to an object, envy, ill-will, etc., are to be shunned. They should see to it that the qualities of truthfulness, courage, perseverance, cheerfulness etc. be imbibed." Swami Dayananda is careful about the education of the individual since the very time of his coming into the mother's womb. He thinks that "the character of the mother influences the character of the child in the womb. Therefore, the upbringing of the child begins not at its birth but at the conception." Swami Dayananda wants to control the hereditary influence on the child by controlling the food taken at and during the time of conception, because food is sure to influence the physical and mental development of the child. He writes in his 'Satyartha Prakasha' thus :

"It is very essential for the mother and the father that before, during and after the conception they should avoid the use of intoxicants, liquor, foul-smelling, dry and such substances as are injurious to mental development and should take only such things as contribute towards calmness, health, strength, wisdom, energy, civility and gentleness, e.g., clarified butter, milk, sweets, and other useful substances of food and drink, 64 so that the generative juices of the mother and the father be healthy and free from disease." Swami Dayananda recommends that the first education of the child should be started by his mother. The mother has to see that child does not pick up any bad habit. When he begins to speak, the mother should see that he pronounces the letters distinctly with the right amount of effort and in the right places. The child should be guided to cultivate a sweet voice. When he begins to talk, he should be taught how to address his elders and how to conduct himself in the presence of others so that he may be always treated with respect. From the very beginning the parents should try to develop in children an intense love of knowledge, elevating company, and control of the senses. Swami Dayananda hints at the duty of parents as regards education of their children in the following manner: "To give their children the highest education possible, to instruct them in the ways of truth, to make them refined in character and manners, in short, to devote all their wealth, body and mind to accomplish this object is the paramount duty, the highest virtue, and the glory of parents." Separate Schools for Boys and Girls Swami Dayananda held this belief firmly that after eight years, boys and girls should be sent to schools for further education, but the schools for boys and girls should be separate. Swamijee was deadly against co-education. He insisted that schools for girls should be at least four miles away from boys schools. In 'Wit and Wisdom' Swami Dayanand writes —"The teachers, servants and menials should be females in girls schools and males in boys schools. No boy of five year's age should be allowed any entry into a girl's school, nor a girl of that age into a boy's school." The Scheme of Studies Swami Dayananda's philosophy of education deplored the existing Indian education which attended to the training of intellect alone and ignored the physical, emotional, moral and 65 spiritual aspects of the students life. He said such education can never build the personality of the child, it makes him self-oriented and careless of the welfare of the nation as a whole. This neglects religion and morality and hamper development of self-respect, character, public spirit and straightforward and upright behaviour, therefore, he pleaded for all sided development of the child through education, through his scheme of studies as given below : 1. Swami Dayananda recommends that first of all the children should be taught Panini's phonetics. It is the responsibility of the parents and teachers to teach their children and pupils to pronounce letters correctly with the right amount of 'effort' and the right 'agent'. 2. After phonetics, the children should be taught grammar which includes Astadhyayi, Dhatupath (Book of roots), Ganapath (Book of groups); Unadikosh (Book of prefixes and suffixes, etc.), Mahabhasya (Exposition of the above four books of Panini and Patanjali). The study of grammar may be learnt in three years. 3. After grammar, the students should read Nighantu and Nirukta (Books of Vedic Vocabulary and Philology) written by Yask. This study should not take more than six to eight months. 4. Thereafter, the students should study Channdograntha (Prosody) by Pingal in order to learn the rules that govern poetry. This study may be finished within four months. 5. Then the students should study Manusmriti, Valmiki Ramayana, Vidurniti, and the like selections from the Mahabharat in order to get rid of evil habits and become cultured. This study should not take more than a year. 6. Then the students should study six Sastras (erroneously known as the six schools of Philosophy) with the expositions of Risis—the great ancient seers. But before studying the Vedanta Sastras, students should learn the ten Upanisads. The study of all these books should be finished within two years.

7. After that, the students should study the four Vedas together with their four Brahmanas. Proper attention 66 must be paid to accents and meanings, both theoretically and practically. This study should be finished within six years. 8. After the study of the Vedas, the students should study the Upavedas (or sub-Vedas) which are four in number, viz., Ayurveda (medical science), Dhanurveda (the science of Government), Gandharva Veda (the science of music), Artha Veda (the science and practice of mechanical arts). Thus, Swami Dayananda wants the student to learn the nature and properties of all substances both theoretically and practically. After the study of the Upavedas, Swami Dayananda wants the student to learn Jyotisha Shastra, which should consist of arithmetic, algebra, geometry, geography, geology and astronomy. The students should also have all types of practical training in these sciences. Swami Dayananda urges both the teachers and students to master all the sciences and arts in twenty or twenty-one years in order to become cultured for leading a happy life. Swami Dayananda advises that both the teachers and the students should try to avoid any hindrance that comes up in the way of acquiring knowledge, viz., company of wicked persons, forming bad habits, child marriage, want of perfect Brahmacharya, indifference of rulers, parents and learned persons for the dissemination of knowledge, overeating, etc. He remarks that those people of India who are involved in such false and wicked practices are devoid of the advantages of Brahmacharya and education. He also attacks the sectarian selfish Brahmanas of his day because of their false teachings and attempt to keep the Kshatriyas and other classes illiterate in order to retain their selfish grip over them intact. He emphasises that it is the duty of both the rulers and the ruled to see that these hindrances are removed in order to enable the male and female students of all classes to acquire the necessary and right knowledge of truth and religion. Teaching in Schools Swami Dayananda advises that at the age of eight years children should be sent to schools where persons of good character and 67 adequate knowledge are appointed as teachers. He is very strongly against co-education. He says that the boy's school should be at least about six miles distant from that of the girls'. The teachers and other employees in the boy's school should be all of the male sex and in the girls' of the female sex. As long as the children are students they should abstain from the following eight types of intercourse, with persons of the opposite sex: 1. Indulging in lascivious thoughts. 2. Intimately talking about them. 3. Playing with them. 4. Looking upon them with lustful eyes. 5. Associating with them. 6. Reading or talking of libidinous subjects. 7. Embracing them. 8. Having sexual intercourse with them. The teachers should also try to keep themselves aloof from the above things, only then they can cultivate knowledge and good character in order to be ideal teachers. All the students should be treated alike in matters of food, drink and dress, etc. and all of them should practise bodily and mental discipline. Simple living and high thinking should be their motto. They should not cover bodily comforts. Their sole purpose should be to devote themselves entirely to the acquisition of knowledge and culture. They should not be allowed to see their parents during student days. They should be free from all

worldly cares and anxieties. Swami Dayananda recommends that the first Upnayana ceremony should be performed at home, and the second in the school. Parents and the teachers should teach the children the Gayatri Mantra with its meanings thus : "O Lord! O Personification of True Existence, Intelligence and Bliss! Everlasting, Holy, Allwise, Immortal Thou art Unborn, without any symbolical distinction and organisation, Omniscient, Sustainer and Ruler of the Universe, Creator of all, Eternal, Protector and Preserver of the Universe, O All-pervading Spirit! O Ocean of mercy! Thou art the Life of the Creation, Thou art an 68 All-blissful Being, the very contemplation of Whom wipes off all our pains and sorrows;...." After learning the Mantra with its meanings, the children should be taught the method of Divine Worship (Sandhyopasana) with all its preliminaries and accessories such, as Bathing, Achman and Pranayama. Both girls and boys should be taught Pranayama. The Sandhyopasana should be done in a solitary place with a concentrated mind. It should be the responsibility of the teachers to teach children all that is necessary about diet, dress and proper behaviour towards elders and juniors. The children should daily perform Devayajna, i.e., 'the feeding of fire with boiled pure butter, and aromatic substances for sanitary purposes'. Swami Dayananda describes in detail the processes of the Devayajna and wants that the children should carefully pick up the same for practising them daily. According to the Manusmriti (Chapter III, 1) Swami Dayananda wants that a student should observe Brahmacharya and study the Vedas with their subsidiary subjects for 9, 18, 36 years or until they are completely mastered. Swami Dayananda quotes from the Taittireya Upanishad (VII, 1-4) and explains how a teacher should instruct his pupils to lead a virtuous life. Swami Dayananda says that teachers should inculcate in the minds of the pupils the belief that it is only after abstaining from the acquisition of wealth and from having carnal pleasures that one can attain the knowledge of true religion. In this connection, he draws his authority from the Manusmriti and further suggests that the teachers should not neglect the education of Princes, and other Kshatriyas, Vaisyas, and Sudras. If all the classes of society are well educated and cultured, no one will try to set any false practice. Therefore, all persons of all classes should be given sound education and instructed in the principles of true religion. School Premises. Dayanandaji said that school premises should be at least four Kosas or eight miles away from towns and cities. By this suggestion he wants to keep the students away from the distractions of city life. He apprehends that even the parents would interfere with the studies of the student, if they 69 were to see him during the period of study. Therefore he says, "The parents should not meet their children, nor children their parents, nor should there be a communication between them, so that they might be entirely free from the cares of the world and devote themselves exclusively to their studies." Physical and Mental Austerity. Swami Dayananda advocated a life of physical and mental austerity for a student. He wanted the student to lead a life of hardihood and endurance so that he may be prepared for the worst kind of future. These words well express Swami Dayananda's point of view : "Children should be able to stand the prospective hardship of life, and where will they receive training for it if not in the school?.... If our young man cannot cope with the varying situations of life, our educational system is to be blamed. We should so train him so as to equip him for the worse in life.... A Brahmachari ... is a soldier in the making. He sleeps on a hard bed, takes a coarse meal, braves the oddities of weather, lives on the bare necessities of life, eschews all temptations ... and all this helps him in presenting himself as the most serviceable and self-sufficient unit in the social organism." As in the ancient times, Swami Dayananda wants to extent the above principle of austerity to the mental life as well. This he wants to accomplish through the practice of Yoga which means, "a harnessing of the senses and mind from the falsely manifold objects and thoughts, and at the same time a union with the unitary blissful self." Yoga aims at suppressing all lower activity, He says:

"When cease the five senses—knowledges, together with the mind, and the intellect stirs not.... This they consider as Yoga." Testing Knowledge Swami Dayananda recommends that all that is learnt should be carefully examined by the following five tests : 1. The Vedas and nature of God—All that is found 70 according to the teachings of the Vedas, nature and attributes and characteristics of God is right, the reverse is wrong. 2. Laws of Nature—All that tallies with the laws of nature is true, the reverse is untrue. 3. The practices and teachings of Aptas, i.e., the pious and learned men. 4. The purity and conviction of one's own soul. What is good for you is good for the world. What is painful to you is painful to others. This ought to be the guiding principle of one's conduct towards others. 5. Eight kinds of Evidence, viz., (i) Direct cognizance, (ii) Inference, (in) Analogy, (iv) Testimony, (v) History, (vi) Deduction, (vii) Possibility, (viii) Non-existence or Negation. On the basis of Nyaya Sastra, Swami Dayananda explains the above five criteria to a great length, and he believes that it is only by means of these five that one can ascertain what is true or untrue and right or wrong. He advises that teachers should examine everything that they teach to the students according to these criteria. The students should also follow this method in accepting anything; otherwise, they will be only crammers, and not profound scholars. Teachers should examine a book by these five tests before teaching it to students. Dayananda and Women Education From the foregoing account it s clear that Swami Dayananda was in favour of women education. He asserts that no where in the Vedas it is mentioned that the women are not qualified to study the Vedas. He believes that both men and women have equal right to education. He quotes from the Atharva Veda to prove that girls should also practise Brahmacharya and receive education. He says that for conducting the affairs of the state, the administration of justice, the duties of married life both the men and women should be educated. He recommends the Brahmana and Kshatriya women to acquire all kinds of knowledge; Vaisya women to learn trade 71 and some practical arts; and the Sudra women, the art of cooking etc. As the men should acquire the knowledge of grammar, Dharma and their profession, similarly women should learn grammar, Dharma, medical science, mathematics and the practical arts at least—which are very necessary for them for ascertaining truth, proper behaviour towards their husbands and other persons, reproducing, up-bringing and instruction of their children, and proper managing of domestic affairs. Therefore, Swami Dayananda has all praise for those parents who do their best in making their both sons and daughters practise Brahmacharya, acquire knowledge and perfect their character in all respects. Dayananda on Co-education Swami Dayananda is against co-education. He, therefore, lays down that the boys' schools should be at least two 'Kosas' (four miles) away from those of girls. He suggests that only men teachers and men servants should be allowed in a boys' school and women teachers and maid servants in girls' schools. No boy above the age of five years should be allowed in a girls' school and vice-versa. Thus, Swami Dayananda is not in favour of any contact between the opposite sexes during the period of school-life. Swami Dayananda gives an answer to the question of coeducation. One can easily charge him of unnaturalness when he thus excludes the opposite sex from the life of a student— whether male or female. Its seriousness becomes all the more greater when it is noted that a student is not permitted to go home or go into the outside world for the entire period of his

education. It might be mentioned against Swami Dayananda that he has placed so much emphasis on sexual exclusiveness as to show that he was unduly obsessed with sex. Education for Masses Dayanandaji was a very strong advocate of mass education. He advocated that knowledge of God and universe distinguishes human beings from beasts and for gaining knowledge he has to be educated. He said that God has endowed human beings with tongues and ears without any consideration of his cast, therefore, every human being has the right of universal education. He said : 72 "... all persons should read and hear the Vedas, increase their knowledge, accept good things, quit bad habits' and be happy." He asks "Does not God want to do good to the Sudras?" He says "Had God designed to prohibit teaching in the case of Sudras, he should not have endowed them with tongues and ears. Just as God has made the earth, water, fire and air, the moon, the sun and other objects for all, similarly he has revealed the Vedas, too, for all. He worked very hard to exercise knowledge and education for all and for this he translated the Vedas into Hindi and wrote a commentary on the Rig-Veda in Hindi." Arya Samaj holds this aspect of Dayananda's educational philosophy to its heart. Please go through the principles of Arya Samaj as given earlier in this chapter. He had clearly stated that knowledge is virtue and education's aim is attainment of virtue, which is must for each one of us, if we wish to be happy and see others happy in the society to which we owe our identity. Therefore, Swami Dayananda pleaded for mass education on equal basis for the unity in the society and nation on mental ground in its citizens. Some Essential Features of Dayananda's System of Education From the foregoing account, it is clear that Swami Dayananda laid great emphasis on character-building by giving the young religious and moral training. He had no sympathy for a system of education which was divorced from this essential feature. He believed that formation of character was not possible if the students were not taught their duty to God and Man. Another essential feature of Dayananda's educational philosophy is his insistance of a long course of eighteen years' arduous study by enforcing a life of celibacy. The emphasis that he laid on it is not found in the history of any other country. For a student's life he advocated Tapasya, not indulgence; sacrifice, not selfishness; simplicity, not luxury; Dharma, not godlessness; service, not enjoyment; duty, not pleasure. These indeed are high virtues of character which would ultimately build the national character. At a time of history, when we are passing through the sensational times marked 73 with greed for wealth and lust for power and an yearning for enjoyment of worldly pleasures these virtues of service to sacrifice suffering humanity and an emphasis on the higher spiritual values will undoubtedly go a long way in mitigating some of the glaring shortcomings of our times and thus leave a healthy impact on our educational system as well. When we look to the daily routine which Swami Dayananda prescribed for a student in a school, we find that he regarded practical personal hygiene as an essential part of education. In this respect, he required the student to follow the routines of a disciple in the ancient Gurukula; such as rising early in the morning, daily bath, prayer and practice in Pranayama (deep correct breathing) and doing most of the things in open air. The health of our students is sure to be better if they are urged to acquire some of these excellent habits. Thus, the practical personal hygiene may be considered as the third essential feature of Swami Dayananda's scheme of education. In his system of education, Swami Dayananda regarded the rich and the poor, the prince and the peasant, the high and the low, the Brahmana and the so called lower caste people, as equal. The State should provide free and universal education not only upto the primary stage, but for all the eighteen years, i.e., upto the highest stage. According to Swami Dayananda, in exceptional cases the State should give education upto the age of thirtysix or fortyeight years. Thus, he gives us a unique conception of the duty of the State for educating its citizen. The elimination of all the distinction of caste and class and sex in the matter of education and the advocacy of financing education at all the stages by the State are based on fundamental principles of democratic socialism.

The foundations of what we have now adopted as the socialistic pattern of society were laid about more than three fourth of a century before by the principles preached by the reformers like Dayananda. Hence, we can rightly regard that democratisation of education was a notable contribution to educational philosophy in India by Swami Dayananda. The emphasis that Swami Dayananda laid on the intimate relationship between the teacher and the taught on the ancient Gurukula pattern may be regarded as the fifth unique feature 74 of the educational system advocated by him. He wants that the student should find in the teacher the love of the parents, and the teacher should accept the student as a member of his family to all intents and purposes. This indeed is a noble example of teacher's duty towards his pupils. Swami Dayananda condemned foreign language as the medium of instruction. This may be accepted as another essential feature of his educational philosophy. Like a true educationist, he rightly realised that foreign language cannot be a suitable medium of instruction. While he opposed foreign language as a medium of instruction, he did not opposed Indians going abroad in quest of knowledge. He encouraged people to gather knowledge from all corners and sources. But at the same time, he believed that a sound system of education must make a student feel proud of his languages, his country, his cultural heritage, his nation's achievements. He was of the conviction that this could never be achieved if Indian languages and Sanskrit were not given their proper place in the scheme of education in the country. Evaluation of Educational Philosophy There is no originality in Swami Dayananda's thoughts, ideals and principles of education. The reason of this is that his main emphasis was on Vedic Philosophy. By his teachings and preachings about Vedic ideals and cultural values, he could save the misled Hindus from decay and downfall. He could give a new life in the nation and brought it on the path of progress and development. He was an erudite scholar of Vedic Philosophy and thus advocated Vedic values for achieving social reforms and advancement. He advocated the necessity of mass and compulsory education for all irrespective of caste, creed and sex. In fact, Swami Dayananda infused such a missionary zeal in his followers that all over the country, a vast number of girls and boys' schools were organized by people for their own good. Some notable centres of Vedic education are Gurukul Kangri and Jwalapur Gurukul Mahavidyalaya at Hardwar and for girls at Dehradun, Baroda and Sasni (Aligarh). These Gurukuls are still flourishing as centres of ancient education and Vedic learning. The great Indian philosopher and educationist 75 Ravindra Nath Tagore writes about Swami Dayananda "Swami Dayananda preached and worked for vigorous awakening of our mind that could strive for a harmonious adjustment with the progressive spirit of the modern age and at the same time keep in perfect touch with the glorious past of India." Some Efforts for Putting Dayananda's Educational Ideas into Practice Swami Dayananda has emphasised a system of national education. Wherever he went, he urged people to establish Sanskrit schools and to learn the Vedas. In the Eighth Principle of the Arya Samaj, as we have already seen in the beginning of this chapter, dispelling of ignorance and diffusing of knowledge have been advocated. Therefore, the Samaj became engaged both in educational reconstruction and religious propaganda. In order to put his educational programme and educational ideas into practice two premier institutions, to begin with, were established in Northern India—one at Lahore—named Dayananda Anglo-Vedic College in 1886, and the other near Hardwar—named Gurukula at Kangri in 1902. The institution at Lahore had been a great success, and a splendid example of indigenous enterprise in the field of education. Lala Hansraj was the principal architect of this institution. A few years after the establishment of this institution, some of its founders felt that they had drifted much towards the westernization of education and they were forgetting the Dayananda's ideals. In fact, they wanted to run an ideal institution on the lines indicated by Swami Dayananda. This group of Dayananda's disciples founded another institution named Gurukula at Kangri near Hardwar under the leadership of Mahatma Munshi Ram, later known as Swami Shradhananda. Needless to mention that Mahatma Munshi Ram, the actual founder of Gurukula derived the inspiration of the fundamental principles from Dayananda. Thus the Gurukula, though an ancient system, was again brought into the thinking of the people by Swami Dayananda, who through his Satyartha Prakash explained the underlying principles in the light of the modern thought that he could command.

The D.A.V. College of Lahore has seized to be a part of 76 India after the partition of the country in 1947, and by that time it had almost deviated from the Dayananda ideals by conceding to run itself practically on the Western pattern. The Kangri Gurukula still retains its Dayananda character in many respects. We are giving below a short sketch of this institution along with some other modern ones which are trying to follow the Dayananda ideals of education upto some extent. The Kangri Gurukula (near Hardwar) and the Brindaban Gurukula (near Mathura) are the two notable institutions in India which are trying to put into practice some of the ideals of education advocated by Swami Dayananda. Accordingly, these institutions are endeavouring to the ancient Indian revive Vedic philosophy and literature. They aim at producing such citizens who may be fit to preach Vedic religion. During one of his visits Sir James Meston says, "The Gurukula is one of the most original and interesting experiments carried on. One of the most wonderful, interesting, and stimulating institutions; we have a hand of ascetics devoted to their duty, and working in the wilderness following the traditions of the ancient Risis, combined with the most modern scientific methods, and working practically for nothing and a set of students of strong physique, obedient, loyal, thoughtful, devoted, extra-ordinarily happy, and extra-ordinarily well fed." According to the ancient Gurukula, these institutions are residential in character. They are away from the influences of the city life. They are amidst natural surroundings. They try to bring the atmosphere of a 'tapovan' (hermitage) to the students. However, it has not been a part of this study to investigate their suitability and say how far they are able to live upto their professed ideals. Trying to adhere to the principles laid down by Swami Dayananda, these two institutions admit children between the ages of six and eight. They offer many separate courses—each of fourteen years' duration. Hindi is the medium of instruction. Special attention is paid to the study of Hindu culture and Sanskrit literature. These Gurukulas are against co-education. Every student is required to undergo certain bodily and mental 77 discipline as advocated by Swami Dayananda (or as practised in the ancient Gurukulas). Each student is required to take a vow of Brahmacharya and remain a bachelor till the age of twentyfour, if not longer. The student is expected to be a vegetarian and shun all stimulants. Now, these institutions claim that they are trying to modernize themselves. Accordingly, they are now trying to introduce the studies of some modern arts and sciences, but unlike the other universities in the country which are run on the modified Western pattern. These institutions now call themselves full-fledged universities. However, the spirit of Swami Dayananda or that of the ancient Gurukulas may be sensed to some extent in them especially because of their situation in the natural surroundings. Mention may be made here of three of the other Gurukulas meant exclusively for girls—(1) The Kanya Gurukula of Dehradun, (2) The Arya Kanya Mahavidyalaya of Baroda, and (3) The Kanya Mahavidyalaya, Sasni (Aligarh). The spirit of Swami Dayananda may also be seen in these three Gurukulas for girls. The students of these Gurukulas are urged to observe strict Brahmacharya, and they are not allowed to marry before the age of sixteen. These Gurukulas profess to emphasise that type of education which is especially suited to the needs and requirements of women. The Arya Kanya Mahavidyalaya of Baroda claims to lay special emphasis on physical training. Besides the above five institutions in the country, there are a host of other Dayananda Anglo-Vedic Colleges and Dayananda Anglo Higher Secondary Schools in the different parts of Northern India. It is true that these institutions are not at all working on the educational pattern as designed by Swami Dayananda, and as a matter of convenience, they have succumbed to the many influences of educational system engineered by the British rulers—much against the spirit of Swami Dayananda. However, these institutions, too, claim to keep the spirit of some of the ideals of Swami Dayananda alive and in some of their workings, e.g., the prayer on each opening day or on some special occasion, the religious or moral instructions on some day, and the early routine of many students in some of the hostels etc., the spirit of Swami Dayananda might be felt to some extent. 78 Evaluation of Educational Philosophy

There is no originality in Swami Dayananda's thoughts, ideals and principles of education. The reason of this is that his main emphasis was on Vedic Philosophy. By his teachings and preachings about Vedic ideals and cultural values, he could save the misled Hindus from decay and downfall. He could give a new life in the nation and brought it on the path of progress and development. He was an erudite scholar of Vedic Philosophy and thus advocated Vedic values for achieving social reforms and advancement. He advocated the necessity of mass and compulsory education for all irrespective of caste, creed and sex. In fact, Swami Dayananda infused such a missionary zeal in his followers that all over the country, a vast number of girls and boys schools were organized by people for their own good. Some notable centres of Vedic education are Gurukul Kangri and Jwalapur Gurukul Mahavidyalaya at Hardwar and for girls at Dehradun, Baroda and Sasni (Aligarh). These Gurukulas are still flourishing as centres of ancient education and Vedic learning. The great Indian philosopher and educationist Ravindra Nath Tagore writes about Swami Dayananda "Swami Dayananda preached and worked for vigorous awakening of our mind that could strive for a harmonious adjustment with the progressive spirit of the modern age and at the same time keep in perfect tovich with the glorious past of India."

QUESTIONS FOR EXERCISE 1. Write a note on 'Basic Principles' and 'Aims' of education as advocated by Swami Dayananda. 2. Write short notes on Dayananda's views on the following : (a) Role of parents in the education of the child. (b) Physical and Mental Austerity. (c) Education for the Masses. 3. Give details of essential features of Dayananda's system of education. 4. Write short notes on Dayananda's views on the following : (a) Testing of Knowledge. (b) Women Education. (c) Meaning of Education. 79

6 Annie Besant (1847-1933) Mrs. Annie Besant by birth was a Englishwoman. She was a great lover of Hinduism and she claimed that she was a Hindu in her former birth. She adopted Hinduism and considered India as her 'beloved motherland' and worked for the emancipation of its people, particularly women and children while working for its independence with devotion and dedication. Thus, she was an embodiment of Indian culture. But before we attempt to understand her philosophy of education, let us understand her social and cultural philosophy of life and before doing so let us have a peep into her life sketch.

HER LIFE Mrs. Annie Besant was the pupil of Madame Helena Petrovna Blavatsky, one of the founders of the Theosophical Movement in modern times. During her life time, she had been one of the greatest assets to the Theosophical Society. She had been president of this Society from 1907 till her death on September 20, 1933. By birth she was an Englishwoman. She was a free thinker. Before she joined the Theosophical Society, she had been a great lover of Hinduism and had claimed that she was a Hindu in her former birth. She loved India and her people from the 80 core of her heart. She had been one of the most outstanding figures in the history of the Hindu Renaissance of the nineteenth century. She regarded India as her own motherland and she looked upon the Indian people, as her own people. At the age of fortysix, she came to India on the 16th November, 1893. After coming here, she made India her home. She

wore Hindu costume. She adopted Hindu ways of life and worked for forty years for the revival of Hinduism and uplift of the Indian nation till her death. Like a true Hindu, she went on a pilgrimage in 1901. Like a pious Hindu, she loved to reside in the holy city of Banaras where she founded the Central Hindu College which became the nucleus of the Banaras Hindu University. At Banaras, she delivered her very illuminating and inspiring lectures on Hindu Ideals, translated the Gita, and wrote the admirable summaries of the Ramayana and the Mahabharata and the very helpful textbooks on Hindu religion and ethics. In his article Indian Unrest (London, 1910), Sir Valentine Chirol wrote, "No Hindu has done so much to organize and consolidate the movement of revival as Mrs. Annie Besant, who in her Central Hindu College at Banaras, and her Theosophical Institution at Adyar, Madras, has openly proclaimed her faith in the superiority of the whole Hindu system to the arrogant civilization of the West. Is it surprising that Hindus should turn their backs upon our civilization, when an Englishwoman of highly trained intellectual power comes and tells them that it is they who possess and have from all times possessed the key to supreme wisdom—that their gods, their philosophy, their morality are in a higher plane of thought than the West has ever reached?" Thus, Annie Besant had two chief lines of approach to the re-awakening of India and the achievement of Independence: (1) the Religious, (2) the Educational. She gave lectures and supported the Independence movement. She criticised the British openly regarding their policies in India. The British, in India as well as in England, opposed her strongly for her critical views. Annie Besant was the founder of the All India Women's Conference. This attracted many Indian women and became a strong force for Women's Education, Child Marriage Bill, the 81 Sharda Act, and many other reforms affecting women and children. Annie Besant started many of the reforms that have given women the equality of status and rights which they enjoy today in India. She brought about a revival in the study and application of Hindu philosophy and culture at a time when these were fading. To quote in her own words, "I set myself toward showing the insufficiency of materialism as an answer to the problems of life and the immense superiority of Hinduism as a philosophy encasing an all-embracing reverence, and a science of Yoga. All these were an open road to the invisible, to the ancient Rishis of India and the East, to the saints of Christendom, to the wisdom which included all religions and excluded none." Annie Besant lived and worked in India during the period when Rabindra Nath Tagore, Sri Aurobindo Ghosh and Mahatma Gandhi were carrying on their revolutionary ideas and ideals in the social, educational, religious and political fields. She supported their causes and furthered their aims by her great work and noble example. She had a great zeal and missionary endeavour for social reform, educational expansion and India's freedom. Mrs. Besant was a wonderful and captivating orator. She was a great organizer. She used all her energy and powers in the service of her "beloved motherland"—India. For about three decades she travelled throughout India and made many voyages to Europe, America and Australia for delivering various lectures. She tried to make Indians feel the greatness of their religion and great cultural heritage. She tried to organize every form of activity which would make India great. She took religion, education, politics, journalism and social reforms as means for enabling India to rise to its great height. In each of these fields, she showed tremendous energy and driving power. While she spoke she moved her audience to tears. Mrs. Besant's generosity knew no bounds. She dedicated all her wealth to her dear Central Hindu College and ultimately she made a gift of the college to Pandit Madan Mohan Malviya so that it might form the nucleus of the Banaras Hindu University. Overwhelmed by her services to the cause of the Indian 82 nation, and her courage and devotion in advocating Home Rule for India, the Indian National Congress elected her its President in 1918. This was the highest honour which political India could give to any person. Unfortunately it could not be possible for her to sympathize with the Non-co-operation movement started by Gandhiji in 1919, and consequently she lost her influence and leadership in the political field. But we must agree with Mrs. Sarojini Naidu when she says, "If Annie Besant had not been, Gandhiji could not be".

Gandhiji, too, has remarked, "As long as India lives, the memory of the magnificent services rendered by her (Mrs. Annie Besant) will also live. She endeared herself to India by making it her country of adoption and dedicating her all to it." Thus, we see that Mrs. Annie Besant endeared herself to India by her many-sided activities for the upliftment of the Indian people whom she considered her own. Hinduism had a tremendous influence over her and all her public lectures and writing were imbued with Hindu ideals and Hindu ways of life. Therefore, in Annie Besant as an educator we find a staunch advocate of the fundamental ideals of education which prevailed in ancient India. By basing education of the Indian youth on the great ancient Indian traditions, she wanted to make the youth of the country conscious of the great Indian heritage and the part that they could play in transmitting the spiritual light for the benefit of the whole humanity. However, she was not blind to the needs of the modern society, and so she would like to conduct education in such a way as to enable the child to stand on his own legs in various life situations. With these aims in view, she laid down certain ideals and principles of education together with a national scheme of education for India. In all these conceptions she had been very much influenced by the great Indian ideals of education which were practised in the ancient Ashramas and Gurukulas of India (the ancient forest-schools). By founding the Central Hindu College at Banaras in 1898 and by nourishing it with utmost sincerity for nearly two decades, she tried to put her educational ideals into practice. 83 The great Theosophical institution at Adyar, Madras had also been very much influenced by her noble ideals. Her association with the Central Hindu College, Banaras ended when she donated it to Pandit Madan Mohan Malviya for enabling him to found the Hindu University. Therefore, the students of the college were deprived of her inspiring ideals. Thus, she could not get enough opportunity to put her ideals into practice. We are giving below an account of Annie Besant as an educator. Annie Besant as an Author As she was a great orator and could carry people with her, similarly she was an author of recognised merit capable of satisfying her readers with her ideas. Her publications in India include the following : 1. Education as a National Duty (Banaras, 1903) 2. The Education of Indian Girls (Banaras, 1906) 3. Principles of Education (Madras, 1915) 4. Education for the New Era (London, 1919) 5. Theosophical Education Report (Madras, 1917) 6. Some Lessons from the Mahabharata (Banaras, 1899) 7. Sri Ramchandra, the Ideal King (Banaras and London, 1901) 8. Hindu Ideals (Banaras and London, 1904) 9. Sanatan Dharma : An Advanced Textbook of Hindu Religion and Ethics (Banaras, 1904) 10. The Universal Textbook of Religion and Morals (Adyar 1914-1915, 3 Vols.) 11. Lectures on Political Science (Adyar, 1919) 12. Legends and Tales (London, 1883) 13. Civilization's Deadlock and the Keys (London, 1924) 14. Kamala Lectures : Indian Ideals in Education and Philosophy, Religion and Art (Calcutta, 1925) 15. World Problems of Today (London, 1924) 16. India Bound or Free (London and New York, 1925).

Philosophy of Life—Principles of Theosophy We shall now discuss her philosophy of life and her ideals and conception of education for India. Since it is from one's 84 philosophy of life that one's educational ideas are drawn, first of all we shall consider Annie Besant's philosophy of life. Annie Besant believes in the creeds of the Theosophical Society, of which she had been a president in India. Her philosophy of life, though derived from these creeds, is basically Hindu in conception.

PRINCIPLES OF THEOSOPHY True religion, according to Annie Besant, consists not only in one's feelings towards God but also in performing duties towards our fellowmen. A morally good man who is an atheist is in a far higher state of being than the man who believes in God and is selfish, cruel and unjust. Theosophy as a great religion has two parts—a spirit and a body (1) Knowledge of God (2) Dogma and rites. Knowledge of God is called Brahma Vidya and belongs equally to all great religions of the world-—Hinduism, Christianity, Islamic Sufism, Judaism. No man is a true theosophist unless he has a direct knowledge of God. Thus, he may arrive at through any religion, or by his own earnest efforts to seek the truth. Thus, Theosophy emphasizes two principles : (a) The Unity of God who is the Universal source of all existence, and (b) Universal brotherhood of man. Ethics of Theosophy This consists of the highest and purest teachings of world's noblest saints, prophets and founders of religions. All that is sweet and most lofty in the world's religions and all that is most inspiring and enabling in the philosophies of all countries and religions of the world form the ethics of Theosophy. If man lives by the highest principles that he can grasp, he becomes capable of appreciating the sublime. The theosophist looks up to the examples of Christ, Buddha, Rama and all great religious leaders. He strives to become like them. Mr. K.C. Vyas gives an account of four basic teachings of the society, which in addition to ethics includes the following : 1. Religious. Society believes that God is one. He is absolute. They further believe in the trinity corresponding to Ishwara, Hiranyagarbha and Virat in the Hindu philosophy. According 85 to them there is a hierarchy of spiritual intelligences ranging from the highest gods to the lowest gnomes and fairies. 2. Philosophical. The soul is immortal. Man is subject to rebirth. Matter is subordinate to mind. 3. Scientific. Corresponding to the Hindu conception of seven Lokas the universe consists of seven planes. Man's constitution consists of seven sheaths. One will have to reap the consequences of his action (Law of Karma)—a similar doctrine has been taught by Hinduism and Buddhism. The world is always on the march of evolution. The various races of man and individuals in each race undergo well-marked stages of evolution. 4. Ethical. One should strive towards the realization of universal brotherhood. One must pay complete obedience to the law of evolution. The man may develop his spiritual powers through meditation, thought-control, love and service. It should be noted that Theosophy recognised the equality of all religions, still it tended more towards the teachings of Hinduism and Buddhism. For creating the feeling of universal brotherhood the Society considers the comparative study of religions very necessary. This organisation is not a sect or religion. It makes its members free to follow any religion. There is no specific religious or prayer book. Scriptures and prayers of all religions are chanted at its gathering. Annie Besant passionately claimed that she was a Hindu in her former birth. Speaking about her a biographer says, "There is a sublime pathos as well as passion in all her references to her love of India, which she looked upon as her own motherland, to her love of the Indian people, whom she looked upon her own people, and to her love of Hinduism and Hindu scriptures, which she looked upon as a sacred heritage and, above all, in her devotion to that most baffling Beloved of the Hindus— the Avatar of the Bhagavad Gita." Consequently, Annie Besant became a Hindu in spirit and in the ways of her life, and her philosophy of life has been

essentially Hindu. Accordingly, she has written, "In the ideal figure of Sri Ram Chandra, we have the perfect man, the man who in every relation of life, 86 son, husband, brother, king, set an example of nobility and purity great as human imagination can depict ... in Sri Krishna there is something more, some subtle gleam of divinity, of half-heard melody, of elusive fleeting grace, scarce seen but sensed." As a Hindu she went on a pilgrimage in 1901 to Amarnath, 16,000 feet above the sea in the Himalayas. During this pilgrimage, she walked barefoot on the snow and bathed in the ice-cold stream beside the temple. As a staunch Hindu, Annie Besant believed in the fundamental principles of Karma, reincarnation, Yoga and spiritual evolution. So her philosophy of life hinges round these fundamental concepts of Hinduism. It is from her Hindu philosophy of life that her educational philosophy has been evolved. That is why, as we have already hinted above, she has been an upholder of ancient Hindu traditions and spirit in the field of education in India. Annie Besant's Philosophy of Education Annie Besant's philosophy of education covers almost all the aspects of education as she aims to achieve her object of reestablishing ancient Indian system of education in the face of modern developments. A brief account of her thoughts in this respect is as follows : Objects of Education The basic objects of Annie Besants philosophy of education are as follows : 1. Physical Education. The object of physical education is to secure a perfect development of the body in order to provide a good physical basis for mental, religious and moral activities. All these activities are conditioned by the body. Therefore, it is very necessary, first of all, to attend to physical education of the child. 2. Mental Education. The object of mental education is to train the powers of intelligence, such as observation, memory, reasoning, judgement and the clarity of thought. 3. Religious Education. The object of religious education 87 is to remove those hinderances which come between man and his love for God. 4. Moral Education. The object of moral education is to develop and train the powers of emotions. Moral education should ultimately result in acquiring harmony between thought, word and deed. This will bring in social virtues, the sense of duty and responsibility. It will create an attitude of love for all.

ANNIE BESANT'S IDEALS OF EDUCATION The old Gurukul Freedom to be restored. Annie Besant wants to apply the Indian ideals to the salvation of modern education and culture in India. She urges that once again learning must be inspired by the ancient ideals which should be now embodied in new forms. These new forms should be expressions of modern Indian life, and this is possible only if the old academic freedom which existed in the ancient Gumkulas and Ashramas is restored to the educational institutions in the country. The kings in the ancient India gave all help to the Gurukulas and Ashramas! but they claimed no authority in them. Similarly the government to-day should give all help to the educational and cultural institutions, so that they may produce learned and skilled men and women for all walks of life in order to carry on the affairs in every department of life. Money given to educational and cultural institution is not a gift but an investment, because it is through education that man's physical, emotional, intellectual and spiritual nature can be elevated to a desired level. Education to be all-sided. Annie Besant deplores the modern Indian education which attends to the training of intellect alone, and ignores, the physical, emotional, moral and spiritual side of the student's life. Such an education can never build the personality of the child. This education produces only such men who think especially of their own aims, and are

careless of the welfare of the nation as a whole. Such men are developed in intelligence but wanting in self-respect, in character, in public spirit and in straightforward and up-right behaviour. This is the result of neglect of religion and morality in education. The Ideal of Brahmacharya. Annie Besant regrets that the ancient ideal of Brahmacharya is now absent in the modern 88 schools of India. Now the students in schools and colleges are fathers of children. This is against the old ideals, and this means ruin of India, because by becoming fathers prematurely, the body becomes a wreck, the nervous system is exhausted, and one grows old when he should be full of flush and vigour of manhood. This produces lack of courage and cowardice. Annie Besant urges the Indian people to become conscious of this cowardice and rise again by education and by restoring the old ideals of Brahmacharya. All Round Education Explaining her scheme of all-round education, Annie Besant writes, "I look forward to a time when every child shall receive, in the national schools, the elements of a literary, scientific, artistic and technical education. No boy or girl should leave the school ignorant of our literature, or of the wonders of science. He should delight in beauty. He should also learn some definite means of bread-winning, let it be tailoring, cookery or carpentry or any trade or profession. Every pair of hands should be able to do at least some one thing well by which an honest living may be earned".

IDEAS ON EDUCATION Annie Besant's educational philosophy is based on the theosophical ideal of education according to which each child should receive an education suited to develop his particular and individual faculties. He should be imparted education which will make him useful as a citizen in his community and his country. Aims of Education According to Annie Besant, education should draw out the child's capacities, and develop and train him so that he becomes a healthy and useful member of a civilized society. The object of theosophical education are as follows : (i) To train the body in health, vigour and grace, so that it may express the emotions with beauty, and the mind with accuracy and strength. 89 (ii) To train the emotions to love all that is beautiful. (iii) To sympathise with joys and sorrows of others and to inspire to serve others until we love our elders as our parents, our equals as our brothers and sisters, and youngsters as our children. (iv) To find joy in sacrificing for great causes for the helpless and compassion for those who suffer. (v) To train and discipline the mind in right thinking, right judgement and memory. (vi) To subdue body, 'emotion and mind to spirit. (vii) Education should make man a good citizen of free and spiritual commonwealth of humanity. Annie Besant divided the entire period of education in life, into three parts. These are as follows : First Period: 7-7 Years 1. The physical height and development of the child's body should be the chief concern of parents and the teacher. The child's entire future depends on the care bestowed on the child during the first seven years of his life. In later years nothing can fully make up for insufficient food or insufficient light, exercise and sleep, during this period. 2. This is also the period for cultivating observation, for training the senses into alertness, accuracy and grasp, for training

hand and finger, skills of memory especially the word-memory which is very quick and retentive in childhood. Nursery rhymes remain in the memory for life. Rhymes and poems employing succession of events, names or dates learnt in childhood, are never forgotten. 3. No abstract reasoning processes should be forced upon the child during this period. His attention should be directed to observation of sequences of facts but not the logical processes. The brain cells are not sufficiently interrelated to make any train of reasoning intelligible. There is no benefit in memorising logical sequences which are not understood by the child. Second Period: 7-14 Years During this period, education should be chiefly directed to the 90 development and training of the emotions, and thus to the building of character. Histories consisting largely of biographical stories of great men of varied types, saints, heroes, martyrs, political, artistic, literary leaders in every department of human life. These should inspire enthusiasm and shape the ideals of developing boys and girls. In this way character will be built and the channels of right emotions will be prepared. Thus, the great emotional rush which follows the attainment of puberty will find channels ready to receive it, to render it uplifting and beneficent, instead of degrading and mischievous. Third Period: 14-21 Years This period should be the time of intellect development of hard and strenuous mental labour. The reasoning faculty should be thoroughly trained by logic and mathematics. Specialization in some areas should prepare the youth for his future career. Curriculum. Annie Besant prescribed the following curriculum for different periods : (i) First Period: 1-7 Years. Tales of noble deeds and heroism, emphasis on health, physical dexterity and skills; nursery rhymes, cultivation of word-memory, observation of sequences of facts, love of beauty, arousing of sympathy for the poor and helpless. (ii) Second Period: 7-14 Years. History and Biography, Geography, Physiology, Physics, Chemistry and Geology should be taught. Practical and laboratory work in the sciences should be included. Algebra, Geometry and Arithmetic should occupy an important place in the curriculum. (iii) Third Period: 14-21 Years. This is the period of the rapid intellectual development. Therefore, Logic and Mathematics should be taught intensively. The sense of duty to one's fellowmen should be taught through Civics and Social studies. Sciences such as Biology, Philosophy and Psychology should be mastered. Literature, Philosophy, Economics should occupy an important place. Various aspects of the Arts should also be included in the curriculum. Specialization in some chosen field should prepare the student for his future career in life. 91 Religious Teaching should begin with easy stories in the child's early stages of education and pass on to metaphysics in the later years in all of the three stages, being adapted to the intelligence and understanding of the student. Physical Training should be all-pervading. It should be adapted in theory and practice to the physical development and needs of the growing pupil in all the above-mentioned three stages. Duties of the Teacher On the duties and responsibilities of the teacher, Annie Besant says that the teacher should realise that the pupil is an immortal soul. The pupil is not conscious of his great past heritage and the glorious future to which he is to go after realising his latent powers. The teacher has to make him aware of all these. The teacher has to be a friend of the soul of the child and not only of his body. He should believe that the body is only a vehicle for the soul, an instrument to the soul's great ends. He must not force the child into line with his own standard. He must respect his individuality.

He has to help the pupil to understand the purpose of this great universe, and this is possible only if he recognises the individuality of the child and makes him conscious of his soul which is other than the material body. The teacher should not disregard the education of emotions. Through education of emotions the teacher should create the spirit of universal brotherhood, the spirit of unity, the spirit of generosity, compasion, happiness and peace. If emotions are not educated, mind will become hard and narrow. Therefore the teacher must prevent this hardness and narrowness. Annie Besant urges teachers in India not to look towards the West for inspiration, because she believes that India has still enough to inspire and lead one to lofty ideals in life. Hence, she remarks that education of the West can never be the ideal for the East. The teacher in India must have this faith and act accordingly. The Ideals for the Student Annie Besant emphasises the importance of the life of the Brahmachari for an Indian student. On the basis of the ancient 92 ideals of Indian education she says that service, study, simplicity and self-control should be the motto of the student. She remarks that this motto refers to the four divisions of human nature. The idea of service becomes clear to us when we look to the needs and importance of our physical body. We need to serve our body if we want any service from it. Our body cannot serve us to our satisfaction if we fail to attend to it properly. Apart from the body, there are feelings, emotions and appetites which always influence our behaviour. These make up the second great division of human nature, and may be called the emotional nature of man. The mind which helps us to observe, reason and remember is the intellectual nature of man. This is the third division of the human constitution. Besides these three divisions, there is the spiritual nature of man, the fourth division. The spirit within the individual owns the body, the emotions, and the mind. These four divisions of human nature must be taken into consideration into any scheme of education if that is to be complete and worthwhile. The Brahmachari or the ideal student in India needs this kind of complete and worthwhile education. We shall consider below the qualities that a student in the eyes of Annie Besant should imbibe. Annie Besant deplores that in modern times service to the Guru (teacher) has lost its old significance. She wants that the student should owe to his teacher obedience and affectionate respect and trust. The student should also serve his parents. To Annie Besant, the object of study should not be only to pass examinations. She criticises the present system of education which is identified with the passing of examinations. The object of study is not only gaining knowledge. In fact, the real object of study is to draw out, train and discipline the faculties of the mind. The study must evolve and train the powers of observing, reasoning and judging. Thus, the study should aim at the development of all faculties—physical, moral, intellectual, and spiritual. Simplicity is the symbol of the virtues of the Brahmachari or the ideal student. Without this trait he cannot imbibe the various virtues required of him. Annie Besant adds that the virtue of obedience, of physical and moral courage, of endurance, of the team-spirit and of self-control must be acquired by the student. 93 These are the virtues which the ancient Aryan scheme of education tried to inculcate in the student. Annie Besant wants that the Indian youths should be inspired by the same sentiments which pervaded an ancient Gurukula in India. But she urges that the Indian youths must not indulge into vanity over the past. She observes that the past should be a matter of inspiration and not of boast.

ANNIE BESANT'S SCHEME OF NATIONAL EDUCATION FOR INDIA The General Scheme Annie Besant recommends that the mother-tongue of the district should be the medium of instruction. English should be compulsory as a second language upto the secondary and high school stage. The school should work from 7 a.m. to 6 p.m. The hours of the school should vary in different parts of India according to the local convenience. The main study-work

should be done between 7 to 10 and 2 to 4; food, rest and games between 10 to 2 and 4 to 6. The work of the school should begin and end with a short religious service and singing. The school education should be divided into Primary—classes I, A and B, ages 5-7. Lower Secondary—classes II, III, and IV, ages 7-10. Higher Secondary—classes V, VI, VII, and VIII, ages 10-14. High classes, classes—IX and X, ages 14-16. There should be an examination at the end of Higher Secondary Education. The High School should be closed by a school-leaving examination. Students entering into professions like engineering, agriculture, business, commerce, science and medicine etc., will devote an additional year to a university preparatory class. By passing this class, they will enter into the degree course which will be of three years' duration, i.e., upto twenty years of age. They will enter the postgraduate studies after this degree course. At the primary and secondary stages there will not be much difference between the girls' and boys' education, expect that needle work, music, cookery, household economy hygiene, home science and first aid will find special place in the scheme of studies for girls. 94 Below, we come to the general outline of studies as suggested by Annie Besant according to the three periods referred to above in connection with her principles of education. The Outline of Studies The First Period. Annie Besant suggests that during the first period (from birth to seven) which is chiefly physical, the care of the body should be the major consideration. The infant should be carefully watched, but he must not be kept in the arms or lap for a long time. He should be allowed full freedom to move this and that way as he chooses. Brightly coloured objects should be placed near him in order to awaken curiosity in him and to stimulate him to exert. He should be encouraged to learn his own parts of the body. At about three, increased opportunities of choice should be placed in his way. At four, his play may be organized a little. The little child should not be frightened, nor be scolded. The play of the child should give him an idea of interdependence. The child should be encouraged to help all around him, to be kind to animals and plants and to be clean in body. In the primary school, play should be the chief method of teaching. Annie Besant is here in favour of the Pestalozzi's and Montessori's and Froebel's principles of teaching, and advises that the parents, teachers and guardians should be very well familiar with these principles. Stories should be the chief means of teaching religious and moral lesson in the primary classes. The children should be taught drawing and modelling. Through objects, the four rules of arithmetic should be taught. The school should maintain small gardens where the children should observe birds, insects and flowers. It should be seen that the child does not get over-tired. The child is very imitative and receptive during this period. So teachers of good character, manners and habits should be selected. The Second Period: (Lower Secondary School). This period is chiefly emotional. This extends from seven to ten years of age. For religious education religious stories, hymns and lives of great religious teachers should be used. 95 The intellectual education should consist of a good knowledge of mother tongue, very elementary knowledge of Sanskrit, Pali or Arabic, English through conversation and telling stories, nature-study through observations and experiments, history and geography through pictures and stories and through making of models and maps, beginning with the immediate neighbourhood, arithmetic through easy problems. The moral education should consist of stories illustrating truth, devotion, courage and honour, self-sacrifice, duties to elders and youngers, and kindness to animals and plants. The physical education should emphasise the value of healthy body, self-control, gymnastic exercises, concerted exercises with music. The Second Period: (Higher Secondary School). Religious education during this period should aim at teaching to the children the fundamental unity of all religions.

Intellectual education should consist of more advanced teaching of mother-tongue, Sanskrit, Pali or Arabic, English, nature-study, history, geography, higher arithmetic and elementary algebra and geometry. The moral education during the third period should consist of training in aesthetic development. The chivalrous spirit in boys should be encouraged by all means possible. The physical education during the third period should consist of manual training, shop practice and laboratory work. Essential dignity of all true labour should be emphasized. An Attitude of Service to be Developed The High School and College students should be guided to take interest in the life of the poor in the neighbourhood. They should be trained to give help to the people in fairs, festivals, in accidents and in the teaching of primary and night schools. They should be encouraged to develop an attitude of rendering service to the poor and the needy, and to the Motherland. Towards this end the boys in the schools should be inspired to join the Indian Boy Scout Movement and those in college to join the Cadet Corps. Annie Besant was alive also to the needs of the village community as regards education of children. So she has suggested the lines on which a school in a village should be organized. We are briefly hinting at these lines below. 96

THE ORGANIZATION OF A VILLAGE SCHOOL The village school should be organized according to the surroundings of the village. The various subjects should be taught with special reference to the locality from which the children hail, e.g., geography should be begun by a map of the village. At the age of eight or nine the children should be required to work in the small plots attached to the school. They should be taught the science of agriculture according to their reach of comprehension. Besides small agricultural plots, the school may maintain carpenter's or weaver's workshop also according to the needs of the students concerned. At the age of ten, the village boys and girls should be taught the principles of first-aid and sanitation. The girls should'be taught domestic hygiene, cookery and washing; while the boys should be engaged in the workshops. The special gifts of any student must be marked in order to make the necessary provision for their further development. The attitude of service to the Motherland must be developed in both boys and the girls. An Estimate In this regard Mrs. Sarojini Naidu rightly says, "If Annie Besant had not been, Gandhiji could not be." Gandhiji himself said : "As long as India lives, the memory of the magnificent services rendered by her (Mrs. Annie Besant) will also live. She endeared herself to India by making it her country of adoption and dedicating her all to it."

DR. ANNIE BESANT'S CONTRIBUTION 1. Patriotism, Dr. Besant loved India. Her respect and understanding of India's religions and philosophies was profound. She wrote many books and pamphlets on Hinduism, as well as text-books for students in Physics, Chemistry, Biology and stories from the Mahabharata as well as narratives of heroic deeds for children to read. 2. Nationalism. Dr. Besant's support of India's national aspirations led her to encourage and support many innovative educational efforts. She founded many schools and colleges. The Central Hindu School and College was founded by her in 97 1898 at Banaras. It later became the Banaras Hindu University. She also founded the Theosophical Institute at Adyar, Madras. 3. Multisided Efforts. Not only did Dr. Besant start the Central Hindu School and College at Banaras, she organized its

debating clubs and many sports organizations. She was an excellent teacher and educational administrator. She set high standards for other teachers and organizers around her. She was admired and loved by her students and colleagues for her dedication and efficiency in educational endeavours. 4. Against Child-marriage. Annie Besant took a firm stand against Child-marriage which was widely prevalent in India at that time. Students were discouraged from marrying while they were still studying. They and their parents were made to realize that the students were not mature enough to assume adult responsibilities. 5. Social Reform. She gave speeches on nationalism, freedom and social reforms in schools and colleges as well as in public. This made the students realize their responsibilities to live and work for a free India. 6. Women's Education. Annie Besant was an ardent promoter of women's education in India. She organized many groups to strive for the furtherance of girls' schools and colleges in many parts of India, where facilities did not exist, and girls and women were neglected. She worked to raise the status of girls and women through education. 7. Growth of Educational Institutions. Due to Annie Besant's pioneering work in education, many communities, like Parsi, Muslim, Arya Samaj, Dev Samaj, Brahmo Samaj and other started schools for their youth on modern lines. She inspired a great deal of enthusiasm for education in India at a time when the British neglected educational betterment and expansion to fit the needs of the country, in their schemes. 8. Vocational Education. Dr. Besant was a strong advocate of vocational education in schools. By the end of schooling, every pupil should have learnt some trade or craft : carpentry, cooking, tailoring, or any useful skill or vocation, to enable him to earn a living, at any stage in his educational career. 9. Anti Racism. Annie Besant strongly believed and preached that there is no such thing as racial superiority. She maintained that the white races and the so-called higher castes of people 98 are not in any way superior to other people. Therefore, domination by races and castes of people over other is totally unjustified. All people in the world are endowed with intelligence and ability, regardless of race or caste. All have a right to educational opportunity and the amenities of life. There should be free schools established for universal, free and compulsory education in India. No one should be denied the right to education and the right to upward mobility. Very specific and very briefly as an educator and emancipator Mrs. Annie Besant can be estimated in the following words:

ANNIE BESANT : A GREAT EDUCATOR AND EMANCIPATOR The above account of ideals and principles of education and a national scheme of education for India indicates that Besant was quite alive to the fundamental principles of education.. She had a deep psychological insight to understand the problem of education in India, and also to understand the needs of modern India. With this deep psychological insight combined with unbounded sympathy for the Indian masses, she at once captured the hearts of the people and became a personality evoking great admiration, love, respect and reverence. Her great devotion and efforts for the emancipation of the Indian people have left a permanent mark in the history of modern India. Throughout her whole life in India, Annie Besant strove for establishment of institutions for national education in India, as the Arya Samaj did in Northern India. We have seen above that she realised the need for moral and religious education. She rightly felt that the prevailing educational system was not suitable for promoting the growth of the Indian nation. So she wanted a national system of education based on the fundamental principles of Indian culture and that too, through the medium of mother-tongue of the people. Furthermore, she urged that the students should be made conscious and proud of the glory and greatness of their country. Her national scheme of education gave primary importance to the teaching of Indian culture, religion, history and literature. She gave only a secondary place to foreign subjects. She wanted to infuse in the students a spirit of patriotism through her national scheme of education; and 99 for this purpose she opened a number of schools and colleges. No history of modern India will be complete without a full account of the part played by Annie Besant for the emancipation of India. Annie Besant stands as a unique figure both as an educator, and a social reformer, and above all, as one of the makers of the modern India. It is difficult to pay by mere words the debts that India owes to Annie Besant. So the Indians should pay their homage to her by living the ideals she stood for so that India may become as great as she wanted it to be.

QUESTIONS FOR EXERCISE

1. "Annie Besant's concepts of Indian Philosophy of Life as contained in the Principles of Theosophy rightly justify her claim that she was a Hindu in her former life." In the light of this statement write a note on her philosophy of education. 2. Write a note on the concept of 'Aims' and 'Nature' of education as advocated by Annie Besant. 3. Write short notes on Annie Besant's views on the following : (a) Duties of the Teacher. (b) Ideals for the Student. (c) Scheme of "National Education for India". 4. Write a note on Annie Besant's contribuh'on to India's upliftment. 100

7 Ravindranath Tagore (1861-1941) Ravindranath Tagore was a great philosopher of 20th century. The God had endowed him with versatile genius and untiring zeal. His knowledge, The God, Nature and Man was superb which earned him a second name 'Gurudeva' and as a politician, philosopher, social reformer and educator, he proved himself worthy of his second name. He felt that man and nature do have an original integration. His philosophy of life and education, is based on this concept, but before we undertake to understand his philosophy of life and his philosophy of education, it would be better to assimilate Dr. S. Radha Krishnan's assessment of Tagore's personality and philosophy Dr. Radha Krishnan said : "Tagore's idealism is a true child of India's own past and his philosophy is Indian both in origin and development".

Life Sketch Ravindra Nath Tagore was born on 6th May, 1861 in Bengal in an educated, rich and respected family. The responsibility of his education remained mainly on the shoulders of his father Maharishi Davendra Nath Tagore. Maharishi Davendra Nath provided Ravindra Nath with education of Sanskrit language, 101 Indian philosophy and astronomy. For higher education, Ravindra Nath was sent to Bengal Academy. Soon he was fed up with the rigid and lifeless education imparted there. Thus, he developed an aversion for the prevalent dull education and he left the Bengal Academy. In 1877, Ravindra Nath was sent to England for receiving education in Law. There, too, he got fed up and returned to India without obtaining any degree. As such, Tagore got his education mostly at home by selfstudy. He had started writing articles for Bengali magazines very early in life. Gradually, love of learning increased by leaps and bounds in him and he wrote many stories, novels and poems which earned repute and appreciation for him. Soon he developed into a renowned poet, writer, dramatist, philosopher and painter that people began to address him reverently as Gurudeva. Sometime afterwards, he translated 'Gitanjali' into English which brought him noble prize and world wide recognition. In the same year, Calcutta University adored him with the degree of Doctor of Literature. In 1915, the Indian Government endowed him with knighthood which he returned after the notorious Jalyanwala Bagh massacre to express his emotion of anger at the episode. Dr. Tagore travelled widely throughout the world. He went to Japan, Europe and U.S.A. On 22nd September, 1921, he established the famous Vishwa Bharti, a place of learning of Indian philosophy, Arts and Literature for the whole world. The aim of this University was to bring about a synthesis of the East and West. For the development of Vishwa Bharti, he toiled ceaselessly and untiringly for 20 years and established this seat of worldwide reputation on stable foundations. He died in 1941, and his death was mourned the world over. On his death in 1941, the Syndicate of the University of Calcutta, thus, placed on records his services to India : "Through him India has given her message to mankind, and his unique achievement in the fields of literature, philosophy, education and art have won imperishable fame for himself and have raised the status of India in the estimation of the world."

Tagore's Philosophy In brief hereunder we will discuss the various aspects of Tagore's philosophy:

102 Philosophy of Life. On Tagore's philosophy of life there is a powerful impression and influence of religions, highly cultured and philosophy loving family to which he belonged. He imbibed the idealistic philosophy of life and adopted the highest ideals of Truth, Beauty and Goodness as the chief aims of education to be achieved by all human beings. As an Idealist, Tagore believed in the absolute and immortal existence of God, but he believed in God as a Superman and accepted this world as his best creation. In fact, Tagore was a follower of 'Monoism'. As such, he writes— "We should try to search for God and thus, realize that truth which will liberate us from material bonds of existence and which is capable to illuminate the whole world with its divine light". Poetic Nature of His Philosophy. Some people think that Tagore was a poet and an artist but not a philosopher. But we cannot agree with this point of view. Radhakrishnan says about Tagore's book entitled 'Sadhana' that "we feel that the atmosphere is charged with a particular vision of Reality". Dr. S.N. Das Gupta says, "Although Rabindranath is no metaphysician, his poetry has gained in flesh and blood an account of his philosophic experience. Anyone who has read the works of Pringle Pattison, Bosanquet and Bergson will find striking similarities between many of the ideas of Rabindranath and those of the above mentioned authors." In fact, no defence is necessary in writing about the philosophy of Tagore. The Indian tradition has been such that there is no incongruity in thinking about a poet's philosophy. We should hesitate to call one a poet if he has no philosophy. Tagore had a vision. The Indian word for philosophy is Darshana or vision (of truth). Tagore certainly had a Darshana. The poetic and philosophic aspects of Tagore are not contradictory but complementary to each other. General Nature of His Philosophy. Tagore has always depended upon personal experiences for arriving at a truth. He does not believe in a wholly impersonal method of looking at fundamental 103 problems, because this method ignores the emotional side of human nature. In his views about God and the relation of God to Man and Nature he has sought a reconciliation between the extremes of Transcendence and Immanence, Humanism and Prapatti, and one-sided Naturalism and extreme Spiritualism. In Ethics, too, Tagore shows the same attitude. He condemns Hedonism without losing his faith in the joy of life. He has tried to synthesize the one-sided tendencies of individualism and universalism in social life. He has shown the necessity of both freedom and determinism in human life. He is against both asceticism and egoistic ideal. He has shown a common ground between Romanticism and Realism. He has pointed out the proper limits of Ugliness and Beauty. In his entire philosophic attitude, Tagore has shown an attitude of softening the edges of intellectual preconceptions. He has tried to smoothen out the sectarian limits of thoughts. He has endeavoured to preserve the essential truths of each theory but has never accepted any one in its totality. Thus, Tagore has always sought a 'golden mean'. Regarding God. Tagore says, "I have never looked at God, Man and Nature as problems which can be considered in isolation from each other. I could never conceive of their occupying watertight compartments." Therefore, his philosophy presents an integral picture of God, Man and Nature. He writes : "My mind is used to look at reality as an integral whole, it being understood, of course, that I am referring to the wholeness of spirit, and not to material Unity." Tagore regards God as a postulate, an axiomatic reality. Therefore, he has not considered necessary to give any traditional proof for the existence of God. He says, "We must feel God as we feel light." He believes that the ceaseless activity going on in the universe cannot be accounted in the absence of an Infinite. "World movements are not then blind movements, they are related to the will of God." Man cannot feel satisfied merely by having his needs fulfilled. He often feels an unconscious recognition that there is something which he lacks. So he feels incomplete by himself. He wants to remedy this incompleteness by communion with nature. But he does not get complete satisfaction. Thus, we find that Tagore believed in the moral argument for the existence of God. 104 As regards the nature of God, Tagore thinks that it does not meet the moral, religious or aesthetic requirements of mankind. So he accepts a God who is near man. He does not like a God who is not interested in man's actions and thoughts. In fact, he believes that there can be some personal relation between God and men, therefore, he generally refers

to a 'personal God'. By personality he does not mean a finite God. He regards God as the perfect person, whereas man is personal in an imperfect manner. To Tagore, the relation between God and man must be that of Love and Joy. He does not want to be devoted to a God to whom nothing can be attributed except that He exists. He does not like the impersonal existence of God, because he thinks that to do so is not to demand the existence of God but of the Indeterminate. He believes that the energy of the immortal Purusa, urges us to be ethical. He thinks that God must have a personality, otherwise we cannot account for our pursuit of the Good. However, it must be noted that Tagore does not overrule, altogether, the impersonal aspect of God. He has never mentioned that the idea of personality of God exhausts His nature. Therefore, he does not dogmatically reject Advaita Vedanta. He regards Personality only an aspect of Reality, though the most important aspect. In one of his Shantiniketan lectures he said, "Dualistic philosophy in India proclaims a God who has his qualities and forms. Man's deliverance depends upon the fulfilment of his knowledge, love and strength. Such a fulfilment is precluded by a Nirguna Brahma." Thus, we find that Tagore is naturally inclined towards the Vaisnava view of Saguna 'Brahma'. Concept of Self. Tagore regards Self as an independent reality. To him the independence of the Self is necessary for Reality as a whole. It is true that the human Self derives its contents from its affinity with the Infinite. But this affinity does not imply that it is not free to have its own individual experiences. Therefore, Tagore does not like to undermine the independence of the Self by making it entirely subsequent to the Will of God. He believes that the Self has power to work on its own initiative as well. He said, 105 "The Self must have complete freedom. Only a free entity can have relations with another entity. God has made this understanding with us, He has told us; 'Come to me as a free-self. Nothing that is bound can truly approach me'." This Freedom is necessary for union of Self with God. It is because of this freedom that the human Self has purpose and greatness. Even in the highest stage of realisation, the Self must remain distinct from God. He does not think that the finite is lost in the absolute. Man may approach God, but he never merges into God. He believes that in his relation to God, man finds himself more complete. Tagore says, "The difference between Atma and 'Brahma' must always be there. He lias become what we are ever striving to be. The difference is between 'being' and 'becoming'. 'God is the Infinite ideal of perfection' and man 'the eternal process of its realisation'." Dualism and Monism Balanced. It is worthy of note that Tagore strikes a balance between the two extremes of utter Dualism and absolute Monism. He recognises the existence of the many and believes that this manyness does not affect the organic unity and coherence of the whole. According to him, duality and unity are demands of creation. But a duality of unrelated realities is not acceptable to him. He believes that the separation and reunion should go hand in hand. He says, "In our physical existence, there is both separation and meeting between us and the world of things. The consciousness of this relationship takes a deeper line in our mental life where there is continual separation and reunion between the individual mind and the universal world of reason.... It widens when there is separation and combination between the individual Will and the universal world of personality." Thus, we find that Tagore emphatically asserts the dire necessity of separation and union in all our relations between physical, mental and spiritual. 106 Concept of Maya. Tagore has never chosen to refute the Maya-theory. All through in his writings, he has tried to establish the reality of the world and to preserve the essential truth of the doctrine of Maya. He cannot accept an absolute separateness of Nature from God, nor can he agree with an utter identity of God with the world. This clearly means that he believes in the interdependence of God and the world and of God and the Self. He seems to adopt an extraordinary tolerant attitude towards the most extreme forms of the doctrine of Maya when he says, "The world as an art is 'Maya'. It 'is' and 'is not'. Its sole explanation is that it seems to be what it is. The ingredients are elusive; call them Maya, even disbelieve them, the Great Artist, the 'Mayavin' is not hurt."

Concept of Aesthetics. Tagore distinguishes the Beautiful from the Ugly, but he has not given us an exact definition of Beauty. However, he has tried to state his concept of the Beautiful. He does not regard anything as absolute evil. To him both good and evil are only aspects of the moral principle. In the same way, there is nothing like absolute death; life and death are only aspects of the life-principle. Similarly, Tagore believes that ugliness and beauty are aspects of the principle of beauty. Therefore, he does not want to exclude the Ugly from Art altogether. But it must be noted that he has never given an independent reality to ugliness. Tagore believes that— "The Principal object of Art is the expression of Personality, and that is why it uses the language of picture and music." He further says that, "works of art are the signatures of beauty, in which the mingling of the personal touch leaves it memorial." Thus, Tagore regards art as one of the unmistakable symbols of human progress. And to him in Art man 'transcends his finitude.' Disinterested pleasure is the keynote of Tagore's aesthetics. To him utility may be an outcome of art, but it can never be its aim. The sole aim of art is delight. Concept of Ethics. In his ethical doctrines, Tagore desires to harmonise all the extremes. To him the highest ethical ideal 107 must satisfy the whole of human nature. Therefore, he regards moral discrimination as an essential part of human nature. He says, "The life of an animal is unmoral, for it is aware only of an immediate present. The life of a man can be immoral but it cannot be unmoral; it must have a moral basis." Tagore believes that moral ideas must have influenced the course of civilization. That is why there is always a conflict in man with regard to "what is desired and what should be desired". For his existence, man depends upon the world of nature, but for his humanity he has to rely on the moral world. Because of this "the reality of all, man has to be free from bond of personal desires" and "At every step we have to take into account others than ourselves. For only in death are we alone." To accept life based on pure selfishness is "to forget the solidarity of human beings". Thus, a selfish man is an impediment in the harmony and continuity of existence. "A too near view of ourselves is the egotistical view, which is the flat and the detached view—but when we see ourselves in others, we find that the truth about us is round and continuous." Therefore, according to Tagore, there must be some degree of altruism in thought and action of man. The man is aware of this altruism, therefore he occupies the supreme position in the whole of creation. Tagore does not accept hedonism as a basis of morality. He says, Hedonistic ethics or pleasure depends upon the gratification of desire. The search after pleasure makes man fierce and aggressive. Pleasure is intimately connected with that part of man which is related with Nature. Man has to transcend Nature, therefore, the gratification of pleasure can never be the ideal of man. Tagore does not reject pleasure, but he does mean that it must be regulated by the higher or spiritual nature of man. He says, "In human nature, sexual passion is fiercely individual and destructive, but dominated by the ideal of love, it has been made to flow into a perfection of beauty." Tagore believes that man has the capacity to rise above 108 utilitarian considerations. If man were to occupy himself only in the pursuit of utility, he would lose all charm and joy of life. Therefore, Tagore is opposed to utilitarianism. He says, "There are sentiments in us which are creative, which do not clamour for gain, but overflow in gifts, in spontaneous generosity." Hence, the picture of man struggling for the fulfilment of his life's needs is not his complete picture. Tagore is against the utilitarian tendencies of the modern age. He thinks that utilitarianism makes men mere "walking stomachs and brains". Tagore's views on hedonism and utilitarianism do not imply that he believes in rigorous asceticism. Therefore, to him

worldly life is not necessarily dangerous for the moral Self. He does not regard body as the prison of the soul, nor like Kant does he think that sensibility is necessarily irrational. He is against the 'over-dose of asceticism' contained in the ethics of Sankaracharya. Therefore, Tagore has been regarded as a Sadhak (a striver) and not an ascetic. He regards both acquisition and renunciation as the two real aspects of human life. To him both these aspects contribute equally to the dignity of man. Hastings Rashdall also seems to agree with Tagore when he says, "In general, a man's mind is not raised above the level of the lower desires ... by austerity, but by healthy preoccupation with social or intellectual activity.... There may be room for asceticism by way of discipline.... But it may be doubted whether the self-consciousness attendant upon such self-inflicted disciplinary privations ... is not a grave objection to them." Tagore wants that one must not reject pleasure, but rise above it. It means that there should be a reconciliation between enjoyment of life and renunciation. This reconciliation is an important factor of Tagore's spirituality. Tagore regards ascetism as a kind of goodness which escapes itself from reality. To him it is a diluted virtue. Tagore does not think that Freedom is altogether opposed to Law or Restraint. To him freedom and restraint are mutually related parts of the Moral Order and they are complementary to each other. 109 Tagore finds no conflict between self-realization and self-transcendence. He speaks of transcendence of the little Self and the realisation of the big Self. Self-transcendence must be included in self-realisation, otherwise all social life and progress will disappear. Tagore views self as the ethical counterpart of the wider term personality. He does not look at personality from the psychological or medical point of view. He looks at it from the ethical point of view. Thus, to him selfrealisation stands for the realisation of the highest human reality—the Infinite. Tagore says, "Man's moral history is the history of his journey to the unknown in quest of the realisation of his immortal Self—his Soul.... Man is marching from epoch to epoch towards the fullest realisation of his Self, the Self that is greater than the things he accumulates, the deeds he accomplishes, the theories he builds ... the soul whose onward course is never checked by death of dissolution." This onward course of the soul is full of difficulties. Hence, at times there is stagnation which again is followed by periods of great moral effort. Therefore, to him progress means the development of all the sides of human nature. This emphasis on 'wholeness' indicates Tagore's loyalty to the traditions of Indian philosophy. Therefore, he pleads that moral development must not exclude intellectual development. True spirituality means a correlation of the within and the without. To him this type of wholeness is the criterion of morality. Concept of Harmony. 'Harmony with all things' is the basic principle of Tagore's philosophy. He interprets this harmony in three contexts—with nature, with human surroundings and with international relations. To Tagore, the real education is that which makes one's life in harmony with all existence. During early childhood, he left his school and rebelled against the prevailing system of education because he found that the education which the school was imparting was not in harmony with existing things. According to Tagore, the primary object of an educational institution should be to bring the educand in perfect tune 'with 110 the symphony of response between life and world and to find the balance of their harmony'. Tagore realised this idea in his Bolpur school which has now developed into Vishwa Bharati. We find three fundamentals in Tagore's educational philosophy : Naturalism, Humanism and Internationalism. We shall briefly hint at these three fundamentals below. Tagore's Naturalism. Tagore finds a fundamental unity between man and nature. Therefore, he wants that 'the child's education must be organized in natural surroundings'. Tagore believes that education given in natural surroundings develops intimacy with the world. Because of this intimacy, the child may develop on his own accord the power of communication with it. He says, "Children with the freshness of their senses come directly to the intimacy of this world. This is the first gift they have. They must accept it naked and simple and must never again lose their power of immediate communication with it." Tagore does not want that the natural senses of children should be debased in an urban atmosphere. He is in full accord

with the Gurukula Ashrama idea of ancient India. Like a naturalist, Tagore was very much influenced by Robinson Crusoe. He writes, "I still believe that is the best book for boys that has ever been written. There was a longing in me when young to run away from my own-self and be one with everything in Nature." Tagore puts more faith in an individual than in any institution. Therefore, he stands for individualism in education. He does not want that the child should be crushed into the heavy traditional methods of instruction. The individual child was more important to him than the books, methods and teacher. Self-realisation, self-salvation, self-perfection and self-expression—all these are individual problems and these can be achieved through individual efforts alone. Hence, the individual is of supreme importance in any scheme of education. Tagore's Spiritualism. It is remarkable that Tagore's naturalism paves the way to spiritualism, because Tagore is not less spiritual. He finds music as an aid to the development of spiritualism. He emphatically states that while starting the school in the natural surroundings of Bolpur his principal object was to give spiritual culture to the boys. 111 Tagore's Humanism. To Tagore, man is the measure of everything. Throughout his whole life, he has been striving to make the people of the world conscious of this supreme truth. His conception of the universe is purely human. All values and virtues are to be realised through man. Truth, Good and beauty are felt as such by man. "When our universe is in harmony with Man, the eternal, we know it as truth; we feel it as beauty. This world is a human world—the scientific view of it is also that of the scientific man." Tagore thinks of a universal mind of humanity. This universal mind transcends separate individual minds. Tagore regards God also as human. He says that God is the Eternal Person manifested in all persons. He observes, "He is there where the tiller is tilling the hard ground and where the pathmaker is breaking stone." To Tagore, civilization should be evaluated in terms of what value it attaches to man and not in terms of how many scientific inventions it has produced. He says, "The decay and fall of a civilization is due to the causes which produce callousness of heart and lead to the cheapening of man's worth." It is this love for man that stimulated Tagore to turn to the education of children and he founded a school at Bolpur. Because of his humanism, he was a great lover of children and he advises the teacher to be like children and not to think himself their superior. He says that the teacher should regard himself as an elder brother of children. While addressing a group of pupil teachers, he advises them to cultivate the spirit of the eternal child if they desired to take up the task of training the children of Man. Tagore shuns all violence and force in the process of education. Tagore's Internationalism. Tagore's humanism knows no bound. He is an ardent prophet of world unity. All through his strenuous life, he has worked for a closer contact between the East and the West. He wanted that the East should give its best to the West and in turn it should assimilate the best that the West has to offer. He felt grateful to both the East and West and believed that the problem of the world could be solved only if a judicious synthesis was attained between the contributions of the two for the benefit of man. He wanted to achieve this synthesis in 112 his Vishwa Bharati and he opened it to all the persons in the world irrespective of caste, creed, colour and sex.

Tagore's Idealism Tagore's educational philosophy and educational theories are idealistic. He wants to achieve the essential unity of the universe through God. When he says that the aim of education is to make one in harmony with all existence, he is only an idealist to the core. Love and Universalism made the greatest appeal to Tagore. To him, education meant an eternal quest for the realisation of Love and Universalism. It is for emphasising this realisation that he named his educational institution as Vishwa Bharati.

Education Related with Life It is remarkable that Tagore's idealism did not blind him to the relation between education and society. He believed that education should be related with life currents of the people for which it was meant. Once he observed, "Our centre of culture should not only be the centre of the intellectual life of India, but the centre of her economic life also." Here

Tagore shows a pragmatic approach to education. We shall try to understand below some other educational beliefs of Tagore. These beliefs will support his educational philosophy and as already hinted at above.

TAGORE AS AN EDUCATIONIST Tagore was the greatest educationist of 20th century India. His views on various aspects of education may be understood as given below: Concept of Education Tagore was deadly against the then prevalent system of education which snatched the child from the laps of Nature very early in life, confined him within the boundaries of school and then put him into an office or factory. According to Tagore, God reveals Himself through Nature more effectively than through man-made institutions. Hence, the education of the child should be under natural surroundings so that he develops love for all 113 things around him. Explaining the meaning of education Tagore has written, "That education is highest which not only imparts information and knowledge to us, but also promotes love and fellow-feeling between us and the living beings of the world." Aims of Education R.N. Tagore has not written any book on education, yet from his writings and speeches, one can find out that the aims of education which he prescribed were almost the same as were advocated by our ancient seers and saints. In the following lines we discuss the chief aims of education as advocated by Tagore. 1. Physical Development. R.N. Tagore believed that a healthy mind lives in a healthy body. Hence, he insisted that the first aim of education should be to develop the child physically. For this, he prescribed various physical activities as swiming, diving in ponds, climbing on trees, plucking fruits and flowers and various types of games and sports in the company of natural phenomena. He also prescribed a healthy and wholesome diet for children. 2. Mental Development. According to Tagore, the second aim of education should be to promote mental development. Here again, Tagore like Rousseau condemned bookish teaching and prescribed more and more activities and experiences in the open fields where Nature teaches him more than books. Tagore has written, "In comparison with book learning, knowing the real living directly is true education. It not only promotes the acquiring of some knowledge but also develops the curiosity and faculty of knowing and learning so powerfully that no class room teaching can match it". 3. Moral and Spiritual Development. Being Idealist, Tagore emphasized that the third aim of education should be to promote moral and spiritual development of the child. In his writings he has thrown light on a number of moral and spiritual values which education should strive to inculcate in children. For this purpose, education should teach children self-discipline, tolerance, courtesy and inner-freedom. 4. Development of All Faculties. Tagore's individualism is well known. He firmly believed that the chief aim of education should be the drawing out of all the latent faculties of the 114 child. To him, the child is more important than all kinds of books, rules and teachers. His personal problems namely selfdevelopment, self-experience and self-expression can only be reinforced by individual experiences. Hence, Tagore opposed the crushing down of child's individuality by traditional, rigid and lifeless rules or regulations. Instead, a child should be free to enjoy complete freedom to develop his mind and soul to the full in an environment of love, regard, sympathy and affection. In short, Tagore exhorted that the child should be saved from the burden of dead books and imposed discipline and allowed all initiative and self-experiencing. 5. Development of International Attitude. According to Tagore, the last aim of education should be to develop an international attitude in children. Though Tagore was individualist, yet his individualism did not cut across his socialism and even internationalism. To the extent, he emphasized individual development, to the same extent, he advocated the development of society and whole human race. In fact, Tagore's vision was that an individual should develop to the fullest extent and then he should contribute his best to the promotion of international welfare.

Basic Principles of Tagore's Educational Philosophy Tagore was a great philosopher and educationist. He expressed himself in these capacities by his own efforts. He was born in a family which was well known for its progressive views, social and cultural attainments, political awakening and also a centre for the struggle of independence. Artists, poets, dramatists, musicians, scientists and philosophers belonged to this family. Tagore's grasping imbibing powers were so acute and sensitive that he inculcated all the refinements in his personality easily and smoothly under the educative environment of his family. This self education developed Tagore's inherent capacities to the fullest extent. He studied thoughts of Western philosophers and educationists as well and imbibed the best in them to develop his educational views. According to S.C. Sarcar, "He discovered for himself all the theories and principles of education which he was later to formulate for himself and use in his Shanti Niketan experiment". Basic principles of Tagore's Educational Philosophy are as under : 115 1. The medium of instruction should be mother tongue. 2. During education, a child should enjoy full freedom. 3. For developing creative faculties, the child should be provided opportunities for self expression. 4. Child should be educated in the laps of Nature far away from towns. 5. During education in natural surroundings, child should be provided opportunities for social contacts so that a sense of social service is developed in him. 6. Foreign education can not be the basis of national education. 7. National education should be closely connected with national life. 8. Through education, children should be acquainted with the ideals and values of national culture. 9. Indian child should be given Indian education. 10. Education should develop harmoniously all the faculties of the child. 11. Indian philosophy and social ideals should find place in the curriculum. 12. Children should not be forced to receive knowledge through books. Instead, they should be encouraged to learn from original sources. 13. Children should be provided full freedom to live in natural environment and learn by doing or their own experiences. 14. Education should not train children to be effective farmers, clerks or craftsmen, but develop them to be complete human beings. 15. Schools should be reformed. Curriculum Tagore wished to develop the whole man. To him the then prevalent system of education was faulty and defective. It could not develop the individuality to the fullest extent. According to him, curriculum should be such as to develop an individual physically, mentally, morally, socially and spiritually to the utmost limits. For this, a curriculum based on activities and broad experiences in real life situation is necessary. This will develop the personality of the child to the full in all its aspects. 116 Tagore emphasized that together with various subjects, different types of co-curricular activities should also be made an

essential part of curriculum. In his Vishwa Bharti, even today History, Geography, Nature Study, Agriculture and practical subjects are taught with Horticulture, Gardening, Field Study, Laboratory Work, Original Creations, Arts, Sculpture, Vocational, Professional and Technical subjects. As to co-curricular activities, there is a bewildering variety of these as Dancing, Singing, Painting, Designing, Sewing, Cutting, Knitting, Cooking and what not. Vishwa Bharti is known the world over for its wide and varied studies, hobbies and cultural refinements synthesizing the ancient and modern achievements of Indian people in all fields of human activity. Methods of Teaching Like his condemnation of the lifeless and dull curriculum of his days, Tagore also condemned the artificial and mechanical methods of education prevalent during his times. He emphasized that methods should be full of life and vitality. They should be based on the real problems of life. To Tagore, methods should bring out the development of the child according to natural interests and tendencies. Hence, the child should be provided with more and more opportunities to investigate and research from original resources by his free activities so that he gains knowledge directly. Tagore considered the following methods of teaching as proper and effective : 1. Teaching while Walking. Tagore believed that education imparted in the class room does not influence the mind and body of the child. He remains passive, inert and inactive. Tagore was of the opinion that during walking, the mind keeps awake and the child easily grasps knowledge of things by coming directly in contact with them. In his own words— "Teaching while walking is the best method of education". 2. Discussion and Question-Answer Method. To Tagore, real education is not mere craming of books. It must be based upon real problems of life. Thus, he advocated the Question-Answer method as very effective. According to him, problems should be put before children for discussion so that they are able to think logically and argue 117 out. Thus, they will be able to develop their knowledge and gain essential knowledge. 3. Activity Method. Tagore emphasized the activity method as a method of great importance because it activises all the faculties of body and mind. Hence, he made the learning of some handicraft compulsory in his 'Vishwa Bharti'. Tagore so implicitly believed in activity method that he allowed any physical exercise or activity even during class teaching or regular study at some place. Teacher Tagore believed that only man can teach another man. Thus, he gave a very important place to teacher in his scheme of education. According to him, a teacher should do the following activities : 1. Believing in the purity and innocence of child, the teacher should behave with him with great love, affection, sympathy and consideration. 2. Instead of emphasizing book learning, the teacher should provide conducive environment to the child so that he engages himself in useful and constructive activities and learn by his own experiences. 3. The teacher should always be busy with motivating the creative capacities of children so that they remain busy with constructive activities and experiences. Like a staunch idealist, Tagore says, "A teacher can never truly teach unless he is still learning himself. A lamp can never light another lamp unless it continues to burn its own flame. The teacher who has come to an end of his subject, who has no living traffic with his knowledge, but merely repeats his lessons to his students, can only load their minds; he cannot quicken them. Truth not only must inform but also inspire. If the inspiration dies out, and the information only accumulates, then truth loses its infinity. The greater part of our learning in the schools has been wasted because, for most of our teachers, their subjects are 118

like dead specimens of one liking things, with which they have a learned acquaintance, but no communication of life and love." Thus, Tagore wants that the teacher should try to understand the relationship between their subjects and the human life and the same should be brought home to the students as well. This can be possible only when the teacher continues learning and does not stop his growth by stiffening their minds with dead matter. By the above words, Tagore makes the duty of the teacher and class procedures clear. In the preceding pages we have several times referred to Tagore's Vishwa-Bharati at Shantiniketan. So it is in fitness of things to hint here at the philosophy underlying this International University which was formally inaugurated on December 22, 1921, by the great scholar, Dr. Brajendranath Seal. Ancient Indian Ideals Tagore regarded the Tapovana Ashrama (forest-school based on rigorous discipline) of the ancient India as the ideal for solving the educational problem of the country. 'The simple living and high thinking' motto of the ancient Ashrama appealed to him very much as it provided the right atmosphere for the development of life in its purity. He thinks that— "It is idle to try to educate the children in the midst of much that tend to lead the learners away from the path of truth. There the field is full of struggles for the self, and thoughts centre round the self, and human nature purifies and looks for enjoyment in artificial ways. They must, therefore, be removed from the field where men struggle for the satisfaction of their baser propensities, and should be placed where conditions are favourable for their vast possibilities to develop, where their lives could more peacefully along the path of accumulated human experiences, and where for them waits ready garnered man's spiritual heritage." As we have already remarked above, here too, we find that Tagore believed in the ancient Indian educational ideals 119 and practices. He has so much regard for Brahmacharya that he considers education as a Brahmacharya-Vrata (a vow of celibacy), a Dharma-Vrata (a vow of religion). To him education is not information, nor does it consist in passing examinations. He regards education as a preparation for a living in the world with a view to seek communion with the Divine Power. He thinks that education can fulfill this task only if the schools follow the cardinal educational ideals of the ancient Indian Gurukul. Below we shall discuss some other aspects of Tagore's educational philosophy; such as, Religious Education, Freedom and Discipline, Individual and Social Aims and the Duty of a Teacher. Freedom and Discipline According to Tagore, the child desires "the fullest freedom to satisfy the fertile imaginings of his brain, imaginings which like the tender plants can so easily be crushed and mutilated, revolting against the bonds of what seems so often an unreasoned discipline." Thus freedom is the very nature of the child, but he would not mind to accept restrictions and discipline if these are coloured with sympathy and love. Tagore has great sympathy for the child. So he does not want that the child should be suppressed by an authority. Tagore has a capacity to understand the childhood and he says that the child regards the school studies as a interference with his freedom. He himself had to suffer from such an interference as a boy. So he has developed an insight to find out a solution of the conflict. Hence, Tagore decided to give the maximum amount of freedom to. children in his school. He deliberately made the environment of the school such as to permit maximum amount of physical and mental freedom. He says, "the object of education is the freedom of mind which can only be achieved through the path of freedom— though freedom has its risk and responsibility as life has." 120 About the nature of school, he says, "It is not a school which is imposed upon the boys by authorities. I always try to impress upon their minds that it is their

own world, upon which their life ought fully and freely to react." Accordingly, he gave as much freedom to children in his school as possible. He tried to arouse their interest in the various aspects of the universe in a natural manner, and not only through class teaching. The teacher is present only to stimulate and guide but it is the child who is to choose and react according to his natural inclinations. Tagore is against the so-called traditional school-discipline because it does not take into account the individual interests and abilities. About the traditional school, he says, "It is a manufactory specially designed for grinding out uniform results. It follows an imaginary straight line of the average in digging its channel of education. But life's line is not the straight line." Therefore, social traditions must not be imposed upon children, because they interfere with their natural freedom. Once an experienced and successful disciplinarian headmaster visited Tagore's school and expressed his disapproval when he saw a boy climb a tree for choosing a fork of the branches for setting down to his studies. In explanation Tagore told him that "Childhood is the only period of life, when a civilized man can exercise his choice between the branches of a tree and his drawing-room chair, and should I deprive this boy of that privilege because I, as a grown-up man, am barred from it?" Tagore regrets that the adults generally ignore the natural inclination of imaginative power in the child. They want to make the child a practical man. So they crush down the imagination of the child. Tagore reminds us that we owe our present progress to the imagination of dreamers of dreams. Tagore believes in a self-imposed discipline. Therefore, in Shantiniketan a provision has been made for the boys' own court of justice which deals with all the breaches of conduct 121 on the part of the boys. It is only the serious cases that teachers themselves have to deal with. Thus, Shantiniketan is "not a school which is imposed upon the boys by autocratic authorities." To Tagore the object of education is the freedom of the mind and this freedom can be achieved through the path of freedom. In another context, he says that the purpose of education is the freedom of soul "for that ultimate truth which emancipates us from the bondage of the dust and gives us the wealth not of things but of inner light, not of power but of love." In the educational activities of Shantiniketan, we find two aspects of this higher freedom. One aspect equips the child with all the skills that he needs for earning a livelihood so that he may not be anxious for his self-preservation. According to Tagore, other aspect is related to the world of emotion and of abstraction. It is in this world of emotion and abstraction that freedom is felt as complete. Almost all children share this world of emotion, and in this realm they have no ulterior motive to fulfil. Growth in this realm is as important as in any other, because it is with the aid of this realm that the life can reach its fullest and best point. Therefore, adventures into this realm must be encouraged, but they must never be imposed. The children must be given complete freedom in this matter. "This spirit of childhood, like the gift of imagination, bloweth where it listeth, and like the wind it comes and goes, and knows no man-made law." It is hardly necessary to mention that Shantiniketan is an excellent example of this freedom in the world of emotion and abstraction. In fact, the entire educational effort of the school is to lead children towards this freedom. Education of Sympathy. Tagore does not believe in an average individual. To him, every child has a unique personality and he should be treated as such. He believes that 'God's intention as to how children should grow into knowledge' is being neglected in the modern schools. The purpose of education is not only to impart knowledge. Knowledge may make one powerful, but it may not make him a full man. The modern schools in their zeal to impart 122 knowledge are ignoring as to what they should do for developing children into full men. Fullness of manhood can come only by sympathy.

To Tagore sympathy means harmonising oneself with all existence. Therefore, to him highest education is that which is not only after giving knowledge, but which makes the life of the individual in harmony with all existence. Thus, there is a need of this education of sympathy. Tagore very much deplores the neglect of this education of sympathy in the modern schools. Complete Freedom to the Child. Tagore stands for complete freedom for the child. The child should not be subjected to 'the necessity of specialization into the narrow bounds of social and professional conventionalism'. He must not be forced to form any habit. His life should not be dissociated from nature. Tagore does not like to equip his school with the parapharnalia of the modern furniture, because they keep the children away from a portion of reality. He wants that the children should be brought into naked contact with the dust. By this Tagore means to emphasise only this that children should be given the idea that the world is not all drawingroom, and that their limbs should learn to respond to the naked nature. It is in the responding to the naked nature that they should live their life at first, because their physical and mental powers will grow by their spontaneous activities which are free from artificial stimulations. Children are in love with their natural life. Therefore, they should be encouraged to acquire knowledge through their love of natural life, 'and then they will renounce their lives to gain knowledge. After gaining knowledge they will realise their lives with ripened wisdom'. Tagore is convinced that luxuries are burden to children. Therefore, he would not like to provide any kind of luxury in the scheme of their education. The Unity of Truth. To Tagore 'the object of education is to give man the unity of truth'. The sense of unity of truth may be given by emphasising the inter-relationship between intellectual, physical and spiritual life. Tagore believes in a spiritual world which is the innermost truth of this world. The spiritual world is ignored from childhood. Its experience must be gained by children by fully living in it and not by theological instructions. Tagore wants 123 to make 'the purpose of education nothing short of the highest purpose of man, the fullest growth and freedom of soul'. He says that 'it is India's mission to realize the truth of the human soul in the Supreme Soul through its union with the soul of the world'. The ancient Ashram in India had imbibed this mission. Tagore believes that the spirit of this mission is still alive in India. Hence, the Indians must make an attempt to realise this mission in all human relationships of love. The education of children must be directed towards this goal. Education through Natural Process. Tagore believes that the subconscious mind of children is more active than their conscious intelligence. Therefore, children learn many things through their subconscious mind without feeling any fatigue. Tagore regards this subconscious faculty of knowledge as completely one with one's life. In order to enable children to learn good things through their subconscious mind, it is necessary to maintain an educative atmosphere, and an atmosphere where children are not compelled to learn things from textbooks, but from the natural surroundings which is most educative. Like Rousseau, Tagore thinks that books come between children and their world. So during the early period of education children should receive their lessons through natural processes—directly through persons and things; and they must not depend upon books. Tagore was so much convinced of this point of view that he tried to create an atmosphere of ideas in his school. He made this school his home and lived here. In order to make it an atmosphere of ideas, he decided to carry on his literary activities here. He composed most of his songs here. His latter-day dramas were written there and were enacted by the children of the school. It was here that he established his international university, Vishwa Bharati, where he tried to encourage the study of the cultures of all Asian countries in order to reveal the Eastern mind to the world and promote a mutual understanding between the East and the West. Freedom of the Mind. According to Tagore, the freedom of mind is the object of education. This freedom can be attained only through the path of freedom. Tagore remarks that most 124 people seem to have forgotten that children are living beings— more living than the grown-up people who have put a limit to their growth by fixed habits.

Therefore, it is necessary for the mental health and development of children not to have only school for their lessons, but also a world which is full of personal love, because it is through this personal love that they can have the freedom of mind. The atmosphere of this personal love means that it consists of persons who have gathered together in order to achieve the highest end in life. In this atmosphere every one is in the peace of nature. This atmosphere is not only meditative, but is also full of activities. Here every one tries to aspire for the citizenship of God's Kingdom. Here the young and the old, the teacher and the pupils sit at the same table to share their daily food and the food of their eternal life. Such is the atmosphere which should prevail in each and every school; only then the child will acquire the freedom of mind and soul—the real object of education. Tagore's Naturalism Indian civilization was born in forests near which the early Aryans made their abode. The forests supplied them all their necessities. This feature in the beginning gave it a distinct character. It was surrounded by nature on all sides, it was clothed and fed by her and had the most intimate intercourse with her varying aspects. This distinctive feature of Indian civilization is of great importance in Tagore's thinking. Tagore says, "All the modern civilizations have the natural environment affects life to such an extent that one desires for life in the lap of nature which he considers as his true home. In his conception of natural life, Tagore includes the idea of living in the natural surroundings, because he believes in the unity of all creation. Natural Life and Education. Tagore carries the principle of natural life in education and gives us his first impression of his school in the following words : "all of a sudden I found my world vanishing from around me, giving place to wooden benches and straight walls staring at me with the blank stare at the blind." 125 Thus, Tagore wants that the child's life should be surrounded with things of nature and he must be kept away from the sophistications of the so-called modern civilization. After nature Tagore wants the child to pass through the stream of social behaviour. The child must be socialised. Hence, the necessary opportunities should be given to him for promoting his socialization. Cooperative activities will help him in this respect, and such activities should find an important place in all the educational activities carried out in the school. In such cooperative activities, the child will enjoy freedom because whatever restraint he will have to abide by will be an outcome of self-restraint and not from an imposition placed from without. To Tagore, education must provide for creative self-expression on the part of the child. This expression may be promoted through various forms of handworks and through music and arts because these are spontaneous overflow of our deeper nature and spiritual significance. Tagore compares the growth of the child with that of a tree. Thus, he shows the relation between childhood and Nature. He says, "Children have their active sub-conscious mind which, like a tree, has the power to gather its food from the surrounding atmosphere. For them the atmosphere is a great deal more important than rules and methods, buildings, appliances, classteachings and text-books." Tagore wants a communion between Man and Nature, because he regards nature as a great co-ordinating factor. Thus, Tagore regards Nature as the focus where the aspirations of human beings meet. But he wants that knowledge of nature should be acquired not in the laboratories alone, but by living nature. Thus, we find that in the field of education Tagore seem to bring in the concept of joy, freedom, play, creative selfexpression, the activity-principle, the integration and coordination of all knowledge. Aronson says that like Froebel, Tagore recognises stages through which the child passes for reaching maturity. He says, "First the emotional adaptation to his environment, then the learning and training of intelligence and lastly the 126

fruitful cooperation among human beings based upon the awareness of one's own individual separateness and of one's responsibility towards the society in which one happens to live and towards all the other societies that constitute humanity." Child Loves Nature. The child wants a personal experience of things. He can have no hesitation to accept the world naked and simple. He desires to be natural with nature. Tagore believes that children's personal experiences of nature help them to obtain useful knowledge. Thus, Tagore wants that the children should be brought into direct contact with nature, because by so doing, they will appreciate the "scientific" facts about nature with great interest. This indicates that the teaching of natural sciences in most of our schools is not natural. Tagore wants that "men should have some limited period of their life specially reserved for the life of the primitive man." He further says that "for our perfection we have to be vitally savage and mentally civilized." After birth the child has to grow under imposed social conventions and he loses the freshness and naturalness of his life. Tagore recognises the place of social conventions in life, but he believes that they have a place in the middle of a man's career and not at the beginning and at the end of it, during childhood and old age. Therefore, he stands for complete freedom for the child and he must not be forced to form any habit. His life should not be dissociated from nature, because they keep the children away from a portion of reality. He wants that the children be brought into naked contact with the dust. Education in Cooperation with Nature. So Tagore wants to conduct the education of the child in cooperation with nature. This is clear from the following account that he gives about the education of his own son, "This is why when I had to face the problem of my own son's education I was at a loss to give it a practical solution. The first thing that I did was to take him away from the town surroundings into a village and allow him the freedom of premeval nature as far as it is available in modern days. He had a river noted for its danger, where he swam and rowed without check from anxiety of his elders. 127 He spent his time in the fields and on the trackless sand-banks, coming late for his meals without being questioned. He had none of the luxuries that are not only customary but are held as proper for boys of his circumstance. For which privations, I am sure, he was pitied and his parents blamed by the people for whom society has blotted out the whole world. But I was certain that luxuries are burden to boys. They are the burdens of other people's habits, the burdens of the vicarious pride and pleasure which parents enjoy through their children." Such is the idea of Tagore about education in cooperation with nature. He stands for this type of education through an institution where the first great lesson in the perfect union of man and nature, not only through love but through active communication, can be had unobstructed". Tagore regards the atmosphere more important in its effect and results than rules and methods, buildings, textbooks, instruments and class-teachings. No wonder then that Tagore's Shantiniketan is surrounded by natural settings. There classes are held in the open air in the groves and under the trees as far as possible. The natural beauty of the atmosphere leads the boys to love all that is peaceful and beautiful. Tagore believes that the natural atmosphere of his school will enable the children "to respond to the deeper call of reality" and so to be "weaved away from the lure of the fictitious value of things." We have noted above that Tagore finds a fundamental unity between man and nature. Therefore he wants that 'the child's education must be organized in natural surroundings'. He believes that education given in natural surroundings develops intimacy with the world. Because of this intimacy the child may develop on his own accord the power of communication with it. Tagore says, "Children with the freshness of their senses come directly to intimacy of this world. This is the first gift they have. They must never again lose their power of immediate communication with it." Therefore, Tagore does not want that the natural senses of children should be debased in urban atmosphere. He is in full accord with the Gurukula Ashrama idea of ancient India. Thus, Tagore wants that the child should be taught amidst natural 128 surroundings so that he may clearly understand Nature and its relation with the facts of human life.

It is remarkable that Tagore's naturalism paves the way to spiritualism, because Tagore is not less spiritual. He finds music as an aid to the development of spiritualism. He emphatically states that while starting the school in the natural surrounding of Bolpur his principal object was to give spiritual culture to the boys. Like a naturalist Tagore is a staunch advocate of individualism. So he puts more faith in an individual than in any institution. He stands for individualism in education. He does not want that the child should be crushed into the heavy traditional methods of instruction. We have already seen that Tagore's naturalism stands for love and harmony with all that exists in nature. Therefore, his naturalism is different from that of Rousseau's. His naturalism stands for a kinship with the world. To him "When a man does not realise his kinship with the world, he lives in a prison-house whose walls are alien to him." The city life will not develop this kinship in the child. Therefore, the child's education should be carried on in natural surroundings. The freshness, beauty of form and colour existing in nature attract the child and develop in him a love for freedom. This freedom fosters self-activity in the child and suggests to him the idea of union between Man and Nature through love and active communication. Quite naturally then Tagore, like a true naturalist, regards nature as a great educational agency. The natural surroundings of the Vishwa Bharati are a testimony to this. Tagore's Humanism He gives such a high status to man that he has declared that God himself may be considered in terms of humanity. He says, "Reality is human" and "Truth is human". Thus, we can call Tagore a humanist of the first rank because he gives man the highest place within the phenomena of the world, and he regards even God possessing humanness and he depicts ultimate Reality in human terms. But this does not imply that he means to dethrone the Infinite and to glorify the finite man as "finite". He wants that man must outgrow himself and that the idea of 129 the 'human God must be supplemented by that of the divine Man'. He said, "God has many strings to his 'sitar'; some are made of iron, others of copper and yet others are made of gold. Humanity is the golden string of God's lute." Tagore wants to ascribe human qualities to Reality as a whole. He says that if the divinity is the most real it must also be the most human. He says, "Humanity is a necessary factor in the perfecting of divine truth." To him, man lives in reality and thereby determines and widens its limits. Even God depends upon man for perfecting His universe. It is not only God who gives, even man has the right to give even to God. Tagore says, that "God finds himself only by gazing into human eyes, and receiving the touch of human hands." This is the peak of his humanism. He further says, "My religion is the Religion of Man in which the Infinite is defined in humanity." While discussing Tagore's philosophy we have seen that because of his humanism Tagore has immense faith in man. When his faith in European civilization was shattered because of the Second World War he did not lose his faith in humanity. Tagore thinks of a universal mind of humanity. This universal mind transcends separate individual mind. Tagore regards God also as human. To him God is the Eternal person manifested in all persons. Tagore wants to evaluate civilization in terms of what value it attaches to man and not in terms of how many scientific inventions it has produced. Tagore believes that 'the decay and fall of a civilization is due to the causes which produce callousness of heart and lead to the cheapening of man's worth'. It is this love for man that stimulated Tagore to turn to the education of children and he founded a school at Bolpur. Because of his humanism, he was a great lover of children and he advises the teacher to be like children and not to think himself their superior. Two prominant trends may be sensed in Tagore's humanism. In the first place, he seems to emphasise the creative activity 130 of man through art; and secondly, he lays stress on the ideal that man must achieve a unity higher than ever before.

On Religious Education We have seen that Tagore was God-conscious. He believed in the immanence of the infinite in nature. Therefore, he had a deep feeling of adoration for the universe. Everywhere in the universe he found his object of worship. To him knowledge and devotion—the intellectual and the spiritual—are only two aspects of reaching truth. In his Shantiniketan he has provided opportunities for both these aspects. But we must note that he has provided very little formal religion in Shantiniketan, because "Accprding to him, the best way to derive divine inspiration is to lose oneself in the contemplation of nature. In silence and in solitude we have to enjoy the presence of the divine in nature." Tagore believes that religious feeling and piety will usher in if the environment is pure and noble. He says, "We do not want nowadays temples of worship and outward rites and ceremonies. What we really want is an Ashram. We want a place where the beauty of nature and the noblest pursuits of man are in a sweet harmony. Our temple of worship is there where outward nature and human soul meet in union." Thus Tagore relies almost entirely on the atmosphere of the place of learning for religious education. He believed in the ideal of depending upon the natural instinct of each boy for the development of his spiritual side of nature. Tagore has great faith in the efficacy of meditation and prayer as an exercise for spiritual consciousness. So he gives a place to this in Shantiniketan where fifteen minutes are usually given both in the morning and evening for this purpose. He regards meditation as a method of reaching truth which is opposite to methods such as observation and reasoning, etc. Tagore is convinced that the highest kind of truth can be realised by this method of meditation, that is, merging one's consciousness in the truth. When this is done, one does not merely acquire it, but becomes one with it. Tagore says, "Thus, through meditation, when our soul is in its true relation to the supreme Truth, then all our actions, words, behaviour, become true." 131 But we must note that Tagore does not want to attach undue importance to contemplation. Therefore, Tagore wants that the soul should dedicate itself to 'Brahma' through all its activities, and man should build a Temple to God not of thought alone but also of action. The cult of temple and its external rites and ceremonies have been over-done in India. Therefore, Tagore does not believe that temples alone are places of meditation and worship. On the other hand, he says, "Our temple of worship is there, where outward nature and the human soul meet in unison. Our rites and ceremonies are self-sacrificing good works." Thus, Tagore's emphasis is on the world of action. Therefore he provides for ample opportunities in Shantiniketan for social service of various kinds in the execution of which the students and teachers find innumerable occasions for "selfsacrificing good works". If this attitude of Tagore appears to be more humanitarianism than religion, let us remember that in this materialistic and self-speaking world of ours this attitude is of inestimable value and in no way less important than rites and ceremonies and worship as parts of religion.

TAGORE'S VISHWA BHARATI To Tagore, a university should not be a mechanical organization for collecting and distributing knowledge. A university should be a medium of enabling people to offer their wealth of mind to others. The conception of his Vishwa Bharati is in accordance with his notion of Greater India where the humanity will strive to reach a reconciliation of different races with different religious and civilizations. Tagore believes that this Greater India or New India will not belong to this race or that race, this religion or that religion, but to humanity. Tagore's Vishwa Bharati is a symbol of his passionate faith in the brotherhood of nations. In 1934, while responding to Professor Gilbert Murray's invitation to help in bridging the gulf between various nations through international cooperation of thinkers in all countries, Tagore wrote, "Willingly, therefore, I harness myself in my advanced age to the arduous responsibility of creating in our educational colony at 132 Shantiniketan a spirit of genuine international collaboration based on a definite pursuit of knowledge, a pursuit carried on in an atmosphere of friendly community life, harmonized with Nature and offering freedom of individual self-expression."

This is the ideal on which Tagore has based his Vishwa Bharati. Tagore had three main purposes in establishing the Vishwa Bharati. He has described them as follows : 1. To teach the different cultures of the East, especially those that originated in India or found shelter within her shores; 2. To establish The Institute of Rural Reconstruction' in order to lay the foundation of a happy, contented and humane life in the villages; and lastly 3. To seek to establish a living relationship between East and West, to promote inter-cultural, and inter-racial amity and understanding, and fulfil the highest mission of the present age—the unification of mankind. The Memorandum of the Association of Vishwa Bharati lays down the objectives of the Vishwa Bharati in the following words : 1. "To study the mind of man in its realisation of different aspects of truth from diverse points of view; 2. To bring into more intimate relation with one another, through patient study and research, the different cultures of the East on the basis of their underlying unity; 3. To approach the West from the standpoint of such a unity of the life and thought of Asia; 4. To seek to realise in common fellowship of study the meeting of the East and West, and thus, ultimately to strengthen the fundamental conditions of world peace through the establishment of free communication of ideas between the two hemispheres; 5. And with such ideals in view to provide at Shantiniketan aforesaid a centre of culture where research into the study of religion, literature, history, science and art of Hindu, Buddhist, Jain, Islamic, Sikh, Christian and other civilizations may be pursued along with the culture of 133 the West, with that simplicity in externals which is necessary for true spiritual realisation, in amity, good fellowship and cooperation between the thinkers and scholars of both Eastern and Western countries, free from all antagonism of race, nationality, creed or caste, and in the name of One Supreme Being who is Shantam, Shivam, Advaitam." The Vishwa Bharati has been now recognized as a full-fledged central university by the Government of India by a special Act passed by the Indian Parliament. Vidya Bhavan (School of Research); Siksha Bhavan (College); Patha Bhavan (School); Kala Bhavan (School of Music and Dancing); Sri Niketan (Institute for Rural Reconstruction); Shilpa Bhavan (School of Industries); Vinaya Bhavan (Teachers' College); China Bhavan; Hindi Bhavan; and the Islamic Research Section—are the various constituent departments of the Vishwa Bharati. Many of the classes at the Vishwa Bharati are held in the open air. The development of individuality in all its aspects is the aim of this unique institution. Every student is made free for giving expression to his tastes and aptitudes. The curriculum is so broad as to provide for the various aptitudes of the students. The social side of the students is not ignored. The institution tries to keep itself in touch with the poor, unhappy and downtrodden masses of the neighbourhood. Thus, Tagore has tried to make the Vishwa Bharati a centre of Indian renaissance. He has made it a centre of international learning. He also made it a place from where solid work may be done for social and economic reform of the nation. Above all, he made it a place from where India may give the message of humanity to the whole world. Tagore is no more now, but his personality still pervades the Vishwa Bharati. Evaluation of Tagore's Philosophy of Education Tagore was influenced by the book 'Robinson Crusoe'. According to him, man and nature have an original integration. Thus he wanted to develop the natural emotions of the child in a natural atmosphere away from the dirty and immortal atmosphere of towns. He also emphasized that the education of child should be according to his needs but his love of nature should not be 134 taken to mean that Tagore was a Naturalist or a Pragmatist. As a matter of fact, Tagore remained an earnest Idealist all through his life. He considered Nature as a powerful agency for the moral and spiritual development of the child. Hence, he exhorted that children should be taught in the 'Forest Schools' as in the ancient times, away from the dirty and filthy

atmosphere of towns which exert a very unhealthy influence upon the mind and body of the child. According to Dr. Radha Krishnan, "Ravindra Nath did not claim to produce an original philosophy. His aim was not to analyse or speculate about the Indian tradition. He expressed it in his own vivid phrases and homely metaphors, and showed its relevance to modern life." Any way, R.N. Tagore was a great philosopher tof 20th century. His greatness lies in the fact that while condemning a dead, rigid and lifeless education organized by the alien British rule for Indians, he formulated and planned a system of education on ancient philosophical and spiritual foundations for the good of Indian people. In this sense, we can say in the words of H.B. Mukerji, "Tagore was the greatest prophet of educational renaissance in modern India. He waged a ceaseless battle to uphold the highest educational ideal before the country, and conducted educational experiments at his own institution, which made them living symbols of what an ideal should be."

QUESTIONS FOR EXERCISE 1. "Tagore's concept of Education related with Life is based on his concept of Harmony—with nature, with human surroundings and international relation." Justify. 2. Write short notes on (a) Tagore's 'Aims of Education'. (b) Basic principles of Tagore's educational philosophy. (c) Tagore's idea's about curriculum. (d) Tagore's views on 'Freedom and Discipline'. 3. Write a note on Tagore's concept of naturalism in education. 4. Write short notes on— (a) Tagore's concept of 'Humanism in Education'. (b) Tagore's concept of 'Religious Education'. 135

8 Mahamana Madan Mohan Malaviya (1861-1946) Pandit Madan Mohan Malaviya became Mahamana because of his qualities of head and heart. He inherited a very rich cultural and literary heritage from his family. He had a multifaced personality as he was a great orator, first class player, enthusiastic about classical music both instrumental and vocal—having mastery in playing on sitar, good stage actor, successful organizer, distinguished teacher, an active social worker. He was really pride of Hindu community and a true nationalist. He was a sweet tongued orator and his lectures were so effective that even the most miser would be moved to part with all his money for the cause that Malaviyaji championed. He is considered as the greatest begger of the world which made him to establish Hindu Hostel of Allahabad University, Bhartiya Bhawan and Banaras Hindu University. He was an embodiment of courage, fearlessness, firm determination and dedication. He was an ordained Hindu religious and felt pride in being known as such, but having no ill-will against other religions and their followers and thus, he was a great nationalist and social worker. He was a great educator and his philosophy of education had its roots in his philosophy of life. Therefore, hereunder an attempt is being made in to his life profile with a view to understand his philosophy of life and his philosophy of education in this chapter. 136

HIS LIFE Mahamana Madan Mohan Malaviya was born in Allahabad on December 25,1861 in the family of Shri Prem Dutt

Chaturvedi, a renowned scholar of the Bhagawat. His father was Shri Brij Nath Vyas and mother Mrs. Moona Devi. His family did not posess enough material wealth, but its literary richness had won for it a respectable place in society. Prem Dutt, the grandfather of Malaviyaji was a staunch devotee of Radha and Krishna. Brij Nath Vyas, the father of Madan Mohan Malaviya had a scholarly reputation and an imposing personality. He was industrious, sweet tongued, and a man without high ambitions. He was known for his deep studies in Sanskrit. At the age of 25, as a result of his hard labour he attained the title of Vyas. Malaviyaji, inherited from his father, imposing personality, industriousness, religious mindedness, courage and polite manners. He had his primary education and training from his father. Later he was admitted to Dharmagyanopadesh Pathshala which was run in his vicinity. Thereafter he joined another school run by an institution named Vidya Dharma Pravardhini. The manager of the institution, Mr. Deoki Nandan, was very kind to Malaviyaji. He encouraged young Malaviya to address public meetings every year on the occasion of Magh Mela at the Tribeni, Allahabad. The credit of Malaviyaji's turning into a mighty orator in his later life goes greatly to Deoki Nandan. The economic hardships of his parents did not come in the way of fulfilment of Malaviyaji's desires of getting a higher education in English, as the parents were quite willing to do every thing for the sake of their promising son. Malaviyaji, as a result, was admitted to class X of the then Allahabad District School. The residence of Malaviyaji was at a long distance from the school, and he had to undergo hardships from going and coming from the school. These difficulties, however, did not obstruct the smooth studies of Malaviyaji. He was an industrious student and also a first class player. He was very sincere about his Pujas (worships) and the recitation of Gayatri Mantra. No less enthusiastic was he about classical music, both vocal and instrumental. He took great delight in playing on sitar. Malaviyaji passed his High School Examination from the District School, later known as the Government School in 1879. He then joined Muir Central College, for his degree 137 education. At the age of twenty he was married to Kundan Devi, the daughter of Sri Nand Ram of Mirzapur in 1881. Mr. Harison, the Principal of Muir College was very much impressed by the fearlessness, patriotism, sense of duty and the good conduct of Malaviyaji. Malaviyaji was also a successful actor. He won public admiration for his artistic talent by playing the role of Shakuntala in a dramatic performance staged by the Arya Natak Mandali of Allahabad. In another drama, 'Merchant of Venice', presented by his college, he again displayed his artistic maturity in the role of Portia. Debates and lectures were the objects of his keen interest from early boyhood. He organised a debating society in his college. He also established another society named Madhya Hindu Samaj in 1884 with a view to bring about progress and uplift of Hindu community. For the promotion of literature he founded a Literary Institute. Malaviyaji completed his B.A. in 1884 and discontinued his studies for lack of money and became a teacher in the Government High School, Allahabad. He own the admiration and love both of the management and the students by proving himself to be a good and successful teacher. The deeply ingrained qualities of a teacher in him came suddenly to light when he made the illiterate labourers of Teachers Training College write the word 'RAM' in no time. During his service as a teacher he continued to be an active social worker. His lectures were so effective that even the most miser would be moved to part with all his money cheerfully for the cause that Malaviyaji championed. The Hindu Hostel of Allahabad University, Bhartiya Bhawan, and Banaras Hindu University are the glaring examples of his powerful oratory. One of the greatest princely beggers of the world, a great social worker, embodiment of courage and fearlessness, pride of Hindu community, the friend, philosopher and the guide of Indian masses, Malaviyaji breathed his last on November 11, 1946. His Philosophy of Practical Life Malaviyaji was not merely a theoretical commentators of the principles of ancient Indian philosophy but he practised best aspects of this philosophy, therefore, his life has an open book for everyone who came in contact with him. It is in this light 138 that we hereunder attempt to understand ideals of practical life in accordance with the principles of ancient Indian philosophy. Religious Ideals

Malaviyaji was a Sanatanist (follower of old Hindu religion) in his religious thinking, but his Sanatan Dharm (religion) was quite liberal and broad-visioned. He showed the same regard and respect to other religions. In his Sanatan (religious) concept— Jainism, Buddhism and the Vedic religion—all found equal place as the branches of the one and the bigger Hindu religion. It was due to this that Arya Samajists made him the President of their Sabha. A similar honour to his catholic thinking was done by the Buddhists also who invited him to lay the foundation stone of one of their Dharamshala constructed at Sarnath, the famous place of pilgrimage for the Buddhists all over the world. The Muslims and the Christians, too, had made requests to him on several occasions to address their congregations which he did gladly. The pleasure and satisfaction that he derived from his participation in the Satya Narain Pujan (worship of Lord VISHNU —the God of Truth) or the recitation of the holi Bhagawat were the same as he experienced when he had an opportunity to participate in the Yajnas of Arya Samajis or the prayers of the Christians or the religious ceremonies of Muslims and Sikhs. Being a staunch Sanatanists, he would not like to hear a single word uttered against his religion but the same feeling of injury and strong disapproval seized him when some one showed a disrespect or talked lightly of any other religion. The disrespect to any religion was intolerable to him. This feeling of high regard for all religions had endeared Malaviyaji to the followers of different religions in the country. Malaviyaji considered only that man truly religious who felt the troubles of others in a way as if the same had come on him. The religious beliefs and thinkings of Malaviyaji are almost synonyms to the basic principles underlying all the great religions of the world. He was of the view that the same treatment should be extended to others which one expected from others for himself. 139 The basic principles of religion which Malaviyaji believed in, included forgiveness, selfless service, patriotism, cooperation and fearlessness in following the truth. He also considered the constant service for the uplift of humanity and society an essential part of religion. He laid equal emphasis on the observance of "do's" and "donts" prescribed by different religions. He believed that mere rememberance of God would give one strength and inspiration to do one's duty and help one to remain on the right path. Malaviyaji has considered patriotism an important aspect of religion. It is a duty of every individual to lay down his or her life for the sake of his or her country when a necessity arises for the same. According to Malaviyaji, it was a religious duty of every person to eradicate illiteracy and contribute to the progress of the country and society. Service to humanity occupies a very important place in the religious ethics of Malaviyaji. His service concept is comprehensive enough to encompass all castes, classes and countries and does away with the distinction between mine and thine. He carried a universal love in his heart, a love which the tiniest creation of God could freely share. Service to all in need according to one's capacity is the basic objective of his Seva Dharm (Nature of Service). The distinction between human beings in the name of nations is foreign to the Manav Dharm (Human religion) of Malaviyaji. He championed that sort of Seva Dharm which not only aimed at the welfare of the entire humanity, but of the entire creation. Love pervades his Seva Dharm and becomes one of its principal symptoms. The service that Malaviyaji preached did not expect any reward or recognition in return. It was free from all greed and selfish motives. He upheld that service motivated by love was the real one. Malaviyaji's religious thinking was based on tolerance, forgiveness, love, service, devotion to God, devotion to humanity, patriotism and the welfare of society. Malaviyaji had a great love for Hinduism. He was of the view that Hinduism was the oldest religion not only of India but of the whole world. How old the followers of Hinduism, i.e., Aryas, are may be proved convincingly by the Vedas, Puranas and the Smritis which abound in accounts to uphold the case. 140 Malaviyaji took pride in the idea that this oldest religious community of the world from the very dawn of civilization had stuck to the religious principles and duties laid down in the Vedas and survived till this day. Malaviyaji believed that prestige and honour that Hinduism commanded was attributable mainly to its social structure, which has been its peculiarity. Malaviyaji thought that tolerance in Hinduism sprang from its philosophical outlook which made Lord Buddha, the founder of Buddhism in India, an incarnation of God, like Rama and Krishna. Religion for Malaviyaji was a means for the attainment of progress (Abhyudaya). The unique virtue of Hinduism, which is tolerance and respect for other religions,

had a great attraction for Malaviyaji. It is most astonishing to believe that Malaviyaji was able to receive love and affection, admiration and acceptability by towering intellectuals of Arya Samaj, Buddhism, Christianity and Islam as evident from the above description, but it is a truth and it was because that for Malaviyaji Hinduism was not only a matter of faith for personal devotion to God but a Dharma for his social and national behaviour with others and thus, not against any other faith and regarded them as holy as Hinduism for him. Ideal of Pride for being Hindu He had a great hatred for narrow communal and sectarian outlook. The Hindu-Muslim riots that occurred, several times during his life-time gave him heavy grief. He always took active part in pacifying the tense feelings between Hindu and Muslims. To Hindus, he appealed to adopt such ways and means for the preservation and propagation of their religion which did not hurt the Muslims or others. The same was his request to the followers of other religions. Without distinguishing between Hindus and Muslims he would condemn all who fomented or participated in communal riots. He was fully aware of the 'divide and rule' policy of the British Government in the country and exposed it thread bare in the public meetings while sounding a note of warning against its evil consequences. Malaviyaji expounded a principle which extended equal opportunities to all the religious sects to preach, practise and preserve their respective religions. He made constant 141 efforts to bring Hindus and Muslims closer to each other, emotionally and intellectually, and make them bury their grievances. He pleaded that the dissipation of energies of both the communities over communal disturbances should come to an end. In accordance with his religious view, he felt pride in being a Hindu and he wished others should feel alike and have in the virtues of Hinduism without disrespecting other faiths and their followers. Ideal of Love for Indian Literature Love for Indian Literature. Malaviyaji took great pride in such Hindu religious books as the Vedas, the Puranas, the Upanishads, the Smritis, the Mahabharata and the Ramayana which formed the foundations of Hindu religion. He viewed these books as the precious jewels of Hindu religion and culture. Literature constitutes the inexhaustible treasure of human knowledge acquired in the process of progress through ages. It contains precious jewels, adorning and enriching the economic, religious, moral, social and several other aspects of society. Malaviyaji's extreme devotion for Hinduism and his regard for other religions in the country made him respectful to all the Indian literature irrespective of their languages and origins. The books written in Pali, Sanskrit, Prakrit, Bengali, Marathi, Urdu, English, Gujrati, Kanari, Malayalam, Gurmukhi and other Indian languages were equally important for him. It always pained him that the history of the country was being written not by the countrymen but by foreigners. He took pride in the preservation of old Indian literature and pleaded vehemently for giving it priority over studies in foreign literature. He was of the opinion that Indian students should take to the studies of histories of Greece, Rome and England and also the other literature of those countries only after they had attained a thorough knowledge of history and language of their own country. Malaviyaji believed that literature embodies cultural heritage of the nation and development of the personality of the society and the nation. 142 Ideal Social Reforms Malaviyaji, though proclaimed himself to be a staunch traditional Sanatanist (follower of old Hinduism), yet he did not hesitate to oppose and weed out the customs and the practices that were out-dated and retarded the progress of Hindu Society. He did not accept blindly the traditional views regarding child-marriage, social status of woman, and caste system.

He opposed them tooth and nail and took positive steps to improve the conditions of Indian woman. He believed that the progress and rise of the country could not be possible as long as the women remained in the state of serfdom and steeped into ignorance. Malaviyaji admired Varna (caste) system of Hindu religion but he had a love for the untouchables at the same time. He always considered them an integral part of the Hindu society. He made relentless efforts to end untouchability and uplift the depressed classes of society. He firmly advocated that due respect should be given to the backward and depressed class people. He appealed to Hindus to open the doors of temples for Harijans (untouchables) and give them unfettered rights for carrying on worship of the gods. Ideals to Re-establish Past Glories Malaviyaji had extreme devotion for Indian literature, culture and civilization. He took pride in the Vedic literature and civilization of India. He was greatly pained over the decline of Indian culture and civilization and the wide-spread illiteracy in the country. He believed strongly that the decline of the country in the spheres of art, crafts, industries and culture was mainly due to lack of proper education. The fading away of past glories of India made him restless. The traditional education based on religion had undergone complete change and the Varnashram system (the four stages of life—Brahmacharya, Grahasthya, Vanprastha, and Sanyas) had ended, leaving no such social institution or organisation which could infuse zeal and spirit among the people for education. As a result, India, a country of great seers and thinkers degenerated into a nation of illiterates who constituted 95% of the total population. 143 In the beignning of the twentieth century when the European and other advanced countries were making progress in the sphere of art and industries and were taking long strides in other walks of life, India was following just the reverse course. Its industries, art, craft, civilization and culture, had reached a low stage. While a labourer in England earned on average one rupee a day, his counterpart in India at the same time earned only an anna (six paise) a day. It became hard for the Indian people to keep their body and soul together. Even those who constituted the upper strata of landed aristocracy of the country were so hard-pressed by debts that a respectable living appeared to be extremely difficult for them. Even that class which had amassed wealth by other means was not in a peaceful state of mind. With all the education and civilization this class would only put up an outward show of prosperity with no internal peace. They had become a prey to their own evil habits and sensuous pleasures, which led them to disunity, weakness, and constant quarrels. The decline of religion and education opened the flood gate for social evils, premature deaths, epidemics and starvations in the country. At this critical time when the country was waiting helplessly for some one to take her out from these wretched conditions, Malaviyaji appeared on the scene. He revived and reshaped the old religious teachings in order to serve as a means for infusing life and spirit in the decaying Indian culture and civilization. Malaviyaji's Thoughts on Education He was greatly pained to see that the traditional Indian education based on religion and Varnashram system had not only undergone complete charge but virtually ended. As a result of this, India the land of seer and thinkers degenerated into a nation of illiterates who constituted 95% of the total population. This decline of educational system lead to the decline in religious practices and Indian culture and civilization forcing us to accept subjection of the foreigners and thus our industries, art and craft also declined, therefore, he vowed to revive and reshape the old religious teachings through education which should encompass modern developments. 144 Malaviyaji considered education the means for all development. This lent a comprehensive character to the education conceived by him. He advocated strongly for and adopted also, Hindi as the medium of instruction. He was firmly of the view that only through the mother tongue one could progress in different spheres of education. His love for Hindi and other Indian languages, however, did not mean to remove English, the need for which was felt badly for teaching science and many technical subjects. As already stated above Malaviyaji had a love for other Indian and foreign languages also. Therefore, he provided facilities for learning various foreign and Indian languages in the Banaras Hindu University.

Scientific and Technological Education Malaviyaji wanted to keep pace with the developments in the world in the field of science and technology to secure for the nation a place of pride and prosperity but he wanted self-reliance in this development of science and technology, therefore, he emphasised on the need for education in science and different technical subjects and made provision for such studies in Banaras Hindu University founded by him. Science and Technical Education. Malaviyaji believed that no nation in modern age could make any progress without proper arrangements for education in science and different technical subjects. Paucity of books in Indian languages on technical and scientific subjects made the problem of technical education extremely difficult. Malaviyaji held that education would remain incomplete if proper arrangements were not made for education in sciences and technical subjects. In order to make up the deficiency, arrangements should be made for translation of technical books of foreign languages into Hindi and other Indian languages. The lack of proper scientific and technical education had also told upon the industrial progress of the country. Industries were in a state of decline and agriculture was the principal means for the people for earning their livelihood. The pressure on land was increasing beyond its capacity. The situation was further aggrevated by the vagaries of nature which caused grave damages to crops through floods and draughts. Starvation over a large area in the country had become a common feature. 145 Malaviyaji felt that the only remedy for all these handicaps lay in the industrial development of the country. So he emphasised education in different branches of industries and technology. Scientific Study in Agriculture Malaviyaji fully understood that agriculture was the foundation stone of Indian economy, therefore, to make the nation economically self-sufficient, it was necessary to put agriculture on scientific footing and thus, he pleaded for the scientific study of problems concerning agriculture and for this purpose he made provisions to impart scientific training in agriculture in the Banaras Hindu University founded by him. Here, it must be noted that Malaviyaji wanted that kind of education for the country which could bring about progress and prosperity. Agriculture, being the main stay of the Indian people, was naturally the first to catch his attention. He made arrangements in his university to impart scientific training in agriculture. Ayurvedic Education Good human health is a must for national progress because it is the physical and mental health of the people which shapes the health of the nation. Malaviyaji felt that the Ayurvedic system of medicine was best for the country. Therefore, in order to bring the system of Ayurveda in line with the modern age, he combined surgery also with the indigenous teachings of Ayurveda. When Malaviyaji took this step there was a dearth of suitable Vaidyas and doctors particularly in the rural areas. Premature death, for want of proper medical-aid was a common place happening during those days. Malaviyaji tried to encourage setting up of Ayurvedic institutions both by the people and the Government. He also held simultaneously the view that teachers to be appointed in these institutions should be Indians so that the maximum benefit could be derived by the country. Education in Fine Arts Malaviyaji believed that fine arts represent aesthetic sense of the nation and alike literature, it is a mirror of the cultural 146 civilization of the nation, therefore, he wanted development of fine arts through proper education. Malaviyaji held that the development of aesthetic sense of the people was necessary for their all-sided development. Music, among the fine arts, may inspire and thrill not only the human beings but also the beastly world. The man absorbed in the pleasure created by the Rags and Raginis (Play of various runes) forgets for a moment the worldly worries and troubles. This aspect of music and importance in human life attracted Malaviyaji and he made efforts to restore the Indian music to its old glory.

Music and other fine arts are interrelated. The prosperity of a country may be gauged by its achievements in fine arts. As literature is said to be the mirror of society, so also are the fine arts reflecting various social behaviours in the physical and mental spheres. Painting, dramatic performances, sculptures and architectures are such arts which present a living picture of thinking, doing and the status of society at a particular age. The existing generation draws inspiration and encouragement from these arts. Malaviyaji whose love for ancient things was immense has suggested adequate provision for these arts in an educational system. Education for Character Formation National human character is the vital determinate of national power and pride, therefore, Malaviyaji wanted that each and every person should have good character for the good of his or herself and the nation. Malaviyaji believed that the primary aim of education should be character-building, because the progress of society is always hampered when its members are of feeble character. The students of ideal character could be produced, Malaviyaji held, through introduction of religious and moral education in schools. Every religion has emphasised conduct and character of people. This basic uniformity in respect of their approach towards character-building made Malaviyaji lay emphasis on the need of comparative study of all religions in educational institutions. Religious Education Malaviyaji believed that true religion aims at love for humanity and universal brotherhood, therefore, he advocated for religious education as a means of social reforms to iradicate social evils 147 such as illiteracy, child marriage and traditional views regarding social status of woman as well as the concept of untouchability. Here it be known to every one that Malaviyaji believed in Karma (work) oriented system of Varnashram and birth oriented Varnashram and as such he appealed to Hindus to open the doors of temples for Harijans to make them to feel equal members of the society. Malaviyaji believed that spiritual development and character building was possible through religious education. We have already stated above that his love for religious texts of Hinduism such as the Vedas, the Puranas, the Upanishads, etc. was profound. He, similarly, had a strong feeling of love and devotion for the Vedic civilisation and culture. He, therefore, made special arrangements for teaching religion in the Banaras Hindu University. An Estimate The significance of Malaviyaji's ideals of education lies in its practical utility for the individual, society and the nation. The philosophy of education advocated by Malaviyaji meets the human and national needs of his times and aimed at reachieve the past glories of the nation for the good of the nation and its people. He stands as most important and most distinguished educator of the nation in the field of higher education because he not only preached the need and shape of it but transformed his ideas by establishing Banaras Hindu University—the place of higher learning having a very high reputation for its academic eminence for which we all are proud of him and so will be the generations to come.

QUESTIONS FOR EXERCISE 1. "Mahamana Madan Mohan Malaviya's concept of Education is the manifestation of his philosophy of practical life." Justify. 2. Write a note on Malaviyaji's concept of Education for character-formation. 3. Write short notes on— (a) Malaviya's views on 'Science and Technical Education'. (b) Malaviya's views on 'Scientific Study in Agriculture'. (c) Malaviya's ideas about 'Religious Education'. (d) Malaviya's concept of ideal social reforms through Education. 148

9 Swami Vivekananda (1863-1902) Swami Vivekananda was the greatest luminary of modern India. He was a genius of outstanding merit that modern India has produced. He analysed the cultural heritage of ancient Indian philosophy—the Vedas etc. and elevated the present Indian systems, including the system of education and presented his views on various aspects of human life, including education for the good of people and nation. But before we proceed to understand his philosophy of life and his philosophy of education we should understand his life profile.

HIS LIFE Swami Vivekananda was born in 1863 in Calcutta. Before he became a monk, his name was Narendra Nath Datta. He belonged to the Kshatriya caste. While he was a student in college at seventeen years of age, he came under the influence of Sri Ramkrishna. During his college days, he was a gay youth taking part in many kinds of activities, like boxing, wrestling, swimming, and riding etc.; but at the same time he was very eager for all kinds of knowledge. He was the best student of philosophy and poetry. He studied all the systems of Western philosophy and became very well acquainted with the contemporary philosophy 149 of Herbert Spencer and John Stuart Mill. Wordsworth and Shelley were his favourite poets. His teachers could very well recognise the genius hidden in him. Once the principal of his college, Mr. Hastie remarked, "Narendra Nath is really a genius. I have travelled far and wide, but I have never yet come across a lad of his talents and possibilities, even in German Universities amongst philosophical students. He is bound to make his mark in life." It was from this Englishman, Mr. Hastie, that Narendra Nath learnt about Ramakrishna Paramhansa. On the advice of Mr. Hastie, Narendra Nath went to see Ramkrishna and was conquered, and from here began a new chapter in the history of Hinduism. Swami Vivekananda did for the gospel of Sri Ramkrishna what St. Paul did for the Gospel of Christ. He broadcasted the truths of Vedanta in India, Europe and America, as realized in the experience of Sri Ramkrishna. He demonstrated to the world that the great Indian spiritual tradition was still alive and vigorous. He showed both by precept and by example that, if the ancient Vedanta were reinterpreted in the light of Sri Ramkrishna's spiritual experience and applied to modern life, India would be able to solve many of her problems and would rise once again to deliver a message to humanity. Therefore, while he was explaining the philosophy of Vedanta to the public in America and Europe he asked his countrymen to put those truths into practice. Thus, he taught theoretical Vedanta in the West and practical Vedanta in India. He declared that the most practical form that Vedanta could take in India was the uplift of the masses. His life from the death of his Master to his own death had been one prolonged cry for the uplift of the toiling and starving people of his beloved Motherland. He had full sympathy for the poor and downtrodden in India. In this respect he was a true forerunner of Mahatma Gandhi. He was not a politician, but he wanted to make the Indian masses strong and self-reliant. He vehemently pleaded for social reform in India as he did for religious freedom in the West. 150 To him, an ideal society should combine the spiritual culture of India and the secular culture of America and England. Swami Vivekananda advocated that Vedanta should open its gates to all without any distinction of caste, colour, creed or sex. He thought that it should be practicable everywhere— liberalizing religion in the West and raising up society in the East. He repeatedly told his countrymen till his death in 1903 at the age of thirtynine, that they had become weak and poor because they did not apply their Vedanta to life. He deplored that Indians had lost faith in themselves. According to him, strength, strength and strength—was the crying need of the hour in India. He was never tired of asserting that India need a strength-giving religion and a man-making education. We shall try to understand what he means by man-making education, in this chapter.

Through his foreign tours he rightly realised that it was foolish to expect any substantial help from outside for helping the starving people of India. He became convinced that India must stand on its own legs in order to solve its various problems, i.e., the Indian people must become self-reliant. This self-reliance could come only through self-confidence. So he decided to teach these two lessons of self-confidence and self-reliance to his countrymen. He wanted the young Indian to banish their feeling inferiority. He told the young men in India, "Make your nerves strong. What we want is muscles of iron and nerves of steel. We have wept long enough. No more weeping but stand on your feet and be men. It is a man-making religion that we want. It is man-making education all round that we want." Swami Vivekananda also realised that the foreign rule had a degenerating influence on the Indian people, and that the spirit of self-confidence and self-reliance could not come unless the people were made proud of their heritage and culture. The Swami himself was proud of his race, religion and motherland. He believed that the Indian people would not be elevated by imitating the West. Swami Vivekananda saw that the West was rolling in opulence and prosperity, but he saw no hope in the Western 151 civilization if it contained no spiritual progress. He thought that the spirituality lacking in the West could be supplied only by the East and particularly by India. He believed that the excessively spiritual life of the East was in need of the Western materialism in order to raise standard of life; and the Western material civilization needed the spirituality of the East. Therefore, he suggested an exchange of spiritual values and material wants between the East and the West on an equal footing. He had rightly remarked as follows : 1. No religion is inferior to any other. All religions lead to the same goal. So one must remain in one's own religion. 2. God is Omnipresent and Impersonal. He is manifested in all the creatures on earth. 3. The reformers must not try to weed out any part of Hinduism. Every part of Hinduism is of value and must be retained. 4. Hindu civilization is good, beautiful and spiritual. The interpretations of missionaries about Hinduism are misleading. 5. The Hindu nation will again teach the whole world, as it had taught in the past, in the realm of spiritualism. 6. The Hindus must not try to imitate the European nations and Western civilizations blindly. 7. Indians must stand on their own legs for improving their lot. After his return from abroad Swami Vivekananda organised the Ramkrishna Mission on May 1, 1897 on purely spiritual and humanitarian basis. The Ramkrishna Mission has carried three types of activities: (1) Charitable work among the poor, (2) Missionary work for diffusing the principles of the Vedanta and the teachings of Sri Ramkrishna; and (3) Organisation of education for bringing enlightenment to the people. The organisation of education as carried by the Ramkrishna Mission has been greatly influenced by the educational philosophy of Swami Vivekananda, and even today his followers try to interpret and propagate his views on various educational problems. 152 It is worthy of note that Swami Vivekananda has not chosen to write any treatise on education. His educational ideals are to be found scattered in his various speeches which are published in seven volumes under the title Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda, by Advaita Ashrama Mayavati Almora, Himalayas. The account of his educational ideals is based on his speeches found in these seven volumes. It is rightly said that in the Neo-Vedanta humanistic tradition of contemporary Indian thought, Vivekananda presented a philosophy of education for man-making. Among the contemporary Indian philosophers of education, he is one of those who revolted against the imposition of British system of education in India. He was severely critical of the pattern of education introduced by the British in India. He felt that the current system of education did not confirm to India's culture. He pointed out that such an education only brings about an external change without any profound inner force.

CRITICISM OF PREVALENT EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM Against the contemporary educational system the chief objection raised by Vivekananda was that it turned men into slaves, capable of slavery and nothing else. About the prevailing university education, he remarked that it was not better than an efficient machine for rapidly turning out clerks. It deprived people of their faith and belief. The English educated people believed that Gita was false and the Vedas were no more significant than rural folk lore. Criticising this system of education Vivekananda compared it to the person who wanted to turn his ass into a horse, was advised to thrash the ass in order to achieve this transformation and killed his ass in this process. Vivekananda also criticised the contemporary system of education from the humanistic viewpoint. He was a humanist and pleaded for education for man-making. Such was not the education propounded by the British. Therefore, Vivekananda condemned it. He remarked, "It is not a man-making education, it is merely and entirely a negative education. A negative education or any training that is based on negation, is worse than death. The child is taken to school, 153 and the first thing he learns is that his father is a fool, the second thing that his grandfather is lunatic, the third thing that all his teachers are hypocrites, the fourth, that all the sacred books are lies. By the time he is sixteen he is a mass of negation, lifeless and boneless. And the result is that fifty years of such education has not produced one original man in the three presidencies. Every man of originality that has been produced has been educated elsewhere, and not in this country, or they have gone to the old universities once more to cleanse themselves of superstitions." Educational philosophy of Swami Vivekananda has been derived from his philosophy of life. So it is in fitness of things that first of all we consider his philosophy which has been derived from the Vedanta.

HIS PHILOSOPHY OF LIFE Swami Vivekananda regards the Vedanta as perfectly impersonal. To him the Vedanta philosophy, as it is known to day, includes the various sects that are found in India. Consequently, various interpretations of the Vedanta philosophy have been forwarded, from the dualistic (or Dvaita) to the non-dualistic (or Advaita). Swami Vivekananda considers all these interpretations progressive. The Vedanta is eternal. It is not originated by any person or prophet. So it is not built around any particular individual as the centre. Swami Vivekananda regards the Dvaita, the Visistadvaita and the Advaita as the different expressions of the Vedanta. So to him they are not opposed to each other. He does not consider them as absolute systems. To him these are merely the stages for helping the individual to proceed progressively towards the realisation of higher and higher ideals till everything is merged in that wonderful unity which is reached in the Advaita system. As a staunch Vedantist Swami Vivekananda gives only three attributes to God—He is Infinite Existence, Infinite Knowledge and Infinite Bliss. He believes that these three are one. "Existence without knowledge and love cannot be; knowledge without love, and love without knowledge cannot be. What we want is the harmony of Existence, Knowledge and Bliss Infinite. For that is our goal. We want harmony, not onesided development. And it is 154 possible to have the intellect of a Sankara with the heart of a Buddha. I hope we shall all struggle to attain that blessed combination." Swami Vivekananda's interpretation of the Vedanta is based on a scientific analysis. He says, "When the scientific teacher asserts that all things are the manifestation of one force, does it not remind you of the God of whom you hear in the Upanishadas? As the one fire entering into the universe expresses itself in various forms, even so that one Soul is expressing Itself in every soul and yet is infinitely more besides." Thus, the Swami sees that both the Vedanta and science maintain common principles. Swami Vivekananda believes that the same methods of investigation that are applied to sciences and knowledge outside should be applied to the science of religion, because thereby it will become as scientific, at least, as any of the conclusions of physics or chemistry, and will have greater strength, because physics or chemistry do not have that internal

mandate to vouch for its truth, which religion has. Therefore, one must not deny the efficacy of any rational investigation into religion. Swami Vivekananda thinks that the same omnipresent and omniscient soul resides in every man and in every animal, however, weak, small or great. Thus, Swami Vivekananda believes in universalism and spiritual brotherhood. He asserts that the Vedanta as a religion must be intensely practical. He urges people to apply it to every aspect of their lives. He regards the difference between various religions as fictitious and says that they must vanish. Such is his conviction about the universalism he preaches. Swami Vivekananda has intense faith in man and he realises the dignity and diversity of human beings. In fact, he finds the manifestation of God in man. "The only God to worship is the human soul, in the human body. Of course, all animals are temples too, but man is the highest, the Taj Mahal of temples. If I cannot worship in that, no other temple will be of any advantage. The moment I have realised God sitting in the temple of every human body, the moment I stand 155 in reverence before every human being and see God in him—that moment I am free from bondage, everything that binds vanishes, and I am free." To him, the ideal of the Vedanta is to know man as he really is. This is the message of the Vedanta. He asks, "If you cannot worship your brother man, the manifestation of God, how can you worship a God who is unmanifested?... If you cannot see God in the human face, how can you see Him in the clouds, or in images made of dull, dead matter, or in mere fictitious stories of your brain? I shall call you religious from the day you begin to see God in men and women." Thus, the Swami reaches the eternal communion of man with the Infinite through a religion of universal oneness and cosmopolitanism. He is completely consistent when he urges people to believe in a universal religion. He does not regard the various religions as contradictory. To him the various "religions are different forces in the economy of God, working for the good of mankind." He thinks that every religion is progressive. He believes that universal religion is existing in the same way as the universal oneness between man and man is already existing. He regards the realization of Divinity, or the knowledge of Brahman as the ultimate goal for man. The absorption in the Brahman can be only for some exceptional moments which do not last long. That is why the saint after having realised the Self sees the Self in all creatures. Therefore, he devotes himself entirely to the service of all beings. It is because of this that Swami Vivekananda has emphasised universalism and spiritual brotherhood. Swami Vivekananda believes that perfection is one's heritage. He declares, "Perfection is not to be attained, it is already within us. Immortality and bliss are not to be acquired, we possess them already: they have been ours all the time." All through his life the Swami strove whole-heartedly to make his fellow-being realise this truth. After this short sketch of Swami Vivekananda's philosophy of life, now we are turning to his educational philosophy. His Philosophy of Education Swami Vivekananda's philosophy of life is indicative of his 156 philosophy of education, which as pleaded by him, be known as 'Man-Making Education'. This captions of his philosophy of education indicates that his views on various aspects of education are of prime importance for the good of our people and nation. A brief account of his philosophy is as under: Aims of Education 1. Self-development. In contrast to the contemporary system of education, Vivekananda advocated education for selfdevelopment. He said, "By education I do not mean the present system, but something in the line of positive teaching. Mere book learning won't do. We want that education by which character is formed, strength of mind is increased, the intellect is expanded and by which one can stand on one's own feet. What we want are Western science coupled with

Vedanta, 'Brahmacharya' as the guiding motto, and also 'Sraddha' and faith in one's own self". These words by Vivekananda represent the characteristic Indian definition of education. Education, according to most of the Western educationists, aims at man's adjustment with the environment. According to the Indian philosophical tradition, on the other hand, education is the realization of the knowledge inherent in man. True knowledge does not come from outside, it is discovered with the individual, in the self which is the source of all knowledge. To quote Vivekananda again, "All knowledge that the world has ever received comes from the mind; the infinite library of the universe is in your mind. The external world is only the suggestion, the occasion, which sets you to study your mind. The falling of the apple gave suggestion to Newton, and he studied his own mind. He rearranged all the precious links of thought in his mind and discovered a new link among them which we call the Law of Gravitation". Thus, according to Vivekananda, the function of education is the uncovering of the knowledge hidden in our mind. Education is the process of self-development. In the words of Vivekananda, "You cannot teach a child any more than you can grow a plant. The plant develops its own nature". A person's education is not judged by the number of books he has read but by the thickness of the cover of ignorance on his mind. 157 The thicker is this cover, the greater is the ignorance. As the light of knowledge dawns this cover of ignorance gradually shatters. The teacher's job is to uncover knowledge by his guidance. His guidance makes the mind active and the educand himself unveils the knowledge lying within him. 2. Fulfilment of Swadharma. Vivekananda supported the idea of Swadharma in education. Every one has to grow like himself. No one has to copy others. It is hence that he condemned the imposition of foreign education. He asked, "Getting by heart the thoughts of others in a foreign language and stuffing your brain with them and taking some university degree, you can pride yourself as educated. Is this education?" True improvement is self-inspired. There should be no external pressure of any type on the child. External pressure only creates destructive reactions leading to obstinacy and indiscipline. In an atmosphere of freedom, love and sympathy alone, the child will develop courage and self-reliance. He should not be unnecessarily checked in his activities. The educator should not constantly tell him to do this or that. Such negative directions tend to blunt his intelligence and mental development. He should be talked to stand on his own, to be himself. This is so since as Vivekananda suggests, "If you do not allow once to become a lion, he will become a fox". Therefore, education should be modified to suit the individual child. Each child should be given opportunities to develop according to his own inner nature. 3. Freedom of Growth. Vivekananda is against any type of external pressure upon the child. He is a staunch champion of freedom in education. Freedom is the first requirement for self-development. The child should be given freedom to grow according to his own nature. In the words of Vivekananda, "You cannot teach a child any more than you can grow a plant. All you can do is on the negative side—you can only help. You can take away the obstacles, but knowledge comes out of its own nature. Loosen the soil a little, so that it may come out easily. Put a hedge around it, see that it is not killed by anything, and there your work stops. You cannot do anything else. The rest is a manifestation from within its own nature." 158 The teacher should not exert any type of pressure on the child. The child should be helped in solving his problems himself. The teachers should have an attitude of service and worship. Education ultimately aims at realization. It is a means to the establishment of a fraternity of mankind. 4. Character Formation. Character is the solid foundation for self-development. The aim of education as self-development, therefore, leads to the aim of education for character. Defining character, Vivekananda said, "The character of any man is but the aggregate of his tendencies, the sum total of the bent of his mind. As pleasure and pain pass before his soul, they leave upon it different pictures and the result of these combined impressions is what is called a man's character." The aim of education is character building. This depends upon the ideals cherished by the individual. The educator should present high ideals before the educands. The best way to develop a character is the personal example of high character set by the teacher. Laying emphasis upon this point Vivekananda said, "Without the personal life of the teacher there would be no education. One would live from his very boyhood with one whose character is like a blazing fire, and should have before him a

living example of the highest teaching.... The charge of imparting knowledge should again fall upon the shoulders of 'tyagis'. In ancient Indian system of education the teachers used to present high ideals", before the pupils, who in their turn imitated these ideals according to their capacities. Following things are required for character formation : (i) Hard Work. Character formation, according to Vivekananda, requires hard work. This is not possible by those who have a wish for all types of enjoyments. Struggle is the best teacher in character building. Activity and purushartha are the signs of life. Inactivity shows absence of vitality. While living in all types of comforts and escaping from all types of labour, no one can build up high character. (ii) Moral and Spiritual Values. Besides hard work, character formation requires traits such as purity, thirst for knowledge, perseverance, faith, humility, submission 159 and veneration, etc. These qualities may be developed by the teacher's example and the pupil's efforts. According to Vivekananda, "Without faith, humility, submission and veneration in our hearts towards the teacher, there cannot be any growth in us. In those countries which have neglected to keep up this kind of relation, the teacher has become a mere lecturer, the teacher expecting his five dollars and the person taught expecting his brain to be filled with the teacher's words and each going his own way after this much is done. The true teacher is he who can immediately come down to the level of the student, and transfer his soul to the student's soul and see through and understand through his mind. (iii)Gurukula System. Such a relationship between the teacher and the taught is possible only in a Gurukula system of education. Therefore, Vivekananda favoured the ancient Indian Gurukula system of education. In these Gurukulas the pupils served the teacher, who in his turn, helped the pupils everywhere to achieve knowledge. There was hardly any economic relationship between the teacher and the taught, which is the curse of the present system of education. (iv) Formation of Good Habits. Character is intimately connected with habits. Habits express character. Good habits make for good character. While the contemporary psychologists admit the value of habits in one's life, Vivekananda has pointed out the value of habits not only in this life but in lives to come. A bad habit may be broken by developing the opposite good habit. If a man constantly thinks that he will be courageous and progressive, he may develop confidence for breaking bad habits. It is not the teacher nor the guardian who may reform the habit of a person but only he himself. Man is caught in the net of his own karmas from which he alone can get out, no one else can directly help him. Our own self in us is our best guide in the struggle that is life. (v) Learning Through Mistakes. The child should be allowed to commit mistakes in the process of character formation. 160 He will learn much by his mistakes. Errors are the stepping stones to our progress in character. This progress requires courage and strong will. Strong will is the sign of great character. Will makes men great. Therefore, there is no occasion to be discouraged or to weep, one should exercise his will and he will see that things which he considered to be impossible become easy and possible. Vivekananda himself was an ideal teacher. His words worked like magic upon men and women. This is possible only in the case of a teacher who has himself risen high. Presenting his own example, Vivekananda asked the people to build up their character and manifest their real nature which is the Effulgent, the Resplendent, the Ever Pure. 5. To Create Faith in One's Own Self. Swami Vivekananda believes that faith in one's own self must be created through education. He regards faith in one's own self as the first step towards advancement. To him it is the function of education to make one conscious of one's latent powers which are always quite potent to make one's life sublime and divine. Education must teach that a man can do every thing if he has courage. Education must give one the Mantram (the faith) "Arise, awake and stop not till the goal is reached" (Katho Upanishad, I, III, 4). This has been the core of all that Swami Vivekananda has taught through out his whole life, and he wants to make this as the guiding stone of education. 6. To Create Self-confidence and Self-reliance. Swami Vivekananda regrets that the existing education in India produces a broken-down youngman who lacks in Sraddha or faith. The Sraddha which is the key-note of the Veda and the Vedanta must be created in man. It is this Sraddha which moves the world. Hence, its annihilation is to debase man, and its infusion is to make human life sublime. The man who is devoid of this Sraddha runs to ruin. In order to create this, the first requisite is the self-knowledge. This

self-knowledge, according to Swami Vivekananda, does not mean matted hair, staff, Kamandala and mountain caves. On the contrary by this term he means knowledge of one's latent powers and potentialities, creation of self-confidence and 161 self-reliance which alone can bring material prosperity as well as freedom from the bondage of worldly existence. Education must aim at this kind of knowledge of the 'self and at creation of self-confidence and self-reliance. 7. Emphasis on Practical Side of Life. Swami Vivekananda deplores the wretched poverty of his countrymen, and says that the Vedanta, today in India, should mean to feed the starving millions in the country. Education which does not prepare man to attend to this primary want of the people is worthless. Hence, education must not overlook the practical side of life. By the practical side of life or by material prosperity Swami Vivekananda does not mean that one should be striving to amass wealth. All that he means is that everyone must be able to get his primary needs satisfied. Education must give this ability to everyone, and it must also give one the sense of universal brotherhood so that one does not interfere with others' fulfilment of these primary needs; i.e., one must not think of exploiting others, one must not suck the blood of one's fellow-beings in order to make one's belley bigger. Swami Vivekananda would like to open a centre in the capital of each State in India from where the most needed, education would spread throughout the whole of India. In these main centres, he recommended training in agriculture and industry so that one might know how to make a living. He wanted to establish workshops for the furtherence of arts. Thus, he gave a practical suggestion for solution of the immediate problem of hunger in the country. 8. To Promote Universal Brotherhood. To Swami Vivekananda, education must promote the spirit of self-reliance and universal brotherhood. The acquisition of this spirit is the first step towards the ultimate ideals of freedom, dispassion and renunciation, which must also be imbibed by man as a result of the education given to him. Education must ultimately teach man that the Atman (soul) is the same in all—from the ant to the perfect man, the difference being only in its manifestation. This means that the Dualist, Qualified-Monist, Monist Saiva, Vaishnava, Sakta, the Buddhist, the Jain, the Christian, the Muslim and all others are at one—that infinite power is lying hidden in this Jivatman (individualised soul). To Swami 162 Vivekananda, only that education is worth the name which imparts this spirit to man. The imbibing of this spirit in the heart of man would mean the unnihilation of all misery from this earth, and education has to strive for this unnihilation. Swami Vivekananda asserts that 'from the highest god to the meanest grass the same power is present in all—whether manifested or not'. Education has to call forth this power in every man. 9. To Develop Will to Realise the Divinity Within. To Swami Vivekananda book-learning is no education. To him, 'the training by which the current and expression of will are brought under control and become fruitful is education'. That is not education which makes man a machine. That is not education which chokes the will by force. In fact, that is education which develops the will and enables one to realise the divinity latent in him. Education must aim at the development of infinite energy, infinite zeal, infinite courage, and infinite patience in man. 10. To make Conscious to Achieve Perfection. According to the Vedanta, the greatest error is to say that you are weak, that you are a sinner, a miserable creature, and that you do not possess power and you cannot do this or that. Evidently, according to Swami Vivekananda, the teacher must not dishearten the pupil, he must not scold him for his errors, he must make him conscious of his inner powers. We have seen above that the Swami has immense faith in man. To him 'man is higher than all animals, than all angels, none is greater than man. Even the gods will have to come down again and attain salvation through a human body', and the teacher has to make the pupil conscious that he has to reach his perfection. Education must be directed towards the fulfilment of this aim. 11. To Develop Spirit of Renunciation. Education must generate the spirit of renunciation in man. Without renunciation none can work for others. The man of renunciation views all alike. To-day India needs this spirit of renunciation. This has been the crying note of Swami Vivekananda's life. Education must inculcate the feeling in man that 'we are all debtors to the world and the world does not owe us anything. It is a great privilege for one to be able to do something to the world'.

163 Qualities for the Teacher Swami Vivekananda attaches great importance to the personal life and character of the teacher. He thinks that only a Tyagi (the one who has renounced his personal gains and the one who has dedicated his life to the service of others) can be a good teacher. In India, the imparting of knowledge has always been through Tyagis or men of renunciation. Our modern teachers must imbibe this virtue if they want to be teachers in the true sense of the term. The teacher should be of a very high character, and he should be sinless. He must be pure in mind and heart, only then his words will be valuable. The teacher is not only to stimulate the spirit of intellectual curiosity in the child. In fact, he has to transfer something, and that something is his high character and sinlessness. The teacher must have love for his pupils. Without love he cannot contribute anything to them. He should have no ulterior selfish motive of any kind. Love should be the only guide to him. Love is the best medium to transmit the spiritual force. Any selfish motive on the part of the teacher will destroy this medium. Therefore, the teacher must work for his pupils only out of love. The teacher must have full sympathy for his pupils. He can never teach without sympathy. Swami Vivekananda says, "The true teacher is one who can throw his whole force into the tendency of the taught. Without real sympathy, we can never teach well." It is only through sympathy that he can bring down himself to the level of his pupils and do according to their inherent tendencies. Placing a lofty ideal before teachers, Swami Vivekananda further says, "The only true teacher is he who can immediately come down to the level of the student, and transfer his soul to the student's soul and see through the student's eyes and hear through his ears and understand through his mind. Such a teacher can really teach and none else." 164 Qualities for the Pupil Just as the teacher must have certain virtues, similarly, the pupil too must have some qualities. The pupil must be pure in thought and speech. He must have a perseverance and real thirst for knowledge. He must be a Brahmachari. He must have a continuous struggle, a constant fight within himself for grappling with his lower nature; only then he can achieve victory and acquire the true knowledge. He has to be careful about the following points and seek teachers help, if need be. The teacher should also keep in mind these points in his efforts to teach his pupil and act in the best interest of his pupil. 1. Knowledge Resides within the Individual. Swami Vivekananda believes that knowledge resides within the individual himself. He simply discovers or realizes it. Similarly, according to him, perfection is already inherent in man, and education is the manifestation of the same. Every one is entitled to perfection. In fact, every one is in the process of perfection, and education is a means towards this end. 2. The Child Does His Own Growing. Swami Vivekananda believes that the child teaches himself. Each one must teach himself. Things will be made clearer to the child by his own power of perception and thought. Like Froebel, Swami Vivekananda thinks that child develops his own nature as the plant does his own. Just as the plant grows itself, and all that the gardener should do is to help its growing; similarly all that the teacher can do for the child is to arrange the necessary atmosphere for him so that he may do his growing. The teacher is not to be a task-master. He has just to be a guide and helper. He will spoil everything if he thinks that he is the teacher of the child. Man has all the knowlege. He requires only an awakening. So the teacher has only to see that the child applies his intellect and the various senses properly. Nothing should be forced on children. They should be left free to carve out their own path. Children have infinite tendencies which must be given full scope for satisfaction. Any undue domination exercised on them will mar their development.

165 The children must not be scolded every now and then. Kindness and encouragement will help their growth. Positive ideas should be given to them. It is better to tell them how they should work in order to avoid mistakes. Only pointing out their mistakes will be harmful. We should let them know that they are progressing and that they have to strive further in order to achieve greater progress. 3. The Teacher to Serve Children. The teaching should be adjusted according to the needs of children. These need should be determined in terms of the tendencies inherent in children, and not according to what the parents or teachers think. Swami Vivekananda says that it is foolish for the parent or teacher to think that he can carve out the path on which the child should grow. He advises us to regard every soul as the soul of Good, and every child as God. One can only serve God. So the teacher has only to serve children. 4. Concentration of the Essence of Education. Swami Vivekananda regards concentration as the only method to attain knowledge. He considers concentration of mind as the essence of education. Every one wants this power of concentration for success in his life. Men and animals differ in their power of concentration. Animals forget things very soon. Those who train animals experience this difficulty. There is also a difference in the power of concentration between man and man. A man is called superior to another if he has greater power of concentration. The treasure-house of knowledge can be opened only through the key of concentration. Swami Vivekananda considers the concentration of mind as the essence of education. The collection of facts is not education. Facts should be collected only after developing the power of concentration. 5. Brahmacharya for Concentration. Brahmacharya or complete continence is necessary for developing the power of concentration. The sexual energy should be transformed into spiritual energy. This transforming is the process of Brahmacharya. Swami Vivekananda believes that by observing strict Brahmacharya all learning can be mastered within a very short time. Chastity in thought, word and deed is Brahmacharya. Every boy should be trained to practise this chastity or 166 Brahmacharya in order to develop his power of concentration which is the bsais of all education.

MEDIUM OF EDUCATION 1. Mother tongue. In teaching languages Vivekananda laid particular stress upon teaching through the mother tongue. Here he is supported by all other contemporary Indian philosophers of education. 2. Common language. Besides mother tongue, there should be a common language which is necessary to keep the country united. This may be taught in addition to the regional languages. 3. Sanskrit. The teaching of Sanskrit forms an important part of the curriculum envisaged by Vivekananda. Sanskrit is the source of all Indian languages and a repository of all inherited knowledge. It is, therefore, absolutely necessary that every Indian should know Sanskrit. Vivekananda appreciated the greatness of Sanskrit in eloquent words when he said that this language granted power, ability and prestige to the nation and that our awareness of our cultural heritage and past greatness depends very much upon our knowledge of this language. He felt that in the absence of this knowledge, it will be impossible to understand Indian culture. If the society has to develop and progress it is necessary that men and women should know this language which is the store house of ancient heritage, besides the knowledge of the mother tongue.

MEANS OF EDUCATION 1. Love. The best means of education, according to Vivekananda is love. Education should be based upon love. Love is the best inspiration in character building. The child should be taught through love. This is love for men, for human beings. The only motive in imparting education should be love for the educand, for the man in him. That is why Vivekananda's philosophy of education is known as education for man-making. The teacher's aim should be neither money-making nor attainment of fame but only bestowing human love. The spiritual force works through love. This love within the educator is the real source of his influence upon the educand. This may be amply clear by the example of the relationship of Vivekananda with his Guru Ramkrishna. It was the force of spiritual love

167 in Ramkrishna which helped Vivekananda in God realization. It is this which makes the educator to take the educand from untruth to truth, darkness to light, death to immortality. 2. Help. The task of the educator is to help the educand in manifesting and expressing his abilities and capacities. Educator should help the individual to recognize his cultural heritage and to use it in his struggle of life. The educator can guide the educand because he himself has the experience of treading on this path and knows how to face its difficulties. Vivekananda has not only presented high ideals of education but also developed a sound system by which these ideals may be achieved. 3. Guidance. Education is not a bed of roses. Every educand has to face problems peculiarly his own. He solves them by his own efforts and with the guidance of the teacher. The skilled teacher guides the pupil through these difficulties and takes him forward. This requires a sufficient knowledge of human psychology because most of our problems are psychological in nature. The teacher should teach the educand to concentrate his attention, only then the problems can be solved. The greater the attention, the more is the effort effective. 4. Concentration. Concentration, according to ancient Indian thought, is the key to true knowledge. Therefore, Vivekananda has placed much emphasis upon focusing of attention. It is only after years of concentration that a man becomes a scholar and a great scientist. The educands should be distinguished according to their abilities, every one of them has to develop concentration. Again, while teaching concentration the educator should keep in mind the varying abilities of concentration in spontaneous and easy, for others it is difficult and requires long training. Hence, the educator must organize his teaching in such a way that he may be helpful to each educand separately. He should attend to every one's difficulties and try to solve them as much as possible. Thus, Vivekananda supported the ancient Indian means of achieving concentration. 5. Brahmacharya. Again, according to ancient Indian thinkers, Brahmacharya or abstinence is the first means of achieving concentration. It gives mental and spiritual powers of the highest kind. It transforms sex drive into a spiritual force. 168 Brahmacharya implies purity of thought, deed and action. It helps to improve and sharpen various psychological processes such as learning, remembering, thinking, etc. It helps in achieving power of memory and improve the powers of the mind. Vivekananda, therefore, strongly emphasized the need for the students to observe Brahmacharya. This leads to both mental and physical advantages. Firstly, it takes effective care of all distractions. Secondly, it improves the body and the mind so that they may become effective means of knowledge. 6. Discussion and Contemplation. In addition to concentration the other means of education are discussion and contemplation. It is only through these that the educand may remove his difficulties. Discussion should be carried out in an informal atmosphere. Contemplation should be practised in a calm and quiet atmosphere with the mind fully alive. In the end the educational process requires faith and reverence of the educand in the teacher and his teachings. Without faith and reverence no true knowledge can be achieved. It is faith and reverence which are sound foundation for all character development and selfeducation. The faith and reverence, however, depend not only upon the educand but also upon the high examples presented by the teacher. In the educational process, therefore, the teacher also occupies a very high place.

TYPES OF EDUCATION Religious Education Swami Vivekananda says, "I look upon religion as the innermost core of education—Mind, I do not mean my own, or any one else's opinion about religion. I think the teacher should take the pupils starting-point in this, as in other respects, and enable her to develop along her own life of least resistance." As regards religious education, he further recommends that the children should be taught lives of great saints of all lands. He observes that temples and churches, books and forms are simply the kindergarten of religion.

169 They are mere preliminaries. In fact, one must enter into the heart of religion, that is, one must realise it in his own life. Thus according to Swami Vivekananda, religion must be a living experience with oneself. Only intellectual education cannot give the necessary training to the child for developing towards perfect manhood. Training of the heart is also necessary, and this training is possible by teaching the lives of great saints and by providing opportunities to the pupils to act accordingly. This will be the true religious education which must be imparted to our children. Teaching of doctrines and creeds of particular religions should not form a part of religious education in schools. All religions must be accepted, and only their essential spirits should constitute the religious education to be given to children. Physical Education Vivekananda laid particular stress on the value of physical education in curriculum. He said, "You will be nearer to Heaven through football than through the study of Gita. You will understand Gita better by your biceps, your muscles a little stronger. You will understand the Upanishads better and the glory of the Atman, when your body stands firm on your feet and you feel yourself as man". Self-realization or character building is impossible in the absence of physical education. One must know the secret of making the body strong through physical education, for a complete education it is necessary to develop both mind and the body. Vivekananda himself took physical exercise every day. He glorified power and opposed weakness in any form. Power was happiness and weakness a never ending burden. It is hence that he so such emphasized the importance of physical education particularly for young men and women. Moral Education Laying emphasis upon religious education Vivekananda said, "Religion is the innermost core of education. I do not mean my own or any one else's opinion about religion. Religion is as the rice and everything else like the curries. Taking only 170 curries causes indigestion, and so is the case with taking rice alone". Therefore, religious education is a vital part of a sound curriculum. This religious education is necessary in order to counter effect the evil influence of modern materialism. It is only by synthesis of religion and science that men may reap the advantages of both. As has been already pointed out, religious education in itself is never sufficient. It should not be the whole of curriculum but only a part of it. This religion, again, is not any particular dogma or sectarian philosophy, in fact, it is what Tailor called religion of man. It is hence that Vivekananda did not distinguish between secular and religious education. He thought that the former may be given by the latter. He said, "We have to give them secular education. We have to follow the plan laid down by our ancestors, that is, to bring all the ideals slowly down among the masses. Raise them slowly up, raise them to equality. Impart... secular knowledge through religion". (i) High Ideals. The best way of imparting religious education is to present the high ideals of saints and religious men before the students. They should be taught to worship saints to follow their ideals. Among the great souls, Vivekananda pionted out to Ram Chandra, Krishna, Mahavir and Ramkrishna. In the ideal of Shri Krishna he laid more emphasis on his personality as the author of Gita. He said, "Keep aside for the present the Vrindavan aspect of Shri Krishna, and spread far and wide the worship of Shri Krishna roaring out the Gita with the voice of a lion; a bring into daily use the worship of Shakti the Divine Mother, the source of all power. We now mostly need the ideal of the hero with the tremendous spirit of rajas thrilling through his veins from head to foot, the hero who will dare and die to know the truth, the hero whose armour is renunciation, whose sword is wisdom; we want the spirit of the brave warrior in the battle field." (ii) Courage. Thus, Vivekananda wanted men and women to develop qualities according to their particular sex 171 and their role in society. He asked young men to develop manly qualities. Even in religious practices he considered courage to be a higher quality. Religion is not mere ritualism. It is a progress towards high ideals in the face of extreme difficulties.

(iii) Service and Devotion. Besides courage, Vivekananda prescribed service and devotion in religious education. For this purpose he eulogised the ideal of Hanuman who was a living example of service, devotion and courage. He deplores the dramatic imitation of Ras Lila because it is against the interest of the country at present. Purity is the real basis of the country at present. Even in music Vivekananda advised young men to adopt manly music so that it may infuse bravery and courage. This, however, does not mean that Vivekananda rejected any particular type of religious practice. He only wanted to adopt religious practices according to the needs of the times. India, according to him, today needs a religion which should be harmonious with science and teach patriotism, service and sacrifice. Then alone religious education may be useful to the nation. Religion influences total man. It encourages all types of qualities, soft as well as virile. Vivekananda emphasized the inculcation of the latter type of virtues. He exhorted young men by saying, "Never allow weakness to overtake your mind. Remember Mahavir, remember the Divine Mother, and you will see that all weakness, all cowardice will vanish at once." (iv) Self-Confidence. It goes without saying that such a moral and religious education will develop self-confidence among young men and women. Self-confidence, according to Vivekananda, is the real religion. It includes world brotherhood and love of humanity, because a person having self-confidence means having confidence in humanity. Thus, Vivekananda's religion was humanistic. Religion is the source of all powers. It is again, the source of all good. Thus, for Vivekananda, ethics and religion are one and the same. God is always on the side of goodness. To fight for goodness is, therefore, service to God. 172 Weakness is the source of all evils. It is at the root of all violence, hatred and enmity. If a man sees his own self everywhere he need not fear any one. Fearlessness and power are eternal truths, the real nature of the self. (v) Realisation of Truth. Thus, Vivekananda pleaded for realization of truth through religious practices. Long before Gandhiji identified truth with God, Vivekananda called truth God. The seeker after truth should search for it in every aspect of life. Truth is power, untruth is weakness. Knowledge is truth, ignorance is untruth. Thus, truth increases power, courage and energy. It is light giving. It is, therefore, necessary for the individual as well as collective welfare. (vi) Achievement of Power. Thus, Vivekananda worshipped power. This power, however, was not physical or biological as that of Nietzche. It was spiritual power. Rising high in the tradition of Vedanta, Vivekananda never allowed his feet to leave the solid ground. His teachings influenced the West where materialism was rampant. This was due to the reason that his teachings were based upon universal truths. Modern man is not prepared to leave the world. He wants to enjoy it. Vivekananda, therefore, gave a practical garb to his religion. India, in his time, was groaning under slavery. Vivekananda, therefore, asked Indian men and women to shed all types of weakness and to march forward courageously. According to him, we have to speak less and work more, achieve power first than anything else. To quote Vivekananda, "First of all our young men must be strong. Religion will come afterwards". (vii) Study of Scriptures. In the curriculum for religious education, Vivekananda considered Gita, Upanishads and the Vedas as the most important. The study of these scriptures will fill young men and women with courage. These are the eternal sources of the life force of Indian culture. These are the bases of our spiritual education. Vivekananda, however, was not in favour of preaching any particular religious dogmas. 173 Religion for him was self-realization. Temples, mosques, churches and synegogues do not make religion. Religion is divinization. It is not intellectual development but transformation of total man. It is nothing if it does not teach us service and sacrifice. It is the basis for character formation. It should lead to man-making. In tune with his Guru Ramkrishna, Vivekananda pleaded for unity of world religions. He considered all religions to be equal. A true religion cannot be limited to a particular place or time. The religious books, teachers and institutions are eternal. Their ancient forms are worshipped and their modern forms are respected. Thus, in his moral and religious education Vivekananda pleaded for the education of unity of world religions. Women Education Swami Vivekananda was greatly pained at the miserable condition for women in India. He was conscious that a nation could rise only by paying proper respect to women. He quotes from the Manusmriti (III, 56): "Where women are respected, there the gods delight; and where they are not, there all works efforts come to naught."

He further says, "There is no hope of rise for that family or country where there is no estimation of women, where they live in sadness. For this reason, they have to be raised first...." So he recommends that daughters should be brought up and educated just as sons. He wants that the ideal of chastity should be emphasised for women, because this ideal would bring them strength for reaching their perfect womanhood. He places the ideal of Sita for the Indian women. He remarks that any attempt to modernize women which takes the women away from the ideal of Sita is vicious and must be stopped immediately. To Swami Vivekananda, Sita is a symbol of purity, she is purer than purity itself, she suffered without a murmur, she is our ideal, and she must remain. Indian women must be taught to follow the ideal of Sita. Swami Vivekananda was against child marriage, as this practice stood in the way of the fullest development of personality of children married prematurely. In this connection, he was particularly against the early marriage of girls. 174 He deplores that girls in India are married at the age of eleven years lest they should also observe Brahmacharya like boys and should be educated by their parents. He believes that there can be no hope of well-being of the country unless the condition of the women is bettered. He says, "Women must be put in a position to solve their own problems in their own way. No one can or ought to do this for them. And our Indian women are as capable of doing it as any in the world." Thus, Swami Vivekananda had immense faith in our women. He did not like them to imitate the West. Speaking on virtues that the Indian women must cultivate he says, "With regard to domestic virtues I have no hesitation in saying that our Indian methods have in many ways the advantage over all others." He further says, "...to the women of this country I would say exactly what I say to the men. Believe in India and in our Indian faith. Be strong and hopeful and unashamed." Swami Vivekananda wants to give such an education to the Indian women as to "bring to the need of India great fearless women—women worthy to continue the traditions of Sanghamitra, Lila, Ahalya Bai, and Mira Bai—women fit to be mothers of heroes, because they are pure and selfless...." Thus, he wanted to give a type of education that may make women fearless and brave. He did not favour mere booklearning. He wanted to give women an education which may form character and may increase the strength of mind and may enable them to stand on their own feet. If we organize the education for women with the aim of making them fearless and self-dependent, we shall in due course have mothers who will produce ideal citizens. Swami Vivekananda had all admiration for those who did even a bit for the spread of female education in India. He says, "....Female education is to spread with religion as its centre. All other training should be secondary to religion. Religious training, the formation of character and observance of the vow of celibacy—which has obtained up till now in India, it is religion that has been made a secondary concern." 175 Swami Vivekananda wants to teach some women the ideals of renunciation, so that they may take up the vow of life-long dedication to God. He believes that "If even one amongst the women became a knower of Brahman, then by the radiance of her personality thousands of women would be inspired awakened to truth, and great well-being of the country and society would ensue." The Swami wants to train up some Brahmacharinis who will take up the education of women.... "Centres have to be started for teaching women. Brahmacharinis of education and character should take up the task of teaching at these different centres." According to him, women should be taught history and the Puranas (mythologies), housekeeping and the arts, the duties of home-life and principles that make for the development of an ideal character. These subject should be taught with the help of modern science. He wants that girls are to be trained up in ethical and spiritual life. Thus, we see that the Swami

has a very high ideal of education for women. Education of the Masses Swami Vivekananda felt very much distressed at the pitiable condition of the common man in India. He says, "The poor, the low, the sinner in India have no friends, no help—they cannot rise...they sink lower and lower every day, they feel the blows showered upon them by a cruel society...." Thus, Swami Vivekananda regarded the neglect of the masses as a great national sin. He observes, "No amount of politics would be of any avail until the masses in India are once more well educated, well fed, and well cared for." Swami Vivekananda believes that the root cause of all evils in India is the poverty of the people. He considers education as the sole remedy for improving the condition of the poor in the country. By education he wants to develop their lost individuality. He regrets that nothing substantial has been done for educating the poor. He is an ardent advocate of mass emancipation. He says, "Priest-power and foreign conquest have 176 trodden them down for centuries, and at last the poor of India have forgotten that they are human beings. They are to be given ideas; their eyes are to be opened to what is going on in the world around them, and they will work out their own salvation....Ours is to put the chemicals together, the crystallisation comes in the law of nature. Our duty is to put the ideas into their heads, they will do the rest." Thus, Swami Vivekananda points out to the very urgent need with regard to mass education in the country. He believes that a nation is advanced as education and intelligence spread among the masses. He deplores that education in India is monopolised by a handful of men, and the education of the masses is ignored. He suggests that first of all everything should be done so that the common man in India may recover his lost individuality. The gems of spirituality stored in our sacred books should be brought to the common man. This can be done by spreading education in the masses through the medium of mother-tongue. Ideas can easily be understood and assimilated even by the commonest man if they are taught through their own mothertongue. Swami Vivekananda says, "If the mountain does not come to Mahomet, Mahomet must go to the mountain. If the poor boy cannot come to education, education must go to him. There are thousands of single-minded, self-sacrificing Sanyasins in our country, going from village to village, teaching religion. If some of them can be organised as teachers of secular things also, they will go from place to place, from door to door, not only preaching but teaching also." Such is the abiding faith of the Swami in mass education. An Ardent Advocate of a National System of Education Swami Vivekananda considered education as a very important means to regenerate the country. He wanted to reorganise education on a national basis. The national system of education, according to Swami Vivekananda, should begin by acquainting the child with the home where he resides, the community in which he moves, the country to which he belongs, ultimately his understanding and sympathy for the humanity at large. 177 With such an education Swami Vivekananda wanted to train the child in India into the various aspects of Indian customs, manners, culture and philosophy and then acquire the knowledge of various civilisations of the world. He desired that education in the country should be wholly national in spirit. When Sister Nivedita expressed a desire to come to India for working for education of Indian women and girls, he asked her to adopt the Hindu ways for working for them. He told her : "You have to set yourself to Hinduise your thoughts, your needs, your conceptions and your habits. Your life, internal and external has to become all that an orthodox Brahmacharini ought to be. The method will come to you, if only you desire it sufficiently. But you have to forget your own past and to cause it to be forgotten. You have to loose even its memory." This shows that in matters of education he was not only a staunch nationalist, but also a practical advocate who thought it necessary, perhaps even before Mahatma Gandhi did so, that the millions of this country could better be taught by persons

who live and behave like the people themselves.

CRITICAL EVALUATION Our discussion about Vivekananda's concept of the aims and ideals of education, its process and curriculum has made it amply clear that he was a humanist in the true sense of the term. He said, "Look upon every man, woman and every one as God. Blessed you are that this privilege was given to you when other had it not. Do it only as a worship. The only God to worship is the human soul in the human body. Of course, all animals are temples too, but man is the highest, the Taj Mahal of temples. If I cannot worship in that, no other temple will be of any advantage". Vivekananda's humanism, however, was different from naturalistic humanism. It is in this background that his education for man-making should be understood. Man, according to him, is the highest of all living beings so much so that, according to Vivekananda even the angels will have to come down again and again for salvation through a human body. The educational ideals advocated by Vivekananda have been supported by most of the modern Western educationists. 178 Education today is defined as the process of all round development of the child. Such a development can take place only from within while the external environment provides occasion for such development. The teacher has to provide the environment so that the child may become aware of the treasure of knowledge lying buried in his mind. Modern psychologists point out that in every individual there are certain dormant powers which have to be developed through education. The teacher's real job is to see that there should be no impediments in the child's path to self-development. He is like a gardener who prepares grounds for the growth of his plants, protects them and nourishes them so that the plant may grow properly. Similarly, the teacher takes care of the child, provides him a suitable environment and looks after his proper growth. Thus, though education comes from within, the teacher is an indispensable part of it. While the motivation comes from within, the teacher activates it. He encourages the child to use his mind, body and sense organs. Thus, Vivekananda presented a positive system of education. He wrote, "Education is the manifestation of the perfection already in man. I look upon religion as the innermost core of education". In his philosophy of education Vivekananda synthesized spiritual and material values. He felt that India needed a system of education based on the ancient Vedanta but at the same time worthy of making individual earn his livelihood so that the country may progress. He maintained that no profession is bad provided it is done with a sense of service and self-sacrifice. It is the absence of this dignity of labour which is responsible for the degraded condition of this country. Long before M.K. Gandhi, Vivekananda pleaded for the worship of God in poor. He said, "So long as the millions lie in hunger and ignorance, I hold every man a traitor who having been educated at their expense pays not the least heed to them". He asked young men to change the situation. He pleaded for universal, compulsory and free education. He asked the educator to reach every village and every hutment so that the country may awake from ignorance. 179

QUESTIONS FOR EXERCISE 1. Write a brief note on Vivekananda's philosophy of Education. 2. Give an account of Vivekananda's 'Aims of Education'. 3. Give details of Vivekananda's concept of qualities of teachers and pupil. 4. Most vital aspect of Vivekananda's philosophy of Education is his concept of 'Moral Education'. Write a note on it. 5. Write short notes on : (a) Vivekananda on 'Women Education'. (b) Vivekananda on 'Education of the Masses'. (c) Vivekananda's concept of 'national system of Education'. 180

10 Gopal Krishna Gokhale (1866-1915) Gopal Krishna Gokhale was born in a financially very poor but spiritually very rich family. But the sharp intellect, love for humanity, society and nation made him nationalist of highest order endowed with extraordinary courage of conviction. He was convinced that the nation can not progress without education and all ills of the society can only be faced with the progress of education. Education, for him was a means of political freedom and good governance, therefore, he is rightly said, to be the first Indian political leader and a great educator. To understand his philosophy of education, we need to understand his social and political philosophy but before it we must have a peep into his life profile.

BRIEF LIFE PROFILE Gopal Krishna Gokhale was born on May 9, 1866 in a poor Maharashtrian Brahmin family. His father Mr. Krishna Rao died in 1879 but his elder brother who earned Rs. 15/- per month made a noble sacrifice of Rs. 8/- per month for Gopal Krishna's education. He graduated from Elphistone College, Bombay in 1884, winning a scholarship of Rs. 20/- per month in his final year. Gopal Krishna got married in 1880 but his wife did not live long and not wishing to displease his family members he 181 married again in 1887 but his second wife too died early leaving two girls. Gokhale's education had much impact on his life. Dr. Wordsworth initiated him into the study of English which helped him to make him ablest speaker and parliamentarian. While his mastery in Mathematics and Economics give him rare mastery over facts and figures and his knowledge of history installed in him the idea of liberty and democracy. All this not only helped him in becoming a very good teacher and an educator of highest order in his days but also a towering national leader in political field and a reformer of the society. Hereunder, we will record a brief account of his activities during the short period of his life. 1. In 1885, Gokhale became teacher in New English in Pune on Rs. 35/- per month and worked with devotion and dedication to earn love and admiration of his students. 2. In 1886, he became a permanent member of the Deccan Education Society and on Rs. 75/- per month started teaching in Fergusson College and worked there for 20 years. On account of his merits as a teacher, he was referred as a "Professor to Order". 3. In 1886, he also entered into public life and in 1888, he started contributing articles in English in the Anglo-Marathi weekly 'Sudharak" and became Honorary Secretary of 'Sarvajanik Sabha' and Editor of it quarterly. 4. In 1890, Tilak resigned and Gokhale took up the Secretaryship of the Deccan Education Society and in 1895, he was elected to the Senate of the Bombay University. 5. From 1898-1906, he was a member of Pune municipality, during this period, he became its President twice. He also published daily news paper 'Jnanaprakash' and propagated his political and social reform. 6. In 1905, for the upliftment of the poor Gokhale founded 'Servants of India Society', which served the victims of flood and famine and educated women and Adivasis. 182 7. Thinking and working of Dada Bhai Naoroji, Firozeshah Mehta, Sir Dinshaw Edulji Wacha, Sir William Wedderburn and Mahadev Govind Ranade made a mark on Gokhale. During his visit to South Africa, Gandhiji came in his contact and on return to India Gandhiji accepted him as his political Guru. Gokhale too was impressed by Gandhiji's simple habits and perseverance.

HIS MAJOR ACTIVITIES Indian National Congress Gokhale joined the Indian National Congress in 1889. From the Congress platform he spoke with firmness, powerful reasoning and steady purpose. He expressed the innermost thoughts and aspirations of the people.

In 1889, the Congress session was held in Bombay, and Gokhale participated in it actively. He criticised the Government for not holding the Indian Civil Services Examination in India and England simultaneously. This was breaking the promise made in the past, he said "England was insincere when she made these promises, or she is prepared to break faith with us now." In 1905, he was, along with Lala Lajpat Rai, deputed to visit England as the Congress representative. He was to place before the British statesmen and public a correct picture of the Indian situation. During his stay of 49 days, he gave 45 addresses in different towns. He had undoubtedly become the most effective pleader for India's cause. Welby Commission Dadabhai Naoroji had pressed the need for a commission to inquire into the condition of Indian finance. In May, 1896 a commission was appointed. Presided over by Lord Welby, it was known as the Welby Commission. It began its work in England in 1897. Surendranath Banerjee, D.E. Wacha and G.S. Iyer were sent as representatives from the three Presidencies of Calcutta, Bombay and Madras respectively. Since Pune enjoyed a high intellectual and political status, Gokhale was selected to represent the Deccan Sabha. This was Gokhale's first visit to England. He presented the evidence and faced the rigorous cross-examination of men twice his age and experience, with utmost confidence. It was 183 observed that 'there was never a more clever or more masterly exposition of the views of an educated Indian reformer on all the subjects dealt with'. His perfect grasp of high finance stunned all. By his amazing mastery of facts and figures he brought into focus the social and political degradation brought by British rule, thus killing Indian cottage industries and ruining Indian craftsmen. Gokhale's work was highly praised but he humbly gave all the credit to his gurus, Ranade and G.V. Joshi, a headmaster who had prepared him. 'Apology' Incident While Gokhale was in England in 1897 in connection with the Welby Commission, a severe plague was raging in the Bombay Presidency, Pune being the worst affected. The British soldiers working in the Plague Relief Committee did not understand the religious and social sentiments of the people. They used harsh measures to curb the contagious disease. They went about stripping old men and women of their clothes, enforcing segregation and evacuation, throwing Hindu idols on the streets and destroying property. The people were agitated and a climax was reached when Mr. Rand, President of the Plague Relief Committee and Lt. Col. Ayerst were assassinated while returning from the Government House at Pune, after taking part in Queen Victoria's Diamond Jubilee Celebrations. Gokhale was pained, and he wanted to help the sufferers. With the help of Sir Wedderburn, he met some influential members of Parliament and conveyed to them the accounts of these atrocities. He also gave an interview to a correspondent of the Manchester Guardian. Lord Sandhurst, Governor of Bombay, however, lost no time in informing the Government in England that the publicity was incorrect. Depressed, Gokhale returned to India. His well-wishers, however, such as Dadabhai Naoroji, Sir Wedderburn, A.O. Hume, Surendranath Banerjee and many others who never doubted his integrity, stood by him with all the help they could render. Ranade and Ferozeshah Mehta advised Gokhale that the only way to get out of this web was to tender an apology. He did. 184 In 1898 he was up with a band of volunteers working for yet another plague. Next year, he was made a member of the Plague Relief Committee. As an Elected Representative In 1899, Gokhale was elected member of the Bombay Legislative Council for two years. Bombay had suffered from

plague and successive famines. He raised his voice against the unsatisfactory working of the Famine Code. The relief works were so far away. He pleaded with the Government to start small-scale industries in the famine-striken areas. He also did his utmost to promote communal harmony. He opposed the introduction of the principle of separate electorates for different communities. He pleaded with the Government to abolish the sale of intoxicants. It brought revenue, but encouraged the evil. In 1902, Gokhale retired from Fergusson College. More work was waiting for him. He was elected member of the Imperial Legislative Council. He began his work by delivering the historic Budget speech which won wide acclaim. He criticised the Universities Act of 1904 because the Indians, instead of being gradually associated with education, were being disassociated. His Elementary Education Bill in 1911 for introducing free and compulsory primary education was a great measure, though defeated due to the apathy of the bureaucracy. He pointed out that the Government was responsible for widening the gap between the rulers and the ruled. His contributions in the Imperial Legislative Council were judged as first rate. Lord Curzon, Viceroy of India, 1899-1905, found him to be "one of the strongest men he had come across and it was a pleasure to exchange argument with him." High honour was bestowed on Gokhale in 1905 while he was away in England as a pleader for India's cause. He was elected President of the Congress session to be held in Varanasi. Lord Curzon had passed an unpopular measure—the Partition of Bengal. The radical leaders, in the Congress, had assumed a militant attitude. They wanted the Congress to pass resolutions on major issues, such as boycotting of British goods. The Congress stood divided. Gokhale, as before, used his 185 quiet diplomacy. The Varanasi session passed off peacefully in a spirit of compromise. He had succeeded in preserving constitutionalism in the Congress. The Split The radical element, however, remained dissatisfied on Congress attitude on Swadeshi, and methods of winning freedom. In 1906, the Congress session at Calcutta, under the presidentship of Dadabhai Naoroji, laid down Swaraj or selfgovernment as India's objective. Nothing less. The Moderates under the leadership of Gokhale agreed that Swaraj was the ultimate aim, but it could be attained by constitutional means. He pleaded for gradual reform, not militancy. The Congress met at Surat in December, 1907. Differences arose as to the choice of President. The Moderates being dominant, the choice fell on their candidate, Dr. Rash Behari Ghose, a man of the masses, who had donated a large sum of money for starting national educational institutions in Bengal. The militants resented the choice. On the day of the session, pent up tempers gave way and pandemonium broke out. The two parties held separate meetings on the same day. Gokhale's health had deteriorated. His brother's death in 1907 had increased his family responsibilities. However, Gokhale was left alone to nurse the Congress back to health. He drafted a new Congress Constitution. A new electoral machinery was set up with the approval of the Extremist leaders. Reforms Gokhale had played a very important role in the formulation of the constitutional reforms known as the Minto-Morley Reforms, 1909, named after the Viceroy Lord Minto, and the Secretary of State for India, Lord Morley. In 1909, the Reforms Act became law. It was disappointing. His dream of a nation based on communal harmony was shattered. It distressed him that for election purpose, the Muslim community considered itself a separate unit.

Nevertheless, years of Gokhale's hard labour were not futile. The Indians were given some access to the seats of the highest 186 authority. Qualified Indians could now associate more with the Government in deciding public questions. One seat in the Governor General's Executive Council was reserved for an Indian. Shri S.P. Sinha (later Lord Sinha of Raipur) was the first Indian to attain this honour. In the reforms, Indian representatives also got the power of moving resolution on matters of public interest. Thus, a beginning was made towards self-government. In South Africa Gokhale had felt great sympathy for the Indians in South Africa. At Gandhiji's invitation, he visited South Africa in 1912. It was the first time that an Indian statesman went to a place outside India, where Indians had migrated, with the purpose of examining their conditions. Gokhale returned to India in November, 1912. Soon the Government of South Africa went back on the promises which it made to Gokhale. Gandhiji, with his followers, was engaged in one of the most memorable battles against racialism in South Africa. Gokhale was moved to see the firm determination of Gandhiji and he helped him by collecting funds from various sources. In 1914, Lord Hardinge, the Viceroy, recommended Gokhale for the conferment of the K.C.I.E.—Knight Commander of the Indian Empire, in appreciation of his meritorious services, which Gokhale humbly declined. In 1912, the Government announced the appointment of a Royal Commission to enquire into the civil services in India. Gokhale was one of the three Indian members against eight Europeans. The Commission started its work in December, 1912 and then visited all the major cities in India to collect evidence. In 1913, it went to England. Gokhale stayed there for four months. He displayed his usual skill and patience in cross-examining the witnesses and exposing their pride and prejudice. He asked for 40 per cent Indians in the Civil Service. He also asked for more Indians to be recruited in the Imperial and Provincial Services. 187 Gokhale did not live to see the completion of the Commission's work. The Report of the Commission came out in August, 1915. The End Exhaustion aggravated his diabetes and cardiac asthma. Two days before the end, with a firm hand he completed a draft scheme of constitutional reforms on the request of Lord Willingdon, Governor of Bombay. This document which embodied concessions for India, anticipated the Montague-Chelmsford Reforms of 1919. On February 19, 1915, at 10.25 p.m., the end came peacefully. He pointed his finger towards heaven and then folded his hands. The great leader was no more, which left Gandhiji and all other Indians without a political Guru.

GOKHALE AS AN EDUCATOR It has been stated that Gokhale was a brilliant student who took up to teaching and as a teacher he earned admiration and love of his students, fellow teachers and society. He devoted himself for the development of educational facilities for the masses and advocated for reforms in the social structure through his articles in various newspapers and magazines. When he became member of the Bombay Legislative Council, he advocated with the government for greater facilities to the Indians in the field of agricultural and scientific education and likewise as member of the Imperial Legislative Council he worked very hard for the upliftment of education in India, of which a brief account is hereunder.

GOKHALE'S BILLS (1910-1912)

Gokhale's Bill, 1910 Gopal Krishna Gokhale was very much concerned towards primary education in India. With the policy of the Government of India, enunciated in 1904, primary education was gaining a good ground. However, it was not in proportion to the growing population of India. Only 2.38 per cent boys and 2.07 per cent girls were able to get education. At this time the Maharaja Sayaji Rao Gaikwad of Baroda had made primary education 188 free and compulsory within the territories of his State in 1906. This attempt inspired Gokhale. As a member of the Imperial Legislative Council, he moved the following resolution on March 19, 1910. "That this council recommends that a beginning should be made in the direction of making elementary education free and compulsory throughout the country, and that a mixed commission of officials and non-officials be appointed at an early date to frame definite proposal." Following were the important suggestions contained in this resolution : (i) Elementary education should be made free and compulsory in the area where 35 per cent boys were receiving education. This provision should apply to the age group of 6 to 10 years. (ii) The cost of primary education should be shared by the provincial Government and the local bodies in the ratio of 2:1. (iii) A Secretary should be appointed to organise, supervise and look after the primary education. (iv) There should be a separate department in the Central Government to draw up a scheme for the expansion of primary education. In the budget statement there should be a portion describing the progress of primary education at the primary stage. The Government assured Gokhale that it would seriously consider the matter and so he withdrew his resolution. Later on, the Government accepted only last three recommendations of Gokhale. In 1940, a Department of Education was organised in the Central Government and the Secretary was appointed. The record of the progress of primary education also started to be published by Government. But the Government did not make the primary school education free and compulsory, while this was the main plank of Gokhale's Bill. Gokhale's Bill, 1911 Gokhale was not discouraged. He made further attempt to draw the attention of the people in India as well as in England 189 towards the condition of education. He waged a stronger fight against the Government and presented a Bill on March 16, 1911, in the Legislative Council. The object of the Bill was to provide for gradual introduction of principle of compulsion into the elementary education system of the country. The following were main suggestions contained in the Bill : (i) Compulsory primary education should be introduced in the areas where a certain percentage was fixed by the Governor-General-in-Council. (ii) After securing the sanction of the Government, the local bodies shall enforce the rule. Local bodies shall have the right to introduce compulsion in the whole or part of the area under their jurisdiction. (iii) Local bodies were also given the right to levy cess to meet the cost of free and compulsory primary education. (iv) Expenditure on education was to be shared by the local bodies and the provincial Governments in the ratio of 1:2. (v) Primary education should be made compulsory for the boys of the age group of 6 to 10. The defaulting guardians should be penalised for non-compliance of the provisions of sending their wards to recognised primary schools. (vi) The primary education shall be made compulsory for girls. (vii) Guardians whose income is less than Rs. 10 should not be asked to pay any fee for their wards. Although Gokhale's Bill was rejected, but it focused the attention of the entire country on education. The Government

reconsidered its policy on education and a new educational policy was launched in 1913.

GOVERNMENT RESOLUTION ON EDUCATIONAL POLICY (1913) While rejecting Gokhale's Bill, the Government promised to extend recurring and non-recurring grants to primary education, as it could not ignore the growing popular demand for the spread of mass education. Gokhale's Bill created a flutter in 190 the British Parliament also. In the course of the discussion on the Indian budget, the Under-Secretary of State for India admitted the need for paying more attention to Indian education. As a result, the Government of India passed a resolution on Educational Policy on February 21, 1913. The outbreak of the First World War, however, delayed the development planned in the resolution. Many important items were postponed owing to financial stringency. Introduction to the Resolution The Government of India have refused to recognize the principle of compulsory education for financial and administrative reasons of decisive weight but they desired the widest possible extension of primary education on a voluntary basis. The time has not yet arrived to dispense wholly with fees. The fees derived from those pupils who can pay them are now devoted to the maintenance and expansion of primary education. A total remission of fees would involve to a certain extent a more prolonged postponement of a provision of schools in villages without them. In some provinces elementary education is already free. In the majority of provinces liberal provision is already made for giving free elementary instruction to those boys whose parents cannot afford to pay fees. Local governments have been requested to extend the application of the principle of free elementary education amongst the poorer and more backward sections of the population. It is the desire and hope of the Government of India to see in the not distant future some 91,000 primary public schools added to the 1,00,000 which already exist for boys and to double the 41/2 millions of the pupils who now receive instruction, in them. Major Provisions of the Resolution (i) There should be sufficient expansion of lower primary schools, where along with instruction in the three R's, children should be taught drawing, knowledge of the village map, nature study and physical exercises. (ii) Simultaneously upper primary schools should be opened at the proper places and if need be, the lower primary schools should be raised to the status of upper primary schools. 191 (iii) Local boards' schools should be established in place of private aided schools. (iv) Maktabs and Pathshalas should be adequately subsidised. (v) The inspection and management of private schools should be made more efficient. (vi) In most of the parts of India, it may not be practicable to prescribe a separate curricula for rural and urban, but in the urban schools there is sufficient scope for teaching Geography and organising school excursions, etc. (vii) The teachers should have passed vernacular middle examination and received one year's training. (viii) Provision be made for refresher courses for the teachers of primary education during vacations. (ix) A trained teacher should get a salary not less than Rs. 12 p.m. Again, there should be provision for his increment in salary, pension and provident fund. (x) The number of students under one teacher should generally range between 30 and 40. (xi) Improvement should be made in the condition of middle and secondary vernacular schools and their number should be increased. (xii) Schools should be housed in sanitary, spacious but inexpensive buildings.

(xiii) Emphasis was laid on the education of women too. Suggestions were put forth concerning special curriculum of practical utility for girls. It was clearly stated in the resolution that too much importance should not be attached to examination in the education of girls. (xiv) Number of women teachers and inspectors should also be increased. (xv) The State should not completely withdraw from the sphere of secondary education. (xvi) Further establishment of State institutions was proposed to be stopped. (xvii) Existing institutions should continue to serve as models and proper grants-in-aid should be sanctioned to private institutions. (xviii) An improvement in the mode of examination and curriculum was also recommended. 192 (xix) The Resolution provided for the expansion in University education. The existence of five universities and 185 colleges was considered to be insufficient in view of the vast needs and demands of the country. (xx) The Resolution suggested that universities and high schools should be assigned distinct spheres of activities. (xxi) The universities should be relieved of the responsibility of granting recognition to high schools and they should be kept under provincial governments. (xxii) The establishment of teaching universities was suggested by emphasizing the separation of the two functions of the universities teaching and examining. (xxiii) Recommendations were made concerning the inclusion of subjects of industrial importance in the curriculum and provision of facilities to the students desirous of prosecuting research work. (xxiv) The Resolution put forth certain valuable suggestions pertaining to the character information of students and hostel life.

PROGRESS OF EDUCATION PRIMARY EDUCATION (1905-1920) Expansion of Education Lord Curzon had been the most magnificent Viceroy of India. His personality and policy left its inevitable impact on each and every aspect of administration. He was a lover of education and influenced all the aspects of education in the country from primary to university. Because of his particular interest, primary education progressed rapidly during the period from 1905 to 1912. He tried both for quantitative and qualitative development of education. The number of schools and students at the primary stage increased during his days. In 1912, the attention was particularly given on qualitative development. Consequently, the development of primary education was slower. The qualitative development could not be useful, as illiteracy had to be wiped out first. Free and Compulsory Education The Indian people consistently and persistently demanded for 193 making primary education compulsory and free. But the Government was in no mood to accept this demand. The example of Baroda in the development of primary education was before the country. The Maharaja of Baroda made primary education free and compulsory in his State. At this time Gopal Krishna Gokhale again raised his voice for making primary education free and compulsory. He introduced a Bill on March 19, 1910 in Central Legislative Council for making secondary education also compulsory. But he withdrew the Bill on the assurance from the Government. Gokhale's Efforts Gokhale persistently tried for making primary education compulsory. It was because of his efforts that the Indian National Congress at Allahabad and the Muslim League at Nagpur passed resolutions in 1910 for making primary education

compulsory and free. The Secretary of State for India in England declared that new departments had been opened for propagating literacy programmes. In spite of all these efforts, Gokhale could not succeed in this objective, however, he continued his demand and did not deviate from his objective of making primary education compulsory and free. On March 16, 1911, Gokhale placed his Bill in the Central Legislative Council for making primary education compulsory and free, but because of the opposition of the Government officers the Bill could not be passed. But the outlook of the British Government changed in 1912. Because of the persistent efforts of Gokhale, enough progress of primary education was made between 1912 and 1917. In 1911, the Emperor George V declared a grant of one lakh rupees of primary education and in his address to the Calcutta University he accepted the demand for development of education. On the basis of the resolution of 1913, board schools were established in all the provinces except in Madras, Orissa and Bengal, where there were many private schools which could not be converted into board schools. In Bengal in place of board schools, panchayati primary schools were opened. The purpose of this plan was to open at least one primary school within 10.4 sq miles. 194

GOKHALE'S IMPACT CONTINUED AFTER HIS DEATH TOO Gokhale's advocacy for better education, particularly free and Compulsory Primary Education was so powerful that even after his death not only Indian leaders and masters of government of India but even British Parliamentarian opted and felt pleasure in the realization of his objective, which is very clear from following details concerning Compulsory Primary Education and efforts made after his death for National Spirit in Education: In 1917, it was declared in the British Parliament that it wanted to establish responsible Governments in India in the form of autonomous administrative units. For this, it was necessary to educate the Indian people. Hence, governmental and private efforts were made for the spread of literacy. The district and municipal boards were authorised to enact laws for development of education in their areas. Patel Act of 1918. Vitthal Bhai Patel introduced a Bill in the Legislative Council in Bombay in order to declare primary education compulsory. This Bill was passed. It speeded up the development of primary education. Other provinces in the country were also encouraged by it. The Government of India accepted in principle the necessity of compulsory primary education. By 1921, the various provinces passed their compulsory primary education. Compulsory Primary Education in Provinces 1. Bihar and Orissa. Primary Education Act of 1919 both for rural and urban areas was passed in these provinces in order to make primary education compulsory. Children within 6 and 10 years of age were to be educated under the orders of local bodies. 2. United Provinces. Compulsory Education Act was passed in 1919 which included both boys and girls within its jurisdiction. But this Act was not applicable for rural areas. It was meant only for municipal limits. 3. Punjab. Compulsory Education Act was passed, but it was meant only for boys of rural and urban areas. 4. Bengal. Compulsory Education Act was passed in 1919 only for boys of the municipal areas. In 1922, girls were also included. 195 5. Madras. In 1920, the Compulsory Education Act was passed both for boys and girls. This Act helped the development of primary education. 6. Central Provinces. In 1920, the Compulsory Education Act was passed for the whole province. Both the boys and girls were included within this Act. Thus, by 1920 compulsory primary education was accepted as the general policy throughout the country.

NATIONAL SPIRIT IN EDUCATION During the first quarter of the twentieth century, an attempt was made to infuse education with a national spirit. This was considered necessary for weakening the foundation of British Empire and for winning freedom. The national movement also accelerated the development of this spirit. A demand for nationalisation of education arose. Mrs. Annie Besant

vehemently criticised the existing educational set-up and regarded it as a sure path to national degradation and lack of national morality and honour. Mahatma Gandhi criticised the educational system and considered it unsuitable to Indian needs. He pointed out the following three major defects of the prevailing education system : 1. The Indian education is fully based on foreign culture and civilization. It was an insult to Indians to give them education devoid of their culture. 2. The existing education system is narrow, one-sided and unphysiological. It educates neither the heart nor the hand. 3. To have a foreign language as the medium of instruction is an insult to the entire nation and a deliberate attempt to weaken the Indian people. Real education cannot be given through the medium of foreign language. Mother tongue alone can be a medium of real and practical education. National Education At this time the leaders of the country felt very much agitated about the real nature of national education. Gradually, its shape came up on the surface. 196 1. Education Under Indian Control. Education should be fully controlled by Indians. It should be entrusted to Indians from the British hands. This demand was made in order to base education on Indian culture and to keep it above communal considerations. 2. The Spirit of Love for the Nation. Education should generate a love of the nation in the students in order that they might appreciate the greatness of the Indian culture and traditions. For this the curriculum should include the study of Indian history, literature, geography, arts and sciences. 3. Banishing the Feeling of Inferiority. Students should adopt Indian ideals and culture and not consider the same inferior to the foreign ones. As Indian ideals and culture were much superior to the Western ones, the people should accept them in preference to any other. Indian knowledge and sciences should be developed as the same were to benefit them. 4. Education in Western Knowledge and Science. People in India should learn the good things from all countries. They should learn various things through the medium of mother tongue. One should not feel shy of learning things from others, as this was the only way to make the country developed and progressive. 5. English Language to be Regarded as a General Subject. English is an ordinary subject of study. Its study should not be overemphasised in preference to that of Indian languages. The students should not consider English as superior to Indian languages. The mother tongue should be given the supreme position. English language could be learnt for the sake of acquiring knowledge but not for procuring any service. 6. Meeting Inadequacy of Vocational Education. Education useful to life is an essential aspect of national education. In the absence of vocational education national education will be meaningless. The individual can be happy only when he receives vocational education. Education given to the students at the time was devoid of any vocational bias. It was bookish and theoretical. Vocational education was encouraged. It was organised, firstly, for those youths who were expelled from educational institutions for taking part in national movements. For this purpose, Gurudas Banerjee founded the society for the promotion of national education in Bengal. The 197 second proposal was made in the Calcutta Congress of 1906 for such a type of education which could fulfil national needs. However, this movement could not catch up because of the partition of Bengal. Still, the idea of education for fulfilling national needs continued to live. An Evaluation Gokhaleji was not only political Guru of Gandhiji but of all the Indians. He was an effective orator and parliamentarian who could carry with him even his adversary and change their hearts as it is evident from the fact that as a mark of respect to him the Britishers resolved to provide Compulsory Primary Education to Indians. Gokhaleji will be long remembered not only as a great parliamentarian, political activist but also as a great educator, who enjoyed love and admiration of the entire nation during his life time and thereafter too.

QUESTIONS FOR EXERCISE 1. "Gopal Krishna Gokhale was convinced that the remedy for all social and political evils was education." In the light of this statement write a note on Gokhale's concept of Education as contained in his Primary Education Bills of 1910 and 1911 and provisions of Government Resolution on the subject. 2. Write a note on Gokhale's philosophy of Education as advocated by him in Imperial Legislative Council. 3. Write a note on Gokhale's concept of Free and Compulsory Primary Education. 4. Write a note on the concept of National Spirit in Education as inspired by Gokhaleji. 198

11 Mahatma Gandhi (1869-1948) Mahatma Gandhi—original name Mohan Das Karam Chand Gandhi, is the most towering personality of the modern world in general and Indian in particular. He was blessed with versatile genius having very wide and very positive thinking on every aspect of humanity and firm will to work very hard for the good of humanity, with utmost devotion and dedication, to relieve it from the evils of present day set-up for the good of the individual for self, for the society and for humanity. Therefore, it is not possible for any one, particularly for me, to pen his ideas on any aspect of humanity, particularly on education and that too with perfect analysis and interpretation, but even then for the good of the future generation—the students. Hereunder, an effort is being made to project his ideas on education, in the most humble manner, which are the bi-product of his philosophy of life and humanity and to proceed in this direction I feel that it would be better to have a peep in his practical life, because his life was an open book for everyone, as there was unison in his preachings and doings, which makes him a real great man—The Mahatma. "Gandhiji has secured a unique place in the glaxy of the great teachers who have brought fresh light in the field of education." 199

LIFE SKETCH Mohan Dass Karam Chand Gandhi was born on October 2, 1869 at Porbandar, Kathiawar, Gujarat. His father was the Diwan of Rajkot. Gandhi's mother was a very courteous and kind hearted lady. Gandhiji was married with Kasturba at the age of 13 years. He passed the Matriculation Examination as an ordinary student. In the same year, he was sent to England by sea voyage for studying Law where he spent three years and nine months as a student. On 10th June 1891, Gandhiji passed the Law Examination and returned to India as a Barrister. He practised law for some time, but did not do well here. In 1893, Gandhiji went to South Africa as a legal adviser where he resisted for twenty years the inhuman treatment of the British Government against the Indian subjects in a non-violent way. After his return from South Africa in 1915, he started a non-violent struggle against the British rule in India. In 1917, he established Sabarmati Ashram at Ahmedabad for propagating Harijan uplift, Village industries, other social reforms and launching creative programmes for national uplift. Not only this, in 1921, he launched his world famous nonviolent civil disobedience movement also against the British Government. Side by side, the Indian National Congress also passed a resolution for complete independence. At this the English Government in India was forced to sign a pact known as 'Gandhi-Irwin Pact' to start negotiations for the independence of India. According to this pact, Gandhiji went to England to participate in the Round Table Conference, but nothing came out of that and the British Government in India continued its reign of terror. In 1942, Gandhiji was arrested and sent to jail. On his release from jail, he gave a call of 'Quit India' to the British Government. At this, the struggle of independence flared up tremendously and the whole country rose in revolt against the alien rule. First, the British Government tried to crush the movement with cruelty and terror but later on started negotiations for some agreement. Finally, on 15th August 1947, the British Government left India and declared its independence. Soon the country was 200

enveloped into the fire of communal riots resulting in heavy loss of lives and properties. Gandhiji tried his best to pacify and stop this terrible carnage. Enraged by his efforts for communal peace and harmony, one fanatic Nathu Ram Godse shot the apostle of peace and non-violence to death on January 31st, 1948.

PHILOSOPHY OF LIFE Gandhiji's philosophy of life is based upon the philosophy of Idealism. He believed in God implicitly. According to him, though individuals have different bodies, yet the same soul pervades in all of us. This soul is a part of that bigger entity which we call as God, Rama, Raheem or Christ. Gandhiji advocated that as the source of all the rays of the sun is the sun absolute and one whole, in the same way though the persons are different and innumerable, yet the same soul pervades in all of them. In short, Gandhiji experienced and realized Unity in Diversity. His philosophy of life has four elements namely—(1) Truth, (2) Non-Violence, (3) Fearlessness, and (4) Satyagraha. We discuss these elements in some details as under : 1. Truth. Gandhiji's aim of life was to realize God. He firmly believed that this creation is mortal. Only God is immortal. Hence the ultimate aim of life should be to realize God. According to him, truth is the only way to realize God. To Gandhiji truth is the supreme principle. In it other principles namely Beauty and Goodness become imbedded. To Gandhiji, there is no difference between Truth and God. According to him, if somebody uses truth in his mind, words and deeds and uses it together with Ahimsa sincerely and constantly, he will be able to realize God someday. In this way, according to Gandhiji, Truth does not mean truthfulness of words or speech only but its field is very wide. This principle of Truth should be employed in all fields of life. Hence Gandhiji devoted all his life in search of Truth. 2. Non-Violence. Non-Violence or Ahimsa is the second main tanet of Gandhiji's philosophy of life. Gandhiji was of firm view that devotion to truth can only be practised through devotion and strict adherence to Ahimsa. 201 To him, Truth and Ahimsa are the two sides of the same coin. One can not exist without the other. Gandhiji has insisted that the supreme aim of life is to realize God and the only effective way to realize that is to practise. Ahimsa by thoughts, words and deeds. Gandhiji has explained the meaning of Ahimsa as—"Ahimsa is complete absence of ill-will against all that lives. In its dynamic condition, it means conscious suffering. Nonviolence is, in its active form, good will towards all life. It is pure love." 3. Fearlessness. Gandhiji's Ahimsa was not a negative tendency. It was positive capacity which included two other attributes namely—(1) Fearlessness, and (2) Satyagraha. Thus, fearlessness is the third element in Gandhiji's philosophy of life. Gandhiji has emphasized that without fearlessness, it is practically impossible to practise Truth and Ahimsa. A coward person can not adhere to these principles of Truth and Ahimsa. Explaining his concept of fearlessness Gandhiji has written— "Fearlessness connotes freedom from all external fear—fear of disease, bodily injury and death, or dispossession of losing one's nearest and dearest, of losing reputation or giving offence, and so on." 4. Satyagraha. Gandhiji explained Satyagraha as hold-fast to death. This principle is based on truth and love. Herein the opponent is not given any pain, mental or physical, but he is made rather persuaded to accept truth by the effect of one's own experiencing pain or loss. It is to achieve change of heart by self-suffering of the adherence of truth and nonviolence. In the words of Gandhiji "So the doctrine came to mean vindication of truth, not by infliction of suffering on the opponent but on one's self." 202 Gandhiji himself has not claimed that he is an originator of new ideas, and so his ideas do not constitute a system of new philosophy in the strict academic sense. He learned what he called "eternal truths" from the great religions of the world. He applied these truths to life and thus developed a kind of new philosophical outlook. We shall consider below the basic

elements of this outlook. In the words of Lionel Curtis "Few men, if any, in my generation have commanded so great a following, have so changed the course of events, and so influenced thought in more than one continent than Mr. Gandhi." "In M.K. Gandhi is to be found an integration of life. He is never standing apart, the spiritual superior— aloof. If he is a Mahatma or Great soul, he is also a man of the people amongst the people. Clear sighted, keeping much silence before God, humble-minded in the essential sense, the spiritual man of prayer and vision; he is also the man of much physical work, very approachable, lovable and humerous—moral and religious, social and political." This is in nut-shell Gandhiji, the philosopher. "Gandhiji starts from his Hindu religion; and the metaphysical solution of eternal problems from a Hindu angle of vision from the bases of his philosophy. He has not sought to answer or solve the problems from an independent perspective, of experience or of reason." However, Gandhiji approached to the problems of life in his own way which is undoubtedly based on Hinduism. But he did not regard Hinduism as the only religion. He considered all religions as different paths leading to the same destination. He says, "I do not believe in the exclusive divinity of the Vedas. I believe that the Bible, the Koran and the Zend-Avesta to be as divinely inspired as the Vedas." In addition to Gandhiji's four main elements of his basic philosophy of life, it would not be out of place to place following aspects of his philosophy in a very brief from : 1. Nature of Reality. Gandhiji considers Truth as absolute, fixed and unalterable which can never be destroyed. To him, Truth means reality. He regards Truth as the 'real existent', God. For reaching God, he believes that one must plung into active social service. He wants to see God in His Works and Truth in action. To him, God is Truth, Goodness and Beauty (Satyam, Shivam, Sundaram). So in order to realise God one must be true, good and beautiful in action. Thus, Gandhiji's concept of reality affirms, "the existence of absolute values which are neither the projection of individual minds, nor the product of the social process." 203 2. Conception of God. To Gandhiji, God is the all-pervasive reality, immanent in man and also in the world which he considers as His manifestation and creation. But he thinks that God is also transcendent. He is in the world and beyond it. Thus, he has a comprehensive conception of God. He says, "I believe Him to be creative as well as non-creative.....From the platform of the Jainas I prove the non-creative aspect of God, and from that of Ramanuja the creative aspect. As a matter of fact, we are to know the Unknown, and this is why our speech falters, is inadequate and even often contradictory. That is why the Vedas describe Brahman as "not this, not this". But if He or It is not this, He or It is....He is one and yet many; He is smaller than an atom, and yet bigger than the Himalayas." Evidently, Gandhiji tries to include within his conception the diverse elements of various religious teachings and regards them as the various aspects of the same. Reality whose limitless richness is beyond our comprehension. Therefore, he describes God on different occasions from different angles, but his basic idea of God as the All Pervasive Reality remains visible in all his expressions. 3. Conception of Good and Evil. Gandhiji includes within his conception of God not only the good aspects of the world but also its tyranny, terror, and atheism. Thus, he would like to face the problem of evil rather than think to sacrifice the infinity and total reality of God. Therefore, he is realistic enough to take into account his aspects of suffering tyranny and terror. However, he feels that he cannot give an explanation of evil, because man is not able to know fully the motives of all actions of God. This point is clear from the following words of Gandhiji : "I cannot account for the existence of evils by any rational method. To want to do so is to be co-equal with God. I am, therefore, humble enough to recognize evil as such. And I call God long-suffering and patient precisely because. He permits evil in the world. I know that He has no evil." 4. Conception of Truth as God. To Gandhiji, God is Truth and Truth is God. He says, "I would say with those who say

204 God is Love, Love is God. But deep down in me I used to say that though God may be God, God is truth above all...." Upanishads, which influenced Gandhiji so much, also depict God—Brahman—as Truth, Knowledge and Infinite. Jesus also says, "I am the way, and the truth, and the life". It is in this sense that Gandhiji says that God is Truth, Love and Conscience. 'Truth is God' implies that "Truth should be the object of worship". Undoubtedly, Gandhiji worshipped Truth as such throughout his whole life. 5. Concept of Inner Voice. Gandhiji's concept of 'inner voice' should not be considered as a mystery. He explains: "Everyone who wills can hear the voice. It is within every one. But like everything else, it requires previous and definite preparation." Alike Gandhiji, Radhakrishnan has pointed out that "Intuition is not opposed to intellectual or discursive process of thought but it is often the crowning result of that process." In the case of Gandhiji, 'inner voice' has been only intuition or inspiration which used to come only through inner reasoning of which he was not quite conscious. 6. Conception of the World. He regards the world as real. He does not like to renounce it, because he believes that the practice of Ahimsa (non-violence) is meaningful in the society of world alone. He says, "Realization of truth is impossible without a complete merging of oneself in, and identification with, this limitless ocean of life. Hence, for me, there is no escape from social service, there is no happiness on earth beyond or apart from it." Thus, Gandhiji believes that this world is real and one must perform his duties here on this earth in order to realize happiness. 7. Concept of Morality. Gandhiji regards morality as the very basis of life. The progress of individuals and society depends upon morality. Morality checks discord, strife and ruin and it promotes harmony, peace and happiness. Thus, morality may be regarded as the very essence of religion, love and knowledge. Love. No morality is possible without love. Love is the greatest approach to God. Through love, an individual is able to widen his narrow self and takes within his fold others. Thus, love takes him towards the Universal or God. Love makes all 205 duties pleasant. He says, "My life is one indivisible whole and all activities run into one another, and they all have their rise in my instable love of mankind." Thus to Gandhiji's love (Ahimsa) is the essence of morality. Knowledge. Gandhiji attaches great importance to knowledge. To him, knowledge is necessary for liberating love from its narrow limits. Quite naturally, then, he regards knowledge necessary for morality. 8. End and the Means. To Gandhiji end and means are convertible. He says— "A good end loses its goodness if bad and immoral means are employed for its achievement. Bad means have their inevitable bad results. Therefore means must be moral." In fact, means are everything to Gandhiji. He emphasises the goodness of the means because he believes that man can only strive, but he cannot be sure of results. "We have always control over the means and never on the ends." He thinks that the end springs out of the means. He remarks, 'As the means so the end' and further says, "The means may be likened to a seed, the end to a tree; and there is just the same inviolable connection between the means and the end as there is between the seed and the tree." To Gandhiji, non-violence (Ahimsa) is the means, and Truth (Satya) is the end. So he is not so much the votary of nonviolence as of truth. He is prepared to sacrifice non-violence for the sake of truth, but not truth for anything on earth or heaven. He says, "The jewel of non-violence was discovered during the search for and contemplation of truth". He believes that if he ignores the truth, he will never be able to solve the mystery of nonviolence (Ahimsa). He considers truth as the highest law, but the non-violence the highest duty. He thinks that truth is not conditioned by time. 9. Concept of Rebirth. Gandhiji's belief in soul leads us to his belief in the doctrine of rebirth. Gandhiji has written "I

believe in rebirth as much as I believe in the existence of my present body. I, therefore, know that even a little effort is not wasted." It is because of this belief that Gandhiji thinks that if 206 his dream does not materialise in one year, "he is equally prepared for it within the course of several centuries." 10. Aim of Human Life. To Gandhiji, human "life is an inspiration. Its mission is to strive after perfection, which is selfrealization." He regards perfection or self-realization as a heritage of everyone. Therefore, he says, "the ideals that regulate my life are presented for acceptance by mankind in general. I have not the shadow of a doubt that any man or woman can achieve what I have, if he or she would make the same effort and cultivate the same hope and faith." Thus, Gandhiji wants to attain self-realisation working in this world. He does not feel that necessity of seeking the shelter of a cave. 11. Concept of Society. Gandhiji believes that the individual has a divine origin. Therefore, to him, the aim of the individual must be spiritual and not material. This aim can be realised only if the individual is not used as a means. He must be considered an end unto himself. The individual must enjoy the freedom to chalk out and follow his own path. He has to work out his perfection in a society which is based on the principles of love, non-violence, truth and justice. A society which is based on these principles can give no place to any kind of exploitation, economic, social, political or religious. Thus, the society that Gandhiji wants is that which is free from any kind of exploitation. But this society can be established only if economic, political and social life are based on non-violence, truth and justice. If any of these principles are absent, there shall be exploitation. When there is some exploitation, the individual is used as a means and his divine dignity is offended. Therefore, Gandhiji does not like any kind of concentration of powers, social position or worldly goods in the hands of the few. He wants a classless society of workers. But when he says that he believes in the caste-system, he means only the division of labour and specialisation of functions according to an individual's nature and natural and acquired skills. 12. Dignity of Labour. For promoting the feeling of equality of man, Gandhiji wanted to create a sense of dignity of labour in every individual. He does not want that rough work should be the exclusive domain of any particular class. He believes that if everyone does some type of rough work, 207 he will keep himself fit and will appreciate and promote the dignity of labour. He wants that everyone must do his 'breadlabour', that is, everyone must do some sort of physical labour to earn his bread. Gandhiji finds support to his theory in the Bible which reads, "In the sweat of thy brow shalt thou eat thy bread." The Gita also says that "he who eats food without labouring for the same, eats stolen food". 13. Economic Equality. Gandhiji is of the conviction that all the work that are necessary for society must be regarded as sacred duties and they should be performed by those who have the special aptitudes and interests for the same. But he believes that every one should get equal wages. He was conscious that he was putting too high an ideal to be achieved immediately. But he wanted that every country must strive towards this goal for ushering in economic equilibrium, peace, and happiness. If the ideal of equality of wages is put into effect there will be a natural tendency in every individual to do the type of work for which he is most suited by aptitude, ability and interest. 14. Concept of Decentralization. Gandhiji is against the anarchic individualism of the capitalist system, nor does he like the crushing concentration of power of the some other political system. He wants to build a social and economic structure on the basis of decentralized agriculture and industry. Therefore, he favours cottage and village industries based on limited private property. He believes that this system will develop decentralized and autonomous village communities in natural and healthy surroundings leading individuals to live simpler lives and to acquire more of social sense. Gandhiji had seen the horrors of the two world wars in the shape of repeated attacks on big cities. So he regarded centralization inconsistent with his non-violent structure of society. However, he did not want that the villages in India should be altogether isolated from the world.

15. Equality of Man and Woman. Gandhiji believes that man and woman are complementary to each other and each one is to fulfill his or her distinct obligation in terms of his or her inherent nature. Man is to support and protect the family and a woman is equipped by nature to be a mother and take care of children and the home. 208 Thus, one cannot live without the other and the work of each is essential for human existence. Gandhiji is against woman's doing the work of men in so many spheres. He wants that the woman should perform her duties, faithfully. Therefore, he advocated the equality of men and women in educational, civic and spiritual matters. He struggled to remove many of those evil customs which distructed the full development of womanhood. Consequently, he found many women as excellent co-workers in the political emancipation of India. But in spite of this, he firmly believed that married life with a spiritual direction was the ideal thing for most of the men and women. Gandhiji's Philosophy of Education Generally people regard Gandhiji as a great politician only, but the fact is that he valued social reform and development more than mere political growth and advancement. According to him, in an evil society, no concept of any good rule is possible. As such, he advocated social revolution and reform to go hand in hand with any political revolution. In this, the main role to be played was by education. Gandhiji's Basic Education was the practical embodiment of his philosophy of education. The main aim of Basic Education was to purify the heart and mind of all people and create a society free from all exploitation and aggression. Viewed in this light Gandhiji was a great educationist also. Dr. M.S. Patel has rightly remarked, "Green remarked that Pestalozzi was the starting point of modern educational theory and practice. This may be true so far as Western education is concerned. An impartial study of Gandhiji's educational teachings will reveal that he is the starting point of modern educational theory and practice of the East." Meaning of Education According to Gandhiji, "Literacy is neither the beginning nor the end of education. This is only a means through which man or woman can be educated." He believed that education should develop all the capacities of the child so that he becomes a complete human being. Complete human being means full development of body, mind, heart and soul of the child. 209 In this way, Gandhiji advocated that education should develop the child's individuality fully and harmoniously so that he is able to realize the ultimate aim of life which is Truth or God. Gandhiji has himself explained education as "By education, I mean an alround drawing out of the best in child and man body, mind and spirit." Basic Principles of Educational Philosophy The following are the basic principles of Gandhiji's philosophy of education : 1. From seven to fourteen years of age, education of each child should be free, compulsory and universal. 2. The medium of instruction should be mother tongue. 3. There should be no place for English in the education of a child. 4. Mere literacy can not be equated with education. 5. Education should develop human values in the child. 6. Education should develop all the powers of child according to the community of which he is an integral part. 7. Education should achieve the harmonious development of child's body, mind, heart and soul. 8. Education should employ some craft as a medium of education so that the child gains economic self-reliance for his life.

9. All education should be imparted through some productive craft or industry and a useful correlation should be established with that industry. 10. Education of all subjects should be imparted through some local craft or productive work. 11. The industry should be such that the child is able to achieve gainful work experience through practical work. 12. Education should be made self-supporting through some productive work. 13. Education should lead to a economic independence and self-reliance for livelihood. 14. School should be a place of activity where the child gets busy in various experiments and gains newer and newer experiences bringing forth new researches. 210 15. Education should create useful, responsible and dynamic citizens. AIMS AND IDEALS OF EDUCATION 1. Drawing out the Basic. Elaborating his views about the aims of education, Gandhiji has said, "By education I mean an all round drawing out of the best in child and man, body, mind and spirit. Literacy is not the end of education, not even the beginning. It is one of the means whereby man and woman can be educated. Literacy in itself is no education." 2. Livelihood. Gandhiji was highly critical of the educational policy implemented by British government. In his opinion the aim of education is self-dependence, and education must enable every girl and boy to develop the ability to depend upon herself or himself. The ability to earn one's livelihood is part of this independence or self-reliance. As he himself puts it, "This education ought to be for them a kind of insurance against unemployment." That is why Gandhiji placed so much emphasis upon industrial training in his own plan for basic education which was intended to acquaint the child with real life. He wanted the educator to become the means of producing ideal citizens. Seeing the endemic poverty of the nation, he suggested that education in India should be based on industrial training and the development of manual skill and handicrafts. 3. Character Formation. Like Rousseau, Gandhiji also believes in paidocentric education, that is education which centres around the child. He impressed upon people that the cultural aspect of education was far more important than its literary aspect, because it is through the cultural aspect that the child learns conduct and ideas and develops his character and ideals. As he puts it, "True education is that which draws out and stimulates the spiritual, intellectual and physical faculties of the children." Hence, the aim of education is the complete development of the child, its physical, mental and spiritual aspects. For him, character formation was more important than literacy. He was once asked what his education would aim at after the country won its independence. 211 He answered without hesitation that it would be designed to develop the character of the people. And, in character, Gandhiji addressed the importance of thought, word and deed, non-violence and truth. He, like many before him, felt that abstinence was an essential weapon for the educand. He was a supporter of the ancient Indian ideals of education. He, in fact, felt that the words educand and Brahmachari should be treated as synonymous. And for him, abstinence meant a persistent effort to reach God in the least possible time. 4. Complete Development. It is clear from the foregoing account that Gandhiji viewed education from a comprehensive or broadminded standpoint. Any education that develops only one aspect of a child's personality can be dubbed narrow and one-sided. And it is just such an education which has been the bane of our culture. Education must aim at developing the child's personality instead of limiting itself to providing the child with bits and pieces of information. Not only education must guide the individual towards self-knowledge, it must instil in him all those qualities which go to the making up of a good and responsible citizen. Gandhiji has made a distinction between the immediate and long-term aims of education, suggesting that such aims as getting certificates of merits or degrees or obtaining education for livelihood should be considered the immediate aims. But the final aim of education can only be self-knowledge.

Thus, Gandhiji states that education must make the individual to live and earn his daily bread, to be the means of his sustenance. As he himself puts it, "I value individual freedom, but you must not forget that man is essentially a social being. He has risen to his present status by learning to adjust his individuality to the requirements of social progress". His faith in religion is at the base of his liberal attitude to education. Realization of good is, in fact, the end or the goal of all human activity and service to humanity its finest means. It is only natural that such a faith should lead him to stress the social objectives of education more than the personal or individual ones. 5. Synthesis of Individual and Social Aims. In this way, Gandhiji synthesized the individual and social aims of education. 212 He did not restrict education to the achievement of any one single aim. He looked to the process of education from various perspectives. Therefore, he assigned different aims to education at different times, so much so that, sometimes, they looked mutually contradictory and even self-defeating. A closer examination of all these statements of Gandhiji, however, shows that these aims of education are complementary to each other. 6. All Round Growth. In the history of education different educationists have defined the ideals of education in different ways. Most educationists have, however, felt that the aim of education is integral development of human personality. Such was also the ideal of education formulated by Gandhiji. Like Vivekananda, Gandhiji maintained that character formation and manual skill were equally important. On the one hand, he wanted the child to earn while he learns. On the other hand, he also wanted the child to develop his character. According to him, the criterion of an individual's cultural development is not the width of his knowledge but his inner growth. Culture, according to him is not an adjunct of the mind but a characteristic of the soul. The aim of education is the development of such a culture. Gandhiji's plan of education laid stress upon all types of education—physical, mental, moral, aesthetic and religious. 7. Self-reliance. As has been already pointed out, Gandhiji aimed at self-reliance through education. Therefore, he visualised a craft-centred education. Explaining his scheme of Basic Education as an insurance against unemployment in India, Gandhiji said, "The child at the age of 14, that is, after finishing a seven-year course should be discharged as an earning unit. Even now the poor people's children automatically lend a helping hand to their parents—the feeling at the back of their minds being what shall they give men to eat, if I do not work with them? That is an education in itself. Even so the State takes charge of the child at seven and returns it to the family as an earning unit. You impart education and simultaneously cut at the root of unemployment". Recommending this scheme of education in the report on national education the Kothari Commission declared, "We recommend that work-experience should be introduced as an integral part of all education— 213 general or vocational. We define work-experience as participation in productive work in school, in the home, in a workshop, on a farm, in a factory or in any other productive situation." 8. Democrative Ideals. Like his contemporary Indian educationists, Gandhiji aimed at the evolution of democratic ideals through education. His basic plan of education amply demonstrates this fact. He aimed at an education for ideal citizenship. Education, according to him, should make children ideal members of a democratic society. The school, according to Gandhiji, is itself a small democratic society in which such democratic values are imparted to the children as wide outlook, tolerance and good neighbourhood. In the miniature society of the school, the child learns the virtues of sympathy, service, love, brotherhood, equality and liberty, etc. These qualities are transferred from one generation to another through education. The welfare of the individual and the Nation are complementary to each other. Therefore, if the country has to progress, the future generation should develop the virtues of democratic citizenship. As Gandhiji said, "A nation cannot advance without the units of which it is composed advancing, and conversely, no individual can advance without the nation of which it is a part also advancing". 9. Moral and Spiritual. All knowledge is useless without a good character in his speeches to the students at various institutions. Gandhiji laid emphasis upon the moral and spiritual aims of education. Emphasising the moral aim of education, Gandhiji said, "The end of all knowledge must be the building up of character". Character building is the moral ideal of education. According to Gandhiji, that is most important in a man's life. His

ideals in this connection were as much in agreement with the ancient Indian thinkers as with contemporary Western thinkers like Emerson, Ruskin, etc., Gandhiji very much admired the Indian Gurukula system of education and the ideal of Brahmacharya. According to ancient Indian ideal, education aims at liberation. This was also the aim of Gujarat Vidyapeeth established by Gandhiji in 1929. Gandhiji, however, defined liberation in a very wide sense, including political, social and economic liberation of all the members of society. Real freedom 214 is spiritual freedom. To attain this freedom is the task of education. Again, education equally aims at intellectual, economic and political uplift, though its chief aim is moral and spiritual. Condemning the widespread indiscipline among the students Gandhiji asked them to follow the ideal of Brahmacharya. 10. God-Realization. According to Indian philosophy, the ultimate end of all knowledge is God-realization. This Godrealization, again, is the meaning of self-realization which has been considered to be the ideal of education by most of the educational philosophers in East and West. Agreeing with this line of thinking Gandhiji maintained that a student should live a life of Sanyasi. God-realization and self-realization are mutually complementary, the one leads to the other. This spiritual ideal of education does not negate mundane or immediate ideals but fulfils them. In the words of Gandhiji, "Selfrealization is in itself an all comprehensive ideal". This ideal includes other ideals of education. With Sri Aurobindo, Gandhiji believed that the ultimate aim of education is spiritual. He also agreed that spiritual growth includes physical and mental, individual and social development. Thus, he synthesized different ideals of education. In this scheme of Basic Education, he planned for an education suitable to present-day Indian society. He pondered over the difficulties of the present-day Indian society and tried to find out their solution through education. His educational philosophy is based upon ancient Indian idealism. While he did not restrict the scope of physical education his attention was mainly directed towards spiritual growth.

EDUCATION FOR SARVODAYA Gandhiji was very much aware of the needs of the country and considered Basic Education as the only type of education which may lead to success. His chief aim in planning for education in India was to fulfil the needs of the country. India is a country of villages. Most of the villagers in India cannot afford to pay for their children's education. In addition to it, they require their children's assistance in their occupations. Therefore, Gandhiji planned for Basic Education which may not be a burden upon the parents and through which the 215 children may be able to earn to meet the expenses of education themselves, laid stress upon the importance of dignity of labour and manual skill. He was convinced that an education which prepares the young men for white-collar jobs can hardly be suitable for an agriculture community. It is hence that he so much emphasized the learning of craft in his plan of Basic Education. In spite of all this idealism, Gandhiji's approach everywhere was pragmatic. He was an experimenter in every field of life. Before devising his plan of Basic Education he experimented upon its different aspects. For him, all human truths were relative. God was the only absolute. Therefore, he tested every thing before suggesting it for the education of the child. He postulated that the child should himself gather knowledge from the environment and put it in actual use in life. Like the pragmatists and instrumentalists, Gandhiji stressed the importance of interest and activity and the need for variety in the subjects taught to the educand. Sarvodaya Society The social philosophy of M.K. Gandhi may be termed as 'Sarvodaya'. This was the foundation of his philosophy of education. Sarvodaya aims at all round development of all, without distinction of caste, creed, sex and nationality. Gandhiji wanted to establish a welfare state in India which he called 'Ram Rajya'. The ideal of Sarvodaya does not aim at the maximum number but maximum good of all without exceptions. While Marx aimed at the welfare of the proletariat, Gandhiji aimed even at the welfare of the capitalist. According to Vinoba Bhave, the important characteristics of the Sarvodaya Society are the abolition of all monopoly, emphasis on social welfare and equal, moral, social and economic importance of honest work. There is no place for any type of exploitation in Sarvodaya Society. No one may be forced to do a certain type of work, so

much so that even the wealth of the capitalist cannot be forcibly snatched away. Centralization, according to Gandhiji, is the chief source of social evils. Sarvodaya requires decentralization. Gandhiji aimed at political, economic, social and all other types of decentralization. In the political field decentralization requires establishment of village panchayats. 216 In the economic field it requires that wealth and money should not be allowed to be concentrated in few hands but should be distributed among all the people. Social decentralization means the abolition of all types of untouchability and social distinctions. Nai Talim In order to achieve the above mentioned aims of Sarvodaya in India, Gandhiji presented his plan of Basic Education. He called it Nai Talim (New education) because it sought to build up a new society in the country. He realized that what the country needs today is not so much higher education as the education of the masses. Therefore, he did not lay so much emphasis upon higher education. The Basic Education sought to fulfil the needs of the educands in a Sarvodaya Society. It is hence that Gandhiji planned for craft centred education with mother tongue as the medium. Literacy, according to him, is not an end but only a mean of education. Education ultimately aims at the development of both mind and body and the capacity of earning one's livelihood. The syllabi for the new education were framed in such a way so as to eliminate narrow nationalism and emphasize the ideal of Sarvodaya. World history was taught along with Indian history. Similarly, the syllabus included the study of fundamental universal ethics. The cost of education was brought down by compulsory manual labour and education was tried to be made self-sufficient as far as possible. Social Revolution Pointing out the value of basic education for bringing about a silent social revolution in the country, Gandhiji said, "It will provide a healthy and moral basis of relationship between the city and the village and thus go a long way towards eradicating some of the worst evils of the present social insecurity and poisoned relationship between the classes. It will check the progressive decay of our villages and lay the foundation of a just social order in which there is no unnatural division between the 'haves' and the 'have-nots' and everybody is assured of a 217 living wage and the right of freedom. And all this would be accomplished without the horrors of a bloody class war or a social capital expenditure such as would be involved in the mechanisation of a vast continent like India. Nor would it entail a helpless dependence on foreign imported machinery or technical skill. Lastly, by obviating the necessity for highly specialized talent, it would place the destiny of the masses, as it were in their own hands. Non-Violent Education As has been already pointed out, Gandhiji emphasized the principle of non-violence in every field of life. He considered non-violence as the characteristic human quality. He said, "Nonviolence is the law of our species as violence is the law of brutes". Even truth was subordinate to non-violence. Gandhiji said, "One had better not speak it (truth) if one cannot do so in a gentle way". To those who doubted the value of nonviolence to be the principle of human social organization, Gandhiji pointed out, "The fact that there are so many men still alive in the world shows that it is based not on force of arms but on the force of truth and love". This principle of non-violence, Gandhiji used in every aspect of education, so much so that his theory of education may be called non-violent education. Explaining his idea, he wrote, "If India has resolved to eschew violence, this system of education becomes an integral part of the discipline she has to go through. We are told that English spend millions on education. America also does so. But we forget that all wealth is obtained through exploitation. They have reduced the art of exploitation to a science, and might well give their boys the costly education they do. We cannot, will not think in terms of exploitation, and we have no alternative but this plan of education which is based on non-violence". Thus, according to Gandhiji, India can play her role in the community of nations only by adopting the gospel of nonviolence. To quote Gandhiji again, "Good brought about through force destroyed individuality. Only when the change was effected through the persuasive power of non-violent non-cooperation (i.e., love), could the foundation of individuality be preserved and real, abiding progress be assured for the world".

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WARDHA SCHEME This principle of non-violence was the basis of Gandhiji's scheme of Basic Education. Through this scheme he wanted to develop those qualities in future citizens of India which he considered necessary for building a non-violent society. His system of education wanted to root out exploitation and centralization in society and create a non-violent social order. In 1937, Gandhiji evolved a scheme popularly known as the Wardha Scheme of Basic National Education. This Wardha Scheme was based on same principles of education which were listed by Gandhiji in a paper in 1932 in Yervada Jail. These postulates were as follows : 1. Boys and girls should be taught together. 2. Their time should be mostly spent on manual work under the supervision of the teacher. Manual work should be considered as part of education. 3. Work should be entrusted to each boy and girl after ascertaining his or her inclinations. 4. The child should know the why and the wherefore of every process. 5. General knowledge should be imparted to the child as soon as it is able to understand things. This knowledge should precede literary education. 6. The hand of the child be trained to draw geometrical figures before he learns to write, that is good handwriting should be taught from the beginning. 7. The child should learn to read before he is able to write, i.e., he should learn to recognize letters as if they were pictures and then draw their figures. 8. By this method and by word of mouth, the child should acquire much knowledge before he is eight years old. 9. Children should not be compelled to learn anything. 10. The child should be interested in whatever he learns. 11. The process of teaching should be conducted in a play-way, for play is an essential part of education. 12. All education should be imparted through the mother-tongue of the child. 13. Every Indian child should learn Hindi-Urdu, i.e., Hindustani as a national language before his literary training commences. 219 14. The second stage of the child's education begins when he is eleven and lasts up to sixteen. 15. Manual labour has a place in education during this period also. The time for literary training should be increased according to need. 16. The child should learn some vocation as preparation for his future life. 17. He should acquire a general knowledge of World History, Geography, Botany, Astronomy, Arithmetic, Geometry and Algebra. 18. A boy or a girl of sixteen years should know sewing and cooking. 19. In the third stage which begins at sixteen and ends at twenty-five, a young man or woman should receive education according to his or her desires and circumstances. 20. The education commencing at the age of nine should be self-supporting. The student, while he is learning, should be engaged in such a vocation that its produce may meet the expense of the school. 21. Production should, no doubt, begin right from the start. But it may not be enough to meet the expenses during the

initial years. 22. Teachers cannot possibly have big salaries, but they must get enough to maintain themselves. They should be animated by a spirit of service. They must have a good character. 23. Huge and costly buildings are not necessary for education. 24. English can and should have a place in the syllabus only as a language. Just as Hindi is our lingua franca English is a language of international intercourse and commerce. On 23rd October, 1937, a conference was organized at Wardha to finalise the basic system of education. This conference resolved that the children should be provided free education for seven years. Mother tongue should be the medium of education. Every educand must be taught some basic craft. The expenses of education should be met by the sale of the 220 production in the school. In order to implement these recommendations a committee was formed under the chairmanship of Dr. Zakir Hussain. This committee highlighted the basic principles, aims and organization of Basic Education in its first report on 2nd December, 1937. In its second report in 1940 this committee reviewed the curriculum of Basic Education. Its recommendations were accepted by Indian National Congress in its Session at Haripura. After Zakir Hussain Committee, another committee was formed under the chairmanship of B.G. Kher to review basic education. This committee connected it to Sargeant scheme. In the final form, the basic principles of Gandhiji's scheme of primary education were: compulsory free education, education through craft, education through mother tongue, self-reliance, education connected with the life of the educand and finally inculcation of the ideals of democrartic citizenship. A booklet was published by Government of India to popularise Gandhijian system of education entitled Understanding of Bask Education. This booklet thus summarised the scheme of basic education, "Activities involving personal and community cleanliness are the foremost in a basic school. Education for the young is not stuffing impractical idea into the minds of children. It is essentially training them in good habits, the daily experiences that every child has to undergo as regular morning evacuation, cleaning the teeth, nose and eyes, bathing, physical exercise, washing clothes and other daily activities can be exploited for teaching as well as the inculcation of good habits."

MEANS OF EDUCATION The scheme of Basic Education clarifies the means of education according to M.K. Gandhi. The most important means of education in basic scheme was craft. About this means of education Gandhiji said, "The principal idea is to impart the whole education of body and the mind and the soul through the handicraft that is taught to the children. You have to draw out all that is in the child through teaching all the processes of the handicraft, and all your lessons in History, Geography, Arithmetic will be related to the craft". Thus, some handicraft was necessary to be the centre of the child's education. Besides, other crafts recommended were : weaving, carpentry, agriculture, 221 gardening and other handicrafts and rural crafts. It was pointed out that the following criteria should be followed in deciding about the basic crafts : 1. Craft fulfilling individual and social means. 2. Craft based upon local requirements. 3. Craft in tune with the local conditions. 4. Craft favourable to the interest, aptitude and ability of the child. 5. Less expensive and simple craft. 6. Craft leading to all round development of personality. At the back of craft as the means of education were the psychological principles of education through activity as is visible in the Western playway of education, project methods, etc. Besides, this means of education was economically useful as the basic craft could be utilized by the educand to earn his livelihood. It was also supposed to create a tendency for physical labour in the educands. According to Gandhiji, "Labour is the source of all wealth. All higher castes live on the exploitation of the lower castes.

Wealth is inevitably reduced and large scale poverty occasioned." Thus, craft was means to inculcate the lesson of physical labour. Another important element in the means of education in basic scheme was synthesis between the actual problems of life and education, between different subjects of the curriculum and finally between theoretical education and practical ability. In order to implement the principle of synthesis in basic education, it was insisted that the teachers and educands should together formulate yearly projects divided into quarterly, monthly, weekly and daily projects. After this planning, the means such as raw material and necessary tools should be gathered. Efforts should be made to fulfil the schedule of the projects. Each project must be evaluated monthly or quarterly, as the case may be. In the end, the teachers should note their experiences in order to profit by them in future. Below we are hinting the outstanding features of this system : 1. Free Compulsory Education. Between the ages of seven and fourteen education should be free for all boys and girls. If guardians desire the girls may be withdrawn from the school 222 at the age of twelve. During this period of seven years, Gandhiji wanted to include primary, middle and high school education, because he thought that it was only so-called education that was available to some people in the Indian villages. He was convinced that in order to improve the rural conditions, the secondary and primary education must be combined. He wanted to leave higher education to private enterprises. Gandhiji believed that primary education was the minimum that must be available to all. He did not mean to minimise the importance of higher education when once he remarked, "I think we can postpone the question of higher education for some time; but the problem of primary education cannot be postponed even for a minute. 2. Craft as the Centre of Education. Education should be imparted through some craft or productive work. The chosen craft must be learnt systematically and scientifically for obtaining efficiency and practical results. The craft must be regarded both as a means and an end. 3. Self-supporting Aspect. Gandhiji said, "you have to start with the conviction that looking to the needs of villages of India our rural education ought to be made self-supporting if it is to be compulsory." Gandhiji wanted that at the age of fourteen the child should leave the school as an earning unit of the society. The Wardha Scheme depends upon the school efforts for covering the pay of the teacher. However, it wants that the State should provide the rest of the expenses, for furniture, books, tools, and school building, etc. 4. The Medium of Instruction. Gandhiji wanted that the mother tongue of the child should be the medium of instruction. 5. The Non-violence Cult. The Wardha Scheme implies Gandhiji's cardinal creed of non-violence. Mahadev Desai says, "The idea of self-supporting education cannot be divorced from the ideological background of non-violence, and unless we bear in mind that the new scheme is intended to bring into being a new age from which class and communal hatred is eliminated and exploitation is eschewed, we cannot make a success of it." 6. Ideal of Citizenship. The Zakir Husain Committee says, ".... the new scheme ... will aim at giving the citizens of the 223 future a keen sense of personal worth, dignity and efficiency, and will strengthen in them the desire for self-improvement and social service in a cooperative community." Thus, it is clear that the authors of the scheme regarded the ideal of citizenship as very important. 7. The Idea of a Cooperative Community. The Wardha Scheme wants to promote the attitude of social service in all children. The Zakir Husain Committee expected that during the seven years of education the child will acquire 'the essential modicum of social and civic training'. 8. The Syllabus. (i) The Basic Craft such as agriculture, spinning and weaving, cardboard work, wood work and metal work, gardening, and leather work, etc. as suitable to local conditions. The scheme feels that the contents of the general curriculum can be effectively correlated with any of these crafts. Thus, the craft is to be the core of the Wardha Scheme and not only an additional subject.

(ii) The Mother Tongue should be so mastered by the child as to be able to express himself both in speaking and writing through it. (iii) Mathematics should be co-ordinated with life situations as arising in the craft chosen as the core. The various processes of mathematics should be correlated with the basic craft. (iv) Social Studies including history, geography, civics and current events for promoting individual and social virtues. (v) General Science including nature study, zoology, physiology, hygiene, physical culture, chemistry and a knowledge of the stars should be taught for promoting an intelligent, appreciative and scientific outlook. For the girls in the fourth and fifth grades domestic science should be added. (vi) Drawing should be taught for correlating reading and pictorial representation in nature study and the craft. (vii) Music should be taught for cultivating a love for beautiful music. (viii) Hindustani should be a compulsory subject in the school curriculum for developing a common Lingua franca. 224 The Wardha Scheme naturally found both its supporters and opponents. A criticism of the scheme is given below.

CRITICISM OF THE WARDHA SCHEME Some critics say that the Wardha Scheme became famous because it came from a universally loved person, Mahatma Gandhi. If it had come from a less important man it would not have received the same support. Gandhiji himself said at the Wardha Conference, "You should not accept anything out of your regard for me.... The scheme should be accepted after full and mature consideration so that it may not have to be given up after a little, while Gandhiji had deep insight to understand the needs and requirements of the rural people and so he devised an educational scheme for them. Some critics remark that the Scheme appears to be educationally sound except its 'self-supporting' and 'the craft as the core' aspects. The school cannot be made self-supporting because the product made by young children cannot compete those made by experts in the line. Moreover, if the child has a motive of producing something which may fetch a greater amount of money, the cultural side of education will be lost and the child will become a pure materialist. Then again, it is impossible to teach all subjects through a craft. But we see that Gandhiji had been prompt to modify his stand. He accepted the position that the knowledge to be given through a craft should be supplemented by other processes. He clearly emphasized that "during the first year everything should be taught through the takli, in the second year other processes also can be taught side by side. Lack of the required type of teachers is another criticism of some critics against the Wardha Scheme. Any scheme, however, good it may be, ultimately depends upon teachers. Therefore, for making the Scheme a success, it is very important to devise ways and means for training the suitable persons as teachers and to raise the scale of pay for teachers in order to check frustration and starvation on their part. It is true that some State Governments have started Basic Training Colleges for producing the right type of teachers for Basic schools which are run these days basically on the lines indicated by the Wardha Scheme but it is, perhaps, premature 225 to pass any judgement on the work that these colleges are trying to do. Some critics argue that over-attention focussed on the Wardha Scheme neglects the cause of secondary and higher education. But in the words of the Zakir Husain Committee the supporters of the Scheme answer that "this is a scheme of universal and compulsory basic education for all children, to be followed in due course by higher education for those who are qualified to receive it....." Some other critics contend that the Wardha Scheme is Utopian—produced by a philosopher who did not know much about education. But the supporters of the Scheme claim that those who are working out the Scheme have no doubt about its successful operation. They argue that the Scheme must undergo a long experimentation on a nation-wide-scale under a sufficiently long period before any final shape is given to it. Only then, it will be proper to have any correct estimate of the Scheme.

Some people argue that the Wardha Scheme by recommending a craft as a core puts back the clock of civilization. In these days of scientific inventions, it is wrong to popularise the medieval industries like spinning and weaving as the medium of education. The supporters of the scheme assert that such an argument betrays an utter lack of knowledge of rural conditions in the country. Promoting big industries in the rural areas at the cost of rural handicrafts would bring in concentration of powers within a few hands, exploitation of the poor by the rich, chronic unemployment and all the evils which modern industries bring in their train. Supporters of the Scheme argue that the handicrafts have been selected for their educative possibilities. In the name of civilization, it is difficult to ignore the best treasures of art and industry inherited from the ancestors and which can still sustain the teeming millions in the country in this age of hydrogen bombs. The chief purpose of this chapter is to understand Gandhiji as an educator. So we do not choose here to examine the workings of those institutions which are busy in giving the Wardha Scheme or National Basic Education a practical shape. 226 Though it would have been a very interesting and relevant study, yet the lack of space does not permit us to do so. We shall discuss below some other aspects of Gandhiji, as an educator.

TYPES OF EDUCATION Our discussion of the Gandhian scheme of education so far shows his emphasis upon primary education and the education of the child. He, however, equally devoted his thought to the adult education also known as social education. He realized that in order to bring about a Sarvodaya Society in India, the views of the adults should be changed. Therefore, he made adult education programme a vital element of his political movement. Thousands of volunteers were trained in adult education at Sabarmati and Sevagram Ashrams. They spread in thousands of villages and hundreds of urban centres to educate the adult males and females in night schools. The help of thousands of regular teachers in so many educational institutions was also utilized for this purpose. An important characteristic of Gandhian philosophy is the aim of Sarvodaya. Therefore, he planned different types of education for the country. Besides basic education and social education, he thought seriously over rural education and education for women.

MEDIUM OF EDUCATION A staunch votary of mother tongue as the medium of education, Gandhiji said, "I must cling to my mother tongue as to my mother's breast, in spite of its shortcomings. It alone can give me the life giving milk". He was vehemently against English as the medium of education in this country. He said, "To inflict English on children is to stunt their natural growth and perhaps to kill originality in them". He pointed out to many modern western countries including U.S.S.R. who have made tremendous scientific progress without any help of English language. He maintained that our insistence on English is a remnant of our long slavery to the British. He was never prepared to accept this submission to foreign yoke. He maintained that the national language alone can be the vehicle of creating a common culture and rich literature. He 227 was very much conversant with the language problem in India. He wanted to keep the country united particularly from the point of view of language. Therefore, he devised a common national language Hindustani which may be written in both Devanagari and Persian script. According to him, there is no difference in Hindi and Urdu.

CHARACTERISTICS OF GANDHIAN EDUCATIONAL PLAN M.K. Gandhi viewed the process of education from many different angles and saw that it must achieve something more than one objective. That is why he ascribed to it many different aims. At times a superficial study of these aims may give the impression that they are mutually contradictory or self-defeating, but a deeper examination will show that they complement each other. Even a cursory glancing through the history of education will show abundantly that different educationists have ascribed different aims to education. For some it is training for livelihood and sustenance, for others it is self-realization, for yet

others the individual aims take precedence over the social objectives of education while some educationists favour the social aspects. Most educationists, however, have felt that education must strive for human perfection. Cultural development is another aim that has been ascribed to education. Idealists emphasize the idealistic aspect more than the realistic while naturalists and realists stress the realistic forms of education. Gandhiji's philosophy of education aims at harmonizing all these contradictory viewpoints. His Wardha plan of education laid great stress upon training in self-reliance, because he felt that the highest criterion of an educational system was its ability in putting an end to unemployment. For him, both character formation and manual skill were important. Education should also be accompanied by earning money, and that is why he felt that the educator's salary should be paid out of goods produced by the educands. He believed that character building was as important as, if not more than, collecting information. The criterion of an individual's cultural development is not the extent of his knowledge but the qualities he manifests. In the cultural aspect 228 of education, he placed emphasis upon the behaviour and thinking of educands. Culture, according to him, is not an adjunct of the mind but a quality of the soul, and cultural development is an important objective of education. Education is the means to the child's physical, mental and spiritual development. His plan of education gave importance to physical, moral, aesthetic and religious education along with the teaching of mathematics and literary skills. In addition to this, he stressed that handwriting should be neat and clean. Gandhiji's educational plan exhibits all the major qualities found in the Western educational patterns. For this reason, the following points must be kept in mind in attempting an evaluation of his plan : 1. Naturalism. Gandhiji's educational philosophy gives due recognition to biological naturalism because it lays stress on man's complete development. Like Rousseau, Gandhiji revolted against the existing pattern of education and suggested the establishment of a new system of education. He laid more stress on the child's environment than on books. He wanted to give an indigenous touch to education, and make it capable of achieving independence and naturalness. But, at the same time, he did not neglect discipline. His education is centered around the child, not around textbooks. 2. Idealism. On the one hand one finds a strong element of realism in Gandhiji's philosophy of education, but on the other it also exhibits some signs of idealism. There is no denying that he was always an idealist because he always was a religious individual. He felt that the aim of man's life was realization of God, and that is why he stressed the importance of moral and religious education. He preached that one must indulge in service, sacrifice and contemplation in order to achieve self-realization. Gandhiji's educational philosophy shows all the finest elements of idealism, and while he does not restrict the scope of physical education, his attention is mainly given to spiritual training. He wanted to use education as a means of developing a harmonized personality in the child. Like Pestalozzi, he wanted to make the child the centre of educational progress and like Herbart he felt that the aim of education was building up a moral character. He attached the greatest importance to the child's 229 interests and inclinations. He agreed with Froebel that the child, at birth, is full of many undeveloped abilities and it is for education to develop these. 3. Pragmatism. Despite his inclination towards idealism, Gandhiji always attended to the practical and pragmatic aspect of education. That is why he entitled his autobiography My Experiments with Truth. He was an experimenter in every sphere of his life. Before arriving at a settled opinion about education, he preferred to experiment in all its spheres. He accepted no truth as absolute. For him, God was the only absolute entity. In keeping with the pragmatic tradition, he also believed that the child should gather for himself all the knowledge from the environment and select from it that which he could put to use in later life. The pattern of education suggested by him compares in many respects with that suggested by the pragmatists. Both stress the importance of interests and activity, and the need for variety in the subjects taught to the educand. Like Dewey, Gandhiji also felt that the child should learn through actual work. Besides, he also agreed with Dewey that education should seek to establish the democratic values in life. In short, he wanted to relate education to life as far as possible. 4. Educational System is Based on Psychological Facts. Although Gandhiji was not a professional psychologist, he had

gained remarkable insight into human psychology through his acute observation of life around him. By virtue of this qualification, he could attempt to make his educational system completely psychological. He, too, objected to the attempts at stuffing the child's mind with too many facts. He felt that education should aim at arousing curiosity and providing motivation to the child so that he should himself achieve his own physical, mental and spiritual development. He insisted on the importance of acquiring manual skills, but he felt that this training should be supplemented by knowledge of other objects so as to achieve physical, mental, moral, psychological and spiritual development also. He was very much in favour of the educands' indulging in games and sports and gymnastic activity because he felt that physical development is an essential prerequisite of mental development. In his own Ashram, children were given 230 opportunities of physical development by participating in the work done there. He also felt that education should not be allowed to become mechanical but should be acquired through play. 5. Importance of Impressions and Actions. Gandhiji's opinion that impressions of early childhood have a tremendous impact on later development is in agreement with the modern psychologists. He was aware that the impressions once imprinted on the child's flexible mind are difficult to wipe out later on. In his infancy and childhood, the child learns a very great deal by imitating his parents, and for this reason it is desirable that the impressions made on his mind should be beneficial. Psychologists also agree with Gandhiji's theory that there should be learning through doing. Most educationists agree that learning through doing helps in the complete development of the child and that this also enables him to earn his livelihood later on in life. 6. Sociological Importance of Gandhiji's Plan. Gandhiji's plan of education is not only psychologically valid but it has sociological significance also. While thinking of his plan of education, Gandhiji was not concerned with one or two individuals, but with the vast multitude of illiterate men and women who make up the country's population. He wanted to use education as the medium of establishing in the country a non-violent social system from which exploitation of all kinds would be absent. He was a vigorous opponent of exploitation and he realized that it could not be eradicated without education. He advocated discipline as an essential part of freedom and liberty. He wanted that education should help the individual to become an ideal democratic citizen. He opposed the teaching of all those subjects in schools which had no real link with life. He stressed the importance of social service, labour, agriculture, handicrafts, hygiene, collective living, etc., and pointed out that they were more important than any curriculum. Sarvodaya was as much his guiding principle in education as it was in the field of politics. This concept of a Sarvodaya Society was based on traditional Indian and modern democratic values. From the economic standpoint also, Gandhiji's educational plan appears to be appropriate for India's economy. Gandhiji 231 felt that the principles of truth and non-violence could be as effective in the field of economic activity as they were elsewhere. He opposed exploitation in all its various forms and pointed out that exploitation had its origin in the individual's desire to get his work done by someone else instead of doing it himself and the desire to take charge of fruits of another's labour and effort. Gandhiji advised that the only way of putting an end to exploitation is for every individual to do his own work. He suggested that the educand should himself do his own work and all work connected with the school. He should learn to respect labour and should not feel that manual labour is in any way worse than or inferior to mental labour. India being an agricultural country in which the villagers have small pieces of land to cultivate, it would be better if these people could develop various kinds of cottage industries. Only then the villagers can become self-sufficient. 7. Education Conforming to the Country's Needs. Whatever arguments one may advance against Gandhiji's plan of education, one cannot question his sincerity, because it is only too obvious that in presenting it, he was perfectly aware of the needs of his countrymen. He considered this the only kind of education which can be successful in this country. Most villagers cannot afford to pay for their children's education and in addition most of them require their children's assistance in their own occupations. Hence, their children should receive an education which can enable them to share their parent's burden. And this is

possible only when the system of education lays stress on the importance of labour and manual skills. There can be no arguing the fact that the existing pattern of education in the country only prepares the young men for white-collar jobs. But this type of education can hardly suit the needs of an agricultural community. In the second place, Gandhiji wanted the educand to be engaged in gainful work, the product of which could be sold to pay for his education. This may appear to be impractical on the face of it, but it is inspired by the idea that the child's education should not add to the parents' burden. The only other alternative is free education, and this is hindered by the psychological fact that anything gained free 232 has little value for the recipient. Besides, free education does harm to the educand's character. Gandhiji favoured the idea that education as well as the educand should be independent of everyone else. There are definitely many difficulties in translating this plan into action. But on the theoretical level, one cannot question the justice of his thesis that education should be independent and self-reliant. There is no doubt that it is difficult to turn manual skill and physical labour into a game, and that it almost necessarily becomes monotonous and mechanical, but this does not prove that the idea itself is wrong. Gandhiji considered not only what the child studied but also what he would do later on. The existing problem of educated unemployed has been created only because the present system of education has no aim and purpose. Besides, Gandhiji wanted that the individual should become independent during his education, or at least that he should learn some skill which would enable him to find employment immediately after completing his education. 8. Teaching Methods. The teaching methods in the Gandhian scheme of education can be deduced from his Basic Education. As has been pointed out, Gandhiji pleaded that the child should be educated through a basic craft. He should first be taught a basic craft from among the different types of it and other subjects such as Arithmetic, Language, Geography, History and Civics should be taught in association with the basic craft. In his educational institutions children were busy in craft activities for hours. There was no provision of rigid time-table or ringing of the bell after every hour. There was no compulsion to work in the class-room. The child was left free to select a craft according to his natural interests, abilities and according to his learning. This method of teaching has been justified by Western educationists. Rousseau insisted upon the value of total freedom in teaching methods. Herbart admitted the value of synthesis in education. As has already been pointed out, an important characteristics of the teaching method in Gandhian scheme was synthesis. Projects were drawn for the year, quarter, month, week and the day. They were carried on according to schedule and reviewed periodically. 233 The teacher profited by this review. He gathered experiences to make better projects and implement them more successfully. This method was natural, saved time, was interesting, synthesized knowledge and action, helped in transfer of learning and led to the development of high moral character. It was based upon the educational principle of proceeding from gross to subtle. It required experienced and able teachers who could synthesize the educand and his environment and the different parts of the curriculum. They should be trained for this purpose. This teaching method of Gandhiji's scheme of education has its advantages as well as disadvantages too. It was pointed out that it converted schools into mini-factories and prolonged hours of engagement in crafts hardly left any leisure to the children for recreation and extra-curricular activities. Gandhiji thought that the sale proceeds of the products of basic crafts in an educational institution will be sufficient to meet the salaries of the teachers. This, however, could never be realized. It was based on false expectations. However, nobody can doubt Gandhiji's intensive insight into the teaching methods of the children and adults so much clear in his plans of basic education and adult education. He emphasized the importance of the following principles in his method of teaching : 1. To achieve mental development, training of senses and parts of the body should be given. 2. Reading should precede the teaching of writing. 3. Before teaching of alphabets, art training should be given.

4. More opportunities should be given for learning by doing. 5. Encouragement should be given to learning by experience. 6. Correlation should be established in the teaching methods and learning experiences. In addition to the above, Gandhiji emphasized the need of co-curricular activities, planning, realistic experiences, initiative and sense of individual responsibility to be associated with the craft centered teaching methods. 234 Gandhiji on Textbooks Gandhiji does not want that the student should be loaded with too many books. He says, "I have always felt that the true textbook for the pupil is his teacher." He thinks that in the beginning the preliminary training of the child should be oral because the child learns much more through his ears than through his eyes. So he observes, "To impose on children of tender age a knowledge of the alphabet and the ability to read before they can gain general knowledge is to deprive them, whilst they are fresh, of the power of assimilating instruction by word of mouth." Gandhiji hates the dependence of instruction on a multiplicity of textbooks because he thinks that this multiplicity deprives the poor village children of India of the means of instruction. He deplores that most of the current textbooks in Indian schools are not written with Indian background and so they are harmful for Indian boys and girls. So he is of the opinion that no textbooks should be taught to children of lower classes. In these classes, it is the teacher who should use the textbook and he "to do full justice to his pupils, will have to prepare the daily lesson from the material available to him." Thus, Gandhiji vehemently feels against the current textbook and he would not hesitate to destroy all of them that do not deal with the immediate surroundings of the students in the useful manner. He wants that the textbooks for Indian boys and girls must be written by Indian patriots. It may be mentioned here that the aims and methods of the basic education called for an entirely new approach in the effectively handled by women than by men, and by mothers than by maidens. In the Wardha Scheme Gandhiji made no differentiation between boys and girls. He permitted co-education upto the age of eight, but according to him, as far as possible boys and girls might be educated together upto the age of sixteen. However, in the Wardha Scheme co-education has not been made compulsory. Gandhiji says, "....The question of coeducation has been left open. It will regulate itself according to the time-spirit. So far as I am aware, the members of the Committee were not all of one mind. Personally I have an open mind. I think that there are just as valid reasons for as against 235 co-education. And I would not oppose the experiment wherever it is made." Evidently, he was not against co-education. Gandhiji on University Education On university education, Gandhiji observes, "To-day the youth educated in our universities either ran after Government jobs or fell into devious ways and sought outlet for their frustration by fomenting unrest. They were not even ashamed to beg or sponge upon others. Such was their sad plight. The aim of university education should be to turn out true servants of the people who would live and die for the country's freedom." It should be noted that Gandhiji is not against higher or university education. In fact, he is against the university education as prevailing to-day. Under his scheme of university education, he wants better libraries, more and better laboratories, an army of chemists, engineers and other experts. He wants that all these experts should speak the language of the people and the knowledge acquired by them should be the common property of the nation and these experts will produce original work instead of mere imitation. Gandhiji does not want that it should always be on the State to establish universities. He thinks that if the people want a university they will supply the necessary funds for it. But he says that "the State must pay for it wherever it has definite use for it." He feels the necessity of reorienting the university education in the country. He thinks that the prevailing type of higher

education has resulted into unemployment. Therefore, he says that education in the university should also be given through vocational training, because such an education will give the youths economic independence and a sense of selfrespect. Thus, Gandhiji envisages a radical change in the existing pattern of university education in the country. He wants to run all educational institutions from the lowest to the highest stage on basic educational lines, i.e, through craft activity. This applies to university education as well. He wants to scrap the existing university education completely and remodell it on new lines according to the material requirements of the country. He wants that the universities should have feeders in the shape of schools and colleges imparting instruction through 236 the medium of their respective provincial languages. He says that the university is at the top, and therefore, it must have a solid foundation. On founding new universities Gandhiji remarks "Universities founded under foreign domination have run in the reverse direction. Any other result was perhaps impossible. Therefore, there is every reason for being cautious about founding new universities till India has digested the newly-acquired freedom."

THE PLACE OF RELIGION IN EDUCATION Gandhiji was a deeply religious man. He held that life without religion was life without principle, and life without principle is like a ship without a rudder. He did not agree with the notion that religion was opposed to material good. Gandhiji says, "In my opinion, the author of the Gita has dispelled this delusion. He has drawn no line of demarcation between religious life and worldly pursuits. On the contrary, he has shown that religion must rule even our worldly pursuits." To Gandhiji, religion means one's own personal experience, and not a set of creed and dogmas. He regarded religion as an abiding faith in the absolute values of truth, love and justice. He remarked, "Religion is a very personal matter. We should, by living the life according to our lights, share the best with one another, thus adding to the sum total of human effort to reach God." This brings us to consider the place of religion in education according to Gandhiji. Gandhiji was quite alive to the difficulties of religious education in India—a land of religions. He observed, Rank atheism cannot flourish in this land. The task is indeed difficult. My head begins to turn as I think of religious education." Hence, Gandhiji accepted 'instruction in the universal essentials of religion and a training in the fundamental virtues of Truth and Non-violence' as the fundamental basis of religious education. To Gandhiji, all the great religions of the world agree in fundamentals. Hence, these fundamentals should be made the basis of religious education. In spite of his firm faith in the need of religious education in the school, Gandhiji deliberately omitted it from the Wardha Scheme. 237 In fact, what he omitted was the denominational religion, and not the spiritual training of the child. Gandhiji wanted that every child in the school should be instructed to respect all religions and to show the spirit of religion in his actual conduct.

GANDHIJI ON WOMEN EDUCATION Gandhiji said, "My greatest hope is in women. They want a helping hand to lift them out of the well in which they have been kept." Thus, Gandhiji felt strongly for the emancipation of women. He wanted to give them all education according to their particular aptitudes and life demands. He believed that education of little boys and girls could be more effectively handled by women than by men, and by mothers than by maidens. In the Wardha Scheme, Gandhiji made no differentiation between boys and girls. He permitted co-education upto the age of eight, but according to him, as far as possible boys and girls might be educated together upto the age of sixteen. But in the Wardha Scheme co-education has not been made compulsory. Gandhiji: Adult Education Gandhiji wants to extend the scope of basic education throughout the whole life of the individual, i.e., he wants to educate the adults or the parents of children. Consequently, the Third All India Basic Education Conference which opened at Sevagram in January, 1945 considered this problem. In the inaugural speech at this conference Gandhiji remarked:

"Up to the present, although our education was new, we have lined as it were in a bay ... in that our work was restricted in scope. Now we are being driven out of our bay and thrust into the open ocean. There, we have no guide except the polestar. That pole-star is village handicrafts. Our field now is not merely the child of seven to fourteen years of age, the field of Nai Talim stretches from the hour of conception in the mother's womb to the hour of death...." 238 Consequently, the conference appointed a Committee which was entrusted with the task of finalising a scheme of education. Gandhiji considered the education of the parents as the first concern of the nation. He regarded the education of the adult as a necessary prelude to the growth of the new generation in new values. Thus, we see that Gandhiji was quite conscious of urgent necessity of adult education in the country. And the scheme of social education as formulated by the Government of India takes into consideration Gandhiji's approach—though goes a long way by including in it recreational aspects of education as well besides many others. Today the concept of adult education has been revolutionized. Now adult education does not imply only the teaching of the Three R's, i.e., literary. In fact, it means "literacy of the whole personality." So the term adult education has been replaced in India, as in many other countries, by 'social education' which means acquiring of knowledge for health and civic education, promotion of communal harmony, teaching of simple crafts and providing facilities for suitable cultural and recreational activities. Thus, by social education, an attempt is made to raise the 'general level of the people life-material, moral, cultural and spiritual.' It is in the context of this concept of social education that we shall now examine the place of Gandhiji as a social educationist. Gandhiji may be regarded as one of the greatest social educationists of all times. Wherever he went, he disseminated knowledge and light for the education of countless men and women. His very life has been a sermon which can inspire one to sacrifice his all for selfless service. As a prophet of mankind, he inspired wherever he marched. His historic march to Dandi has been one of the most notable experiments in mass education. It inspired people and led them to threshold of independence. Gandhiji advised students to spend their vacations in the service of the village people by conducting classes for them and teaching them rules of sanitation and healthy living. K.G. Saiyidain calling him the greatest worker in the cause of adult education has remarked that "...his (Gandhiji's) voice has been calling the straying multitude back to the path of honour and rectitude and love." 239 An Estimate Narration of Gandhiji's philosophy of practical life and human making educational philosophy, as above, makes him the most towering personality of the world in general and India in particular, therefore, his death was mourned by large number of nations of the civilized world, even by some of these nations with their national flags half-most. Lumanaries of the world, from all walks of life paid rich tributes to him in their condolence messages. At his death the New York Times wrote "He left as his heritage a spiritual force that must in God's good time prevail over arms and armaments and dark doctrines of violence." (January 31, 1948). Dr. S. Radhakrishnan quotes Mr. H.S. Suhrawordy (P.M. of Pakistan) at that time, he said: "I feel as if the bottom of the world has fallen out. Who is there who will now assuage the anguish of the oppressed, who is there who will now wipe their tears? To him we had learned to turn for guidance and for advice in all our difficulties and he never failed us." Mr. Frederick Mayor said: "Romain Rolland has compared Gandhi with Jesus, and there are many parallels in the concepts taught by both men. Like Jesus, Gandhi believed in the love of God and of humanity. Like Jesus, Gandhi had uncomplicated faith; he felt that it was primarily a matter of the heart; complicated theological systems were unnecessary if man were to be saved. Like Jesus, Gandhi had respect for all races and all nations. He believed in a universal God whose providence included all parts of the universe and, like Jesus, Gandhi taught by precept and example." Dr. S. Radhakrishnan observes, "The greatness of Gandhi is more in his holy living than in his heroic struggles, in his insistance on the creative power of the soul and its life giving quality at a time when the destructive forces seem to be in ascendant."

Evaluation or an estimate of Gandhi's philosophy of life and his contribution to education as an educator can in very brief be made as follows : 240 Gandhiji, made it clear that God's work was manifested in many different religions. He respected the insight and moral heroism of Mohammed; he was moved to tears by the sacrifice of Jesus; he had an abiding love and understanding for the teachings of Buddha. Nevertheless, Gandhiji remained a Hindu and accepted its Scriptures, although he protested against the abuses of the caste system. Gandhiji's moral status was fully revealed during his trial in 1922. The prosecutor had demanded the full penalty of the law and had pointed to Gandhiji as the real culprit in causing armed resistance against British rule. Without hesitation, Gandhiji accepted full responsibility. He stated that he could not dissociate himself from the acts of the Indian people, and that he should have realized that his speeches and publications would inflame their passions. He did not defend the crimes and outrages which had been committed, because violence outraged his soul. He ended his speech not by pleading for mercy, but by saying that he deserved the full penalty of the law. Even when he was in solitary confinement, his spirit did not break. He used his time in prison to study Western writers, especially Thoreau, Emerson, Ruskin, and Tolstoy. He found new inspiration in the Bhagavad-Gita, particularly in the concept of Bhakti, which meant unconditional love of God. Gandhiji was certain that man's spirit was more important than his body, and that religion and education could aid him in creating a knowledge and an awareness of man's basic spirituality. All his life, Gandhi believed in the power of prayer. He did not pray for selfish advantages or for supernatural rewards, nor for the destruction of his enemies; rather he prayed that he might be faithful to his ideals and that his life would add to the goodness and harmony in the universe. To Gandhiji, education without prayer was a futile process. Religion, according to Gandhiji, was not a compartmentalized activity. It was not a separate and isolated activity. It was not a vocation for the spiritual aristocracy; on the contrary, to him, life and religion were one. A life without faith would be utterly meaningless and sterile; while religion which was not adjusted to man's daily existence and which only appealed to a few, was utterly worthless. 241 Gandhiji did not have much faith in scientific education. He did not feel that science had created permanent happiness. Around him he saw the evil effects of science, especially the instruments of destruction and mass murder which man's ingenious brain had devised. Furthermore, science had made man skeptical. Gandhiji felt that faith in God was allimportant and, therefore, should be the center of educational instruction. Like Tolstoy, Gandhiji preached against modern materialism. There could be no real progress when man paid so much attention to his physical comforts and neglected the demands of his soul. Gandhiji realized that the temptations of materialism and spirituality were often the same. Did not most denominations stress quantitative expansion? Did not the struggle of the various religions represent a basic atheism? Was there not a frequent union between Western religion and Western imperialism? In regard to education, Gandhiji was not a theorist, but a teacher who believed in action. Knowledge and action had to be combined, for Gandhiji's ideal was the development of all-around excellence for the individual. Like John Dewey, Gandhiji believed that we learn by doing and that book knowledge is less important than practical experience. Literary education should be based on our knowledge of crafts; self-control and discipline—including celibacy for young students —were indispensable tools for the achievement of real wisdom. He wanted better libraries, more laboratories, and more research institutions for India; they were to be open to all people with the necessary qualifications. But his real love, the education of villagers, was based upon the ideal of self-sufficiency and the promotion of basic crafts. He did not neglect the arts and music, for to him they were essentially spiritual activities. Gandhiji wanted to narrow theological training; rather he favored ethical education. We reach morality best, he affirmed by being examples in our conduct. An enemy of narrow nationalism, he maintained that "no culture can live, if it attempts to be exclusive." Culture to him represented a living synthesis of the past and the present, of physical, moral, and spiritual qualities. Man could only progress when he combined the love of society with the love of truth. Moral principles were to be applied to the schoolroom as well as to society. 242

Gandhiji was neither traditional nor progressive in his concept of education. We can learn valuable lessons from the past; at the same time, we cannot be guided by its necessities. The true teacher, he maintained, needs an international perspective and should see life under the aspect of eternity. Education, according to Gandhiji, could either impede or advance the cause of humanity. If education only cultivated our analytical powers, it could have negative consequences for man. Scholarship alone was not enough; what mattered was the development of a spiritual attitude whereby ideas had a living reality and became part of our daily existence. Thoreau had a fundamental impact upon Gandhiji's educational ideas. Like Thoreau, Gandhiji believed in the simple life of nature and that time "was something we could go fishing in". Like Thoreau, Gandhiji believed that the intellect was a cleaver, unable to penetrate the core of reality. Like Thoreau, Gandhiji wanted to simplify education so that only essentials would be taught. Like Thoreau, Gandhiji was opposed to mere technological education and instead urged the virtues of the contemplative attitude. Silence and meditation are the centers of education, according to Gandhiji. We have a divine source of knowledge within ourselves. Thus, the teacher stirs the innate capacities of students and he reminds them of their essential self. "Know thyself and know God" are the bastions of Gandhiji's educational thought. Gandhiji, thus opposed a purely rationalistic system of education. The teacher could not neglect the wisdom of the heart. Ultimately, religion and education mean the same. Both aim at the true knowledge of God and the universe. As for evil, Gandhiji thought that, metaphysically, evil is unreal. To be sure, we cannot overlook the oppressions of mankind and the ravages of nature and the imperfections of the institutional system; yet, in the final analysis, only goodness counts. Gandhiji asserted that goodness could transmute evil and that the time would come when evil would be completely conquered. All this could be accomplished through education which would teach man the importance of compassion. The universe, according to Gandhiji, represents a moral order. The law of cause and effect operates as much in the 243 moral as in the physical realm. Thus, the evil man does not gain a lasting victory, and he eventually creates his own hell. At the same time, goodness is never in vain, for it creates the seeds for a truly meaningful and universal existence. The evil man only lives for himself and inevitably isolates himself from others; the good man, who is truly educated, is never alone, and he is never without comrades. His dwelling-place is eternity and his soul is in humanity. Greatest Authority on Gandhian Education Dr. M.S. Patel has rightly remarked—"The real greatness of Gandhiji as an educational philosopher consists in the fact that the dominant tendencies of Naturalism, Idealism and Pragmatism are not separate and independent in his philosophy, but they fuse into a unity, giving rise to a theory of education which would suit the needs of the day and satisfy the loftiest aspirations of the human soul."

QUESTIONS FOR EXERCISE 1. Gandhiji's philosophy of education is the real manifestation of his philosophy of life. Justify. 2. Write a note on the Basic Principles of Educational Philosophy and aims and ideals of education as per Gandhiji's views. 3. Write short notes on— (a) Education for Sarvodaya. (b) Postulates of Wardha Scheme. (c) Characteristics of Gandhian educational plan. (d) Gandhi on Women Education. (e) Gandhi on Adult Education.

4. Write a note on Gandhiji's Concept of 'Means of Education'. 5. Gandhiji's concept of education is 'man-making'. Do you agree with this? Give your reasons. 244

12 Sri Aurobindo (1872-1950) Sri Aurobindo was really a great genius of extra-ordinary merit in 20th century India, because when he was only seven years of age he was sent to England. He was there for fourteen years to complete his education in London and Cambridge. He had also mastered Greek and Latin, in which he secured record marks in the Indian Civil Service Examination. Thus, he was brought up in occidental culture. He had also learned French, German and Italian. But on his return to India, he learned Sanskrit and several modern Indian languages and assimilated the spirit of Indian civilization and Hindu religion. He worked with fullest devotion and dedication to redefine Indian philosophy for the upliftment of Indians and by doing this he aimed to give the message of India to the whole world. Sri Aurobindo's concept of philosophy is the foundation of his educational philosophy, but before we attempt to discuss his philosophy of life and educational philosophy, let us have a peep into his life sketch:

HIS LIFE Sri Aurobindo was born in 1872 in Calcutta. His father sent him to England for education while he was only seven years of age. Sri Aurobindo remained there for fourteen years for completing his education both in London and Cambridge. He 245 was instructed by his father to be away from the Indian and Eastern culture while in England. His father wanted to anglicise him completely. Accordingly Sri Aurobindo mastered Greek and Latin and obtained record marks in these languages in the Indian Civil Service Examination. For reading great authors in original he also learned French, German and Italian. Thus, Sri Aurobindo received a purely occidental education. But it is surprising to note that no other Indian of the present age has shown such a profound knowledge of the soul of India as Sri Aurobindo did in his later life. Sri Aurobindo passed the Indian Civil Service Examination in 1890, but he was disqualified for the Service, because he did not present himself at the riding examination. He felt for India in 1893. After coming to India, he remained in the service of the Gaekwar of Baroda for thirteen years, from 1893 to 1906. During this period, he prepared himself for his future work. At the partition of Bengal in 1905 Sri Aurobindo resigned his Baroda job and went to Calcutta to direct the newly awakened spirit of nationalism. He could remain in the political field only for four years, but even during this short period he revolutionized the political thought in the country through his writings, speeches and famous journals—Bande Mataram—The Kanna-Yogin and Dharma—which were very short-lived. Sri Aurobindo's Nationalist Party did not agree with the Moderates' policy of begging and petitioning the British Government. He declared the Swaraj (Self-government) as the goal for India. For his revolutionary political activities Sri Aurobindo was prosecuted several times and in 1908 was put in the Alipur jail for about a year as under-trial prisoner, but he was acquitted because of the brilliant advocacy of Chittaranjan Das. From his own words we judge that the period of detention in the Alipur jail was the most momentous period in his life. In the jail he had a profound religious experience which completely changed the course of his life. He has written that one day he had a vision of the spirit of God which urged him to work in spiritual realm after his release so that he might give the message of spiritual India to all the mankind. Sri Aurobindo obeyed this command and retired from the public 246 life in 1910 and settled down in Pondicherry (then a French possession in Southern India), where he spent his whole remaining life. He died here in 1950. It will be beyond the scope of this study to give a thorough picture of Sri Aurobindo's philosophy. But since his educational philosophy is only a corollary to his philosophy, we have to give here an account of the fundamentals of his

philosophy in general. Needless to mention that this account is only a very short outline of his views.

SRI AUROBINDO'S PHILOSOPHY Sri Aurobindo has set forth his philosophy in the life Divine. Only a very brief outline of his philosophy may be attempted here. Sri Aurobindo bases his philosophy on the original Vedanta of the Upanishadas. He holds that intuition must be corrected by a more perfect intuition and never by a logical reasoning. Great spiritual truths can be realised by intuition alone. The mind of man is not so perfect as to grasp all the integral truth. The integral truth can be grasped by the supermind. Sri Aurobindo believes that the supermind connects the two hemispheres of Being and Becoming, of the Absolute and the Relative, of knowledge and ignorance. He finds an inseparable unity in all things. The supermind can resolve the conflict between one-ness and diversity, between the individual and universal, between Being and Becoming. Supermind is a state of self-awareness which one has to achieve gradually for transforming his entire self-body, mind and soul. Supermind is the keyword of Sri Aurobindo's philosophy. Sri Aurobindo translates the Vedic terms Sat, Chit, Ananda into the Pure Existent, Consciousness—Force and the Delight of Existence. Consciousness is inherent in the Eternal Being. Force cannot be separated from Being. All creation is nothing but the manifestation of this Sat, Chit, and Ananda. Sri Aurobindo finds a wide gulf between the ordinary mind and supermind. He suggests that this gulf should be bridged by Yoga. To Sri Aurobindo, the aim of Yoga is not to escape nature, and to become free from births and deaths. The Yoga aims at divinizing the whole man, bringing down the supermind in order to transform the human mind, life and 247 body. When this aim is fulfilled in a man's life, the man becomes a superman—the consummation of the spiritual man,— an individual universal in nature but "free in the universe, individual but not limited by a separate individuality. This is within the reach of any individual who practises Yoga. The aim of the spiritual man is to establish the Kingdom of God on earth. Therefore first of all he will try to create a community of perfected individuals for raising the life of humanity. Sri Aurobindo advises us to reform our minds before we try to reform the world. We should think in terms of unity, not of diversity; of harmony, not of discord; of all, not of each. He repeats to us the teaching of the Upanishad—"Happiness lies in the infinite, not in the finite." The greatness of Sri Aurobindo does not lie so much in his restatement of the integral spiritual ideal of the Rig-Veda, the early Upanishads and the Gita, as in his actual practice of Purna Yoga by which the supramental consciousness comes down to influence the mental, vital and physical being of man. The methods of Yoga that Sri Aurobindo prescribes are free from the difficult seats of physical postures (Asana and Pranayama) and mechanical exercises in concentration. His method is profoundly religious and spiritual. He recommends an absolute and unconditional surrender to God {Atmasamarpana) as the first step of Yoga; and this condition has to be maintained throughout. Man can achieve nothing on his own, unless he is helped by God. So he must surrender himself to God so that His grace may enter and purify and uplift him. With the above philosophy of Sri Aurobindo as the background we shall try to understand below Sri Aurobindo as an educator.

SRI AUROBINDO AS AN EDUCATOR Sri Aurobindo was expressed his educational ideas in the weekly "Karmayogin" published from February 12 to April 2, 1910. It is true that Sri Aurobindo is one of the greatest educators of humanity of all times, in the sense that he dedicated his life for showing man the path to the supreme spiritual advancement which is the real giver of solace to the mankind. But here it is proposed only to understand what Sri Aurobindo has to say about the training of young children as expressed in his articles published in the weekly "Karmayogin". 248

CONCEPT OF EDUCATION

Shri Aurobindo Ghosh was deadly against the prevalent education of his times. He has admitted that after the attainment of independence, changes have occurred in our system of education, but it is not in confirmity with the mental and spiritual, needs of children and demands of the nation. According to him, our education should be in accordance with the needs of our-real modern life. In other words, education should create dynamic citizens so that they are able to meet the real needs of modern complex life. Shri Aurobindo, thus, writes, "Education to be true must not be a machine made fabric, but a true building or living evocation of the powers of the mind and spirit of human being".

BASIC PRINCIPLES OF EDUCATIONAL PHILOSOPHY The basic principles of Shri Aurobindo's educational philosophy are given below : 1. Education should be imparted through the medium of mother tongue. 2. Education should be child centered. 3. Education should be according to the mental aptitudes and psychological needs of the child. 4. Education should develop to the full the latent powers of the child. 5. Education should achieve the physical purification of child. 6. Education should develop consciousness. 7. Education should train the senses of child. 8. Education should develop the soul substance of an individual. 9. Brahmacharya should be the basic foundation of education. 10. Subjects of education should be interesting. 11. Education should develop all the faculties of child to make him a complete man. 12. There should be religious tinge in education otherwise it will spread corruption. 249

OBJECTIVES OF EDUCATION Defining the objectives of education Sri Aurobindo said, "It must be an education that for the individual will make its one central object the growth of the soul and its powers and possibilities, for the nation will keep first in view the preservation, strengthening and enrichment of the nation-soul and its Dharma and raise both into powers of the life and ascending mind and soul of humanity. And at no time will it lose sight of man's highest object, the awakening and development of this spiritual being". Sri Aurobindo was not only one of the greatest philosopher and yogi of his time but also one of the greatest political leaders, social reformers and educationists of his era. He was a great patriot whose first concern was always the good of motherland. Therefore, he presented a national system of education which may be adopted for the educational reconstruction in India and at the same time develop the Indians as world citizens and the fore-runners of the advent of the supramental race upon earth. Sri Aurobindo's philosophy gives not only an important place to individual and nation but also to humanity. In these three principles, the higher determines the lower. Therefore, the national scheme of education will be not only from the point of view of the needs of the country but also from the standpoint of the needs of humanity. It is so since the highest principle governing the life of individual and nation is the humanity itself. It is as a human being first and last that the individual has to grow. It is as a member of a community of nations that a nation has to grow and develop. It is the forgetting of this central truth in the life of the individual and nation that has been the source of all evil and error. Again, Sri Aurobindo everywhere considers fulfilment of Swadharma as the law of life. Each individual in a nation has to fulfil his Swadharma. The purpose of education in a nation is to prepare the individual to serve their roles according to their status in society. Individual differences are the basis of modern system of education. Nature has bestowed different human beings with different capacities and powers. Therefore, the educationist has

250 to develop in the child whatever has been already endowed to him by God. The child is, "a soul with a lean, a nature and capacities of his own, who must be helped to find them, to find himself, to grow into their maturity, into a fullness of physical and vital energy and utmost breadth, depth and height of his emotional, his intellectual and his spiritual being". Thus, each human being is a self-developing soul. Parents and teachers have to help him in this development. In the words of N.C. Dowsett, "the concept of education in Sri Aurobindo's philosophy is summarised thus, 'The meaning of the word education is to educe the inner, hidden, latent, dormant, potential secret within every human being, secret because it is not of the senses but of the inner truth of being and because it is that most unknown part of the being which has yet to evolve to its full stature'."

THE TRUE EDUCATION Defining true education, Sri Aurobindo wrote, "There are three things which have to be taken into account in true and living education, the man, the individual in his commonness and in his uniqueness, the nation or people and universal humanity. It follows that alone will be true and living education which helps to bring out to full advantage, makes ready for the full purpose and scope of human life all that is in the individual man, and which at the same time helps him to enter into his right relation with the life, mind and soul of the people to which he belongs and with that great total life, mind and soul of humanity of which he himself is a unit and his people or nation a living, a separate and yet inseparable member." Thus, the true education should take into account not only the individual but also the nation and the humanity. It has to prepare the mind and soul of the individual and also of the nation to serve humanity. It has to unfold the individual potentialities, uniqueness and commonness. At the same time, it has to develop a right relation of the individual with the life, mind and soul of the community and humanity. In the words of Sri Aurobindo, the true national education is that, "which helps to bring out to full advantage, makes ready for the full purpose and scope of human life all that is in the individual man and which at the same time, helps him 251 to enter into right relation with the life, mind and soul of humanity of which he himself is a unit and his people or nation a living, a separate and yet inseparable member". Besides Swadharma, the role of a nation is determined by Swabhava. Swadeshi was the avowed principle in Sri Aurobindo's political philosophy. Each nation, according to him, has to grow and develop in tune with its peculiar Swabhava and Swadharma. This principle has been advocated by Indian thinkers since ancient times. Indian philosophy always considered everything as an instrument of spiritual growth. It may be called spiritual instrumentalism in contrast to the biological instrumentalism of John Dewey. Thus, the nation has to develop its mental, ethical and aesthetic being to make it a fit instrument for the growth of the soul. This is the highest purnshartha. India, according to Sri Aurobindo, is a nation which has to fulfil a spiritual role in the community of nations. Its ideal for the humanity also is spiritual. Therefore, Sri Aurobindo has everywhere called for the spiritual growth of humanity. Rational Education This, however, does not mean that Sri Aurobindo finds no place for reason in education. In his philosophy everywhere Sri Aurobindo has supported reason like any staunch rationalist and lauded its role as the law giver to the irrational elements, the passions, the sensibilities and the sense organs. A true and living education is also a rational education though it goes beyond reason for the spiritual growth of man. A rational education, according to Sri Aurobindo, includes the following three things : 1. To teach men how to observe and know rightly the facts on which they have to form a judgment. 2. To train them to think fruitfully and soundly. 3. To fit them to use their knowledge and their thought effectively for their own and the common good. Meeting of East and West

Brought up in the West, Sri Aurobindo had the first hand knowledge of the Western system of education. Like 252 Vivekananda and Tagore, he was also conversant with the advantages of European system of education. Though one of the greatest admirers of ancient Indian thoughts, Sri Aurobindo was a votary of the synthesis of whatever is good in East and West. This synthesis is visible everywhere in his thought. Therefore, while presenting a scheme for Indian education, he advocated synthesis of ancient Indian educational ideals along with the Western methods and techniques. As he said, "The first problem in a national system of education is to give an education as comprehensive as the European and more thorough, without the evils of strain and cramming. This can only be done by studying the instruments of knowledge and finding a system of teaching which shall be natural, easy and effective. It is only by strengthening and sharpening these instruments of their utmost capacity that they can be made effective for the increased work which modern conditions require. The muscles of the mind must be thoroughly trained by simple and easy means; then, and not till then, great feasts of intellectual strength can be required of them." Integral Education True education, according to Sri Aurobindo, is not only spiritual but also rational, vital and physical. In other words, it is an integral education. This integral education has been explained by Sri Aurobindo's closest collaborator the Mother, in these words, "Education to be complete must have five principal aspects relating to the five principal activities of the human being: the physical, the vital, the mental, the psychic and the spiritual. Usually these phases of education succeed each other in a chronological order following the growth of the individual. This, however, does not mean that one should replace another but that all must continue, completing each other, till the end of life." Sri Aurobindo's scheme of education is integral in two senses. Firstly, it is integral in the sense of including all the aspects of the individual being physical, vital, mental, psychic and spiritual. Secondly, it is integral in the sense of being an education not only for the evolution of the individual alone but also of the nation and finally of the humanity. In his 'Essays 253 On Gita' Sri Aurobindo initially presented the concept of integral education as outbringing all the facets of an individual personality. The ultimate aim of education is the evolution of total humanity which includes the evolution of the nation which in its turn depends upon the evolution of the individual. In this scheme of evolution the principle of growth is unity in diversity. This unity again, maintains and helps the evolution of diversity. Thus, each individual in nation and each nation in humanity has to develop a system of education according to its own Swabhava and fulfilling its Swadharma. Supramental Education The education again, is ultimately supramental education, that which leads to our evolution towards the supramental. This supramental evolution, however, will necessarily pass through and only after the evolution of the physical, the vital, the mental and the psychic. Physical education is the education of the body. It includes the order, discipline, plasticity and receptivity of the body. Its principal aspects are : 1. Control and discipline of functions, 2. A total, methodical and harmonious development of all the parts and movements of the body, and 3. Rectification of defects and deformities, if there are any. The vital education is indispensable, though difficult. It is so since the nature of vital has been often misunderstood. In the words of the Mother, the vital education involves two principal aspects, "The first as to develop and utilise the sense organs, the second is to become conscious and gradually master of one's character and in the end to achieve its transformation". Thus, vital education includes sense training and the development of character. This character again will be developed according to individual differences. It requires redirection and transformation of the instincts and emotions, drives and propensities. Describing the mental education the Mother has laid down the following five phases :

254 1. Development of the power of concentration, the capacity of attention. 2. Development of the capacities of expansion, wideness, complexity and richness. 3. Organisation of ideas around a central idea or a higher ideal or a supremely luminous idea that will serve as a guide in life. 4. Thought control, rejection of undesirable thoughts so that one may, in the end, think only what one wants and when one wants. 5. Development of mental silence, perfect calm and a more and more total receptivity to inspirations coming from the higher regions of the being. While the physical, vital and mental education are the means to develop the personality, the psychic education alone leads to the future evolution of man. Sri Aurobindo's system of education does not aim only at the adjustment and normal development of the human personality but its total growth and transformation. The idea of psychic education has not been developed in any existing philosophy of education. It is so since psychic element was never considered and understood by the Western educationists. In India also in spite of the importance of psychic element found in Yoga, its nature has been seldom understood. The core of the psychic education is the achievement of our identification with the psychic principles in us. This may be reached by psychological, religious or mechanical methods. Everyone will have to find out the method best suitable to him and his aspiration. The psychic education requires sincere and steady aspiration, a persistent and dynamic will, concentration, revelation and experience. In the words of the Mother "Only one thing is absolutely indispensable : the will to discover and realise". This is, in fact, the field of occult and Yoga. Thus, the supramental education requires the above steps as a prelude to its realisation. It is only after one gets through the physical, vital, mental and psychic education and realises a certain transformation that one can enter into supramental 255 education. To quote the Mother again, "Then will begin also a new education which can be called the supramental education; it will, by its all powerful action, work not only upon the consciousness of individual being, but upon the very substance of which they are built and upon the environment in which they live." The idea of supramental education like that of the psychic education is Aurobindo's significant contribution to the field of education. This is more important at the present juncture when most of the educationists are realising the need for an educational system aiming at man-making. According to Sri Aurobindo, humanity today has already reached what has been called by him a subjective stage. The future evolution has to be above the mental level. This will require a great insight and persistent efforts. The different types of education already discussed should not be given successively but simultaneously. The focus should be all the time on the inner growth. As the educand advances he should be taught to identify his real self and to find out the law of his being. The principles of this new type of education have been explained by Sri Aurobindo and the Mother in their different works.

AIMS OF EDUCATION The aims of education in the educational philosophy of Sri Aurobindo are as follows : 1. Perfection. Sri Aurobindo was a perfectionist. He was never satisfied with partial remedies. It is hence that he left the political arena to pursue a more perfect method of realisation of perfection of human race. It is hence that he presents his integral Yoga as a solution not only of the individual needs but also of the social and political problems facing nations and humanity. This perfectionism is the strength and this again is the weakness of Sri Aurobindo's philosophy of education. In tune with the Indian concept of human nature, Sri Aurobindo considered the individual as, "A growing soul with a being, a nature and capacities of his own". The aim of education, therefore, was to realise these capacities and grow, "into a fullness of physical and vital energy and utmost breadth, depth and height of his emotional, his intellectual and his spiritual being".

256 2. Harmony. Harmony is the key to understand Sri Aurobindo's thought everywhere. Those who complain about the difficulty in understanding his writings lack this inherent urge to harmony. On the other hand, those who seek harmony easily understand Sri Aurobindo's works. In his philosophy of education, as in his metaphysics, epistemology, political philosophy and social philosophy, Sri Aurobindo searches after the principle of harmony in the individual, community and humanity and aims at its realisation. He seeks to achieve harmony of the individual by the growth and evolution of his different aspects such as physical, vital, mental and psychic, etc. For this he proposes a scheme of physical, vital, mental, moral, religious and spiritual education. He also seeks harmony of different individuals in a community. Compatibility and not uniformity is the law of collective harmony. The roles of the male and female, the different types of individuals in a community are not identical but diverse and therefore, complementary. Thus Sri Aurobindo proposes an educational system in which details must be planned according to individual differences. This is particularly true about the women's education, education of backward classes and the education of below normal, abnormal and supernormal children. 3. Evolution. The edifice of Sri Aurobindo's philosophy is based upon his theory of evolution. It stands and falls with the truth of evolution. Evolution, however, has been felt and realised by almost all the thinkers of our age. Therefore, Sri Aurobindo aims at the evolution of the individual, nation and humanity through education. This evolution will be continued as spiral. It is hence that Sri Aurobindo aims at nothing less than supramental education. Evolution involves not only growth but also transformation, not only adjustment but a more intimate harmony. In the words of N.C. Dowsett, Sri Aurobindo's education aims, "to educate the true individual potential within each student, to help him to manifest that within him which is uniquely his, so he may find that as a perfection to be offered to life as his individual contribution to a collective perfection which is the evolving spirit of man and the true heritage to which he aspires". This evolution can be achieved by man's opening and uniting with 257 the universal divine. In other words, this requires divine perfection. 4. Humanisation. Education, according to Sri Aurobindo, as according to Vivekananda, aims at man-making. The individual and the nation have to grow as members of one humanity. Sri Aurobindo's system of national education ultimately aims at evolution of humanity. Describing the aim of Sri Aurobindo's international university at Pondicherry the Mother declared, "It is in answer to this pressing need that Sri Aurobindo conceived the scheme of his international university, so that the elite of humanity may be made ready who would be able to work for the progressive unification of the race and who at the same time would be prepared to embody the new force descending upon earth to transform it". 5. Harmony of the Individual and Collectivity. While most of the thinkers in social-political field have either laid emphasis upon the individual or the collectivity, Sri Aurobindo aims at realisation of harmony between individuals and also between nations. His scheme of education, therefore, is truly international. It is not only for India but also for the world. Explaining this ideal of Sri Aurobindo's scheme, the Mother said, "For all world organisation, to be real and to be able to live, must be based upon mutual respect and understanding between nation and nation as well as between individual and individual. It is only in the collective order and organisation, in a collaboration based upon mutual goodwill that lies the possibility of man being lifted out of the painful chaos where he is now. It is with this aim and in this spirit that all human problems will be studied at the university centre; and their solution will be given in the light of the supramental knowledge which Sri Aurobindo has revealed in his writings." 6. Building the Innate Powers. The central aim of education, according to Sri Aurobindo, is "the building of the powers of the human mind and spirit—the evoking of knowledge and will and of the power to use knowledge, character, culture that at least if not more". The child is born with certain innate powers of the body, the vital, the mind and the spirit. The aim of the school and the teacher is to develop these powers to their perfection. For this, a programme of sense training, body building, character 258 formation, development of logical and other mental faculties, religious education and finally a training in integral Yoga is necessary. Moral development and aesthetic development should go side by side.

7. Cultivation of Values. The present crisis of man is due to the chaos of values. Old values have been challenged while new values have not firmly taken their place. In his social philosophy, Sri Aurobindo has particularly discussed this problem. The values to be cultivated should be physical, mental as well as spiritual. Character formation very much depends on value. The supreme value in Sri Aurobindo's thought is hamrony. Other values are : spirituality, divinity, evolution, ascent, transformation, etc. All these must be cherished and developed. But the most important value required for all growth is sincerity. Once that is developed, the rest follows. Right emotions and Samskars, Swabhava and nature are the foundation of Sri Aurobindo's scheme of education. Sri Aurobindo not only aims at moral status but also going beyond it, rising above virtue and vice. This is the supramental status aimed at both by the individual and collectivity in Sri Aurobindo's thought. The Educational Model While Sri Aurobindo outlined a national system of education, a model to realise his scheme was developed by the Mother in the form of Sri Aurobindo international university at Pondicherry. It was developed as a new centre of education to experiment for the realisation of the aims outlined by Sri Aurobindo. The curriculum, the teaching methods, the system of education and all the other details were formed with this central aim. The fundamental principle underlying the model was freedom, since freedom is the only essential spiritual principle working any where. As has been already pointed out, this ideal control of education not only aimed at revelation of Sri Aurobindo's aim in India but also in humanity. All the aims of education outlined earlier were practised here. Children were admitted from a very early age. They gathered from all the parts of the country as well as from different countries in the world to make it a true representative of world cultures. 259 The natural scenery, dress, games, sports, industries, food, art, etc., were developed on the principle of unity and diversity. An effort was made to realise a cultural synthesis. Students of different nations were placed at different places with their own groups so that while they may develop international culture, no rigid time-table, classes, curriculum, teaching method or system of evaluation and examination was insisted. This was left upon individual choice of the educand himself. The idea was to give full freedom to the individual growth of the educand. The experiment fared very well but did not grow elsewhere due to obvious difficulties in such experiments. However, it is undoubtedly a model for a new system of education which may be hoped to develop in India and also in parts of the world.

THE SCHOOL The ultimate idea of the school is man-making. It prepares the educand to work first as a human being and then as a member of a nation and finally as an individual. The circles of moral responsibility and loyalties proceed from wider to narrower and not vice-versa. The man has to develop first as a human being then as a citizen and finally as an individual. Most of the present confusion of values is due to an inversion of this order. Sri Aurobindo believes in three ultimate principles, individuality, commonality and essentially. These, in other words, are the educand, the society and the humanity. Integral evolution, according to him, must include evolution of all these three elements. Thus, the individuality and commonality should develop together. This is the purpose of the school. The school should treat all children as equal and provide sufficient scope for the development of their individual variations without insisting upon similarities. In his lecture at Baroda College Sri Aurobindo observed that the colleges and universities should educate through their academic as well as social activities. Thus, the college should have its bearing upon the community around it. The school cannot be isolated from society. It cannot give total education in isolation. Its teachings have to be practised in the society outside it. The university merely gives some materials to the educand which he may use. 260 In the integral school four types of rooms are required to carry on various activities : 1. Rooms of silence, 2. Rooms of collaboration, 3. Rooms of consultation, 4. Lecture rooms. Thus, the school will develop different types of activities such as silence, collaboration, consultation and lectures. It will provide play, activity, discovery, innovation and finally development of the powers of the body, mind and spirit of the educand. In brief, the integral school will provide opportunities for integral development.

THE TEACHER Like the ancient Indian system of education, Sri Aurobindo has assigned a very important place to the teacher.- He has, however, not made him central as in the ancient Indian scheme. The central place, as in the Western systems of education, has been occupied by the educand. His philosophy of education, therefore, is paidocentric. However, the teacher remains the philosopher and the guide. The Guru does not have absolute authority. He aims at turning the disciple's eye towards the beacon light of his own Godhead. In fact, the real teacher is within the educand. He is the God. He is the ultimate guide and yet the teacher plays an important role in arousing the educand towards God within. He has not to impose his opinions or demand passive surrender from the educand. He has to create an atmosphere so that the educand may grow freely. Sri Aurobindo accepts the role of a gardener in the teacher as maintained by many Western educational philosophers. The teacher acts as an aid, a means and a channel. His relationship with the educand is very close. In the ancient Indian tradition, Sri Aurobindo emphasises an inner relationship between the educator and the educand. For this the teacher should develop certain innate qualities. Describing as to who is a teacher, the Mother has laid down the following qualifications, "Teachers who do not possess a perfect calm, an unfailing endurance, an unshakeable quietness who are full of self-conceit will reach nowhere. One must be a saint and a hero to become a good teacher. One must be a great yogi to become a good teacher. One must have the perfect attitude in order to be able to exact from one's pupils a perfect attitude. 261 You cannot ask of a person what you do not do yourself. It is a rule. You must then look within you at the difference between what is and what should be, and this difference will give you the measure of your failure in the class. In brief, the teacher should be an integral yogi. He should be able to eliminate his ego, master his mind, develop an insight into human nature and to progress in impersonalisation. He should be absolutely disciplined and having an integrated personality. The most important thing in a teacher is not the knowledge but the attitude. An intellectual excellence is not sufficient without a development of other aspects of personality. The teacher should have the capacity to project himself to the educand so that he may have an understanding of the needs of the educand. The schools aim not only on the progress of the educand but also of the educator. In the words of the Mother, "The school must be an occasion of progress for the teacher as well as for the student. Each must have the freedom to develop himself freely. One never applies a method well unless one has discovered it oneself". In practice the central trait of the teacher is the inner calm. He should exercise influence not by scolding but by moral control. In the words of the Mother, "I must tell you that if a professor wants to be respected, he must be respectable." Personality Traits of the Teacher In order to fulfil his role, the teacher should take it seriously and honestly. He should develop his personality more than the ordinary man so that he may be able to influence others. He should be a representative of divine on earth. He should be in close touch with the divine consciousness. He should be a representative of the supreme knowledge, the supreme truth and the supreme law. Then alone his influence will work. The Mother has prescribed the following personality traits for a true teacher : 1. Complete self-control not only to the extent of not showing any anger, but remaining absolutely quiet and undisturbed under all circumstances. 2. In the matter of self-confidence, he must also have the sense of the relativity of his importance. 262 Above all, he must have the knowledge that the teacher himself must always progress if he wants his students to progress, must not remain satisfied either with what he is or with what he knows. 3. Must not have any sense of essential superiority over his students nor preference of attachment whatsoever for one or

another. 4. Must know that all are equal spiritually and instead of mere tolerance must have a global comprehension or understanding. 5. The business of both parent and teacher is to enable and to help the child to educate himself, to develop his own intellectual, moral, aesthetic and practical capacities and to grow freely as an organic being, not to be kneaded and pressured into form like an inert plastic material.

THE CURRICULUM Shri Aurobindo Ghosh prescribed free environment for the child to develop all his latent faculties to the full and suggested all those subjects and activities of child's interest to be included in the Curriculum. Such subjects and activities should possess elements of creativity and educational expression. He wished to infuse a new life and spirit into each subject and activity through which the development of super human being could become possible. For this, he laid down the following principles for Curriculum construction : 1. Curriculum should be interesting. 2. It should include all those subjects which promote mental and spiritual development. 3. Subjects of Curriculum should be able to motivate children. 4. Curriculum items should involve creativity of life and constructive capacities. 5. Curriculum should motivate children towards the attainment of knowledge of the whole world. On the basis of the above principles, Aurobindo has prescribed the following subjects in the Curriculum for the different stages of education: 263 1. Primary Stage. Mother tongue, English, French, Literature, National history, Art, Painting, General Science, Social studies and Arithmetic. 2. Secondary Stage. Mother tongue, English, French, Arithmetic, Art, Chemistry, Physics, Botany, Physiology, Health education, Social studies. 3. University Stage. Indian and Western Philosophy, History of Civilization, English literature, French literature, Sociology, Psychology, History of Science, Chemistry, Physics, Botany, International relations and integration. 4. Vocational Education. Arts, Painting, Photography, Sewing, Sculptural drawing, Type, Shorthand, Cottage industries, Carpentary, Mechanical and Electrical Engineering, Nursing, Indian and European Music, Dramatization and Dancing. As it has been already pointed out that the essential principle of Sri Aurobindo's philosophy of education is freedom. Unity is never demanded at the cost of diversity. On the other hand, diversity creates a rich unity. Therefore, no rigid scheme of curriculum has been prescribed. However, hints are scattered in Sri Aurobindo's works about different criteria of curriculum. The earliest permissible age for starting regular study according to Sri Aurobindo is seven or eight years. At this age, the child is sufficiently grown up to take up regular study. The proper medium for early education of the child is the mother tongue. It is only after the mother tongue that the child can learn other languages. As has been already pointed out, the following criteria for planning curriculum are found in Sri Aurobindo's writings: 1. Human Nature. The curriculum should aim at developing whatever is already given in seed form in the child. Education can only lead to the perfection of the instruments which are already present in the educand. Nothing can be taught or imposed from outside. In the words of the Mother, "Fundamentally the only thing you must do assiduously is to teach them to know themselves, and to choose their own destiny, the way they want to follow." 2. Individual Differences. The curriculum should be planned according to individual differences. The mind has to be consulted in its own growth. The aim of the teacher is to help the growing soul in drawing out his best and to make it perfect for a noble use. 264 3. From Near to the Far. Another principle governing the planning of curriculum is to proceed from near to the far, from

that which is to that which shall be. 4. Modern and Up-to-date. Sri Aurobindo was not a reactionary or a conservative. He was a modern thinker with a love for modernity and uptodate knowledge. Therefore, he prescribed that the education must be up-to-date in form and substance and modern in life and spirit. 5. Universal Knowledge. The curriculum should include whatever is universally true. That is the basis of all scientific knowledge and philosophy. Truth and knowledge are one and not confined to any country. Therefore, according to Sri Aurobindo, education should be universal without any nationality or borders. 6. Successive Teaching. Sri Aurobindo disagrees with some educationists who wish to introduce every subject simultaneously to the child. He prescribes that the subjects should be taught successively. New subjects should be introduced after the earlier are mastered. Thus, few subjects should be taught at a time. 7. Co-curricular Activities. The school should provide not only academic but also co-curricular activities. 8. Five-fold Curriculum. As has been already pointed out, integral education is five-fold. It includes the physical, the vital, the mental, the psychic and the spiritual education. Therefore, the curriculum must be five-fold according to these five types of education. Of these the education of the mind involves the most detailed curriculum. It requires different curriculum for the development of the different powers of the mind such as observation, memory, judgement, comparison, contrast, analogy, reasoning and imagination, etc. Sense training requires curriculum involving all the five senses. 9. Multisidedness. Integral education is multisided. It aims at allround growth. Therefore, its curriculum involves music, poetry, art, painting and sculpture, besides the academic subjects. These are necessary for the aesthetic development of the child. These aim at contemplation and understanding of beauty and just arrangement of the tastes, habits and character of the educand. According to Sri Aurobindo, in contrast to many other educationists music, art and poetry purify, control, deepen and harmonise the movements of the soul. 265 In his work entitled The National Value of Art, Sri Aurobindo points out three uses of art. Firstly, it is purely aesthetic, secondly it is intellectual and educative and thirdly, it is spiritual. The aesthetic development purifies conduct and disciplines the animal instincts and lower feelings of the heart. The artistic sense helps in the formation of morals and purification of the emotion. Thus, art has both intellectual and spiritual values. It is subtle and delicate and makes the mind subtle and delicate. 10. Provision for the Genius. The curriculum must provide for the genius. According to Sri Aurobindo, "What we call genius is part of the development of the human range of being and its achievements especially in things of the mind and their will can carry us half way to the divine". The curriculum should cater for the perfection of the different powers of the genius. 11. Moral and Religious Education. Curriculum for moral education should aim at refining the emotions and forming the proper habits and associations. Religious teaching like moral teaching does not involve so much of curriculum as teaching by example and provision of right atmosphere. In the words of Sri Aurobindo, "Whether distinct teaching in any form of religion is imparted or not the essence of religion, to live for God, for humanity, for country, for others and for oneself must be made the ideal in every school." Thus, the aim of the curriculum, according to Sri Aurobindo, is the actualisation of the potentialities of the educand. The material is the basis and spiritual is the summit of education. The curriculum, gradually, becomes more and more abstract leading to the realisation of higher experiences. Same curriculum may be followed by male and female. The schools may be coeducational. Sufficient emphasis should be laid upon aesthetic, moral and religious teaching. The curriculum should not be fixed but flexible and evolutionary. A variety of choice and opportunities must be prescribed for maintaining the freedom of growth. The integral curriculum should find a due place for every subject and every discipline.

A TENTATIVE EDUCATIONAL PLAN Norman C. Dowsett has presented the following tentative educational plan developed by International Centre of Education, 266 Pondicherry, based upon educational philosophy of Sri Aurobindo.

1. The Play school (1-3 years): Provision of love, security, wonder, discovery and adventure. 2. Pre-School discipline of the physical mind (3-5 years): (a) order; (b) activities, physical exercises and games. 3. Prime-School of fulfilment of the vital mind (5-71/2 years): (a) body awareness—discipline of the physical mind to continue; (b) fulfilment of vital energies—the vital should be fulfilled through art, drawing, painting, sculpture, dance, drama, music, etc. 4. High school of the freedom of the mental mind I phase (71/2-101/2 years): use of the instrument of knowledge. 5. High school of the freedom of the mental mind II phase (101/2-14 years) integration of the progressive series of creative energies. 6. Graduation school of psychic education (14-17 years): appreciation of individuality, progressive understanding of his inner potential and his contribution to the group, society, nation and the world. 7. College of spiritual education (17-21 years): spiritual realisation, integration of all that has been achieved.

THE IDEAL CHILD Sri Aurobindo's system of education is paidocentric. It aims at the creation of ideal children. The ideal children are absolutely sincere and constantly progressive. They are forbidden fighting anywhere. They are always truthful. The Mother has given the following description of an ideal child. 1. Good-Tempered. He does not become angry when things seem to go against him or decisions are not in his favour. 2. Game. Whatever he does it to the best of his capacity and keeps on doing in the face of almost certain failure. He always thinks straight and acts straight. 3. Truthful. He never fears to say the truth whatever may be the consequences. 267 4. Patient. He does not get disheartened if he has to wait a long time to see the results of his effort. 5. Enduring. He never slackens his effort however long it has to last. 6. Poised. He keeps equanimity in success as well as in failure. 7. Courageous. He always goes on fighting for the final victory though he may meet with many defeats. 8. Cheerful. He knows how to smile and keep a happy heart in all circumstances. 9. Modest. He does not become conceited over his success, neither does he feel himself superior to his comrades. 10. Generous. He appreciates the merits of others and is always ready to help another to succeed. 11. Courteous. On the field he does not jeer at errors, he does not cheer at the opponent's defeat; he treates them as guests, not enemies. In school he is considerate to the authorities, the fellow students, and the teachers. In life he is respectful to others; he treats them as he would be treated. 12. Obedient. On the field he observes the regulations. In life he respects the rules which help to promote harmony. 13. Fair. On the field he competes in a clean, hardfought but friendly way; he helps an injured opponent. In school he does not waste his time nor that of the teachers. He is always honest. In life he sees impartially both sides of a question.

Thus, Sri Aurobindo's integral education gives highest place to the children. They are considered as divine force, the leaders of the future gnostic race on the earth. All the hopes for man's future lie upon the proper development of the younger generation. There is no gap between the teacher, the Guru and the children. Integral education considers the inner relationship and rapport as the first condition of all education. It is in this spirit that the Mother said to the children of the Ashram, "My children, we are united towards the same goal and the same accomplishment for a work unique and new, that the divine Grace has given us to accomplish. I hope that more and more you will understand the exceptional importance of this work and that you will sense in yourself the sublime joy that the accomplishment will give you. The divine force is with you, 268 feel its presence more and more and be very careful never to betray it. Feel, wish, act, that you may be new beings for the realisation of a new world and for this my blessings shall be always with you." Thus, the children are highly respected. The job of the teacher is not utilitarian or for earning his bread but for manmaking. It is in the spirit of offering of one's action to God that the teachers can create the spirit of sacrifice in the children. Sri Aurobindo's integral education is based upon faith in human nature. As against the explanation of human nature offered by most of the Western thinkers including Hobbes, Sri Aurobindo, like many other religious savants, considers man as divine. It was in this spirit that the Mother said to the children of the Ashram, "Be courageous, enduring, vigilant; above all be sincere, with perfect honesty. Then you will be able to face all difficulties. And victory will be yours."

TEACHING METHODS Thus, the teaching methods in integral education of Sri Aurobindo are based on the one hand on faith in the inner goodness and evolutionary nature of the educand and on the other hand on the psychological principles involved in teaching. Sri Aurobindo's explanations and suggestions are everywhere psychological. Without going into the details, he has always kept his eye focussed on the tendencies working within him. Therefore, his suggestions are very valuable. Teaching Children Sri Aurobindo and the Mother gave particular attention to the methods of teaching children. In this connection the following suggestions are offered : 1. The teachers should have sufficient documentation of what they know. They should be able to answer all questions. 2. They should have at least the knowledge if not the experience of true intellectual and intuitive attitude. This knowledge can be attained through mental silence. 3. He is the best teacher who has the capacity and not only knowledge of the different fields of evolution. 269 4. Thus, the professors must be sincere in discipline and experience. They should not be propagandists. 5. To start with, "The children, as soon as they have the capacity to think (it begins at 7 years but towards 14 years it is very clear) should be given small indications at 7 and a complete explanation at 14, of how to do it, and that it is the unique method to enter into relation with the profounds, that all the rest is a mental approximation, more or less inapt of something that can be known directly". Teaching Very Small Children About the teaching of very small children. The Mother has laid down the following principles for the teachers : Never to deceive oneself. Never to be angry. Always to be understanding. Never try to impose on them.

Never scold but always try to understand. With Rousseau Sri Aurobindo believes that the child is naturally good but gradually corrupted by bad environment. In an adverse environment the child looses all contact with the self in him. Therefore, the Mother has insisted that the most necessary thing to be taught to the child is to follow the inner psychic consciousness. As she said, "That is why I insist on that and I say that from the very earliest age children must be taught that there is a reality within themselves, within the earth, within the universe and that he himself, the earth and the universe, exist only as a function of this truth and if it did not exist, he would not last, even the short time he lasts and that everything would dissolve as soon as it is created. This, however, does not require philosophical explanations. The child is not prepared for mental understanding of the self. He should be made to realise the inner consciousness. His education, therefore, should be by projects and playway methods. The child responds to the psychic vibrations. He is most impressed by affection and feelings. Therefore, integral education rules out all harsh treatment, scolding or being angry towards the children. One must have sufficient patience with them. The 270 habits for cleanliness and hygiene should start very early. This, however, does not require creating fear of illness in the child. The Mother has warned, "Fear is the worst incentive to education and the surest way of attracting what is feared". This warning is timely not only for early education but for secondary and university education in our country. How to Teach Sri Aurobindo, in his exposition of teaching methods, keeps his eye focussed on the truth alone. He is neither prejudiced in favour nor against the ancient Indian teaching methods or the Western ways of teaching. As he said, "The past hangs about our necks with all its prejudices and errors and will not leave us; it enters into our most radical attempts to return to the guidance of the all-wise Mother. We must have the courage to take up clearer knowledge and apply it fearlessly in the interests of posterity." Successive Teaching Accepting that every child has multiple tendencies and abilities requiring teaching of various subjects, Sri Aurobindo favours successive teaching as against simultaneous introduction of so many subjects in early education. Among the different subjects to be taught to the child, the basic subjects should be introduced first so that a sound foundation for education is made. As Sri Aurobindo points out, "The old system was to teach one or two subjects well and thoroughly and then proceed to others and certainly it was a more rational system than the modern. If it did not impart so much varied information, it built up a deeper, nobler and more real culture". Thus, different subjects should be studied one by one. The same principle is applicable to the teaching of text-books. Each chapter should be studied thoroughly and in succession. In the words of the Mother, "One should leave a chapter when it has been fully grasped then only take up the next one and so on. If a chapter is finished, it is finished and if it is not finished it is not finished." The child's education should start at the age of 7 or 8 for, according to Sri Aurobindo, "That is the earliest permissible age for the commencement of any regular kind of study". At 271 this age the child is capable of concentration and interest. Therefore, the first thing to be created in the child is interest in the subject. Education Through Practical Experience Thus, like all other modern educators, Sri Aurobindo pleads for introduction of different subjects to the child through practical experience. First of all, he should acquire mastery of the mother tongue as the medium of the education, because that is the required sound basis for regular instruction. Elaborating the needs of practical foundation of child's education, Sri Aurobindo gives valuable suggestions for the teaching of different subjects appealing to the imagination, the dramatic faculty, love for the narrative, hero worship, urge to enquiry and other natural characteristics of the child. To quote his advise, "Almost every child has an imagination, an instinct for words, a dramatic faculty, a wealth of idea and fancy. These should be interested in the literature and history of the nation. Instead of stupid and dry spelling and reading books, looked on as a dreary and ungrateful task, he should be introduced by rapidly progressive stages to the most interesting parts of his own literature and the life around him and behind him, and they should be put before him in such a way as to

attract and appeal to the qualities of which I have spoken. All other study at this period should be devoted to the perfection of the mental functions and the moral character. A foundation should be laid at this time for the study of history, science, philosophy, but not in an obtrusive and formal manner. Every child is a lover of interesting narrative, a hero-worshipper and a patriot. Appeal to these qualities in him and through them let him master without knowing it the living and human parts of his nation's history. Every child is an inquirer, an investigator, analyser, a merciless anatomist. Appeal to those qualities in him and let him acquire without knowing it, the necessary fundamental knowledge of the scientist. Every child has an insatiable intellectual curiosity and turn for metaphysical inquiry. Use it to draw him on slowly to an understanding of the world and himself. Every child has the gift of imitation and a touch of imaginative power. Use it to give him the ground work of the faculty of the artist." 272 Three Principles of Teaching Now, before trying to understand methods of teaching of different instruments of the educand one should remember the following three principles of teaching laid down by Sri Aurobindo : 1. The first principle is that nothing can be taught. 2. The second principle is that the mind should be constantly consulted in its growth. 3. The third principle is to work from the near to the far, from that which is to that which shall be. Integral Teaching Integral teaching involves training of all the aspects of the educand's mind and personality. Starting with sense training it develops the memory and judgement, the observation and comparison, analogy, reasoning, imagination, language, grammar and meaning of the logical faculty, etc. All these characteristics are present in every child. In the words of Sri Aurobindo, "Every child is an inquirer, an investigator, analyser, a merciless anatomist". The first thing to do is to arouse the curiosity, imagination and natural interest of the child so that he may spontaneously enquire, understand and learn. As Sri Aurobindo advises the teachers, "The first work is to interest the child in life, work and knowledge, to develop his instruments of knowledge with the utmost thoroughness, to give him mastery of the medium he must use. Afterwards the rapidity with which he will learn will make up for any delay in taking up regular studies and it will be found that... he will learn many things thoroughly well." Observation Sense training starts with observation. The child has a natural urge to observe the nature around. It is hence that most of the educationists have advised that early education should start with child's observation of nature under the guidance of the teacher. Explaining this method of teaching Sri Aurobindo said, "We may take the instance of a flower. Instead of looking casually 273 at it and getting a casual impression of scent, form and colour, he should be encouraged to know the flower to fix in his mind the exact shade, the precise intensity of the scent, the beauty of curve and design in the form. His touch should assure itself of the texture and its peculiarities. Next, the flower should be taken to pieces and its structure examined with the same carefulness of observation. All this should be done not as a task, but as an object by skillfully arranged questions suited to the learner which will draw him on to observe and investigate one thing after the other until he has almost unconsciously mastered the whole." The observation is not confined to the flowers and leaves. The child will also learn by the observation of stars, earth, stones, insects, animals and things made by human beings. The example of observation given above is particularly useful in the teaching of botany. To quote Sri Aurobindo, "The observation and comparison of flowers, leaves, plants, trees will lay the foundations of botanical knowledge without loading the mind with names and that dry set acquisition of information which is the beginning of cramming and detested by the healthy human mind when it is fresh from nature and unspoiled by unnatural habits." Elaborating further use of observation method of teaching other subjects, Sri Aurobindo said, "In the same way by the

observation of the stars, astronomy, by the observation of earth, stones, etc., geology, by the observation of insects and animals, entomology and zoology may be founded. A little later, chemistry may be started by interesting observation of experiments without any formal teaching or heaping on the mind of formulas and book knowledge." Training of Memory and Judgement As in the case of sense training so also in the case of training of the mind, Sri Aurobindo wants to make them spontaneous and unconscious. He is against all mechanical, burdensome and unintelligent way of memory training. He is against any use of rote memory. Memory training should involve nothing of similarities and differences in things observed. According to Sri Aurobindo, "A similar but different flower should be put 274 in the hands and he should be encouraged to note it with the same care, but with the avowed object of noting the similarities and differences. By this practice daily repeated the memory will naturally be trained." This in its turn will train the faculty of judgement. To quote Sri Aurobindo again, "At every step the boy will have to decide what is the right idea, measurement, appreciation of colour, sound, scent, etc., and what is the wrong. Often the judgements and distinctions made will have to be exceedingly subtle and delicate. At first many errors will be made, but the learner should be taught to trust his judgement without being attached to its results. It will be found that the judgement will soon begin to respond to the calls made on it, clear itself of all errors and begin to judge correctly and minutely. The best way is to accustom the boy to compare his judgements with those of others. When he is wrong, it should at first be pointed out to him how far he was right and why he went wrong; afterwards he should be encouraged to note these things for himself. Every time he is right, his attention should be prominently and encouragingly called to it so that he may get confidence." The training of memory and judgement is the basis of every scientific teaching. In the opinion of Sri Aurobindo, "There is no scientific subject the perfect and natural mastery of which cannot be prepared in early childhood by this training of the faculties to observe, compare, remember and judge various classes". Judgement gives the ability to choose between right and wrong. It is, therefore, a prelude to every decision about values. Training of Logical Faculty Training of judgement very much depends upon the training of logical faculty. According to Sri Aurobindo, training of logical reasoning requires the following three elements : 1. The correctness of the facts, 2. the completeness as well as the accuracy of the data, 3. the elimination of other possible or impossible conclusions from the same facts. 275 The young child should be trained to take interest in drawing inferences from the facts. For this purpose he should proceed, "From the example to the rule and from the accumulating harmony of rules to the formal science of the subject". The reasoning should proceed from concrete to abstract, since this is the law of training of mental faculties, the sound should be acknowledged before the sense. Explaining his principle in this connection Sri Aurobindo has remarked, "The true knowledge takes its base on things, arthas, and only when it has mastered the thing, proceeds to formalise its information." Training of Imagination Several subjects including literature, particularly, require a training of imagination. This is the first requirement of any excellence in any creative art. As Sri Aurobindo has given an important place to art and literature in his plan of education, he insists upon the child's training in imagination. According to him, "This is a most important and indispensable instrument". For the training of imagination Sri Aurobindo recommends, "It may be divided into three functions, the forming of mental images, the power of creating thoughts, images and imitations or new combinations of existing thoughts and images, the

appreciation of the soul in things, beauty, charm, greatness, hidden suggestiveness, the emotion and spiritual life that pervades the world." Training of Language Explaining his principle for training of language, Sri Aurobindo finds out that first the child should know the things and then the ideas. He laments that most of the dealings with language show an absence of fine sense of words. He suggests, "The mind should be accustomed first to notice the word thoroughly, its form, sound and sense, then to compare the form with other similar forms in the points of similarity and difference, thus, forming the foundation of the grammatical sense; then to distinguish between the fine shades of sense of similar words and the formation and rhythm of different sentences, thus forming the foundation of the literary and the syntactical faculties." 276 All this should be done informally. One should avoid set rules of teaching and memorising. Sri Aurobindo is everywhere against mechanical processes. The teaching should first arouse the interest of the child and then depend upon spontaneous use of his abilities. The child should be allowed absolute freedom in his progress. Free Progress System The followers of Sri Aurobindo have developed a free progress system of education, whose salient features are as follows : 1. The structure is oriented towards individual needs, interests and abilities. 2. The aspiration, experience of freedom, self-education and experimentation relating inner needs with the curricular provisions, discovering the higher lines of life and the art to encompass. 3. Each student is free to study any subject he chooses at any given time under a sympathetic guidance. 4. Promotion of individual endeavour. 5. Weekly announcement of time-table and lectures to be delivered. 6. Promotion of discussion between teachers and taught and between taught and taught. 7. Projects are announced in each subject and the students select according to their choice. No Set Distinction In his system of education, Sri Aurobindo does not make any distinction on the basis of sex. The education for man and woman should be similar in all respect. Clarifying this rejection of sex distinctions in education, the Mother said, "What we claim is this, that in similar conditions, with the same education and the same possibilities, there is no reason to make a categorical distinction, final and imperative between what we call men and women. For us human beings are the expression of a single soul." In his interpretation of his Indian social system Sri Aurobindo laid emphasis upon equality of sexes. He lamented 277 that later on the women were subjugated to men leading to degeneration of society. He proposes that the women should be everywhere treated as equals to men. He is against Indian psychological dictum that male and female should avoid each other's company. He, on the other hand, maintains, "There is no impossibility of friendship between man and woman pure of this element (sex), such friendships can exist and have always existed. All that is needed is that the lower vital should not look in it through the back door or be permitted to enter." Therefore, no distinctions are made between boys and girls in Mother's International School or Sri Aurobindo International University at Pondicherry. The most unique feature of the education at these two institutions is the prescription of physical exercises both for boys and girls. Clarifying this policy the Mother said, "In all cases, as well as for boys as for girls, the exercises must be graded according to the strength and capacity of each one. If a weak student tries at once to do hard and heavy exercises, he may suffer for his foolishness. But with a wise and progressive training girls as well as boys can participate in all kinds of sports, increase their strength and health."

According to Sri Aurobindo, both men and women are equally capable to evolve toward perfection to reach gnostic age.

DISCIPLINE AND FREEDOM The Mother has rightly said, "No big creation is possible without discipline". Defining discipline in terms of the highest principle Sri Aurobindo maintained that it is "to act according to a standard of truth or a rule or law of action or in obedience to a superior authority or the highest principle discovered by the reason or intelligent will". Thus, discipline is a controlled life. The physical, the vital and the mental sources are guided by spirituality. It is against unbridled indulgence in fancies, impulses and desires. It is obedience of the inner sense. Partly, it is also obedience of authority. Kinds of Discipline Discipline, according to Sri Aurobindo, is : Individual discipline, Group discipline and finally Discipline towards the Divine. These distinctions have been made on the basis of the authority 278 functioning in imposition of discipline. Individual discipline is imposed by the individual himself. Group discipline is imposed by the group or the majority or the leader in it. Discipline towards the Divine means, rigorous perusal of the dictates of the Divine. However, these three types of discipline are essentially the same since underlying the individual, group and the universe there is only one Divine principle. Sri Aurobindo maintains that the three aspects of reality, viz., individuality, commonality and essentiality are in fact one. Disciplinary Measures The best way to impose discipline, according to Sri Aurobindo, is the atmosphere and the example by the teacher. The following measures have been recommended by Sri Aurobindo and the Mother to inculcate discipline among the students : 1. Generally speaking, the discipline should start at the age of twelve. 2. The most important measure is the example of the teacher. The teacher should be punctual, properly dressed, calm, methodical, orderly, sympathetic and courteous. He should himself present high examples of sincerity, honesty, straightforwardness, courage, disinterestedness, unselfishness, patience, endurance, preseverance, peace and self-control. He should first of all train his own emotions and morals. He should have a respect of the child. Nothing should be imposed from outside but suggested by examples. Examples are the best for the personal guidance and to exercise influence upon the educands. In the words of the Mother, "It is through example that education becomes effective. To say good words, give wise advice to a child has very little effect, if one does not show by one's living example the truth of what one teaches." The vibrations between the teacher and the taught should be favourable, there should be no use of force in discipline. According to the Mother, before the age of seven years the child is not conscious of himself and does not know why and 279 how to do things. During this period, he should be trained to acquire traits of a human being. From the age of seven years to fourteen years of age, the child should be taught to choose what he wishes to be. At 14, he should be clear at what he wants to do. After 14 years of age, he should be left independent to pursue his course. He may be only advised now and then. There can be no definite rules for the guidance of the students in the process of discipline. Sri Aurobindo recommends emphasis upon individual difference without any hammering of the child. He believes that, "Everyone has in him something divine, something his own, a chance of perfection and strength in, however, small a sphere which God offers him to take or refuse. The task is to find it, develop it and use it." Finally, discipline is ultimately spiritual. This requires psychic realisation. Sri Aurobindo suggests the following two ways for converting mental seeking into living spiritual experience: 1. The concentration of the consciousness within, especially in the main centres—in the heart (the cardiac centre in the

middle of the chest) and the head. 2. To accord the nature—physical, vital and mental with the inner realisation so that one may not be divided into two discordant parts. Among the several ways to accord the nature with the inner realisation, the following two have been particularly emphasised by Sri Aurobindo : 1. To offer all the activities to the divine and call for the inner guidance—the inward soul is being opened, the psychic being comes for help, gradually the imperfections are being removed and the physical consciousness is being reshaped. 2. To stand back detached from the movements of the physical, vital and mental being—becoming aware of the inner opening of body, life and mind in the psychic entity. Discipline and Freedom From the above discussion, it is clear that according to Sri 280 Aurobindo, freedom is the real discipline. This, however, is only spiritual freedom. In the realm of spirit there is no chasm between discipline and freedom. Each one has to grow and expand according to his own principle. The inner voice in every educand is in fact the divine principle in him. Thus, realisation of freedom is God realisation. As order is the prelude to liberty, similarly discipline is a precondition for realisation of freedom. Code of Conduct This, however, does not mean that there is no code of conduct at the Mother's International School or at Sri Aurobindo's International University. As the principal guide of both these institutions the Mother has laid down code of conduct for the educands. She is against any outward limitation of the child's liberty but she insists that once the choice for joining the above mentioned institutions has been made, there is no turning aside. She is against any use of compulsion or obligation. She, however, insists upon taking judgement and following them. She advises the educands to arrive at rational decisions and to follow them. She maintains that the class discipline must be followed. In her own words, "But if a student has decided to follow a class, it is an absolutely elementary discipline for him to follow it, he must go to the class regularly and behave decently there otherwise he is quite unfit to go to school". She was against any illusions about the abilities of the educands. She warned, "Do not mistake liberty for licence and freedom for bad manners. The thought must be pure and the aspiration ardent." She laid down the following code of behaviour for the students : 1. The good manners should be always observed. 2. Everyone should always speak the truth. 3. Truth in speech demands truth in acts too. 4. It is forbidden for children to fight at school, in the street, in the playground and at home. "Always and everywhere it is forbidden for children to fight among themselves, for each time one gives a blow to someone, it is to one's own soul that one gives it." 5. The child should always remember— The necessity of an absolute sincerity. The certitude of Truth's final victory. 281 The possibility of constant progress with the will to achieve. Moral and Religious Education "In the economy of man the mental nature rests upon the moral, and the education of the intellect divorced from the perfection of the moral and emotional nature is injurious to human progress." Thus, he thinks that an intellectual education divorced from the perfection of the moral and emotional nature checks the

human progress. He admits the difficulty of providing moral and religious training in the modern school and colleges, and he says that the teaching of moral and religious textbooks is a vanity and delusion, because the heart is not necessarily educated by the instructing the mind, though the instructing the mind does influence the heart also upto some extent. But the danger with moral textbooks is this that through them the thinking of high things becomes mechanical and artificial, and hence, the same cannot be put into actual practice. Emotions, 'formed habits and associations', and the nature are the three chief things to be dealt with in connection with a child's moral nature. In order to make the child moral, he must be guided to get habituated to the right emotions, the noblest associations and to follow the fundamental impulses of his essential nature in right action. As in the education of the mind, so in the education of the heart, the best way to help the child is to put him on the right road to his own perfection and to encourage him to follow it and in no way should the child be interfered within this process. Sri Aurobindo remarks, "The old Indian system of the Guru commanding by his knowledge and sanctity the implicit obedience, perfect admiration, reverent emulation of the student was a far superior method of moral discipline. It is impossible to restore that ancient system; but it is not impossible to substitute the wise friend, guide and helper for the hired instructor or the benevolent police-man which is all that the European system usually makes of the pedagogue." Thus, according to Sri Aurobindo, moral education can be given only if the teacher assumes the role of a friend, guide and helper and not that of one who imposes. Therefore, he thinks that in moral training it is the suggestions which are 282 more helpful, and not commands and impositions. The personal example in all the walks of life within the reach of the child is the best suggestion. The child should be given an opportunity to put into action the moral impulses that arise within him. Sri Aurobindo says, "the thirst for knowledge, the self-devotion, the purity, the renunciation of the Brahmin,—the courage, ardour, honour, nobility, chivalry, patriotism of the Kshatriya—the beneficence, skill, industry, general enterprise and large openhandedness of the Vaisya—the self-effacement and loving service of the Shudra." These are the qualities that should form the moral attitude of our youngmen. For developing this attitude, it is necessary to train our youngmen in the Aryan traditions. With regard to religious education, Sri Aurobindo says that the teaching of dogmas to children is no religious training worth the name, because dogmas cannot help them to become pious and moral. In fact, religion must be lived and experienced, and not learnt as a creed. He says, "No religious teaching is of any value unless it is lived, and the use of various kinds of Sadhana, spiritual self-training and exercise is the only effective preparation for religious living." He further believes that the ritual of prayer, homage and ceremony may be helpful to spiritual progress if they are not made an end in themselves. It is unimportant whether any distinct training in any form of religion is given or not.

EVALUATION AND EXAMINATION Rejecting the so-called mental tests, the Mother said, "I find tests an obsolete and ineffective way of knowing if the students are intelligent, willing and attentive. A silly, mechanical mind can very well answer a test if the memory is good and these are certainly not the qualities required for a man of the future." She not only rejects the mental test but also suggests alternatives. "To know if a student is good, needs, if the tests are abolished, a little more inner contact and psychological knowledge for the teacher. But our teachers are expected to do Yoga, so this ought not to be difficult for them." 283 Spontaneous Evaluation In two words the method of evaluation in Sri Aurobindo's system of education may be called spontaneous evaluation. This depends upon the inner contact, keen observation and impartial outlook of the evaluator. The tests of progress are not the essay type examinations. In the words of Sri Aurobindo, "We must direct our school and university examinations to the testing of these active faculties and not of the memory." Criticising the prevalent system of education conducted by the British in India, Sri Aurobindo pointed out that in it the students do not achieve the real purpose of education. He was against education only for earning livelihood. According to him, the students are, "To learn in order to know, to study in order to have the knowledge of the secrets of nature and of

life, to educate oneself in order to increase one's consciousness, to discipline oneself in order to be master of oneself, to overcome one's weakness, one's incapacity and ignorance, to prepare oneself in order to progress in life towards a goal that is nobler and vaster, more generous and more true....". To meet the above purpose, Sri Aurobindo's International Centre of Education, Pondicherry, has evolved "Free Progress System", based upon subjective evaluation by the teachers. Progress records were to be filled by the students while the teacher has to note their comments. Clarifying this system of evaluation, the Mother told the teachers, "At the end of the year you will give notes to the students, not based on written test-papers, but on their behaviour, their concentration, their regularity, their promptness to understand and their openness of intelligence." Our discussion of the philosophy of education, as given by Sri Aurobindo, clearly points out that this is a new experiment in education. Its philosophical foundations and psychological credibility is sound. Its success, however, requires a large band of devoted, sincere and spiritual teachers, prepared to carry on the burden of education against all odds. So long as such a band is not available it is just an experiment. Sri Aurobindo Ashram With the educational philosophy of Sri Aurobindo as the guiding spirit, the Mother has tried to conduct the affairs of the Sri 284 Aurobindo Ashrama—with which Sri Aurobindo hardly interfered because of lack of time, as he devoted himself entirely to the understanding of the spiritual realm. She has organized a school and an International University in the Ashrama at Pondicherry. It is true that we cannot think of the Ashrama without thinking of Sri Aurobindo, but in this treatise it has not been proposed to examine the workings of the Ashrama and those of the school and the International University Centre in terms of Sri Aurobindo's educational philosophy. Those interested in the ideals of education advocated by the Mother and in those followed in the school and the university of the Sri Aurobindo Ashrama may read the pamphlet entitled 'On Education' by the Mother and the prospectus of the 'Sri Aurobindo International University Centre'—both published by Sri Aurobindo Ashrama, Pondicherry. Evaluation of Aurobindo's Philosophy of Education Like the Naturalists and the Pragmatists, Shri Aurobindo Ghosh laid stress upon child centered education. He accepted the teacher as a helper, guide and instructor only and formulated those principles of education according to which, under a free and conducive environment, the child should be made to develop in accordance with his inherent interests, aptitudes and latent capacities by receiving a loving and sympathetic behaviour from those who are engaged in developing him. His aims of education were based upon the philosophy of Idealism. As a matter of fact, Aurobindo was a staunch Idealist to the core. His philosophy of education was based on spiritual faith, brahmacharya and yoga practice. It showed the way to spiritual growth and fulfilment of a man to the fullest extent. Though he was sufficiently influenced by Western philosophy, yet he remained basically all through his life an Indian philosopher and Idealist devoted to spiritual advancement to the highest levels. He imbibed the qualities and merits of the Western thought to enrich and consolidate the Indian beliefs and Indian culture. His philosophy leads us from materialism to spiritualism. Shri Aurobindo Ghosh realized that Indians were gradually drifting from Idealism towards materialism with the result that the inherent divine light in them was gradually on the wane. He vehemently condemned the Western materialistic education 285 as it could not sustain and develop Indian ideals, values and culture. According to Aurobindo Ghosh, we, Indians need an education which develops the powers of our mind and soul and achieves our fullest growth. With these ends in view, he opened an Ashram at Pondicherry and established an International University providing over there an education suited to the ideals and values of Indian culture based upon brahmacharya, yoga, concentration and meditation through which an individual could develop to the full his body, mind and soul in a harmonious way. Dr. R.S. Mani has rightly described. "Aurobindo's philosophy of education is based on the principle of evocation of potentialities of the individual in all its entirety and full development of as many sides as possible. His views on education reveal that Shri Aurobindo was one of the most eminent and distinguished educationists of our country."

QUESTIONS FOR EXERCISE

1. Write a note on Aurobindo's concept of Basic Principles of Educational Philosophy and Objectives of Education. 2. Give details of Aurobindo's concept of Total Education and Aim of Education. 3. Write a note on Aurobindo's views about the role of Teacher in Education. 4. Write a note on Aurobindo's criteria for Planning the Curriculum. 5. Write short notes on— (a) The Ideal Child. (b) Meeting East and West in Education. (c) Supernatural Education. 6. Write a note on Aurobindo's views on Teaching Methods. 7. Write short notes on— (a) Discipline and Freedom. (b) Moral and Religious Education. (c) Evaluation and Examination. 286

13 Sarvapalli Radhakrishnan (1888-1975) Dr. S. Radhakrishnan, for any intellectual of merit in the present day world, does not need any introduction. I had the privilege of talking to such an intellectual who was considered as the living Radhakrishnan—an authority on the life and works of Radhakrishnan. He said, "Radhakrishnan was the greatest of the greatest philosophers of the modern world, he was the personification of entire ancient Indian philosophy, culture and civilization". The God had endowed Radhakrishnan with a very sharp analytic intellect and instant as well as ever lasting memory along with effective power of expression both as a writer and orator. Therefore, after Radhakrishnan's lectures at Manchester College, Oxford, Dr. C.E.M. Joad wrote of him— "He is extremely fluent and his lectures delivered entirely without notes, flow in stream of perfectly turned sentences which would put most English speakers to shame." Hereunder, we write some words about his life.

HIS LIFE Sarvapalli Radhakrishnan, belonging to a Telugu Brahman parentage, was born on September 5, 1888 in Tiruttani, Chitoor district, Madras Presidency. He obtained masters degree in philosophy at the age of twentyone in 1909 and served as a teacher in the Presidency College, Madras, from 1909 to 1917. 287 Here he earned a very high reputation as a teacher of the most difficult problems of philosophy. After this he served for a year at the Arts College, Rajamundry and then he was appointed a professor of philosophy in the University of Mysore where he remained upto 1921. At Mysore, he wrote his two important books— 'The Philosophy of Rabindranath Tagore' in 1918 and the 'Reign of Religion in Contemporary Philosophy' in 1920 which made him famous in the philosophical world. In 1921, Sir Ashutosh Mukherjee appointed Radhakrishnan the King George V. Professor of Philosophy at the Calcutta University. He held this post for about twenty years and during this period with the permission of the Calcutta University authorities he served as a professor of Comparative Religion in Manchester College at Oxford, as the Vice-Chancellor of the Andhra University and as Splading Professor of Eastern Religions and Ethics again at Oxford. In 1923, Radhakrishnan produced the first volume of his famous 'Indian Philosophy' and in 1927, he produced the second volume of this book.

In 1926, Radhakrishnan delivered the Upton lectures at Manchester College, Oxford. These lectures have been published under the title 'The Hindu View of Life' which has been the most popular of his books and has been translated into several language, Indian and foreign. By his lectures in England he became famous as a great scholar. Dr. C.E.M. Joad wrote of him thus......"He is extremely fluent and his lectures delivered entirely without notes, flow in a stream of perfectly turned sentences which would put most English speakers to shame." While in England in 1929, he delivered two series of lectures which were later published with titles "East and West in Religion", and "The Ideal View of Life". It is in the latter book that Radhakrishnan has given his original contribution to the religious thought of the present age. At the request of Pandit Madan Mohan Malaviya, in 1939 Radhakrishnan accepted the Vice-Chancellorship of the Banaras Hindu University. In 1939, he produced two important books under the titles 'Eastern Religions and Western Thought' and 'Mahatma Gandhi'. The former book explains the Upanishadic 288 mysticism of India and shows how this mysticism has been a continuous influence on Western thought. The book entitled 'Mahatma Gandhi' was edited by him. Radhakrishnan wrote a long introduction to this book which was presented to Gandhiji on his seventieth birthday. The other books by Radhakrishnan are 'The Religion We Need', 'Kalki' or 'The Future of Civilization', 'The Heart of Hindustan', and 'Freedom and Culture'. These books are mainly prepared from his various addresses and articles. Radhakrishnan has been invited by various countries of the world to lecture on topics concerning religion, culture and philosophy. In the independent India he was appointed the ambassador to the U.S.S.R. He was made the Chairman of the University Commission appointed in 1948 to examine the working of the various universities in the country and suggest remedies for reforms. In 1950, he was elected to the high office of Vice-President of his country and in 1962 the nation honoured by him electing him the President of India. He held this highest office till 1967 when he retired to devote his time to philosophical pursuits and he did so till he breathed last. Before we examine the educational ideas of Radhakrishnan, it is necessary to understand his philosophy from which his educational ideas originate. Below we shall study this philosophy.

RADHAKRISHNAN'S PHILOSOPHY Radhakrishnan is one of the greatest champions of Hinduism. He is also a great world champion of religion in general. Like a true Hindu, he has undertaken to defend the essential spirit that underlies all religions. He believes that it is the spiritual revival that can cure the prevailing distempers of the world. According to Radhakrishnan, religious philosophy is an effort to give an organised form to data gathered from religious experiences. The religious experiences like the experiences of any natural science become well organised when put into one whole. Possibility of differences between the capacities of two persons for gathering religious experiences cannot be ruled out. It is quite likely that there may be persons lacking completely any tendency for religious experiences. However, the validity of religious experiences cannot be challenged. 289 In the opinion of Radhakrishnan, religious philosophy studies religious experiences in a scientific manner. Religious philosophy makes an impartial probe into things of spiritual world. But what is a religious philosophy? Radhakrishnan says that the human reaction to reality constitutes religious experience. It includes the entire intellectual, emotional and moral activities of man. It is his self-acquired knowledge. It is an internal knowledge of that kind which has its validity in itself. Indian saints have described this 'reality' as God. The three virtues Sat, Chit and Anand—Truth, Consciousness and Bliss — may appear separate to us, but in God they are one. Form or personality of God is but a symbol. This symbol represents only that aspect of God's image which we conceive. It explains to us that every thing has its origin from Him. It tells us of the oneness of soul and God. Hindu and Neo-Platonic mysticism, sufism and Christian mysticism have all accepted this position. Knowledge of self is not easy to acquire. The efforts by great persons of deep religious learning to acquire self-knowledge bit by bit is its positive proof. Religions aim at removing hurdles in the way of knowledge of self.

In order to overcome these difficulties, religions in their own way have laid down certain cannons. The experiences which great Saints (Rishis) have gained are expressed through various symbols. Persons with narrow-vision and without enough tolerance raise religious differences over these symbols. Just reverse is the behaviour of those who have tolerance. They do not quarrel over symbols. The knowledge of that original experience enables us to understand highest elements of soil, i.e., virtue, beauty, truth and love. By understanding these elements fully, we develop an appreciation for them, come to know the purpose of our existence in the world and also the way to reach God. There is no science, art, literature, love, service and even morality which can take the place of religion. No knowledge can take the place of religion. This, however, does not mean that these various forms of knowledge and sciences have no importance. In fact, in their own places each of them is quite significant. However, religion is supreme. Hindu philosophers have described this self-limiting power of God as 'Maya'. Soul and matter are the expressed forms of 290 God and Maya. In other words, soul and matter—the self and non-self—are the two inseparable forms of God. Creation of beings of various kinds is the outcome of the struggle between soul and matter. At the lowest level of creation are such things in which the soul is not manifest. At the second level of beings come trees, plants and various types of vegetation. In these objects soul is manifested through life in them. Living beings make use of matter in their interest. We, then, reach that level of creation, where mind, which is a form of soul is also seen along with life. In this category come animals. Then comes at a still higher level man with salient features of reasoning capacity and independent thinking. Man by developing the latent qualities of beauty, truth and love can attain the position of God. God, besides being the fountain-head of spiritual virtues, is also perfect. The man attains the Godly position in proportion to the development of these qualities in him. This kind of perfection is reached, when there exists no more difference between soul and matter. At this stage of perfection every matter gets merged into soul. The human being is also capable of correcting his mistakes and atoning for his sins. The man commits sins if he ignores the interest of others in order to serve his own. The real progress of man lies in utilization of his ability for the common good. He should build his destiny on the basis of morality, knowledge and art. To put it in a nutshell, man is himself responsible for making his life good or bad. Every succeeding phase in man's life is nothing but the evolution of the preceeding one. Radhakrishnan says that this cycle of evolutionary process continues unbroken in the form of repeated births and deaths. The Karma theory of Hindus recognises this. This philosophical view of Hindus lends support to the theory of creative freedom of man and his relationship with his past. The universe responds according to the effort of the human soul. Radhakrishnan says that the theory of re-birth has been accepted since ages not only in India, but in several other countries of the world as well. Even the Greeks, Hebrews, Muslims, and Christians have contributed to the theory of rebirth in one form or another. Radhakrishnan holds that it is rational to accept the theory of re-birth as the course of nature, 290 though it is not the same in man and other creatures of lower class. The span of only one life or form of body is not enough for the full development of the unique individuality of a human being. The goal of perfection, too, cannot be reached in a single-life-span. Holding this view Radhakrishnan contends that life, assuming a particular form through a body, is only an episode in the history of larger career of the soul. The view of some critics of the theory of re-birth that one does not remember anything about one's previous life does not falsify the re-birth theory. We do not remember many things about our infancy and childhood, and nothing about our existence in the mother's womb, but these positions do not create any doubt about our having been born. Radhakrishnan holds that death may vanish our memory about our deeds, but the discontinuity in memory has no bearing at all on the spiritual aspect of the continuity of soul. In certain cases, one seems to be remembering his previous life. We come across such instances in our religious books and hear about them occasionally in our life also. Radhakrishnan holds that a human soul, howsoever low it may sink, does not have any possibility of entering into a lower animal body. Its re-birth will never be in such species whose bodies are unfit to contain the qualities evolved in the human soul. The body which the soul enters after death cannot be entirely different from the one deserted by it at the death hour.

Death cannot effect changes in the soul to such an extent that it finds rest in a lower animal body. Hindu religious books have, no doubt, made mention of soul taking to animal bodies after re-birth, but it may be possible that on account of predominance of beastly-qualities. Radhakrishnan says that the human soul taking to a lower animal form after death can only be said to be an exception. Radhakrishnan believes that man possesses not only the self consciousness but with him begins a higher consciousness. It is this consciousness at the highest stage of development that makes men a Rishi (seer) or Sadhu (saint). The perfect evolution of this sort of consciousness in a Rishi has been called 'Moksha' or salvation. According to Hindu view of life, 'Moksha' is nothing but the freedom of soul from the 292 bondage of cycle of births and deaths. Thus, the Hindu view does not admit the end of life with death. As the spiritual plane is higher than moral plane, so is the 'Moksha' (salvation) in relation to the world. Radhakrishnan hold that the universe is a mixture of the reality and unreality (Maya). It contains both beings and nonbeings. Spiritual values are the only real things there. Life in this world is worthliving only when it is guided according to spiritual values. Radhakrishnan believes that life wedded to material ends becomes unworthy of living. Man is a free being. He may choose to live any way he likes. He is free to pursue the reality or unreality. The world in the modern scientific age has taken a turn to a new direction. As a result of the scientific ingenuity of man, different parts of the world have come closer to each other. Radhakrishnan poses the question. Ts it not desirable to provide a spiritual base to the world which has today succeeded in effecting a unity from mechanical point of view?' According to him, a new world, as the social and spiritual counterpart of the twentieth century progress, is to be created of which the different nations will be the constituent units. Similarly, a world religion should also be created with the different historical religions of the world as its different branches. The improved means of communications and transport, commerce and trade, and travel and adventures have established international relations which will constitute the physical form of the new world. So far as the question of soul of this new world is concerned, that is to be created through the feeling of brotherhood among the different nations, the cooperative efforts for the realisation of common peaceful objectives and the international companionship and universal tolerance. Radhakrishnan regrets that the body of the new world has been formed, but its soul is still to be brought into being. He, therefore, stresses that all the intellectuals of the world should make a cooperative effort for the creation of a world wherein the common spiritual objectives may be realised simultaneously with the common scientific inventions. Radhakrishnan has also pointed out that the spiritual knowledge which was born during the period of the Upanishads (the great philosophical texts of Hindus) in India influenced 293 the Western countries greatly. According to him, there are three main currents in the religious tradition of the West. These are Greece, Roman, Hebrew and Hindu. The rationalism, humanism and authoritarianism in the Western religious traditions are attributable to first one. The second one is responsible for moral idealism, individual worship of God and conception of other worldliness. The indwelling God, pleasure of communion with God and the emergence of the universal spirit are the results of the third one. This much of the difference is, however, discernible that the mysticism which is the salient feature of Hindu religious tradition has been assigned a less important place in the traditions of the West. Spiritualism forms the foundation of the entire religious and philosophical structure of Hinduism. Hence, tolerance has become the main characteristic of Hinduism. One believing in Hinduism in the real sense will never like to uproot other religions, neither can he claim that Hinduism is superior to other religions. To such a person soul is every thing and it is the same soul that pervades all forms. Radhakrishnan by bringing to light the similarity between Hinduism and Buddhism has rendered a great service to both the religions. It is also relevant to mention here that Radhakrishnan has tried to remove the confusion and misconception of some Western scholars about the spiritualism of the Upanishads and Indian philosophies based on it. An eloquent testimony of this is his comprehensive analysis of the criticism of the renowned idealist philosopher, Dr. Schweitzer.

ON THE CONCEPT OF RELIGIOUS AND SOCIAL CHANGE Radhakrishnan contends that social flexibility, in fact, has been the main characteristic of Hindu religion. He says for any

change keep in mind— (a) It is true, we cannot march back from the present to the past, but the impossibility of complete break-away with the latter is equally true. Therefore, we should never try to do any such thing which has never been accorded a place in our history. Neither an individual 294 nor a nation can live entirely on the experiences of others. Others' experiences at best can give us some guidance, but the actual course of progress will have to be determined on the basis of one's own history. (b) The revolutions which have no roots in the past of a country will not be permanent. Therefore while attempting at the adoption of new codes and values for the preservation of human freedom, justice and honour, we should study the living principles of history and make them the basis for changes. Hindu laws were neither wholly imaginary or ideal nor wholly practical. They had ideals which were not impractical. Hindu religion has not discouraged adjustments that might be necessary. Hindus, while aspiring for attaining the perfect on the one hand, have also, on the other hand recognised the necessity of seeking satisfaction for some time from the imperfect. (c) The contradiction in between these two stands is apparent, but there is no other way to progress. A midway device between the supreme ideal and real conditions of life has to be adopted in order to strive for the achievement of the supreme ideal. (d) The real progress of society lies in forging a unity between the real and ideal. The right course for us is, therefore, to proceed towards the final goal by controlling our imperfectness with sustained and resolute efforts rather than get lost in direct attempt at getting the impossible perfect. (e) One should not be after artificial codes of behaviour in order to seek solutions for various problems arising out of the evolutionary nature of soul, as the real life is much more comprehensive and complex than our artificial codes. (f) Rigid codes are detrimental to our life and high ambitions. One, therefore, while sticking to moral codes in the pursuit of the ideal, should never forget that one's ideal is purer than the moral code, more beautiful than the truth, more complete than the perfect and more desirable than the code itself. Radhakrishnan says 295 that this principle is to be observed while changes are aimed at in our social and economic life.

ON SOLUTIONS OF SOME OF OUR PROBLEMS Radhakrishnan dwelling upon Hindu rituals and religious rites though not opposed to idolworship in temples and pilgrimages, is quite bitter in his attack on sacrifices of animals and Devadasi system, (Maintaining of Dancing girls in some of the temples in South India) and pleads vehementally for their eradication. He also lays great stress on the need for proper training of priests and making such changes in temples and idols of Gods as may satisfy our sense of sobriety and beauty. Radhakrishnan is of the view that the caste-system in Hindus had some distinct purpose in its origin. It aimed at the development of a society in which people belonging to different races and castes could live together. The caste-system was meant for the entire mankind. But our same caste-system today has presented a threat to our social unity. In the past, too, it lent to weakening of our social fibre. It has given birth to fear, jealousy, greed and several other disintegrating factors. Hence, Radhakrishnan urges for immediate end of the system. Radhakrishnan contends that untouchability has proved to be a great curse for our society and needs immediate eradication. He further says that the Upnayan Samskar (a Hindu ritual) should be open to all Hindus without any distinction of caste, creed, sex, etc. All men and women should be taught Gayatri Mantras. The basis for being a Brahman should be the nature and virtues that one possesses, and not the caste. It is quite possible that one born in a Brahman family may not possess the necessary nature of a Brahman. The Brahmanhood is free beyond the limits of heredity, sex and profession. It is such a position where external and internal beauty merge into one.

Regarding Hindu marriage system Radhakrishnan advocates for changes in marriage traditions in order to bring it into harmony with the time. He maintains that adult and widow marriages were in vogue during the Vedic period and then the women were free to lead even unmarried life. Radhakrishnan 296 has supported the right of divorce in exceptional cases, though he does not like to make it a general rule. Ahimsa, viz., Non-violence, Radhakrishnan says, is a mental attitude and not a physical condition. Absence of feeling of hatred and existence of love are its salient features. It certainly cannot be called non-resistance as there may be occasions when resistance becomes not only unavoidable but even necessary, yet peace and love should not be alienated. The above principle Radhakrishnan wants to extend to international sphere also. The war has posed a great threat to human culture and civilization. Therefore, establishment of a warless-world should be constantly before us. Attainment of the ideal of Ahimsa is not possible all at once. Radhakrishnan thinks that it needs a good deal of patience, resolution and sustained efforts. Strengthening of international laws, organisation of an arbitration court and enforcement of disarmament in all the countries of world are the necessary prerequisites for the comprehensive and effective adoption of Ahimsa. The narrow cell of nationality to which different nations confine themselves will have to be cast aside.

RADHAKRISHNAN ON EDUCATION We have seen above that Radhakrishnan has deep love for Indian culture and noble ideas about religion, universal brotherhood and the welfare of entire humanity. His views on education reflect all these ideas.

IDEALS OF EDUCATION Radhakrishnan hopes that general enlightenment about universal citizenship and universal culture can be brought about through education. He thinks that "Intellectual alertness and physical efficiency are dangerous when spiritual illiteracy prevails". His stress is, therefore, specially on the spiritual aspect of education. Hence, as the primary purpose of education, he has emphasised the individuality of the child, self-consciousness, faith in one's culture and inculcation of sense of duty and citizenship. He also pleads for incorporation of different ideals of democracy in education, such as feeling of brotherhood, truth, unity, justice, love and freedom, suppression of violence and war, 297 renouncement of mundance pleasure and quest for the spiritual one. His views on educational objectives have been expressed in his book "Search for Truth" and also in the University Commission Report published under his presidentship in 1949. The recommendations of Indian University Commission, if fully examined, contain all basic concept of education as contained in Radhakrishnan's book captioned 'Search for Truth', therefore, the recommendations of the said commission are indicative of Radhakrishnan ideas on various aspects of education. Hence, recommendations of the said commission are given hereunder.

INDIAN EDUCATION COMMISSIO RADHAKRISHNAN COMMISSION (1948-1949) Inter-University Board of Education and Central Advisory Board of Education recommended to Government of India that an All India Commission on Education should be appointed to inquire into the requirements of the higher education in India and put forward recommendations for re-organisation of the University Education in the light of requirements of the country and its traditions. On November 4, 1948 the Government of India appointed University Education Commission with Dr. Sarvapalli Radhakrishnan as Chairman. Hence, it is also known as 'Radhakrishnan Commission'. There were 10 members of the Commission. Aim of Appointment. The Commission was appointed to report on Indian University Education and suggest improvements and extensions that may be desirable to suit present and future requirements of the country. Terms of Reference. The terms of reference of the Commission were ways and means for the improvement and reorganisation of the University Education, problems of the teachers, curricula, medium of instruction, religious education, problem of discipline, health and residence of the students and such allied problems in the perspective of the national and international conditions. Method of Study. The Commission made a thorough study of the problems of Higher Education in India. It toured the country extensively.

It prepared a questionnaire which was sent over to about 600 persons who mattered in the field of education. It 298 interviewed administrators, organisations of the students and other educationists. Thus, it tried to gather information in regard to almost all the aspects of university education. Its report runs into two volumes. The first part of the report contains 18 chapters and about 747 pages. The second volume contains the statistics in regard to institutions and other educational problems and the evidence tendered by the witness examined by the Commission.

RECOMMENDATIONS Aims and Objectives (i) The universities have to provide leadership in politics, administration, education, industry and commerce. (ii) The university should be organised as centres of civilisation to train intellectual pioneers of civilisation. (iii) The aim of university education should be to produce intellectual adventures. (iv) Universities should produce such wise persons who may disseminate learning to make democracy successful and who may make an incessant search for new knowledge and unceasing effort to plug the mission of life. (v) Contents of education must accept the best of what the modern advancement has to offer but without neglecting our cultural heritage from the past. (vi) One of the main functions of universities is to bring about the spiritual development of students. (vii) Universities should preserve the culture and civilisation of a country. To be civilised, we should sympathise with the poor, respect women, love peace and independence, and hate tyranny and injustice. The university education should infuse these ideals into the youths. (viii) Education should discover the innate qualities of a person and develop them through training. (ix) Attention should be paid not only to the mental but also to the physical development of students in universities. (x) University should give the most important place to the mother tongue in general education. 299 (xi) We are engaged in a quest for democracy through the realisation of justice, freedom, equality and fraternity. Hence, it is necessary that our universities should be the emblems and protectors of these ideals. In regard to the importance of the teachers in the scheme of education, the Commission has laid down the following points : (i) "The teacher occupies a very important place in the field of education. The success of educational process depends on the character and policy of a teacher." (ii) "The primary responsibility of the teacher is to arouse the interest of the pupil in the field of study for which he is responsible. He should stimulate the spirit of inquiry and criticism so that his pupils may acquire the habit of exercising independent and unbiased judgement." (iii) "A good teacher desiring to achieve the results in the intellectual field, must instil into his pupils responsibility for right values and truth. He must inculcate habits and modes of behaviour through which their life may be moulded to the realisation." Unsatisfactory Condition of the Teachers (i) "Teachers do not possess sufficient knowledge of their subject. Hence, there is a constant fall in the standard of teaching. For this, the teachers are not so much responsible as the universities and the Government. The teachers have no facilities of research and libraries. If they are provided these facilities, they can become masters of their subjects." (ii) "With the introduction of democratic control and elections in our universities, there has grown a tendency among the

teachers to interest themselves more in the administrative affairs of the universities than in their legitimate duties." (iii) "The salaries of the teachers are low. The conditions of their services are not attractive. Hence, they have no incentive to throw themselves heart and soul into their work." 300 Suggestions for the Improvement (a) Provident Fund, Residential Accommodation and Age of Retirement. 1. "Teachers should have better facilities of provident fund. To this teacher should contribute 10 per cent of the salary and the University 10 per cent." 2. "University should provide residential accommodation on rent to the teachers in the neighbourhood of their buildings and hostels." 3. "The age of retirement of teachers should ordinarily be 60. But working could be allowed upto 64 in case of proficiency." (b) Working Hours and Leave, etc. 1. "There should be provision for study leave. One year's leave at a time and three years leave in total service should be available to any teacher who wants to devote his time to study." 2. "Eighteen periods a week including tutorial classes is the maximum that any teacher should be required to put. Those who are in charge of Master's Degree classes and have to guide research students should have between 12-15 periods." (c) Salary Scales of the Teachers. (i) Scale of the University Teachers Professors ... 900-50-1,350 per month Readers ... 600-30-900 " Lecturers ... 300-25-900 " Instructors or Fellows ... 250-25-500 " Research Fellows ... 250-25-500 " (ii) Scales for the Teachers of the Affiliated Degree Colleges (a) Principal ... 600-40-800 per month (b) Senior Teacher, at least two in every College ... 400-25-600 " (c) Lecturers ... 200-15-320-20-400 " 301 (iii) Scales for Teachers of the Postgraduate Degree Colleges (a) Principal ... 800-50,1,000 per month (b) Senior Teachers, at least two in every College ... 500-25-800 " (c) Lecturers ... 200-15-330 " ... 200-20-400-25-500

(d) Status of the Teachers. (i) The importance of the teachers and his responsibility should be recognised. (ii) The conditions in the universities which are suffering from lack of finance and consequent demoralization should be greatly improved. (iii) There should be four classes of teachers, viz., Professors, Readers, Lecturers and Instructors. (iv) Each university should have some Research Fellows. Promotion from one category to another should be solely on grounds of merits. (v) Care should be taken in selection of proper teachers. (vi) Proportion of Lecturers and Instructors to Professors and Readers should be 2:1. (vii) Conditions regarding provident fund, leave and hours of work should be definitely laid down. (viii) Other than casual leave there should be provision of study leave as well. (ix) A tribunal to settle a dispute that may arise between the teachers and the administrators of the university. Standards of Teaching In this regard the Commission remarked, "The standards of teaching, examinations and experimental works are low. Hence, they need a great deal of improvement. Unless it is done, the Degree conferred by our universities will not be recognised in the advanced countries of the world." 1. Causes of Failures

As the failures were the real proof of the low standards of education, the Commission suggested that "30 per cent to 60 per cent students failed every year in the University 302 examinations. This means a good deal of wastage. Our universities should realise that every student who is admitted to a university has a right to assume that the university is prepared to see him through it, he has ordinary ability and works diligently." The Commission has assigned the following three reasons for the failures : (i) low standards of teaching, (ii) lack of restrictions on students coming to seek admission to universities, and (iii) the students are not instructed in the work as they really should be. 2. Suggestions for Improvement in the Standard of Teaching

(i) "The standards of admission to the university courses should correspond to that of the present intermediate examination. This means that the students should be admitted to the university courses only when they acquired 12 years of study at school and an intermediate college." (ii) "For raising the standard of education and teaching, the Commission felt that education at intermediate level should also be better equipped. It has suggested that a large number of well-equipped and well-staffed intermediate colleges should be established in each and every province." (iii) Good number of vocational institutions should be started in order to divert students to various vocations after their schooling of 10-12 years. (iv) Refresher courses should be organised by the university for the teachers of high school and intermediate colleges. (v) The maximum number in the Arts and Science faculties of a teaching university should be fixed at 3,000 and in an

affiliated college, the number of students should not go beyond 1,500. (vi) There should be 180 working days in a session in a university or a Degree College not including the days of examinations. (vii) The session should be divided into three terms; each term should be of 11 weeks duration. 303 (viii) Lectures should be carefully planned and supplemented by tutorial, library work and written exercises. (ix) The Commission has said that there should be no prescribed textbooks for any course of study. (x) Attendance at lecture should be compulsory for undergraduate students. (xi) Only certain categories should be allowed to appear at public examinations privately. (xii) Evening colleges should be started for working people. (xiii) Tutorial system should be developed in all the institutions of higher education. Libraries in these institutions should be improved. (xiv) Buildings, laboratories, fittings, equipments, work-shops, etc., of the institution of higher education should be improved. (xv) Seminars should be organised for the development of postgraduate students pursuing work for Master's and Doctor's Degrees. (xvi) Pass percentage should be improved. The minimum number of pass marks at all First Degree Examinations should be raised to 40 per cent and marks for the Second Division should be 55 per cent and for the First Division 70 per cent. Curriculum of Courses of Study 1. Functions of Courses of Study

Courses of study are essential expedients of formal education, but it should be recognised as nothing but an arbitrary though useful contrivance. Unless the vital inter-connections of all pieces of experience are kept in mind the convenient devices of courses of study may become barriers, which prevent our realising the unity of knowledge and experience. 2. Phases of Education

(i) General Education. This includes information and experiences of varied nature. Its business of general education is to make available to the student, to inspire him to master, wisely selected information as to fact and principles, so that he will have representative and useful data, on which to base his thought, judgement 304 and action and will be aware of the fields of interest and importance. (ii) Liberal Education. It is preparation of the students for independent thinking for critical inquiry and appraisal and for creating the constructive thought and action. (iii) Occupational Education. It prepares the students for his life work or for other specialised interest. 3. Suggestions for Improvement of the Courses of Study

(i) General education should be so planned as to give varied experiences of life to the student and to enable him to feel that the elements of his environment have meaning and interest to him. (ii) There should not be overspecialisation. Rigidly fixed curriculum should be avoided as far as possible. (iii) Students should be admitted to colleges and universities in the faculties of Arts and Science and to such provisional schools as do not require more advanced preparation for successful completion of 12 years of schooling or its equivalent. (iv) Master's Degree should be given to Honours' students after one year of study, beyond the pass Bachelor's Degree and

to pass students after two years beyond the pass Bachelor's Degree. (v) The study of the theory as well as practice of General Education should be undertaken both at the universities and the secondary schools. (vi) The Commission has suggested to do away the overemphasis on specialisation. (vii) The relations of general and special education should be worked out for each field keeping in mind the general interest of the student as personality and a citizen and his other special occupational interest. (viii) As no improvement in the curriculum and syllabus of the University education can take place unless improvement is made in the curriculum and syllabus of the secondary education, the Commission suggested the following subjects : (a) Courses of Study at the Secondary Education (i) Mother tongue. 305 (ii) Federal language or a classical or modern Indian language (for those whose mother tongue happened to be Federal language). (iii) English. (iv) General Sciences (Physics and Biology or Social Studies including elements of Economics and Civics). (v) to (vii) Not less than two of the following subjects: (a) History (Indian, European, World). (b) Geography and Geology. (c) Economics. (d) Civics. (e) A classical language (Sanskrit, Persian, Arabic, Latin, Greek). (f) Modern Indian languages (Hindi, Urdu, Bengali, Marathi, Gujarati, Tamil, Telugu, etc.). (g) Modern European languages (English, French, German, etc.). (viii) Logic, Psychology, Music, Science, Home Science, Hygiene, Mathematics, Physics, Chemistry, Biology, Elements of Accountancy and Book-keeping, Elements of Business Method, Economics, History and Geography, Stenotyping, Industrial Organisation, Commercial Arithmetic, and Elements of Soil Science. (b) Courses of Study at the First Degree Cource. First Degree Course should be of three years duration. In addition to the courses of general education and religion, arts and science students, whether for the 'Post or Honours courses' will have to study : (i) Federal language, or if that happens to be the mother tongue a classical or modern English language. (ii) English, and iii) For Arts students not less than two subjects preferably one from each group. Group A—Humanities (i) A classical or a modern Indian language. (ii) English.

306 (iii) French or German. (iv) Philosophy. (v) History. (vi) Mathematics. (vii) Fine Arts. Group B—Social Studies (i) Politics. (ii) Economics. (iii) Sociology. (iv) Psychology. (v) Anthropology. (vi) Geography. (vii) Home Economics. For Science students, not less than two special subjects from the following: (i) Mathematics. (ii) Physics. (iii) Chemistry. (iv) Botany. (v) Zoology. (vi) Geology. Postgraduate Teaching and Research 1. Importance

"Human civilisation has derived great benefits from the efforts of specialists, for penetrating into the secrets of nature and motives and principles of human behaviour, individual and social. To a constantly increasing extent, modern life is the outcome of research. To quote Whitehead, 'A progressive society depends on its inclusion of three groups—scholars, discoverers, inventors'. "While the scholars re-discover the past and set before us ideals of wisdom, duty and goodness, discoverers find out new truths and inventors apply them to the present need. Universities are the agencies for producing these types of men who will fuse progressive activities into an effective instrument. Universities are responsible as much 307 for extending the boundaries of knowledge as for the training of citizens; in fact, the differentiation of knowledge is a necessary condition of continued vitality of their teachings for unless a study is rooted in research, it will die." 2. Utility

(a) "In humanities, research concerns itself mainly with the past history of man-of-his-thought as well as his experiences. The understanding of a man as a whole and the integration of the past with the present. (b) In the Natural Science, research takes the form of an attempt to find out the undiscovered properties of nature and their

application to the material needs of mankind. (c) Training and research are equally valuable for administrators and men of affairs. The administrator imbued with the spirit of research will tackle a problem more thoroughly with greater directness than one who has had no training in research. 3. Recommendations

(i) Postgraduate Studies. "At this stage the student must be trained in hard intellectual endeavour which must form an essential feature of any good higher education worth the name. In this regard, it has suggested that there should be a standardisation of the courses prescribed for the postgraduate degrees in the various universities of the country. A candidate for the M.A. or M.Sc. Degree, should show high degree of scholarship and achievement in an examination, which should be conducted by papers and viva vow test, to be supplemented by a practical examination for science subjects. Great care should be exercised in admission of students to the M.A. and M.Sc. classes. The whole of the students' record from the High School to B.A. or B.Sc. should be scrutinised before admitting them to the Second Degree course. Emphasis should be placed on the capacity and quality of the student and not on their number." 4. Research

(i) Selection. Students for research leading to Ph.D. degree should be selected on all India basis. Only such students 308 should be allowed to carry on research who have attained not only a proper background in the fundamentals of their subject, but who have a certain innate originality of mind apart from mere learning, that is essential for a research worker. (ii) Subjects. The Ph.D. course is that of specialisation in which the training and achievement should be such as to ensure that the student has successfully explored as a field study and has appreciably advanced knowledge of that subject by his own research. (iii) Supervision. "A supervisor who should be a specialist in the subject and a successful researcher should meet his students about once a week during the term for the discussion of difficult points and the criticism of rough drafts of part of their thesis." (iv) Facilities. For poor and meritorious and deserving students, the Commission suggested creation of certain 'studentship' so that the researcher may not suffer on account of economic reasons. (v) Rules of Residence. There should be no strict rule about the residence in regard to research students. They may be allowed leave or absence for purpose of work at recognised institutions. (vi) Requirement for the Award of Degrees. "The Training of Ph.D. Degree should extend over a period of two years. The candidates should show ability to study the problems systematically and to relate his results to the general body of the subjects. He should present a thesis embodying his original contribution to knowledge set forth in such a manner as to be fit and ready for publication." (vii) Examinations. "The educant should be examined ordinarily by three examiners, two external and one internal. There should always be a vica voce examination, which should test his general knowledge of the whole field of the subject to which his thesis refers." (viii) Publication. The greater stimulus to produce good work is the publication of the thesis awarded with a degree of Ph.D. The University should assist in the publication of really good work through financial aid. 309 (ix) Research Fellowships. The Commission suggested the establishment of research fellowships in the various branches of knowledge in the universities in order to further the cause of research and knowledge. The universities should provide atmosphere as well as apparatus for higher study and encouragement to research. "Research should be primarily, if possible, the sole work of the holders of these fellowships and not mere adjunct to a life consumed in teaching. They would generally divide their time between their own investigations and the training of other research workers. (x) D. Litt. and D.Sc. Degrees. "D.Litt. and D.Sc. Degrees should be conferred on persons whose work show conspicuous

originality, ability and distinction. They should be awarded entirely on published work of outstanding quality. Published work for these degrees should be adjudged by external examiners alone. (xi) Research by College and University Teachers. The teachers of the universities and colleges should not only be encouraged to carry on the research but made to do so. They should be given ample opportunities for this task. The teachers should not only impart existing knowledge but should also be in a real sense creators of new knowledge. (xii) Research in Humanity and Classical Languages, Fine Arts, etc. Government should try to aid to the research in these various branches. In this regard important roles could be played by the universities. Professional Education Professional Education is the process by which men and women prepare for existing responsible service in the professional spirit. The term may be restricted to preparation of fields requiring well informed and disciplined insight and skill of high order. 1. Teaching of Agriculture

1. Agricultural education should be recognised as a major national issue. 2. Agricultural policy must rest on the understanding and participation of those engaged in agriculture. The study 310 of agriculture in primary, secondary and higher education should be given top priority in national economic planning. 3. Agricultural education, agricultural research and formulation of agricultural policy should be in the hands of persons and groups or associations of persons, who have first hand knowledge of agricultural life. 4. Agricultural education should be given a rural setting so that it may include experience of agricultural life. 5. The present agricultural colleges should be strengthened in equipment and teaching staff. New agricultural colleges, should be opened and agricultural education may be supported and enriched by contacts with other fields. 6. Experimental farms should be developed by the Central and Provincial Governments. 7. Every basic elementary school, every secondary school and every rural university should have its own small experimental farm so that the spirit of research and experiment should pervade on rural life. 8. The existing agricultural laboratories should be supported and expanded to the full extent. 9. The Indian Council of Agricultural Research should be supported and developed as a clearing house and coordinating agency for all advanced agricultural research centres. An Institute of Agricultural Policy should be established to study the long-time agricultural policy of India. 2. Education of Commerce

1. Practical work should be given in the education of Commerce. The student should be given opportunity to undergo practical training in three or four forms of various kinds. 2. When the students have achieved graduation, some of them should be advised to become specialised in a particular profession like Accountancy and receive the practical training. 3. The Commission did not like the idea of making the studies at the Master's Degree in Commerce as bookish. 311 On the other hand it suggested that very few students should be encouraged to go in for such a degree. 3. Medicine or Medical Education

1. "The maximum number of admissions to a Medical College should be 100.

2. All the departments of study which require hostel facilities, should be located in a single campus. There should be 10 beds per student admitted to a college. 3. Training in a rural centre should be required both in the undergraduate and graduate stages. 4. History of Medicine should be taught in the First Degree Course in Medicine with special reference to Indian system. 5. Facilities for research in indigenous system should be provided. 6. Public Health, Engineering and Nursing should be in colleges taking into account the personnel and the equipment essential for the purpose." 4. Education of Engineering and Technology

1. "The existing Engineering and Technological institutes of the country should be regarded as national assets, and steps should be taken to improve their usefulness. 2. The number of Engineering schools of different trades should be increased for training Foremen, Craftsmen, Draftsmen, Overseers, etc. 3. The First Year or more of Engineering Courses should be generally common to all branches of Engineering. 4. The existing Engineering and Technological colleges should be upgraded for postgraduate training and research in selected subjects. 5. Steps should be taken to start without delay the higher technological institutes for training Engineering Scientists, and design and development engineers. 6. Enquiries should be made to find out possibilities for training of Graduate Engineers and Engineering Scientists as employees in American and other institutions. 7. While establishing new Engineering colleges or institutions, inquiries should be made as to the types of Engineering services needed in India. 312 8. Engineering colleges should not be controlled by Ministries or Government Departments. They should be closely associated with universities. 9. Faculties of Engineering should be called the Faculties of Engineering and Technology." 5. Education of Law or Legal Education

1. Legal Education should be thoroughly recognised. Since there is lack of uniformity in the set-up of Legal Education, the Law colleges should be reorganised. 2. Law should be taught on the pattern of teaching of other subjects at the university level. The staff of the Law faculties should be recruited and controlled by the universities in a fashion similar to Arts and Science faculties. 3. There should be restriction on admission of the students into the Faculties of Law. For admissions to Law course, there should be a three-year Degree course in pre-legal and general subjects as a requisite. 4. The students pursuing Degree courses in Law should not be permitted to carry other Degree courses simultaneously. 5. The teachers of Law should be whole-time as well as part-time. The duration of teaching should be like the regular hours of teaching of other subjects. 6. Opportunities for research should be available in every Law Faculty. Teaching Profession 1. The courses of training colleges should be re-modelled. It has also recommended that more time should be given to school practice. More weight should be given to practice in evaluating the performance of the students.

2. The students should be encouraged to fall in with the current practice of school teaching and make a test of it. 3. Suitable schools should be used for practical training. 4. The staff of the training colleges should be recruited from people who have first-hand experience of school teaching. 313 5. The courses on the theory of education should be flexible and adaptable to local circumstances. 6. The students should be encouraged to proceed to the Master's Degree only after some years of experience of teaching. Original work by professors and lecturers should be planned on all-India basis. Religious Education 1. All educational institutions should start working with a few minutes of silent meditation. 2. That in the first year of the Degree course, lives of great religious leaders like Gautam Buddha, Confucious, Zoraster, Socrates, Jesus, Shankar, Ramanuj, Madhva, Mohammad, Kabir, Nanak, Gandhi may be taught. 3. That in the second year, some selection of the universalist character of the scriptures of the world be studied. 4. That the central problems of philosophy or religion be considered. Education of Women The Commission observed, "There cannot be educated people without educated women. If general education had to be limited to men or women, that opportunity should be given to women, for then it would most surely be passed on to the next generation". The Commission had made the following recommendations : 1. The education of women should be in conformity with the requirements of women. They should be imparted education that may make them successful and good housewives. 2. Women should be given maximum facilities for education. 3. Women should be encouraged to the maximum to acquire education of Home Economics and Home Management. 4. In the institutions where co-education is prevalent due attention should be paid to the general facilities of coeducation. Due regard should be paid to behaviour towards ladies as well. 314 5. Lady teachers should be given the same pay as the male teachers get. Rural Education or Rural Universities 1. Radhakrishnan Commission surveyed rural education as prevalent in the various countries of the world. It recommended a programme for the reconstruction of the Indian villages. It suggested for the establishment of rural universities. The number of the students studying in rural colleges and universities should not exceed 2,500. 2. The aim of these rural colleges and rural universities should be to provide general education to the boys and girls of the rural areas and to bring about the development of their individual interests. 3. There should be provision for separate teachers and teaching in the various rural colleges and universities. But they may be brought to one place for laboratory work and for the use of libraries. 4. While the students are getting education for the undergraduate classes, they should be encouraged to go in for a curriculum of some professional or occupational institutions. This will bring about greater development. 5. Arrangement for research facilities should also be made in these rural universities. 6. An all India institute of rural education should be established.

Medium of Instruction 1. Hindi was likely to be the language of the Union or the Federal language and so it was suggested that steps should be taken for its enrichment and development at the earliest. 2. In order to develop Hindi, not only new words should be acquired but such words that are prevalent since olden days in other Indian languages should be acquired and owned. 3. In order to get the fullest benefit of the higher education, English as the medium of instruction should be at the earliest replaced by some other Indian language. 315 4. At the secondary stage of education and the university stages as well, the students should be taught by regional language or the mother tongue: national language or the Federal language and English as well. 5. Regional language should be the medium of instruction of higher education. But the Federal language should be made a medium of instruction of one or more subjects. 6. Constructive steps should be taken to develop regional languages and the Federal language. 7. The Commission was in favour of the use of Devanagri script. It suggested that its defects should be removed at the earliest. 8. The Commission did realise the importance of the Sanskrit language but it did not agree with the idea to make the Sanskrit as the medium of instruction. 9. The Commission recommended a uniform list of technical and scientific terms for all the Indian languages. It also recommended the establishment of a body to discharge this duty. It was in favour of taking over of international technical and scientific terminology, of course, by changing its sound and pronunciation in accordance with the sound and pronunciation of the Indian languages. Thus, it suggested their Indianisation. 10. The Commission suggested the teaching of English as before, in secondary schools, colleges and universities. The System of Examination The Commission observed, "For nearly half a century the examinations, as they have been functioning, have been recognised as one of the worst features of Indian education. Commissions and committees have expressed their alarm at their pernicious domination over the whole system of education in India. The obvious deficiencies and harmful consequences of the most pervasive evil in Indian education have been analysed and set out clearly by successive University Commissions since 1902, by a Government Resolution as far back as 1904 and by a Committee of the Central Advisory Board of Education in recent years." 316 The Commission recommended: 1. Objective type of examinations held instead of the present essay-type of examinations. The Ministry of Education and the universities should try to study the problem with a view to apply the results of this study in Indian educational practice. 2. Every University should have a permanent full-time Board of Examiners with a small staff of assistants who can do clerical and routine work. The members of this Board should have at least five years of teaching experience and at least one of them should be a highly expert person in this field. This Board should advise the university or college instructing staff in regard to techniques in devising and constructing objective tests for the class examinations. They should also make periodic and thorough inspections by use of progress tests in affiliated colleges which should be required to maintain certain academic standards in addition to the quantitative criteria now required for affiliation. 3. Experts of the techniques of examinations should be in the Ministry of Education, who may carry on the experiments in this field. 4. University Degree should not be required for Administrative Services. Special State examinations for recruitment to the various services should be organised and should be open to whosoever cares to take them.

5. Class work should be given due credit and importance. At least one-third of the marks allotted to a particular subject should be reserved for the class work of the boy. 6. Only such persons should be appointed examiners who have five years teaching experience of the subject. 7. Every examining authority should have a careful study made of the work done in other countries to discover methods of minimising the outstanding defects of essay-type examinations and other such things. 8. Uniform standard of marking should be observed in various universities. A candidate should get 70 per cent or more marks to secure the first class, 55-69 per cent 317 for second class and at least 40 per cent for a third class. 9. The practice of giving grace marks should be abolished for the first-degree and all higher examinations. 10. Viva voce examinations should be employed only for post-graduate and professional degrees. They should be designed, however, to test the candidate's competence in the fundamentals of the field of study to which the problem of his research belongs. Students 1. Selection of the Students. Students should be admitted to the universities without any distinction of caste or creed. They should be selected on the basis of achievement tests. Those who have capacity for higher education should be selected. Opportunity for higher education should be based on ability, character and industry. No favour should be given to student belonging to a particular caste or creed. 2. Scholarship to Equalise Opportunity. For the boys and girls with slender resources, scholarships should be available. Tests should be held for scholarships and those who succeed at them should be given scholarships to pursue their higher education. 3. Health and Medical Care of the Students. Due care should be taken of the health of the students. (i) Medical Examination. There should be medical check up of the students coming up for education in the university or the colleges. (ii) Hospital and Medical College. All residential universities should have a medical college and there should be at least a hospital or infirmery with a competent staff of doctors, technicians and nurses, established in each and every university. In regard to colleges situated in the Muffassils, doctors should be brought from city for physical examination. The members of the staff should also be medically examined. Dur care should be taken for the treatment of mental and physical elements. (iii) Recreation and Physical Education. Physical education is necessary for good health. Programmes of physical education and exercises should be arranged. Universities 318 should be equipped with teachers of physical education, gymnasias, playgrounds, etc. (iv) National Cadet Corps. Scheme of National Cadet Corps should be introduced in all the colleges and universities. The entire expenditure on this scheme should be made by the Central Government. Those students who do not join it should be made to undergo a two years physical education. (v) Social Services. Students should be encouraged and inspired to take up social services. (vi) Residences. In the universities and the colleges, there should be good arrangement of the hostels. No hostel should have more than 50 boys and in every hostel there should be good arrangement of the facilities for games and physical exercises, etc. (vii) Proctorial System. Proctorial system should be introduced in order to encourage the students to take part in administration and to develop administrative abilities.

(viii) Student Unions. Authority should not interfere with the students' unions. The students' unions should also have nothing to do with the politics and other political activities. (ix) Discipline. Every effort should be made to maintain the discipline amongst the students. With this aim in view the students should be encouraged to take part in constructive activities. (x) Development of Corporate Life. Development of corporate life is an essential part of higher education. The teachers should mingle with the students freely and bring about development of corporate life. (xi) Dean of Die Students' Welfare. Dean of the Students' Welfare should be appointed in every university. A Board of Students' Welfare should be established in universities when there is no such today.

SECONDARY EDUCATION 1. The Director of Education should be the main officer responsible to advise the Minister of Education. 2. A committee should be constituted at the Centre as well as at the States, entrusted with the task of drawing 319 up new plans of education and giving thought to educational problem. 3. There should be a Board of Secondary Education to deal with the matters of education at the Secondary stage. The Director of Education should be the Chairman of this Board, and there should not be more than 25 members. 4. The Board should appoint a sub-committee, specially to deal with and conduct examinations. 5. There should also be a Board for the teachers' training. This Board should lay down the necessary conditions for the proper training of those undergraduates who wish to enter the teaching profession. 6. There should be clear-cut conditions for the recognition of the schools. 7. Inspectors should be responsible for studying the problems of the institutions under them. 8. The Managing Committees of the institutions, run by private bodies should be registered bodies.

MERITS OF RECOMMENDATIONS 1. Original. The Commission studied the secondary education from an original point of view. 2. Aims. The aim of secondary education should be to inculcate and develop democratic qualities in the students. With this aim in view, the Commission has recommended that education for building up of the character of the students and discipline, moral and religious instructions should be imparted in the schools. 3. Diversification. The Commission has suggested for the diversification of the courses, at this stage of education, in order to satisfy the individual interests and aptitudes of the students going in for this stage of education. 4. Multipurpose Schools. It has also recommended for the establishment and development of multipurpose schools. 5. Improvement of Teachers Status. The Commission has suggested the improvement in the salary scales and conditions of service of the teachers. 6. Examination. Recommendations in regard to examinations and evaluation of the work done by the Commission shall really 320 be very useful for our education, where implemented. 7. Counselling and Guidance. Educational counselling and guidance shall help the students to know their interests, capabilities and aptitudes. This thing will help them to be successful in their future life. 8. Physical Welfare. The suggestions of the Commission in regard to physical welfare of the students are also very valuable.

AN ESTIMATE Above details about Radhakrishnan's views on various aspect are clearly indicative that he has balanced traditional Indian educational system with present day needs of the society, therefore, he is regarded as a towering educationalist of modern India. It is in this respect that while he was the President of India, he was regarded as a philosopher statesman and the nation observes his birthday as "Teachers Day", which is a real tribute to him.

QUESTIONS FOR EXERCISE 1. "Dr. S. Radhakrishnan was personified embodiment of Ancient Indian Philosophy." In the light of this statement write a note on the basic aspects of his philosophy of life. 2. Write a note on Dr. S. Radhakrishnan's concept of "Ideals of Education" as the basis of the recommendations of the education commission (1948-49) of which he was the chairman. 3. Dr. S. Radhakrishnan stood for qualitative higher education. Justify this statement on the basis of the recommendations of the education commission (1948-1949) of which he was the chairman. 4. Write a note on Dr. S. Radhakrishnan's concept of Religious and social change through education. 5. Write a note on Dr. S. Radhakrishnan's concept of Woman Education. 321

14 Acharya Vinoba Bhave (1894-1982) After Mahatma Gandhi's death Vinobaji was rightly considered as living Gandhi, yet on some issues he had his own original and unique views, which signifies him to be regarded as a unique personality in the galaxy of modern Indian luminaries. His views concerning education too have some originality and uniqueness as a result of his philosophy of Sarvodaya. Hereunder we would first have a peep into his life profile as a prelude to his philosophy of Sarvodaya.

HIS LIFE Vinoba was born in a religious family in Maharashtra in December, 1894. During early days of his life, he was very much influenced by the beauty of nature and family environment. He also developed a great devotion to the ideals set by Swami Shankaracharya and Samarth Guru Ramdas. He decided to dedicate his life to the service of the people and remain a bachelor throughout. In 1914, when he was a student of the Intermediate class he felt greatly distressed at the political slavery of India. The Bengal Revolt following the partition of 1905 had left a deep impression on him. He left his family and devoted himself to the service of the nation, despite tough opposition from his relations. 322 He became a follower of Mahatma Gandhi in 1916 and went to live with him in his Sabarmati Ashram. He courted imprisonment several times as an active volunteer (Satyagrahi) of the freedom-struggle. He was selected as the first individual Satyagrahi by Mahatma Gandhi in 1940. Vinoba did not accept any office when India achieved independence. His precious contribution was still for Sabarmati Ashram. After the death of Mahatma Gandhi, he picked up some of his half-done works and took a vow to complete them. He is the exponent of Bhoodan Sarvodaya. Encircling the personality of Acharya Vinoba Bhave there are some such activities and ideologies which win for him a unique significance. Through his preachings on social and economic problems, he has given us a new concept of socialism. Under the socialistic society conceived by him, the activities of every individual member will be voluntary. A rich person in this society will denounce his wealth and comforts in order to meet the needs of the poor. This he will do voluntarily and with a sense of pleasures.

PHILOSOPHY OF SARVODAYA

Originally, in its basic form the Concept of Sarvodaya is available in the religious texts of Jainism under the Caption Sarvodaya Tirth, but in modern times, Gandhiji was the first person to emphasis an active adoption of this philosophy for the good of the society. The Sarvodaya philosophy preached by Vinoba Bhave is based on the ideals of Gandhiji, but he has given it a new form and succeeded in turning it into a mass movement. Gandhi laid equal emphasis on Ahimsa, and the change of heart in human beings. The Sarvodaya philosophy is also based on a similar thinking. The word 'Sarvodaya' connotes rise (Udai) of all (Sarva). It means that the society as a whole should rise and make progress. Equality of all in society is the foundation on which the entire Sarvodaya philosophy rests. The equality thus conceived, however, is to be in a continuous state of progress in modern society, because the means that can ensure equality are so meagre that it cannot be achieved at once. The Sarvodaya philosophy considers the human life to be a non-stop journey in the world in which every individual has an equal right to enjoy the available facilities. 323 God recognises no distinction between man and man. Every one in His eyes is equal. The Sarvodaya Philosophy attaches importance to equality both in material and spiritual spheres. Thus, it is a theory of equality applied to the domain of spirituality as well.

FOUNDATIONS OF SARVODAYA The entire Sarvodaya thinking is based on the maxim "do good and the good shall be done to you". It inspires one to take to noble doings with sincerity. The Sarvodaya ideology criticises the narrow sphere of selfish individualism, and aims at the good of humanity as a whole. Vinoba has greatly stressed a close relationship between ends and means. He has always been particular to alert the Sarvodaya workers not to confuse the means with ends and thus land themselves into narrow cells of thinking. The main purpose of Sarvodaya is to develop the strength of the real self to its maximum in order to achieve the progress of self and also of the entire society at the same time. This purpose is to be achieved through promoting harmony between thought, word and deed.

AIMS OF SARVODAYA Evidently Sarvodaya, in its ultimate thinking, aims at the establishment of a welfare society which does not recognise social distinctions of castes, creed and race. The society to be brought about by the Sarvodaya thinkers envisage the existence of mutual love amongst all its members and the realisation of the ideals of universal brotherhood. The movements for Bhoodan and Sampatidan launched by Vinoba while aiming at removing the economic disparity in society also symbolise his ideals of universal brotherhood. The revival of cottage industries has also been included within the aims of Sarvodaya, the achievement of which is being attempted by following the ideals of Mahatma Gandhi and giving importance to physical work and beholding the dignity of labour.

SCOPE OF SARVODAYA The scope of Sarvodaya, from its activity point of view, is very 324 comprehensive. It covers such facts which affect society and government and even such activities and behaviours that relate to progress of all. Social activities as expounded by the Sarvodaya philosophy aim at promoting harmony in society and facilitating eradication of caste and class distinctions and other anti-social and out-moded ideas. It thinks that egalitarian society can be built up only on such foundations. The Sarvodaya philosophy aims at the establishment of a democratic form of government in order to maintain a close understanding and relationship between the government and society. The Sarvodaya takes the creation in the sense of nature. The ultimate objective of this ideal is to bring about a happy

blending of nature and science for the maximum benefit to society and also to stimulate the sense of appreciation in people for natural sensitiveness to beauties. Education under the Sarvodaya concept, therefore, lays great stress on naturestudy.

VINOBA'S CONCEPT OF EDUCATION Vinoba's concept of education is very comprehensive. His views on various aspects of education may be understood as below : Basic Education Vinoba has interpreted in his own way Gandhiji's Basic education. He has been one of the staunchest followers of Gandhiji. As such, his emphasis adds colour to the importance of Basic education. Vinoba has divided education into two parts—the first is the internal education and the second is external. By internal education, Vinoba means that kind of education which keeps one's soul fit and sound. Internal education includes all such schemes that aim at the all-round development of various senses and powers. By external education Vinoba means the general education which is being imparted to students through nature or schools. His educational ideas are basically founded on the Sarvodaya principles. The students educated under his educational philosophy will be of inquisitive mind, self-reliant, humble and dutiful. 325 His great stress is on social, economic and spiritual aspects of education. His social aspect of education aims at ending the narrow divisions of society on the basis of caste and class. It prepares one to rise above all petty considerations and develop a broad outlook for the welfare of the entire mankind. Economic aspect is very important for our social structure. The present day society has not made a proper evaluation of labour and is also not taking right steps in this direction. Physical labour has not been given the same respectable position which the mental labour enjoys. Vinoba believes that both the kinds of labour should be respected. He thinks that educational system must aim at ending distinctions between physical and mental labour. Basic education, according to Vinoba, aims at bringing about an all-round development of children and thus removing the shortcomings from which the modern system of education suffers. This new system, besides ensuring the physical, mental and spiritual development of the child, tackles with the problems of his livelihood as well. As a result of its threefold aspects, this system appears to be filled with the spirit of universal welfare. Vinoba criticised the current Basic education system and pleaded for introducing necessary changes into it. Some critics contend that Basic education is expensive and the government cannot provide for it. Vinoba, on the other hand, says that far from being expensive, Basic education tries to be completely free from financial burden. Therefore, the charge of being expensive is baseless. Those who indulge in such criticism are, in fact, against Basic education. The expenditure, which we find today on Basic education, but because it has not so far been fully established. The need of money will not be felt when it is fully implemented. The village atmosphere is quite suitable for Basic education. A village does not very much depend on outside help. Every one in a village is engaged in his vocation and produces something. Every house has some provision for food. Vinoba asks, where can we find a better atmosphere for Basic education? Vinoba contends that Basic education. Only required the efficient teacher. In the traditional schools, at least a blackboard, 326 pieces of chalk and books are required, but as far as Basic education is concerned even these things are not needed. Vinoba says that if books are available it is good, but if they are not there, even this situation will not have any adverse effect. As a matter of fact, no equipment is required for Basic education. The teacher has only to go to villages and tell the people that he has that kind of knowledge which they do not possess.

However, this scheme will fail under two circumstances. Firstly, if the villagers do not suffer from any ignorance, and secondly if the teacher himself does not possess that kind of knowledge which the villagers need. The teacher has to give his knowledge to the villagers in relation to those items which play important role in their daily life. If the villagers are engaged in agriculture and animal husbandary, the teacher should make these things medium of their education. Basic education does not recognise any difference between mental and physical work. So it is not proper to give higher emoluments to directors and organisers of an institution. There should not be much disparity in the salaries of education minister, administrative officers and a teacher; otherwise the students will not develop any respect for Basic education. It will be much better if whatever money is given to the teacher is termed as 'present' instead of 'pay'. For the success of Basic education, a mental revolution is needed. Vinoba asserts that as long as we do not have faith in manual labour and in equality of all, Basic education cannot be a success. If this principle is implemented, different pay-scales cannot be given to teachers and others. It is necessary to give all teachers the same scale of pay. Basic education can make no progress in absence of equality. Government cannot develop Basic education simply by framming new rules. In fact, the Government will have to bring a revolution in the mental attitude of the people for making Basic education a success. Basic Education and the Government Basic education is based on a philosophy of life. Unless we accept this philosophy, we cannot get the desired results. In relation to Basic education, Vinoba thinks that the efforts of 327 the government may be compared to that man who, instead of watering the roots of the tree, drenches its leaves and then expects fruits from it. He says it is a folly to hand over Basic education to the Government. The responsibility, therefore, of the present sad state of affairs of Basic education rests not on the government but on them who entrusted it to the government for implementation. For ensuring its success, it should have been introduced at various places in such a way that people could have been attracted towards it. Vinoba has gone to the extent of saying that the education authorities have viewed Basic education with two separate angles. Some officers accepted only some of its features, and side by side tried to maintain the values of the traditional system of education. This section cannot put before the public Basic education in its true form, but their attitude towards it does not lack sincerity. But there is another group of officers whose outlook towards it is completely hostile. According to them, it is an expensive scheme and it does not satisfy the guardians and the knowledge it provides is far from satisfactory. According to Vinoba, the supporters of this view have intentionally tried to defame it. Under such circumstances, it will have been desirable to give Basic education a place in the programmes of Bhoodan Yajna and Sarvodaya so that it might be introduced rightly.

OBJECTIVES OF EDUCATION Vinoba's concept of education aims to achieve the following four objectives : 1. The First Objectives of Education. The first objective of education, according to Vinoba, is to make a student selfdependent within the shortest possible time. Defining self-dependence, he says, that one of its aspects is the ability in a student to earn through his own labour. Economic self-dependence of a student is only one aspect of Vinoba's principle of self-dependence. The other aspect, according to him, is that the student should acquire the same self-dependence in respect of learning as well. He pleads that efforts should be made to create a capacity in the student to 328 acquire knowledge both from the experiences of others and from his own experiments. Vinoba thinks that a student, at the age of 16, must be able to learn through his own efforts. By this age he should know

to make use of dictionary, grammar, encyclopaedia and other guide books. Simultaneously, he should be able to read maps and charts. Besides understanding books of high standard written in his mother-tongue, the student at this age, should also possess a capacity to learn new languages through his own efforts. He should enhance his knowledge about the world by his own experiences. To unearth the social and physical secrets are as essential for enhancing knowledge as is the digging of earth to get water lying underneath. Thus, Vinobaji's emphasis is a system of education which makes a student capable of teaching himself and for this Vinoba holds that a student should have cent per cent knowledge of the subject-matter taught to him. He should have no doubt in his mind about the things he learns. If a student, expressing his views on a subject he has learnt, uses the phrase "it is possibly so" he does not have the knowledge of that subject. Only that person can face realities of life with courage and confidence whose knowledge about a subject is cent per cent. 2. The Second Objective of Education. Vinoba contends that education should always have individual and social objectives. The individual objective of education for him, as pointed out above, is self-dependence in respect of learning and its social objective is to make, not a particular country, but the whole world free from fear. Vinoba thinks that the greatest task before us today is to discover ways and means to achieve these objectives of education. The right type of education is that which strengthens forces of love and peace. In the present state of affairs education and security (security of people) are looked after by two separate departments of the Government. But in a non-violent social order things assume altogether a different shape. Education, there, is a means for providing security. The expenditure on maintenance of police and army, he maintains, will be reduced considerably, if a more sound system of education is evolved. Vinoba points out that we 329 discuss education as a non-revenue yielding item and argue that the country being in a poor state of economy is not in position to spend much on education, but our expenditure on army is half of the total national budget. Vinoba rightly discourages this line of thinking and does not want education suffer from adequate monetary grants. 3. The Third Objective of Education. The third objective of education, according to Vinoba, should be of doing away with the division of learning and doing. A judicious blending of the two is essential for grasping knowledge wholly. Knowledge, as a matter of fact, cannot be fully understood in exclusion. Knowledge in absence of activity can never be real. They are gravely mistaken who believe that children can acquire knowledge only through books and it is a sheer waste of time to keep them engaged for two or three hours in different types of activities in the basic schools. Vinoba asserts that knowledge obtained from books is not real, it may be compared to that veil which separates us from the real life. Separating knowledge from activity is detrimental to our social order as well. It gives birth to various social evils and breaks the society into two distinct classes. One of those who entirely keep themselves away from learning and take solely to manual labour; and, the other of such persons who only learn about work. Vinoba says that eradication of such social evils should also be one of the objectives of education. 4. The Fourth Objective of Education. Vinoba holds that it should also be an objective of education that it teaches the right way of leading life. This, according to him, is the fourth objective of education. Without the realization of this objective a welfare society cannot be established. Vinoba believes that more a person runs away from nature, more dissatisfaction and worries overtake him. In order to get more peace in life it is necessary that we establish more intimate relationship with nature. To Vinoba, a human life is much akin to a tree. As a tree uprooted from the soil which gives it food cannot remain fresh and green, similarly, a human being having no contact with the soil lives a life of discontentment. It leads Vinoba to observe that all the people should be brought in close relationship with 330 fields. This, however, does not mean that Vinoba pleads for conversion of all into agriculturists. What he actually means by the close relationship with fields is that everyone should have some contact with soil. This ideology, in fact, constitutes the foundation stone of Sarvodaya economy. Vinoba holds that real education is possible only in a natural environment and not in an artificial one which the cities provide. Such natural phenomena as the rising and setting of sun, starry sky and the cool morning breeze which are

exhilarating, refreshing and invigorating in effect, have now become a distant dream in cities, where the hustle and bustle cause a sense of fatigue. Education should therefore, aim at bringing about a change in this artificial living. How to accomplish this task is a problem that exercises the mind of Vinoba. Efforts are to be made by all of us to accomplish this task, as the problem relates not to a particular individual but to the whole society. He says efforts should be made to ensure that any system of education approved for cities should have for its aim the bringing of people nearer to nature. The more our education is related to simple and natural life, the more useful will it be for the people. It should be the ideal before us, while taking up any work in the field of education. Scientific inventions have made wonderful changes in the world and have also created many new problems for the entire human race. The population problem is one of them. It has caused a headache to the whole world. Artificial devices are being evolved for its control. Vinoba is of the opinion that real solution to this problem, too, can be found out by establishing an intimate relationship with nature. The persons who get opportunity for natural enjoyments never enslave themselves to artificial means of pleasures. Work in the sun, and living in the open prove very helpful in observance of celebacy. The company of saintly people and study of religious books, too, are useful for such a life, but the former comparatively is more effective than the latter. Really speaking, there is no way of life to match a free natural life which one may acquire only by resigning oneself to the domain of nature. Our education to be really purposeful should aim at giving such a turn to our life that we may seek 331 entrance into the realm of nature and be in possession of its real treasure of pleasure.

EMPHASIS ON MENTAL AND PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE CHILD Vinoba has emphasised the development of all the five senses of the child. He believes that the child should first be given an opportunity to acquire knowledge from nature. He should be acquainted with the present, in the first stage, and later on a power should be developed in him for enabling him to learn about future as well. Vinoba gives due importance to physical and mental development of the child. He recommends that for the development of mind such subjects should be incorporated in the courses which may help the spiritual development of the child along with inculcation of a sense of discipline, self-restraint and practicalness. For physical development provisions for play, exercise and other activities that may suit children of different nature should be made. Vinoba is not in favour of pre-determination of courses. Vinoba thinks that a number of difficulties confront the full achievement of the aim of Basic Education. The main idea behind the introduction of this system has been to make education accessible to all. Vinoba holds that Basic education is really a poor man's system. It has, therefore, been always in his view while propounding this system of education that it becomes really a system for the backward and poor section of the society, if not for other sections.

BASIC CRAFT AS BASIS OF EDUCATION To ensure all-round development of the child, some basic craft should be chosen as the basis of teaching. The different components of a craft selected as a means of education should not remain only as means, but ultimately should become indivisible parts of the education itself. The method, therefore, has the quality of developing mental and physical aspects of child's personality and also of providing him with a suitable means of livelihood. 332 The most important thing in this system is the selection of the basic craft. According to Vinoba, yarn-spinning is a craft which may ensure full development of children at the primary stage of education. This system is craft-centred, and as such, the schools are mostly of the workshop type. A number of children learn their lessons by working together. Their purpose is also to earn money which is a safeguard against their absence from the school. Every child may put his best in a bid to make the maximum income. In the method

of working there is always a unity of work and thought. The collective work brings about the emotional integration among children and strengthens their feelings of nationalism. Thus, a problem which the modern education faces is easily solved. The utility and beauty of the materials prepared by children help them develop their aesthetic sense and also the quality of associating utility with every object. In the manufacture of an article, one has to put together his heart, mind and body. This results into a balanced exercise of all the organs. In the process of working, the children have to assume different postures. Sometimes they stand and sometimes they sit, bend or lie down. These postures give opportunities of exercise to different limbs every day.

UNIVERSITIES IN VILLAGES Vinoba has advocated the establishment of universities in villages, but he does not mean that every university should teach every type of subject. All subjects are not taught even in any modern university. The students before joining universities try to find out as to which university teaches a particular subject more efficiently. The same conditions will exist in rural universities too. The rural universities will also provide higher education in the usual way as is being done in modern universities in cities. But special provision for the study of a particular subject will be made at that place where there are greater facilities and more favourable atmosphere for it. If there is a forest near a rural university a special branch of study may be opened to study the forests and its allied subjects like woodwork, etc. There are some subjects of higher studies which do not 333 need much equipment. For instance, in the study of astronomy a telescope is needed, but it is not required daily. Its occasional use is sufficient. Of course, the arrangement should exist for the occasional use of a telescope. A telescope may be provided at a certain place where students may go easily and use it. In this way, some useful research work may be done in rural universities also. Three things are needed for carrying scientific researches. They are (1) thinking power, (2) scientifically trained hands, and (3) equipments. So far as the first two are concerned, there can be no doubt about the suitability of village atmosphere and of rural universities. There may arise some difficulty as regards the third aspect, the equipments, but much difficulty will not be experienced in providing them. Thus, higher education and research work may be carried on in villages also.

AN HOUR'S A DAY EDUCATION Vinoba has given an astonishing programme of an hour's education in schools. The background of this thinking of Vinoba is that much time is wasted in schools which have been opened for the children of tender age. Nearly five hour's study is provided in schools even for children of five years of age. This is neither reasonable nor psychological and if they are compelled to do so, their development will be badly affected. Besides, the poor children cannot pursue studies in our current schools which have nothing to do with our real life. In order to remove this defect, Vinoba desires that arrangements should only be made for an hour's education in schools, and this type of education should be provided early in the morning at the time of sunrise. By so doing neither the time of the children will be put to misuse nor will there exist any chance of their being crushed under the weight of heavy work. The children of the poor as well as the rich will have no difficulty in attending the school because they will get the entire day to help their parents in earning their livelihood and the purpose of acquainting the children with the three 'R' will also be fulfilled. In the same way, Vinoba has suggested an hour's class for adults in his plan which is being explained below. Vinoba wants that an hour's school for adults should be held in the evening. In the children's school the children will 334 be taught the three 'Rs', the adults will not be taught reading and writing. It is because of this difference that Vinoba addresses these adult schools as audio-classes. In these classes stories and devotional songs of saints will be read. Discussions will be held on village problems. The children attending the morning classes may also go to these schools for increasing their general knowledge. One more aspect of these schools worth mentioning is that there is no provision of any holiday in these schools. In view of

no holiday feature, these schools will differ from the traditional schools which nearly provide six months of holidays. In the schools, thus run according to Vinoba's plan, the problem of teacher's salary will automatically be solved. Vinoba thinks that the teachers of these schools need not be given big salaries because they will be free for almost the entire day to carry on their work at home and for their hours of teaching they will be provided for their labour by the farmers at the time of harvest. In these one hour's school, the subjects taught will relate to village needs and atmosphere. For example, the subjects will be concerned with agriculture, village and cottage industries, etc. cooking food and serving it is a daily work in a home. These things may also play the role of medium of education. In this connection education will relate to certain principle of food and nourishment. Village sanitation may also be a base of acquiring knowledge. If any epidemic breaks out in a village, the steps taken to control and eradicate it will be explained to the children. This will be helpful to them in acquiring valuable knowledge. As a matter of fact, something may always be learnt from festivals, marriage ceremonies, births, deaths or any incident of the community life. It is, therefore, that learning is called a continuous process. Is an hour's education sufficient to draw enough from the vast ocean of knowledge? Vinoba says that two hours per day— one in the morning for learning the three 'Rs' and the other in the evening for oral education, is sufficient to acquire knowledge. It has already been mentioned above that the children attending early morning classes will be free to attend also the evening classes meant for adults. They will, therefore, be getting 335 two hours per day for reading, writing and learning through discussions and lectures. After all, our children in traditional schools do not, on average, get more than two and a half hours per day throughout the year as stated earlier and even these hours are not adequately utilised according to the principles of child psychology. As such, there is no ground to doubt the success of the two hours' education plan. The process of learning slows down with increase in strain and fatigue. Therefore, the process of learning is at its best when one is fresh. In the morning, we are generally fresh. Evidently, the best time for study is the morning time. The children will, therefore, grasp anything which they learn in the morning. But the evening is a time of fatigue. In fact, the evening classes will be more on the line of entertainment. This will help in reducing fatigue rather than increasing it. Stories, music, and devotional songs etc. will be there. Thus, some knowledge will be acquired without experiencing fatigue. Vinoba has found his plan sound from the philosophical piont of view also. He says that great men have expressed the view that if a dying man's heart is filled with devotion to God he dies in perfect peace. Vinoba compares this principle with the setting day. Everyday, according to Vinoba, when we go to sleep we are virtually dead. It depends on God's will whether we get up from our sleep next day or continue to sleep for ever. So if we, before retiring to bed, fill our hearts with devotion to God, it will have good effect on us. We shall have sound sleep. The evening classes may fulfil this necessity. No objection should be raised against one hour's school on financial grounds. This scheme has practically no financial liabilities. We can implement it in any village without any money. These schools will continue even if no remuneration is given to teachers who devote an hour's time in the morning and an hour in evening schools. Many persons will willingly come forward and volunteer their services to benefit the society by their knowledge for a period of an hour a day. Vinoba thinks that the importance of education for mind is the same as that of food to body, and as we do not give more than an hour to food, similarly we need not give more 336 than an hour for education. Whatever knowledge we acquire in an hour needs the entire day for its assimilation. Vinoba believes that there is no room to doubt that an hour's education plan can prepare children for higher education. Mentioning his own experience, he says that even highest education may be imparted through daily education for an hour. He himself had taught children the Upanishads through his plan of an hour's education per day. But Vinoba's one hour education scheme is meant for children upto primary stage. But the effect on children of this scheme will be known only

after some experience.

EDUCATION FOR SATYAGRAHA AND FEARLESSNESS The real purpose of education is noble man-making, who is capable to follow truth and who willingly undergoes hardship to make others to accept truth. Satyagraha and fearlessness are the two means of achieving the real truth and acceptance for it from others, therefore, Vinobaji wishes that education should aim at evolving and strengthening the human spirit for this. His views on this aspect of education are as follows : 'Satyagraha' is considered to be one of the most effective tools to get a work done. It is necessary to define what 'satyagraha' actually means. Vinoba in his exposition of Satyagraha says that it means strict adherence to truth. Truth should form the basis of our life. We should live for truth and die for it. No amount of difficulties should ever make us deviate from the path of truth. In the opinion of Vinoba, 'Satyagraha' provides solution to all the problems in the world. It is a power which all can wield equally. But it needs certain amount of courage and patience to follow the path of Satyagraha. The path of Satyagraha is for the good of humanity. Vinoba believes that the inculcation of the spirit of Satyagraha in students should be one of the principal objectives of education. Vinoba thinks that our present system of education is not in keeping with the above ideal. Real education aims at the development of the total personality of the child and not only a partial one. Character building should be the chief purpose of education. Our character represents our entire personality. 337 The conception that the objective of our social and political life and that of education, too, should be inculcation of fearlessness, gives rise to the question as to what should be the ways and means for the realisation of this ideal? Vinoba says that teachers will have to shoulder a special type of responsibility in attaining this objective. Our ancient Gurus were in possession of virtues, and they never considered themselves to be free from defects. It was the consciousness of their own shortcomings on the part of the ancient 'Gurus' that made them inspire their disciples at the conclusion of formal studies. Teachers in those days did not impose their views on students, but enabled them to take their independent decisions according to circumstances. In other words, the teacher, in those days, wanted his disciples to be free thinkers and free judges of situations. The aim of the ancient teacher was to equip the students with such a power which might help them to discriminate between good and bad. Thus, a true teacher in ancient days pursued truth, as a matter of duty. The teacher, therefore, granted liberty to students to formulate their own opinions about the propriety and impropriety of his various acts. By so doing he sowed the seeds of fearlessness in students and in course of time those seeds took roots, flowered and bore fruits. Fearlessness, Vinoba says, means that one should neither fear anything nor make others fear. The implied idea is that fearlessness has both the negative and positive aspects. A person may be described as fearless only when he has both these qualities. A person will certainly not be fearless, if he while himself not fearing anything intimidates others. Putting a lion to this touchstone of fearlessness, Vinoba does not regard it as a fearless being. The lion may not be afraid of other animals, but it certainly strikes fear in other animals and all the time is, itself, afraid of guns. Its fearlessness is, therefore, one sided and it does not qualify for being named as fearless. Similarly, no person can be called fearless unless he combines both the qualities, as pointed out above. There is nothing to cause fear to a fearless person. He is conscious of the fact that 338 his soul and body are not identical. The beast, however, does not possess this consciousness. The knowledge of 'self constitutes the very basis of 'Satyagraha'. A person can be a real 'Satyagrahi' only when he has grasped clearly that his body is different from his soul. Vinoba holds that education both formal and informal should aim at bringing this truth home to people. Efforts for acquiring knowledge of 'self have been continuing in our country from ancient days. Our 'Rishis' (Saints) knew it well that no faith could be placed in truth without the knowledge of 'self. The

need is still there that every child gets the knowledge of 'self. Vinoba regrets that our present system of education is wholly devoid of this ideal. In order to make a child obedient, we create terror in his mind. It is again a recourse to fear in place of love, when we slap a child on mistakes and thus seek improvement in him. Vinoba points out that unwillingly by our behaviours, we provide opportunities to children only to learn wrong things and not the right ones. While inflicting corporal punishment on a child we present before him a series of wrong things. We show anger, we terrorise him, we indentify the body of the child with his soul and we make efforts to make him obedient by means of fear. All these things instead of creating desirable qualities in him result into infusion of several undesirable ones in him. Vinoba does not believe in the success of any improvement or reform unless it rests on the firm foundation of fearlessness. Reform is possible only when children are made fearless. For this, both parents and teachers will have to change their outlooks. By their behaviours they will have to infuse the spirit in a child that he should not bow to a person who wants to bend him by giving physical punishment.

CRITICAL EVALUATION Vinobaji was a very noble and pious soul and accordingly expressed pious and noble ideas for the good of humanity and perceived every individual alike him, which was a great folly on his part, therefore, the ideals of education could not be achieved, as his plans of education were not properly 339 implemented but this is not a reflection on the nobleness of ideals and plans of education, though they are to some extent not practical in the present day world, yet he remains a distinguished and unique personality as a political activist (Satyagrahi), social reformer and worker and exponent of noble ideals for the education of the masses in India.

QUESTIONS FOR EXERCISE 1. Write a note on Vinoba Bhave's Philosophy of Sarvodaya as the basis of his philosophy of education. 2. Write a note on Vinoba Bhave's concept of Basic Education. 3. Write a note on the four objectives of Vinoba Bhave's plan of Education. 4. 'An Hour a Day Education' was a unique plan of Vinoba Bhave's philosophy of education. Justify. 5. Write a note on Vinoba Bhave's concept of "Education for Satyagraha and Fearlessness". 6. "Vinoba Bhave's words of wisdom matched with his practical deeds". Write a note to justify this statement. 340

15 J. Krishnamurti—The World Teacher (1895-1986) INTRODUCTION J. Krishnamurti was the most enlightened intellectual of the 20th century. He was the master orator who could only be matched with Dr. S. Radhakrishnan and Pandit Madan Mohan Malaviya. He was a great thinker who enriched the philosophical and cultural traditions of India from the beginning of our history. He declared in the first person singular, that he came not to tear down but to build. Happiness was his message, experience was his watchword and suffering was his cry. J. Krishnamurti, in the conservative sense of the word, may not be accepted as an educator. But each one of us must accept this fact that education is a life long process and practical experiences of life serve as the greatest educators of man, similarly any one who enlightens us on any aspect of worldly, natural or supernatural aspect beneficial to us has to be accepted as an educator. Enough knowledge about the spirit of Indian education had been provided in Chapter 2 of this book, in the light of which Mr. Krishnamurti qualifies to be recognised as a great educator of humanity and hence, he is being included as such in this book. A brief account of his life and works for the good of humanity is given hereunder.

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BRIEF LIFE PROFILE J. Krishnamurti was the "most handsome person" according to Bernard Shaw. Aldox Huxley described him as the "man of supremely pure and healthy mind among Indians". He was also called the lovely prophet of the world. This charming and courageous thinker was born on 11 May, 1895 in a middle class family of Andhra. As his father was associated with the Theosophical Society and was working in its headquarters at Adyar, Madras, the earliest part of Krishnamurti's life was spent in those surroundings. At that time, nobody could suspect the carefree boy of any divinity or hidden holiness. However, from childhood, Krishnamurti had a unique temperament of thoughtful nature with a habit of quiet observation. Then one fine morning the late Mrs. Annie Besant and C.W. Leadbeater, the two demi-gods of the Theosophists felt attracted towards the boy. All of a sudden the attitude of the residents changed. A veil of mystery covered the peaceful life of Adyar headquarters. Mrs. Besant took the boy Krishnamurti under her care and guardianship. In 1911, the mystery surrounding the developments in the headquarters was partly revealed when an organisation was formed at Banaras called the 'Order of the Rising Sun' consisting of those who believed in the coming of a great teacher, with this boy in his teens as the Head. Subsequently the name was changed to the 'Order of the Star' in the East under the patronage of Theosophical Society. Jiddu Krishnamurti, rarely known yet rarely gifted with extraordinary courage of conviction passed away on 17 February, 1986, after a period of illness in the U.S.A. Very few people in India could realise that J. Krishnamurti was certainly one of those great thinkers who enriched the philosophical and cultural tradition of India from the beginning of our history. Although he belongs to the great philosophical tradition of India yet he was unique in many ways. For his uniqueness he appears to be standing alone away from traditional thinking. His uniqueness is also his greatness. 342

HIS PHILOSOPHY OF LIFE AS SPIRIT OF EDUCATION FOR HIS FOLLOWER Krishnamurti was unique since he boldly refused to follow any traditional Indian philosophical school. He was unique since he not only refused to follow any one of religious cults but also did not set up any cult of his own. There is nothing which can be called Krishnamurti's philosophy. For selling in the world market he had no specific method of worship nor had he any specific thinking process to impress others or encourage people. Krishnamurti spoke in a harsh manner against traditionally respected Guru-Shisya (teacher-disciple) relation. For him such a relation was contrary to any genuine learning which presupposes full freedom to perceive, feel arid react. He rejected all established religions and cults because these prove obstacles in the search of truth or God. In Krishnamurti's view truth or God is the same as consciousness of the totality of existence while the organised religions are opposed to this. Many of his admirers wanted to present him as the greatest world-teacher but Krishnamurti preferred to remain unknown. At the age of 15, Krishnamurti wrote a book 'At the Feet of Guru' which was later published in 27 languages of the world with 40 editions. At the age of 16, he delivered his first lecture in public at Banaras. But in the meantime, a legal dispute developed between Mrs. Besant and Krishnamurti's father for the guardianship of the boy. It ended when Krishnamurti and his brother were sent to Europe where under the care of Lady Emily Lutyens they were trained by C.W. Leadbeater and some private tutors. Mrs. Besant saw in the young Krishnamurti all the potential of becoming the World Teacher and therefore, provided all the necessary facilities and conditions for his development. Krishnamurti was brought up like a prince. Rich ladies of England provided him with education and paid for his clothes. Mrs. Besant nurtured him with the devotion of her life-blood. The devotees of Mrs. Besant patiently awaited the coming of the World Teacher, the New Christ and devoted time in spiritual meditation and prayers. In 1923, the advent which had seemed to hang fire for so long went off with a bang when at a camp held at Ommen in Holland Mrs. Besant 343 announced that Krishnamurti would be the "Vehicle of the World Teacher". Not only that, she appointed seven of his disciples. Krishnamurti, the Prince of Wales of the Theosophical Society, thus became the most important man of the theosophical

circles all over the world. Wherever he went, he was received with great honour. But the young spiritual teacher was unique. Apparently, Krishnamurti appeared as a well-washed cultural Indian, wore reefer-blazers and played tennis, those who saw him with his hands in his trouser pockets hardly believed that this play boy would show a new way to happiness. But the Theosophists had no doubt. On December 28, 1925, the voice of the Word-Teacher was heard for the first time through Krishnamurti at Adyar. He declared, in the first person singular, that he came not to tear down but to build. The pious Theosophists were excited and heard with rapt attention. Happiness, was his message, experience was his watchword and suffering was his cry. It is quite understandable that Krishnamurti enjoyed his new elevation and allowed a free hand to his sponsors. Yet his intelligent brain could easily see the truth. That is why in 1922 he had a strange spiritual development which no one could notice. But then he said, "Do we require religions for living a happy life? Do we need to build temples for our mutual fellow-feeling?" Truth does not reside in dark premises of temples nor in lighted places of organised society, nor religious scriptures or customs and conventions. Such utterances shook the Theosophical Society from within. But what was round the corner was never imagined by Mrs. Besant or any other in the Theosophical world. The hero of the drama produced and directed by Mrs. Besant and Mr. Leadbeater suddenly turned hostile and denied the role he had been playing. Thirty thousand people of all classes, gathered to listen to the words of the new teacher, were left bewildered. Thus, in 1929, Krishnamurti not only denied the role of the world-teacher but closed down the "Order of the Star" that made him famous. He questioned the very foundations of the Theosophical Society that worshipped him. He not only resigned from the Society but also returned all the money and wealth to the donors. He declared, "I want to free man from 344 chains and fear. I am not to found a new religion. My only purpose is to free man completely." The new attitude of Krishnamurti caused a sense of sorrow in his own clan of idol-worshippers. But he continued to attract people due to his fascinating personality. Rich ladies of Europe were craving to listen to his words. Therefore, without his desire and effort many of the Theosophists became his followers and did not mind division in the Theosophical Society. So much so that even to her dying day. Mrs. Besant looked upon him as her new Guru and Mr. C.W. Leadbeater refused to believe the change in his former ward. But Krishnamurti had decided to be a rebel thinker preaching spiritual anarchy. Down with all temples, churches and all religious organisations for worship of God and he asked people to follow none. In India, Krishnamurthi was never taken seriously. He was looked upon by Indians as a European with an Indian skin. He was brought up by Europeans in their own conditions and he became familiar with English and French languages from a very early age. The result was that he forgot his own mother-tongue and India or Indians. He grew up essentially as a teacher of the West. He never felt at home in India whenever he came here on short visits. But as a person Krishnamurti was a pleasant man with a sense of humour and sensibility far above an average Indian. It was his greatness that made him sever connections with his patrons because he felt an inner revolt against spirituality attributed to him as the World-Teacher. It was not easy to escape from worshippers and devotees and face the hostility of the Theosophical big bosses. Krishnamurti's magnetic personality left a deep impression on all those who came in contact with him. With great selfconfidence this most enlightened intellectual of the 20th century went about advising people to be good and happy. Krishnamurti drew more inspiration from the beauty of Nature than from religious books. Nature reflected the truth of life. He declared, "I am not a Hindu or anything else, for I don't belong to any group, religious or otherwise". (The Urgency of Change, p. 125). 345 According to Krishnamurti, a religious life which implies denial of pleasures and beauty of nature, as the most religious leaders and saints have preached, is a false view. Those who talked of religion tortured themselves in that belief. It was given to believe that the only way to reality or God is through self-denial. Krishnamurti called it distortion of religion. Usually, those who preach religious doctrines distinguish between the worldlife of pleasure and religious life-denial of pleasure and beauty of nature.

A man is called worldly when he lives a full life of pleasure and sorrow in the society and social relationships. In this sense all social reformers, idealists, patriots were worldly people. Krishnamurti said, "We cannot live without matter and life is not possible without persons and things. What is important is the totality of life. A religious life in the real sense is concerned with the whole and not with the particular. When we divide the religious from the worldly we create conflict. A life of conflict is not a religious life." Religious tradition demands that we should believe in God as the Creator, Sustainer and Destroyer of the world. Religion binds our mind with belief and makes us prisoners of belief. In the case of objects which we perceive there is hardly any doubt and there is universal agreement. But we do not perceive God, hence each man creates his own image of God. The basis of belief in God is the hope that He will protect and come to our rescue in times of difficulty. Thus, hope breeds belief and is the outcome of despair. In short, we are in despair which creates hope, and hope produces belief in God. But what is God? According to Krishnamurti, "God is the illusion which we worship, and the non-believer creates the illusion of another god which he worships—the state or some utopia or some book which he thinks contain all truth" (The Urgency of Change, p. 17). To be really religious, we must free ourselves from this concept of God and its illusion. There are people who do not believe in God and yet do good to others, and there are those who believe in God and kill others for their belief. Religions have played havoc during the whole course of human history. 346 What is the basis of belief in God? Our whole life, physical, mental is conditioned by factors which are environmental and cultural. Knowing this we invent a divine agency which we hope will get us out of this mechanical state. Thus, uncertainty and insecurity in the everchanging world creates fear as the basis of belief in the Divine presence. According to Krishnamurti, "Belief comes from fear and is the most destructive thing. One must be free of fear and of belief. Belief divides people, makes them hard, makes them hate each other and cultivate war" (The Urgency of Change, p. 128). When there is a fear or belief the mind is incapable of understanding what truth is. Such a mind lives in illusion, and cannot come upon that which is supreme. The supreme has nothing to do with belief or opinion. According to Krishnamurti, due to inner feeling of emptiness, poverty, sensitivity and insufficiency men try to mentally depend on invisible power. This sense of dependence breeds fear. In the words of Krishnamurti, "Fear is the awareness of our inner emptiness, loneliness and poverty, and not being able to do anything about it. We are concerned with only this fear which breeds dependence, and which is again increased by dependence. If we understand fear we also understand dependence" (The Urgency of Change, p. 23). To clarify the meaning of religion Krishnamurti in one of his public talks during 1977, said, "If the investigation, with all one's attention with the summation of all one's energy, to find that which is sacred, to come upon that which is holy. That can only take place when there is freedom from the noise of thought—the ending of thought and time, psychologically, inwardly—but not the ending of knowledge in the world where you have function with knowledge. That which is holy, that which is sacred, which is truth, can only be when there is complete silence, when the brain itself has put thought in its right place. Out of that immense silence there is that which is sacred . . . silence demands space in the whole structure of consciousness." There is no space in the structure of consciousness because it is crowded with fear {The Wholeness of Life, p. 145). Krishnamurti had great courage in rejecting all the rubbish in 347 the name of religion and advised men to investigate truth without submitting their mind to conditions. It is only in complete freedom that the sacred, the holy can be discovered. Krishnamurti spoke on life and problems associated with it in an unorthodox manner. He referred to the old theory that God, divinity descends on man and keeps him to grow to evolve and to live nobly. In belief of such theories there is great comfort, the feeling that one is secure and is being looked after by some agency. For Krishnamurti this is an old view about the future of man and needs radical transformation. One must realise that there is no such security in the past, present or future. Only with this conviction one can find out that it is possible to live without any guidance, without any control, without any effort psychologically. The mind must remain free to find the truth and one must not conform to any pattern of authority.

Krishnamurti pleaded that one should live a life without any fixed pattern, without goal, without any idea of the future and life without conflict. For this, one has to learn to live with 'what is' that which is taking place. One must live with it without any thought of transforming it or going beyond it, without trying to control things. This way man would not waste his energy in controlling, in suppressing, in resisting and in trying to escape. All that energy would be used in living with the existing conditions. The most significant quality of Krishnamurti's philosophy of life is that it is not influenced by any ideology—social, political and economic. He talked freely expressing his reaction to the existing conditions of life, social relations and human behaviour. For this reason there is no system in his thought. He freely conversed with people and expressed his views not as a saint or philosopher but as an intellectual fully awakened to natural and social environment. He did not prescribe any doctrine or pattern of life to live happily but only suggested that we should live with our mind completely free from the idea of past or future. According to Krishnamurti, during the five thousand years of known history, there have been five thousand wars, and the process is still going on. This is sufficient to show that the whole human society is neurotic. Most of human energy and 348 resources are being spent in preparation for war and in terrorising others. People spend the rest of the time in unconstructive work. In cities most people spend 50 hours a week before television boxes, decreasing social life and fruitful exchange of views. What good can be expected in such conditions? If we carefully observe and analyse our life over a number of years we discover that it is repetitive. This has caused terrible deterioration of the brain. Krishnamurti felt extremely disturbed at the disorder all over the world marked by corruption, conflict and uncertainty. Poverty, illiteracy are on the increase, art and even literature feel exhausted. According to Krishnamurti, "fear is one of the greatest problems in the world, probably the greatest problem" (Beginning of Learning, p. 160). Fear is mainly caused by the thought of tomorrow. People talk of what will happen in future and we get into their trap and get frightened. He asked us to enjoy the present and live in the present. One destroys oneself when one thinks about the future. Most of the people who are sensitive need some shelter or a friend to depend on. When such a shelter or friend is not there they have fear. Where there is more dependence, there is more fear of losing it. But dependence is due to sensitivity and breeds fear. This sensitivity dependence and fear are interrelated. When in dependence there is inner desire of freedom. "Freedom means freedom from fear. It means freedom from any form of resistance. Freedom means a movement without isolation. It means having no resistance at all" (Beginning of Learning, p. 65). Emphasising the importance of freedom Krishnamurti said, "Where there is freedom there is love. This freedom and love will show you when to cooperate and when not to cooperate. This is not an act of choice, because choice is the result of confusion. Love and freedom are intelligence (The Urgency of Change, p. 93)." Lamenting over the existing conditions Krishnamurti said that we are surrounded by our relationship with things, people, property, ideas. We see divisions into nationalities, religions, economic relations, social and political relations. The whole world is broken up outwardly as men are broken inwardly. "This outer fragmentation is the manifestation of the human being's inner 349 division" (The Urgency of Change, p. 29). All our life is determined by the past—mind, brain, feeling and action. Therefore, "to live in this world sanely there must be a radical change of the mind and the heart" (The Urgency of Change, p. 35) "Change is not a movement from known to unknown, and all political revolutions are that. This kind of change is not what we are talking about. To progress from being a sinner to being a saint is to progress from one illusion to another. So now we are free to change as a movement from this to that" (The Urgency of Change, p. 37). Krishnamurti attached great importance to discipline in life, but gave a different and distinct interpretation of it. Generally discipline is used in the sense of austerity, control, self-denial and thus necessarily involves will. To Krishnamurti, this implied violence to oneself. In its proper sense discipline presupposes sensitivity to oneself and situation. In his own words, "Discipline means to learn, not to conform, not to suppress, not to imitate the pattern of what accepted authority considers noble" (The Urgency of Change, p. 80). Thus, discipline implies desire to learn and it is a constant process. In learning there must be freedom of perception. So discipline is freedom. "Learning is the highest form of discipline." As the most unconventional thinker of this century Krishnamurti freely expressed his views on a variety of issues and

problems which confront us. All the facts of daily life, the problems which require serious consideration in view of the world situation attracted his attention. It is very interesting to know these views which range from pleasure, love, art, beauty to death. Every human being is engaged in seeking pleasure in life. The pleasure may be derived from possession of things, from power political or economic, from sex or domination. "Pleasure is gratification, satisfaction, indulgence, entertainment and stimulation". In all kinds of pleasure, thought is at the root of it. The object that is sought registers a feeling in the mind and one feels he must have it again—this feeling is transformed into pleasure. But pleasure is not happiness. The latter is not sought, it comes uninvited. Happiness is opposed to unhappiness. If one pursues happiness it becomes an escape 350 from unhappiness. Unhappiness cannot end with outside help but with one's own intelligence. In fact, intelligence cannot be separated from ending unhappiness or getting happiness. Intelligence is happiness. Sorrow or suffering is caused by ignorance about oneself. In other words, knowing oneself is ending of sorrow. The most significant elements in all sufferings are self-pity and attachment. According to Krishnamurti, we are afraid to know ourselves since we divide ourselves into opposite values. Fragmentation of personality leads to sorrow. Thus, for ending sorrow we must know ourselves as unfragmented being—as we are. When there is light of understanding the sorrow ends. According to Krishnamurti, the greatest tragedy of our life is that we never think, never enquire the meaning of our living. Does living mean a lot of suffering, fear, anxiety? If we find out the full meaning of living, the totality of living, we will not be afraid of anything including death which comes at the end of life. Our living is a constant battle with problems causing tremendous torture. There are occasional moments of relief but the struggle goes on. According to Krishnamurti, if we learn to live an unfragmented life there would be no problem like the fear of the terrible thing called death. "When one's life is not wasted in conflicts and worries one is full of energy, clarity. Death means the end of all that one knows, of all one's attachments, of one's bank accounts, of all one's attainments—there is a complete ending. Can the mind, while living, meet such a state? Then one will understand the full meaning of what death is" (The Wholeness of Life p. 190). Thought of living and death goes together. But we are only afraid of death and ask about life after death. We hardly try to know what living itself is. There is thought of life before death and life after death. But when the content of consciousness is empty so that there is no time, it is death. Krishnamurti devoted considerable attention to the problems of the young generation. He pointed out the new phenomena all over the world that children are by and large disrespectful to their parents, they don't listen, nor do they care about what is said to them. They refuse to follow the pattern of thinking of their parents. 351 According to Krishnamurti, there is a serious defect in the method of their upbringing, the education, and training that is imparted to children right from the beginning. We should try to create a new generation who are not afraid, who do not conform to the past, who are equipped with intelligence and can reason out. Our education is faulty since there is too much emphasis on acquisition of knowledge. Education does not develop sensitivity and intelligence for proper understanding of the whole problem of living. Real education should not only aim at gaining knowledge but also the capacity to look at the world objectively. "The function of education is to help you to face the world in a totally different intelligent way." Advising the young students Krishnamurti said, "To be really educated means not to conform, not to imitate, not to do what millions and millions are doing. If you feel like doing that, do it. But be awake to what you are doing" (Beginning of Learning, p. 159). The real function of education, therefore, is to prepare the young generation for a new type of free living. Education is neither acquisition of knowledge nor passing examination, getting degrees or becoming qualified. "Education must help in facing the world in a totally different, intelligent way knowing you have to earn a livelihood, knowing all the responsibilities, the miseries of it all" (Beginning of Learning, p. 171). There is violence everywhere in the world, violence in thought as well as in action. There is physical violence, violence of suppression, obedience, in competition. Even in conformity to a pattern one commits violence to oneself. Then there is

violence in nationalism, in relation between nations and communities. If men become aware of disorder prevalent in the world they become free. This is real education. Education implies "to live a life of tremendous order in which obedience is understood, in which it is seen where conformity is necessary and where it is totally unnecessary, as to see when you are imitating "(ibid., p. 187). According to Krishnamurti, "Education generally used to mean learning out of books, storing up information and using it either selfishly or for a particular cause or a particular sect, and making oneself important in that sect or organisation" (ibid., p. 181). 352 But in the process of real education a teacher has to help his students in knowing themselves bit by bit along with bookknowledge. Educating process involves academic learning teaching him what to do and also helping in developing insight into everything—development of intelligence and instinctive right behaviour. In our education system, all these three do not move together. Education should lead to total understanding of man and not emphasize on one aspect of his life. Our young boys and girls are bound to react against standardised life without meaning. Krishnamurti rejected the traditional Indian concept of Guru and disciple. To him "Disciple means one who learns. But the generally accepted meaning is that a disciple is one who follows someone, some guru, some silly person. But both the follower and the one who follows are not learning" (Beginning of Learning, p. 64.). In the process of real education, there should be complete freedom so that minds are used to their highest capacity. Education should provide full opportunity so that children are able to express themselves. Educated persons should be able to live in this world a life of intelligence and sanity. "Education is to help us to be sane, non-mechanical and intelligent" (ibid, p. 174). So education is to create intelligence that will function in this world. In his conversations and through his writings Krishnamurti tried to emphasise the need of changing our outlook and attitude so that education becomes an instrument of bringing about full awareness of the existing life situation. Education should help to live an intelligent life completely free from ideas of past and future. Krishnamurti never directed his talking for the purpose of convincing others on his ideology or philosophy. He only pointed out certain truths. He emphasised that for radical change in the social structure basic questions must be answered. For radical change we must try to change the human mind—this is real revolution. Otherwise revolution for change of social structure, for freedom of man only end in curbing human freedom as it happened in Russia. There must be sincere effort for total understanding of man. 353 Krishnamurti never tried to pose himself as a reformer of education or society. According to him, there should be no thought of reform as it has no end. We should forget to reform the world.

AN ESTIMATE Mr. J. Krishnamurti was a great thinker who enriched the philosophical and cultural Indian traditions, having extraordinary courage of conviction to say without fear what he thought best. His deeds matched with his words. He was against idolworship and refused to be worshipped. He declared, "I want to free man from chains and fears. I am not to found a new religion. My purpose is to free man completely". He went about advising people to be good and happy, thus his philosophy of life is a real education for his followers to put it into practice for the good of their own-self, society and humanity.

QUESTIONS FOR EXERCISE 1. J. Krishnamurti was the "man of supremely pure and healthy mind among Indians." Aldox Huxley. Justify this statement. 2. J. Krishnamurti's "philosophy of life was the spirit of education for his followers to act upon." Justify this statement. 3. "J. Krishnamurti reprinted best teachings and traditions of theosophical society." Write a note on his philosophy of education in the light of this statement. 4. "J. Krishnamurti's words matched his deeds." Write a note on his philosophy of education to justify this statement.

5. "J. Krishnamurti was really a world teacher". Justify this statement in the light of his thoughts on education. 354

Bibliography Altekar, A.S.—Education in India, Varanasi, Nawal Kishore&Bros., 1957. Mayer Frederick—A History of Educational Thought (chapter 4), OHIO Charles E. Merrill Books. Munshi, K.M.—Foundations of Indian Culture, Bombay, Bhartiya Vidya Bhawan, 1962. Northrop, F.S.C.—The Meeting of East and West, New Yard, The Macmillan Co., 1947. Radha Kumud Mukherji—Ancient Indian Education, Delhi, Motilal, Banarsidas, 1951. Rawat, P.L.—History of Indian Education (3rd Ed.), Ram Prasad&Sons, 1963. Saiydin, K.G.—The Humanist Tradition in Indian Educational Thought, Bombay, Asia Publishing House, 1960. Sharma, R.N.—Philosophy of Education, Delhi, Atlantic, 1996. Sharma, R.N.—Problems of Education, Delhi, Atlantic, 1996. Sharma, Y.K.—History and Problems of Education, Vols. I&II, New Delhi, Kanishka Publishers, Distributors, 2001.

A SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY ON SWAMI DAYANANDA Articles on Arya Samaj in the Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics. 355 Bawa, Chhajju Singh—The Teaching of the Arya Samaj, Lahore, 1908. Bawa, Chhajju Singh—The Life and Teachings of Swami Dayananda Saraswati, Lahore, 1923. Chamupati—The Aryan Ideal of Education, Kangari Gurukul Press, 1934. Dayananda Commemoration Volume, Edited by H.B. Sarda, Vedic Pustakalaya, Ajmer, 1933. Farquhar—Modern Religious Moments in India, pp. 101-129, New York, 1915. Ganga Prasad Upadhyaya—The Origin, Scope and Mission of the Arya Samaj, Allahabad, 1940. Hume, R.E.—The Thirteen Principal Upanishads. Lajpat Rai—The Arya Samaj, London, 1915. Pandit Vishnu Lal Sharma—Handbook of the Arya Samaj, Lucknow. Sarma, D.S.—Studies in the Renaissance of Hinduism, Banaras Hindu University, Banaras, 1944. Satya Prakash—A Critical Study of Philosophy of Dayananda, Vedic Pustakalaya, Ajmer, 1938. Sri Aurobindo—Bankim, Tilak and Dayananda, Calcutta, 1940. Sri Ram Sharma—Mahatma Hansraj, Lahore, 1941. The Light Truth—(Translation of Satyartha Prakash by Dr. Chiranjiva Bharadwaja, published by Arya Samaj, Madras, 1932). Vishwa Prakash—Life and Teachings of S. Dayananda, Allahabad, 1935. Vyas, K.C.—The Social Renaissance in India, Vora&Co., Publishers Private Ltd., Bombay, 1957.

ON SWAMI VIVEKANANDA A Short Life of Swami Vivekananda, Almora, 1940. The Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda in 7 Vols., Advaita Ashrama, Almora, 1947. 356 The Disciples of Ramakrishna, Almora, 1943. Life of Swami Vivekananda, 2 Vols., Almora. Sarma, D.S.—Studies in the Renaissance of Hinduism, Banaras Hindu University, Banaras, 1944. Sister Nivedita—Hints on National Education in India, Udbodhan Office, Calcutta, 1950. Sister Nivedita—The Master as I Saw Him: An Intimate Study of Swami Vivekananda, Fifth edition, 1939. Swami Abhedananda—Ideal of Education, Ramkrishna Vedanta Math, Calcutta, 1945. Swami Abhedananda—Swami Vivekananda and His Works in America, Advaita Ashrama, Almora, 1939. Swami Ramakrishnananda—For Thinkers on Education, Sri Ramkrishna Math, Madras, 1948. Vyas, K.C.—The Social Renaissatice in India—Vora&Co., Publishers Private Ltd., Bombay, 1957.

ON ANNIE BESANT Ancient Wisdom, Adyar Edition, 1939. Arundale, Dr. G.S.—Ideals in Education, 1939. Besant Series: Besant, Annie—An Autobiography with an Additional Survey of Her Life by G.S. Arundale, Adyar edition, 1939. Besant, Annie—Essentials of Indian Education, Dr. Besant's Speeches in the Central Hindu College, 1899-1912 (B.S.S.T.) Besant, Annie—Civilization, Deadlocks and the Keys, 1924. Besant, Annie—Education as a National Duty, 1903. Besant, Annie—Education for the New Era, 1919. Besant, Annie—Education for Indian Girls, 1904. Besant, Annie—Education in the Light of Theosophy, Adyar Pamphlet No. 16. Besant, Annie—Mrs. Annie Besant—A Sketch of Her Life and Her Services to India, By G.A. Natesan and Co., 1908. Besant, Annie—Hindu Ideals, 1904. Besant, Annie—Ideal in Education, Compiled mainly from the writings of Dr. Annie Besant, (Besant Spirit Series 11). Besant, Annie—Indian Ideals in Education, Religion and Philosophy and Art, Being Kamala Lectures for 1924-25, delivered at the Calcutta University by Annie Besant. 357 Besant, Annie—Principles of Education with a scheme applying them to National Education in India, Dedicated to Parents, Guardians and Teachers by Annie Besant. Besant, Annie—Problems of Reconstruction. Besant, Annie—The New Civilization, 1927. Besterman—Mrs. Annie Besant, A Modern Prophet, Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner&Co., London, 1934.

Bhagwan Das—Annie Besant, and the Changing World, 1934. Brahma Vidya—Divine Wisdom, Second Edition, 1927. Jinarajadasa—The Golden Book of the Tlieosophical Society, 1925. Jinarajadasa—A Short Biography of Dr. Annie Besant, 1932. Pal, B.C.—Mrs. Annie Besant, A Psychological Study, 1917. Sharma, D.S.—Studies in the Renaissance of Hinduism, Banaras Hindu University, Banaras, 1944. Sri Prakasa—Annie Besant, A Women and Leader, 1941. The Seven Principles of Man, Theosophical Manual No. 1. The Wisdom of the Upanishads, Convention Lecture of 1906, Third Edition, 1925. Vyas, K.C.—The Social Renaissance in India, Vora&Co., Publishers Private Ltd., Bombay, 1957.

ON SRI AUROBINDO Sri Aurobindo—Eight Upanishads: Isha, Kena, Katha, Mundaka, Prasana, Mandukya, Taitiriya and Aitareya. Sri Aurobindo—Essays on the Gita, First Series, 1949. Sri Aurobindo—Essay on the Gita, Second Series, 1949. Sri Aurobindo—Sri Aurobindo on Himself and on the Mother, 1953. 358 Sri Aurobindo—Foundations of Indian Culture, The Sri Aurobindo Library, Inc., New York, 1953. Sri Aurobindo—The Human Cycle. Sri Aurobindo—Hymns of the Mystic Fire. Sri Aurobindo—The Ideal of Human Unity, 1950. Sri Aurobindo—The Ideal of the Karmayogin. Sri Aurobindo—The Life Divine, 1955. Sri Aurobindo—The Message and Mission of Indian Culture. Sri Aurobindo—The National Value of Art. Sri Aurobindo—On The Veda, 1956. Sri Aurobindo—On Education, 1952. Sri Aurobindo—Physical Education in Sri Aurobindo Ashram, 1954. Sri Aurobindo—The Renaissance in India, 1951. Sri Aurobindo—Savitri, 1954. Sri Aurobindo—A System of National Education, Arya Publishing House, Calcutta, 1946. Sri Aurobindo—On Yoga, 1955. Bhattacharya, P.K.—A Scheme of Education, 1952. Indra Sen—The Message and Mission of Indian Culture, 1951.

Indra Sen—Integral Education, 1952. Indra Sen—Sri Aurobindo as a World Philosopher, an article published in Philosophy East and West, pp. 131-141, October, 1957, January, 1958 University of Hawaii Press. Maitra, S.K.—The Meeting of the East and the West in Sri Aurobindo's Philosophy, 1956. Pavitra. (P.B. Saint-Hillaire)—Education and the Aim of Human Life, Sri Aurobindo International Centre of Education, Pondicherry, May 1961. Sethna, K.D.—The Indian Spirit and the World Future, 1953. Sarma, D.S.—Studies in the Renaissance of Hinduism, Banaras Hindu University, Banaras, 1944. N.B.—All the above books (excepting the ones indicated otherwise) are published by the Sri Aurobindo Ashram, Pondicherry (India). 359

ON MAHATMA GANDHI Agrawal, S.N.—The Gandhian Plan, Padma Publications, Bombay, 1944. Agrawal, S.N.—Constructive Programme for Students, Padma Publications, 1945. Andrews, C.F.—Mahatma Gandhi's Ideas, Allen and Unwin, London, 1929. Bose, N.K.—Studies in Gandhism, Indian Associated Publishing Co., Calcutta, 1947. Catlin, George—In the Path of Mahatma Gandhi, Macdonald, London, 1948. Datta, D.M.—The Philosophy of Mahatma Gandhi, University of Wisconsin Press, Canada, 1953. Dhawan, Gopinath—The Political Philosophy of Mahatma Gandhi, Navajivan Publishing House, 1951. Desai, Mahadev—The Gospel of Self-less Action or The Gita according to Gandhi (Chiefly a translation of Gandhi's Anashaktiyoga), Navajivan Publishing House, 1946. Dewey, John—Democracy and Education, Macmillan, New York, 1916. Dewey, John—The School and Society, University of Chicago Press, 1936. Fischer, Louis—A Week with Gandhi, Duel, Sloan and Pearce, New York, 1942. Fischer, Louis—The Life of Mahatma Gandhi, Harper, New York, 1950. Gandhi, M.K.—An Autobiography, The Story of My Experiments with Truth, Volume I, translated from Gujrati by Mahadev Desai, Navjivan Press, 1927. Gandhi, M.K.—Basic Education, Navajivan Publishing House, 1951. Gandhi, M.K.—Ethical Religion, Translated by Ramiyer, Ganesan, Madras, 1922. Gandhi, M.K.—From Yervada Mandir, translated by T.G. Desai, Navajivan Press, 1937. 360 Gandhi, M.K.—Gandhi Sutras, Ed., D.S. Sarma, The Devin-Adair Co., New York, 1949. Gandhi, M.K.—Great Thoughts of Mahatma Gandhi, Ganesan, Madras (No date). Gandhi, M.K.—Hind Swaraj, Ganesan, Madras, 1921. Gandhi, M.K.—Hindu Dharma, Navajivan Publishing House, 1950.

Gandhi, M.K.—My Soul's Agony, (Gandhiji's statements on removal of untouchability), Navajivan Press, 1932. Gandhi, M.K.—Non-Violence in Peace and War, Parts I&II, Navajivan Publishing House, 1945, 1949. Gandhi, M.K.—Selected Writings of Mahatma Gandhi, Ed., Renald, Duncan, Faber&Faber, London, 1951. Gandhi, M.K.—Selections from Gandhi, Ed., N.K. Bose, Navajivan Publishing House, 1948. Gandhi, M.K.—Towards New Education, Navajivan Publishing House, 1953. Gandhi, M.K.—To the Students—Navajivan Publishing House, 1949. Gandhi, M.K.—To the Women, Ed., A.T. Hingorani, Karachi, 1941. Gandhi, M.K.—Young India, 1919-22, Tagore and Co., Madras, 1922. Gandhi, M.K—Young India, Vol. I, 1919-22, Ganesan, Madras, 1922. Gandhi, M.K.—Young India, Vol. II, 1924-26, Ganesan, Madras, 1927. Gandhi, M.K.—Young India, Vol. III, 1927-28, Ganesan, Madras, 1935. Government of India—The Report of the University Education Commission, 1949 (Radhakrishnan), Manager of Publications, Delhi, 1950. Government, Kerala State—Towards Basic Education—Government Press, Trivandrum, 1958. 361 Gregg, Richard B.—Gandhism and Socialism, Ganesan, Madras, 1931. Hampton, H.V., Saiyidain, K.G. and others—The Educational System, Oxford University Press, London, 1943. Hindustani Talim Sangh, Wardha—Basic National Education, Report of the Zakir Husain Committee and the detailed Syllabus, 1939. Hindustani Talim Sangh, Wardha—Educational Reconstruction, A Collection of Gandhi's articles on the Wardha Scheme, the Zakir Husain Report and Syllabus, and Proceedings of the All India Education Conference at Wardha, 3rd Ed., 1939. Hindustani Talim Sangh, Wardha—One Step Forward, the Report of the First Conference of Basic National Education, Poona, 1939, 1942. Hindustani Talim Sangh, Wardha—Two Years Work, Report of the Second Basic Education Conference, Delhi, 1941, 1942. Hindustani Talim Sangh, Wardha—Report of the Fifth All India Basic Education Conference, 1949-1950. Hindustani Talim Sangh, Wardha—Report of the Sixth All India Basic Education Conference, 1950-1951. Hindustani Talim Sangh, Wardha—Report of the Seventh All India Basic Education Conference, Sevagram, 1951-1952. Hindustani Talim Sangh, Wardha—Sixth Annual Report of the Hindustani Talim Sangh, 1938-44, 1946. Hindustani Talim Sangh, Wardha—Seven Years of Work, Eight Annual Report of Nai Talim, 1928-45. Hindustani Talim Sangh, Wardha—The Third Annual Report, 1940-41. Husain, Zakir—Post-War Education, Institute of Pacific Relations, New York, 1942. Jeffreys, M.V.C.—Education Christian or Pagan, University of London Press, London, 1946. Jeffreys, M.V.C.—Glaucon, and Inquiry into the Aims of Education, Pitman, London, 1950. 362 Jones, E. Stanley—Mahatma Gandhi: An Interpretation, Hoder and Stoughton, London, 1948.

Kumarappa, J.C.—Why the Village Movement?, A.I.V.I.A., Wardha, 1936. Kumarappa, J.C.—Education for Life, Hindustan Publishing Co., Rajamundry, 1937. Kumarappa, J.C.—Gandhian Economic Thought, Vora&Co., Bombay, 1951. Kripalani, J.B.—The Latest Fad, Basic Education, Hindustani Talim Sangh, 1939. Mani, R.S.—Educational Ideas and Ideals of Gandhi and Tagore, New Book Society of India, New Delhi, Nov., 1961. McKee, William J.—New Schools for Young India, University of North Carolina Press, 1930. Menon, T.K.N. (Editor)—A Symposium on Post War Education in India, Padmaja Publications, Baroda, 1945. Ministry of Education, Government of India, Delhi—Basic and Social Education, Delhi, 1948. Ministry of Education, Government of India, Delhi—Progress of Education in India 1937-47, Decennial Review, 2 Vols., 1948. Ministry of Education, Government of India, Delhi—Report of the Assessment Committee on Basic Education, 1956. Ministry of Education, Government of India, Delhi—Report of the Secondary Education Commission, Ministry of Education, Delhi, 1953. Ministry of Education, Government of India, Delhi—Post-War Educational Development in India, Report of the Central Advisory Board of Education, Manager of Publications, Delhi, 1947. Ministry of Education, Government of India, Delhi—Selections from Educational Records, Vols. I&II, Government Printing, Calcutta, 1920, 1922. Patel, M.S.—The Educational Philosophy of Mahatma Gandhi, Navajivan Publishing House, 1953. 363 Periodicals and News Papers The Asiatic Review (Quarterly), London, July, 1939. Harijan (Weekly), 1933-40; 1946, 1948, Navajivan Press. The Indian Review (Monthly), Madras, October 1949. The Indian Social Reformer (Weekly), Bombay, 12.12.1946. journal of Education and Psychology (Quarterly), Baroda, April, 1948. The New Era in Home and School (Monthly), London, May 1938. The Year Book of Education (Annual), Evans London, 1940 and 1952. Young India (Weekly, 1919-1932), Navajivan Press. Pillai, N.P.—The Educational Aims of Mahatma Gandhi, Kalyanmandir Publications, Trivandrum, 1959. Polak, H.S.L., Brailsford, H.N., Pethick, Lawrence—Mahatma Gandhi, Odhams, London, 1949. Pyarelal—A Pilgrimage for Peace, Navajivan Press, 1950. Pyarelal—A Nation Builder at Work, Navajivan Press, 1952. Pyarelal—Mahatma Gandhi—The Last Phase, Vols. I&II, Navajivan Publishing House, 1956, 1958. Reynolds, Reginald—India, Gandhi and World Peace, London, 1931. Rolland, Romain—Mahatma Gandhi, Allen and Unwin, London, 1924.

Saiyidain, K.G.—The Message of the New Education, The New Education Fellowship, London, 1938. Saiyidain, K.G.—Introducing the Basic Curriculum, 1949. Saiyidain, K.G.—Education for International Understanding, Hind Kitabs Ltd., Bombay, 1948. Shrimali, K.L.—The Wardha Scheme of Education, Vidyabhavan Society, Udaipur, 1949. Tendulkar, D.G.—Mahatma, 8 Vols., Jhaveri and Tendulkar, Bombay, 1951-54. Tendulkar, D.G. and Others (Editor)—Gandhiji : His Life and Works, Karnatak Publishing House, Bombay, 1944. 364 Varkey, C.J.—The Wardha Scheme, Oxford University Press, London, 1939. Visva-Bharati Quarterly—Gandhi Memorial Peace Number, Shantiniketan, 1940.

ON RABINDRANATH TAGORE Tagore—Crescent Moon. Tagore—Gitanjali, Translated by the author, first published by the India Society, London, and in 1913, by Macmillan. Tagore—Nationalism, Lectures delivered in Japan and U.S.A., The Macmillan Co., New York. Tagore—The Parrot Training, a Satire on Educational Methods, Thacker, Spink Co., Calcutta. Tagore—Personality, Essays and Lectures delivered in America in 1918. Tagore—The Religion of Man, the Hibber Lectures, George Allen and Unwin, 1930. Tagore—Sadhana, Lectures delivered at the Harvard University, U.S.A. in 1912-13. Tagore—Reminiscences, Macmillan&Co. Ltd., London, 1933. Tagore—The Garden, Collected Poems and Plays of Rabindranath Tagore, Macmillan&Co. Ltd., London, 1939. Tagore—City and Village, Bulletin No. 10, Visva Bharati, Shantiniketan, September, 1946. Tagore—Creative Unity, Macmillan, 1950. Tagore—Rabindranath Tagore: On Art and Aesthetics, Orient Longmans, Calcutta, 1961. Tagore—Rabindranath Tagore; Pioneer in Education; Essays and Exchanges between Rabindranath Tagore and L.K. Elmhirst, John Murray, London, 1961. Andrews, C.F. (Editor)—Thoughts from Tagore. Aronson, Alex—Rabindranath's Educational Ideals and the West. Bhattacharya, V.—Tagore: The Citizen of the World, Metropolitan Book Co. Private Ltd., Delhi, May, 1961. 365 Bose, Nandlal—The Place of Art in Education, Article in the New Education Fellowship Bulletin, April, 1937, Shantiniketan, Bengal. Chattopadhyaya, J.—Rabindranath and His Ashram School. Das Gupta, S.N.—Rabi Dipika. Das Gupta, S.—Tagore's Asian Outlook, Nava Bharati, Calcutta, May, 1961. East and West, Two Patterns by Gilbert Murray and Tagore, International Institute of Intellectual Cooperation, Paris.

Education Number, 1947 of the Vishwa Bharati Quarterly. Education Naturalised, a Lecture translated by Surendra Nath Tagore, Shantiniketan. Ghose, T.—Rabindranath's Contribution to Education. Gupta, Rameshwar—The Essential Tagore, Chetnagar, Bansthali Rajasthan, India, 1961. Louis, J.A. Mercier—The Challenge of Humanism. Mahalanobis, P.C.—Rabindranath Tagore's Visit to Canada, Bulletin No. 14, Visva Bharati, Shantiniketan, November, 1929. Mani, R.S.—Educational Ideas and Ideals of Gandhi and Tagore, New Book Society in India, New Delhi, Nov., 1961. Memorandum of Association, Statutes, Regulations and Rules— Bulletin No. 5, Visva Bharati, Shantiniketan, July, 1945. Narvane, V.S.—Rabindranath Tagore, Central Book Depot, Allahabad. Pearson, W.D.—Shantiniketan, London, Macmillan&Co. Ltd., 1916. Radhakrishnan, S.—The Philosophy of Rabindranath Tagore, Good Companions Publishers, Baroda, India, 1961. Rasdael, H.—Theory of Good and Evil, Volume 11. Rhy Ernest—Rabindranath Tagore, London, Macmillan&Co., 1916. Shantiniketan and the Educational Institution, Bulletin No. 12, Visva Bharati, Shantiniketan, February, 1929. 366 Sinha, Saradhar—Social Thinking of Rabindranath Tagore, Asia Publishing House, Bombay, 1962. Soara, A.X. (Editor)—Lectures and Addresses by Rabindranath Tagore, London, Macmillan&Co., 1921. Sriniketan, The Institute of Rural Reconstruction, Bulletin No. 11, Visva Bharati, Shantiniketan, December, 1928. Supur, An Experiment in Rural Reconstruction, Bulletin No. 28, Visva Bharati, Shantiniketan, September, 1940. Tagore, S.—Rabindranath Tagore and Universal Humanism, Standard-Vacuum Oil Company, Bombay, 1961. Tagore Centenary Souvenir, Published by S.L. Sharma, Ring Road, New Delhi, 1961. Thompson, Edward—Rabindranath Tagore, His Life and Work, Association Press, 1928. The Vishwa Bharati, Quarterly, Shantiniketan. Vishwa Bharati, A Brief Account of the Institution, Bulletin No. 30, Visva Bharati, Shantiniketan, December, 1941. Vishwa Bharati News, Volume XIV, No. 8, February, 1946. Shantiniketan, Shantiniketan Press. The Modern Review, Calcutta.

ON MAHAMANA MADAN MOHAN MALAVIYA Chaturvedi, Sitaram—Mahamana Pandit Madan Mohan Malaviya, Shree Malaviya Jivancharit Samiti, Tailang Library, Kamachcha, Varanasi, 1937. N.B. This book (in Hindi) contains all the Important speeches of Malaviyaji. Moreover, it is a mine of informations about him.

ON SARVAPALLI RADHAKRISHNAN S. Radhakrishnan's following books.

An Idealist View of Life, George Allen&Unwin, London, 1932. East and West in Religion, George Allen&Unwin, London, 1933. Eastern Religions and Western Thought, Oxford University Press, 1939. Freedom and Culture, (A Collection), G.A. Natesan&Co., Madras, 1932. 367 Indian Philosophy, Vol. I, George Allen&Unwin, London, (Revised Edition, 1929), 1923. Indian Philosophy, Vol. II, George Allen&Unwin, London, (Revised Edition, 1931), 1927. Kalki or The Future of Civilization, Kegan Paul&Co., London, 1929. The Hindu View of Life, George Allen&Unwin, London, 1927. The Philosophy of Rabindranath Tagore, Macmillan, 1918. The Reign of Religion in Contemporary Thought, Macmillan, 1920. The Religion we Need, Ernest Benn, London, 1928.

ON ACHARYA VINOBA BHAVE Bhasha Ka Prashna, Madurai, November 30, 1956. Nai Talim (Monthly) Magazine in Hindi, March, 1958, May 1957, July, 1957 and September, 1957. Sarvodaya Vichar Aur Swarajya Shastre. Sarbodaya (Hindi) December, 1949. Shikshan Vichar (Hindi Edition) 1956. Speech at Gandhi Gram. On What We Can Imbibe The main works of the respective educational philosophers as mentioned above. 368

Index Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khana 25 Abu'l Fadl 25 Ahilya Bai 174 Aims of Education 255-59 Akbar 26 Allahabad University 135, 137 Ancient Education—Basic Features 20-24 Ap. Dhamasutra 6, 9-10, 12 Apte, V.S. 5

Arthashastra 34 Arya Deva 24 Arya Samaj 50-55, 75, 97-98 Asanga 24 Aspects of Vedic Education 9-12 Ayerst 183 Banaras Hindu University 80, 135, 144, 147 Banerjee, Surendranath 183 Baudhayana 7 Baudhayama Dharmasutra 7 Beginning of Learning 348, 351-52 Bergson 102 Besant, Annie 79-99, 341-44 Besant's Scheme of National Education for India 93-95 Bhave, Acharya Vinoba 321-39 Blavatsky 52, 79 Bosanquet 102 Buddha 14, 29, 140 Calcutta University 287 Chandragupta Maurya 34 Characteristics of Gandhian Educational Plan 227-30 Chhandogya Upanishad 5 Chirol, Valentine 80 Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda 152 Crawford, S. Cromwell 12 Curtis, Lionel 201 Curzon 184, 192 Das Gupta, S.N. 102 Dayananda 48-78 Dayananda Anglo-Vedic College 75 Deccan Education Society 181 Deussen, Paul 5 Devapaladeva 24 Dia-u'd-din Barani 25

Dinnaga 24 Dowsett, N.C. 250, 256 369 Dutt, N.K. 12 Eckhart 32 Education according to Swami Dayananda 59-78 Education in the Ashrama System 5-8 Education for Sarvodaya 214-17 Education for Satyagraha and Fearlessness 336-38 Education Under Muslim Rulers 17-19 Educator's Duties 12 Emerson 240 Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics 5 Evaluation and Examination 282-85 Firuz Shah 25 Froebel 94 Gaikwad, Maharaja Sayaji Rao 187, 193 Gandhi 31, 81, 96, 172, 178, 182, 197-243, 288, 321-22, 324 Gandhiji on Women Education 237 Gautama 8-9 Gaut. Dharmasutra 6 George V 193 Ghose, Sri Aurobindo 51, 81, 214, 244-85 Ghose, Rash Behari 185 Gitanjali 101 Godse, N.R. 200 Gokhale, Gopal Krishna 180-97 Gokhale as an Educator 187 Gokhale's Bills 187-89 Gujarat Vidyapeeth 213 Hardinge 186 Herbart 228

Hobbes 268 Humayun 26 Hustie 149 Huxley 341 Iltutmish 26 Indian National Congress 82, 182 Indian Unrest 80 Iyer, G.S. 102 Jabala Upanishad 5 Joad, C.E.M. 286 Joshi, G.V. 183 Kane, P.V. 5-6, 13 Kautilya 34-37 Kothari Commission 212 Krishnamurti, J. 340-53 Kumarila 3 Leadbeater, C.W. 341-44 Lutyens, Emily 342 Mahabharata 5 Maham Anga 25 Mahmud Gawan 25 Malaviya, Madan Mohan 81, 83, 135-47, 228, 340 Mani, R.S. 285 Manu 9, 11 Manu Smriti 5-6, 9-11, 173 Mayor, Frederick 239 Means of Education 166-68, 220-24 Medieval Education—Basic Features 24-28 Medium of Education 166, 226-27 Meeting of East and West 33 Mehta, Firozeshah 181 Meston, Sir James 76 Mill, J.S. 149 Minto 185

Minto-Morley Reforms, 1909 185 370 Modi, P.M. 5 Montessori 94 Morley 185 Mukherjee, Ashutosh 287 Mukherjee, H.B. 134 Mukherjee, Radhakrishnan 2-3, 14 Murray, Gilbert 131 Mutahhar 25 Naidu, Sarojini 82, 96 Naoroji, Dada Bhai 181, 183, 185 National Spirit in Education 195-97 Northrop, F.S.C. 33 Objectives of Education 327-31 Patel, M.S. 208, 243 Pestalozzi 94, 208, 228 Philosophy of Sarvodaya 322-23 Philosophy of Vedic and Upanishadic Education 3 Place of Religion in Education 236-37 Prabhu, P.N. 4 Principles of Theosophy 84-87 Radhakrishnan, S. 100, 134, 279, 286-320, 340 Radhakrishnan Commission 297-319 Radhakrishnan on Education 296 Radhakrishnan's Philosophy 288-93 Rai, Lala Lajpat 182 Ramkrishna 148 Ramkrishna Mission 151 Ranade, M.G. 182-83 Rand 183 Rashdall, Hastings 188 Rigveda 2, 23

Robinson Crusoe 110, 133 Romain Rolland 239 Rousseau 210, 228 Ruskin 240 Saiyidain, K.G. 238 Sandhurst 183 Sarkar, S.C. 114 Satyartha Prakash 75 Sen, K.C. 50 Shankar (also as Jagat Guru Shankar Acharya) 29, 38-47, 108 Shaw, Bernard 34 Shradhananda 75 Sikandar Lodi 26 Silabhadra 24 Sinha, S.P. 186 Sopencer, Herbert 149 Sri Aurobindo as an Educator 247 Sri Aurobindo's Philosophy 246-47 Suhrawordy, H.S. 239 Tagore, Maharshi Debendranath 50, 100 Tagore, Ravindranath 81, 100-34 Tagore as an Educationist 112-31 Tauler 32 Teaching Methods 268-72 Theosophical Society 79, 84, 341-44 Thoreau 240, 242 Tilak 181 Tolstoy 240-41 Types of Education 168-78, 226 Upadhyaya, Baldev 46 Urgency of Change 344-46, 348-49 Valle, Pietro Delia 27 Valvalker, P.H. 5 Vas. Dharmasutra 6

Vasubandhu 24 Vasudeva Sarvabhauma 28 371 Vaynpuran 10 Vedvyasa 5 Victoria, Queen 183 Vinoba's Concept of Education 324-27 Virajananda 50 Vishwa Bharati 101, 112, 131-33 Vivekananda 33, 148-78, 212 Vyas, K.C. 84 Wacha, Dinshaw Edulji 181-82 Wardha Scheme 218-22 -----, Criticism of the 224-26 Wedderburn, William 182-83 Welby Commission 182-83 Welby, Lord 182 Wholeness of Life 346, 350 Wordsworth 181 World War, Second 129 Yajnavalkya Smriti 9, 11