The Classroom Facilitator: Special Issue Questions

THE CLASSROOM FACILITATOR Special Issue Questions

Suzanne G. Houff

RO WM A N & LI TTL E FI E L D E D UC ATI ON A division of ROWMAN & LITTLEFIELD PUBLISHERS, INC. Lanham • New York • Toronto • Plymouth, UK

Published by Rowman & Littlefield Education A division of Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc. A wholly owned subsidiary of The Rowman & Littlefield Publishing Group, Inc. 4501 Forbes Boulevard, Suite 200, Lanham, Maryland 20706 http://www.rowmaneducation.com Estover Road, Plymouth PL6 7PY, United Kingdom Copyright © 2010 by Suzanne G. Houff All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any electronic or mechanical means, including information storage and retrieval systems, without written permission from the publisher, except by a reviewer who may quote passages in a review. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Information Available Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data The classroom facilitator : special issue questions / edited by Suzanne G. Houff. p. cm. ISBN 978-1-60709-491-3 (cloth : alk. paper) — ISBN 978-1-60709-492-0 (pbk. : alk. paper) — ISBN 978-1-60709-493-7 (electronic) 1. Teaching. 2. Classroom environment. 3. Active learning. I. Houff, Suzanne G., 1953LB1025.3.C547 2010 371.102–dc22 2010011255

⬁ ™ The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of American National Standard for Information Sciences—Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSI/NISO Z39.48-1992. Printed in the United States of America

We dedicate this book to Brenda Vogel, an outstanding educator, mentor, leader, and friend.

Contents

Introduction 1

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

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How Does Social and Emotional Learning Impact the Classroom? Jane Huffman What Is Culturally Responsive Teaching? Kavatus Newell Where Do These Children Come From? Patricia Reynolds What Is Special about Special Education? Norah Hooper How Do I Teach the Student with Autism Spectrum Disorder? Nicole Myers How Do I Teach the Student Identified as Gifted and Talented? Laurie B. Abeel How Can I Use Technology to Support Reflection? John St. Clair How Can I Use Technology in Student Assessment? Teresa Coffman How Can I Use and Integrate Instructional Technology? Sharon Teabo

3 15 27 41 61 91 127 149 175

Conclusion

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About the Contributors

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“TO MAKE LESS DIFFICULT OR EASIER.” If we take that idea and apply it to the teacher as a facilitator, we then look at the teacher as one that makes learning less difficult. In other words, learning is made easier. To ease the learning process, the teacher-facilitator establishes a classroom that is student-centered and activity-based. In a facilitated classroom, students are held responsible for their own learning through a classroom environment of participation and collaboration. Learning is viewed as an active process that promotes critical-thinking and problem-solving skills. In a teacher-facilitator classroom, more emphasis is placed on the process and development of learning skills rather than on the product or outcome of facts. The title of this text came about as a result of the belief that teachers as facilitators must have an understanding of the many aspects and issues associated with developing a student-centered classroom. With that in mind, this text is designed to answer specific questions about students and instruction. We begin in chapter 1 with a discussion of social and emotional learning. The chapter focuses on social and emotional development in the context of its impact on instruction and learning. The learner’s development in these areas influences learning. Case studies are used to introduce concepts and strategies. Chapter 2 looks at establishing a classroom that is culturally responsive. The chapter focuses on preparing teachers to work with culturally diverse students. It begins with a discussion of culturally responsive teaching. You O FACILITATE MEANS

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will learn how to implement culturally responsive lessons and provide practical strategies for creating and maintaining a psychologically safe learning environment for diverse students. English as a Second Language learners are discussed in chapter 3. This chapter provides you with information about the cultural and ethnic diversity you will encounter in the classroom. It covers the importance of recognizing these students’ needs as being specific to the learning environment. Honoring this child is the key to your success as a teacher of diverse populations. The chapter covers issues regarding second-language learning as well as gives some information about current trends in the immigration/refugee dynamic and the impact it has had and will continue to have on schools in the United States. Through the use of cases and reader activities, chapter 4 describes how special education lesson planning and instruction are different from general education. The use of more specific and measurable daily goals, more carefully sequenced teaching, more intensity and repetition, and more frequent assessment are examples of these differences. You learn how to incorporate essential aspects of special education into both general and special education classrooms at all age and ability levels. Chapter 5 describes the social/emotional, language, and behavioral characteristics of autism spectrum disorder in a way that allows you to understand how students with ASD may be successful in the general education classroom. Modifications and supports that assist students with ASD in accessing the curriculum are highlighted. The chapter further discusses establishing relationships with other students and behavioral supports. Chapter 6 explores the area of gifted and talented students. You will learn characteristics and strategies to meet the needs of these learners. Technology is pervasive in the lives of school children both at home and at school. Chapters 7, 8, and 9 focus on technology and the challenge for you to harness technology in effective ways that promote learning. Chapter 7 looks at using technology to support reflection, student assessment, and instructional integration. Specific examples of activities considering the cognitive development of students show how classroom and Internet technologies may be used to allow students to construct knowledge and develop their own metacognitive abilities. Technology for student assessment is examined in chapter 8. You will learn about practical ideas and specific tools that can be used to vary assessment through technology. Chapter 9 ends the text by summarizing the integration of technology in classroom instruction.

1 How Does Social and Emotional Learning Impact the Classroom? Jane Huffman

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in school. Students that are content in the classroom are more likely to focus on learning. According to Daniel Goleman (1998), a student’s academic success is strongly related to their social and emotional learning. Goleman defined four competencies/skills that can be used in the classroom as a framework for this type of learning. OCIAL AND EMOTIONAL LEARNING IS CRITICAL FOR SUCCESS

• • • •

Self-awareness Self-management Social awareness Relationship management

Self-awareness is achieved when students are able to recognize various emotions. They can tell the differences among thinking, feeling, and acting on those emotions (Goleman 1998). Self-management is achieved when students are able to cope with difficulty situations and control emotions. Without this, the emotions would otherwise lead to episodes of stress or displays of anger interfering with learning. A student demonstrates social awareness when they are able to recognize and understand the perspective of others. They are able to treat others with respect. Relationship management is achieved when students are able to develop and maintain friendships. They are able to work together cooperatively, resolve conflicts, and resist social pressure. When students engage in responsible decision making, they make appropriate choices. They constructively —3—

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manage social and emotional situations and seek help when needed. By doing this, they are able to focus on learning (Goleman 1998). To develop a program that focuses on social and emotional learning, let’s first look at the goals. The goals for social and emotional learning programs focus on assisting students in understanding their emotions. They need to identify emotional trigger points and define strategies to manage the behavior. They need to practice establishing healthy relationships based on mutual respect and cooperation. A critical thread running through the stages of social and emotional learning is responsible decision making. In the following chapter, you will take a look at a series of real-life classroom situations. These cases characterize problems you face daily. Each case demonstrates how the student’s inability to manage internal conflict, regulate emotions in social situations, and resist peer pressure interferes with learning. Following each case, strategies are presented for integrating social and emotional learning. Developed as a component of the academic program, these strategies promote student success.

Sally Sally was a good student but had a reputation as a troublemaker in the classroom. Her negative behavior was directed toward both students and the teacher. When things did not go her way, her anger flared. Her behavior sometimes caused other students to act out in class. Sally was best behaved when Mr. Simon lectured the entire class period. As a result, the teacher found that his teaching style changed when Sally was in the room. Mr. Simon was able to maintain a peaceful classroom when he limited the number of group projects and activities that engaged the students in conversation and movement. Unfortunately, his next unit was designed to engage students in discovery learning activities at stations set up around the classroom. Mr. Simon was concerned about how Sally would behave but decided to move forward with his plan. The first day students moved through the stations enjoying the change of pace, and there were no problems because Sally was absent. The following day Sally returned. She moved to the assigned station to work with a group of students examining and analyzing census data to make predictions about population. Mr. Simon monitored the stations, keeping a close eye on Sally. Soon after he announced that station work would end in fifteen minutes, students at the census station were suddenly engaged in an argument. Sally was yelling at her classmates, claiming they were not working fast enough to complete the task. Members of her team were loudly complaining

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that it was Sally’s fault because she was not sharing the census data with them. When a student reached for the data sheets, Sally grabbed all of the materials at the station and threw them in the trash. She then turned to Mr. Simon and dared him to punish her. One student suggested that Sally be thrown out of the class, and several said they would never work with her again. With the entire class watching, Mr. Simon had to take action. While Sally was the primary instigator of the misbehavior in the classroom, there were a number of students struggling to control their emotions. Stop. Before reading further, consider what you would do if faced with the same dilemma. What action would you take? Mr. Simon’s classroom was out of control. His attention had been focused on teaching. To a large extent he ignored the powder keg of emotions that swirled in the classroom. The disruption at the station forced him to confront the discord that was interfering with instruction. The dilemma was how to address the problem. An immediate reaction to the chaos would be to state his disappointment in their behavior. Then he could outline punishments for Sally and the students involved in the argument. Peace would be restored, but such a strategy would not solve the problem. Sally would continue to have difficulty controlling her emotions. In addition, there were other students who occasionally lost control and interrupted class activities. A long-lasting, positive solution would be to spotlight the classroom incident and use it as starting point to integrate social and emotional learning goals into the daily curriculum. Salovey and Mayer (1990) defined emotional intelligence as “the subset of social intelligence that involves the ability to monitor one’s own and others’ feelings and emotions, to discriminate among them and to use this information to guide one’s thinking and actions.”

The case study profiled students that lacked the ability to monitor emotions and feelings when confronted with a difficult situation in the classroom. Their first response was to express anger, shutting down any possibility of compromise. By teaching skills to monitor behavior and to make appropriate decisions related to emotionally stressful episodes, your classroom becomes a place where confrontation is replaced with cooperation. Social and emotional learning can be embedded across the curriculum rather than being viewed as an add-on. In many schools, it is addressed as a component of the character education program. A review of curriculum standards will reveal multiple points where social-emotional learning objectives can be integrated across the core academic program. Figure 1.1 offers some possible connections.

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English/Language Arts • Write about a time you lost control of emotions and how you might have handled the situation differently. • Analyze how feelings and emotions drove decisions made by the characters in a book. • Explore how a story line would change if the characters in a book controlled impulses to express emotions appropriately.

Social Studies • Explore a current news story for conflicting points of view. • Examine how compromise has influenced the course of world events. • Explore issues of social justice and fairness.

Science • Examine the impact of violent weather systems. • Analyze the impact people’s decisions have on the environment. • Explore how to balance the rights of humans and animals. FIGURE 1.1 Possible Areas for Social-Emotional Integration

Michael During the first few days of school, Michael was generally attentive in class, followed directions, and completed assigned tasks. However, there was an underlying problem. On Friday, when the students were working independently at their desks, Michael began to beat his fists on the desk and threw his books in the floor. The teacher (Ms. Harrison) had a difficult time calming him down, and he refused to explain what caused the outburst. The following week two

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additional outbursts occurred without any known cause, and he was more frequently distracted, which interfered with his attention to class. When Ms. Harrison asked what had triggered the outbursts, Michael replied that he was angry but gave no reason for the anger. The teacher visited the guidance office to learn more about Michael by reviewing his file. The information revealed that he was an only child and was being raised by a single mother. He was new to the school and the community. There was no documentation of any behavior problems or learning challenges. A conversation with the guidance counselor provided no help in uncovering the root cause of the problem. The counselor suggested that some students have difficulty adjusting to a new school. Ms. Harrison asked Michael to stay after class the next day to talk about why he was angry, and she asked if it was connected to his move to the new school. He said the school was fine, the teachers were fine, and the students he had met were fine. Unable make any connections between school and Michael’s anger, Ms. Harrison called his mother. Ms. Harrison described the behavior and the fact that there appeared to be no connection between activities in the classroom and the outbursts. She also explained that Michael’s behavior was having a negative effect on his academic performance. Michael’s mother stated that he had recently started acting out at home. The mother explained that they moved because she was planning to remarry. She believed that Michael was reacting to the changes in his life at home. Michael’s father died when he was very young, so it had been just the two of them in the household for several years. The mother believed all the anger was directed at her because Michael was concerned that their relationship would dramatically change following the marriage. Now that the root cause of Michael’s outbursts in class had been revealed, Ms. Harrison had to find a way to support him. He needed to find a way to suppress his expressions of anger in the classroom. It was not only hurting Michael; his actions were disrupting the learning of other children in the class. Stop. Before reading further, what recommendations would you offer Ms. Harrison to address Michael’s angry outbursts in class? What strategies would you use? Michael’s problem was unique because the root cause of his behavior was not related to something happening at school. However, action was necessary because the behavior was affecting Michael’s concentration on classroom tasks as well as the other children in the class. A conference with Michael to discuss what triggered his mind to wander away from classroom activity to angry thoughts about the changes at

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home would open a dialogue. Once they were able to identify factors that prompted the dramatic behavior changes, it would be possible to work on controlling the impulses that were distracting Michael from his schoolwork. The teacher also had a role to play in helping Michael work on regulating his behavior in the classroom. Were there any signals the teacher could identify indicating that Michael was beginning to lose focus and become agitated? Close observation might reveal physical changes preceding an outburst, such as increased movement, rearranging materials on the desk, or playing with a pencil. If so, calling on Michael or walking by and tapping on the desk would break his train of thought, refocusing his attention on classroom activities. This case also draws attention to the fact that Ms. Harrison was unaware of the changes in Michael’s life that contributed to his behavior in the classroom. She explored multiple possibilities for his actions prior to contacting the parent. Teachers start each year with a list of student names but seldom information that will be helpful in framing the classroom environment or instruction. A cumulative folder will not provide a comprehensive profile of each student. Beyond grades and notations related to behavior and/or required accommodations outlined in the file, there is still much to be learned about each child. In most schools, the format for a back-to-school event does not provide an opportunity for extended conversations with the family of each child. By the time parent-teacher conferences are scheduled, normally six to eight weeks after school begins, the student’s academic progress may already be in jeopardy. Forging a partnership with families before the first day of school is an effective strategy to learn more about the children in your classroom. Be ready to address any issues that will negatively affect academic success. A letter home prior to the beginning of the school year encouraging families to share information about their children will better prepare you for meeting the social-emotional needs of the students. The sample letter in figure 1.2 offers a greeting to the family. It also clearly defines that the child’s success is dependent on a partnership between the home and school. After outlining the plan to keep families involved in the life of the classroom, request information from the family. Keep the tone positive while explaining that the information shared will enrich the child’s classroom experience.

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FIGURE 1.2 Family Greeting Example

Mr. Lewis Mr. Lewis was in the library selecting books to be placed on reserve for a class research project. At a table nearby, a group of students (including several from his sixth-period class) were whispering about a party planned for the following weekend. He overheard Gracie express concerns about drinking and possible drug use at the party. Her friends told her that all the “cool” kids would be at the party and if Gracie wanted to fit in, she would join them. The bell rang, and the students left the library. That afternoon, he noticed that Gracie, normally very attentive in class, had been distracted. When called on to answer a question she was confused about what topic was being discussed. Mr. Lewis believed the conversation in the library was contributing to her lack of attention in class.

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As he drove home after school, Mr. Lewis worried about the peer pressure applied to Gracie to do something that made her feel unsafe. He was troubled by the importance students place on fitting in and being part of the popular crowd. It was also evident to him that the social pressure and related stress would soon impact her academic performance as the date of the party drew near. Stop. Before reading further, what suggestions do you have for Mr. Lewis? Should he forget about the conversation? Is there a way he can address the issue to help Gracie? Social pressure is a distraction in the classroom. When students become uncomfortable by threats to their sense of emotional well-being or personal security, they are not able to focus on activities in the classroom (Goleman, 1995). The pressure to conform to one’s peer group in school ranges from choices about dress to engaging in risky behavior. Peer pressure often involves pushing children to do things they might otherwise not do. In this case, the desire to “fit in” might lead Gracie to go to the party without any consideration of the consequences. Mr. Lewis chose to treat this situation as a teachable moment and to focus on making appropriate choices. He wanted to focus on resisting peer pressure and on making good decisions. Teachable moments are unplanned but offer an opportunity to address a topic or issue at a time when students will most likely benefit from the lesson. While his attention was focused on Gracie’s problem, Mr. Lewis was certain that his plan of action would have an impact on other students experiencing peer pressure. The following day Mr. Lewis took time at the beginning of class to engage each class in a problem-solving exercise focused on peer pressure. He presented a real-world problem and directed the students to consider the following questions: 1. What are the possible options available to solve the problem? 2. What are the consequences of each option? 3. What course of action do you recommend? Following a discussion of the issues and defining a solution, Mr. Lewis asked the class, “Have you ever been a victim of peer pressure, and how did you deal with it?” The problem-based activity accomplished several goals. The activity reinforced steps for solving problems and making responsible decisions. It also provided a real-world problem students could relate to and hopefully gave the students courage to resist social pressure from peers to follow

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the crowd or participate in risky behavior. Opening the conversation for students to share their experiences offered an opportunity for personal reflection regarding the choices made. The discussion also reinforced a strategy for making decisions based on reason rather an emotion. It was Mr. Lewis’s hope that the students will internalize the steps for solving problems. In the future, perhaps they would recall the process when faced with emotional or social dilemmas. While Mr. Lewis’s target group for the problem-solving activity were those students on the receiving end of peer pressure, he was also trying to reach the students in class exerting pressure on peers and encouraging them to make poor decisions. His message to them was that maintaining healthy relationships require treating people with respect and that actions that hurt others is wrong. There are content-specific connections to be made in literature, science, and social studies that would reinforce the lessons learned from the problemsolving activity and classroom discussion. Students can study the history of war or the political process and examine the motivation for exerting influence over others and the consequences of those actions.

Josh Everyone was excited about the classroom museum project. It offered a change of pace from the normal class routine. Plus, the class enjoyed working in groups. On Friday afternoon, Ms. Franklin outlined the plan for the following week of class. The museum theme was American Heroes. Students would be assigned to groups of three to prepare an exhibit to profile the hero selected by the group and define a plan for sharing the information with visitors. She reminded the students of the field trip Monday to the local history museum. Josh stayed after class to talk to Ms. Franklin about the project. He outlined his plan for an exhibit honoring computer giant Bill Gates. She reminded Josh that the museum exhibit was a group project, and the group would work together to select a hero. Josh was an excellent student and well liked by his classmates. However, there were times when his excitement created conflict in the classroom. Josh tried to dominate class discussions. His hand was up for every question posed by the teacher, and he liked to be in charge. On Monday morning before boarding buses for the museum, Ms. Franklin placed students into groups. Josh was placed in a group with Brian and

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Kelly. Kelly was assigned to be the group leader. Josh immediately presented his exhibit plan to Brian and Kelly. They rolled their eyes and proceeded to the bus. At the museum, Josh carefully listened to the guide’s presentation and asked a lot of questions about how the displays were constructed. Back in the classroom, the students were placed again in groups and told to agree on a hero. They were to begin preparing research questions to learn more about the person. Ms. Franklin also announced that the group leader would serve as the spokesperson when there were questions about the project. Despite his enthusiastic argument, Josh could not persuade the group to select Bill Gates as a hero. They settled on Walt Disney. Ms. Franklin monitored the groups during the construction of the exhibits. Several times each day, she would send Josh back to his group, reminding him that Kelly was the group leader. He was frustrated by the project structure. The group did not agree with all of his suggestions for the exhibit. Friday was the last day to work on the project. Brian and Kelly were both absent, so Josh decided to make a few changes in the display and rewrote the script. In his mind, the changes would please the group. On Monday morning Brian and Kelly complained to the teacher. Josh defended his actions, explaining, “I was only trying to make it better.” Ms. Franklin explained to the group that there was not enough time to change the exhibit before the visitors arrived. “I want you to work together as a team to define your plan to share the exhibit. Josh, we will talk later today.” Stop. Before reading further, do you agree with Ms. Franklin’s reaction, and what would you say to Josh? What could have been done to prevent the problem? Josh presents a special challenge. He loves school and learning. His relationship with the students in the class is strong except when his enthusiasm for activities causes him to take charge whether or not it is appropriate. Additionally, Josh is oblivious to the fact that his actions upset others. He believes his contributions to class are worthy. Despite the complaints by Brian and Kelly, Josh felt good about the extra work he did to prepare the museum display. Ms. Franklin has talked to Josh several times about his habit of taking charge of groups or the class. He always responds, “I will work harder to be a team player.” Unfortunately, there is no evidence of change. She has been hesitant to impose consequences for fear of crushing his enthusiasm. But the time has come to take action. If Josh is left unchecked, his relationship with peers will begin to deteriorate and at some point there will be a confrontation that could prove dangerous.

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Josh needs help managing his emotions and behaviors as well as being socially aware. He needs to control his impulse to take charge and understand what it means to be a member of a team. He also needs to recognize and appreciate the perspective of his classmates. While his action related to the museum display was not intended to be hurtful, it was perceived that way by Brian and Kelly. The teacher may want to work with Josh to set goals and establish an action plan to control impulsive behavior and demonstrate teamwork. Rewards for meeting the goals would be defined in context with the system in place in the classroom. Partnering with the parents to help Josh meet the goals is critically important. In order for change to occur, he needs to be working on the goals at home and in the classroom.

Social and Emotional Learning and the Classroom In each of the cases profiled, a student’s emotional episode resulted in behavior that prevented them from concentrating on learning activities. The students lacked the skills necessary to successfully manage the social and academic situations that confronted them. This made it difficult or impossible to refocus attention on the lesson. Emotions and relationships in and out of the classroom affect student learning. Your classroom instruction should include the teaching of social and emotional learning skills. A review of state curriculum guides will serve as a framework for integrating the skills across the curriculum. Throughout the school year, as part of the regular instructional program, content topics offer opportunities to extend study and build on foundational understandings of social and emotional learning. In building a case for teaching social and emotional learning skills, it should also be noted that mastery of the skills will better position students to succeed in the workplace and life. For example, let’s look at The Partnership for 21st Century Skills. This group describes the knowledge and skills students will be expected to have in the future. Building and maintaining positive relationships will be critical for working in a world where collaboration is valued. There will be shared responsibility for work. Greater emphasis will be placed on using reasoning skills to solve problems and make decisions. Working in settings where individuals will be expected to be flexible and adapt to change will require emotional stability and social skills. The ability to manage and control emotions and work in diverse social settings will serve students well in the classroom and in life. When students have

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the skill set to manage their emotions, attention is focused on learning. When students are offered practice working in settings based on respect and cooperation, healthy relationships are the result. The cases presented demonstrate that teachers are in a unique position to offer opportunities for students to develop and reinforce social and emotional learning skills that will positively impact that classroom experience.

References Goleman, D. (1995). Emotional intelligence. New York: Bantam. Goleman, D. (1998). Working with emotional intelligence. New York: Bantam Books. The Partnership for 21st Century Skills. (2009). P21 framework definitions. Retrieved from http://www.21stcenturyskills.org/documents/P21_Framework_Definitions.pdf. Salovey, P., and Mayer, J. (1990). Emotional intelligence. Imagination, Cognition, and Personality, 9(3), 185–211.

2 What Is Culturally Responsive Teaching? Kavatus Newell

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HAT ARE SOME OF THE CONCERNS YOU HAVE REGARDING your teaching? When asked this question to preservice teachers the most common responses include classroom management and differentiation. Few think about tailoring the curriculum to meet the needs of diverse students within their classroom; however, when teachers are equipped to meet the psychological needs of students within a rigorous curriculum, fewer classroom management issues result. In this chapter, we will discuss what is meant by culturally responsive teaching and provide strategies teachers can use to tailor the curriculum for the success of students from a diverse background. Reflective teachers consistently consider how their lessons can improve to better meet the needs of all students. They differentiate instruction to meet the needs of advanced learners, struggling learners, and those with varied abilities. However, research shows that many teachers often fail to take into consideration the sociocultural and multicultural facets of students when planning their curriculum (Ball, 2000; Delpit, 2003). Currently more than 50 million students are enrolled in public schools. Forty-three percent of public school students are considered to be part of a racial or ethnic minority group (Planty et al., 2008). Although plenty of research exists that confirms teachers need to know more about students’ cultures when setting up opportunities for learning success, many teachers fail to take such knowledge into account in everyday classroom practices. One way to deal with this lack is through the use of culturally responsive teaching.

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Culturally responsive teaching supports and facilitates the achievement of diverse students by “using the cultural knowledge, prior experiences, frames of references, and performance styles of ethnically diverse students to make learning encounters more relevant to and effective for them” (Gay, 2000). Culturally responsive instruction provides students with an opportunity for learning success by creating environments that are welcoming and supportive. You may ask, “How do I implement culturally responsive teaching instruction?” Culturally responsive instruction begins with the teacher. Teachers must reflect on their own beliefs regarding diverse student populations. While teachers want all their students regardless of cultural differences to succeed, overwhelmingly the teacher population consists of female, suburban, middleclass European-Americans whose cultural backgrounds differ from the nondominant cultures. Mainstream teachers are cultural insiders whose orientation toward education has resulted from years spent as a student in a mainstreamed, aligned education system. Often, teachers may be unaware of how sociocultural influences work to advantage some students while disadvantaging others. Simply put, teachers may be unaware that the background of diverse students may have an adverse impact on experiences in the classroom. The disparity between the teacher’s and students’ orientation toward education may at best cause several misunderstandings and at worst result in students from diverse backgrounds receiving a substandard education. Evidence suggests that many mainstream teachers hold a deficit perspective toward students from diverse backgrounds (Nieto, 1996). Students are seen as “lacking” in their ability to achieve. Consequently students from diverse backgrounds may be offered more drills, practice, and rote-memorization activities as opposed to more challenging work. It is important for teachers to examine their own views regarding diversity. Several surveys and questionnaires exist to aid teachers in examining their beliefs. One popularly used questionnaire is the Degree of Readiness for Teaching Questionnaire. The survey is designed to measure teacher readiness for work in diverse classrooms. Take the questionnaire and reflect on your own beliefs. How might those beliefs disadvantage diverse populations within your classroom? Culturally responsive teachers are committed to their beliefs that curricula and instruction should support diverse learners, not from a viewpoint of deficiency or failure but one of differences. Teachers believe that all students are capable learners regardless of their differences in language, dialect, or behavior, and they set out to establish appropriate instructional practices to support students’ learning while valuing their culture. Culturally responsive teachers show respect and value for diverse cultures by becoming culturally literate.

1. I can explain how my autobiography influences the values and beliefs I hold for making classroom decisions about curriculum instruction. 2. I believe that more problems than assets surround cultural diversity at school. 3. I can develop strategies that engage all students in instruction and that help them express themselves confidently in school. 4. I am unsure how biases and stereotypes that I might have for other cultural groups could unintentionally influence my classroom instruction. 5. I can identify subtle forms of racism, including unintended cultural bias that might influence my teaching. 6. I have limited cross-cultural experiences. 7. I accept and affirm students’ usage of nonstandard English. 8. I am comfortable conferencing with parents of diverse cultures. 9. I have a limited understanding how sociocultural and/or cognitive factors related to students’ diversity could influence my personal and academic relationship with students. 10. I believe that limited-English proficiency students need lower-level work. 11. I can explain how culture enhances students’ learning of academic content. 12. I know how to design and implement lessons that are instructionally appropriate and academically challenging for all students. 13. I have limited understanding of the complex relationships among society, schools, and ethnicity. 14. I would rather teach in monocultural settings. 15. I am unsure about the cultural qualities of social groups other than my own. 16. I am able to describe the relationship between local communities and schools in all economic and social areas, especially urban public schools where students are frequently disadvantaged. 17. I am comfortable teaching in culturally diverse classrooms with students who share different value systems. 18. I am able to tailor instruction to the needs of all my students. 19. I believe that some minority groups, such as African Americans and Hispanics, may not be as capable of learning as other minority groups. 20. I can describe the historical antecedents to the marginalization of African American and Hispanic students at school. 21. I prefer teaching students who share my social class and cultural background. Adapted from Powell, R., Zehm, S., and Garcia, J. (1996). Field experience: Strategies for exploring diversity in schools. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

FIGURE 2.1 Degree of Teaching Questionnaire

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Become Culturally Literate Culturally responsive instruction requires an understanding of the cultures represented in your classroom. Although it is unrealistic to expect teachers to be experts in all cultural beliefs and values, it is expected that you strive to learn and understand the beliefs and values of culturally diverse students within your classroom. It is especially important that you understand those beliefs and values as they relate to education. Seek to understand children’s culture through more knowledgeable others, such as other adults who may share a student’s culture. The English as a Second Language teacher is a helpful resource in understanding how to accommodate your lesson to meet the diverse needs of non-native speakers. In addition to talking to more knowledgeable others, become culturally literate by using outside resources. One Internet resource that provides a wealth of information is the Multicultural Education Internet Resource Guide. The resource guide has over fifty websites that you can use to locate educational resources on the Internet. These resources provide you with lesson plans, online photo galleries, stories, maps, and virtual field trips that can be used to augment your curriculum. The Center for Research on Education, Diversity and Excellence (CREDE) is another resource useful for learning about various cultures. CREDE provides teachers with a range of tools to help them implement best practices in a classroom. Through the information provided through CREDE you can better understand how to improve the education of students from various cultural, language, and racial backgrounds. Every student enters the classroom with a “cultural fund of knowledge”; the student is an “expert” in his culture. At this point, it is important to emphasize that every student is a member of a cultural group, not just those from nonmainstream linguistic, racial, and ethnic backgrounds. Loosely defined, culture is the knowledge, language, values, and customs shared from one generation to the next within a group. With that understanding you can see that we are all part of a cultural group. Create opportunities for students to share their culture with the class through pictures, music, and stories and invite questions. An African student, new to the United States, may choose to share a recording of a djembe drum, the traditional drum used in many African countries for celebrations or religious ceremonies. At the same time, a student born in the United States may choose to share a recording of zydeco, music traditionally found in southwest Louisiana. Both types of music are a part of each student’s unique culture that he or she may want to share with the class. The sharing session will allow for class members

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to ask questions from the “expert.” Through questions and discussions, all will gain a better understanding of diverse cultures. Finally, it is important that you establish a rapport with parents. For students from nonmainstream cultures, establishing a rapport with parents and guardians can aid you in becoming more culturally literate. Make efforts to establish positive home-school relations through informal conversations with parents when opportunities present themselves. For example, be available to greet parents in the morning or at dismissal, call parents on the phone to invite them to school events or to participate in a classroom activity, and make every effort to represent diverse languages in school communications. Inviting family members to be a part of the classroom by sharing their culture is another way to become culturally literate. For example, during Hanukkah, invite the parents of a Jewish student to read a story or share a meal with the class. Or at the beginning of November, invite a parent of a Mexican student to read a story and explain the celebrated holiday Día de los Muertos (Day of the Dead).

Value Diversity in Discourse and Learning Styles In a culturally relevant classroom, students’ language style, grammar, and register are valued. In linguistics, register refers to a language variation used for a particular setting. For example, a student from a mainstream culture may adhere to the standard grammatical practice of using ing (e.g., walking) to denote present action, but a student from a different culture may drop the ing (e.g., walkin’) when speaking. Although not an adherence to standard grammatical rules, the use of “walkin’” is acceptable in the students’ social setting and therefore a part of his register. Everyone has a particular language style or dialect that reflects his region. We each bring our unique dialects and language style to the classroom. Students from mainstream cultures are often able to “code-switch” from dialect to the more accepted classroom dialect, standard English. “Codeswitching” is a linguistics term that refers to the ability to switch dialects from one conversation to the next depending on the situation or audience. When talking to your principal, you use formal, standard English. However, when speaking to your best friend, you are not as formal; you may use slang, idiomatic expressions, and varied syntax. Your ability to change from a standard English dialect to a nonstandard dialect in order to meet the appropriateness of the context and audience is code-switching. However, not all students are able to successfully make the switch; they will write and speak with the same expressions, syntax, and grammar used in their cultural dialect.

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Students whose cultures are similar to the mainstream school culture are better able to understand the pragmatics of language used in classrooms. They have learned the appropriateness of language depending on certain situations and are often better able to switch from a nonstandard dialect to standard English dialect when the context demands it. Culturally diverse students may not understand the appropriateness of dialect in a given situation and will need explicit instruction. Culturally relevant teachers believe in the success of all their students and hold high expectations for each. To that end, they teach students the “language of power” (Delpit, 2003). Diverse students may need more explicit instruction in standard English dialect. You can show respect for diverse discourse styles as well as teach standard English dialect by instructing students how to code-switch and when standard English is appropriate. For example, take a sample of students’ writing and explicitly teach them how to switch from their dialect to standard English. In a fourth-grade English class students are asked to write a paragraph about their summer vacation. Michael writes the following: I didn’t do nothin on my vacation but go to my cousin house. It is clear from the writing sample that Michael has not adhered to the rules of standard English. The sample shows the use of double negatives and lack of possessive. You can use this sample to show students how to switch from a nonstandard vernacular to a standard one. This sample provides a teaching moment in which you can model for students how to change the sentence to fit the standard rules. Although it is important that diverse students learn the grammar of standard English for their success both academically and socially, it is also important that their language styles are valued in the classroom. Culturally relevant instruction values diverse language styles and promotes inclusive discourse. Inclusive discourse refers to the inclusion of students’ language styles within the classroom. Although standard English dialect may be required in formal writing, the use of dialect, various vocabulary, and syntax is accepted in more informal writing (e.g., journals, creative writing assignments). Furthermore, the teacher should never denigrate a student’s language style. Culturally responsive teachers provide explicit instruction in standard English without making students feel as if their cultural dialect is “wrong” or “bad.” In addition to valuing discourse styles, culturally responsive teaching values diverse learning styles. Learning styles refer to one’s preferential mode for acquiring, organizing, and applying new information. In the school culture, students are expected to receive information from the teacher, work inde-

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pendently, and compete for grades. For various cultures the learning style promoted by the school is not congruous to the student’s culture. For example, instead of emphasizing individual success, Asian cultures often emphasize the success of the group. This cultural difference may be problematic in a classroom where students are expected to work silently and alone on task; however, including performance-based assessment within your instruction will meet the learning style more characteristic of Asian cultures. Culturally responsive teachers recognize that varying instruction to meet diverse learning styles will lead to more effective learning. Teachers ask themselves: Does the student prefer hands-on learning, visual modes, or auditory modes; does the student prefer to learn alone or does the culture support more group learning? Being aware of students’ various learning styles and providing instructional opportunities to meet those differences promotes culturally responsive instruction within a class. A culturally responsive instructor respects the differing communication styles within cultures. Within different cultural groups there are unique roles for the speaker and listener when communicating. For example, for some African Americans the call-response method is used when communicating. Influenced by African cultures, call-response is a form of interaction in which the listener verbally “calls out” in response to the speaker. In a classroom an African American student may often call out a response to your question without raising her hand. If you are unaware of the differing communication style, you may view the student’s response as disrespectful. This difference in communication pattern can prove problematic in a classroom, resulting in punitive actions toward the student. To avoid misunderstandings, handle situations involving communication styles of a particular cultural group with sensitivity. You do not want to deny a child of their natural way of speaking, since doing so can inadvertently stifle her academic achievement (Gay, 2002).

Instructional Materials Culturally responsive instruction requires a new look at materials used to teach the curriculum. Supplemental materials used in the class should be representative of the cultures within the classroom. Regardless of the subject matter, if you value diversity, then incorporate representations of various cultures within your curriculum. Teachers spend time at the beginning of the school year decorating their classrooms with bulletin boards, signs, and banners, yet often the adornment is unused.

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As a culturally responsive instruction, include bulletin boards, posters, and banners that show accurate portrayals of various cultures and the contributions made by cultural members. The signage you include in your classroom should not only reflect the accuracy of the culture but also should be used to enhance the curriculum. For example, to accommodate for cultural diversity in mathematics, a cultural focus could involve a lesson on Egyptian numerals, the Chinese calendar, or counting words in different languages. Such examples can be included on a math bulletin board, and students should be encouraged to use the information gathered. Instead of the word problems offered in the textbook, create word problems that relate to and are relevant to students’ lives. Augment your lesson by introducing students to cultural members who have made contributions to the topic of study. There are lesser-known yet extremely noteworthy contributions of many ethnic groups in science, technology, medicine, math, theology, and law (Gay, 2002). Invite students to do a presentation or a report on a person from a different cultural group that has contributed to the topic or field being studied. Within a math study, introduce Trigomometic Delights by Eli Maor (Maor, 2002). This book is a collection of biographical information on mathematicians from different cultures. Students are able to meet mathematicians such as Maria Agnesi, an eighteenth-century woman who impacted mathematical studies. As a culturally responsive instructor, create opportunities for students to explore the unique but often underrepresented contributions nonmainstream others have made to society. One of the most powerful ways to include diverse materials into the curriculum is through literature. Oftentimes texts used in a traditional curriculum are written from the dominant perspective; rarely does the text offer alternative perspectives to a topic. Culturally responsive instructors examine instructional materials for bias, stereotypes, and omissions. When presented with texts, ask yourself a series of questions: From whose viewpoint is the topic explained? Whose voice is omitted? How would the text differ from another’s perspective? Asking critical questions regarding the text used in classes allows you to become cognizant of the disparity in the curriculum. Multicultural and multiethnic literatures are effective ways to supplement the curriculum. Including text (literature, articles, editorials) that offers alternate views is critical in a culturally relevant classroom. For example, in a typical social studies text Christopher Columbus’s voyages are often taught from the Western perspective. Few textbooks discuss the historical events from the perspective of the Native Americans.

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Reading aloud Jane Yolen’s Encounter (1992) will provide a more culturally responsive instruction to your lesson. In this fictional story, the narrator, a young Taino boy, recounts the first meeting between Columbus and the indigenous people of San Salvador when many of the Taino people were abducted into slavery. Including the literature will allow you to engage students in discussions. Figure 2.2 is a list of multicultural books that can be used in an elementary classroom. More suggestions can be found at the website www .multiculturalchildrenslit.com. African American Books Adoff, A. (1992). Black is brown is tan. Illustrated by E. A. McCully. New York: HarperCollins Juvenile Books. Cunnane, K. (2006). For you are a Kenyan boy. Illustrated by A. Juan. New York: Atheneum/Anne Schwartz Books. Howard, E. F. (1995). Aunt flossie’s hats (and crab cakes later). Illustrated by J. Ransome. New York: Clarion Books. Polacco, P. (1998). Chicken Sunday. New York: Paper Star. Williams, V. B. (1999). A chair for my mother. New York: Econo-Clad Books. Winthrop, E. (2005). Squashed in the middle. Illustrated by P. Cummings. New York: Holt. Woodson, J. (2004). Coming on home soon. Illustrated by E. B. Lewis. New York: Putnam. Woodson, J. (2005). Show way. Illustrated by H. Talbott. New York: Putnam. Latino/Hispanic Americans Altman, L. J. (1995). Amelia’s road. Illustrated by E. O. Sanchez. New York: Lee & Low. (K–3) Anaya, R. (1999). Farolitos for abuelo. Illustrated by E. Gonzales. New York: Hyperion. Anaya, R. (2004). The santero’s miracle: A bilingual story. Illustrated by A. Cordova. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press. Cumpiano, I. (2008). Quinito, day and night/Quinito, día y noche. Illustrated by J. Ramirez. San Francisco, CA: Children’s Book Press. Fine, E. H. (2002). Under the lemon moon. Illustrated by R. K. Moreno. New York: Lee & Low. (K–3) Jules, J. (2008). No English. Illustrated by A. Huntington. Ann Arbor, MI: Mitten Press. Vidal, B. (2004). Federico and the magi’s gift: A Latin American Christmas story. New York: Knopf. Asian American Bercaw, E. C. (2000). Halmoni’s day. Illustrated by R. Hunt. New York: Dial Books for Young Readers. Bunting, E. (1998). So far from the sea. Illustrated by C. K. Soentpiet. New York: Clarion Books. Bunting, E. (2001). Jin Woo. Illustrated by C. K. Soentpiet. New York: Clarion. Choi, Y. (2001). The name jar. New York: Knopf. Kroll, V. L. (1996). A carp for Kimiko. Illustrated by K. Roundtree. Watertown, MA: Charlesbridge. Recorvits, H. (2003). My name is Yoon. Illustrated by G. Swiatkowska. New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux. Sakai, K. (1995). Sachiko means happiness. Illustrated by T. Arai. San Francisco, CA: Children’s Book Press. Say, A. (1991). Tree of cranes. New York: Houghton Mifflin. Soyung, P. (2003). Sumi’s first day of school. Illustrated by J. U. Kim. New York: Viking. Yashima, T. (1976). Crow boy. New York: Viking Press.

FIGURE 2.2 Suggested Multicultural Books for Elementary Students

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Multicultural or multiethnic literature allows for students to explore topics of disparity from an “insider’s” view. Those who share the culture represented in the text are able to see characters and settings that mirror themselves. Those who do not share the culture presented in the text are able to learn about various cultures in a nonthreatening format. Introducing diverse literature into the curriculum is an effective way to show respect for cultures; however, students must go beyond simply hearing the literature; they must have an opportunity to respond to the literature. Meaning is not a fixed entity that resides solely in the text. On the contrary, meaning is different for every reader; each reader uses his background and experiences along with the text to obtain meaning. The reader-response theory of reading suggests that meaning results from a transaction between the text and the reader (Rosenblatt, 1994). There is an intended meaning by the author, but the reader may not gather that meaning. It is the reader who brings her background knowledge, experiences, and vocabulary to the reading event to obtain meaning. An accumulation or scarcity of the reader’s background knowledge of the topic will determine the reader’s success in gathering meaning from the text. In culturally responsive instruction, diverse students are not penalized for their difference in background knowledge, vocabulary, or experience; instead, their knowledge is validated and used to help gain understanding of the topic. For example, before beginning a unit on immigration, the teacher may read a piece of literature on the topic and invite students to share their experiences or knowledge regarding immigration. You may choose to invite students to share during a whole-class discussion, or you may use a reader’s response journal. In a reader’s response journal students are asked to share their thoughts, reactions, and connections from the literature through journaling, drawing, or questioning. The use of the response journal allows students time to reflect on their thinking of the topic. However, for certain topics students from diverse cultural backgrounds may not have the same experiences, knowledge, and vocabulary as their mainstream counterparts.

Build a Repertoire of Instructional Strategies Many teachers are aware that the axiom “one size fits all” does not apply to effective teaching; however, few teachers are adept at providing differing instructional strategies to meet the learning needs of culturally diverse students. Ensuring student success for all requires a combination of instructional approaches and strategies. Therefore, to teach in a culturally responsive manner, you must build a repertoire of instructional strategies. Effective teachers plan for the success of all students and provide scaffolding for those whose diverse

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cultural backgrounds may make it more difficult to learn the lesson. Strive to build a bridge between the student and the topic. Technology can be an effective tool to help you scaffold students’ learning. The computer can allow you to take students on a virtual field trip, view a video demonstration, or hear an audio clipping prior to instruction. Scaffolding students’ learning through assimilations, demonstrations, or models can help them better understand a topic. Providing such support is especially beneficial for students from diverse cultures who may have no prior knowledge or experience with the topic of study. Linguistically diverse students may need additional support. For linguistically diverse students, offering materials in their native language is helpful. Many local libraries have areas designated to books in different languages. Check out books related to your topic and make them available for students within your classroom. Also make available study guides that can be used to help define unfamiliar vocabulary or concepts. This can be done with the use of a gloss. A gloss is a notation often found in the margin of the text that explains an unfamiliar word or concept. The explanation within the notation is written in simple language or may be written in the student’s native language. A selective reading guide is another helpful study guide for diverse learners. With a selective reading guide you show students what information to attend to while reading and how to think about the information. The selective reading guide supports students in reading smaller chunks of materials and allows them time to process and reflect on the information. The questions you include on the selective reading guide support students in how they are to interact with the text. Figure 2.3 shows sample questions from a selective reading guide used with a science article (www.sciencenewsforkids. org/articles). A simple yet effective instructional strategy to include in the culturally responsive classroom is peer learning. Students from culturally diverse backgrounds will benefit from the support of other students. Seat a student from a diverse background next to a student from the mainstream culture. The student from the mainstream culture can help the diverse student when she becomes confused or has a question. In addition, incidental learning of one another’s culture will occur simply from working closely together. 1. Read paragraph 1. What is the definition of a dwarf star? 2. Read paragraphs 3–4. Draw and label the planets in their correct order. 3. Read page 4. Create a Venn diagram to show the similarities and differences between a giant star and a dwarf star. 4. For page 5, paragraph 2, restate the quote in your own words. FIGURE 2.3 Selective Reading Guide for “The Most Popular Stars”

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Include cooperative learning activities within your instruction. Within a cooperative framework students are brought together to work collaboratively for the success of a project. In cooperative learning, students learn to appreciate and value the different skills of others. When teachers construct the cooperative learning experience effectively, everyone’s participation is perceived as valuable. There is no competition, but rather each member contributes to the group’s goal. Gay (2000) defines culturally responsive teaching as using the cultural knowledge, prior experiences, and performance styles of diverse students to make learning more appropriate and effective for them. With the various cultures represented in classrooms today, it is important that you teach to and through the strengths of culturally diverse students. Culturally responsive instruction honors cultural differences and uses them to engage students in the learning process.

References Ball, A. F. (2000). Empowering pedagogies that enhance the learning of multicultural students. Teachers College Record, 102(6), 1006–35. The Center for Research on Education, Diversity, and Excellence. University of California Berkeley Graduate School of Education. Retrieved from http://crede.berkeley.edu. Delpit, L. (2003). Educators as “seed people” growing a new future. 2003 Dewitt Wallace-Reader’s Digest Distinguished Lecture. Educational Researcher, 32(7) (October), 14–21. Gay, G. (2000). Culturally responsive teaching: Theory, research, and practice. New York: Teachers College Press. Gay, G. (2002). Preparing for culturally responsive teaching. 2001 AACTE Outstanding Writing Award. Journal of Teacher Education, 53(2) (March/April), 106–16. Lazar, A. (2004). Learning to be literacy teachers in urban schools: Stories of growth and change. Newark, DE: International Reading Association. Maor, E. (2002). Trigonometic delights. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Nieto, S. (1996). Affirming diversity: The sociopolitical context of education. White Plains, NY: Longman. Planty, M., Hussar, W., Snyder, T., and Provasnik, S.. (2008). The condition of education 2008. Washington, DC: U. S. Department of Education. Powell, R., Zehm, S., and Garcia, J. (1996). Field experience: Strategies for exploring diversity in schools. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Rosenblatt, L. (1994). The reader, the text, the poem: The transactional theory of the literary work. Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press. Smith, R. Celebrating cultural diversity though children’s literature. Towson, MD: Towson University. Retrieved from www.multiculturalchildrenslit.com. Society for Science and the Public. Science news for kids. Washington, DC. Retrieved from www.sciencenewsforkids.org. Yolen, J. (1992). Encounter. Orlando, FL: Voyager Books.

3 Where Do These Children Come From? Patricia Reynolds

P

OPULATIONS AROUND THE WORLD ARE ON THE MOVE. This is documented clearly through migration studies regarding the large numbers of diverse peoples leaving their homelands in mostly third-world regions and seeking opportunities in the industrialized nations of the world. The United States has always been a place where we take “your tired, your poor, your huddled masses yearning to breathe free.” Other than Native American populations, we are a nation of immigrants, and the stream of immigration and asylum to the United States has been steady during the last half of the twentieth century. The remarkable statistic that by the year 2015 over 30 percent of all students who enter U.S. schools will come from a home where English is not spoken makes most educators stop and take notice of their changing and challenging demographics. As a classroom instructor, no matter where you teach in the United States, you will encounter this phenomenon. It will make no difference what grade you teach, nor will it matter what subject you teach. You will encounter students who are culturally and linguistically diverse and thus unable to fully engage with the curriculum. Not only will these children demonstrate language issues that will challenge your teaching but also they will bring cultural issues you might be hard-pressed to comprehend. Recognize clearly from the start—this is not a problem. This is an opportunity to expand your skills and understand new and exciting things about how children are acculturated throughout the world. For more information on migration patterns: http://www.migrationinfor mation.org/Resources/unitedstates.cfm.

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The Myths Often I have heard a teacher say, “Well, my grandfather came to the U.S. and he didn’t speak English, and he went to school, learned, and did just fine!” Further questioning will reveal the truth. Yes, immigrants have come to the United States, entered our schools, and became functional literates, but for the most part they left school before completing their education or entered the workforce so they could help support their families or were relegated to low-paying jobs where the only English necessary was at a functional level. Their hopes and dreams for the future were impressed on their children, and the need for education and its benefits were instilled in future generations. This is more the reality, and that reality continues to this day with the new waves of immigrants that have come to our shores. Another myth that perpetuates is that the older generations did just fine learning English. Many could survive with a fourth-grade level of education and still access the culture they were living in through newspapers and radio media. The demands on their level of education were not as technical as the requirements that we have in most workplace settings today. The numbers of literacies that an individual needed to prosper in those days were less than the literacies that are required today. Functional literacy, though still necessary, is coupled with academic literacy, technology literacy, and cultural and media literacy. Just think for a moment about a weekly trip to the grocery store and the numbers of literacies that are required to complete the task. A further myth that seems to be prevalent is that when a person can speak a language, they are fluent. This is simply not true. Let’s go back for a moment to your high school foreign language classes. You most likely spent forty-five minutes a day at the secondary level studying the language. At the very most you attended school for thirty-six to forty weeks per year. So taking away time for administrivia and such, you probably spent only 3.5 hours a week on language study. At the end of one year in school you had only accomplished the equivalent of six days studying the language. If you studied the language for three to four years you had the fluency equal to having studied a language for a month. Imagine how difficult it would be to study, for example, chemistry in that language. Speaking and learning are two different types of cognitive tasks. No matter what the myth may be, it is worthwhile to look beyond the story and try to determine the reality by researching the field and the knowledge base that can inform your teaching. You and your students will be enriched by the possibilities of success when working with English Language Learners. Let’s take a look in figure 3.1 at some of the most common myths about English Language Learners.

Answer each of the following statements as true or false.

1. Adults learn second languages more quickly and easily than young children.

TF

2. According to research, students in ESL-only programs, with no schooling in their native language, take seven to ten years to reach grade-level norms.

TF

3. A lot of immigrant children have learning disabilities, not language problems. They speak English just fine, but they are still failing academically.

TF

4. Older generations of immigrants learned without all the special language programs that immigrant children receive now. It was “sink or swim,” and they did just fine!

TF

5. Second-language learners will acquire academic English faster if their parents speak English at home.

TF

6. The more time students spend soaking up English in the mainstream classroom, the more quickly they will learn the language.

TF

7. Once students can speak English, they are ready to undertake the academic tasks of the mainstream classroom.

TF

8. Cognitive and academic development in native language has an important and positive effect on second-language acquisition.

TF

9. The culture of students doesn’t affect how long it takes them to acquire English. All students learn language the same way.

TF

1. T, 2. T, 3. F, 4. F, 5. F, 6. F, 7. F, 8. T, 9. F. What surprised you? What questions did the statements and explanations prompt you to ask? What do you want to know more about? How do these facts and myths correspond with your teaching experience? Haynes, Judie. (2002). everythingESL.net. FIGURE 3.1 Myths of Second-Language Learning

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Who are English Language Learners? Anyone who comes to the United States from another country is an English Language Learner, including those who arrive from the other English-speaking nations, since not all forms of English are the same. The government adds to the above definition by suggesting an English Language Learner is anyone who: • was not born in the United States or whose native language is a language other than English, and comes from an environment where a language other than English is dominant; or • is a Native American or Alaska native who is a native resident of the outlying areas and comes from an environment where a language other than English is dominant; or • is migratory and whose native language is other than English and comes from an environment where a language other than English is dominant; • has sufficient difficulty speaking, reading, writing, or understanding the English language and whose difficulty may deny such an individual the opportunity to learn successfully (Department of Education, PL103-382). The greatest challenge exists in identifying and servicing second-language students properly since many of these students who fall into that category are born in the United States but English is not spoken at home. While second-language children carry governmentally derived definitions, they also carry various other labels as well: legal status, green-card holders, illegal status, migrants, refugees, and most recently Students with Interrupted Formal Education (SIFEs). Each new group brings a different set of labels to define their situation, and sometimes the teacher’s lack of the new terminology and acronym knowledge can mean that children are missed in the identification process. It then becomes necessary to take stock of the performance and competence of each individual child and try to determine where they may fall categorically into the definitions. It is not uncommon for a teacher in an urban area to assume they will never teach Native American children; however, looking closer at the child’s background and language issues may reveal children who represent Native American populations from Central America sitting in their midst. Though the child might present with Spanish as one of their languages, the home language might be Mayan or Aymara, both of which are Native American dialects. Keep in mind that the United States is not the only nation in the Americas with native populations. It is also not uncommon for refugee students to state that they speak the language of the nation they refugee to while in fact the home language is different. This means detec-

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tive work for you but will help you understand the depth of the child’s learning issues. Regardless of these difficulties, remember that you are dealing with children. From the moment they are presented to your classroom for education, they become your responsibility. You will want to provide the best type of educational experience that will enable them to realize opportunities for their future.

Reflect on This: We All Came from Somewhere Who are you, and where did you come from? You may think of yourself as an American but most Americans, other than Native Americans, came here from some other place. No matter how many generations have passed since your family arrived in the United States, there remain remnants of the original ethnicity. Try to think about some areas where these may be evident and write down things that you or your family practice as ethnic traditions. Activity: Who am I and where do I come from? Begin by charting your family and the generations they have been in the United States. The following is an example. Add as many generations as you can recall. Born (Where and When)

Language Spoken at Home

Relationship

Parents Grandparents What you may find is that by the third or fourth generation you uncover individuals who were not born in the United States and whose home language was not English. Then begin to ask yourself these questions: Who named you? Why did they give you this name? Is there a family connection to your name? Is your name important to you? Why? Do you know what generation you are in the United States? Do you know where your ancestors came from? Does your immediate and/or extended family practice any ethnic traditions/cultural customs: food, manners, social behaviors, beliefs, holiday traditions, etc. Do you know why your family practices these traditions? As you reflect on these questions, keep in mind what experiences your family encountered as they came to the United States. Did they leave behind war or famine? Did they come to this land for economic opportunity? Did they live in heritage language communities, or were they fully functional in English? Where your reflections take you may surprise you and give you a better understanding of the immigrant experience.

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Have You Ever Heard “White Noise”? If you turn the radio or TV on to a station that does not come through clearly, you hear nothing but static. This “white noise” is annoying and very difficult to listen to for any length of time. English Language Learners experience this when they have to sit in a classroom conducted in a language they are not familiar listening to. It is an exhausting physical task that can lead to severe headache in the back of the neck. The cognitive task of listening to unfamiliar sounds in another language can lead children to appear as though they are not paying attention. This is worrisome if you are anxious to keep children engaged and on task. With English Language Learners this may not be possible. The best course of action here is to allow children as much time as they need to adjust their hearing and follow the new sound system in order to make meaning. There is no set time frame, and each child will be different. The following methods can be practiced in your classroom to ease a newcomer into the classroom routine: • Use the imperative. The least amount of language a child has to follow the better. Instead of “Please, will you close the door?”, try instead, “Close the door, please.” • Buddy up. Find a responsible student to help out with trips to the lunchroom, the restroom, and in PE. Native language support at this point can be a great source of comfort and ease children into the school environment. • Keep the routine going! All children thrive on routine, and the best classrooms use it to great advantage. A consistent routine is easy to learn and provides an important scaffold for the language required for that particular task. • Allow the native language to be used by the child. Even if you do not understand the words at all, you might have a shot at understanding the nonverbal clues a child will give you. This will be an opportunity for you to model back the correct English words and to demonstrate that you are willing to listen, no matter what language the child is using. • Lighten the load. Usually the start of school for any child is overwhelming, but if you don’t know the ropes it can be quite intimidating. Color-code books and notebooks, label items in the classroom, attempt to get documents in the native language or ask that they be translated so the family is well informed from the start, and above all, give the child the gift of time. The best introduction to the new classroom environment is a well-managed classroom and an organized teacher. Being aware of areas that could be

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pitfalls may make you, the classroom practitioner, a bit more conscious of choices you make with regard to second-language students. Relax and enjoy getting to know a wonderful new addition to your class.

What Are BICS and CALP? When working with second-language learners, there are two dynamics to keep in mind. Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills or BICS can develop very rapidly for learners of another language in the right context. English as Second Language (ESL) professionals suggest that a student can develop their BICS, often referred to as Playground Language, within the first two to three years. This is the language children hear in PE or the cafeteria and will use to become a part of the group as rapidly as they possibly are able to do so. It is also common for students to engage in what is known as the “silent period.” The student will not engage in conversation and will look as though they are daydreaming. Rather than being inattentive, they are cognitively active, trying to make sense of the language and the context for the language. The time frame on this stage can be anywhere from six hours to six months and beyond. It is a normal developmental stage in language acquisition, and often, if it is not stunted, rushed, or ignored, can lead to a more effective language learner. Talking to students in a calm, professional manner and using nonverbal cues can lead the child to emerge with proficient speech. Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency (CALP), academic language, or content subject language is the area where students have the greatest difficulty and is the skill that takes the longest to develop. There are estimates that development of CALP can take from five to ten years in a second-language learner. Going back to an earlier example, would you be comfortable studying Chemistry at the Sorbonne in Paris after three years of high school French? Not likely. The same is true for ELLs. They may have studied some English in their homeland, but they are not ready to dive into either Earth Science or World History. If we were simply asking students to be visitors in our society, they might be able to muddle through a conversation or read a menu. A textbook, a standardized test, or a lab manual requires completely different cognitive tasks for students that they are not well prepared to meet.

How Hard Can This Be? Let’s start by looking at a three-letter word. It is a basic sight word most students would recognize. The English language contains many tiers of understanding,

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and just by examining one simple sight word one may see the difficulty in understanding the many facets of a word in language use. There are multiple aspects of this word with different pronunciations and spellings. Developing language becomes an involved task when you think about all the irregularities of the English language that one has to learn. Teaching vocabulary becomes a very definitive task that must be carefully planned and organized. When children who are second-language learners enter your classroom the first thing you recognize is that they need all the information and attention that you can provide them. This may appear as a daunting task, requiring additional resources and work. The teacher may feel placed in the position of working outside of their set curriculum. Another way to look at BICS and CALP is to think about the different types of writing students are exposed to on a daily basis. It might be easy to assume that since a student can read a note from a friend they should be readily capable of reading the study notes produced for the class.

FIGURE 3.2 Bow

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Language is so much more than just reading and writing. It is not simply the sound system or the alphabet; it also includes the semantics, syntax, and the morphology. The semantics are the meanings for the words; the syntax is the grammar of the language. It is also the way the words are put together and how they interact with each other. Additionally, it is also the pragmatic use of the language in different contexts as well as nonverbal communications that define a language. To truly understand this it might be useful to take a look at two ways that the same topic can be developed. Activity: Let’s look at writing You are stranded on a desert island. Here are two types of writing about the event. Email: Hey! OMG! You won’t believe what happened! Our boat crashed on this island and we got stuck there. Try this one, the water was full of sharks and all we had to eat was fruit. 2 people tried to build a raft and they got away and FINALLY, sent help. We were rescued but it was so scary! Call me, I’ll tell you all about it. Jen News Article: School Members Stranded on Tropical Island On May 23, 2008, five unidentified students were stranded on an island about 15 miles off the coast. These waters are notoriously shark-infested and survival in this area is rare. The group became stranded when their 34 foot cabin cruiser approached a buoy and hit an embankment. For several days they survived by consuming pineapples and mangoes. Two of the stranded devised a makeshift raft and made it to shore where they were able to secure help for the remaining survivors. This breaking news was brought to our attention after receiving word of a partial rescue. More information to follow as events progress. Think about it. Analyze both writings and list some features that are different for each writing sample.

As you can see, when we communicate in an informal manner we use language that is comprehensible in a variety of contexts. Formal language as encountered in the news article is indicative of the way we use language for information. The word choice and the structure are very different. This example is not unlike the difference between BICS and CALP and the issue as we encounter it in schools. Students may be capable of reading and sending notes to their friends but are simply unable to garner the information from their textbooks and formal school documents. This is an issue of usage.

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Let me share with you a little anecdote about teaching ESL. My students would begin their journey into English by sharing notes with each other in class. While most teachers would take the note and discuss the inappropriate use of this type of communication in the classroom, it always amazed my students that I would get very happy and clap my hands and shout for joy when they began passing notes in class. Why, you might ask yourself, would I do this? Well, with more than ten different language groups in a class, the ONLY language they could pass notes in and be understood was in ENGLISH! It was always an indication to me that they were able to write in English. We were on our way! Academic language (CALP) must be taught to be learned. This is the type of language that is only encountered in school settings. Students will need to know the different contexts for the use of vocabulary. Keep in mind that your ESL teacher can give you ways to do this, but the ESL teacher is not a content specialist, so eventually the real responsibility for the development of the language of the content rests with the teacher of the subject. Learning how to develop the language and the content so it is accessible to all students should be the responsibility of all teachers, no matter what subject or grade they teach.

What’s Wrong with This Student? All children go through emotional, psychological, and social developmental stages. Add to this path a serious disruption in any one of these processes and you have a stressor that can lead to serious implications for a student. While educators are taught to look for these stressors in native-language-speaking children, the one stressor they know very little about is culture stress (Collier, 2008). Research is minimal in this area, and most of the major studies have been conducted on young adults or college-age students. The PreK–12 student has the daunting task of learning a new language and becoming a productive citizen of the new culture. This task involves learning a language, functioning within the mandates of the school system, and finding a modicum of success that will lead to higher levels so that the student can engage with the new culture in a meaningful way. This is a long and arduous journey for the student and can lead to misunderstanding on the part of the student and the teacher. Students arrive with different collective and personal experiences that often do not match with the American sociological, political, or economic realities. You might feel helpless to engage ELL students in the classroom while the student is struggling to simply survive the experience in the new culture.

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Indicators of culture stress include: • • • • •

sadness and depression acting out or behavior issues delayed language acquisition arguments with family members lack of engagement with their peers

This list is a conservative view and looks very much like a list of concerns a teacher may have similar to those for students with disabilities. In an educational environment, when a teacher begins to discern these behaviors they should take into account the stressors that may be affecting the child’s ability to engage in the classroom. The very first areas to examine include the biologic and physical needs of the learner. Can the child hear and see well enough to learn? Often children come from countries where the normal screenings we enjoy in our schools have never been conducted to determine if there are hearing or eyesight issues for the child. It is difficult to learn and hear a new language, but if there is a hearing issue that will interfere with this process, then the task becomes stressful. A good place to begin is with the school nurse. Try to determine if the student has adequate eyesight and hearing to engage with the classroom environment. It may be that the normal school screenings have to be translated so they are conducted properly. The student may have come from a nation with limited medical access. Ear infections, poor lighting, dental problems, and food-related medical situations may be another place to look for interference in a child’s ability to learn. Once those issues have been eliminated, next look at the psychological issues that may be relevant. You could have a child who has left behind everything they held dear: grandparents, friends, pets, and beloved toys. Adults can process the concept of opportunity, but children live in the moment and have a difficult time projecting into the future. Children do not quite see the concept of opportunity the same way adults view it. They long for what they have left behind them. Enlisting the help of older students who have made it through the process can be beneficial. Referring the family for multicultural counseling can also be helpful. A warm, caring classroom environment and understanding that the child needs time can be the extra help a child needs to come through psychological distress. Finally, social development can be interrupted by the child’s lack of ability to use the language. Often second-language children group together because they do not have the ability to move into the social circles of the classroom or the school. Inclusion on sports teams, in school clubs, and extracurricular

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activities are often out of the reach of an ELL. Due to language difficulty and socioeconomic issues, such as transportation or family responsibility, ELLs may be unable to fully engage with school activities. Here are some tips for helping students through culture stress. • Make certain that all medical issues have been explored and remediated. • Check to make sure that the child is not dealing with food-related allergies or upsets. Not everyone in the world eats the type of food we serve in the cafeteria! • Develop resources for multicultural counseling in your regional area. Your guidance counselor may be a good resource. • Advocate for social activities that meet during school hours, either in a study hall time or at lunch. Invite mixed groups to eat with you in the classroom. • Try to help students arrange alternative transportation if they need to stay after school hours. • Make certain your classroom does not become a place where some are included in social events and others are excluded. This can be a very hurtful and detrimental situation and create morale issues for your class. An ELL child is simply that . . . a child. They have the same needs, wants, and desires as the native-English-speaking students in your classroom. Their families have the same goals and hopes for their children’s futures. As we move forward in the twenty-first century we are facing global issues that can only be solved from a global perspective. Environment, business, health and medical, social and political situations now tend to have a very multinational and international aspect. These second-language children in our classrooms may be the U.S. citizens that help ease our nation into a global society. Let me demonstrate how very important these children may be. First, look at the label inside your shirt. Then look at the label in your shoes or on your ballpoint pen. You will notice these items were not manufactured in the United States. Now, think for a moment . . . who do you think went to these nations and bought these items for U.S. commercial interests? Well, it wasn’t Johnny American. He does not have the sociocultural competence to conduct business in these nations. We will need these children in the future. They have skills and talents we have just begun to develop in our students. It is imperative that we make them caring and engaged U.S. citizens of the future. Working with ELLs is like looking in a treasure box. Open this treasure box and enjoy the experience of getting to know someone from another part of your world.

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References Collier, C. (2008). Language difference not disability. The keynote address presented at the Southeastern TESOL Conference in Birmingham, Alabama, September 24–28. Retrieved on December 2, 2008 from http://www.crosscultured.com/index.asp. Haynes, J. (2002). Myths about second language acquistion. Retrieved August 2009 from www.everythingesl.net/downloads/SLA_myths.pdf. Migration Policy Information. Retrieved from http://www.migrationinformation .org/Resources/unitedstates.cfm. Reynolds, P. (2003, February). Bridging the gap. Presentation to the Virginia ESL Supervisors Association Conference, Williamsburg, VA. Reynolds, P. (2008, September). We aren’t in Kansas anymore, Toto! Presentation to the Southeastern TESOL Conference in Birmingham, Alabama. U.S. Department of Education. (2001). The No Child Left Behind Act. Washington, DC.

4 What Is Special about Special Education? Norah Hooper

D

ANIEL BEGAN TO STRUGGLE WITH READING IN KINDERGARTEN. He received help from his classroom teachers and the reading specialist, but his progress was slow. He had trouble decoding and remembering words when he saw them a second or third time. His comprehension was poor since all of his energy went into sounding out unfamiliar words. At the end of his third-grade year, Daniel was identified as having a learning disability in the area of reading. His teachers and parents developed an Individual Education Program to address his reading weaknesses. In fourth grade, Daniel went to the resource room every morning for twoand-a-half hours. Students from three grade levels came and went on different schedules, and sometimes there were as many as twelve students in the room. Daniel and his fourth-grade friend Roger worked with Mrs. Rockville, the special education teacher, on reading and vocabulary in a second-grade book for about twenty minutes each day, and during the rest of the morning they independently completed workbook pages and worksheets on a firstgrade level. Daniel liked the resource room. Mrs. Rockville was positive and energetic, and everyone worked hard. Daniel’s ability to read words on a first-grade level was tested at the beginning and end of the year. His baseline level at the beginning of the year was forty correct words per minute. At the end of the year, he read thirty-nine correct words per minute. He made no progress in reading. While he was in the resource room each week for the number of minutes described in his IEP, Daniel received direct reading instruction for only a short period of that time. During the rest of the morning, he had to teach himself.

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In fifth grade, Daniel was placed in an inclusion classroom. The general education and special education teachers were trained and excited about working together. Most of the time the general fifth-grade teacher conducted whole-group instruction. There were two reading groups in the class, and his special education teacher came in to teach Daniel’s group, which consisted of eight students. They worked from the fifth-grade reading book reviewing vocabulary, practicing sequencing activities, and reading aloud. Accommodations were provided to Daniel. His tests were read aloud to him, he received extra time on tests when he needed it, and all notes were provided to him. Daniel liked the regular fifth-grade class. He had good friends and liked his teachers, who were always ready to help him. He was again tested individually in first-grade reading material. At the beginning of fifth grade, he could read forty-five words per minute and his ending score was forty-seven. Although he had made progress over the summer, his reading progress in fifth grade was minimal. In neither setting did the teachers use the test information to change the way they were teaching Daniel. After two years of special education, he remained barely fluent on a first-grade level. Daniel got a very good general education in this setting. He got what most fifth-grade students need, but not what he needed. He did not get a “special” education (adapted from Zigmond and Baker, 1994). So what does a good special education look like? What could Daniel’s teachers have done to provide him with the educational program that he needed? How is special education different from general education? Daniel, and many students like him, has proven that he cannot learn as other students do. If he did not have a disability, Daniel would have learned to read in first or second grade. If the grade-level textbooks incorporated the approaches that worked for him, he would have become a grade-level reader. The identification of a student as having a disability is an acknowledgement of the fact that special types of instruction are needed in order for the student to make academic progress. And because students like Daniel are already behind by the time they are identified, they need to make more than one year’s progress every year so the gap between them and their peers does not continue to widen. Many teachers, when asked about the difference between general and special education, respond with words like “individualization” and “accommodations” and “modifications.” But what does the instruction look like when it is individualized? Is it the same type of teaching, only one-on-one? Are accommodations enough for Daniel, or does he need to receive individual help in improving his reading skills? Although accommodations are helpful, they are not enough, and the instruction itself must be different. As seen in figure 4.1, it must have five basic elements.

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FIGURE 4.1 The Five Elements of Good Special Education

More Carefully Sequenced The list of skills and information that Daniel and the other fourth and fifth graders were required to learn was a long one. For a student with a disability like Daniel, that list had to be examined and carefully prioritized. Which skills were essential because they were building blocks for later skills? Which skills were likely to give Daniel the most trouble? Which topics were likely to inspire Daniel to try his hardest? Considering the fact that he is now significantly delayed in his academic development and will require intensive help in reading, where should the emphasis be placed? Make a prioritized list of the skills you think a struggling fourth-grade reader might have to work on. For example, he should be sure to know consonant and vowel sounds before he is asked to read a fourth-grade history book. Determining the needed skills and the order of priority can be tricky, because it may not be productive to have Daniel master all lower-level skills before moving to higher ones. For example, drilling letter sounds without also helping him read material at his interest level could turn him off to reading altogether. Somehow, he has to find pleasure in reading so that he is motivated to continue his practice. It seems obvious that multiplication facts should be mastered before division or algebra is taught, but some students who have extreme difficulty with memorization need to see the application of multiplication before they can commit the products to memory. A careful balance has to be maintained between remedial- and grade-level instruction, and it has to be done with the specific needs of the student in mind. This task

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can be performed as part of the annual Individual Education Program (IEP) process and be incorporated into the annual goals. Another aspect of sequencing and prioritizing relates to what a challenged student should learn in a content-area course. Can he learn only part of the science and social studies information? If so, what part? Jay McTighe (Richardson, 2009) recommends that teachers look carefully at their content standards and divide them into three categories: “nice to know, essential knowledge and skills, and enduring understandings” (p. 38). Ellis (2002) calls this “watering up” the curriculum. If a smaller amount of information is going to be taught, it should be the most important information—that which contributes to a student developing “enduring concepts.” Ellis describes several ways to do this in his article, which can be accessed through LDonline.org (http://www.ldonline.org/article/Watering_ Up_the_Curriculum_for_Adolescents_with_Learning_Disabilities,_ Part_I:_Goals_of_the_Knowledge_Dimension).

More Intensive An important element of the IEP development is determining the level of services. Based on Daniel’s present level of performance and annual goals, how much time does he need with the special education teachers? It appears that he needs more instruction in reading than his grade level classmates, not less. He has a lot of ground to make up. The time specified on his IEP needs to be spent in direct contact with a teacher who is skilled in assessing specific needs, delivering directed instruction, using prompts and scaffolding, incorporating redundancy, measuring daily progress, and adjusting instruction accordingly (Mastropieri and Scruggs, 2007). He needs well-designed, concentrated practice if he is going to learn this essential skill that has eluded him for five years. This can be achieved in either a self-contained or inclusion setting, but it must be carefully monitored, with the intensity and setting being adjusted if necessary. Imagine you are training for a competition or performance in an area such as running, music, or dance. What type of training schedule would you design for yourself? Would you set intermediate goals? What would you do if you found you were not meeting those goals and so were in danger of not being ready for the event? In many ways, Daniel needs that same level of intensive preparation. It is true that he will always have dyslexia, but he can improve his level of reading significantly with concentrated, expert help.

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More Explicit Students without disabilities often make intellectual leaps as they are learning. Their background experiences interact with the instructional situation, and they apply the new information intuitively. The teacher points them down a specific path, and they take off running. Teachers can count on this happening with many of their students and find that they may not have to elucidate every step in a learning process. Students figure steps out for themselves. This almost never happens with students with disabilities. In contrast, these students may become stuck on one aspect of a problem, needing explicit help in taking the next small step in the learning process. Instead of being able to make leaps, they must rely on solid bridges built by observant teachers to help them make steady progress. Students with disabilities may also become lost in a discussion or presentation in a general education classroom. Issues with attention, language, reading, math, or emotions can cause them to miss much of the incidental information that is imparted by teachers and fellow students. Instead, important information must be given to them directly and explicitly. This need for explicit instruction can arise in social, procedural, or academic areas as demonstrated in the examples in figure 4.2. Procedural Example—Your Turn All of the eighth-grade students were required to complete a social studies project, but you knew that assignment would be a major challenge for John. John had good ideas and was interested in history, but he had a very difficult time organizing anything. His locker and backpack were a mess, and he continually lost assignments. He seemed to have no concept of deadlines, with most of his work being turned in late after you and his mother nagged him about it. This project, involving several research steps and a final paper, might never get done. John’s teacher discussed the process they needed to follow, but you knew that John needed more support. What should you do? Here is what his special education teacher did: She talked to him about his interests and helped him decide on a topic. Then she and he developed a list of the steps he would have to complete, with a due date for each step. She helped him place the list just inside his notebook, and every day she checked with him on his progress, requiring proof that each step was completed on time. At the end of the month John, his teacher, and his mother were all proud of the excellent result of his efforts.

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FIGURE 4.2 Examples of Explicit Instruction

In each of these examples, the teacher had to be more explicit in passing on information to her students who had disabilities. What could have appeared to be personality, attention, or motivational problems were in fact difficulties caused by their disabilities. They did not absorb the social, procedural, and academic that was either implicit (in Amy’s case) or insufficiently explicit for their needs. They needed to be told, and shown, exactly how to achieve their goals. In the cases of John and Marcus, visual representations helped to move them to the next level of organization and understanding. With Amy, roleplaying and practice were used to make the techniques explicit. All three were also given support from a teacher who knew their strengths and weaknesses and carefully monitored their progress.

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More Systematic This section focuses on the meat of special education—the actual instructional components of a lesson. Once the objectives have been prioritized and the level of intensity determined, Daniel’s instruction itself has to be systematically designed. Each day’s instruction must be based on a measurable objective related to an IEP goal, connected explicitly to his prior knowledge, built in a stepwise fashion upon skills mastered previously, incorporated with visual and kinesthetic activities and strategy instruction, emphasized with practice, and involved in continuous evaluation (Tucker, Singleton, and Weaver, 2002). So how do you do those things? While it may seem to be a daunting task, these elements can readily be incorporated into the weekly lessons of a special education teacher. The first step is to develop measurable daily objectives. Begin with Measurable Objectives This is a task that has challenged many special education teachers as they write both annual IEP goals and the daily objectives used for instruction. In many ways, traditional objectives are related to what the teacher will do or the type of activity the student will complete rather than to what the student will learn and how the progress will be measured. Evaluate the following daily objectives. Are they measurable? Do they indicate what the students will know or be able to do at the end of the lesson? Make any corrections that you think will improve them. 1. The students will read chapter 2 in the history textbook and complete a Venn diagram comparing two Native American tribes. 2. The students will listen to The Very Hungry Caterpillar and color in a picture of the caterpillar. 3. After listening to a lecture on determining square roots, the students will work problems 1–10 on page 55 in the math textbook. 4. The students will learn five new vocabulary words from To Kill a Mockingbird. In fact, none of these objectives are measurable. Objectives 1 and 4 do indicate what the teacher hopes the students will learn, but there is no criterion for mastery. How will the teacher know they have learned the difference between the two tribes or the meanings of the new vocabulary words? Objective 2 seems to be just an activity to fill time. What is the purpose of the coloring? Will it somehow measure how well the students listened? Will it enable the

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students to practice their fine-motor skills? Do the students meet Objective 3 if they get all ten problems wrong? The objectives can be made measurable in the following way: 1. The students will read chapter 2 in the history textbook and compare two Native American tribes through the completion of a Venn diagram that contains 85 percent of the essential elements listed at the end of the lesson plan. 2. The students will listen to The Very Hungry Caterpillar read aloud and complete a worksheet sequencing the actions in the book with 100 percent accuracy. 3. After listening to a lecture on determining square roots, the students will work problems 1–10 on page 55 in the math textbook with 90 percent accuracy. 4. After making flash cards for five new vocabulary words from To Kill a Mockingbird and practicing with a partner, the students will act out the meanings of the words with 100 percent accuracy. The easiest way to think about writing measurable objectives is to ask three questions: • “What do I want the student to know or do as a result of this lesson?” • “How will I know that they have learned the information or the skill?” • “What level of mastery do I expect?” Use these questions to write one measurable objective for a lesson in your subject area, and evaluate it. Will you know what the students can do and how well they can do it at the end of the lesson? How? Measurable objectives serve several functions: they help you design a good lesson, they enable you to determine whether or not the lesson was successful, and they serve as a means of communication. Measurable Goals and Objectives as Communication The level of mastery is often omitted from an objective, but unless it is addressed, then the objective has little meaning. For example, Daniel’s teacher might indicate to his parents that her goal is for Daniel to improve in reading in his fifth-grade year. Without a specific means of measurement and a clear target, the teacher and parents may have very different unspoken expectations. Perhaps Daniel’s parents believe that now that he is in special education he’ll get intensive expert reading help and will make two years’ progress

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in the coming year to make up for his delays. But at the same time, Daniel’s teacher may know that his is a difficult case and that they will all be lucky if he improves by six months. The objective may also be a means of communication with the student. It is hard to reach a goal that has not been specified. If the students know that they will be demonstrating their mastery of the vocabulary words through acting them out at the end of the class, then they will work harder than if they are just required to make the flash cards and practice. Measurement has a way of improving performance. Setting Criteria for Mastery If you looked at all the IEPs in one school, there is a good chance that a large majority of the goals have “80 percent” specified as the level of mastery expected. It seems like a good number—not too high, not too low. Teachers often don’t take the time to consider whether or not 80 percent is actually reasonable for that specific goal. Consider this annual goal: “John will refrain from making derogatory remarks to other students 80 percent of the time.” Do we really want to have him making ugly statements 20 percent of the class period? If the goal is to eliminate the behavior altogether, which it should be, then it should read “John will refrain from making any derogatory remarks to other students.” This goal has a criterion—zero (Bateman, 2007). This attention to criteria also applies to daily objectives. Consider these two examples: 1. Laura will read The Ugly Duckling and answer ten fact-based comprehension questions with 80 percent accuracy. 2. Anthony will decode the words in Little Bear’s Christmas with 80 percent accuracy. The first goal makes sense, but the second does not. If Laura comprehends the material in her story with 80 percent accuracy, she understands it pretty well. She may be confused on a few points, but she probably has a good idea of what the story is about. However, if Anthony can decode only 80 percent of his story, he is missing too much. If he is unable to read at least 20 percent of the words, he will not be able to reach anything close to 80 percent comprehension. To achieve acceptable comprehension, a student must decode with at least 90 percent accuracy. Well-conceived and well-written daily objectives are the backbone of a good lesson—general education or special education. General education objectives can be less specific and less related to the needs of an individual student, but

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the more concrete and measurable they are, the better your lesson will be. See figure 4.7 for websites that provide assistance in writing good goals. Connection to Prior Knowledge This activation of what students already know or have experienced is a component of all good lessons. Techniques such as K-W-L charts, simulation activities, prediction, and videos are commonly used (Gersten, Baker, SmithJohnson, Dimino, and Peterson, 2006). It is particularly essential in special education lessons because students’ disabilities often cause them to have difficulty making connections. Emily, who has attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), sees a new chart related to the Civil Rights Movement when she walks into her history class. But it looks complicated to her, and it makes no sense. She moves quickly around the room checking in with all her friends, finally sitting down and rummaging in her backpack. She hopes that she can make it through class without dying of boredom. But then her teacher surprises her by asking all the people with blue eyes to move to the back of the room. By the time the activity on discrimination is concluded, Emily’s attention is fully engaged. She begins to remember her parents talking about civil rights issues and can’t wait to find out more. See figure 4.3 for the effects of other disabilities on task engagement.

The successful teacher finds ways to engage all of her students at the beginning of each lesson. She is aware of the individual needs of each of her students and knows that they will be successful if she grabs their attention and fires up their desire to learn more. According to the information given in figure 4.3, however, this may seem to be a difficult task. Most of the students seem to benefit from role-plays, but the observant teacher knows that Alex, who has autism, will shrink from the social exposure. She worries that Maria, with intellectual disability, will only become confused; and she fears that Henry, who has emotional disturbance, will lose control. So she assigns different tasks to those students. Alex is the record keeper, Maria is in charge of materials, and Henry is her codirector, with specific responsibilities. Those same roles also work well when cooperative-learning activities are scheduled. Everyone participates, and everyone is motivated to engage in the new material. Build on Previously Mastered Skills The decision regarding what to teach each day is based on several criteria, such as state standards, IEP goals, and individual progress. Students with disabilities learn best when each lesson builds upon the achievements attained in

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FIGURE 4.3 Effects of Disabilities on Task Engagement

the previous lesson. If Mark indicated through daily assessment that he had mastered vowel sounds on Tuesday, his teacher might decide to introduce the reading of consonant-vowel-consonant words on Wednesday. She would be sure Mark had mastered this skill before introducing consonant blends. Students without disabilities can often afford more flexibility in instruction. If most of the class has mastered a skill, the teacher must move on, and the student who is lagging will catch up with individual coaching. Students with disabilities cannot afford to have gaps in their knowledge. These gaps can snowball, creating further learning and emotional problems.

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It is crucial that special education teachers carefully monitor each student’s progress and use as much time as necessary to build a strong foundation before progressing. Always keep annual goals and daily objectives at the center of the student experiences you design. This may be clear in relation to academic skills, which are available in hierarchical lists, but it can be less clear when social skills are being developed. Consider the Situation of Miguel Miguel, a fifth grader, had cerebral palsy. He used a wheelchair and a portable computer to help him to communicate. He was in a self-contained classroom for most of the time, but his IEP specified that he spend thirty minutes each day with nondisabled peers. So Margaret, his special education teacher, arranged that he go to Joe’s fifth-grade classroom each morning with her paraprofessional, Rebecca. The trouble was, Margaret never communicated to Joe why Miguel was there. Rebecca didn’t seem to have a goal in mind, either. Miguel was wheeled into the room and sat by the door as the students completed their attendance and lunch count procedures and began their morning work. There was little time for social interaction. Joe wanted to be helpful and inclusive, but he saw little value in Miguel’s presence in his room—either for Miguel or for his students. Margaret thought she was complying with the IEP because Miguel was in a general education classroom each day. What would you do if you were Joe? What should Margaret have done? Here’s what should have happened. At the beginning of the year, Margaret should have developed specific social and communication objectives for Miguel. They would build on each other and might address such issues as greeting his peers using his computer, having a brief conversation, having a longer conversation, and eventually participating in a board game. Then, in a consultation with Joe, she could find out what time of day these interactions might be possible in his classroom. Rebecca, the paraprofessional, should also be part of his conversation. Each day when she brings Miguel to Joe’s room, Rebecca should have the objective for the day and a method to collect data related to the objective. If his goal is to greet students, Rebecca would note the number and type of greetings. She would also prompt Miguel when he needed help communicating with his peers. Back in the self-contained room, Margaret would develop an objective for the next day based on Rebecca’s report of Miguel’s performance in Joe’s classroom. Miguel’s communication and social skills would develop, and Joe’s students would have the benefit of learning to interact with a peer who used a computerized communication system. Once such a system is set up, it really does not take very much time to evaluate progress and develop new objectives, and the payoff is enormous.

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Miguel’s situation has the potential for many benefits for him and his friends, but only if specific objectives are developed and measured. The education of students with disabilities cannot be left to chance or incidental experiences. It has to be systematically built with careful attention to foundation and continuing progress. Employ Focused Instructional Methods Special education needs to be multisensory. As is evident in figure 4.3, students with different disabilities respond to different methods of information delivery. A good teacher will always have visual, auditory, tactile, and kinesthetic instructional methods at hand. Danielle was a first-grade student with Asperger’s syndrome. She had a particularly difficult time understanding mathematical concepts. Linda, her special education teacher, tried oral counting, working with manipulatives, and touching a number line, but she could see that Danielle continued to be baffled by numbers. Finally, Linda thought about helping Danielle use her body to learn. She drew a large number line, and she and Danielle jumped forward and backward on the line as they counted. It was the beginning of math understanding for Danielle. When Linda’s use of visual and auditory activities was not working, she turned to bodily movements. She was always thinking of new sensory ways to help Danielle experience the material. Students with disabilities have demonstrated that they need a different type of instruction than do nondisabled students. One of these differences is extrasensory input. Students can have different types of sensory input needs, and a creative, attentive teacher can make use of these differences to structure a successful lesson. Erik was conducting a reading lesson with three third-grade students. Clay and Joey had intellectual and learning disabilities and were having difficulty understanding the journey that the heroine was making in Mufaro’s Beautiful Daughters. Robbie, who had ADHD, easily understood the story and was jumping out of his chair with impatience. So Erik asked Robbie to be the illustrator. Robbie eagerly traced the character’s path on the board, adding appropriate scenery. He was pleased to perform this active task of translating his visual images for the group, and Clay and Joey gained the visual help they needed in understanding the story. Strategy instruction and graphic organizers also give students with disabilities the structured, explicit support they need in order to learn. Successful students develop their own strategies when they are faced with a task such as comparing two concepts or understanding cause and effect. Students with disabilities, however, must be taught specific strategies that help to begin an

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assignment and see it through to completion (Salend, 2008). The use of the routines and strategies needs to be carefully taught and practiced, but once they are an integral part of the student’s learning repertoire, they become valuable learning tools (Tournaki, 2003). For example, the Strategic Instruction Model has a strategy called the Concept Anchoring Routine (Lentz, Deshler, and Kissam, 2004). This strategy uses a visual organizer and specific steps to guide students through the process of linking a new concept to one students already understand. Once students have completed the process, they have a clear understanding (and visual representation for future reference) of the meaning of the new concept. Eventually they become independent users of the strategy, pulling out the organizer when they encounter a new concept. David Hyerle’s Thinking Maps (1995) are a more flexible type of visual representation, as the eight maps relate to thinking processes rather than specific tasks or content areas. They are simple constructions that students draw themselves. Once all students, especially those with disabilities, become adept at their use, they help students make the results of their thinking visual, so they can be used for task completion. Lindsay, a freshman in college, was starting to panic. She had a paper due for her American History course, and she hadn’t even started it. Her real panic came from the fact that she didn’t know how to start. The whole process of writing a research paper seemed to be nothing but a blur. Hadn’t she learned anything in high school? Then she remembered her Thinking Maps training. She drew a Circle Map (generating ideas) and wrote down what she knew about her topic. She next drew a Tree Map (classification) and organized the information into categories. She realized that she needed more information, so she went to the library and did additional research, adding the new information to the Tree Map. Her last map was the Flow Map (sequencing), on which she wrote down her topics in a reasonable order. Then, using the Flow Map as a guide, she wrote her paper. Lindsay’s predicament is one that is often faced by students with disabilities. They don’t know how to start. The student in your class who seems to take ages to begin a writing assignment may be having this difficulty. His thoughts are swirling around in his head, and he has no idea how to translate this cloud into a well-organized paper. Once he has support in translating his thoughts into a visual format, either from his teacher or from strategies he has learned, it is likely that he will be able to complete the task successfully. Incorporate Practice “Didn’t your fifth grade teacher teach you about adjectives and adverbs? You act as if you’ve never heard of them! I’ll have to start all over again!”

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Certainly this is a common complaint in schools—students don’t seem to remember information and skills from one grade level to the next. The fifthgrade teacher did “cover” adjectives and adverbs. She just didn’t help the students reach an appropriate level of fluency. Adequate practice is a particular concern for student with disabilities. They easily lose skills and forget information from one day to the next. Therefore, practice time must be built into every special education lesson. The more multisensory and active this practice, the more effective it will be. In some subject areas practice is built in. Students learn letter sounds and then use them continually as they read more and more difficult books. Students learn multiplication facts and then draw on them as they learn to divide. But some topics, such as fractions and parts of speech, are taught only once during the year without review, so they slip away from the students. There are several ways to incorporate practice into daily lessons. The first ten minutes of each day could be devoted to a different topic for review, so that one day they do a fractions worksheet and the next they quiz each other on parts of speech. Or use an “exit card” procedure, in which the student must pull a card from the box and answer a review question before leaving the room. The important thing is to be aware of the importance of practice and to give students a chance to use previously used information as often as possible.

More Frequently Assessed Assessment is a cornerstone of special education. In order for real improvement to take place, you need constant feedback regarding the current level of functioning. Without this feedback, the lessons are built on conjecture and hope rather than solid information. This may not be necessary in general education. You may be able to wait until the end of a unit to assess a student who learns in an average way. This student understands your lectures, knows how to take notes and review them daily, can incorporate information from the textbook into the framework you provide, and studies well for tests. He proceeds along the average path. But the student with disabilities may not be able to process the lecture, take notes, or read the textbook. He may have an extremely difficult time sitting long enough to watch a movie in class. Overwhelming anxiety may prevent him from performing well on a test even if he does know the information. For these students, daily assessment is essential. While weekly lesson plans can be formulated, they need to be adjusted based on the assessment from the previous day (Jenkins, Graff, and Miglioretti, 2009).

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Daily assessment is very possible when good, measurable objectives are written. Refer back to the section on measurable objectives. Remember the rewritten objectives that had good measurements? The student in number 1 achieved the objective if his Venn diagram contained 80 percent of the important elements, Student 2 if his worksheet grade was 100 percent, Student 3 if his math work grade was at least 90 percent, and Student 4 if his skits indicated that he knew the meanings of all the new words. If these objectives were not achieved, the teacher needs to take note and return to work on the skill until mastery is reached. This is different from general education, in which mastery is often assumed until the end of the unit. Special education teachers cannot wait until the end of the unit. They need information on progress every day. The type of assessment used in special education and in other types of instruction is Curriculum Based Measurement (CBM). Teachers ask students to perform discrete tasks usually in a timed situation (Hosp, 2007). The assessment method used in the case of Daniel at the beginning of this chapter was CBM. His teachers were correct in using this means of assessing his progress; they just did it too seldom. CBM is designed to inform instruction, a fact that was missed by Daniel’s teachers. If they had been measuring his “correct words per minute” each week, they would have seen that his progress was minimal. They would have increased the amount of time that he received individual, focused reading instruction and ensured that he made progress. Daniel’s case is an excellent example of good intentions, and perhaps even good instruction, without one of the key components of special education— frequent progress monitoring. CBM probes often take the form of timed sessions. Daniel was reading passages for one minute while his teacher counted the number of correct words he read. This can also be done with math, spelling, written expression, and even content areas (Idol, Nevin, and Paolucci-Whitcomb, 1999). Pages with sets of questions or problems to solve are developed, and students are timed as they complete the task. CBM makes the assumption that an increase in rate equates with an increase in skill. Another important aspect of CBM is that each session’s results are transferred to a graph. This visual representation serves several functions: it gives a clear indication of the trend of the student’s development so that instructional changes can be made as necessary, it provides valuable data to document progress at IEP meetings, and it is a source of motivation for both teachers and students. Several online resources allow computer plotting, which students can do themselves (see figure 4.7). A trend line is computed, enabling the teachers to make sure that the student is likely to achieve his goal if it continues on the same progress schedule. The graph in figure 4.4

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FIGURE 4.4 Curriculum-Based Measurement Graph

shows the progress Daniel might have made if he received the appropriate instruction. Imagine Daniel and his special education teacher plotting this data regarding his reading fluency each week. They would all be motivated by his progress (especially Daniel), and they could see whether or not he was on track to achieve his goal by the end of the year. If the scores began to deviate from the expected trend line, adjustments in instruction could be made before it was too late. Daniel would have had an even better year in fifth grade, since his reading competency would have made a significant leap.

Putting It All Together So what does special education instruction look like in the classroom? It may look much like general education, but close examination will reveal that each student is working toward a measurable goal, that scaffolding and intensive instruction are provided when necessary, and that progress is monitored daily and weekly. Examine figure 4.5, an example of parallel general education and special education lesson plans. What differences you see? Use the format in figure 4.6 to create your own set of parallel lesson plans.

FIGURE 4.5 Sample Lesson Plans Reading Component: Fluency

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FIGURE 4.6 Lesson Plan Format

If you are a special education teacher, you are gaining a clearer understanding of the type of instruction and progress monitoring you should be providing to your students. If you teach general education, you now have the information you need to collaborate more effectively with your special education partner, ensuring that all your students learn. Figure 4.7 provides websites that might help in that process.

FIGURE 4.7 Useful Websites

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References Bateman, B. D. (2007). From gobbledygook to clearly written annual IEP goals. Verona, WI: IEP Resources. Ellis, E. (2002). Watering up the curriculum for adolescents with learning disabilities, Part I: Goals of the knowledge dimension. Retrieved on July 28, 2009 from http:// www.ldonline.org/article/Watering_Up_the_Curriculum_for_Adolescents_with_ Learning_Disabilities,_Part_I:_Goals_of_the_Knowledge_Dimension. Gersten, R., Baker, S. K., Smith-Johnson, J., Dimino, J., and Peterson, A. (2007). Eyes on the prize: Teaching complex historical content to middle school students with learning disabilities. Exceptional Children, 72(3), 264–80. Hosp, M. K. (2007). The ABCs of CBM: A practical guide to curriculum-based measurement. New York: Guilford Press. Hyerle, D. (1995). Thinking maps: Tools for learning. Cary, NC: Thinking Maps, Inc. Idol, L., Nevin, A., and Paolucci-Whitcomb, P. (1999). Models of curriculum-based assessment: A blueprint for learning, 3rd ed. Austin, TX: Pro-Ed. Jenkins, J. R., Graff, J. J., and Miglioretti, D. L. (2009). Estimating reading growth using intermittent CBM progress monitoring. Exceptional Children, 75(2), 151–63. Lentz, B. K., Deshler, D. D., and Kissam, B. R. (2004). Teaching content to all: Evidence-based inclusive practices in middle and secondary schools. Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Mastropieri, M. A., and Scruggs, T. E. (2007). The inclusive classroom: Strategies for effective instruction, 3rd ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill/Prentice Hall. Richardson, J. (2009). Evidence of learning: A conversation with Jay McTighe. Education Digest, 74(6), 37–42. Salend, S. J. (2008). Creating inclusive classrooms: Effective and reflective practices. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill/Prentice Hall. Steptoe, J. (1987). Mufaro’s beautiful daughters. New York: Lothrop, Lee, and Shepard. Tournaki, N. (2003). The differential effects of teaching addition through strategy instruction versus drill and practice to students with and without learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 36(5), 449–58. Tucker, B. F., Singleton, A. H., and Weaver, T. L. (2002). Teaching mathematics to all children: Designing and adapting instruction to meet the needs of diverse learners. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill Prentice Hall. Zigmond, N., and Baker, J. M. (1994). Is the mainstream a more appropriate educational setting for Randy? A case study of one student with learning disabilities. Learning Disabilities Research and Practice, 9(2), 108–17.

5 How Do I Teach the Student with Autism Spectrum Disorder? Nicole Myers

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Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) coming to your class may make you a little nervous if you have never experienced working with children with autism. With statistics as high as 1 in every 150 children being diagnosed with autism or 1 in every 135 boys being diagnosed with autism, chances are that you either have had a student with autism in your class or that you will soon (Center for Disease Control, 2007). In a previous chapter, you read about modifications and adaptations for students with special needs. Many of these accommodations will be useful in your work with students with ASD as you support their learning. This chapter describes some of the characteristics and support strategies unique to ASD and how you, the teacher, can best include a student with ASD in your classroom. We begin this chapter by introducting you to Sam, a student with suspected autism. INDING OUT THAT YOU HAVE A STUDENT WITH

Case Scenario of Sam: Initial Concerns Sam was a seven-year-old boy in first grade. His parents waited to have him start kindergarten until he was six because they felt he was not developmentally ready. He did well in a small, supportive kindergarten classroom with a teacher and a paraeducator, although it was noted that he had a bad temper. The following year, Sam was in a clasroom with a veteran teacher and struggling with first-grade material. By October, he was brought up to his school’s child study team in an effort to identify his difficulties and determine how he — 61 —

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could be helped. His parents were concerned about how unhappy Sam was at school and the negative opinion he had of himself. Sam arrived at school upset each morning. He would throw his backpack into a pile and go immediately to his desk to line up his materials. When called upon by the teacher to hang up his backpack, he would get upset that he was being interrupted while he was doing his work. He ran around in circles in the room and often climbed on school equipment and jumped off. He was a bit of a perfectionist and would rip up his work if it “didn’t look right.” Sam responded negatively to any feedback from the teacher, and more of his papers made it into the garbage than were actually turned in. The teacher was unsure of his skill level, and Sam repeatedly responded to his own frustrations by threatening to cut himself (and the teacher) with scissors and had “meltdowns daily.” In addition, Sam had started acting out odd robotic movements when he was transitioning between activites and on the playground. Case Scenario Questions: 1. What is most concerning about Sam’s school experience? 2. What would you do if you were Sam’s teacher? 3. Do you think Sam may have ASD? Why or why not? Sam is a sample case study of an actual student. His school experience will be reviewed later throughout the chapter. As with any child needing special support, children with ASD demonstrate a wide variety of special needs. No two children with the same disability will have the exact same needs, and this is especially true of children with ASD. Teachers need to get to know the child individually in order to best teach him; however, there are a few key disability areas that are present in all children with ASD. This chapter provides information on autism and suggestions to help support children with autism. In addition, it suggests several resources that may be helpful to teachers who have children with autism included in their classroom. As you read through the characteristics, consider the case study of Sam.

Characteristics Autism Spectrum Disorders are a variety of disabilities that all have some common difficulties. Though difficulties are experienced in common areas, ASD is a disability of extremes—where the student can be extremely verbal or nonverbal or can have either a lower IQ or a higher IQ. Kids diagnosed with ASD each have social/emotional, language, sensory, and behavioral issues. In addition, having ASD does not mean a child will not have diagnoses

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to contend with in addition to ASD. Some common disabilities that may be present along with ASD include: Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder, Obsessive Compulsive Disorder, Learning Disabilities, and Oppositional Defiant Disorder. If you have a child with a dual diagnosis of two or more disabilities, you will need to try strategies that support both their ASD and their other learning challenges. A student’s special education teacher can help you learn which disability most impairs a student’s learning and which strategies work best.

Intelligence In the past, students with ASD were often placed in classrooms for students with mental retardation (now called intellectual disability) or emotional disturbance. It was found that these locations were not always best suited for teaching students with ASD because it was difficult to teach to a wide range of abilities. Students with ASD also needed typical peer role models from which to learn. Because ASD is an umbrella term for all the disabilities under it, students with ASD will have varying intelligence levels. With increased focus on early identification and early intervention and allowing students many more years of educational strategies, students with ASD are able to be more successful in general education than ever before. Having autism doesn’t necessarily mean a lower intelligence level even if a student is nonverbal. In fact, many children with autism, especially those with Asperger’s syndrome, have very high intelligence levels. As with all the other categories of ASD, students may be lacking in communication and behavioral skills that may mask a student’s aptitude. It may be difficult to ascertain a student’s strengths and ability levels right away. As you will see from the descriptions below, the difficulties associated with ASD display themselves in extremes.

Language With regard to language development, some children with ASD may have very limited and immature language skills such as identifying things, naming and pointing to things, and being able to answer a few questions. Some children will use picture cards to communicate their wants and needs. Some children who initially developed language may lose their speech, and others may not develop language at all. Most of these children will be diagnosed with classic autism symptoms or pervasive developmental delays.

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Some students will be echolalic, where they repeate phrases over and over again or may repeat a phrase asked to them. Repeating phrases is comforting or, in some cases, they may not know how to respond so they may repeat words. A speech teacher and occupational therapist can provide guidance on how the student is using echolalia and the best way to work around it, which may include ignoring it if the student really cannot control it. If a student is trying to communicate, they may only know a few key phrases and then stop when they run out. I worked with a child who repeated “The Lord’s Prayer” as a conversation starter, and when taught other conversation starters, the child stopped repeating the prayer and used more socially accepted phrases to initiate conversations with others. If it is determined that a student is echolalic in response to a sensory need, discovering the need and strategies to assist can limit the echolalia. At the other extreme some children with ASD have advanced language skills. Teachers may find that they speak like “little adults,” using very advanced vocabulary, but the teacher may not realize that the student has difficulty with figurative language. Teachers may struggle to understand why the student does not understand simple requests and explanations when the student uses such advanced vocabulary. In addition to the vocabulary skills, many students have advanced reading skills but will have difficulty with comprehension and making inferences.

Play Skills Children with ASD have delays in joint attention, a skill that requires shifting eye gaze and focusing attention on another object. This skill is involved in both communciation and play skills. The difficulties in joint attention combined with communication issues make it extremely difficult for students with ASD to learn how to play appropriately with toys and with other students. You can encourage students with ASD to look toward their peers, but don’t force eye contact. You may need to teach turn-taking, how to join a group, and general rules of being a good friend. You may find younger children with ASD do not know how to play with another child, so they will engage in parallel play or wander during recess since they do not have the skills to initiate play or keep up play with their peers. For older students you may find that they do not have hobbies or any ideas of what to do with their free time, or they may focus only on one interest during any down time. Because play is how young students learn to communicate and develop social skills, it is important that students with ASD receive special education

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support that helps them learn social skills and how to play with other students. There are several commercial social skills programs that may be used to help students with ASD and others who struggle with play and social difficulties. Some examples of these are: skillstreaming, building social relationships, RDI, etc.

Peer Models Helping students with ASD learn play skills may mean working one-on-one with the student, coaching them in appropriate play behavior and pairing the student with a “peer model” who will give feedback on how they are playing. Peers, when given guidance and training of ASD, can often be effective teachers for many students with ASD. The peer receives an opportunity to help another student, and the student receives assistance and time with typically developing peers. When performed correctly it can be a win-win situation for both students. Peers can provide examples of appropriate play and provide constructive feedback to the student with ASD. An added benefit is that most peer models begin to encourage the student with ASD at times other than their tutoring session.

Social Stories Social stories are short stories developed for particular situations that help a student learn the rules. They can be developed to help guide students in appropriate choices and play skills. Peer models can also be invited to review social stories with the student.

Videomodeling In addition to social stories, research has demonstrated that videomodeling (making a movie of the correct activity and watching it for guidance on the right steps) can be an effective way to train students with ASD in play and social skills. Videomodeling can be developed as a class activity or an activity that is developed individually by the student with ASD and their peers. Videomodeling involves having the student with ASD correctly model the appropriate play skill or behavior and then watching the video of themselves performing the action correctly. In addition, a student with ASD can review examples of “what to do” and “what not to do” to support their learning.

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Videomodeling tapes can be sent home and reviewed with family members for homework. They can be used for a variety of situations, and family members can be taught to develop them for home situations and for the student when they are out in the community. Because many students with ASD are visual learners, viewing tapes of themselves performing tasks successfully is not only encouraging but also teaches to their learning style. Social stories and peer-modeling activities can also be used to support videomodeling.

Social Groups In addition to classroom peer models, the school counselor and special educator may run social groups to work on these issues. These groups usually consist of students with a variety of disabilities and include some typically developing peers as role models. They may meet weekly during lunchtime or may meet after school for activities. They usually work on skills such as: friendship skills, turn-taking, communication, and being a gracious winner/loser. They often involve having students play games or other activities together, so that corrective feedback may be given while students are participating in similar activities. In addition to school-run groups, students with ASD may access training in these areas through private community programs. Sharing community resources with the family may help connect them with professionals who can also help the student develop play and social skills.

Importance of Play as Students Get Older In older students with ASD, a lack of play skills may mean that the student is missing out on important learning opportunities, such as being invited over to friends’ homes or being involved in sporting activities. There are several ways to support the older student with ASD: pairing them up with other kids who share their same interests such as a chess/computer club or matching them up with an adult mentor who has the same interest or enrollment in extracurricular activities to help them learn the social skills needed to get along with other peers. Teachers often find it difficult to think of play as learning, especially past a certain age; however, current research suggests that it is a student’s lack of social skills, not his or her academic skills, that prevent him or her from experiencing success as an adult. Play and social skills are as important as academics for students with ASD (Kish, 1991; Schumaker, 1992).

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Social/Emotional Skills Most children with ASD have poor social skills due to their difficulty with language. If a student has problems speaking or experiences limited speech, it will greatly impact interaction with peers. If they have very well-developed, “adultlike” speech, peers may find it difficult to speak with them. In addition, many children with ASD have difficulty maintaining eye contact—an important part of initiating and keeping conversation flowing. If a student has limited vocabulary they will have difficulty speaking with peers on a variety of topics. Social skills will need to be directly taught, practiced, reviewed, and role-played for the student with ASD. Teachers may need to instruct students with ASD in social issues, such as: maintaining proximity, attention skills, anger management, dealing with frustrations, asking for help, and using appropriate voice and tone. There are many social skills programs on the market that can be adapted for use with students with ASD and other students who struggle with social skills. Videomodeling, peer modeling, and social stories are all options that can assist the student in improving social skills.

Sensory Issues and Sensory Processing Disorder Sensory Processing Disorder (SPD) is a developmental disorder in which the brain has difficulty processing sensory information, organizing it, and assigning meaning to the information (Ayres, 2005). Children with ASD have sensory-related issues, and many are diagnosed with SPD (formerly called sensory integration disorder). An estimated 40 to 88 percent of children with ASD have sensory issues so severe that they are also diagnosed with SPD (Talay-Ongan and Wood, 2000). You may observe that a student with ASD is flapping or rocking. While this may seem odd to the casual observer, once you get to know a child with autism you will realize that this is the student’s sensory strategy to self-soothe or calm down. For example, students with ASD and sensory issues may have a different threshold for sensory activities than typical students. As with other characteristics, sensory issues seem to be one of two extremes (underactive or overreactive) with students with ASD. Some children may respond to light touch as if they have been hit, while others won’t even feel touch unless it involves very deep pressure. Some kids will crave movement and walk around in circles in a classroom, while others may be slow to get up and move. Some students may bump into others as if they are not there and tend to crash into things (this is sensory related as well). The more time you spend with your student with ASD the better you will become at interpreting their sensory issues.

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Students with SPD have difficulty modulating the sensory input they receive. Children with SPD may have strong aversive reactions to the sensory input that is tolerated or not even observed in others. In addition to ASD, SPD can also occur with other disabilities, such as ADHD and learning disabilities. A diagnosis of SPD is not always associated with ASD. A recent study estimated that 5 to 13 percent of all students entering school are diagnosed with SPD (Ahn et al., 2004). With SPD numbers on the rise along with ASD numbers, it will be crucial for teachers to understand SPD, sensory reactions, and sensory strategies that will be helpful to keep students regulated at school. A regulated student is one who can sit and attend to classroom activities, and an unregulated student may be participating in sensory strategies to calm himself down. An unregulated student may continue to experience sensory distress and have a sensory “meltdown.” You will recall the previous discussion of ASD as a disability of extremes. This is the case with sensory issues as well as verbal ability and intelligence. Teachers may notice that a student with ASD displays limited sensory issues or that their issues do not seem to impede their learning at school. Sometimes a student with ASD may learn how to manage their sensory issues at school but still experience sensory overload as they try to make it through the school day. These students may melt down on the bus ride home or at home in the evening when they can no longer tolerate their sensory overload. They may hold it together until they feel safe enough to allow themselves to melt down. If your student is experiencing meltdowns after school, sensory strategies during the day may help avoid this. In addition, your school’s occupational therapist can give you guidance and suggestions on how to deal with sensory issues and meltdown preventions. Another sensory-related issue is that of texture. Many children with ASD also have texture issues. They may not like the feel of heavy clothing and prefer to wear sweats instead of jeans. They may not like to eat foods with certain textures such as oatmeal, pudding, etc., and maintain a very limited repertoire of foods that they eat. They may refuse to cut/paste, use certain materials, or dissect things in a biology class. Students with SPD can often have a problem at the lunch table. Many children with autism may have difficulty in large groups, such as sitting in a large auditorium, which may be overstimulating for them. They may have an unusually negative reaction to fire alarms or loud, surprise noises. These are all sensory issues. As indicated earlier, sensory issues are not just related to ASD; however, they are often present in addition to ASD. Understanding sensory needs is an important part of teaching students with ASD as sensory responses can affect their communication, attention, learning, and behavior. Teachers can

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be taught to look for warning signs of sensory overload and to incorporate sensory-related activities into the day, which benefits many students, not just those with ASD. The strategy of incorporating sensory activities throughout the day to help a student function in a self-regulated state where they can actively participate in school is called a “sensory diet.” A sensory diet is a term which is basically a recipe or list for activities that a student can engage in that will help keep him or her calm and regulated. The diet is prescribed particularly for students and their unique sensory needs. It may include things such as taking walks, holding sensory toys, time in a quite area, etc. Your school’s occupational therapist will develop sensory-diet activities that your student can engage in to help them throughout the school day. (See figures 5.1 and 5.2.)

Sensory versus Behavioral Issues As a teacher of students with ASD it is important to not automatically assume that sensory issues are misbehavior. Jean Ayres, who first researched sensory dysfunctions and SPD, stated that “a great deal of that poor behavior may come from ordinary sensations that a child cannot integrate” (Ayres, 2005). An example of this could be the the rocking and flapping behavior often associated with ASD that serves as a calming strategy to a overwhelmed child. Prelock (2007) urges professionals to understand that any autism intervention should “consider the implications of sensory motor aspects of functioning,” and teachers must “recognize that communication, play, and social-emotional development have clear sensory connections” (xviii). Many perceived inappropriate behavioral issues in students with ASD are in fact sensory in nature. Take for instance the scenario of Matthew.

Behavior/Sensory Scenario: Matthew I worked with a teacher who was trying to teach play skills to a nonverbal child with very severe ASD. We had been trying to get Matthew to increase the amount of time he could tolerate staying on the playground with other students present. We were blowing bubbles and attempting to get his attention and to have him interact with us. Matthew’s sensory strategy was to retreat inside if students got too noisy or someone bumped into him. He also used a high-pitched, humming scream. When this happened, the teacher immediately thought to take him inside as it was disturbing to others on the playground. The teacher asked Matthew to

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A child’s occupational therapist and parents can provide you with specific strategies that are successful with your student. Allow students to have water bottles or to suck on small candy/chew gum.

Plan for “oops days.”

Allow movement (within limits) in your classroom. Build movement times into the schedule for all students.

Teach relaxation strategies.

Have students “do more” instead of lecturing.

Plan/prepare students for transitions. Give extra time for the student with ASD to adjust to the change. Timers, reminders, or visuals may help.

Provide pictures or written schedules (may need a personal schedule). Follow a predictable routine.

Help train the student as you learn more about their sensory experience.

Simplify instructions whenever possible. Allow the child with ASD additional time to more respond due to communication difficulties.

Respect students’ emotions toward events that are sensory based. They may need time with the material, a smaller amount, less time, time to watch others first, etc.

Provide an opportunity for students to leave the classroom to get movement (prearrange this).

Allow access to a sensory box and a Quiet Calming Area in classroom to allow students students to relax and refocus.

Offer student-appropriate choices.

Incorporate some Brain Gym movement activities for all students in your class.

Provide access to a trampoline or a place to “crash” for your “jumpers.”

Provide a chair or beanbag if sitting at circle is a problem. Or allow student to sit at a desk behind the large group.

Schedule breaks/motor walks/down time.

Remove distracting clutter from student’s work area.

Allow student to wear headphones if too noisy or use a study carrel if distracted.

Use weighted vests, wristcuffs, belts, or blankets.

Put velcro on bottom of the desk or chair. uses

Give student a special chair the student

Establish clear boundaries for the student and their peers. Use masking tape to define and mark boundaries in the classroom.

Have the student stand at the front or the end of the line if proximity or bumping into others is a problem. If halls are too noisy or crowded, allow the student to transition between classes a few minutes early.

with sensory items attached to it.

FIGURE 5.1 Sensory Strategies to Assist Students with ASD

settle down, and Matthew refused. When I asked if she thought the screaming was sensory-related or behavior-related, she did not know. I asked her what purpose she thought the noise was serving Matthew. She thought a while and then explained that he seemed to be doing it to calm down around the other children. While the behavior was loud and disruptive, Matthew wasn’t

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FIGURE 5.2 Sensory Box Items

doing it to get out of an activity, to isolate himself, or to scream at other kids. In fact, Matthew seemed rather content to be outside and making the noise. My perception was exactly the same as his teacher’s. Matthew was loudly humming and screaming in an effort to remain on the playground with all the commotion. If we had taken Matthew inside we would have stopped Matthew’s efforts to work on the exact goal we had set for him, which was to increase his time on the playground. We decided to ignore the screaming and waited. After a few minutes of humming, Matthew was calmed and regulated enough to focus his attention on the bubbles, and once he tried blowing the bubbles, he could no longer make the loud, annoying sound. Matthew’s teacher learned that the loud humming was Matthew’s way to self-calm, and after a few minutes of making the sound, he could then begin to participate in an activity on the playground. So how does one tell if a behavior is sensory-based or misbehavior? Sometimes it can be difficult to tell. The first step in determining whether a behavior is a sensory-related or misbehavior is to complete a sensory profile on the student. This is a checklist that you complete on the student based on observations you make during the day. This form is usually provided by your school occupational therapist. The occupational therapist or special educator can provide you with information regarding what sensory needs the child has and what difficulties they experience when they become overwhelmed either sensorially and/or academically.

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Creating opportunities for the student to engage in calming activities during the day (sensory diet) and to learn to monitor their sensory input is very helpful and does not cause much disruption to the classroom environment. Some programs that are available to teach kids to monitor their sensory input are the Alert Program and SticKids. (See reference list at the end of the chapter.) To ensure you are not punishing sensory responses as misbehavior, you might ask yourself the following: • Is this student doing this to stay with the group? • Are they doing it to escape an activity that is overstimulating? When you know you are providing enough sensory input during the day (and the right kind of input with guidance from your school’s occupational therapist), you will see more clearly what is sensory-based and what is general misbehavior.

What about Misbehavior? Once sensory needs are met, you can review inappropriate behavior and develop a behavior management plan with rewards for your student with autism, as you would any other student. Positive behavioral supports work best, and a Functional Behavioral Analysis (FBA) is recommended in addition to a sensory profile to obtain rich data on the student (see Houff’s The Classroom Manager, chapter 8). The student with ASD will probably need and prefer their own behavior management plan. Any opportunity you may have to provide him with an opportunity to self-monitor behavior will be especially important in helping him learn cause/effect and how to adjust his actions. You may find that your students with autism benefit from a classwide behavior management system in addition to their own individual behavior management system.

Routines and Behavior One area of consideration related to behavior is that of routines. Students with ASD tend to like routine. Because they are facing additional sensory, language, and learning challenges, many children cling to routines as a way to cope with an overwhelming day. This is usually helpful to them, except on days when the routine is not followed. This is upsetting to many children with ASD, and they may experience a behavioral outburst resulting in a meltdown or act as a “sheriff” telling you the schedule is incorrect.

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With training, children with ASD can negotiate changes in their daily schedule without outbursts. This usually requires direct teaching, modeling, and social stories. Many teachers refer to these off-schedule days as “oops days.” They have a specific plan in place for when there is a change in schedule that allows the student to move into their “own routine” of dealing with the nonroutine change. One student I worked with had a special box of “oops activities” he was able to use in the morning upon arrival when he found a substitute teacher. These activities were high-interest books, and twenty minutes of quietly reading his special books allowed him enough time to regulate himself after the stress of finding a new teacher in the room. He was fine for the rest of the school day.

Special Interests All children demonstrate special interests throughout their lives. As adults we usually call these things hobbies—think of the aunt who collects Barbie dolls or the uncle who has the world’s largest Hot Wheels collection. These were probably their special interests as kids. Consider a five-year-old boy’s development of special interests: at age two, he may really like Elmo, at age three he may like Thomas the Tank Engine, at age four, dinosaurs, and at age five, bulldozers. Typically students will like a variety of things and add to their list of special interests over time. Special interests can be good since they allow students the opportunity to discuss similar things. They can encourage students to share experiences, and they provide conversation starters. They may also be the only play activities in which a student will engage. Children with autism develop special interests, too; however, due to limited speech and play skills, they often get stuck on one or two special interests and their interests may seem either immature/too mature or too odd to their peers. They may have difficulty adding other special interests. A student with ASD may be fascinated with watches, video games, baseball, or weather statistics and share this information (such as a weather report) with everyone he meets. Once he is finished with his weather report for the day, he may have nothing else to share. The interaction stops, the boy feels uncomfortable, and he leaves. For students with ASD who are echolalic, they may repeat statistics or phrases from a favorite show. For students with ASD who are highly verbal, they may “get stuck” talking about their special interests and have difficulty carrying on conversations with others about other topics. They also want to control the conversation to a point where they are expecting an exact reply from everyone with whom they share their information. Consequently, a

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student’s special interest may be exasperating to other students and adults in the child’s life. Tony Attwood, a leading researcher on Asperger’s syndrome, suggests that teachers use a student’s special interest to their advantage. If time spent playing with or talking about special interests is becoming a problem, limit the amount of time the child can discuss it and have the child earn time to talk about or play with the object of special interest. Schedule special-interest time in the student’s day and teach students to talk about other interests. Encourage the student to ask other students about their hobbies through social skills training. Attwood also suggests that teachers focus on what is most important—learning. For instance, if the goal is participation in reading time and the student is reading yet another book about trains, does it matter what the topic is as long as he is reading? Pick your battles with special interests, but set limits on their use. Support students to develop new interests and conversation topics with social skills training. (See figure 5.3.)

FIGURE 5.3 Checklist for Teachers Who Have a Child with ASD in Their Classrooms

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Case Study: Sam At the beginning of this chapter you read about several concerns the teacher had in working with Sam. Sam was having difficulty completing material and was having daily meltdowns. Let’s review what evaluation assessments reported and what interventions were helpful to Sam. Sam’s Evaluation Educational testing and observations suggested that Sam may have ASD. Doctors’ reports indicated that they felt Sam had Asperger’s syndome, a high-functioning form of autism. Several supports were put in place while special education testing started. A review was completed of Sam’s class schedule and the work that he was able to turn in to his teacher. His behaviors were charted and a functional behavioral assessment was completed to determine what may be causing the behavior and what purpose the behavior served for him. What do you think could be done to help Sam?

Intervention and Sam Improving the Bus Ride First, it was determined that Sam was upset on the bus ride to school. He was picked on by the other kids (including his sister) and arrived at school upset. As he walked down the hall to his classroom he became upset thinking about how he had been in trouble the previous day at school and how he could not do the work. He immediately threw his backpack down instead of hanging it up as directed in order to squeeze in extra time to work. He did this so that he would not miss recess, his favorite activity of the day. Unfortunately, he often missed it due to not completing his work. Sam liked to have his papers and pencils lined up (just so) and it upset him so much when other kids bumped into him or talked too loudly near him. It was hard for him to focus on what the teacher was saying or to concentrate on his work. When he really became upset he would start the robotic behaviors, where he would shoot his arms out and shout out commands. Upon speaking further with Sam, one realizes that he is acting out scenes from his favorite cartoon, Power Rangers. He also does this on the playground in an effort to get the kids to play with him (although it usually has the opposite effect and makes the kids run off scared).

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Visual Schedule A change in bus seating helped Sam to arrive at school in a happier mood as he was no longer being picked on. A visual picture schedule was developed so that Sam knew exactly what his tasks were as soon as he got off the bus and in what order they occurred. This changed based on the daily class electives. A social story that talked about the daily changes helped Sam to better understand the changes. In addition, Sam was taught that sometimes the schedule does change unexpectedly, and this was demonstrated through role-playing with Sam. Behavior Management Contract and Motor Breaks Sam was put on a behavior management contract that began by him earning free time to play with his Power Rangers (or his choice of activity) after every five tasks were completed. In the beginning tasks were very small (such as writing his name). This allowed Sam to experience many episodes of success. As his feelings about himself improved and his ability to complete tasks progressed, the tasks became harder. He was required to complete more tasks in order to earn his reward. He had a simple chart that he was able to color in, and when it was full he earned his break and choice of reward, no matter what was on the class schedule. The chart was an outline of a crayon and had columns he could color with whatever color he liked. Sam enjoyed knowing how many tasks he had left and would respond by counting his remaining tasks as he worked. He also had a space near each of the tasks where he could draw a picture of how he was feeling. When he started to draw an upset face, Sam was allowed to take a “motor break” in the hallway to regroup. A quick walk through the hallways removed him from the activity and allowed him to refocus. This permitted Sam to learn to monitor his feelings, identify his feelings, and start to become aware of his sensory needs. At first Sam would just walk off and huff and puff during his motor break, but as he started to do better in the class, he asked to bring his sight word box with him on the walks. Sam enjoyed walking with the paraeducator and reading his sight words, and this resulted in noticeable improvement in his reading scores. Teacher Instruction The teacher was instructed that Sam’s behavior was a result of sensory overload and difficulty with the material. She worked to break down activities into smaller steps for Sam, which allowed him to experience more success in class. She started to learn the “warning signs” of when Sam might start to get overloaded and often asked Sam if he needed/wanted to take a motor break

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after he finished his current activity. She was pleased that Sam was following the routine well and turning in work. At first it was necessary for the paraeducator or teacher to help Sam take his break reward; however, after a few weeks he was able to choose a break, pick it up, and take it to a table that had a timer. He would work on the activity and then come back to his desk without any teacher involvement. Reading Sam did very well in math, but he was a little behind in reading despite having a high-average IQ. He qualified for special education support under an Asperger’s syndrome diagnosis, and he met with a special education teacher for some one-on-one reading help. As Sam started receving instruction at his level, his involvement in the first-grade class improved. Special Education Support The special education teacher started coming into the classroom to help Sam during first-grade reading time. She helped him choose a spot on the circle rug that was not distracting him and deal with kids bumping into him (which often meant he could sit at a desk or special chair behind the circle if he wanted). She also helped him learn when it was time to talk to his friends and when it was time to sit and listen. Eventually the special educator pulled back her support of Sam during circle time. As he was allowed to get up and sit at the desk/chair behind the group, the teacher found that he participated longer and longer in circle time without issues. With the reading support, opportunity for motor breaks, and the visual schedule, Sam was able to get through the morning assignments and later complete his afternoon math work. Recess and Homework Sam’s grades improved along with his relationship with the first-grade teacher. However, he was not making friends. He complained that the kids did not like him and that he never got to play because he was inside for recess. The first-grade teacher was convinced that not allowing Sam to go to recess was a detriment to his social skills and not an effective practice to support special education students. Instead, Sam was given the opportunity to take incomplete work home with him. To everyone’s surprise, Sam loved this. He enjoyed the extra time to work on it at home, and he and his older sister worked on homework together at the dinner table.

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Social Skills Sam was placed into a social skills group that was overseen by the school counselor and a special education teacher. The group met during lunch once a week. During the group, Sam participated in playing games, choosing appropriate topics of conversation, and learning basic friendship skills. He was given the opportunity to invite a “typically developing peer” to the group each week. This helped make Sam a more desirable friend to the other students. Sam enjoyed learning from his peer role models who were encouraged to coach Sam on the playground and support him in playing. The teacher and counselor were very involved in providing input and role-playing responses with Sam and his peers. This group helped Sam to improve his number of play interactions and his playing one-on-one with peers. By the end of the school year, Sam had made several close friends in class. End-of-Year Outcome Throughout this experience Sam learned appropriate academic and social skills from his typical peers. His teacher provided some adapted assignments, but for the most part she made accommodations to help him learn and follow the behavior management plan. The teacher acquired additional strategies that year that proved to be successful for several kids, including a student with ADHD who also benefited from the sensory strategies. The peers in Sam’s class learned a lot about supporting a friend, they learned to see past differences and learned to see Sam’s strengths. The classmates became great advocates for Sam, often reminding him of upcoming tasks or of his need to take his motor breaks. Sam started to enjoy school and have friends for the first time. The battles that he was having in the classroom were resolved by appropriate identification of behavior, a strong behavior management plan, a visual schedule, behavior reminder cards, a system of rewards, some special education reading support, and specific training in social skills. Sam began to excel with the new supports. Selected Representative Sam was chosen to represent his school at the end of the school year at a school board meeting event called “Disability Awareness Day” (based on an assignment he wrote about why he needs to take breaks at school). Allowing Sam to obtain the social/emotional, behavioral, and language supports that he needed allowed him to be successful in his first-grade class. He was promoted without hesitation to the second grade the following year.

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To Think About: 1. What characteristics of ASD did you find present in Sam? 2. What supports best helped Sam? 3. What might a teacher need to do to work effectively with Sam? Determining the difference between misbehavior and sensory issues is often difficult. What worked in Sam’s case? Success in the General Education Classroom Some teachers often feel as if they must provide exactly the same assignment or have the same outcomes for all of the students in their classroom. For that reason, they may feel only children who can complete the same workload belong in their classroom. With the diversity in most classrooms today and the unique needs of a student with ASD, not all students can complete the same workload. The characteristics of students with ASD are very unique, and you will need to strive to develop differentiated educational plans to meet these unique needs. Richard Lavoie, author of F.A.T. City: How Difficult Can This Be?, a training video for general and special education teachers/parents, helps explain the issue of fairness. He states, “Fairness is not everybody getting the same thing. Fairness is everybody getting what they need.” This is especially true with children with disabilities. Teachers may state that they feel uncomfortable giving a child an accommodation or modification if they don’t do it for all students. But, do all kids need it? Below is a description of how civics study guides that were orginially developed for a student with ASD helped to raise an inclusion civics class’s test scores that year and benefited all of the students in the class that needed them. Civics Study Guides Scenario I worked with a secondary student with ASD who had a special interest in history. She was a very verbal student, and the civics class seemed a natural fit for her. She did well in class discussions but had difficulty reading the material and organizing information. I suggested to the civics teacher that we should provide study guides to the class. She was resistant to providing them to the students who were not on my special education caseload. I really felt that the study guide would help my student with ASD narrow down what was important in the text and better prepare her for exams. In addition, strong study strategies were skills that were difficult for many of our students, not just

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those identified with special needs. I explained that this is a strategy that all of our secondary students could learn from and one that may help all students raise their grade. I suggested we give it a try for a grading period, just to see. At the end of the grading period, what we found was that those who needed the study guide (at-risk students, special education students, and some typically developing peers who were struggling) used it, and those that didn’t need it, just didn’t use it. Our at-risk students and special education students all benefited, and there was no longer a stigma against picking up a study guide to use because anybody who wanted one could use it. An added benefit was that we saw improvement in all students’ test scores, and the class with the students with disabilities had some of the highest state test scores that year! Sometimes an accommodation for students with ASD (such as a simple study guide) can also be something that can be used by everyone in the class. Not everything you do for a student with ASD has to be a labeled as a targeted autism strategy. Most general education and special education strategies will be helpful to students with ASD as well. More often than not, it is a matter of carefully understanding student needs and matching needs up with an appropriate support than particular teaching strategies that work with a child.

General Education Placement for Students with ASD The Individuals with Disabilities Act requires individualized education plan (IEP) teams to determine the best placement for a child to learn requiring the least restrictive supports in place. If an IEP team has determined that a child can benefit from inclusion in the general education classroom, necessary supports must also be established and written into the IEP for the student. Supports could be in the areas of paraeducator assistance, opportunities for extended time on assignments, a desk away from distractions, etc. The options are endless, and they should be based upon the child’s needs.

Social Inclusion A child with ASD can benefit from general education inclusion in different ways. Some children participate in the general education class for social inclusion. This means they are learning acceptable behaviors from peers. You may wonder, Why place a student in a general education class for social inclusion if the student isn’t able to fully participate in the standard curriculum? Is that really important? Many disability researchers would emphatically say “Yes!,” social inclusion is important, citing social skills and the ability to get along

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with peers as one of the major indications of whether an adult with a disability is successful. It isn’t a lack of academic skills that challenges those with disabilities the most, but rather the social skills. These include those that help students keep and maintain friends and jobs (Gresham, 1992; Schumaker, 1992; Tabassam and Grainger, 2002). In addition to helping students with ASD learn appropriate social skills, general education students learn about differences and acceptance. “Inclusion benefits all students by helping them understand and appreciate the world is big, that people are different, and that we can work together to find solutions that work for everyone” (SaponShevin, 2008). I like to think that some of my inclusion graduate students may now be more willing to hire someone who is a little different or has a disability.

Access to General Curriculum Other students with ASD are benefiting from inclusion because they are working on grade level (or close to it) and can therefore participate in the general curriculum. These students may need supports such as study guides, a resource room, time to themselves, a quiet area to work, a behavior management plan, etc. However, in addition to academics, students with ASD will observe and learn age-appropriate behaviors and language and coping skills from their peers. As a general education teacher, you will want to talk to the student’s case manager (the person in charge of the child’s IEP) to set appropriate goals for the student. Together you can determine which state standards you wish to cover with that student for the year. Should this particular student work on all of them, or should they be narrowed down? Answers to these questions and the educational decisions based on them ensure that the student’s program is individualized.

Success in the General Education Classroom Children with ASD can be successful in the general education classroom when learning and behavior modifications and supports are provided. These allow the student to learn the material, stay regulated, and use appropriate communication, behavior, and play skills with their peers. Teachers need to receive training in ASD characteristics. They also need the desire to support inclusion. A committed collaborative team is needed to best support the student with ASD in the general classroom.

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Training First and foremost, a child with ASD needs an educated teacher—meaning someone who believes that the student can succeed in their classroom (given a little extra assistance) and who believes that the child deserves to be there. That is half the battle of helping children with ASD succeed in your classroom. You may find that in allowing this child to participate and supporting their learning, you have met your “most improved student” of the year. While researching ASD provides teachers with the latest information and methods, it also promotes the removal of some outdated impressions of the outcomes of kids with ASD. Staying informed about ASD strategies through subscribing to teaching journals, connecting with autism agencies, and learning about research-based interventions allows teachers to make the best well-informed decisions. It allows teachers to move away from an expectation that all students should succeed equally in their classroom, and it allows the teacher to match supports with ASD related needs. (See figure 5.4.) Training allows teachers to learn that no two children with ASD are alike, although there are some supports that may be beneficial for all children with ASD. It allows teachers to see that many of the behavioral challenges displayed in children with ASD are in fact sensory-based responses to the classroom environment. This is actually good news since it allows a teacher to understand that there are many classroom factors that they can control, such as giving a child a break, a visual reminder, etc. Training also allows a teacher to recognize warning signs of ASD and suggest educational testing and evaluation if needed. In addition to teacher training, paraeducators need training so that they can understand ASD characteristics and strategies that best support the student. In order for a paraeducator to be effective, he must be trained to support the student’s unique needs in a manner consistent with the knowledge and training received by the rest of the student’s school support staff. (See figure 5.5.) A Committed Team Teaching students with ASD requires a team approach. This is beneficial and effective because you will have the experience of many professionals working with you to set the student up for success in your general education classroom. It also means you are not alone in trying to decipher what will work best. You will most likely be working with occupational therapists, speech and language teachers, and special education teachers and paraeducators. Occupational therapists will help your student by providing activities that help with motor planning, sensory integration, behavior, fine motor skills,

Asperger’s syndrome

Usually described as a milder form of autism. Students usually have higher speech and reading skills.

ASD

Autism Spectrum Disorders. An umbrella term for all of the disorders that fall under this category, which include: Autistic Disorder, Rett’s Disorder, Childhood Disintegrative Disorder, Asperger’s Disorder, and Pervasive Developmental Disorder–Not Otherwise Specified.

BCBA

A Board Certified Behavior Analyst. Someone with advanced training in behavior management who has passed a certification exam. Many have experience working one-on-one with students with ASD or other challenging disabilities.

IEP

Individualized Education Plan. The program that is developed when a student qualifies for special education services.

Collaboration

A team of teachers and other school professionals working together to develop plans and supports for their students.

FBA

Functional Behavioral Assessment. A way of reviewing the causes of misbehavior in an attempt to develop a plan to support the use of appropriate behavior.

Meltdown

This is what happens when a student with sensory issues is not regulated. Despite trying to keep it together, a student may enter a meltdown stage, where they may develop a temper tantrum, cry, or zone out (shut down) in order to shut out sensory stimuli that is overstimulating to them.

Motor break/walk

An opportunity for a student to take a walk away from an activity. Movement of large muscles helps prepare the brain to sit down and work in a regulated state.

Paraeducator

A teacher’s aide.

Rewarding successive approximation

Rewarding students for steps along the way, not solely on compliance or perfect completion of a task. Rewarding baby steps.

Sensory box

A set of sensory activities to help keep a student with SPD or sensory issues regulated. It is often kept in a small box for easy access.

Sensory diet

A set of activities that are used during the day to help a student with SPD stay calm and regulated. It can include activities such as walking, coloring, using a sensory box, squishing, etc.

SPD

Sensory Processing Disorder, formerly called sensory integration disorder. A developmental disorder in which the brain has difficulty interpreting and regulating sensory input.

FIGURE 5.4 Glossary of Special Education Terms

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Sensory modulation/ regulation

The ability to change arousal or alertness levels based on all of the sensory input that is registered and interpreted by the brain.

Sensory profile

An assessment that allows a teacher to understand a student’s unique sensory needs. It may describe what is calming and what is overstimulating to a student and incorporate suggestions for a sensory diet.

Social inclusion

Inclusion for the purpose of interacting with typically developing peers with less emphasis on mastering academics.

Social skills

The skills needed to communicate and get along with others; includes manners, understanding social rules, and etiquette.

Special interest

A topic or toy that fascinates a child, becomes their hobby, or a favorite item for discussion or play.

Typically developing peers

Same age/grade students without disabilities that make up the general education classroom.

FIGURE 5.4 (continued )

play skills, and social skills. They can assist in helping teachers to arrange the physical classroom environment in a way that supports learning in addition to teaching you (and your student) about sensory needs. The speech teacher can assist the student in learning some of the nuances of language, develop a picture exchange system for communicating, or train the student and you in augmentative communication devices that will support communication. Special education teachers will manage the student’s program (educational testing, IEP meeting scheduling, and keeping in touch with related service providers). Your collaborative team will train you in the individualized goals for the student and adaptations and modifications you can use with the student. They will serve as a point of contact with the student’s family and liaison with private doctors and service providers. Paraeducators are an invaluable part of many special education programs. They may travel with the student to inclusion classes, provide behavioral and academic support, and help implement many of the strategies used by the student. They provide important input for planning, especially in classes where the special education teacher is not present, and they must be well trained for their valuable role in working with students with ASD. Modifications and Supports You read many modifications and supports in the case study of Sam. Those were examples of the types of extra supports teachers will need to provide. The majority of these supports were easy to create and inexpensive. Some supports

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.

FIGURE 5.5 Sensory Reactions of Students with ASD

are put in for all students and not ASD-specific ones, meaning a child did not have to have an ASD diagnosis to benefit from the support. In addition, in a previous chapter of this text you read of modifications and supports that are beneficial to students with many special needs. These supports will also be helpful in assisting students with ASD. Try not to think of special education support as being “disability-specific”—they are not. Most of the supports teachers place in differentiated classrooms are all useful in working with children with ASD, such as flexible groupings, project-based learning, guided notes, graphic organizers, visuals, study guides, cooperative learning activities, peer modeling, hands-on activities, etc. Teaching to a student’s strengths with

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considerations for personal learning styles is the most important academic strategy. Providing supports to allow a student to succeed socially and behaviorally in the classroom are also vital. The case study of Sam demonstrates that each of these support areas were truly necessary for Sam to excel at school. Establishing Relationships Students with ASD need direct instruction to establish and maintain peer relationships. They may not understand that engaging in a particular behavior is upsetting other students. They may not understand that in order to make and keep friends they need to give personal space when speaking to someone. They may not understand the need to ask questions about other people’s interests instead of only talking about their interests. For some students this may mean they require participation in a social skills group; for others it may mean providing them with a visual behavior card and roleplaying with them. Activities from a social skills program or participation in a social skills group may be helpful, but remember, “you cannot just place a child with severe deficits in the presence of a typical peer or in a normal social setting and assume he will gain the skills and motivation to be a friend” (Gutstein and Sheely, 2006). With social skills being so important, any feedback you can give a child with ASD will help them in their adult lives. It is not enough to just place students with ASD in a group with typically developing peers, it is the adult interaction and guidance that help support the student in learning what is socially appropriate. Students with ASD will not get it on their own. Another important part of establishing relationships in the classroom involves the teacher and the class’ perception of the student with ASD. A student whose teacher demonstrates a fear of unusual behaviors associated with ASD will instill that fear and concern in their other students. A teacher who openly accepts the student and their unusual behavior will instill a level of understanding and empathy within their class. Behavioral Supports As noted previously, it is of foremost importance that sensory needs be ruled out when dealing with behavior. Sensory profiles and using a sensory diet in the classroom help tremendously with behavior. Behavioral supports can include anything, such as a sensory box that contains fidgets (small calming activities for a child to open when they are feeling frustrated) to an IEP team–developed functional behavioral assessment and actual behavior plan to be implemented by all teachers. Behavioral supports may involve consultation

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with a Board Certified Behavior Analyst (BCBA) who has training in autism, or it may be less formal and something that a child’s study/teacher support team develops as part of the child’s IEP (such as Sam’s behavior management plan that involved the crayon and his choice of reward activities). Students with ASD will beneft from both whole-class and individual behavioral support plans. You will want to establish rewards for improvements in behavior (successive approximations) and not for exact compliance. Many of the behavioral supports you will use with students with ASD may benefit children with other disabilities in your classroom as well, such as a visual schedule that helps children with low reading skills or those for whom English is a second language or those students who cannot yet tell time. Remembering the importance of sensory regulation and keeping aware of students’ sensory needs allows a teacher to monitor a student’s need to take a break or when a student needs to move on to a different activity. This attention to pacing will improve the behavior of many students in the classroom.

What Next? Students with ASD vary greatly in how their disability impacts them, and therefore having a student with ASD previously may or may not prepare you for a future student with ASD. Of utmost importance to be effective teachers of students with ASD is a willingness to learn, a willingness to allow for modifications and accommodations, and a willingness to believe that the student with ASD is not only benefiting from placement in your classroom but also that they deserve to be there. Demonstrating student acceptance and belonging is important. Working with a team of support staff, you will provide input into the student’s plan and develop goals for their time in the general education setting. Your appreciation and understanding of the student’s unique sensory, behavioral, and communication issues is precisely what is needed and is often obtained by directly working with the student. Incorporating social skills activities and feedback, behavior management, academic support strategies, peer learning strategies, and a sensory diet allows you to fully support your student with ASD. It is not your responsibility to be an expert on ASD, but it is your responsibility to stay informed about ASD, to collaborate with those who can share strategies, and to incorporate research-based practices in your classroom. It is your duty to prepare next year’s general education teacher by providing suggestions on how you best worked with the student with ASD and to share your student’s success stories to keep the student’s learning momentum alive.

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It is an exciting time in the field of special education as federal funding provides research into autism, its causes, and effective teaching strategies. Early intervention demonstrates that students with ASD can progress much farther than was anticipated in the past. Research into long-term outcomes for adults with disabilities has shaped current programs, and there is greater understanding of ASD in the community. Students diagnosed with ASD today have the benefit of new research, early intervention, and effective teacher and parent training in addition to better community support.

References Ahn, R., Miller, L., Milberger, S., and McIntosh, D. (2004). Prevalence of parents’ perceptions of sensory processing disorders among kindergarten children. American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 58(3), 287–302. Attwood, T. (1998). Asperger syndrome. A guide for parents and professionals. London: Jessica Kingsley Publishers. www.jkp.com. Ayres, A. J. (2005). Sensory integration and the child: Understanding hidden sensory challenges. Western Psychological Services. www.wpspublish.com. Bellini, S. (2008). Building social relationships: A systematic approach to teaching social interaction skills to children and adolescents with autism spectrum disorders and other social difficulties. Shawee Mission, KS: Autism Asperger Publishing Co. Brain Gym, International. Brain gym. http://www.braingym.org/. Center for Disease Control. (2007). Autism and developmental disabilities monitoring (ADDM) network report. http://www.cdc.gov/ Gresham, F. M. (1992). Social skills and learning disabilities: Causal, concomitant, or correlational? School Psychology Review, 21, 348–60. Gutstein, S. E., and Sheely, R. K. (2006). Relationship development intervention with young children: Social and emotional developmental activities for Asperger syndrome, autism, PPD, and NLD. London: Jessica Kingsley Publishers. www.jkp.com. Houff, Suzanne, G. (2009). The classroom manager: Procedures and practice to improve instruction. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. Isbell, C., and Isbell, R. (2007). Sensory integration. A guide for preschool teachers. Silver Spring, MD: Gryphon House. www.ghbooks.com. Kish, M. (1991). Counseling adolescents with LD. Intervention in School and Clinic, 27, 20–24. Kluth, P. (2006). You’re going to love this kid! Teaching students with autism in the inclusive classroom. Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes, Co. www.brookespublishing.com. Lavoie, R. (1989). How difficult can this be? The F.A.T. city workshop. PBS Educational Media. www.pbs.org. Prelock, P. A. (2007). Autism spectrum disorders. Issues in assessment and intervention. Pro-Ed. www.proedinc.com. Sapon-Shevin, M. (2008). Learning in an inclusive community. Educational Leadership (September 2008). Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

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Schumaker, J. B. (1992). Social performance of individuals with learning disabilities. Through the looking glass of KU-IRLD research. School Psychology Review, 21, 387–99. Smith, M. J. (2001). Teaching playskills to children with austistic spectrum disorder. New York: DRL Books. www.drlbooks.com. SticKids. SticKids, muscles, motion, and touch. Community Therapy Associates. http://stickids.com/index.html. Tabassam, W., and Grainger, J. (2002). Self-concept, attributional style, and selfefficacy beliefs of students with learning disabilities with and without attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Learning Disability Quarterly, 25, 141–51. Talay-Ongan, A., and Wood, K. (2000). Unusual sensory sensitivities in autism: A possible crossroads. International Journal of Disabilities, Development, and Education, 47(2), 201–12. Williams, M. S., and Shellenberger, S. (1996). How does your engine run? Leader’s guide to the alert program for self regulation. Therapyworks, Inc. Yack, E., Aquilla, P., and Sutton, S. (2002). Building bridges through sensory integration: Therapy for children with autism and other pervasive developmental disorders. Future Horizons. www.FHautism.com.

6 How Do I Teach the Student Identified as Gifted and Talented? Laurie B. Abeel

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ICTURE THIS.

YOU ARE A CLASSROOM TEACHER and find yourself with students of all ability levels. You feel pressured to make sure the students who are just “below the bar” pass the high-stakes standards test at the end of the year. However, you also have a cluster of gifted students in your classroom. You remember why you went into teaching—to meet the needs of every child. You may feel torn between what you know is best to do and what you feel pressured to do. Do you work with the struggling students, and leave the highability students alone, thinking “they will be just fine?” So, what CAN you do? The purpose of this chapter is to help those teachers who want to fulfill their original calling to teach—to meet the needs of all students—and, in particular, the gifted students. The students we assume can make it on their own. Of course, this last statement is one of the biggest myths in the educational field. Gifted students cannot make it on their own. They have needs just like every other student in your classroom. In fact, you may not even know you have gifted students in your classroom. Some gifted students might not even be identified as such. They are the quiet ones, or the troublemakers, or the underachievers, or the nonproducers, or the learning disabled, or English Language Learners (ELL), or any other label for students. I recently heard this quote from a teacher regarding autistic students: “Once you have met one autistic student, you have met only ONE autistic student.” We can easily substitute autistic with gifted. Although we tend to create a common list of attributes or traits of gifted behaviors, gifted students come in all ages, shapes and sizes, abilities, talents, disabilities, cultures, and

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may not speak English very well (Reis and Renzulli, 2009). Let’s look at some examples. Brian was a gifted/learning disabled fifth-grade student—however, he was not identified as learning disabled, only as gifted. But, if you were to read any of his work, you could easily see his disability. On one sheet of paper, he spelled the word “sun” five different ways (i.e., son, sone, sune). Each time he wrote the word, it still meant the big yellow ball of gas in the sky. He was extremely intelligent. He just could not spell, nor did he recognize the errors when he misspelled. Alec was a fourth-grade student from the Soviet Union. He came to the United States without speaking English. Luckily, the Gifted Resource teacher in his school recognized his talent, even though he spoke very broken English. He was eventually identified as gifted, and within two years he spoke fluent English and his work was consistently outstanding! Keep in mind that no matter what other “label” the students have, we still must focus on the strengths while working with their limitations. So, who are these students? They are not necessarily your high achievers, although some might be. They do not always perform well on multiple-choice tests but prefer more of an authentic assessment to showcase their talents and skills. They do not always care about grades, although some might care a great deal, to the point of perfection. They are not always perfectly behaving students, although some might be your most outstanding leaders. They are not always organized, and they may not have time management skills or know how to study. Why? They have not yet been challenged enough to find a reason to study. They easily do their work without much thought and still get high grades. Once faced with a challenge, they come up against a wall. This typically occurs in the higher grades, where they suddenly face a challenge, have never learned to study or manage their time efficiently, and may start to underachieve; that is, they want to do better, but do not know how to get to that point (Delilse, 1992). We tend to praise these students based on their grades, their abilities, their “smarts.” Instead, we need to praise them based on effort and hard work. It is one thing to be smart, it is another to work hard. In fact, many researchers found that praising students for their effort has a more positive effect on their selfconcept than praising them for their abilities (Delilse, 1992; Moon, 2009; Patrick, Gentry, and Owen, 2006). Carol Dweck conducted research on this issue and found that praising only intelligence instead of effort tells the students you judge them by how smart they are instead of their hard work (Evensen, 2009). When students feel confident in their learning, they tend put forth greater effort, thus enhancing their learning (Patrick et al., 2006).

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Motivation is another factor that may bar a student from receiving a challenging curriculum. Some gifted students appear to lack motivation in the classroom, so many teachers do not recognize any type of talent since they “are not motivated in the classroom.” They may be content with “coasting” along and doing only what they need to pass the course (Patrick et al., 2006). Instead of assuming these students are unmotivated, you might ask them about their interests. What keeps them focused and on-task when they are not at school? Task motivation is a focused form of motivation (Renzulli, 1978). It is more of an intrinsic motivation where students show task commitment in an area of interest to them. However, if what is being discussed or taught in class is not interesting to them, or just plain boring, they will appear quite unmotivated to do the work. If they were to do something that really piqued their interest and was relevant to them, watch their motivation increase! They are quite task committed—but to the subjects and areas of interest to them—not what the teacher is teaching. How can we tell who is gifted and who is “bright”? Take a look at figure 6.1, Bright Child versus Gifted Learner. Note the subtle differences between these

FIGURE 6.1 Bright Child Versus Gifted Learner

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two columns. We typically think that the student who knows all the answers is the gifted student. However, we need to think about how the gifted student asks questions. Are the questions high level? Are they complex? Is the student curious, where you need to teach him how to find the answer himself? How long does it really take for a student to learn a new skill or concept? One or two times, or more? Most gifted students do not need as much repetition as others might. Keep in mind that our gifted students are not necessarily gifted in all areas. A student can be gifted in mathematics but have trouble with writing. On the other hand, some of our most talented writers might struggle with math. Watch your students as they interact in the classroom. Do some prefer to discuss issues with adults instead of their age-peers? Do they just memorize new information, or can they manipulate it? Can they make mental leaps to higher levels and really synthesize and apply what they have learned? These are some questions to ask yourself as you are teaching. As you can see from some of these examples, not all characteristics of gifted students are positive. Figure 6.2 indicates that although some gifted students may portray these characteristics, there may be possible associated problems with each of these. Do you see students in your classroom who become bored and, perhaps, create distractions for themselves that are not conducive to learning? Do any of your students challenge and question your authority? Note that not all students will have each of these characteristics, and not all gifted students will have associated problems. However, we need to keep in mind that they are children first, and no matter how “smart” they are, they will act like children (or teenagers!). Colin, for example, while in middle school, loved to be the class clown. He had a terrific sense of humor, but his teachers did not appreciate it during class time. Luckily for Colin, his English teacher, who also had her Gifted Endorsement, knew how to focus that energy in a positive manner. She told him that if he could keep it together during the day, while the students were waiting for bus call at the end of the day, he could do a five-minute stand-up comedy routine for the class. This is exactly what he did. He worked on new material each night and had the class, and the teacher, laughing each day before dismissal. The teacher understood Colin’s needs and was able to turn his comedic talent into something others could appreciate as well. Take a good look at the students in your classroom. Classrooms are becoming more diverse, with students from many different cultural backgrounds. Not all cultures display their gifts and talents in the same manner as white North American students. There are many culturally and linguistically diverse (CLD) students who could be identified as gifted.

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;

FIGURE 6.2 Characteristics of Gifted and Talented Children and Possible Associated Problems

For example, African American and Hispanic students are greatly underrepresented in gifted and talented programs (Day-Vines, Patton, Quek, and Wood, 2009; Ford, 1995; Reed, Peternel, Olszewski-Kubilius, and Lee, 2009). Here, stereotypes prevail based on misassumptions (Moon, 2009) of their abilities, thus teachers tend to lower their expectations. The bar needs to be kept high for all these students. They can easily be overlooked because they may not show their talents for fear of being considered “white,” thus, being rejected by their peers (Ford and Moore, 2006; Kwan and Hilson, 2009). It is important for these students to feel trust, security, and bonding to other

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gifted CLD students to build self-esteem and continue their high academic performance in both a gifted and regular education classroom (Kwan and Hilson, 2009; Reed et al., 2009). We need to ensure a multicultural focus in our classrooms, emphasizing different attributes among students as positive instead of negative (Ford, 1995; Maker and Schiever, 1989). Let’s look at some specific examples. Xavier, an African American male, was identified for the gifted program in fourth grade. He also lived in very impoverished conditions—no running water, no electricity. He had two siblings that he took care of, both of whom had many learning disabilities. His mother was illiterate. Xavier wanted to be a pilot, and he was very talented in the areas of math and science. When he reached eighth grade, he started failing all of his classes. Not because he could not do the work or because he did not understand the material, but because he had no reason to do the homework. As opposed to an underachiever, Xavier would be classified as a nonproducer (Delisle, 1992). He is a student who understands what he had to do but chose not to do the required work. His attitude, like many gifted students who are not motivated by grades, was why should I do the homework when I already know this. It is a waste of my time. Actually, he was right. It was a waste of his time because, to him, it was simply busy work. He already knew the material and did not feel the need to prove it to anyone, including the teacher. Unfortunately, he failed eighth grade and was forced to repeat. Luckily for Xavier, he had advocates in the school who took it upon themselves to fight to get him back into the ninth grade. He obviously would not do any better repeating eighth grade since the issue was not in his understanding of the material. After a month of his second round of eighth grade, he was finally promoted to the ninth grade. To his teachers’ and principal’s surprise, he started doing well, earning As and Bs in his courses. When asked why suddenly his grades were improving, his answer was simple: Now it counts. He knew that the grades he received in high school would count toward graduation and getting into a good college. He was trying to outsmart the system, but unfortunately, the system almost allowed him to fall through the cracks. Heather is a very visual/spatial gifted student who understands exactly how she learns and how she needs to study. When she was younger, she had math anxiety, typical of many girls (Gavin and Reis, 2003). Interestingly, in middle school, math seems to be one of her strongest subjects. Often, she does not know how she gets to an answer, but she knows that it is correct. Her teachers comment on her uncanny number sense. Although she takes longer to answer questions on a test, she still gets high grades. She is confident, has varied interests, yet does not study at all, still receiving mostly As on her report card. Heather is very independent, assertive, and does not mind taking risks, characteristics typically associated with those of males (Callahan, 1979). Differences between girls and boys tend to become more apparent during

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adolescence (Kerr, 1985). As they get older, they tend to want to fit in with the crowd and not stand out academically (Gallagher and Gallagher, 1994; Winebrenner, 2001). They may attribute problems they encounter to failure and their successes to external factors such as luck rather than ability (Reis and Callahan, 1989; Reis and Graham, 2005). I taught many intelligent, gifted females; however, not all of them made good decisions. One student got pregnant in ninth grade. Another female student got caught drinking alcohol on school grounds. Just because these students are gifted does not mean they always use common sense. They will make mistakes just like every other child/teenager out there. Regardless of any challenges they encounter, these students need teachers who encourage them to live up to their potential and help them feel safe to discuss ideas and to either become a role model for these students or find others who can be mentors for these girls (Reis and Graham, 2005). Twice exceptional (2e) are students that are both gifted and learning disabled or ADHD (or some other disability). These are the most at-risk subpopulation of gifted students (Moon, 2009). This term describes children who are “with special intellectual-processing problems [i.e., those with learning, communication, and/or behavioral disabilities], that nevertheless, maintain an extraordinarily high general intellectual potential” (Gallagher, 1988, p. 10). These students tend to develop strategies to cope, meaning that they learn to compensate for their disability. They often mask the disability and their talent (Robinson, Shore, and Enersen, 2007). Sometimes, these students are at risk for underachievement because of these barriers. They are frustrated because they cannot perform, raising questions about their motivation (Assouline and Colangelo, 2006; Moon, 2009). Some ways you can help these students are by providing a nurturing environment, providing materials to help them understand their learning difficulties and learn ways to compensate, creating tasks that focus on their strengths, and allowing and encourage them to demonstrate their learning in a variety of ways (Winebrenner, 2001). Clearly, gifted students face many problems and challenges, some more intense than others (Moon, 2009). Discuss the following questions with your colleagues with regard to the characteristics of gifted students. Think about the instructional implications in the classroom. Use the information in both figures 6.1 and 6.2 to help you think through the different traits: • What student(s) are strong in one of these traits? How can you tell? • How do you feel/react when you are working with a student who has this trait? • How does this trait manifest itself in school and at home? Why do you think it might be the same or different? • In what ways might you modify your teaching for a student with this trait?

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Take a look at the following list of people. What would you change in the way you would meet these students’ needs? Can you substitute students you have taught for the famous people below? 1. John F. Kennedy received constant reports of “poor achievement” and was a lousy speller. 2. Beethoven’s music teacher once said of him, “As a composer, he is hopeless.” 3. Winston Churchill failed sixth grade and finished last in his class at Harrow, England. 4. Walt Disney was fired by a newspaper editor because he had “no good ideas” and he “doodled too much.” 5. Paul Orfalea, founder of the Kinko’s Copy Centers chain, was placed in a class for mentally retarded students after he failed second grade due to dyslexia. 6. Isaac Newton—who discovered calculus, authored the theory of universal gravitation, originated the three laws of motion, and formulated the binomial theorem—did poorly in grade school. 7. Tina Brown, former editor of Vanity Fair, Diana Nyad, swimming champion, and Roger Daltrey, composer, musician, and lead singer of The Who, were expelled from school. 8. Albert Einstein flunked math. (Adapted from: Galbraith and Delisle, 1996, p. 12) Now you may ask yourself, “Why should I challenge these students when they are already ahead and I need to work with the students who may not pass the high-stakes standards test?” The answer is simple. Every child has a right to have his/her educational needs met. It does not matter if the students are advanced or behind, they each deserve an appropriate education. The famous people listed above did well, despite the school system. But what about those other talented students who may have fallen through the cracks? Think about how you feel when you are sitting in a professional development setting or a graduate course and you feel you already know the subject matter. Does it stimulate you to learn more? Are you interested in the topic? Are you excited about going back? Do you feel frustrated? Do you feel the class is “boring” and “irrelevant?” Are you motivated to do any work required of you? Are you insulted by the presenter not acknowledging that you have some knowledge of the subject matter and that you would like different information, instead of the same information? What if the instructor found out your interests and related the content taught to those interests? Wouldn’t you be more motivated to learn more? Our gifted students are no different.

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The remainder of this chapter will focus on differentiation strategies to meet the needs of the gifted students in your classroom. Think about why students are placed in your classroom. What is the one commonality they all have? Age. Yes, that is the only variable the students have in common. They each learn differently, have different interests, different learning styles, different backgrounds, different learning issues. We can no longer teach all students in one way. If we do, we are not reaching over two-thirds of our classroom. Teaching to the middle does not work, since even these students do not learn in the same manner. We tend to want to teach the way we prefer to learn; however, in teaching this way, we will not meet the learning needs of the majority of our students. Often, I hear the statements (or arguments for not challenging our highability students), “I have to cover x amount of material in order to ensure the students do well on the high-stakes test.” (Feel free to fill in the acronym for your high-stakes test). But remember, blankets cover, teachers teach, students learn. . . . We don’t cover material—we teach it. And, if we do it well, students learn at the appropriate pace and level of challenge, and in an appropriately responsive and safe learning environment.

Meeting Needs through Differentiation Differentiation is a philosophy that includes strategies to meet the needs of all students. It is not a strategy in which we use the gifted students to act as peer tutors or anchors in a group to “ensure the work gets done,” thus sacrificing the high level of challenge needed by the gifted students (Hertberg-Davis, 2009). In a differentiated classroom, teachers begin where students are, not what the pacing guide or curriculum guide dictates (Tomlinson, 1999). In order to do this, we need to understand our students’ needs. We need to know their interests, learning profiles, and readiness levels. We can then differentiate based on content (what we teach), process (how we teach), and product (how the student shows what he/she has learned) (see figure 6.3). Teachers in a differentiated classroom are the coaches, facilitators, gardeners—who plant the seeds for growth in their students. Then they scaffold by helping them grow at their own pace. They provide as much or as little support as necessary for each student. The focus of the instruction is now on individual student growth rather than comparison among all students in the class, grade, school, district, etc. We need to provide flexible grouping, respectful tasks, ongoing assessment, open-ended tasks (as opposed to a one-correct-answer task), and choice. As a differentiated teacher, you focus on students as producers and ensure

FIGURE 6.3 Differentiation of Instruction

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high-level thinking and inquiry are a part of your instruction (Kingore, 2004; Tomlinson, 1999; Tomlinson and McTighe, 2006). Differentiated curriculum should also be based on good curriculum. You can differentiate anything, but a differentiated lesson from a poor curriculum is still a poor lesson. Tomlinson (1999) created a comparison chart between a traditional classroom and a differentiated classroom (see figure 6.4). If you were a student, in which classroom would you prefer to learn? Traditional Classroom

Differentiated Classroom

Student differences are masked or acted upon when problematic Assessment is most common at the end of learning to see “who got it”

Student differences are studied as a basis for planning Assessment is ongoing and diagnostic to understand how to make instruction more responsible to learner need Focus on multiple forms of intelligences is evident Excellence is defined in large measure by individual growth from a starting point Students are frequently guided in making interest-based learning choices Many learning profile options are provided

A relatively narrow sense of intelligence prevails A single definition of excellence exists Student interest is infrequently tapped Relatively few learning profile options are taken into account Whole-class instruction dominates Coverage of texts and curriculum guides drive instruction Mastery of facts and skills out-of-context is the focus of learning Single option assignments are the norm Time is relatively inflexible A single text prevails Single interpretations of ideas and events may be sought The teacher directs student behavior The teacher solves problems The teacher provides whole-class standards for grading A single form of assessment is often used

Many instructional arrangements are used Student readiness, interest, and learning profile shape instruction Use of essential skills to make sense of and understand key concepts and principles is the focus of learning Multioption assignments are frequently used Time is used flexibly in accordance with student need Multiple materials are provided Multiple perspectives on ideas and events are routinely sought The teacher facilitates students’ skills at becoming more self-reliant learners Students help other students and the teacher solve problems Students work with the teacher to establish both whole-class and individual learning goals Students are assessed in multiple ways

Source: Tomlinson, Carol Ann. (1999). The differentiated classroom: Responding to the needs of all learners, p. 16.

FIGURE 6.4 Traditional Classroom Versus a Differentiated Classroom

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Another important element to consider when differentiating is the affective environment (Tomlinson, 2003b; Tomlinson and Eidson, 2003). Students need to feel safe in an environment where they can take risks. They need to feel like they belong. The “mood” of the classroom is one which fosters a celebration of success and respect for each other (Tomlinson, 2003b). Teachers who understand the needs of their students “to achieve security, affirmation, validation, affiliation, and affinity” guide their students to become more respectful, responsive, and reflective (Tomlinson et al., 2009, p. 13). In turn, these teachers have a major impact on their students’ lives.

Assessment Before we discuss specific instructional strategies, the first and foremost important part of differentiation is finding out what your students know and not teach it to them! Why waste our time (and theirs) by teaching them something they already know? Assess, assess, assess! This is NOT a dirty word! The purpose of assessments is to inform instruction and to communicate what the students have learned or still need to learn. In other words, assessments should be for student learning, not of student learning (Stiggins, 2006). Assessments do not have to be tests and should be a part of your daily instruction. You need to assess for higher-level thinking and understanding, allowing for long-term memory. This is very different from straight memorization that results in only shortterm memory (Wiggins and McTighe, 2005). Memorization allows the students to remember the knowledge-based information for the day of the test only. It is then promptly forgotten. There are many ways to preassess a student’s knowledge prior to teaching. You can also use continuous assessment to see how the student is doing along the way (see figure 6.5). If you do not know what the students already know, then how do you know what to teach to them? Preassessment allows you to know what needs to be remediated or skipped. Wouldn’t you rather have the students move ahead or go deeper into a subject? If you were these students, what would you prefer to be doing? Carol Tomlinson (1999) said it best: “Assessment is today’s means of understanding how to modify tomorrow’s instruction” (p. 10). Using the “most difficult first” strategy provides additional evidence as to whether or not the students have the understanding of the material. This strategy allows you to find out if a student has mastered the content before you teach it (Winebrenner, 2001). Typically, in a textbook, the most difficult questions are at the end of each section. In math, you might ask the students

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Preassessment (Finding out what the students know and don’t know)

• • • • • • •

K-W-L End-of-unit test Observations of students Questioning Surveys (interest, learning style) Self-evaluation Reflective journal entries

Formative Assessment (Teaching, Learning, and Feedback)

• • • • • • • • • •

Conferencing with the student Peer evaluation Self-evaluation Reflective journal entries Observations of students Exit cards Portfolio checks Questioning Quizzes Meaningful homework

Summative Assessment (Check for final understanding)

• • •

• • • • • •

Selected response format (multiple-choice, true-false) quizzes and tests Written or oral responses to prompts (short-answer) Performance assessments o Extended written products (e.g., essays, lab reports) o Visual products (e.g., PowerPoints, murals) o Oral presentations (e.g., oral reports, foreign language dialogues) o Demonstrations (e.g., skill performances in physical education) Long-term “authentic” projects (e.g., science fair exhibitions) Portfolios (systematic collections of student work over time) Reflective journal entries Observations of students Self-evaluation Peer evaluation

Adapted from Tomlinson, C. A., and McTighe, J. (2006). Integrating differentiated instruction and understanding by design. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

FIGURE 6.5 Ongoing Assessment

to do the five most difficult problems for each section. If they answer at least four out of five questions correctly, the students may be able to compact out of this material. In history or science, the students can answer the most difficult conceptual questions. Each of these questions should be based on more basic material.

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We need to design both our assessments and units of study around what we want the students to Know, Understand, and Be Able to Do (KUD) (Tomlinson and McTighe, 2006). Know refers to the facts. Understand is the big concepts and principles. Do reflects the expert-type skills we want our students to learn to do (Tomlinson, 1999). The relationship between assessment and curriculum is shown in figure 6.6. Grading The purpose of grades is to communicate what the students have learned. It is not to compare them to other students (Wormeli, 2006). Grades are not necessarily synonymous with learning (Winebrenner, 2001). In other words, just because a student receives an “A” does not mean the student learned new concepts. In fact, that student may have already mastered the material before you taught it. How do we “grade” students who are doing “different” work? We need differentiated assessments. You could develop a standard assessment that all students take. The rest of the assessment could measure the other concepts the students learned. You could give the students choice (Gregory and Chapman, 2007). As long as the assessment measures your objectives for that student’s learning, and the way in which the student learned the information, you should get valid results. We need to understand in what ways the students

FIGURE 6.6 The Relationship Between Assessment and Curriculum

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can best demonstrate their mastery and deep understanding of the concepts (Tomlinson and McTighe, 2006). Some students do not do well on multiple-choice tests. If a student has test anxiety, he/she will not perform well on the assessment. However, you can ask students to respond orally to high-level questions regarding the concepts learned. Some students can show what they learned through performance, writing, or oral assessment. That does not mean you never give multiplechoice tests, but it does mean we need to vary the types of assessments used in order to accurately measure what they have learned. Failing grades because of test anxiety, late work, or homework that is incomplete do not reflect what the students actually have learned. Homework should be differentiated to fit the needs of the students. Homework should be used as a formative assessment. Use it to check for understanding in order to give appropriate feedback (Vatterott, 2009). As stated earlier, it should be used as assessment for learning, not of learning (Stiggins, 2006; Vatterott, 2009). Remember, some gifted students will not turn in homework if they feel it is meaningless and irrelevant to them, especially if they already know the material (remember Xavier?). If we continue to grade homework, with the result of our talented students failing because of zeroes they received for failing to complete homework, the students may begin to feel a sense of helplessness (Vatterott, 2009). They have dug a hole so deep they feel they cannot get out, and a nasty cycle ensues. This can lead to a lack of motivation and poor grades. To keep students motivated, provide different and quality homework assignments based on the needs and ability levels of the students (Tomlinson, 2003a; Wormeli, 2006). You can use assessment results to modify the content, process, and product of the curriculum. This can be approached through student readiness, learning profile, or interest (Tomlinson, 1999) (see figure 6.7).

FIGURE 6.7 Differentiation Grid

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You do not have to differentiate in all nine boxes. Choose only one to begin and see how it works. Tweak it the next time and then try it again with another lesson. Once you feel comfortable with the process, move on to a different box.

Grouping Cluster grouping is one way to group students within the classroom. For example, let’s say there are ten gifted students in the entire fifth grade. Your class might have five of these students, and another fifth-grade teacher might have the other five students. This type of grouping helps the students in many ways. It is an efficient method that allows the teacher to meet the needs of a small group of students as opposed to only one gifted student in the classroom (Winebrenner, 2001). Not only does it help the students academically, it also helps the students affectively. Studies show that when gifted students are grouped together in the classroom, they show higher academic achievement gains (Kulik, 2003; Rogers, 1991) and benefit from the social interactions among like-ability peers (VanTassel-Baska and Stambaugh, 2006; Winebrenner, 2001). This method also allows the Gifted Resource Teacher to help the regular education teachers so that his/her time is not split up among all the teachers, but only a few. This way the G/T teacher can better support the regular education teacher when the students do not see him or her, as well as work more closely with the students to ensure their needs are being met. Using flexible groups within the classroom is another grouping strategy to effectively teach your students at different levels. Flexible groups allow students to move in and out of groups based on their strengths and interests and have positive effects on achievement (Robinson, Shore, and Enersen, 2007; Rogers, 1991). Teachers group and regroup students based on the students’ changing needs (Kingore, 2004). For example, Jennifer is strong in geometry, but weak in number sense. If you group students in your math class, Jennifer might be in the high-level group for a geometry unit; however, when focused on number sense, she might move into the group on grade level or even the lower-level group, depending on her skills. In other words, just because Jennifer is a strong student in geometry does not mean she is strong in all areas of mathematics. This is why we always need to preassess our students to find out their strengths in each area we teach. Tomlinson (1999, 2001) recommends using an “equalizer” to adjust the challenge level of assignments and assessments. The following nine compo-

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nents of the equalizer can be adjusted on a continuum to change the degree to which the students work on an assignment or task: • • • • • • • • •

Foundational to transformational Concrete to abstract Simple to complex Single facet to multiple facets Small leap to great leap More structured to more open Clearly defined problems to fuzzy problems Less independence to more independence Slower to quicker

We can slide the “buttons” to the right or left like changing the stations on a radio. For example, we can challenge students by providing less structure with more independence while they work on a fuzzy problem. This allows the students to think more abstractly and make greater leaps as well. We can vary the levels of each of these scales based upon how we group our students.

Strategies Tiered activities work well with grouping and allow all types of students to learn the same essential concepts and skills, but at their appropriate level, interest, or learning style (Kingore, 2004; Tomlinson, 1999). First, preassess to learn the ability levels, interests, and learning styles of your students. Then, decide on how many groups or tiers would be appropriate for instruction. Typically, three or four work well, but if you are grouping by interest, it can be more. Use the Differentiation Grid (figure 6.7) to help you determine how you will differentiate and group your students. Make sure each group is appropriately challenged. If you are not sure as to how high to challenge a group, always teach up (Kingore, 2004; Tomlinson, 1999). In other words, think about Bloom’s taxonomy and teach at a higher level of thinking. No matter how they are grouped, this provides a challenge that is neither too simple that it leads to boredom nor too difficult, resulting in frustration (Kingore, 2004). Provide scaffolding for each group. For example, if you are creating tiers based on readiness, the top group might need less teacher support than the lower group. One way to differentiate content by readiness level (see figure 6.7) is to select different reading levels of the same story. For example, you might split your class into three groups, known as tiers. Each group has a different level

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book based on the reading levels of the students. This is differentiating content by readiness. Other ways to tier instruction is to allow students choice. Students can choose a type of product to show what they have learned based on not only their readiness level but also their interest. The following is an example of a tiered lesson. It illustrates differentiation by process and product by readiness level and interest. Developed by Rochelle Pierce (2008), the four tiers used are based on the Ascending Levels of Intellectual Demand (ALID) from the Parallel Curriculum Model (Tomlinson et al., 2009). In this plan, the students will be able to compare and contrast members of each social group within the colonial regions. Students will be able to explain colonial life from the perspective of large landowners, farmers, artisans, women, indentured servants, and slaves. The students will be involved in creating a newspaper about colonial life in America. The students will be working with this skill to understand the larger idea of social status during colonial times. In order to differentiate by readiness, student assessments and writing samples will be taken into consideration to place the students into appropriate groups. Interest surveys will also be completed so that students are working on areas of the newspaper that most appeal to them. Students will be working on some group activities and some individual activities. . . . The format of the newspaper will provide for many interdisciplinary explorations and connections. Students will be given books on their reading level to consult for information on the different social positions. Students will also use the Internet to research information. Novice: Students will be given a chart to complete to gather essential information from books. This group of students will need to be consistently monitored so that they are on task. They may also need assistance with reading and taking notes on the material. This group will be asked to create basic stories that describe what life was like for large landowners, farmers, artisans, women, indentured servants, and slaves. Students may also choose to use the Internet to find additional information and pictures. Students will be creating paragraphs that will be featured on the front page of the newspaper that they create as a group. Each group member may choose to work with a partner or on his or her own to write a paragraph about a particular social position. Students who expressed an interest in creating pictures for the newspaper will work on the illustrations for each social position. Apprentice: This group of students will be involved in a more detailed version of the newspaper and will work with some guidance. They will be given books that are on a higher reading level. They will use the Internet to expand on the descriptions of each of the social groups and pictures involved in the newspaper. They will also be expected to demonstrate the differences in the social groups and write about how the groups of people worked together in the different colonial regions. The students will be making connections that all of the groups

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of people were dependent on each other and had their own responsibilities. These students will also recognize how climate and geography played a role in where people lived and what positions they held. The students will be creating a weather report for each of the colonial regions. Practitioner: The students in this group will be expected to process the information for each of the given social groups and apply it. Students will research in partners or individually information on large landowners, farmers, artisans, women, indentured servants, and slaves using multiple reference sources so that they collect a wide variety of information. Students will apply their knowledge to create help-wanted ads for each of the social groups. The students must be specific in their description of the requirements for the job. The students will also create news stories on the colonial regions and how the people have adapted to the climate and geography of the region. Students will be expected to write editorials voicing their opinions and highlighting the similarities and differences among the various social groups. Expert: At this level the students will be consulting multiple resources to create a newspaper that demonstrates in-depth knowledge of each of the social groups and how they are alike and different in the colonial regions. Students will be designing their newspaper page with graphics, editorials, articles, and political cartoons. Students will research the purpose of political cartoons and create a cartoon that deals with an issue relative to social class. Students will have freedom to express their opinions and create a newspaper that represents the language and overall feel of a newspaper of the time period. They will analyze primary sources of colonial America to delve deeper into the subject and create an authentic colonial newspaper. Students will have the choice to include multiple sections in their newspaper that relate to colonial life in the New England, Midatlantic, and Southern colonies. At this level students will write from the perspective of each of the social groups and how their lives varied drastically from other groups in the colonies.

For more information about tiered instruction, see Tomlinson, 1999, and Kingore, 2004 and 2006. Compacting curriculum is another differentiation strategy. Compacting means that the students’ curriculum is condensed. It does not mean they do not learn the same information necessarily, but rather, they do not need the same amount of time to learn new concepts. The goals of compacting are to create a challenging learning environment and guarantee proficiency in the basic curriculum. Compacting the curriculum leaves extra time for the students to pursue enrichment or accelerated activities (Winebrenner, 2001). The focus begins with student readiness and ends with an emphasis on student interest (Tomlinson, 1999). Susan Winebrenner (2001) lists the behaviors, as seen in figure 6.8, as indicators that compacting is necessary.

Student Behaviors

Examples

Consistently finishes tasks quickly

Scott would be a perfect example for compacting. In fifth grade, he had a serious health issue that kept him out of school for three months. While he was at home, he did the work sent home to him by his teacher. He easily completed the worksheets at home, with plenty of time to rest and do other things he enjoyed. Once he came back to school, he completed the worksheets assigned just as quickly. Instead of finding an enrichment activity or something different for Scott to learn and work with, the teacher gave him more worksheets. Gifted students hate worksheets. So, what do you think Scott did? Yes, he started to slow down. He was smart and knew that finishing the assignments quickly was punishment. He stopped turning them in so quickly because he did not want more of the same.

Finishes reading

Jason, a third-grader, always finished his reading assignments before the rest of his class. Once he was done, he found other ways of entertaining himself. He talked to the students around him, kept getting up from his seat, and found many other distractions to keep him—and others— occupied, and from completing the reading assignment! Did he comprehend what he just read? If so, how else can we challenge this student?

Appears bored during instruction

Keep in mind that just because a student appears bored, as teachers we need to ask questions as to why he or she appears bored. Does he/she already know the material? Is he/ she frustrated because it is too difficult? We always need to be researchers and ask questions regarding our students’ behaviors.

Consistently daydreams

Greg’s talents were in math, science, and computers. He consistently completed his work early, and found daydreaming the best way to keep the school day moving. Often, the teacher would call on him, and he would be in his own world. The teacher, obviously not happy about his not paying attention, punished him for his “laziness.” Greg was not lazy, just bored, and his daydreams kept him more entertained than what was going on in the classroom.

Creates own puzzles, games, or diversions in class

Not all diversions are quiet ones. Some students might create diversions that are clearly disruptions and ones that require immediate teacher attention. Again, we need to ask ourselves why this student is acting in this manner. Is it boredom because they already mastered the concepts?

Brings in outside reading material

In second grade, Jake was reading Harry Potter, along with three other students in his class. Luckily the teacher realized these students were advanced readers and did not need to read the Basal readers. These same four students were also quite skilled at arithmetic, so instead of giving them more addition and subtraction work, she started them on multiplication and division, skills typically taught in third grade.

FIGURE 6.8 Student Behaviors Indicating a Need for Compacting

Student Behaviors

Examples

Has consistently high performance in one or more academic areas

Many students have strengths in one or more areas, but we have to be careful that we do not assume that because a student is strong in math, he/she will be equally as strong in language arts. However, we need to challenge these students in their areas of strength to ensure growth in all areas.

Test scores consistently excellent despite average or belowaverage class work

These are the students who do not care about grades. Grades are not always motivators, and these students do not care to “play the game of school” just to prove they know the material. They most likely do not turn in their homework, may not pay attention in class, but clearly understand the subject matter as determined by the summative tests.

Asks questions that indicate advanced familiarly with the material

Cynthia, a tenth-grader, was obsessed with the Civil War. In fact, her parents have an entire bookcase of Civil War books and she and her family often visit Civil War battlefields. Her knowledge of this subject is quite advanced for her grade, and her questions usually surprise her teachers. Her history teacher noticed this interest and allowed her to compact out of the Civil War unit to do an in-depth study of the women of that time period.

Is sought after by other students for assistance

The students in a classroom know which ones have strengths in different areas. Watch to see how they huddle around different students. Typically, these students know each other from past grade levels and already have an insight into who to go to for answers. Just be careful that you do not use the students with these strengths as your “teacher assistants.” They are in your classroom to learn just like the other students, not to make your job easier. Allow them to study the content in more depth instead.

Uses vocabulary and verbal expression in advance of grade level or age

Think about the vocabulary a typical student of this grade or age might have. If he/she sounds like they are speaking years above his/her level, take a second look him/her. This student most likely is advanced in language arts and needs more of a challenge.

Expresses interest in pursuing alternate or advanced topics

Claire was very interested in the culinary arts. She loved to cook and loved to find new recipes and share them with her class. While studying the periodic table in Chemistry, she chose to create the periodic table out of cookies! When Claire showed her mastery of the concepts, she was allowed to do in-depth research of how chemicals affect the foods we eat.

FIGURE 6.8 (continued )

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There are five basic steps to compacting. The first step is to identify all the objectives that students must learn. Second, preassess all students. Remember, just because a student may not be identified as gifted does not mean that he or she may not already have background knowledge of the material you plan to teach. Once you know which students mastered the majority of the material you are about to teach, you need to find out what they don’t know. They need to learn the basic information and skills. This can be accomplished by allowing students to learn independently and answer questions related to the material. Students can also learn along with the rest of the class when you get to this topic. Or, you might choose to teach this material to these students separately while the rest of the class is working. Teaching to fewer students takes less time than teaching to a class of twenty-five to thirty students. In other words, you are eliminating all drill, practice, and review for these students who have already mastered the information. Fourth, plan and offer enrichment or acceleration for the students who have successfully mastered the content. Fifth, and very important, keep accurate records of your students’ compacting activities. A compactor or compacting template consists of three columns, as illustrated below: Column 1: Identify the curriculum area(s) to be considered for compacting. • What does the student already know? • What are the student’s areas of strengths? • What parts of the regular curriculum has the student already mastered? Column 2: Determine how the student will learn the material that he/she does not know. • What skills does the student need to learn? • How long will it take to teach an isolated skill to a few bright students compared to the time needed to teach the same skill to the entire class? or • Will you choose to pull the student into the appropriate lesson when teaching the skill to the entire class? or • Will the student work independently to learn the skill? Column 3: Decide on enrichment and/or acceleration activities. • What activities will be used in place of compacted material? • Is the student appropriately challenged? • Do the options reflect a student’s interests and strengths?

For a clearer explanation, figures 6.9 to 6.12 provide sample compactors. Kim’s compactor (figure 6.9) shows that she has already mastered the third-grade reading skills. Column 1 indicates what she already knows. Col-

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FIGURE 6.9 Sample Compactor of Grade 3 Student

umn 2 indicates that once she shows mastery of new vocabulary words, she can move on to the enrichment and acceleration activities in Column 3. Note that since she is reading at a fifth-grade reading level, she will attend a reading class with other fifth-grade students. Based on the enrichment activity, we can infer that she is interested in learning about honeybees. Glen (figure 6.10) is obviously bored in math and actually expresses this sentiment to his teacher. Column 1 indicates his consistency in obtaining As in math and a high score on a standardized achievement test. Column 2 allows for Glen to show mastery on all chapters via pretesting. If he does not show mastery, he must complete the odd-numbered problems and take the posttest. Glen may complete any of these chapters, with the appropriate understanding, much quicker than if he were sitting and waiting for the rest of the class. He obviously has an interest in rocketry, as seen in Column 3. Allowing him to explore rockets and tying mathematics into his interest allows him to explore these concepts in more depth. He will also find the concepts more meaningful and relevant since they relate to real-world problems. Bill’s compactor (figure 6.11) takes into consideration two different content areas. The teacher knows he has an extensive background in the Civil War in addition to his grades reflecting his knowledge of history. Column 2 allows for him to quickly move through the chapters, showing that he can master these concepts in a shorter amount of time than the rest of the class. His collection of Civil War memorabilia is a strong interest of his, along with

FIGURE 6.10 Sample Compactor of Grade 8 Student

FIGURE 6.11 Sample Compactor of Grade 10 Student

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politics. For Language Arts, his experience as an editor for the school paper and a short story publication allows him to compact out of the Short Story unit. He will still read the assigned short stories, but he will now be allowed to write his own short story for publication. Note that even though Column 2 indicates he “will be excused from class,” this does not necessarily mean he is not physically in the room. He could be in the classroom working on his own story. He could also be working in the library. Keep in mind that students who are doing different assignments in the classroom do not have to physically leave the room. A group compactor is illustrated in figure 6.12.

FIGURE 6.12 Sample Group Compactor

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While some of the enrichment activities relate to the same concepts in this unit, other activities branch off to a new topic. This allows students who master the information the opportunity to further their knowledge and learn to work independently. Since students will be participating in something that interests them, they will be more motivated and achieve at a higher level. Depending on which activities the students choose, the rest of the class will be able to learn more about a new topic through the students’ presentations and projects (Schatz, 2009).

Note that although the teacher has developed a list of activities from which the students can choose, they still have the option to develop their own ideas and tasks. Problem-based Learning (PBL) can also be implemented in a differentiated classroom. It is an inquiry-based approach that allows students to research “fuzzy” or “ill-defined” problems. Problems should be unclear, authentic, flexible, ambiguous, and interdisciplinary (Gallagher, 2009; Tomlinson, 1999). PBL places students in the role of active learners instead of passive listeners. Teachers act as the “guides on the side, instead of the sage on the stage.” Students make connections among interdisciplinary concepts and create solutions to authentic situations. This strategy simulates real life. The beauty of this strategy is that there are no right or wrong answers—no black or white—no A, B, C, D, or E. The students have to research, work as a team, uncover new information, and make sense of it. They apply the learning to new situations and synthesize and evaluate the information to form conclusions. Students are more engaged because they are now invested in the solution and feel empowered to create something meaningful (Gallagher and Gallagher, 1994). PBL provides an answer to the ever-asked questions, “Why do we need to learn this, anyway?” and “What does this have to do with me?” Initially, teachers need to decide what skills and concepts they want the students to learn. They create a scenario or “fuzzy situation.” Students research, define the problem, and ask questions. Finally, they find more information, redefine the problem, and ask more questions. They keep synthesizing the information until they have formulated a solution. The focus is on the nature of the problem, as opposed to all the information provided in advance to the students. Different solutions are possible, whereas in a well-structured problem, only one solution is possible (Gallagher and Gallagher, 1994). The nature of PBL is flexible, where grouping can be adjusted, assessments can be varied, and the challenge can be greater, depending on how much or little structure is provided (Tomlinson and Doubet, 2006). The class can be divided into different groups of students. This is where you can use your students’ strengths. If you have students who are good at researching, place them each into different groups, so each group has that strength. If you have students with excellent writing skills, make sure each

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group has a student with that strength. Who are good leaders and are task focused? These would make good team leaders to keep the group focused. Once the groups are formed with the different roles in place, the students can begin the research. Each student on the team is invested in the learning and can begin to synthesize their findings. The final component should be authentic and a research-supported product. One example of a PBL lesson on the Civil War comes from a fifth-grade teacher (Pierce, 2009). The focus of this lesson includes the concepts of sectionalism, states’ rights, democracy, secession, and conflict resolution. Based on what the teacher knew about her students’ interests, she developed the following scenario: Many students in the fifth-grade class have decided that they do not want to follow the rules of the school any longer and that they would like to break away to create their own school. The principal was informed of the revolt, and his only comment was, “Not another southern secession!” You will have to think carefully about what this would mean for the students in the fifth grade. What would be the advantages and disadvantages of creating a new fifth-grade school apart from our elementary school?

Although the concepts were focused on themes of the Civil War, the students were able to apply this information to something relevant and meaningful to them. To begin the PBL, students were divided into two groups. Each group researched reasons and implications for secession. They needed to provide historical evidence for their arguments. They were given research sheets to record the information collected. One week was set aside to research the information and formulate arguments. They then had to present their information in the form of a debate. By researching the issues of secession, they learned about the actual issues from the Civil War period. They were able to synthesize the information and apply it to their new situation of seceding from the elementary school. Another example of PBL is taken from a sixth-grade English teacher. She began the study with this scenario: You are a United Nations delegate from one of the member countries listed below. The deforestation of the planet has accelerated at an alarming rate, prompting the need for an international, multilateral solution. Every member nation will have a unique interest in this problem, and all member nations will have to develop a viable solution. What are the possible consequences of continued unharnessed deforestation? What are the specific motives for continuing deforestation in your home country? What are possible alternatives to the practice of deforestation? What is a possible compromise that can be reached that will benefit all member nations? (McCallum, 2008)

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She preassessed her students to find out their strengths and interests. The students were then divided into six different delegations of about three to four students. The main concepts were focused on international diplomacy, environmental threats, parliamentary procedures, persuasion, and effective expression. Although this was an English class, it was an interdisciplinary unit. Each delegation was responsible for a national placard and a PowerPoint/ podcast presentation that included their country’s history, level of development, governmental system, social structure, religious influences, political alliances, and any other information they felt was important. Each student was responsible for writing a position paper regarding his or her adopted country’s position on the issue at hand. For each of these PBL lessons, there was no final and correct answer. Each group of students could find a solution that was different from the other groups. The answers were dependent on their research. If this Civil War unit were taught in the traditional manner, it would look entirely different. The information would be provided, probably in lecture format, to the students. Questions would have one right answer. Motivation for learning the concepts would be very low (Gallagher and Gallagher, 1994). The following paragraphs briefly introduce additional strategies. Socratic Seminars, orbital studies, learning contracts, cubing, and RAFT can be used for differentiation. A Socratic Seminar is student-driven discussion that can be used for deeper understandings of literature, history, current events, or any other open-ended issue (Winebrenner, 2001). The teacher begins by asking probing, openended, high-level questions and requires active engagement of all students. Once the students begin discussion, the teacher observes and occasionally refocuses the discussion if it gets too far off topic. Additionally, the teacher needs to keep the discussion “intellectually responsible.” She needs to summarize what has already been discussed and/or what has not yet been resolved and try to include as many students into the discussion as possible (Paul and Elder, 1997). Socratic questioning allows for curiosity, high-level thinking, and grasping new insight (VanTassel-Baska and Stambaugh, 2006). VanTassel-Baska and Stambaugh (2006) suggest that some appropriate topics for discussion might include: • What are virtues? Why do they matter in life? • What is the difference between needs and wants? What criteria might we apply to distinguish one from the other? • What makes a society work? What are the elements, and how do they interact?

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• What motivates people to construct great things in their lives? What motivates others to destroy? • What is the nature of good and evil in today’s world? How is it similar to past conceptions? How is it different? • Where do values and beliefs come from? How do they affect behavior? (p. 312) Orbital studies afford students the opportunity to select a topic of interest within the curriculum. Students work independently, with guidance from the teacher, and develop an in-depth investigation (Tomlinson, 1999). Students are required to keep logs of time spent on their work, resources used, and ideas and skills learned. At the end of the study, they might make presentations to authentic audiences. Orbital studies differentiate content by allowing the students to select their own topics and materials, differentiate process by allowing students to create their own independent study plans, and differentiate product by allowing students to make their own decisions as to how to show what they have learned. Learning contracts provide for self-directed learning and student choice in what and how they learn. The contract is a way for the teacher to stay knowledgeable about what the student is doing. It allows for student responsibility in the learning and ensures the application of the skills acquired will be applied within an appropriate context (Kingore, 2004; Tomlinson, 1999; Winebrenner, 2001). It is a strategy that can also be used for tiering instruction and assessments (Wormeli, 2006) and for compacting instruction (Winebrenner, 2001). A schedule or time management plan should be agreed upon by both student and teacher, and a signature page should include student, teacher, and parent. This way the parent understands what is required of his or her child. Cubing is a strategy that uses different levels of Bloom’s taxonomy. It allows students to look at an issue or topic from different angles (Gregory and Chapman, 2007). Cubing can be used to differentiate by readiness, interest, or learning style. Each side of the cube has a different question at different levels. The six sides of the cube might have, respectively, Describe it, Compare it, Associate it, Analyze it, Apply it, Argue for or against it. Or, each side could be differentiated by multiple intelligences. The level of challenge can be adjusted by changing the sophistication of the topics and prompts (Wormeli, 2006). The website, Dare to Differentiate: Cubing and Think Dots (n.d.), is an excellent source for different cubing activities and provides a cubing template. RAFT differentiates for readiness, learning style, and interest simultaneously. This strategy requires the students to assume a Role, for a specific Audience, in a certain Format, focused on a Topic (Tomlinson and McTighe, 2006). Below each of these attributes, the teacher lists different choices for

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the students to choose from to create their own assignment (Wormeli, 2006). The students can apply this information to think at a high level for the lesson. Each of the four elements can be differentiated for students’ varying needs by providing different choices from the various tiers.

Closure Throughout each strategy, we must not forget that in order to meet the needs of each student, we must be cognizant of their interests, learning styles, readiness levels, and the learning environment. Regardless of what or who we teach, we must ensure that we encourage creativity. This is important regardless if it is an abstract concept, difficult to define and evaluate (Robinson, Shore, and Enersen, 2007). We must ensure our students think critically and metacognitively. We need to create a safe learning environment for risk taking. Just because we have strict standards we are required to teach does not mean we have to teach straight out of the book and spoon-feed our students, only to have them regurgitate it back to us. They will not actually learn the information this way. They will remember the content for the day of the test only and then proceed to immediately forget what has been learned. Fairness is an issue you may need to work through as you progress with differentiation. What is really fair? Is it fair to teach something to students that they already know, or is it fair to appropriately challenge each student, regardless of their ability level? Instead of thinking about what is “fair,” think about teaching your students in terms of what is “just.” “Teaching children according to their individual abilities is a just practice based on one’s right (Cooper, 2009, p. 284). The issue of excellence versus equity (Tomlinson, 1999) is a recurring theme if differentiation is not done correctly. Differentiated instruction should be based on clear concepts and principles. It should be based on good assessments that identify what the students know. Critical and creative thinking should be emphasized. Differentiation includes a balance between student-selected and teacher-designed tasks (Tomlinson, 2001). Each time you provide an activity that is differentiated for the students it should also be respectful of each group (Kingore, 2004; Tomlinson, 1999). This means that it is appropriately challenging, meaningful, and relevant to the students. You would not want to give your top group something handson that looks like fun and your low group a worksheet. This is not respectful of each group. William Glasser (thinkexist.com, n.d.) asserted that “Education is the process in which we discover that learning adds quality to our lives. Learning

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must be experienced.” He also gave some interesting percentages. He stated that “we learn . . . 10% of what we read 20% of what we hear 30% of what we see 50% of what we see and hear 70% of what we discuss 80% of what we experience 95% of what we teach others (thinkexist.com, n.d.)

This means that if we just have our students sit as passive learners, they will only learn up to 50 percent of what was taught. However, when students are active learners, they will be challenged and retain and understand rich concepts of up to 95 percent of the information taught. Students need to be motivated and “own their learning.” Teaching is not something we do to students. Teaching means we are learners along with the students. It is very important that you communicate with the parents regarding any type of differentiation. Remember, you are working as a team of at least three: yourself, the parent, and the student. If your school has a G/T Resource Teacher, the team grows to at least four. All strategies, regardless of who is sitting in your classroom, should always be respectful to the students and challenge each of them. As in the book, The Animal School (Reavis, 1999), we cannot teach an eagle to swim and expect high marks when its talent is flying. Gifted students should not be held back just because other students do not have similar skills and talents. All of our students should be allowed to soar. Resources The following are excellent resources for help with differentiation and strategies to teach gifted students in the regular classroom: Center for Creative Learning. (n.d.). Retrieved on August 20, 2009 from http://www .creativelearning.com/. Sources for creative problem-solving strategy tools. Center for Gifted Education. (n.d.). Retrieved on January 2, 2010 from http://cfge .wm.edu/curriculum.htm. Excellent curriculum sources from the College of William and Mary. Creativity and Thinking Skills. (n.d). Retrieved on January 2, 2010 from http://www .au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/awc-thkg.htm. Dare to Differentiate: Cubing and Think Dots. (n.d.). Retrieved on December 16, 2009 from http://daretodifferentiate.wikispaces.com/Cubing+and+Think+Dots.

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Hoagies’ Gifted Education Page. (n.d.). Retrieved on December 29, 2009 from http:// www.hoagiesgifted.org/. Excellent source for any type of information related to gifted education—based in Australia. Instructional Strategies Online. (n.d.). Retrieved on January 2, 2010 from http://olc .spsd.sk.ca/de/pd/instr/index.html. Kingore, B. (2004). Differentiation: Simplified, realistic, and effective. How to challenge advanced potentials in mixed-ability classrooms. Austin, TX: Professional Associates. Kingore, B. (2006, Winter). Tiered instruction: Beginning the process. Teaching for High Potential, 5–6. Paul, R., and Elder, L. (1997, April). Socratic teaching. Retrieved on December 14, 2009 from http://www.criticalthinking.org/page.cfm?PageID=507andCategoryID=63. Socratic Seminars. (n.d.). Retrieved on January 2, 2010 from http://www.greece.k12. ny.us/Instruction/ela/SocraticSeminars/choosingatext.htm. Starko, A. J. (1986). It’s about time: In-service strategies for curriculum compacting. Mansfield Center, CT: Creative Learning Press. Tomlinson, C. A. (1999). The differentiated classroom: Responding to the needs of all learners. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Tomlinson, C. A. (2001). How to differentiate instruction in mixed-ability classrooms, 2nd ed. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Tomlinson, C. A. (2003a). Deciding to teach them all. Educational Leadership, 61(2), 7–11. Tomlinson, C. A. (2003b). Fulfilling the promise of the differentiated classroom: Strategies and tools for responsive teaching. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Tomlinson, C. A., Kaplan, S. N., Renzulli, J. S., Purcell, J., Leppien, J., and Burns, D. (2008). The parallel curriculum: A design to develop high potential and challenge high-ability learners, 2nd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. Winebrenner, S. (2001). Teaching gifted kids in the regular classroom, revised, expanded, updated edition. Minneapolis, MN: Free Spirit Publishing. Wormeli, R. (2006). Fair isn’t always equal: Assessing and grading in the differentiated classroom. Portland, ME: Stenhouse Publishers.

References Assouline, S. G., and Colangelo, N. (2006). Social-emotional development of gifted adolescents. In F. A. Dixon and S. M. Moon (Eds.). The handbook of secondary gifted education (pp. 65–85). Waco, TX: Prufrock Press. Callahan, C. M. (1979). The gifted and talented woman. In A. Passow (Ed.). The gifted and talented. Chicago, IL: The National Society for the Study of Education. Cooper, C. R. (2009). Myth 18: It is fair to teach all children the same way. Gifted Child Quarterly, 53(4), 283–85. Dare to Differentiate: Cubing and Think Dots. (n.d.). Retrieved on December 16, 2009 from http://daretodifferentiate.wikispaces.com/Cubing+and+Think+Dots.

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Day-Vines, N. L., Patton, J. M., Quek, C. G., and Wood, S. (2009). Addressing socialemotional and curricular needs of gifted African American adolescents. In J. L. VanTassel-Baska, T. L. Cross, and F. R. Olenchak (Eds.). Social-emotional curriculum with gifted and talented students (pp. 153–92). Waco, TX: Prufrock Press. Delisle, J. R. (1992). Guiding the social and emotional development of gifted youth: A practical guide for educators and counselors. White Plain, NY: Longman. Evensen, D. (2009, November). How not to praise your children. Retrieved on December 2, 2009 from http://www.las.illinois.edu/news/2009/mindset/. Ford, D. Y. (1995). Counseling gifted African American students: Promoting achievement, identity, and social and emotional well-being. (Research Monograph 9505). Storrs, CT: National Research Center on the Gifted and Talented, University of Connecticut. Ford, D. Y., and Moore III, J. L. (2006). Being gifted and adolescent: Issues and needs of students of color. In F. A. Dixon and S. M. Moon (Eds.). The handbook of secondary gifted education (pp. 113–36).Waco, TX: Prufrock Press. Galbraith, M. A., and Delisle, J. (1996). The gifted kids’ survival guide: A teen handbook. Minneapolis, MN: Free Spirit. Gallagher, J. J. (1988). National agenda for educating gifted students: Statement of priorities. Exceptional Children, 55, 107–14. Gallagher, J. J., and Gallagher, S. A. (1994). Teaching the gifted child. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon. Gallagher, S. A. (2009). Problem-based learning. In J. S. Renzulli, E. J. Gubbins, K. S. McMillen, R. D. Eckert, and C. A. Little (Eds.). Systems and models for developing programs for the gifted and talented, 2nd ed. (pp. 193–210). Mansfield Center, CT: Creative Learning Press. Gavin, M. K., and Reis, S. M. (2003). Helping teachers to encourage talented girls in mathematics. Gifted Child Today, 26(1), 32–44, 64. Gregory, G. H., and Chapman, C. (2007). Differentiated instructional strategies: One size doesn’t fit all, 2nd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. Hertberg-Davis, H. (2009). Myth 7: Differentiation in the regular classroom is equivalent to gifted programs and is sufficient. Gifted Child Quarterly, 53(4), 251–53. Kerr, B. A. (1985). Smart girls, gifted women. Columbus, OH: Ohio Psychology. Kingore, B. (2004). Differentiation: Simplified, realistic, and effective. How to challenge advanced potentials in mixed-ability classrooms. Austin, TX: Professional Associates. Kingore, B. (2006, Winter). Tiered instruction: Beginning the process. Teaching for High Potential, 5–6. Kulik, A. (2003). Grouping and tracking. In N. Colangelo and G. A. Davis. Handbook of gifted education, 3rd ed. (pp. 268–81). Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Kwan, K. K., and Hilson Jr., W. J. (2009). Counseling gifted students from non-white racial groups: Conceptual perspectives and practical suggestions. In J. L. VanTasselBaska, T. L. Cross, and F. R. Olenchak (Eds.). Social-emotional curriculum with gifted and talented students (pp. 133–52). Waco, TX: Prufrock Press. Mackenzie, M. (n.d.). Characteristics of gifted children and talented children and possible associated problems. Retrieved on September 12, 2007 from www.qagtc .org.au/characteristics_gifted_children_and_talented_children.

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Maker, C., and Schiever, S. (Eds.). (1989). Critical issues in gifted education: Defensible programs for cultural and ethnic minorities (Vol. 2). Austin, TX: Pro-Ed. McCallum, M. (2008). Model United Nations: Exploring the world’s challenges through the eyes of our international neighbors. Unpublished manuscript, University of Mary Washington, Fredericksburg, VA. Moon, S. M. (2009). Myth 15: High-ability students don’t face problems and challenges. Gifted Child Quarterly, 53(4), 274–76. Patrick, H., Gentry, M., and Owen, S. V. (2006). Motivation and gifted adolescents. In F. A. Dixon and S. M. Moon (Eds.). The handbook of secondary gifted education (pp. 165–95). Waco, TX: Prufrock Press. Paul, R., and Elder, L. (1997, April). Socratic teaching. Retrieved on December 14, 2009 from http://www.criticalthinking.org/page.cfm?PageID=507andCategoryID =63. Pierce, R. (2008). Colonies unit. Unpublished manuscript, University of Mary Washington, Fredericksburg, VA. Pierce, R. (2009). Issues that divide a school/nation. Unpublished manuscript, University of Mary Washington, Fredericksburg, VA. Reavis, G. H. (1999). The animal school. Peterborough, NH: Crystal Springs Books. Reed, M., Peternel, G., Olszewski-Kubilius, P., and Lee, S. (2009, Spring). Project EXCITE: Implications for educators of gifted minority students. Teaching for High Potential, 4–6. Reis, S. M., and Callahan, C. M. (1989). Gifted females: They’ve come a long way—or have they? Journal for the Education of the Gifted, 12(2), 99–117. Reis, S. M., and Graham, C. (2005). Needed: Teachers to encourage girls in math, science, and technology. Gifted Child Today, 28(3), 14–21. Reis, S. M., and Renzulli, J. S. (2009). Myth 1: The gifted and talented constitute one single homogeneous group and giftedness is a way of being that stays in the person over time and experiences. Gifted Child Quarterly, 53(4), 233–35. Reis, S. M., Westberg, K. L., Kulikowich, J. K., Caillard, F., Hébert, T. P., Plucker, J., et al. (1993). Why not let high ability students start school in January? The curriculum compacting study. (Research Monograph 93106). Storrs, CT: National Research Center on the Gifted and Talented, University of Connecticut. Renzulli, J. S. (1978). What makes giftedness? Reexamining a definition. Phi Delta Kappan, 60, 180–84, 261. Robinson, A., Shore, B. M., and Enersen, D. L. (2007). Best practices in gifted education: An evidence-based guide. Waco, TX: Prufrock Press. Rogers, K. B. (1991). The relationship of grouping practices to the education of the gifted and talented learner: Research-based decision making. (RBDM 9102). Storrs, CT: University of Connecticut, The National Research Center on the Gifted and Talented. Schatz, J. (2009). Multiplication and division unit. Unpublished manuscript, University of Mary Washington, Fredericksburg, VA. Sisk, D. (2009). Myth 13: The regular classroom teacher can “go it alone.” Gifted Child Quarterly, 53(4), 269–71.

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Starko, A. J. (1986). It’s about time: In-service strategies for curriculum compacting. Mansfield Center, CT: Creative Learning Press. Stiggins, R. (2006). Assessment for learning: A key to motivation and achievement. Edge, 2(2), 3–19. Szabos, J. (1989). Bright child, gifted learner. Challenge Magazine, 34. Thinkexist.com. (n.d.). William Glasser quotes. Retrieved December 13, 2009 from http://thinkexist.com/quotation/we-learn-of-what-we-read-of-what-we-hear-ofwhat/397216.html. Tomlinson, C. A. (1999). The differentiated classroom: Responding to the needs of all learners. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Tomlinson, C. A. (2001). How to differentiate instruction in mixed-ability classrooms, 2nd ed. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Tomlinson, C. A. (2003a). Deciding to teach them all. Educational Leadership, 61(2), 7–11. Tomlinson, C. A. (2003b). Fulfilling the promise of the differentiated classroom: Strategies and tools for responsive teaching. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Tomlinson, C. A., and Doubet, K. (2006). Smart in the middle grades: Classrooms that work for bright middle schoolers. Westerville, OH: National Middle School Association. Tomlinson, C. A., and Eidson, C. C. (2003). Differentiation in practice: A resource guide for differentiating curriculum grades 5–9. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Tomlinson, C. A., and McTighe, J. (2006). Integrating differentiated instruction and understanding by design. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Tomlinson, C. A., Kaplan, S. N., Renzulli, J. S., Purcell, J., Leppien, J., Burns, D., Strickland, C. A., and Imbeau, M. B. (2009). The parallel curriculum: A design to develop learner potential and challenge advanced learners, 2nd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. VanTassel-Baska, J., and Stambaugh, T. (2006). Comprehensive curriculum for gifted learners, 3rd ed. Boston, MA: Pearson. Vatterott, C. (2009). Rethinking homework: Best practices that support diverse needs. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Wiggins, G., and McTighe, J. (2005). Understanding by design, 2nd ed. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Winebrenner, S. (2001). Teaching gifted kids in the regular classroom, revised, expanded, updated edition. Minneapolis, MN: Free Spirit Publishing. Wormeli, R. (2006). Fair isn’t always equal: Assessing and grading in the differentiated classroom. Portland, ME: Stenhouse Publishers.

7 How Can I Use Technology to Support Reflection? John St. Clair

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hat it is t hat you want for your st udent s? There is no one answer to this question, but surely one achievement to be desired is that your students understand and remember the academic information that you are charged with teaching them. True, there may be equally or more important goals for education, such as citizenship, character development, and social awareness—but for the present moment focus your attention on the need for students to remember what they are taught. After all, Sally is not going to do well in long division if she cannot remember her multiplication facts, and Justin is not going to be able to write a five-paragraph theme without understanding sentence structure and subject-verb agreement. This chapter will give you some ideas on using technology to help your students understand and remember what you share with them. Technology is not the only answer, but it is a tool that you and your students can have fun with by interacting with information. Youngsters naturally relate to computers and, admit it; you are a kid at heart! The key is to kindle reflection using the computer. John Dewey wrote about reflection in How We Think in 1933. He felt that reflective thinking was a focused and disciplined approach to resolving a perplexity (Greiman and Covington, 2007). That is, we think deeply about something that causes us to think—a problem, a puzzle, a mystery, a conundrum. As teachers, our job is to present our students with situations of interest, whether practical or fanciful, that engage their natural curiosity and imagination. Reflective thinking, according to Dewey, occurs as the student seeks to

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resolve any cognitive dissonance—that feeling you get when ideas bounce around your brain without fitting into a comfortable and familiar pattern. Reflection can take several forms. For example, a student is asked to write a journal. This requires written reflection, hopefully produced by some introspection (self-reflection). Another example might include a student reporting back to the class after a group activity. Here the reflection is verbal. A study of preservice teachers by Webb in 1999 suggests that written reflections and self-reflections are more effective when combined with verbal reflection. The process of discussing thinking with others encourages consideration of alternate viewpoints and refines the understanding of the subject being discussed. Technology can be one of the tools in your repertoire of skills and craftsmanship to present the student with an artfully designed learning experience. Learning is the result for which we aim. The learning situation, or lesson, is the activity that precipitates that learning. Reflection causes the learning to be internalized within the student. Meaning is constructed when the student resolves whatever cognitive dissonance that exists and replaces that dissonance with understanding. Think about your teaching in terms of cause and effect. What you do will cause the students to react in some way. Your challenge is to assemble resources and activities in such a way as to channel the students to construct meaning from the activity. Figure 7.1 shows the relationship among the teacher, student, technology, and learning activity expressed as a fishbone or cause-and-effect diagram. The teacher prepares a learning activity. The activity includes a problem or puzzle to be investigated. Technology allows the teacher to guide the student exploration and interaction with the concept. Technology also often includes immediate feedback, such as measurements or correct answers. The students act singularly or in groups to resolve the cognitive dissonance illustrated via the technology. Formative assessment of the activity would include the students writing and/or discussing the meaning of the learning experience. By artfully preparing the resources and guiding the activity, you provide the stimulus for the student to think critically, to reflect on all that is happening with the effect of internalizing meaning.

Using Technology to Encode Information One example of the challenge is the difficulty many students have remembering and being able to apply formulas for area and volume in geometry class. Eric Jensen, in Teaching with the Brain in Mind, 2nd edition, indicates that

FIGURE 7.1 Relationship Fishbone

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teachers have “three ‘chances’ to help students in learning: (1) the original encoding, (2) the maintenance of that memory, and (3) the retrieval of the learning” (p. 125). Jensen also explains that encoding memories using multiple neurological pathways increases the probability of memory retrieval. Now, let’s look at how technology can assist in this encoding process for the example of geometric formulas. Example: Interactive Websites Why is area measured in “square” units? Because essentially area is the number of squares one can place inside a figure. Why do students have such a hard time remembering area formulas? Perhaps the original encoding was insufficient. The Shape Builder tool, one of the many interactive discovery tools at the Interactivate website (http://www.shodor.org/interactivate/), can be used to let the students construct the proper meaning of area for themselves. As shown in figure 7.2, the concept of area is presented completely apart from any symbolic formula. In fact, the shape shown is none of the classic shapes for which we typically ask students to memorize formulas. Here the student can concentrate on just “area.” And to find the area, what does the student do—why, he or she just counts the squares! Which is exactly what area is. To further encode this information and provide an alternative path and additional connection within the brain, you can ask the student to click the radio selector for “Create Shape.” This allows students to draw a shape of their own choosing, hopefully one with some purposeful meaning, such as their initials, a heart, a butterfly, or an arrow (figure 7.3). Now you have allowed the student to discover and construct a fundamental explanation for area as counting squares. This activity has meaning for even young children who have sufficient fine motor skills to use a mouse and interact with the drawing area. Jensen’s second “chance” involves the maintenance of memories. Figure 7.4 shows the same activity but this time with the check box checked to enforce showing rectangles only. This could represent a return to the activity in the next lesson or the next school year. You can expect the student now to connect their knowledge of area as counting and their understanding of multiplication as a shortcut for repeated addition. The student will soon see that the area of the rectangle in figure 7.4 can be counted as eighteen separate squares, added up as six rows of three (3+3+3+3+3+3=18), or added up as three columns of six (6+6+6=18), or seen as a product (6x3=3x6=18). Students have now constructed a formula for calculating the area of a rectangle, area = length times width (A = l • w). At the same time, they have reinforced their understanding of the commutative properties of addition and multiplication.

FIGURE 7.2 Concept of Area

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FIGURE 7.3 Create Shape

Now let’s take a look at the classroom mechanics for this activity. The Shape Builder web page is an interactive page best used while connected to the Internet. Direct interaction allows the student to receive immediate feedback via the “Check Answer” button. Some classes will be fortunate enough to have access to a computer lab or mobile laptop cart connected to the Internet. Such

FIGURE 7.4 Same Activity with Rectangles

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a situation allows for guided discovery individually or in small groups, with the students having hands-on experience directly with the application. The application is hosted by the nonprofit Shodor Foundation and is probably not blocked by the school or system firewall. If it is, you can easily make a case for listing it as a safe site. If a lab situation is not available, the experience could be a teacher-led activity with computer and projector. This allows the teacher to guide the students while performing the mouse clicks for the class. Also effective would be to have individual students engage the activity for the class at the teacher station. If there is no Internet connection, the activity can still take advantage of the computer and projector, as the Interactivate activities are available on a stand-alone CD for a nominal charge. For a classroom without computer and projector, the activity can be simulated effectively with an overhead projector. First, use one of the numerous free screen-capture utilities to snap images of several shapes. Print or copy these images onto transparencies for use with the overhead projector. Another use of the screen captures is to paste the captured shapes into a word-processing document for use as a handout, take-home assignment, enrichment activity, or even a test question. Be sure to capture a version with an empty grid. An empty grid makes a wonderful coloring activity for younger students. To provide reinforcement and an additional brain path for the area concept, consider a kinesthetic experience for the students. Many school buildings use square tiles as flooring and square ceiling panels. Have the students find the area of the classroom floor or the area of a hallway floor. Again, the students will find the shortcut to finding the answer and intuitively decide to multiply rather than count. This activity can be reused once the students have learned about customary and metric units of measurement, thus using Jensen’s third chance for learning during information retrieval.

A Long-term Strategy for Reflection The example from geometry shows how technology can support reflection in a single lesson. Now let’s examine how technology can be used on a systematic scale to support reflection throughout the school year. Consider the following dialogue: Mom: “Baby, what did you learn in school today?” Sally: “Oh, Mom! I’m not a baby anymore, I’m in third grade.” Mom, smiling: “Okay, Sally. What did you learn today?” Sally: “Nuthin’.” Mom: “I thought you were going to be reading about Egypt today?” Sally, excitedly: “Oh, yeah. You shoulda seen the . . .”

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This conversation surely happens thousands of times a day around the world. And a similar conversation awaits Sally’s fourth-grade teacher when she asks Sally what she learned last year! Technology can help with short-term and long-term retention and recall. Example: Blogs One solution for both student recall and parent-teacher communication is found in the class blog. A blog, short for web log, is a journal accessible via the Internet. The blog may be completely written by the teacher, supervised by the teacher with student journal entries, or written entirely by students. A wonderful example is the first-grade blog, Wojtera’s Words (http://wojtera. edublogs.org/). Here are posted student artwork, student stories, photos, and recaps of classroom activities. Telling of the care this teacher has for her students is the often used posting title, “Hello Wonderful Ones!” As we all know, privacy and safety are paramount when using the Internet with children. Wojtera uses a blog provider, Edublogs, which is restricted to educational users. In addition, she uses only the children’s first names and filters comments to trusted persons such as her students, parents, and colleagues. While Edublogs provides individual blogs at no cost to educators, they also market a commercial system, Edublogs Campus, that allows a school or system to maintain a collaborative system of blogs restricted to school or system users. Class blogs can also be used to discuss a single topic. In The Secret Life of Bees (http://weblogs.hcrhs.k12.nj.us/bees/) students from Hunterdon Central Regional High School focused on the book of the same title by Sue Monk Kidd. The entries occurred in the fall of 2002 and are highlighted by student questions answered by the author! A blog can also be a portfolio of student work. Using a scanner, a digital camera, electronic files, and screen-captures tool, the younger student, with the assistance of the teacher, or the older student by himself or herself can capture the best pieces or what they have accomplished during the year and keep them online for later study or display. The portfolio could be restricted to student-teacher-parent or publically available, depending on the nature of the artifacts recorded. The process of recording and organizing a collection of material like this provides yet another excellent opportunity for reflection. As Jordyn Flows (http://blog.penncharter.com/jordyns) is an example of a student blog used as a portfolio. This blog was written by Jordyn Shaffer, an eleventh-grade student in 2007 at William Penn Charter School in Philadelphia. While using the blog as a portfolio management tool is innovative and likely to cause enthusiasm among students, the concept of a portfolio is not

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new at all. We have been posting student work in the hallways during parentteacher conferences for decades! And a personal scrapbook is an even older invention. The computer allows for greater reflection due to the ease with which changes can be made. Documents can be reordered, text edited, and the student can even include audio and video as part of the online portfolio. All of this requires the student to focus carefully and act as a managing editor of the portfolio, carefully reflecting on both the content and presentation of materials.

Technology as Engager, Not Delivery Vehicle In the previous examples, the technology was not the focus of the activity but the instrument that the student could manipulate to investigate a concept. David Jonassen, who has written extensively about the use of instructional technology, says, “Technologies should be used as engagers and facilitators of thinking and knowledge construction” rather than as “delivery vehicles (such as in computer-assisted instruction, tutorials, and drill-and-practice)” (p. 13). Consider the magician’s trick of sawing a woman in half. It is not the seeming two pieces of the magician’s assistant that gets our attention; it is the question, “How did he do that?” This is indeed the trick—to produce this sense of wonder in our students that causes them to search out and construct meaning from puzzlement. Jonassen says that meaningful learning has the five attributes of being active (manipulative and observant), constructive (articulative and reflective), intentional (reflective and regulatory), authentic (complex and contextual), and cooperative (collaborative and conversational). A technology used in the classroom should also share these attributes by allowing the student to use that technology as a tool to explore and discover the how and why, to test and share results with colearners, and to prompt reflection. Example: Collaborative Mind Maps Teachers have long employed mind mapping (and its sister process, concept mapping) as a brainstorming tool in class. Mind maps and concept maps allow students to organize their understanding of a concept and the relationships between and among subtopics. The computer and the Internet have extended the usefulness of this tool. Such software is available for the individual computer station and also as an interactive website. Webspiration (http://www.mywebspiration.com) is one such site and was created by the same company that makes the stand-alone products Kidspiration for K–5 students and Inspiration for 6–12 students.

FIGURE 7.5 Mind Map Using Webspiration

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Figure 7.5 shows a mind map created using Webspiration. It has all five of Jonassen’s attributes of meaningful learning. The student must interact (active) with the software to choose icons to represent concepts, move and connect (constructive) icons and connecting lines, label nodes and connectors, and perform revisions and edits (intentional) as the creation progresses. Notice that with the computer the student can choose meaningful icons and even import graphics to use as map nodes. This allows a degree of creativity and engagement sometimes missing from mind mapping with lines and bubbles. Teaching with technology is student-centered. That is, the focus is on the students as they construct meaning from the well-designed activity. But student-centered does not mean teacher-absent. The teacher can act as a guide during this process to insure an age-appropriate level of complexity, analysis, and synthesis. Just as the athletic contest happens between students on the field of play, the teacher must act as coach to manage the resources, time, and collaboration among students as they engage the learning activity. Also important here is to design an activity that has context (authentic) both to the unit of instruction and to the student’s real-world experience. Just as the theater director gives the actors their characters’ backstory, the teacher must set the stage for successful learning. Not obvious in the graphic but inherent in the software is the possibility of collaboration (cooperative). As with many such interactive websites, Webspiration allows the map creator to authorize others to view or even coauthor the work. The map owner invites others by clicking the “Sharing” link, entering the email addresses of those to be invited, and designating them as viewers or collaborators (figure 7.6). The diagram can also be made public by publishing to the Internet. Another feature of such sites, especially of interest to a teacher assessing group work, is the ability to examine the revision history, including the revision author (figure 7.7). This figure shows twenty-nine revisions occurring from August 29 through September 1. The revisions are all by the same author in this case but would show multiple authors for a shared document. Versions of the document can be compared, and the document can even be rolled back to a previous version. Webspiration is not the only online mind-mapping tool. Others include Bubbl.us (http://bubbl.us), MindMeister (http://www.mindmeister.com/), Mindomo (http://www.mindomo.com/), and dozens of others. New sites appear frequently on the Internet, and some also go away. Jane Hart, at the Centre for Learning and Performance Technologies, maintains a list of instructional technologies available either as websites or stand-alone applications (http://www.c4lpt.co.uk/Directory/index.html). Tools are listed in twenty-five

FIGURE 7.6 Sharing Link

FIGURE 7.7 Revision History

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categories, including social networking tools, screen-capture and screen-casting tools, blogging tools, and mind-mapping tools. Other graphic organizers are also available as interactive websites. Read WriteThink.org, a partnership among the International Reading Association, the National Council of Teachers of English, and the Verizon Foundation, provides a number of excellent organizers, including an interactive timeline maker, a circle plot diagram, a compare-and-contrast map, a persuasion map, and a Venn diagram creator. As mentioned earlier, if a computer lab and Internet connection are not available, many of these sites have printable versions. Whether used as activities in a computer lab or printed and used as a paper and pencil activity, the purpose is meaningful learning achieved through reflection brought about by constructing meaning in a collaborative and appropriately scaffolded experience. The graphic organizer has long been used as a prereading, postreading, and during-reading aide. Technology can facilitate the interactive nature of such active reading.

A Picture of Words as an Ill-Structured Problem Sometimes a lack of context provides the uncertainty necessary to spark the interest of students. This is true for anticipation guides, K-W-L charts, and other prereading activities. Figure 7.8 shows a word cloud consisting of words from Abraham Lincoln’s Gettysburg Address. This presentation is known as a Wordle (http://www.wordle.net). The word cloud is created by pasting text into a web form at the Wordle .com website. The software behind the site places the words that are most numerous in the largest font. Here, the image shown is all-black text, “Grilled Cheese BTN” font, and in the “mostly horizontal” arrangement. Other arrangements include Any Which Way, Horizontal, Half and Half, Mostly Vertical, and Vertical with several font selections. The user can select prebuilt color schemes or use a custom color palette. Wordles may be printed, captured as an image, or published to the Internet. This Wordle can be seen at http://www.wordle.net/show/wrdl/1081327/Gettysburg_Address. As a prereading reflective activity, and in the absence of historical context, would students associate the block of words in figure 7.8 with a modern-day conflict or with the American Civil War? As a during-reading activity, students could be asked to circle a word in the Wordle and circle the same word in the actual text and to reflect on the full meaning of the word in context in a verbal report back to the class after reading. As a postreading reflective activity, students could indicate which words they felt were most important

FIGURE 7.8 Word Cloud

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(rather than most numerous as in the Wordle). After small-group discussion, the Wordle could be left displayed on the overhead screen and used as a focus point for discussion. Wordles are an artful but ill-structured representation of a passage of text. It is ill structured in the sense that the composition of words has a meaning that is possibly not obviously connected to the original passage. It can be used as a jumping-off point for differentiated instruction for multiple intelligences. A student with mathematical ability might devise a chart or graph to represent the numerical implications of a Wordle. Those with musical intelligence could create a rhyme, verse, or musical piece that stressed the same repetition of words in the lyrics as the Wordle does with text size. The kinesthetic learner could create a physical representation of text via artwork, construction, or model. The key here is for the teacher to use the technology as a tool to facilitate reflection.

Modeling, Metacognition, and Multimedia In “Designing Technology to Support Reflection,” Lin, Hmelo, Kinzer, and Secules (1999) state: “A major challenge for educational technologists, then, is to go beyond simply providing students with technology tools to search efficiently for information. We must also provide scaffolds that enhance critical thinking and reflection about that information” (p. 44). The authors go on to suggest four such scaffolds: process displays, process prompts, process models, and reflective social discourse. Process displays are activities that show the thinking process; that is, thinking about thinking, or metacognition. As an experienced teacher, you know that you can ask a student to think, but given just a few minutes, those thoughts can wander to upcoming sporting events, boyfriends or girlfriends, or any number of thoughts off the academic radar! Process prompts are the teacher’s tool to ensure attention is focused on the subject at hand. When the process display involves the process prompt, the effect is calling the student’s attention to the thinking going on as the student constructs meaning from the learning activity. Process models are models of critical thinking. This is also known as the think-aloud. This can be a teacher think-aloud as he or she puzzles through a problem aloud for the class. It can also be the student thinking aloud. In math class this is sometimes known as, “I’ll do one. I’ll help you do one. You help me do one. You do one.” The key is the verbalization of thinking that occurs during the process. If this is coupled with group or class discussion, then we are using the fourth scaffold of reflective social discourse.

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Example: Multimedia and VoiceThreads These four scaffolds are well-used tools for teachers everywhere. Technology can add a dimension of sight and sound, creativity and drama, compelling to the visual, aural, kinesthetic, and read/write learners. Many schools have digital voice recorders, video recorders, and digital cameras available for the teacher to use with classes. Personal voice and video recording can be accomplished via the cell phone or Flip™ personal video recorders. Free screencapture tools such as Jing™ and digital scanners produce graphics that can be imported into computers as media. But what does one do with a collection of graphics, sounds, and video? One answer is the VoiceThread. Figure 7.9 shows the VoiceThread interface. Central is any graphic including a screen capture, digital photo, digital document, or digital video. The example shown contains a photo of the Old Cape Henry Lighthouse. The complete “thread” contains two additional panels, one with a photo of the New Cape Henry Lighthouse and the third panel showing both lighthouses in the same photo. This VoiceThread is online at

FIGURE 7.9 Voice Thread Interface

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http://voicethread.com/share/596415/. This example is a simple compareand-contrast exercise in which the student is prompted to talk about the old and new lighthouses and their similarities and differences. The VoiceThread author (teacher or student) uploads one or more graphic elements for their thread. My example shows three photos, but the graphic could be scanned artwork, a cell phone video, or a screen capture of a website illustration you wish to discuss. Once the graphic elements are in place, the author can add a text, voice, or video narration. You can see an icon on the left side of this illustration that represents my voice narration. When the user loads the presentation, the narration accompanies the graphics. Depending on the access settings set by the author, other users can also add text, voice, or video comments via the comment button at the bottom of the interface close to the play/pause controls. These comments would also appear on the outside border of the main graphic just as my narration icon appears on the left. As with many of the newer social-enabled websites, VoiceThread allows the author to invite others to see their work. Figure 7.10 shows the dialog box in which the VoiceThread author invites viewers via email address. In the case of school-aged children, this should be carefully monitored but would make an excellent way to show parents what is happening in class by inviting them. The publishing options shown in figure 7.11 show that viewers can be restricted to invitees only (or allow anyone). Comments can be restricted to invitees only (or allow anyone). Comments can be moderated, meaning that the teacher would have to check each comment before it was visible (thus preventing spam or incivility). The work can be set to show on the browse page at VoiceThread, making it very visible. The graphic shown in figure 7.11 shows this thread is viewable by the public so you, the reader, can access it on the

FIGURE 7.10 Dialog Box

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FIGURE 7.11 Publishing Option

Internet. But it is set for moderated comments, so no spam will be attached. A well-produced class project would make an excellent public display. In such case the student identities should be restricted to preserve privacy and alleviate the Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act (FERPA) concerns. Now that I have explained the interface, let’s return to the subject of metacognition, modeling, and reflection. In place of the lighthouse photo, imagine a math problem, mind map, textbook illustration, or video of a chemistry experiment. If this is a teacher-produced VoiceThread, the teacher could provide a think-aloud narration. A second panel could contain a similar problem along with focused prompts requesting the student to respond. A third panel might be a repeat of the second panel in which the teacher prompts for a

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reply to a student comment on the second panel. Of course, the purpose is the reflection that happens internally with the student and the social discourse the results. The VoiceThread does not have to be teacher made. Students could be asked to prepare graphics by coloring for young students, cutting news clipping, or even photos and videos for an older student. A significant amount of assistance would be necessary for younger students, with older students being able to do this at home or during study time at school. In such cases the narration could be the process modeling of the student describing their thinking during a problem situation.

Reflective Practice For any of these examples, you are instrumental in the successful learning activity. The activity must be carefully planned; the process prompts considered deliberately. Multimedia production takes time and effort, and there is no time to waste. If the activity is successful you should save the media in a reusable format. And if the activity is not successful, the experience is not in vain as it informs our subsequent methods.

Summary Reflection about school subjects occurs when you design a lesson in such a way as to elicit puzzlement and fascination in the student, to take advantage of the student’s natural curiosity, and allow the student to construct meaning. Reflection can be internal, written, or verbal. Technology can enhance a learning activity due to its ability to allow experimentation in written and spoken collaboration. Technology can remove the mechanical barriers to artistic expression by providing tools for drawing or manipulating text and graphics. The computer provides new avenues for artistic, logical, and verbal communication, the aggregation and presentation of data, and social constructivism, while providing a secure environment. Technology creates new responsibilities and requires you to develop new skills. You are tasked with developing new computer skills or at least keeping up with the computer skills of your students! Designing and producing effective lessons requires a great deal of time outside of the classroom. A focus on student critical thinking implies critical question prompts, and these take time and experience to create. Now is a wonderful time to get involved in guiding the thoughts and learning experiences of students, and it requires

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us to be reflective practitioners. To be successful, realize that the activities designed for students should promote careful and focused critical thinking in students; that is, reflection. Some questions to consider in using technology to enhance reflection are • • • • • • • • • • • • •

What causes the learning to take place? Are there choices available to the student? How is the teacher present in the activity? Is the technology an enhancement or a distraction? What causes reflection to occur? Have multiple learning styles been considered? Is the assessment formative or summative? What is the reason for each action? Is the learning collaborative or independent? Has a rubric been constructed for the assessment? What level of thinking is required? Are media resources licensed or “fair use”? Is the learning active or passive?

References Greiman, B. C., and Covington, H. K. (2007). Reflective thinking and journal writing: Examining student teachers’ perceptions of preferred reflective modality, journal writing outcomes, and journal structure. [Electronic version]. Career and Technical Education Research, 32(2), 1–14. Jensen, E. (2005). Teaching with the brain in mind, 2nd ed. Alexandria, VA: Association of Supervision and Curriculum Development. Jonassen, D. H., Peck, K. L., and Wilson, B. G. (1999). Learning with technology: A constructivist perspective. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Lin, X., Hmelo, C., Kinzer, C. K., and Secules, T. J. (1999). Designing technology to support reflection. [Electronic version]. Educational Technology, Research, and Development, 47(3), 43–62. Webb, P. T. (1999, February). The use of language in reflective teaching: Implications for self-understanding. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Association of Colleges for Teacher Education, Washington, DC.

Websites Bubbl.us: http://bubbl.us Flip Video: http://www.theflip.com/

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Jane Hart’s Directory of Learning Tools: http://www.c4lpt.co.uk/Directory/index.html Jing: http://www.jingproject.com/ MindMeister: http://www.mindmeister.com/ Mindomo: http://www.mindomo.com/ ReadWriteThink: http://www.readwritethink.org/ The Secret Life of Bees: http://weblogs.hcrhs.k12.nj.us/bees/ Shodor’s Interactivate: http://www.shodor.org/interactivate/ VoiceThread: http://voicethread.com/ Webspiration: http://mywebspiration.com/ Wojtera’s Words: http://wojtera.edublogs.org/ Wordle: http://www.wordle.net/

8 How Can I Use Technology in Student Assessment? Teresa Coffman

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of the educational process. Effective teaching ensures that students are interested in the material and motivated to learn. In conjunction with good teaching methods is the critical issue of assessment. Assessment and evaluation in education is an important component of reviewing knowledge gained and ensuring that students understand the material presented. This chapter explores continuous assessment and evaluation measures that can easily and effectively be integrated into your classroom teaching. Throughout this journey, technology integration is viewed as a constructivist, active learning, and applied experience for students. Practical ideas on using technology as an assessment and learning tool are provided in this chapter, and it introduces you to educational technology tools that engage students in the process of learning while at the same time improving your ability to assess student understanding. As the teacher, you take a facilitator role by guiding, observing, and directing students so that you can be certain that they master what is important for them to understand. The integration of assessment strategies directly into the teaching and learning process allows you and your students to have a better understanding of the learning outcomes based on the course objectives, thereby providing guidelines for building on what students already know and understand. A twenty-first-century approach toward assessing and evaluating students includes the use of technology tools, and these tools have the potential to improve your overall teaching as well as student performance. EACHING AND LEARNING ARE AN IMPORTANT PART

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Educational technologies provide a valuable resource for classroom assessments. They provide opportunities for you, the teacher, to create a collaborative social context for your teaching and ultimately to enhance student learning. Assessments were not as expansive or as varied before communication technologies entered the classroom, but with the advent of technology you can now integrate tools into your classroom so students work collaboratively with access to up-to-date information, and you can more easily check student understanding of the intended learning goals. After reading this chapter, you will have a greater awareness regarding how technology can best be integrated to be certain that students understand the material and are able to demonstrate their knowledge.

Teaching, Learning, and Technology Integration As teachers we are always searching for ways to improve our craft. We identify and set goals and benchmarks for ourselves to make sure that we remain on track and meet course goals and objectives. The use of technology is an important addition for improvement in the twenty-first-century classroom. The effective use of technology is important in today’s world. We must become technology literate so that we can help our students become technology capable. Beyond that, technology tools allow us to enhance teaching and learning. For example, we can manipulate and analyze information in creative ways and save that work for later use and additional synthesis. Technology surrounds us, as both consumers and creators of information. With this influx of technology in our daily lives, the need to integrate the effective use of technology in both your teaching and student learning has never been greater. Technology has the potential to engage students through its interactive medium and to help guide them in critical and reflective thought. Once you begin looking at the functions of a technology tool, whether it is hardware or software, you will begin to notice that these tools can help provide opportunities to better convey and communicate information and to encourage students to think critically about real-world problems in an active and meaningful manner. This does not mean that higher-order thinking was not present in the classroom before the integration of technology. However, it does suggest that when technology tools are integrated through a problem-based curriculum, they have the potential to provide a dynamic and rich experience for students. When used effectively, these tools allow students to more fully research content, analyze and synthesize material in meaningful ways, and demonstrate their understanding.

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When students can demonstrate their understanding to you and the world as a whole through web-based applications or by placing content on the Internet, they become producers of information and ultimately of new knowledge. Creative technologies abound, and these tools can help to engage students in the learning process and facilitate the evaluation of overall understanding of content and concepts. It is important to note that technology is only a tool. As with any tool you have access to in your classroom, it must provide meaning and be appropriate for the learning objectives.

The Connection among Assessment, Evaluation, and Learning Goals It is important that the technology tool used in a lesson and for assessment meet your learning goals. Assessments can sometimes be ineffective because they are oftentimes not related to learning goals and objectives. For example, the technology tool, My StoryMaker (http://www.carnegie library.org/kids/mystorymaker/), has been used to fill in transition time between class activities. This “play around” or fill-in activity is not necessarily an appropriate way to assess student understanding and is not an effective use of technology because students are given little direction or focus in their overall learning process. To make the activities with My StoryMaker more educational and to use this web software as an assessment tool, students could, for example, be creative in developing their own story, with an emphasis on highlighting main points of a story they just completed in their class reading lesson. Having students demonstrate their understanding by writing their own story is a more beneficial use of technology as a tool to engage students and an effective way for you to evaluate overall understanding of the lesson objectives. End-of-unit assessment inquiry could include questions such as: • Did students understand the major elements of the story: character, plot, setting, problem, and solution? • Can the student identify the beginning, middle, and end in a story? When you conduct assessments and evaluations in your classroom, you are providing ways to measure student understanding (assessment) as well as judging the quality of student work (evaluation). Figure 8.1 demonstrates that at the center of all assessments are teaching, student learning, and content-specific material that includes your lesson goals and objectives.

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FIGURE 8.1 Teaching, Learning, Content

Assessments are a continuous process and refer to such questions as: • What do my students currently know about the topic? • What evidence do I have that student learning improved? • Did students receive multiple attempts to practice and demonstrate understanding of content? • Did students receive specific and timely feedback by me in order to improve their learning? • Were the activities and technology tools that were integrated into the assessments effective or are changes needed? When integrating technology into your teaching and overall student activities, these questions are no different. But the way in which students demonstrate these understandings are different due to the technology integration component.

Student Understanding In order to begin our discussion, we must first define what is meant by student understanding. For purposes of this chapter, understanding is defined as a student being able to demonstrate learning through a performance, product, presentation, or demonstration. This means that students must think critically about the content and then apply their new knowledge both creatively and constructively.

Technology Integration in Assessments Integrating technology into your teaching to enhance student learning allows and encourages students to collaborate, communicate, and demonstrate understanding. Technology enables students to take active roles in their own learning by exploring and discovering information in new and more relevant

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ways. Through this discovery process, facilitated by technology integration, you have opportunities to integrate both formal and informal assessments using a variety of tools and methods. Formative and Summative Evaluation When conducting subject-matter evaluations, you include both formative evaluations, which are continuous and flexible, and summative evaluations, which come at the end of instruction. Each of these strategies is equally important, and both should be included when integrating technology tools into the teaching and learning process. Continuous Assessments In order to effectively evaluate student understanding, each assessment that you implement throughout a unit must be continuous and relevant. The importance of continuous and relevant assessments throughout instruction is to determine if students do in fact understand the content. A good example of a continuous assessment is the use of a student response system during a class discussion (see figure 8.2).

FIGURE 8.2 Student Response System

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When using a student response system, current data are collected by asking topical questions related to the discussion itself. The data collected during this process provide you with opportunities to clarify any misunderstandings that students may have or strengthen overall understanding. Another example of collecting continuous and relevant data concerning student understanding is the creation of a concept map during a classroom discussion (see figure 8.3). During the discussion, students identify main points of the discussion by organizing information with a tool such as Webspiration (http:// mywebspiration.com/). As the teacher, you can see what students understand at the time of instruction and correct misunderstandings while they are occurring. Student Engagement through Active and Authentic Assessment When integrating technology tools in your classroom, think of ways to engage students in activities that require active learning, such as debating, designing, and presenting new information and understanding to others. This form of active and authentic assessment allows students to learn beyond isolated facts and enables you to integrate technology into the lesson. The objective of authentic assessments using technology involves using tools effectively to engage students in the learning process. From this, you can better assess student learning through real-world tasks that provide opportunities for students to demonstrate meaningful application of essential knowledge and skills from the lesson or activity. Authentic Assessment Example: English Class Authentic assessments can be collaborative assignments. For example, students use computers and websites to communicate with experts in an English class to get feedback and constructive comments on a presentation or post information on a blog or wiki. From this learning-by-doing approach, students can then create a presentation about specific themes in a classical play, for example, and integrate these identified themes with images students have taken with a digital camera or downloaded from the Internet. Students can then embed lines of the play into the presentation to further illustrate their understanding of the subject matter. To incorporate collaboration into this activity, have students form small groups. Each group chooses a theme to work on by identify connections, images, and appropriate lines from the play and then creates a presentation to show to their classmates. Through this process students become experts in a certain theme and have the opportunity to learn about other themes through the research of their peers.

FIGURE 8.3 Concept Map Illustration

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In figure 8.4 you can see an example of a presentation that depicts the theme of love and hate in Shakespeare’s play, Romeo and Juliet. The student has chosen two pictures from the play that were downloaded from the Internet and then the student embedded two lines from the play that he believed best represents this theme. This provides an excellent illustration of student understanding of two key themes from the play. In this same English or literature class, you could also have students identify key characters of a book as well as the story’s location, and then provide history, character information, images, and video, and post this to the Google Lit Trips project (http://www.googlelittrips.org/) or Google Earth (http:// earth.google.com/). This is a meaningful experience for students that engages them in the learning process and at the same time allows you to continuously evaluate their understanding through product creation and presentation. Authentic Assessment Example: Math Class Teaching and learning math can sometimes be challenging, for both the teacher and students. Many K–12 teachers are creative in their approach to

FIGURE 8.4 Key Themes

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teaching math, and one such example of creativity is tying quilt making into the mathematical lesson. The Quilt Math project, developed by a first- and second-grade teacher, can be viewed at http://www.psd267.wednet.edu/~kfranz/year9900.html. To help students better understand math, this activity was planned around quilt pieces and patterns, with students encouraged to build connections with the subject matter and everyday life. Using the topic of quilt making, the teacher brings in one piece of fabric of different designs and colors for each class. Students then identify the different patterns and colors. As the patterns are placed side by side, students begin making predictions about future colors and designs. What will the next pattern be and why? From the colors and patterns, students then begin to identify algebraic equations. A language is born such that now the teacher and students are able to converse about mathematics through quilt patterns and colors. In this activity, technology is used as a tool for students to investigate and analyze as well as share their predictions and findings of each quilt pattern piece with others outside of class. Students incorporate technology by taking digital images of the patterns and posting them onto the class website to keep a record. They are then able to make personal and group reflections of their new understanding. Students can also use an interactive whiteboard to collect and manipulate quilt patterns. These new patterns can be saved and posted to the class website to provide additional documentation of their progress. Quilt patterns can be identified through color and design. Letters and numbers are used to represent specific colors, and with the combination of shapes and patterns, complex mathematical equations can be developed. Technology serves as the medium for students to communicate understanding about quilt patterns and mathematical equations with their parents through a class blog. A blog or weblog is a personal commentary on issues the author deems important. A blog can contain images, text, and hyperlinks to related information found on the Internet. Each student is able to write individual reflections about the activity and save it in a word processor. Then, the class works collaboratively to write a comment and to take a digital image of the quilt pattern of that day to post on the class blog. Parents are able to review and comment on student progress. Throughout this activity, technology tools collect and store information as well as manipulate and share information with others. Data of student understanding is collected in writings, mathematical analysis, and mini presentations. At the same time data is being collected, students are learning about the language of mathematics to include equations, predictions, and analysis.

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Throughout this illustrative lesson, students think about the content critically and in different ways. They then apply this new understanding creatively and constructively by making predictions and posting these predictions online for their parents to access and additionally interact. Student interest in this activity is substantial and spills over into other content areas, such as reading and social studies. Technology tools in these examples align with the learning goals and objectives of the lessons. Students create authentic products that show what they are learning, and a portfolio of their progress, process, and performances over time is developed.

Technology as a Learning Tool Technology tools such as presentation software, video, and student response systems (e.g., clickers) are all dynamic ways to engage students in the process of learning and to evaluate their overall understanding. The key for a successful measurement is to embed these tools into your lesson. Technology tools can also facilitate collaboration and communication. Students can use them to research topics, solve problems through analysis and synthesis, and then provide new understanding to others through presentation and demonstration. There are a variety of technology tools that are available for classroom use. If you check in your school, you will probably have access to traditional software (presentation, database, spreadsheet, and word processing) and hardware (video cameras, MP3 players, scanners, and input devices such as a mouse, keyboard, joy stick, or interactive whiteboard). Each of these technology tools, coupled with a rubric, can be integrated into your lesson and as a result used to evaluate student comprehension. Figure 8.5 identifies common technology tools and how these tools can align with your instructional goals and assessment strategy. In any assessment, you must ensure that you have aligned your assessment to the learning goals and objectives, that you use multiple measures, and that you integrate the assessments into the learning process. This ensures that your assessments are reliable and provide a valid measure of student performance.

Technology Integration and Assessment Tools Technology tools provide opportunities for students to create and present information in new and different ways. Technology tools also allow students to

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FIGURE 8.5 Technology Tools and Instructional Goals

collaborate, manipulate, and share information with others and to store data and information so they can access this knowledge at a later time and make changes or additions to that knowledge. Educational technologies that can be integrated into your lesson throughout the school year include the Internet, podcasts, weblogs, wikis, video creation, instant messaging, student response systems, social bookmarking, interactive whiteboards, and more. See figure 8.6 for an overview of these technology tools and suggestions for use.

Technology Tool

Definition

Suggestions for Use

The Web (Internet)

Read/Write web providing relevant primary source data that can be accessed by students or a tool that can be used to post student work to share and collaborate with a global audience.

Access primary source data, such as on the American Memory Project at the Library of Congress or create content and then post on web pages such as wikis (http://www.wikipedia. com), blogs (http:// www.blogger.com), or YouTube (http://www. youtube.com).

Podcasts

Distribution of multimedia files, such as voice and music over the Internet. Files can be listened to via the Internet or downloaded onto a computer or MP3 device and retrieved at a later time.

Create a podcast that shares student expertise or opinions about the lesson or content being discussed in class. Use to reflect on a lesson or to keep notes.

Weblogs

A web page that provides a set of personal commentaries about topics of interest to the author. Can contain text, images, and hyperlinks to relevant information on the Internet.

Have students work together to create a blog post to summarize the lesson of the day and then share their new knowledge with a global audience, such as parents. Have students reflect on readings or assignments, add images, video, text, and hyperlinks to existing information found on the Internet and share that information through the blog within their class or with other classes.

Wikis

A web page that allows readers to collaborate with others to write, edit, and change the content on a wiki web page.

Create a collaborative book about course topics. Have students work as a collective group researching, writing, editing, creating images, text, and graphics to share knowledge gained. Work as a collaborative

FIGURE 8.6 Technology Tools and Suggestions for Use

group on activities within class, such as group papers or projects. Create an annotated bibliography about books read. Video

Provides a creative voice for students to express their understanding in a narrative format using multimedia, voice, images, and sound that can be posted on a shared site such as YouTube (http://www. youtube.com).

Create a thoughtful and meaningful video on course content that can then be shared with a public audience and commented on by those outside the classroom. Create a storyboard, edit, and collaborate with the video production in collective groups.

Instant Messaging

A synchronous, real-time communication tool through the computer or a mobile device such as a cell phone or personal digital assistant (PDA). Images, text, and video can all be sent.

Use instant messages for students to send files and information to group members in order to create projects. Communicate with experts in the field to test and confirm understanding.

Student Response System

A device used to ask questions and record responses of students.

Determine student understanding through direct question and student response during a discussion in order to correct misunderstandings or strengthen comprehension.

Social Bookmarking

A web-based service that allows users to organize, rank, and share resources found on the Internet.

Critically analyze web resources and post to the class social bookmarking site, keeping an updated list of relevant resources active throughout the class.

FIGURE 8.6 (continued )

Each of these tools has the potential to require students to think, analyze, explain, and present their new understanding and knowledge to others, thus allowing you to assess their comprehension of the required learning goals. When thinking about a lesson, you want to select technology tools that can easily and effectively be integrated into your teaching so that you can enhance

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student learning. Any technology tool that you integrate into your classroom should propel students to achieve the necessary learning objectives and goals. In the initial planning stage, identify what skills need to be developed through minilessons revolving around specific tools. Remember to engage a technology resource teacher to help students use and understand the tool as you are teaching. Technology resource teachers are a tremendous asset to the school system and are available to help you and your students with technology integration opportunities. Technology resource teachers offer assistance by providing both professional development with technology tools and specific strategies to engage students in the process of learning. They also come into your classroom to help you with your lesson as students are using the technology tool and are happy to help students with the technology tool so that you are able to focus on the lesson objectives. It is important to keep in perspective that when integrating technology the goal is always to maximize your lesson goals and objectives. The technology tool itself is the mechanism that helps you do that, but it should not be your primary focus. Technology resource teachers and media specialists within your school will help you and your students remain centered on the lesson, not just the tool. Technology Tool: The Web The Internet provides an open door in the classroom. It provides a technology tool that allows students and teachers to interact with content and with others around the globe and to post and share new knowledge for others to access and manipulate themselves to create further understanding. When information is posted on the web it has the potential to be public, if it is not protected within the school’s Intranet (password required). This open access can promote ongoing assessment, analysis, and revision through feedback from experts or from classrooms around the world. Your students have the opportunity to defend their ideas and become involved in their own learning. Tools such as TeacherTube (http://teachertube.com/), SchoolTube (http:// www.schooltube.com/), Twitter (http://twitter.com/), Wikispaces (http:// www.wikispaces.com/), VoiceThread (http://voicethread.com/), or Edublogs (http://edublogs.org/) are all found on the Internet and have the potential for students to reflect, collaborate, and share their understanding with others outside of the classroom walls. These networked technologies allow students to take ownership and responsibility for their learning.

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When learning goals involve higher-level thinking skills, such as analysis and synthesis of information, you may want to consider using a technology tool such as the Internet to help students research information, think about the concepts being explored through the collection of data and the manipulation of that data, synthesize new information, and express new ideas via a presentation to others. Technology Tool: Podcasts Podcasts provide the ability for students to create or listen to audio or video with audio included from the web. They can listen or view podcasts on their computer or on a MP3 player such as an iPod or Zune. Podcasts can be listened to live or can be downloaded and listened to at a later time. If your students complete their own podcast research and create their own product, then data collection and script writing are all necessary steps for the final product. Each of these steps is a way for you to evaluate student understanding about the topics and content being explored. If students are creating their own podcast, you will want to provide a software tool such as Audacity (http://audacity.sourceforge.net/), a free download from the Internet, to allow students to record, edit, and save their audio. They can then use a tool such as Apple’s iMovie, software that comes preinstalled on a Macintosh computer, or Microsoft’s Photo Story, a free download from Microsoft’s website, to add content, images, edited audio, and credits. Students can post their podcast to PodOmatic (http://www.podomatic .com/) or iTunes (http://www.apple.com/itunes/) to share with the world. You can add the link to your class website so parents and the school community can access the student podcasts. Making student-created products public by posting them on the Internet provides an authentic way for students to demonstrate new understanding. With presentation to a global audience outside of the classroom, these outside participants now have an opportunity to comment on the student-created content and make suggestions. The student engages with the outside commentators, considers the recommendations, and changes the project accordingly, thereby demonstrating authentic learning. By allowing the community outside of the classroom to ask questions about the content or provide suggestions, there is real-world application and the experience has relevance to the student. This is another important element of using technology as an evaluation tool. Podcasts align with learning standards easily and cut across content areas. Students can explore and defend issues as well as collect, analyze, and present

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research and information on a selected issue. They can also use podcasts to gather voice and video media around a topic and then present the topic through a podcast that will be shared globally. Technology Tool: Weblogs Weblogs are another form of technology that can be integrated into a classroom that incorporates authentic assessments. Weblogs, or blogs as they are commonly known, are easy-to-use web pages that allow students to post reflections or commentaries on issues and content being explored in the classroom. A weblog can contain multimedia, such as text, hyperlinks, images, video, and sound. Posts or entries typically appear in chronological order with the newest post first. A weblog is an easy way for students to share content on the web. Information is topical and recent. Others can comment on the posting and provide a critical analysis or reflection. Blogs allow readers, such as parents, to subscribe to them, meaning whenever there is a new post, they know and are able to read and remark to it. A weblog can become a student’s digital portfolio where student projects are displayed and commented on. Examples of popular weblogs are Blogger (http://www.blogger.com/), Edublogs (http://www.edublogs.org/), and 21Classes (http://21classes.com/). Blogs are powerful tools for communication and provide the ability to link to content on the Internet to strengthen understanding and connect with a larger community of experts or other classes around the globe. Technology Tool: Wikis Wikis offer a quick way to place information on a web page. The difference between a weblog and a wiki is in the structured format and its overall purpose. Wikis allow different members of the class and people outside of the class, if you allow this option, to publish documents, information, and links on a page or the wiki site (more than one web page). Examples of popular wikis include PBworks (http://pbwiki.com/), Wetpaint (http://wetpaint.com/), and Wikispaces (http://www.wikispaces.com/ site/for/teachers). Students can also write their own books on a wiki about course content after researching, analyzing, and synthesizing data. This book could be collected over time, edited, and added to by future classes. An example of a class-created wikibook is Introduction to Information Literacy in the K12 Classroom at http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Introduction_to_Information_Literacy_in_the_K12_Classroom. This book was created by students about a course topic and will be added to by future classes taking the course.

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In sum, both the weblog and wiki are good illustrations of providing opportunities for students to read information from the web and write and connect their own information back on to the web. As you are teaching your students they also need opportunities to think about, reflect on, and manipulate the information given. This becomes easier with tools such as weblogs and wikis. Technology Tool: Video On the Internet you can find many video websites that will store and display student videos such as YouTube (http://www.youtube.com). Videos can be created by using a cell phone, camcorder, or a tool such as Photo Story (a free download from Microsoft’s website) that uses images that you can download from the Internet or a digital camera. Students can create and share videos around course topics and then embed their video onto the course blog so parents, other students, and even you as the teacher can comment and provide feedback. Video production allows students to create meaningful multimedia presentations that include images, movement, sound, and text through collaboration with classmates to tell a story about course topics that other students can learn from. The process of creating a video begins with big idea questions, planning, collecting information through research, recording, collecting images, writing storyboards and scripts, and then editing the video clips so the story is best told. Students can even use collaborative online tools such as Jumpcut (http:// www.jumpcut.com) and VideoEgg (http://www.videoegg.com) to edit, add sound, titles, and visual effects. Technology Tool: Instant Messaging Instant messaging is a tool that uses text messages, allowing students to communicate in real time using the computer or mobile devices such as a cell phone. Students can communicate with classmates regarding class projects by sending images, video, audio, and text files to students at other computer stations. The benefit of using instant messaging in the classroom is that it allows students to communicate and work in real time on course topics with classmates and even experts in the field of study. Free tools are provided by both Google and Yahoo. Technology Tool: Student Response Systems Student response systems or clickers provide easy and quick access to student understanding about course topics. This electronic device is small

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enough to fit in the palm of your hand and can be assigned to a student for a semester to collect data on overall understanding of specific content. Questions are posed in the classroom, and students answer through the student response system by “clicking” what they believe is the correct response. Their response is immediately recorded in a computer database, and summary information of the class responses is available at that moment so that the instructor can determine the level of understanding and can use it to create graphs over time or of a particular topic or concept. For example, if you are giving a presentation, you can stop the presentation to do a quick check on what students are grasping about the content. Do they understand the important elements? You pose a question, and students respond using the clicker technology. Their responses are recorded, and you can display a graph right at that moment of their answers. You are provided with real-time data regarding whether students understand the material being presented and you can adjust your discussion accordingly. Technology Tool: Social Bookmarking Social bookmarking tools allow students to share information found online in a variety of formats. Students are able to store, organize, and share Internet resources around topics that they are studying in class. In addition to the web URL, students can add a sentence to identify the importance of the content in the Internet resource and organize the resource with keywords or tags that can be used to search for it at a later time. Examples of social bookmarking sites are delicious (http://del.icio.us/), backflip (http://www.backflip.com), and Edutags (http://www.edutags.com). Teachers can have students critically evaluate web resources, and then once they find appropriate resources for a project or activity they can post these onto their social bookmarking website and share with the class. This is a good tool to help students understand what is valuable online and what is not. Technology Tool: Interactive Whiteboard Interactive whiteboards provide you with an opportunity to bring students up to the front of the class to interact with content. Students can manipulate objects on the board, such as map pieces of the world, and arrange them in their appropriate place on the globe. Students can also write on the board and then manipulate the text by moving it around, for example, to create a list or a graphic of a butterfly’s life cycle. Interactive whiteboards provide you with a log of data because all information that is placed on the board can be saved onto your computer and posted on a class website for students to access later. They can use this information

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to help with their homework assignment, or you can save it in your computer files so you can keep a record of student progress over time.

Planning Assessments and Designing Instruction In planning your assessments, you want to look at the actual deliverable of what students have created, the teamwork they exhibited while in the creation phase, their individual effort, and the overall creativity that went into the final product. When designing assessments, you want to implement a variety of continuous assessments from criteria referenced to performance assessments. Through this multifaceted variety of measurements, you will gather a more comprehensive representation of student understanding. In designing your instruction, always remember to identify your purpose for instruction so you can choose an appropriate technology tool to help students understand this purpose. Assessments then become the center of instruction and not an addition. For example, many teachers use activity centers or stations for students to work on throughout a lesson. At each center, students are required to complete some specific task. Once the task is finished they move on to the next center. Tasks at each center highlight the important goals of your lesson. Each center provides an opportunity for students to store, create, and analyze information that they are exploring. An activity center can include a technology tool. For example, a spreadsheet could be used at one center for students to look closely at data and then create graphs of that data. Students could also reflect on their findings in a word-processing document. At the next station, students could build on this information by looking at a video of a specific topic and then identifying the key elements of the video. Students could also continue to write their reflections in the word-processing document. At the last center, students could create a minivideo, incorporating text, voice, and images to summarize the information at each station and to identify their understanding of the overall topic. The use of stations and technology tools allows students to analyze, synthesize, and think about the content in new ways. As the teacher, you can walk around and ask questions and direct students to this new level of knowledge and understanding. As with any activity you implement with your students, the following questions remain: • What exactly is the purpose of each center or station? • How does each activity meet the learning goals and objectives of the unit?

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• Why is this important for students to understand? • And finally, how will students demonstrate their new understanding? You must consider each of these questions and identify clearly to students what they are doing and why. Sample Lesson Technology tools fit naturally into necessary alignments. Let’s review a sample lesson that embeds technology into it and incorporates multiple measures. This example lesson revolves around the subject of Language Arts for the second grade. In this example, students explore autobiographies and biographies in order to understand the important aspects of a famous person’s life. They collect information, compile that information, and then present their new knowledge to others. This lesson has many opportunities built in for teachers to determine if students understand the main idea of the lesson and to incorporate authentic assessments using technology. Day 1: • Using an interactive whiteboard, collect and store information during a discussion about important elements found in both an autobiography and biography (see figure 8.7).

FIGURE 8.7 Interactive Whiteboard with Comments

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• Introduce the concepts of biographies and autobiographies to determine what students already know about each. • Obtain a baseline of general knowledge. Notes from this original discussion are saved and posted to the class website. • Assessment: Through this opening discussion, you have gathered information informally through the discussion about what students already know about the topic. The information is recorded and saved so as a class it can be enhanced as students learn more about the topic. • Have students go to the library and read a book about a famous person. They should be able to identify whether the book is an autobiography or biography. They should also write down characteristics about the person and his or her contributions in history. • Assessment: Each student engages in a discussion about the book chosen, why they chose it, and if it is an autobiography or a biography. They provide key contributions of the person as well as some personal characteristics. Day 2: • In a computer lab, students review a web resource about the various people they have chosen. • Bring up the Day 1 notes on the class website. As a class, add any necessary information and clarify any misunderstandings about biographies and autobiographies. • Concept Map: Introduce Webspiration, a concept map software, to students. This tool helps organize thoughts and understandings about the important people the students have chosen. Students diagram their selected person and identify characteristics, contributions, and important events in that person’s life. Students must have proper links between concepts and concept titles and identify and link appropriately important events and characteristics. Once finished, students share their concept map with the class and identify what they learned that was interesting. • Assessment: You have completed an informal assessment through the initial discussion by clarifying and strengthening concepts. Use the introductory discussion notes to highlight main ideas. Use the concept map to determine if students understand what is important and how information connects to one another. Make sure the appropriate titles and concepts are organized appropriately, with the important person in the center and characteristics and important events surrounding the person. Next, students verbalize their understanding and new knowledge clearly to others. Day 3: • Write a Story: Review with students how to best write a story by identifying strategies and writing these strategies on the interactive whiteboard. Save

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this discussion and post onto the class website so students can access it when writing their story. Students use the information from the discussion and their concept map to write a story about the person they chose to explore. They should highlight at least three important points. They will use a word processor to write and edit their story. Note that some students may need assistance with the word processor as a tool. • Presentation: Students create a short two to three slide presentation for an oral presentation about their important person using presentation software such as VoiceThread (http://voicethread.com/), PowerPoint, HyperStudio, or a web page. This will be a visual representation of the important person. Slides must contain a title, main points, and one representative graphic created by the student. • Assessment: The final product (paper and presentation) should be clear with important information highlighted as well as being insightful and well organized. Smooth transitions should connect to the subject. Text should use descriptive language and be easy to read. Presentation should be visually appealing (appropriate text, font size, appropriate background color) and include suitable graphics and colors. Both the written story and the presentation will identify important facts, events, and characteristics about the person. When presenting, students look at the audience and have good vocal volume and clear articulation. Make sure students know where they retrieved information from the Internet or other sources used. Students may need help citing information.

In the above lesson example, technology was embedded throughout, and as a result student understanding can be evaluated. For example, when students are researching and putting information into a concept map to organize their thoughts, you have the opportunity to observe, ask questions, and highlight appropriate information, all the while checking for misunderstandings. Assessments Using Rubrics When using authentic assessments such as the sample lesson highlighted above, you want to include a rubric that focuses on the quality of student research, communication of this research, organization of presentation, and quality of the product itself. Therefore, throughout the lesson you want to make sure that you have a rubric for each phase of the activity. You want to include a rubric for the concept map, writing of the story, and the final presentation. For example, a rubric for the concept map activity might look like the one shown in figure 8.8. The criterion in the rubric includes both content knowledge and technology skills.

How Can I Use Technology in Student Assessment? Criteria

Does Not Meet Expectations

Meets Expectations

Exceeds Expectations

•

Not able to title file or store file in appropriate location on the computer.

•

Can either title file or store file in appropriate location, but not both.

•

Able to title file and store it in proper location on computer.

•

Cannot differentiate between important person or the person’s characteristics. Labels do not reflect the important person or characteristics.

•

Does not place important person in the center of the map as central. Characteristics are not clear. Labels are in proper place, but some are not most important.

•

Important person is central on the map, and the characteristics are logically placed around the central person. Labels are appropriate and important.

Shapes are not appropriate to the important person or characteristics. Link lines are not present or accurate.

•

Uses similar shapes for important person and characteristics. Link lines are present, and some are accurate.

•

Management:

Concept placement and labels:

•

•

Presentation:

171

•

• •

•

•

•

Uses appropriate shapes for important person and characteristics. Link lines are linked properly.

FIGURE 8.8 Sample Concept Map Activity Rubric

Summary Throughout the process of using technology as a tool in the evaluation and assessment of your students, you should observe students collaborating, communicating their understanding, and becoming engaged in the process of learning through authentic tasks. As the teacher, you provide observation, guidance, and scrutiny of student understanding throughout the entire activity process, not just at the very end with one final, culminating assessment. When designing the lesson, ensure that your intended learning goals are achieved and the technology tools that you chose are appropriate for the intended learning goals. You will need to have specific outlined lists and/or rubrics to identify what is important throughout your lesson or activity. Always keep in mind that your overall goal is to align your lesson objectives with technology tools and constantly check for student understanding. Technology aids in providing the tools to assist with that understanding and can serve as a helpful resource for assessing student knowledge and comprehension. This chapter explored a variety of technology tools

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and some specific ways you can use them for assessment and evaluation to ultimately enhance student involvement and engagement in the learning process. Topics covered in this chapter provided you with a close look at technology tools that can be incorporated into your classroom to help evaluate your students’ understanding of course concepts and topics. Each of the tools provides a diverse and dynamic way to assess student understanding and at the same time engage them in the learning process so that student achievement is increased. We explored new assessment models that include authentic assessments wrapped around real-world problems, the incorporation of collaborative activities into the assessment, and the integration of rubrics to allow students to see what is important before they begin their journey. Reflection 1. Authentic assessments provide opportunities for students to engage in worthy problems or questions of importance that students must use their new knowledge gained through a lesson or activity to create an effective performance. After reading this chapter, can you identify some technology tools that will provide opportunities for you to authentically assess your students? 2. How do you plan to use technology tools to allow your students to use a variety of media to demonstrate their understanding? 3. Identify specific learning standards and specific activities that use technology tools that you can incorporate into your classroom with your students. 4. How can you use continuous assessments that use technology tools to determine how well students understand and how well you are doing as a teacher? Skill-Building Activity Throughout this chapter, we explored how to integrate technology tools into the assessment process. The focus was on engaging your students in learning, while at the same time evaluating their understanding. Your goal now is to create an activity that provides continuous assessments surrounding an authentic learning task that aligns with a specific learning standard.

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References 21Classes. http://21classes.com/ Apple’s iMovie. http://www.apple.com Audacity. http://audacity.sourceforge.net/ Backflip. http://www.backflip.com Blogger. http://www.blogger.com/ Boss, S., and Krauss, J. (2007). Reinventing project-based learning: Your field guide to real-world projects in the digital age. Eugene, OR: International Society for Teacher Educators. Coffman, T. (2009). Engaging students through inquiry-oriented learning and technology. Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield Education. Delicious. http://del.icio.us/ Edublogs. http://edublogs.org/ Edutags. http://www.edutags.com Fisher, D., and Frey, N. (2007). Checking for understanding: Formative assessment techniques for your classroom. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Google Earth. http://earth.google.com/ Google Lit Trips. http://www.googlelittrips.org/ iTunes. http://www.apple.com/itunes Jumpcut. http://www.jumpcut.com Kelly, M. G., and Haber, J. (2006). Resources for student assessment: National educational technology standards for students. Eugene, OR: International Society for Teacher Educators. Microsoft’s Photo Story. http://www.microsoft.com MyStoryMaker. http://www.carnegielibrary.org/kids/mystorymaker/ PBwiki. http://pbwiki.com/ PodOmatic. http://www.podomatic.com/ Quilt Math project. http://www.psd267.wednet.edu/~kfranz/year9900.html SchoolTube. http://www.schooltube.com/ TeacherTube. http://teachertube.com/ Twitter. http://twitter.com VideoEgg. http://www.videoegg.com VoiceThread. http://voicethread.com/ Webspiration. http://mywebspiration.com/ Wetpaint. http://wetpaint.com/ Wikibooks. (2009, October). Introduction to information literacy in a k12 classroom. Retrieved from http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Introduction_to_Information_Literacy_in_the_K12_Classroom Wikispaces. http://www.wikispaces.com/site/for/teachers Wiske, M. S., Franz, K. R., and Breit, L. (2005). Teaching for understanding with technology. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. YouTube. http://www.youtube.com

9 How Can I Use and Integrate Instructional Technology? Sharon Teabo

W

HILE MANY TEACHERS USE TECHNOLOGY,

others want information on how to integrate technology into a learning environment. The primary purpose of this discussion is to illustrate the difference between the use and the integration of instructional technologies and to provide instructional strategies with examples for various levels of learning. In this chapter, instructional strategies will be addressed using no tech, light tech, and high tech examples. These examples will be discussed for teachers, who have different instructional technologies or access to instructional technologies dependent upon their place of employment. In this way teachers will be able to use components of the examples provided on a level appropriate to available resources. You will gain knowledge of different levels of learning by reviewing examples provided for the three tiers of technology applications (no tech, light tech, high tech) and by comparing them on learning and digital taxonomies. By comparing technology integration on various taxonomies along with instructional strategies, you will see ways to integrate instructional technologies and address higher-order thinking for students. First, let’s define instructional technologies (ITs). An instructional technology includes anything that is used to support instruction. Using the no tech–light tech–high tech scale, no tech technologies include items like pencils, chalkboards, and paper. Newer technologies would fall into the light tech category and include movies, radio, television, and other media. High tech technologies include computers, handhelds, SmartBoards, and like items. — 175 —

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Because of the pace of emerging technologies, items that may fit in one category now will probably slide into another category later. As teachers, we use technologies for instructional purposes daily. However, some of us are more resistant to using and implementing newer and emerging technologies.

Technology Integration Strategies Let’s differentiate between using technology and integrating technology for the purpose of this discussion. You use technology to present information to your students. You may refer to information on a poster (no tech), play a video (light tech), or calculate grades on a spreadsheet (high tech). You can integrate technology into a lesson by its use and need in order to complete the lesson. If you assign your students a research project where they are to report critical events, such as those leading up to the United States’ involvement in WWI, you have the potential to integrate technology within any of the three broad levels previously defined. If technology is an integral component of the assignment, and not an add-on, then you have successfully integrated technology into the lesson. For a no tech example, a student may prepare a scrapbook or collection of artifacts gathered from various sources to present along with a descriptive oral report to the class in response to the assignment. Another option would be to gather media that related to major events researched and present those to the class (light tech). This might include short videos, radio speeches, or news stories. A high tech approach might include a presentation to the class using video clips downloaded from the Internet and embedded into presentation software on the computer. The presentation could also include audio clips from interviews, sound clips, archived photographs, videos, or televised news stories from historical databases (available to the public), recorded speeches given over the radio during that time, and a multitude of additional options (high tech). Technology is an important component of the lesson by providing access to a richer and a greater number of resources and artifacts. Instructional strategies for implementing this lesson might include individual work or small-group work. Your students may work collaboratively on a presentation with each student in the group responsible for researching a specific media or database. The class could be divided into groups, with one group providing a visual presentation or another group compiling a newspaper related to specific events. Using another option, a group may be assigned to create a short play where each member of the group has a particular person and role to research. You

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could also video the role-playing activity to include in the presentation or include the presentation and video of the role-playing activity as embedded files in a multimedia electronic newsletter or website. Which option is the most enriching for the student? As the designer of instruction, you will consider the goals of the lesson, available resources, and time frame in order to decide a best fit for your students.

Plan for IT In planning for the integration of an instructional technology (IT), you will need to start with a student-centered lesson plan. Many schools have a preferred template for their teachers to use when planning lessons, and many of those templates include information about what the teacher will do during the lesson. Teacher tasks may include, for example, reading a story to the class, selecting articles or videos for the students to review, or creating a presentation for student viewing. These plans can be made stronger for the class by focusing on what the students should be doing. You can plan what to do in order to facilitate knowing what the students will do and learn. There are many models for lesson plans, all of which stem from goals and objectives. Many, if not all, educators are familiar with the original version of Bloom’s (1956) taxonomy that associates levels of cognitive learning with action verbs. Bloom and his associates defined cognitive levels of learning from low to high on a hierarchical scale of six. Several taxonomies have since been patterned after Bloom’s original taxonomy; one in particular focuses on the use of instructional technologies. Tomei’s (2002) taxonomy for instructional technologies has six-tiered levels that vary in complexity from low to high that offers a familiar comparison of action verbs to outcomes, as his taxonomy is purposefully patterned after Bloom’s. You may find it helpful to compare these taxonomies side by side with a focus on IT integrations (Teabo, 2004). Table 9.1 illustrates the comparison of Bloom’s original taxonomy and Tomei’s taxonomies along with the instructional technology associated with specific levels according to a study of K–12 lessons (Teabo) from multiple subject areas. You may find it helpful to add results of your own lessons in which technology was an integral component to this table. You can then use the customized table as a reference when designing additional lessons. Goals within a single lesson may address multiple levels on both Bloom’s and Tomei’s taxonomies since one taxonomy targets cognitive levels of learning and one addresses instructional technologies.

Integration • assimilate, facilitate, consider, enhance Instruction • appraise, choose, create, formulate

Authoring/ Multimedia Dev. Desktop Pub. Email Open Lab

Open Lab Simulations/Edu. Games Information Retrieval CAI/DP Email Bulletin Boards Simulations Educational Games Word Processing Information Retrieval Internet Access Electronic Presentations Video Open Lab CAI/DP

• • • •

• • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Literacy • apply, use, consider, operate, download master

Decision making • apply, design, prepare, create, formulate Communications • use, share, communicate

Acculturation • support, debate

• Desktop Pub.

Evaluation • appraise, argue, assess, choose, judge, evaluate Synthesis • arrange, prepare, compose, construct, create Analysis • calculate, compare, examine, contrast Application • apply, choose, demonstrate, solve, use Comprehension • classify, describe, explain, express, select Knowledge • arrange, define, list, recognize, state, repeat

Source: Teabo, S. L. (2004). Usage of instructional multimedia to enhance interactivity through web-based learning in P–12 settings. Copyright 2008 by Teabo.

Low (Level 1)

Level 2

Level 3

Level 4

Level 5

High Level 6

Tomei Action Verbs

Integrated IT

Bloom Action Verbs

TABLE 9.1 Classification of IT according to Most Frequently Associated Level of Integration

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For example, a student may conduct research using the Internet to gather information. When students restate information in their own words to construct meaning, the activity ranks as level two (comprehension) on Bloom’s taxonomy and ranks on level three on Tomei’s taxonomy (decision making) in that the student selected appropriate resources from the Internet. The use of the Internet is centered on a learning activity (research) and not technology; technology is a tool used to locate information. Of course, research has been conducted for years before technologies became so entwined with tasks. The benefit of using the Internet to conduct research is partially because it is the World Wide Web (www), and as such, it offers current and historical information about world news and events in addition to providing access to a number of databases. In this example, the use of the instructional technology allows a student to do something better and perhaps easier than if traditional research methodologies had been used. Bloom’s (1956) original taxonomy was updated to include extensions and alternative frameworks (Krathwohl, Bloom, and Masia, 1967). It is important to note that Krathwohl, in addition to Bloom, who coauthored this revision, was also coauthor of Bloom’s original taxonomy. The taxonomy was updated again by Anderson and Krathwohl (2001) and further highlights the alternative frameworks by providing several examples. Creativity now ranks at level six, the highest level, a position formally associated with evaluation. Churches (2007) most recently customized this last update to include examples of digital tools such as blogging, instant messaging, and social networking (table 9.2). This digital taxonomy coincides with Pink’s (2005) concept of moving from the information age to the conceptual age and further supports the argument for student-centered lessons and associated lesson plans. In addition to knowing where and how to find and solve answers, we must also know how to formulate the proper questions.

Write On A student-centered lesson plan contains these components: goals, objectives, activities, and assessments. Plans may be enhanced by including standards associated with the content and associated resources, such as a list of materials required for completion of the assignment, approximate time needed to complete the exercises, and rubrics for evaluation. Details and length of lesson plans vary, but most share these characteristics. Many teachers adapt or use lesson plans obtained from the web or other sources. However, an employer or potential employer will be more impressed

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Sample Action Verb(s)

Integrating IT(s) Ideas

Creating

design, build, construct, plan, devise

5

Evaluation

check, judge, critique, text, theorize

4

Analyzing

3

Applying

compare, outline, organize, contrast use, run, implement, do

2

Understanding

interpret, explain, rephrase, compare

1

Remembering

recall, list, locate, describe, find, name

• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

High 6

programming filming vod/podcasting publishing blog/vlog discussion posts networking hyperlinking mashing (mash ups) run software program play online game edit search engine strategies journaling (blogging) commenting/annotating bulleting bookmarking highlighting

Low Adapted from Churches, A. (2007). Educational origami. Creative Commons, 2009.

if you create your own quality lesson plan specific for your target audience, content area, and resources. Your lesson plan customized for your students and community should be more meaningful than one taken from a database. Many beginning teachers confuse the “roles” of goals, objectives, and activities. Goals are not objectives or restated content standards. Goals should be fairly general but specifically associated with the content. Use an action verb from Bloom’s taxonomy and then include an object with a descriptor. For example, a lesson’s outcome might be to demonstrate an understanding of many events leading up to the United States’ involvement in WWI. The goal is, research the United States’ involvement in WWI, the action verb is research, the object being researched is WWI. The descriptor of what is being researched specific to WWI is the “United States’ involvement.” By keeping your goal simple you are less likely to add information that expands the goal into an activity or objective. Of the many models of instruction, one model that is effective in creating student-centered learning is the Curriculum Performance Assessment (CPA) model (Vogler, 1995). The CPA model is also ideally suited for module-based instruction and individualized learning. Using this model and the goal, “Research the United States’ Involvement in WWI,” the end product could be

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an oral presentation or a presentation delivered with props, such as poster boards or objects brought into the classroom as show-and-tell (no tech). If technology is a planned integral component of this lesson, the end product might be a presentation using a computer-based software program and might include graphics, text, audio, and/or video (low tech). Students versed with technologies have the potential to complete a presentation as a podcast, video, or to use some other media format (high tech). The goal, as stated, is general enough to accommodate any of these tiered levels and yet specific enough for the student to know the expected outcome. Objectives, specifically performance objectives, are directly tied to a goal (Vogler, 1995). Wording of the performance objective should include the criteria for completing the goal but not include the activities. The criteria should include specific guidelines, such as the expected quality of the assignment, quantity, and assessment criteria. Other criteria may be included, such as special instructional strategies like working alone or in groups. Included in the performance objective should be what the student will be allowed to use to complete the assignment, for example a textbook or the Internet (Vogler, 1995). Think of a student-centered lesson plan as if it were a board game. The rules of the game are on the lid. These are the guidelines for completing the game. The game board is where all the activity takes place. For example, my board game consists of letter tiles of different point values that are assembled on the game board in order to form a word. A goal of the game is to amass a higher number of points than my opponent(s). The rules—on the inside lid of the box—provide the criteria (performance objective) associated with obtaining the highest possible score. The game board is where all of the activity occurs, and evidence is presented toward the completion of my goal. Because all elements of a lesson plan are tied together, you will have equal parts to the whole. If you have one goal you will have a performance objective, activity, and assessment linked to that goal. If you have two goals, you will have two performance objectives—one for each goal—two activities (one for each performance objective and associated goal) and two assessments, one for each goal/performance objective. Remember as you assign activities that your activities need to be specific (step by step) and should include how the finished work or product will be assessed and by whom. An activity associated with a goal may contain multiple steps, but all steps or subactivities are associated with a specific goal. Each goal will have a performance objective (rules or criteria regarding the goal) and an activity specific to the goal with an assessment. You may have any number of goals depending on your target audience, content, and desired outcome. A goal (figure 9.1) is linked to a performance objective that is linked to activities and specific assessment(s).

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FIGURE 9.1 Alignment of Lesson Components

The alignment of curriculum, performance, and assessment assures that only content specific to the assignment is studied, learned, and assessed. This process excludes extra material that duplicates previous content being given to those students who may have finished earlier than others. You may elect to include additional exercises as extensions of the original lesson, but they too should be linked to lesson components. If, for example, the assignment was to create a presentation about your state’s history, an extension might include dressing in period costume and presenting information as a representative of that era. The student would be responsible for research presented on the topic as well as having sufficient knowledge to respond to questions in the manner that the assumed character would respond. Teacher-tasks lesson plans are very helpful as a starting point for planning, especially for new teachers in the field. Others may adopt a blended approach where both teacher and student activities are included with the plan. The student-centered lesson is helpful for module-based and self-paced instruction as well as constructivist teaching. Many factors influence a teacher’s lesson plan. If you currently write a teacher-focused plan, try writing a blended lesson plan by putting teacher tasks in one column and student tasks in another. Write the student activities in a step-by-step manner and direct your writing to the student. This technique is very personable and engages the student with the content. You have knowledge about the content and will facilitate learning by incorporating instructional strategies that channel learning. The more knowledgeable about a subject, the greater the comfort level you will feel when teaching that content. In addition to knowledge about the content that will be learned, you should also be comfortable using technology in order to proficiently integrate technology with the lesson. None of us would ask our students to do anything that we could not do. The greater our comfort level with technology, the greater the probability that technology will be an integral component of a lesson. There are national technology standards for teachers and for students as defined by the International Society for Technology in Education (ISTE.org).

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Once on the ISTE home page, select the NETS (National Educational Technology Standards) tab in the navigation menu to go to the NETS page and download NETS for students, NETS for teachers, and NETS for administrators. The files are in PDF (portable document format) and may be read on any computer using a PDF reader. Most states now require teachers and students to have technology skills, and many have state technology standards adapted from the national standards. In additional to national and state standards, school systems may have specific technology skills required of teachers and staff. This is especially probable now with the recent focus on twenty-first-century literacy skills. Partnership for 21st Century Skills (21stcenturyskills.org) has tools and resources for twenty-first-century learning along with strategic planning suggestions. Additionally, links to exemplar state initiatives are available for viewing. The Metiri Group (metiri.com), an education consulting firm, provides guidelines for developing and honing twenty-first-century skills based on current research and trends through its website. Both of these sites provide documents for download and resource kits as well as links to other sites specific to twenty-first-century literacy skills.

Use IT, Model IT Teachers have a history of adopting instructional technology and are not strangers to learning and using new tools in the classroom as they become available. Using technology can be a little overwhelming at times given all that teachers are required to do now compared to earlier times. Many of us use technology in the classroom more than we think. For example, the use of spreadsheets allows teachers to analyze test scores more efficiently and to keep databases on student information and school supplies inventories. Many teachers use email for communication with other faculty and parents. Depending upon resources, teachers use SmartBoards in addition to emerging technologies that their school systems provide. Are you familiar with available technology resources where you work? Do you model the use of these technologies for your students? In order to successfully integrate technology within a lesson, we should not only know about technology but also understand how specific technologies can enhance learning. When we know and understand technology, we can model its use. For example, you may keep an inventory of your school supplies. Do you use note cards or spreadsheets? If you use spreadsheet software to track school supplies you are able to see what you have and what you need

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more efficiently than if you were using some type of pencil-paper filing format. In what way will you enable your students to use spreadsheets with their class activities? There are many examples of spreadsheet use for every grade level on education sites available by searching the web. Many of my students use BrainPOP. com, which offers materials in various content areas and a link to BrainPOP Jr. for K–3 educators. BrainPOP also offers a newsletter with updates and highlights of content on its site. Some schools have material available on the web; Lee’s Summit School District (its.leesummit.k12.mo.us) includes tutorials with 2000, 2003, and 2007 versions of Excel (http://its.leesummit.k12.mo.us/excel.htm) along with examples and resources. You may wish to create a resource page that illustrates your instructional strategies along with student work as an example for others to study. Lesson plans on these sites are often divided by content area and grade level. One of the most interesting features of spreadsheet software is its ability to convert data into visuals. Considering the percentage of visual learners (about 60 to 65 percent), integrating the use of spreadsheets into learning activities would be an asset. Having students create and illustrate data on spreadsheets addresses several twenty-first-century skills and ranks at the highest level on the new digital taxonomy. Begin by assessing your technology skills and technologies available. Examine lessons that you have used. In what ways can technologies be used to enhance learning? What instructional technologies are you most comfortable using and modeling? What resources are required, and what instructional strategies have the potential to offer students an engaging experience with the content? You might find it helpful to create a lesson worksheet with a table with the six levels of the digital taxonomy in one column, goals with action verbs in a second column, and potential ITs for integration in a third column (table 9.3). Consider your target audiences and the technologies they use as you write lessons for them to complete. Evaluate how the instructional strategies and technologies you integrated worked. You may need to adjust your lesson or change strategies. You may find it beneficial to note what products the students developed as a result of completing the lesson and record those on your lesson worksheet. Having examples of student-made products will help to illustrate potential solutions to other students. As with any systems design model, you may need to redesign your lesson. This is especially probable as comfort levels with technologies rise and emerging technologies continue to influence choices of technology integration and strategies.

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TABLE 9.3 Digital Taxonomy Goals and IT Worksheet Level High 6

Sample Goal with Action Verb

Creating

Design a story about (topic)

5

Evaluation

Critique comic books associated with WWI

4

Analyzing

Organize media and material regarding WWI

3

Applying

Use online simulation to apply strategies

2

Understanding

Rewrite WWI comic set in modern times

1

Remembering

Compiled list of resources related to (assigned topic)

Integrating IT(s) • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

podcast chaptered booklet digital story multimedia presentation blog/vlog discussion posts networking website hyperlinking mashing (mash ups) author website run software program play online game complete simulation role-play blog commenting/annotating online comic creation bulleted list annotated URLs

Low Adapted from Churches, A. (2007). Educational origami. Creative Commons, 2009.

Resources and Resourcefulness Computer-based technologies are not the only technologies to take into consideration when integrating technologies; however, discussing strategies associated with the computer is a good starting point and a good way to discuss the no tech, light tech, high tech integration tier. There are a lot of technologies available for free through the Internet. There is a wide variety of opensource software that may be downloaded for personal use. This software ranges from photo and graphics manipulations to imaging in 3D. Additionally, online resources are available for free, and many of the sites where freeware is available also include storage space for products. Several sites allow you to download software so that you can work on products on your own computer and upload to their space later. What you may be allowed to access, download, and/or use in accordance with your school is something you will need to resolve within your school’s technology policy. Creating your own list of open source software (OSS) specific to your needs is ideal. You can search for open source software for education using your

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favorite search engine and compile a tremendous list of current resources. A few places to help you get started that are currently active follow. Open Source Windows (opensourcewindows.org) offers a basic to intermediate list of open source software. At SourceForge’s site (sourceforge.net), you can browse by category and view recommendations and ratings by users of specific software. You can also perform keyword searches with their sitespecific search engine tool to save time. Open Source Alternative (osalt.com) lists free open source software comparable to well-known commercial software. This site is especially helpful for anyone familiar with brand-name software who may be seeking free alternatives. K12OpenSource (k12opensource.org) targets K–12 educators and offers an active hyperlink (click on “links” to go directly to resource) list of recommended open source software. This site includes links to training options and podcasts by educators regarding use and integration of open source software. If you access a site that is no longer active, try using your favorite search engine to complete a keyword search on your topic(s). You should be familiar with several different types of search engines and searching strategies in order to optimize looking for resources on the web. You may also want to use one of the many sites that allow you to store your bookmarks with them for free. In this way you will be able to work, bookmark, and access key web sites from any location. Some teachers may elect to purposefully develop their bookmark space specifically for class use. If you find that you use several sites repeatedly, it is a good idea to keep the frequently visited sites bookmarked and to have those bookmarks handy. After you have completed your searches for online resources and have located a place online to house links to them, strategize ways for you and your students to interact with or to use these resources. Digital technologies have the potential to address higher-order thinking skills. How will you model what your students will be able to do? Put your ideas down on your lessons worksheet described earlier in this text. And of course, as new technologies emerge, you will need to adapt your resources accordingly. Another consideration when searching for resources is the quality of the content on the site. You may wish to develop a site evaluation tool specific to your needs in order to compare and assess the quality of sites. Site evaluation tools are also available online, and a great resource is Discovery School’s website. Visit the site at http://school.discoveryeducation.com and select the Classroom Resources tab. Under the “Featured Content” dropdown menu select Kathy Schrock’s Guide. She has several “Teacher Helpers” links that include PDF versions of critical evaluation surveys (site evaluation tools) for different

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learning levels (elementary, middle, and secondary) and web resource types (blogs, podcasts, and virtual tours). The current direct link/URL is: http:// school.discoveryeducation.com/schrockguide/eval.html. You may find it helpful to put together a digital technology resource kit. This kit would include online resources for recording audio and creating graphics, slideshows, podcasts, and the like. You may also wish to create links to communication tools and social networking sites appropriate for the grade level you teach. Communication tools include programs such as email, instant messaging, blogs, and discussion boards. Higher-end communication tools include collaboration as a key component. Examples of these include interactive shared spaces and social sites such as Facebook, MySpace, Twitter, and LinkedIn. Collaboration and communication can also take place in virtual worlds such as Second Life (secondlife. com) and Active Worlds (activeworlds.com). Communication and collaboration are components of twenty-first-century skills. A great resource for online tools and instructional strategies may be found at the Partnership for 21st Century Skills website (21stcenturyskills.org). Why digital technologies? In additional to addressing multiple standards, assignments model expectations for the students, provide a tangible product, and demonstrate the connection between classroom theory and application of resources. Edutainment is a fairly recent term that has become familiar to most educators. Students expect to be entertained as they are learning, hence the term. One way to entertain students is to engage them actively with the content by adding, when feasible, multimedia. We know that students learn better when graphics and text are combined (Mayer, 2001). We demonstrate this concept in the classroom. In order to obtain the highest levels of the new digital taxonomy, children can create multimedia solutions for assigned work. Let us look at some of the components of a lesson in detail as an example and examine possible solutions based on the three tiers of technology application: no tech, light tech, and high tech.

Lesson Plan Example (Elementary) Topics: Social Skills (subtopic: classroom etiquette) Prerequisite: Participate and contribute to a class discussion about classroom rules. Purpose: In order to remember and observe proper classroom etiquette, students may need reminders of how to behave or respond to stressful situations,

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classroom management, or behavioral issues. One of the best ways to learn is to teach someone else how or why to do something. While telling someone what is right is good, showing them an example will give them something to remember. You will also have a record that you may review. You may wish to do several comics about social skills and put them together like a book. Goals: Create a social story comic. Performance Objectives: Create a four-panel comic that illustrates any one of the classroom rules from the class discussion. You may use the template provided to you by the teacher. You may use clip art, photos that you take with a camera, or pictures that you draw in order to illustrate your story. Performance will be satisfactory if your social story comic clearly illustrates an understanding of one of the discussed topics, uses the template provided, and concludes with an appropriate solution to the story in the final panel. No tech option: Divide a sheet of poster board into four panels. Use at least a 1" margin on all sides and at minimum of ½" in between the panels. Students may use a pencil to sketch their story and characters first. Color may be added later using an approved medium provided by the teacher. Each student will present his/her social comic by commenting about the chosen topic and characters. Comic panels will be displayed throughout the classroom or school as reminders of topics discussed/learned. Note: As an alternative to drawing characters for the comic panel, pictures may be clipped from resources provided by the teacher (old magazines, clip art books, etc.). Light tech option: Students will use a four-panel PowerPoint template to create a social story comic. Students may use one of the art/photography software programs to generate appropriate characters and/or settings for their comic story. Each student will present his/her social comic by commenting about the chosen topic and characters. Comic panels will be combined into a single digital document and posted to the school’s website. Note: As an alternative to posting a digital version of a comic booklet, the project could be printed and displayed in the classroom or library. An audio option could also be added to the digital version. Students may record their own audio or use an online text-to-speech converter. Advanced students may wish to create a digital social comic strip consisting of several panels so that multiple characters are involved (and multiple audio roles). Lesson Plan Example (Advanced, the procedure and examples could be applicable to many content areas at the secondary, community college, or collegiate level).

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Topics: Transition and Ethics Prerequisite: Complete the assigned reading on transition and on ethics for assistive technologies. Purpose: Transition: Transition services for students with disabilities must focus on the domains that are the focus of successful functioning. Assistive technology (AT) during the transition time must be a consideration of the Individual Education Plan (IEP) team for the student to be successful in postsecondary education, postemployment, independent living, and recreation and leisure time activities. AT considerations should be addressed by the IEP team. The AT devices should contribute to the success of students as adults. Exploration, assessment, and the opportunity to use the appropriate AT device can be helpful for the student during the transition period. Scenario: Several school-age campers are no longer eligible to attend camp due to the age limit of attendees. Transition strategies for them and for campers who may be moving away and unable to attend should be explored and strategies should be implemented. Ethics: Consideration of ethics is relatively new to the field of AT. The Rehabilitation Engineering and Assistive Technology Society of North America (RESNA) organization, which supports the advancement and rehabilitation of AT, has adopted both a mission statement and a code of ethics for professionals who use AT. The Council for Exceptional Children (CEC), the professional organization for special educators, provides clear guidelines for professionals that support ethical practices. Professionals working with students with disabilities must adhere to a professional code of conduct. As professionals we have ethical standards to meet. Children with disabilities may not fully understand what is right or wrong in some social settings. Educators should study and implement appropriate strategies that have the potential to create a greater understanding of these issues. Goals: Interpret and illustrate transition strategies and ethical issues. Performance Objectives: http://www.chalkdusters.com/Tess/Tessellations/ preview.htm. Complete the assigned readings within one week. The author discusses assistive technologies and transition strategies along with ethics. Using school-aged children (twelve years being the oldest) as your target audience, illustrate transition and ethics strategies for children who have attended a special needs summer camp in the past but who cannot this year due to age restrictions. No tech option: You may use any props for a presentation to the class on the assigned topics. Up to four fellow classmates have been assigned to you as resource people. You may use your resource people (RP) for role-play only. You

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alone will create and direct your interpretative play. You will be responsible for scripting a scenario that demonstrates and correctly interprets the major points of the assigned readings. You will document and turn in the script for all roles at the completion of the class presentation. Roles may include up to three coaches to assist viewers with interpreting information provided. Assign each coach a role for the duration of the performance. One coach, for example, may provide additional information. Another coach may theorize or question “what to do next.” The third coach may guide the viewer(s) to the correct response or solution. Once you provide the background of your play and introduce the coaches, only the viewers can prompt the coaches for additional details. Performance will be satisfactory if your twenty-minute presentation correctly interprets material in the assigned readings and a typed hard copy of the scenario that includes dialogue and “roles” details is submitted at the conclusion of your presentation. Light tech option: For this “light tech” assignment, create a multimedia digital book that interprets transition and ethics strategies based on assigned readings for campers who will be unable to attend camp next year. Reasons for not attending could be because of a schedule conflict, family relocation, or age restriction (to name a few). Campers are transitioning from one environment to another. Your digital book should introduce the characters, explain the situation, and provide appropriate strategies for transitioning from one environment to another. Your product should exhibit good decisions ethically. Performance will be satisfactory if you create a multimedia digital book with at least one coach (although using three is recommended) that correctly illustrates an understanding of transition from one environment to another based on information in assigned readings and associated resources. Your digital book must be a minimum of thirty pages with an introduction and use APA guidelines for referenced work. Templates for your storyboard will be provided. Graphics: You should use characters for your story. You may use clip art or design characters of your own. You may also use online resources for creating your own characters. Links are provided. You may use animals instead of people. Do not use photographs. Use at least one coach (pedagogical agent) throughout the entire digital book; you may have as many as three. (See script example and guidelines.) Audio: You may record and embed your own audio into your digital book. Alternatively, you may also use an online text-to-speech conversion site (link provided) in order to create audio clips. Prepare characters (several poses) ahead of time. Do not use names of real people. Note with your script/storyboard when to use each coach. You may use any format that accommodates multimedia.

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Regarding the no tech approach, visualize a room with you sitting in the front row. The actors are on your right, and the coaches are on the left. The narrator begins by providing the background of the content, introducing the main characters, and then proceeds to introduce the coaches and their functions. Similar to a game show, at any point during the interpretive role-play a member of the audience may select one of the coaches who would then provide additional information about the content or to engage the audience more by providing guided questioning. For the light tech option, visualize a format where you are the reader of a multimedia digital book. The illustration and text of the book are located on the right side of the page, and the coaches are always located in the bottom left corner. By placing the coaches in the same location on each page, they become fixed elements. The reader expects them to be in the same location on each page to provide help on an “as needed basis” when selected. As fixed elements, much like a school logo on a slide master in a presentation, they do not interfere with the story; rather, they enhance the understanding of the story and serve the same function as the coaches in the no tech example. You can offer a high tech option by offering your coaches a more dynamic role and include sound files with your text. You could also record a video, perhaps of the interpretive role-play assignment, and embed it into the digital book. These examples are excellent for individual, and then small-group, work. You may wish to have small groups of students work on a chapter book that includes a chapter from every small group in the class and their products. An introduction or forward could introduce the assignment and give a brief overview of each chapter. This product would be an excellent artifact for an electronic portfolio and a great show-and-tell item when applying for grant funding or seeking support to sponsor an after-school technology club. So far you have given your students background information and the purpose for completing the assignment. The goals are short and outline what the outcome will be. The performance objective provides the criteria (guidelines) for completing the goal, and you have both a no tech and light tech option. The next phase is to provide activities for the students. A step-by-step, systematic approach creates a recipe for success in that each student, regardless of the option chosen, can complete a list of activities with the same end result—to interpret and illustrate transition strategies and ethical issues. This lesson does not center on the technology but rather centers around the content. Is the light tech option of the lesson enhanced by technology? A different no tech option for this assignment, and much lower on any taxonomy, would be for the student to present a written or oral report

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about the assigned readings. Perhaps an assessment of the knowledge of the content would be for the student to take a quiz. What makes the lesson above so engaging is the instructional strategy of role-playing and the incorporation of content coaches whose use is controlled by the audience (in both options). Students must first read the assignment, and then each student addresses every level on the taxonomy by completing the goal that addresses the highest level of the taxonomy, create. Additionally, students meet content standards, and with the light tech option, address technology standards and twenty-firstcentury learning. Consider additional options that have the potential to be equally or possibly more engaging. What if the students who selected option one, to roleplay before an audience, were to offer the presentation to civic organizations, community groups, or other education entities at their school? What if they digitally recorded their presentation and made it available? Once the presentation is available in a digital format there are a number of ways to share with others (worldwide possibly) issues related to the content and production. There are a number of associations who act as liaisons for sharing information globally between classrooms. Sharing this assignment in this way would enhance communication and collaboration as well as content knowledge on a very broad scale. What if the students who selected option two elected to share their multimedia stories worldwide as well? Think of the potential number of people who would come into contact with the content if the products from this lesson were made available to the general public as resource information if posted on the school’s website for others to view and use. Your students could exchange ideas and products with students worldwide to create a repository of information and products to share. If this lesson is tailored to junior or senior high school students, the activities and associated products would make great additions to a resume or to an electronic portfolio. This lesson plan can be used at all grade levels and varied topics. Judi Harris (1998) provided ways to integrate instructional technologies on a higher level by suggesting telecomputing ideas. She provided eighteen activity structures within three genres (figure 9.2) as ways for students to communicate with one another through digital means. Detailed information may be found by completing a keyword search on activity structures or any of the keywords in the columns. The telecomputing activities can be completed at a local level (between classrooms or schools) or on a worldwide level (ideal). Again, as the facilitator of instruction, you can use action verbs to address specific levels on learning taxonomies and decide if integrating a technology would enable the students to do something

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Interpersonal Exchange

Information Collection and Analysis

Problem Solving

♦

keypals

♦

information exchanges

♦

information searches

♦

global classrooms

♦

database creation

♦

peer feedback activities

♦

electronic appearances

♦

electronic publishing

♦

parallel problem solving

♦

telementoring

♦

telefieldtrips

♦

sequential problem solving

♦

question-and-answer activities

♦

pooled data analysis

♦

telepresent problem solving

♦

impersonations

♦

simulations

♦

social action projects

Source: Teabo, S. L. (2004). Usage of instructional multimedia to enhance interactivity through web-based learning in P–12 settings. Copyright 2008 by Teabo.

FIGURE 9.2 Judi Harris’s Genres and Telecomputing Activities

they could not do before or enable the students to do something better than before. Of course, in order to have twenty-first-century students we need to have twenty-first-century teachers. You should know and understand your content as well as instructional technologies. Begin with what you know and understand and then methodically learn one more instructional technology or strategy for IT integration and continually add to your carte du jour as a facilitator of learning. You might find it helpful to keep a chart of instructional strategies with instructional technologies customized for your preferred strategies and technologies. To get you started, a few examples are provided in table 9.4 based on a study of integrated technologies in PK–12 environments (Teabo, 2004). Many free resources are available online and may be found by completing keyword searches, such as keypals, using your preferred search engine. If you would like your students to use keypals (digital pen pals) you can locate another classroom through an Internet search. You may wish to have your students exchange information peer-to-peer with another student in a classroom from anywhere in the world. If, for example, your students are studying volcanoes, the Smithsonian Institution (si.edu) has an online informational site with an interactive world map of volcanoes (http://www. volcano.si.edu/world/find_regions.cfm) that exhibits new activity and ongoing activity that you can use for your class. What if your students selected keypals (computer-mediated communication with students in a classroom at a distance) from the West Indies near

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Instructional Strategy

Action Verbs Prompts

IT Examples

• Peer-to-peer • Small-group collaboration • Whole-group instruction • Journaling, writing • Peer-mediated instruction • Information retrieval • Teacher or student demonstration • Media developments • Authoring • Hands-on • Problem solving • Inquiry

• Use technology tools for individual writing and personal communications • Share information electronically among students, teachers, or other institutions • Communicate interpersonally using electronic mail • Rewrite an assigned story using an assigned time period • Apply electronic tools for for research and problem solving • Formulate new ideas with the help of brainstorming software • Prepare an interactive electronic spreadsheet • Create calendars and timelines • Appraise educational software for its pedagogical strengths

• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Email Keypals Virtual chats Discussion boards Blogs Wikis Online interactive journal Online quizzes Worksheets Virtual tours Select, download, compile research content from web Authoring/Multimedia Desktop publishing Create online newsletters Create presentation Create e-book Storyboarding

Source: Teabo, S. L. (2004). Usage of instructional multimedia to enhance interactivity through web-based learning in P–12 settings. Copyright 2008 by Teabo.

Soufriere Hills, where the Smithsonian’s map has indicated new activity and unrest? The students near Soufriere Hills would have firsthand experience with the growth of a volcano. The students may share photos, news stories, and possibly videos or photos with your students. Your students receive meaningful learning and experience a volcano’s growth through someone their own age. If your students are prohibited from exchanging emails because of school policy, you may elect to communicate as a group with you and the teacher from Soufriere Hills as facilitators. If you are interested in expanding the information collected from the Soufriere Hills class, your students could collect and compile the information as a newsletter (or electronic newsletter), website (could be coauthored with the Soufriere Hills class), or possibly a multimedia presentation for students from other classes to view.

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If you instruct older students, you might want them to create something for younger students. You might want to conduct small-group discussions in addition to peer-to-peer work. You can facilitate that through virtual chats or discussion boards, blogs, or any of the writing specific tasks illustrated in table 9.4. Technology in this case does enhances learning and provides a means for engaging students with content. Additionally, students practice twenty-first-century skills, as do you, by collaborating with the students and teacher in the other class. By connecting core content of a current event, the students are acquiring global awareness, practicing communication and technology skills, constructing new knowledge, and developing higher-order thinking; thus, these students are twentyfirst-century learners.

Get IT How do you obtain resources for integrating technology into a learning environment? You have content knowledge and understand the use of many technologies. You have specific instructional strategies for a variety of technologies to be used by your students that address a range of levels, but predominantly high, on various taxonomies. Now you need some technology tools. This discussion has already examined online resources; you should first check to see what resources and resource people are at your school. Don’t forget to look for a few talented students as well. When you do not have a computer at hand or access to the online resources and wish to create digital material, consider using digital recording devices, one for audio, one for video. Audio recorders vary in cost. Considering that you plan to use it a lot, purchase one with a USB connection. Digital cameras also come with USB connections. Your students can create documents and record sound and/or video to embed at a later date when computer access is available. If you are not sure where to locate inexpensive versions of digital audio and video devices, head to your favorite toy store. Stroll down the Barbie doll aisle for some ideas. If you can stand pink, she has a great variety of digital cameras, more than a lot of IT departments. If you happen to have older technologies, such as a cassette player, go to your local electronics store and ask them for a cable that will download audio from your cassette to your computer as a digital file. You may not be able to afford a digital camera, but most film developers have an option to transfer or return film-based photos in a digital format, usually on a CD. Some of your students may own cell phones. Many cell phones come with a camera installed. Can you imagine going on a field trip with your students and all of them whipping out their cell phones

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to record a Kodak moment to send back home? Some may also use their phone for texting. Ask your students what technologies they have and how they use them. Have them brainstorm on how to transition from how they use their phone now to how phones could be used for educational purposes. What technologies do your students have at home? Have your students theorize how they could use electronic games for educational purposes. Most handheld games now have Internet access. Your students’ suggestions should be enlightening and entertaining. Not everyone will have the same quantity or quality of technologies. You might team students together and ask them to create a digital media resource kit that includes a plan, storyboard, materials, and light tech options. Everyone will gain exposure to instructional technologies, techniques, and underlying theories of integrations when small-group strategies are implemented in this way. Successful use and integrations of technologies for instructional purposes will depend on skills, comfort level, and support. Because technology literacy is such an important issue and emerging technologies are on the horizon with greater frequency, important issues associated with the use and integration of technologies should be examined by teachers and students.

Associated Issues Acceptable Use Policy In addition to signing a school’s acceptable use policy (AUP), students should have proper training on issues surrounding Internet use. Cyberbullying is something we weren’t too worried about a few years ago, but it is a very important issue now. Cyberbullying involves using electronic devices or programs to in order to harm or embarrass someone. Our students are into social networking and multitasking. They are very open and readily share information about themselves over the Internet and are so used to exchanging information that they may not sense harmful attacks. If you were to survey your students tomorrow, how many of them could identify ten ways cyberbullying occurs? You may wish to compile a list of resources regarding cyberbullying. StopCyberbullying.org has several resources for explaining different types of cyberbullying and ways to prevent it. Another great resource is -iSAFE.org, a website that offers information about Internet safety. Many of us were unaware about sexting (my spell-checker didn’t recognize the term) until recently, and that was only because someone “got caught.” Sexting involves sending explicit messages and pictures electronically over cell phones or other portable devices (Wikipedia, Sexting).

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Cell phones, portable game devices, and personal digital assistants (PDAs) should all be included in the school’s AUP and associated training or schooling on the topic. Anything hurtful sent by any digital means is associated with cyberbullying. Adding to the complexity of the issue is that anyone can pretend or pose as anyone online. Internet Safety Internet safety as it relates to identity theft is also an important topic now. There are several ways to leave cyber crumbs about oneself on the web. Most utility companies routinely post information such as your email, full name, and date of birth. There are several digital phone books online. Using a digital phone book search, anyone can type in a name and a state and get personal information about that individual. Email lists are routinely sold or traded, which explains why many of us get so much spam or unwanted emails. Students more often than not share too much information about themselves, their family, friends, and location. Many schools now include Internet safety training along with the school’s acceptable use policy. Anyone can be anyone on online, and it is a good idea to help your students distinguish between good and bad sites and why. You may want to include Internet safety training as a prerequisite to completing online research or communication. Students could be teamed together to collect data for a website on cyberbullying, for example. There are lots of websites now that will let users create websites for little or no cost. While this proves that anyone can create a site, it also means that you and your students can create websites to house information about projects, assignments, and online safety.

Assessing IT There are lots of ways to assess IT and everything associated with IT. You assess based on goals and objectives. Look at the action verb you used for your goal in each of your lesson plans and note at what level learning took place on Bloom’s taxonomy, or one of the other taxonomies based on Bloom’s. Also, chart the frequency that each verb/level occurred throughout the year or semester. Do most of your goals address higher-order thinking or do most of them fall in the lower levels? You will be able to gauge, based on this goal assessment, whether a course is designed to move the students to upper levels of higher-order thinking. Additionally, you may wish to provide rubrics with each major assignment or project.

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You can record the progress of each individual or compare how successfully each class completed project requirements. If the percentages compare favorably, you know you are on the right track. If one class’s average is well below the other, you should consider examining instructional strategies and redesigning lessons. Look at ITs specifically. Compare instructional strategies used with the integration of ITs. Which instructional strategy–instructional technology match exhibited the greatest potential to engage the students with the content more than others? Did you distribute a pre/post test at any time to assess something specific? If so, consider repeating this assessment with each new group so that you can track over time how the outcomes of one term compared to the next. Did you survey the students before and during the design phase of the lesson? Have you considered distributing a student computer attitude and skills questionnaire? Are you aware of the extent of technology integration that your colleagues provide? Should you design a teachers’ attitude toward technology integration assessment instrument and distribute to your colleagues to determine if any barriers exist at your school and to what extent, or what contributes to successfully integrating technology? You do not need to complete all of these assessments. You may have other types of assessments you prefer and have in place. You can be the change agent at your school and influence others by integrating instructional technologies with your lesson. You may wish to display student work on a website or organize a show-and-tell event for the community. Do you have a technology club at your school? Ask your students how they would like to participate and seek support from other faculty. What other resources do you have at your school? If you have marketing classes, consider having marketing students organize a promotional campaign for technology use and integration or have them organize slogan contests in order to popularize instructional technologies. Support ways to promote your students and their successful use of technologies. You can do IT.

References Anderson, L. W., and Krathwohl, D. (2001). A taxonomy for learning, teaching and assessing: A revision of Bloom’s taxonomy of educational objectives. New York: Longman. Bloom, B. S. (Ed.). (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives: The classification of educational goals, handbook 1: Cognitive domain. New York: Longman.

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Churches, A. (2007). Educational origami. Online: http://edorigami.wikispaces.com/. Harris, J. (1998). Virtual architecture: Designing and directing curriculum-based telecomputing. Eugene, OR: International Society for Technology in Education. Krathwohl, D. R., Bloom, B. S., and Masia, B. B. (1967). Taxonomy of educational objectives: The classification of educational goals, handbook II: Affective domain (4th printing). New York: David McKay Company. Mayer, R. E. (2001). Multimedia learning. New York: Cambridge University Press. Pink, D. H. (2005). A whole new mind: Moving from the information age to the conceptual age. New York: Penguin Group. Teabo, S. L. (2004). Usage of instructional multimedia to enhance interactivity through web-based learning in P–12 settings. Doctoral dissertation, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV. Tomei, L. A. (2002). The technology façade: Overcoming barriers to effective instructional technology in schools. Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Vogler, D. E. (1995). Performance instruction: Planning, delivering, evaluating, analyzing. Eden Prairie, MN: Instructional Performance Systems, Inc. Wikipedia. Sexting. Retrieved on January 6, 2010 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Sexting.

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his document is not meant to be an all-inclusive text regarding current topics and issues in the field of education. Our goal is to provide you with an overview of a few of the current trends. The faculty at the College of Graduate and Professional Studies at the University of Mary Washington is a diverse group who offer expertise in a variety of educational topics. As dedicated professionals, we strive to stay current and active in our respective fields. Our time is largely spent in public classrooms, professional conferences, and our own graduate classrooms. We continually work together to offer a quality and practical education for our students, both preservice and in-service. It is our hope that this text offers the same to you.

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About the Contributors

Dr. Laurie B. Abeel is an associate professor at the University of Mary Washington and the Virginia state director of Destination ImagiNation®. She specializes in teaching gifted education, creative problem solving, and education research courses. Dr. Teresa Coffman has worked on both a middle school and high school level as a classroom teacher, technology coordinator, and director of academic technology. After completing her doctorate, she began teaching at the University of Mary Washington in Fredericksburg, Virginia. Currently she is associate professor of education and teaches preservice teachers as they work toward initial licensure and a master’s degree in education. Dr. Norah Hooper is professor and coordinator of the Special Education Program at the College of Graduate and Professional Studies. She holds degrees from St. Mary’s College at Notre Dame, SUNY Cortland, UNC Chapel Hill, and a Ph.D. in special education from George Mason University. She has classroom experience in general and special education, and supervisory experience in special education. Dr. Jane Huffman has 18 years of experience preparing teachers for the classroom as both a university professor and director of teacher education programs. In addition, she taught for eleven years at the high school level. Dr. Huffman holds a doctorate in curriculum and instruction, a Master’s in educational media, and bachelor’s degree in history and social studies education. — 203 —

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Dr. Nicole Myers is currently an assistant professor of education at the University of Mary Washington. She earned her Ph.D. in special education and in counseling and development from George Mason University. She has worked with students, adults, and athletes with disabilities; has taught special education at both the elementary and the secondary level; and has coordinated special education programs in Maryland and Virginia. She works extensively in the field of autism. Dr. Kavatus Newell is currently an associate professor of education at the University of Mary Washington. She teaches literacy courses for preservice teachers and coordinates and teaches in the reading specialist endorsement program. She received her Ph.D. from the University of Southern Mississippi and taught secondary English in the New Orleans public schools. Patricia Reynolds is currently an instructor in the TESL Program at the University of Mary Washington. A classroom teacher for 28 years, Ms. Reynolds has worked in the field of ESL and foreign languages at all grade levels. Dr. John St. Clair is currently the director of Distance and Blended Learning at the University of Mary Washington. He has worked on the middle school, high school, and community college levels as well as the executive director of Technical Services for The Tennessee Regents Online Degree Program. Dr. Sharon Teabo can speak knowledgeably about web-based instruction, instructional multimedia and learning, technology integration, instructional design and technology, interactive media and pedagogy, visual literacy, and e-learning. She currently teaches Master of Education courses in the instructional technology leadership program on topics ranging from instructional technologies, foundations and theories of instructional technology, instructional design, emerging and assistive technologies, and applied research.