The Challenges of Culture-based Learning: Indian Students' Experiences

THE CHALLENGES OF CULTURE-BASED LEARNING INDIAN STUDENTS’ EXPERIENCES

Samuel Yim

The Challenges of Culture-based Learning Indian Students’ Experiences

Samuel Yim

UNIVERSITY PRESS OF AMERICA, ® INC.

Lanham • Boulder • New York • Toronto • Plymouth, UK

Copyright © 2009 by University Press of America,® Inc. 4501 Forbes Boulevard Suite 200 Lanham, Maryland 20706 UPA Acquisitions Department (301) 459-3366 Estover Road Plymouth PL6 7PY United Kingdom All rights reserved Printed in the United States of America British Library Cataloging in Publication Information Available Library of Congress Control Number: 2009922682 ISBN: 978-0-7618-4542-3 (paperback : alk. paper) eISBN: 978-0-7618-4543-0

∞ ™ The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of American National Standard for Information Sciences—Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSI Z39.48—1984

This book is lovingly dedicated to my wife, Colleen, and our children Nathan, Jon and Christopher.

Contents

Foreword

vii

1

Theories of Learning Styles

1

2

Historical Development of Indian Education

15

3

Research Methodology

31

4

Study Results

47

5

Case Studies

59

6

Findings

81

7

Conclusion and Recommendations

v

107

Foreword

Cultural variables that affect the preferred learning styles of the young have drawn the attention of many researchers during the past generation. Ordinarily, such studies are done by those representing the particular culture in question. This makes good sense, since such researchers are most likely to understand the nuances of both culture and learning and how these interact in the learning environment. Occasionally a Western educator ventures into the labyrinth of another culture assessing the relationship of that culture’s impact on learning preferences. What the foreigner may lack in cultural acuteness, while certainly a liability, is often compensated for by the outsider’s ability to see elements of the learning context that may escape the notice of the local researcher. Taken together, such studies provide a rich tapestry that enables us to understand the unique learning environment in which others learn. The present study differs a bit from these dual sources of knowledge about human learning in comparative perspective. While Dr. Yim is indeed a foreigner in Indian society, he is not from the West. He brings the unique perspective of a Chinese citizen of Hong Kong to his perusal of Indian education. Educated in Hong Kong under an essentially British system, he couples this personal experience with doctoral studies in intercultural education gained in America. His long residence in India and mastery of the language there provides further necessary tools to engage in this intercultural study. As an Asian, it can be argued that he brings a unique perspective to the matter of culture as it affects learning. Dr. Yim has carefully bounded his study and diligently followed his research plan in order to come to sound conclusions about his assumptions. His work provides a glimpse into a functioning Indian secondary school

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Foreword

while examining the variables he has laid out for testing in his field research. We are indebted to him for his effort and add his study to our growing understanding of intercultural education. Donald E. Douglas Professor Emeritus School of Intercultural Studies Biola University

Chapter One

Theories of Learning Styles

Educators recognize that some students learn better one way than another. Some students learn better in the morning, some learn better in the afternoon. Some students are more analytical, some are more relational. Some are good at taking written tests, others excel in verbal exams. This diversity is explained by theories of learning styles, a term that reflects the truth that individuals differ significantly in the way they think, process, remember, and organize information. The necessity of the concept of learning styles is widely supported.1 Learning styles can be defined in different ways. In general, researchers put learning styles into three components: cognitive, affective, and physiological.2

COGNITIVE LEARNING STYLE Different definitions for the term learning style are found in the literature. In the earlier days of this type of research, the term cognitive style was used rather than learning style, and cognitive style was used in several different ways. Firstly, it was used to describe characteristic cognitive ways of functioning that were revealed through one’s perceptual and intellectual activities in a highly consistent and pervasive way. Secondly, it described a super-ordinate construct involved in many cognitive operations that accounted for individual differences in a variety of cognitive, perceptual, and personality variables. Thirdly, it described intrinsic information processing patterns that represented a person’s typical way of perceiving, remembering, thinking, and problem solving.3 Cognitive style is an individual’s preferred way of learning and tends to remain stable over time and across domains. Messick defined cognitive styles as the way the learner perceives the way to think and remember, and the way to solve problems.4 Rieff evaluates Messick in the following way: “Messick 1

2

Chapter One

distinguishes cognitive style from general cognitive abilities for the following reasons: style focuses on ‘how I learn,’ and abilities focus on ‘what I learn.’”5 Some researchers put David Kolb’s learning style model, field dependence and field independence, brain theory, and Gardner’s multiple intelligences under cognitive style categories.6 Learning styles can be identified and classified in various ways.

KOLB’S LEARNING STYLE INVENTORY Kolb’s learning style inventory has been developed as an instrument to measure cognitive or information processing. This is built on the work of Dewey,7 which focused on learning by experience. It also follows Lewin’s active learning theory and combines the input from Piaget,8 who describes learning through the interaction of environment. Kolb’s Learning Style Inventory measures how much the learner depends on four different learning models that compare a four-stage experiential learning cycle. Kolb’s9 four-stage cycle begins with concrete experience (CE). This focuses on full involvement in the experience. The second stage is reflective observation (RO). This is thinking about the experience from different perspectives through observation. The third stage is abstract conceptualization (AC), using logic and ideas to create generalization and theories to solve the problem. The last stage is active experimentation (AE). This requires active involvement and testing with practical means in order to change situations. The focus is on getting things done rather than observing. The four modes of learning are each distinctive: (CE) Type of person prefers learning by feeling (RO) Type of person prefers learning by watching (AC) Type of person prefers learning by thinking (AE) Type of person prefers learning by doing. Kolb10 built upon his learning cycle theory and developed four learning styles. The four types are: Diverger, Assimilator, Converger, and Accommodator. Susabda11 describes the characteristics of the four learning styles as follows: Diverger: (CE/RO) The learning style type in which sensing/feeling and watching are the dominant learning activities. Converger: (AC/AE) The learning style type in which thinking and doing are the dominant learning activities. Assimilator: (AC/RO) The learning style type in which thinking and watching are the dominant learning activities.

Theories of Learning Styles

3

Accommodator: (AE/CE) The learning style in which sensing/feeling and doing are the dominant learning activities. Convergers benefit from practicing applications of ideas and like to deal with technical problems rather than interpersonal ones. Claxton and Murrell state, “Their strengths are the opposite of the divergers and they are called convergers because, when presented with a question or task, they move quickly to find the one correct answer.”12 Divergers are the opposite of convergers. Divergers’ greatest strength is in their imaginative ability.13 Divergers are good at generating ideas and brainstorming. Divergers are more people oriented and emotional. Assimilators’ greatest strength is their ability to make theoretical models. They are not very interested in people and are more concerned about abstract concepts.14 The last group is accommodators. They are the opposite of the assimilators, as they are the risk-takers.15 They like to try new experiences and adapt well in new circumstances. Accommodators prefer using trial and error when solving problems.16 Habermas and Issler17 make some suggestions for effective teaching methods for the different learning styles that Kolb presents. The diverger is more imaginative and therefore should have more group activities and variety. Assimilators are more analytical in their learning and the teacher should focus on facts and organizational presentations. Convergers are commonsense learners, and the teacher should focus on practical activities that will be relevant to life. The accommodators are dynamic learners and students who prefer hands-on, trial-and-error activities. Kolb18 created the Learning Style Inventory. It is a self-report instrument based on his four modes of learning styles. The purpose of the inventory is to promote individual awareness of personal learning styles and alternative modes. Kolb stated that “Individual styles of learning are complex and not easily reducible into simple typologies.”19 The Learning Style Inventory is meant to describe general patterns of individuality in learning. According to Kolb, learning styles can change during growth and maturation of a student.20 In this regard he agrees with Piaget’s theory of cognitive development. Kolb also acknowledges the impact of culture on learning style: “Cultural experience plays a major role in the development and expression of cognitive functioning.”21 Therefore, when Kolb’s Learning Style Inventory Test is used overseas you must be aware of the cultural factor. Ferrel22 validated the Kolb Learning Style Inventory when he compared it with the other learning style instruments. This is important, as it shows that the Learning Style Inventory can be used both here and abroad. Recently the Kolb Learning Style Inventory was also used and validated in Asia.23

4

Chapter One

FIELD DEPENDENCE AND INDEPENDENCE Another way to define learning styles is by the categories of field dependence and field independence. Herman Witkin is called the father of field dependence/field independence.24 Witkin, Dyke, Fatterson, Goodenough, and Karp25 discovered that the individual learning styles are able to function in a differentiated or undifferentiated manner. It appears that the person who is differentiated in one area will be undifferentiated in another area. From Witkin’s perspective,26 field dependence or field independence is value neutral. Each style has its own strengths and weaknesses. Field dependence and field independence have the same intellectual capacity, but the preference of learning may be different. Susabda27 found that field independent individuals tend to be more analytical and are better at picking up and using social cues. Reiff addresses the characteristics of field dependent and field independent students. Reiff28 states that field dependent students: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Are global Have more difficulty isolating a shape from a surrounding area Benefit from cooperative learning Need strategies to help organize and comprehend material (analogies, outlines, color cues) 5. Need a teacher to model how to organize information 6. Have problems with crowded or busy worksheets Field independent students 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Are analytical Can isolate a shape from a surrounding area Are more internally motivated Have more cognitive flexibility Like internally independent projects

Saracho29 found that field independent students tend to prefer math and science, while field dependents tend to prefer studying the humanities and the social studies. This reflects that field independents are more analytical and linear in their thinking, and field dependents are more relational. Castaneda and Gray30 found that field independent students prefer to work independently, are task oriented, and like competition. However, field dependent students are opposite in that prefer teamwork and helping each other, and they are more sensitive to others and more emotional. Berry31 explained how cultural factors influence the learning styles of field dependent and field independent learners. Berry believes each culture has different characteristics of family and

Theories of Learning Styles

5

child-rearing practices that impact the socialization of cognitive style. Witkin and Berry generally support this theory. Witkin and Berry stated: The evidence from these studies together suggests that a relatively field dependent cognitive style . . . is likely to be prevalent in social settings characterized by insistence on adherence to authority both in society and in the family, but the use of strict or even harsh socialization practices to enforce this conformance, and by tight social organization. In contrast, a relatively Field Independent cognitive style . . . is likely to be prevalent in social settings which are more encouraging of autonomous functioning, which are more lenient in their child rearing practices, and which are loose in their social organization.32

Witkin developed three kinds of tests to identify cognitive learning style differences. These tests are the Rod and Frame Test, The Body Adjustment Test, and The Embedded Figure Test. Reiff states that the Embedded Figure Test can be taken universally without geographical boundaries: “the Embedded Figure Test is nonverbal, which makes it appropriate to use across cultures.”33 This test asks students to find geometric figures, which they have seen previously, in a more complex figure. Cohen used the terms analytic and relational to describe field dependence and field independence. Cohen viewed field independent students as more analytical, capable of deep concentration, and reflective. Socially, they are more isolated. Analytical learners are more focused on parts of objects. Analytical students also view the teacher as a source of information but not necessarily as a confidante or partner. Relationships with the teacher are not sought. However, relational type students are opposite. Relational students are more holistic. They may be weak in concentration but enjoy social integration. Relational students view the teacher as a person with whom another relationship can be established.34 Cohen discovered that learning style can influence student performance. He analyzes four types of learners:35 1. High relational pupils: poor school performance; achievers or underachievers 2. High analytical pupils: good school achievers 3. Middle-range relational and analytical pupils: middle-range achievers 4. High analytic and High field dependent pupils: middle-range achievers who demonstrate conflicting responses and confusion Witkin agrees with Cohen’s view. Recent research supports their theories.36 Gupta believes that field dependent students are more global and field independent are more analytical. Researchers Huang37 and Wallace38 found that culture, age, and gender impact a student’s learning styles. For example, Wallace found that African Americans would show more field dependence

6

Chapter One

than European Americans, and females would show a cognitive style and personal interaction pattern that was more field dependent than males.39 Gray and Lingenfelter40 found that illiterate people are more field dependent or relational. Relational people need models to copy. Relational thinking is more efficient for learning most routine knowledge and tasks outside of school. For example, when it comes to domestic habits, family and group relationships determine analytical or relational styles. Therefore, cultures emphasizing tradition and continuity are more likely to be relational. Casteneda, Herold, and Ramirez41 use field sensitive styles to describe field dependent learners. Field dependent students are impacted by the socialization practices of the parents. This will happen when society focuses on respect for the family, political authority, and strong family ties. Authoritarian societies tend to produce more field dependent people. They suggested that traditional classroom arrangements with desks in rows were fine, but field sensitive learners would prefer small tables and activity centers. It appears that big classes are not beneficial to field sensitive students. Field dependent students need much more attention and space to learn. Experiential learning may meet their needs better because experiential learning focuses on learning by doing and is student centered. Kagan42 used the term reflectiveness to describe field independent learners and implusiveness to describe field dependent learners. He used the matching familiar figures test to assess individual differences in the speed of learning. Twelve pictures are shown in the test, only one of which is correct. Impulsive students seem to hurry and make decisions to select the correct picture, but the reflective tend to take a longer time to think about it, and end up producing more correct solutions than the impulsives. Gardener, Holzman, Klein, Linton, and Spence43 use the schematizing test to evaluate individual differences in memory processing. Each subject is requested to judge in inches the sizes of 150 squares successively projected on a screen. Field independent learners seem to be more sharpening and field dependent learners are more leveling. Kagan and Krathwohl44 divided learners into two areas: scanning and focusing. They gave a test to examine whether students preferred to focus on the details of a learning situation. The students who did were described as focusers. On the other hand, they determined that scanners are those who tended to piece together the larger picture. This is similar to Hoilman and Kindell,45 who put learners in categories of global and linear. Davis states, “Global learners tend to be skilled in understanding the large picture and in relating wholes to each other.”46 Scanner and global learners can see the big picture, but focusers and linears can see details. Recent researcher Huang47 found out that field dependence and field independence are related with leveling/shaping, scanning/focusing, global/linear,

Theories of Learning Styles

7

and impulsive/reflective. In the literature,48 researchers found that learning styles are often opposite of each other. However, a student can adapt to the teacher’s expectation.

OXFORD STYLE ANALYSIS SURVEY Oxford’s Style Analysis is another instrument to examine student learning style preference. The purpose of the test is to examine the student’s preferred method for learning a language.49 Oxford develops different strategies for learners to learn the new language, according to their style preference. In her Style Analysis Survey, she puts learners in four categories, as shown below: 1. Analytic and Global In her survey test, Oxford put Analytic and Global learning in a pair of learning styles. Analytical students move toward very specific details during the time of their studies. Learners emphasize regulation and structures, but are weak at interactive activities. Oxford points out that analytic learners perform well on tests. In contrast to analytical learners, global learners are weak in detail and exams but in free writing they are more creative.50 2. Auditory and Visual and Hands-on Style Preference Visual-oriented learners will process information better if a picture and objects are presented. It will be a disadvantage to these students if teachers only give oral lectures. This is in contrast with the auditory students, who are good at learning through hearing, and hands-on learners, who learn better when they work with real objects. 3. Closure and Open Style Preference Closure-style learners lack flexibility. They like to follow rules and regulations. Open-style learners do not care about rules and regulations. They are more flexible when they learn, and they enjoy discussions and activities. 4. Intuitive and Concrete-Sequential Style Intuitive learners are more creative and filled with new ideas. It is hard for them to follow procedures. Concrete-sequential learners learn better when concrete facts are given. They are good at following step-by-step patterns of learning.

8

Chapter One

BRAIN THEORY In the early 1860s, some researchers found that damage to one hemisphere of the brain would impact certain parts of specific abilities.51 Language function would be lost if the left cerebral hemisphere was damaged. Visual spatial recognition would be affected if the right cerebral hemisphere was damaged. Sperry’s52 experiments of two cerebral hemispheres on animals led to his split brain theory. Sperry discovered that the left and right hemispheres of the brain process information differently. The left and right brain theory has received much attention. Davis53 describes the different characteristics of left and right brain hemisphere.

THE CHARACTERISTICS OF LEFT AND RIGHT BRAIN HEMISPHERES54 Left Hemisphere Language Symbolism and abstraction Fine temporal order judgments Time consciousness sequencing Analysis: figuring things out step by step Right Hemisphere Spatial relations Concrete representation Grouping of parts into whole Perceiving patterns and structures Simultaneous processing Analogic: seeing likenesses between thing The left hemisphere tends to be more analytical and logical. This way of thinking is more linear and sequential, and the process is step-by-step. On the other hand, the right hemisphere is good at image processing and is more holistic. Hatcher said, “We know that the right brain cannot verbalize what it knows and the left brain is unable to create meaning or generate new ideas.”55 Reiff views student learning with the whole brain a necessity. Learners do not use only one hemisphere, even though learners may have a preference of processing strategies. Literature56 confirms that both hemispheres are equally essential to the learner. McCarthy57 used his 4MAT to test the learner’s par-

Theories of Learning Styles

9

ticular preference of which hemisphere to use. His model divides right and left hemispheric tendencies on each of the four quadrants of the brain. McCarthy followed David Kolb’s learning style inventory and developed a model of four kinds of learners. They are innovative learners, analytical learners, commonsense learners, and dynamic learners. Right-brain learners are more experiential and intuitive, and they prefer hands-on learning and group studies. Commonsense learners and dynamic learners are in this group. The left-brain learners are more systematic and analytical; they look for meaning and are more independent learners. Analytical learners and innovative learners belong to this group. Another researcher, Lewis Chambers, further developed McCarthy’s theory and identifies the relationship of these four modes of learners. Lewis summarizes McCarthy’s findings as follows: 1. More students were right mode dominant than left mode dominant. 2. Each of the four learning style quadrants had right mode, left mode, and whole-brained students. 3. These brain dominance characteristics are related to age and educational experience in some complex interaction. 4. The relationship between the concrete and the right mode and the abstract and the left mode is a strong one.58 Research59 has found that educational systems do not encourage right-brain thinkers. Right-brain thinkers or holistic thinkers are usually described as failures. Educators should recognize the differences between learning styles and motivate students to reach their full potential. As Reiff believes, each hemisphere is equally important. The theory of multiple intelligences was introduced by Howard Gardner in his book Frames of Mind.60 Gardner discovered that the educational system and society reinforce certain types of intelligence. Intelligence can be defined differently according to an individual’s culture and social values. Certain cognitive and intellectual functions can be linked to specific physical areas of the brain, but most tasks depend on more than one area of the brain. Development is shaped by environment. Therefore, culture affects skills acquired and has a dominant role in shaping intelligence. Gardner’s multiple intelligences are classified in seven areas: (1) linguistic: the intelligence of syntax and phonology; (2) musical: the intelligence of pitch, rhythm, timbre; (3) mathematical logical: the intelligence of number, abstraction; (4) spatial, the intelligence of the visual world such as pictures and images; (5) bodily kinesthetic: the intelligence of body motions control; (6) personal: the intelligence of understanding self; and (7) interpersonal: the intelligence of understanding others.

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Chapter One

Gardner holds that intelligence ought to be defined more broadly than it usually is: “We need to broaden our notion of what can be considered intelligence, in terms of both individual and cultural components.”61 Lewis believes that people do not have only one type of intelligence, but that culture and social values may condition students to pursue only one type. Also noted was the fact that some practical intelligences are hard to measure with tests and examinations.62

MIND STYLES, AFFECTIVE STYLES, AND PHYSIOLOGICAL STYLES Anthony Gregorc63 differentiated four patterns of thinking styles. This is similar to Kolb’s learning style model. He defined four kinds of learners: (1) concrete sequential learners, (2) abstract sequential learners, (3) abstract random learners, and (4) concrete random learners. All learners can demonstrate all four patterns to a certain degree, but learners tend to prefer one or two patterns. Lewis64 summarized the characteristics of the four mind styles and the support needed of learners. Concrete sequential learners are organized, efficient, and task-oriented. They do best with structure, detail, and realistic situations. Abstract sequential learners are theoretical and critical. They like independent study, ideas, and analysis. Abstract random learners are imaginative, emotional, and interpretive. They like teaching that includes communication, illustration, and peer teaching. Concrete random learners are experiential, independent, and risk-taking. They prefer open-ended activities and experimentation. The Ability Inventory65 is a self-report instrument designed by Gregorc. It consists of 40 words in 10 sets of four words. Each student selects the one that best describes them. Gregorc advocated that teachers adjust their teaching styles to match student learning styles. He believed long-term mismatching would create a lot of learning barriers for students. Habermas and Issler66 describe affective style as tending to deal more with attention, motivation, emotion, and needs. All are related to personality traits. Keefe67 classifies this into two areas: the elements of attention and the elements of incentive. The Conceptual Level Inventory was developed by Hunt and Associates.68 A low conceptual level learner needs high structure. A high conceptual level indicates a need for less structure. Reiff69 holds that high conceptual level learners tend to be more independent. Teachers should use the discovery approach, problem solving, and individual projects to challenge high conceptual level learners. For the low conceptual level learners, he comments: In the classroom, students at the low conceptual level regard the environment as more fixed and rigid: they are not able to look at alternative solutions to problems. They need more structure and direction because they are not too in-

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11

dependent or adaptive. Appropriate teaching strategies for these students would include programmed or sequenced learning, direct instruction, and computer assisted instruction.70

There are four different conceptual levels. In level one, learners have their own fixed patterns of belief. Information is rejected if it is not in their thinking pattern. In level two, learners can have a hard time seeing other viewpoints because of their own rigid rules and beliefs. Also, these learners have problems with interpersonal relations. In level three, learners begin to accept other people’s viewpoints. Interpersonal skills are better in this stage. In level four, learners can build new belief systems and are able to balance task and interpersonal skills.71 From the motivation perspective, Holliday and Smith72 believe that highly motivated students are more independent and have better performance. Low motivated students are more dependent and perceive themselves as less responsible. Low motivated students need alternative teaching approaches such as visual materials and educational activities. Dunn and Dunn73 advise teachers to use different ways to teach motivated and unmotivated students. Teachers should inform the motivated students of the requirements of assignments and how the assignments can be graded. However, unmotivated students should be treated differently. They should have short assignments and resources. This could foster their perceptual strength. There are four elements that impact physiological style. Reiff74 summarizes them as: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Environmental: sound, light, temperature, design Emotional: motivation, persistence, responsibility, structure Sociological: self, pair, peers, team, adult Physical: perceptual, intake, time, mobility

Dunn and Dunn75 found that individual learners have their own perceptual preference (visual, auditory, tactile); physical environment needs (light, temperature, sound); social environment preferences (alone, team); and even a preference for the time of day (morning, afternoon, evening). They identify twenty-one different learning styles. They put the cognitive, affective, and physiological all together and develop this multidimensional mode.

NOTES 1. K. Dunn and R. Dunn, Teaching Secondary Students through Their Individual Learning Styles (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1993); D.S. Claxton and Murrell, Learning Styles: Implications for Improving Educational Practices (Washington DC: Association

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Chapter One

for Study of Higher Education, 1987); David Kolb, Experiential Learning (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1984). 2. Judith Reiff, Learning Styles (Washington DC: NEA Professional Library, 1991). 3. Claxton and Murrell, Learning Styles. 4. S. Messick, Individuality in Learning (San Francisco: Jossey Bass, 1976). 5. Reiff, Learning Styles, 8. 6. Reiff, Learning Styles; Jim Reynolds, “Learning Style Characteristics,” Tech. Prep. Clearing House 68, no. 5 (May/June 1995): 317–319. 7. John Dewey, Experience and Education (New York: Macmillan, 1938). 8. J. Piaget, The Origins of Intelligence in Children (New York: International University Press, 1952). 9. Kolb, Experiential Learning. 10. David Kolb, The Learning Style Inventory (Boston: McBer, 1979). 11. Esther Susabda, The Relationship between Matched/Mismatched Student Learning Styles with Faculty Teaching Styles and Academic Performance among Christian Secondary Students in Southern California (Ph.D. dissertation: Biola University, 1992), 15. 12. Claxton & Murrell, Learning Styles. 13. Claxton & Murrell, Learning Styles, Susabda, Relationship. 14. Claxton & Murrell, Learning Styles. 15. Susabda, Relationship. 16. Claxton & Murrell, Learning Styles. 17. Ronald Habermas and Klass Isslar, Teaching for Reconciliation (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Books, 1992). 18. Kolb, The Learning Style Inventory. 19. Kolb, Experiential Learning, 66. 20. Kolb, Experiential Learning. 21. Kolb, Experiential Learning, 67. 22. B. G. Ferrel, “A Factor Analytic Comparison of Four Learning Style Instruments,” Journal of Educational Psychology 75, no. 1 (1983): 33–39. 23. Alan Algee, A Composition of Learning Styles between Asian and American Seminary Students (Ph.D. dissertation, Nova University, 1993); Nai Ming Tsang, Learning Styles and Associated Leraning Barriers on a Social Work Course in Hong Kong (Ph.D. dissertation, Council for National Academic Awards, Hong Kong University, 1990). 24. Reiff, Learning Styles. 25. H. Witkin, R. Dyke, H. Fatterson, D. Goodenough, S. Karp, Psychological Differentiation: Studies in Development (New York: Wiley, 1962). 26. Herman A. Witkin, “The Problem of Individuality in Development,” in Perspectives in Psychological Theory, ed. S. Wapner and B. Kaplan (New York: International University Press, 1962), 335–361. 27. Susabda, Relationship. 28. Reiff, Learning Styles, 15. 29. O. Saracho, “The Match and Mismatch of Teachers and Students Cognitive Styles,” Early Childhood Development and Care 54, no. 1 (1989): 99–109.

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30. Alfredo Castaneda and Tracy Gray, “Bicognitive Processes in Multicultural Education,” Educational Leadership 32 (1974): 203–207. 31. John Berry, Cross-Cultural Psychology: Research and Applications (New York: Cambridge, 1992). 32. John Berry and H. A. Witkin, “Psychological Differentiation in Cross-Cultural Perspectives,” Journal of Cross Cultural Psychology 3, no. 1 (1975):46. 33. Reiff, Learning Styles, 14. 34. Rosalie Cohen, “The Relation between Social Conceptual Styles and Orientation to School Requirements,” Journal of Educational Psychology 41, no. 2 (1968): 201–220. 35. Cohen, “Relation between,” 209. 36. Anand Bibart Gupta, The Effect of Field Dependent and Field Independent Cognitive Styles on the Learning Effectiveness of Post-Secondary Students within a Hypermedia Environment (Ph.D. dissertation, George State University, 1995). 37. Jianyi Huang, The Relationship of Cognitive styles, Cognitive Profiles, and Thinking Styles among Selected Chinese and North American Adult Students in Higher Education (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Wyoming, 1993). 38. Joyce Ruth Wallace, Cognitive Style Preferences among Male and Female African-American and European American Students in Specialized Middle Magnet Schools (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Missouri, 1993). 39. Wallace, Cognitive Style Preferences. 40. Clair Gray and Judith Lingenfelter, “The Importance of Learning Styles in Literacy,” Notes on Literacy 36 (1981): 11–17. 41. Alfredo Castaneda, Leslie P. Herold, and Manuel Ramirez, Field Sensitive and Field Independent Teaching Strategies (Riverside, CA: Systems and Evaluation in Education, 1974). 42. J. Kagan, “Information Processing in the Child: Significance of Analytic and Reflective Attitudes,” Psychological Monographs, 78 (1964): 1. 43. R. Gardner, P. Holzman, G. Klein, D. Linton, and D. Spencer “A Study of Individual Consistancies in Cognitive Behavior,” Psychologial Issues, monograph 4 (New York: International Press, 1959). 44. Norman Kagan and David Krathwohl, Learning Strategies Questionnaire (Washington, D.C.: HEW Bureau of Research, 1967). 45. Pamela Hollman and Gloria Kindell, Lesson Plan Using Global Teaching Strategies (Green, England: Summer Institute of Linguistics, 1992). 46. Patricia Davis, Cognition and Learning (Dallas: SIL, 1991), 54. 47. Huang, Relationship. 48. Davis, Cognition; Kagan, Information Processing; Howard Gardner, Multiple Intelligence (New York: Basic Books, 1993); Hollman and Kindell, Lesson Plan. 49. Joy Reid, Language and Learning Styles in the ESL/EFL Classroom (Boston: Heinle & Heinle, 1992). 50. Rebecca Oxford and R. Scarcella, The Tapestry of Language Learning (Boston: Heinle & Heinle, 1992). 51. B. Edwards, Drawing on the Right Side of the Brain (Los Angeles: J.P. Tarcher, 1979).

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52. R. W. Sperry, Mental Unity Following Surgical Disconnection of the Cerebral Hemispheres: Harvey Lecture Series 2 (New York: Academic Press, 1968). 53. Davis, Cognition. 54. Davis, Cognition, 50. 55. M. Hatcher, “Whole Brain Learning,” The School Administrator 40, no. 5 (1983): 8–11. 56. Jerre Levy, “Children Think with Whole Brain Myth and Reality,” in Student Learning Styles and Brain Behavior, ed. Jerre Levy (Reston, VT: National Association of Secondary School Principals, 1992); Reiff, Learning Styles. 57. Bernice McCarthy, The 4MAT System (Barrington, IL: EXCEL, 1980). 58. Anne Chambers Lewis, Learning Styles: Putting Research and Common Sense into Practice (Arlington, VA: American Association of School Administrators, 1991), 25. 59. Davis, Cognition; L. A. Hart, “The New Brain Concept of Learning,” Phi Delta Kappan 59, no. 6 (1978): 504–506; Reiff, Learning Styles. 60. Howard Gardner, Frames of Mind (New York: Basic Books, 1983). 61. Gardner 1993 (p. 236). 62. Lewis, Learning Styles. 63. Anthony Gegorc, An Adult Guide to Style (Maynard, MA: Gabriel Systems, 1979). 64. Lewis, Learning Styles. 65. Gregorc, An Adult Guide. 66. Habermas and Issler, Teaching. 67. J. Keefe, Learning Style: Theory and Practice (Reston, VA: National Association of Secondary School Principals, 1979). 68. J. Butler, D. Hunt, L. Noy, and M. Rosser, Assessing Conceptual Level by the Paragraph Completion Method: Informal Series 3 (Toronto: Ontario Institute of Studies in Education, 1977). 69. Reiff, Learning Styles. 70. Reiff, Learning Styles, 23. 71. Reiff, Learning Styles. 72. P. Holliday and L. Smith, “Learning Style and Academic Achievement in Fourth, Fifth, and Sixth Grade Students,” Focus on Learning Problems in Mathematics, report no. EJ361661 (ERIC Document Reproduction Service no. ED 272 527, 1986). 73. Dunn and Dunn, Teaching Secondary. 74. Dunn and Dunn, Teaching Secondary, 9. 75. Dunn and Dunn, Teaching Secondary.

Chapter Two

Historical Development of Indian Education

A review of the history of Indian education and the number of researchers involved in studying students’ learning styles demonstrates the importance of the topic. The beliefs of the majority culture can impact a student’s learning style. In the case of India, Hinduism is the majority religion, and the literature shows that strong Hindu values, and in particular the value of Karma in the culture, has penetrated Indian education over the centuries and up to modern times.

EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA Traditional Indian education was viewed as the instrument for self-realization and is related to early Hindu culture.1 An archaeologist discovered an early city on the river Indus in Sind. This period is called the Indus Valley Civilization. Archaeologists found some early figures of goddesses and a seated figure of a male god.2 The valley civilization did not leave any inscriptions describing their society and schooling, but scholars think the early discovery of the Hindu god and goddesses give meaning to the forms of traditional education. The Valley Civilization, or Harappa culture, lasted for a thousand years until the Aryans invaded India.

ARYAN PERIOD The most important traditions of early Indian education began with the Aryan period. It was during this time that people were speaking Sanskrit, an 15

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Indo-Aryan language. Education in the Aryan period was exclusively for the Brahmins, known as the priestly class. Later this was extended to Kshariiyas (soldiers). One traditional Hindu ritual is the Upanayana, or thread ceremony. This ceremony is described in early Hindu literature and was required for all Aryans to learn. The local people were called Dasyas or Shudras, which means “servant,” and Aryans looked down on them. Under the Aryans, the Shudras had no right to education. The priests usually kept busy with performing ceremonies. The priests were also teachers. Usually young students had to stay with the priests to learn to recite the hymns of the gods and goddesses, which are called Vedas. The collection of hymns is known as the Rig Veda, and it was memorized and recited by one generation to the next. There were also long poems written about warriors and kings, known as the Ramayan and the Mahabharata. Because it was compulsory to recite the Vedas, Aryan students practiced and had good memories. During the Upanayana (thread ceremony) all the children, including boys and girls, began their education. The family would invite a guru (teacher) to come to their house and teach their children. The teacher system was introduced, but usually all education was related to learning the Vedas in order to praise their gods. The Aryans believed that the gods would be pleased by worshipers singing religious hymns and offering sacrifices. The children had to learn with their guru until they reached marrying age. Then some men became the priests of their family and performed all the religious duties and sacrifices. Students at that period spent a large amount of time as apprentices.3 In the Vedic period, education was available for only three classes: priests, soldiers, and craftsmen. The fourth (untitled) class was not entitled to the vedic ritual. Brahmin refers to a very pure caste, and the untouchable refers to the most polluting caste. The system forbade any social interaction among different castes. There was no mass education. The Shrudras and untouchables were denied this right, and many low caste and out caste people were illiterate. Aryans used the caste system to create a superior position. The Hindi term for caste, varia, also refers to color. It indicates the high castes were white. Aryans despised and looked down upon darker skinned natives.4 The caste system hindered the development of education. The early caste system was quite complex and rigid. Certain jobs belonged to certain castes, and a person’s name, norms, and conduct would indicate their likelihood of obtaining an education in the future. Gradually, Aryans dictated that only the high caste Brahmin had the right to practice Hindu ceremonies and sacrifice offerings. This severely limited anyone else from having a chance at education. The characteristics of the Vedic age’s education focused on the following: (a) The role of the teacher was like that of a god. The teacher was a priest

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and helped the student to fulfill the religious duties. (b) The teaching content was focused on the Vedas, religious hymns, and books. (c) Students learned from rote memorization. (d) The opportunities for learning were meant only for the upper priesthood caste. In the Vedic period, the aim of knowledge was to obtain the higher knowledge of reasoning in order to achieve self-realization. Worldly desires and enjoyments were viewed as ignorance and were discouraged. “Ignorance is the cause of human bondage which can be dispelled by wisdom alone. If all the worldly desires are given up, a mortal becomes immortal.”5 There were three clear steps to higher knowledge according to the Upanishada, or Hindu scripture. The Brihadaranyak Upanishad clearly states that education in the highest knowledge depends upon three processes, in order: (1) Sravana, (2) Manana, and (3) Nidhidhyasana. Sravana is listening to what is said by the teacher. Mancina is defined as constant contemplation of the one reality in accordance with the ways of reason aiding in its apprehension. Nidihyasana is concentrated contemplation of the truth so as to realize it.6 The purpose of education was to help students develop analytical skills that would lead to a good life.7

BUDDHISM AND JAINISM After the Vedic age, Buddhism and Jainism came into focus, changing India’s education. People felt dissatisfied with Hinduism because the Vedic religion focused on many rites and sacrifices. Worship became a big show, and people followed Buddha and Jainism or became ascetics. School at this time was centered around the monasteries. They found Buddha objected to the caste system, and when their people preached, Jain followers used the common language of the local people. This opened the door for more people to receive education. Monks became teachers and monasteries became schools. Furthermore, the monks of Buddhism and Jainism liked to travel from place to place, and wealthy merchants donated money to build monasteries. This enhanced the education of different castes in many parts of India. Jain followers insisted that their faith should be based on right faith, right knowledge, and right action.8 This led education to emphasize the student’s character development. At that time, several kings, such as Ashoka and Gupta, loved poets. They also encouraged poets, writers, scientists, and artists to contribute to society. In their view, education should not consist only of reciting rituals. Multiple intelligence development began to be promoted. The most distinctive elements of the education in this period were: (a) Monks were teachers and monasteries were schools; (b) education was more common and open for all; (c) character development was of the same importance

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as reciting and chanting hymns; and (d) students started to learn science, art, writing, and poetry.

CHOLA PERIOD After the popularity of Buddhism and Jainism, the Brahmins tried to improve and strengthen Hinduism. In that period, the Indian kingdoms were divided into the North and South, and the Chola kings were the most powerful. The kings and rich people tried to restore Hinduism and contributed a lot of money and land for building temples in every village. The temples were not only used for worship, there were also used for schools. The schools were held in the courtyard of the temple, and the students used two languages to learn their lessons. One was Sanskrit, the language of the Vedas, and the other language was Tamil, a very common language during the Chola kingdom. The famous Ramayana was adapted to Tamil, and many poems were also written in Tamil. New teachings about Hindu worship were introduced by Ramanuja. He taught that the worship of god consisting of Bhakti (loving other people and devotion to god) and loving others rather than only reciting the prayers after the priest. In his teaching, there was no high caste or low caste. During the Chola period, the character development of students emphasized Bhakti and the purpose of education still focused on their knowledge to praise and to love others. Religion and education could not be separated. At the same time, the education in the north was very similar to the south. However, only the high caste children learned from the priest during this period, and science declined because of superstition. Astronomy was mixed up with superstition and became astrology. Medical knowledge was stopped because it was said that anyone who touched a dead body would lose caste.9 Superstitious ideas penetrated into Indian education. Because the northern kings built a lot of temples, the insides and outsides were filled with images of Hindu gods and goddesses in painting or carvings. Therefore, the paintings and architecture were famous, but the student’s learning was mixed with superstition, because fear was a part of their learning. Priests as teachers could bruise the student’s soul and punish their physical body if they disobeyed the teacher’s rules.

MUGHAL PERIOD When the Arabs invaded Western India, Islam was brought to India and opened the tension between Muslims and Hindus. The impact on Indian

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education under the Mughal rulers dictated that no Muslim could attend an institution run by Hindus. According to Alexander,10 Muslim education was similar to Hindu education. The school was usually within the mosque and was called the maqtaba. The purpose of teaching children in the mosques was similar to the Hindus—to educate their children in their own religion. The boys and girls learned the Holy Quran. There was a place of higher education called the madrassalis. This was for training professionals such as priests, judges, and doctors. At the time of King Aurangzeb, Muslims were forbidden from attending a Hindu educational institution.11 At that time people used Hindi and Urdu, the new language that was understood by both Hindus and Muslims. The court used the Persian language. Alexander12 summarizes the similarities of Hindu and Muslim education as follows: (a) Education was religion centered. (b) The forests and the countryside were the centers of education. (c) Though primarily devoted to the study of religion and philosophy, it encouraged the study of many intellectual and aesthetic activities like mathematics, astronomy, grammar, and politics. (d) The system laid down certain well-defined norms of behavior and patterns of thought; it strove to build up the personality of the student and infused in him a sense of character. (e) Teachers took to teaching for the love of learning. (f) There was no set machinery of educational administration.

EDUCATION IN MODERN INDIA India entered into the modern period at the time of the British conquest. From that moment, Indian education turned a new chapter as the British brought their own educational system into India. There were some new types of schools introduced at this time. English was the medium of instruction, especially in the southern part of India such as Madras, Bengal, and Bombay. Most of these schools were run by Christian missionaries, and the old education system suffered under the new British company rule. The old system focused on training students in classical languages such as Sanskrit, Arabic, and Persian. There was tension regarding what would be the medium of instruction and a debate on the issue of whether to have mass education or education only for a certain class of people. From the Indian perspective, the coming of the British brought the decline of the goal of mass education.13 At that time, the government took over land from Indian rulers that had previously been used for education. The land being taken away was considered the reason that mass education was neglected. It was argued that the size of the population made it impossible to adopt mass education. Some people suggested the government should allow the upper

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class to receive Westernized education first, and then it would automatically trickle down to the masses. This theory was called the Downward Filtration Theory.14 In 1813, the government sanctioned one lakh (10,000) rupees per year to the development of education, but Indians still continued to debate with British administrators over the type of educational system. Some favored a traditional way, and some favored Western learning. An Indian named Rammohun Roy insisted that only learning could modernize India. In 1835 the government made the decision that English would be the main medium of instruction in a few of the best schools and colleges. The British education system became known as English education. English schools, many of them sponsored by the Christian community, began to mushroom in the major cities of India.15 The British perspective was that using an English medium could help communication and help the new government. Thomas Macaulay’s Minute on education reflects their way of thinking about education for Indians: The aim of the British Government was to create a “class of people who would be Indians in blood and skin but English in spirit.”16 To achieve this aim, the government would educate only select upper class people who had the leisure and means for thorough English education and only Western sciences and English literature would be taught in Indian schools. English alone was fit to be the medium of instruction.17 Macaulay was one of the aggressive advocates of British education for Indians. He presupposed the superiority of Western education compared with nonWestern education and said, “Having become instructed in European knowledge, (Indians) may, in some future age, demand European institutions . . . the imperishable empire of our arts and our morals, our literature and our laws.”18 The government made English education more popular, and government jobs were only offered to Indians who knew English. Many Indians postulated that the new educational system only produced government staff for the British. The majority who spoke their mother tongue were neglected. At that time, 90 percent of Indians still remained illiterate.19 Indian education in one way tried to shift to the British system. More emphasis was put on teacher training and a grading system and class structure were also introduced. However, traditional rote memorization and the role of teacher as a god still remained. The government continued to reform education. In 1854, Charles Wood advocated the grading system through introducing the examination system into India. He encouraged education for girls and established teacher training institutions. This led to systematized educational activities. Indian education was to a great extent an imitation of the British system. The British believed that an English-educated Indian would be more

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cooperative and support the British rule. English education brought Indians into modem ideas of equality, justice, democracy, and nationalism. It also led to the fall of the British rulers. In the British period, education was similar to education in other colonized countries. Education served the needs of the colonial hierarchy and was not identified with Indian culture. Critical thinking was introduced and tests were emphasized. The examination continued to be the focus at the time of de-colonization. Education was only for the elitist, and only the best could survive. Bray and Lee state, “The de-colonization of India was abrupt and chaotic, driven by urgent political expediency and with no time for long-term planning of education or any other sector.”20 Education became mixed with input from Hinduism, Islam, and the British. Illiteracy was a longtime problem of India. During British rule, four out of five villages were without a primary school, and three out of four children did not go to school. Primary education was obviously neglected even as higher education continued to develop. The leaders of the freedom movement created and set up the National Council of Education to oppose British education. In general, English education contributed to the freedom movement by being the link language that brought the different language groups of India together and connected India with the outside world. The involvement of missionaries in education opened the door for girls’ education. Many girls were taught by female missionaries or missionary wives. Also, more girls received training as teachers. English education continued to foster the values of equality and liberty. This inspired India’s independence movement. At the time of independence, Gandhi believed that the goal of education was to create a truthful and non-violent person. The foundation of education was a path to self-realization. The aim of education was to seek the truth. Gandhi criticized the educational system’s neglect of building a student’s character. Manohar considered Gandhi’s criticisms of the educational system at the time of independence: Gandhi held that the educational system alienated students from their own traditional occupation, natural surroundings and indigenous culture. He believed it developed an inferiority complex and self-alienation. Undue emphasis was put on literacy education, at the exclusion of the culture of life-sustaining human values. It ignored the culture of heart and hand. It was too materialistic and hence failed to arouse a sense of social service.21

Gandhi promoted mass education. He believed that all people should have a basic education, and he advocated using the mother tongue for the medium of instruction as a way of preserving culture and tradition. He also promoted craft education to enhance students’ abilities and to learn a skill for survival.

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He also redefined the role of the teacher, pointing out that a teacher was a guide, friend, and philosopher to the students. This view put the teacher and student closer together. Because of Gandhi’s philosophy, free education was introduced, but the illiteracy rate was still high. At that time, only 14 percent of the population was literate, and only one out of three children were enrolled in primary schools.22 State schools were usually poorly equipped in comparison to private schools. In the modern period of India, Swami Dayanand and Rabindranath Tagore contributed to the focus on Hindu culture in education in order to balance the development of Western education in India. Tagore believed education was an inner freedom that enlightened everyone: “The activities of the educational institutions should preserve the cultural heritage of the nation.”23 Swami Dayanand’s perspective was that the aims of education were to lead to moksha, or salvation. Swami Dayanand put knowledge into two categories: “knowledge helps to distinguish between the permanent and temporary, the true and the false, the pure and the impure.”24 Swami Dayanand also believed in the transmigration of the soul. He believed that because of ignorance, the human soul is in bondage and needs education to gain freedom from the bondage of the world.25 In India today, about 80 percent of the children go through an education process of inferior quality provided mostly by government schools, and about 20 percent benefit from a comparatively higher standard of education offered by private agencies. The children from the poor families in some rural and in all urban areas go to inferior schools where they are made to see themselves as less well dressed, as belonging to a lower level of education, and as ones who will not do well in exams.26 The advent of English medium schools prevented upper caste students from mingling with the poor, thus dividing the society into a hidden caste system. India has just recently celebrated the fiftieth anniversary of independence. The educational system now is more focused on the examination system. Some students vomit at the time of examination because the pressure is so great. Many students cannot eat or sleep before exams, and many students take extra tutorial classes to prepare for the examination. Manohar27 called this educational system a textbook-oriented educational system. Students have a very heavy load of textbooks, which they are told to use to memorize all the facts without understanding the text. Parents and schools place a lot of pressure on students to get good grades. Parents want their children to be competent to make money. The future social status of their children depends greatly on English medium schools. Gaining status in society is given priority over service to society. Material success is

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viewed as the most important acquisition. Manohar believed these types of schools prepare children for these types of success but do not teach them how to face a failure or disappointment.28 Research supports that culture and family expectations make the student change his style of learning even if it is not the style of learning the student follows naturally. From the Western point of view, learning styles are related with the brain system and the external factors of culture.29 To Indians, cognitive process is related with Hindu belief30 The following literature on the development of Indian education examines the Hindu cultural impact on education. Cultural Value Dilemma Jacqueline J. Goodnow has shown that cognitive development is influenced by the values of society.31 The acquisition of cognitive values is also impacted by adult preferences. In Western educational theory, whether students are field dependent or field independent will depend on genetics and the social environment.32 India also emphasizes the role of genetics and social environment, but Karma is believed to be a part of a child’s genetic inheritance. Traditional Hinduism believes that good deeds harvest a good rebirth. Indian researcher Das33 believes Karma is involved in a student’s cognitive process. Whether a student is field dependent or independent is a result of not only social environment and genetics, but also one’s Karma. The theory of Karma may be the force that explains why Indian culture places a greater value on scientific knowledge, boys’ education, placing children in school at an early age, and toleration of other religions. Science vs. Nonscience Academic Stream An underlying value of placing the science academic stream above the nonscience academic stream is related to the Hindu concept of Karma. The term Karma is a Hindu religious term from the Hindu scriptures, the Vedas. Karma is the immutable law of cause and effect. Good deeds mean good results and a good rebirth. Bad deeds mean bad results and a bad rebirth. “Besides accounting for one’s status, the concept of Karma accounts for the good or ill fortune one may suffer during the course of one’s life.”34 Traditional Hindus believe life is a cycle. They believe human beings have more than one life. “Soul is not born neither it perishes with the body. The soul migrates from life to life. It enters into a new body like a caterpillar. The new form is determined on the basis of one’s Karma.”35 In practical terms, this means that if students are in the academic stream that society deems superior, it is the result of their past

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life. It may be that good deeds from many past lives contributed to being in the preferred academic stream. “Intelligence is seen as the result of one’s own Karma and the child inherits it from his/her parents. However, the activity or passivity of this genetic endowment depends upon the child’s Karma.”36 Good Karma from parents affects a student’s natural endowment, but the student’s Karma will determine how it is used in the current life. The belief that one’s Karma determines how one acquires different intelligences is affirmed by Burnett. In a discussion on differences of temperament and intelligence he states, This argument is based on the observation that children born of the same parents and brought up in the same atmosphere have different inclinations, intelligence, and even looks. Some people are quiet and solitary, while others are outgoing and friendly. The law of Karma explains these different tendencies as due to different experiences in past lives.37

Good Karma can produce good intelligence. “An intelligent person is capable of knowing the intention of others, polite and away from self-praise, has initiative, has interest in work, persistence, motivation and reasoning.”38 The Indian view of intelligence distinguishes between higher and lower and good and bad intelligences. Higher or good intelligence leads to happiness, pleasure, and prosperity, and is constructive. The pare or higher knowledge leads to self-realization, which will in turn lead to moksha. This kind of knowledge is imperishable; it is the true knowledge; it is ritiya (permanent) knowledge. This kind of knowledge is obtained by analytical and reasoning skill.39 Apara or lower knowledge is perishable and may also be described as temporary knowledge (anitya). All apara knowledge is viewed as false knowledge.40 Knowledge related with arts and enjoyment are viewed as apara. Highly intelligent people are equated with adults, whereas people with low intelligence are equated with children. Intelligence is essential for gaining knowledge, and knowledge is essential for gaining moksha, or salvation. To gain knowledge you must practice perceptual analysis, inference, analogical reasoning, and materials learned from books and authorities.41 In contrast, egoism, passion, desire, sloth, impulsivity, orientation for action, desire for knowledge for its immediate utility, pride, and assertiveness are considered barriers to intellectual development. If one is born with such a temperament he must do all he can to make it better. “One has to rise above the influence of desire, of unfavourable temperament through right ideas, effort and reflection for gathering valid and appropriate knowledge.”42 Being liberated from the cycle of rebirth is the highest form of intelligence. This occurs when one highlights the importance of desh (space) and kala (time). The intelligent person who has been liberated responds appropriately

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to space and time but is not touched by pleasure or pain arising from them. Being liberated with the highest state of intelligence, he can be united with Brahman, the highest god in the Hindu world.43 From the discussion on Karma we learn that students, parents, and teachers will naturally be drawn to the science academic stream, not only for material gain, but for spiritual gain as well. The science academic stream focuses on all the abilities that would be considered good intelligence in Hindu philosophy. Having good Karma, according to Hindu philosophy, will ensure inherited good intelligence. Since field independent students generally have analytical skills, they are endowed mentally as well as spiritually. Those not so endowed must achieve this preferred value. Rich vs. Poor Some people are born rich and some are born poor. Whether you are born into a high-income family or a low-income family, Burnett44 argues, the Karma theory provides the answer for the discrepancies in the distribution of wealth to Hindus. For the poor students it is their dharma (duty) to work hard to redeem the mistakes in their previous life and succeed in the future life. When students fulfill their duties it impacts their next cycle of life. “The twin concepts of dharma and Karma are of basic importance in the ideology of the caste system. The concept of dharma has a wealth of connotation but a core meaning is ‘a way of life appropriate to one’s status.’”45 Students from low income families are taught to be content in their status, but also to work hard to upgrade their next rebirth. Findings from the following researchers illustrate that students from low income homes suffer in their schooling. Khaprade identified scheduled caste and urban slum groups or low-income groups as educationally disadvantaged groups.46 Sachchid found that disadvantaged individuals and groups have to struggle hard in the traditional system of education, and this could impact their cognitive performance.47 On the other hand, researcher Verma found that rural and urban residential background did not relate significantly to learning style.48 Uday Desai, in his article “Determinants of Educational Performance in India,” asserted that the role of the home and family has a big influence on the student’s education. His study found that educational supplies and the sanitary facilities at home have a remarkable relationship to the academic performance of children. Even the distance to the source of drinking water will affect education. The parent’s occupation and education also influence their academic performance. Poor academic performance definitely is related to low income.49 Showeb researched education and low caste people and found the main reason for these Indians to educate children is the lure of government service

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and to keep their children away from caste occupations. Social prestige, modernization of traditional occupations, and better material prospects were some of the reasons given by the respondents for educating their children. To the poor and low caste Hindu, education is the vehicle for them to go to the top of their caste.50 Males vs. Females Hota recognized that field independent boys scored higher on arithmetic reasoning than field independent girls.51 Venugopal found that boys and girls did not differ in their cognitive style.52 The contrast of these results led researchers to reexamine gender differences for the impact on their learning styles. The stigma of women’s education is still prevalent in India.53 It was pointed out by many that the rightful place of women is domestic work, and their profession is mainly motherhood. Equality of educational opportunities at the higher level is therefore seen as a waste of public funds. If education was given to women at all, it is said, it should prepare them for domestic careers.54 As has been pointed out, the concept of dharma (one’s moral duty) influences Indian society, and in particular Hindus, to a great extent. Each person has their own dharma. This moral law dictating one’s duty is unalterable. Every person has to perform their appointed duty, and if they do not, it will affect their Karma.55 Men have four stages of duty to perform. The first stage is to be a student, and during this stage he must gain the necessary skills to obtain a job. In the second stage a man is to marry and support his family. This includes his extended family as well as his wife and children. The third stage of a man’s life will allow him to retire and hand the householder responsibilities to his son. The fourth stage is when one prepares for death. In this stage a deeply devoted person will renounce all ties with his family and the world in order to pursue God.56 Men have the responsibility to provide for the family’s needs and to continue the household. Men receive the family home and any inheritance. “By traditional law, if a man had no sons, his estate passed to his brothers and their children—that is, to his paternal nephews. These inheritance rules ensured that land ownership remained with men of the same lineage.”57 Therefore, fathers make sure their sons receive a good education in order to fulfill their own dharma (duty) and to enable their sons to fulfill their duty. Developing analytical skills will develop more field independence. This in turn will enable a man to find a good job and to go to the second stage of manhood, thus fulfilling his duty.

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The duties of women are very different. Women are expected to be under a man’s authority her entire life. “As a girl she is under the direction of her father, as a wife it is her husband, and as a widow her sons.”58 The main duty of a woman is to serve and obey her father, husband, and son. Education for daughters is necessary in order to arrange a good marriage for her. Leigh Minturn also states that an educated girl will also know how to better please her in-laws. It is the girl’s duty to perform her household tasks well in order to serve her family. Educated daughters will also have better Karma for the next life.59 Khaprade identified female students as a disadvantaged group in Indian education.60 However, Showeb noted that Indian parents do educate their daughters, just not at the same level as their sons.61 Religious Belief India’s population passed one billion in April of 2000. Three percent of the population is Christian as a result of the missionary movement in India in the nineteenth century, mainly in the South of India. In India the most literate state is Kerala—a fact which some attribute to the early efforts of Christian schools. Most Christian schools are English medium schools. Manohar believes that Christian educational institutions have always had the idea of spreading the Christian view of life.62 From the Hindu perspective, tolerance is an important aspect of belief arising from the theory of Karma. The theory of Karma not only encourages people to perform good actions, it also encourages giving respect to all life. “If all animals and insects have that spiritual entity that we may call soul, then one must treat all life forms with ultimate respect.”63 Mahatma Gandhi promoted this theory in every area of life and promoted tolerance for everyone in society. “Non-violence, service to humanity and fearlessness were Gandhi’s goals and education became the means to these goals.”64 Gandhi, who had a voice in modern Indian education, wanted the concept of toleration extended to Indian education. Many Hindus attend Christian private schools, but the concept of tolerance that is found in Hinduism and the dogmatic beliefs of Christians are in opposition to each other. In the debate of having all religions taught in school it is written: Today, our educationists have tended to take a hostile attitude towards this suggestion but surely it is now becoming clear that under the present dispensation religious instruction will ultimately fall in to the fundamentalist and even fanatic hands. This whole area (religious education) has not received adequate attention in the last forty-four years, as a result of which tensions and conflicts

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have grown, to frightening proportions. Therefore it is the responsibility of our educationists to provide at least some exposure to the students with regard of our religious heritage. . . . Religion alone can give a clear vision of the ultimate good and proved sufficient incentive to strive towards it.65

In Bourai’s perspective, all schools should teach people of different faiths their own religion. As an educator who is Hindu, he would prefer tolerance for all religions, but religion should be taught. Younger vs. Older Students Getting a head start is an issue regarding entering kindergarten in India. The slogan of “catch ’em young” may sound good, but an Indian newspaper reports that the rigorous demands of formal education can be detrimental to young children in later life.66 However, most Indian parents prefer their children to start as early as possible. From a Hindu point of view, it is the father’s duty to make sure his son starts and finishes school well in order to enable his son to enter the householder stage and take care of a family. This includes the care of aging parents.67 The aging parent can be released from the duty of householder and enter into retirement if his son does well. Ultimately, aging parents who have retired will have more time to prepare for the last stage of life and the next cycle of life. Therefore, the children who start school earlier will enter into the householder stage earlier, thus allowing the retired parent to focus on preparing for the next cycle of life. The trend of starting school early does not seem to make a change in students’ learning styles. Verma found that there was no significant difference in learning styles between younger aged and older aged students.68 NOTES 1. George P. Alexander, Higher Education in India: Cricial Issues and Trends (Gardena, CA: P & P Publishers, 1998). 2. Romila Thapar, Ancient India (New Delhi: NCERT, 1998). 3. Alexander, Higher Education. 4. Ranbir Vohra, The Making of India, A Historical Survey (London: M.E. Sharp, 1997). 5. H. H. A. Bourai, Indian Theory of Education (New Delhi: B. R. Publishing, 1993), 15. 6. Bourai, Indian Theory, 21. 7. Bourai, Indian Theory. 8. Thapar, Ancient India.

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9. Thapar, Ancient India. 10. Alexander, Higher Education. 11. Vohra, The Making. 12. Alexander, Higher Education. 13. (Arjun 1998) 14. Alexander, Higher Education. 15. (Manohar 1998). 16. Alexander, Higher Education, 31. 17. Alexander, Higher Education. 18. Vohra, The Making, 53. 19. Dev Arjun, Modern India (New Delhi: NCERT, 1998). 20. Mark Bray and W. O. Lee, “Edcuation, Democracy and Colonial Transition: The Case of Hong Kong,” International Review of Education 38, no. 6 (1993): 5411–5601. 21. Moses P. Manohar, Education in Free India: A Theological Review (New Delhi: Cambridge Press, 1998). 22. Alexander, Higher Education. 23. Bourai, Indian Theory, 106. 24. Bourai, Indian Theory, 108. 25. Bourai, Indian Theory. 26. Manohar, Education. 27. Manohar, Education. 28. Manohar, Education. 29. Sperry, Mental Unity. 30. J. P. Das, Assessment of Cognitive Process: The Pass Theory of Intelligence (New York: Allen and Bacon, 1994). 31. Jacqueline Goodnow, “The Socialization of Cognition: What’s Involved?” in Cultural Psychology: Essays on Comparative Human Development, ed. James R. Stigler (Cambridge: Cambridge Press, 1990), 259–286. 32. Sperry, Education. 33. Das, Assessment. 34. Leigh Minturn, Sita’s Daughters: Coming out of Purdah (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993),19. 35. Bourai, Indian Theory, 15. 36. A. Srivastava and A. Tripathi, “Western and Indian Perspectives on Intelligence: Some Reflections,” Indian Educational Review 30, no. 2 (1995): 30–45. 37. David Burnett, The Spirit of Hinduism, A Christian Perspective on Hindu Thought (London: Moncarch Publishing, 1992), 80. 38. Srivastava and Tripathi, “Western and Indian,” 39. 39. Srivastava and Tripathi, “Western and Indian.” 40. Bourai, Indian Theory. 41. Das, Assessment. 42. Srivastava and Tripathi, “Western and Indian,” 39. 43. Srivastava and Tripathi, “Western and Indian,” 41. 44. Burnett, The Spirit.

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45. Minturn, Sita’s Daughters, 19. 46. M. S. Khaparde, “Education of the Disadvantaged in the Twenty-first Century with Special Reference to Education of the Scheduled Castes,” Journal of Indian Education 22, no. 1 (1996): 24–35. 47. Anand Sachchid, “Research in Education of the Disadvantaged: A Trend Report,” in Fourth Survey of Education Research 2 (1991): 1414–1426. 48. B. P. Verma, “Hemosphericity and Learning Styles among Students of Distance and Ecuation,” Indian Journal of Psychometry and Education 25, no. 1 & 2 (1994): 53–68. 49. Desai Uday, “Determinates of Educational Performance in India: Role of Home and Family,” International Review of Education 27, no. 2 (1991): 245–265. 50. M. Showeb, Education and Mobility among Harijans (Allahabad, India: Vohra Publishers, 1986). 51. Hota, “Sex Differences.” 52. Venugopal, “Cognitive Style.” 53. S. Ram Sharma, Women’s Education: A Conceptual Framework (New Delhi: Discovery Publishing House, 1996). 54. Sharma, Women’s Education. 55. Burnett, The Spirit. 56. Burnett, The Spirit. 57. Minturn, Sita’s Daughters, 112. 58. Burnett, The Spirit, 97. 59. Minturn, Sita’s Daughters. 60. Khaparde, Education of the Disadvantaged. 61. Showeb, Education and Mobility. 62. Manohar, Education in Free India. 63. Burnett, The Spirit, 83. 64. William Cenkner, The Hindu Personality in Education Primary (New Delhi: South Asia Books, 1976), 101. 65. Bourai, Indian Theory, 174. 66. Sujata Sahai, “School Fright and Other Student Phobias,” Pioneer (February 10, 1994). 67. Burnett, The Spirit. 68. Verma, “Hemisphericity.”

Chapter Three

Research Methodology

This chapter focuses on the nature of the research—the questions studied, hypotheses, definition of terms, site selection, delimitations, and research procedure.

RESEARCH QUESTIONS 1. Will there be a significant relationship between academic streams and student learning style preferences? 2. Will there be a significant relationship between gender and the types of student learning style preferences? 3. Will there be a significant relationship between student learning style and their family income, either taxable or nontaxable? 4. Will there be a significant relationship between a student’s age and their learning style? 5. Will there be a significant relationship between religion and learning style?

HYPOTHESES 1. Science academic stream male students score higher than science academic stream female students in field independence. 2. Students belonging to the science academic stream will score higher in field independence than those in the nonscience academic stream. 3. Male students will score higher than female students in field independent learning styles. 31

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4. Students from taxable income families will score higher than nontaxable income families in field independence. 5. Students from ages 14 and 15 will score higher than students ages 16 and 17 in field independent learning style. 6. Christian students will score higher than non-Christians in field independence.

DEFINITION OF TERMS 1. Learning styles: Researchers defined learning styles as the way in which learners perceive, organize, and recall information in their environment.1 A learning style is an individual’s own orientation toward learning. Some researchers defined learning style as the cognitive, affective, and physiological factors that become the indicator of how students perceive and interact with the learning environment.2 2. Academic Stream: In the Indian school system, board exams are given in the 10th and 12th standard. (Standard is the equivalent of a grade.) In the 10th standard the results on the test will determine your next course of study. A high score will enable you to enroll in the science academic stream. Any score below the requirements for science and math will place a student into the nonscience academic stream. 3. Family income: Family income and status are reflected by housing. Different types of housing, such as government, private, or encroached shanties, will provide different basic amenities. Water and electricity are more plentiful in some neighborhoods than others. These factors are all included in the term residential area. The government uses a simple test to determine whether you can pay taxes. If you have a phone, if you have been overseas, or if you have a car are a few examples of questions that determine taxable status based on approximate income. Since income is a very sensitive subject, students in this study wrote down whether their family incomes were taxable or nontaxable. 4. Field independence/dependence: These are kinds of learning styles. Field independent learners are analytical, focused, and have a high level of concentration. Field dependent learners are relational, global, impulsive, and spatial in their learning. 5. Caste System: The social system of Hindu society consists of four distinct groups: Priests, government personnel and professionals, merchants and farmers, and laborers and servants. Outcastes are groups outside these castes. The caste system in Indian society has been the subject of ongoing debate. Nowadays the government has abolished the caste system but has

Research Methodology

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

33

divided people into two groups: the scheduled and non-scheduled castes. Simply put, the nonscheduled castes are the upper castes and the scheduled castes are the low and outcastes. The government’s reason for this new terminology is to try to empower the poor and lower castes. Some government jobs and university seats are also reserved for scheduled caste people. Group Embedded Figures Test (GEFT): This is an instrument to test a student’s ability to analyze. The student tries to find a simple pattern that is embedded in a complex pattern. The result will predict the student’s preferred learning style—field dependence or field independence. Style Analysis Survey (SAS): This is a survey to assess a student’s learning style preference among all these style preferences: visual, auditory, hands-on, extroverted, introverted, intuitive, concrete-sequential, closure oriented, open-global, and analytical styles. The purpose of using this survey is to correlate with the Group Embedded Figures Test and trace the characteristics and similarities of field dependent and field- independent styles. Karma: In the Hindu religion, Karma refers to the law of cause and effect, or how the actions of your past life have affected your present life, and how the actions of your present life will affect your next life. Karma influences all areas of life: desires, duties, and rebirth status. Dharma: Dharma refers to religious and moral duties. Performing the duties for your status in life is necessary for obtaining good Karma. If you do not perform your dharma well, you will have bad Karma. Samsara: Reincarnation, the cycle of birth, death, and rebirth is samsara. The human soul has more than one life that continues on this cycle until they reach moksha (salvation). Moksha: To a Hindu, salvation means being released from the cycle of birth, life, death, and rebirth. When this occurs you are reconnected with Brahman, the highest deity, and become one with him. Four paths lead to moksha. The first is the path of knowledge. This leads you to enlightenment. Through the second path of good deeds, you can obtain good Karma. The third path is the way of devotion to obtain good Karma. And lastly the path of yoga, physical and spiritual exercise, helps one to meditate and connect with the gods.

SITE SELECTION Mount Carmel is a private Christian school that is owned by the principal and founded by his wife. The school does not receive any funding from the

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government and is an English medium school. As was described in chapter 2, the modern education system in India is patterned after the British school system, and Mount Carmel fits that model. However, it is not an international school and there are no non-Indian teachers there. Mount Carmel School is located in the southeast section of New Delhi. It is a Christian school that is accessible to me as my three children were students there and the principal had given permission to do my research there. There is a kindergarten, primary, secondary, and high school. It is open for boys and girls, rich and poor, and for all different religions. The school began in 1972 with 12 students and one teacher. It has grown to a student body of 2,500 with a staff of 132 teachers. There are two school buildings, one for junior school grades, which houses nursery to third standard, and a senior school that accommodates fourth through twelfth standard. Students come from all over south Delhi. Some ride the buses that are provided by the school, some come by private car or scooter, and some walk or are brought on a parent’s bicycle. Many graduates from Mount Carmel get admission into prestigious universities. In 1998, some of the students from Mount Carmel were admitted into the India Institute of Technology and the Delhi College of Engineering. The school yearbook displays the results of public examinations. In 1997 there were 123 students in year 10 and they needed to take a public examination to get into class eleven. Fifty out of 123 students scored above 75% and 81 students scored between 60% and 75%. Seventeen students received a passing rate of 45% to 60%. Because of Mount Carmel students’ high academic performance, many parents want their children to get into this school. Mount Carmel also provides scholarships for low-income families and has an education project where many students are involved in literacy projects with children who reside in the slums. Low income would be defined as a family whose income could not be taxed. In general, the Indian government schools provide free education. However, all government schools are Hindi medium (Hindi is the medium of instruction) and the facilities and equipment are not as good as those of private schools. Any high-paying job requires the fluent use of English. Therefore, most parents are willing to send their children to private schools because their children can learn English and better compete with others. Mount Carmel is a strict English medium school, and there are signs posted to remind students to speak in English. Even though Hindi is the official language in Delhi, the school prohibits the students from speaking any language but English during class time and break time. Students are punished if they are found speaking any other language at school. Mount Carmel uses this strict method to make sure students are using and learning English. Usually a low-income family

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35

cannot attend an English medium school, as they are too expensive. But since Mount Carmel gives scholarships and has a certain percentage of seats given on a lottery system, some low-income students can attend. Another reason why this school is significant for my research is that it is a coeducational school. India still has many single-sex schools for religious and cultural reasons. However, many private schools are co-educational. My research required a school with all income levels that is also co-educational in order to test for gender and economic impact on students’ learning styles. Mount Carmel meets these needs and is a significant school as it represents many economic and family backgrounds. This school is representative of Delhi private schools and therefore suitable for research. The physical make-up of the school is similar to all middle class English medium schools. The school is painted white and is square in shape. The middle of the square is a courtyard used for assembly, break time activities, and to allow sunlight into classrooms for times when they may lose electricity. The building is divided into four parts. The front and back are made up of three, three-story, flat-topped buildings. The left and right wings are made up of four flat-topped buildings. On the left wing side, there is an extra building for a girls’ hostel. Most of the residents are from the Northeast of India. The school only has hostels for girls. Behind the girls’ hostel is another independent house, which belongs to the principal. The principal’s house is on campus but has a separate entrance in the front. To the right wing of the building is a parking place for the school’s buses. The bus parking area is also used for a playground, and there are two basketball courts on it. There are two gates for entering the school, but only the front gate is used for the students. The other is for buses only. There is a six-foot-tall white wall surrounding the school, and once inside, students cannot see onto the street. There is also a security booth at the front gate. Anyone who wishes to enter or exit must sign in and out. There are always at least one security guard and two students helping people to sign in and out. Inside the school on the ground floor is the reception area. From here one can go up to the second floor where the principal’s office and the counselor’s office are located. The counselor’s room is in the left wing. The counselor’s job is to give academic and job counseling. On the second floor of the back building is the library. There is one chapel to the right on the second floor. There is also a room used for table tennis and a music class. There are two labs on the left wing of the second floor. On the third floor there are only classrooms. Senior students use the third floor, and the lower grades use the lower floors. My research was conducted among the students in the eleventh standard and included students of different genders, religions, and family incomes.

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In terms of external validity, Mount Carmel School is not indicative of all private schools in India. However, it does generally reflect how private Christian schools in New Delhi are operated. They implement the recommended government curriculum and recommended days in school, use board exams as a measurement of achievement and advancement, and administer entrance exams for admission. These schools value field independent learning styles because they can produce a high score on the national board exams. This is important for the ranking of a school as well as helping students compete in the exams. It is very different from government schools, as government schools have far fewer resources and facilities. Therefore, the selection of this school will enable not only internal validity for what Mount Carmel may need, but knowledge about cultural influences on students’ learning styles that can be applied to other private schools in New Delhi.

DELIMITATIONS 1. Learning styles are defined in different ways. This research was limited to Herman Witkin’s Field Dependent/Field Independent definition and Style Analysis Survey. The instrumentation was limited to Herman Witkin’s Embedded Figure Test and Style Analysis Survey. 2. The time period for collecting the data in this study was limited to one year. 3. The sample of subjects was from one school: Mount Carmel School, New Delhi, India. 4. Only students listed in the eleventh grade were used as subjects. 5. The sample of subjects was only from private Christian schools with English medium as instruction. 6. The sample of subjects was limited to the metropolitan city of New Delhi. 7. The researcher used a Christian and Hindu perspective for this study. 8. The written and oral responses were limited to English only as the school is an English medium school, even though English was not the native language of the students. English is the common language in this school, even though there are 16 official languages in the country. The limitation of using English for the participant could affect this study. Students may be limited in their ability to express their thoughts freely. 9. The variables examined were limited to academic stream, gender, age, religion, and taxable or nontaxable family income. 10. Cultural Bias: Not being an Indian, I was limited from an outsider’s perspective when analyzing their cultural values. The outsider’s perspective is that of a Chinese foreigner. 11. Limitations of Research Design: Using only one school allowed for fifty nonscience and science stream male and female students, but the other variables were not equally distributed in the samples.

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37

RESEARCH PROCEDURE The data collection began with receiving permission from the principal to conduct the study in his school. I met with the principal twice to give him my proposal and to discuss any questions he had. The details of the research methodology were given to him, and he was informed that the proposal had been approved by the research committee. He was also informed that all data would remain confidential, and informants unidentified. After this, he agreed to let me conduct the inventory tests and conduct interviews with the students. He gave me a permission slip and referred me to the counselor to set up dates to visit the classes and administer the tests. The counselor set the dates to give the test and questionnaires. I explained to the teachers, students, and staff that I had received permission from the principal to conduct my research in the school. When I talked with the counselor I explained the research would include giving tests and questionnaires and conducting interviews. The counselor offered to set me up to interview individual students in her office or suggested that I interview students during their break or lunch hour. I received permission from the supervising faculty and ordered Herman Witkin’s Gift Embedded Figures Test, which I was given permission to use. On May 4th, 1999, I administered the test to the eleventh-grade students along with the questionnaires. Before giving the test, the purpose of the test and questionnaire was explained. An assurance of confidentiality was also given to the students. Before the test, a sample question, sharpened pencils, and instructions were given. Questions were also taken at this time. The Style Analysis Survey (SAS) by Rebecca L. Oxford (1990) was given to the students on a previous visit to the school. The qualitative section of this research began following that test. Twenty-six interviews were conducted during the students’ break and lunch times. One interview was conducted in the girls’ hostel in the presence of the resident advisor. Two interviews were conducted in a student’s home. A total of 100 eleventh-standard students constituted the sample of this study. Herman Witkin’s Group Embedded Figures Test (GEFT) has been validated by recent Indian researchers: G. Venugopal (1994); Sheikh (1995); and Hota (1995). The procedure of the test is described in detail in the manual. The goal of the GEFT is to find whether the student is field dependent or field independent by way of finding simple figures embedded in more complex ones. The simple figures are put on the back side of the test booklet, and the student may look back at the simple forms as often as necessary. The student finds the simple form of the same size, proportions, and orientation as it appears on the back of the booklet within the complex form. When the student locates the simple figure, he or she is to trace it with a pencil. The GEFT may be administered in a single 20-minute testing session and includes three parts, all of which are timed. The first part includes seven simple

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items that need to be located within more complex figures in two minutes. This section ensures that the student understands the examination process and is not included in their score. The second part includes nine more complex questions and is timed at five minutes. The third part also contains nine more difficult items, and the student is again required to find the simple shapes embedded in the more difficult ones. The total score reflects the student’s field dependence and field independence tendencies. Upon finishing the GEFT test, 100 questionnaires and 26 interviews were used to help interpret the data. The questionnaires helped me know what deeper questions to ask in the interviews. They were also useful when I examined the relationship between the student’s perception of field dependent and independent learning styles with the scores of the GEFT. Some of these questions were adopted from Dr. George Alexander’s “Asian Indian Research Questionnaires”.3 The student questionnaire was circulated among two streams of eleventh-class students. One class belonged to the science academic stream and the other class belonged to the nonscience academic stream. A total of 100 students completed the questionnaire. The students selected to complete the questionnaires were purposefully selected. The research required 100 students, of which 50 had to be from the science academic stream and 50 from the nonscience academic stream. The counselor of the school was notified of the needs of the research, and she selected the appropriate classes. The counselor’s selection criteria was based on which science and nonscience classes were meeting at the time of my research and according to how many students were in the classes. It was not possible to control all the variables. Religion, age, and family were controlled as far as possible considering the number of eleventh-standard students in the school. Phase 1 There were three phases of data collection. The first phase was collecting all the GEFT and SAS surveys. The purpose of the GEFT was explained to the student. From the GEFT we learned how the student scored on his field independent or field dependent learning style. The students who obtained the highest score represented those with a higher ability to analyze and to be more field independent. Likewise, the students with the lower score tended to be less field independent. The purpose of the Style Analysis Survey was explained to the students when it was given to them. The SAS reflects a student’s style preference. The survey reflects whether someone has a global, analytical, auditory, hands-on, relational, or non-relational learning style preference. The SAS was correlated with the GEFT, which helped identify the characteristics of the students’

Research Methodology

39

field dependent and field independent learning styles. The tests are quantitative in nature and provided necessary information from formal testing as to the students’ preferred learning styles. Phase two was followed by structured and non-structured interviews. The structured interview was based on the questionnaire . The purpose of the structured interview was to find the reasons why students chose one answer instead of another, along with other comments they may have had. The desire was to collect additional data to learn why students indicated preference for one or the other. There were two types of interviews: the scheduled, structured interview and an unscheduled, informal interview. The purpose of the scheduled interview was to target students I knew could provide the information needed for this study. The non-scheduled interviews occurred when untargeted students provided information in unstructured and unscheduled times. All interviews were by consent of the students and the principal of the school. The structured interviews helped to follow up on the missing information from the interviews and also provided in-depth answers to the questions related to the hypothesis. The purpose of the interviews was to confirm the results from the GEFT and SAS. Furthermore, when interviews with female students were conducted, my wife was present to ensure a comfortable environment and not break any cultural codes in the Indian context. I conducted class observations six times and out-of-class observations four times during a six-month period. The purpose of classroom observations was to collect field notes and evidence through observing patterns in a student’s learning style in the classroom and in the teacher’s way of teaching. Four home observations were conducted during the same period for the purpose of observing the social environment. Field notes were synthesized and summarized after the observation. The collection of data from the observations and interviews contributed to producing evidence to test the hypothesis and the findings of the GEFT and SAS. Phase 2 The purpose of phase two was to collect qualitative data. In this phase, frequency research techniques were used. I visited the home of one student on three occasions to investigate the learning atmosphere and its effect on the student’s learning style. Phase 3 In phase three, I analyzed and interpreted the data. Follow-up phone calls with students to clarify missing information were included in this phase.

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Each test and interview was given a code in order to organize and compare the data. Using the GEFT and SAS not only identified the student’s learning style preference, it also allowed for comparison with the questionnaires to find evidence to test the hypotheses. The comparison of the relationship between the GEFT, SAS, and questionnaires helped in the analysis and to synthesize information from phase two data collection. The field notes, observations, interviews, and case studies cross-examined and validated the GEFT, SAS, and questionnaires to determine if a hypothesis was to be accepted or rejected. Based on phase two data collection, a summary and synthesis of the data took place. The field notes were classified and organized in order to facilitate finding evidence for this study. Coding the data helped categorize the items related to the study. Any data and information not related was deleted.

PARTICIPANTS The total number of the sample was 100. This included 25 male students and 25 female students from the science academic stream. In the science academic stream, students can choose medical or computer studies. Only students with 85% or higher can enter this stream. Another 25 male and 25 female students were selected from the nonscience academic stream. They can choose Arts, Commerce, or Humanities. After tenth-grade exams they choose their stream in accordance with their board results. The sample of the student population was from the 1999–2000 school year. They were purposefully selected with the guidance of the school counselor, as mentioned earlier.

RESEARCH DESIGN The quantitative research design was used to help find answers to the research questions. The one hundred eleventh-grade students were purposefully selected from the science academic stream and the nonscience academic stream, with 50 students being in each group. There were also an equal number of male and female students in each group. As mentioned previously, it was not possible in this school to completely control the variables of age, religion, and family income due the total number of students in the eleventh-standard class. The five independent variables were academic stream, gender, age, family income, and religion. The students were designed to be in groups so that equal numbers were formed and maintained. The dependent

41

Research Methodology Table 3.1. Division of Academic Stream Students Science

Medical Computer

Nonscience Male

Female

9 16

6 19

Arts Commerce Humanities

Male

Female

11 11 3

9 10 6

variable was field independence. From the qualitative research, the static group comparison design was used. The two static groups were two streams of eleventh-grade students. One was a nonscience academic stream class and the other was a science stream class. Bernard said, “The static group comparison design is the best one for evaluating natural experiments where you have no control over the assignment of participants anyway.”4 The static group design was used to compare boy and girl, nonscience and science streams, high family income and low family income, and how these factors related to the student’s learning style. Instrumentation Instrumentation combined quantitative and qualitative methods. This combination showed the equal importance of both methods. Regarding the quantitative method, the GEFT, SAS, and a self-constructed questionnaire were used. From the GEFT we learned the student’s ability for field independent learning. The score was used to determine who was higher or lower in field independence. These results were used not only to determine which students were field independent, but also to discover the relationship between the GEFT results, the SAS results, and the qualitative questionnaires and interviews. The first part of the test provided the basic information needed about the students. Their name, gender, birth date, religion, academic stream, and whether or not their family income is taxable or nontaxable was gathered from simply filling in the information portion of the test. The SAS was used to find out the characteristics of style preferences related with field independent styles in higher scores or lower scores. The questionnaires were used to collect the students’ background information and their own perspectives on their learning style and the learning styles of others. This study also used a qualitative approach. James Spradley’s participant observation method5 was used to formulate questions for interviews concerning these questions. Through my observation in the school, a detailed ethnographic notebook was made to supplement the GEFT. This helped to confirm or disconfirm the findings of the test. A domain analysis and taxonomic

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analysis were made to validate the data from the GEFT and the hypothesis. A style analysis survey was used for correlation with the GEFT, and to trace the characteristics of field dependent and field independent style. The Group Embedded Figures Test The Group Embedded Figures Test was developed by Herman A. Witkin in 1962. The procedure of the test is described in detail in the manual. The goal of this test is to find whether the student is Field Dependent or Field Independent by way of finding simple figures that are embedded in more complex ones. The simple figures are put on the back side of the test booklet and the student may look back at the simple forms as often as necessary. The student is to find the simple form of the same size, proportions, and orientation as the sample on the back of the booklet within the complex form. When the student locates the simple figure, he is to trace it with a pencil. The GEFT may be administered in a single 20-minute testing session and includes three parts, as described above. The test was administered with a stopwatch, and students were required to stop even if they hadn’t finished all the items. During the test time students were not allowed to talk, exchange ideas, or sharpen pencils, as they were provided. Clear verbal instructions were given to the students before taking the test. After the distribution of the test booklets, students were required to wait until the instructor allowed them to begin. The test was in a 31–page booklet. On the front page students needed to write down their name, sex, and birthday. Added to this, I asked the students to write down their academic stream, major, religion, and family income. Family income only included whether their family had taxable or nontaxable income. On the front page of the test there were written instructions and an example. On the third page there were also guidelines asking students to do the problems in order and not to skip a problem unless they were absolutely stuck on it. These guidelines helped the students to really understand the method. There were seven figures for the student to practice before the real examination began. This test required high concentration and analytical skill from the student. This test is a common test for schools in the United States to use but it has also been used in India. The validity of the test has been established. All 18 items were computed by the Spearman-Brown prophecy formula. The final proof of validity is an estimate of .82 for each male (N=80) and female (N=97). Questionnaires Upon finishing the GEFT, students received a questionnaire. Some of the questions were adapted from Dr. George Alexander’s “Asian Indian Research

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Questionnaire”.6 The questionnaire had twenty-one statements . Among these, items 1-4 related to student’s gender, age, class, and academic stream. The purpose of these items was to make sure the questionnaire was identified with the same student who took the GEFT. Items 5, 6, and 10 were related to their parents’ income. Students needed to write down their parents’ employment and whether their parents owned a home. Determining whether they were from a high-income family in India was based on whether they owned a home and car. Items 13 to 16 were scored on a 5–point Likert scale, with 1 indicating low, 3 indicating medium, and 5 indicating extreme. These items tested the student’s style preference in order to rate their perception of their learning style and their perception of their schoolmates’ learning styles. It also examined whether students felt they were more creative or analytical.7 Items 9, 11, 12, 17, and 18 were about students’ perspectives on learning style preference related with academic streams, gender, family, and income. The questionnaire was scored on a 5–point Likert scale, with A indicating strongly agree, B indicating agree, C indicating undecided, D indicating disagree, and E indicating strongly disagree. Nineteen through twenty-one were multiple choice questions related to students’ perspectives on the advantages of the science academic stream and nonscience academic stream. The Style Analysis Survey The SAS was created by Rebecca Oxford in 1990. This test was designed to examine the student’s learning style preference. It was used to compare with the results of the GEFT in order to identify a student’s field dependent and field independent style characteristics. Dr. Oxford gave permission to use this tool. The timing of this test was limited to 30 minutes. Students were required to immediately respond to each item. This instrument had five activities. The first activity had 30 statements. Activities two to five had 20 statements. Each statement had a four-point scale, 0 indicating never and 4 indicating always. Students were requested to complete all 110 statements. The five major activities indicated the student’s learning style preference. The first activity was about students using their physical sense to study. From this activity, we traced whether a student was more visual, auditory, or hands-on. The second activity was about the student’s way of relating to people in order to determine if they are more relational or non-relational. The ability to study alone or need to study in a group is indicative of field independence or field dependence. Activity three tested the student’s ability to handle the possibilities of their being intuitive or concrete-sequential.

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Activity four tested the way students approached tasks, and whether they were closure-oriented or open-oriented was revealed. Lastly, activity five explained how students dealt with these ideals. All of these activities contributed to assessing if a student has a tendency to be field dependent or field independent. Interviews There were two kinds of interviews used in this research. This first one was systematic and structured. The questions were modeled by the questionnaires . The second interview was open-ended and informal. This interview depended on the student’s willingness to elaborate on their answers. The informal interview was in a group setting. The purpose of the interviews was to provide information for case studies. A total of 26 interviews were conducted, and the location of the interviews varied. Inside the school, the interviews were more formal and structured. Outside the school, the students were more willing to speak. All the students interviewed were grade 11 students. When the interviewer needed to record, the informants were informed and permission to record was given. The method for data collection was described in the data collection procedure. Case Studies There were ten case studies conducted in this research, and seven of those are represented in this study. The purpose for compiling different case studies was to collect more evidence to confirm or reject the hypotheses. The case studies were compared and contrasted in order to identify cultural values. All the names were changed in the case studies. The data collection techniques for the case studies were observations and interviews with different students, teachers, and parents. The collection locations varied. Some were in school, while others were in a student’s home, the school hostel, and the church where many students attend. Data Collection and Analysis The data collection technique consisted of the qualitative and quantitative approach. As previously discussed, the qualitative approach was completed through interviews with individual students and their parents and participa-

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tion observation in the classroom. James P. Spradley’s Participation Observation8 theory was used to collect data and for interpretation of data through the documentation of evidence. The coding system for field notes enhanced the analysis of data. There were two kinds of interviews. The first interview was more systematic to discover why, what, and how students chose their answers. The second interview was informal. It was focused on informal conversation to verify and clarify previous information. These investigative interviews were used to help interpret and analyze the data. For the data analysis, the quantitative approach was analyzed by the Excel computer program with descriptive statistical method as well as the questionnaire. Computer analysis was helpful for cross-checking qualitative and quantitative research in my analysis. The descriptive statistical analysis provided means and standard deviations, 35 allowing comparisons of central tendency and variance in the degree of field dependence and field independence for all four groups of the five independent variables. The purpose of computing mean scores was to get an idea of how each of these groups scored on average for field independence. The independent variables were academic stream, gender, income, age, and religion. Independent t-tests (two-sample assuming unequal variances) were used to calculate mean scores and standard deviations (units by which the scores deviate from the mean), and most importantly, to determine the significant effects of the independent variables on the GEFT scores. The significance of the independent t-test was determined by alpha =.05. If significant results occurred, the probability of the significance occurring by error alone was .05. Thus, p<.O5 indicated significant results. Pearson Correlations were also run for data analysis concerning the GEFT, SAS, and questionnaire. The correlations tested for relationship between variables such as GEFT scores and SAS results, and between specific questionnaire item results and GEFT scores. The strength of the relationships were indicated by the Pearson correlation coefficient r, (the closer to 0, the weaker the relationship), and the nature of the relationship was indicated by the sign of the coefficient (positive or negative). A positive correlation indicated the systematic increase of both variables. A negative relationship denoted a systematic increase of one variable as the other decreased. “Triangulation is part of data collection that cuts across two or more techniques or sources. Essentially, it is qualitative cross-validation. It can be conducted among different data sources or different data-collection methods.”9 The qualitative 36 section in this research was triangulated to prove cross-validation of methodologies. Triangulation compared the information gathered from interviewing, questionnaires, and case studies to show convergence of the data. (See Figure 3.1.)

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Chapter Three

Figure 3.1. Triangulation Method

NOTES 1. Claxton and Murrell, Learning Styles; Davis, Cognition; Gregorc, An Adult Guide; Reiff, Learning Styles. 2. Keefe, Learning Style; Habermas and Issler, Teaching; Reiff, Learning Styles. 3. George P. Alexander, New American (Cypress, CA: P & P Publishers, 1997). 4. Bernard, H. Russell, Research Methods in Anthropology (Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira, 1994):69. 5. James Spradley, Participant Observation (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich,1980). 6. Alexander, New American. 7. Reiff, Learning Styles; Witkin, “The Problem of Individuality.” 8. Spradley, Participant Observation. 9. William Wiersma, Research Methods in Education (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 2000), 251.

Chapter Four

Study Results

This chapter focuses on the results of the questionnaire and GEFT scores. The first part will be the information about the students’ academic stream, gender, family income, religion, and family living situation. The second part will be a summary of the descriptive results of the GEFT and questionnaires through the mean scores and the standard deviation in relationship to the different variables.

DESCRIPTION OF SAMPLE Table 4.1 is a description of the variables from the students’ background information. Included in these are gender, age, academic stream, religion, and family income and the number of students participating in the study. In this study, the ratio of female and male students and academic streams are even. The majority of students in Grade eleven are 15 years old. There are three exceptionally young students who are 14 years of age, and three 16-year-olds, who are repeat students. In general, Indian people like to get a head start in the school system and the earlier you can go to school the better. When children are three years old, they can start to go to kindergarten. In 1991 the Education department changed the policy for starting school to four years old. In regards to religion, the majority of the students in this school are non-Christian. There are 27 students in the taxable income bracket and 73 students in the nontaxable bracket. The students were asked to write if their family’s income was taxable or nontaxable. According to a notice in the newspaper,1 the government made a policy that any Indian whose income is 40,000 rupees or above will pay taxes. Income below 40,000 is considered nontaxable income. Tables 4.2 and 4.3 compare family income and the father’s and mother’s occupation. 47

48

Chapter Four

Table 4.1. Description of Student Background Information Gender Male Female Academic Stream Science Nonscience Age 14 15 16 Religion Hindu Sikh Muslim Christian Family Income Taxable Income Nontaxable Income

N 50 50

% 50 50

50 50

50 50

5 92 3

5 92 3

88 1 1 10

88 1 1 10

27 73

27 73

N=l00

Most of the grade eleven students’ fathers have a job, and some have professional jobs such as doctors, lawyers, and engineers. Most of the children’s fathers are working for the government. Government jobs are highly valued and hard to get. Children of government service workers can get their school fees subsidized from the government. There is one father who is a farmer, and this is an unusual occupation to find in the city. This student’s family may live Table 4.2. Family Income—Father’s Occupation Father’s Occupation Businessman Government Medical Builder Engineer Accountant Farmer Church worker Factory worker Veterinarian Lawyer Retired Empty N=100

Science Stream

Nonscience Stream

Total Number

Percentage

2 28 5 0 4 2 1 3 1 1 1 1 1

10 34 1 3 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 1 1

12 62 6 3 4 2 1 3 1 1 1 2 2

12% 62% 6% 3% 4% 2% 1% 3% 1% 1% 1% 2% 2%

49

Study Results Table 4.3. Family Income—Mother’s Occupation Father’s Occupation Businessman Housewife Government Medical Farmer Lawyer Teacher Bank worker Beauty Parlor Beauty Parlor Manager

Science Stream

Nonscience Stream

Total Number

Percentage

2 35 7 4 1 1 2 0 0 0

10 29 13 1 0 0 4 1 1 1

12 64 20 5 1 1 6 1 1 1

12% 65% 20% 5% 1% 1% 6% 1% 1% 1%

114=1 UV

quite far away from the city. Many mothers are full-time housewives. This reflects a traditional family structure, with the father as the main breadwinner who should provide for the family and the mother as the housewife who takes care of the children. However, there are some exceptions. Oftentimes the father and mother have the same professional high-paying jobs. In this sample, there are two lawyers in one family, with the father and mother both in this profession, and five pairs of parents who are doctors. It is common in India for marriages to be arranged within the same profession. There were more science academic stream students whose parents were professionals than there were nonscience students whose parents were professionals. This may explain why the science academic stream students felt more pressure from their parents. Usually, children keep their parents’ job line. In India the saying “like father, like son” not only refers to facial features, but also to professions. Nonscience students’ fathers tend to be businessmen. Students from business families, whether they work hard or not, can still inherit the family business. An example would be the two mothers in the nonscience academic stream. They are owners of beauty parlors, and their daughters have some assurance they can keep the beauty parlor running. Table 4.4. Family Income: Housing (Questionnaire Item 6) Property Parents are homeowners Parents aren’t homeowners N=100

Science Stream

Nonscience Stream

Total Number

Percentage

19 31

22 28

41 59

41% 59%

50

Chapter Four

Table 4.5. Family Income: Car (Questionnaire Item 9) Transportation

Science Stream

Nonscience Stream

Total Number

Percentage

3 12 7 1 10 15 2

2 18 10 0 5 12 3

5 30 17 1 15 27 5

5% 30% 17% 1% 15% 27% 5%

Walking School bus Public Transportation Taxi Scooter Car Bicycle N=l00

Along with occupation, the issues of housing (table 4.4) and car ownership (table 4.5) are related to family income. The number of parents who owned a house was about 41 percent. Many people live in government housing as a perk from their job. In table 4.5, we see the numbers of parents who own a car is increasing. A family who owned a house and a car would be in the taxable income bracket.2 There were few students who used a bicycle to go to school—this would be lower-income transportation. There were 17 students who used the public bus, which is very affordable. Fathers using a scooter to send children to school was also quite common. Table 4.5 also shows that parents of science academic stream students had a slight increase over nonscience stream parents in terms of car and scooter ownership. This is an indicator that science academic stream students have more financial resources. The majority of the students in the study had after-school tutoring (table 4.6), reflecting how common this is in India. Rich students go to a one-on-one tutoring setting. Poorer students join a big group at a tutoring center. Thirtytwo students have weekly tutoring. There were no students who have tutoring Table 4.6. Timing of Students Having After-School Tutoring (Questionnaire item 7)

A. B. C. D. E.

Daily Weekly Monthly Occasionally Hardly ever

N=100

Science Academic Stream Male

Science Academic Stream Female

NonScience Academic Stream Male

NonScience Academic Stream Female

Total Number

%

9 1 0 5 10

10 5 0 0 10

10 12 0 2 1

10 14 0 1 0

39 32 0 8 21

39% 32% 0% 8% 21%

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Study Results

Table 4.7. Timing of Students Having After-School Tutoring (Questionnaire item 7)

A. B. C. D. E.

Science Stream Male

Science Stream Female

NonScience Stream Male

NonScience Stream Female

Total Number

%

2 0 1 8 14

5 0 0 10 10

12 0 0 12 1

20 0 0 4 1

39 0 1 34 26

39% 0% 1% 34% 26%

Daily Weekly Monthly Occasionally Hardly ever

N=100

just once a month. Some students were tutored occasionally, and 21% of the students mentioned they were hardly ever tutored. Table 4.7 reflects students’ preference to learn alone or with others. The table shows that nonscience academic stream students preferred studying in a group and are more relational. Only seven science academic stream students preferred to study daily with their friends, while 22 nonscience students preferred to study daily with their friends. Science stream students showed they preferred independent study. Thirty-four students studied with their friends occasionally, 26 students hardly ever studied with their friends, and one studied monthly with his friend. In Table 4.8 we see that 29 students agreed that non-scheduled caste students were more field independent. This is followed by 28 students who were undecided, 22 students who disagreed, 11 students who strongly agreed, and 10 students who strongly disagreed. The percentage of students who agreed or strongly agreed that non-scheduled students are more field independent was 40%. Thirty-two percent of the students disagreed or strongly disagreed that non-scheduled caste students were more field independent. Table 4.9 shows students’ perception on how family income affects field independence. Forty-one percent of the students disagreed that a higher income Table 4.8. Non-scheduled Caste Students are More Field Independent (Questionnaire Item 11)

A. B. C. D. E.

Strongly Agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly Disagree

N=100

SM

SF

NSM

NSF

Total Number

%

2 9 8 4 2

1 4 10 8 2

7 5 5 6 2

1 11 5 4 4

11 29 28 22 10

11% 29% 28% 22% 10%

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Chapter Four

Table 4.9. Students with High Family Income are More Field Independent (Questionnaire Item 12) Science Stream Male A. B. C. D. E.

Strongly Agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly Disagree

Science Stream Female 5 5 3 9 3

4 7 3 7 4

NonScience Stream Male 3 4 10 3 5

NonScience Stream Female 2 7 6 6 4

Total Number 14 23 22 25 16

% 14% 23% 22% 25% 15%

N=100

would affect their field independence. Thirty-seven percent agreed that it does affect field independence, and 22 percent were undecided. Since there was only a 4 percent difference between those who agreed and disagreed, it is too close to use as an indicator. The students stated that the academic stream they choose would greatly influence their learning style. It appears that the academic stream chosen is quite a strong factor for influencing their studies (table 4.10). Over 69 percent of the students agreed that staying in the right academic stream is crucial to their studies. The second highest influence is the residential area, and it appeared to be an essential element to the students’ learning. Twenty-four students expressed that a good environment had a strong impact on their learning. There were four students who said teachers and parents were important factors for their learning. They were put in other categories. Two students chose religion as an important element. Only one female student expressed that being a female student impacted her studies. The issue of gender seemed to be less of an essential element related with learning in this survey. From the students’ perspective, gender and religion were relatively unimportant. Table 4.10. Areas that Impact Student Learning (Questionnaire Item 19) Areas You Feel Impact Your Learning A B C D E N=100

Residential Area Gender Religion Academic Stream Other

Total Number

Percentage

24 1 2 69 4

24% 1% 2% 69% 4%

53

Study Results Table 4.11. Advantages of Studying in the Science Academic Stream (Questionnaire item 20) Advantages A B C D E

Better job Opportunities University Scholarships Prestige Better University Choices Other

Total Number

Percentage

80

80%

2

2%

2 12

2% 12%

4

4%

N=l00

Most of the students believed that staying in the science academic stream would open up better job opportunities. The perception of the students was that the science academic stream student was much more marketable. This also provided a clue as to why the parents wanted their children to stay in the science academic stream. The second advantage listed was a better university selection. Two students stated that staying in the science academic stream gives high prestige, and two other students stated scholarships were available for science academic stream students. Four students chose not to give comment. The advantages of studying in the Science Academic Stream are seen in table 4.11. There were 40 students who chose the “other” column for the advantages for staying in the nonscience academic stream (table 4.12). Some of these students gave comments but most students did not write anything. Four science academic stream students commented that nonscience students get less parental pressure. One nonscience stream student wrote, “Less parental pressure and we can study our boring past.” To the science academic stream Table 4.12. Advantages of Studying in the Nonscience Academic Stream (Questionnaire item 21) Advantages A B C D E N=l00

Better job Opportunities University Scholarships Prestige Better University Choices Other

Total Number

Percentage

8

8%

25

25%

0 27

0% 27%

40

40%

54

Chapter Four

students it appeared that the nonscience students were getting less pressure from their parents. Two students wrote they had not thought of the advantages of studying in the nonscience academic stream. One student said being able to work for the civil service was an advantage. One female student from the nonscience academic stream wrote, “You have time to develop in other fields too, rather than just academics.” This reflects that this student disagreed with other students’ thinking and believed academics were not the only reason for learning. Twenty-seven nonscience academic stream students believed they would have a better choice of a university. Eight students thought that there would be jobs for nonscience students. In contrast with the last table, the nonscience academic stream students were less marketable. In light of this finding, it is understandable that no student chose prestige as one of the advantages to studying in a nonscience academic stream.

DESCRIPTIVE RESULTS OF THE GROUP EMBEDDED FIGURES TEST AND QUESTIONNAIRE The GEFT has been used in India,3 but it had not been used in this school. The students were asked whether they had taken this test before, and all answered they were taking the test for the first time. The instructions for the test were explained in detail. Some students were carefully paying attention, and others appeared to not be concentrating well. The students were told not to open the test book until they were instructed. However, there were at least five students who felt they needed a head start, even though this was the sample test, and tried to begin before permission was given. I repeated the purpose of the GEFT and clarified that the results would not influence their school records in any way and that I was only checking to see if their learning styles were field dependent or field independent. However, during the test, one student still felt compelled to look on his neighbor’s answers. All students cooperated in not talking during the test but not when they were asked to put their pencils down and stop writing. I had to repeat the request twice before they complied. After completing the test I inquired as to how they liked it. One student explained that it was hard and he needed more time but another said it was not hard for him. One student asked to have the test corrected right away, as he was anxious to know his score. After collecting and correcting all the tests, the mean scores were compiled. The purpose of computing mean scores on field-independence was to compare scores based on the combination of two independent variables that are critical to this study: gender and academic stream. Females in the science academic stream scored highest in the GEFT, followed by males in the sci-

Study Results

55

ence academic stream, males in the nonscience academic stream, and females in the nonscience academic stream. The mean score of females on the GEFT in the science academic stream was the highest. Their mean score was 68.96, followed by male students in the science academic stream at 59.44. The male students in the nonscience academic stream scored the next highest at 40.36. The lowest mean score was from the female students from the nonscience academic stream, and their GEFT mean score was 29.32. The scores for females in the science academic stream were almost 9 percent higher than the male students in the science academic stream. Similarly, the males in the nonscience stream scored 11 percent higher than nonscience females. However, science stream females scored 39 percent higher than nonscience females, whereas science stream males scored only 19 percent higher than nonscience stream males. In field independence, science stream females ranked higher than the other students. Among students who demonstrated a high or low score on the GEFT, it was found that those in the science academic stream appeared to have a higher mean score (M64.2, SD=2 1.15; scores deviate an average of 21.15 points from the mean). This indicates a higher level of field independence than students in the nonscience academic stream (M=34.84, SD= 20.95). The statistical procedure for comparing the two means for field independence was an independent t-test, which resulted in a significant difference between the two groups, t (98)=6.91, p<00 1. Therefore, it can be concluded based on the evidence resulting from this test that students in the science academic stream prefer a field independent learning style more than those in the nonscience academic stream, which is consistent with the hypothesis of this study. Among students who demonstrated either a high or low score for field independent learning styles, it was found that males (M=49.90, SD=22.98) and females (M=49.14, SD=28.30) appeared to have nearly equal mean scores in the GEFT and no significant difference resulted between the two groups, t(98)=0.1 47,p>.O5. Based on this evidence, it can be determined that gender was not a significant factor for preference of learning style. Among students who demonstrated a high or low score for field independent learning styles, it was found that those with a Christian background (M=63.5, SD=32. 18) appeared to have a slightly higher mean score, indicating higher preference for field independence than those with a non-Christian background (Mr=47.97, SD=24.55). However, the difference detected was not significant between the two groups, t (98)=1.479, p>.05. According to these results, religion did not seem to make a difference in preference for field independent learning. If the sample size were more even, the addition of more Christians would provide a more valid test, resulting in a more significant and valid measure.

56

Chapter Four

Among students who demonstrated a high or low preference for field independence, it was found that those with a taxable income (M=53.04, SD=26.52) appeared to have a slightly higher mean score than those with a nontaxable income (M=48.22, SD=25.38), although the difference detected in the independent t-test was not significant between the two groups, t (98)=-.816, p>.O5. From these results, it can be determined based on the evidence of this study that the students with a taxable income have similar preference for field independent learning as those with a nontaxable income. In other words, income level does not make a difference in preference for field independent learning styles. If the sample size were consistent over the groups, the result would have been more significant. Among students who demonstrated a high or low score for field independent learning styles, it was found that 14-15 year olds (M=53.18.SD=25.78. 16-17 year olds M 37.26, SD=21.47) had a significant difference resulting between two groups, t (98)=2.94, p
57

Study Results Table 4.13. Correlation Coefficients for Variables—Gender, Academic Stream, GEFT Scores, and Mean Response to Questionnaire Items 13 &14, 15 & 16 Q 13 & 14 Science Academic Stream Male Science Academic Stream Female Nonscience Academic Stream Male Nonscience Academic Stream Female

0.227 0.428*** -0.098 0.392**

Q 15 & 16 0.175 -0.233* -0.074 0.01

*p<.os; **p<.Ol; ***p<.OO5 N=100; Q 13 & 14, Q 15 & 16= Questionnaire items 14 & 15

groups (male- science, female-science, male-nonscience, and female-nonscience) were then tested for correlation with the calculated mean scores of items 13 and 14, and with items 15 and 16. The groups resulting in significant correlations and moderately strong relationships were the female groups. The GEFT scores for the female science group, which resulted in the highest field independence, correlated significantly with their responses to items 13 and 14 and somewhat significantly with items 15 and 16. Based on the results, the relationships indicated that the higher the females in the science academic stream score on field independence, the more they agreed that they were field independent and the less they agreed on being field dependent. Interestingly, there was also a relationship between GEFT scores of females in the nonscience academic stream (who scored the lowest on field independence) and their responses to items 13 and 14. The higher the field independence score for this group, the more they felt like field independent people. The correlations for the other groups were not significant. The results indicated that academic stream did not make a difference in self-evaluation of field independence level, whereas gender did seem to play a role. In table 4.14, the Pearson Correlation tested for potential relationship between academic stream and responses to items 17 and 18 within academic stream groups (science and nonscience). Items 17 and 18 of the questionnaire dealt with the subjects’ perception on science academic stream students based on their characteristics of being field independent, analytical, and intelligent. Mean scores for items 17 and 18 indicated the subject’s opinion on whether Table 4.14. Correlation Coefficients for Variables GEFT Scores for Academic Stream and Mean Response to Questions 17 & 18

Nonscience Academic Stream Science Academic Stream

Q17

Q18

-0.127 0.013

0.022 -0.141

58

Chapter Four Table 4.15. Correlation Coefficients for Variables Gender (GEFT Scores and Mean Response to Questionnaire Item 9) Gender Male Female

M: Q 9 -0.086 0.24

or not science academic stream students were more field independent, analytical, and intelligent than those in the nonscience academic stream. Responses to items 17 and 18 indicated no relationships with the science and nonscience groups. These questions dealt with the subject’s opinion about science academic stream students based on their characteristics of being field independent, analytical, and intelligent. Mean scores for items 17 and 18 indicated the subject’s opinion on whether or not science academic stream students were more field independent, analytical, and intelligent than those in the nonscience academic stream. The Pearson correlation coefficient between these mean scores and GEFT scores was calculated in each academic stream group. The r values indicate no relationships, insisting that neither level of field independence nor academic stream made a difference in how the students perceived science academic stream students. In table 4.15, the Pearson Correlation Test was run to find a relationship between field independent males and females and their responses to item 9 of the questionnaire. Item 9 asked for the subject’s opinion on whether or not boys were more independent in studying than girls based on the hypothesis that boys were more field independent than girls. The results of the correlation indicated that neither gender nor field independence made a difference in their opinion on this issue. Pearson r =.24 indicates that there was no relationship between females’ scores on independence and their opinion that boys were more independent in studying than girls. The Pearson r = -.086 indicates that there was no relationship between males’ scores on independence and their opinion that boys were more independent in studying than girls.

NOTES 1. Times of India (Feb. 1, 1999). 2. Times of India (Feb. 1, 1999). 3. Naryana Hota, “Sex Differences in Mathematical and Verbal Reasoning Ability among Field Independent and Field Dependent Individuals,” Journal of Community Guidance and Research 12, no. 3 (1995): 205–214; Gulam Aadir Sheikh, “A Study of Personality Traits, Psychogenic Needs and Academic Achievements of Rural nad Urban Female Adolescent Students in Relation to their Cognitive Style,” Indian Educational Review 30, no. 2 (1995): 153–161; G. Venugopal, “Cognitive Style and Achievement of Pupils,” Experiments in Education 22, no. 9 (1994): 187–193.

Chapter Five

Case Studies

Seven case studies were taken from the interviews of students, teachers, and parents. This chapter focuses on particular variables that correspond with Hindu culture.

CASE STUDY 1: PERCEIVED SUPERIORITY OF SCIENCE ACADEMIC STREAM The first person interviewed was a male student in the nonscience academic stream. He was in this stream even though he received a high score on the GEFT. This is unusual, as science students are usually the high scorers. This led me to interview him and investigate the reason his style and academic stream do not match. I discovered that he did not receive a high score on one test in his school. Therefore, the school put him in the nonscience academic stream. However, he still had a chance to go to the science academic stream if he received good grades on his board exams. The school’s new academic year begins in May, but results of the general board exam for all students are not posted until after June. Therefore, the students are temporarily put into an academic stream according to the school’s test results. After the board results come in, the students change their academic stream accordingly. I interviewed this student two times; once before the results of the board exam and once after. The second time was in September of 1999. The results of the board exams had been published and he had been accepted into the science academic stream. The first interview was in May of 1999, and I chose to ask questions about the differences between the nonscience academic stream and the science academic stream. The definitions of special terminology were explained to him before the interview. 59

60

Chapter Five

In the beginning of this interview, the student did not talk very much and his answers were very short. Sometimes he only gave a yes or no answer. He believed he was science academic stream material, and that he was very analytical. I asked him on a scale from one to five, with the highest being five, where he perceived himself. He said, “I am quite analytical.” However, it was hard for him to answer when I asked him why he studied in the nonscience academic stream. He informed me that it had been arranged by the school according to his performance on the school exams. He was still upset when he talked about failing that exam, as he usually passed his exams. The student believed science academic stream students are more analytical. He also believed analytical students should stay in the science academic stream. In his case, he was also very analytical, but he was unfortunate in that he failed on a one-time test. I continued to ask him about his perception of the science academic and nonscience academic stream and how one can remain in the science stream. May 6, 1999 RESEARCHER: If you think you’re more analytical, why didn’t you choose the science academic stream? STUDENTS: Because I didn’t get the marks in the school exams. I have to get over 85%. Then I can go to the science stream. RESEACHER: Will students in the science academic stream look down on the students in the nonscience academic stream? STUDENT: Yes, they feel they are better and smarter. Yeah, art students are good students too. I don’t like their (science stream students’) behavior. It’s no good to look down on others. Teachers also think science academic stream students are better. RESEACHER: What academic stream do your parents think is better? STUDENT: It doesn’t matter. My sister was in the science academic sream and my brother is in the science academic stream. RESEARCHER: Will you change your academic stream to science after getting the results of the board exams? STUDENT: Just wait to see.

The student strongly expressed there was discrimination in the school. The science academic students perceive themselves in a more favorable light than the nonscience academic stream because they receive higher marks on the exams. The student also expressed non-verbally, through his facial expressions,

Case Studies

61

that he did not like the attitude of the science academic students. When he commented, “It’s not good to look down on others,” he said it with an angry tone in his voice. He believes schoolteachers and students’ parents also make the science academic stream student feel superior. He expressed feeling helpless when teachers and parents compare nonscience stream students to science academic stream students. He lowered his head, looked down at the floor, and remained silent for a few seconds after he told me teachers always told the nonscience academic stream students they are useless. When asked about his parents’ idea of the science academic stream, he did not answer my question directly but only replied that all his siblings are in the science academic stream. He stated he still had one last chance and if the results of the public board exam are good, he can shift to the science academic stream. He finally disclosed that his parents did think the science academic stream was better because those students will have a better chance at landing a job. After receiving the results of the board examinations, this student discovered he received a much higher score and was promoted to the science academic stream. I interviewed him again to get any new ideas for comparison on the science and nonscience academic stream students. During the second interview, the student talked much more and his attitude to science academic stream students was more positive. He perceived science academic stream students as hardworking, having high concentration abilities, and good in comprehension. He also told me the other side of the story and the reasons why parents and teachers are more demanding on science academic students. September 1, 1999 RESEARCHER: Can you describe in detail the difference between science class and nonscience class students when they prepare for exams? STUDENT: I would say science students study harder. They are hardworking. Nonscience students don’t study as hard. RESEARCHER: Can you tell me why science students study harder? STUDENT: They have more pressure from their parents. Your parents aways compare your score with your siblings, relatives, and friends. Also, your teachers expect more from you. Students also need to keep high scores to stay in the program. Also, teachers pay more attention to them. Teachers won’t say that you guys are stupid if you study hard. They don’t want teachers to say bad things about them. RESEARCHER: Why do you think that nonscience students get pressure from their parents and teachers?

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Chapter Five

STUDENT: Parents are more demanding if you are in the science stream. Everyone knows that the science stream is much better than the nonscience class. RESEARCHER: Do you feel that the science stream is better? STUDENT: Yes, I think so. Science class students are really much better students. They can concentrate for longer periods than nonscience students.

This student explained again why the science academic stream students are better. Explanations were always related to a future job. He and his parents agreed that good jobs are more available for science academic stream students. RESEARCHER: What are the advantages of studying in the science academic stream? STUDENT: I will have better options when I choose a college. I will get a better job. I will have a better job. More scholarship is available.

The student I interviewed was excited to be able to shift from the nonscience academic stream to the science academic stream. Two interviews took place in his house. His brother and his sister were also present during the interviews. Both of his siblings graduated from the same school and both were in the science academic stream. His sister is in a prestigious college in New Delhi studying computer science. His brother is waiting to go to medical college. His siblings commented that it was much harder to study in the science classes. All three siblings felt that way. Keeping the family tradition became a pressure for this student. His sister and brother both were in the science stream, and he had some pressure from his family members to also stay in the science stream. The whole family was involved and helped him to make it into the science stream. During exam time, his family was not allowed to turn on the TV. He said that his parents sometimes compared him with his brother and made him feel ashamed to be in the nonscience academic stream. He also went to a tutorial center five days a week. In a class of twenty students, he was tutored to help his math. He also mentioned that he did not need to do any housecleaning. His sister did all housecleaning jobs, as both of his parents were working. His brother and sister became his supervisors and made sure he studied. All three siblings had long study hours, especially during the examination period. They said they stayed awake until 2:00 in the morning to study. The student mentioned some of his schoolmates vomited during the examination. He also mentioned that some students in other schools committed suicide after getting bad grades in board exams. It is interesting to note that this student changed his perception after shifting to the science academic stream. He was previously more sympathetic to non-

Case Studies

63

science students. He did not say too much about the disadvantages of staying in the nonscience academic stream. He seemed to be much more confident and proud in his second interview. His brother and sister also became much more involved in the conversation in the second interview. It seemed to be an honor for the family for him to be in the science academic stream. This student and his family really felt better to stay in the science academic stream. When the student said, “Everyone knows that the science stream is much better than the nonscience stream,” it was a reflection of the high value India places on the science academic stream. Science academic stream students are the winners when the culture they live in places such a high value on it. There was no doubt the student’s perception was that science academic students have a better choice of universities, better job opportunities, and more attention from parents and teachers. The majority of the students from this school were Hindu. Their perception was also that students from the science academic stream would have a better future. The research in the literature would indicate that the concept of future would also be applied to the next life, and that the theory of Karma would explain why some students had the analytical skills to make it into the science stream and were more field independent. These students already have the higher knowledge and were one step closer to self-realization. This interview shows why students prefer studying in the science academic stream. India’s long history, from the Vedic period to the modern times, also favors analytic knowledge. The Hindu value of a better life in the immediate future, and a better reincarnation as a result of this knowledge, will continue to keep this value strong. The student with a field independent style will continue to receive more attention and pressure from parents, teachers, and the culture, and this will continue to affect the student’s style of learning. Parents, teaches, students, and the Vedic tradition give a much higher status to the science academic stream, thus creating this atmosphere.

CASE STUDY 2: BAD KARMA AS FACTOR IN POOR TEST RESULTS The second case study involved a student in the nonscience academic stream. He received a low score on the GEFT exams and tended to be more field dependent. He knows he is not good at taking exams, and he did not expect to be promoted to the science stream. I interviewed him the first time on May 9, 1999, and the second time on September 1, 1999, after the results of the board exams were distributed. He did not receive a score high enough to be promoted to the science stream, and therefore stayed in the nonscience stream. He started

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the nonscience stream in May with his good friend, but since his friend was promoted to the science stream, he was quite upset. I interviewed him because he is in the nonscience stream and I wanted to get a nonscience student’s perspective on the science and nonscience streams for a comparison. In this interview, the student expressed that he studied very hard even though he was in the nonscience academic stream. He said that he went to after-school tutoring three times a week. He studied very hard because of parental pressure. He told me that his parents arranged for his after-school tutoring and his mother supervised and reminded him to finish his homework. When I told him about the comments that science stream students work harder than nonscience students, he was very upset and said loudly, “I disagree!” This student could not give me many answers as to why he did badly on the exams except to say he was not smart. I asked him why he thought he was not smart, and his response was because his parents told him he did not work hard enough, he did not study long enough, and he spent too much time with his friends. He was very upset that his parents thought he spent too much time with his friends. He said he spent most of his time with his friends studying because this helped him to understand the homework and helped him to memorize the answers for the exams. He is very proud that he has a lot of good friends in school. The student later expressed that he would change to the science academic stream if he passed the board exam. He said that he was in the nonscience stream temporarily because he failed in the school exam. However, if the results of the public board exam were good, he still had a chance to shift to the science academic stream. In the second interview, the student was very disappointed with his results. The board results were published, and he did not receive a score high enough to switch to the science academic stream. The following interview demonstrates a picture of the pressure he received after the exam and, table 5.1 contrasts the perceptions of the characteristics of students in different academic streams. September 1, 1999 RESEARCHER: Do you like your board results? STUDENT: I am not happy with them. I should have studied harder. RESEARCHER: How about your parents? STUDENT: They’re very upset. They are angry with me. They said I didn’t study hard. My mother said I have a bad Karma. RESEARCHER: Are your parents very religious? STUDENT: Yes. They go to temple everyday. They pray for our studies. They pray that we could get high grades in school.

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Domain Science Stream Nonscience Stream

Parental Pressure

Good Board Results

Study Longer Hours

Good Self Image

Find Better Jobs

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

No

Yes

No

No

No

Yes

Difficult Classes

A lot of Friends

RESEARCHER: Do your parents help you with your homework? STUDENT: No. But I ask help from my brother. My parents always compare me with my brother. RESEARCHER: Is your brother in school? STUDENT: He is in Delhi University. He studies computer science. RESEARCHER: Why do your parents always compare you with your brother? STUDENT: They worry about my future. They worry I won’t find a good job. RESEARCHER: So do you think you have a bad Karma? (Hindus believe you receive bad Karma when your past life was bad.) STUDENT: I don’t know. I didn’t do any bad things. RESEARCHER: Do you believe your brother has good Karma? STUDENT: My mother believes he does.

This student was not happy to stay in the nonscience academic stream. One reason was because his best friend was promoted to the science academic stream. Before the board results came out, his best friend and he were both put into the nonscience academic stream. However, his best friend received better results than he did. Another thing that bothered him a lot was his parent’s constant comparison of him, his brother, and his best friend. He was told by his parents that he did not study hard enough. One of the excuses his parents gave was that he had bad Karma. In Hindu philosophy, your present life is affected by your past life. If your present life is not good, Hindus believe you must have done something wrong in your past life. This is what made his mother say, “You must have bad karma.” The concept of bad Karma provides a good explanation of failure for his religious Hindu mother. This made the student believe that he deserved to be punished in this life through staying in the nonscience academic stream. This could make him believe he deserves the negative comments the teachers and parents give him about his studies. Even though this student is not sure if he has bad Karma or not, he believes he has worked hard and fulfilled his duty as a student. However, from his

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mother’s perspective, believing in Karma is a way to answer for the results of his less-than-favorable test scores. It is also a way to avoid blame for the behavior in her son’s present life. This student also mentioned that his mother believed his brother, who was in the science academic stream, had good Karma. From his mother’s point of view, the brother’s good Karma from a past life has allowed him to be in science academic stream, which in turn will bring more good Karma. This brother further increases his good Karma by tutoring his nonscience academic stream brother. The statements about bad Karma leading to placement in the nonscience academic stream show how negatively this group is viewed. Choosing the nonscience stream because of personal preference would seem illogical. This student’s parents’ involvement in his studies included his brother giving him help when needed on his homework, as well as sending him to a tuition center. He believed all the things his parents have said and done are meant to encourage to him. It appeared from this student’s comments that staying in the nonscience academic stream lowered his self-esteem. His parents gave him a lot of pressure to improve his performance. The teachers’ and parents’ negative comments about the nonscience academic stream are seen as positive encouragement and motivation. This student accepts this way of thinking, but his self-esteem and value of himself do not reflect that he has received encouragement. This student defines intelligence based on exam results. When students gets high grades, they are first-class citizens. The main job of bright students is to prepare for exams. The teachers and parents also focus on helping students to prepare for exams. Even though this student studied four hours daily, his effort was not affirmed because of his poor exam grades. It is hard for him to find a reason why he received the poor grades, and this may reinforce his belief that he has a bad Karma, is stupid, or does not study hard enough. From a Hindu point of view, intelligence is not only a matter of genetics and environment, but is also affected by one’s Karma. The knowledge gained in the science academic stream is considered higher knowledge, and students with field independent learning styles are seen as possessing a higher learning style, which is the result of good Karma.

CASE STUDY 3: HE SAID/SHE SAID I interviewed two groups of eleventh-year students. One group was all girls, and the second was all boys. The girls’ group consisted of seven students, five from the science academic stream and two from the nonscience academic stream. The boys’ group consisted of eight science academic stream students. I put girls in a code of Fl to F7, and boys are listed from Ml to M8. Selected are portions from the interviews, which focused on their perspectives on the

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differences between male and female students. The dynamics of the group can be seen in their interaction with one another during the interview, as is written below and as seen in table 5.2. April 2, 1999 RESEACHER: Do you think boys are more analytical than girls? Ml: I think so. Boys are much more analytical and they are much more organized. Except some of the art academic stream boys. RESEARCHER: Can you give me more examples? M2: Boys are more task oriented. When they need to finish the project, they can finish it right away. They can make it and finish it before the deadline. RESEARCHER: Do any of you not agree with the statement that boys are more analytical than girls? M4: Boys and Girls are the same. M5: They are not the same. Boys are getting higher marks than the girls. M3: Boys are smarter. M4: Girls live in the dorm. They get higher marks in the exams. M3: Of course, they are from the northeast. RESEARCHER: Can you give me more examples of how boys are smarter? M2: (laugh) Boys know how to cheat in the exams. Ml: You liar. M3: It’s true. Sometimes we help each other. We let our friends copy the answers. M2: Girls are more emotional. They are always over-sensitive. Table 5.2. Type of Grade 11 Students Domain Science Stream Male Science Stream Female Nonscience Stream Male Nonscience Stream Female

High Score in Exams

Analytical

Relational

Comparative

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

No

No

Yes

No

No

No

Yes

No

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RESEARCHER: Can you tell me the differences between male students and female students in school? M6: Girls like to talk and boys like to play. M7: Girls have more pocket money to spend. M8: Girls like to get married earlier. Boys need to take care of their families and support their families after finishing education.

Group of Female Interviewees On April 4th, 1999 RESEARCHER: Do you think the girls in the science academic stream are smarter than the boys in the science academic stream? F7: No, we are the same. Fl: We get higher scores in exams. F2: I don’t like to compare. Fl: Yes, we’re better. They don’t study. RESEARCHER: Do you agree that boys are more intelligent than girls in your school? FI: I don’t agree. We are the same. Girls can get good grades. F2: I don’t think so—boys like to play. At recess time, boys like to go and play table tennis, badminton, and basketball. F3: Boys are intelligent and girls are intelligent, but not the art academic stream students. RESEARCHER: Do you agree that girls are more relational and boys are more analytical? F4: I think girls are more relational. Girls like to study together more than boys. But girls can be analytical. F5: I agree. All girls in grade eleven like to talk, especially nonscience academic stream girls.

From the interview, it appears that male and female students are more similar in the relational area. Male students like to group together to play games such as basketball and badminton. It seems their grouping together will include body movements and communication on the physical level. Female students like to group together in verbal communication and seem to be much more verbal than the male students. In the science academic stream, male and female students are both viewed by their peers as analytical. Also, they are viewed as more intelligent than the

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nonscience academic stream. Male students in the science academic stream try to prove they are superior in academic performance in grade eleven. The girls in the nonscience academic stream are less competitive. One thing the boys revealed was that male students sometimes like to help each other during exams. We interpret this as cheating, but they interpret it as helping your friend find the answer, and it is acceptable among their peer group. Male students and female students seldom develop relationships with each other. According to conversations with the boys, the school environment does not encourage them to develop relationships. In the classroom, male and female students usually sit separated from one another, and male students seldom associate with females inside the school. Parents supervise the students’ activities outside school. From their comments, if girls want to have a good match, they need to have less association with male students. Then they will have a better chance to get married. However, male students do view female students as competitors even though they do not view them as friends. In general, male students seldom study together with female students. They do not talk to the girls in school, and this can make the students less sensitive and polite to the female students. One male student commented that girls like to get married earlier and boys need to support their families after finishing their education. From a Hindu point of view, the similarities of the duty of the woman and the duty of a man are they both need to care for their families. For the woman this will mean taking care of her husband and children. The man’s role, however, will be that of the provider. A man’s dharma (duty) dictates that he should be the center of the family and provide, protect, and sustain his family. In comparison with the female students, this male student’s view is that the aim of education for women is to prepare for marriage. The belief in dharma (duty) will encourage each student to perform his or her own duties in order to receive good Karma for their next life. This student’s statement reflects his perception that male students have more responsibility as the head of the home when they finish education. Another male student also commented that female students are more emotional and sensitive. He mentioned that females in the science academic stream are more relational, less analytical, and tend to be more sensitive than the male students. Hindu philosophy states that one cannot obtain the higher knowledge unless they are able to constrain their desires and self-interests. Sensitivity needs to be reduced to control your emotional side in order to reach the higher knowledge. Therefore, if female students enjoy relationships, they need to control them and restrain themselves for the sake of achieving higher knowledge. From the above discussion, it appears that boys are proud to be more field independent. This can help them fulfill their duty as a man. In reality, girls

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reflected that they could be as analytical and field independent as male students when they are in the science academic stream environment. However, from the Hindu perspective, Karma is what determines your field independence.

CASE STUDY 4: SHE IS FROM THE NORTHEAST Some female students from the science academic stream received high scores on the GEFT. This led me to investigate the reason, since these few female students were all Christians and lived in the hostel. In this school there was a hostel for female students in the senior school for those who live outside of New Delhi. In this hostel, most of the students were from the northeast states of India. This district has a special law zone and is also called a disputed area because these areas desire independence from India. Therefore, there is always fighting in these areas between the local people and the Indian Army. The people there have their own language and culture. Their food, clothing, and culture are more Burmese than Indian. In the early nineteenth century, missionaries first went to these areas because there were many tribal people. For example, the Naga tribal people were originally a head-hunting tribe. After receiving education from the missionaries, their headhunting culture changed. Many northeastern people speak English very well. Because of the unstable situation in the northeastern states, some Christians send their children to study in New Delhi Christian schools. On April 6, 2000, I went to a hostel and held an interview with the northeastern grade eleven female students with permission from the hostel director. I also interviewed the director and examined her perceptions as to why the northeastern female students received such high scores on the GEFT. This was part of the conversation with a girl from Manipur in the northeast. She was in grade eleven and studying in the science academic stream. April 2, 2000 RESEARCHER: Could you tell me why you came to Delhi to Study? STUDENT: My parents found this school for me. This is a very good school. RESEARCHER: Would you like to tell me why you like to study in the science academic stream?

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STUDENT: My family wanted me to join the science academic stream. I like science. I can memorize things in detail. I can study in the science academic stream. There is no problem for me. RESEARCHER: Why does your family like you to study in the science academic stream? STUDENT: I have a brother and a sister older than me. My brother failed the board exam and he could not study in the science academic stream. My sister also failed so my father would like me to make it to the science academic stream. RESEARCHER: Do you prefer to study alone or with your friends? STUDENT: It depends on the subject. Usually I like to study by myself. Later, if I have the time, I like to study with my friends. RESEARCHER: In general, in India, girls’ education is not so important. Why did your parents send you so far away to study? STUDENT: Education is important to my family. Girls’ education is also important in the northeast area because girls are the ones who inherit the family property.

Even though the girl interviewed was from the northeast, she never mentioned she was not an Indian. Northeastern people have a unique culture that is different from other parts of India. She told me that she decided to attend this school because her family desired it and her family also encouraged her to study in the science academic stream. She mentioned that there were no good schools in her area and her parents also believed the hostel would train their daughter to be disciplined. She emphasized very strongly her family’s high expectations of her to study in the science academic stream. This was especially important since neither her brother nor her sister made it into the science academic stream. A particularly high value is put on the education of girls from the northeast. The student stated the reason for this value clearly: “Girls’ education is also important in the northeast area because girls are the ones who inherit the family property.” She stated that the northeastern parts of India are different than the family systems of traditional Hindus, which encourage the importance of male lineage. This makes girls from the northeast an exception to any generalizations given about female Indian students. From this case study we see how family systems and the social environment can contribute to a specific gender’s field independent style. It appears that if female students are given the same opportunities as male students and

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are treated as an equally valuable gender, their analytical skills can be developed to their fullest potential. An interview with the resident advisor shows a small picture of the environment in the hostel. May 2, 2000 RESEARCHER: Do the female students have a lot of restrictions in order to stay here? R.A.: Yes, for the students’ sake. It’s a kind of protection for them. RESEARCHER: Are they allowed to receive phone calls? R.A.: They are allowed to receive three calls a day, but no boys are allowed to call here. We don’t like the students’ studies to be disturbed. RESEARCHER: Why are boys not allowed to call? R.A: No boys are allowed to call because the girls need to have strict discipline. RESEARCHER: Do you think staying in the hostel makes the students more hardworking? R.A: Yes, they are more disciplined. Every day they have devotions from 6 a.m. to 7 a.m. After school from 3–6:00 p.m. they need to study, and after dinner from 8:00–10:00 p.m. they need to study.

The Resident Advisor stated that the strict rules in place for the girls in the hostel were for their protection. There was not a hostel for male students, and all male students were residents of New Delhi. One of the duties of the Resident Advisor was to make sure the female students were not disturbed by male students. No male students were allowed to call or visit the hostel. This may be a strange concept for a westerner, but is culturally expected in India. The advisor also believed that the restrictions enhanced the students’ performance. The students who stayed in the hostel had more supervision and discipline for their study hours. Another duty of the Resident Advisor was to ensure that students in the hostel had their studies as the first priority in their lives. She commented that she wanted the students to study hard, and studying was the main activity of the students’ lives. There were no private radios, walkmans, cellular telephones, or even magazines allowed in the hostel. The main entertainment for the students was to watch television together. When I visited the Resident Advisor in the hostel, about fifteen students were sitting on the floor in front of the television in the living room of the hostel. They were watching an English movie, Beethoven. The movies, and certain television programs, are

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arranged for them to watch together at specific times. Long study hours and high supervision are the rules of the hostel. Only those students who follow the rules and study long hours will succeed in the exams. The female students from the northeast had the determination to succeed. Before they came, they went through tests and exams, and the school selected the best students. Most of these girls were Christians, and their parents were educated by missionaries. They can communicate and understand English well. These parents treat their daughters differently than girls from the other states of India. Female status is unusually high in the northeastern area. It is a matriarchal society, and the family treasures girls’ education, so the school provides good supervision. The girls’ motivation is high, and the northeasterners’ determination is strong. Most of these girls are in the science academic stream. They like to study alone and memorize in detail. It is not hard to understand why they received high scores on the GEFT and why they would tend to be more field independent. CASE STUDY 5: CHRISTIAN SCHOOLS TREAT CHRISTIANS BETTER This was a Christian school, and Christians have priority for admittance. The Christians here received high scores on the GEFT, especially the female students from the northeast in the science academic stream. Some students believed the school environment was better for a Christian. I interviewed two students, one a non-Christian and the other a Christian; both were in the science academic stream. The interview date was April 6th, after the school year was finished. The boys were playing table tennis in the recreation room. The first interview was with a Hindu male student. April 6, 2000 RESEARCHER: As a Hindu, what things don’t you like to study in a Christian school? STUDENT: I don’t like to be in chapel every morning. I don’t like to sing Christian hymns. RESEARCHER: Why does it bother you so much? STUDENT: We don’t like the principal always saying that only Christians can go to heaven. RESEARCHER: Do you feel the school treats Christians and non-Christians differently?

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STUDENT: The principal hits the Hindu students harder if they don’t follow the school’s rules. RESEARCHER: How is the Bible Class? Do you have to attend? STUDENT: We don’t like it. All the students have to take Bible class. RESEARCHER: Could you tell me who gets better grades in exams, Christians or nonChristians? STUDENT: They are the same; both study very hard. RESEARCHER: As a Hindu, what do you believe? STUDENT: We believe all gods are in one. RESEARCHER: Do you believe in reincarnation? Do you know what you were in your past life? STUDENT: I believe in reincarnation, but I don’t know anything about my past life.

From this Hindu student’s perspective, the school was intentionally Christian. All students are required to attend chapel and Bible classes, and it irritated him when the principal said that only saved Christians could go to heaven. This is contrary to Hindu beliefs, and they view it as intolerance—something they cannot accept from any religion. This Hindu student believed all gods are the same and can lead to salvation. From a Hindu view, one way to salvation is to choose a god and worship him. This student mentioned that his family chose to worship Ganish, the elephant headed god with a human body. This student believed in the Hindu interpretation of salvation that there are many lives in one soul, and even though he didn’t know what happened in his past life, he currently had a good life. This was an indirect way to say he had a good Karma. He was also in the science academic stream. The perceived spirit of intolerance against the Hindu religion created in this student a dissatisfied attitude towards the school. This student believed in his religion, and that would include having respect for all life. To obtain good Karma, one must respect all life and have tolerance for the differences among wealth, caste, and, religion.1 The proclamations of the exclusiveness of the Christian religion affected this student in that he did not want to go to chapel or sing Christian hymns. He said he wished the school would make a new policy for non-Christian students and not require them to attend Bible class and chapel. He would prefer attending classes for Hindus instead. Despite the negative feelings towards the requirement for Bible class, this student said that both Hindu and Christian students were hardworking, and both get close examination results. He believed they could both be field independent and go into the science academic stream. He felt that Christians were

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treated better in a Christian school, but did not feel favoritism affected one’s field independent learning style. The perceived unequal and non-tolerant practices toward the Hindu religion had produced negative feelings toward the school, but it had not impacted his performance. The second interview is with the Christian student, and his disagreement with his friend is reflected in this interview. RESEARCHER: You heard what your non-Christian friend said about your school. Do you agree with what he said? STUDENT: Don’t believe him; he is anti-Christian. RESEARCHER: As a Christian, do you think you get more privileges and advantages than a non-Christian? STUDENT: No, they treat us the same. RESEARCHER: Do you think this school should not force non-Christians to attend chapel and Bible class? STUDENT: There would not be any students in chapel. RESEARCHER: Do you think the school tries to convert the non-Christian? STUDENT: No, students can make their own decision. RESEARCHER: Why do you think your non-Christian schoolmates say these things about your school? STUDENT: They don’t like to attend chapel. RESEARCHER: Do you think Christian students are more analytical than nonChristians? STUDENT: No, we’re the same.

This Christian student did not agree with his Hindu schoolmate’s thinking. As a Christian student, he said that he did not receive more privileges and advantages than the non-Christian. He believed all students should attend chapel because the majority of the students are Hindus, and if the Hindu students received an exemption from chapel, there would not be anyone there. He also believed the school did not force any student to change their religion. He stated that when you attend a Christian school, you should expect there would be more Bible teaching. However, this student and his Hindu friend agreed that Christian and Hindu students are the same in the area of analytical skills required for field independent thinking (table 5.3). Some students commented on the unfairness of asking all students to take Bible class. Therefore, I went to interview the teacher who taught Bible and was in charge of the Christian Student Fellowship at the school. The Bible

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Table 5.3. Compare Male Christian Students and Male Non-Christian Students in the Science Academic Stream Domain Christian Non- Christian

High Score in Exams

Unfair Treatment

Agree with Rules

Hardworking

Yes Yes

No Yes

Yes No

Yes Yes

Analytical Yes Yes

teacher was doing his internship at an Indian seminary. He had just finished his second year at Union Bible Seminary in Pune in the southern part of India. The interview took place after I had attended a church service with him on September 5, 1999. He was an energetic young man in his early twenties. September 5, 1999 RESEARCHER: What are the difficulties you face when you teach the majority of the students who are non-Christians? TEACHER: It’s not very easy to teach Bible class when you have students from different backgrounds. Most of the students are Hindu, and a few are Christian. Very few are Muslim and Sikh. Students get upset when I compare the differences between Christianity and their religion. RESEARCHER: Why do the students feel offended? TEACHER: They think this school puts their religion down. RESEARCHER: Are all the teachers Christian? TEACHER: No, the majority of teachers are Hindu. RESEARCHER: What do the teachers think about this school policy toward religion? TEACHER: Teachers are not allowed to talk about it.

The Bible teacher confirmed that there are difficulties in teaching the Bible in this school because the majority of students are Hindu. He also confirmed that the Hindu students and teachers are greatly offended when the school puts their religion down. He stated that while the majority of teachers are Hindu, they are not allowed to talk about their religion. This confirms the school’s desire to look strong in their Christian beliefs. However, to students and teachers, it is interpreted as inferring their religion is a second-class religion. Even though outwardly they are not allowed to promote their faith, their beliefs have not changed. In the interviews with Christian and Non-Christian students in the science academic stream, there was no difference of opinion about academic

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performance on exams and analytical skills. They had more disagreement on the school’s treatment of them. The school environment does not show favoritism to the Christian student, but attending a Christian school should be different from a non-Christian school. Christian students thought that if the Hindu student complained about religion classes, perhaps they should attend a Hindu school. In the interview, the non-Christian students demonstrated their discontentment with the school’s religious activities. But they did not express that the school environment disturbed their school performance. This may reflect the reason why many Hindu parents send their children to Christian schools even though their students have to be involved in the school’s religious activities. This is further demonstration of the high value placed on academic performance. The Hindu and Christian students and the Bible teacher all agreed that a student’s analytical skill was not singularly determined by virtue of being a Christian or non-Christian.

CASE STUDY 6: PARENTS PRAY THEIR CHILDREN PASS THEIR EXAMS One set of parents sent their three children to this school. Their oldest child, a daughter, graduated three years earlier from the science academic stream. The second child was a boy who had just graduated from this school. He was also in the science academic stream. Their youngest son was in grade eleven in the nonscience academic stream, but he still had a chance to change to the science academic stream if he received high marks in the board exams. It was April 4th when I interviewed his parents after a church service. April 8, 1999 RESEARCHER: What are your prayer requests for your children? FATHER: That my children can pass the board examination. Pray for them to do their best in the exam. RESEARCHER: Would you like your younger son to change to the science academic stream? MOTHER: It doesn’t matter. It’s up to him. RESEARCHER: How do you help your younger son prepare to change to the science academic stream? FATHER: We send him to the tutoring center. He gets help there.

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RESEARCHER: What is the subject he studies when he is tutored, and how often does he go? FATHER: He only goes to the tutoring center for mathematics three times a week. RESEARCHER: What is the benefit of staying in the science academic stream? FATHER: He can major in computer. It’s easier for him to find a computer job in Hyderbad or overseas.

This family is from the southern part of India, in a city named Hyderbad. It is considered the Silicone Valley of India. Most foreign companies set their branches up there. His parents are very practical because they know that in the science academic stream, students can study computer, and their youngest son could get a job in India or overseas because the global demand for this kind of worker is still high. These parents also told me that in the summertime, they planned to go back to Hyderbad and try to look for a suitable boy to marry their daughter. When their children graduate from the science academic stream, they also have a better choice when it comes time to find a spouse for their child. Education for a daughter is beneficial for her marriage. Educated men want women who are also educated. From a Christian perspective, God’s sovereignty determines if a student goes to the science academic stream. It is common for parents to say, “if it is God’s will” in relation to acceptance into the science academic stream. This Christian student’s parents were verbally not overly concerned about their child getting into the science academic stream. His mother even said, “It doesn’t matter.” However, his father sent his son to a tutoring center to help bring up his grade, and this shows it is a concern. Practically, he knows the job market is difficult to get into and the competition is strong. The father said he prayed that his children would do their best in the examinations and pass. Passing the board examinations would shift his child from the nonscience academic stream to the science, and this would enhance his chances of getting into a university. In July, when I met them again, this student had passed his board examinations and was put in the science academic stream. In an interview with a Hindu student, he said his parents also prayed for his education. He was temporarily put into the nonscience academic stream according to the results from his school’s examination. If he did well, he still had a chance to change to the science academic stream. May 6, 1999 RESEARCHER: What did your parents do in the temple? STUDENT: They prayed to Shiva.

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RESEARCHER: What did they pray for? STUDENT: They prayed for my future. They prayed I would do well in school. They are always concerned about my education. RESEARCHER: How often do they go to the temple? STUDENT: They go to the temple every morning.

This student’s parents prayed every morning in the temple. This reflected their strong Hindu belief in the power of prayer. Fulfilling their duty to pray is one way to receive better Karma. The Hindu and Christian parents have one thing in common: they pray their children will achieve better school performance. Both Hindus and Christians showed their concern for their children’s education. In the end, for Christians it will be decided by God’s will but you should do all you can to help. For the Hindu, it is decided according to a student’s past life, but you should still do all you can, if not for this life, then to benefit the next. A field independent learning style may not be yours inherently, but the high value placed on the science academic stream by both Hindus and Christians encourages students to strive for this stream regardless of predestination from their religion.

CASE STUDY 7: THEY ARE OLDER BECAUSE THEY ARE REPEAT STUDENTS There were three students among those tested who were over 16 years old and in grade eleven. They were also in the nonscience academic stream. Normally, grade eleven students are only 15 years old. I interviewed a science stream student on his perspective of older students. September 1, 1999 RESEARCHER: Why are there students who are older in your class? STUDENT: Usually, they have failed the examination and they have to repeat the same grade. There are only a few people who repeated in our class. RESEARCHER: Would the science academic stream students need to repeat if they failed the exam? STUDENT: Students in the science academic stream seldom fail the examination. If they receive a low score in the examination they would need to go to the nonscience academic stream. RESEARCHER: Why do you think they failed the examination and needed to repeat?

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STUDENT: It was three girls that failed. I think they would like to get married after they leave school and they don’t like to study.

The student explained that these three female students were not working very hard in school, but that they had many friends. He said he thought that if older students were in grade eleven, it was because they were not hardworking and did not care. This student’s perspective of the older students in grade eleven was that they were not good examination performers. This applies to this case only in regards to age being a variable for why they received a low mark on the GEFT. This student was asked about the average age of students in grade eleven. He said most were 15 years old. He did not express any opinion on why the younger students were smarter than the older students or why they were more field independent. In his opinion age was not an issue that would impact school performance. In the above seven cases, the Hindu view of life appeared to contribute to a student’s desire to strive harder and enter the science academic stream. The data collected of grade eleven students and parents shows the perceived superiority of the science academic stream student. The case studies show evidence of the dynamics between science and nonscience students, as well as parents and teachers.

NOTE 1. David Burnett, The Spirit of Hinduism, a Christian Perspective on Hindu Thought (London, England: Monarch Publishing).

Chapter Six

Findings

This chapter examines the findings from the classroom observations and outof-class observations. This chapter also examines the hypotheses and whether they are accepted or rejected. The research questions will be answered from the data collected.

CLASS OBSERVATIONS May 4, 1999 The questions, GEFT, and SAS could not reveal the school’s environment. Therefore, a class observation was held on May 4th, 1999, at 9:00 a.m. The history class started off with greetings to the teacher. The entire class stood up and said collectively, “Good morning, Madam.” Then the entire class became silent. The teacher started to write the topic on the blackboard. Boys and girls sat in separate places. Boys sat next to the exit, and girls sat close to the window. The teacher did not ask any questions to the students but rather held up a textbook and read, stopped for a while and gave a lecture, then read the textbook again. The classroom was often disturbed by the noise of the fan. The boy who sat next to the exit was close to an electrical switch, but the screws were out and the electric switch was broken. There was a sign warning of danger above it. During the middle of the class, the teacher started to write the homework on the blackboard and students began to copy it down. The researcher stood outside of the classroom until the class was over. No oral questions were given to the students, and there was no conversation between the teachers and students. There was no interaction of any kind between them. At the end of 81

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the class the teacher said, “Goodbye class” and the entire class spoke back, “Good-bye madam.” From the teacher’s perspective, the classroom students were under control. Five students were peeking out the window and when the teacher turned around to write the assignment on the blackboard, and one student looked up to the fans to examine why they were making so much noise. Three students got up to borrow erasers, and two students sharpened their pencils. When the teacher turned her back to the class, every student sat still and quiet without any motion. After the bell rang, students stood up and said good-bye to the teacher. The scenery changed immediately; students seemed to be more relaxed, even though there were only about five minutes left to wait for another teacher. This indicated the students’ need for a break due to their short attention span. The students were supposed to sit still and not make noise while waiting for the next teacher to come. For the most part, only students who need to go to special classrooms—such as laboratories—change classrooms. It is the teacher who will change classrooms and not the students, and therefore the students have little time to stretch and get a change of scenery. Seven students stood up and talked. There were 15 students walking toward the wastebasket, which is behind the teacher’s chair, to throw away papers. There were two girls walking outside the classroom, three students were sleeping on their desks, and one student was writing. Tables 6.1 and 6.2 show student classroom behavior with and without the teacher. Table 6.3 shows teaching methods used in the classroom. May 4th, 1999 It was 10:00 a.m. on May 4th when I administered the GEFT to the students. It was administered in the nonscience academic economics class. After clearly giving instructions not to start until I told them to, a few students tried to get a head start. The competitive atmosphere is quite high. During the test, Table 6.1. Student Classroom Behavior with the Teacher in History Class Student Classroom Behavior with Teacher Stand to Greet Teacher Copy Assignment from the Blackboard Peek out the Window Borrow Erasers Read the Text book Look up at Fan Sharpening Pencils

Frequency 2 1 3 3 2 1 2

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Findings Table 6.2. Student Classroom Behavior without the Teacher Student Classroom Behavior Talking to Friends Throwing Small Things in the Wastebasket Standing up to Talk Walking outside the Classroom Sleeping on the Desk Writing

Frequency 15 6 7 2 3 1

there were two boys who kept exchanging their answers with each other and sometimes whispering to each other. They were helping each other. There was another boy who peeked on the paper of the boy in the next row. The students took this exam very seriously even though I explained that the results of this test would not affect their school results. When time was coming to a close I told the students the time was up and they should put down their pencils. There were still several students who kept writing and did not stop until I told them again. One student asked if he could have more time to write. No student just sat there without writing. It appeared that all the students were experienced exam takers and took this exam seriously. May 4, 1999 I went to the grade eleven science academic stream class at 11:00 a.m. It was a biology class, and a female teacher was teaching in the laboratory. There were four long rectangular tables in the classroom. Male students occupied two tables and female students occupied the other two tables. The teacher gave a lecture and read from her textbook. Students were concentrating deeply in this class. The teacher twice said, “Pay attention; I will not say it again.” The class was almost finished when I talked to the teacher and told her the purpose of my visit. When I told the teacher I would like the students to write down what caste they came from if they were Hindus, she said, “We are not allowed to say we are from any caste in this school or to talk about caste.” She continued to explain that there was no caste system in this school Table 6.3. Teaching Method Teaching Methods Teacher using blackboard Teacher reading from a text book Teacher’s lecture longer than 5 minutes Teacher sits down Greeting to students

Frequency 4 3 4 2 2

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and that everyone was equal. The principal told all the teachers that no one is allowed to talk about caste in this school. However, she did say we could look at the student’s family name and find out their caste. Later, she also said the students could write scheduled or non-scheduled caste on the form. Scheduled caste would be outcaste or low caste people. I asked her opinion about the relationship between scheduled or non-scheduled caste related with style preference. She said there was no difference and that is was just the government’s way of managing the caste system. September 2, 1999 It was about 11:15 a.m. Four students stood outside the classroom during the English class lesson. The researcher talked to those students to investigate why they were standing outside. There were two girls and two boys, and all were in year eleven, in the nonscience academic stream. The teacher discovered that the researcher was talking to the students and came out to explain they were being disciplined. The teacher returned to his class and continued to lecture. He asked a student to read the textbook for him. Then he continued to give a lecture and asked them several times to pay attention. The students remained standing outside until the class was over. In the GEFT, nonscience academic students scored low in field independence. Cohen describes field independent students as having less concentration but enjoying social interaction more and learning best with cooperative learning.1 Some students in the nonscience stream history class demonstrated these characteristics when they were distracted by noisy fans, looked out windows, and talked to other students when the teacher turned her back. They desired interaction. In traditional Indian educational theory, cooperation is always preferred over competition.2 To Hindus, cooperation is considered a virtue, and a person from a low position will always cooperate with a person from a high position. In relation to the Indian education system, students must cooperate with teachers, junior teachers need to cooperate with senior teachers, and senior teachers with the principal. From a Hindu perspective, cooperation not Table 6.4. Student Behavior in English Class Student Behavior in English Class

Frequency

Students Reading Test Book Students Stand to Greet Teacher Copy Assignment Calling to Pay Attention

2 2 1 2

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only brings peace, it is a part of one’s spiritual development. To gain collective growth and individual happiness, and eventually to gain a good Karma, cooperation is necessary. Karma Marg, when one fulfills the requirements of their dharma (when not in pursuit of self-interest), is one way of salvation, and cooperation is a part of fulfilling your Karma. The country also promoted the idea of cooperation. It was conveyed that if every Indian cooperated with one another, it could bring a strong nation. Cooperation became one of the symbols of nationalism. In the view of a Hindu, a good man will cooperate for the welfare of the nation. However, the attitude of cooperation should first start in, and be learned from, the family. If any individual wants happiness and success in the highest sense, he must first learn how to cooperate with different members of his family. Then the individual must convey this skill to the greater world of society.3 The students in the history class who were distracted had already learned a lot of the teaching of cooperation from home, school, and their country. Even though the academic environment did not match their learning style, the students must continue with their duty and continue cooperating with the teacher. In this particular class there was more evidence to demonstrate the value of teaching cooperation in this school. The teacher needed to cooperate with the principal. The biology teacher did not allow me to talk with the students about their caste background. This was because the principal ordered the teachers not to talk about caste, as he stated that everyone in the school was equal. A statement on equality would appear to be a contradiction with the school structure. The top-down authority is based on title, position, and experience in the school. When students cooperate with teachers, and teachers cooperate with the principal, it matches the Hindu philosophy of Karma Marg. From the classroom observation, the school environment puts at a disadvantage the field dependent student. Field dependent students need more stimulation, activities, group discussion, and interactive teaching.

OUT-OF-CLASS OBSERVATION April 2, 1999 It was noontime on a half-day of school for the school. Eight male students from the science academic stream ran together to the music room to play table tennis after the bell rang. All the male students were excited about going to the music room. Inside the music room there was a piano and a table tennis table. This music room was also a recreation room. Inside the room, there were no girls. It appears that male students and female students do not play together in the teenage years. All the male students there talked to each other

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in Hindi, saying, “Aap pagel hai!” (you are crazy) even though the school has strict rules about only using English. There are signs all over the school that remind students to speak in English as it is considered the common language. However, in this room the boys spoke in Hindi. This table tennis game is only for two players, so the other six sat around a circle and waited for their turn. Some sat and talked, and it seemed that male students at their age enjoyed playing in a group together. However, in the questionnaire, the science students said they preferred to study alone. This reflected that the science academic male students enjoyed being social and tended to be relational even though they perceived themselves to be analytical. Students stayed in the music room about an hour and then left. September 1, 1999 It was break at noontime. One of the teachers took out her food containers and walked up to the teachers’ room on the second floor. While she walked from the first to the second floor, there were three female students walking down. The three female students stopped walking and talking and slightly nodded their head and said, “Good afternoon Mrs. . . .” Three male students were running in the hallway and slowed down right away when they saw the teacher coming toward the teachers’ room. Two male students stood straight up and said, “Good afternoon Mrs. . . .” One student made a quick turn in another direction to avoid seeing this teacher. The teacher said, “No running.” There were two male students who stood in front of the teachers’ room with their hands clasped together behind their back and their heads were bent toward the floor. A teacher had just punished these students. Inside the teachers’ room there were all female teachers. At that time there was one male peon, the equivalent of a custodian in the West, holding a tray with four cups of Chai or Indian tea that he was delivering to their room. When the bell rang again, the four teachers went outside their room with the books. In the hallway, there were no students as they were all in the classroom. There were a lot of noises coming out of the classroom, but as one teacher walked close to that classroom, the noise disappeared. The traditional Hindu view of the role of teacher is one who is at a high level of spirituality and is a guide of the human soul. A teacher always enjoys moral superiority. He is taken as a leader of conducting the human soul for the onward journey toward spiritual progression. He is the revealer of man’s spiritual destiny.4 The relationship between students and teachers is to be of the highest esteem and a very close relationship. In the Gita, one of the scriptures in Hinduism, it is written that teachers should not cultivate any fears in

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the student’s mind. In the Gita, the teacher assumes full responsibility for the pupil’s action. There is no escape from one’s duty. He shall not inculcate the element of fear in the minds of his pupils, for fear leads to the development of the guilt sense in one’s students.5 Part of this ideal teacher’s role and responsibility may still penetrate the culture in modern education. Anytime a student sees a teacher coming in this school they will change their behavior according to the teacher’s expectation. It would be hard to judge whether this is from fear or respect for the teacher. However, if it is from fear rather than respect, then students who are field dependent would be discouraged to ask questions and hindered from fostering their analytical skills.

STUDENT RESIDENCE OBSERVATION August 6, 1999 Place of residence was the second highest factor to impact student’s learning, so I decided to visit a student’s home. I received permission from the student’s parents to conduct the interview in their home and do the observation. The student’s parents were both employed by the government, and therefore were entitled to apply for government housing. Government workers pay very little rent, and there is a lot of government housing in New Delhi. This student lived with his family in a government housing complex in New Delhi that is close to his school. When I arrived at their house, I saw the house consisted of a two-story apartment with two apartments in each unit and 10 units on each block. The outside of the house was pink, and most of the paint on the outside walls had already peeled off. This family lived on the ground floor. Before I rang the bell, I heard a strange noise that turned out to be five cows roaming around and mooing not far from their house. I rang the bell for about two minutes, and when no one answered the door, I knocked. When the student opened the door I noticed inside the house was dark. The informant told me it was usual to have power cuts. During the summer each district in Delhi takes turns being without power, and some areas have power cuts three or five hours a day. August is the monsoon season, and the outside of their house was muddy because of the water. Inside the house was very humid. Before I sat down, I noticed a bed in the hallway close to the living room. The student told me his grandpa stayed with them, and that was where he slept. It is common for Indian families to live together with their extended families.

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One thing I wondered about was how he could study without lights to see and fans to cool off during such a hot and humid time. He said he had no choice. Because of the monsoon, the outside of the house was very muddy and the drains were clogged so this also contributed to there being many mosquitoes. It disturbed me very much during the interview when the mosquitoes kept flying around my head and making noise. I asked him if it bothered his studies when the mosquitoes kept flying around, and he said it did not bother him. In the small living room, there was a small table, two chairs, one bed, and one long sofa. I asked him how many bedrooms were in the house, and he told me two. He sleeps inside one of the rooms with his brother. At that time his sister came out of the kitchen with Indian tea. Even though there was a curtain between the kitchen and living room entryway, you could see inside the kitchen. One thing I did not feel comfortable about was a small mouse running about the living room during our interview. I asked him why on item 19 of the questionnaire, he said the residential area impacted his studies quite a lot, and could he give me the reasons for his answer. He told me it was hard to study in his house because there is too much noise from the neighborhood. When asked what “hard to study means,” he said it was hard to concentrate, and that disturbs his studies. I asked him if he could give me some examples of the noises that bother him, and he told me that during the marriage season, the neighbors erect large tents in front of their house for the wedding and have parties all night long. Turning the volume to the maximum level to share one’s favorite music is also common. I asked him if he thought he would do better academically if he lived in a better neighborhood and he said, “absolutely.” Before I left, the electricity came back on and there was loud Hindi music from next door, as well as television noise from the first floor. After I left the house I looked around his neighborhood. There was a small temple inside the market, and the market was not far away from their house. From the main road to their house there was a big Hindu temple. He did not mention all these temples, but they created quite a lot of noise also. I heard the priests and worshipers chanting when I walked by them as I headed toward the main road. Another noise that was prevalent was the honking from all the traffic. On the back of all buses, trucks, and rickshaws is written, “Please Honk.” You honk when you want someone to move, and there is a lot of honking going on. It bothered me, but the student did not mention it. The following list displays the various disruptions to the environment one may encounter:

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Disruption to Environment Inside the House and Outside the House Mosquitoes Crowded living conditions Noise Clogged drain Power cuts Mice Temple Neighbors Transportation This student is in the science academic stream. He mentioned that the environment disturbed him and it is hard for him to concentrate. Researcher Cohen6 stated that field independent students are capable of deep concentration. This seemed to demonstrate that an environment that is disruptive can impact a student’s concentration depending on their learning style. This family was a middle-class family, as both parents have government jobs. It would be worse for a poorer student who was trying to study.

OUTSIDE SCHOOL CONVERSATION April 2, 1999 I visited the school and interviewed a group of male students when there was a half day off school. It was noontime when I interviewed them. School was over, and after the interview I told the students I could give them a ride home if it was on my route home. When I opened the car door, six students jumped in. I had forgotten to mention the car only had space for four people. It is customary in India to overcrowd the vehicles. One student directed me to his home, which was only five minutes from the school. He also lived in government housing. Having thanked me for the ride, he told me he usually walks to school. I think it would take at least twenty-five minutes to walk and would not be easy when the weather is above 110 degrees fahrenheit. When asked why they took the bus they replied because their families are not rich. After dropping him, there were still five left inside the car. I asked them if they liked their school. One student said it was ok, and another said it was a very good and famous school. However, the boy who sat next to me said

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the school’s facilities were limited. He said: “There is no place to play—only study, study, study. They don’t promote sports, and only focus on academics. It is no fun and there is too much discipline.” Other students started to stop him, and one told him he talked too much. At that point one student called out, “Uncle, you can drop me here.” This was at a bus stop. He was in a hurry, as he wanted to catch the bus stopped in front of my car. It had already started to move and he ran and jumped up onto the bus as it was moving. He ran quite fast even though he had a heavy backpack on his back. I discovered all students carry heavy backpacks, as there are no lockers available in school. There were still three students left, and the next student also asked to be let off at a bus stop. He thanked me for the ride and said now he wouldn’t have to change buses to get home. I learned that this student changes buses twice to make it to school because there are no direct buses available. One student informed me he had a friend who has to change buses three times. I asked the students still in my car if they were in the science academic stream. Both said they were, and I asked them if they liked to study in that stream. One student said he did as he could apply to the Indian Institute of Technology (IIT). This is a very prestigious university in India. Another student said, “All students in our class want to go to IIT, but usually only the top students make it to IIT.” I asked them what the characteristics of top students were. One student commented, “Top students are isolated. They have no friends.” Then they both laughed. I asked them if their parents wanted them to go to IIT. Both of them said yes. Then I asked them what their parents did to help them. One student said they didn’t allow him to watch TV. When asked why, he said that if he watched TV he wouldn’t get into IIT. After answering this question it was his turn to get out. He also got out at a bus stop. There was only one boy left, and we were almost at my house and I informed the student that I needed to go home. He told me he lived very close to my house and asked if he could make a visit. I told him that was ok. When he came to my house I asked him how he usually traveled to school. He said he usually got to school by bus. I also asked if any students drive a car to school, and he said that there were some who did. When asked if he thought there was any difference between students from rich families and students from poor families, he said that rich students don’t need to study. They don’t like to study, and they cannot concentrate. He said, “Students not from rich families work and study much harder.” Then he asked where I was from, and I informed him that I was from Hong Kong but had immigrated to America. Then he asked me to help him find scholarships so he could study in America. He also then told me he was a Christian. After that conversation, his motivation to visit and hope of help

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from a foreigner was very clear. He didn’t stay long, and left after hearing that I could not help him. One of the students mentioned that his parents did not let him watch television so he would have more time to study even though he was in the science academic stream. The students I talked with understood that the top students need to pay a price. One of the students said that top students had fewer social activities and were isolated from the crowd in order to focus on their studies. Five of the students were Hindu, and they told me about their religion. From Hindu philosophy, even if you have good Karma and have a higher knowledge you still need to make an effort and strive to do better in order to gain a higher state of intelligence in the next cycle of life.7 The students who needed to change buses a few times to reach school were from families with a limited income. These students believed that their residential area and a limited family income would not stop them from developing analytical skills, being field independent, and staying in the science academic stream. As one student said, “Students who are not from wealthy families study much harder.” From the observation and conversation with the students on their way home, it appears that students who are not from rich families have learned how to survive within their limited family income. Some students need to take two or three buses to come to school. They have become skillful at jumping on and off buses as they are moving to make good use of time. All six of these students were from the science academic stream. Their family income did not adversely affect their school performance. Rather, it seemed to make them study harder. Therefore we can conclude that low-income students can produce good analyzing skills as long as they work hard. Their learning style will not be impacted by their family’s limited income.

TEST OF HYPOTHESES In this section, the test of hypotheses will be discussed and examined according to 144 the descriptive results of the GEFT. The independent t-test is measured by .05 level of significance, meaning that there is only a five percent chance Table 6.5. Summary Outcome of the Six Hypotheses Based on Analysis of GEFT Hypothesis

Outcome

1 Male Stream Rejected p>.05

2 Academic

3 Gender

4 Religion

5 Income

6 Age

Accepted P<.001

Rejected p>.05

Rejected p>.05

Rejected p.05

Accepted P<.01

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that the results occurred due to error. The hypotheses were also analyzed in light of the interviews and observations and in comparison with traditional Hindu values. Table 6.5 displays a summary of the outcomes. Hypothesis 1 From the results of the GEFT we see that female students in the science academic stream receive higher mean scores. The highest mean score of the GEFT test were from female students in the science academic stream. The score of female students in the science academic stream was 68.96. The GEFT mean score for male students in the science academic stream was 59.44. The female students scored nine percent higher than the male students in the science academic stream. This indicates that female students in the science academic stream have the capacity to do analysis better than the male students. In the interviews, there were five grade eleven female students from the northeastern part of India. These students reside in the school’s hostel, which is located in a good residential area. This reflected that a good, controlled environment contributed to helping students achieve better test scores. From the interview with the Resident Advisor, we learned that the girls from the northeast who reside in the hostel have a strict study time and also a strict schedule that limits socialization. The male students’ perception was also that the girls who lived in the dorms received higher marks. From the results of the test, hypothesis 1—that males in science academic stream would score higher in field independence—was rejected. All current literature affirms that male students are more likely to score higher in field independence than female students. Therefore, the rejection of this hypothesis warrants careful analysis as to the reason for its rejection. Historically, a female’s education was less important than a male’s. In the Vedic tradition, only a male student had the privilege to study the Vedas with his guru. There was a strong Hindu value of showing favoritism to males over females that is prevalent today. The Hindu concept of dharma (moral duty) contributes to the prevailing value of males over females. The householder stage that a man must enter dictates his responsibility to maintain the family financially, carry on the family lineage, and care for family property. A man must have a good education in order to secure a well paying job with which to support the family, and his knowledge will also enable him, when his time for retirement comes, to enter into the stage when he can focus on god. Those with a higher knowledge will have the ability to concentrate on, and get a better knowledge of, god. Those

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with a higher knowledge of god will have a better rebirth or possibly even moksha (salvation). A son’s education will also affect the father because if the son is able to support the family, the father can move into his next stage in life. The religious importance of a son’s education will contribute to his chances to develop analytical skills and succeed in the science academic stream. In contrast, there is less responsibility for a female to be educated. A woman’s duty, or dharma, is to support her in-laws, husband, and children. In urban areas, if a husband is educated he will want an educated wife, but not necessarily with high qualifications. The dowry system in India has also encouraged a continued favoritism toward boys. When a girl marries, her family must provide a dowry. This often consists of giving monetary gifts, jewels, furniture, and vehicles to the bridegroom’s family. After marriage, the girl will continue to contribute to her husband’s family—thus the financial loss in the daughter’s education cannot be reversed.8 Traditional Hindu philosophy continues to affect women’s education in India. However, when analyzing the groups of female students from the science academic stream, we see they do not fit the traditional model of Indian girls. Five of the 25 female students in the science academic stream were from the northeastern states of India. This was 20 percent of the female student sample. The girls from the northeast are not Hindu, and their families have different values regarding a daughter’s education. In case study four, one of these female students made the statement that “Girls’ education is also important in the northeastern part of India.” The northeasterners’ family structure is different than the traditional Hindu home because daughters inherit family property. This makes the girls’ families pay more attention to their daughters’ education. Moreover, the female students who stayed in the hostel are more determined to succeed. They have left their homes and gone to a boarding school to study, usually at a great cost to their families. They are usually more independent, as their families are not there to care for them, and this will affect their learning. They also carry the high expectations from their families to be successful. The cost to their family to send them to a boarding school is high, and therefore they have pressure to do well.9 In addition to this, any student who studies in the science academic stream has already reached the requirements of the school. These students have already received high grades in their examinations, and the students in the science academic stream have already demonstrated their analytical skill. In case study 3, one science academic stream student mentioned that boys and girls are the same in analytical skill. One male student said, “Girls live in the

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dorm. They get higher marks on the exams.” This shows that the girls’ determination to do well is followed by a reputation of success. Another student attributed their success to merely being from the northeast. The male students in the science academic stream acknowledged the girls’ ability. The questionnaire included self-evaluation questions (13–14) on students’ analytical and independent study skills. The female students in the science academic stream were quite confident about their field independent style. There was a strong relationship between those who scored higher on the GEFT and those who thought themselves to be field independent. Therefore, in their self-evaluation, female students in the science academic stream knew that they had analytical skills. The above hypothesis was rejected, but the cultural factors regarding 20 percent of the female participants in all probability skewed the results. The value placed on girls’ education, the expectations of success from their families, along with possible environmental factors such as strict and stable study requirements, showed that female students can score as high, if not higher, than male students in field independence and in confidence of their abilities when circumstances allow it. Hypothesis 2 Hypothesis 2 was that science academic stream students would score higher in field independence. In this result, independent t-test of GEFT, t(98)=6.9, p<.OO1 is evidence that shows the science academic stream student scores higher in field independence, with p<.OO1 indicating that there is only one percent chance that these results could occur due to error. Therefore, hypothesis 2 is accepted, and it can be concluded that students’ academic stream influences their level of field independence. The second hypothesis was accepted on the basis of test results, observational data, and interviews with the students. Students in the science academic stream were first selected by the school according to their exams and then according to state board exams. Good exam scores come from hardworking students who can memorize facts and details and are more analytical. Science-stream students have more of these factors.10 In addition, confidence, self-esteem, and status are very high among the science academic stream students. This tends to help and encourage students to become even more field independent. In the results of the Style Analysis Survey (table 6.6), the science academic stream students preferred an analytical style. They scored 18 percent higher on the test than nonscience students. The questions from the survey showed

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that analytical students enjoyed detailed information and specific facts, and they liked to use logical analysis to solve problems. This was matched by findings of other researchers.11 The finding that science academic stream students are more field independent is in agreement with Saracho’s findings.12 From the self-evaluation questions (13–14), we see that female students in the science academic stream see themselves as more field independent (table 4.13). One of the factors leading to this is that they are in the science academic stream. However, in question 17 of the SAS, when asked if science stream students were more field independent, there was not a consensus among eleventh-grade students. More nonscience academic students disagreed that science stream students were more field independent. In case study one, the nonscience stream student disagreed with this statement. He complained about the science academic stream students and said, “They (science academic stream students) feel they are better. They feel they are smarter.” The student did not like the science stream students to look down on the nonscience stream students. Therefore, there was a disagreement in the results among the grade eleven students. From a Hindu point of view, analytical knowledge is considered higher knowledge, which contributes to the general belief that field independence is superior and explains why it is popular among students and parents. In the second case study, the Hindu mother’s perspective was that good Karma was the reason one son was in the science academic stream and bad Karma explained why her second son was not. The cognitive process, for a Hindu, is not only a result of genetics but is also affected by Karma.13 In the same way, it is also thought to be the result of good Karma when students possess field independent learning styles. The concept of Karma places a higher value on analytical knowledge, as it helps one achieve self-realization and encourages students to restrain their desires. Practically speaking, 80 percent of the grade eleven students agreed that the science academic stream student could get better job opportunities (table 4.11). To be in the science academic stream meant having the benefits of both spiritual and financial gain. The GEFT and SAS results show that students with field independent learning styles are more analytical and are a close description of the way Hindus view intelligence and higher knowledge. This kind of knowledge is thought to be eternal, imperishable, pure, and true. In the same way, field independent styles can be seen as a higher learning style in Hindu thought, as it is the analytical learning style. This value of a higher knowledge contributes to a student’s desire to pursue analytical thinking, which will in turn produce a field independent learning style.

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Moreover, from classroom observations, the teacher required students to have a high degree of cooperation. Cooperation is much more important in an Indian setting than a teacher’s teaching style matching a student’s learning style. From a Hindu view, cooperation is part of Karma Marg, (the way to achieve good Karma), and for students is a duty required for salvation. This would not be an ideal setting for a field dependent student to develop their analytical skills because when the teacher only demands cooperation of the student, they miss the needed social interaction and discussion that will help them develop their skills. From the above discussion, the GEFT scores provide the evidence to prove hypothesis number two. Science academic stream students are more field independent. The Hindu concept of Karma contributes to this issue. Hypothesis 3 Hypothesis 3 asserted that male students would score higher than female students in field independence. It was found that the male’s mean score was M=49.90, which was too close to the females’ score of M=49.14, SD 28.3O to be significant. The result of the independent t-test, t(98)=O.147, p>.O5, indicates no difference between males and females when measuring scores for field independence. Therefore, hypothesis 3 is rejected and it can be concluded within the realms of this study that the independent variable—gender—does not affect students’ level of field independence. Hypothesis 3 was also rejected based on student interviews and questionnaires. The male and female student’s perspective on one another’s analytical skills are the same. There were some exceptional cases, such as the northeastern female students in the science academic stream who are quite strong in the field-independence style. However, the girls in the nonscience academic stream were weaker. When the male and female students were in the same academic stream, there were not too many differences according to the interviews. Both hypothesis one and hypothesis three dealt with issues of gender. The difference, however, was that hypothesis one dealt only with males and females in the science academic stream and hypothesis three compares both academic streams together. As stated previously, the female students in the science stream scored higher in field independence than the males, and the circumstances behind this were also noted. However, in this test the male students’ scores were higher than the females’ but not enough to be significant and to be accepted. The close scores indicate that even though previous studies and historical factors indicated boys would score

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higher than girls, given the opportunity, girls can also score well in field independence. Hypothesis 4 Hypothesis four asserted that Christian students would score higher than non-Christian students in field independence. The result of the independent t-test was t(98)=1.479, p>.O5. There was no significant difference in GEFT scores between the two groups; therefore hypothesis 4 was rejected. The independent variable, religion, did not influence the student’s level of field independence. Hypothesis 4 was also rejected based on evidence from the interview. No student mentioned which religion helped students perform better in exams. Even though some students complained about the school showing favoritism, it had not affected their analytical skills and their learning style preference. The majority of students in this school were Hindu, and 89 percent of the students in this research were Hindu. Hindus believe that everyone must coexist and show tolerance to one another. India is a pluralistic society where Muslims, Christians, Hindus, and many small sects must live side by side. Respect for one another’s religious beliefs is continuously promoted. “The Indian society is unique for a number of reasons. One of them is its diversity. One face of India displays heterogeneities while the other reveals a striving for unity.”14 The aim of tolerance is to promote unity in the country. The concept of tolerance is also necessary to achieve good Karma. The need to have respect for all life is a requirement to receiving good Karma. Therefore, it is an enigma to the students why the school does not show respect to their religion and allow Hinduism to be promoted in their school. Table 5.3 shows a comparison of male Christian and non-Christian students in the science academic stream. The table illustrates the students perceptions of which religious group would score higher in field independence or dependence. All students agreed that both groups could receive high scores in examinations, both could be analytical, and both were hardworking. It also reflected that both groups were high in field independence. The main difference was in their perceptions of how the groups were treated in school. Hindu students believed the Christian students received better treatment, but the Christian students disagreed with this statement. The findings from case study five supported that religion in a Christian school did not affect either group’s analytical skills. This was agreed on among the students, but there was discontentment from the Hindu students about the perceived favoritism.

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Hypothesis 5 Hypothesis 5 said that a student whose family has taxable income would score higher in field independence than a student whose family has nontaxable income. The results of the independent t-test was t(90)=816, p>.05. There was not a significant difference between the two groups in terms of field independence. Therefore, hypothesis 5 was rejected and it can be concluded that in this study, the independent variable, income, did not affect the students’ level of field independence. This hypothesis was also rejected based on the interview and questionnaires. Students in families with high income can attend smaller sized tutorial classes. However, there is not much difference in the number of hours that they study. Rich or poor, both groups from this school study long hours to prepare for exams. Some students commented that students from backgrounds with high income are not so worried about their future job or income. The students with lower-income families seem to have more family pressure to do well in school. In item 12 on the questionnaire (table 4.9), slightly higher than 4 percent of the students disagreed that students with a high family income were more field independent. From their perspective, students with a lower income must work harder, thus cultivating more field independence. Twenty-four percent of the students believed that residential area could affect learning style. Students with a high-income family could have more resources and therefore choose a good location and environment for their family residence. From an observation at a student’s residence, it was clear that there were many disruptions that could hinder students’ studies. The daily power cuts, mosquitoes and mice, noise of chanting form the temple, and car horns blowing made it difficult for the student to study. Regardless of the disadvantages for the low income family that was observed, and even though the family had nontaxable income, they still had steady employment and were able to put their children in a private Christian school. Research has shown that the school performance of poor students from a village is affected by their surroundings.15 However, the income of people from the village is very different than people from the city. Ninetysix percent of the fathers in this study were employed, and two percent were retired (table 4.2). This indicates that the majority of students’ families had a stable income, even if it is not taxable. Sixty-two percent of the students’ fathers were government employed. This is considered a very stable and desirable job in India. Therefore, whether the income was taxable or nontaxable in this school was not a factor in determining students’ learning styles. Further study could be done comparing the amount of nontaxable income needed to

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be a factor in a student’s learning style, since many researchers attested to the fact that income was indeed a factor. Hypothesis 6 Hypothesis 6 stated that younger students would score higher than older students in field independence. There is significance between the two groups, p<.Ol. The results indicate that in this particular study, the independent variable—age—affected the student’s level of field independence. Therefore the hypothesis is accepted, with only a one percent chance that these results would occur by error. However, many of the older students were female students in the nonscience academic stream. Some of them failed in the school exams and needed to repeat the same grade. Some older students lacked confidence and self-esteem. They did not believe they could succeed in the exams, and that encouraged them to be more relational and less analytical. In case study seven, one student explained that the reason older students studied in the eleventh grade was because these students were not hardworking. The perception was that the older students were not concerned about their futures, especially the females, whom he believed only wanted to get married. They were repeating the grade, and in the interview students expressed the opinion that the older female students did not have to worry about a job or further study. Being in the same age-group could enhance the identity of grade eleven students. The majority of the students in grade eleven were 15 years of age, and this was a limitation in the study as the numbers for comparison was small. Therefore, when younger students are seen as having a greater field independent learning style than older students, it is most likely because the older students are in this grade because they have already displayed difficulty in passing the necessary exams.

SIGNIFICANCE OF FINDINGS From the scores of the GEFT, the science academic stream students are obviously more field independent. From the comments of the grade eleven students, the science academic stream students are the winners in academic performance. In the interviews, the students told what it cost for them to stay in the science academic stream. It was their perception that the top students were usually isolated from social groups. Parents believed that a top student

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should sacrifice their relaxation time, watching TV, and social activities with friends. Teachers and school officials thought that top students should not have time for extra activities and sports. Science academic stream students repeated again and again how much pressure they had from their parents. It was interesting that a nonscience stream student also complained about the pressure from his parents. In the nonscience academic stream, students were seen as second best when compared to the other grade eleven students, and yet their parents still put a lot of pressure on these children. From this point of view, nonscience academic stream students also needed to study long hours, just as their science stream classmates. Therefore, it seemed the study, effort, and parental pressure on students were similar in both academic streams. This was in opposition to the science stream students’ perspective that nonscience students did not work hard. They also went to tutorials and studied many hours; they were not lazy students. The biggest difference was that their effort was without confirmation or esteem. A very interesting finding was that the highest scores on the GEFT were from the science academic stream female students. This breaks the traditional Indian belief that women are inferior to men. A large contribution from this study was the evidence that women have the same gifts and abilities to learn if given the same opportunities and value as men. They can also develop a field independent style and analyze, concentrate, focus on details, organize, and plan. There will continue to be a great fight for justice for the women of India, and this study is one more piece of evidence that could empower women in India by breaking down stereotypes. Above all, this study provides evidence that the strong cultural value preferring science academic stream students does impact students’ learning style preferences. We saw that the students in the science academic stream preferred a field independent learning style. And as expected, nonscience students were field dependent. The academic stream was the strongest category in determining the impact from the culture on the students’ learning style preference. From the GEFT, I chose a student who had a low score in field independence. From his SAS survey, his learning style was global and relational. However, when he was interviewed (case study 2), we see that the student’s parents, teachers, and school system made him push himself to try and fit into a field independent style in order to go to the science academic stream. While the pressure could not force this student to be something he was not, it did make him strongly desire it and feel disappointed with his results. The GEFT revealed no relationship between religion and field independence or dependence. However, in case studies 2 and 7 we see that there is

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a religious component that needs a more in-depth study. In case study two, as was mentioned earlier, a mother blamed the student’s bad Karma for him not making it into the science academic stream. Rather than attributing the low test scores to different gifts and abilities, or a bad system of testing intelligence, bad Karma was blamed. Likewise in case study 6, Christian parents are asking divine intervention on their son’s behalf in order that he may get into the better academic stream (science academic stream). This is another indicator of the science academic stream’s most favored stream status. Another important finding in this study was the awareness of how deeply the Hindu culture has penetrated a Christian school. The majority of Hindu students and Hindu teachers have cultivated and affirmed their Hindu values of the superiority of analytical knowledge in this school system. Even though the examination system was adopted from the British education system, the great value placed on achieving the ability to think analytically is a value held in the Hindu majority culture of India. The prevailing school system in India is exam-based, and this Christian school, if its goal is to enable its students to compete in this system, must also abide by the national curriculum. However, if the school desires to be intentionally Christian, stronger efforts to erode the notion that science stream students are more valued than nonscience stream students need to be made. The school seemed to have unconsciously accepted the Hindu value of the supremacy of analytical knowledge, to the extent that the majority of the students believed this value even though it contradicts Christian beliefs. It affects a student’s learning style when a student is only encouraged to develop his natural gifts and abilities if they fall into the science academic stream. The nonscience academic stream appears to be seen as being less valuable, and therefore students will strive to develop their analytical skills instead of developing the gifts and abilities they are naturally endowed with.

RESEARCH QUESTIONS REVISITED The research questions were answered by quantitative methods using the Group Embedded Figures Test, Style Analysis Survey, and questionnaires. The qualitative methods of research included ethnographic case studies, observations, and interviews. These have led to an assessment that responds to the research questions: 1. Will there be a significant relationship between academic streams and types of students’ learning style preferences? What are the learning style preferences?

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From the results of the GEFT we see evidence that the science academic stream student scores have a higher mean score. This demonstrated a higher level of field independence than nonscience academic stream students. Nonscience academic students are more field dependent and are also more extroverted learners. Extroverted learners prefer to study and interact among the group. Nonscience academic stream students can be quite creative, full of new ideas in brainstorming sessions, and can contribute different solutions to problems. Nonscience academic stream students also are spontaneous according to the results from the SAS test. Nonscience academic stream students don’t like structure, and their plans are usually more flexible. Nonscience academic stream students also tend to gravitate toward global learning styles, as they have the ability to see the whole picture. Science academic stream students are more field independent. From the Style Analysis Survey, the science stream students also prefer using closure-oriented style and concrete-sequential style. From the questions of the SAS (Style Analysis Survey), science students are organized people. They like to follow rules and enjoy guidelines, structures, and following plans. From the results of the SAS, the science academic stream students like to use both auditory style and hands-on style. They like to listen to lectures, but they also like physical activities. This indicates that science stream students learn best by hands-on experience. From the interviews, grade eleven students think science academic stream students are more analytical and task oriented, but also are relational with friends. They are less relational when they prepare for exams and then prefer to study by themselves. The students’ perspectives from the questionnaires were more undecided when asked whether the science students are more analytical. They did not have any strong ideas. However, from the interviews, they viewed the science students to be more analytical. Science academic stream students’ style preference indicated that they performed well on exams. A breakdown of the results from the SAS are found in table 6.6. 2. Will there be a significant relationship between gender and learning style? Male and female students had very close mean scores of style preferences on GEFT test. When we compare the four groups SM, NSM, SF, and NSF we see the females in the science academic stream scored the highest. The second highest were the males in the science academic stream, and the third and fourth highest were the male and female students in the nonscience academic stream, respectively. The female students in the science academic stream who stayed in the hostel scored higher than the other female students. From case study three,

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Findings Table 6.6. Results of Style Analysis Survey

Style Visual Auditory Hands-on Visual Auditory Hands-on Visual Auditory Auditory Hands-on Visual Hands-on Extrovert Introvert Extrovert Introvert Intuitive Concrete Sequential Closureoriented Open Global Analytic Global Analytic

Science Stream Male

Science Stream Female

Nonscience Stream Male

Nonscience Stream Female

Total #

%

5

10

2

2

19

19%

4 2 4 2

1 7 4 2

6 9 4 1

2 2 12 1

13 20 24 6

13% 20% 24% 6%

2

2

6

3

13

13%

6

2

2

3

13

13%

11 7 7

4 12 9

16 6 3

16 2 7

47 27 26

47% 27% 26%

7 13

5 10

17 7

20 1

49 31

49% 31%

13

8

1

8

30

30%

4 7 13 5

7 3 11 11

22 19 3 3

13 20 3 2

36 49 30 21

36% 49% 30% 21%

N=100

we see the students evaluated each other and the learning styles of grade eleven science academic stream students. The male students feel the female students in the nonscience academic stream are less analytical. The SAS showed that male students in the science academic stream used the concrete-sequential style, closure-oriented style, and analytic style more frequently. The nonscience academic stream students used an open and global style. For female science students we see that they used both the introverted and analytic styles, and the nonscience girls frequently used an intuitive and global style. Most of grade eleven students had an extroverted style except the females in the science academic stream. In terms of friendship, students liked to be in a group. However, in terms of studying, science academic

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stream males and females preferred being alone. From the interview (case study 3), male students were critical of female students’ learning style preferences. It was hard for them to compare each other’s style because the cultural rules and school’s regulations did not encourage interaction between genders. According to findings of the SAS, 18 percent more science academic stream students favored using an analytic style over the nonscience academic stream students. Sixteen percent of the science academic stream students preferred using both global and analytical styles. One interesting fact was that there were ten students showing a preference for using a global learning style. Global learning style students tend to be field dependent. These ten students, when answering the SAS, indicated they liked detailed answers and outlined style of information. This is evidence that a person’s style preference, such as a global style, can adapt itself to the demands of culture. In this case the culture favors an analytical style. In contrast, there were six students in the nonscience academic stream who preferred using an analytical style, but because their performance on exams were not high enough, were put in the nonscience academic stream where this preference may not be fully utilized. Nonscience academic stream students are usually more relational, and 32 percent of the students tested in this stream were extroverted and relationaloriented. They also received high scores in hands-on experience. Thirty-seven percent of the nonscience students also preferred using an intuitive style to learn, which reflects that they learn best by touching and feeling. Experiential and cooperative learning could enhance the learning of nonscience academic stream students. The survey did show however, that there were students in both streams whose preference for learning styles would fall in the academic stream to which they did not belong. 3. Will there be a significant relationship between the student’s family income and the types of students? The mean score from students with taxable income and nontaxable income were very close, and the students from these backgrounds have similar learning style preferences. From the questionnaire, items 12 and 14, students disagreed and strongly disagreed that those students with a high family income are more field independent. Twenty-two students were undecided. It appeared that students’ perceptions were close to the GEFT results. However, there were three students who stated that rich students did not need to study so hard. This school was a private school, and parents can afford to pay tuition,

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although not everyone is equally well off. A student’s job, housing, and car can reflect the situation. Students believe a family’s residential area can impact their learning. From an observation at a student’s residence, it was easy to understand how the living conditions could affect learning. Even the student who lived in government housing could be very easily disturbed. On the other hand, it may look harder to a foreigner than it does to a national who is accustomed to their living environment. However, when I gave a ride to the students and saw that the students from a low income family have to take more time on transportation to reach school, and knowing lower income neighborhoods have a greater frequency of power cuts, certainly a student from a low income family will have to work much harder to overcome these barriers. Despite these hardships, it appeared that they strive hard to succeed. All the boys in my car were science academic stream students. 4. Will there be a significant relationship between age and the type of student learning style? From the GEFT results we see that age was a factor in style preference. However, since most of the older students were female students in the nonscience academic stream and had been in the same grade before, this was not a strong indicator even though the majority of the younger aged students were in the science academic stream. One student commented that older girls in the nonscience academic stream get married soon after graduating from high school. It could be hard for them to be academically motivated when they get married shortly after school. 5. Will there be a significant relationship between religion and the type of learning style? We see from the GEFT and the interviews that religion does not affect student learning style. Students’ comments are more related to the school’s policy about religion class. In case study 6, the Hindu students and Bible teacher both expressed that they had a hard time in Bible class. One student’s parents tried to explain from his religion why he had a low score in the exam (case study 2). This student blamed his bad Karma. Both Christian and nonChristian parents pray for their children’s success in school. There is no evidence that students with one religious background produced stronger field dependence than the students with different religious backgrounds. In conclusion, the findings provide the evidence that certain Hindu cultural values do affect student’s learning style. The literature review provided the information to form and analyze the hypotheses. The reasons why some of

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the hypotheses were not proven were provided from the qualitative research and previously recorded. Further reasons may be that the findings are only applicable to this particular school and that the culture, and in particular urban culture, is changing at a very fast pace.

NOTES 1. Cohen, “The Relation between.” 2. Bourai, Indian Theory. 3. Bourai, Indian Theory, 43. 4. Bourai, Indian Theory. 5. Bourai, Indian Theory, 36. 6. Rosalie Cohen, “Conceptual Styles, Culture Conflice, and Non-Verbal Tests of Intelligence,” American Anthropologist 71 (1969): 828–856. 7. Srivastava and Tripathi, “Western and Indian.” 8. Burnett, The Spirit of Hinduism. 9. Minturn, Sita’s Daughters. 10. Cohen, “Conceptual Styles.” 11. Reiff, Learning Styles; Saracho, “The Match and Mismatch.” 12. Saracho, “The Match and Mismatch.” 13. Das, Assessment. 14. T. J. S. George, India at 50 (Chennai, India: Express Publication, 1997), 19. 15. Uday, “Determiates.”

Chapter Seven

Conclusion and Recommendations

Before viewing the Hindu perspectives on learning style, we return to the Indian society’s perspective on learning styles. The findings of this study demonstrated that the school, teachers, parents, and students’ perspectives are that the best learning style is the style that will result in the best exam results, which will help them stay in the science academic stream. The image and self-esteem of the nonscience academic stream students is obviously lower in the school. Students expressed that good academics were not their only concerns. Students also wanted to enjoy school and develop other skills. The issue could be that the cultural values heavily encourage and affirm the students who have a natural ability to develop certain learning styles. Students with a field independent style receive more affirmation and benefits than field dependent students (see table 4.11). There is a need to educate people that each learning style has its own strengths and limitations. Witkin1 states that field dependence or field independence have the same value and importance. However, it is hard for Indian students, parents, and teachers to buy into this when the marketable jobs and university scholarships show favoritism to field independent students, and when those in the medical and computer-related professions are welcomed with open arms overseas. Nowadays, there are more Indian medical doctors and computer engineers who get jobs in the U.S. than other professions. The data confirmed that science academic stream students are good at analytical skills, enjoy structured learning, and are good exam takers. However, they are more competitive, less flexible, and more isolated if they want to stay at the top. It appears that parents, teachers, and students are not aware of or concerned about the weaknesses and limitations of students who tend to be more field independent. 107

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On the other hand, parents, teachers, and students do not see the strengths and benefits of field dependent students; they only see the negative side (see table 5.1). It will take time to educate parents, teachers, and students that it is valid and profitable to learn how to develop and train students using all learning styles. The ideal school should develop programs that develop analytical and creative skills. Most importantly, students should be able to make their own choices when choosing an academic stream and not strictly be placed according to the exams, teachers, or parents. It is an ideal that the schoolteacher’s methodology would be interactive, with more group discussion, experiential learning, and hands-on activities for the students who tend to be field dependent. It would also be important not to totally exclude nonscience stream students from classes that will help them develop analytical skills. Similarly, science stream students should have classes in the humanities. The schools and universities should also find ways to reward, encourage, and esteem both streams. However, unless there is an equal market for both streams, this is unlikely to happen. The ideal school would redesign the classroom according to different subjects. Students should have more breaks and not only stay in one classroom the whole day. The school needs to evaluate student performance not only based on exam results and work to promote multiple intelligences. As Indian educator George2 said, over the years, several steps have been taken to enhance the reach and content of education, but the system continues to suffer from infirmities. The lack of adequate financial resources, continuance of rural poverty, and an ever-increasing population have exacerbated these shortcomings. The ideals enunciated in the Constitution and the recommendations of many committees and commissions still remain unrealized. It will take time to educate people to realize the need to treasure different kinds of learning styles. Christians in India need to be aware and be ambassadors to challenge this aspect of the culture. To the many different groups of Indians, Christians need to first stand up and follow the Biblical teaching to treat their children equally. This is especially true when a Christian community runs the school. Some may ask how a school that is intentionally Christian could be influenced by the Hindu culture. One needs only to go back to the common identity of the Indian people. With more than 1500 dialects, 18 officially recognized languages, and several religious communities, including Hindu, Muslim, Christian, Sikhs, Buddhists, Jams, and Parsis, India is a land of composite culture. It is the continuity of this cultural stream that determines the nation’s strength, character, and capacity to survive as an integrated living reality.3 Trying to unify a country with so many differences is a great difficulty for the government. Since the majority of people are Hindu, the right-wing

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Hindu political leaders promoted being a Hindu as the common identity for Indians. Being a Hindu refers not only to one’s religion, it also means one is proud of the nation. Now the fundamentalists want the Hindu-nationalist Bharat’ya Janata Party (BJP), which leads India’s current government, to develop Hindutva—“Indianness” built around Hindu religion and culture—as a positive force that will cure the country’s ills by rebuilding that lost pride and confidence.4 In contrast, Bharatia believes the term Hindu is the collective term for Indian. “Because every Indian is a Hindu and every Hindu is an Indian, as the word ‘Hindu’ is more related to the geographical identity of the people than with anyone’s personal religious allegiance.”5 Regardless of whether you ascribe the term to religion or Indianness, there is no denying through the centuries it has left its mark on the country. Hindu culture has a long history of penetration into Indian society. In terms of education in India, traditional educational theory was related with the Hindu religion.6 Hindu educators such as Gandhi, Dayanand, and Tagore promoted a Hindu theory of education that would remind Indians that the common identity they have is historically Hindu. Therefore, the traditional Indian identity was formed by Hindu culture. It appears that even in a pluralistic society such as India, the influence from the majority religion is still penetrating the culture and Indian education. From this study it was discovered that the high value Indians place on both the science academic stream and male children was initially motivated by Hinduism. So we can conclude that cultural values from the Hindu religion that have impacted students’ learning styles. Examinations were definitely taken from the English education system, but the belief that analytical knowledge is a superior knowledge was a cultural value Hindus already embraced, and therefore it was easy to accept and believe true even though it may have come in a foreign package. The Western way of thinking is linear, with a beginning and an end. This is in contrast with a Hindu’s cyclical thinking, where there is no end, only the cycle of life that continues through life, death, and rebirth. One needs to build up a lot of good Karma to reach salvation. And so the aim of the Hindu theory of education is to achieve self-realization in order to reach salvation and be released from the cycle of life. This study provided an awareness of how Karma impacts the high value that is placed on the science academic stream and the field independent learning style, which is the product of the science stream. Obtaining analytical abilities is not only for acquiring a passport to become an engineer in a wealthy country—it has spiritual benefits, which can encourage people to try harder, but it can also label people. The concept of Karma is deeply planted in a Hindu’s mind. Any school that wants to promote the equal value and worth

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of all students must be careful not to promote a superiority of the science academic stream, as it has spiritual roots that may undermine the efforts of the belief that everyone has equal worth. A concentrated effort must be made not only to show an unbiased attitude to field dependent students, but to also show their worth. The female students in the science academic stream had an outstanding performance on the GEFT. In regard to women’s education, this study proved an important fact. When women are valued, given the same opportunities as men, and also have the same educational expectations placed upon them, they have the capacity for scoring as high, if not higher (as in the case of this study) than male students. Education for women needs to be promoted more and pushed harder. Alexander states, “Women in India are very backward— socially, economically, and politically. The only way to bring normalcy in this field is educating all the women.”7 It may be fairer to say that women are victims of backward-thinking men, but to change the situation will be difficult, as traditional thinking conveys the belief that investing in girls is of no use because they leave after marriage and take your investment with them.8 From the Hindu cultural view, the duty of a woman to take care of her family is as established as the man’s role to be the provider. However, what needs to be emphasized is that investing in a woman’s education will make her a better wife, mother, and citizen. Education for the poor should also continue to be emphasized in India. The students from limited income families struggle and fight hard to succeed in the traditional system of education. Labeling oneself as poor or female will not lead to success. A hardworking attitude may be an attribute for the Western student, but even they would find it hard to identify with the degree of hardship and the price students from a limited income in India pay for their education. The outsider may see the Hindu concept of Karma as fatalistic. However, from another perspective a student still needs to work hard even if the benefit will not be for the sake of this life. His hard work will be credited to his next life and therefore, he will still work hard in difficult situations. The Hindu concept of cooperation and tolerance are very similar and also are part of Karma Marg (the way to a good Karma). The period of cooperation for students begins in kindergarten and can last until graduation with a Ph.D.9 This value of the total submission of students makes it difficult to change teachers’ methodologies. Under these circumstances, field dependent students will continue to struggle in school with little chance of learning in a style they are comfortable with. Finally, this study confirmed what many researchers already know about the use of statistics: they can be misleading if read out of context. From the statistics we see that age is a factor in scoring high for field independence.

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However, the interviews explained in further detail why younger students scored higher. It did not have as much to do with being younger as it did with the fact that the older girls were in grade eleven because they were already having difficulty passing their board exams. This would validate the necessity for qualitative research alongside of quantitative. On a personal level, working with the data brought to light that cultural bias in regard to field independent styles can occur everywhere, and even trickles into noneducation atmospheres. Among our coworkers in India, we tend to only select leaders who have analytical skills to remain on the top as decision makers. In this generation, people with field independent styles seem to be the preferred and successful style.

RECOMMENDATION FOR FUTURE RESEARCH Further study could involve a focus on the student’s family in relation to the family’s learning styles. This test would include the entire family—parents, brothers and sisters, and aunts and uncles. India is a family-based society, and it would be insightful to see if a student’s learning style affects other siblings’ learning styles. One could also compare other South Asian countries such as Pakistan, Sri Lanka, and Bangladesh. Another interesting study would be to make a comparison with family influence in the United States, as the cultural values and expectations are so different. A similar study comparing students in Christian schools with students in non-Christian schools would be helpful to determine any similarities and differences in learning style preferences, and if the cultural value of Karma is stronger in a non-Christian school. In addition, one could also examine the teacher’s teaching style to see what, if any, impact she has on cultural values. It would be helpful to examine whether teachers of science subjects are more field independent than the nonscience teachers. Male and female teachers could also be compared to see the similarities and differences not only between field dependence and independence, but to see if age is a greater factor with teachers who graduated five or ten years earlier as compared with the results of this study. Whether teachers of nonscience students are field independent, and the esteem they give to their students, would shed light on what, if anything, is done to affirm these students and promote their self-worth. I would also like to apply this research in Hong Kong, which shares the history of British colonialism and strong family background. The culture is changing quickly in Hong Kong also, and a study on how culture impacts student learning styles may answer the question of why so many Chinese

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Chapter Seven

are exploring other options of education for their children outside of Hong Kong. Bourai stated that cooperation (or not opposing the teacher) from students begins in kindergarten and lasts until the Ph.D. is completed.10 It would be interesting to know, with the urban culture changing so fast and exposure to Western media apparently having an impact on young people, if this is still true for doctoral-level students in urban Indian universities. To see if students follow the cooperation concept and what impact it has on their learning styles—whether it promotes or hinders—could shed light on better pedagogy. Furthermore, the Hindu concept of Karma may be minimized when a Hindu student studies abroad. The concept of Karma could have a lesser effect on the student’s learning style the longer the student remains away from his home and country. In addition, there are many Indian professors and teachers working in Western countries. Studying the effect their belief in Karma has on their teaching style and what influence they have on their students would be helpful in discovering how much of their culture they assimilate into their new surroundings. In conclusion, we must reflect on the biblical perspective of a Creator who created many different kinds of people. People were created with different gifts with which they can bring honor to God. It is necessary that we promote this in order to give esteem to all of God’s creation for how he has made them. Promoting worth to only one type of student is not helpful to the other students’ confidence or a society’s welfare.

NOTES 1. Witkin, “The Problem of Individuality.” 2. George, India at 50, 389. 3. George, India at 50, 22. 4. John Elliott, “Held Back by Hindu Gods,” New Statesman 127, no. 4414 (1998): 28. 5. Dyanand Bharatia, Living Water and Indian Bowl (New Delhi: ISPK, 1997), 94. 6. Bourai, Indian Theory. 7. Alexander, New American, 64. 8. Khaparde, “Education of the Disadvantaged.” 9. Bourai, Indian Theory. 10. Bourai, Indian Theory.