The cell: Учебное пособие по английскому языку

Ф Е Д Е Р АЛ Ь Н О Е АГ Е Н Т С Т В О П О О Б Р АЗО В АН И Ю В О Р О Н Е Ж С К И Й Г О С У Д АРС Т В Е Н Н Ы Й У Н И В Е Р С И Т Е Т

THE CELL

У ч ебное п особи е

С пеци а ль н о ст ь "Би о ло ги я" – 020201 (011600)

В оронеж, 2005

2

У т верж д ен о н а у чн о-м ет од ическим совет ом ф а ку льт ет а ром а н о-герм а н ской ф илологии (п ротокол № 7 от 20.10.05)

Сост а вит ель К у ла гин а Ж.Д.

У чебн ое п особие п од готовлен о н а ка ф ед ре а н глий ского языка ф а ку льт ет а РГФ и п ред н а зн а чен о д ля ст у д ен тов 1 ку рса вечерн его отд елен ия биолого-п очвен н ого ф а ку льт ет а . Стру кт у ра и сод ерж а н ие ка ж д ого у рока п особия п ред п ола га ю т п оэт а п н ое овла д ен ие м а т ериа лом и его п ослед у ю щее за креп лен ие. За д а н ия и сод ерж а н ие п ред текст овых и п ослетекст овых у п ра ж н ен ий , н а п ра влен н ых н а сн ятие лексических и гра м м а т ических т ру д н ост ей , связа н н ых c овла д ен ием словообра зова т ельн ым и и гра м м а тическим и м од елям и, п од вод ят ст у д ен т ов к у м ен ию п род у кт ивн ого исп ользова н ия т ерм ин ологической лексики в речи и д олж н ы сп особст вова т ь ф орм ирова н ию н а выков бесп еревод н ого п он им а н ия чита ем ого.

3

CONTENTS

1. UNIT I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 2. UNIT II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 3. UNIT III . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 4. UNIT IV . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 5. UNIT V . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 6. UNIT VI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 7. UNIT VII . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

4

Unit I Step 1 Ex. 1. Practise the following for pronunciation: protoplasm ['proutə plæ zə m] protoplasmic [proutə 'plæ zə mik] furthermore ['fə :ðə 'mɔ:] phosphorus ['fɔsfə rə s] abundance [ə 'bʌndə ns] gelatinous [dʒ i'læ tinə s] digestion [di'dʒ estʃə n] transparent [træ ns'pɛ ə rə nt] hydrogen ['haidridʒ ə n] chemical ['kemikəl]

sugar ['ʃugə ] liquid ['likwid] exact [ig'zæ kt] minute [mai'nju:t] carbon ['ka:bə n] protein ['prouti:n] tensile ['tensail] oxygen ['oksidʒ ə n] sulphur ['sʌlfə ] nitrogen ['naitridʒ ə n]

Ex. 2. Translate the following words paying attention to the affixes. to respire (v), respiration (n); to examine (v), examination (n); to live (v), life (n), alive (adj), lifeless (adj); to appear (v), appearance (n); to compose (v), composition (n); to remain (v), remainder (n); to vary (v), variety (n), various (adj); to close (v), to disclose (v), close (adj); to act (v), activity (n), active (adj); to base (v), base (n), basis (n); to grow* (v), growth (n); to produce (v), to reproduce (v), product (n), reproduction (n); to contract (v), contractility (n); granule (n), granular (adj); elasticity (n), elastic (adj); sensitivity (n), sensitive (adj); irritability (n), irritable (adj). Ex. 3. Using the suffix "ly" form adverbs from the following adjectives. physical, near, chemical, ultimate, true, active, deceptive, ordinary, wide, different, extreme, exact, large, simple, high, clear, considerable, close. Ex. 4. Give Russian equivalents for: living (matter, thing, plant, animal, organism, being), basis of life, lifeless matter, truly alive; protoplasm, ordinary protoplasm, protoplasm (substance, activity, structure), protoplasmic body of cells; elasticity, contractility and tensile strength of protoplasm, irritability of protoplasm, to convert lifeless organic matter into a new protoplasm; (compound, electron) microscope; (thick, clear) liquid, a droplet of a liquid; under different (temperature, physiological, environmental) conditions; deceptively simple appearance of (protoplasm);

5

surprising capacities of (protoplasm, cells, plants, living being); sensitivity to outer changes; to manufacture food, digestion and assimilation of foods, organic food. Ex. 5. Use the words of ex. 4 and make up new word combinations with "essential for", "understanding of", "to disclose the (process, reason) of", "to yield knowledge of". Model: essential for a living plant a living organism Ex. 6. Translate the following sentences into Russian paying attention to the tense and voice of the predicates. 1. Proteins are composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and other chemical elements. 2. A wide variety of chemical and physical changes takes place in the protoplasm. 3. Minute granules and globules of various sizes and abundance are suspended in protoplasm. 4. Sensitivity of living material to outer changes is based on the unusual irritability of protoplasm. 5. Living material can convert lifeless organic matter into a new protoplasm. 6. A droplet of the liquid was examined under the microscope. 7. A cell usually contains a single nucleus. Ex. 7. Put the verbs in brackets into a proper tense form. 1. All living matter (to consist) of protoplasm. 2. Protoplasm (to be*) the physical basis of life. 3. Nearly every organism (to contain) both lifeless and living matter. 4. Protoplasm (to have*) the same appearance, chemical composition and the same characteristics in both animals and plants. 5. Various processes (to go*) on in the body of the plant. 6. Scientists not yet (to yield) a knowledge of the fundamental chemical or physical organisation of the protoplasm. 7. Scientists (to become*) convinced that protoplasm (to have*) a very complex structure. Ex. 8. Put general and disjunctive questions to the sentences of ex. 6. Ex. 9. Translate the sentences below following the rules of the sequence of tenses. 1. He wrote in his letter that he would come. 2. I thought that you knew about it. 3. I heard that he had worked at this problem. 4. I remembered that you had these magazines. 5. He says that he lived in Moscow. 6. He said that he lived in Moscow. 7. He said that he had lived in Moscow. 8. He said that his son would be a doctor. 9. Darwin's father thought that his son would be a doctor. 10.

6

Darwin knew that his father wanted him to be a doctor. 11. His father wrote in his letter that Darwin cared for nothing but shooting and hunting instead of studying. 12. He knew that his father's friend understands him better than his father. 13. He told me not to come to his place the next day as he wouldn't be at home. 14. The officer ordered the soldiers to wait for him. 15. I asked my brother not to touch the papers on my table. 16. The teacher told us to observe all the general Lab Safety Rules working there. Step 2 Ex. 10. Read the text. TEXT A All living matter consists of protoplasm. Protoplasm is the physical basis of life. Nearly every organism contains lifeless as well as living matter. There is no protoplasm in lifeless matter. Protoplasm when it is examined under the compound microscope is a thin granular, nearly transparent fluid substance. It has the same appearance, chemical composition and the same characteristics in both animals and plants. It contains a very large amount of water. The remainder of the protoplasmic substance consists of proteins which are composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur and phosphorus. Fats, sugars and various mineral salts are also present. All the various processes which go on in the body of the plant, for example, such as the adsorption of water and salts, the manufacture of food, digestion, respiration, growth and reproduction, are ultimately directed and controlled by protoplasm. For this reason protoplasm is regarded as the only part of an organism which is truly alive and the knowledge of its structure and activity is therefore essential for an understanding of any living thing. Investigations have been conducted in this field and many important facts of protoplasmic structure and activity have been disclosed. Scientists, however, haven't yet yielded all the knowledge of the fundamental chemical or physical organisation of this material. Protoplasm has a deceptively simple appearance, but the more biologists learn about its surprising capacities, the more convinced they become that it is the most complex and remarkable of materials. Ex. 11. Answer the following questions. 1. All living matter consists of protoplasm, doesn't it? 2. What is the role of protoplasm in the life of all living organisms? 3. What is the appearance of protoplasm under the compound microscope? 4. Is the chemical composition of protoplasm the same in animal and plant cells? 5. How much water can it contain? 6. What are other protoplasmic substances? 7. What processes are directed and controlled by protoplasm? 8. Why is the knowledge of protop1asmic structure and activities so important?

7

Ex. 12. Retell text A using the phrases given below as a plan. 1) to consist of, 2) the physical basis of life, 3) a thin granular, nearly transparent fluid structure, 4) appearance, chemical composition and characteristics, 5) water, 6) proteins, fats, sugars and mineral salts, 7) to take part in all chief processes in the body of plants, 8) a deceptively simple appearance, 9) essential for, 10) to conduct investigations. Ex. 13. Report the questions following the rules of the sequence of tenses.

My friend asked me

1. What is a compound microscope? 2. How does the electron microscope differ from the compound microscope? 3. Why are most compound microscopes more powerful than simple ones? 4. What is the difference between an object examined under a compound and electron microscope? 5. Why can't you see cells or protoplasm when you put your finger under the microscope? 6. Has he decided to publish the materials of his experiment? 7. What kinds of microscopes do you know? 8. What conclusion did he come to after reading this book? 9. Will you return this book in time? 10. Do you like this book?

Ex. 14. Listen to text B twice. Translate the sentences in the pauses after the announcer. Ex. 15. Read text B and check the correctness of your translation. TEXT B Physically, ordinary protoplasm is a rather thick liquid somewhat like an egg white. It is often gelatinous. It varies widely in different parts of the plant and under different conditions. With even the highest powers of the microscope protoplasm appears as a clear liquid in which minute granules and globules of various sizes, types and abundance are suspended. Protoplasm has a considerable contractility, elasticity and tensile strength. In protoplasm a wide variety of chemical and physical changes take place which we call metabolism. Extremely keen sensitivity of living material to outer changes is based on the unusual irritability of protoplasm. Furthermore all growth among organism consists in the increase in amount of living material which has the ability to convert lifeless organic matter into new protoplasm exactly like itself.

8

Unit II Step 1 Ex. 1. Guess the meaning of the following words: membrane, cytoplasm, p1а smа , chloroplast, chlorophyll, chromoplast, mitochondrion, vacuole, cellulose, reticulum, polysaccharide; ---------------------------------------------------typical, anatomical, spherical, physiological, metabolic, organic, osmotic, endoplasmic, opposite ----------------------------------------------------product, centre, fruit, synthesis, transmission; ---------------------------------------------------to specialise, to demonstrate, to expose, to associate, to communicate. Ex. 2. Practise the following for pronunciation: approximately [ə 'prɔksimitli] artificially [α :ti'ƒiʃə li] hereditary [hi'reditə ri] homogeneous [hɔmə 'dʒ i:njə s] endoplasma ['endə plæ zmə ] neighbour [neibə]

osmotic [ɔz'mɔtik] permeate ['pə :mieit] trait [treit] Ängström ['ɔɳstrə m] excretory [ekskr':tə ri] perforate ['pə :fə reit]

Ex. 3. Supply the three forms of the following verbs: to go, to grow, to know, to learn, to take, to leave, to see, to lay, to become. Ex. 4. Translate the words paying attention to the affixes. to transmit (v), transmission (n); to develop (v), development (n); to organise (v), organization (n), organ (n), organic (adj), inorganic (adj); to convert (v), conversion (n); to permeate (v), permeability (n), permeable (adj), impermeable (adj), semi-permeable (adj); to move (v), to remove (v), movement (n); to specialize (v), speciality (n), special (adj), especially (adv); to enter (v), entrance (n); to form (v), form (n), formation (n); to lay (v), layer (n); cell (n), cellular (adj), intercellular (adj); type (n), typical (adj); environment (n), environmental (adj);

9

Ex. 5. Bear in mind the plural of the following nouns: nucleus - nuclei, fungus - fungi, stimulus - stimuli, metochondrion metochondria, alga - algae, leaf - leaves, half - halves. Ex. 6. The suffix "ish" corresponds to the Russian suffixes "-ова т ", "ева т ". Form adjectives with this suffix from the words below: Model: round –roundish = slightly round round, small, white, green, red, yellow, brown, blue, wide Eх. 7. Give Russian equivalents for: cell, (typical, animal, plant, embryonic, neighbouring) cell, cell (wall, body, division, membrane, formation), (disintegrated) cell components, cellular, unicellular, absence of cellular organisation, unicellular organisms; substance, (fluid, protoplasmic, dissolved, nutritive, chemical, transparent, granular) substance; change, (outer, physical, chemical, environmental) changes; membrane,(plasma, vacuolar, osmotic, cytoplasmic, semi-permeable) membrane; to direct, directing centre, direction, opposite direction; activity, (protoplasmic, vital, mitotic, physiological) activity, ordinary activities of a plant, to perform (activities, functions), to make one's activities possible. Ex. 8. Translate the sentences given below into Russian. 1. There is no protoplasm in lifeless matter. 2. There may be more than one nucleus in some cells. 3. In the chloroplast there is a number of small spherical bodies which are called pyrenoids. 4. In addition to the plastids there are many other bodies in the cytoplasm. 5. There are four phases in the process of cell division. 6. There is an optimal temperature for human cell division: it is 37° C. 7. Then there comes the time when the process of cell division starts. 8. There existed different points of view on this problem. 9. There is usually a limit to the size a cell may attain. Ex. 9. Translate the sentences below into English paying attention to the functions of the words in bold type. 1. П ротоп лаз масодержиточен ь большое количествовод ы. 2. О наимеет обм а н чиво п рост ой вид. 3. П ротоп лаз маклет ки н е является однородной. 4. Ядронап равляет и контролирует ва ж н ые ф изиологические ф ункц ии клет ки. 5. Ядроявляется главны м сред и стру кт у рклет ки.

10

Ex. 10. Convert the following statements into Direct speech. Model: 1) They told me to go home. They said to me: "Go home." 2) They told me not to go home. They said to me: "Don't go home". 1. The teacher asked us to observe some general Lab Safety Rules. 2. He asked us to tie back long hair when we work with an open flame in the laboratory. 3. The teacher told us not to mix chemicals or perform unscheduled experiments without his approval. 4. The teacher told us to never use chemicals from an unlabeled container. 5. He asked us not to taste, smell or touch chemicals unless specially instructed. 6. The teacher ordered his students to wear safety gaggles during experiments involving dissection, heating, hammering or while using acids, bases and other chemicals. 7. He told us to stay away from students who were experimenting if we didn't have gaggles on. 8. He asked us to be careful picking up hot materials, especially glass ware. 9. He prohibited us to return excess chemicals back to their container. Step 2 Ex. 11. Read text А. TEXT A А tiny amount of protoplasm is called a cell. A typical cell is spherical in form and contains at least three parts: the nucleus, the cytoplasm and the cell wall. The nucleus. The protoplasm of a cell is not homogeneous but contains within it a number of specialised structures. The nucleus is chief among them. This is an approximately spherical body, denser than the rest of the protoplasm and bounded by a definite membrane. The nucleus is evidently the directing centre for the more important physiological activities of the cell, such as the synthesis, digestion and assimilation of foods, the formation of the cell wall, cell division, growth and transmission of hereditary traits in reproduction. Cells from which the nucleus has been removed artificially will often live for a time but fail to carry on actively their normal metabolic processes. Chemically, the nucleus is much like the rest of the protoplasm, except the fact that it contains a large amount of a characteristic protein, called nuclein of which phosphorus is an important element. A cell usually contains a single nucleus, but in certain cells there may be many nuclei. Among some of the algae and fungi, for example, the entire plant body is a single huge cell with hundreds of nuclei. Such forms demonstrate that

11

the ordinary activities of a plant may be carried out perfectly well in the entire absence of the usual cellular organisation. Ex. 12. Read text A again and collect the sentences telling about the role of the nucleus in the function of the cell. Ex. 13. Answer the questions. 1. What do we call a cell? 2. What are the main parts of it? 3. What form has the nucleus? 4. What is it bounded by? 5. What is the role of the nucleus in the physiological activities of the cell? 6. What are the chemical characteristics of the nucleus. 7. How many nuclei are there in an ordinary cell? Ex. 14. Give a brief summary of the text. Ex. 15. Use the Active in the sentences below. 1. Living processes are carried out by certain organs. 2. The cell wall is perforated by many small openings. 3. Animal cells are bounded by a thin, delicate, semi-permeable membrane. 4. The rate of the cytoplasmic flow is affected by temperature and other environmental conditions. 5. Some vital activities of the cell are performed by the cytoplasm itself. Ex.16. Analyse and translate the following sentences. Enclose Participle constructions in brackets. Model: Animal cells are bounded by a thin membrane seen only under the electron microscope. Animal cells are bounded by a thin membrane (seen only under the electron microscope). 1. Everything entering or leaving the cell must pass through the plasma and vacuolar membrane. 2. From the point of view of the kinds of organisms studied there are two main divisions in biology-botany and zoology. 3. Examining a piece of a plant under a microscope, you will see its cellular structure. 4. The cell wall although formed by protoplasm is not a part of the living material. 5. Protoplasm when examined under a microscope is a thin granular substance. 6. Ecologic problems spoken about at the conference are of vital importance. 7. The symposium attended by many well-known scientists discussed many of the biological problems. 8. If watered plants grow well. 9. While dividing the cell goes through several stages. 10. Having been developed the nucleus divides.

12

Ex. 17. Read text B and make up a plan of it. TEXT B The Cytoplasm The remainder of the protoplasm of the cell is known collectively as the cytoplasm. Various activities of the cell are carried out in the cytoplasm under the control of the nucleus. Some of them are performed by the cytoplasm as a whole; others are associated with definite bodies, plastids. Important among these are the chloroplasts, usually small, roundish bodies present in the cells of the green tissue of leaves and in certain other parts of the plant exposed to light. They contain chlorophyll, through the activity of which organic food is manufactured, chromoplasts which are related closely to chloroplasts are responsible for most of the red and yellow colours of plants. The change from unripe "green" fruit to the ripe condition in many plants is due to the conversion of chloroplasts into chromoplasts. In addition to the plastids there are usually other bodies in the cytoplasm which are very minute and appear as tiny granules, rods or threads. They are called mitochondria. These bodies are also parts of the living material of the cell. On the outside of the cytoplasm a delicate plasma membrane is developed. A similar vacuolar membrane separates cytoplasm and vacuole. Through one or both of these membranes must pass everything that enters or leaves the cell. These function as osmotic membranes and thus control the entrance and exit of water. These membranes are permeable to certain dissolved substances but impermeable to others and this permeability varies in different tissues and under different conditions. The cytoplasm is not quiet but flows or streams from one part of the cell to another. In most cells this movement is not conspicuous, but where plastids or other visible bodies are carried by the streaming, its course becomes easy to follow. The rate of the flow is affected by environmental conditions, especially temperature and in general is the most rapid when physiological activity is highest. Ex. 18. Give the content of text B in detail using your plan. Unit III Step 1 Ex. 1. Practise the following for pronunciation: bound [baund] polysaccharide [poli'sæ kə raid]

delicate ['delikit] electron [e'lektrɔn]

13

cellulose ['seljulous] Ex. 2. Translate into Russian the following combinations of words. thin, delicate membrane; to see* under (the electron) microscope; to consist of (two layers); a layer 60 Ängström thick; to be* permeated by openings; to communicate with other cells through the openings; channels of the endoplasmic reticulum; the protoplasmic body of a cell; to see* distinctly under a microscope; to distinguish the cells of plants from those of animals; to protect the cell (animal / plant) against injury (harmful influences of the environment); nutritive substances, to move in the opposite direction; to eject metabolic waste. Ex. 3. Give English equivalents to the following word combinations. Ра звива ю ща яся клет ка , п рон иза н н а я от верстиям и м ем бра н а , цирку лиру ю ща я цит оп ла зм а , п ерева рива ем а я п ища , у сва ива ем ые вещест ва , п од верга ем ое возд ей ствию ра ст ен ие, изу чен н ые свой ст ва ра стен ий , п оявляю щиеся лист ья, созд а н н а я п ища . П ит а т ельн ые вещества , вход ящие в клет ку ; клет очн а я ст ен ка , сост ояща я из п олиса ха рид ов и целлю лозы; м ем бра н а , п рон иза н н а я от верст иям и; ж ивот н ые клет ки, от д еляем ые хру п кой м ем бра н ой ; цитоп ла зм а , т еку ща я изод н ой ча ст и клет ки в д ру гу ю ; п рон ица ем ост ь м ем бра н ы, изм ен яю ща яся в ра зн ых у словиях; вещества , вход ящие и выход ящие изклет ки; м ем бра н а , ра зд еляю ща я цит оп ла зм у и ва ку оль; орга н ическа я п ища , созд а н н а я ра стен иям и. Ex. 4. Convert the following statements into Direct Speech. Model: My brother asked me what a coral was. My brother asked me: "What is a coral?" 1. My friend said that he knew about it. 2 They told me that Peter had worked at this problem. 3. He says that he lived in Moscow. 4. He said that he lived in Moscow. 5. He said that he had lived in Moscow. 6. He said that his son would be a doctor. 7. His father told his friend that his son cared for nothing. 8. He said that his son was shooting and hunting instead of studying. 9. He said that his father's friend understood him better than his own father. 10. He advised him to go there immediately. 11. He asked his son to think about some other occupation. Ex. 5. Translate into English the sentences below. 1. Я д ро являет ся су щест вен н ой ча ст ью п ротоп ла ст а . 2. Тип ичн а я клет ка – сф еричн а п о ф орм е. 3. Я д ро – н а п ра вляю щий цен трд ля н екот орых ва ж н ых ф изиологических п роявлен ий клет ки. 4. У н екот орых вод орослей и грибов

14

все т ело ра стен ия п ред ст а вляет собой од н у огром н у ю клет ку с сот н ей яд ер. 5. Ц итоп ла зм а п ерет ека ет из од н ой ча ст и клет ки в д ру гу ю . 6. К леточн а я м ем бра н а сост оит изд ву х или трех слоев. 7. Ч ерезот верстия цит оп ла зм а клет ки сообща ет ся с цит оп ла зм ой сосед н их клеток 8. Я д ро регу лиру ет н орм а льн у ю ж изн ен н у ю д еят ельн ост ь клет ки. Ex. 6. Translate the following sentences into Russian paying attention to the functions of Gerund. 1. The friends spoke of going together to the country. 2. One more method of discovering the presence of this illness has been found. 3. I didn't hear of their staying in Leningrad during the blockade. 4. Listening to music gives much pleasure. 5. He had a genius for detaching the important from the trivial. 6. She cannot read without consulting the dictionary. 7. His standards for describing and naming plants and animals were innovations for his time. 8. His being stopped by a stranger surprised him very much. 9. Each organism has its own way of living. 10. I remember my having told him about the meeting. 11. We didn't know about his having been taken to hospital. 12. He began making lenses. 13. The teacher was pleased at our having written the exercises so well. 14. His having asked this question shows that he doesn't understand the article. 15. We know of many experiments being made at our laboratory. 16. They are speaking about his being sent to Moscow. 17. His having been sent there caused a great sensation. 18. In studying a particular group of organisms biologists are concerned both with the structural and functional characteristics. 19. Your having been sent with the expedition was known to everybody. Ex. 7. Translate the sentences into Russian paying attention to the emphatic construction "it is … that". 1. It is in carbohydrates that green plants first store their energy. 2. It is in carbohydrates that the energy is distributed to all parts of the plant, and it is from carbohydrates that much of the energy is obtained and used by animals. 3. It is the absence of vitamins that brings on diseases. 4. It is the magnifying power of lenses that made it possible to see tiny things. 5. It was Carlous Linneus who suggested the first system of classification of living things. 6. It was during his trip on the "Beagle" that Darwin first began to develop his theory of evolution. 7. It is in this form that carbon dioxide returns from the organic to inorganic world. 8. It is from this sugar that the carbon contained in the carbohydrates, fats and proteins of plants and animals is obtained. 9. It was Linneus who supplied the human species with an official name – homo-sapience. Ex. 8. Translate the following sentences in Russian bearing in mind the various meanings of the words in bold type.

15

1. The work was neither difficult nor easy. 2. His answers were both simple and honest. 3. I like both of these plants. 4. Neither of the words "science" and "life" can be simply defined. 5. Most organisms may readily be identified as either plants or animals. 6. I like both the flowers and the leaves of this plant. 7. We shall either work here or go to the library. 8. Either of the vegetable crops mentioned is very rich in vitamins. 9. Both functions of this organ are important. 10. Both water and air are necessary for living organisms. 11. This fruit may be used for food either in fresh or in frozen state. 12. We shall work neither today nor tomorrow. 13. I shall not come tomorrow either. 14. General properties of protoplasm are the same both in plants and animals. 15. All acids whose strength is even a little either greater or less than carbonic acid lack this property. Step 2 Ex. 9. Read and translate text А. TEXT A THE CELL MEMBRANE AMD THE С Е LL WALL. Animal cells are bounded by a thin, delicate, semi-permeable membrane that can only be seen under the electron microscope. The membrane consists of two or three layers, 60 to 70 Ängströms thick, and is permeated by openings. Through these openings the cytoplasm of the cell communicates with that of neighbouring cells and with the channels of the endoplasmic reticulum. The protoplasmic body of plant cells is always encased in addition to the thin cell membrane by a cell wall consisting of a polysaccharide and cellulose, which is seen distinctly under a microscope even at low magnification. The presence of this cellulose wall is the main and principal feature distinguishing the cells of plants from those of animals. The cell membrane and the cell wall play an important part in protecting the cell against injury and harmful influences of the environment as well as in controlling the composition of the cell contents. All the nutritive substances that enter the cell have to pass through the membrane; all the metabolic waste and excretory products of the cell move across it in the opposite direction when ejected. The cell wall is perforated by many small openings through which the cytoplasms of neighbouring cells communicate, but the protoplasm of one cell never enters another cell. The cell is the true anatomical unit of living matter. Ex. 10. Put questions to the missing parts of the sentences in writing. 1. Animal cells are bounded by... 2. It consists of ... layers. 3. The cell membrane has... 4. These openings are for... 5. The protoplasmic body of plant cells is encased by ....6. The cell wall is composed of ... 7. ... distinguishes the cells of plants from those of animals. 8. The cell wall and cell membrane protect

16

the cell against ... 9. They control ... 10. The nutritive substances must pass through...

17

16

Fig. 1. Cell structure (under a compound microscope). A-diagram of a typical animal cell; B-diagram of a typical plant cell; 1-cytoplasm; 2-nucleus; 3-Golgi apparatus; 7-chloroplasts; 8-nuclear membrane; 9-nucleolus; 10-karyoplasm (nuclear network); 11-cell membrane (animal cell) or cell wall (plant cell).

18

Ex. 11. Give a short summary of text A using the questions of ex. 8 as a plan. Ex. 12. Listen to text B and find in fig. 1 the structural elements of the cell the announcer tells about. Ex. 13. Using fig. 1 describe the structure of: a) an animal cell (the model is given in text B) and b) a plant cell. Tell your fellow students what is the difference between them. Add other facts or details besides those mentioned in the text B. TEXT B 1. This is a drawing of a typical animal cell. 2. The cell is filled with cytoplasm and bounded by a cell membrane.3. There are many different bodies in the cytoplasm, as you know. 4. Among them are plastides, vacuoles and mitochondria. 5. Then comes the nucleus. 6. It is in the centre of the cell. 7. Here you (can) see nucleoluses and karyoplasm. 8. The nucleus plays a very important role in the life of the cell. Ex. 14. Translate the following Russian sentences into English. 1. Биология - н а у ка о ж ивых орга н изм а х. 2. К а к у ст роен ы эти ж ивые су щест ва ? К а к он и ф у н кцион иру ю т ? 3. И сслед ова н ия биологов им ею т большое зн а чен ие д ля ра звит ия м н огих отра слей н а у ки. 3. О н и п ом ога ю т решит ь м н огие п роблем ы соврем ен н ой н а у ки. 4. О н и п ом ога ю т п он ят ь вза им освязь м еж д у всем и орга н изм а м и и окру ж а ю щей сред ой . 5. О п ред елен ие су щн ост и ж изн и –од н а изосн овн ых за д а ч общей биологии. Unit IV Step 1 Ex. 1. Translate the following words without consulting your dictionary. system, regular, hormone, proportion, chromosome, result, nature, nerve, coordination, limit, embryo, embryonic, embryonal, phase, metaphase, prophase, telophase, anaphase, interphase, karyokinesis, interkinesis, interkinetic, mitosis, mitotic, centriole, identical, final, intensive, harmoniously, to migrate, to differentiate, to inhibit, to ionize Ex.2. Practise the following for pronunciation: intussusception [intə sə 'sepʃn] equatorial [ekwə 'tɔriə l]

malignant [mə 'lignə nt] metaphase ['metə ƒeiz]

19

interwind [intə 'waind] accretion [ə 'kri:ʃə n] mitosis [mi'tousis]

ionize ['aiə naiz] prophase ['prouƒeiz] tumour ['tju:mə ]

Ex. 3. Give infinitives of these irregular verbs: lost, meant, cut, made, begun, split. Ex. 4. Translate the words below into Russian paying attention to the affixes. to divide (v), division (n); to treat (v), treatment (n); to arrange (v), arrangement (n); to approximate (v), approximately (adj); to extend (v), extention (n); to occur (v), occurrence (n); to thicken (v), thick (adj); to multiply (v), multiplication (n); to relate (v), relation (n), relationship (n); to define (v), definite (adj); duration (n), during (prep); frequency (n), frequent (adj); radiation (n), radiant (adj). Ex. 5. Translate the words paying attention to the prefixes. а ) negative prefixes: un –to coil –to uncoil; usual –unusual; ripе –unripe im-permeable – impermeable, possible –impossible dis – to appear – to disappear, to integrate – to disintegrate, to close – to disclose, similar –dissimilar. б) The prefix "re" corresponds to the Russian prefix "п ере" or such Russian words as "сн ова ", "за н ово", "вн овь": to construct – to reconstruct, to appear - to reappear, to place – to replace, to write – to rewrite, to use – to reuse, to read – to reread, to generate – to regenerate. Ex. 6. Using the suffix "tion", form nouns from the following verbs: Model: add –addition to compose, to communicate, to digest, to direct, to demonstrate, to distribute, to deviate, to form, to investigate, to migrate, to organise, to observe, to protect, to prepare, to reproduce, to regenerate, to specialise.

20

Ex. 7. Give Russian equivalents to the following words and word combinations. temperature, optimal temperature, (constant, high, normal) temperature; stage, final stage, at the (first) stage; chromosome, chromosome thread, daughter chromosome; inherent, inherent property; capacity, surprising capacity, to lose* the capacity (to divide); function, to function, to perform a function, to carry out a function, to function in coordination with; size, cell size, to reach the size of (a typical cell), to grow* to the size of (a typical cell), to increase in size, mere increase in size; sensitivity, sensitivity of living substance to outer changes, sensitive, sensitive to (various environmental influences, temperature, poisons, radiant energy); nucleus, nuclei, nucleolus, interkinetic nucleus, nucleus membrane; cell, (identical, maternal, daughter, differentiated, blood, nerve, parent) cells, the poles of the cell, to attain the dimensions and shape of a (maternal) cell; to become*, to become (convinced, important, visible, conspicuous, a part of a plant). Ex. 8. Form adjectives from the following adverbs: completely, immediately, frequently, particularly, finely, normally. Step 2 Ex. 9. Read and translate text A. TEXT A Cell Division. The function of reproduction or multiplication is an inherent property of the living cell by which two cells are obtained which are usually so identical that it is impossible to define which of them is the maternal cell and which is the daughter one. The vitally important process of cell division occurs either through karyokinesis or through mitosis. Division of a cell begins after a more or less protracted period known as interkinesis or interphase. In the interkinetic nucleus the chromosomes are not visible, but appear instead а s 1ong, thin interwind threads. At this stage the cell is already being prepared for mitosis. During the preparation for mitosis the cell center divides and begins moving apart to the opposite sides of the cell. The chromosome threads coil up into spirals, thicken and become visible under an ordinary microscope. The nucleolus and nuclear membrane gradually disappear and a spindle is formed. This first stage of mitosis is known as the prophase.

21

In the second stage called the metaphase the chromosomes arrange themselves in the equatorial plane of the cell in the form of a star. The third stage of mitosis, known as the anaphase, begins when the chromosomes, already split, separate. At this stage the space between the chromosomes becomes greater and greater. The threads of the spindle extending between the centrioles become shorter, and the two halves of each chromosome gradually migrate to the poles of the cell. The forth and final stage of division is called telophase. During it the chromosomes uncoil, the nucleolus reappears and nuclear membranes surround each group of daughter chromosomes. Thus an exact division of the material of each chromosome is made between the daughter nuclei. In the cytoplasm of each daughter cell a new division of the centrioles takes place and a membrane forms between the two cells obtained as a result of the division. Such daughter cell is smaller than the maternal one, but gradually grows and obtains the dimensions and shape typical of the cells concerned. Ex.10. Answer the following questions: 1. Is reproduction an inherent property of the living cell? 2. How many cells are obtained in the result of the reproduction? 3. Are the newly obtained cells identical or different from the maternal ones? 4. What processes does the cell go through while dividing? 5. When does the cell division begin? 6. What does the process of division begin with? 7. What do scientists call this first stage of division? 8. In what way do the chromosomes arrange themselves in the second stage of division? 9. When does the final separation of the chromosomes take place? 10. What happens to the chromosomes at the final stage of division? 11. Does the division of the centrioles also take place? 12. Gradually the daughter cells attain the dimensions and shape of the typical cell, don't they? Ex. 11. Using fig. 2, describe in writing the process of cell division. Use the words and phrases given in text A and in ex. 13, Unit III. Ex. 12. Use the words given below to make up new word combinations with "due to", "in addition to", "to depend on". Model: a) due to optimal temperature; b) in addition to optimal temperature; c) depend on optimal temperature. This first stage, daughter chromosome, this inherent property, this surprising capacity, this function, such coordination of functions, growth and reproduction, the increase in size, the sensitivity of an organism to outer changes, the nucleus membrane, the maternal cell, the differentiation of the

22

cells, the nerve cells, the blood cells, the parent cells, the dimensions and shape of the cells.

Ex. 13. Use the Passive in the sentences below. Model: The nucleus regulates normal vital activity of the cell. Normal vital activity of the cell is regulated by the nucleus. 1. Green plants manufacture organic food. 2. Scientists have disclosed many important facts of protoplasmic structure and activity. 3. Carbon, hydrogen,

23

oxygen, nitrogen and other elements compose proteins. 4. The scientists transmitted the hereditary traits to the new generation of plants. 5. However, you can't observe mitosis in many tissues. Ex. 14. Translate the sentences into English paying attention to the function of the boldfaced words and to the function of the words with boldfaced parts. 1. К летка, являю щ аяся м ельча й шей ча ст ью орга н изм а , имеет очен ь слож н ое строение. 2. Т емп ература, являясь од н им изва ж н ей ших ф а кт оров сред ы, из меняет деятельность орга н изм а . 3. Р аз множение, являясь н а след ст вен н ым свой ст вом ка ж д ого орга н изм а , п родолжает жиз нь н а Зем ле. 4. П ротоп лаз ма, являю щ аяся ф изической осн овой ж изн и, имеет у д ивит ельн ые качества. 5. К а ж д ый орган, являясь ча стью орга н изм а , ф ункц ионируетв коорд ин а ции с д ру гим и орга н а м и. Ex. 15. Translate the sentences into Russian. Pay attention to the difference in the grammatical structure of the sentences with Participle Constructions and Absolute Participle Constructions. 1. Each part of a living organism carrying out a certain activity functions in coordination with the other parts. 2. Each part of a living organism carrying out a certain activity, all its parts should function in coordination with each other. 3. Temperature being one of the most important factors of the environment changes the activities of an organism. 4. Temperature being too high, a cell stops growing. 5. The experiments having been carried out proved the correctness of the idea. 6. The experiments having been carried out, the scientists started new investigations. Ex. 16. Translate into Russian the sentences having the construction "the … , the… " (чем … , т ем … ) which is used in comparisons to show that two things happen together. Model: The more biologists learn about protoplasmic surprising capacities, the more convinced they become that it is the most complex of materials. Ч ем б о ль ш е б и о ло ги узн а ю т о б уди ви т ель н ых спо со б н о ст ях про т о пла зм ы, т ем б о ль ш е о н и уб еж да ю т ся в т о м , чт о о н а са м а я сло ж н а я и звещ ест в. 1. The smaller a cell, the more active it is physiologically. 2. The higher the temperature of the air, the more water vapor it can absorb. 3. The younger the tissue, the more frequently the cells divide. 4. Some kinds of infusoria produce an acid secretion which holds a group of these organisms together. The greater the number of individuals that come to make up such a group, the more acid is

24

produced. 5. The younger an organism, the higher is its water content. 6. The younger the tissue, the more frequently the cells divide. 7. The earlier the stage of an embryo, the more alike are its cells. 8. Up to a certain point plants grow rapidly the higher the temperature. 9. The more we learn about the complexities of the mammalian nervous system, the more apparent it is that animals suffer significantly even in routine research. 10. Many chemical reactions in an organism go on more rapidly, the higher the temperature. 11. The lesser the environments change, the lesser power of adaptation their inhabitants need to have. Ex. 17. Read the text. Collect sentences with the Absolute Participle Construction. Text B The duration of each phase of mitosis and its frequency are dissimilar for different cells and vary greatly. The younger the tissue, however, the more frequently the cells divide. Mitotic activity depends on the nature of the tissue and on its physiological condition. This is particularly intensive during growth and regeneration, hormones and other system regulators of the organism having a great effect. In many tissues mitosis is not observed as in the liver. That, however, does not mean that liver cells cannot divide. If, for instance, a piece is cut from the liver of a rat, mitosis will occur immediately along the line of the cut, and the liver will quickly and completely regenerate. During division cells are very sensitive to various environmental influences, temperature being the most important of these agents. The optimal temperature for human cell-division is 37°C; deviation from that, either above or below, inhibit mitosis. The dividing cell is likewise sensitive to poisons and to radiant energy, which is the basis for treatment of malignant tumours by ionizing radiation. It should also be noted that certain highly differentiated cells have lost the capacity to divide, as for instance, blood cells. After they have existed for a certain time they disintegrate, and special blood-forming organs produce new cells to replace them. Nerve cells are formed only during embryonal development. After birth they grow, but do not divide. Ex. 18. Put all possible questions to the following sentences. 1. Duration of each phase of mitosis is dissimilar for different cells. 2. Environmental factors influence the dividing cells greatly. 3. Mitotic activity depends on the nature and physiological conditions of the tissue. 4. Some highly differentiated cells have lost the capacity to divide.

25

Ex. 19. Arrange the sentences of the ex. 18 so that they can be used as a plan for text B. Give the content of the text in detail using this plan. Ex. 20. Translate into Russian the sentences below, paying attention to the meaning of the words "this" and "that". 1. Mitotic activity depends on the nature of the tissue and on its physiological conditions. This is particularly intensive during growth and regeneration. 2. Through the openings in the membrane the cytoplasm of the cell communicates with that of neighbouring cells. 3. The cellular wall is the main and principal feature distinguishing the cells of plants from those of animals. 4. The daughter cells grow to the size approximately that of the parent cell. 5. The blood cells of a frog are larger then those of an elephant. 6. Cell components seen under a light microscope can be compared with those shown under the electron microscope. 7. The teacher told us about some general Lab Safety Rules so that we should be careful working in the laboratory. Ex. 21. Listen to the recording of text C and say what types of growth are mentioned in it and what peculiarities each of them has. Text C There is usually a limit to the size which any type of cell in an organism may normally attain. Once this cell size is reached, further growth is impossible unless the cell divides. After this has occurred the daughter cells may grow to a size approximately that of a parent cell. In general, large plants and large animals have large numbers of cells, rather than large cells. However, there is no definite general relationship between the size of an organism and the size of its cells; the blood cells of a frog, for example, are larger than the blood cells of an elephant or a man. The growth of a cell involves more than mere increase in size. While it is growing it continues its other vital activities and maintains the organization making these activities possible. Although the proportion of the different parts may change each continues to carry on its functions or functions harmoniously and in coordination with other parts. The new materials which are added are distributed in the living protoplasm and become a part of its finely organized structure. This kind of growth is called growth by intussusception which distinguishes it from increase in size by the mere addition of material to the outside. This type of growth is known as growth by accretion. Unit V Step 1

26

Ex. 1. Practise the following for pronunciation: automobile ['ɔ:tə mə bi:l] blood [blʌd] furthermore ['fə :ðə 'mɔ:] epithelial [epi'Ɵ i:lʝ ə l] esophagus [i:'sɔfə gə s] fiber ['faibə ] giant ['dʒ aiə nt] intestine [in'testiɳ] kidney ['kidni]

mouth [mauƟ ] peripheral [pə 'rifə rə l] protoplast ['proutə plæ st] respiratory [ris'paiə rə tə ri] rhythm ['riðə m] stomach ['stʌmə k] tentacle ['tentə kl] trachea [trə 'ki:ə ]

Ex. 2. Fill the table with the forms of the Past Simple and the Past Participle of the following verbs. Past Simple

Past Participle

to hold* to find* to keep* to bind* to bring* Ex. 3. Guess the meaning of the following words. coordination (n), to coordinate (v); nerve (n), nervous (adj); respiration (n), respiratory (adj); group (n), to group (v); result (n), to result (v); thick (adj), thickness (n); long (adj), length (n); to continue (v), continually (adv); to protect (v), protection (n); contractility (n), contraction (n); to differentiate (v), differentiation (n); large (adj), largely (adv); collectively (adv), collection (n). Ex. 4. Give Russian equivalents for the following words and word combinations. blood, blood-forming organs, blood in cavities, blood vessels; bone, hard material of a bone; to digest, digestion and assimilation of food, digestive fiber; fibers of tendon; heart, heart rhythm, beats of the heart, to miss a beat of the heart, to keep* up even heart rhythm; like, alike, to be* (much, little) alike, likewise; to make*, to make up (= to compose), man-made machine, to make one’s activities possible; mineral, mineral (salts, substances), to absorb mineral substances, to conduct mineral salts; muscle, muscle tissue, muscular (organ, system).

27

Ex. 5. Give English equivalents for the following words and word combinations. Т ело, т ело ра ст ен ия, сф ерическое т ело, вид им ые т ела , п ротоп ла зм а т ическое тело ра ст ительн ой клет ки, стен ка т ела ; клет ка , ж ива я клет ка , ид ен т ичн а я клетка , (род ит ельска я, м а т ерин ска я, д очерн яя) клет ка , цен т р клетки, д иф ф ерен цирова н н ые клет ки, (кровян ые, н ервн ые) клет ки, ра зм ер клет ки, ин д ивид у а льн ые клет ки. Ex. 6. Put the verbs in brackets into a proper tense and voice. 1. The root (hold*) the plant in the ground. 2. The plant (hold*) in the ground by the root. 3. Different functions (perform) by leaves. 4. Leaves (perform) different functions. 5. Even at that moment his heart (keep*) an even rhythm and (not miss) a single beat. 6. Not a muscle (move) on his face, not a beat of the heart (miss). Ex. 7. Define the function of infinitives in the following sentences. A 1. To manufacture sugar is one of the main functions of the leaves. 2. To demonstrate the continuity of all living processes in an organism is easy if we take the heart as an example. 3. To know the general laws of interrelations between a living organism and nature is necessary for every biologist. 4. To grow doesn’t mean for an organism to stop functioning. 5. To show the scale of organization of these living organisms is impossible here. 6. To hold the plant in the ground is one of the functions the root performs. 7. To eliminate waste products is the main function of the excretory system, kidneys including. 8. To imagine what happens inside an organism has become possible thanks to the modern technique of investigation. 9. To study living things it is necessary to sort them into groups. 10. To determine the chemical composition of an object, the fly needn’t perform any complex analyses, for it receives all the information it needs by touching the object with its legs. 11. To give a simple definition of life is difficult. B 1. The primary function of the stem is to support the leaves and to conduct materials from one part of the plant to another. 2. One of the primary goals of protein chemists is to relate the function of a polypeptide to its structure. 3. When an organism grows each of its organs continues to function. 4. Growing the lungs continue without intermission to take in air and the oxygen in the air continues to be absorbed into the blood vessels. 5. The muscles as they grow go on to respond to stimuli by contraction. 6. To follow the growth of plants is to learn their laws of development. 7. The stem is an organ which is to support the

28

leaves and to conduct materials from one part of the plant to another. 8. The primary function of the petals of the flower is undoubtedly to attract insects and birds to plants for pollination purposes. 9. The main purpose of this book is to consider the role of photosynthesis in the life of plants. 10. At this stage different organs begin to take form. 11. One of the main functions of the nucleus is to regulate normal vital activity of the cell. 12. We have to read much to become good specialists. C 1. It is difficult to give a simple definition of life. 2. After the division it is impossible to define which of the cells obtained is maternal and which is the daughter one. 3. It is worth while to pause for a moment to see what happens inside an organism when it grows. D 1. The flora of lichens and mosses, the first of the individual groups to be dealt with, is large and diverse. 2. The size to be attained by a newly-born cell is that of the parent cell. 3. The new materials to be added into the cell are distributed in the living protoplasm and become a part of its finely organized structure. 4. They have an excellent laboratory to work in. 5. Each group of cells in many celled bodies has definite functions to be performed. 6. All the functions to be performed by an organism should be correlated and contribute to the activities of the whole. 7. This is one of the important items to be insisted upon. 8. The only tissue to be affected by the lack of glucose is the central nervous system. Ex. 8. Analyze the sentences below and put the Absolute Participle constructions in brackets. 1. There being no normal conditions for the development of the cell, it stops its existence. 2. All living matter consists of protoplasm, lifeless matter having no protoplasm. 3. Cells will not carry on actively their metabolic processes, with nucleus having been removed. 4. The term tissue includes living cells and structures produced by them, the cell wall, the hard material of bone and the fibers of tendons being examples of it. 5. In the early stages of an embryo the cells are much alike, their differentiation taking place much later. Step 2 Ex. 9. Read the text and tell what definitions of “ organ” and “ tissue” it gives, what types of tissues are mentioned in it. Text A Tissues In the early stages of an embryo the cells are usually much alike. But later they start specializing to carry on a particular function. This is the stage when

29

different organs begin to take form. Cells similar in structure and performing the same function are called tissues, while an organ is a collection of tissues doing a special work. The term tissue is usually used to include not only the living cells but also structures produced by them and associated with them, such as the cell wall, the hard material of bone, and the fibers of tendons. Most organs contain a number of different kinds of tissues. To demonstrate this is easy if we take the heart as an example. The heart, although a muscular organ and consisting largely of muscle tissue, contains connective tissue, blood (both in its cavities and in blood vessels of its muscles) and nerve tissue and is covered and lined with epithelial tissue. It is worth while to pause for a moment and to try to imagine what happens in any living organism, a man for example, when growth and differentiation of cells occur. Every organ continues to function and individual cells of the different tissues continue their vital activities. The heart as it growth keeps up its rhythm without missing a single beat. The lungs continue without intermission to take in air and the oxygen in the air continues to be absorbed into the blood vessels. The muscles as they grow continue to respond to stimuli by contraction. The bones while increasing in size and strength continue their functions of support and protection. Similarly in a giant tree the stem and roots grow continually in length and thickness. Can you imagine an automobile or any man-made machine gradually increasing in size while continuing to operate? Isn’t it a mystery? Ex. 10. Answer the following questions. Give extended answers if you can. 1. In the early stages of an embryo the cells are mach alike, aren’t they? 2. When does the specialization of cells begin? 3. Do different organs take form at this stage? 4. What cells form a tissue? 5. What is an organ? 6. Does the term tissue also mean the structures produced by cells? 7. Do organs consist of only one kind of tissue? 8. What tissues does the heart consist of? 9. What happens inside an organism when it grows? Do its organs stop functioning? 10. What can you say about the reaction of the heart to growth? 11. What happens to muscles and lungs? 12. And what about the plants? 13. In what way do the roots and stems grow? Ex. 11. Tell your fellow students what tissues the heart consists of and what is the function of each of them. Ex. 12. Let’s do an experiment. A 1. Fill two glasses with water 2. Colour the water in one of the glasses with a food colouring.

30

3. Now take a plant with a white flower. 4. Divide vertically its stem into parts. Be careful diving it. 5. Put one half of the stem in the glass with clear water and other half in the glass with coloured water. B Work in groups of three. Act out the experiment according to the model. Model: Student A: Fill two glasses with water. Student B – What are you doing? Student C – I'm filling two glasses with water. Student B – What have you done? Student C – I have filled two glasses with water. C 1. What will happen after a few hours? 2. What does this experiment demonstrate? 3. What do biologists call the tissues conducting water and mineral substances from roots to leaves and flowers of plants? 4. What other simple experiments can you remember which demonstrate the response of plants to stimuli? Ex. 13. Report the commands of ex. 12. Model: Fill two glasses with water. The teacher asked me to fill two glasses with water. Ex. 14. Translate the sentences into English. Pay attention to the Participle Constructions with the verbs “ concern” and “ involve” which in this case mean “ д а н н ый , ра ссм а трива ем ый , о котором ид ет речь, связа н н ый (с т ем , о чем ид ет речь)” . 1. The mechanisms involved are worth investigation. 2. The nature of the mutations involved is unknown. 3. The physiological processes cause delimitation (= ра згра н ичен ие, ра зм еж ева н ие) of cytoplasmic regions involved. 4. The nature of the cells concerned has not been determined. 5. At the stage of the cell development concerned different organs begin to take form. Ex. 15. Read the text without consulting your dictionary. Suggest a suitable title for it and give the main points of it.

Text B

31

When we call a plant or an animal an organism we imply that it is organized, that it consists of parts carrying out functions which are correlated and contribute towards the activities of the whole. Thus the filament of Spirogyra is composed of cells which carry out living processes, and each cell is organized into parts such as the chloroplast which manufactures sugar or the plasma membrane which determines what materials can enter or leave the protoplast. Or, taking Hydra, we find that here the body of the animal can be divided into such parts as the tentacles, mouth and body wall, each performing a different function. From the correlated activities of these parts there results an organism. Higher in the scale of organization are the more familiar trees, shrubs and herbs. Here the plant body may be regarded as composed of various organs performing different functions. Thus, to hold the plant in the ground there is a special organ – the root. It also absorbs water and mineral substances from the soil. As to the stem, it is an organ which is to support the leaves and conduct materials from one part of the plant to another, while the leaves are organs which are concerned chiefly with the manufacture of sugar. Ex. 16. Translate the sentences into Russian paying attention to the “ forphrase” . 1. It is for biologists to settle this problem. 2. For some scientists to share this point of view was not easy. 3. The principal aim of this conference is for people to realize the necessity of nature conservation. 4. The problems for the participants of the conference to settle were extremely actual. 5. For a plant to be held in the ground there is a special organ – the root. 6. For an organism to function normally all its parts should be correlated and contribute to the activities of the whole. 7. To grow doesn’t mean for an organism to stop functioning. 8. It is impossible for a cell to divide if it hasn’t reached the size of its parent cell. 9. For the cell division to occur the cell should reach the size of its parent cell. 10. For mitosis to occur in human cells the temperature shouldn’t be above or below 37 ° C. To deviate from this point is to inhibit mitosis. 11. The professor asked for the diagram to be explained. 12. The protoplasm appearance was too deceptively simple for biologists to realize its real complexity. 13. For every part of an organism to perform its activity there should be a constant exchange of matter between an organism and its environment. Ex. 17. Read the text. Text C In an animal such as a bird, fish or mammal the scale of organization is yet higher, and organs performing related functions are grouped into system of organs. One of such systems is the skeletal system, or skeleton, made up of the various bones which form the frame work. The muscular system with its

32

different muscles is responsible for the movement of the body. The digestive system includes the mouth, esophagus, stomach and intestine. It is the system in which food is to be digested and through the walls of which food substances are to be absorbed. The circulatory system consists of the heart and blood vessels to circulate the blood through the body. The respiratory system includes the lungs and trachea. It is bound to bring oxygen to the blood and take carbon dioxide away from it. As to the excretory system it includes the kidneys which are to eliminate waste products. The nervous system consists of brain, spinal cord and peripheral nerves which serve to control and coordinate the activities of all the other systems and organs. Ex. 18. Read text C again and write out sentences containing infinitives. Define the functions of the infinitives. Ex. 19. Work in pairs. Characterize the notion “ the system of organs” . Name all the systems of organs mentioned in the text. Ex. 20. Give a short summary of the text. Ex. 21. Translate the sentences into Russian, paying attention to the Objective with the Infinitive. 1. He wants the experiment to be done as quickly as possible. 2. Scientists have found the nucleus to be the directing centre of some important physiological activities of the cell. 3. Scientists consider protoplasm to be the only truly alive part of an organism. 4. When we call a plant or an animal an organism we think it to be organized in a definite way. 5. Scientists take the plant body to be composed of various organs performing different functions. 6. Biologists didn’t expect protoplasm having such a simple appearance to be so complex in its chemical and physical organization. 7. Examining Hydra, you will find its body to be composed of tentacles, a mouth and a body wall, each performing a definite function. 8. Assuming an organism to be composed of parts carrying out various functions we think all these parts to be correlated. 9. Assuming these cells to be obtained by division we considered them identical and couldn’t define which of them were the maternal cells and which were the daughter ones. 10. Biologists think adaptation to be the central problem of ecology as of all biology. Ex. 21. Translate into English the sentences below. 1. П ерва я ст а д ия м ит оза извест н а ка к п роф а за . 2. Н а эт ой ст а д ии клет ка гот овится к м итозу . 3. К лет ки, п охож ие п о стру кт у ре и вып олн яю щие од н и и т е ж е ф у н кции, обра зу ю т т ка н и. 4. В се ф у н кции в орга н изм е н а ход ятся в

33

оп ред елен н ом соотн ошен ии (= вза им од ей ст вии). 5. Н ервн ые клет ки обра зу ю тся т олько в п ериод эм брион а льн ого ра звит ия.

Unit VI Step 1 Ex. 1. Practise the following for pronunciation: actually ['æ ktʃuzə li] amphibian [æ m'fibiə n] calorie ['kæ lə ri] calorific ['kæ lə rifik] carbohydrate ['kα :bo(u)'haidr(e)it] derive [di'raiv] dialectical [daiə 'lektikə l] double ['dʌbl]

hamster ['hæ mstə ] hedgehog ['heʤ (h)ə g] indispensable [indis'pensə bl] marmot ['mα :mə t] potential [pə 'tenʃə l] purpose ['pə :pə s] quiescence [kwai'esns] reptile [reptail]

Ex. 2. Supply three forms of the following irregular verbs. Lead, break, build, sleep, fall, derive. Ex. 3. Using the suffixes given below form nouns from the following verbs: a) ment –to move, to develop, to require, to replace, to engage; b) ance –to appear, to enter, to perform, to acquaint, to resemble; c) ence –to differ; d) tion – to collect, to contract, to digest, to inhibit, to liberate, to coordinate, to hibernate, to assimilate, to contribute, to construct; e) ation –to organize, to utilize, to observe, to specialize, to inform; f) ition –to compose, to decompose, to add, to vary; –to oxidize (oxid + a + tion); –to evolve (evol + u + tion); –to absorb (absor + p + tion), to adsorb, to consume. Ex. 4. Give Russian equivalents for the following words and word combinations.

34

to absorb (oxygen, water, mineral salts), absorption of various substances; animal cells, cold-blooded animals, warm-blooded animals; acid, organic acids, nucleic acids; breaking down of substances; burning up of substances; calorie, kilocalorie, total calorific value of food; carbon, carbon dioxide, carbohydrate; chemical (changes, processes, composition); (environmental, physiological, geographical, indispensable) condition; constant state of metabolic exchange, constant exchange of matter, to maintain one’s body temperature constant; to consume (food, energy, water, sunlight); (radiant, potential) energy, source of energy, to liberate energy, to expend energy; in the long course of (development, evolution); requirement, oxygen requirement, (daily, average) requirement of a (sleeping) person in oxygen. Ex. 5. Make up sentences with the following word combinations. To posses (common features, specific features, ability for reproduction, some potential energy, some inherent properties, a system of regulators) To lead* to (the transmission of hereditary traits, increase in size, the protracted period of development, the state of quiescence, breaking down of substances, burning up of substances, the inhibition of the activity of all organs, the formation of malignant tumors, the marked decrease in oxygen requirement, outer changes in the structure of an organism, better state of health, intensive metabolic activity, the process of assimilation and disassimilation) To store (foods, nutritive substances, complex organic substances) To lose* the capacity (to divide, to multiply, to develop normally, to absorb oxygen, to respond to stimuli, to rapid reproduction) Ex. 6. Translate into Russian, paying particular attention to the Complex Subject. 1. A camel’s hump has been found to contain fat, not water. 2. Tropical butterflies in general are believed to breed all year round. 3. Seeds of many plants are known to germinate after passage through the digestive track of the black-tailed deer. 4. He is supposed to be one of the greatest writers of our time. 5. He appeared to be quite another man. 6. I happened to be present at this experiment. 7. She is likely to take all her exams successfully. 8. Some of the explanations of natural processes offered by biologists proved to have been wrong. 9. Bacteria can be expected to be found in any kind of food. 10. Oxygen given off by aquatic plants has been found to be toxic to certain insect larvae. 11. Most cells are said to be microscopic in size. 12. Michurin is known to be a famous selectionist and practical gardener. 13. Sound is known to travel in water at the speed of about a mile a second. 14. Deepsea bacteria have proved to be even more sensitive to heat than those from shallow waters. 15. Substances acting like hormones but which are not known to be produced by plants are called plant regulators.

35

Ex. 7. Define the tense and voice of the following sentences. 1. Large plants and large animals have large numbers of cells rather than large cells. 2. In the long course of their evolution birds and mammals have evolved the faculty to maintain the intensity of their metabolism. 3. The nucleus has been removed from the cell artificially. 4. Investigations dealing with the structure and activity of protoplasm have been conducted. 5. At this stage the cells are already being prepared for mitosis. 6. Thousands of seals are dying on the beaches of Northern Europe. 7. The cell sap shouldn’t be regarded as a living material. 8. In the process of metabolism some substances should break down either because they no longer serve a useful purpose or because they are used as a source of energy. 9. Zoology may be divided into two subsciences. 10. Some of the chemical changes lead to the formation of the complex organic substances. 11. The cell membrane and the cell wall play an important part in protection of the cell against injury. 12. The specific features of metabolism in some plants and animals depend on a number of factors and are quite individual. Step 2 Ex. 8. Listen to the recording of text A and give a definition to the term “ metabolism” . Text A All living organisms, however great the difference between them is, possess a number of common features, one of which is the presence of protein and nucleic acids, and another the property of exchanging matter. A constant exchange of substances between an organism and its environment is an indispensable condition of vital activity. Every cell, every part of an organism and the organism as a whole are in a constant state of metabolic exchange. By metabolism is meant all the chemical changes, including all of the chemical processes which take place in a living thing. Some of these changes lead to the formation of the complex organic substances which actually make up the living protoplasm or are stored in it. These substances are carbohydrates, fats, and proteins. Other processes lead to breaking down of some substances either because they no longer serve a useful purpose or because, like sugar, they are used as a source of energy. So metabolism is a double process consisting of assimilation and disassimilation. Ex. 9. Reproduce text A, using the phrases given below as a plan. 1.

to possess common features;

36

2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12.

the presence of protein and nucleic acids; the property of exchanging matter; an indispensable condition of vital activity; to be in a constant state of metabolic exchange; metabolism is… ; a double process; on the one hand… , on the other hand… ; to lead to the formation of… ; to lead to breaking down of… ; to serve a useful purpose… ; a source of energy.

Ex. 10. Translate in English. 1. Н екоторые ж ивот н ые н е м огу т п од д ерж ива т ь т ем п ера ту ру своего т ела п остоян н ой . 2. И зм ен ен ия в сред е м огу т п ривест и к изм ен ен ию в ст ру кт у ре и п овод ка х ж ивотн ого. 3. Да ж е во врем я сн а серд це, п ищева рит ельн а я и вывод яща я сист ем ы человека д олж н ы ра бот а т ь. 4. В се ф у н кции орга н изм а д олж н ы быт ь вза им освяза н ы. 5. В а м след у ет п роверит ь резу льт а т ы ва шего эксп ерим ен та еще ра з. 6. В сем п ит а тельн ым вещест ва м , п ост у п а ю щим в клет ку , п риход ит ся п роход ит ь через п ла зм а тическу ю м ем бра н у . 7. О рга н изм ы м ож н о кла ссиф ицирова т ь п о-ра зн ом у . Ex. 11. Analyze and translate the following sentences. A 1. You must ask your fellow students if they know the day of the next examination. 2. She asked me if my work would depend on the results of our expedition. 3. If we use the fraction collector, we shall save a lot time. 4. I asked him if he would be able to come in time. 5. If you can prove that your project will save us considerable time we shall accept it. B 1. If you boiled the air out of water and then put a gold fish in the water, it would die. 2. If these facts had not been neglected, the discovery would have been made long ago. 3. If the importance of this work had been recognized before, far more progress would have been made. 4. If he had used only the method of artificial selection, he would not have fulfilled his gigantic task. 5. If you could bring all the equipment here, it would save time. C 1. It is impossible that he could come. 2. I suggest that he should write a letter at once. 3. I wish he were here with us. 4. Close the window lest you should catch a cold. 5. She looked me over from head to foot as if I were a

37

stranger. 6. He ordered that I should have done such a thing. 8. The instruments were packed carefully lest they should be broken during transportation.

Ex. 12. Translate into Russian, paying particular attention to the functions of Gerund. 1. One way of studying animals and plants is to begin with their functions. 2. By subjecting plants to sound of definite pitch it is possible to stimulate or hinder their growth. 3. Luminosity of living organisms is their mode of giving off excessive energy. 4. He could think of nothing but his going on the sea voyage. 5. The bill of a duck is flat and broad to fit it for pushing through mud and straining food. 6. Science is viewed as a way of gaining knowledge. 7. Upon being tested, a hypothesis may have to be abandoned or modified. 8. Seeing is believing. 9. Before boiling these instruments you should clean them. Ex. 13. Read text B and suggest a suitable title for it. Text B Assimilation is the utilization or absorption by cell of various substances derived from its environment together with the potential energy of these substances, and the building-up and replacement of disintegrated cell components. Thus, for the metabolism of man to take place it requires approximately 1.5 tons of oxygen and food a year, the total calorific value of this food being over one million calories (kilocalories). The average daily requirement is 0.86 kilogram of oxygen, 2.1 kilogram of water, 0.81 kilogram of organic substances and 0.1 kilogram of mineral salts. The total calorific value of the food to be consumed by a person in one day is about 3.000 calories. In 70 years of life a human being requires 50 tons of water, 2.5 tons of protein, two tons of fat, ten tons of carbohydrates and between 0.2 and 0.3 ton of mineral salts. Disassimilation is the breaking down of the constituents of an organism either by way of oxidation or by decomposition in the absence of oxygen. As a result of the “ burning up” of various substances of the cell body end-products of metabolism (wastes) are eliminated into the surrounding medium. The decomposition of matter liberates energy required for the vital functions to be performed, functions associated with both activity and state of quiescence of an organism. The energy expended on respiration during one night by a sleeping person would be enough to raise a load of 500 kilograms. Respiration is not the only work done during sleep, organs must also work – the digestive and excretory systems, the heart and blood circulation, etc.

38

Disassimilation is impossible without assimilation, and assimilation without disassimilation: thesse two processes are a dialectical unity of opposites. Ex. 14. Answer the following questions. 1. What is assimilation? 2. Do building up and replacement of disintegrated cell components take place during the process of assimilation? 3. What is the potential energy derived from? 4. What is the total calorific value of the food consumed by man during a year? 5. What is the daily requirement of man in water and oxygen? 6. How many tons of fat does a human being require in 70 years of life? 7. What is meant by disassimilation? 8. Where are end-products of metabolism eliminated? 9. What takes place in the result of decomposition of matter? 10. What is the liberated energy expended on? 11. How much energy does a sleeping person expend on respiration? 12. What other processes must take place in a sleeping person to keep him alive? 13. The processes of assimilation and disassimilation are closely interrelated, aren’t they? Ex. 15. Make up a plan of the text and reproduce it in accordance with it. Ex. 16. Translate into English. 1. У чен ые кла ссиф ициру ю т орга н изм ы п о-ра зн ом у . 2. О рга н изм ы кла ссиф ициру ю т ся п о-ра зн ом у . 3. Ч ит а я кн игу , вы изу чит е ст ру кт у ру и ф у н кции ра зличн ых орга н ов. 4. В эт ой кн иге стру кт у ра и ф у н кции ра зличн ых орга н ов бу д у т ра ссм от рен ы. 5. Зелен ые ра ст ен ия созд а ю т п ищу . 6. П ища созд а ет ся зелен ым и ра стен иям и. 7. К летки сод ерж а т п рот оп ла зм у . 8. В клет ка х сод ерж ится п ротоп ла зм а . 9. П рот оп ла зм а у п ра вляет всем и п роцесса м и, п роисход ящим и в клет ке. 10. В се п роцессы, п роисход ящие в клет ке, кон т ролиру ю т ся п ротоп ла зм ой . Ex. 17. Translate into Russian. Pay attention to the use of the Subjective Mood. A 1. If you studied, you would learn English quickly. 2. If I have time, I shall do this translation. 3. If my friend were at the conference he would hear many important reports on surgery. 4. Had I known that my friend was hospitalized I should have visited him. 5. If you were here, we should show you our experimental station. 6. We should have been able to distinguish these minute plants if we had had a microscope. B

39

1. He suggested the question be discussed at the next meeting. 2. They propose that the work should begin at once. 3. The scientists propose that a special commission be set to investigate the causes of this disease. 4. The professor demanded that the postgraduates be allowed to take part in the experiment. 5. It is desirable that all take part in the experiment. 6. They insisted that the question be included on the agenda.

C 1. It is important that he be here. 2. It is of first importance that the selected variety be adapted to the region in which it is to be grown. 3. It is necessary that a preliminary reaction be essentially complete. 4. Roentgen suggested that the rays characterized by great penetrating power should be called X-rays. 5. In order to determine whether a given compound is organic it is sufficient to heat it. 6. It is known that the meeting will be held at 9 p.m. Ex. 18. Read the text. Text C The Specific Features of Metabolism in Different Organisms. Physiologists assume some cells and unicellular organisms to have a very intensive metabolism, while others have such a low level that it is difficult at times to observe it. The metabolism of different species of animals and plants may have specific features. They depend on a number of factors and are quite individual. Moreover, within one organism metabolic activity proceeds with different intensity and has specific features in various organs, tissues and even cells. For this process to be understood better you must keep in mind that the specific character of metabolism depends on age (the younger the organism, the higher is its metabolism), sex and state of health. Geographical conditions, climate and season of the year are also to be taken into consideration. One of the important indices of the intensity of metabolic activity in animals is body temperature. Some animals can not maintain their body temperature constant and are therefore cold-blooded (fishes, reptiles and amphibia are to be referred to this group). In the long course of their evolution birds and mammals have evolved the faculty of maintaining the intensity of their metabolism at high level so that they have a constant, high body temperature. They are therefore known as warm-blooded. In a number of them, however, the temperature falls sharply when their bodies are overchilled. Thus the normal body temperature of the hedgehog is 33.5° C, of the hamster 37.8° C and of the marmot between 36° C–38° C. However, scientists have found their temperatures to fall to 4 ° C and even to 1 ° C when they hibernate. A marked decrease in

40

oxygen requirements and inhibition of the activity of all the organs occurs at the same time, a condition known as anabiotic. Ex. 19. Put questions to the missing parts of the sentences. 1. Physiologists assume that … 2. The metabolism of different organisms has … features. 3. These features depend on … 4. Metabolism has … intensity within one organism. 5. The specific character of metabolism depends on … 6. We must take into consideration … other factors. 7. … is the most important index of the intensity of metabolic activity in animals. 8. … animals cannot maintain their body temperature constant. 9. These animals are called … 10. Scientists refer … animals to this group. 11. … animals have evolved the faculty to maintain intensive metabolism. 12. They have evolved this activity because … 13. They have … temperature in the result. 14. Birds and mammals are called … 15. … happens to these animals when their bodies are overchilled. 16. Their normal body temperature is … 17. During hibernation their body temperature falls because … 18. Some animals hibernate because … Ex. 20. The plan of text C is given below. Some points are deliberately omitted in it. Restore them and reproduce the text according to the plan. The Specific Features of Metabolism in Different Organisms. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

individuality and different intensity of metabolism; dependence of metabolism on geographical conditions and climate; temperature as an index of metabolic activity; cold-blooded animals; their ability to maintain their temperature constant; hibernation; inhibition of vital processes during hibernation. Unit VII Step 1

Ex. 1.Give Russian equivalents to the following word combinations: the relations of plants and animals to one another; to be capable of responding to changes; reaction to external stimuli; to be accomplished by sense organs; to lack specific sense organs; to be produced in very small amounts; specific glands; to differ from; plant regulators; active fields of plant physiological research. Ex. 2. Form nouns and adjectives from the following words, using suffixes:

41

IC – science, microscope, basis, problem IC+AL –chemistry, physiology OUS –nerve, vary, continue, mystery FUL - colour, flower, fruit AL - essence, principle, nature TION - relate, coordinate, regulate, produce, organize, respire, digest, assimilate, reproduce Ex. 3. Translate into Russian the following sentences paying attention to the meaning of the modal verbs. 1. All living things have certain activities without which they cannot exist. 2. Even a short time without water and food shows us how necessary they are if we are to keep alive. 3. The cell sap should not be regarded as living material. 4. An ecologist must be careful in his use of the term "society". 5. All the nutritive substances entering the cell have to pass through the membrane. 6. There is usually a limit to the size a cell may attain. Ex. 4. Form the Absolute Participle Construction using the pairs of sentences given below. Model: This piece of tissue is made up of long threads. Each is composed of numerous small cylindrical bodies. This piece of tissue is made up of long threads, each composed of numerous small cylindrical bodies. 1. Many-celled bodies are made up of groups of cells. Each group has definite functions. 2. The cell has reached a definite size. The process of division starts. 3. Cells are very sensitive to environmental influences. Temperature is one of the main agents among them. 4. Protoplasm is regarded as the only truly alive substance. Understanding of its structure and activities becomes very essential. 5. Many processes go on in the body of the plant. Many of them are directed and controlled by protoplasm. Ex. 5. Translate into English the sentences given below. 1. К лет ка сод ерж ит т ри осн овн ые ча сти: яд ро, цитоп ла зм у и клет очн у ю оболочку . 2. К леточн у ю м ем бра н у м ож н о у вид ет ь т олько п од элект рон н ым м икроскоп ом . 3. К лет очн а я м ем бра н а им еет от верстия. 4. К леточн а я оболочка п рон иза н а м н ож ест вом м а лен ьких от верст ий . 5. О рга н ическа я п ища созд а ет ся бла год а ря д еят ельн ости хлороф илла . 6. П ерва я ста д ия м итоза извест н а ка к п роф а за . 7. О см отическое д а влен ие в клет ке лю бого орга н изм а более или м ен ее п ост оян н о. О н о ва рьиру ет в п ред ела х от 8 а т м осф еру ж ивот н ыхд о 60 а т м осф еру ра ст ен ий .

42

Ex. 6. Put the verbs in brackets into a proper tense form. 1. The basic difference between plants and animals (lie) in the structure and function of the cell. 2. Certain plants and animals (cause) diseases. 3. Our lives (depend) on how we (learn) the living around us. 4. Certain vital processes (take) place in plant bodies in the same manner as in animal bodies. 5. Both plant and animal life (change) constantly. 6. Plants (respond) to external stimuli. 7. Plants (lack) nervous system and specific sense organs. 8. Both plants and animals (have) hormones. 9. The use of plant hormones and plant regulators in agriculture (become) very important. Ex. 7. Use the Active in the sentences below. 1. Biology is commonly divided into zoology and botany. 2. In animals this coordination and response to stimuli are accomplished by sense organs and the endocrine and nervous systems. 3. In animals the response to stimuli is regulated by the endocrine system. 4. In plants certain chemical coordination is caused by external stimuli. 5. In animals hormones are produced by specific glands. 6. Plants and animals are called organisms. 7. Biology may also be defined as the science of organisms. Ex.8. Use the Passive in the sentences below 1. Plants make their own food. 2. Biologists study living things. 3. Biologists study the relations of plants and animals to one another. 4. Biologists learn the relations of plants and animals with the world around them. 9. Constant changes of the environment cause changes in the life of plants and animals. 6. Substances produced inside an organism influence specific physiological processes. 7. Plant physiologists actively study the ways of using plant hormones and plant regulators in agriculture. Ex. 9. Use Participle constructions in the sentences below. 1. Biology includes all the facts and principles which have been derived from a scientific study of living things. 2. The special study of animals which is called Zoology is the second of the two great subdivisions of biology. 3. Substances are produced in one part of the organism and transported to another part. They influence specific physiological processes. 4. Other substances which act like hormones but which are not produced by the plants are called plant regulators. 5. Plants lack nervous system and specific sense organs. They respond to external stimuli by certain chemical coordination. 6. Plant regulators are not produced by the plant. They are synthetic substances. 7. The word science comes from the

43

Latin "scienta" which means knowledge. 8. The nucleus is a mass of protoplasm which contains a spherical body. Ex. 10. Translate the sentences, paying attention to the meaning of "as". 1. Man is an organism subject to the same laws of nature as all other higher animals. 2. Some scientists estimate the number of plants and animals as three million. 3. Biology may also be defined as the science of organisms. 4. In fact the differences between animals and plants are not so many as the likenesses. 5. Plant hormones are not produced in specific glands as animal hormones are. 6. Water as well air are important factors for growing plants. 7. As the time went on, we become more convinced that the experiment will give good results. 8. As for me, I do not believe this story. Ex. 11. Use subordinate clauses instead of Participle Constructions. 1. Chemical coordination of plants to external stimuli is somewhat analogous to that regulated by the endocrine system of animals. 2. Substances produced in one part of an organism influence specific physiological processes when transported to another part of an organism. 3. Plant hormones differ chemically from the hormones of animals, being in general simpler substances. 4. Other substances acting like hormones are not produced by the plant. 5. Other substances not known to be produced by the plant are called plant regulators. 6. Substances produced inside an organism influence specific physiological processes. Ex. 12. Translate the sentences into Russian paying attention to the functions of the infinitive. 1. In order to sustain life the presence of certain factors is absolutely necessary. 2. The ecologist must be careful in his use of the team "society" in order to avoid term confusion. 3. Before the cell-division the centrosome divides to form daughter centrosomes. 4. The structure of the heat is too complex to be described here shortly. 5. The root of these plants should be long enough to take water and mineral substances from the soil. 6. All parts of an organism should be correlated so as to carry out all its living processes. 7. To begin with, the heart keeps up its even rhythm while growing. 8. To put it more exactly, the presence of cellulose is the main feature distinguishing the cells of plants from those of animals. Step 2 Ex. 13. Read the text.

44

All organisms are capable of responding to changes in the environment by reacting to external stimuli. In animals this coordination and response to stimuli are accomplished by sense organs and the endocrine and nervous systems. Plants lack a nervous system and specific sense organs, but they respond to external stimuli and their chemical coordination is somewhat analogous to that regulated by the endocrine system of animals. Both plants and animals have hormones. Thus substances are produced in one part of the an organism and in very small amounts, influence specific physiological processes when transported to another part of an organism. Plant hormones, however, are not produced in specific glands as animal hormones are, and they differ chemically from the hormones of animals, being in general simpler substances. Other substances which act like hormones but are not known to be produced by the plant are called plant regulators. The study of plant hormones and their synthetic substances is one of active fields of plant physiological research and their use in agriculture has become very important. Ex. 15. a) Make up a plan of the text. b) Using the plan put both direct and indirect questions to it. Ex. 16. Give English equivalents to the following word combinations: м ирвокру г н их, п ост оян н о изм ен ят ься, осн овн ые ра зличия и сход ст ва , изм ен ен ия в окру ж а ю щей сред е, коорд ин а ция и от клик н а ра зд ра ж ители, эн д окрин н а я и н ервн а я систем ы, от веча т ь н а вн ешн ие ра зд ра ж ит ели, быт ь а н а логичн ым чем у -либо, влият ь н а особые ф изиологические п роцессы, д ей ст вова т ь п од обн о горм он а м , иску сст вен н ые вещества , ст а н овит ься очен ь ва ж н ым . Ex. 17. Retell the text according to the plan (see ex. 15). Ex. 18. Translate the following text into English. Биология изу ча ет ж изн ен н ые п роцессы, ка к у ж ивот н ых, т а к и у ра ст ен ий . Э ти д ва больших п од ра зд елен ия биологии н а зыва ю т ся бота н икой и зоологией . К а к ра ст ен ия, т а к и ж ивот н ые д олж н ы им ет ь особые у словия д ля су щест вова н ия. К а к ж ивотн ые, т а к и ра ст ен ия н е м огу т ж ит ь без возд у ха , вод ы, п ищи и свет а . О д ин а ковые ж изн ен н ые п роцессы им ею т м ест о ка к у ж ивот н ых, т а к и у ра ст ен ий . Э т и п роцессы н а зыва ю тся д ыха н ием , п ищева рен ием , рост ом и ра зм н ож ен ием . О чен ь ва ж н ый п рин цип ж ивых орга н изм ов – эт о сп особн ост ь реа гирова ть н а вн ешн ие ра зд ра ж ители. Животн ые реа гиру ю т н а вн ешн ие ра зд ра ж ит ели через н ервн у ю сист ем у и орга н ы чу вст в. Ра ст ен ия та кж е п рисп оса блива ю т ся к окру ж а ю щей сред е и реа гиру ю т н а вн ешн ие возд ей ст вия. О д н а ко

45

реа гиру ю т н а вн ешн ие возд ей ст вия. О д н а ко м еха н изм от ветн ой реа кции н а ра зд ра ж ен ия у ра ст ен ий сильн о от лича ет ся от ж ивотн ых. Живые орга н изм ы м огу т ж ит ь в ра зличн ых у словиях. Н екот орые ж иву т п ри очен ь высоких т ем п ера т у рн ых у словиях, а д ру гие легко п ерен осят сильн ые м орозы. В се он и д олж н ы были п рисп особит ься к окру ж а ю щей сред е. Ex. 19. Translate the sentences given below. Pay attention to the peculiarities of translation of the boldfaced words. 1. The data referred to by the professor were described in one of his books. 2. We refer the reader to the books and reviews listed in the bibliography and referred to in the text of the paper. 3. The reader may be referred to the book already mentioned. 4. The plant affected by unfavourable conditions underwent a thorough treatment. 5. The rate of growth unaffected by any external factors increased rapidly. 6. The environment influenced by such factors as light and temperature is liable to certain changes. 7. The scheme insisted upon proved to be satisfactory.

Сп исок лит ера т у ры 1. Lefe's Origin. The beginning of biological Evolution / Ed. by J.W. Schopf-Berkeley, Los Angels, London University of California Press, 2002, 208 pp. 2. Stephen Stearms Evolution. An introduction. Oxford, Oxford Univ. 2000 –XII 381 pp. 3. Nature (2001-2004). 4. Са ин ова Д.З. Биология (а н глий ский язык д ля ст у д ен т ов-биологов) / Д.З. Са ин ова – К а за н ь: И зд -во К а за н . у н -т а , 1985. –205 с.

46

Сост а вит ель К у ла гин а Жа н ет т а Дм итриевн а Ред а кт орБу н ин а Т.Д.