Hexffibook off
SonfldWa-stes
I\Iiemegl@m@mG
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IOBAL H. KHAN Sen.or P oiesso...Ci,vr.
Ph.DlBadrod
8 Enl.ronmenrdr
Eng Jamra Nliitia slamia New DerhL -
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,]ee.,ng.
NAVED AHSAN
LeciLirer, Deparheni ot Crvrt Enoineenno Jam,a Mitlia tstamta. New d. h
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cBS gBLtSHERS ? 4596t1-A,11
cBS-_
& DtsTRtBUTORS "
Darya canj, New Dethi
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Websjie I httpr/www.cbspd.com
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Preface Ihis book has evolved out of our teaching, research aod cgggUltancv work iD the field ofsolid wastes Eraoagerlent. It is iDteDded as a t€xt book for
undi@and
students of envitonoental engineering both at Dostgt-aduate ievel. Auenpl has been Dade ro include aI relevan:6;ffiincludirr;;fr;As
and guidelines issued by the central and state gov€mmeDts il1 this regatd. Ihis book should therefore be of intetest trot only to students and teachers
but also to etrgiaeers working itr the field ofsolid wastes managemeDt. NuDe(ous solved a]ld unsolved Dumerical problems have been included for effective !99!g!94i0! ofthe issues by studeats and engineers. The varioustopics include the geDeratiotr, coDlposition, collection and treatheDt options ofsolid wastes, disposal ofwaste on laddlill including enginee ng aspech oflandfiIl disposal systems. I{azardous *"stes including hdustrial wastes ed biooedical wastes, have a high hazard poteDtial. A s€parate chapterhas tL€retore bee! alevojed to this categgll of wastes Aj!!!!4g!ishing fealure ofrhis book is tbe empbasis oo tbe use ofIT tools in rhe ir@Eient ald operations of a solid GGG-anagement system. The book should thetefoie be ofiBterestto urbaD plaDners. We hav€ also included several Case Studies l.om our consultaDcv. Mary friends andcolleagues havehelped h !be endevour. to all of'whom we wish to express out siDcere thaols. Thants are alio dGio CBS publishers for bringing out lhis rext book.
Thl6'ksiilialso due
ro rhe AII lldia Council forTechnical Educatio! for bringing out ttris book. ADy comments or suggestiotrs fot i&proveoent wilt be gratefully
tbeir suppon
i!
acknowledged.
Iqbal E. Khrn Nrved Ahsatr
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Contents
1.
iii
Contents
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I I I I I List of tigures Fig. 1,1 Fig- 1-2 Fig. 1,3 Fig. 1.4 Fig.2.1
Fig.2.2
Fr"
l.r
Fig.2.4 Fig. 2.5 Fig. 2.5
fig.
2.5
Fig. 2.6
FiE 2.7
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Fig. 2.8 Fig. 2.9 Fig.2.10
I
Fig.2.11
Fig.2.l2
I
Fig.2.13
Fig.2.l4 Fig.2.15
Fig.3.l Fig.3.l Fig.3.1 Fig- 3-2
I
4.
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6.
Ilaz3rdous Wastes Management atrd Site ReEediation .......................'.............".'.... 123 ............... 123 Characteristics ofHazado[s Wastes ..................... Managementofl{azardousWastes.-.,..,.,.,..................-.,.--.,.,.,,-,..,..-.-,--.....-..........124 Chemical Oddalion.......................
128
T T
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a Risk Assessment in Siting ofa Hazardous Waste Disposal Facility--Case Study
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Fig.3.3 Fig.3.,1
Twical LayoutPlan ola Landfll ......... various TlPes ofcell Layou6 . ... . .. .
-- -
-.........10
.. . . .........'.71 ....... ........ 74 ...-- ............ 75
Fig.3.5 TFical Cross-section oflandfill Cove Fig.3.6 Sxrface Water Drainage Charmel .... Fig.3,7 TypicalMoaitoringlnstrumentationatLandfiilSite.................-..---.-.......76
Sarnpler Fig.3.9 GromdwalerMoritoringwelt Fig.
3.8
. . .. ..
Cirab
.
"
"
77
......:rr::,.=.-?s
- "" -" ..'-.-' -': :-:: " 79 - - '79 "87 Fig. 1.1 Twical ConcentrationProfile ofleachate Consititue s............ .-."- -- ' '91 Fig. d.2 Landfill as Simulated in HELP Modei . . - " 92 Fig. 4.3 (a): Single Lin -- "" 92 Fig.4.3 (r): Single Composite Liner '... . . . ........... '- - '93 Fig.4.3 (c): Double Composite Liner......... .... . . .. "."" - "96 Fig.4.4 Methods ofThermal Seaning ofceomembraDe " ""98 Fig,4.5 Leachatecollectionsystem............ Fig.4.6 InvenedFikeraroundleachaiecollectionPiPes.........",' - .- " 98 " 99 Fig.4.7 A Tlpical Sumpwell for Leachate Ccllection ........................'. 100 "" Fig.4.8 T)pical Leak Delection System . ... "_ "'- " 101 Iig. 4,9 LeachateReckculation System ..... .... """ " "i02 Fig.,l.lo Sketch ofa Twicai Aemted Lagoon " " "" ' 103 Fig.4.1l ActivaledsludEeProcess...-....... ......... "_ "" 103 Fig. 4.12 RoraijngBiological Cortactor... .... . . ""." "" ' 103 Fig.4.13 TricklingFihe "'- " "" 104 Fig.,t.l4 Two Stage Anaerobic Tleatment Process "- -" '105 Fig.4.15 USB Reactor. Tleatmmt "" "" "" " 105 "" Fig.,t.16 Twicat Sequence ofPhysicavchemical """ "" "111 Fig.5,1 Phases in Lardfillcas Generation ...... "" 1l4 " Fig.5.2 Palh\%ys oflandfill Gas Migmtion..... ...... " 116 Fig.5.3 Components ofcas Collection Syslem . -.."-'.- " 117 Fig.5.4 Gas Eilraction well ... ............. .....-... Aii Quality Monitoring in Vado Fig.3.1l T]?icallysimerer:.,..:.......... --......-
Fig,3.10
Probe for
7e
7-'1L
Fig.5.5 Combination ofcas Erf'action Well aid Leachate CoUection Well . ........ .... ' 118 -.....""" " i19 Fig.5.6 flare Bumer. ... " "' l2O Fig.5.7 TwicalAnangementofcaswells...... .. -"-"" "\21 Fig.5.8 Schematic oflnfta-red CO? Detector ..
...... .. ....-
fig.6.1
Rootzone T€atment System .
Fig.6.2
various Routes ofExPosue
" ,' " ",' " "
""
146
""
149
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Fig,6.3 StagesinlcA .-..................153 Fig.6.4 Fiow Diagam for Production ofBar Soap ................ 153 Fig.7.1 T$ical Distributio! ofPru ................. ...................... i66 Fig.7.2 LeopoleMatri.( .................. 168 (a) (r) (c) (d) pH Fig.7.3 Typical Value Function craphs SOr; NO,: Odoi .................... 169 Fig.7.4 Parameter lmponance Units ............... ....................... 174
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Chapter
Irutrod.uction
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Management ofsolid \r,astes is
a maj or
challenge these days for the administmtors.
engineers and planners. Huge volumes ofsolid $astes are generated and need to be collecled. tnnsporred and l'inally disposed off. These operaiions have to be carried oui speedily and efJlcienrly without incurring excessive cosl ordamage to environment. Unfortunately in manv deve lopi ng couo!ries, the system for maraging wasies is primitive and cannol cope with the huge volumes ofwas!es being generated. In developing couniries, it is common to find large heaps of garbage feslering all over th€ ci!y. The problem gers further complicated due ro large populalion and 1be obsoleie techniques emp loyed for s,asre management.
lnsanitary melhods adopled ior disposal of solid rvastes is a serious health concern. Techniques and rechnologies however are avajlable and indigenous methods can be deve loped for man aging ihese wastes properl)- .
Solid Waste is defined as a material ihat is cheaper to throu au,ay than to store or use. Ir is no longer considered as unlvanted marerial to be dumped out of the sire. Solid wastes are simply 'material at wrong place, *.hich can be segregated, iransformed, recycled and reused wilh greal financial and environmenlal benefits. IMPACTS OF SOLID WASTES ON ENVIRONMENT
I n.e.. Droperl] managed..olid u.ste( l"ve polent,a'ol.erio-s impacr5 on environment, Il can lead to surface and ground water contamination. land pollution and air qualiry deierioration_ Fig. t.l sho\Ls the tikely sources of 'mpdc j on air. udter .nd land en\ tronment. Water infiltrating through the wasres generates Ieachate, which can ultimately mix with the ground water. Dust and Iifier scattered by wind are responsible for deteriorarion ofair qualit) in !he vicinity ofdisposal siles- Insanitary method of disposal of wastes also produces odor and affects ihe aesthelics ofthe area. Moreover- decomDosition of wasres
E--:-
J 2
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ATextbook ol Salid Wastes Managenent
releases noxious gases posing high risk to human health Some health hazards dlre to solid wastes are presented in Table 1'
l
ofthe environmental and
Table r.r I Some Environmenlal Haz ards Due to Solid Wastes TvPe
Air wder
EnvircMental Pollution
and lEnd
quali! deterioration, high
]evels ofnoise,
Gastroi estinal disorders, jaundice, dianhe4 respiratory infection, dermal diseases. etc. Also sometimes may cause
lnjuries to workers by sharPs, gLalses,
l"ju:r
4d
chemicaltv
aggressive substances presenl in the wasles.
world' It
Environmental impacts ofpoorly managed wasteshave been studied alloverthe diseases spread is now well known that a large number ofdisease vectors and water borne due to poor collection and disposal praclices
Mosi environmental
of solid wastes
ofsoiid wastes'
impacts can be minimized by employing aPPropriate techniques
management.
_
J/Z-
rr7'//,
FodenrE/f es
3k" -''
V Conlam.aled Groond Wale.
Fig.1.1: Typlcalsources ol Environmental mpacis SOURCES ANDTYPES OFWASTES Solid wastes are generated from various sources e g-:
(i)
Residential and Commercial Areas
Due to Solld
=
1 1
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(ii) lnsritutions (iii) Industries (rv) Const
ucrion and Demo,itiorl Activities Municipal S€rviaes Agriculrural Acriviries Treatment Plants (vrrr) Special Category Sources.
(y) (yi) (vii)
Residential snd Corhmercial Wastesr This caregory ofwastes includes all organic and inorganic refuse from res;dentiat areas. The org"ii. oftlr.."-;;;;:;;;r;" "o.pon.n, as food wasres. paper, cardboarat, textile, prasrics, rubber, teather, :",,]:)-:l.Tij::t"l::Th I he inorganic c ompo nen r consisrs ofitems such glass botttes,in cans, as :ll:J11"_"-1..r* arumr nurn. other mera l. batteries. oil. and Daints. Commercial wasres a:.e riih in paper card boara, plastic5. glass. \iood and olher packaging marenals. Institutional Wast€s: Instjiutionat wasies ioclude wasres froin schools. colleges, govemment and piiva.e insritutions, prisons e1c. This category ofwastes is similar
,"'.*li""iiri
commercialvastes but may also contains hazardous wastes e.g. chemicals The proporrion ofpaper cardboard and packaging materials ii genera y mu.f,
".a f."*1"b";;;".
nt#rir'ifri.
lndustrial Wastes: Soiid
wastes generated from various processes in small and larg€ scale indusr.ie( are classlfied as induslrial lyasres. [hese are lighl] nature and are indus.ry specific. Both hazardous and nonharuriors
lound in industrial
wastes_
h.;*;."r; i. "";;;;;;i;;r"
Constructioh and Demolition Wrstes: Construction and demolition wastes are the con:rrirction. demolition and renovation of builJings .repairins, :-1.::i:L::T1-f].:lrhese inctude bricks. ptasrer. slones. concrere. di . $ood. prumbints ::: ano ::"::.:l,l.,r'* etectrrcat parls. cemenr bags etc. fhe demolition wasres also include glasi. plasrius and reinforcing sreet. Mo(t ofthe conslruction and demolirion *",r.4 i;.i.-"' Municipal Services WastesiThese are the wastes produced by ope.ation ";. and maintenance ofmunicipal facilities e.g. streer sweepjngs. lt atsoinctuaes roaaliae t;tte;t."; ;;;;;", )ard walles from public parl,s and play grounds, dead animals elc.
Agricultural Wastes: Wastes generated from agricultural acrivhies such as planting and har!erin€.o. trees. animal farms. poultrl farms etc. Wasres f; d"lr!;;;," rncrudrng teed Iols. animai manure are also included in agricuJtural wastes,
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Treatment Plant Wastes: The treaiment plart waste includes solids and semisolids in the form ofsludge from warer, and wastewarer ireatment facilities. The characteristics of these lypes ofwaste depend upon the type ofrrearment pi;a. "- - -'*-'"" Special C.regory wasles: Wastes having special characreristics are hospiral qastes, slausht.rhouse wastes. rrlash t,o," ,r,.,iai p";",;;;;,.';;;;;.i;;:';::;1T.. These kinds of wastes require speciat trearment and disposai t""h.iq;".. --'-" '" MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTES Municipal Solid Wasres(MSW) includewastes from residential. commercialand institutjonsl areas, construction and demolition wastes, and wastes from munic;pat
serrices.
GW
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A Textbaok ol Sohd Wastes Managenent
is normally assumedto include all the wastes generated by acommunily excepl the industrial \\'astes. The !erm n rricipal solid \9dstes .will interchangeably be used as solid wastes
itr'''''
this book.
T
ceneration of Municipal Solid Wasles Wastes generalicn is essential due lo discarding of unlranted materials away for disposal.
It
is a continuous activity which is not very controilable. Huge quantities offiunicipal solid wastes are genemted in allthe megacilies ofthe world. The volume ofmunicipal solid waste generated varies with rhe Iifestyle ofthe people. ll has been estimated that each American generates wastes about 4000 times his bodyqeigh!; each Wesl European 1000 times; and each cit;zen ofthe developingcountries Iike lndia about 150 times. The United States alone generates more than 200 million tons ofwasles ayear-an amounl "enough to fill a convoy ofgarbage-trucks stretching eighl times around the globe"rDeihi, aboul6000ions ofMSW are generateC everY day. Theaverage per capita generarion
ofMSwinlndiancitiesis0.4-0.6k9/day.Thequanlitiesofwastesgeneratedinsomeoi the cities in India and comparison ofwastes Seneralion with other countries are sho$ n in
Table 1.2 and lable l.3respecli\ely. The population ofthe $orld is steadily increasing, but 90% ofthe yearly;ncrease of world population is confined only to seven couniries e.g. Ifldia, Pakistan, Bangladesh, lndonesia.,China. Nigeria and Brazil- India s population is currently increasing by about 15 millions per year. Table 1.2: Quanlities of
.t
Vo
w?s1es and Per Capila Generation
cnv
u aste
in Indian Cities
s Generatrcnttant dar)
\Kgldar) I,
AHMEDABAD
1683
0.585
2.
BANGALORE BHOPAL BOMBAY CALCUTTA DELHI
2000 546 5355
0.484 0.514
LI\DERABAD
5.
6. 7.
3692
0.436 0.383
5700
4.574
1566
580
0.382 0.398
E,
JAIPUR
9.
XANPUR
r200
0.640
1010
0.623
ll.
LUCKNO\} MADR{S
3124
0.657
t2-
SLIRAT
900
0 600
10.
t
So"rce CPCB (2O00d)-
Lopsided planning has contributed 10 the rapid increase ofpopulation ofmegacities in developing countries. Populatjon of megacities like Delhi is increasing by halfa million per year. By all accounts therefore the management ofMSW will be a major challenge for years to come in ail developing countries.
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Tabl. I.3: Quantities ofwastes in Different Countries Qu a n 1 i rt
t.
(
KE/c ap
i
t a/dar)
India USA
0..10-0.60
2. 3.
UK
0.95- i.00
Singapore
0.60-0.90 1.00-1.20
5.
Japan
So,/.e: CPCB (2000d).
Composition oI MSW The composilion.'f ftunicipal solld *astes is .ire term that describes ihe distribution of each component of wastes by its percent weight of the total. The information is required for the selection of suitable treatment and disposal methods. For instance, MSW conlaining high percentage of biodegradable wastes e.g. food wastes and yard wastes are suitable for cofirposting. Similarly, ifrecyclable materials like paper, plaslic, cardboards, glass are presented in solid wastes, these materials should be recovered and rec) c led. The composition of MSW has been studied extensively. The precise composition depends upon the Iocalily, season ollhe year, standard ofliving, Ianduse etc. Important conslituents of MSW generated in Indian cities are food wastes, paper, cardboard. plastics, rubber, textile, leather, yard wastes, wood, glass, tis, aluminium and olher metals, and silt/di.1and construction and demolition wastes. Typical composition ofMSW geneiated in Delhi is give, in Table 1.4. Trble
S
1.4: Composition
ofMunicipal Solid
Wastes
in Delhi
No.
20-30 3-5
Card Board
Te*ile
3-4 4-6 0.2-0.5
)-2 0.2-0.5 20-30
t-2 Class
Metals
0
-2-a -7
0.2-0.5 30-40
SDz/.? ISEM (2000). Seasonal variations are often large in municipal solid wastes. L{anv fruit and vegetable wastes including bagus from sugarcane! mango peelings, and melon peelings are all seasonal- Huge volumes ofthese seasonal wastes alter the composition ofMSW significantly. Composition of wastes also differs from locaiity to locality. People in a particular locality often have similar background in terms of incomes. lastes, and expenditure.
I I A TexlDook of Salicl Wastas Management Wastes from high income goup localities is usually heavy in pape.and packaging, while in low income group areas, the predominant constituen! is usually food wastes. Construction a.d demoliti;n wastes consti te a significanrjroponion ofwasres tn areas where these activities are in progress.
Composition ofwastes from commercial ateas depends upon the nature ofactivities. Around offices and institutions usually paper and packaging are the major components while close to vegetable and fruits markets, food wastes are predominanl. Similarly, wastes near daiD, farms will be high in animal feed and manure while in rhe wastes from slaughter houses bones, blood and animal body parts will be commonly found. Efiicient managemenr of wastes requires an integrated wastes management pian. Techniques -na r. lhno logier itr_: ;i;----.. "nd the choice depends largely on lhe compoaitions ofwastes. INTEGRATED SOLIO WASTES MANAGEMENT The cardinal principle in wastes management is 3R,s e.g. requction, reuse and recycling. An inlegrated solid wastes managemeDt system is based on this principle. It requires a comprehensive approach for each stage of solid wastes management e,g. generation, collection, processing and final disposal. Impo(ant components of s-uci a sysrem include the following:
L
\\asies Minimization at Source Materiai Recovery and Recycling Uasres lranstormal.on \blume Reducrion before Disposa. \!astes Disposal
2. 3. 4. 5.
O
Darabase Vanagemenr
Wastes
Minimization:
Wastes should be ideally minimized at rhe sorrrce of irs generarion. Reducticn can be affected in many ways but the following lechniques are iommonly
employed-
(i) (ii) (iii)
Minimizing the amount ofthe material used in the manufacture of a product Increasing rhe useful life ofthe producr Reducing the amount ofmaterialused for packaging and marketing ofconsumer goods.
Materi3l balance studies and environmental audits ofindustries can effectively help in devising straregies for reducing wastes generation. Wastesreduction can also beachieved in household and commercial unitsihrough increased
public awareness ofimproved buying paftem and through reuse ofproducts. For example, the same carry bag can be used repetitively instead oftaking a new bag forshopping every time.
Material Recovery and Recycling: Municipal solid wastes consist ofvarious materials
e-g. papet cardboard, plastics. metals, glass, rubber Many ofthese components are suitable for recycling and reuse. The process involves separation and collection ofthese materials, preparation ofmaterjals for reuse and remanufacture. Significant amount ofmoney can be
earned through selling out ofthese recovered materials. h efficienrly reduces the quantiry ofq'astes and thus reduces the load on the disposal facilities which in turn reducesthe cosl ofhandling and disposal. For ,nstance. fusing ofgiass particles to clay for making ceramic
T
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+
II
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r
:i.-'".TI"Tir':il;:T:1: ::fl:;i:h?':r''"' ftj makins Porlester nber ror manuracturins .."r r,o," *"pr.a.,"1,-;-';;;il;i;",'.:j,l;:X::,".[ 1T;,lXi,i::;fi ::i:l;H#, J; o: these metals from ores \lastes Translormation: Wasres rransform?tion is the physicai. chemicai or biological .onversion of sasies for an) beneficial Du
",.r u,.o,,po.,;ng.,nu.;dr-;:;.,;r;"'r:3;ji,:f"iffilii",::?;.1l,.T,1il"rp,9::i; are erFployed lor tl i( purDore. Se\ eral o\ Drodu.r. orii.."e process., in rt energ) erc can be recoverea. seJecrion oiaiuitaul" ,."r,"1'qr"
ofwaste translormation
as
well
as on the composlrlon
lblume Reduction, Volume reduction of\.\astes incrudes size redLrcrion rhrorsh .hreddins,
rcduc rion rhrough com pacrion. Volume '-"'_ reduc
,".i"rrnanr,-a;.po.'ri. "'
.
;";;
;;rr:,
i"p"rar'roii'ffiili*,".
ot wastec
is carried our before irs final disDosat.
s,ze;";;;i;;;;;;;",;;il;[;:r,.;
It
,,,.
'qurtro.. ol $aslesalso redL'es rhe land drea requrJemenl
Wastes Disposal: Wastes thatcan not be recJcled or lransformed need to be disposed off. Residues from va.ious u,asres transformarion pro...r.,
oprion)olu.asresdispos..a-e.dilDo..,nlard.dispo.ardeepbit"",i"'.i"'l,r:f"r,.?."ra "ir;;;";;;;t d;ip"*;,il;;,... disposal ar rhe ocean botrom
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Disposalon land is one ofihe oldest and l methods' Disposal on scienlificallv a"signea enginee.eJ tand;;ri;. ;;;::"'"t'""mmon sar) to prevent groundwater contamination and for the protection ofenvironmenl. Database Managemenl: q.\ailaoil -\nfnreciseand,eliabledataisolutmosr,mporrance in Ihe planning and de5ign or
,1."..
ff.,. aai.iorii ;;1, ;':r";;,r",. ";, rrermpon pr"rr* o'easlacces,,biJir,.annorbeoreremohasi,"";;j.;;;,;"1::^'::lrB5 "-;;" i.'' ' "P''sized' Manv ofthe ""a'j"J;#i"ffi;:""" data are constantlv c'hanging -a ,."a. ," i.."girt".i'
"nt.en,i,onnenr, In records but shoutd be instantaneoustv a.cessible
to,t,"
Darabase manaeement shourd be an integrai paft ofthe sorid wastes managemen! sysrem. relevant and reljable data are necessary for selection ofvarjousireatment and Ir atso hetps in devetopjng .disposatrechniques.
^Precise,
indi!**.
"gi*.iii;;; ;#;"il*". irf"rn.",l;;r;;;;;."i"r.*"1 iiiI.",.
lype of uaste comDosirion. I he tarar.ase.loutoi*rra".on,1foii,;on ""t ""-f chemica. and biotogrcaJ p.openie. ofq asres and rnd facilil.ei a! ailable Ior co,leciion. rranspofiaron and drspo.a I
";i;;:;i'._"
of \r a\les. with rhe use oF Remole Sensjng. Ceographic lnfo*r,io" Sl.i.r.,C fS , lna t"T purupl.|nrt," _ nos commer(ial) d\aitab,e. i i, no$ D"s.ibte ro cojtecr
atirhi.
to the users instanlaneously.
"";;.; ;;i.t;i.:;li,
"
CHARACTERISTICS OF SOLID WASTES Physicai, g-eotechnical, chemicaland biological properties ofmunicipal solid wastes are rmponant for the design ot an inteerated wz
below
_
rstes management system. These are described
Physical and Geotechnical properties of MSW Physical and geotechnjcal properries ofmunicipal
(i)
Specific \}tighl
solid lyastes inciude:
a
A fetrboo^ al Salid wastes Management
(ii) Moisture Content (iii) Particle Size and size distribution (i') Irield Capacity and ()) Permeabilily. Specific Weight Speci{ic weighl oi.runicipal solid waste is defined as the weight ofwastes per unit volume . .- tons/m3. Il ia usualltlpeci;:l as Ioose, uncompacted, or compacted. Specific weights are requlred rc assess lhe total volume oi was13. tb3t rt!st be managr ' It has both spatial and temporal \ aflanons. Specific weighl of the municipai solid wastes is required iD the design ofvarious equipment
e.g. fo. processing units, for lransporration and for estimating the required capacity
of
disposalsites.
. ..
Specific weight ofthe solid wastes is determined by means ofacubical container, usually o0 c'n r0 cnr ' o0 crn 'n si7e. The conlainer is filled to o\erflow whh the \ asie taking . _ ;-!t particulaie material should compaction. Loss Loss or ofthe Ine rlne fine Danlcura soecral rare lo avol0 avoid sEde-dation seaesarlon or comDaclron, special care to thricdb! Iiftine it 6 cm above lhe eround and dropping 2 be a\oioed. The coni;iner is-tamped do$n squarel]. After th* consolidalion, lhe top ofthe contaider is Ievelled with the tielp ofa +-.--r-,'__ ..,"i)lr-_. -_:trathr edge FinallriKe-cbnrainer is weighed and the speciJic weight is calculated as foll.,ws: ( 1.1) Specific Weight = (i/*. - Iri)/,/. where ,/.. is weight ofcontainer {illed with the wastes (kg); Ir', is weight ofenpty container (kg); and
t' is volume ofcontainer (mr) Specific weights ofvarious components ofmunicipal solid$aste are presented in Table 1.5. Table 1.5: Specific weight ofVarious Components ofMSW
Specifc Weiqht narae(ionYml)
Csrdboard
Typical ltonslm3 )
0.2-0-4 0.05-0.10 0.04-0.06 0.05-0.07 0.05-0.70
o.29 0.09
0.1-0.15 0.1"0.2
0.13
0.05-0.15
0.r0
0.05 0.06
0.06 0.16
0.15-0-3
0.23
class
0.l-0.2
0.15
0.1-0.2 0.6-l -5
o.l5
silr/AshIDirr
120
So!/cer ISEM (2000).
Moisturc Content The moisture conteil ofsolid wastes is the weight ofwater in it expressed as a percentage ofits wet or dry weighl. Usually il is lhe wet qeight which is commonly used.
I I I I I I
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
To dete.mine the moisture content, weigh the entire sample to obtain the wet weight tr;). tt is then dried in an oven at I 05oC till its mass becomes constant. ln case combustible material is presentthe temperature shall not exceed 70 to ?5"C. Afterdryingthe dry weight (lt'd) is measured. Moistute conteni ofmunicipal solid wastes is then obrained as follows. (
M.C.=(fi/"-Ya)/W" (1.2) Moisture content is an important pammeter affecting various processing opemtions e.g. composting. Usual values of moisture content in the differeot compooents ofmunicipal solid wastes are given in Table L6. T?ble 1.6: Moisrure Contenr ofVadous Componenls ofMSW
Moisturc Cartenl
Paper
50-80 4-10
& Cardboard
Plastics Textiles
60
t-4
6 2
5- 15
t0
l-4
Glass
Metals
SilrAsh./Dirt
2
5-10 30-80 10-30
60 20
l-3 l-3
2 2
t0-30
t5
8
Sorr.e, iSEM (2000).
Parlicle Size and Size Disttibution Particle size distribution ofmunicipal solid wastes is an imponani parameterto be considered for maierial recovery, composting, incineration, landfilling etc. Since the particle size of waste materials varies widely its size may be expressed by any ofthe relation given below.
L*= I L"=(l+tt)12 L*= (1+ \t + h\13
(1.3) (1.4) (1.5) (1.6)
L,=(t\\N)tD L-= (t, w, h)ts where, rr, is representative size and waste paaticles.
r,
,
and,
are respectively iength,
(i.7) width and height of
Largerparticles may be measured bythe use of a millimeter scale and for smaller particles sieve anaiysis may be carried out. Se.pamtion ofparticles can be cafiied out by use oftstandard set olsieves. Size distributioD ofvrasaes affects the pglosity and permeabiliry ofwastes in the a
landfill. A typical size d;stribution curve ofmunicipal solid wastes
is shown in Fig. I.2_
Field Cepacity The field capacity ofsolid wastes is defined as the total amoBnt ofmoisrure thai can be held ;n a wastes sample under the gravitational force. It is an importanr parameter, which
t
10
A Textbook ot Sotid
Wastes
Management
affects the quantity_ofieachate generation in landfills. Moisrure available in solid wastes ln excess ofirs field capacity is released laleras leachare
'zt'--St
roo 90
-lI
m
lzo
E5U z
E50 g
f.o
10
i0
3o Mesh siz€
(cm)
--__--|
Fig. 1.2: Typicat particle Size Distributjon of MSW
Field capacity ofsolid wastes vades wirh the degiee ofcompaction. Typically the field percenl A co, umn u. .".,i.i
capaciry ofuncompacted municiDal solid v
j,,",
"
Permeability
"",
il;#fi :;
;.:iil::x,HT:iJH:,1?,.,,
The p€rm€abilit) or hydraulic conducriviry ofwastes is defined as the ease with which a uurd,can flo$ rtuough rhe asreliiliiilironanr pu."r.r". thur gou..n. " lrqulds and gases in the landfill. permeabi "r shape and sLe or wast;;
ii. ,""...r,
;;;;;;;;,: ;;::g,;'#li::il:llf"}:."fi ::l*HlflJi:
the wastes, Compacted wastes have lower permeaoltrry.
Sahpling ol MSW for physical Composition Collecrion of samples is rhe first sren in esrimariDg
rhe composition ofmunicipal soiid wasles Frequency and timing ofsamires colection should be carefirrl decided io ensure rrutj.represenlarive sampres. sampre c;Iectionshourd ll rs rmpofianl to note thal the larqer the n umber extent or er a tuilri; ril;.il**", ol samples.
the
resu)r(
the more representative are
Locarion ofsampring starion is also imporunr in physicaranarysis of [,rsw. rdea ocarions lor ". sampling are rhe transfer sration localed ali orer the ciry. Samples should b€ collecled differenr rocarions as possibre and shoutd be :::L-*_T"P enure area. Samples may also be collected frc Colecrion of samptes a, ;;.;; ;i;;;;;;:T.Iasle Processins uniB or ar disposal facilities.
u"];;;;;;r;i#J;l;;;.
,reco,.ct.df,o;;;;,ffi;i;fi;ilI:ill-Jf,,lii.l*,liJi,ill,lil?ll;[;]^T,l'ii
r I I I I
!rastes is not accumle iftrucks collect \yastes from different areas in on€ trip. In gefleral, one sample each should b€ collected randomly ftom each identified truck (ASTM D 52j t). Ifmore than one sample are needed these should be collected from ditferenr parts oflhe load in the.truck. Sample size ofabout 200 to 300 Ib (i.e. abour 100 ro 150 kg) is considered optimum as recommended in ASIM (D 5231). Following are some ofrhe common procedures ofsamDle collecrion. Often combinarion ofthese procedures is also used.
. .
. .
Oblaining
a composire sample from material raken from predetermined Doints in rhe load e.g. each corner and meddle ofeach sidel; Coning and quartering;
Collecting a grab sample from a randomly selected point using a fronlend loader; Manuaily collecting a columE ofwaste from a ranqgqlly selected location.
ln coning and quanering. d large quanlil) ofwasre is rnixed ro make h uniform. the mixed waste is tben arraDged in a round pile in the form ofa cone (coning), and one quarter is randomly picked up (quartering). ASTM recommends coning and quartering, beginning with approximarely 1000 lb of waste, to obrain a sample of200 to 300 lb. This method is tir.e consuming and requires large space. It may also reduce accuracy as mixing may cause various waste components totrash and stick together. A more common method is to coilect grab samples using a front-end Ioader. This is a relatively quick method. Sampling through the fronlend loade. alsoreduces the chances of
bglassociated \ th manualcollection. Howeveriarge objects e.g. emptv cardboard carons may faildown while the loader bucket is lifted. Special care needs to betaken to avoid such conditions. Chemical Properties oMSW Chemical properties ofmunicipalsolid wastes arerequired in the design ofvatious processes sxch as energy recovery or composting. The choice ofcombustion piocesses depends upon the chemical composition ofsolid wastes. For €nergy recovery considemtions, the follo;ing are some ofthe important analyses to be caraied out. Proximate Analysis Proximate analysis ofmunjcipal soiid wastes is canied outto dejermine itsmoisture contenr, voiatile combustible matter, fixed ca.bon, and ash coitteot. Volatile combustibie matter is the loss ofweight on ignition ofthe dded waste sample at 95ooc in a covered crucible. Fixed carbon is the combustible residue that is left afler the volatile matter is removed from the waste. Ash content is determined as the weight of residue ofwaste aftercombustion in an open crucible. Fusing Point ol Ash The fusing point ofash is the temperature at which the ash resulting fr6m the burning of wastes forms a solid clinker by fusion or agglomeration. Typical fus;ng temperaturtfor formation of clinker from solid wastes range from l l00 to l20O'C. Ultimate Analysis ot MSW The ultimate analysis ofa componeirt ofwaste consists ofdeaermination ofpercentage of its various chemical constituents e.g. Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, Sulfur, Ash
12
A Textbook of Solid Wastes Managenent
and Halogens. Uhimate analysis is an importaft parameter in the selection ofvarious wastes processes, C N rario I carbon ro nilroBen ratio) is an imporlaDt factor for comDostins as it
controls biological conversion activity ofthe wasres. Chemicaj composirion ofva-rrous components of municipal so lid wastes is presented in Table 1 .7 and i g respectiv€ Iy. .
Table 1.7: T)pical Chemical Conposition
ofVSw
Petcentage b! seight Carbon Hydrogen
50.0-60.0 6.0-8.0
Oxyge,
30.040.0
Nitrogen
50.0 6.5 32.0 2.5
2-0-4.0
Sdfrr
0.3-0_4 5_0-10.0
0.3
50
So,/rc€, ISEM (2000).
I
Tabl€ 1.8: Chemical Compositiofl ofVr,rious Componenr! ofMSW MSW
Componeht Percentape 6 dn *ei?ht { otba4 Hydtogen Orygen | rogen 6-12
Paper & Cardboad Plaslics Textiles
45-75 30-60 50-E0 40-50
Rubber
60-74
8-10
50-60 45-50
6'8
Glars
Metals Si]rAsh/Dirt So,rrcer
Li!
45-50 0.5-0.6 4-5 20-30
5-10 E-10 5-8
4-6 5-6 0.1-0.2 0.4-0.6 3-5
20-40 30-40 15-20 30-40 10-12 30-40
SuAu;
Ash
1-2
0.2-0.4
0.-0.3
0.i,0.2
5-10
<0.r
<0.1
6- 10
t-2
0.r-0.2
3-1 l5-20
8-r0
1-2 4.2-0.4 0.3-0.4
3-4
a-2-0.1 <0.1 <0.1 3-4 3-4 0.4,0.6
<0.1
8-10 6-8 0.5-1.5
98-99 90-95
0 l-01
I I I I I I I I
60-70
snd Liptak ( 1996).
Preparation of;amples fotvarioustesls and the test rnethods arediscussed in the following
section.
Pr€paratioD of Samplq Municipal solid wastes are oftm heterogmeous in nature. A repress,-1tive sample for laboratory therefore testing requires a large q uantity of samp ies say I O- I 0O kg. Firsl, the basic operations e-g. drying, gdndinB, and mixing are canied out. From this iromogenized sample a fraction weighing about 100 to 2OO mg may be extracted for detailed a;lvsis. Details of methods of preparation of sarDples for chemicai analysis are described i; lSl
9234 - 1919. The Iarge samples are dried ir) an oven.lnitial mass ofthe sample is \yeighed and then dried al a temperature between 7O and ?5.C for 24 hours ifthe material i; combustible otherwise it cao be dried at 105 + l.C. However ifrnicrobial tests a,.e also to be ca iedour drying is carried out at 40 to 50.C. After drying, the material is aliowed to cool down
a
i
II II I
I )
)
a
tr Lr
tr
L
tI tr II
iI Ir I
r I r I I I
preferably in a desiccato.. The sample is again weighed and placed in lhe oven for further drying. This procedure ofweighing, dryiDg, and cooling is repeated till the difference in weight ofbetween two successive cycles is less than one percent ofthe total previous loss illmass. The dried sample is then placed in a hammer mill, grinding mill or in a pulverizer to reduce its particle size upto 2 mm. Final mixing and homogenization is accomplished by using a rotatingmixer. The pulverized material is placed in the mixer and allowed to mix for at least 2 hours. Finally, ifdesired, the mixed sahple can be sieved to separate it into different sizes.
Carboir and Hydrogeu Analysis: Carbon and hydrogen are partofthe uitimate analysis of municipal solid wastes and can be used for calcdation ofcombustion par:alneters. The detemination ofcarbon and hydrogen involves burning ofsampies to lonieit carbon to carboil dioxide and hydrogento water The combustion is caried out in a stream olhigh purity oxygen- The sEeam passes lhrough the sample and a train ofa water absorber, a carbon dioxide absorber, and a second water absorber, Carbon dioxide and waterarethus recovered inthe absorytion train. Typical apparatus rcquired for this test is shown in Fig. I .3.
B,c,D = oxyg€n puilylng train B=
E,EG,H,l, = cornbusrDn
uit
li6t
waler absorbsr C = carbon dioxid€ abso.b€r D s6c6nd wal6r absodet =
J,K.L=absorptionr€in
J:
li6r wat€r absoder
K = ca.bon dioxide absorbe.
Fig. 1.3: Ca6on and Hydrogen AnBlysis Apparalus Oxygen flow is maintained at a rate of 50 to looml/rllin at standard temperature and pressure through the sample. This sample is then heated at a temperature of850 to 900 "C for about 20 min. Oxygen supply is continued forten minutes thereafter. The absorbers are thea detached and allowed to cool down to room tempeaature. Percentage ofcarbon and hydrogen in the sample is calculated as: Carbon = (A/B) Hydrogen = (C/B)
t
2,t.289
x I1.19
(1.8) (1.e)
I
is increase iD weight ofcarbon dioxide absorber (g); weight ofsample (g);and C is increase in weight ofwater absorbers G).
-B
Nitrogen Amlysis: NiEogen is also an inportant pa.rameter as it afecs the mte ofbiodegradation ofthe waste. Percentage ofnitrogen can be determined either by Kjeldahl-Gunning Test Method (Fig. 1.4) or by the Acid Titration Test Method. Both ofthese tests involve conversion ofnitrogen in the solid wasles into ammonium salts by destructive digestion with a hot,
14
A Textbook of
Soliel Wastes
Management
catalyzed mixture ofconcenmted sulfuric acid and potassium sulfare. The salrs are subseouentlv decomposed :n a hol alkaline solurion from which ammonia is reco!ered by disrillarion and l!s amounr derermined bj rirrarion.
I t I I
T
a
= dt€ctrtc heaier B = Kjotdahr dtg€siton fiask C = KjBtdaht conn.cling bu b D = cond6nsor E = connectlng lub€ F = rec€iving flask
Ftg. 1.4: Kje dah-Gunning Tesi Appa.atus
Sullur Analysist Sulfur in the solid wastes can be determined b) t\ro melhods e.g. Eschka Method and Bomb Washing Merhod. Inthe EschkaEethod asample ofwasr€ is mixed with a standard chemica(Eschta)and the mixture is ignited. Sulfur is precipitated from the resulting solulion as barium sulfate. The precipitate is filtered, bumt and weighed. In Bomb Washi,:g meihod also sulrur is precipitaled as barium sulfate from the oxygen-bomb calorirreter washirgs and the precipitate is filtered, bumt and weighed. The sulfur conrent is then computed. Energy Content o, MSW Energy content ofmunicipalsolid wastes is the netcalorific value ofwastes. It is the heat produced by a unit quantity ofwaste, at consiant volume aJrd at a conslart pressure ofone atrnosphere. It is assumed that all the water in the waste remains in the form ofvapors. The ener$/ conint of municipal solid wastes can be Cetermined by means ofan oxygen bomb calorimeter under controlled conditions. The calorific value is computed from temperature observations made before and after combustion, making proper allowance forthemometer and thermochemical corrections.
t I t t t I I 7 I 1 I I 1 I I
tr
L
I II t
!r I I
r I I
r I I I
t t T
Modified Dulong formula
can also be used ior determination ofener&v content
ofmunicipal
iolid sasres e,g.
Energycontent(Btu/lb)=145C+610(H?-Orl8)+40S+l0N
(1-10)
lvhere C is carbon fraction, H2 is hydrogen fraction, O, is oxygen fraction, S is sulfur fraction, N is nitrogen fraciion-all values being percent by weightTypical values ofenergy content various components ofmunicipal solid wasies are presenred in Table 1.9.
Biological Properties of MSW Biological properties ofmunicipal solid wastes include water soluble constituents (such as sugars! starches, amino acids, and many other organic acids); proteins (composed of chains ofamino acids);fats. oils and \ra1€s; hemicetlulose (a condensation product ofsugars); cellulose (a condensation product ofglucose); lignin content (a polymeric material); and lignocellulose (a combination of lignin and cellulose). Out ofthese, lignin content is an imponant characteristic as il gives an idea oflhe biodegradability ofthe waste and helps in the seleclion of appropriare processinB technique. Trbl€ r.9:'IypicalEnergyContentof MSWComponents Eneryy Content \k)tke) 4600 Paper and Cardboard Ter:tiies
16000 32000 17000
Rubb€r
23000
tsrher
17000
Plartics
6500 18500 Glass
t40
Melals SilrAsh
700
Sa!,c€r Liu and Liptak
7000 (
1996).
Biodeg@dability ol MSW Biodegradability olorganic fraction ofMSW is often described by its volatile solid content as determined by ignition at550oC. However such criteda of describing the biodegradability of the organic fraction of MSW can be roisleading, as some of organic components of MSW (e.9. newsp nt, tree trimmings)are highly volatile but low in biodegadability. Lignin content is a better index ofthe biodegradable fraction determined by using Eq.l.l l. BF = 0.83 - 0.028 LC (1.r1) where BF = biodegradable flaction expresses on a volarile solids basis LC = Lignin content ofthe volatile solids expressed as percent ofdry weight The biodegradability ofvarious componenls ofMSW based on lignin content is presented in Table Ll0.
16
A Texlbook of Solid Wastes Management
Tsble 1,10: Biodegradable Fractjon ofCoftponents of MWS (%)
(%)
Paper
r--r
i-.
& Cardboard
1-r5
0.4
0.82
92-96 50-90
22.0
0.21
4.0
4.72
ISEM/:0001.
MSW STATISTICS OF DELHI: CASE STUDY The Department ofstatistics, Ministr) ofPlanning and Progranme Implementation, Covernment of India has launched a program ofDevelopment of Statistics in Environmental Sector. Quality and quantity ofsolid wastes are ofcritical importance in the design and manageolent
ofSolid Wastes Management Systems. The lndian Society ofEnvironmenlal Management (ISEM) hascompleted one such project e.g. developmenl ofadatabaseby collecting,analyzing and updatingthe data pertaining to Solid Wastes in Delhi. Delhi is spread over an a.ea ofabout 1500 sq. km. The collection and disposal ofsolid wastes is the responsibility ofMunicipal Corporation ofDelhi (MCD) and New Delhi Municipal Council (NDMC). MCD has dlvided the entire area under its jurisdiction ir1 l2 zones in addition 1o the one NDMC zone e.g.:
(l)
South Zone
(2) Centrd Zone (3) Wesi Zone (4) Shahdra (South) Zone (5) Shahdra (North) Zone (6) Chy Zone (7) Civil Lines Zone
(8) Karol Bagh Zone (9) Najafcarh Zone (10) Sadar Paharganj Zone (
l1)
(
12)
(
l3)
Narela Zone Rohini Zone
NDMC Zone
The Conservancy and Sanitation Engineering (CSE) DepattmentofMCD employs a iarge staff, both skilled and unskilled, for solid wastes management (Table 1.11). There are about 3E000 safai karamcharis engaged in collection and depositing the solid wastes in receptacles
(Dhalaos/dustbins) located all over the city. A briefdescription of machinery and other miscellaneous equipments employed bythe MCD for solid wastes management is presented Dornestic wastes from various locations is rransferred to the nearest dhalao/dustbin of the locality by sweepers/safai karamcharis/ residents etc. There are more than25O0 dhalaos within the municipal limits ofDelhi. From these dhalaos the solid wastes are transporled for final disposal at various Sanitary Landfill Sites (SLF). Al present only three landfill siles are in operation i.e. at Ghazipu., Okhla and Bhals*a Table l.I3. Database pertaining to quantiiative and qualitative characieristics ofMSW in Delhi has been developed. Sampies collected from 205 sampling slations (dhalaos) spread allover the l3 municipal zones ofDelhi were analyzed. Secondary data was collected from various sources e.g. MCD, NEERI, CPCB and from a large number ofrepofts and publicalions- A workshop on ",9o1rdard Hazardous Wastes Manogement ik Delhi" 'ras also organized in April 25. 1999 atthe I nd ia I nternational Cenlre, N ew Delhi.
this contexi on
I I I 1 I
t I I i I I I I I I
1 1
I
1 s
l.
tL I
Lr
ir I
r I r I I I
r r r r r
!
Trbl.l.rr:
lo
,a
StaIT Engag€d in SolidWalres Managem€nt
Stalf
I,
Di.e.to.-cum-Chief Ergincer
:,
2
Jt. Director-cum Suptd. Engineer Additional Depury Commissioner
5
i
I
Administrative Ofiicer Executiv€ EnsiD.er (Civil, Auro, E&M) Astt. Ensineer (CiviLElecrMech./Auio)
5.
6. 7.
1
20 48
Junior E sineer (CivilEl€cnMech.) Sanjtary Suptd. Chief Sanitary Inspector
E,
9.
10. r 11.
Astt. Sanitary Inspector
t213.
Sanitary Cuid€ Safai Karamcharis
14
Driver
t76 22 33 208 666 603 38,311
941
Sou..: MCD. Tsble 1.12: Machinery and Facilities employed for Sotid Wastes Management Machinery and other Facilities
l.
Central Siore
2. 3.
DhalaoandBirs
11
Workshop (WheelBanow) 5.
Tipp€rTrucks
6_
Loader Bulldozer
7.
I 2500 I 510 84
26
Som?r MCD. Tablc r.r3: Landfill Sitcs in Delhi
s
,\b.
l. 2. 3.
SLF Ghazipur lEasr Dclhi) SLF OkhlaPh I (C€n1ral Delhi) SLF Bhals\ra (North Delhi)
70
32 40
The quantity ofmunicipal solid wastes generated in Delhi has been consistently rising overtheyears (Table l.l4).In 1992, the minimum monthly generation ofwaste *ai80226 tons (February) andthe maximum was 97224 tons (November). The average dailygeneration for the ) ear I ao: works out ro be 2933 rons. Hoqever rn 1998. the minimum E!;nerarion was I23736 lons (February) and the maximum of 167560 tons tDecember). This amounis ro an average daily generatior}of49l4 tons per day i.e. an increase of l6j .5o/a oyet 1992
I 1A
T
A Texbook ot Sotd Wastes Management Table
I.l4:
Quantiry ofMSW Generared in Delhj(tons)
1992
1993 100480
105462 115332
965t4
March
85920 80276 82332
Api'l
I06196
8ts74
98516
Mav
92594
1a.7204 105806 996E0
98926 95116 't04924 96970 105385 97108 l0i:-24 105654 108350 88884
86708 July
TOTAL
96096
1991
t995
109592 101441
t996
)997
t28t66 1t 1656
1291t4 123338
127830 129120
99730
11102E 93332
104186
98542 99796
106116 1t2728 151044 133974 107538 116666 106532 177060
149254 151406
1219034
1322421 t2\525a
1547416
t07072
'to2384
3340 3673
Qry/day
3574
r53624 131986 t66502 t40192 )61|2 166176
115784
85t50
1999
155120 154904 r56464 140674 123736 146560 154382 134378 165746
115064'
91302 95586 97224 95960
1998
168292
t66212 165406 159336 l56t
t44112
t4
156228
5222
t738?2 169330
i5608,1 149426 1496
t4
164614 155072 167500
tx,6x2 1793682
4239
162804
49t4
974776
5327
Soutce:MCD.
Anal) sis ofdata reveajs rhar oresenriv 2verage daily generation ofmunic;pal so.rd wasles in Dethi is abour 5lO0 rons. Ii is obse;!ed ,f,i,,f,.rriSw ::t];cl* ,, dhalaos and then transpo(cd for fina :sat. physicai aialr.,, .fa"," ,"r.j.,ir, brodegradabte componenr is abour rll"o of roral. The recvclrhl. ::^:'..- I2on "^_.^---; ;" Ebour ana.iniruaes paper lnJ"",au""J, u.-". pi".,iJi;: i;:i;:ffi::Iionentrrs Hazaroous wastes are found freouen.h .ommingled wilh the municipalw^t".. Uiiirur.ty ir reaches rhe tandfilrs u here ir is leached ro rhe er"r^a *"i. i
.
c;r.;.;";;;[,
*.
"lii'"!, i;;;:rr:; il,;",
health.
DalasBtistics revealrhat
a large fraclion
ofMSW can berecycled and reused. Neighborhood biodesradabre wasres rrom,estaenrial a,.lr. i,;., or Dlornedrcai q astes. it is recommended rhat a cenrral facility is appropri",.
:."111'11:ll:r:r*
.ltabte f;r
i""*"i
small unirs which cannor afford independent lreatment facilil;es. A computer program has beeo develoned for database managemenr Delhi. Using $is software Irsu dara for diiferenr
i*"i"ii, ,*
ofsolid l}asres in
.;;";;f D;i;l;:;'b":;o;;";;:;",," marurcr thus co.stituting a valuable daabase. use of ,u.i"* Informalion systems (cls) faciritates the operalron """i;i*.hrj;;.. "*oJ"*rr" ancl monitoring ofrhe sorid wasres
rnanagefient system. It is sugiqested t}at acomputerized network
dev.r"p.i
rpi"i.g
t". and sharing of information. Thestatistics and analyses ofthe MSWdata can be udlized fortaking imporlant decisions e.g. treatmenl alternarives. technology selection, be
she selectioD.
SOLID WASTES LEGISUITION Various Acts. Rules and Regulations have been enacted in India from time to time ro manage the sotid wasre. rhe MunicipatAcr is trre nrst tegistati;n in rh; ,i,ii-ii,o'*il'o'.i'lIiio," which deals wirh en!ironmenut oolirtion carr.ed b1 riuntcipatsotia wlr.s. Corporarion Act. I957 contain; rhe foilowirrgsections relevant to solid wastes manag€ment in Delhi
*;;;;i";;;il,
I I I I I I I I I I I
I I
I I
I I
It It
Sefijon 42 (c)
r r
Seciion 350 S.ciion 352 Secrion 353 Seciion 358
I I
removaland disposal
::: :::y:5":,1"c ;;;;1 ffi ;::::l:;',1;f nn. l3 lliJll?3,fl "":"t::,:::-". *",p,;;; """.p'""r;., i;'";r; ;;5::#::,r,"T;:; "," 3:::,1::::.-", --o commissioner,s power,,i g", p."rr.". ."-"r""igllii,::1::T".
Summary ot ihe Municlpal Sotid Wasi (M"nagement & Handring) Rures
"*"."i..
or,5
il#**[g{*{#,}i#JiilH"t$ffi RespoDsibility of Municipal Authoritv:
l;?;[*i;lTjf
I
rmr.:****u*g[r***$*ffi
Porrerof thcDistrictMagistrateorthe Debntua^-_r--:^_-- _, ^. ,n. oisrricr rft ueputy commissioner orrhe conceS:::l*9:II::1"^1.:: Masisrrale u rsL snall have for the enforcemenl the o\ erall resDonsibiliT) ' '5 of,r,. p." iii" r, or
"r'" Stale Boards to MoDitor Enforcemert as rne.case ma] be. rhe poiturion conrr",
r,'"r".
"
fr
:l1I:::',I" :"::
r
folluuon controt Board or
f,#*[ii.#.1[*tt.,,6::iif ii:,iirif d#*tr1#Jii,],h,l#
ma) be necessar) r"r
p.p* irpl"#",1',];r";];:;'fi'.i"'*,
.uthorir) ro ral'e
sreps as
Certral pollutioI Conlrol Board to Co.
ffi :Trit"# lff:t r",^Titt:H ;.""r,j].illii!i;"["JJffix',*,ffi[:: itsmanageftenrandhanafirr- " ""-" "' "'tIna[ersotmunicipalsolid
trasledisposaland
MsDagemcnt ofMunicipal Solid Wast€:
I sord uasle generated in a cin or u".ord",l.e *id, tl?rnuniciPal llo$lng comPliance crileria and the proced'ure colrecrion ofMunicipar sorid warter: Line sotid wasreshatJ be prohibiled ,,, crues. towns. and urb"n nor;n.a r," Illg.:j,hunicipal loProhibrl rrqw/urEUo\emmenl --'* steps shall be raLen: "r."" Iinering. follo\ ing a
to\1n. snali be managed in
fi)
Organizing house Io house collectio
fl [+i*:":":,,''ffijfifr I
,:a\enging
;-Ji:;l
The.centrar covernmen, in
I I I I I
s(
management.
t
I
illlt,^:,!o::! llo :".. ;'il; ;iil;;;"il;X"*1,.::: ;;:;""i:i,Jil',oo,.n,n hhction ofthe CorporatiorF_the ur l|lrD, rubblsh an.i 6rh
Recently the Govemrnent oflndia ha s laid down detailed rules s'a$e and guidelines for solid
r
I
O^bligatory
$i]ltrjj*$,ii*ffi [ff ":ij,.:.;J;
n
A Textbook of Solid Wastes Management
(ii) (iii) (iv) (v)
(ri) (vii)
(!iii)
Collection ofwaste from shmls and sqilatter areas/localities including hotels/restaurarts/ office complexes and cornmercial areas shall be devised in consultation with municjpal aulhoriD. Wastes from slaughterhouses, fruits and vegetable markets, which are biodegradable in nature, shall be managedto make use ofsuch \yastes. Bio-medical wastes and i.dustrial wastes shall not be mixed with municipal solid wastes as per rules specified separately forthe Purpose. Collected waste from residential and other areas shall be transierred to community bins ordtralaos by hand driven containerized Catts. Horticul!ural and constructiorrdemolition wastes/debris shall be separately collected and disposed off following proper norms. Similarly, activities relating to dairies (milkingofcows brffaloesl.hall beregulaled inaccordarrce \ ithStatela\rs. Wasle (garbage, dry leaves) shall not be burnt. Stray animals shall not be allowed to move around waste storage facilities orat any other place ;n city/town, and shall be managed as per State laws-
Municipal authority shall notify lvasle collectiofl schedule and the likely method to be adopred for public benefit in a ciry iown. Segregation of Municipal SolA fi'asles: M]jtr.iclpal authority shall oryaoize awareness prograns for segregation ofwastes and shall encourage recycline/reuse ofseFegated materiais. Muricipal 3lurority shali undenake phaseC pr.r ams !o er,sir.e that the community is fully involved in waste segregalion.
Slorage oJ Municipal Solid Wsstes: MIf.icipa.l arthorities shall eslablish and mainlain storage facilities in such a manner as not to create unlygienic/insanitary conditions around it. Foilowing criteria shall be taken into account while esrabiishingand maintaining storage facilities:
(i) (ii)
(iii) (ir)
Storage facilities shall be crealed/established by taking inlo account quantities of waste generation in a given area and the population density. A storage facility shall be so sited such thatthe user finds it easy to approach. Storage facilities to be set up by Municipal authorities or by any other agency shall be so designed thaa waste slored is not exposed to open atmosphere and shall be aesthetically acceptable and user-friendly. Storage facilities or bins shall have 'easy to operate' design for handling, transfer and trafl sportation of waste. Manual handlingofwaste slrall be prohibited. If unavoidabie dueto constrainls, manual handling shall be carried out under proper precaution with due care for safety of workers.
Trunspo ation of Manicipal SolU Wasles: yehicles
used for tiansporta!;on of wastes shall be covered. Wastes should nol be visible to public, nor exposed toopen environment. The following criteria shall be met:
(i) (ri)
The storage facilities set up by Municipal authorjties shall be daily attended for clearing of\Yastes. Collection and tmnsportation vehicles shall be so designedthat muliiple handling of wastes, priorlo final disposal, is avoided.
I I I I I I I
I I I I
a
I I I I I
I
I
I
.......
Procetsing of Manicipal SoM l/a$es: Mtrnicipal aurhorities shall bdopr suitable technolory lor combinarion ofsuch rechnoloqiesl ro mak; ur. of*..r.r'.. ,o',ni;;i;:;::1i." landfill. Fotlo\ring crileria shau bi adopteo: "-, ""
(i)
The biodegradable wastes not containingan) toxic contaminants. shalt be rrnc-.55s6
;;;]..#;;;;;Il11:i;e,.",
by composdnB. vermicompo.trg. *".,oui" atg.itton processing for srabirizarion. rr shar be ensued composr shar r be free ftom contarninarion
r
'h?rr , ) d.uetoheav)metals.pesticidesoran)othercon,"airunra_____-'-'*,,*,,,,, wasteconrainingrecoverablemalerialshallfollo\rtherouteofrecycling.
r,
Disposal of Municipal Solid Wastes: Landltlling shali be restricted to n^n-hi^,_tan...r.
inen*asreandorheiwas'.rr,",",.no,r,i,"ii."i,r,".#ffi;il::T:i[:;;t:lir..i::i[iJ!. Landfill;ng shallalso.be carried out for resroues ot wasre processing facilities as well ror pre-processins reie*s fiom waste nrocsssi.g shall be avoided unless it is found o. r;rr ins* rarion
oiuli;;;;;
r".iri,iJ,
unsuitabi;r
r"ranit;;;ili:J;"r,.
as
r;;ffi:' l:;:ffi XffiIif;::i"JHfr:::,ff:HTyffi::
Landfilting sha meei the folowing crireria: (i) Landfillsiling and construcrion shallbe done afterorooercare of ciries having popuratio, ou", nr" r".i
H^'-a., i-.-". p,oi.i;;ir;;;il"iH;#:*::"j*; shatt.b€co-nducredbyMunicipalaulhorjrlb"irr*..r..1i"r"rii.."t"'"""',
(ir) rro!
(iiir
s ton tor firture Iand fi ll shes shal I be included in the land'use pian ofcity/town. Landfiljsiteshallcomptywirhrhenormsforcontrot ofairanjwate;d;.;"jrrd r
surface waEr) pollution and otherenvinon tental norms as laid down in the speciflcatioas/
(iy)
standards.
Waste at disposal site shall not be burnt. Sites where waste is to be burnt shall be monitored for cornpliance.
A^[.trual Rrports: The State pollution Conrrol Boards and pollution Conlr^t a^_-id of Union renrrories sha, prepare and submiiro;. Annual Reriew Repon wirh r;gard to rhe implern.nt"rion of ,fr.." .ri"._;; r;il; before 30lh Jur,e. The Centratpolurion Conrrot Boara snalt prepare rt e con.;;*i;"_;r"l ". revie\r reporr on managemenr of hunicipat sotid was,.. ili;;;fi ;;;"';';;Hi6:',1*""r, aiong wirh iis recommendarions befor; I5rh Septembe, er.ry yea.._' Accidenl R€porting: When an) accidenl occurs.lt any municipal solid wastes collection, segregation. srorage, processing lrearmenr and ai.p"."f f^.iiiif".i"rdfil.ti.';;;;;;"_ transportarion of such wasres. rhe Municipat aurt oit,y *iit,-.ii;;i;;;i;:"r, to rhe District Magisrrate or rhe Depr-rry Commtssione, "r,"riio,it ofrt e conc..n;;.j;;,ilr:",..
-c;;;;i;;ii;ii*
I I I I I I I
I
lffiffiIIT:
EXAMPLES
Exerhplel.l:Aresidentialareaconsislingofl5OOhouseshasanaverageoffourresidenls per house. Forestimaring rhe quantii, of;lid wasre genemted. rh; f;li;;;;;;r:;J";;r, r ere made at disposal siLe for a period ofone week.
I II III
Specifc Weieht (kl/m3 )
l0
l5
8
300
2
150
0.J0
r00
25
I 2
I I
A Te,ttbook of Solid Wastes Manegement Determine the unit rate ofsolid wastes generation'
Solutionl
the totai weight of solid \'aste generat€d Using the numbe. oftdps, volume and specific weigh! during o{le week may be calculated as: Type
oJ
Nunber of tiPs
Specific wtghl tks/m')
(mr)
I II
IO
15
E
2
III
25
300 150 100
0.50
I;
45,000 2,400 1,250
48;650
,orsl (Kgw.ek) The unit genetation rate =
(Kg)
Total quantity of wastes Residents per House of-houses
,
Exrmolel.2:Eslimatethemoislureconlent,densityandenergycontentofasolidwaste sample that has folloqing comPonenls Lsesuirabledala l4 40 9 9
Cardboard Plasrics
t2 5
6
Solrtion: Conlenl ti) ' ' MoisIUre urir* [" rypi""f a"" moislllre contenl ofmunicipal "n io t0O kgofsample ma) be calculaled as:
solid wastes' ttle dry mass corresponding
Moisturc Content (o/.)
Tin cans
4.20
40
70 6
37.60
9
5
8.5s
9
2
E.92
t2 5
60 20
4.80 4.00
6
3
5.82
Totrl
7-3.89
14
Cardboard
Dry Mass
\kz)
I I I I I I I I I I
t
I I
I I
I t
I
Moisrure Contenr =
/ioo - 7la9 r- ^^ l-:m-]100 =
261 l016
iiri Densi!y Using the typical dataofMSW, lhe volume correspordingto 1000 kg ofsample may be Twical DensjelKgrl.3) 14
290
0.483
40
85
4.706
r9
Cardboard Plastics
9 2
50
1.E00
65
1.38J
105
240 90
5
6
0.20€ 0-667 10.392
o"'.i,r = (ffiJloo=e623E
Ks/m3
(iri) Energy Content U sing the typi cal data on energy conteilt of MSW, the tota] energy correspond ing to 1 00 kg ofsample may be calculated as below:
Energt Canteht(KJlKg)
Total Ekerg1lKJ)
14
4,650
65,100
40
t6,750
9 9
t2
16,300 32,600 6,500
5
1E,600
6,70,000 1,46,700 2.93,400 78,000 93,000
6
700
4,200
Cardboard
Plani6
Totd
13,50,400
Uni! Energy Content (as-discarded)
en".gy co,t"nt=
(ffffi)
= 13504 Kr / Ks
Unit Energy Content (on dry basis)
=
r:so+(.ffi)
Assuming the ash content
I r
I
=r
as 4%, the
8276K) tKs
unit energy content (on ash free dry basis)
=,rro.(mo_H-ruJ = ,322Kr /Ke
l'
24
A TexlDook al Sottd Wastes Managoment
Example 1.3: Derive an approximate moleculai formula for the organic portion ofa solid wasres sample s irh the following composition: Codponent 15
Cardboald
5 5
l0 5
Using the chemical composition obtained determine th! energy content of this solid
Solution: Using the lypical data of moisture conte!1 and ultimale analysis ofthe combustible components, the chemical composition corresponding to 100 kg oi sample rnay be calculated
Conpanent
Moist
Mdrs(kg)
C hedical
Dry
H
Cadponents (kg)
O 2.160 0.288 1.692 18.400 2.538 18.612 2.090 0.280 2-118
Mass
C
4.50 wastes l5 45 12.3 Paper Cardboard 5 4.75 5 ,1.90 2-940 0.352 LllT Piastics 4.00 t.912 0.240 1.520 Yard wastes l0 wood 5 4.00 1.980 0.210 1.708 Toals 85 6.1.45 29.482 3-9lE 26-161 The moisture conrenr = 85 64.45 = 20.55 Kg Food
N
S
0.117 0.018 0.127 0.084 0.014 0.009 0.136 0.012 0.006 0.004 0.402 A-r27
= jf(20.ss)
i:.,-
o\ycen
;;l20.ss)
Ks
The revised chemical composition ofthe waste
will
be as
follows:
,ud$ (kg) C&bon Hydrogen
Oxfgen Nitro8en SulfiE
29.482 .938 + 2.283 = 6-221 26.767 + t8-266 = 45.033 3
0_442
0.127 3-73
2.538 4.237 0.490 0.180 0.060 3-73
r I
I
t I I
= 2.28.] Ke = 18 260
4.225
I I
a
From moisture content. hydrogen and oxygen fraction is estimated: H) drosen
Ash
I I I I I I
34.684 7.318 52.98 0.472 0.149 4.388
I
a
t
a a
The above mass composition ofthe chemicals may be conveftedto the molar composition
Marr (ks) HydJogen O.rygen
\iEogerl
sif,
Mole tatios (S =
29_482
12.01
6.22t
1.01
6.159
45.033 0.402 0 127
r6.00
2.815
14.01
0.029 0.004
32.06
l)
619_66
r554.88 7to_495
7.219 I
Therefdre, the apprcximate moiecular fo.mula for the organic portion may be written asr
ofsolid wastes
c.2oHrrJ507roN,s
Thepnergy content is obtained from the modified Dulong fol.mula, Lnerg) ('onrenr-
/.\
lJTC-1121H-:8r-9lS-23N KJ
as
follows:
Kg
/ <1oa. = 117G4.684r- r420l.'.1 l8 - ai::J * 93r0.r40,_ 21r0.4,2r = 12700.83 KJ/Kg The above formula is with sulfur. The same may be convened without sulfur as:
I I I I I I
I I I I
Carbon
2.455 6.159 2.815 0.029 0.004
HydJDgen
Oxygen
Ninogen
tulfn
85.82
2t5.36 98.40 1.00
The appioximate chemical formula ofwaste without sulfur is derived as:
cs6H:,,oqsN EXERCISE
L What
is rhe 3 R's prircip le ofwasre managemenr. this principle:
2. For
l.
cive examples.
What are lhe main advantases
of
residenrialarea ofDelhigive typical composition ofMSW. Commenr on seasonal variarion. Whar are the hazardous waste constituenls ofMSW in an urban residentiat colony? Cohpare it with that ofwaste from ruralarea. a
4. Des cribe briefly the Municipal Solid Was.es (Management& Handling) Rules,2000_ 5. A solid vaste landfill has an i,t ritu dry densiry of0.65 ,m3. The fietd capacity is atained at a moisture conlenlof4oo/o. Determine how mLrch additionatwaler it can hold ifthe inirialmoisture
Chapter
Co
llection
arud, Pro cessirog
of Soli.d Wastes Wastes generated need to be collected and transported regularly for its management. processing and final disposal. processing of r+astes is desirable before irs final disposatfor enrironmental fiiotGiiiin-'. Segregarion-6fi6lii wastes at the source is necessary for propermanagement o-i[nicipal solid wastes. [t can have significant impact on the lrearment and disposal methods. Pxocessing techniques in solid \yaste managenient include Seglegation; Reductjorl Resource Recovery & Recycling: Thermal, Biological and Chemical Conversion etc. Various techniques and technologies have been developed around the world to transform various components ofwastes into useful items e.g. fuel, mw material for manufacturing useful products. This chapterdeals with the collection and transportation methods and with the wastes p;ocessing.
SEGFEGATION OF MSW AT SOURCE Segregation ofwastes is prcferable atthe source itself. Rgcovery recycling and reduction all become easy for segegated waste componens. Components such as paper, cardboards, plastics, and metals should be separated out for
recyclin8 orreuse. Biodegadable wasres such as food \rasres ard yard \ya$es should be separated. as these are suiEble forcomposting. Bags oi66;hiners
mzy be identified suitab,y through color codes for storing different q?es ofwastes separately prior to its transportation and disposal.
COLLECTION OF MSW Municipal solid *astes are usually pioked up from a variety ofsources e.g. households, institutions, colnmercia-liEitrG:litany types of hauling vehiclJs or carts are employed for tfaDsferring these wastes to the nearest transfer station where the contents ofthesevehicles are emptied. Collection systems for municipal solid wastes are broadly categorized as:
(i) (ii)
Collection of ComminglglWastes; and Collection of Segregated Wastes
I I I I I I
I I I I I I I I I I I
I I I
:
Collection aN Prccessing ol
Solidwastes 27
Colleclion of Commingled Wastes Collectionfrom lor, rise detached units includes kerb colleclion, alley collection. and seroul coilection. In kerb collecii6i'iiiiousehold o*nEp-lac.. rhe contfer r" u".-*pri.a;nf" gg{lf backstreets oralleys are part of theg: U!/, alley sto.age ofconrainers used forsolid waste is common. In case ofsetout collecti6-n $;iem, containers are set out from the houses and set back after being emptied by wo*ers who work in conjunction \rith the collection staff responsible for loading the cotlecrion vehicle. This s; stem-ii c6ifr6-n in devetoped counrrie5. Kerbside collection systen is commonly used for low and medium riseipartoeqts. The mainlenan€e sraff is responsible for lransporting the containers to rhe srreet for kerbside collection by manuai or mechanical means. Containers- large or small are used ro collecr wasres from each locatiry. Depending on the sjze and type ofcontainer, these are emptied mechanically, or to an off site location for emptying manually. Both mechanicaland manualmethods ffiused.ln order to avoid traffic lqng€jllg! at comme.cial places, wastes should be collected late in the evening or early in the morning.
hiiiii
Collsction o, S6gregsled Wastes Municipal solid waste, segregated at the source, should be collected separately. Kerbside collection of segregated waste in specially designed vehicles is most common for household units in many countries. Privare haulers orjunk dealers usually aollect the separated material from households, commercialor inaci-rial uni-iits. In many cases these colledo;s have contacts forthe main components e.g. papet plastics and metals.
Types ot Collection.nd Hauling Vehictes Collectioand haulingis carded out in various t,?es ofvehiclese.g. Handca(s, pedal Tricycles,
Motorized Tricycles, Tractors, Trailers.
Flg.2.t: Open Bor
Type Handcart
Flg. 2.2:
Ca
wilh Sgparate Bins
Handcarts are used for household and commercial units. Due'to their small size, these collection ofwastes froln narrow streets. Open box type ofhandca(s with two or three wheels are commonly used (Fig.2.1). The usual capacity is about 2OO kg of MSW and its size is about 0-4 m3. A worker can easily push it provjded the cafi is in g;od working condition. Segegated municipal solid wastes are transferred in separate bins iFig. 2.2). The operationai disladce ofahandcart is about one kilometer. Nearby transfer stations are lherefore required for empr) ing ofhandcans. are suitable fo!
I
t 28
A TexlDook al Solid Wastes Managetnent
Pedal tricycles are also used for tmnsfer of wastes. This type of vehicle reduces the travelling time and can operale over a Iarger distance. These can also be made single box type, or with several bins for collection ofsegregated wastes. A tyDical pedal tricycie used ;n India is shown in Fig. 2.3.
F19.2.3: TypjcalTricycte used lor Wa$es Coleclion
Motorized tricycles are normaliy ofa larger capacity tha, a handcart or pedal tricycle and can carry upto 2.0 n3 ofwastes. lts relatively high speed enables it to operate o;er a greater distance i.e. upto about l0 km. But it does not operate well on rough roads e.g.
rnside a sanitary IandfillTractor type ofmotor vehicles are almost universaliy available in developing countfles. These have se\eral advanbges e.g.:
. . .
Mainienance facilities are readily available;
Its cost is low as compared to other heavy vehicles e.g. trucks: It is a, ideal vehicle for operating on landfills due to its large tyres and high iorqde. Despite its low speed ofabout 20 km/hr, jt offerc one ofthe cheapest methods oftransport
ofsolid lvastes for volumes ofupto 6.0 m3 per trip. Agricultural ;actors and trailers (iig. 2.4) are often used as acoupled unit forcollectjon ofrefuse from households orcommercial storage points. The trailer is also suitable as a transfer station because ofthe ease with which the tractor can be separated from the trailer. TRANSFER STATIONS Transfer stations are open or closed structures built by civic autho ties atvarious locations in the city. Wastes collected lrom various sources (e.g_ househoids, comntercial establish_
I
I I I I
t I I I I I I I I I I
t
T I,
Collecfan and Pbcessing of
Solidwasas 29
rn€nts) by hauling vehicles is first transferred to these staaions. Fromthes€ tmnsfer stations, uasles are then rransponed ro rhe final dlsposal ,it",..g.
landfills. Various r) pes ofrransfer slarions are discussed "orp".ipiu;. betos
l;;;;.;;;;;
",
FIg.2.4: Tractor and Trailer Mechanism
A transfer sration ma) be either a metallic container or a masonr) bin. The masonn brn covered wirh a RCC roof is also referred to as a dhrl.". dhaiaos are shown in Fig,2.5 (a,b aod c\.
yuri;;;'i;;;;.;;ffi#j;;
! !
t I I I ! ! I
Ftg. 2.5 (r): Meialic conlainer The size ofbin at a ransfer sktion depends upon lhe quantiry ofmunicipal solid wasles to be received. fhese should be construcred at sutrable Iocarion so as to minimize the haul distance. Setection of sires for rhese rransfer sr^ti"., j.
t;.;;;
i;;';;;,;;.fi;ll"-
I
30
A Textbook ot Sotid Wastes Wnagement
Poo.ly maintained transfer stations are malodorous and harm the aesthetics ofthe area. No wonder the public displays an acure NIMBv sFdrom" (N.t L t;rd;.
Mtil;
Fig.2.5 (D): Masonry
Brn
;;;;;;"Fr.
I I I I I I I I I
I I
t
T
Flg. 2.5 (c): Typica, Dhatao
I t I I
T
t
tI I I r
t I I t I I
Collection and prccessing of Sotid Wastes 31 refl ecdng srmilar aritude are also common e.s.
t.i,-1yii.,
rt;;,:*.ii]'ii'"li;ElJilNA "f.io.
(Bu;rd AbsoruieivNothinsAn)ryhere
A propertl mainrained tran f.r. iturton _.neseshoutdbesited\*i,t,in.".,|..",t,o,,rll1,l-o.tcreareunh)gienicorinsanilar)condirions. sio s
ac-
;i..;;; oF Msw
eouble and useFfriero,,
TRANSPoRTATIoN -l
I
ransier srarions should be aesrheri.ally
JJlcn"ers' that *asres
srored are nor open ro ar,.nosphere.
ransporlaiion of municipal solid wasre. inc ludes carrying wastes from lransfer statio,s ro'drsposat to processing units or at ldndfill sites. I ransponation s).stems should be cosr etiecttre and efficienl These are of\arious types e.g. Hauled Conrainer Sysrem 1HCSl, statronery Container System aSCS)
Hauled Container Syslem Conrainers are hauled to a disDosal faci these are empried and returneo rne rransfer sralions. Trri, back ro i, ia..'l'J-l.llre Iocations $asIe senerarion rare is rrigh. as rarge container;;,.;'";;i;i.;";", ]:i]he Iarge conlainer' 'nhere
,r"o,
decreases handling rime.
reduces unsighrt) accumr,",io"! is very flexibie, as
"l *:anrtaD conditions Hauled container s'vstern -j rr.,T f.tt conrai;;;;;;i;;;i:: shapes ofvehicles can be used deDcodins upon ir," u,,oun, unJiip;;i;#;i;';:'i"'""0 uled Basicallythese are ofrhree tlpel: (ir Hoistrruck. goisrrrucks are r,ic lely used with containers ofsize ranging from 1.5 to 8.0 mr.
(ii)
Tilt-freme CoDtaiDert ?his svsrer
r"'g".",,";*."'ii-;"i;; i'j;,:;:li::" til' r'ame loaded vehicle whrch can carrv rrom rocarions uheriih;il;"il'i:I*:J;,ilr"ir-,fl:llj,l"1;{L"jJ}..::.1;fl:l r/ri) Trash Treiter: The trash rrailer s).srefi i.1ir;fur,l. ;;;;;"r.::;rr:,"., system. However it is more suitabl( : tor carrying hea\} rubbish such as construction and demolition wastes, InahauledcontainersJstemonl\ oneD€
needed to drire the vehrcle and ior loading and unloading olconia';:;;. ;o-'^J":H:Y-js arachins ae,acrring ani crrarn, o.:;;;;;;;;;;#,ilT;nr",:il::li:1i,':_.X;1".:,,1"r and
Stationary Container System In this syslem rhe bins are not rran(poned lrom rheir rocation
bur are emptied into a container on the truck. The size varies accordinp t. tvpe and.quanrirv of uasre ro be handred. at*osr orrte u.tri.te,r*i ," *,. r"":,;.,,ji with inremal compaction mechanisms to carrv"tt rarge volumes. il";;-;;;";;1::-10'iPped -"'" -*"vpes e S rnechanically Ioaded collection and rnanually Io;ded collect;.r
t"
'''
mechanicall) loaded s) srem conlainr _ln is not as critical as in a hoist t.uck vehrcles equipped with since n1."t rtl,lIe are used. svsremi wirh manualy
"o^p""r;on roaded .,,*;il;;;;;;:::l:.s wasres rrom residenrial areas e+eciotty ;;;; r;:.;:::;;':: "r hanica llv loaded syslems For mechanrcdlt) r""a",] *i"-i6. " jli-ro-mecI requirernent rs !ame as lhar of a hauled conrainer s5srem. A dr;.'* Llir.i . i"".i""lne ren1 ror th is svsten, Hosever. in rhe case ofmanualy roaded sys,;;""i ;; ;l i,l;;:r':]l'c r\ro Iaborers are also required for loading wastes. the collecrion veiricles are o he.e a rransrer sr,t;on
/
32
A Toxbook ol Solid Wastes Managdnent
COLLECTION ROUTES Cost oftransportation fo.ms a substa.tial part ofthe oveiall budget in the wastes management
s)'stem. The transportation route ofvehicles should therefore be carefitlly optimized both from environmenlal and economic point ofview. Routes may be optimized on the basis ofexperience and intuition or by observing some simple rules e.g. avoiding repetitious travel ofvehicles, oravoiding peak hours. Alieinatively, a model may be developed utilizing Geographic Inforhation System (GIS) based on computer analysis oftravel data to obtain aaoptimal route. A number of possible altematives are first identified and then keeping in view the constraints, the best possible environmental and econornic option (BPEEO) may be selected.
Guidelihes for Selection o, Routes There is no universal set ofrule avaiiable for optimization ofroutes that calt beapplied to every situation. In general the layout ofcollection routes iDvolves a series oftrials. The following guidelines shouid be taken into consideralion jn the selection oiroutes:
.
Existing policies reiated tothe collection points and frequency ofcollection should
. .
be followed. Equipment and staffshould be commensurata --c the requirements. Routes should be laid out so that they begin and end Dear anerial srreets, tDing topographical and physical barriers as route boundaries.
.Inhillyareas,routesshouldstartatthetopofthehillandshouldproceeddownhill
. . . .
vehicle becomes loaded. Route should be laid out so that the last t.ansfer station to be emptied is located nearest to the disposal facility. Wastes from congested areas should be collected eitherearly in the momingor late at night. Sources at which larger quantity of wastes is generated should be serviced dudng the Ilrst pan of lhe da). as the
Scattered tansfer stations, where small quantities of solid wastes arecollected should be serviced during one
rip.
MATERIAL SEPARATION Segregation and separation of reusable/r€cyclable compooents ofsolid wastes is best carried outatthe source ofits generation. However, special equipment may be installedand facjlities created at suitable locations e.g. near tl:lnsfer stations. Such facilities are commonly developed in manycountries. Material sepaEtion can also be caried out at the site of wastes processing units to separate out commingled MSW into usable components. Waste components such as paper, plastics, glass. and hetals can be recovered from MSW for manufacturingnew products. The cost ofmanufacturing such products from recovered waste components is usually onty a fraction ofthe cost incured in manufacturing it from raw materials. The organjc portions of solid wasles can be recovered as a feedstock forrcomposting for olher biological processes or as refuse derived fuel for use in thermal processingand forenergy recovery. Many oflhe segregaled components can be sold off to eam signifr cant revenues substanrially offsettingthe cost ofwaste management. Some operations commonly employed for material separation are as follo$si
I I I I I I I I I I I I
I I I
t I I I
t
T
I
r r I
t
r r
t I I I
Collectioh and prcc€ssing ol Solicl4astes 33
t. Density Separation 2. Ejecrk and Magneric Field Separation 3. rJensttlcation
Density Separatioh Marerials are separated by lheir resDecrivr
ctus'ir:"s ror r#.o-it'.c-t,;'" ordirrerenl componenLs
;;'*;;::;J:
i":sities rJpicai
apPrications include rrr air
"r*;;;;;i;ti,i:;'rtli,t;,J:lli..X'",-sravity
Air Classifiers: Air classifiers
are used
separarion
t.
mare,iats. th.se a.. gene;",];:;;;;.1-ttoltate our Iighler material from the heavy flom elass commrngied municipal sord wasre r. passed th,orgt u ,,ron" .rrr1l-lfa:1lc: arr' Lishrer mareriar moves wirh rhe air cunenr q hire t;e heavie; "r
;;i;;; ;;ii:;il::'
Ineniel Separalion: Marerials are seoarakd hv,n^lw;^^ ,,rL_^.:tr,ei,trigr inenrurioii.;];. il;l;i,::.t"lapplvins vibrations Heavv materialdue ro :he trghter material remains on lop,
Floatation: ft
is generally used to seDarate o
The marerial is piaced in or mareriars senre at difr;;;;? se,rre ro the bonom
narerials or demolition debris. warer for sedimentarion. Difrerent rayers componenrs
"l;;;;ffi::::l-t"nstruction ,;;;;;.r;J,t. orJ;'*,t ;;:;
";;,,;:l,iit,fll,l,i,",jlj,iiili;,X,luuier
Electric and Magnetic Field Separation
Matedahare separated b) their electosratic cha magneric propenies Tlpical applicarions include separarion of tommingled wastes Marerialsarigenerally separared alter shreddint. based on conve)or belr me-chanism rs shown in rie. 2 o sepa,^,";:;;i; ;;:.;:;:'Jiraror ,aSneric s)srems r arso known as scaiping,
ferr;r;;;;:;il; fit-id ; ,,;;;"1,#;1,:" ,r.a io ,".o,.i;;;;;, ;"i.;r"il'*" ",. "rro
'r'#r:nT, d" .lr 'L': €r "i f al
d!
Fig.2.6: Nlagneltc Separaror based on Conveyor Bell Mechanism
34
A Texbook of Solict Wastes Managenent
Densitication Densification or compaclion is carried out to increase the density ofrecovered matedals so as to reduce transporration volumes and ro racitirat. storage.'vaii;;; t;;;;iqr*'..g. baling, cutring, pelletingarc available fordensificurio" ofOotf, rf,?.orrnLg-f.i i..'"1"1g.,"a municipal solid wastes. Typical applicalions include:
(i) (ii)
ofbaling for card board. paper. plasrics. aluminuft cans; ofcubing and pellerr'ng for the production ofrefr.rse derived fuel (RDF). Baling is a compaclion process usually canied our under high pressure e.g. I0O_150 t:ns m?.by using mechanic-at equipmenrs caled balers. Materiats-iik'e ii*i.r. i"*ai"**, use
use
atumrnum caxs are usuall) baled to reduce their volume, Cubing and pelleting are used to produce RDF. ln this system, waste components like paper are errruded using an eccentric rorating press-wheel. A complere crbir" mechanism reqtires a shredder. a conveyorfind cubes or rhe pellets are bonded together by heat caused by friction asiheart.rina ,iff"o are ext.uded. The size ofcubes and Detiers is. approximarely. I i*f, i ir.f, ;"i"rfri about I sq. inch in cross-section, ""a
,
j; ;i;;. r'noir;;";";,i;i;;;;;:":::#:iil: .
Fig.2.7: Cubing and pslteting M6chanism
Size Beduction Size reduction is cairied out to obtain a final product, which is uniform and srnaller in size with respect to irs original form. Waste volumes may notbe reducea bj even increase. Size reduction is desirable in marry procissing e.g. for iniin"r"tion, c;;;;;;ing. Equipment used for size reduction includes shridaer". gr"i,
size;;;;;,1;;"y
"irrf,".i.
"rJ;;;;;;ffr.
Shredders: The ttre€ most commoniv use.l (hreddingmachiDes for size reductionofmunicipal
;;;;;rliii#;j'""#""
hammermiti, flait;lt and shear.h;Ja;r.-A ofa rotating hammer, which srrikes rhe wasre, and reduces it inro small"r;i;;!. ;;r," remains.in the mill unril il is passed rhrough the bonom grate. Inflailmill\hammersofflailsarenro\ided.The*a.riispassedon,)oncerhroughthe hammer. flail nrill pro\ ides a coarser'shredorng as compared lo the hammer nills so^lid wastes are
The shearshredderconsists oftwo rra*Ilel{ha moun,"a The^two shafts rotare in oppos ite d irections and th. shafls.
*i f, ii. **lre. *".t"."t".iut ",u.i".liai*, l. Ji.e";Jil;; il;;.
I I I I I I r I I I I I I I I I I I I I
Collection and prccessing ot Sotid Wastes 3s
Oisk
r r r r r r I r r
I I I
Shredded sotid
Fig. 2.8: Typicat Cross.section oi a Hammer
ililt
GIass Crushersr These are used to c.ush otass bollies and other glass products. Ojass can also be separated by optical sorring. The iquipmenr ,.rsed for opiical lor,;ng expensive. "..-1"*"r".
Wood GriDdersl Wood g nders are used to shred large pieces ofwood o, yard .wastes. The shredded wood may be used as fuel for en*al *.-"r!ri ir.". ;l-.""il;";::r"a aftergrinding i! into very fine material. A tub grinJ.. i. ",
"*'iJi*o .p;;;;;;;;;;;;i rorhrlammer miil. The shredded marerial is segregar.d j;. ffi;Ifi;r.. oy $asles. 'l con,isrs of a iarge tub. u.irh a roraring upp", a hammer milt. yard wasre is fed fiom;.
filted wirh
".""i^", ,"",ion una u"qriffi, ,iui,'or;;;;;;r';;.1,"" ,; using rrontme;
;;, t;;:,t"8
Size Separation Marerlals are separated by size and shape characteristics, &osl commonly, by the use screens. Tt picalll. screeninp is carriert orrt
. . . . . .
to remove oversized materials: to remove undersized materials: to separaie out paper, piastic and other iight materials from heavv materjals e.g. glass and metals: to seDarare lhe $a5re into li?ht combustible and heav] non.or_buslible fracti.ns: ro sepdra:e 9,as(. 5ilr and sa.,d .rom combusribie material; and io remove large siones, iocks and other oversized material from excavated
soil ar
construcl;on site, Various
(i) (ii) (lii )
of
1)
pes of screens used commonly for this pu.pose inclrrde
reciprocating screens; troIxmelst and disc screens.
i
36
A Texrbook of Solid Wastes Management
Recip.ocating Screens: Reciprocatjng screens (also known asvibrating screens) are used for removal ofundersized materials from the rnunicipal solid wastes. Thise screens can be designed to vibiate,.vertically or laterally_ tngeneral, inciined reciprocating screens which
move
venicall,
are Used.
Trommels: Trommels or rotatory scteens are used to segregate the municipat solid waste into various size fractions. The material is direcled to the inclined rorati;g disc screen which tumbles overthe scrcen. The smaller sized fraction passes through the screen while ' the oversized material is retained on the screen and is collected separaieiy.
DiscScreeDs:ltconsistsofanumberoipai.;eldiscsinsralledataceftainDitchona horizontal shaft. Material to be segregated is fed on the rop ofdiscs. The undersiz;d ma.erjal passes throughthe space between lhe discs and reaches the bottom. The oversized materials de overthe top ofdiscs and is collected separately. The pitch ofthe discs can be adjusted to separate out different sizes.
MATERIAL HANOLING Affer separalion and size reduction, material has to be transferred for storage or to the different processing/disposai facilities. Maleriai handling is rhe transfer anJstorase of reco!e.ed componenls and residues. Typical applicarions include:
(i) (ii)
Conveyors forthe transport recovered materials and residues;and rolling stock such as forklifts, frontend loaders, and various types oftrucks for the movement ofrecovered materials and residues.
Various types ofconveyors such as belts, drags, vibratingand pneumalic conveyors are used to iransfer the wastes from one iocation to another, pneumatic conveyors are used to transfer the lighireight waste components e.g. papet plastics. A typical pneumatic conveyor includes a set ofpipes in which air is forced at a high velocity to transfe. the wirste components
for slorage or processing. Velocity ofair for !his operation ranges from 25 to 3O m/s. Fronl-end loaders, forklifts, and other vehicles e.g. trocks are commonly employed for handlingthe municipal solid wastes. Front-end loaders are used to collectand Iiftihe wastes and forioading it ontotruck. Fo.klifu are generallyused for transferring the baled materials.
Weighing Mechanism Weighing facility is required
at resource recovery facilities to weigh the amount ofmunicipal solid wastes received, materials recovered. and for w€ighingthe mate.ials soid ordisposed off Various types ofscales are used for weighing different materials. A weigh_bridge is required for weighing a truck and small-scaleplatform balances are required to weigi the
smaller components.
Storage Facilities Material storage facility is an essential requircment a! aresource recovery centre. Matedals are stored a! various stages till the separated materials and residues are finally disposed off The space required lor such facilities depends upon the amount ofwastestote handied ard the efficiency ofresource recovery centre. The space requirement is optimized by synchronizing various operations so that storage time is minimal.
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
t
Collection anc! ptocessing ol Solid
Wastes 3t
Selection of Equipment and Facilities Rasre processing and maErial handjing requires alarge number ofequipmenr and machinerv e e. screens. shredders. baler. air ctassir.i.R f^,t _I6: ..^-; are expensive and need," necessal tharduecare is hken in the purchase ard sgbseo uem m";nro,,'""" ^;;*^ _:,:l:-l setecrion of appropriar..q,;pn'.r, *a phy.t.ur
;;;;;;-,;dft,iJXljli;ji,?r.ill,lj.Xi,Ii::i::il:ffJ.:
rs mosl important. Facrors considered
Jisc,ssed
. .
. . . .
belowr
i;;;;;:;lilffi ff ;$:;ill,Hlii; the processing
irI evaluating
equipmenr are briefly
Capabitit) ,nd Retiabititv: The 'b"'" er:Pos:d.eq.uipmenl should be capable ofserving ,1" p"rp"". i",. ii"'ii'l'ir ,r,or"O, ,, ,nould have a 16s56n661s 16p1or"aan1 " overthe conventional te"nn,oo"" Service: There should be minimal mainrenaDce required and tha!roo should be readily -,-"',. a!ailable lhrough rheequipmenr manufacrurer o1. tfr. foc"faisrriU,rt". operation: The equipminishoutd be reasonabty i,", u. by perjonnel wirh limited traininq or sktlls. Safery: There should be adequale safeguards to prevent careless use. Efflciency: The energy consumDlro n reiativeio other equipmentwith similarcapacity should be ler( En-vironmen&l Effects: The equipmenlshould be envjronment friendl),and should not emtt e).cessive pollutants, r
r*ipr#*,ijii
"***u
.li:liT#:::J,*:l,skrorhehealrhofoperatorandstaffworkinsinrhevicinity
.
Economicsi Borh initial and runn.
^na.ui,t"n"n""
"oii,;ilHi:ffi
::ji:#sr
be considered Furure operation
RECYCLING OF MSW COMPONENTS Resource extraction huns fhe environme
of producrs polrures ihe air -a *al* w*,".1",,ir,.;: ;"ji;#:[:'l--"nuracturing tenimeni orpublic heahh andenviron'nenl
r.opl. no*.."ri,.
r I I I I
r I
ue
aesign.a ror
ii.t-.;;;;:1,;',::1"-":
enuiiJn;;;;"i;;;"d;fli':*:.fi:[,rJ:""T.[1.;*posar
svs,ems mus,
u""pt"a ti u" u, exce,rent straresv ,",:i:i,:?:i;1i::ffil::,:i:ffiiil::r:Y:""ttvlralsoconservesthenarurarresour(es
una tananrrsp-,.e.
o,.i;r-n;:;1i,.;;1"':t''*s
or used ro provide energy. 41Inor,
municipal-Iubbish is recycled' reused has passed la\rs eskorishins recvclins "sAvolume throusr recot er1 bv 'ecvcling on wiste
arr.!fl9p€'s
uifi.; ;;;;;;"r"* i#;::'' '' :o-;o ". iii,,.;;.;:;;.d'til'j:.1:sres "i'r,"and rec) cr.. .o..,r,"n ,*o.,,1v,I1;l:::::::,:i::,i::]:iisration m-anasemenr ofpaperandplastics.Thecove.nm.nr.ri ''' 'avov!I JcPa'r I(c)€res more than half irs Mun:cipai wasles I Manager'enr & uuniring, n,jr".. ioo0 ,.orrr.. ,rri.'Jrillll ]:de o. ,"ar"rion ,urg.',
s.g,.gar-on
of,
ustes
t"'.;;;;;;;; :.:;;ir::'i:J;::1,,:.:::;:l::::;:Tess
prograrns ror
Recyclable Compohents ih MSW Se!eral components ofMSW e,g. aluminum can':paper' cardboard plastics glass' iron and steel are usua *.'.r.a. wh?* ii'i.'r'' out orficialr)' Private raspickers are acrivery engag; in thi;
l
*,
via'""i
;;;.;. ;;;r;;;::]rred
ipi'"i"p'r,",;::;;:,
r'1"ff #:Ti[J:ff i"T:';:i[::Til:i.:,f
li:i::
38
ATexbook of Solid Wastes Matagenent
jtems can be converted into..olyester fibers, which can be usedto manufacture carpets etc, Japan probably is the leader;ir such techn;ques. Glass bottles are pulverized into fragments or powder and then mixed wirh clay. The mixture isthen used for manufacturing of various household items. Kitchen scraps are converted inlo fertilizers for farmers. Waste paper is used for making various de.orative items. Waste cooking oil is used for making soaps. It is a general percepiion thatrecycled means that the end product is inferior in quality. However products are made from recycled materials are less costly and ofgood quality provided ihe manufacturing methods are sujtably selected. The Negoro Sangyo Co. Ltd., one ofthe companies in Japan deaiing with recycled products, follows a 'cradie lo grav€ approachto p.oducts. It staned making its own.aw material from old plastics, and uses this malerialto make new products e.g. carpettiles. Recycling ofglass metals is carried out in many ways. It can be cleansed and reused, or it can becrushed and melted to make newproducts. Glass mustoften be separated by coloi fcr reuse. Crystal Clay Co. ofTokyo has developed a process to fuse glass particles to clay. The company manufactures a newtype ofceramic tile blockthat can be used to pave sidewalks and as sidings on buildings. These 'Crystal Clay Blocks' (naned after the compa.y) offer numerous beirefils. They contain fragments ofwaste glass ofdifierent colom. The blocks
contain 709i, glass, reducingthe amounlofclay used, theteby protecting avaluable natural resource. Under a I]ew manufacturing process, the blocks are fired al i000'C, which is 200 'C lower than the earlier system. Apa.! ftom saving energy it also reduces the carbon dioxide emission by 26%. Tlre recyclable components of MSW in Delhi conslituies to about 120% oftotal volume (Fig.2.9). The marketvalue ofrecyclable haterials ftcovered from municipalsolid wastes runs into millions of rupees, lt makes economic sense to recoverthese materials for reuse. Such recovery wili also result in safeguarding the environment, saving the energy, conservation ofnatural resources, and reduction in the final residuals for landfills.
Fig. 2.9: componenls oi MSW in Oeihi
THEFMAL CONVERSION Thermal conversion ofsolid'rraste includes transformation ofwastes into gasedus, liiluid, and soijd conversion products. The process also generates energy due to burning oiwaste
Co bustion or IncineBtion, Pyrolysis, and Casificalionare theiechniques commonly employbd forthermal conversions. maierials, Thermal processing also results in *rste volume reduction,
Combustion or lncineralion Syslema Combustion oi incineration is a process based
on thermal processing ofsolid \yaste by oxidation. Various combustion gases e.g. N2, CO', SO2, water vapors and non-combustible
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
I I I
I
Ir
I I I
r I I I I I
Collecton and Prccessino ol Soliclwastes 39 residues in lhe form ofash are obtained. Energy can be recoveaed by heat exchange from ihe combustion gases. The buining ofsolid wastes is usually accomplistled in incinerators. Diferenttypes oiincinerato* are Mass Fired, RDF Fired, Fluidized Bed type. The lnciflerator insriture ofAmerica (llA) classifies incinerable wastes into seven types (Table 2.1). The Institute (llA) also sepa.ates incinerators inlo nine classes accolding to ahejr use and size iTable 2.2). Minimum consnuction and perfomance standards for each class arc also prescrjbed. Dlass Fired Incineration: Mass fired combustion systems are designed to incinerate rhe municipal solid wastes as coliecied without oi with very liltle prior processing. The energy produced by mass fired combustion system depends upon the composition ofmunicipal solid waste. A typical mass fired incinerator is shown on Fig. 2.10. Olscharge
lo Ouench or A Heat ,ecovery |
1207.-2007"
Our
,.r
r*=f* Wasle
t r I
I
r
I I I I
\,
€xcess ai!
(
zooo"r)
I Flg.2.'10: Mass Fired lncineratol RDF Based tDcineration: In RDF fired co$bustion syslem. processed soiid waste refuse derived fuel (RDF) is burnt. Various components e.g. metals, glass and other noncombustibie materials are removed to produce RDF. Since RDF is more homogeneous the system is better conrolled for combustion and more energy is recoved.
Fluidized Bed Incineration: A flLidized bed type combustion system includes a steel verlical cylinder, lined inside with refractory bricks, and has a sand bed. Air nozzles called tuyeres are provided to injecl air at high pressure. Fig. 2.11 shows a typical fluidized bed incinerator Solid fuel (or RDF) is injected into the cylinder. Auxiliary fuels such as natural gas or oils may be used initially to increase the temperature ofthe bed uplo operational Ievel which is about 14501o 1750"F. This system can also be used for burning ofsewage sludge and other chemica, wastes.
40
ATe\tbook of Sotid Wastes Managemant
Trble 2.1: Clalsifi cation of Incinerable Wastes
Type Majot Conpohents Approx. NoaCohpotition cambusttbte (o/o
0
Tmsh
br
\|t.t
Trash
Solids
100
5
Hiehv combustible (Paper,
*ood.
cardboard %
canons, and upto l0 trealed papers, plasrics
Btu R";;"^*, R"** tb lor AuritiaD end?d Fret tBtl per yiaiaun tb ol\|asle) Input
Value
85OO
0
0
6500
0
;
Moisrl€ contenr l0
S@rces: Commercial and
I
Rubt,sh Combustible waste, caltons, m8s, wood
paper, scmps,
Rubbish
80
10
carb€e 20 Moislue
cqt*xrstibleflmrsuEepingi Co ent25 conrn€rcial ard industriel
2
Refire
Rubbish5o743OO0rr00
Rubbish and
Garbage 50
garbage Sorrresr Dorhestic
Moislure Content 50
3 9+"c. Anirnal ard vegeEble Srrner:Hotels, r€s&uants, mai(ets,
Ca*age65 5 Rubbish 35
2s00
t5o0
1000
3000
3000
Moistu E Content 70
inst'Etional, commercial and clubs
a AdrElsoleedoEali5 Anirnatrd 5 Carcasses. organs, solid hrlEl sorE r Hospitars, Moist!,e
;;;J;X;:--** ffifl,* laboralories,abattoirs,
5
Gasmus, Liquid,
or
8000
(sooo,rimar,) (3000 secondarv)
Content85
vadable
Semiliquid
Depend.nt variabte raran ---G"lr" on major
Industrial p.ocess *as&s
6
Solid rEqumng
S€mi-solidnnd
( omDuslbres h€ani. rElon. or
gEre
vadabte
Dep€nd€nr vanable \€nabte on
mjor
componenls
varirbte
I I I I I I I
I
I I I I I I I
I I I I I
I I I I
Collectian ancl ptocassing ot Solid
Trbl€ 2.2:
t I I T
I I
Wastes
41
Standards ofConsrrucrion and performance for Different Ctasses oitncinerators
Ponable. pa.i,aged comptelejy arrernbted. d iB!-feed incinenron ha,ing nor over lb 1r buming mte. suilabte for ype war. 2
capa.q or25
S
cu ft
stol
Portable. packaged orjob assemurea,
a irecr-rJ ino havinga primar] chamber !orumc rs n i.'",,g "rs ", "''." rrue-ted. srngle chaftber incinemtoE ryirh more than: cu fl buming are, forrlpe: wasre. Ihis
*;;;;;;;;,ffi
b
rnc'n€Btorr)' €
is
se
ed
J'iJ:Tj*
b] one veftical flue
tun.ridr d;ffi;;;#;:il';T#HI:J,t:f; ".,,,
IIA
Ior2 sa!re.
III
VI
vIl
:ffi
I$
l"$#:jl":frj.,,T:
Chure.fed. s ingle chamber incineHor for apanrnem buitdings uirh moE har 2cu ft sui,jble rorqpe
buminsaE
fo,ndu;"J,",,r1,r";;;.;;;";;";;:ffi;
^-orrecomn;nded flue for cnrq ing deemissions o aEnospheE sprc!ide!. ufecr.teed wirh a bu]njng rare of r00 Ib ] ano suitabje ior buming rype O. r , or 2 wask Direct-feed with a bumins rzte of75 lb,4\ more suirable for
repdte
Iv
i
vunicrpal incinerdo^ s,i,bre for r,,e 0. perhouror rons per da!.
b"_dG t;;;;
l . 2. or J wasre or a
*"
c.mbinaiior of .,e... Rared in tons
CremaoD and parlmtogcal incineBtors ruirabje for q?e 4 wasre. Lresrgred torspecifrc b) -produfl *aste. iwe 5 or6
t
1
Uquid
Fig.2.1t: A Typical Ftuldized Bed incineraror
Factors Afrecting Elficiency o, lncinerators The efficiency ofincinerators is measured in
;;i;;;ff ;: wasri.".t*,iUiii+. ;:$:l*i#3:ff '$lff ,"i*lT#.#:
t;".i,,,,", "'i,"o.*. rn th_e design of an incinerarion
sysrem are
an0 restdence time required for combustion
"rp"ri*; ;ffi:;...,
-
42
A1extbook of Solid Was@s Managehent
Combustibiiity; k is the ease with which the waste can be oxidized. It is measured in terms oflhe calorific value or the heat produced during iflcineration. In general, a value of about 2500 kcal/kgor greater ii prefe ed for incineration. This limit however increases as the excess air required forproper contact with the waste increases. Warste with lower calodJic value.equire addition ofauxiiiary fuel to maintain adequate temperature. Wastes with high moislure content also requirc additional fuel.
Temperature: Tempemture ill the incinerator is maintained such that all the components in lhe waste decompose to releasethe volatile fraction andto oxidize the fixed carbon fraction ofwastes. All contaminants such as pathogens, volatile hydrocarbons, smoke and gases (e.g. CO) should be complerely oxidized. len.€t ProDer mixing of air wirh the solid wastes is necessary for complete combustion_ Turbulence is iherefoie created b],applying a high cu.rent ofair in the form ofswirling motion. In rotary kiln type incinerators lhe movement ofkiln itselfprovides th€ mixing effect. ln smai I static incinerators, raking is required at regular intervals for creating tu6ulence. Tu rbu
Residence Time: Residence time is cnrcial in combustion processes to ensure complete oxidation ofcombustible matters. It can be maintained by adjusting the frequency ofash removal. ln some incil)erators such as ro1ary kiln type, the speed ofthe kiin is adjusted to allo$ sLfficienl residence iime for combustion.
Probl4ms Associated wilh lncineralor Operalions Some problems associaled witir the operation of incineralcrs include excessive stackemissions smoke leakage lhrough charging doot excessive auxiliary fitel consumption, and incomplete burning of wastes. These problems can be minimized by a systernatic operational approach and propermaintenance of incinerators.
Excessive Stack Ernission s: Excessive emission iales are caused dueto avaaiety ofreasons inflltration air, overcharging ofwaste, excessive negative draf! in lhe primary chamber, low temperature in secondary chamber. Proper maintenance oftemperature in both Frimary and secondar, chambers and controlled aii infiltration can help reducethe emission rates. e-9. excessive
Black Smoke: Black smoke generally indicates the presence ofunburnt carbon, as a result ofincomplete combustion ofwaste rnaterials. This could be due to overcharging olwaste or poor temperature conditions in the chambers ordue to less amount ofair available than is required for complete combustion. Large quantities ofhighly combustible materials e.g. plastics, rubber in the waste may also genemte excessive blacksmoke. Genelally such materials musi consiitute less than l0 percent ofthe total charge.
White Smoke: Aerosols present in the emission may rcsult i, white smoke. Excess air entering the incineralor may cause micron sized particle to move out through the stack. Proper air and temperature cont.ol intlre chambers may reduce this problem. White smoke is also formed due lo finely divided noncombustible minemls present in the waste stream. Paper bags, pigments or other metallic oxides, and minerals such as calcium chloride also generate fine inorganic particulate formingwhite smoke-
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
Collsclion anal Processing of Sotid
Wastes
4
Leakage ofSmoke from Charging Door: Leakage ofsmoke thrcugh charging doors or orher openings in lhe combustion chamber is usually due to excessive air pressure inside the primary chambe!. Overcharging ofwasles orexcessive amountofhighly volatile matters presenl in the waste stream also conlribute to such problens. Excessive Auxilisry Fuel Consumption: Overcharging, excessive air infiitration, improper flame distribuiion are some ofthe reasons ofexcess consumption ofauxiliary fuel. Proper control of air and charging of waste iD batches ( I 0 to I 5 percent of the .ated capacity) may help control this problem. Damaged seals ofcharging doors may also result in heat loss and therefore, ifneeded, should be repaired or replaced.
Incomplete Burdng and Poor Ash Quality: This is due to overcharging ofwastes, nonuniform air distribution alongwith other prcblems including partial blockage of primary bumer, leakage
offuel etc. Clogged air inlets obstruct air distribution inside the chamber rsulting in incomplete combustion. Proper maintenance of bumers, ah inlets etc. is requiredto aontrol this probiem.
Pyrolysis a chemical change due to partial combustion ofsolid wastes in the absence of oxygen.It is also kno\ n as thermal decomposition \yherc extemal soutce ofheat is employed. Pyrolysis is an endothermic process andrequires heat from a, extemal source. Therefore it is also termed as dest.uctive distillation. It yields gaseous, liquid and solid fractions as follows:
Pyrolysis is
. . .
Gas f.action includes hydrogen, methane, carbon rnonoxide and carbon dioxide. Liquid fraction includes tar or oil stream containing acetic acld, acetone, and methanol. Solid fract;on includes char, consisting ofcarbon and other inert materials originallv
present in MSW
Fig. 2.12: Typical Pyrolysis Process
t"
I
t 44
T
ATextbook ot Satid Wastis Management
Ihe proponion ot gases. liquid and char obtained depends upon the temperature at whrch p)rol.rsis is carried our. T\pical p\roivsis r --!Jr increases. rhe arnounr ' Br Ycrr 11t r 18. z' t 2' As lemDerarure
ofg;;or, .Jrr;;;rl 0..,.ur", th..n",g1 .o"ni.,,"irr,,,i,iiil'il'""""'es$hilefiequanlioofliouidandchar -,..sisabout26l00KJ m andlhaiofpyrol\ric
lar or oils is :1240 LJ
Lo
Gasification Casificalion is a process in which Dartiat , is carrted oul in the presence of o\J gen buI in Iesser amornr rhon thar i. stoi.h!ombrstion required rorcomplete combu:rion rne 5eJr-suslaini-e p"niail;;il,;;;,r'::;;:':'eEicall) oblain combusrible and carbon monoiide *h;;;:; sases e's hvdrosen ":|o Iheenerg)conrenrisintherangeof5.iro 6 0 vJ m . !\ hen p..rre anl,nslead ofair. the en..g1co:t.ni roaoour129r.r1e^/,_:T._j-,, inc.ea"., . , "u,k.r!. compo-srtron of combu.tible gas. obraineo from process conrarn: C O- r tOio r Cu r:u,.0,. H? I t5oo r. and C Ha r20o), and i.a'rlrcatron r\t an0 other Lrace gase). Fig.2 tlsho$as\hemaricd;agrarnofagasifi";,;;;,;;-, some
;;il.: # oti;;';r*;X,:t
I I I I I
I I
A
F€celv'ng
E preh€ater
b usrntegErof F Fetoft
!:,ro u Lnarcrng
G Gas
ouriorlrom,ai.d
H Clrargrnq
i:#?Xfl, M |i€at
Nilc'tonaPp.'",6b'
o conr;re*or exchanger p Gas tank rorstarl-u. O Stag sito
FIg. 2.13: Typicat casj,ication proc€ss
Pelletizatior Pelletization is a process of converunp d. to]id wasle inlo small pellers of generar] abour I inche( in r""-,a size ^-, ; ,--::"i:
"*'i*'
in
Ms'\
",;.;o;il:i:'r';.;;1T
I,rnotng rngredients e.g. Jime is mixed ro rhr
j; :#J,:;J,."H[::: lX1fi :::T[::::r: mareriar
and ruer perets are made. .e"r.,".;.,1;"i;;;;ilXj:':9ded robet5-20rons,OO,""r"iVli.,-,,,,\r}). lheaverageRDFproductionrateisfound
rhes. a,e al.o.arreo
I I I I I I I
I
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t
Coltection anct ptocessing ot Solid Wastes 45
AIOLOGICAL PNOCESSING
*$si[##****t*na+,**ffi r:s,rl*#**[l**s*-:, Organic Fraction ofMSW + O, + Nutrients + Microorganisms
Co*po.r *
r r r r I t t :
I I i
lt.* c"I. * D"u*c" .
g;rn6$$r*N**-#*,*rffi ,ll11T,,T:,r"
paremeters
in corhpostihe
il;fi'Jl rr,ffi :fllnf rr,:;:#i*:il"rl;ff fnx *i*:::l:; trk*ff :H*,55H{*H"t"ffi[*:,,,,,.*[ii,*:,:,]!ffi
***,rrxrll*i[u**u*rrrll+ .'##'i";".s{fffl ?:: ::}Hfi :'#:ff
,ffil
ffiH.J::T*.,,Tj,s
li:T',ffiH
I 46
I I
A Textbcok of Solid Wastes Management
value being 25 : i. in general, the niirogen present in lhe organic fraction ofwaste wjll be available for biodegradation. but all the carbon available may not be biode$adable. Cn{ ratios for some ofthe organic fraclions ofmunicipal solid wastes are shown in Table 2.4. C/N mtio can be adj usted by blending ofwastes ofhigh C/N ratio (e.g. saw dust, paper) with the wastes of iow CN ratio (e.g. yard wasxes raw activated sludge). Table2.J: Conrrol Parameters in Composling
I I
25-75mm
Panic,e Size
Moisture Contefi
25-50
C/N pH
I I
50-550C
clio
Blending and Seeding
Conrolled by CN
AirSupply
Frcquent ruming of compost
Mixing and Tuhing Pathogen Control
Fi6t nr.n on the ihird day then on altemative days Maintain a tempe€tu'E of final compost @ 70 cC for to 2 hours
Odor
Coftrolled by air supply
T 1
pH Control: The pH duringthe composting process varies with lime. Initialiy when organic components ofwastes are broken down biologically they convefi inio organic acids and bring down the pH level to less than 5. The desirable value ofpH for composling is between ? and 7.5. IfpH value decreases lo less than 4.5 it reduces the rate ofbioiogical conve.sion. lf it rises to more than 8.5, some nitrogen is Iost as ammonia, Trble 2.4: Carbon-Nit.ogen Ratio ofVa.ious MSW Componenrs
1.0
-
Paper
0.)
- 0.1
Brown Paper
0.01 - 0.02 1.0 - 2.0 0.1 - 0.2 0.2 - 0.3 2.0 - 5.0
Sawdust Sewaee Sludge
1.5
30-35 500-r000 4000 - 4500 40-80 200 - 500 100
-
150
l0-t5
Temp€rature: Temperature control is required !n the composting process as ;t affecis the growh ofcells and the rate ofcomposting. Initially the tempe.alure is maintained between 50 and 55'C. After a day or rwo. it is increased !o between 55 and 60.C. When remperatur€s increase above 60'C, the microorgarisms die out and biologicai activities reduce significantly.
Blending snd Seeding: Blending is carried out ro achieve the required moisture content and C,rN ralio. Laboratory tests ate carried out in order to determine the proporlions of wastes for blending. Seeding is the process ofadding microorganism culture to the wastes to be composted. This is required to accelerate the biological decomposition ofwastes.
t
r
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T
I
l
I
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I
:
Colhtction and Pocassing ol Solid
Wastes 47
GeDerally a small quantity ofactivated sewage sludge is blended with the wastes for increasing
the rate ofcomposting process.
Air Requirement: Aeration is an important requirement for aerobic composting. Air is supplied to the compostirg system lhrough frequent tuming dfwastes orthrough airnozzles. In a highly control led composting system, pure oxygen is supplied for oxidizing the biological
fraction ofsoiid wastes. The quanaia, ofoxygen or air required for composring depends uponthe composition ofsolid wastes (i.e. the percentage ofcarbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen avaiiabie in sblid \yastes).
Mixing and Turning: Mixing and tuming are two important operations ofcomposting process. Mixing is carried out to obtain a homogeneous mixture ofbiodegradable components. lt also helps in uniform distribution ofnutrients and microorganisfis in the wasles, so as to accelerate the biologjcal tiarrsforination of wastes. Turning ofsolid wastes is earriedout at regular interval. This p.ovides suflicient amount ofair required for aerobic conversion ofsolid waste. It is also carried out to maintain the moisture content unifoim through the mass ofcomposting material. Regular, periodic tuming aDd moisture control prevenls drying, caking, and air channeling in the composting material.
Control: The control ofpathogens is important in the design ofany composting system as their presence is a health hazard. The most important pardirete. in pathogen control is the ambient Iemperature in the compostiog system. Most ofthe pathogens die off at a lemperature of55 degree Celsius, though some may survive even at lemperature nore than 60oC. Pathogens can be completely removed from the composting material by maintaining its tenperature at about 70'C for I lo 2 hours. Pathogens
I
r r I I
r I
r r
Odor Control: Odor control in the composting is necessar), as otherwise it will create nuisance in the neighborhood. Odor is produced due to insufficien! supply ofoxygen to the wastes dudng their biodegradation. Lack ofoxygen in the wastes rcsults ir anaerobic conditions Benerating various malodorous o.ganic acids and gases such as arnmonia, and hydrogen sulfide. Large sized panicles present in the wastes also prcvent flow ofair. Waste should therefore be properly shredded, and converted into small sized particles, before these are composted.
Types o, Composting Systemg Depending upon the staius ofwasles du.ing the process! composting systerns can be broadly classified as Agitated and Static. inan agitated system, the wa$e to be composted is agitated to supply the oxyBen. Iurning is usually caried out for this purpose. In a static system wastes are kepi static while the air is supplied by mechanical means such as blowers. Three main methods ofcomposting are:
(i) (ii) (iii)
windrow method, sratic pile melhod, and in-vessel method.
WiDdrov Metbod: Windrows of\rastes ofabour 1.5 to 2m heighr and 4 to 5 m w idlh are prepared. Waste materials are shredded before haking windrows. The size ofwindro\rs also depend upon the size ofequipnent available for tuming. A typical equipment used for turning of municipal solid wasle at a compost plant in New Delhi is shown in Fig. 2.14.
48
A Tenboak of Solid Wastes Managehen!
Turning is carried out at regurar intervars. The rnoisture content is mainrained between 50 to 60 percent This sysrem takes about fourto six weeks to convert rrre
w".t. ,r "t..i ir.rrn;ng) "j.ln,o *ttrort
compost. The composled material obtained isthen cured (i.e. allowed to stana for a period oftwo to th.ee weeks for complete stabilization.
I I I I
T
Static Pile Method: In static pile melhod the waste is kept in sratrc piles. Ihese piles are provided wirh ag dofperforaredpipes,whichareusedtosupplltheiir.airmarU'efreatea
I I I I I I I
to the desired temperature. This method is faster and provide bener controf method. The wasle malerials are composted in a perjod oftwo to four cured for a further period oftwo to three weeks
*eets.. It is ttren
T
In-vessel Method: As the name suggest in-vessel compostjng is carried out in a ciosed container. Various types ofvessels or containers e.g. vertical cylinders. ho.izontat cylinJ"r", reclanguiar or ciiculartanks can be used for composting. Mechanicalagit"tora foa mixing of composting marerials. Air can be supplied throigh nozzles coni"o"a "ae'ua"d
I I I I I I
Fi9.2.14: Equipmenr used torTurning ot Wastes
n Windrows
tla,
tfie
*ina..*
*irt tfoi*r.
The advantage ofthis system is a high degree of conrrol &er temperatur., uir, pU, Jo, .r". This system is therefore popuiar, especjally in developed counrries. The sysrem tafes aUout one to t\\,o weeks for converting waste into compost but a longer curing ieriod, about four to ten weeks. lor complete stabilization.
Properties ot Compost Compost,the finalend product of composting, is be$erthan a chemicalfenilizer forasriculture purposes. It is also ecofriendly and economically atractive. Good qual;r) composr;h;u be blackish brown in color uith an earthy odor It should be slightly moist
wiih
6.5 and 7.5. Il should atso not conGin excessive amounr
ofheavGerais.
pH;"rg;;;;;;""
The Mini it.y
oii".ri.r_"nt
I
Collection and prccessjog of Sotid
Wastes 49
and Foresls. Govemment oflndia vide irr Municipal-Wastesj Managemenr and Hardling, Rules, _uuu has lard do* n St:rndards tor ComDost ,,",. for il. safe applicaLio; ( table _2 S;.-.-....",
Table 2.S: Srandards for Compost
Pemitsible Linits (ds/t) 20 20 300
C:&run C1rrcmium
Copper
500 500
Lean
l0
Nickel
ZE
100
Compor,,n,
O. u
2500
,iu61.,offi
-\eiglllrhood especratl) ""n location an tn resjdential areas. The 0 capaclt) vr composl wrxPUstPlants plants is -r_' 'r oi rs Desl best determined delermined accordmp ro rhp 2n^,,Dr accordingto!ieamounrofbiodegradabiecor ^ generared in rhe area Residenrs welfare socieries and orher \ otunrary in this lasks Tle enrire biodegmdable sasres trom households can be colle.ted a_Pclpate ren ed to the nearb) .ompos'i-ng Tlris * itt un ir.
d*:;;;"';,'p"l:lt
m,nimize the
orparks. gardens and
I I
r I I I !
I I I
Ean.p";";";:;,;;;:T."jns ro-;,";;;il;;? ;;:; iffi li::j|i:'.'n'"To:" *"'^o
toiaevero-pnenr
Anaerobic Co.lversion
lli:';:'"""ff#ff:'i#lili#ilil?I-:l:'::n'Ied
in
rhe absence
or
air
Dependins
r,igi.,"i;; ;l;:il;,il;::i;[;1,:il,;::,?:r::,;::ffi "ig."r"" Drogas irom wastes such as cow_manure :,,;iXl,:: :i ,^asres Anaerobic fermenraiion or *u',.. ;. o;;"";##;;LtJ::'rtural 'ori-a "".4"i (j) preparation ofthe organic fraction o-fsoijd .,a
wastes.foranaerobic djgesrion. Usually incluoes receir ing. soning. separatron and srze reductjon.
"" l jl, li:,""?:!:ii'#jJll'jiTl;i':"''g n"*
liiir
o
Fr-^dj"#*'' oo,,' 6 ?, heari ns or
disesrion in a reactor' A continuous *"""j. ,*tJ;#:d',i':l!':iT'"b" reprng the contents well mired for about 5 to "i'"r;J
days.
I0
Collection. storage ano ifnecessarv, ieparation ofthe the digesrion
process
gas componenls evolved durinB
BangaloreMethod isacommonanaerobic, componerrol'municipalsolidqaste)rFip:elhod!sedforbiologicalconversionoforganic rnrhi'melhod ahernat'laler.otiusr. and soii ,re fiired in a'pi ; i;;1,:ij;;;:"',']')
t.o,",u,.o
p,.,J,ir;;;.r;r:;";,:lJiiji,:'ffj":;i'.HJ:::;:l:l,i;Ji::Jl:
"o ln lrall) stabilized aerobicall)
some arr in rhF r^,". ^r ., ox)genpresenrinhepore.airi"como:sreir "qru'hd5tcanosol"l'he .,,,.i.",a,r,.","";,'.,,;;1" tj,lr;illl,lli,iili#j,T::["JilX.j:il:i;:::T:1,;: as rhe.e exisl
oependrng upon th€ tlpe of wasre.
5o
ATextbook of Solid wastes Managenent
I I I I I I
t
Fig.2.'15: Bangalore Method ol Composlin!
vermiculture Itis asimple, low
cost and appropriate biotechnology used for the stabilization of drganic municipalsolid wasles usingearthworms or othel microorganisms. Eafthworms, particularlll burrowing
fpe
consurne biodeg:adable organic matter and produce malerial termed as vermicasting'
which mainly consists ofea(hworm excreta. This process includes:
(i) (li) (iii)
separatio, of biodegradable fraction of MSw maintenance ofp.oper moisture and lemperature; addilion ofminerals and selecled burro*ingtype ofearth worms;and (;v) sieving !he vermicasling. The vemicasting p.oduction is formed at the rate of75 kg per 1000 kg ofMSW.
CHEMICAL PROCESSING Chemical transformalion is the process of convers;on of organic fraclion of wasles into various useful compounds such as glucose. synlhetic oils, gases etc. Glucose is recovered fiom wastes containing cellulose e.g. paper. in lhis system hydrolysis ofwaste with a weak acid is carried out. The suspension thus obtained is heated al tempe.atures rairging belween 180 to 230'C, under a small pressure. Cellulose is converled to glucose and sugars. (C6Hr0O5), (Cellulose) + H,O + acid -+ nC6Hr206 (glucose) Methanol, often used as an alternative fuel, can also be obtained from wastes through chemical processing. Methane gas can be converted into methanol by cataiysis. CHl + H?O - Catalyst -+ CO + 3Hr co + 2H2 + Catalyst -+ CHroH
Ihe process involves conversion ofmethane by reacting with steam in the presence ofa catalystto form carbon monoxide and hydrogen. Both carbon monoxide and hydrogen react io form methanol. The syslem oitransformation ofwasles chemically is expensiveEXAMPLES E xa m p
le 2. I : For separation and co llection of iteds, thtee recyc I ing coniainers have been 10 each residenl ofa communily. Residents separate newspapers & cardboard,
provided
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t I I I I I I t
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Collection an.l Ptocsssing ot Solielwastes 51
plastics & glass, and aluminum &tin cans, and place these segregated malerials in seDarare conrarners. The containers are empried once per week for co'ile;ion. The municipal solid waste has the following iomposition: % by eeighl
Specifrc lYeight (ks/ni )
E.0
288.34
35.8 6.4 6.9
49.66
Cardboard
Te*i16
89_7
1.8
65.68 65.68
0.4 0.4
t29.7s 160.20 100.92
17.3 1,E
Glars T'u
237.10 r95.43 89.70
9.1
ca$
5.8 0.6 3.0 2.7
Odrerftetals Silt and ash
160.20
320.38 480.60
'Newspaper co$titutes 20% ofatl paper by *eight.
,",T:Hy.t:l:,:],:l-,eist.132-kg.czp;tatday.'ftietotatnumberofhousesinthecommuniry rs r zUU (4, J .5 residents per house.
60010 of houses. are expected to participate in Assuming 80% material separation rate, determlne:
(i) (ii)
th is
program.
the proportion ofthe space required fo. each group of materials in the collection vehicle, and the number oft.i ps per week rcquired ifthe size olthe collection vehicle is 11.5 m3
Solution: (/) Dererminarion ofthe propo(ion ofspace required Each 100 kgof MSWhasthefollowingcomponen! Recyclable
Cardboard
Co panents
Total Weight (kg)
Seporuble Weight (kg)
35_8
35.8x0.8x02=5.728 6.4x0.8=5.12 6.9x0.8=5.52
6.4
6.9 Glass
9.1
Tm cans
5.8 0.6
9.1
!
0.0638 0.1031
0.0840
0.8 = 7.28 5.8 x 0.E = 4.64
0_0372
0.6x0.E=0.48
0.0029
0.05t7
The volume of each group of recyclablecomponents in l0O kgof MSW: (a) Newspaper+ cardboard = 0.0638+O.l03t =0.1669mj
(6) Plastics + class = 0.0840 +.0372 =0.1212 m] (c) Aluminum + Tin Cans = 0.0517+0.0029=0.0546m3 Therefore, the proportion olspace required in vehicle is
0.0546:0.12t2:0.1669 or. Aluminum & Tin : plast jcs & Glass : Newspaper & Cardboard = I | 2-21 | 3.06
I I 52
r
ATextbooK ot Sohdwastas Management
(ii) Determination ofNumberoftrips
per week Total generation ofMSW = 0.60 x 1200houses x 3.5 residentsperhouse x L732 generation rate Per week = 30552.48 Kg,/week Generation of paperwasle
'
.
7 days
= i0552.48,0.358 = 1093?.78 Kg/week Generationofrecyclablenewspaper = 10937.78 x 0.80 ,0.20 = 1750.04 Ks/week Generation of = i0552.48 : 0.064 = 1955.358 Kg/week Generation of rec),clable cardboard = 1955.38 x 0.80 = 1564.28 Kg/week Genera!ion of recyclable (newspaper + cardboardj
cdrdboard
= 1750.04 + 1564.28 = 3314.32 Kg/week Total space required for (volume of) ne\yspaperand cardboard
lil4.32 - _.r.,610
(5.728+5.12)
"'
= 50.99 m3/week Space required fornewspaper and cardboard in one
tiip
3.05 =il:-,)-3!o'Il5 = 5.6 t2 mr
Number oftrips
=
so oo
ffi=e.08 Say 9 llips,,week.
Example 2.2: Solid wanes is collected from a locality using a hauled_container collection ll sysrem. r he dala perl.ining to the collection actirities, are as followsl Time taken by lhe vehicle o reach to first container location from garage _ I 5 mrn Time taken by the vehicle to reach to garage from last io-catiJn =jOrnin "ontainer Average time required to drive the vehicle betlr,een consecutjve containers = i ,i, Round trip haul disiance Time required to pick up loaded container and to unload empty confain", : ;: :1 Arsire time (per trip) = 8 mrn Haulconstant coefficients a = 0.016 h/trip Determine the numberoftips of.he collection vehicle per aay, assum'ing and off.t oure facror equal to 0.1S.
Solution: The pick up time per rrip is given Ph,,=pc+uc+dbc
where
pc
as:
= time required io pick up loaded container
, tr;r?;'r"1j.lff
I I I I I I I I I
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I I I I
I
ColJeclion and Prccessing ot SolicJwastes 53
ac = tine required to unload empty container dbc = average time required for drivingvehicle between consecutive contaifler iocations = 21f:.in. = 0.4 h
pc-uc
dbc=6min= 0.1h Pr., = 0.40 +
0.10 0.50 h/trip Time required pertrip is given as
4,,=
P,",
rs+a+bx
r = at'site time = 8 min/trip = 0.133 h/rrip a = 0.016 h/trip, ,= 0.011 h/Km r = round trip haul distance = 50 Krh 4,..= 0.50+ 0.133 + 0.016 + 0.01i x50 = 1.2 h/trip The numberof ips thatcan be made perda) isgi\en as:
_l(t-w)tt -(t, *t,)] Tr,"
If=
Off-route factor = 0.15
11= Working hours per day = 8 h lr = time from garage to first contaiDer locatioo ,?
= 15 min = 0.25 h = time from last container Iocation to garage
-
20 min
-
0.13 h
,. = -k r- o.r s)8 - r0.25 + 0.J3, tr0-
",
= 5.I E trips/day; say 5 trips per day Example 2,3: Deterrnine the distance at which a Materials Recovery Facility should be located from the source ofMSW, such thar the \yeekiy costs ofthe hauled syster remains ofthe stationar), container system. The data penaining to boih systems are as
same as that
(;)
Hauled Container Sysrem
Quantity of MSW generated
I I I I
r
Capacity ofcontainer Container utilization factor Container pickup time Container unloading time Haul time constants: a = 0.0022
At.site time Operational cost Overhead cost
= 300 m3/week
= 8 mrlrrip = 0.67 . = 2 min/rrip = 2 minlrrip hr/trip; D=0.014hrikm = 3.2 min/trip =Rs.600/per hour = Rs. 16,00o/week
54
ATextbook ol Solicl Wasles Managerna
(il)
Stationary Container System
gene.ated = 300 m3/week = 8 m3 ofcontaine. = 0.67 factor = 30 m3/trip capacity tatio =2 = 3 min/contalner time bhtipi I = 0.014 h/km At-site time = 6 min/trip = Rs. 800/- pe. hour operation costs = Rs. 30,000/- per week Overhead costs Quantity ofMsw Capacity Container uti lization Collection vehicle Coltection vehicle compaction Container unloading Haul time constants: a = 0.022
The average distance betr*een conlainer locations is 0.16 kn and the time constants a and b for estimating lime belween container locations, are 0.060 h/lrip and 0.042 h/km respectively for both the systems.
Solution: weekly Cost ofCollection using HCS The number oftrips per week,,{|f, can be calculated
"" 300
Volume of waste geneGied per week Container caoacit\ , container ulilizalion factor ss
sfr=
as:
o;
sa) 56 (riPS Per week
The time required to drive between container locations:
dbc
=ai + blxl
where I stands for container location characteristics dbc = 0.060 + 0.042 x 0.i6 = 0.0667 h/trip The pickup lime pertrip can be calculated as
Ph",=pc+uc+dbc =
*60- 16tr
o.oeoz -.
ot::
t
t.ip
(pc=!c=2miqgiven) Let MRF to be located al a distance The tim erequired per trip, 1r., is
of,
Km away from lhe source of MSW.
Th,.=Ph,.+s+a+bl 1,)
- 0.131- 6-0.022 -r2\)0.014 = (0.2082 + 0.028x) h/lrip The time required per week
= Ir,- N" = 56 (0.2083 + 0.02E x) h/\,/eek Assuming 8 hours of working day and an off-route factor week can be calculated as:
."
=
"-m
=
r
-fl6
(o 2oE3+
0.028')
as 0.15, the time required per
I I t
I I I
t I I t I I
I I
T
I
Collecion
anc!
Pbcessing ol Solkl
Wasles
55
= 8 235 (0.2083 + 0.028 x) = (1.? 15 + 0.23 x) days/week
-
Weeklv cosl
'-16,000-600'8(1 715-0.21 x) - (t l04 x + 24212) Rs./weel
(The operational cost giveo as Rs 600 perhour = 600 8 Rs /day) Weekly Cost ofCollection using SCS: fhe number ofcontainers which may be emPtied pet trip can be calculated as:
ct =
'
Vehicle Capacity x ComPaction Ratio a6;Ei;;i3l6-;-e6;Ai;E;-utilizaiion Factor
j9j
= E r. 0.6
/ =
rr"re
say I I container per triP
The pickup time pertrip can be obtained as:
P",,= clc + (nP- l')dbc uc= 3min = 0.05 h Per container np= \1, dbc= 0.0661 hhriq p... = 1l x O.O5 + ( l1 - 1) 0.0667 = 1.2t7 hlttip The number oftrips required per week, week
Volume of wasles Der x' = l;lm;oi "-"rli"-r.--:6.Pffo,
rai;;
Per triP,
Time required
f.."=P...+J+a+Dr
= 1.211 + O.t + 0.022 0.014 (2.t) = tl.33o - 0.028x1 h/lriP
Time required Per week, = 5 ( 1.339 + 0.028 x) = (6.695 + 0.14
r)
h/week
Assuming8hoursworkingalayandanoff-routefactorequaltto015'thetimerequired
-l- = 6695+O14x (t -ol5),8
daYs Per week
= (0.984 + 0.0205
weeklv Cost.
x)
days Per week
r'
8 rO sE4 - 0 0205 = (131.164, + 36294 6) Rs /week SCS' asfollows: Thevalue ofx can be calculated by equating ttte weekly costs ofHCS and 1 t 04 r + 24232 = 131.'7 64 r + 36297.6 Thus r= 12.41 Km Therefore. the MRF should be located within 12 41 Km ofthe source ofMsw
-
3O,OO0
- 800
is to be reduced rlxamDle 2.4: A commingled MSW havingparticles of average size 3Oo mm' the.energv Determin€ ton h of 80 a capacity planl having a in so ,"-" iiiuf \rr' ot srTe Mb to reduce "f is required hp-h/ton of20 required by the plant ifa specific energy
ti*
150- mm to 50 mm.
.,
56
ATexbook of Solid Wastes Manegamant
Solution: The energy consumption can be calculated by using Kick,s Law. as foll-o\,rs:
E=
crnl+i 'k
t=
Energy consumption rate, hp_h/ton C = Calibration constant, hp-h/to, /r = Initiat size /. = Final size The cai ibration constant, C, can be calculated by using the given yalue ofspecific eners/,
:o=cr,l]I) i.e.,
C= 18.204 hp-h/ron Therefore, the energy consumption mte,
t
/in^\
hp
= 182041(:::50.1 = 12618
T
ton
The energy required by pianr
= E0:32.61 = 2609 hp = 4.146 \ 2609
= 1947 KW say about 2 N{egawatt
Example 2.5: Glass is separated from a comrningled MSW (having g% ofglass conten!) irommel screen, capacity l0o lons,/hour. Dere.mine the rec6ve" ."[. ,".;i". efficiency of the.screen, if the weighr of underilow ana weigtu ""a olgtass have been experimentally found ro be lo tons/hour and ?.2-tons/h'ouirer;;;;,".i.--"' w^ith_a
irir.;;;;;fff
Solution:
Le1,
Xrepresents the MSW. and Frepresents rhe Class to be separaled from MSW The fracrion of$eighr of MS\\ and Glass. Xo and fo will be a) follows:
Xo= 100-8=92ton,/h
=
fo
8
ton/h
The total overflow ofthe screen.
= i00 -
l0
= 90 ton/h
Fracrion ofGlass in the screen
l,r
=8
orerflo\ 7.2=0.8ron/h
,
Fraction ofMSW in the screen overflow,
X, = 90-0.8 = 89.2 ton/h
Total uoderflow ofthe screen = l0ton/h (given) Tolal fraction ofglass in the screen underfloq
f:
= 7.2 ton/h (given)
The fraction ofMSW in the screen underflow. X. l0 -7.2 = 2.8 ton/h
=
I I I I I
""
I I I I I I I I I I I
Co action and Pt*essing
Wastes
S?
Exampl€ 2.6: Determine the quantity ofoxygen required to oxidize completely I OOO kg MSW through composting. The chemical composition ofwastes is C6oHe5Oa0N.
of
of Sotid
The recovery rate ofglass is,
",
=(4f .,oo
=(f),roo=eox The purity ofMSW is given as:
,,*=(J+\.'oo
=(rffi)
',oo=,,,,*
The purity ofMSW is given as:
/v\ P= '2 l.rn6 -'E \ Xr+ytl / ,,
\
=lzE;L)'
100 =
12%
The efficiency ofthe trommel screen is given as:
f w
vl
E=11!-iIl,roo rol
llo .lg-!4^6 l. 19,!
l
roo = 66ssyo
Solutionl The oxygen requircment can be determined by usingthe following equation:
,,r,o"*,
,(9tff)o,
--;
oco, + (!-!4, + aru, )H,o
For the given wastes conposition,
a=60, b=95, c= 40,
and
d=l
C5qHerO..N + 63Q -+ 60CO2 +46H2O + NHr (2010 (2640) (828) (r7)
(r46e)
The oxygen required to oxidize ammonia can be calculated by usingthe following equation,
NH3 + 2O2 -+ H2O+HNO3
07) (54) 08) Oxygen
req
(63)
uired to oxidize the amm
r-fto.ii'r000=4ls6K8
on
ia generated from 1 000 Kg of wastes,
58
Alextbook
of Solid Wastes
Total oxygen required. = 1372.36
I I I
Managenanl
T
+ 43.56 =
1415.92 Kg 23.015olo ofoxygen by weight air contains Assumingthat The amount ofair required,
0.2i15 " '-'
Assuming the density ofair as ].2928 Kg/m3, the vollrne ofair required to oxidize 1000 Kg ofwastes, 6 t 16..28 --^. ^^ . m-IIII8=a/:r.u.r
Exrmple 2.7: Residential yard waste is to be composted mixed with some activated sludge from a wastewater lreatment plant. The compositions ofyard waste and that ofthe sludge are as follows:
C,4..I
ratio
Nitrogen Content
50
6.5
50% 0.8%
75o/o
60/.
Determine the proportions ofyard waste and sludgelo achieve
a blended
C,N ralio of25.
Solution: The percentage conposition ofyard wastes and sludge, I Kg each, can be determined as: (i) For 1 Kg ofyard wastes \\'arerconrenr. w- 0.50 . I = 0.50 Kg
Dry
matter = I
0.50 = 0.50 KC
-:: /.\ Cdrbon corrent. C =i :lN \ N/
. 050= 0001 Kg Nirroeen conrenr- N = luo
-
(,i)
=50'
0004 =
0:
Kg
For I Kg ofSludge water content,11,= 0.75 " I = 0.75 Kg Dry matter = 1 0.75 = 0.25 Kg Carbon contenl. C
/.\
ilN=65.0.015=0.0975Kg =\N/
Nitroeen conrenr. N = -
A
+^ IUU
,025
= 0015
Kg
Let, i. Kg ofsludge is to be blended with I Kg ofyard wastes to achieve a C,N ratio of25
c
- Nin lKgolyard*asres _ C in I Kgofyard$asles
N
0.2 + 0.0975.!
=
o
oo4+o.ot5r
x{Cin I Kgofsludge,_r< x(Nin I K8ofsludge)'-
-'-
x = 0.36 Kg Therefore, yard waste and sludge have to be blended in the rBtio of 1 : 0.16
I I I I I I
I I I
I t t
I I I
I
Collection and Processing al Solid
Wastes 59
Exsmple 2.8: D€termine the amounl ofair required for complete combustion of 1000 kg ofa waste having chemical composition as C60HejoaoN.
Solutions: The molecular weight oforganic component ofwaste is, = (60 x 12) +(9s * l) + (40 ' 16) + (lx i 4) = 1469
Percentage disribution ofC, H, O, and N in the waste is as belotyl
Che ical Co ponent [(60x i2)11469] x 100 =
C H
r lr]4691x
49.01
100 = 6.47 [(40x 1611469] : 100 = 43.57 [(l x 14y1469]: 100 = 0.95 [(95
o N
Netavailable hydrogen not bound as water, ,tl <, = 6.41 - 5:* = 1.024% Oxygen required for oxidali on of carbon in using the following equation:
1
0
00 Kg of waste can be
dete rm
ined by
C+Or-+CO2 (12')
(32)
O: required
(44)
12 --- 4901\,i;= - /l\1000 ffi.]
l306.ql Kg
Oxygen required for oxidizing hydrogen in 1000 Kg of wastes can be delermined by using the following equation: 2Hr +02 J 2H2O
(4) (32)
r
It t r T T
(36)
Toral Or required = 1306.91 - 81.c2 = I188.85 Kg Assuming that air contains 23.25% ofoxygen, Ifthe density ofair is 1.2928 Kg/m3, then volume ofair required
-:i--i=
= 44058
mr
1000 Kg of wastes
Example2.9: Delerminethe heat energy available in the exhauslgases Seneraled from the combustion of 150lons/day ofa MSW with energy content of 11,000 KJ,4g and the follo\ying chemical composition
Elemmi Percent by weight
C
28
HONSMoisturelnen 522412020
Assumethatlhe incinerator residue contains 5% carbon. The tempemtures ofthe entering air is 25'C . The residue from the grate is at 425'C.
Solution: Carbon in the residue can be calculated as:
Inerts' 150' ifi =l0 ron. du)
60
A Textbook ot Sotid Wastes Menagenent
lotai residue = 1
-a=65
=3
i.57 ren5r4u,
Carbon in residue = 31.57-30 = 1.579 tons/day :
=s-(.2.2s". Percentage of net available h!drosen H) drogen in bound war = izta I z ts"
^ Bornd \yalet = 22 +2.7 5",= 24 .j 5 Amount ofwater produced from combustion ofhydrogen
=
}ftff
toozs'
rso) = 303?s ronyday
Gross heal energy availabie = 150 l lOl)0 Loss ofheat energy can be determined as:
x
11000
= 1.65 x 109 KJid
s..\b. I,
Dle !o unbumt carbon
2.
Duelo inieren!moisturr
3_
Due to moisrrre in bound warer Due to mois&e from oxidarion
5. 6
Radidion loss
0.01579 x 1.5 105 \ 32789 = 7.j66 a_2v15\to :420=726 0.2a75 x 1.5 \ .Jj :2420 = 8.98 0.2025 x 1.5 : tO5 ,2420 = 7.3s
l5rlorx0.005=
Heai available in lEsidue
Totai Loss
0.2104 x 1.5 x l0r : (698K- 29EK) =
!
1.047
I
321
KJre K
= 0.32677 x t\e K)td
Net hearenergy available in the exhaust gases = 1.65\10e -0.32677 t t0e = 1.32i rlOeKJ,,d
EXERCISE
l. 2
.
Describe various m erhods vehictes used in coitectjon
ofco
ection ofmrrnicipal solid wastes. what are the comoon rypes
ofMSw.
of
S olid wasle is co llecled from a tocal ity u sinS a srationary conrainer sysrem, provid€d with lwo conraiaers (each orsize 4 m3 and utirilajon-ractor
oro.rslli.l.il"l.i.,lir,.;il:"*,"ja
minuftsroreachrofirsrcon*inerr,omga,ase sr_,r,*.,".,p.",i",""i;;;;;;,fi".:T,ii,., Inro tne rruct and avcraee time rakel bv ,he vuct ro corer rhc drstance betqe?; ;;r*;;;t,.
conrainer tocarions is ajso 6 minules. Th;round.uip h*j mrnures to reach rhegarage from lasl conrarner tocatior.
di"**. ir;;;;;;;;:;;;;;:;
,,
Estimate th€ required capaciry ofthe tuck jfth€ Dumbcr oftrips to disposatsireper d.y is 2 (8 hours .'", The speed timn of rrlck is 40 knrA. ard cotre"r"";.r,r.r" L,r"iiiJ","rri "orkday). i, i.r. J. Discuss lheissues rn!ojved in setectin8 a,ir€ forasoUa wastes t.ansrer rac;t,,r. cj\ ic aurhorilles deatwirh rle \iMBy s)ndrome.
r"" *rO *.
4. Dcscribe various lypes ofvehicles used tor r ranspo'tation
disadvantages.
5 6
ofMsw' Give their
advantagcs and
. What are the main mnsiderar;on iD rhe optimizarion of routes for transponation of MSW? techn iques for Materiat Separarion? What are its adv"ri";";;
. What are the comnoo
7. cive suitab le techn iques for sepamrion ofpaper, gla"",rn.t"ls_a tn"rtInar.ri"tiZ
I
I
I
T
I I I
Colectbn and Prccessing
of
€oliclwastes
61
8. Propose a recy.ling strategy for wastes ftom institutional area. Estimate the financial implications. 9. Ioran ideal recycling an d .ecovery program ofsolid uaste from a residential area, estimatethe residuals thal willneed 10 be ultimately dispos€d offin landfill.
I0. Whar
are the various wast€s processing systcms?
Givetheir suitabil;1y for Processing ofdiffercnt
of wastes cod1ponen!s. I I Describe various rypes of inciners.ors ard th€ factors affecting their efficiency. i : . s,har are the common problems associated wilh incinerators? Suggest suilable precautions to prevent ryPes
lj.
what
is the basic
difference between pyolysis and gasification? Give suhability ofthese techniques
14. what technique would you suggest for processing ofyard wastes? Give reasons Whar are the significant cortrol parameters in composling? C;ve lheir optimum values and the methods for controlling the same.
i5.
16. Write shod notes
(,i)
(iii)
or:
Chemicalcodversion Bangalore Merhod ofComposting
(,v) Neigiborhood Composting I
7. Exanline the solid uaste management system in you cily zone. D€sig, an inteerated lraste maragement system forthe same.
I I
I I I
Chapter
Disposal of Wastes on Land,fitt
I
i
a
j Wastes that can not be processed together iyith the residues need to be safely dkposed off. The long-term options ofwastes disposal include disposal on land, disposai deep below earth,s surface and dispoial in ocean bottoms. Land disposal is the most widelyused pmctice alloterthe world. Howeve.
dumping ol solid wastes on lafld has serious environmenlal impacrs. Mosr important, the leachate thrcugh the waste infillrates the soi] contaminating the ground\ ater. Frequenr outbreaks of\rater borne diseases esoecialli during rhe rain) season have been reponed in developing counrriis. Lani disposal should therefore be caried our in a properly deslgned Iandfill i.e.
an engineered landfill. An eDgineered landfill h not a dump but is
a
\r.aste disposal
facility designed
on scientific principles to protect the environjrent and public h;alth. ihis chapter discusses various types oflandfilis, its main components and the various operations involved in its construction and maintenance. Desigl of a.suitable eachate management systen and ofa gas control systeri are .l discussed in subsequent chapters.
DECOMPOSITION OF SOLIO WASTES IN LANDFILLS Solid wastes that h disposed offin a landfill decomposes by physical, chemical and bioiogical processes. physical decomposition of so]ij rraste" occrrrmainly due to flushing or rinsing action caused by rhe movemen! of wzt..r within rhe wasres. wasres panicles are degraded is a ,esult ofpressu.e and
concen!?tron gmdienrs. Chemical decomposirion ofwasles includes hldrolysis.
sorprion. desorplion. precipita!ion. dissolution. and ion exchange ofwisre cornponents. Biological decomposition ofwastes occu$ due to bacleria present in the waste or in the cover material. It slarts immediately afler th; disposalofwastes inthe landfill. As aresult ofihe combination oiphysical, chemical and bioiogical processes, the landfi ll can be consjdered as a naturai biachemical reactor. There are basically three stages ofwastes decomposition in a Iandfill i.e.
(i)
aerobic decomposition;
I
I
I I I I
I
I
I I I I
a
I I
I I
F
I
L L L Ir tr tr
L tr L L L
tt t
F
Disposal ofwastes on
(ii) (iii)
Landfill 63
facultative or nonmethanogenic anaerobic decomPosition
Aeroblc OecomPosltion
microorganisms_ Aerobic decompositiot of wastes is caused by lhe acetogenic-aerob;c ihe wastes are cleposrted rn This is lhe fiISt;tage ofdecomposition which stans soon afler a"-ui" o"composition occurs in lhe presence ofoxygen and is domi'anl near ttr.." lhe only as more oxygen is available lhere Deep inside a landfill if,r" tr.i"l" This tt"gt:o':: "if""anff, waste disposal air during source ofoxygen is the initially entrapPed
i*iirl. *ft""
".i i.llrii.Ji""ii
i"
l:
*
*rif"tleoxyien is exhausted Aerobic decomposition ofwastes in a Iandfill .."f1 depth'aear the surface.lhe reactioo that takes placeduring aerobic
".lyis" as under. decomposition
Biodegradable fractioo + oxgen J microorganisms
-
CzO
+ H2O + biomass (microorganisns) + heat + Panially biodegraded maierial
il:"T"t
wi$inlhe landlill,"].t: This process Produces carbon dioxide and the temperalure Highlevelsof fr,",*"it" i"f"i."a inthe process cont butes tothe formation ofleachateenvironment' alo*ia" a."."l""sed *hich form carbonic acids creating an acidic "uiUon
Facultative OecomPosition become Once the oxygen content is alepleted in the landfill, facultative microorganisms d€composition' Oo.in"nt iniiiu'ting tt aecond phase i.e. the facultative (or nonmethanogenic) ofvolatite fattv acids (vFA), ammonia' hvdrogen and hig; "
il;;il;."
""""entrat'ions carbon dioxide are Produced.
Degradable fi action of wastes
Microorganisms (new microo€anisms) + + biomass PartiallY biodegraded material
+ Facultalive
CO2
+
H2O
-+{fA
pH level ofthe landfill The Droduction ofcarbon dioxide continues inthis phase and the acidic leachate' genemlion ofhighly is furttr'er aecreased (s.5 ' 6.5) resulting in the
Anaeroblc DecomPositlon and produce methane' In ihis phase the anaerobic (methanogenic) bacteria become active
for many years' carboo dioxide and water. This p.ocess is relativeiy slow but continues votatite faty acias tormed earlierbecome substmte for methanogenic bacteria Consumpt;on increases the pH level to 7-s Therefore the leachate become less oith"r" o.ionic ""1a. phase' chemically aggressive. The followingare the general reaclions in this H2 +
CO2+
CH4 + H?O
Volatile Fatly Acids , CHa + CO? gases produced in this phase The dominantgas Produced inthis phase is methane Other action results in"tra. n;t.og"n i',a tydrogensulfide. Denitrification caused by the microbial
U
A Texlbook ol Solid WasEs Managenent
in the production ofnitrogen, while the hydrogen sulfide is produced by sulfate reducing bacteria. The methane generated during this phase has high calo fic value and is therefore suitzble forenergy recovery The commencement ofthjsphase may take six months to seveml yeam afterdisposal ofwastes on landfill site dependingupon seveft parameters e.g. pH, temperature, level ofcompaction etc. For maximum gas production the optimal range for pH should be between 6.7 and 7.5, andtemperature between 30 - 35.C
TYPES OF LANDFILLS Depending upon the area of land available and the method ofdisposal employed, iandlills can be classified as trench landfills. area tandfills, and slope landfills. Trench Landfills: Trench landfilt is the mosr widely used merhod oftandfilling (Fig. 3.1 a). In this system solid waste is disposed off in trenches or depressions below the njtural ground leve1. These landfills are suitable for a.eas where natural or man-made deprcssions are avaiiab le and water lable is very deep. Earth is excavated where suitable natuml depressions
are
notavailable. The s,desand base oftrench landfill are lined with impermeable materjals
to protect the groundwater
Flg. 3.1 (r): Trench Landtitt
Area Landlills:Area Iandfills are on-ground landfills (Fig.3.l ,). These are provided where natuml or man-made depressions are not available and excavatjon is difficult. Waste ftaterials are disposed ofron the ground sutface. Waste is covered with asuitable material! usually a 1a) er of soil. The cover malerial'soil is borrosed from some other locarion.
FIg. 3.1 (D): Ar6a Landfill
Slope Landfills: Slope landfills are provjded in hilly areas (Fig 3.1 c). Solid wasres are disposed off on local foothills after providing a suiiable liner and a leachate collection system. The stability ofslopes ofthe deposited waste is an important facto. in the design ofthese Iandfilis. In general, a wastes slope of3O to 35 degrees is considered to be safe for solid wastes disposal, depending upon the characteristics ofsolid wastes.
Disposal ofwases on
Landfill
65
Fig. 3.1 (c): SloPs Landiill
COMPONENTS OF A LANDFILL Various components ofa landfill site are defined in this section. A cross_section ofa landfill site is given in Fig. 3.2. Cell: The volume ofwaste deposiied in a landfill site during one operational period forms a 'cell'. The operational period is usually one day Size ofthe celi therefore depends uPon the daily volume ofwastes received at the landfill site. The cell systen is convenient as the rvastes deposited in the landfill each day needs to be covered the same day.
Daily cover: waste material is provided wilh a'daily cover' with usualiy a 15 to 30 cm thici layer ofsoil. other materials, suchas yald wastes afld composts' can also be used Lr cover mate.ial. The cover material Prevents surface runoff from entering into the wastes so as to reduce the leachate formation. lt helPs coltrol lhe blowing offoflitter from landfills'
+. Liit
+ uft
+ Flg. 3.2: Cross"seclion ol a Landlill
6
ATexbook of Solid Wastes Managenent
Microorganisms present inthe dailysoil coverhelp biodegadation oftheorganic fraction ofwastes. ln the event offires, the area becohes confined and the resulting-heat kills the insects and microorganisms. lt also helps inthe levelingand compaction op;ation. Further ithelps control the disease vectors, odors, birdmenace etc. The aesthetics a;ealso improved.
Lift: A 'lift'
is the heighr ofcells. Usually lifts are provided in a landlill. Height ofeach varies from 2 to 4m, depending upon the cell volume.
Iift
Behch: A 'Bench' is provided in the abovegound landfills uhen rhe height of wasres deposfued is more than I 0 to 20m. lt is provided after each li ft or after every alt; rnate Iift. It in;reas€s the stability ofthe landfill slope. Benches aiso facilitate surface drainage.
Leach.te Collection System: .Leachate' is produced when surface water infiltrates inro a landfill. The water squeezed out fiom the wastes during its compaction and consolidatron also mixes with the leachate. It carries numerous contaminants in it. Leachate should be carefully collected through a suitably designed leachate collection system. It should be treated before its release on the ground oi :r, , sewerage syslem,
Liner: A 'liner'
is a Iayer of impermeable material (e_g. clay, geomernbrane) provided at la.dfiils 10 prevent inliltation of leachate into the grouDdwaie; protection ofground waterhas to be ensured, bythe provision ofimpermeable Iayers or by consructing the base and sides of
barrier walls.
Gas Collectiol System: A numberofgases are generated during biological degradation wastes in the landfills. These gases may migmte to the adjacent areas a;d have-potential
of of
causingfire hazards and creating odor problems. Landfill gases should be collected utilized for energy recovery This is desirable from economic as well as environmental considerations. These gases are collected through a network ofpipes and wells provided in the landfllls.
Finrl Cover: The'final cover'is provided afte.the landfill site is filled to its fullcapacity. A well designed final cover includes a gas collection layer, a impbrmeable liner. a surface water drainage layer, and a layeroftopsoit for horticu lture. Finalcoveralso helps maintain
the aesthetics
ofthe
area.
REOUIBEMENTS OF AN ENGINEERED LANDFILL Location: The landfill sites must be located away from cotumuDity areas e.g. residential areas, hospitals, schools. It should be easily accessibleto transportation vehicies. Landfills should be located at sites where water table is deep. It should also be away from airports.
Capacity: The site should have sufficient capacity to absorb waste volumes produced in the area for a long period. Low-lying areas are suitable for reclamation by tandfi . I_arge depressio.s and quarrying sites are ideal sites for developing a sanitary Ia;dfill. Separation and Shr€dding: Separation and shredding ofwaste components are important operations in developing an engineered landfill. These operations reduce the vol;me of wastes and make it more homogeneous. Sepamtion and shredding reducethe load on a landfill site and increase its Iife. Many ofthe separated components can be recycled or reused.
Disposal of Wastes on Landfrn 6Z
CoEpaction atrd Levelling: Compaction decreases penneability and increases bulkdensity aDd shear strength olwastes. It also minimizes the wasle volumethus increases the la;dfill rra!6ciO: Levelinghelps in easy operation and movement oftrailers and equipmentaDd results in a 'and surface good for irs inlended use.
EEvirotrmentel MonitoriDg Syst€m: Envjronmentai monitoring system is a mandatory requirement. Monitoiing is carried out to control pollution ofthe air, witei and iand envircnment due to aDy ofthe landfilloperations. Monitoringcan be carried out by collectingair, water and soil sampies a, regular intervals fiom locations in and around t;e landfill sie. Insitu or
c{
ine monitoring probes may also be installed on
a
pemanent bas;s.
Rodent Control: Rodents and other burrow animals multiply on landfills. A surface finish proper soil cover allo.ws derection ofburrovrs. Regulirinspection. a baiting program, " and careful use of pesricides are some ofthe measures thar help check ttris men-ace.
*ith
Aesthetics: Many landfill operations (e.g. moving of vehicles, compaction) blow offdust visibiliry Birds and animals thrivingoverthe wastes also disturb the aesthetics ofthe area. Use of proper equipment and provision ofsuitable dailycoverheips in maintainrng the aesthetics. Good horticultural practjces also improve the aisthetics oi.the area. and reduce
MaDsgement: Efficient administration is an important requiremenl oflandfill disposal. A proper-vigil overvarious landfill operations inc Iuding maintenance ofequipment,iraining ofstaffand systematic monitoring are is necessary,
.lmplnantconsiderationsinrheplanninganddesignofanengineeredlandfillarepresented in Table l.i
SITE SELECTION Public resistance to localing a landfill near their res idential area is well known. Thegeneral perception isthat a landfil I deteriorates the environment and is a
threat to health and p;perty. This perception is reinforced ifcare is not taken to ensure good aesthetics and pioper maintenance ofthe landfrli site. Important considerations in the selection ofa landfill site are as follows:
. . . o
.
t andfili should be located away from the community arcas but should be easily approachable. There should be sufficient road netwo.k available to avoid traffic c;gestion. the haul distance ofwastes should be optimal. Land area available should be suflcjenl forat least fi\e years. Additiorally. adeouare area should also be available to provide various necessary faciliries e.g. a sire oifice, a workshop, leachate treatmeDt facility. Grolndwater table should be deep in the area. Desirabl e depth of water table be low the bottom of landfill varies with the type of subsoil and the ctimate ofrhe reeion. However. i! should not be Iess than 5m. Areas prone ro waler ioggjng or flo;ding should be avoided for landfill siting. Soil to be used for daily cover should be available nearbv. Local climate e.g. temperature. wind velocity. and winj direclion should be taken intoaccounl in the site selecrion. Landfillshould be located in the predominanl downwind ofthe wind in the area
8
A Textbook of Sotid Wastes Managenent
T.ble 3.t: imponant Consideralions in the Design ofa Landfitl
(, {i, (,
Envim.menrat irnpa.t
(r')
(", (,
Dejgn offilling ar€a
Exi{irg $lection of ditrerent possibl€
sites
vircTe.nrar tnpa.1 {ssessmmr ( ELA , Repon ;ere4ron ot one besr sire based on FtA
IellloTfEl
Seiaion oflardfitting meood
b3s€d on sire
elc.
(,, lii4
opogmphy. subsurfr.a stra:a-
l€IEdL iR fitr depdl daily colg.fiiao,€ss! rlermedIate co^r er rh ickless. rhrctness of tiner and finat cover/ sDc.rrrarion o toperd.ionat feanEs , m,-$od jevetin&
hg^g:y-",r.r,-*a
ao
ot compa.rioD.
8/adrn& t'-arsponaEon of co! er marenal. equ ipmenr rc4unemeni $afi Desisn
(,
oft-andfiil
(ii) (.iii)
{D) Surfac€ water diversions (, Sp€cial workire area
(,i) SilE Offce (ui) Ub*shop for equipme.irt
('r,
Equipment
(a) Ltttils (r) Fq]cinS (.r,
Pa*ing
Monirodng f a.ilitjes!rcb.s Planrrdon and ladscapms
(,
D€sign Documenrt
De\ eiopmenr ofprclimLlary sir! ptan
1'r)
::,:yTli1llyll,
-,.ur
offi
arEas
pra,L€xcavdion pran. sequenriar nrr prans.
cornpterldtrthtarr. firE pre! oooi ,no noi.. -ior1 r,n ,. , r, "..ori d,ve6ion "onro Compulation!fsolid wasre slor.ge votumes. qu?nriry ofcover material, andlifeofl d6ll D€! elopment of fnal sire ptan mc luding nomat fiI arEas. special wod,ing surlac€ waEr
,
l,rl
rn)
area5
dur,ng rains.,leachak conrot systern. gas conrot iysrem, accesi
roa.s. snE
rrr
rrr
ofic€
and orhersrrustu
Es e.e,
p,"b"s,ido*.;;;-**''"
".,1, prcparation ofete!arion pians complered
f II ard
lljri
phare devetopmenl
wo*shoi -'*upa'dsarage monitorine
cross-sections ofe\cn\ared
fiij,
fili at various nages daarts for fencinp ac.6s roads- jin€rt l€a.Ia! colledjon aId disposaj slsBm8as cotjeflio,;d enelE/ r€ravffy offlariig lacrlrues. surfa.e w?der dit crsion prepara,onofcoflsurGion
ctranncts. u
ortshop. garae.
sire
omJ
(v,, PrEparaion offinal jardus. pjan afEr cjo,ure oftandfifl lviii) rrcp€Eron o, e vnlnmEnralmonibrinsDla (E) PrEparation of con efi irnals
(r)
(:,
PrepBnrion of design report Applicarion zlonguirl EIA Epon for ohzining appro|"l of&e Egu taring
t I I
I
T
I
I
Disposatofwastes on
.
Landtit
69
A cornprehensive Environmenral trnnrcr Assessment (EIA, should be carried our betore finalizinsa sire
for a tandfil. The meihodolo$.and,l,. _rnp"r_" the scope of rhe study shouid conform tJthe CpCB ;; ;;E;"iii.'ii.r,yiiiiui"g
;;;"1]r:::"t"S""
ChapterT).
Use of IT Toots in the Site S6tection IT (Information Technology) toois such as_Geographical inforrl1ation Sysrem (GlS)and GeoDosiiioning s)stem rcps) are now werl recognrzed technioues Lsed f^r.^rr.-,i,
srorase. manrpurarion. browsins. anarlsis and
pr".;";;;;;;;;;;,,;;id;;:^i"",n;:ffil,",:;
arealreadyusingsuihrcotsi.lplanninearddesim6rr,;",^.^.,,:^l_^-1-lll::'"i:'1"'j *''' or\aious environmenral projecs i'c)uding rhe sirins'or;;"sr;;;;;;-", i;;;;;;:i.'-
G PS-a small and generall) handheld insuuinent gives instant geographical position ofany location in the field with the heip ofdiftereor ';.::.:;"."1.: satellres arouio r-t ha\e the racirir\ ro create aaatabise in rhe "'".;;
freiJa;;lj;;;;;;,,;,::'il,JiJ#:iil;
about various attributes. The data can be transferrea to rle coriputers for
re;;;;;;;r",r.".
G-ls-is exrensiver) used for pranning and deveropment. Inpurs from Gps and orher soar.ar datasourcese.g.remoresensinqsareliireimaperi"._,.r"'r-,-^,-,^,-^1"_l:"i^',p:l
d"oi","g,",i;;;;;;;;b;.il"ffi;;;: j,.,T:::il::.tj;:Ji,g':J:1,,o;:;Tro;;:1rr::: Trbtel.2: cIS Operations in Landfill Site Setection
.
Map Transformation
To bring the dala layers inro a srngJe maD
To$ea€bufferarohd
. E)daction
certain fentures
Droiedio.
;.e
tand aren
qrr,n
200 mof a
To select differcntclasses
ofaje3 from tle map (uch as avartabteopen land arca or densety poputated aea To compare variousrnaps and locate areas conforming ro a panicular
. Overlay
To pres€nt the mrps
witl arhoiaiions
for easy and clear vjew.
Th€ first stage inthe selection ofsite is to incorr,orate data ioto GIs from various sources including toposheets. soil map.. masrer
D|ans. road.mups. .e*.rag. and *"r..,rppfi .rp" remote sensing imageries. These data are srored in rhe form of_'-r__ t,v;.-::i:.^l'-', !q!'r ro.)st lu'trdrrrlng dataon one characteristi c or criteria, oncet: rs stored in Gls- five maior oPeraiions are carried out as descriuea in raute:.2. ]a
_,";r".
rrrllo
".;t".i","u*r.ir,"
",ullil;;;:;;.:iio*'r'1ff'fl:["r::iL:l
"* anarvzins differenr
LAYOUT OF A LANOFILL SITE The general layout
Iandfllifacitiq
I. 2.
, r.
ofa landfill facilitv vaiies from site Fis.l.j. A rnicauandfirrrh"rtd
is show,n in
Approach roads: to
to site. A r,vpical layour plan
i;;i,;;;; i.li;ffir_"r::,iit:ofa
the movement oftraffic in the Iandfill area Cales.,Fenc;ng,and a Security sysrem: ro conrrol enrry of unaulhorized people te.B. ragp'cker5l and also to pre\ ent thefrs and enrry of stra) ease
animals.
wergn Drrdge. ro\Leigh thedait) \oJumesof !lasres recei\ed arthe sile
I
70
I I
ATenbook ot Solid Wastes Management
t I I I
*'/ (
]L:
I
o,l s"r"
Fig.3.3: Typical Layoui Plan oi a Landfitt
4. 5. 6. 7. 8.
Sile Office:with propercommunication facilities: Required for slaffworking at landfiil aite. Area for wastes processing: required for material separalion etc, Area forwastesdisposal: acrr"l landfllling area. Area for cover materiai: to slore the cover material. Area fortemporaiJ storage ofwastes: required specially during rainy season to avoid
exposure ofwastes to rainwater, 9. Drainage facilitiesr required to diverl surface runoff. 10. Parking: required for parking ofequipments and vehicles 11. Workhopr required for maintenance and.epair ofeqEipmenls as \vellas for machinery andmaterial storage. A typical Iist of equipment required foroperation and maintenance ofa landfill sile is given in Table 3.3.
12. Leachaae coilection and trealment facilities: required for colleclion. recirculation. lreatment and disposal of leachate. 13. Gas storage facilities: required for energy recovery or flaring 14. Planting oftrees on tbe periphery: to reduce noise, odor and to improve aestheiics. 15. Environment monitoiing facilities: including an environmental Iaboratory dalabase managemenl system, Table3.3: Common Equ ipmenrs Req uired forLandfilling Operarjons
. Colle.tio!
Handcais, Pedal Trjc_vcies, Motor Tricycles, TmctoB
ud T.aile6
etc
.
Hoist Trucks. Tilt-frane cotuainels, Trash railels. Tralrols and Tlailers etc.
.
Marerial Sepalalion
Air classifiers, inenial separators, electric ard mag.eric separators eic.
.
Size Reduction
Shreddels, Glass crusheN, wood grinders, Balers. etc.
.Ladfilling
Excavalois, Bulldozers, Dump
Truck, ConpacloE, Poad gzde6, Wd€l ltI*els, d..
r r
I r I I I I I I I I
Dbposal al Wastes on
Landfill
71
LANDFILL OPERATIONS L3ndfil] should ope.ate 24 hours all the yearround.lt should be readyto receivethe waste as and when it afiives at the site. Landfill operations include construction ofcells,lelelling and compaction ofwasles, providing daily coveretc. These operations are discussed beio$'.
\*'eighing of Waste: Wastes received at the landfill site should
be weighed over a weigh bridge. It is nec€ssary to maintain a database ofthe quant:ty ofwastes received at the landfill site.
Waste Deposition in Cells: Layout ofcells is an important part oflandfili oPerations. waslas disposal in landJllls is carried out iD a phased manner. The entire iandfill area is divided into a oumber of cells. Du.ing the filling of wasles in one cell, anolher cell is p.epared. The layout ofcells dePends upon the type oflandfill and methods adopted for disposal ofwastes. Various types ofceil layouts for area landfiil, trench landfill and slope
landfills are shown in Fig. 1.4.
Flg. 3.4: vaious Types ol Cell LayoLrts
The dimensions ofa celi depend upon the volume ofwastes to be deposited in it, taking into account the daily volumes. To providing operating area for unloading ofwasles, it is preferable to constrlct long and narrow cells. The longer face redules the waitingtime of trucks for emptying. Narrow widths are desirable for controlled and orderly operations including compaction and covering ofwastes. Height ofcells is usualiykept upto 3m which is considered safe against any excessive settlement or sloPe failure. Cells oflarger heights may require less amount of covering material but will increase danger ofsettlement and slope failure. The side slope
ofcell
can vary between l0 to 30 percent
Spreading, Leveling 5nd Compsctior: Waste deposited in cells is spread in the cell area with the help ofbulldozers or any other suitable machinery. Th€ wastes is then levelled and compacted. Usually waste is compacted in layers of30 to 50 cm thickness The compaclion
72
A Texlbook of Solid Wastes Management
of waste should be continoed so as to obtain optimum density. In general, three to five passes ofa compactor are sufficienlto achieve desirable results. Subsequent compactiod can also be achieved through pjying thetrucks overcompleted cells.
Providing Daily Cover: Wasles deposilgd in the cell should be covered at the end ofeach day. Locally available soil or soil borrowed ftom nearby areas should be kepl rcady for this purpose. In general, a layer of l5 cm thick soil is sufficient fordaily cover. Altematively other cover materials e-g. tree leaves, yard wastes, geotextiles oaplastic sheets can also be used for covering ofwastes.
Ssf€ty and Security: Landfill must be provided with a suitable fencing for security and safety. To avoid health hazards to workers orusers due atiention must be paid to thetype of wastes received. Hazardous wastes received, ifany, should be properly handl ed to avoid any 'tUorkers engaBed in unloading, spreading, or exposu.e to human beings or environment. provided with special uniform including protective shoes compaction ofwastes should be and gloves etc.
Record Keeping: It is necessart to maintain 4 proper record of wastes received at the iandfill. This willbe needed frequentlye.g. to make paymen!aswell as toensure compliance oflegal requirements. It shoujd include both the quantitative and qualitative data, locations from wherewasre is received, weigh! and number oftruck which bring solid wastes, collection routes oftrucks etc. MANAGEMENT OF A LANDFILL SITE Management
. . . . . . .
oflandfill site inciudes
the following steps:
Conslruction ofapproach roads, inlemal roads and ramps for lhe free flow ofvehicle and equipment.
Proper surface drainage system to the groundwater ftom leachale contaminationWind barriers e.g. large trees may be planted io prevent scattering oflitter. Leachate must. be collected and disposed off after suitable treatmenl. A leachate lreatment facility should be provided for this pu.pose. Gas collection system should be monitored to check its elT:ciency. It should be regularly maintained such that collection pipes and gas wells operate properly. Health checkup olworkers at sanitary landfill site should be carried ort regularly. Proper arrangements shall be made for the supply ofdrinking water to workers. Any chance ofpollution due to landfill operations should be prevented by taking suitable measures. Pollutio, likely due to some landfill operations and suitable preventive measures are presented in Table 3.4.
FINAL COVER After a landfill has been filled !o its full capacity it is necessary to close the landfill with a finai cover. The final cover is provided to minimize the infiltratior) ofsurface runoff, to prevent the release of landfill gases. lo prevent animals, birds and rodents from thriving over landfill and to serve as a suitable layer forplanting oftrees. A landfili finalcover must be designed 1o fulfi1l the following requirements:
Dispsal ofwast3s on
Landlll
73
shouldbe durable and able to withstand climatic extremes e.g, hot/cold, dry/wet, and freezelthaw conditions; should be resislantto \yater and wind erosion; shouid adjustto differential settlemenl inthe landfill; shoutd be resistant to disruptions caused by plants, burrowing animals, worms and insects;and should help in landfill site reclamation at a later stage.
Tsbl.3.4: Pollution Prevention in Landfill Operations
Prewntie Medsutes S'ie preparation, disposal
of
wastes, u"affic dust, spreading
\oise
Mov€ment of h€a\y vetrcles and ma.hinery e.g.
cofipactoE
D€.omposition of uncovered wanes, lardfill g?s etc.
Odor
wa,ter spraying on access roads, landfilling afta, ard c.va material
Peripher.l iree plartation and poper maintlnanc€ of machinef . Etrective daily cover, and gas ..ntrol.
Efie.live daily c.ver
Litlr
Uooovered wsie, poor
Trffic
krgE
Mud on the roads
carryinevehicles Caried by transportalion vehicles
number
of\rastes
Proper compaction and c.vedng ofwasles Suitable routing of \€hicl6 Wheel clearing
of vehicles
components ol a Final Cover A typical cover for municipal solid wastes landfill site is shown ;n Fig. 3.5. It consists ola gas coltection layer followed by a barder iayer, a surface drainage layer and a top soil layer. Various components ofthe final cover and their primary functions are described in Table 3.5.
Tabl.3,5: various Components ofa Final Cover
Periodic Soil Layer Sand Layer
BanierLayer DrainageLayer Top SoilCover
Daily coverto cells Facili@tes gas collectioD' Prevents infiitratio4lhioughthe cover
For easy lateral drainage of surface rurof For growrh oftrees and plants,reduce wind erosion
soil Layer: This is the layer ofdaily soii cover placed over lhe waste. Sand Lryer: It is a gas collection layer and is provided overthe daily soil cover ofthe final Iayer ofthe wastes. Ii is usually a i 50 to 200 mm thick layer ofuniformly graded sand. A network of perforated pipes is provided withinthe gas collection layer to help in the collection ofgas migrating towards the top of landfill.
74
A Textbook of Solid Wastes Manaoement
Barrier Leyert Above the gas coliection iayer a barrier laver is provided. Barrier
layer consists ofa 200to 300 mm thick layer ofclay or a soii-bentorfite mix overlain by an HDPE membrane. A barder layer servestwo main purposes. Fi6tly, it prgvents.the upward flory of landfill gases tc lhe ambient atmosphere. Secondiy, it prevents the infiltration ofwater into the landfill from external source e.g. surface runoffor rainwater falling over the landfill. A s lope of 5 to i 0 percent is pro\'id ed i n the baftier layer, from centre towards the boundarrofthe landfill in both the directions. The barrier laver minimizes the volume of leachate and also the cos! involved in pumping, treatmentand disposal ofleachate.
Top soiL ior vegelalion
Sand lay6r (gas colrecljon) Soli cove' (daiiy cover)
Fig. 3.5: Typical Cross-sec|on of Landtilt Cover
Drainage Layer: A surface dminage iayer overlies the barier Iayer. lt faciljtates the flow ofsurface water. Surface drainage layer is a sand la],er, about I O0 to 150 mm thick. Surface water diversion channels are also provided at the periphery oflandfill, which receive water from the drainape layer and to diver! the runoffsafely (Fig. 3.6). Top Soil Layer: The topmost layer is ofsoil containing humus. ft supports the vegetation over the landfill and helps in landscaping ofthe area. The thickness ofthis layer varies from 40 to IOO cm depending upon the root zone ofrhe planls selected for rhi; sire. Regular monitoring ofthe Iandfill cover is required to check erosion due to wind or water and ro observe the settlemenr ofthe landfi1l.
Ma;n Elements in Design
ol Finat
Cover
important el€ments in the design offinal cover includematerial selection, compaction, rhickress, setllement, surface slope, dminage andvegeration. These are briefly described below.
Disposalafwastes
an
Landfill
75
(Soe Fig' 3'5) Final cover
Flg. 3.6: Sudac€ Waier Drainage Channel
Material: Selection of various material used in different layers of covel the vicinity uron i t fo""f uvaitabilit. For inslance, ifthe clayis easily available in .^ u. *.d iD the barrier layer' othetwise othei alternatives such as locally
Sel€ction of
i".""i.
"ii""Jnii;t
be u.ended soil (with bentonite or any other material)' orflyash can "r"if"ti..",r*f ,r"J a.p"naing upon the cost involved. Factots such as strenglh and durability are also considered while selecting a material
*ll,
good strength' ll reduces ComDaction: Compaction ofdifferent layers is necessa'ry to achieve *e oirm"aUitity aoa controls infillration ofsurface runoff Poor comPaction resuhs in due to wind and trater actions, and results in storage ofmore water in Pores'
"nit'..osion
rel ief Relief is defined Thickness r Thickness of cover shou ld be about more lhan twice lhe point of irregularities on the top as the vertical distance from the high point to the low of cover ,rri*e oittt" . ot i a *u.!e within a tto 1 5 m spati al region The actual thickness gas migration' penerallv oror ided in landfills depends on several factors e'g infiltration may therefore cover offinal thickness zo:re The root vegeiation i.."r"lriaii"*. u"m*uiliry,
.ange
from i.0 m to 2-0 m.
?6
A Textbook ol Sotid Wastes Management
DilTerenti.l Setdehcnt: Volume changes due to biological decomposition ofrrastes. reduction of void space and compression of loose materiuti*.. .lrr" i"nr"rl", -uy cove...An.average settlement of lO to 1l pe.cent ofthe over;ll "i]""anrr depth ha. U.", oU*.rii many landfills_ Mostofthis sett,ement occurs in the firstyear "" Covers mrri ia a"rl*.0," accommodare differential sefllements as well as Iong_lerm p,"p"..".i""i_ subsidence. * *'' of$asres and uniform deposition ofwastes redr." i;n r.n,i"i.",,r-.r;;r'_'Surface Slope: Sritable surface slope is provided to allow removal of surface water as i" ,;i-;i.;;. surfec€ Dr'ainage: Drainage rires or pipes within the cover are provided to rernove any water thar infilrrares the cover. lr aiso diverrs the surface runoff frim thl;dj";;;;; ;;;", soon as possible. Suiface slope of 5 percent lowards the edge of IandfiX
Vegetatioh: Vegetation maintains rhe integriiy ofrhe cover. Selecrion ofan aDDroDriare
vegetation species is based on its srj.vjval facrors e.g. ctimate, soit ofroors to withstand landfill gas in the rooa zone.
fpe;;;;l;i;r,-Jtitiry
I Sol
Fig.3.7: Typical Monitoring tnstr!m€ntation at Landfil Sits
ENVIBONMENTAL I{ONITORING OF LANDFILL SITE Monitoring of,landfill sire is req!ired lo pre!ent-the migratioo ofpollutants into the sunounding envr ro nmenr. Mon iroring is main t) carried out for cheik ing air q uatiry. gro;;;;;;;p;-l t"""r, and \ado7e zone conraminarion. Moniroring srations are esrablishej aid probes are. ins;;iled at th€ periphery oflandliit as well as within ie ianaAff. ftg.:.2 sfrows rypi'caii".or."*ii"" at a Iandfitlsire lor the co ection of data for various envi.inmental pari;;;;;;i;;;i", ofsuirabte instrumentarion or probes depends upon rhe characle;isil;. well as legat requiremenrs. Special care is required for,,o,iito,in;;i "i;"it;;;;r;. ." h;;;;;;;t"s landfillsJe.
I I
I I
I
I t I
I
Disposal ofwastes an
Landfill 77
(i) monitoring Air Quelity Monitoring: Monitoring of air quality at a landfill site involves gas' landfill (ii) monitoring of ofambient -'a.ii"" air qualiry and is carried out to detect any gas migrating from the landfill .onitoring ity ir"f
"ft intothe s;soil. various types ofsampling devices and-monitorinB * ii"-""ri....'"" ". inr*i"nta ttu"" U""n A"veloPeal for this purpose A commoniy used grab samPler for collecting
,^.
;;;
it .r,"*" i" rig. :. A. ,Air q,aiiq is also monirored for suspended paniculate for i'srM;. Hish volum-e sampleriare commonlv used to grab rhe sample of air
*."i..
monito.ing ofSPM.
,7
(glaairool)
,/,probe
H
Vacuum oumD
Fig
3 8: Glab Sampler
gas is carried out io determine its composition Thisisusefulin l"nd-fill gas is suitable for ene'gy recovery or it should be flared off
Monitoring oflandfill
a""iai"c
;i;"ih*
tt
"
to detect any conlamination Ground\f,ater Monitoring: Groundwatermoniloring is carried out aretollecled lrom of sroundwaler due lo leakage ofleachale or ga< from landfill Samples peripher) ofthe landllll lhese a n-umber of boreholes (Fig. 1.9)locatedall around lhe quality parameters SamPles samoles are then anallzed in the laboratory lor various water
.^'^1."i" site.
"oif*"a'f.om
hand pumps, tube wells, dug
well' springs, ifany near the landfill
water within the pore spaces Vaaloze Zone Monitoring: Vadoze zone conlains bolh air and
oi*ir. rf,"."fo." **itJring oualilv of air in vadoze f.
ri. iurpi.,
ut.o
is carried out for quality of the air and
zone is monilored by usiDg a moniioring probe as sho\rn in Fig' a! Yarious depths in the vadoze zon; Th's helps in detecting
"olleckd ^." any lateral migratiofl oflandfill gas ---'f-iquiJ
)
a lected-by using a suction lys imeter (Fig 3 1 l lt cons ists of ""r*p cup "ol rc anonporous PvC tube Soil moisture is drawn into the cuP po.ous p"r". ty "ttuched a negative pressure collected sample isthen analyzed in the
f".
"".u.i" ii."rgi
ofthe liquid in the
i,.
laboratory.
-.
"pplying
78
ATextbook ol Solid Wast$ Management Ciear"nce lo. samp €r (15 cm)
r-1--
*7SN
+sand
I
ter
Bentonire sea (1oocm)
r
]s
.
cmr
_
Sand lilter (60.m)
-----T
Grav€ pack (150 cm) above s orted PiPe
I
Centenng plug
Fig. 3.9: Groundwarer Monitoring We
Monitoring-ofiandfill site requires a large nurrlber ofequipment. It req!ires collection and analysis ofa large numberofsamples at regular intervais. An environmental laboratory should therefore be an jntegral part ofdevelopment of a landfill. CpCB has provided
a
comprehensive lis! ofequipment for setting up an environmental laboratory lTable 3.0y. The midmum equipment required (Class C Iaboratory) rnaybeprocured in ttre first instaace. Laterlhis laboratory may be upgraded io Class B or further to alass A levet ty adaing more and more equipmenl
as and
when the funds become availabie.
T, bl. 3.6: Typical List of
Nane
o.f I nstrune nt./ Equiphe
Eq
uipments for Setring up Environmenlat Laborarory
nt
Class
A
B
Cr,rs C
-6 (contd.
ot p. 80)
Class
Itrstmments Automatic Atomic Absorpdon Spectrophorometer Corductivity Meter Dissolved Oxygen Mete. FlamePhotoderer Gas Liquid Chromatograph pH Meler wirh combined classcalomel etectrodes Table
3
Disposalolwastes on 15 cm dla aruminium cssin! sample po4 (ontrguEiion
I
I 16-l+ ( /5 ch -J l | 10.tr1o ) ( 1o!h t_]
6tun 25mm PVC probe scH 4a
TYPkardla
lregEEl Flg. 3.10: Probe toI Air Quality Moniioring in vadoze zon€
Fig. 3.11: TyPical LYsimeter
Landlll
79
a
A
A Texbook ot Sotid Wastes Management
Table 3.6 (con
d.
lrom p. 7E)
Ponable Anatysis Kit, D.o.
!pectrocotorim€rer
T.rp;;;:;it;;;;G;
l
sP.ctr-ophotometer I L v visibteand IR wilh flow throuShc.I) specrrrc Ion Meter with Microoocessor Specific Ion M€rer tordinarv I Tolal Organic Carbon Arar;?.r
TurbidityMeter
-
i
EquipDeDts
+
Aqlarium for bjoassay& aerators Balance (upto O.0t ihs) Balance
;
(upto0.l0m;i
+ +
BOD Incubaror Bact€dologicat In.ubator Borom Sampler
I
Centrifuge
Colon) Counter (Etecnonic) Color Colnparator
I I
Depth Sampter
Filtratjon Pumps (vacuum) Floccularor (Jar Te$ Appararus)
+
Flask Shaker Funing Cllamber Cas Analysis Apparatus Hot PIare lDifferenl sizel
+
+
;
HeatinAmanttes
Inocularion chamber Magnetic Stiner with hot Dtare
l
Muffle Fuha..
+
Oven (hot air)
Refrigerator (bis size) Rotary Shaker Srop watch Thermom eter (differen r rarees
+
+
I
water disrilarion assembi\ iordinai Water Bath ( Therm osra!ic Conx6l I '
Microscope (ordina^ I ttlicroscope r researci, r Microscope (ptarkronic invefted Filtration Assembty (mi,liDorer COD Disesrion Assemht.
I
I
Additional lnstruments tor Air euality Monitorlng
Beta-Ra) Panicutare Maner ADaivzer High volulne Sampjer wirh caseo;s Moniroring Sysrem fi and, sampler for gaseous monirorins
+
+ +
+
l
;
I I
I t
I I I
I I
I
Dis6elof
Wastes on
Lahdfill
61
Noldispersive Ambient CO Analyzer Slack Moritodrg Kit Pulse Fluorescence A-rdbient SO, Aralyzer CheoihrmirescenceBared NOx Alalyzer
+
++
SEoke DeDsity Meter Exlausl CO/HC A.oalyzer Exhaust NOx Alalyzer Whd Speed & Wind Directior Recorder
+
Sodar System SozlaPr CPCB (1494).
SPECIFICATIONS FOR LANDFILL SITES SpecilicatioDs for the deveiopnreDt of a landfill are coDtaired in the Municipal Wastes (management & Handling) Rules, 2000 laid doun by the Ministry ofEovirolmetrt and Forcsts, Govemment oflndia vide its notification of 25th September, 2000- These are comprehensive guideliDes and should be followed squpulously for ensuring eDvironmental proteclion as well as for compliance with the rules and regulations. these are summmized below.
1
2.
The municipal authority ofthe concemed district and town shall identify, develop aDd mailtain oDe ormore landfill sites asthe case maybeforthe disposal of municipal solid wastes. Prior to commencemeDt ofla[dfiIling, the laDdfill site shall be planned and design€d with proper documenlation ofa phased construction plan as well as a closure plan. The Mudcipal aurhority shall ideDtiry the disposal site aftel environment impact asses$nen1 in a city/lor,m having populatiotr more thaD
five lacs and Uldng into consideration
oflh€ competent authority. The idetrtified sites shailbe brought into public notice for their views. 3. The landfill sites shall be selectedto make use oftrearby wastes processing facility. Otherwise wastes processhg facility shall be planned as ad integral part ofthe landfill the views
site.
4.
The existhg laDdfill sitesthat cotrthue to be used improved in accordance of these specilicatiotrs.
fotmore than {ive years, shall be
5. The landfill sites in muDicipal bodies haviag more tha[ 5 lakh populatioD shall be us€d ody forthose municipal solid wastes &at are not suitable for bio-c ompo sting orrecycling.
6. Biomedical
waste, slaughter house waste (includiDg fish, meat, poultry proc€ssilg), iidustrial wastes, sludge and otherhazardous wastes shall not be dumped at landfill site meant for disposal ofDoD-hazardous and Dod-biodegradable wastes. Biomedical wastes shall be disposed ofas per the Bio-medical Wastes (Managemetrt and Handling) Rules, 1998. Ilazardous wastes shall be ma.naged as per the llazardous Wastes O4anagemeDt and Handling)Rules. I 989. be large enough to last for 20-25 y€ars a,d preferably withir 5 km from present city limits. The sile shall be at least 0.5 km away from habitarioo clusters, forest areas, monuments, national parks, wetlands ard places ofimpotant cultural, historical or religious interest.
7. The lardfill siie shali
8.
r I
e
A Tenbook ot Solid Wasles Management
9. Landfill site
shall be at least 20 km awa) froln airport including airbase. Municipal aurhorities shal obrain approvai ofairpo&airbasi aurt oriries piior ioitr;.";;;;
rp ofthe landfill sire_ 10. A 500 m wide buffer zone ofno-development be maintained aiound landfill site and " "' shall be incorporared in rhe To\rn planning Dep".rn.n,.. tuna_ri" oti".-"" li. Landfitisite shalt be tenced4redged and proiia.a *i,f, p."p., g"" i" i""iio, incoming vehicles or other modes o.transponation. I: The landfill sie shali be!reilprorectedloprevenrentr] ofslra! animals. rr. Approacn and other inlernal roads for free floq ofvehicles and orher machinery shall exist at the landfill sire. I4 The Iandfill srie shall have t"astes inspection facijit) to monitor wasres brousht in for landlill, office faciliry for record keeping ana ,f,.ir", i". f,.+i"C .qr;pr".ri'j"A
including pol lution monitonng equrpmeDt. - machinery 15. Pro\isionstikeueigh bridgeto meas.urequiniiryof*asre broughtat laDdfill sire, -be ltre prorecrion equ;pments and orher facilities as reqrLired. shall provideJ ioi all ciries \ ith more than 5 ldkh popularion. I6. Utiliries suchas orinlinEt \.rarer {preferabl} barhing faciliries ro workerst end liohri a,ransemenls foreasy r-inrr op"*,;on. ,:t"ij.X: .
I
.
7.
*r,ln.J.i#;il;:ili,
Safeq Drovisions inctudineheairh insnecrion
made. 18.
ffi or."*"""ii-inrl rl.'J;;ilff;]":]," ,a/r EP
Wastes subjected to
landfilling sha be compacted in thin layers using landfill compactors to achieve high density ofwastes. 19. Wastes shall be covered immediately or at the end ofeach workins d5v wirh ? <_ro cm of soil/sweer earrh. In oino'n_u,";ruliri;;;;; construction material shall"ur. be used.
;#,;i "o#i,I"ll".
20. Priorto
the cohmencement ofmonsoon season, an intermediate cover of40-65 cm
thickness of soit shall be placed on the Iandfill to preveBt infiltrarjon during monsoon. proper
*,th p.op;; ";;;;;;;il;;;* aruinug. U.r^. ihutii" ;;;;;., to divert runoffaway from the active cell oithe landfill. 21. After completion of,andfill. a final c6ver shail be designed to minimize '- infiltration """"'"" and erosion. The final cover shall meel the follo*ing ,i.";t""tion., (a) The final cover shal I have a barriersoil layer comprising soil
r
i!h permeabi.ir) less rhan I0-_ cm sec. On rop otrhe barrier soil la)er. rhere shall be
of60 cm ofclay/amendecl
b) a drainase laver of I s.m rc) Onlopofthedrainagela)er.lhereshall eau.g",u,ir.i"y.iof+S.r'ioruppon
f
22.
narural plant growth and to minimize Erosron. In orderto preventpollution problems from landfill operations, the following provisions shall be made:
(a)
Diversion ofstorm water drains tominimjze leachale genemtion and prelent pollution atso for avoidine floodi,e
,r, . :f^.-Tl1::y]:'r"d r_onsrrucrron 0t a non_permeabre,;ning ,
4,c.. ! rii ro$ permeaDrrrN ttnrng
r"d;r;";;;;;;;;;ffiiil:
s) srem ar ihe base aDd
uariof".rt. aiioorrr
sysrem musr have barrier soil Iayer Lclay ame;ded
:'^'^ f"rltli..*]"* .""i"ii""i;.i
soil) of minimum 60 cm thickness lvirh permeability nor;a;;;;;;;,0 if waste reaching rhe tandfiI is non-biod;gradabf" i",i.,. f". residues of waste processing facitities o; mi\ea ,u",,. "ira i,""ir*
",
I !
I I
I I I I
I I I I
I I I I
I
Oisposal ofwastes on
(c)
(d)
Landfill
A3
ofhazardous maierials(such as aercsols, bleaches, polishes, batteries, waste oils, paint produc!s and pesticides) minimum liner specifications shall be a composite Larie; having 1.5 mln high density polyethylene (HDPE) geomembrane (or equivalent) overlyingg0 cm ofsoil (clay/amended soil) haviflg permeability not geater than 10_7 cm/;c. The highest lev€l of \Yater table shall be at least 2 0 m below the base of clay/amended soil barrier. Provisions of management of leachale collection and treatment. The treated leachate shall nreet Ihe standards laid down Prevention ofrunofffrom landfili area entering any stream, rive', lake or pond'
23. Monitoring ofgrcund waterquality shall be done in cities having populati on of ntore than ten lakis during pre-landfill opemtions, filiing and also during operationai and posl operalional period at such Iocations preferably, to cove. one upgradient and two downgradient monitoring welis. 24. The monitoring schedule for cities having population less than ten lakhs, shall be worked out by Pollution Control Boards in States and Pollution Control Committees in Union Terriloties in consultation with municipal bodies. 25. Ground waler in and around landfill site shall not be used for drinking purposes o' otherwise, untess il meets sPecified staldaids for thal particular use The ground water quality shallconform to followinB maximum acceptable limits. S. No
0-02Ir.el Cadnium Clmlnilun Oexa\alent)
0.01mgfl 0.02lx.gll
Lran
0.05 mgn
Mercury
0.001me,4
L5 mg,a
Ni@e
10.0me,4
pH
6.5-7.5 100-200mmhoYcm
Condudnity Toial dissolved solids Cl orid€s
500
mg,
250 mgn
SulfiLs
l000mgl
Color Biochenical oryg€n Demand Chedic2l Orygen demand
5
Hazon units
30 men
250 mg/l
26_ Where gound water is deep below the landfill, vadoze zone (vadoze water) monitoring
shall bi undertaken usingporeJiquid samplers (lysimeters) and pore-gas samplers' 21. Installation oflandfill gas control system including 8as collection system shall be
made at landfill sitetominimize odorgeneration, prcvenioff-site migration ofgases and ro protect vegetation planted on the rehabililaied lardfili suriace. 28. The conceDtration ofmelhane gas generated at landfill site shall not exceed 25 percent
ofthe tower expiosive limit (LEL). 29. The iandfill gas from the collection facility at a landfill site shall be utilized for eitherdirect thermalapplications or power generation, as per viability Otherwise'
4
A Tedbook of Soli.l Wastes Managenent
landfill
gas shall be bumt (flared) and shall not be allowed to
di.ectly escape ro the
atmosphere or for illegal tapping.
30. Ambient air quality atthe landfill site and at the vicinity shall
be monilored to meet
the following.prescribed standards.
1.
Sultur dioxide
120 ms/m3 (24
2. 3.
Suspended Paniculate Matter
500 pym3 (24 hours) Nol to cxceed 25 percent
M€thane
hour!) ofthe lower
explo.iv€ limit (equivalentto 650 pymr) 400 pyft3 (24 hours)
4. 3
L
The ambient air quality monitoring shall be carried out by the concemed authority as per the following schedule:
(a) Sixtimes in a year for cities having population ofmorethan fifty
(r)
(c)
32. A vegetative cover shall shall be followed:
(a)
(r) (c) (d)
lakh.
Four times in a year forcities having population between ten and fifty lakh. Two times in a year for cities having population between one and ten lakh. be provided over the completed sile
following guidelines
Selection of locally adopted percnnial plants tha! are r.sistant to drought and extreme temperatules; Root ofthe plant shall nor disrupts the low-permeability Iayer; Selected plants shall have ability to th ve on low-nutrient soil with minimum nutrieDt addition; Pianialion to be made in sufficient density to miniinize soit erosion
33. The posFclosure care of land{ill site shall be conducted for at least fifteen years and longterm monitoring/care plan shall consists ofthe followingl (a) Mainaining the integrity and efectiveness offinal covet making rcpaiN arld preventing run-on and rud-offfrom eroding or otherwise damagingthe final cover. (6) Monitoring leachate collection system in accordance with the requirernent. (c) Monitoring of gound water in accordance with requircrients and maintaining gound waterquality.
(d) Mairtaining 34.
and operating the landfill gas collection system to meet the standards.
Use ofclosed landfill sites for human settlement or otherwise shall be considered after ensuing that gaseous and leachate analysis complied with the laid do$,n standards.
35. Cities
and towns located on hills, shall have location-specific methods evolved for final disposal ofsoiid wastes by the Municipal authority and ihe concerned State Pollution Control Board. As Iandfilling in hilly areas is not an environmentally safe option, the Municipal authority shall set up processing facilities for utilization of
biodegradable wastes. The inert and non-biodegradable *aste shall be used for building, roads or filling up ofappropriate areas on hills.
Oispasal ofwestes on
Lahdfrll 85
EXAlllPLES
lErcmple3.l:Acolonyhavingapopulationof65,000geoeratessolidwastesattherateof 2 ks/c;piu/day. The compacted specific weight ofsolid wastes in landfill is 650 kgm3 and Itheaveiaeedepthofcompactedsolidwastesinlandfillis5m.Determinetherequiredlandfill
-gea Solutions: Totalsolid wastes generated from tbe colony, =65000x2= 130,000 Kg/d Volume ofsolid wastes
=
l39{o 65U
:oo o,- , a
Area requhed.
= 200/5 = 40 m:id A.ea required annuallY,
= 40 x 365 = 14.600 m2lyear
= L46halYear Example 3.2 A community generates solid wastes at
a mte
of75 tons/day. The soiid wastes has to be
disposedoffinlandfillcellsof5mwidthand3mlifthavingasloPeof3:linitsworking
face. Thickness ofdaily soil cover is 150 mm. Determine the ratios ofvolume ofwastes to cover soil. Assume average specific weight ofwastes asl i) 350 kg/m3, ii) 500 kg/m3, and iii) 600 kg/m3.
Solution:
(a)
The volume ofwaste to be placed can be calcuiated as: (i) For waste with sP. wt. of350 kg/mr
75,1000- 21428 Kg ml ,, I'*' = .-35L ",,", (ii) For waste with sp. wt. of500 kglml (iir) Forwaste with sp. \Yt. of600 kg/m3
(r)
The cross-sectional area
ofcell,
=3mx.5m=15m2' The len$h ofcell required per day is,
4 = --13-
=
, t50
.^
'
'*".o
*
15
The surface area oftop, face, and side ofthe ceil can be calculated as: Top surface area,
4=ff=ulm
I r 6
I
ATextbook of Solid Wastes ManagBment
Aft = Ltx ht= 14.28x5=71-4ft12 An= Lrx W= 10 x 5 =50 m7 AD= L1\ W = 8.33 x5 = 41.66 m2 Face surface area.
A
Llx
9.486 = 14.28 x 9.486 = 135.46 m? Ap= L2 x 9.486 = 10 x 9.486 = 94.86 m'? A B = L\, 9.486 = 8 33 x 9.486 = 79.05 m2 =
Side surface area, ,4sr =,{s2 = ,,lsr = 5 x 9.4E6 = 47.43 rn2 Volume ofdaily soil cover, I/s, = Cove. thickness (lt+ Ar+ As) Cover thickness = 150 mm = 0. i5 m VsLt = O.t5 x ('7 t.4 + 135.46 + 41.43) = 38.143 m3 I/&? = O.15 x (50 + 94.86 + 47.43) = 28.843 ml Vsti = O.l5 x (41.66 + 19 05 + 41 43) = 25 221rt3 The ratio ofvolume ofwaste to the volume ofcover soil ,/sry'Fs are, V,q/ V,t j = 21 4.28138.143 = 5.617
[snlVsLz= 150!28.843 = 5.20 Y"B/ Ve
1
=
125125.221= 4.956
i' EXERCISE
l.
cive
a
neat sketoh ofatypical layout ofa landfill. Stlowvarious facilities provided at a landfill site.
ist sali€nt ciiteria foe selecting a landfill siie. which ofthese criteria you lhi.k is qitical for city zone? Give.easons3. Describe the physicaland chemical changes that take place in a,andfill during ils lif"..
2.
L
4. Draw
--,,;-5. .
6
why
a
neal sketch ofacross-section of an engineered iandfill. Label its compotrents.
is a
landfill final
cover provided? Give details ofvarious layars in the cover describingtheir
function.
laodfill area required for a city of one million p€ople. Use typical data for a large cig. Assume compacred density of wasle with in the sile as 0.6lons/m3. the average deplh ofwaste is l0m. The ]andfillshould be designed for 20 years.
. Estimate the
7. Design a suitable environmental monitoring system for S kerch the main moniloring componenls.
a
san;tary landfill site in your city zone.
I I I
T
I I I I I I I I I I I I
I
l"
Chapter
Leochate Maruagevruevrt Water enters into a landfill site ftom vadous sources e.g rainfall, underground
watea, surface runoff water is also squeezed out ofthe wasies duting compaction and consolidation. The leachale so fomed is highly contaminated and carries many suspended and dissolved impurities in it. It is necessary
ro contiol this leachale flow and to prevent it from mixing wilh the ground water- Characteristics of leachate, its controi, collection, and treatment, are discussed in this chapter' CHARACTERISTICS OF LEACHATE The characte stics ol leachale vary with the type of waste deposited in the landfill. It also changes with time depending on the physical, chemical and biollgical reaction that take place in theland{ill A generalized variation in the conaentration ofleachate constituents with tin:le is shown in Fig. 4.1. The curve is th€oretical but indicates temporal variation of leachate characteristics. The concefltration level of a constituent first increases to rcach a peak value and lalea over a period of time it starts decreasing. Depeodingonthe age oflandfill, theleachate can be categorized as fresh or old leachate.
q:6
Flg. 4.1: Typical Concentralion Prolile ot LeaChate Conslituents
Fresh Leachate: Fresh leachate is generated in the {irst few yea$ oflandfill waste deposition i.e. malnly during the aerobic decomposition phase. Primarily
88
A Textbook of Sotid Waites Managem€nt
it
cqntains biodegradable organic mafter Table 4. i shows chaEcteristics ofa fiesh leachare generared ar a tandfilt she- Fresh teachate has high chemrcai oxygen demand (CODr. These RODina COO
30000 mg/l and 3000-600OO mg:l respectively
bi""h;;i;;;;;;il:ililff;. j,-.-olii.;;.;;;ffi,
Tsbl€.r.1: Typical Characteristics of
,"lr.i
Fresh Lcachate
pH BODs COD ToC (Toral organic Carbon)
volatile Fatty Acids Suspended Solids Total Nitrogen Total Piosphorous Total Hardness as CaCOi Calcrum
Magncsium
2,00&30,m0 3.00G60,000 1,00G20,000 I,000 - 25,000
20G2,m0
5- 100 30G10,000 20G3,000 5&1,m0
Chlorid€ Total Iron except pH sre in
5,0m 3,0@
5m'
2Gt,000
Sodium
.All l"lues
10,000 20,000
4$ 40 3,500 1,000
250
20G2,m0 20G3,m0
sm
5G1,000
a
500
iner.
Old Le.chste: As the landfill matures. c. r",.r,u," a.",""..,
ii. H;i; :iffiL;::::H:*1",1#::il h."",:l:f:li";l,i",l: conramin;r, t" Afrer abour 25 to 3o years ofclosure of a landfiu, ", "ii-r.".i"" irl# ffiffJ: ,
rises ro 7-8. Typicai concenrration of
_. ttre waste islim;;;;;li; The concentration of po uranr iD the leachare is ttren sign;ncaniiy t;;. rnay not be very harrnful.
r"bt;*d
;i;j;#"r.
Tabl.4.2: TypicatChamcteristics of OldLeachare
T!pi.al pH BODJ
COD TOC Voldil€ Fatly Acids
7.0 8.0 50 - 200 500 - 3000
i00 - 1000 50 - 100
+All l.lues exclpr pH are in mgr.
LEACHATE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM It is necessaryto collect all leachate for its r!
oru
I
7
t50 500
250 50
r"u"r,utJ,"n"g"'""-n;;;ffi;,.:j:"".?il,i1,1j,,t"1,i!XX1i;]l#:::li"Xlil:
I I
I I I I
Lea&ale Management 89
deteclion These are briefly described recirculation. treatment, disposal, and moflitoring afid leak as
follows:
LescbateMinimization:ltisthecontlo]ofsudacerunoffandgloundwate'per.olation bv using a small cell size' ;nil d;,ii,;iil;tion of exposure of wastes to rainfall proper cap' sradins of final surlace of use of a tow permeabilitv
;;;;G;q;l.i;.tes, landfill cover.
contailrmetrt:Containmentofleachatewithiothelandfillisacbievedbyprovidingsuilable i;";:u;;;;;";.;;in"iic materials in the liner svstem can effe'tivelv help in controllins the escape ofleachate from the landfill
collectiol:Leachatecol]ectioniscarfie.loulthroughasumPwellsandaneiworkofPipes ofleachate cou"i"J*itt inu"n"d filter ofsand and gravel lt prevents excessive build up "n landfill' heaJand reduces ttre ctrances ofleachate flowingout ofthe content of the wastes Recirculation: Recirculation of ieachale increases the moisture the load on the reduces ll aiso ofwastes *iii, tr" i"ranrr. rtt imProves biodegradation
;";;;;J;;;."r;"ntrition
of a larie number of contaminants is reduced significantlv
after each rccirculaiion.
Tr€stmeit:Leachateco,lectedfromthelaldfiIlcontainsalargeamountofcontaminants before its final disposal Tteatment *iii*"ilr. """4 a U,reated to the prescribed standads upon the rature and concentration of Jemical or tiolojicat depen'iing il;;;;;;, contaminants.
DisDosrl:Theresidualleachale,aftersevem'cyclesofreciiculation'isfinallydisposed surface water bodv or into the ;;I;;'n; i;;;,-;..nihe disposal could be on iand' in a final leachate' iuni"lp"t a."in, a.p"nding upon the characteristics ofthe leakage ofleachate Thisis Monitoring atrd LeakDetection: It is necessaD todetecran) orsoil ofleachate head, groundvr'ater monitorinS-' and monitoring ;;;;k"d ;;;;tr;il construction probe;nd tie sensors arc insralled duling landfill. ura U*. "fthe "i*,I".ii", phase oflandfill for lhis Purpose' LEACHATE OUANTITIES be considered inthe design of The quantity of leachate to be handled is an impofiant factor lrnanttr. La.s" quuntities ofleachaie generated will exett a significant hydrostatic.pressure Iiner ofthe landfiliThereforc, in order to design a suiiable landfill ;;;";;;;"";;;"* lea€hate quantity of the r"""t u" collection system, it is necessary to estimate uni ui "*aariu. iiut witt ue eenerateo in lhe landfill Two common methods used for estimation ofquantit_Y oflandfill (,') *",.;balance method lwBM);and (ii) hvdrologic evaluation
;il;;;",;;;
performance (HELP)
waler Balance Method (wBM) The leachate generation latedepends upon:
(i)
(ii)
sources the amolnt ofwater flowing intothe landfill from extemal and surface flow; the field capacity ofsolid wastes;
includingrainfall
SO
ATextbook of Solid Wastes Managament
(iil)
rhe \aater released ;n rhe bjological decomposirion; and (,1,) an\ other ingress ofr,,ater. A water balance study can be caried out to determine lhe amount ofieachate generated in a landfill. Wate, Uut"n"" stray in"frrO", rp atl these quantities ofwater and subtracting th" quuruty "aairrg of iu"t", iirii-"ii, process or other Iosses. The following expression "ry can be used for lanJnit ,ur".
balance computations.
Quantity of Leachare (F/z) =
Wi+
WR
+
Wc
_
W.D_ Wrv_ Wsc
_
Wsy
we'water alread! in the parre.r.' water aireaary p.esent in the wastes is the moisturc content 'ofwaste deposhed in rhe Iandfill site. This canie aetermineA in ttre iaUo.l_r.
*
w_R,,-Watet
entering through
sutface oJ landlillt Water enrering through surface of landfill r!(ruucswarerenterrnglromropc_.;desofra',dfiri.wheregroundr.rirertabreisnearrhe base of Iandfill. \.!aler can also enrer from belou
in the covq mate al: \Naler in the cover lnalerjal js the moisture If the moisture conlenr of cover material is higher, l, ,"y iriiu""content of ira ,fr" wastes and may form leachate. on the other hana, if h is io-w, rtre cove'r ."i".r"'i*ii]i"ia the warer enrering from the rop oflandfiu dependi"g rp"" it; ;;t;;;;;;il. "- "' Wc ,W'ater
the cover
WD Water utilize.t ih decompositiofi: Water vtilized in the decompositioD - ' ' can be cletgmined sloichimet:icall). iflhe chemical composirion of*"st..
i, lnorln.
CaHrOcN,/+ rH2O + CH4 + CO2 + NH3 where, C,HrOcN,/ is the chemical composition ofsolid wastes in the Iandfill.
,, ,r." f?.r, Water vapors are escaped out of landfiI Y:Y:n-l!rt, ranor r gas. -Assumjng ihat rhe landnll gas is fully saturated with wareryuporr, with the ,t . ,"rr..,
ll i"pg!
gaslawcanbeaPpliedtodelerminerhe$alerloitinrhetormofva|ors pf = nRT where. p is vapor pressure ar terhperature f in degree Kelvin. ,/ is volume ofgas,17 number ofmole( and R is universal gas conslant.
is
,/sc,Water stored in cover: Water stored in the cover is increase in the moisture content the
ofin
cover. The maximum water that can be stored depends upon rhe
th€ €over mareriat. water stored can be
determi".d ofthe cover,(rrlc ) from its field capacity (,/Fc).
by.rb;;;;;i;; ;rnoi*",iiil'i;.r,* n"iJi"ra"rV
Wy.=WR-Wc
,tr.
Water stored in landfill wastes: Water stored in the wastes is increase in water contert of wasres. This can also be derermined Uy,utt.""ting th" iniiii;;;il1", wastes (r/,,,) from its fi etd capactty (tyF;. HELP MODEL Hydrologic Evalualion ofLandfill performance (HELP) is a popular model developed by schroeder (1984) for estimation ofreachate gen"-ri*. it i.!"ir*".. as a three layer system j.e. vertical percolatio-n "i*rr"r"* rliln,r layer, lateral arainage-la;;;:;;;;.",,
LeachateManagenent
91
layer (Fig. 4.2). Soffrrares based on this model are commercially availabie. Various input data is required for this model as foliows:
Geotechnical Data
Daily p.ecipitatioB, Mean monthly solar radiation, Mean monthly tempgrature Hydraulic Conductivity or pmeability, Soil porosit, Field Capaciry,
Vegetation Data
EvaporationCoefficient, Wiltidg Point, Minimum infihration Rate, SCS RunoffCu e Number, Initial Soil Moisture Content Vegetation type, vegetation cover, LeafArea Indices, Winter covel
Climatic Data
faclor, Evaporative Zone Depth Number orLayers, Thickness of differcnt layers, Slope of layers, Lateral flow distance, Surface layer oflandfill, Leakagefactor (required for geonembBnes, mges between 0 - 1 ), Runofffractjon
Design Data
1, top vagelalion
T
laye.
I
2.
Land,illtinal
DBinage lay6r
I
3.
It
E3ner ervclay rayer
I
I
I
I
T Soil/clay lin6r
I
I
l
lillralion tom bas€
Fis. 4.2: Landfiil as Simulated in HELP Modet
92
ATelbook
of
t
SoId Wastes Management
:
The above methods are most commonly used to estirnate quantities oileachate. Since it is difficultto assign precise input values ofsome pa.ameters, uncertainty always exists rn such estimates.
I
LANDFILL LINEFS Landfill iiners are provjded to prevent the flow ofleachate into the goundwarer. Liners are provided botb at the bonom as well as at the sides ofa landfill. Usrjally ciay and,/or geomembrane layers are used in the liners. The primary concern about liners is their perm;ability. The design of a liner depends upon the characteristics ofleachale and its r;te ofgeneration. Some liDer systems provided in the landfill sites include lhe following:
. . .
Single Liner System Single Composire Liner Slsrem Doubie Composite Liner System
Single Liner Systeml Only one layer of impermeable material is provided to control thc flow of leachate [Fig- 4.3 (a)]. This rype ofliners can be used for noniaza.dous. nonreactive. and nonbiodegradable wasre. and !r.here warer table is deep. Lining marerial is usualh clav or amended soil. Ho\rever. geomembrane are also used as a Iining material.
I
I
I
T
-r
L"*.
L Flg. 4.3 (d)r Singl€ Linsr
///<\\
Ee ///it///: /// \ 70r{
Flg. 4.3
(t):
I I I
Singie Composite Liner
Single Composite Liner: A single composite Iiner system comprises oftwo or more lalers ofimpermeable maleriais [Fig.4.3 (6)]. cenerally geomembran; underlain by a layer of'clay or amended soil is provided in this system_ The thickness oflayers depends uion the leachate head expected to build up at the bottom oflandfill. This type oflin;r syst€m is suitable for municipal solid wastes landfill sites. DoEble Composite Liner: This system is provided for a hazardous wastes landfill sites. lD this system two different liners are provided one overthe other \vith a sand layersandwiched in between [Fig. 4.3(e)]. Each liner coniisrs ofa iayer ofclay or amended soil and a layer
T
I I
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LeachaleManagEnent
ofgeomembrane. The sand layer is provided with leachate infiltrating into it from the upper liner.
a
*
natwork ofpipes to collect any stray
20-30 cm
t'n*ro I
30.60 cm
t
L
20-30 cm
?""'
30.60
//A\
//ts,,.
//4\ rr>
//4\
lt]!.\
L 1
Flg, 4.3 (c): Dolble Composite Liner
Requirehents of Landlill Liner The liner system in a landfill should be designed to salisfythe following requirements:
. . .
It should prevent migration of leachate orlandfill gastothe subsurface soil or$ound
Liner material should have adequate resistance to darnage due to vehicular moveBenl, climatic conditions, or chemical reactions with the wastes or leachate. lt should be inslalled boih at the base and around sides ofthe iandfill 1o soiis on all sides.
Materialg used in Liners Liners are generally conslrucled with natumlly avaiiable material. Soil containing a high fraction ofclay are commonly used. Synthetic liners made from plastics are also effective due to their low permeability and high durability. Various materials usedfor liners andtheir characteristics are discussed below.
SoilClay Among the soil liners, clay Iiner\ are considered to be effective for landfills. Clay is soil which has grain size smaller than 0.002 mm and exhibjts cohesion. It is suitable not only
I
94
ATextboak of Sold Wastes Management
:
due to its low permeability but also for its potential ofattenuating the contaBinants rn leachate. Clay liners. i.om thick usually, have permeability as low as 10-r cm/s Typical value ofpermeability ofvarious types ofsoils is presented in Table 4.3 At sites where cla) is not locally available it may not be economically feasibletoborow it from distant locations. In such cases, amended soil is generally used in landfill liners. Bentonite is a common additive. which is mixedwith the localsoilto reduce its pelrneabi litv and lo provide strength Both the soil and bentonite are thoroughly mixed to obtain auniform mixture Table4.3: Typicalvahe ofPerm€abiliB fol various Soilsand Aquifers
(. sec) 10-5 to l0r
Pemeabttq Cround-sudale Clay Deep Clay Beds SiM-oanr
Fine Sands coarse Sands
I0-u
l0r
ao
loj
to 1o-r
lo r to
loj
!o tor to 1.0 to{ to 1or toj to 1ol l0+ to loJ
tol loj
Grav€l CIay Sand a.d Grav€l mixes sandstone
lorr
Shal€
1o lo-?
Less than
l0-{ io l0
l0r
10r '?
ro 1.0
Sou.e: adapled from Bouwer, I 978; Driscol, I 986
Construction of Soil Liners: A common problems in the construction ofclay or amended soil liners is the formation ofc.acks. The soil should no! be allowed to dry out during its placement. Such Iiners should be laid in thin layers, aboul 10 !o 15 cm thick. Each layer/lift should be properly compactedusing aheaw rollerthrough several passes. Rollerfeet should be sufficie tly longlo penetrate through the working Iayer right uPto rhe underlying Iayer. This will ensure proper bonding between the successive lifts. Problems arise when non-uniform mixture ofsoil is used. Cracks are formed as a result ofdifferential swelling. The quality ofthe amended soil should therefore be monitored by carrying ou! various tests e.g. moisture content, Atterberg's limits. laboratory compaction tests, permeabilitytests. Strict control ofmoisture content is required during compaction as it affects the level otcompaction and permeability ofliner'
Geosynthetic Mate als Use ofgeosyn!hetic materials is common in iandfills. Geotextiles, geomembranes, geonets, and geogids are common types o.l geosynthetic materials. Ofthese Seotexi les and geomembmne
are important in case
!
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T
I
I
T
I
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I
oflandfills.
are used as filters in landfills in order to prevent the movelnent ofsoil parric les inlo dra inage syste m, The) also ac t as a cushion to protect the geome mbrane l iners.
ceotextiles: These
bue ro their high permeabili$ ( I0r lo I Or cm/s), they aliow the movement of liquid while preventing fhe movemeni ofadjacent soil particles and thus help in Preventing the clogging ofdrainage system-
T
I I t
LeachaleManagenent 95
Geomembrane: A geornembrafle is
;;#.ul,;.;
;;;;; oiaiff."n'
flexible sheet ofpolymeric nderial and is vinually polv*"' oith a wide range of chemical formulations
a
areusedtomanufacturethegeomemDrane.ihemostcommonlyusedgeomembraneismade
(HDPE) Cenerallv30to60mils(1mil=1/1000inch)thick ;il"#b.*JtJH;;tanafitl tiners. trope'ties of at)?ical geomembrane nsed as landfill iiner are presenled in Table 4.4.
"-f
a""t* r",r"f,yle;
n,"i
Trble 4'4: Properties of Geomcmbranes Typicol Vallles Tensile Strength
167
Tensile Streugth al leld Tensiie Strength at bre.k
t50/.
Eloog?dion alyield
10o"/o
Elongation ar bre?k
Toughness
20 Kg
Te,I resistance initialion Prlnc$re resisrarce
Llr temPemture Durabilitt
Kd$nt
28oKlcnl
104K9
',4.C
bdnt€ness
2%
Carbon black Percent Accelerared hear agiflg
Negligibte stengh change after
lmonthatll0'C Chemical Resislance Resistanc€ ro chemical rvaste
mixtrr6
120 daYS to Pur€ chcmical r€agents re si s lanc e r acking C Stre s s ca.k resistance sir€ss Environmenial
R€sist
some:
ce
adapten fiomBagchi
I 0ol"
rlnsile srEngft chmgE over
l0% tensile sE€ngth change over
7 days
1500 h
(1990)'
along with the clay or amended soil laycrs' Geomembrane liners are generally provided installation' sJit t"v"i'tloula t" proPerlv prepared before its
rh;;;'f;;;;;;ila
available inthe forrn ofrolls Contttuctio ofGeoaembrane Linersi Georlembranes are proPerly seamed while laving be l5o m length Tlese rolls should o.l * irarr] "ti "i"'i;,i tusior1 exiusion welding' or bv using solvent adhesive.as Prescribed ilge i; ffi;dil.;, i;i i'ln.-r.ri"iru."r' s.u.ing should be avoided at locationswhere aleachale head ofmore :,il i #;,.;.:;;; *m.i.,iro"a"p 'r'o'ra u' provided arjoints' rhe followins Preca utions must be taken while installing a geomembrane liner'
. .
dutibg strong winds (24 km'4rr Laying ofsynthetic geomembrane should be avoided or more) that tfiere are no heaps if,e .uUjUur. .lrouta Ue properly compacted and dressed such or deoressions.
. i"r*,i tir" p"i,.t"t tgreater that O 5 in) should be removed before installing geomembrane.
the
96
ATexbook ol sold westes Managomenl
. .
Movement ofheavy vehicles should not be allowed on the Seomembrane dudng its laying. Movement ofhoofed animals onthe geoEembrane should also be prevented by providing properfencing ofthe area.
Geomembrane should be covered as soonas possiblewith
asandlayerof20-30
cnr thickness.
Seaming oJ Geomembran eJ: The seaming ofgeomembranes can be camied ou1 in a number ofways e.g. thermal seaming, chemical seaming, fusiol welding and mechanical methods.
fhetnal Seaning*This procedure
is suitable forgeomgmbranes which arc manufactured \r/iih the base material which is sensitive to heat (themoplastics, crystalline thermoplastics, thermoplaslic isomers). Seaming is carried out at a temperature ofmore tian 260'C. The prccedure involves hoi air bonding, hot wedge (knife) bonding, and dieleckic bonding. Various thermal seaming altematives are shown in Fig.4.4.
Lap s€am wiih Eud
tale
Iongu€ and groov€ spllce
Exlrusion w€ld lap s€am
Double hot air or wsdg€ sEam
Flg. 4.4: Melnods of Thermal Seaming ot Geomembrane
Chemicai Seaming-Chem;cal seaming is carried out by using various chemical and base materials e.g. cement, solvent, vulcanizing adhesives. The selection ofchemicals used forthis
LeacheteManageirdnt 97 purpose depends on composition ofgeomembrane and the field conditions in which the seaming is to be carried out. This procedure is howevet generally avoid€d specially in hazardous waste landfills due to the chemical aggressiveness ofthe seaming materials.
Fusion Weaing---"fh\s rnethod is
used only on HDPE liners and requires a hot base product. Specialized welders are usedto extn de a ribbon ofmoltenHDPE which melts and bonds to the two HDPE sheets to foim a weld.
Mechanical
Methods-|n
this system, mecbanical seaming or taping is carried out. An extensive
quality coDlrol is required in mechanical seaming rnalerials can reduce the strenglh ofseam.
as the presence
ofdirt
or other foreign
Specificatlons for Liners in Hazardoug Wastes Lahdlills Specification for liner required forhazardous wastes landfill site have been laid down by CPCB. A liner for hazardous waste landfill should conformto the following:
. . .
A leachate collection Iayer ofthickness of30
crn and with a cbefficient ofpermeabiuty ofmore than I 0-2 cm/s. A single composite liner comprising ofa HDPE geomembrane ofthickness l.5mm and a compacted clay or amended soil layer ol I 50 cm having a coefficient ofperneabiliry of 10-7 cm,/s or less. In regions where rainfall is high, subsoil is highly permeable, or where watertable is wilhin 2.0 m to 6.0 m belowthe base oflandfill, a double composite liner comprising the following layeis should be piovided.
. . . .
A primary leachate collection layer as specified above. A HDPE geomembrane ofthickness 1.5 mm or nore followed by a 45 cm thick compacted clay or amended soil layer having penieabiljty less than 10-7 cn/s. A secondary leachate collectiot layer (30 cm thick) having permeability more than lO-3 cin/s. A secondary composite liner comprising of 1.5 mm thick geomembrane and 45 cm thick compacted clay or amended soil (permeability < i0 ? cm/s).
Ouality Conlrol of Liners Construction ofa liner iitvolves various operations e.g. spreading ofclay/soil layer, and compaction followed by installation ofthe geomembrane and its s€aming. Great care is needed during construction to prevent leak-holes or cracks in the liner that result in its failure. Quality contol tests are carried out frequently during lhe construction ofiandfill liners. These are listed in Table 4.5. Trble 4.5r Quality ControlTests and Sampling Frequency
forLandfi
Liner
Sa plihe Frcquehct Clry/soil
Evew 500 - 1000 m3
In-situ d€nsity and moisture content, compacrion, p€rmeabilily. grain silE disEibution. ArlederB\ Iimirs etc
daEiy,st€ngtb iou€lDess. dumbilily, chemical resistanc€, field se€Jn streogrh, overlap, elc. Thicim€ss,
9a
ATextbook ol Sold wastes Menagement
LEACHATE COLLECTION SYSTEM inthe landfills' Leachate collection system is desigredto avoid accumulation ofleachate tt ls proviaea at ttre Uoltom oilan-dfills but above the liner systefi Ttie system includes (Fig 45) Ihe bottom oflandfill sloped terrace and a pipe net\Hork forleachate collection This is o'ro"iaea stopes oi t'to 5 percent in bolh the longitudinal and transverse directions lhem' in belween foims a series ofsloped rerraces with leachale colleclion channels piPes surrounded Leachate collecti;n channels are provided with a nelwork of perfomled (Fig 4'6)' with an inverted filter ofgravels and coarse sand to facilitate the flow ofleachate geneml a 100 mrD dia The size ofpipes depenrli upon the amount ofleachate generated' In The Perforations are s uffi cj ent mm are to 1 o p ipe, with pe;forati;ns o f liss than or equal periphery' quarters of?iPe three uzuity proriaea lO mm centre to centre in the upPer all the ieachate where Th;general siope at the bottom oflandflll is kept towards the sides sump is colle-cted. Sump wells, are installed to pump outthe cojlected leachate Atypical .
-T
_t_ i
I Flg. 4.5: Leachate Collsciion Syst€m
-SoldwastB +---soiland 40 m rHDPE
bentonite
Liner----J
Fig.4.6r lnve ed Filter around Leachate Collection Plpes
LdadaleMahagetueni wel l used for collection of leachate is shown i$
gt
Fig 4 ? The leachare pumped ou! is kepl in
hoidingtanks usually constructed of RCC.
.-
ProrectNe casing lr oo mm+G] prpe)
p196
Flg.4.7: A Typical Sumpwelllor Leachate Collection
various components ofleachate collection system andtheit functions are suirmarized in Table 4.6.
Tsbt.4.6: Components of
Leachate collcction System
DescriptiotL/Purqose DEinage l-ayer Sloped T€rrace
Hishry p.rm€able la)€r ofsand or gra!€ls to ease the lateml dninage ofleachde' Sh;uh b€ ar least 30 cm thick, with a petrieabilitv of 10-3 cm'/sec' To increase the potential of lateral nigration of leachate. A slope of 2 % is
prcfeiable. Perforat€d Pipes
FiltErlayer
and drain th€ leachate. 100 mm dia HDPE or PvC pip€s Derforations of 10 mm in the upPer tltre€ quaneF are prefercd' in inveied filter, to pr*€nr the clogging ofpiPes due lo insress of sad
id coll€ct
dninage laler. Sump
well
Used to pump out the lea.hate collecled
d the boit'oB
\rith from
oflddfiil
LEAK DETECTION AND REMEDIATION of landfills The There is always a possibility of leakage of Ieachate through base or sides ;kage could be iue tojoint failure or puncture ofgeomembrane liners cracks in the clay seeps lin., o_, dr" to .*"".rir" pressure built up within the landfill' Toe leakage and leachate
I
T 1OO ATexlbook ol Solid
I
Wastas Management
may occur due to perched water lable, or as a result of, biological slimes in the viciniR of drainage tiles. Lysimelers are generally installed below the liner. These suck the moisture fiom the soil. Olher jnstruments used for leak detection inclnde pttchrometers, aDd neutron probes. which gives the vaiue ofchange in moisture content in soil. Gamma ray attenuation probes are also used to detect changes in moisture conlent. A typical leak detection system is sho\ra
T
in Fig.4.8.
(a) For below-gmde c6ll
,.,-.t.
-<-, t'11 ._-} -':,c 4:Ferus6
(b) For above.gade coll Flg.4.8: Typicat kak Dei€ction Sys!6rn The remediation ofle3tage depends upon tlle actual siG cooditions which may vary. Remediation
may be accomplished by providing a peripheral toe drain system. For a trench landfill, a barrierwall may be constructed inthe direction ofleachate migmtion. A number of sulnpwells can also be provided for pumpingout the migrated leachate.
LEACHATE RECIBCULATION Leachate pumped out ofthe landfills should be recirculated into the landfill sites. The recirculadon ofleachate i, the iandfills has many envircnmental and economic benefits. Many organic impurities ofleachate are anaerobically digested 'rithin the landfills which helps in the generation ofmethane gas.lthas been observed that the r.teofmethane gas produciion is higher in landfills where leachate reci.culation system is provided. Leachate also increases the moisture contentofthe wastes, which helps in its biological decomposition as well as in the production ofmetlane gas. With the generation ofmethan€, pH level oflandfill increases. Metals present in the leachate are precipitated and are contained within the wastes. Aftera fewcycles ofrecirculation, the amount ofleachate ard impurities in;t are significanlly reduced. This also reduces the cost involved in treatment and disposal ofleachate.
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Leechateilaragenent
1O1
The leachate recirculation system is designed to ensure uniform distribution ofleachate over the entire area. A pipe network embedded within the landfill can be used for this purpose. Fig. 4.9 shows a typical leachate recirculation system.
Flg. 4.9: L6achat€ Hecirculation System
Leachate may also be utilized to increasethe moisture content in composting systems. It is flecessary to remove odor and other impurities includingheaiy metals from the leachate before applyingitonthe shredded wastes materials ready forcomposting. Thisalso enhances biochemical decomposition ofwastes as the moisture content ofthe wastes is increased.
LEACHATE TREATMENT Due to a variety ofphysical, chemical and biological constituents in leachate, no single treatment method can be recommended. Following are i&portant factors in the design ofa leachate treatnent system:
. . .
Quantity or rate offlow ofleachate generated. Concenlration of various contaminants Available trealmenr and disposal oprions
Techniques used for leachate treatment are similar to those applied for other effluent treatrnent methods. These include mainly biological as well as physical and chemical treatment and are described in the following sectioos.
Biological Treatment L€achate collected fiom laodfills has higl biochehicel and chemical oxygen demands. Treatrnent can be carried out by usingaerobic or araerobic methods,
I 1rJ2 A Texlbook ol Solid Wastes Mahagement
I 1 ?
Aerobic frcatfient Aerobictreatmentprocessesincludelagoons.aclivatedsludgeprocess.rotatingbio]ogical t.i"tlini tilte$ etc. ln all these melhods' organic matters Presenl in the leachaie tor decomposNoTl "ontu"too, ,r" aep,raaea Ur mlcroorganisms. The process requires large quantity ofoxygen of oxvsen for demand to the sistem the hisher is the
;;.;T";;;: ;;;;;;ioaa apptied method' ; .;;;,1;;;"-f"; iis essenrial to mainrain a proper organic load in erery aerobic
depths in which Aerated Laeoons: Aerated lagoons are pon'ls with large size and small the liquid due to in is diffused and is air i"""i"i" I r?rl.a. s"rrce of sippty ofoiygen with large depths' designed lagoons are where ;;;;;; ;;;"lly ""r.rsed bv wiod action and ofoxygen supPly regulal provided to ensure -""hunicat-asitatois or air diffusers are A hours to 1 E l 6 ii, .i-it*. frtlt tv".- requires a long hyd raulic detention time i e aboutgiven Fig 4 l 0 in ' ' ii.. lt"Jf, of ti.pr" f"go;ns and lagoons with mechanical agitalors is
Flg.4.1o: Skelch oi a TypicalAerat€d Lagoon
ofan Activatcd Sludge Process: An acdvated sludge process is similar to that
aerated to the recirculaliol Due of sludge recirculation e.g. iaeoons Uut it in;olves an exba feature of U*t.ria is manv r imes hi gher than-that in a lagoon This system, therefore' rJn. f. "].J ""1 an aetation hydraulic detentiontime The process also r"oui.. i. 'equires "tmaller biornass (Fig 4 11) The "na rani uni .enting r"nt also calied as liquid-solid separation tank aeratiot back iothe .. siuape "senies ttris tank. A smallamount ofthis sludge is recycled greatly' values rank. I-he process is veq effeclive and reduces the BOD and COD
*."i,
i
ofa Rotatins Biotoqicat Contactors: The rotating biological contactor tRBC) consisls tank reclangular placed a large in and r".l. r_it "."i.:r, aitts attached to a horizontaishaft " the liquid and the remaining portion is i'ru. i. rzl. il"t" ai.i.s are partially submerged in
: =
LeaciateManagenenl
1O3
Flg.4,1!: Activated Sludge Prccess pyhnced 16 ihe atmosDhere. ln this process, biomass is accumulaied on the surface ofdisks' air The submersed portionof disks carries i"itr, riquia ^na o\)sen' organic matte; which is desraded b) the armospheric
Tfi:il:#:il;illn.ont""r ;i;;;';;;i;;;;;;,d
Ftg. 4.12: Roiating Biological Contaclor
TricklinsFillers:AtricklingfilterconsiStsofabedofrockPiece5whichProvidefired i;;iio,"'ri ," g'"" rig + 13 Leachare rhar is Io be lrealed is rriclled I'IJ;:X "
ill;;
'
'
Sludqo
Flg. 4.'13: Ttickling FilieI
I
I 1U
ATextbook ol Solid Wastes Management
3
over the rock beal from the top. As the leachate moves down, it comes in contact with lhe biomass attached to the rock pieces and is degraded. Air is supplied through ai'vents which are provided at the bottom ofthe filter' As there is high organic ioadpresent inthe leachale'
ofthe filier medium. Trickling fillers tank for removal ofsolids final settling a
there is some risk ofclogging
with
a
primary and
are usually Provide
Anaercbic Treatmenl In an anaerobic lreatment process, complex organic matiet in the leachate is fermented b) bacteria to fon'n volatile fatty acids. These in tum are converted by methanogenic microorganisms 10 methane and carbon dioxide. This results in a low production ofbiomass requiring disposal as
compared'lo that in aerobic t.eatmenl.
Two-Stege Reactorr A lypical two-slage anaerobic sys:em used for leachate treatment is shown in Fig. 4.I4. The slage I reactor consists of a stirrer used to develop good contacl between iaroorganisms and organic matter' The second stage reactor is quiescent whjch enables settling ofsludge at the botlom. The supernatant liquid is recycled back to stage I .eacior for fu(her 1.€almenl.
Flg. 4.'14: Two Slage Anaeobic Tr€atment Process
USB Reactor: A USB Reacior (UpflowSludge Blankel Reacto, is based onthe developmenl ofa sludge blanket. ln the sludge blanket, component particles are aggregated 1o withsla'd the hydrauiic shear ofleachate movemenl The leachate isfed from the bottom of reactor and active anaerobic sludge solias convert the organics into methane and carbon dioxide The reaclorhas an intemalbaffle system above the sludge blanket also known as gas- liquid separator (Fig. 4.15). This separales out the biogas, sludge and liquid comPoneflts.
Physlcal and Chemical Tr6atment Phl,sical and chemical methods ofleachate treatment includes flocculailon, sedimPnlation' granular filtrarion. sorption, reverse osmosis etc. A possible sequence for physical and
chemicaltreatmenlofleachateis giveninFig. 4 l6. Flocculation end Sedimentetion; It consists ofthe remolal ofsuspeflded impunties. Flocculation and sedimertation tanks are provided for this purpose. Sedimentation is a slow process but flocculalion increases the rate ofsettling ofp;rticles Flocculation can be carried out by adding alum to the leachate.
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LaachateManagemedt 1O5
Gas]iquid
Flg.4.l5:
USB neaclor
isused to remove suspended solids from leachate and is typically ofaclivated carbon adsorption to pievent c,ogging. Granular employed filtration ofbiologically treated leachate may also be required in order to meet the \tale. quality standards for its discharge in streams or drains.
Granul.r Filtration: lt
p
or to the use
FLOCCULATION/ CHEMICAL PBEClPIATION
I
sEDrMENrarroN I
f_
s,uooe
f--^-r*" I I rrLrnarrot .
---l---')"*^" I
f.-*"r,* I
f
TBE,AfED EFFLI.]ENT
Fig.4.t5:
Typ,car Sequence
ol Physicarchemrcal Tteaheni
16
A Textbook af Solid V,/astes
I I
ilanagenent
Sorption: Sorytion is usually canied out through activated carbon. A column ofaclivated carb;n. eirherpacked orsuspended, is usedforthis Pu+ose. Use of granular activated carbon or powdered activated carbon is very effective for treatmentofpoorly biodegradable orgaiic m;er. scivents, pesticides, humic acids etc. The service life ofactivated carbon is limited by irs capacity and organic load. Therefore, provisions must be made for periodic renewal ofacLir dled carbon.
Reverse Osmcsis: Reverse osmosis can be effectively used for leachate treatment The system invoives a semi-permeable membrane, \'hich can be flat ortubular' The wasle slreaE oi leachate ilows throughthe membrane while the solvent is Pulled through the membrane s pores, The remaining solutes such as organic or inorganic components do notpass through' but become more and more concentrated on the influenl side of the membrane Foran effective reverse osmosis, physical and chemical proPedes ofsem!Permeable membtane musr be compaiible withthose ofthe leachate Somemembranes maybe dissolvedby leachate' Suspended solid may also ciog the nembrane material.
Air Stripping:This is a mass transfer process in whichvolatile conlaminants areevaporated inlo air. ihis process is used to t.eal liquid streah that is more volatile but less soluble'
Organics removal from ieachale depends uPon temperatuae' pressuae, air_to-water ralio' and surface area available for mass transfer. Several types ofair sttiPping technologies are common. These include tray aeratjon, spray aeration. and packed towers. Table 4.7: Standards for Disposal ofLeachat.
Pernissible
Irlahd Sutfoce Water Public S,rspended
Solids
100
DissollajSolidr{im€anic)
pH ArnmonicalNibogen Toral KjeldahlNitrogen BOD COD Arsenic Mercury Lead Crdmfuft Climmium Copper Zttc Nickel Clanide Chloid€ Fluoride Phenolic Compounds (as
*Allvaiuesexce
2.100 5 5-9.0 50
Sewers
Land Disposal
600
200
2,100
2,100 5.5.9.0
5.5-9.0 50
100
30
350
250 0-2
4.2
0.0i
0.0r
0.1
1.0
2.0
1.0
2.t
2.0
3.0
3.0
5.0
l5
3.0
3.0
0.2
2_0
1.000
C6H5OH)
pH are in mg,'l
Linits'
1,000
2.0
1.5
1.0
5.0
100
:,
i, :,
: ! -: =
L*achateManagenglt
1O7
FINAL DISPOSAL OF LEACHATE or bl disposal on land or sewers or tn t-.".f,ut. m"Y U. airpo,ed oftlhrough evaporalion walelbodies'Leachaleevaporallonlscarfleoouti$e\aporationPonds,'Largesizedshallow and sides or *ith a suitable clav or geomembrane lining at the base ;;:;;';;;;ili;J uPon rhe depends and process ponas unde' rtri sun is a slow i;ff;:;;;;;;';;;t,l'gh condhions weather ,-hiAn! i.mnerature, This rype ol leacnale disposal is suilable for dry as ir requires a larse land area ror Pondins ;:;;;;;'J;i;;"i,;ac'h'ate. "'H;li;;;;;;,'"po*auv lts riain advanrage is ttrat the leachare flows increaiing lhe exPosed area to the sun The leachate il i"r- Jf tnin sheets,"u'"uaing "r"?;;;;tr t""* t; the landfitl or diverted to the treatmeot
;;;;ffi",;;*"i";;uit"
faciliw for final disposal.
'""i'"ur"t"a
should conform io the -'^ c--r ,r;.-^.,t ^ftre leachate in sewers, lanal or water bodies Government of .,":H:f#'#til ;il'a"*" iv irtt uirr"t-"iEnvironment and Forests' developins horticulture
i'u't r'u"t'ut""*also beutilized for
ffi;#;#.;*;;;r.l.i
EXAMPLES _ Examplc4l:Thedislancebetqeenlh€bottomofahazardouswastelandfiltandunderlaying permeability of 10 cm sec Assuming znuiler is l0m. The underl) rng clay la) er nas the t"".r,"r. tin rn' d) uill flow down rhe I o0 hectare Iandfill' iT,1lli,i i'r",i.i .iio*
''i.t
Soluliotr: Area
oflandfill = l00Ha=
106m2
Assuming l0 cm ofconstant leachale head'
Q=KiA NI
=
ld l0'^tt::
mj
sec
m3/sec = Ol x 10-3
= 9.504 m3/day are l) ing belu een the base of a hazardous ExemDle 4.2: The following rhree soit layers Io misrate 1o
:::iJ1;ffi; ""i r"i.nviie "q'if"' the aquifer?
How long
Depth A
4.0
Soil B
10.0
Soil
*ill
it take for leachale
()
1.6 r lo-'q 2.0 x l0-5
5.8xI03
t2-o
Soil C
Solution: Total travel time inyears
r /^
= 6.579 yeais
r.)o
12.0
I
I
1@
ATexlbook ol Soliclwastes ManagEnenl
EXERCISE How does the leachate characteristics change with tihe? Whai are irs environmentat implications? whal are the majo. contaminadts in a l€achare? civc rhei: B?ical values. Estimate ihe leachate quantit gererated per hectare ofa landfill in Delhi. Use pubtished data What ale the advantages of using geomembrane as a liner? Listthe precautions lo be obserued while constructing a g€omembmne liner? Discusslhe relative advantages and disadvantages ofva ous leachatet eatmenrsystems. Design a leachale treatment sysrm for a landfillrece'vin8 municipal.so lid wasre. Whar are tie standards prescribed by CPCB for disposal ofleachate on land. in river, or in sewers? cive fte blockdiagram ofa leachate treatment system and naiiealltheunirs. Leachate co Ilected f.om alandfill site \yas found ro has the foltowine chalacteristics:
COD
BOD
25000mg/l 12000 ms/l
pH
1-7
Estimate
th e
l0000me/l
probable age of the landfill. Design
a
suitable treatment systeh for this teachare.
Chapter
I I I
I I I I Il I T I Il
tl
t t I
Land.ft,tl Gas Control gases generaled due to the biochemical I andfi!l gas is a miYlure ofvarious gases e'g' Co) ,afler. Il also conlains green house
^,,r,'i^i "r*"-i. :;',,:l'::"l^1,::".#;"
ffi';' il;;;,
::il.a"ir"i.i ;;. .lnt. .rl.t"nt;ar
orgas na] be erplosive' landfill p'oa"' sases e\en the.so 'li.s landf ill gas mi$alion of il;.;,lron'"n'ot'on"qu"n'es
"i "r"".'[i ;iiiunantl
*. rt",.iiture
to public health' range from nuisance to damaBe
^ayiabre-s r presens so'e potentiar environmental
"na ;;r..i';il;;;;;;i;;;. gas' impacts
oflandfilt
ofLandfill Gas Table 5.1; Potential Environmental Iflpaors
EVlosion
arEas wilh ;" t ,.m*. *E*"" -d accumuladon in confined dn'asE and/or IrG,-* ig'it*-"=,t i"g t' ssibls inju! ordeah
ro buitdurss or other structures'
AsphYxidion
ir"J.*.-",r,. r-a .,#" #rn
n rr
"rir*r""
p.ople or antmals in the \ iciniq ma) a'cmuraion of sas in anv c'nnned
", a';
'
of ot-vgen i.-. o, otlt.. u.g.u,ion "te damaged as a resuhzones' some in rhe roor misarion rl"anltg" i"nli-""a*to monoxjde'
cahon ** *In'"or-o "f r*anrr gEt e'g ammonia' ro pra'$ and mav affeci t,e ; biic *a' ."-;. ffil"ii. plantgm$1ir Due to malodorous gases,
i*1",
in $arer iocreaseihe hardncss'
ai"iia., r,igr,rvsot'ble
decrEases oH and tums waler acidic '
Conosion
He.t6Effec!
r.*Ii" rru'-.*
^"'n rn* i,"ri.
hldroscn chlodd€ and sulfin o$er meallic icms 'nd ftom incomplete "tequhmali **p.*ds and emissions
*ch
iL *"*i",
i,i*"tr"iii
"*. a,;,ig *,itr',;"" "ie."
n'tns
i*r,-
-"
which are serious h€allh hazrd
Efred
as
ro
Jr"ira" -a In.tt the gF.oitou* effec!'
mav c'nrain diorins and
tur&s
gas contribute Prerent in the landfill
1 )
fO
ATertbook
of
I
Sold Wastas Management
COMPOSITION OF LANDFILL GAS r".,rfirrd,<.
iill'"*!..
"
"uliia'
i"ur.ii.v"t*"iip.s=entinexcessof5percentintheaircanbeexplosi!e'lheexplosrons
."yi"t"
pf"".
"
distance from the site due to migration ofmelhane'
*,it"
Tsble 5'2: Tvpical Composilion ofLandfill
Gas
47 -7
Methane Caibon dioxide
3.7
^\itrogen
0-8
oryge,
0.1
Hydrogen Hydmgen sulfide
0.01 0.1 0.5
'Ihere are lhe public heallh and environmenl rhtc"rif;mia Inleg'ated wasle Managemenl Board
Tr.ce eises can be loxic and pose a Ii'k
*r"r*1""1. t^*-,,
ir',.
ir", .'ri"".ir.i""."itt"a
ilil;;;;;;1;;;i
i"nahrrg"t landfii gas
out
',;.t*"..
fou-na
10
a anaLysis and characterization' Table 5 3 shows
't
ooiiff"reot municipal landfill sites in california'
inLandflllGas Table5.3: Typical Concentration of Trace Compounds Found Concenlrutian (ppb)
Chloroform 1.1-DichlorcethaDe Dierhyl€ne chloride EthylBenzene
Methyl ethylketone 1,1,1-Trichloroethane Tdchloro€thylene Toluene 1,1,2,2-Tetrachloroethane
Tetrachloroethllene Vinylchloride Styrenes
xylenes So//ce: CWMB (1988)
6,840 2,050 245 2,800 25,700 2,830
7,330 3,100 615
2,080 34,900 245 5.240 3,500 1,500
5,600 2,650
I I
I
I
I I
I
LandfillGas
Contol
'111
STAGES OF LANDFILL GAS GENERATION phases (Fig 5 l ) Duration ofthese phases The seneration oflandfill gas occu$ in several ;stes. moisture con€nt panicles' size' availability otnutrients'
i."."I. ,i"" *. "ri "f etc. Each of lhese phases is described belo$: i",li"i .".i0*ti""i!*l
PhaseI-AerobicPh&se:Phaselorinilialadjustmenlphasestartsilrmediatelyafterthe cover material
presenl in the 50it used as -,{. iq Dlaced into the landl'ill. Mrcroorganism or*astes cenain amount ofair is tmPped ;: #;i,y;;;;;;;i;ioirunii,. a"'omp-o'ition lit r. ii,i, ""!* r.,r," landfilt. Therefore, in this phase, the biotogical decompositio! of organic wastes occurs under aerobic conditions'
-d\
i\\ 1t
l
100
100
60
\, /
\
20
Flg. 5,1: Phases in Landlill Gas Gensration
PhaseII-AcidPhase:ThiSisatransitionphaseinwhichoxygenisdepletedandanaerobic takes place nitrates and sulfates a, tt'" "onversion "nu"tou;" .ti.r"" :ndiydrogen sulfide rermetlative and acidogenic bacteria produce ii"
il?;.t Jtii;;;;pin!. r"ir""*
volatile fatty acids, carbon dioxide and hydrogen'
to
bacteria starts III-Initial Methenogenic Phese: ln this phase melhanogenic phase II are t".thane. drganic acids and hlirogen gas formed during "..* "rJor"Ir." into melhane and carbon dioxide' ionvened Phas€
Phaselv-stableMethsnogetricPhsse:stablernethanogenicphaseischaracterizedbyby is o-xidized io i. io o".""ot or ."rhane and low concentration of hydrogen Hydrogen .;;;;i;td;;" i;.elhane since carbon dioxide is utilized for oxidation ofhvdrogen' its concentration is also reduced inthis phase volume
of
Intrusion: Due to the biodegradation oI lhe organic wastes the Duing serilement ,rlrrc. ."aul". _a *.".t"s in the landfills mdergo consolidarion and settlemenl_ Jirr-a* il the outerpartofthe landfill and reduces formation ofmethane'
Phsse
V-Air
"i*lnir, Pbrse
Vl-Methane Oxidstion:
Methane pro'luced in the centre ofth€ waste is.oxidized outerpan oflandflll ln this phase nltrogen ls
io caoon aioxiae, as it migBies throughthe gas' also present in significant concentration in landfiil
I T
I
112
A Texlbook of solid wastes Managem.nt
3
Phas€ VII-Cerbon dioxide Phase: 1n this phase, methane formation is negligible an. intruding air oxidizes solid organic carbon to carbon dioxide Finally the waste is almos:
stabilized and the site is Iike a naiural ground.
FACTOBS AFFECTING LANDFILL GAS GENERATION The rate ofgeneration of landfill gas depends upon many factors e.g. moisture contenl. type and size ofwasie. compacted density, pH, telnPerature
Moisture Content: Moisture content is an important factor affectingthe biodegradation of\Hastes. Higher moisture content increases gas produclion rate The distribution and flos ofmoisture is important in dispersing nuirients and microcrganisms through ihe fi11 and diluting and removing substances which affect decomposilion rate. Waste Typer The naiure ofbiodegradable ftac:ion ofmaterials present in the wastes (e.9.. its molecular structure) affects both the deBradation rate and the composition of landfill gas. Readil]_ biodegradable fractions ofwastes such as vegetable matter supPort rapid initiation ofdecomposition process. Onthe other hand, less readily degradable matterwith high carbon content (e.g. newspapers) support a long term produclion ofmethane r;ch landfill gas.
Nutrient Content: Various nutrienls are required iorthe growlh ofmicroorganisms in a landfill. Amongthese carbon. hydrogen, oxygen, niEogen, and phosphorous ale most imporlant. These nutrients are required both in sufficienl quantilies as well as in suitable proportions. The generation ofgas also depends upon the digestib;lity ofavailable nutrients. Numerous toxic materials including heavy metals which are difficult to digest can retard the raie of gas generation. Specific weight: Specific weight ofsolid wasles deposited in the Iandflll affecl the amount ofair trapped within the *astes. amount ofbiodegradable matter within the same volume. and the vertical permeability ofwastes mass. In a well_compacled waste, the amount of air is less and biodegradable matter is mole in a unit volume. It therefore helps in the earl)
star! of anaerobic decomposition and production of meihane. 10 8.5 is an optimal range for methane produclion. In wasles. acidic condilions are common and may delay melhanogenesis
pH: A pH of 6.5
municipal solid
Temperature: Ior optimum methane generation, temperature should range from 35 to 45 'C. In a shallow landfi1ls. seasonal temperature variations affect the rate ofproduclion of
landfillgas. Particle Size: With decrease in particle size lhe surface area increases raPidly. Wirh lhe smaller size iherefore the biodegradation process and the raie ofgeneration oflandfill gas is also increased.
OUANTITY OF LANDFILL GAS GENEBATION The quanliry of gases generated are estimated inanumberofways. These include, sloichiometry method. IPCC melhod. test uell method- and rough approximation
Stoichiometrl Method: The mosl common technique is to use Slricliou e1r)'. ifthe chemical composition oforganic ma11er presenl in the wastes is kno\r'n. Eq. 5.1 can be used to determine
l
LandfillGa. rhe volume
ofprincipal
gases i.e. methane, carbon
Contol
'113
dioxide, and ammonia generated in the
landfill.
CJ]lO.Nr+ [(44 - 6 - 2c - 3A)/41H2O -+ l(4o b - 2c - 3d)/87CH t + l@a - b + 2c + 34/8lco, + dNHl }rhere CJ.O"Nr'is the chemical comPosition ofthe municiPal solid wastes
r5.l)
I?CC Mdhods: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has suggested guideliDes to esrimate the quantity ofmethane generated from municipal solid wastes. Eq. 5.2 is used to estimate the total methane emission. (5.2) CHa emission = t Msnl, t FDOC t x FD t x MEF x CR
MSrl, = Amount of municipal solid wastes disposed at landfill FDOC, = Fraction of degradable organic ca.bon FD, = Fraction of total degradable organic carbon which actually degrades (about 0 75) Mr4 = Melhane emission factor (aboui 0.5) CrR, = Methane carbon codversion ratio (16/12) These methods are approximate but give a generation in a landfill.
fair indication of the potential of
gas
Test Well Method: This is one ofthe mostreliable rnethods for estimating the gas Production from an existing landfill. It involves constuction of a gas well at the landfill site and moniioring ofquantity and quality ofgas received. The number oftest wells required for this purPose depends upon the size oflandfill as well as the chamcteristics of\Yastes. rcceived. A general practice is to use a factor of safety of2 for this method to arive a! a conse*ative estimate
This accounts forthe fact that all gas generated is not usualiy collected.
Rougb Approxim.tionr This method is used lo assess the quantity ofgas generated based on rte vol;me ofwasle disposed off in landfill. It is assurned that ab6ut 6 m3 ofgas is generated every year from eachton ofwastes. This method assumes an average landfill that is supportingan enerry recovery system and does not accuEtely account ior the characteristics of\rastes. Estimation from this methods may vary by as much as 50 percent.
LANDFILL GAS MIGRATION The pressure in active landfills is generally greater than the atmosphetic pressure which causes the landfill gas to migrate. Migration ofgas can be upward or do$nward depending on its density.
The extent to which a gas can flowthrough amaterial depends upon the permeability of the maierial and the physical properties ofthe gas. Gas will migrale along all possible pathways in proportion to their accessibility or penneability. Pathlvays for landfill migraiion could be on-site or off-site. Fig. 5.2 shows various possible path\davs oflandfillgas migration
On-site Migration Palhways On-site migration oflandfill gas may occur within the refuse, wiihin the various landfill installalions, into the cap. around site perimeter, or through the gas extraction system.
114
ATexbook of Solicl Wasles Managenenl
i,Il-;F-
t: iij:nl.ii:l
h and aound siie inslallaiions. Through cove. materials. 3. S6ttl6m6nl cacks, esp6cially al sile p€rimet6r. 4. Fracluros in adjacenl rocks(includhg blasting 1.
2.
5.
P6msabl€ rock stBla
10. Exploration and oiher boI€hole5. 11. Changing watel levels (e.9. cessalion ol mine pumping) can op€n or 6lose palhways. 12. Granularmaterla lnsoakavays and pip€ o. cabl6 13. Basemenls
7. Collapsod mine workings.
g.lnducsdtractures inzoneolstralaloxlension
at sdgo ol mine subsidence
area
15. 16. 17. 18.
ed
@llars.
Seruic€ €nlri6s (oas, wal€r, elecl cily, elc.) Del0ctiv6 bnck{ork or honaL Drain pip€s. archiroclulal leaiur€s. Soir, generalground sudac6 (possible ingrcss to 9ard6n sh€ds, iehls elc.)
Fig. 5.2r Pathways ol Land,ill Gas Migration
Within Wastesr Wasres remain highly perneable even when well compacted. The presence ofvoids inthe waste due to poorcompaction, bulky objects etc results in higher permeability and thus more space for gas to migrate. Site lnstallations: Landfill gas may migrate through or around any boreholes. chimneys ()r similar structures within the wastes. Surface drains that discharge offthe site and roads also provide potential migration pathways- Similarly, olher services tothe site controlofiice' weigh bridge or other building structures add to the migration pathways for landfill gas' Caps: Low permeabilily Iandfill caps (final cover) and crack in landfillcaps due to differential se;lement also provide a room for migration oflandfill gas. Gas flo$ through caps increases with time due to the development ofdesiccation or settlement. Deep penetrating plant roots wilhin the landfill cover also contribute to gas migralion
Lahdfillcascontrol 115 Site Perimeter: Landfill gas may vent to the aunosphere from the entire surface ofa landfill' Bur it is particularly likely to migrate to the sudace from around its perimeter. Afler its depositio;, \vaste can continue to settle over a numbero?years, causingfissures to develop' Increasett gas venting at the site matgins is likely to ensue, notably where the rilaterial boundingthe site is relatively impermeable, such as clay or a synthetic site liner' Gas Ertraction System: The use ofan effective gas control system greatly reduces both laterai off-site migration and venti[g ofgases through the landfill surface Migration may however, ircrease ifthe extraction system is clogged or is not in operation for a longtime' ln such cases, gas may migrate through the voids between extraction wells and wastes.
Oll-site Migiation Pathways Off-site pathways could be natural orartificial Natural Pathways itclude permeable soil or rocks, planar opetings, joi dts, faults etc. Artificial Pathways are generally due to mining or any other construction or bo.ing activity.
Natuhl Pathwayg Perme.ble Rocks or Soils: Landfill gas may teach the surface at some distance (hundreds ofmeters) from the landfill site by travelling through permeable strata dePending upon its penneabiliv. Services e.g. underground pipelines and buildings consfucted nearby are particulady vulnemble to gas accumulation.
PIansr Openings: There are various types ofplanar discontinuities in rocks An inclined b€ddingptane, for instance, mayrun ftom the baseofthe landfillto intersectthe iand surface some distance away. Wherethis provides a ready gas migmtion pathway in low permeability rocks, the migrating gas will not be detected till it reaches the surfaceB€ilding Planes: These are the basic discontinuities in sedimentary rocks, representing breaks oi changes in se
Joints: Joirts form
a systematic
Fsults: Faults are fractures along which relative disPiacemenl dfthe adjacent rocks occurred. They may also contribute tothe landfill gas migration.
has
Other Fissures: Blasting fractures ortension fractures extending for several meters into a rock ma] occur in the \r'alls ofhard rock quarries. These may induce surface emissions at the perimeter ofa land{i11. Natoral Cavities: Some rocks contain cavities e.g. shallow holes or pot holes in limestones These may b€ connectedtothe cave systems often extending several kilometers. thus provid;ng easy paths for flow ofgas to a very large distance-
Artiticial Pathways Mine Workings: Landfill siles are common in coal or rock mining areas. Such areas also include disused tunnels and shafts which act as a conduits forgas. Gas migration pathways can also be provided by fractures created by subsidence in areas overlying deep mines'
'116
Arextbook ol Solidwastes Managehent
permeabilh N€ar S[rface Installatiods: Any service installation may provide in itself a high service: various mierarion route for landfill gas simply by thecrcalionofa line ofweakness gas ir"lraing .t..tr;.ity. .ratef se*erige etc laid down nearthe landfill may enhancethe migration.
GAS COLLECTION gealth' exPlosion' The miglation of landfill gas Presents Potential for several hazards e 8 fire, interest considerable is therefore There ofenergy. But thJga( is also a potelntial ofsource are: collection ofgas in the p;ssibilily of gas recovery. The objectives
. .
to prevenl migralion ofgasto the nearby areas;and to use it as an energy resource,
The landfill gas has a high calorific value and can be ulilized forrecovery ofeners/' Use of landfill ias as a sou;ce ofenergy recovery is now incleasingly being considered' It also redlces many other problems e g. odor due to landfill gas'
Componehls of Gas Collection System A typical gas collection and energy recovery system is shown in Fig 5 3 Various colnponenls
ofgas colieclion system are as follows:
o
. . . .
Gas wells placed within the wastes Header syslem to connect the wells to the gas Pumping unit' Flare systeit for burningthe landfill gas, ifrequired.
purification system Energy recovery Piant or genelator
Gas
Gaspu.illcaiion
syslem
El6ctrLlty
len€|al€.
Flg. 5.3: Componsnts o, Gas Coll€clion Syslom
Each ofthese components ofgas collection system has a specific role and need to be designed properly. The feasibility ofthe system depends on the amount and rate of gas g"n"iation. Wh"r" th" gas generation mte is high, it canbe supplied as afuel to the n*rby be ireas at a reasonable price. Ho\Yev€t ifthe rate of gas Seneration is low, it may nol feasible to energy and the gas should be bumt thrcugh flares Gas Extractiol Wells: Gas e].traction could be achieved by lsing €ither verlical wells or of through horizontal trenches. Details ofa vertical gas well are shown iD Fi8 5 4 The size
Landil
Gas
Control
117
itrese \4elis varies between 300 mm to 500 mm including the inlemal perforated piPe of50 6i mm dia. Though both otthese systems arc different in layout the basic concept remaids the sarne. Suction pressure provided by the gas pumps dl?ws the landfill 8as into the vertical/horizontal pipingthrough the $avel backfilland the slofted PiPe. vertical pipe system is usuaily Provided ar the time ofclosure of landfill i.e. together with the construction of landfll cov€r. On the oderhand, horizontal pipesystem isprovidedasthe waste disPosal progesses. Gas extraction
\rells may also be provided in combination with lhe leachate collection wells (Fig 5.5).
L-oocm
'
*-l
oiameter
Fig. 5.4: Gas Extraction Well
Header Pipes and PumpingUnit: A header pipe is usually provided to coltect the gas fiom various vertical wells or from horizontal trenches. It also receives gas from a network ofsubheader pipes which are used to join a number ofgas weils. A pumping unit is usually connected at the end ofheader pipe to extract the gas. The caPacity ofPump depends upon many factors e.g. quant;ty ofgas available, por€ space ofcompacled wastes.
Flaring Systeh: Landfill gas ifnot availabie in sufficient quantity or found ofpoor quality (i.e- \r'itb low methane contenl) isnot feasible for energy recovery. In such cases, gas should be burn! off. Various tlpes offla.e burners are available forthis purpose. These burners ale kepr ai a suitable height. Typicallythe height offlaringburners vary from 3 to 6 m above the
landfiil surface. A Star Arm burner (F;g. 5.6) is economically available specifically for flaringoflandfillgas.
118 Alexbook ot' Solic! W?6tes
IT
Managpnent
!l
iti *': : a
100 thick gravel
.
500
Well Flg.5.5: combinaiion oi Gas Ext€cion Well and Leachale Colledion contains various impuiiiies especially Gas Purilic.tion System: Gas collected from landfiil for efficient energy recovery' be renoved lyatogen sulfide, which needto u"oo.. oit", --u"i.tlt. These are c) Iindrical "na removaltraps' gas is removed using moisture
r., riJli
columflsfabricatedofM-s.sheet.Flanges.about5mmthickareprovidedatthetopandDonom nqOU* gaskets are use; to prevent leakage ofgasJrom flan8es ForabsorPlion chloflde. ""fr"'.. "iti" ttre cotumn is filled *,ith 15-20 mm size gravels and dry solid calcium oimoisture
lor hyclrogen iron cuflings and lead trinji rlrn""r1 Ihe column i, fillel with gravel l5'20 mmasi/e' membrane acerale oowder lo absorb hydrogen sulfide gas Allemalively semFpermeable while pass to through and moisture dioxide carbon r,ydrogen iulfide, ;"" i" ,i*a i" pipe' a hollow "fl"* oras flat sheel as a available methane is.etained. Tiese membranes are in suitable Enersv R€cote.l Generator: Gas recovered from landfills is purifled and stored A cvlindricalM.s. column aboul.]00 mm diamelerand
;;;i;;;;;.;#,
l'1
5 m height is used
There are a varietv ofgensets ofdifrerent capacities' commerciallv is also provided'
using lardfiligas Us$lly a standby generator i". g.."*i""";"\ery. "tel;r'iciry "r",f"il" Methods of Gas Collection methodsl The collection oflandfill gas is carried ou!mainly by two
(i)
(ir)
Passive Pressure Method
Acri\ e Pressure Velhod
Landlill Gas
Contol
119
75 dia Slotred screwed
Ceramlc f ibre insutalion
Movable air controt vanes
Fig. 5.6: Ftare Burner
Passive Pressure Method: In this method the pressure of Eas jnside the Iandfill is the main driving force which causes movement ofgas. A series ofgas vents/wells is provided in the landfill at regular intervals. Perimeter intercepting trenches with perforated pVC pipes can also be installed for collection ofgases, which migrate towards the periphery of landfill. The collected gas can be slored in cylinders for energy recovery if jt has high methane content- Ifthe gas is not generated in sufTicient quantity. the energy recovery may nor be economically feasible.
I I
I
IL T
Active Pressure Method: In this svstem, a number ofgas wells are installed in the landllll. These wells are connected with a header, through a pipe network, which is connected to a blower. Negative pressure orvacuum is induced bythe blowerwhich draws outthe landfill gas. The spacing ofgas wells is such that their radius ofinfluence overlaps (Fig. 5.7). MONITORING AND OETECTION OF LANDFTLL GAS is essential to ascertain sk to public health and environment, to veriry efficiency ofgas control measures, and to face Eends in gas generation and migration_ Monitoring is canjed out both within and outside the landfill.lnside monitodng is carried out to determine the quantity andcomposilion ofgas generated. Anoutside monitoring is requiredto establish themigration paths oflandfill gas in the area sunounding the periphery oflandills. Monitoring heips in deterrniningthe concentration ofthe constituent e.g. methane, carbon dioxide, oxygen, hydrogen sulfide. andlo measurethe pressure, flo\{ rate and temperature ofgases. Landfillgas monitoring
16
ArgrJbook ol Solidwasles Managanenl To{adng
Flg. 5.7: Typical Arrangemsnt ot Gas Wells
ofa Monitoring techni ques can be ciassified as intiusive and non-intrusive The choice rechnique
*iii
depenion lhe scale ofinvesligalion. PurPose and objectives Non-intrusi!t
parameters without disrurbing the equilibdum techniques foc,-rs on measuring or observing cerlain photography, light detection and mnging infra_red surveys' ofthe environm"nt. Thermographic for landfill gas monitorinS lntrusile used nonlintrusive techniques
(LIDAR)
"o-.o, disturb the environment where monitoriflg is carried out This lechnique technioues"r"ma! g"n.r"ily in',,oir., .ottection of samples from monitoring boreholes which can alter ihe eouilibrium and deplele gas concentratlon. 'The gas deteclion basically consists ofa sensor, a processing udit, a display unit' a data Most hydrocarbons logger, id a power suppiy unit. The most imPortaft component is the sensor' absolption infra_red from a' be obtained can results .uai"tion Reliable int "-."a detector inf'a-red "tA.U and an source of an infra_red based sensor. A typical sefisol consists fluctuates signal The ofgas (Fig.5.8). The sensor measutes radiation absorbed by a sample availabie1o ana'"or."rponas to ttre percentage ofhydiocarbon present Such meters are measure '''-iui" quantities ofmethane and carbon dioxide over a wide range' oiuuuf" irttru*ents based on infra-red sensors designed specificall]' foi landfill are commonl-r sa-s-monitorrne are auailable in the market. Fixedversions ofinFa-red analyzers ised in ,tatio-nary insLrumenlalion of landfill gas naring and ulilization
Landfil
Gas
Conttol
121
Flg. 5.8: Schemalic ot lnlra-red CO2 Beteclor
EXAMPLES
Eramplc 5.1: Estimate the theoretical volume ofgas that wiil be generated in a sanitary landfill by anaerobic digestion of 1000 kg ofMSw having approxinate chernical fornula for its organic portion as CaoHrjoosoN. Solution: h is assumed ihe complete conversion ofbiode$adable organic waste to CO? and CHa by anaerobic digestion in the IandfiU will lake place. The tolal lheoretical volume ofgas may be estimated using the following equation:
c,nro.N,
I I I I I
r I I
+
-l4o
(
4a-b- +U
-
b _k - v
H:O
)cH.
_(1q
-4q)co,
_dr.rH,
For the given wastes composition,
a=90;
b
=
150:,
c=
a0:
d=
|
we obtain therefore, rjooloN + I 3.25H2O (2s24) (2385) CeoH
)
43 .37
sCHa
.
46625CO2 + NH3
(6e4) (20515) 0?)
From 1000 Kg ofwastes therefore, (i) The weight ofmethane (CHl) gas that will be produced out of 1000 Kg ofwaste
=;i4
(ii)
. t000=214s6 Ke The weight ofcarbon dioxide (COr)
=Hf;'rooo=8r2re
Ke
gas that
will
be produced out
of
1000 Kg
of
T 12
I
A Textbaok al Solid Wastes Managemenl
T ?
Now, the sp. wt. ofmethane at STP =0.1176Kqt|t And the sp. wt. ofcarbon dioxide at STP = 1.9783 Kg/ml Therefore. (1) Theoretical volume ofm€thane gas,
:
i,v -,i 01116 l!1lK - nJ
'--
(2) Theoretical volume ofcarbon dioxide gas, _
:-:::l-:
dlnc( nj $7Al= '-' '
Hence, total theoretica, volume ofbiogas (CH4 + CO2) that = 383.i6 + 410.85 = 794 m3
will
generate,
EXEBCISE
l.
Whal are the gases rel€ased from
a
typical landfill site? Discussthe environmental impact oftl€se
gases. 2
. How does th€ quanritv and qual ity of
a
landfill
gas change over
time?
3. Discuss vario'rs factors that affect the quantity and ccmposition oflandfill gas. 4. What are likely palhways of landfi ll gas m igration? G iye su;table rem ed ial measures to control migmtion.
5. A MSW landfill silehasanareaof l00hawithanaveragedepthof wasteof s15m. Estimate:
(r) (,i) (irr)
.heooslof inslallingagas collectionandpowerproductionsynem. the time it willtake forthe facility io become profitable. the volume ofbiogas likeiyto be generated.
Assume suitable va,ues for any datarequir€d.
6. Discuss various monitoring methods for landfillgas g€neration.
Cbapter
II oz or d,o ws Wa
Motc ag e'tnent nn d, Site Rerned'iotion' t
s es
likellJff:'i:r'.ilT:i:.Ti';:
waste Hazardous wasre is defined.as the comblnal! in and/or environmenl by itselfor
as
''anv
defines a hdzardous subsance ;l;:;;;;;; iP;;i."t;"n) Aci la86reason-of or phlsico-chemical ;;L;#.;;;;P;"" which' bvto cause harmits tochemical beings' other living human i.""ili* "ir,"'ra,i"g. is liabie properq or the environnent ' :;f,;;., ;i;. ;i;;;"'sanism
WASTES CHARACTERISTICS OF HAZARDOUS if ir exhibits any of Ul the USEPA as hazardous !\asle iv"r,. l. igniLability reactivil)' lolicity' "tu.rin.a 'r,. r^ll^wine characteriuics-corrosrvtry'
lTt:::;#ili:"tfi p-ilt"i*i.i.v ."
"'.
:'i
* L"i""e*i'i;i "oeeneciD also classi6ed as hazardoLs
bioaccumuration'
"te
il has a PH less than or equal lo2.or Corrosil ity: wasres are conosive if conodes sleelat a rate grealer i"."i.t ,i",i "t .qr""" I2 5 Any waste thar is classified as haardous' a test temPerature of55oc ,*
iniit.ri
r"ir*t "
lsnitebility:
\)Yasle
.?i, ."..r."."r.
of moisture' causingfire through friclion absorplion suchwa es hazardous as .ft", ical change are classilied flammable include ana p"si'renttv lt also
X;j"1Hffi;;;i;;'o'stv gases.
(i) ''
ind liquids
as described
belo*:
in the gaseous stale.at,normal Flammable gases: chemicals which become pressure and when in conlact with air
i.rp.i"*,t -o flammable.
point lower
have a fl ash tiirili, n".."on'iquids: chemicarr which ,,,, ' ,iu'n:1"c una ttt uoiling poinl ofwhich aI normal Pressure is abote
20"
,il;r ""'
c.
have iia.n'mable liquids: chemicals wtich
"i:l--a"'r,l.tt"mainliquidsunderPres"ure'
a
flash point louer than undercertainprocessne
, 14
A Textbook ot Sotid Wastes Managehent
conditions, suchas high pressurea.d high ternperature, there may create hajor accident
ha"rrds.
Chemicais whirh explode underthe effec! offlame, heat or photo_chem;cal conditions or are sensitive to shocks or faiction are also categorized as ha;ardous.
Reactivity: Reactivity is the process whereby a mateiial violent changes or reacts violenily with water
is normal ly unstable but undergoes
Toxicity: Any waste that has poisonous effects upon human beings or any other living organisms is categorized as hazardous waste. Toxicit) can b" acute orihronic a"p"ra# uiorlir"
typeofsubstanc€andlenglhofexposureoflheliv;ngbeingstoit.ToxicirfCluiJ..i.ti" Leaching Procedure (TCLP) test is used to idenriry roiic coisrituent of w"it".. S"*" u.*" toxicity Ievels are as folloiys:
Extr€rnely toxjc
Highlytoxic
Meditn tethal dose
Mediud lethal dose
LD sa hstkd ba4) weiEht of test atinals
veight of test anidols
l-50 5l - 500
LD 5a (ns/ks) body r - 200 201 - 2000
Mediud lelhal dose b! inhalation route LC 50 (ns/t) inhalation b) tett aninals
0.t - 0.5 0.5 -2.0
Csrcinogenicity: Wastes which can cause calcerare considered as highly hazardous. Such subsrances anacl rhe normal cells of bod) and ma1 indr.rce cancerous!r,i*f,l of rime ",", " fJ"a Hazzrd identificalion is required to determine a relationship, ifan), between a pollutarr
and its potenlial for causing injury to human health orenvironment. Such inJrA" neurological disorders or cancer, fish kills, habitat destruction or any orf,., deterioration. Risk ro humans inchdes kidney and Iever damage, ski; infe"ti""r, "nri,jn."naf
iri*l"i.ui
disease, neurologicai disorde* and significant increase in the r-isk
t;i;i;"",
ofcaa"". nl.i *r"..,*nt techniques involve clinical srudies, epidemiological studjes, animalstudi".. a";;4";;i;* eye_
studies. It is necessary to identifylhe initial or background concentration ofthe chernicals in the environment before commencing any project. Any increase jn concentration due i; projecr provides an index ofthe Iikery exposure.It is often difficuit to determine the initiar concentration ofchemicals since most ofthe epiderniological studies ar" ;ft.. the symptoms of disease manifest when the amouDt or d;ation of expoa*" ""..i.d;ui i,", Maintenance ofdetailed recotds and continuous monitoring ofpublic he;lth;";;r;;;;;:"", "f,"'#U. can help in accurate assessment ofexposure. Environmental consequences ofsome categories ofhazardous {astes are presented in
t;;*
,Table 6.1.
MANAGEMENT OF HAZAROOUS WASTES The main sources ofhazardous wastes are the industrial uni8. Law requiresthat iadustries di.Foseoff their hazardous wastes. only afier proper treatment. Unfo;unately it is seidom heedecl ln practice especiall) in developing countries. As a result most hazardous wastes are commingred withlhe municipar wastes. ultimately hazardous waste reaches the randfrrs and is leached to the ground water with glave impact on the human health.
I
HazadouswastdsManagementand Site Rem5.liatton 125
T.ble 6,1: Envionmental
Consequences of various Categades
ofWalles
Environne ntal Spenr
mken aEi4 acid sludge,
C oas
eq"etce s
Generation of toxic hydrogen
cyeoide gas Acetylene sludge, alkaline caustic liquiG, sp€nr calstic,
Fir€ ofexplosioo, generarion
of
llammable ga,
spe mixeda.id,acidsludge, Non halogensted hyd$,.arbon including
wastE oil and emulsion
Aluminurr belyflium. €lciurn, lidiur! rnagresirE sodiuq zinc powder and other rea.,tive metals and mefal hybrids Asbeslos wasre & other toxic wastes, b€ryllium wastes,
Release
oftoxic substances in case
offte
ex?losion
or
unrirsed p€sticide.ontaine6,
Phenols
oxidizing min€rals acids, spent mixed acid, acid sludge Clening solvenis, obsolee explosil€s, P€loleum \rasie, ret ograde ex?losives, waft oil & other flamnabl€ and
Clening solvelts, obsolete
Heat gen€ration, fire Release
ofto/ic
Release
oftoxic subst nces in case
substances in cas€
expiosilts, petroleum wast€, retograde explosives, waste
oil&oth Acid slulry
Alkdine slurry
flammabieand
Ac€tyiene sMgc, alkalire causlic liquids. sP€nt calsnc Sp€nt mixed acid, acid studge,
Heat geneation, violent r€attron Heat g€nemtion,
violeft r€adion
Source: CP.B 11997a).
Manv chemicals are bioaccumulative. Studies onaquatic life in contaminated \Yater have revealet huge bioaccumutation - magnifying hundreds oftimesthe original concentration ofchemicalirising through various l;vels ofthe food chain For instance, watercontaining
nill i;n fPPM ) ofDDD (an organochlorine peslicide namely Dichlorc'diphennylplankton conlaining 5.3 PPM ofDDD Small fish living on it ai.t io,o"ittun.t *itlgtow -with ;bout 10 PPM ofthis chemical, and large predatory fish feeding may be contaminated onifris smatt hsh -ay, in lurn. have DDD concEltralions ofas much as 1700 PPM This the to u ."gnlni"iion ofS5OOO times the original concentration of0 02 PPM in ^.ount,
0.02 Darts Der
themselves' but Many chemicals are syne.gistic, i e.' they donot pose a majordanger by i'to a transform these chemicals' other iD com;ination with even a smail amountofcertain ofhazardous management in the major, sometimesfatal, health rist. Impo.tant consideration wastes are given in Table 6.2.
1fi
ATextbook of Solid Wastes Managenent
Tible6.2: Important Considerations
Eatnan entdl
iD
HandlinglDisposal of Hazardous wastes
Aspect
Existi4
AnQulEy
air qualily, various sources
ofair pollution
Vohme, physical arld chemical cha'ad.ristics for
and
dEir cumulative
of s?nes, includingpotEntial
volaliliztion dd dispelsion
H€3llh risk due to human €x?osure Polential for danagc to wildlife, cmps, vegptatioq buildirgs etc p€Im&ence ofthe Potntial adverse efreds PeEistence
a
Hldrog€ologicd fedures ofthe area, including topog"Phv Details ofsurfa!€ water bodies i. the regiotl flow Quantiry, qurlity a diie.lion ofgroundwater Pdems ofminfall in the region Proximity ofraste facility to surfaoe warer E{sting qu.lky ofsurIA.€ watet including other sourc€s of.o,tardination and their cunulalve impact on sudace warer volune, physicat & chernical chaE i.ristics ofwastes, including potentbl
Surface warer Ouality
for volatilizaion and dispelsion Heath nsk due to human €xpos'Ie Poientiai for damage ao *ildlife, crops, vegeaation, buildings eic Persistenc€ and permaneDce ofthe potential adverse effects
Celogical and hydrological chara.leristics ofthe area
Croundwarer Qualir.v
Qu3ntily, qual;ty, and dire.lion ofgound*ate. Pdtems oflandus€ in the region
flow
Polential for migration ofwaste constituents o. lea.hale into subsurf&e
. .
Potentht for migiarion ofwaste constituents oi leacha& into root zone of food"chain crops arld other vegelation volume, ph) sical& cherni..€l chamderisdcs ofwastes, includiBpot€ntial for
. . .
volailiztion
and disPersio
Health risk due ao humao exposute Potential for damage to $ildlife, crops, vegetatior! buildings etc PeBistence and permanence ofthe potential adve6e eff€cts
Hazardous waste treatment and disposal strategies are usually industry-specific and ari I best implemented on the basis ofan environmental audit of each industrial unit An envirofinen'; praclices auditis a systematic, documenteal, periodicand objective revie* ofoPerations and in the industrial unit. It ensures comPliance with rules snd regulations. It can also detect examine any risk olbreakdown leadingto environmenlal problems Fuaher, the aud it can also the possibility of minimization of wasle streams. Apart from audits, other management $rategies for hazardous waste management include Iife cycle analysis. volume reduction, loxicity reductio ' recycling and reuse, avoiding wasi;mixing, tnd good housekeeping practices. A periodic review ofhousekeeping procedures (Table 6.3) is necessary. Training ofstaff is a major element in the implementation ofthese practices in any facility.
I I
I
I
I
I
Hazarclous4astesManagamentandsite Remediation
W
Trblc 5.3: Good Housekeeping Pracrices
a?tsre
Minimizdion Assessment
a leam ofqu.al ified individuals' goals Eslablish praldcal shon'cms and long-terms
Form
Allocate resou.ces and budget Establish ass€ssmmt
6gets
ldentifl and selecl optioE to minimiz waste Pmodicall) monilol fie progra'n's etrediven6s Alsenble Perlnent docum€nls
Fnviro ne rl audiE/reviews
corduct envimfl mmlal Process reviews Cana oui a sie insPe.lion Report on and follow up on the findings
Loss prevention
I SrcC I plarE Establish spi[ Pler'e,ltion. Conrol. and CournermeasuEs phas6 oper'rion and desrg in the n'"ora.*
Prograhs
*".**enl
i."J," Prcvent
mixi;
ofhazardous wastes with non'hazardous wasres
Isola& haardous *astes by containm€nt holate liquid wasles fiom solid *tst€s ch@lerinics and Us€ equiPnent data crrds on equipment location,
PrEvmtive fiaintenance
(PM) schedule Master pr€v€ntive maintenanc€ equiPrnent on rePotu Defen€dPM
MainGin equipment breakdo*n rePons Keeo vendor maintenance manuals hand)
Mai;bin compuerizrd reparhislory
fi
le
Provid€ t'aining for: Safe operarion ofrhe equipment ProDer materials handling
Taininga'.r"rEnesebuilding
'Jno.i. *a er'riton-.nal lsp€sls of haTT dous wane generalion D€rectin g rcleases of
haztdous materiais
Use ofsafety geal emplove€s and superviso6) io Qualiq circles" (ft€ forums betw€en waste to reiuc€ wars idenriry ida Solicjr empiq et suggestroD for $asle rEduction
Emp)oyee paniciPalion
'
Produclion schedulingpla,ning
M3ximize Mch sizE Dedicate cquipm€nt io a single Product
ia"ii"q,i.ii"g..i"l.i*ah,ninseequencv(e'g,light-r+d'* Schedule prcduction to m Cost
a.cluntin9alloc.dion
in
imize cle€ning
frquem)
aod a@undne done for all wa$e sbEans l'aving the faci liti6 oirn"*. *nt*-o**ent -d disPosal co$srothe operations
fial
Source, USEPA(1998).
(Best Possible Environme al and Economic The well known British Practices e-g BPEEo Nor Entaiting Excessive cost) can be
*,i""i
(ilest Avaitaile Techniqu€ strategy for hazardous wastes'
i"t a*la;rg ,pon lhe management ii"pi.l ""j-s"fl,tirc
1A
ATexbook ol Solid Wastes Management
Trealment and disposal techniques for hazardous wastes include Chemical Oxidatiod, vitrification, Incinemiion, Pyrolysis, and Land disposal- Incineration, Pyrolysis and Land Disposal have been described in the Previous chapters Chemical oxidation, vitrification and design ofhazardous wastes landfills are briefly discussed hereunder.
Chemical Oxidation Itis awell eslablished technology,
capable of destroying various organic molecules including
(vocs),
phenols and irorganics (such as cyanides) is typical ly applied to liquid hazardous ical oxidation present in the hazardous wastes. Che wastes and contaminated groundwater. Solid hazardous wasles mayalso be treatedthrough this technique, Wastes may be converted to a pasle or slurry and then treated in reaction
chlorinated volatile organic carbons
vessels.
Chemical oxidation is carried out in "compietely mixed" tanks or "Plugflow" reactors. Oxidizing agents are added at the entry poiflt olthe reactor. Complelemixing ofslun1 with the oxidizing agent is achieved by mechanical mixing, pressure drop. or by injecting air into the tank. The end producl after the redox reaclion is lesshazardous in nature and can be disposed offon a secured landflll.
Vitrilication Vitrification is the process of stabilizatioD and solidification of wagtes to make it structurall) stable with a reduced potential for contaminant migration i[to the environment lr is basically similar to glass making. The process involves meltiilg and fusion ofmaterials at high temPe.ature, followed by rapid cooling into a non-crystalline, amorphous form- vitrificaiion has been used extensively for soil remediation. has several advantages as a waste management lechnique The technology emp loys a furnace operating normally at teoperatures higie. than I 600 'C. Initially a stafier
vitrification
mix ofrecycled glass, flyash, aod limestone is used to start the process- The wastes to be Eeated are then fed into the fumace. for meliing and fi$io( for about five hours. The technolos is used to treat the hazardous wastes andlo produce a stable Product.
HAZAROOUS WASTES LANDFILLS No singletechnique ofwaste managemente.g. waste minimization, ,ecycling
can completely
manage hazardous wastes. Some treatmenl technologies such as incineration, biological or chemical treahent produce residues and byproductswhich need to be disPosed oiI securely Landfiils are commonly developed for disposal ofhazardous wastes or for disPosal of residues
from other treatmenl processes, Comprehensive rules, regulations and guidelines have been Prescribed bythe MoEF for the development ofHazardous Wasles Landfill. CPCB has laid down a detailed criteria for site selection, site investigation, planning and design. waste applications, quality control and environmental moniloring ofa hazardous wastes landfill. These are briefly described
Site Selection Hazardous waste Iandfillsshould be located in an area of low population density,low altemative landuse value,low ground water contamination potentialand less permeable subso;lstrata. The
I -
g = = =
Hazadous Wastes Managemenland Site Renedianoh 129 Forests (MoEF), Govemment oflndiahas also laid do!fi procedlre :or selection ofa site for hazardous waste landfill. The steP by step procedure is as follows:
\{;nis!-1 ofEnviron nent and
. .
Earmarking a'search area'taking into accountthe location ofthe waste generation units and a 'search radius' (typically 5 to 250 km). The search area will be so chosen that it minimizes the number ofhazatdous waste landfiils in any region or state. Identification ofa l;st ofpoaential sites on the basis of
. . .
.
Availability of land Collection ofpreliminary data Rest ctions listed in the locational/siting crite.ia Collection ofp.eliminary data fiom various sources e.g. lopographic maPs, soil maps, Ianduse plans, transpoftation maps, water use plan, flood plainmaps, geologic maps, sateiiite imageries, goundwater naps, .ainfall data, windrose, seismicdata, sitevisils,
. . . .
preliminary boreholes atd geophysical investigations. Selection of two best ranked sites from amongst the list of potential sites on the basis ofthe ranking system siipulated by MoEF. Environmental Impact Assessment for the two sitesfor various parameters includi[g groundwater quality, surface water quality, air quality Gases, dust, litter, odor), landuse alteration, drainage alteration, soil erosion, ecological impacts, noise, aesthetics, vermi., flies, traffic alleration elc. Assessment ofpublic perception for the two sites Selection offinal site
Criteria recommeflded by CPCB and US guidelines forselection ofsite for hazardous landfill are given in Table 6.4 and Table 6.5.
$astes
Tsble 6.4: CPCB Criteriafor siting Hazardous wasle Landfills Desndhle Condilions No landfll shall normally be constucted within 200
River
No landfill shall be constucted within I00 In ofa navigable river or strem No bndfill shall b€ consEucted within a I 00 ye3r flood plain. A lardfill may be consnucied *idrin the flood plairs ofs€rondary stEans ifan eftbankment is built along tle strem side 10 avoid flooding ofdle area. However, laodfills musl not be buill within the flood plains ofmajor rive6 unless properly designed protection embankhents are constucl€d amund the landfills.
Flood Plain
I I I I I I
ofany lake or pond.
Surface warer Bodies
Hid'"ry Habi6ion
Public
Park
Critical Habitar Area
m
No landfills shall be constucted witlin 500 m of$e nght ofway ofany slaE or
ir
ional highv!'y.
be at ieast 500 m fiom a notified habitated atfr- A zone of500 m around a bndfill boundary should b€ declaled a no-development bufier zone atEl dE ledfill locdion is flrlalizld.
A landfll site shall
No landfi]]shall be const ucted within 500mofapublicpark No hndnl shall b€ constuctEd wi6in cdtical habit area including i€serwed turest areas. A crirical habitat area is the one in which one or more en&ngered speci€s
li\€. Table 6 4 \cantd ak p-
l3O)
13O
A Textbook ol Solid Wastes Managenent
Table 6-4 \contd
.fron p. t29] No landfill shall be constucted within werlads No landfill shall be constructed within a zone around airports regulatorf ai.$ority or the aviarion authorit).
as
norifien by rhe
No landfill shall be cons!-uctd within s00 m ofany water suppty well No ]andfi U shall be siled in a crastal i€gulation zone
Coasial Regula,tio, Zone
No landfitl shall be localed in a,es where the g.oundwaler table 2 m b€low the base
wi
be tess
th3r
ofthe landfill
Olher criteria nay be decided by the plannels in consulration win\ Stare poltution Control Bo&ds / Pollurion Coftrol Corurittees commensumte wirl specific locat requiremenls such as presmce ofmonuments, religious structures erc.
So'rrcei CPCB (2001).
Tablc 6.5: US Crireria forHazardous wasteLandfi
Bed.ock depth
s
Desiroble Cahditiohs
[.tnacceptable Condnians
>50ft
<30fi
Shale,
fne mdistu$ed sandsrone,
Fissued. fractured czrbonaie rocks, anyjoint fiactured < 1 mile Aom altive faulr
sedimentary basins
> t mile ftom aaive fauh
Arctueologicalsignific Upland, clay
pit
Wet
rock
ce
Soils
2 - t2a/. Siltto loarn t$dure with mode.dely well
10
well dninage
ad
I
Slope> 25%
InflFaic,n
0.6 - 2.0
Dmin€e
Fast draining material. dry surfa.e
He3ry clayey or org,njc mat, flood prone area ( 100 year floodplain)
> 3000 ft from lake, marsh > 2000 fr Fom a strearr No indication ofhigh \}"ler table
2000
Deep bedrcck
<0.6 and > 2.0
wiil
thick ;mpemeable
Direciion offlow Warer supply soure
of
Low iiequercy ofwind ard selerE
inh
li trom any surfac€ water 5 miles to rYateBhed boundary Se€page, springs, marsh,
phresophyic vegeorion Use ofshallow aquife6
>3000 Evaporation > 4 inch in excess
T
Very fine clay with poor dGinage
% organic
iDh
I I I
lowland, floodplain, adjac€nt
lo steep slope, deep gullies Slope
I I
ft
<2000li
Prccipitation exce€ds evapotuion Within path ofmajor hurricane or
I I I I I I I
T
I
Hazarclouswaaes Managonent and Sile Remedianon 131
tu
enosphelic mixing No population centers in downwind
\-md
Fublc frcilities
> 1000
ft
> 2000
fr
Low spill risk
encompassed in slatic air zone Population certq <05 mile do\rnwind
< 1000fl on
tanspon routes
< 2000
ft
5
Not adjacent to agricultunl land
Bordering parks, recreaiion 2.'eas, widemess areas,
wildlife
sanctudies, orccenio rivels
:
Hrnan Enironnent
ry*osnety
lrw
popularion dersity > 5 miks noin mrmicip3l weUs
Bordering cdtural 3re?s, < 0.5 miles
fiom potable wells,
< I mile do!\rstre3ln ofintakes ;n
flowingsatels
8. Biologicol
E.lo$/ saEe:
Petts and Eduljee
Low ecological \€lue, low speci€s
dive$ig (
Habilal for rare or endangered
and uriqueness
1994).
Design ol a Landlill for Hazardous Waste Hazaralous wastes landfilis are designed for the disposal ofwastes so as to cause minimum impactto human health and environmeDt. There are seven main components ofa hazardous wasle landfills. which needto be properly designed lhe base and siaies to prevent migralion ofleachate ofgas lo the sunoundings' Hazardous waste landfitls may be provided with a double liner system' . Leachate Coll€ction and Treatm€nt Facility-to collect leachale fiom within lhe base
. Liner System-at
ofthe landfill for treatment to stipulated standards' . Gas Collection and Tr€atment Fscility-to collect 8as emanaring from the Iandfill and lo lreal or store il for energy reco\ery' . Final Cover-at the top oflandfill to p,event inflltratiofl ofwater into the landfill and to suppon vegetation.
. 6rrtace orainage Syslem-to collect and divert all surface runofffron the landfill' . Environmental Moniloring Plan-for periodic monitoring ofenvironmental quality ofair, surface water, groundwater, vadoze zone. . Closure and Post-closure Plan-i e. details of activilies to be undertaken to close a Iandfill site oncethe filling operationhas beencompleted and for m onilori'g and maintenance of the completed tandfi ll. the These components have already been discussed in delail in previous chapters, for design ofmunicipa, solid wastes 1andfil1.
Critetia for Wastes Acceptance at Landfill il is not suitahle Characteristics of hazard ous wastes may be h igh ly variable General ly a lafldfi monitor the wasle therefore to for disposal ofall types ofhazardous wastes. lt is necessary
132
ATextbook of Solid Wastes Managenent
being transported to the landfill site. CPCB has laid down guidelines for acceptance wasies at hazardous waste
. .
landril sites, These
aae as
of
iollows:
Alt wastes shall be acceptedonly ifthe truck carries aulhorized documenls indicating the source and type ofwaste. Such wasle shall be routinely inspected visually at the tipping area in the landfill site. Bulk or non-contaminated liquid ha"ardous waste or shrry-q?€ hazardous waste conlaining free liquid or sludge, which has no!been dewatered, shall not be placed in landfi11s. Suchwastes shall be placed inhazardous waste impoundments designed specificall! for liquid hazardous wasle.
.lncinemble/compostablewastesoranyothertypeof\rrastefromwhichenergy/material recovery is feasible, shall noi be placed in hazardous wastes landfills. Iflcompatible wastes i.e. any two types ofwastes, which could result in aggressive chemical changes after coming in contact, shall nol be placed in the same Iandfill unit. Compatible wastes will be grouped together and placed in the same landfiil unit (each such unit shall hale its own phase, cells etc.). Incompatible wastes group shall be accommodated in separate landfill units. waste that can cause damage to the linermater;al shall eitherbe containerized before disposal in landfillor be placed in a separate landfill unitmade ofaltemate compalible liner material. E*remely hazardous wastes e.g. ndioactive wastes shall not be disposed off in hazlrdous wastes landfills but in specially designed wastes disposal units.
.
. .
. .
Non-hazardous wastes e.g. municipal solid wastes shall not be deposited in hazardous wasles landfills. Residues system should bedesigned specifically for each landfill. Howeveraminimum oftreated biomedicalwastes e.g. inciDerator ash caD be deposited in hazardous wastes landfi lls.
Non-compatibility ol Halardoug Wastes Wastes to wastes compatibility is ao irDporiant aspect ofhazardous wastes minagement. Some wastes should not be m;xed, stored, transported ordisposed oflogether Ifnoncompatible waste are commingled they can pose increased risk to environment or human health e.g. generation oftoxic fumes, fire or explosion hazards, violent reactions. These consequences should belaken irto account in planning for common disposal facil ities
or effluent treatment plants. A waste-to-\{aste noncompatibility matrix (Table 6.6) should to be formulated before plannjng ofcommon facililies. These matrices are also useful in the eslimation
ofrisk involved in disposal ofhazardous
wastes.
HOSPITAL/BIOMEOICAL WASTES An important category ofwastes, rapidly increasing in volume, is biomedical waste. These should be properly treated and disposed off to avoid risk 1o the public health. Apart from commoD ailments l;ke eye irritation, asthma aod other health disorders it may also lead to deadly diseases such as AIDS, tuberculosis, and skin diseases. In Delhi, on an average a hospilal generates 3 Kg ofwastes per bed/day including bottles, cotton, plasters, syringes, needles, bandages, human organs, as well as wastes from X-ray and radiological departments
Hazadouswactes Managiernent and Site Remediation 133
l.
€ 3? 2
9c
f h!
-.=';:
d
g .9 pE+ o0: F-o"i3
,'na E.e;::o 9a=q tzie.9,2v.
.18
;>i
b3 -" "912 x--
z
=-=:'+Yt 3- 5 &=
= !
ea!gc;i"iE, :iE!zb;E5a
63Dx
v.9Zs:.93iai .!;i
uaAa
; P"9 ;309 E7i 672 ;iy!iu. !eie- P.vi2
;3b E7
z= iE3 rE i9!
i:
"
It 6 h Hs
.{E*
3!:! 3s:!
,
{; : i :
z:.-d
-: -a ?
==j,cn-i. a!ir*!e
:;^.
i i;=> a|ii
pa
s_:_
, so.e :633
;.4 ;.i i' iVa.j &iiE= e-.i C!
::Ce 5E:E l!f:
t y
! ai
;.1
iE ii P
I
I
1g
::
ATextbook ol Solid Wastes Managenent
(Table 6,7).
lt
rs necessary
lhat segregation packaging transponatio'l or slorage otlhese
constituenlsiscarriedoutaccordingtolheguidelineslaiddownbyiheleg}latoryaurhonne(, Trble 6.7:
Typ ica,
Composition ofHospital wastes
35-40
Cloth & Badage lnfectious wastes lNe€dle & Srdnge etc )
1-2 20-30
Biodegndable Paper
9-t2 8-12
& Hardb@rd
t-2
Metals
E-r0 5-10
Bio€sistani
2-5
s,,//cej NEERI {1996).
Trealment and Disposal
ol Hospital Wastes
oflhese wastes dePend upon the wa(te-charalrerislics' biomedrcal ;iE;t t;";nrent an; Foresls. Government of lnd id has cla5sified in separate be collected .""g"ries (Table 6.8) These wastes (Table 6 9)' and proper disposal coding for easy identification 'hould
'I he rrealmenr and disposal slralegies
i ;"
;;l;
*"r,.. i"*'ro
oug.
*;iii
lif**,
"""f"r
Trble 6.8: Caregories ofBiomedical
Wastes
heament and DisPosol
Colegory Human Anltomical Wastes Human tissues, organs, bod! Pans
lncineratio deepburial
Incinet"iio deepburiai Animal tissues, organs, body patt! ca.casses' bleeninspans. fluid, bloodandexp€rime al animals used in resellch, wasle genemted bv vet€rinar-v hospitals mlleges, discharge fi om hospitals, mimal hols€s Mi$obiolog/ and Biotechrolog/ Wastes
Adoclaving/misowavine/
Waslesfiom laboratory cultures, stocks or specim€ns of micro-orgarisms liveorattenuatedvaccin6, human and animal cell culture used in r€s.nch infectious aEents ftom esear.h and industrial
taloraonei *asres iiom production of brologicals. d ishes and de! ice, used foI Fansfer ofcultu e
lorrns.
Dsinfection {chemi€al Needles. syringes. scalpeh, blades, glass etc. ihat nay cause pundxle and cuts. This include both used and
Discarded Medicines ard Cytotoxic Drugs Wa$es comprising ofoutdaied coniaminated and
micro*aving) and mulilation /shreddi.g Incinmrion/destruction and drugs disposal in secu!€d
Hazatdouswastes Management an
fluids
includins mtton. drestines' soiled Platt€! cats' with blood iines. u.iain es, oder maerial conBminaed Disinfectjor/autoclaving/
$a
rhe u rst€s senerated from disposable items other inEavenous cdiel€rs as tubings. waste sharps such
waste senerded fiom Laboralory and washtng'
cle-aning, house keeping,
t0
iom
sluedding
DsinfeclionDischarge inlo
Liquidws(e
Ash
;uildioi,
disinfectingacnvfi
drains
es
Disposal in SecurEd lardfills
incinetation ofanv biomedical
$atr6
chemicals used tn producEon ofbiologicais' chemicals used in disinfclion,
as
insetticides €1c'
Chemical Tr€atr-nedt 3nd discharge into draiN for liquid and s€cuftd landfiIs
forsoliG
So//ce MoEF(1998). Treatmentmethodsincludebu'ial,autoclaving.incineration.microwaving.shredding.diSposal
and Land i;;arment etc shtedding' lncinemtion chem ical Treatmen{' t" lallzed lecrnlques r sPec pre t ious chaplers ' othe oi,oo'ut'".t,niqu"' r,."t. been described in the hereunder' discussed are ing r iz. eutoctaring. ana Vicrowa!
h#;il:il;;
Autoclaving Adtoclavineorsteamsterilizationisalo*.heatprocessdesignedtoprovidedirectcontact the waste malerials' *"itli *. ti"". in a coDtrolled manner in order to disinfect I'f and P'e-vacuumtype' "?* typ., ofautoclaves commonly used viz Gravitytype' ii"r" ".",1,."" the '--j"Retori tYPe pressure is used to evacuate the air from lhe treatment in" iiir,ity ,yp" ^utoclave' ofabout 120 'C These systems require chamler. lr typicalil operales a! a srcam remperalure penerration of steam inlo the mosl complete oo L io minures to achieve
ir """L-,r-. waste load' packed densely _-in-u pi"-r""rur,yp. autociave,
,
p";;.. i;;;;ti;. operate at about
'A
aii is evacualed from the treatmenl chamberby vacuum is less i e about 30 - 60 minutes' Pre-vacuum svstem lvpica'lv
Il2'C
much consists oflarge volume treatment chambers designed for "ulo.luve temperature and pressure'
R"ton type
higher steam
T,b1.6.9: Color Coding
Rd Bluo^ hite Finslucenl Black
so/rce, MoEF (1998).
and TvPe ofContainer for Disposal ofBiomedical wastes
Plasticbags Disinfecled contaioeE/ Plsstic bass
1,2,3,6 3,6.7
Ptaslic bags/pu.dure proof conkjner Plasfic bass
5,9,10
i 16
II
ATaxtbook of Solid Wastes Matageneot
: I
Microwaving Microwaving is a thermal process used for tteatment ofhospital wasles. But uDiike otber thermal processes, which heat the wastes extemally, micro\rave heating occurc inside tie waste materials. The system involves shredding ofwastes, injection ofsteam, and heatinE for25 minules at95'C nder as.des ofmicro*ave i.e. electromagneticradiation ofiiequenciE 300 ro 300-000 MHz. The microbial desfuction occurs as aresult ofthe thermal effecl of the radiation.
Central Facilily tor Hospital Wastes Tr€aln€nt It is difficuit for every hospital, nulsing home or polyclidc
to instali all the treatment and quantities plants. The ofvarious categories ofwastes generated in djsposal equ;pments and a single hospital are usually not too large and often its treatment system remains idle. A Central Facility however can be easily establishedto feat and manage all kinds ofbiomedical wastes being generated in a cit) or within any other administrative boundary. For this purpose necessary equipment should be installed as per the waste characterislics and legal requiremen6. Collection, segregation and suitable treatmentofeach category ofwastes can then be catrjed out under expert supervjsion. Final disposal ofthe residues should be onasecured landfill. A well-equipped laboratory a computerized database centre and a specialty library shouid form an integral part ofthis Central Facility.
T.blc 6,10: Comparison ofBiomedical
waste Treatment Technologies
Systens Descdption
s&dlizdioII
Sleam
stqilizaion
Microwave h€ding
(DirEct heating)
(wit
Medium
Mediun
Hi$
Mixingp!e-
High(!ohl
Dep€ndert on
pEshr€ddins
clDloirc $Ergth
Eficie.lsy miclo-organi!ms)
and dispeBion
droughllasles CapiialCost
Medium
I4edium
$d1 Hishkvrl
Op€mting Cost
lrw
Operalio
try'
skill Ie1€]
skills
and high lev€l
Air Emissions
skill rc$ircd Odorous bul
skills rEquir€d Can b€
hignly
N€eliejble
Moslly ash. Chamcteristics
sa,/.e
CPCB (1000/.
be shredded)
High le\€l
r€{uired for
hightycomplex
ard Srinder Some chlorine
:
Hazatatouswasles Managenent and Site Remediation 137
feeto be
be administered by a privale agency oranNGO The generated should be a funclion ofthe lype and quantily of$ astes great incentive to the small and large hospitals alike' as
ldeall! this Facilit)'should
.a,.J" i..., i".rit"Ls i' r,l" J*ii"r r"i;rl,y will be a and equipfient. All .;., *,,i0" ,".."iii" iuge initialiost incured in the purchase oflandsalaD-forthe !arious
[. upgtading ana expunsion ofthese facililies ,r!r lil"alt"irl *ii-n,.nu'itt intiatnul exPendirure erc ma) all be met rhrough .l,ri.l "rJ Jrefeeco]lectedfromusers'Thiswillresu]tinhugesavingstolhegovelnmentolcrvlc
*i:""r."i.-."JIir*
e
*ill also be in accordance with the PolluterPavs Principle accepred ;;i;; ;;;;;;"t *all over the world for environmental protection' ;;;;;;ti;;i;;o,.rs techniques used for treatment of biomedical wastes is presented in Table 6.10.
Slandards lo, Treatmeot and Dlsposal oI Bio'Medical Wastes
vide its Bio-Medical Waste Tte Ministry ofEnvironment and Forests, Govelnment oflndia guidelinesand it"r"*i.,i,ri"rJ n".aring) Rules, i998 has laid down comPrehensive arc summati?-ed and i'isposal of biomedicai wastes These standards
:i;;.';;;;";;""t
Standatds fot lncingfttots
All
standards incinerators shall meet the foilowing oPerating and emission
Operutlng Slandads
. .
Combustion efficiency (CE) shall be at least99
00o/o'
The combustion effiaiency is computed as follows: o/.CO,
c.E
=
%aO-;;aO
'uu 800 + 50 deg The temPerature ofthe primary chamber shall be
,
. . irl. ."l,iJ"iy
'C'
.r residence time shall be at least I (one) second at 1050 gas "rr^rbeigas 3olo oxygen in the stack
50 "C, wilh minimum
Emission Standads Concentration (mgNm3) ar Paniculate Matter Nitrogen Oxides HCI
. r .
120/o
CO) Coffection
150
450
50
Minimum stack height shall be 3O metres above ground' Volatile oreanic compounds in ash shall not be more than 0 0lo/o' with the soioufy JJ.ig*a porlution control devices should be installed/retrofilted incineratortJachieve rhe above emission limits' if necessary'
. W^.* to Ua in"in".t"d shall not be chemically trea1ed with any chlorinated disinfectanis' . chlorinaled Dlaslics shall nol De incinerated whhin rhe regulatory quanlities as .- i"-i. ."irit'r" I""f"erarion ash. hall be limited and Handling Rules') 1989' n"zardous Waste (Management i"ir"a r"a". *,"
138
.
:l , ATetboo|
af Sohdwastes
E
Managenent
n
Only low sulphur fueliike L.D.0dLS.H.S.l Diesel shall be used as fuel in the incineraror.
Stanalatds lot Autoclaving The autoclave should be dedicated for the purposes ofdisinfecting arid treating bio-medical
.
. . r .
gravi!' flow autoclave, medical waste shall be subjecfed to : a temperature ofnot less than I2I "C and preslure of l5 pounds per square inch rpJl' rorandutoclaveres;de.lcerime of not les5rhan60minures: o.' a temperalure of not less than 135 oC and a pressure of 3 I psi for'an autoclave residence time ofnot lessthan 45 minutes;;r a iemperature ofnot less than 149 oC and a p.essure of52 psi for an autoclave residence time ofnot less ihan 3O minutes.
When operating a
Wh€n operating
a
vacuum autoclave, medical waste shall besubjected to arninimum tle waste sha be subjeoed
ofone pie-vacuum pulse to purgethe autoclaveofal air
to the follo\ring:
r . .
B
of not less than i2l "C and pressure of 15 psi per an autoclave -e"idence LiTe ofror Ie.5 lhan 45 miDJres: or a temperature ofoot less than 135 oC and a pressure of 3l psi for an autoclave residence time ofnot less than 30 mioutes; a tenperat,.lre
iomedical
\a asre shall not be considered prcperl) rreateci Lrn less the rime. rcm DeraNre and pressure indicators indicate thal rhe requi;ed ,:mperarure were.eached Curing the autoclare Frocess. Iffor an) re?s;ns, tim" t.r'r"rutrr" crpressure indicalor indi cate s that the required temperarure, pressure or rlsidence time $ as rct reached. the entire load of medicut .u.i U. ugu,n "urt" time *.ere"rto"t"r"J until th€ paoper lemperature. pressure and residence achieved.
rir
a";;;.rrr" '
Recgtding at cperuticna! parcdeterc Eachautocta\eshalhalegraphicorcompulerrecordingdeviceswhjchwillautomaticallv an0 co-ltnuou: ) moiitor atd re.ord dales. ljme of da]. Ioad idenriJlcarion number and operating paramelers throughout the entire Iength
oithj
autoclave cycle.
Validation test Spore re.rinr: r he dujJcld\e snoJla co11pleleiy and consislenLl). lill the dpproved . n.,n.:l:"1, d€!igl (aDacir) ofeach cutoctave unir. Bioiogicat bioloqrcal indiiator :l:'*1", snalL De Bactllus stearothernophilus SpOreS using vials or Spore Srrips; with ar teasr I x I04 spores per mi, ilirre. Under no ciriumst"".".-*iii ;;";;];r;;;,..
minimum opeding pararneters lessthan a residence rime of3O minutes, and pressure. a lemperature tess than t2 i "C or a pressure tes.
regardil;;;;;;i,.. -ft;r;t;;i.- '--"'''-'
Routine test A cltemiLa indrcalor5rripraperhatchangescolourwhenacertaintemperatureisreached DL u(ed 10 \ er tl.. that a ,oe. if:c temperalure has been ac hie\ ed. lr may be nece5san ro use more rhan one strip over the uasre package at drfferenl localion to ensirr" ,f,"i if,r"l"'r,". con!ent ofthe package has been adequatelv autoclaved
+
I I I I I I I I I I I I I
I t I
cai
I
Hazadousryastes Managenent and Stte
Refiediation 139
Standard fot Liqui.l Waste
generateal from lhe hospital should conform tothe following limits The ' - effluent to tho;e, hospilals which are either connected with severs u.. i1,.."
ii.it
"ppficable '{irhoutterminalsewageteatmentplantornotconnecredropublicsewers'lordlscharge under the Environmenl nio oJtil ."*.o *i*t tJ..inal facilities, the general standards as notified Acr, 1986 shallbe applicable' 'Prolection) ,
6.1 - 9.0 100m91
pH Suspended Solids
3d
Oil
l0mgl
grease
30 me,a
BOD COD Bio-assay test
250me4 sool"
;wival
of fish after 96 hours in 100% effluent
Standatds fot Micrcwavlng
. . .
orEdioactive wasles'
Microwave treatmentshall not be used for q'totoxic, hazardous heml' conlaminaled animal car casses. bod) pans and large melal
test'routine teslsand a perlormance The microwave syslem shall complywilh the efrcac) operation oi (he llmll before suaranlee ma\ be prov;ded by the supplier
itre micro"ure tt
pathogertc oulO completely and consistenll) klllLhe bacleria and olher
the maximum design orpanism5 that is ensured b) appro\ed biological :ndicatoral shall be tsacliius for microwave caiacig'oteach microua\e unil Biological indicalors iJttitil .po.", ,s;rg ,lals or spore strips with al least I " 101 spores Per miliiliter'
Standatds fot DeeP Burial
..
with waste' A oit orlrench should he dug about 2 meters deep lt should be halffilled ir.I"-*r.i.a *itit Iire within 50 cm ofthe surface, before 6lling the rest ofthe pit wilh soil.
ii-muv
t" .nsr."a tr,at animals do not have any access to burial siles'
Coverc
of
gal\ ani'ed iron u ire meshe( nra) be used
.6neachoccasion,whenwastesareaddedtothepil,alayerofl0emofsoilshallhe added to cover the wastes.
. Burial musl be performed under close and dedicaled supervision' well should be . ir," J..p trri"i.it".hould be .elatively impermeable and no shallow .' . .
close to the site. iiie pirssirorfa U aistant from habitation' and sited
o..,,i., oluny.r.fu""\'ateror
so as to ensue thal no contamination ground rvaler'Theareashould notbeptoneto flooding
or erosion.
locarion ofthe deep burial site $'ill be authorised by the prescribed aulhor;ty The inslilulion shall maintain a record of all pits for deeP burial'
ihe
BADIOACTIVE WASTES Radioactivity
emlsslons is deflned as lhe proPerty possessed by some elements ofsponianeous
p"rii.r.. f"l.
u"tu
" "i"ipt oflhe nucleiofaloms.
puili"i.t
ip1. o' totetimes, gamma rays
(l)
due to disintegralion
16
ATextboak of SolE Wasles Managenenl
Radiation from alpha particles loses energv very quickly when Passing through ma$er' the As a result, alpha particles travel only a few inches in air and can easily be stoPPed by and can outer layer ofhuman skin. But they are harmful to humans ifthey are ingested damage body oigant specially the lungs. gel raaiation traveis farther as comparedto alpha radialions' These can penetrate several layers ofhuman skin. The human body can be damaged by exPosure to a source ofbeta radiation or by ingesting it. Betaradiation canbe stopped by an aluminum foil at least2 mm thick. Gamma radjation has a much smaller wavelength and can therefore penetraie much deeper' Itcan pass completely through the human body damaging cells or can be absorbed by tissues and bones. Damage to human health is therefore much larger. At Ieast three feet ofconcrete or t\r'o inches oflead are required to stop 90% ofthe typical gamma radiation' The process of unslabie nuclei giving offradialion ao reach a stable condition is called radioaciive decay. Isotopes ofelements havingatomic number larger than 83 (Bismuth) are radioactive. A few elemenls wilh lower atomic numbers, such as Potassium and rubidium, in have nalurally occurring isotopes which are also radioactive. Radioactivity is measured the terms ofcurie (Ci), which is defined as the quantity ofa radioactive material in which has a characterisric element per Each radioactive 0ro second. number ofd is inlegations is 3.7 I
"
speed ofdecay, so that each elemenl can ire characterized Thetime it takes for halfofihe element to decay, is called lhe half-life ofthe elemen!. jn units called rcms. A rem is the amouni The biological effecl ofradiation is neasured
of beta or g;mma radiation ihat transfers a sPecific amount of energy lo a kilogram of matter. An;xposure of3OO.ems for 3O days would resull in death of50o/o ofthe persons to exposed. The permissible level for occupational radjation exposure is five rems peryear sign wiihou! any a lifetime for th; whole body. It is believed that this level can be absorbed ofbiological damage. lntemational Commitlee on Radiation Prolection has established strict safety standards to ensure that exposures to workers is minimized and thai the public is not exposed to mdiation from otherlhan the natural background (Table 6.11).
Delection and Analysis of Radioactive Wastes Detection ofradiation is generally carried out by using devices designed to measure the radiation dose. The absorbed dose is defined asthe energy imparted to matter by the ionizing radiation per uni! mass ofirradiated material at a given location. It is measurcd in terms of rad. Rads of 'y an d p are normal ly eq uivalent to rems, and are used interchangeab ly The ri.rel, (Sv) is the Sl unii and equals 100 rems. Softe instruments used in the detection ofradiation includel
(i) Ceiger Mueller Counter (;i) IonizationChamber (iii) Scintillation Counter (ir) Film Badges (v)
ThermolutuinescentDosimeter(TLD).
The Geiger Mueller Counter, lonizaiion Chamber and Scintillation Counter are used for detection oisurface contamination. Film badges and TLDS are used fo. Iong term moniloring ofexposure to wo.kers. Gamma Ray Spectroscopy is also used foranalysis ofgamma mdiations'
Hezadouswastes Manag€menland Sib Remealiatbn 141
Tsbl.6.1l: Maximum Permissible
Dose Equivalenl fo. Occupational Exposure
Unit
.
Combined whole body exPosure Prcspective arnual
. . . . . . .
5
limit
Rairsp€.rive annual Iimil Lng-term a..mula,tion
l0-15 (,\-18) x
shrl
15
Hands
75
5
30
remryerr (25lqtr) rems/year ( l0/qtr)
Otheroigans, tissues and organ slstem
l5
remslyear (5/qtr)
lertilewomen(withresp€cttofetus)
0.5
rems in gestalion pedod
Dose limits for the public, or occarionalh
e4os€d individuals Individual or oc.asional
0.5
SnrdenB
0.1
Populatio. dose Iimils Genetic Somatic Emergency dose lirnits - Life saving Individual (olderthan45, if possibl€) Hands and
0.17
remYy$r (aveiage)
o.\7
rems/yea (avemse)
100
200
for*rns
rems, additional (300 rems
toial)
. .
Emergency dose limils Individual
- L€ss
urgeni:
25
Hands and forearms Family ofradioa.rive parienls
100
l,rdividual (uder age 45) Individual (over ase a5)
0.5
Sarca: NCRP
(
rems (tolal)
5.0
1975 )-
Classllication ol Radioactlve Wasles Radioactive wastes or Low-tevel Radioactive Wastes (LLRW) is a general term Dsed for a wide range ofmalerials contaminared with radioisotopes. LLRW may be disposed on specially designed landfilis. These include wastes which are potential hazards and will persist long after such precautions as inslitutional controls, improved waste forms and deeper disPosal have ceased io be effective- L6wlevel radioactive wastes are ciassified as Class A, B, and C wastes. An overview ofthese cl?.sses and their types and sources ofgeneration ale presented
in Table
6. 12.
Radioactivity inthe environment comes from both natural and man_made sources Natural sources are natural deposits ofradioactive materials such as uBnium and thorium. Although natural radioactivity is most likelyto be encountered in the envircnment due to its widespread dispersal. man-made mdioactivity poses the greatest environmental
dsk
Man_made sources
include mining activities, nuclear power plants, medical and laboratory facililies, nuclear weapon testing etc. Nuclear powea plants are the main source ofradioactive wastes The process ofenergy recovery from nuclear fuel include miningofuranium containing ores, refining ofuranium,
=l
t 142
ATadbook ol Solid Wastes Management
fab.ication and use offuel rods etc. AII these activities produce low-level radioactjve wastes. Hospitals, clirics. research laboratories etc, also generatethese q/pes ofwastes, asthe useof radioisotopes is rapidly becomingcommon e.g. in cancer trealments. Table 6.r 2: Over!iew ofClasses A, B, and C ofRadioaclive Wasles Class R
Class C Highest conc€irations
RequirEs srabilizarion
Requircs sbbilizarion
for 300 years
Afrd I00
years
levels, provided
After 500 years, decays Required srabilizaiion
Requircs stabilizarion
S€Ieealion
ClassA mustbe segegated from B
No need to segregate from Class C
No need to segregate from C]ass B
ard C Prote{tive clothing,
Resins and filters
high a.tivi9 indusrial
plana
,to!rcer adap:ed from Li! 3rd LiFak (1996).
Oisposal o, Radioactive Wastes Management ofradioaclive wastes includes various operalions similar to the MSW e.g. transportation, processing and disposal. But the techniques adopted for such wastes are differenl. Cementation, Polymerization, Vitrification, and Land Disposal are the common techniques for hazardous waste management. Another techniques is Hol&for-decay disposal i.e. sloraBe of radioactive wastes to allow decay ofsho(lived radionuclides !o low levels so that !lastes can be disposed
off safely.
Land disposal ofradioactive wastes is caried out both in the below ground vaulrs (BGV) and above ground vauhs (AGV). A vault is an engineering structure builtto hold the most hazardous low-level radioactive wastes such as Class C waste. Earth-mounted Concrele Bunkers (EMCB) are also used for land burial ofradioactive wastes. lt involves isolating the waste in an engineered vault located above or below the ground. A multilayer earthe! cover is positioned overlhe vauh lo provide an add it,onal barrier to the nuclear radiations.
FLY ASH Fiyash is a major by-product in the coal based fhermal power plants. It is a fine1y divided residue resulting from the combustion ofcoal in a thermaj power plant_ It is generaliy grey in color, abrasive, acidic. refractory in nature and has fin€ness (specific suiface) of+-000 to 8000 sq. cm per gram. The particles range in size from as much as l20 to less than 5 microns in equivalent diameter. The part ofash that falls to ihe boftom ofthe boiler during combustion is called bottom ash, *hich is coarsor in size and is washed awav with water. Ash. which is fine and is carried away with flue gases. is called as -Fl\ ash . li is separated
Hazadaus&asles Management and Site
Renedhtion 143
ho, gases in the ereclrosraticprecrTlT:'#:f:::i;:Hfl,ji;,ll"flIIllljill :::iel awa) by wel method rslurD torrn I or ov or) IrHruu-.^.{Illi,-^,"'.i". .r,.ri SO
:-:-
...nssilhlLehotgasesthroughchlmne)s.Approximatell.flyashaccounlsforabout
::rc!nt ofrhe
total ash Produced'
F:!ashbeingligl,tinweighlgetsarroolne\erlfaslandpolluleslhe'lmosphere--Long bronchitis etc ll coffodes slructural surtaces - _"Liion *ri", iiti.o,is fibroses oflungs or settrrng and asriculrure slun) disposal lagoons ,.;,; l;;;t;;;;;"r"ge" honicuhure --;|."|j.fi'. conramirate porenrialto ha!e rhe5e ..r;* .f iosqr,ritoes and bacrrl. Funher. oftoxlc meiais present in flyash Disp*"1if !]:-*.':tn" :r.re subsurface water witfr traces
;:ir:;'r;;,;".qr"iic rt sho uld be ;isPosed
consequence( life cycle sincethe fl'ash has se!ere environmenlal
off carefullY'
Ftyash OisPosal oi,po,ur ornr",t i,.u.ind"I.r,i::1rf;,'nlf*i:'ifilffiiJ::il.SiH'[."1]'",;"X prperrnes rn n'E.'"'1"."-'l:],':"' rlants 10 the ash Ponds rhrough :;,;".,,,,. r. *r;r"Uf. aYarli ;. ,.;,"r.1."*rr.,,"" ,nd mandfacturing operations. A grear deal ofof lilemlure.rs are as these of some marerial' is a consrrucrion
iii,]."ri,ii"ii"" foliows:
"iorash
Backfiriog: F r]?sh.can
be
especiallv
used.in.l:iliii[:;:.",ff
i;:"i:fr ;:1,:i:ifl "T:'":'"::;: .,omisins for ash utilizaiion parllculany areas for rsc raimins !and and ror tow-rving oi ;;; ;i;;;" "'a in n tting 'o il;. lbo'l95 ierc-ent of maximum dry densiD can be con:truction ofroad emu"nt ."n,s. r,pro ,.hi.ved ifcontrolled filling is carried ouL can be and due to presence ofPozzollons flyash Blended Cement: Being rich in silica ro' o'oa'aio"ot :ii",""]; ili,:':;i::r'^;'l,Xl]:ll,",l ;:ff ol dr) rlyz percent 25 lo lO About cemenl. Pozzolana Cement' Portland to cement ponland Produce li ."."", [i."a"i; iin ord inary
j:;ii";
;'il;;;;uiii^t
l[lilf
",
Fine Assresar€: Pond *h l": be used as a partial or complete replacern * hat differenr from rhat of the normal concrete' [."t'r'il;:;;;t;;e
lill:l:'-'li:;l:Jiii:'":r::":li:Tl; [:ilJH$:::
be used as a rau materialforthe manufacture Bricks. Blocks and Other Prodocis: Flyashcan ofpavements or for rtyash Blocks can be used in the construction g amount ofcoarse aggregate to the mix e morlar other purposes by adding approp r are in material include usJ-offlyash as a filler ,,<erl for Dlastering ofwalls OtherapptrJions *hich is a conslrucrion material
IinIi .t""liaiit.
I
,"fv".tl"*p".li"t
SITE REMEOIATION ii","."a;ution t u, t""ome one ofthe hot
ofpublic interest- The burT:l]l!f**tt"" the cosl of land makes iI ine\jtable to i.r*i"f,, i, ,fr. ,,0- areas and the steeD rise inContaminatlon of land is usuall) due to .tlrr" *,iii-a is nol lost due to conlaminalionindustries' This is further compounded b) ilii"""i ii i^r"'a"rt *astes on it largelv fromof hospital. and slaushrei.lgl:: *-':' "' i;:',""'.td";;;r;r;;. le g o ill or aumiing pesticides' spravs also
il;;;;fi;'i;ffi
areas
Jclpuinit' tut'"'i""-o'edicines'
dves' acids
lU
I I I
A Textbaok of Solid Wastes Management
contribute significantly to the contamination oflands.Land contamination poses serjous health_riskto human beings and to plants in such areas. Contanination ofland oig.oundwater may also occur due to leachate through hazardous wastes. Remediation techniques for contaminaled lands depends upon
(l) (ii) (iii)
soil characteristics, conlaminant characteristics. and legal and social requirements.
Soil characteristics importa.r for remediation are particle size distributioo (percenrage ofcla_y and sitt), shear strenglh, porosity and permea bility. Other imponanr factJrs inciuOe. pH,ofgroundwarer and fhe soil and rhe pesricide conteni etc. The d;prh ofwateria;i; and vadoze zone and moislure content ofsoil are also impodant parameters. Climatoloeical factors e.g. the ambient air rempemture, rainfalt erc. ari also considered.
Ch"-;. ;;;"n,
naturally in the soil e.g. chlorides, sulfates. carbon. nirrogen and rhe profile of iarious nutrients and metals present at the sjte should be analyzei before select;ng particuiar a remediafion technique.
The nature and characteristics ofconlaminanl in lhe soil should be estimated. This includes identiflcation oforga.ic and inorganic fraction, volatile, semi-volatil", una ,on-uoiutlt. fraction: halogenated or non-halogenated compou nd s; melals speciall) heuul rn"oL ri"."n, in the contaminan!. Some contaminants may be predominanrly hydrocarbons e.g. arie to o:t spillage, leakage in perrol pumps. Other important cons iderationi in decidingthi technique for.remediation are solubiliry and biodegradabilit), ofconraminants. Finuiiy, tt. and loxlcit\ ofruch contaminants is al$ a) s imponanl. A geotechnical or environmental engineer should also be aware ofthe legal requiremenrs and guideiines to be foltowed for any remediarion work in lerms ofthe goa! t" lJ These goals are usually specified as: "li;.""a.
roirr.
(i) (ii) (iii)
in terms ofthe permissible limits ofcontaminants in the soil: in terms ofpermissible ljmits ofsite \rhere the wastes are lo be disposed off; or in terms oflhe technique employed e.g. disposalon secured lancifiiis.
Bernediatioh Techniques Depending upon the volume and characteristics of contam available. These are classified as follolvs:
l. 2.
3
in
anl several oftechniques are
Physical Merhods-Excavation, Soil Washing (borh insitu and exsitu), Sojl vapor extractiOn e1c_ Thermal Methods Incineration, Desorption. Vitrification etc
Chemical Lrearmenr- chemical srablizaLion
4. Bioremediation-/, rir,
biotreatment, .ar rirr biotreatment,
Rootzone Treatment etc.
,r rr,
slurry biodegradation
Physicdl Tteatment Excavation and Removal: This is a simple method suitable where volume ofsoil to be treated is small. The contaminated soil is excavated and disposed away irom ttte iite_on a secured landfill. Importantconsideration in thjs melhod are the type ofsoil, typ" ot"onturnin"nt and ihe location ofthe area
I I I I I I I t I I I I I I I I
I
Hazardouswastes Managemen and Site
Remedtalion 145
SailWsshing: The soil may be washed insitutoremove the conlaminant. A leaching agent na) be adde; to water and a pressure gradient is maintained. Water for washing is allowed :o ;nler lhe soil by construct,ng horizontal galleries or boreholes. The leachate is then ::iercepted or pumped out fortreatment This technique is good for nonhalogenated volatile with good soil permeability but is not suitable for clays. r.Sanics -In the ersirmethod. ihe excavatedsoil is removed and washed in a contain€r' The water :a) enter from the lop and collected al the bottom for its treatment before it is finally iisposed off. The washed soil may then be teplaced to its original position' Extractionl lnthis method air flow is generated through awell creating a pressure The air removes volatile components from the vadoze zone. This technique is
Soil Vapor
iadie;.
lsoecially good for halogenated, volatileand fuel hydrocarbons. Thetechnique is not suitable
if;ir perfi;ability
is low or when carbon content is high or temPerature is low.
Thermal Trcatment lBciDeretion: Thermal trealment is esPecially suitable for remediation ofcontaminants in ihe yadoze zone. The soilmay be excavated and heated ata high temperature inthe presence cfoxygen, i.e. at aboul 1000_1500 'C. The organics aie destroyed and lhe volalile fraction is remived. However, metals are not destroyed. This method is good for both halogenated and nonhalogenated coniam iflants inc luding fuel hydrocarbons. Ciay or rockfraction should be removed from the soil before apPlying the heat.
Thermal D€sorption: ln this lechniquethe excavated soil is subjected to a lowtemperature and the volatiles are collected fol seParate treatrnent At high temperature halogenated volatiles and hydrccarbons are deslroyedtechnique heat is apPlied to the contaminaled soil causing a melt \ah'ch moves clownward. It mobilizes the organics and destoys the volatiles For insitu !ilrification ]arge Sraphite electrodes ate inserted in the soil in a g.id pattern (say l0 m x l0 m grid). A high;lectric current is appiied resulting in the generation ofheat which fuses rhe m;terial. Afier sitelsoil is cooled, the final material is iner!. The technique is good for Iong lerm stability but consumes iarge amount ofenergy.
Vitrification: In this
Chemical Tteatment Chemical treatmentcan aiso be carried out insitu or exsitu. These areessentially stabilization with a rechniqLres *hich have been extensively developed. The contamiDated soil is mixed s include. binding material to reducemobility ofthe contaminaflts Suitable binding material lime (f;r clays) cemenl (for sands) and thermopiastic bi.ders. Thermoplastics binders are
available in a variety oftrade names Prolection may be required for soils with high content of oil, grease, or surfactanis. Stabilization lechniques are suitable for sludges or slurries conram-inated with inorganics. These are nol ver] effective for clays or for soils with high organics, sulfates or chloride conlent.
Biorcfiediation is Both insitu or exsilu biolrealment melhods have been developed The contaminated soil action ofth€ heaped in piles and allowed to deg.ade the contaminants through the natural micioorganisms in the soil. lmportanl factors affecting the.ate ofbioremediation lreatment
l+-
= 146
A Texl,baok of Solid Wastes Managehent
ir\clude oxygen content, I]utrient content, moisture content! pH and tempemture. Oxygen ma) be suppljed through blowers or the soil may be frequently turned to ensure aeration in the enlire soil mass. Microbes require several nutrjents for their growth. These nutrients may be added if .equired. Microbiai activities accelerated in mo ist condiaions. Therefore water may be added to ensure a high degree ofmoisrure conrent atl ofthe iime i.e. abour 40-5Ooo. Some microbes thrive in acidic and sorne in aikaline envhonment. pH should there{ore be maintained within the range 6 - 8.5. The idealtemperature formicrobial activities is about 45 .C. The success ol b ioremed iation methods deperd upon ho\\,well the above factors ar€ confoiled: Treatmentmavbe carried out insitu(e.g. composting)or the soil maybe fansferred to a treatment plant for treatment in a controlled reactor. The treated soil can be replaced on the sile afterrYards.
ioireatment techniques are good for removing allbiodegmdable contaminants esDeciajlv volatiles. jn $is Lrearmenr.ioxiciD is greativ reduced. However this techniques is no! suitable for Iow permeabilily soils. B
h) orocarbons..lnsilL mettod) are good tor nonialogenaled
Slurry Biodegradation: This is an aerobic exsitu technique suitable for hvdrocarbons and biodegradable contaminants. Theexcavated soilis mixed in a reactorwith witerand nutrienrs. Temperarure and pH are also controlled. This technique is not good for pestjcides, heavy metals or chlorides.
Rootzone Treatment: Il is a recent lechnique used for soil remediation. Various types of contaminants. This technique is good for removing heavy metals present in the soil. Aeavy meials are uptaken by roots ofthe plants along withthe moisture. There are various species ofplants \vhich are used for soil remediation depending upon their deptl ofrooko;e and the rype ofsoil. Schematic ofa typical rootzone treatment system is shown in Fig. 6.1.
Graves
Fig. 6.1: Rootzone Tiealment Systern
RISK ASSESSMENT Risk assessnent (RA) is defined as the characterization ofthe potential harmful effects on human heahh due to exposure. It is a systematic collection of information about potenlial
I
Hazadgus Wastes Menagpnenland Site
Benedbtion
147
risks and evaluating them for necessary aclion. Risk estimate ofharmful or adverse effect on health (due to chemical releases) is often expressed as the ratio olpredicted concentation ro no-effect (or safe) concentration. Risk assessment may address any ofgnvilonmenial issues but it primarily focuses on health and safety ofhumans, animals and plants. Abaodoned lEndfill .ites after closure are ofren Iater developed for public use e.g. as parks, or other development projects. Many noxious gases e.g. methane and mercaptines continue to be generated long after the iandfills are closed. In all such cases a risk assessment should forh an integral part ofEIA process for ary development project on such sites. Risk reduction measures ana! control and emergency response options are also included in risk management.
Steps in Risk Asses6ment RiskAssessment is a four-step nethod as given below:
. . . .
Identification ofhazards (sources and receptors) Hazard Assessment
Risk estimation Risk management
ldentlflcation gl Hazards This is asystematic examination ofvarious Project components and activities to determine source ofimpact and the potential recePtor. The likely acute, chronic or fatal effects on receptors are identified. Hazard identification can be carried out by using checklists or though field surveys. Impacts ofvarious hazrdous substance on human health are presented in Table 5.13.
T!bI.6.13: Health Efiects ofvarious Hazardous Substances Heakh Elfects
1.
Pe$icides
. . 2.
DDT
lns€.licides
&ncs,
BHC
lrse.licides
Cancer, embryo damage
Plasti6
Headaches, naus€€" Ioss ofmuscle coordinarion, leuk€mi4 damage to t'one mano$, Lung and liver crncer depression, darnage
damageto liver, ernbrlos, ard bird eggs
Penochemicals
.
vinylchlond€
to
c.nlral nervous sfstem
l.
He-avy
.
M€tals
Ca&iiurn
zinc bar&ries, fertiliz€rs
Neurotoxic; caues h€da.h€s initaiioq nertal impqilmeiq bmin, Iiver, and kidney damase Canc€r in animals. dam€e to liver ,,d kidn€rys
4. Other Toxic Chemicals
.
Doxin
Herbicides, wane
Cancq binh defects, skin dise.ses
.
PCBS
Electonic. lrydraulic fl ui( fluorcs.€nt lights
Skin danage, gasao-irteslinal
dam€e, cause
'= :s
VA
A Tenbook al Solid Wastes Managdnenl
Chemicals ofpotential concern are identii€d using €rious indicalors e.g. toxicity, pe.sisterce, ard mobility. A to-xicity score may & developed for each cheoical by multiplying the maximum concentration with its carcinogedc potency factor. ID th€ case of non-carcinogenic chemicals, the ioxicity score is obtained on dividiag the maximum concenration by areference dose. Potency factor ofvarious carcinogens chemicajs is presented in Table 6.14. Tabl€ 6.14: IoyiciD Daia for Selecled Potential Carcinogens P o te ncy
F ac t ar (tr,gkl6l d"y )- |
50 2.9
1.75 2-q lo-2
.
Benzale
CnJnium
,
tO-2
r
l0-2
6.1
Carbon tet achloride
0_13
Chloroio.m Chmmium Iv
6.1 x 10-3
8.1 41
0.34 0.58 30
DDT
l,l -Dichlomethylene Deldrir
1.4
x
1.15
l0_2
, ro.
Metnyl chlonde Nickel and compounds PolychlonnaEd biphenyls (PCBS)
7.5x103
i.+
7.7
t''
2,3,7,8-TCDD(dioxin)
1.56 105 1.1 l0-2
l3xl0-'
2.3
0.295
!'
Tnchbrced'ylene (TCE) viryl chlodde
Sou.e: USEPA.IRIS dat base(I989).
Hdzatd Assessment it includes determifiation ofthe probabilify ofaccidental ieleases; quantificalion ofrelease rates and calculation ofdose; and duration of exposure. Accidental events may be due to human enor, equipment failuie, during mnsportation, or due to a catastrophe, Various technjques e.g. HAZAN (Hazard Analysis), HAZOP (Hazard Operability), or FTA (Fault Tree Analysis) have been developed used forthis purpose. Quantification ofchemical releases and rates duiing dayto day \vorking is an important parameter of hazard assessment. Models aan be used for quantification ofexposure through air, water, and soil exposure to receptors. Modeis can be developed for calculation ofdose-
response relationship. A flow diagram ofvarious possible routes ofchemicals exposure to humans and animals is shown in Fig. 6.2. Health effects ofexposure to chemicals due to broaccumularion are presented in Table 6.15. Table 6.15: Responses to Chemicals Exposure
6h
S€nsitive
Dermalitis5
Mubgeric
Embryo, Gtus binh def€.1s Damage to DNA sEuctwe Cancers
Cartinogenic
I I
1
I
llazadouswastes Meragiament and
Site
Remectation 149
Flg.6.2: Va ols Possible Foutes ot Exposure
Bioaccumulation and synergistic effects ofchemiials are also estimated in the hazard rsessment. Dose response relalionship has been extensively studied folthis purpose. This :--ips in identification ofcarcinogenic chemicals when risk depends on total cumulatiYe :o.e and noi simply on duration ofsingle dose. Chemicals which have no adverse effect on :.:nran health below athreshold or reference dose (Rp) are catego zed as non_carcinogens. Rp =NOEL/FOS :ite.e NbEL slands forno observed effect leveland FOS isthe factor ofsafety. Experiments .rcnducred at very high doses ate extraPolated for appiication in much lower dose scenario in {i.ral eovironment. A slope factor is obtained from dose-response data. Slope factor multiplied :i C1e calculated intake otcarcinogen gives an indexofincrease incancerrisk.lt is expressed :s annualor life time riskofthe chance of developing cancer e.g. 1in I million. For example' . jo- ofo.o I pg&g ofbody weighrday ofdioxin causes risk increase of I t I 0j. Bioaccumulation
=.rors
and
Rp
for vadous chemicals are presented in Table 6.16 and 5.17 resPectively. Tabl€ 6.r6: Bioaccumulation Factors for Vatious Chemicals
Bioaccunulatioh Factor (L/kg) Al&in
28
Cadmiuri
81 19
5.2
3.75
Chlorcfonn
l6
ClEmiwn Copper DDT I ,l -Dichlorc€thylene DieHrin
Nickel and compounds Polychloronicated biphenyls (PCBS)
2,3,7.8-TCDD(dioxin) Trichloro€$ylere (TCE)
Vnyl chloride
S@Ee USEPA (1936
r)
200 54000 5.6 4760 87 47 100000 5000 10.6 1.17
15O
A Telbook ol Solid Wastes Managehent
T
Effecll ofvdious Chemicals Trble 6.17r Rp for\oncarcinogenic RP tnskc.'dar)
T
0.1
5,10r
Cadnnnrl Chlorofonn I .I -Dichlo.oelhYlene Medryi Chlodde
PCB
1
I
0.01
0.009 0.06 0.04 0.0001
I
0.01 0.3
0.09 30
.l .l -Tncholoroethylene
cFC-11i
t
20
Xylene
s,rce:
USEPA, IRIS databale (1989)'
Risk Estifiation ni.i",,i.u,ion.,nt.usedloLonpareahernalivestlategies,.lhisisanadditionalinD'l e\ aluallon olher indicalors e g' the cosl ol project' R'sk rnrl. i"g i'"', to the sel relative are "ronc*'rlh "..i"'"" iia"ceptabie or nor' c''ridilines standaids i;;;;;";;;;i;;;;'t.k medium to which recepror is exposed'
Hl = Toral Dose / Rp
is lhe sum ofalle\posures e g duetoinhalation ,^hereHI is th:'h"za;;irier"Thetotaloose lhan l 0 implie'no hazard or no_ri)L h.',rprm,r e!ii"_"'- .. rres. -^^.,^- --,r d'Lu eJ --' A ralue ofHl less lngesrrurr
:
,,
lrma\benoledlhallhereisal*a}sanelementofuncena.ntlinLheassessmenloIri.L oi risl'q are made baseo upon e\perrence and it u' u"t
'iin,"''"
'l;::'$;ih;;;;,. l",t;"'.'i;;;;.:;t"hrcharerheoreticallvPossible'rherisrcanbecompuredb)usinB
the follo\r'ing exPression
(6.1) (mglk?/dayx PotencrFactartns/k8/dav)-t according to the body weiSht and average The chronic dailv intake (CDI) is estimated life exPectancy. (tcc) 1,",og" Lif" Govt)] " CDI (thg/keida.l) = Total Dose hs) / [Body veight ...qa.z) Risk = Chronic Dailv Intake
Tctul
= Cancentratioh af.chemicat durrtlon'davs) AD'otpt;on
Dase
^ r,h.'ure * i"i" ,i" u.. rru,ur"a
concenl_alion
follows. Concentration infsh
Risk Managefient
h!/Kd
o'a
t
n^E
af food
lroclion ,kg
c hemical in
a
= Cancentration in
t
B i o ac cu
'
Intake rute tkg offaod.lay)
fi'h poPulalion
". can be esll'naled as
vlati(ng/l)
mul at i oh F ac t or ( l/'kg)
.
(6.4)
a strategy forits iaentified and estimated the next step is to develoP management " ofrisl5 potenlialhave to be examinedto devise asuitabie l^'."*rn"* esiimated risk orthe magnitude and tt'" nature ^1""r"* ouuio,,5 a"p'na on :iil:?;:::;;;,"tii;il' ii,. tuslc ,rep. i" ,ist' mcnagement dre the followinS'
,A.tt",
rl.t i", l".n
I I
Hazardous l)lastes Managenent ancl St,e Eemedialion 151
. .
Derermine ifother altematives/options are available, which carry lesser risk ofexposute. Eslimate the cost ofavoiding and/or reducinglhe riskto acceptable limits.
S::?regi€s should be deveiopedto reduce the quantity ofha?ardous waste generated and : ,_:ssible. to change the charactet of hazardous wastes geflerated e.8. by changing the _-=:^:oio9, subslituting allernative raw marerials with less hazard potential. ::. rolal risk assessed must be compared with the acceptable sk to devise any risk
-,a-:gemenr plan. The risk management strategies are developed by decreasingthe chances :: :\losuie or by decreasingthe concenuationofthe exposure - usually both. Human exposure :::- ). limiled by isolation or by providing physical barriers or protective clothing e.g. --5:(s or shields. leuse. recycling and treatment of hazardous w.tste should beexamined before its is finally : .lcsed offon a secuied landfill. k is also essential thaivarious guidelines and statulory :i:!:sions laid down by govemment, CPCB ol other aulhorities ate implemented strictly. :'j11) all hazzrdous emissions orwastes should be captured in acradleto gmve managemett RISK ASSESSMENT IN SITING OF A HAZARDOUS WASTE DISPOSAL STUDY =ACILITY_CASE :- :rarrirative approach using multi-objective planning iechn iq ue has reported by Koo et i , !989) for the assessmenl ofnine strategies for the disposal ofhazardous waste in itr-ih Korea. Oflhese, Strategies 1 to 5 involved the siling ofan integrated incinerator and ::l sico-chenical treatmenl center al one ofthe five possible iocations. Strategies 6 and 7 ;::. assessed for the siting oi integrated center a! lhe site of one of ihe trvo large waste :.:.r"tion units. Stmlegies 8 and 9 involvedthe siting of incinerator and physico-chemical :.airnent plant separately on lwo siles. Risk, equity, economic efficiency, public reactions, L: cosl were the main elements ofconsideration. The risk component was expressed as a .-.:-.poshe of the hazard posed by each waste type and the population density ofthe arca :,_ougb which waste had to be transported. The risk was presented as: Risk (ton - person/km2)= f,1t,P, tI(HrQ )J) :a.re , is the travel time through lhe heavily populated cities and is givenby L,/f . L being '-r e irave I di stance through the city (km): Iz , the average speed of the vehicle (km/h); P is ::: Dopulation densiqv oftbe city (thousand persons per km2); I is the quantity ofhazardoqs : asles passed through the city (t/year); A is the hazard factor ofthe waste;i is the type of :-azardous wastes; and i is the number ofcity. Public reaction or public objection component ofrisk was expressed as: Public objecrion {person km2 ' - PWt nhere l7l is a weighti.g factor (1.0 for a city, 0.7 forthe countr,vside). Using the fuzzy se1 n?ory', a weighled value for each objeclive relative to the nine strategies was oblained. These are given in Table 6.18. The higher the value, the highe. the rating ofthat ahemative. It can be seen from the Table lhat option t has the hjghest product value and the highest minimum value ofthe .ombined weightings and was therefore selected. This is an example ofhoh_ risk assessment technique can be applied in the selection of si.e for waste disposal facilities or treatment options.
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A Textbook af Solicl Wastes Managefient
T:bl€ 6.1E: wliehls of Vadous Strategies/Options
T
Strctegy Objective
Ul =risk
0.51
U2 = equity
0.E,1
U3=objections
0.991
0.16 0.73
tui I1Ui
3.22 0.049
MinimM Li
0.
i6
0.04 0.92 1.001 0.41 0.89 0.25 0.02 0.631 0.82 0.52
2_77 2_13
0.73 0.69 0.991
0.63 0.41
3.45
0.001 0.031 0.i29
0.02 0.?5
0..11
0j3 0.69
0.99t
0.16 0.48 3.03
0.037
0_16
roplimun strareg
for each obj
roptimum sfate$,
based on comprehensive value for degree
0.94r 0.33 0.97 0.631
0.86r 3.732 0.163 0.33
0.51
0.99 0.82 0.02 0.82
3.l6 0:007
o02
0.73 0.63 0.59 0.6? 0.91 0.93 0.26 0.63: 0.81 0.8i 3.30 3.67 0.E3 0.196r 0.26 0.62'2
e!li\E.
ofoplimi"rtion.
LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT Life Cycle Assessm€nt (LCA) is the process ofevaluating the effecls that
a produca has on the environment overthe entire period ofits life cycle. Tltis tcchnique can be used to estimaied the environmental impact ofa product by focusing on its functions 6rxse. It is a complex process and consists ofthe follolying three eiements:
.
Identiryingand quantifyingthe environmental Ioads-the energy and raw matedals
. .
used, and the emissions and wastes consequently released; Assessing and evaiuaringthe potential environmentaiimpacls ofthese loads;and Assess ing the op portunities avai lable !o bring aboul en\ i ronmental improvemenls.
The obj eci of LCA is to uncover envircnmental consequences of a product or more geneml ly the function which the product is designed to perform. It is one more decision support tool supplying informalion ofl the environmental effecls ofproducls, It furnishes information on the environmenlal effects ofall the stages ofa product's life cycle. This information is very valuable to the decision maker-be it govemment, industry or individual. There are many good reasons lo use LCA as an environmenlal management tool, It i5 a product-oriented. integraled. scientific and quantitative approach. The use ofLCA technique
avoids problem shifting one stage of the life cycle to anotheri or replacing one sor! of environmental problem by another. The process ofpreparation ofLCA requires time, skili and money.lt also requires a methodolog); a greal dealofdata and software to analyze data. It would obviously be a great help ifstanda.d databases containing data on process are available. A unified frame$ ork for LCA needs ro be developed in our country for easy communication and training of personnel. The LCA methodology requires inventorization of pollution ioads of a producf at all stages from the raw material procurement to the final d;sposal consecutively, ,ncluding manufacturing! energy consumption, and transportaiion. The lotal pollution Ioad and its impact on environment should be compared with sim!lar LCA ofolher alternatives. Va.ious sLaBes of LCA are preienred in Fi8. 6.j. Fig. 6..1 shows an ourline ofsystem boundaries for production process ofbar soap. This indicates various aspecrs to be included in the LCA ofsoap. Tallow is the main ingredient in soap production and irs primary ra* nalerial source is the grain fed 10 cattle. Therefore
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Heza/douswastas Maragemenlend Sitd
Remediation 153
Lfs cycl€ slsg€s ou'lpul
+
Flg. 6.3: Stag6s in LCA
Flg.6.4: Flow Diagram
t
Prcduction ol Bar Soap
SoId
1g
A Tey;lbook of Sctid Wastes Managem1nt
grain production and cattle raising are included in the Iife cycle assessment ofbar soap. The production ofpaper for packaging the soap is also ioctuded in the system boundaries. Fate ofboth lhe soap and its packaging are included in the life cycle analysis ofthis system
EXAMPLES Example 6.1: A person weighirg 65 kg consumes an avgrage of50 g of fish every week. The
ish
has been caught
ftoln
a pond
with a concentration ofDDt
eq-ual
to l.O ppb (0.001
mg/L). Estimate the maximum lifelime risk ofcancer due to this exposure_
Solrtion: The Bioaccumulation factor for DDT = 54000 The expecaed concentralion ofDDT in fisb is therefore
(from Table 6.16)
= Concentration in wate. x Bioaccumulatioh Faator = 0.001 x 54000 = 54 rng ofDDT perkg
offish
Ifa
person, weighing 65 kg. consumes 50 g (0.05 kgr of651 day) the chronic daily inrake is (Eq. 6.2),
cDl
p.,
*..L
(
(Eq.6.4) i.e. 0.00i I kg/
=(0.0071 x 54)/6s = 0.00593 mglkg ofbody weighr
UsingEq.6.l
.
Risk
= CDI (mg/kg/day) x Potency Facror (mg,&g/dayfr
=0.00593x0.34 = 0.0020i7 or 2017 x
106
or about 2000 persons per million are at risk due to this exposu.e
Exrmple 6-.2: A worker weighing about 70 kg is exposed to a carcinogen (avemge concentration iD air = 0.01 mg/mr)for8hoursperdayfor.]oOdalsperleuro-r".up..i-odof30r.".r. Average breathing rate ofworker is l.O m3/h. Estimate the risk ofcanc;r if the carci;ogen has a po€ncy factor of0.l {mg/kg/day)-'. Assume average Iife oflvorker to be 65 yea;s.
Solulion: From Eq. 6.3,
Totaldoseofcarcinogen=0.0img/m3xl.Om3/hx8h/dayx3O0days/yearx30),ears = j20 mC
CDI
= 720l[?0 kg x 65 years : 365 days/year] = 4.3 x 10r mg/kg/day Risk =4.3 x l0r mg/kg/da), , 0.1 (mg/kglday)-l = 4.3 r 10r persons About 43 out ofone million are at risk of cancer.
(Eq.6.2)
EXERCISE
1
What are the main characreristics ofha2ardous yastes? Dhcuss the inpac! on huma, heatth. . Discuss various techniques used for t.earment and disposat of hazrdous wastes? l. What are the caregories ofbiomedical wastes? Discuss rhe merhod ofrreatrrent and djsposal for 2
4. How are radioacrive wanes ctassified. Explain rhe methods ofderection and disposal ofthese
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Hazatttouswastes Managementancl Site
Rernediation 155 of PCB
in ftom a liYer polluted with PCB Estimate the concentration - . Fish are sulplied in a ma*et ofl : l0j due to consumption ofthis fish' ifaPerson consumes lo0 ir,. ii""r t.:i* f ."*. tisk is 65 kg and life expectancv of60 5
g;fnsh 'o
at teart rou. times s morih. Take avErage bodvweight
to Chromium in an electroplating factory' Norrnal
*.i,hinn aloul 65 ks is €xPoscd "-.^" r,""'i i" ir,. r"ctory aie 8 hrdav and number ofworkins davs is about 300/vear' The "J,-rl* ro.i ofair everyda). what concentration ofchrornium in the ah would ".'i"l'li."ir,* "m, cause him arisl ofl inonemilllon'
^-
what is Life Cycle Ass€sshent. Discuss its advantages' 3-Discusssuilablestrat€giesforth€remediadonofacontaminaledsitewhattechnique\rouldyou
7
.
suggest for sites conia$inated with oil spills? Give reasons 9. B;efly expiain the following: elsk essessment. LLRW, Biomedical Waste, Dose-resPonse RelationshiP'
B
ior€mediation'
:l
Chapter
= = =
Erup
ir o nrnent o I Irnp a c t
Assessrnerut Environment Impact Assessment is an objective analysis ofthe probable changes in the Fhysical, biophysical and socio-economic charaiteristics ofthe environment from a proposed project. The prediction and evaluation of the environmental consequence enables the planne$ to plan better
ireparable damage to environment and to ensure sustainable developmeDt. Every development proj ect isplanned to changethe existing environment for some benefit. Unfortunately often such development; bring in its so as to avoid
wake many unintended harmful side effects. It is essential ther;fore io lake into account any likely negative impacts in plannjng a development project. Both short term and Iongtel1 consequences are io be considered to ensure sustainable development e_g., ..,./rjli, ation o/ existing resource, /or fulfLling present needs \rithout threatening the abilit, i the futurc generations ta meet their needs,'. A)l changes sbould howeve, be such thalthe environment is not adversely affected. A sustainable development ensures that the developmental activities do not strain the environment beyond its capacity and the p.oject does not overdraw from its ecological and environmentai assetsOver the last two decades most countries have enacted suitable legislaiion
requiring a comprehensive environmental impact assessment (-EIA) of all najor projecrs at the plaDnirg stage irself. EIA is a process wheriby information about the future environmental impacs ofa project is predictej, assess€d and taken into account in deciding \yhether the project should go ahead, should be modified or abandoned. LEGAL FRAMEWORK The Government of India has enacted a number of Acts fiom time to time for the protecrion of environment in the country. Notable are the Wat€r (Preve nrion & Conrrol ofpollurion) Act of j 974. lhe Air (prevention
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Envitunmentallnpaclassessnent 157 passed in & Control ofPollution) Aci of 1981 However, the comprehensive legislation (Protection) isii i; t.rry " *ir".tone in the field of environmental e g the Environment and -q.i. r9g6. iit" ,{.t ptovides for the Prolection atd improverlenl of environment therewith. It consists of four shapters containing 26 sections and .ri".. "onn""t.a io!ers Ihe enlire counrr). measures (a) for protecting tis act empowers the government to take ail necessary preventing, controllirg and abatjng (b) quality, for and -J i.p.ouingit',. "nrlron;ental take such fleasures as lo government is empowered the en.rironmlntal Poliution The discharge of pollutanls from or ,"orl."a for laling down standards for emission process or location) (e.g' its operation, "r. i"ar.tlies or to ena.t rilevanl rules for industry so -- as ro Drotect Ihe environment. bod) ie' Ihe Central Pollution ii. ni".rrr.* has also constiruted a regulatory prescribing standatds' environmental c".i.ol"gcara fcpCgl for laying down guidelines, of this ."rii".i"" ""a for various oth;r acrivities necessary for the implementation allover i.i pnrrui;on cont.ot Boards have also been set up by the State Governments the country. '--ii" a ioii,on."n, (Protection) Act, 1986 is a iandmark legislation thal provides much is now awareness Public of environment improvement 1"""i_i."r"*"rt f". tf're in r,i'rf,". i". ," enriroomeni protection and the CPCB has contributed Tlnensely public Supreme The and the industry to guidelinei and staDdards lr-oniaine "atuaUte provisions rur..n I number of iniliatives to ensure compliance ofthe various Lor.r rrui"iro of - - the Act. tt, * u"t t"mains to be done The Act itse lf is flow much drore supplemented t't oiih "r"nl1"t" a succession of rules, subrules' amendments, annexures, guidelines, notifications' leading scneauies. vtl-a.s, resolutions etc. Thele are too many cross'reierences often authorities are usually to loniu.iont. f*""ttire paperwork is involved frequently and the The basic spirii of ;;;;;;il;; ;";"'.." "f t;e time-schedules incorPorated in the Act voluntary this Act is commrna and controi withno provisions for economic incentives or
ce. choi ---if,"
and Foresls (MOEF), Covernrnent of India vide its the list notification of 2?th January 1994 (as amended on 04 05 1994) has laid down for projects Development clearance projects which wiil need EIA Railways' and HiShways Stations, gf,i hu. ui"n .ade mandatory include Power been "fri"t, funnels. Oil refinerias, Hazardous Waste Landfills ln many count es ElA has iDcinerarors' made mandalor\ for uaste disposal sile( also such as land'llls and .i.uon.. i. gi'ten on the basis of ilformation which Ihe clienl has to supPly in tfr#"r".iuea io.rn"tischedule Il, Application Form' See Box 7 l ) lt shall be accomPanied bv a Droiect reooit * hich shall, inler'alia, inciude ao Envilonmental lmpact Assessment n'""J.t in"ironm.ntal Vanagemenl plan p_epared in accordance with the guidelines
uiniu.y of Enviroiment
"i'a"r"f"p.*t
'
iil
issued by the Central Government and the MOEF from time-to time All imporant information on the ,r"i"*".'".*. Power project, lndustrial project have to supply this procedure for carr)ing The agency' iails of an-efl ,epon prepatea b) a comoelent MOEF notifications' out EIA and submilting report is spelled out in the
--ii"
Control Board (CPCB) has, in its various notifications and noise ,riii"u,;ont. laid down standards for lhe control of pollution of air, waler' and major per All penalties law as !lc. ii"uf" Lr-2.+i. violation ofsuch norms will attract
c""""r Polluliin
.,
1*
A Textbook of Sold Wastes Management
Box 7.r: Schedule
l.(a) (b\
il, Application
Fo.m to be submiaed alonswith th. EIA R€pon
SCHEDULE.II APPLICATION TORM Name and Address of the project proposed:
Locarion of the projecr: Name of rhe place: District. Tehsil: Latitude,/Longitudel Nearest Airport/Railway Station; (c) Alternate sites examined and the reasons for selecting the proposed site: (d) Does the site conform to stipulated laDd use as per local land use plan: 2.Objectives of the project: 31.a) Land Requirement: Agliculture Landi Foresi iand and Density of vegetation: Other (specil): (b) (r) Land use in the Carchmen!/ wirhin lOkms. radius ofthe proposed site: (ii) Topography of the area indicating gradient, aspects and altitude: (iii) Erodabiiiry classificarion ofthe proposed Iand: (c) Pollution sources existing jn l0 krn. Radius and their impact on quality of air, water & land: (d) Distance ofthe nearest National parL/Sanctuary Biosphere Reserye/ Monuments/ heritage s;te/Reserve Forest: (e) Rehabilitation plan for quarries/borrow areas: CD Green belt plan: (g) Compensatory afforestation plani 4.Climate and Air Quality: (a) Windrose at site: (6) Max./Min./Mean annual iemperature: (c.) Frequency of inversion: fd) Frequency of clclones tornadoes cioud bursr: (e) Ambient air quality data: (, Nature & concenrration of emission of SpM. cas (CO, CO2. NO, CH,, erc ) from the project: 5.Water balance: (a) Water balance at site : (r) Lean season water ava;lability: (c) Sou.ce to be lapped with comDeling users (River, Lake. cround. public supply): (d) Water quality: (e) Changes observed in quality and quantity of ground $.ater in the last 15 years and present charging and extractjon details: (/) (i) Quantum of waste water to be released with treaiment details:
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Envircnnental lmpact A,ssesgnenl 159
O) Qu"ntr. of quality of *ater in the receivjng body before and after disposal of solid waste: (iii) Quantum of wasae water 10 be released on land and type of land: (g) (i) Details of reservoir water quality with necessaly Catohmenl Treatment (ii)
Plan:
Command Area Developmenl Plan: 6 Solid wastes I (a) Nature and quantity of solid wastes Senerated: (r) Solid waste disposaL method: T.Noise and vibralions:
(a) (b)
of noise and vibratio.s: Ambient noise level: (c) Noise and Vibration controi measures proPosed: (c) Ssbsidence problem if any with conirol measures: S.iower requirement indicaling source ofsupply: Complete environmental details to be furnished separaiely. ii captive po*'er unit proposed: 9.Peak labor force to be deployed giving details of: . Endeflic health problems in lhe areadue to \'vaste water/airlsoil bome diseases: . Health care sysiem existing and Proposed: lO.(a) Number ofvillage and population to be dispiaced: (b) Rehabilitation Masler Plan: 11.Risk Assessment RePon and Disaster Management Plan; 12.(a) Environmentai impact Assessmenl ) Report prepared as per (,) Environment Management Pian ) guideiines ofMOEF (c) Delailed Feasibility Report ) issued from lime to lime (d) Duly fil,ed in qoeslionnaire ) 13.DeGils of Environmental Management Cell: I hereby give an underiaking tha! the data and informatiot given above are true to the besi if my knowlerlge an
risk and cost. Signature of the aPPIicant with name and full address )ate:
'!acei
Given under the seal of organiTation on behalf of whom the applicant is signing
respect to item for which data are not required or is not available as- pet the declaration of project proPonent, the projeci would be considered on that basis-
ln
1A
A Textbaok of Sohd Wasles Mana96ment
projects in the count.y will henceforth require a clearaflce from an autonomous body, i.e. Environmental lmpact Assessment Authority (EIAA) constituted by the government specifically for this purpose, as per the directions oa the Supreme Court. Teble 7.1: Ambient
Air Quality
sa.
1
Industrial & Mixen Use
.
2- Residential
Sensitive
3-
.\orer
Nq
factorfor
Siardad in PPB
has been
CO
45.8 30.5
120
80
30
I1.5
30
120
& Rtlral
Standards
PPB ttg/ 3 63.8 5000 42.6 2000 16.0 1000
EO
crmpded utilizing NO, conveEion fidor
as
PPM 4.37 1_75
500 200
0_87
100
ther€ is no Aecified convasion
togeD oxides
Satce: CPCB. Teble 7.2: Ambient Nois€ Standards
Linits in dB(A),
Lzq
Do, Tine Irdusrial B
c
Residential Sil€nce Zone
D
m
75
65
55
55
45
4
50
l. Dai iime is reckoned in between 6:00 a.m. and 9:00 p.rn. 2. Night lime is reckoned in betseen 9:00 p.m. and 6:00 a.m. 3. Silence zone is defined as areas uprc l00n around such premises 4.
as hospitals, educatioial institutions and couns. The silence zon€s are to be declared 5y the Competent Authority. Mixed categories of area! should be dectared as one ofthe four above mentione{categories byrhe Compelenl Aurhoriq and lhe conespond ing slan dards shallapply.
T
So/r.?, CPCB. Trble 7.3: Noise Limits for Automobil€
Sxo
CateBary
ol
ltehicles
1.
Motorcycle, Scooler and Three wheeier
2.
Passenger Cars
3.
Passenger
Naise
Linits in dB(A) 80
4.
or Commercial Vehicles (upto 4 MT) Passenger or Commercial Vehicles above 4 MT and upto l2 MT
5-
Passenger or Commercial vehicles Exc€eding
Sorcer
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t2 MT
85
89
9i
CPCB.
PTJRPOSE OF EIA
A cost-benefi! analysis all ma'or projecl plans
is always carried out before finalizing any projecl. However, should also be examined to ensure public health and safety,
I
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Enironmental lnpact Assessnent 161 c.ralir-v ofenvironmedt and to comply
.lery first of its kind
with legal reqriremeots. Great care is needed in
Project. Tablc 7.4: Warer QualirY Standards
wHo
lhdian Stohdatd 11993)
pH
Total Hardness
6.5-8.5 300
6.5-9.5 600
7.GE.5
r00
,:
6.3-E.2 500
2N
75
?N
30
100
Chloride
xo
1m0
2N
-600
Copper
0.05
1.5
0.05
1.5
& Iron 9. \{anganese t0.
OJ
to
0.1
t.0
0.1
0.5
o.:,
0.5
NR NR
l:. ZkE
0.01 0_l 0.05
0.15
1t. Ctunni-m
0.0s
NR
C3lcium N'lagnesium Sodium 6.
11.
L€ad
150
80
100
0.1
0.1 0.05
0.15 0_05
r1l rzlu€s €xcepl pH are in m9,4. \R - No .ela-'ation.
The planning, construclion and opelation phases ofa project entail a Iarge number ofactivities. Each ofthese activities should be analyzed to determine whal impact, if
it will have on the environment. These impacts need lo be predicted and the probable severity ofeach impact should also be estimated lt may be noted that the any,
impacts may bel
(i) positive or negative; (ii) short term or Iong termi (iii) temporary or continuous: (iL) tv)
reversible or iraeversjble; and direct or indirecl.
Some ofthese effects may not be significanl in isolation but in conjunction with the impacls of other activities these may be unacceptable. The cumulative impactofall activities is to be taken into consideration. Any ecological imbalance, enviroDmental pollution, aesthetical loss or excessive siraiD on existing infrasructuial facilities should be mhigated through a suirable EMP (environmental management plan) Impacts ofvarious air and water poilutants are given in Table 7.5 and 7.6 respectively. A decibel scale showing impacts ofnoise on and response ofhuman beings 10 it, is presented in Table 7.7.
EIA is anticipatory in nature. At an early stage in the developmeDt process necessary action can be taken to ensure suslainable deveiopmentand fol preventingany environmental disasrer in fulure.
162
A TexlDook of Solid Wastes Manaoement
Trble 7.5: MajorAir Polluiants
Suspended
Paniculale
Matte.(SPM) Sultur oxides NitrogEn C2rbor
and their lmpacts
Aggravates lung illness, corod€s meials, cats€s gime on belongings and buildines, obscurcs
vision
Conodes metais, causes a.ute and chronic leafirjury, attack a wide \"!iety oftrE6, irriktes opper Espiralory tracl desroys pain piSmenrs Irritate eyes and nose. creales b.olr haze, causes visible le3f damage, stunts planr
oxides
monoxide
growth, corodss mefals Causes headaches, diziness, and nause4 reduces oxygen Ievel in blood, impairs meni.al pro.esses
Hydrocarbons
Cases cancer retards pl&t gro*,th
Table 7.6: Important Water Contaminanls and Theirlmpacts
tnpacts and Reasonslot concem
Suspended Solids
Biodegradable
organics
Pathogens ' Nuti€nts Priodly Pollutanls
developme ofsludge deposits ard anaErobic conditions wheo untreat€d wastewarer is discharsed h the aquatic eNiromenl Genemlly me"sured as BOD and COD. Ifdischarged untreared lo rhe environment, then biological stabilizarion ca! lead to rhe depletion ofnatural oxygen resourc€s and to the development of sepric conditions. Dise?se vectois. Communicable d;seas6 can be trdnsmitted by the palhogenic oBanisms in waier. Both niaogen and phosphorus alongwith carnon, arc essential nuuienls for go\1,th. When discharged lo aquatic enviroflmen! drese nunients can leld to th€ Ero,xth ofundesinble aqualic ]ife. When dischag€d in exoessive amounts on land, they can aho lead to rhe pollution of goundw"rer Orgaic and ioo.ganic compounds selected on the basis of their krotan or suspected cffcinog€nicity, mutagericily, alutE toxicit etc. Many ofihese compounds are found in Can lead to lhe
waste$ ater or leachate fiom landfills.
Hea\y
metals
Heary me6ls are common in lardfillleachate and wastewder liom indusnial a.livities. These may need to be removed
ifde
water has to b€ reused.
EIA METHODOLOGY An EIA study is specific to a particular project at a particular site. The entire area circumadjacent lo the p.oposed project should be taken into account. Usually an area of l0 km radius all around the proposed site is considered to be the infuence zone fot most major projects. It is often difficult !o decide if a projecl is 'good' or 'bad' in the absolute sense. Planners find it easier to lyeigh the relative merit if severai alternatives are availabie. It is lherefore mandatory that all EIA sludies should analyze several alternatives rising the same criteria. The various alternatives or choices ma! be selected on the basis of one oi more of the foliowing consideralions:
. . .
different siles e.g. for developing solid wastes landfill different processes or technology e.g. a gas based or a coal based power plant different types e,g, a surface or a underground urban transpon sysiem
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t
1 1
a 1
I I
Envi@nmental lmpactAss'ssment 163
.
:ii_itrent phases or size ofthe proiect
:. .:.:roieci alternative should I ::-:::i\ es are sufficient.
always be included in EIA study. Usually three or four
Table 7.7: A Decibel Scal€ and its Effects
Elfects
! '
180_
Rockei Engine
I70--
i50-
injury J€i Plane
Paintul
140damage Thunder clap
0-
lt
Vigorous
Rivele. iet flrins oYer at 300 m
Darger zone; progressive
100-
loss of hearing Moiorcycle, E m aryaj Food blender Diesel huck 80 km&,
807060-
Damage starts Very Loud
after long
Ordinary conversation Air conditioning unit, Light
tafiic
noise,
comPlaints
Moderately
No significant
Loud
impacts
Occasional
30 m away
50
,10-
3020-
l0-
Librd
Qid
tsroadcasting studio
very qujer
Rustling leaf I
r I I I
-iJr.:ei Turk
er
hrcshord
Barely audible
al (1978).
.{n ElA study isalways
:il
ol hearing
a
multidisciplinar.v teamwork. Experts inthe areas ofair, water land
lurion as well as in socio-economic f eld should constituie a balanced team. Much responsibility ::srs on theleam Ieader who coordinates the efforts, meets the deadlines and is responsible :_.r a variely
ofrelated activities e.g. documentation, presentation, public hearings.
I
T 164
AlexfDook ol SclidWastes Managenent
key constl_aints' an imDofiant first step in an EIA study is to define its 'coPe andtonolethe Drr'ns t.;;,;;ih*i;;;";;;i.,ttvnnati,eainconsulrarionsithrhe5ponsorinsaurhorit) ma'v be the scoPing warants' so analvsis ti"at if tie aara colt'ction and
'"#5."i*t amended. accordingly "ri* -'e" ii?.ira:, is usually
carried out over a period- of one y-ear' In exceplional cases or lour monlh s sluoy' houe\ er a RaDid EIA ma) be submined on the basis oflhree ";;;-;;;i; ir' n.r't,oaoloel $ill depend upon the nat,re ofihe projecl and ri; -H"*et., th!-uatic elements of merhodolog) and rhe objecri\e o' ;r,""J.5 i".",r.t ;;;;"t; ,h. same. The methoaiology for conducting an EIA study consists of four distinct stePs e.g:
l
Baseline Sludies
2. Pred iclion of ImPacls 3. Evaluationof ImPacts 4. Environmeotal Management
Plan
Each ofthese activities is discussed below'
Step l-Baseline Studies an inveiltory of the For objective evaluation of the ptoject, the first step is to make in lhe influence zone The existing environment is defined in .*L,in'" """;,on..n, paramelers These should cover all aspects of waler' land' noise' r".ri zone "'rir,.,"r.t.* *"""a, muflicipal solid wastes, and air polluiion wiihin the influence iur"rao"t (e'8' lrallic' inleresl rr"i*,. Parolrret.r.'defining ecolog] aeslheLics and human lis- ot "i,i" A comprehensite con"idered' ute also he,iruge' and .".i"-J|"it".r., cullural a"fr"i"g rhe ervironment 's'thus Prepared lt ma) be noted thal all lhe "^r"..i.tt ;;;;;;i.,; r") noibe equattl imporrant for a project Nor is there a'universal'li'r covering all Projects. the tfre imooriance of each parameter will dePend upon the location and nature of a coast project near a ei instance impaci on marine life wiil be important for "-1"-crprojeci in hills may have Similarly desert planned in a project , [ri^"i i*p.""", f"t project ptoposed in the different perceptions oi u pu.,*"t"t as compared to a similar Dlains. t
1'h_" type
the imPortance ofvarious paramelers selected For instance, air pollution is more important in-the case of
oftire pro;ect also determines
to a"nn'.'tt
"nrlionrent tot u landfill site selection the groundwaler pollution is of paramount in"ir"iutors"t,,t -- _b""" fiu of parameters is finalized to define the existiflg envitonment the next selected parameters' " important decision in Slep I is lo assign su;table veightage to lhe a total of 1000 Usually unit
theirPerctption s,rrfrising tirat one team ofexperts ma) sharPly differ from another,in develope! to been ha!e lherefore Techniques parameters' of irpori.n." of various Delphi r"r. * possibie in an objective manner' one suih technique is *re
". "r.ie;Piu technique.
I
I I
I I I
!
Enironrnental lnpact Assessnent 165
Delphi is a group techniq ue that organizes and utilizes experts' opinion forevaluation of .ompiex problems. It is a slructured communication system which involves two or three iounds ofexpert estimates. Anonymous feedback is provided to all the experts after each romd by the team leader This method enabies each participant to make independent estimates and then revisethem with suppiemental information provided by olher Delphi Panel members. Ihe experts then use the information frorn previous rounds to make subsequent better estimates. Tire final round produces a consensus ofopinion on the particular Parameters at hand The q eightage is assigned quantitalively in terms ofPIU's. This technique was evolved by Rand Corporalion in the 50s to obBinthe most rel iable coisensus ofopinion of a grouP of experts. A typical distributio. of PIU to all the parameters is give! in Fig. 7.1. This is for a US \\ ater Works Project. It may be noted that assi8nment ofsuch weightages may di{Ier ifthe ,roject or its Iocation changes. The next stage in this slep is to collect baseline information on each and every rarameter defining ihe environment. It may be collected from both lhe primary and secondary sources. Secondary sources include records ofmunicipal offices, meteorological department, census bureau, pollution control authorities, remole sensing agencies, inrernet etc. Prima.y oatd is required for verificalion ofexisting records as well as to generate original data which are not available. Appropriate equipment and lechniques are used to collec! such information for the respeclive parameters. For example, air rolume samp)ers may be required for collecdng data for SPM, bore holes may be necessary for geotechnical and groundwater informalion, a socio"economic survey :nay be necessary for data on human interest paramelers. Tabie 7.8 presenls some of ihe rechniques available for monitoring air pollutants. These techniques are commonly used in an EIA study. Differen! equipments arc.equired for other parameters e.g. water quality, noise, land pollutiolr. Many ofthese equipnents have been listed in Chapter 3. Collection of samples and resting in the iaboratory should be carried out as per the srandards and guidelines laid down by regulating agencies e.g. CPCB, BlS. Similarly field tests, monitoring and related work should be underlaken and documented as per rhe relevant and plescribed slandards.
'lable -.8: Air Qualjty Molirorins Techniques Monitoting Technique Sulfi' dioxide
Hyd.ogenp€roxideacidimelricandcolorimetric;Oas phase fluorescence; Diffe.ential optical absorption sp€ctroscopy (DOAS)j Flame photomebf, Diffilsion tube
r"iEogen dioxide
DiffiIsion tubel DoAS lnBa-rcd absorptioni Ele.lroma€netic cell High volume samplers; Smoke shade teflectance; Beta gzuge
Ultraviolel phorometry; Chemilunnescencq DOAS
volaile Organic Compounds (vOC)
Total hydro€arbo nor-methane hyd.ocarbon analyzer; Gas
Pobcyclic aromatichydrocarlons(PAH)
High pa{onnarce Iiquid chromarogrphy
Toncoreanicmicropoll ants Vetals in air
Polynahane filEr Atomic absoAtion spedomery (AAS)
16
ATexhook of Solid Wasbs Management
!ri?
!
1: - e! ES E:
.E
E:_:_s;
E
E
;" E=
iE, ::t
ng
3
t
.9EE 6 3,t
Ei
ei a: c:
E:E{.;E ts!. *€i
ig
tti.i
. t9 ;PS
EEEEs
?66
i
6
9 ,9
st i5' E 6-!8i3. t ,9
: i
E!ee
86.!Hiiicr:
'6
'd
a
i
_t!Ei!i:;
.s,
;iii
66:666aAaa 66?6
:.e
t
E
e
P6
ul
i i i a YPB ;:9r: q a 6 :EF!;:f
i!EE:;E 5i3;g
d
;3;
;-!3
s!
'*: Ei
!;
3i!Et.'fi
Enitonmenlal lmpacl Assessment'167
Step tl-Prediction of lmpacts Prediclion.consists in Prediction of impacls is the next imporlani step in an EIA study qualitatively and quantitatively in lhe value ofeach Param€ter
tf," liLi,fy
"nunges, ""ti*uting defin ins th1 enr ironment Each ahemati\
i1*" i. i*..i.err,"aologies
e is to be anallzed separalely using the same melhooolog,'
a\ailabteforpredictingthe likely imPacts Ttesearebriefl\
described as folloss:
similar
projecls give a good idea
of
PrototyPe Studies: Past experience from '''i r Csse th. fif"fu iro""o ofrft proposed project such a database should ofcourse be interpreted r
ii,uriiiinio
"..orn, localcondit;ofls.
tignificant differences, if any, in the climatological and other
the Checklists: These are simpie queslioonaires and ale useful for summarizing various for available ;acts due to various oarimetirs Exhaustive checklists a'e e g WHO' USAID' world Bank These Spes ofptojects as prepired by many agencies proPosed proFcl' clrect
{,i,
ofwater and air Physical models are used for many predictions including transportatioa Historical arc unreliable condilions where other folms ofmodels ooll,ti"nt, in and other is available "ompl"^ u" r'..a r"r predicljon where considerable information pollurinn' soil exPosure to chemicals 'p."Ji"ti* titf.^.itf. eig. prediction ofoccupalional rsei ior various environmental Parameters are Siven in Table 7'9'
Li"."i"ii" ,J"aI*.
t""f,niqr"t
Trbl€ 7.9: Prediction Techniques for Various Enlironmental Impacrs
Tvw Oualitr lmpacb
Efre.ts ot1 Ai, Qtolity EKPetimenlal melhods I \ ind runnel warer channels)' rong mrge Eansporl liadrerna;cat moaels uimptc boL Galssran pluire. K-theory models prcdidion emPEcat r: lons rerm Valhemarical models ( limple dilurion models e g for 'orl n,ir,e, ani water, pathway models for human exposure & dose €ffect' and iDventory
O*, t*as
\aorrtic
tnp.*
t-rymia.dEtmodelsftydEulic models ': mdErnaical models
'iarer
(ilacel experimenls' hvdraulic Qualilr Impacls: Exp.xtmental m€thods coasol trateB' Iakes etc)i (for estuaries, rivers, models model;); Mathematical limDle mirinC mod€ls, dissolt€d oxvsen models: disp€rxon model5' Experime{al models I e.g bioassa) r Malhema'ical models U,it", Oa", population. productvit! and nulri€nls q c ling models I su eyand inlentory
tn"."
Le.-g.
soil
and
knpacts
Grourdwaler
Htaruutic lnpacts E\penmenlal melhods (field lesrs): Malhemarical models (dispe6ion models etc.)
1@
A Texbook of Sclicl Was@s Managamont
Table 7 .9 lcantd.
fron p. 167) G rol
dt
a t e t Qual i ty : Experirnen6l methods (in-situ farar experiments)i Math€matical steady stde and cofipiex dispersior models Efects on Soils: Mathemari.:l models (mi ngmodets, steady state models);
Mathemalical (€.9. for popularioq produciivity, nujrienrs cycling models); 'llodels evaluation t€.hniques; and inventori€s. Experimental models (still and moving 2-D models, 3-D modets); Mabemarical models: ehpirical models; Survey techniques (evaluation methods. visibiliw
intmror) rechniqu6)
techniques.
A.tivitvr Mobile sources (roads, railways, airports); Srationary sources (industries er..)
Acoustc Inp@x: Eryin]€itulrnelhods (phlsicat modetsl MdleJnaticrl modets (qadv sree arnbientnoise models) Hisher Oder Efects: Mathematical models (ehpiricat annoyance modets)!
Ac.idental lrnpacts
Hazard and op€rabili, (HAZOP) studics; Event and fault tr€e analysisj Cons€quence
Sr/rc.r Environmental
nodeling
Resourc€s ( 1982).
Thechoice ofprediction methods depends upon the time, monev. information available and the importance ofparameter in a particulai EIA. Prcdiction ofihpacG helps in carrying out the evaluation of impacts and in devising and implementing the EnviroDmental Managemenr plan.
Step lll-Evaluation ol lmpacts Evaluation is the assessment of impacts on various parameters defining the existing environftent, on a common scale, due to changes in the environmental parameters olt impiementation of project. Several!echniques are ar/ailable forthis purpose. Two are described below.
l.
Simple Matrix: A simple matrix is assembled by displaying various components ofa project (e.g. activities) along one axis ard the prcdicted impact on environmental pararneiers on the other axis. A matrix provides a convenient method forestimatiogthe impact due to each activityas \rell as to estimate the cumulative effect onthe parameter due to a
number ofactivities. A well k.own matrix method is the use ofLeopold Matrix. It displays about i00 acljvities aiong one axis and 88 environmental pa.ameters against the other axis. Each activity and its potentiai for impact is noled where interaction is anticipared its magnitude (if) and imporrance (4 are also indicared (Fig. 7.2).
I I I I I I I I I
I I
I
I I
E6
Fig. 7.2: Leopold l,ialrix
Leopold matrix enables a quantitative estimate of impact ofall parameters, both singly and cumulative. Decision making is easier, especiall! in cases \rhere crireria
I
EnvionmenlallmpaclAssessnenl 169
highly subjective e.g. in deciding whichis more imponanl-bette. airquality or socio;conomic uplift. Byassigning suitable M and I rating to each parameter impact, it is easier to estimate tmde-offs before selecting aparticular alternative' Battelle Environmentrl Evaluatron System (BEES): In this system, the environrnental quality (,E g) scale is obtaifled for each ofth€ identified parameters, through the use ofconesponding funcfional reladonship (cailed value function curve) Avalue function scale is graph is a piot ofthe values ofPalamete$ on X_axis and,9 on Y-axis' j '9 that the noted poor may by for r.9.lt good and O 0 r0 1.0 for iased on vatue of are
:
.
environmental qualiry decreases/incrcases rapidly ifthe pammeter reaches ihe acceptable iimit prescribed for it. Typical value function graphs for some oflhe selected pammeters are given in Eig.7.3
ra)-(d)
High
Hi9h
0
0.05 0.10 0.15
0.20
0.25
2c-Hour annual adlhm6ijc 6ean, PPm
(a)
O
O.O5 O.jo
0.j5 0.20
AEBse an.ual @rcsfiaton, (6.)
So,
0.25 ppm
NO,
HiEh
65 odor (c)
7
3.5
Slighl Mod€Gte
Odor
(4
pH
Fig. 7.3: Typical Value FLrnclion G€phs
A numerical index is obtained defining the environmental quality for parameter' The BEES defines the environment through 78 parameters in four categories' The relaiive'weightage'to each Parameters is assigned by dislributing 1000 Units-called PiU's (i.e. Parameter lmportance Units) among ali these parameters, as mentioned in the earlier section on Baseline Studies.
1m
ATexbook ol Solidwastes Management
Evaluation ofthe environmental impacts usingBEES, is ca.ried outin terms ofaI1 index known as Environmental ImpactUnit (EIU). For each ofthe altematives, thc EIUs are obtained using the following relationshipr
(EIU)j=(EQ)ij.(Pru)i (EILl,
(rq)t
= Environmentai impact units forjth altemative, = Environmental quality scale for ith factor andjth altemative, and
(P,ftri = Parameter importance units for ith facto.. For the baseline value of each of the parameters (before project
_
phase),
E0
and hence E1U is obtained. The impact or change in the value ofeach parameter due to ihe proposed project is then estimaied. Forthis anticipated value ofparameters (post-project phase), again the EO and hence 61U is obtained. The nume.ical differeDce of E1U is summed l]p for al1 the parameters! separately for each
alternative. Environmenlal quality is evaluated for various alternatives including the Noproject scenario. Such an analysis ptovides an objective technique to decision makers in identifying the best possible option.
Step lV-Environmental Managoment Plan Parameters predicted to have negative impacts on the environmental quality, are of critical concern in an EIA study. These paiameters require a systernatic and scientific management plan to mitigate such impacts. An environmental rnanagernent plan (EMp) is therefore an integral part ofElA and should be designed so that the negative impacts are minimjzed. The EMP is prepared for both lhe phases of the project e.g. for the construction phase and the operation phase. Du.ing site preparation and construction phase, substaniial quantities of soil and debris are moved. Heavy construction equipments and machinery also operate on site. A large Iabour force is .nobilized for the project. These activities result in the generation of various environmental problems, which should be properly taken care of. posrconstruction or operalional phase EMP should address various pollution sources or causes ofenvironmefltal degadation. For instance, in case ofa landfill EMp willnecessarilv include:
(i) management of leachate for protection ofgoundwater and (ii) control of landfill gases io minimize fire and health hazards. (iii) long term monitoring ofair, water and land environment. NEW TRENDS IN E'A The EIA techniques are continuously evolving altover the world. As experience and case studies are garhering the techniques are being refined. Ne\r.developments such as use if Information Technology (lT) are useful in documentarion. standardization of report formal, and development ofdatabases. The legal requirements are often changing from countr), to countr) and many environmenial problems are global in their imp;c$ e.g. Blobal qarming ac:a rains. oil spills. ,T is now universally recognized as a valuable tool for high speed computing, instant communication, database accessand problem solving sarategjes. Datacolleclion and processing
I I I I I I I
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r I
r I I
Eni/ironmental lnpact
Assessment 171
is a time consumingjob especially as in many cases, a number olaltelnatives need to be the examined. Moreov;r, decisions have to be made withinthe legal framev/ork and under g MoEF' e CPCB, agencies various regulatory umbrella of slandard guidelines laid down by The standard limits, the qualily assurance and the Prescribed forrrats are often upgraded from time to time. The IT provides a ready means for accessing such information (e g' through interret) to ensure compliance withthe legal requirements lnt-ernet is now being frequently used for information gathering and sharing Suitable shaped links allow cross refereDces and act as a roadmap for tbe user' A large number
of sites are dedicated to housing key eDvironment documenis, rePorts and news
and
views. Since information on the intemet varies enormously in bot}l quality and quantity, use$ need to check the sources carefully and to ensure the curency of the material accessed. In many cases public particiPation, conflict resolutions and coBsultations are required in EIA studies, environmental audits and risk assessments. IT plays an important and
valuable .ole in all such cases. Remote sensing anal Geographic lnformation System (GIS) is now extensively utilized to transfer alaia a;d to make comparative analysis oflarge scale environmental changes g e.g. deforestation. Muhitemporal data can be used to improve image classification e spatial data ancillary and la;d characteristics by combining data types i[corporating and by incorporating seasonal varialions and other changes. The volume ofdigital data becoming av;ilable is enormous and skill is required in storing , analyzing and handling lhis data. GIS is now routinely used to disPlay and aDalyze the information through
!arious methodologies e.g. overlay analysis, models of animated output CIS store spatial and lemporal dala which can be a;cessed, analyzed al}d communicated for environmental management, Linking muitimedia to GIS including the use of interactive digital video and sound, combined-with graphic files and zoning map are some ofthe latest innovations in IT' It presents opport;nities to compare and analyze complex patterns and to better evaluate altematives, video simulation process can be utilized for EIA studies. Participants may actuaily due see hovr their comments and suggestions can influence the environment ofan area in in Do poPulation due to increase to a project by simulation e.g. the increase in fish the a river ihrough cleaning or pretreatment of watei. Computer models can simulate behavior of system as changes occur in the enYiroDmenl. Online monitoring ofenvironmental qualjty including air, water and land is now loutinely caried out through IT tools' Exie.t and knowledge based systems enable decision rnake. to arrive at oPtimal
'
solution in acomplex situation, For example an environmental assessment knowledgebase would coniain expert judgment as to what conclusions night be drawn from a given set of facts about various project activities and the environment. The internet and computerized databases supply such information speedily and uptodate' Use of the latest IT techniques is very convenient in monitoring, foliow uP of action and public participalion. Risk analysis and hazardous waste management is another area \rhich is fast developing in EIA lechniques. EIA studies frequently form an essential elemenl in many economic analysis (banking, loans etc.), design strategies, cosl benefit analysis etc.
T
I '172
A Tenbook
at'
Solid wastes Management
EIA OF WASTE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS The systematic application ofenviionmental imPact assessment procedure to waste managemen: sratesies and projectsis an impodant asPecr of wlrste managemenl Various waste managemen: optio;s and site; aviilable for such slslems are identified- For each ofthese alternatives p;tential impacts such as traffic, noise and aesthetic are to be evaluaied The type of $ asl' handied at the facility will also influence the extent ofimpacts-
Site criteria ofa waste management facillty includes !echnical, economic socio_ poiitical and environmental considerations. Technical criteria for wast€ managemenl process are generally Process specific and address issues such as land requirements' sile access, Proximity to lransportation networks, access to power' \Yater' se\rerage etc- Economic, socio-political and environmental criteria are usuallv geoeric ann appiy equally to most lypes of waste facilities, although the relative imporlance of environmental criteria can vary, depending upon the type ofwasle handled and trearmenl or disposal process under consideration For inslance' locaL meteorological condiiions are oi greaier importance in the siting of Power plaots. In case of landfiils a secure hydrogeological setting is ofparamount importance. Olher environmental criteria include avoiding ofsensitive ecosystems, protection of natural res ources, surrounding eI(. populations impa"ts from awasre facililv oPerations are (i) impacts associated wiih landuse Plannjng 1o and ail developments (ecolog), noise. traffic, aesthetics etc.); and (ii) impacts sPeci{ic thetype ofrvasie treatmenl process uoder consideration -4ll factors relatedto environmental qualit), public health and socio-economic issues aretaken inlo account The pub lic concern u"ut" ou", poteniial delerioration in enviror[nenlal quaiily caused bythe release ii "rp""iully .ofchemicals to air. water and land. The medium into which the process discharges are released is impo antforoverall assessment. In ihe case oflandfills, the land and groundwater parameters are ofprime importance. Similarly for industries or chemical treatment plants air and surface water are of critical importance, The polenlially affected area can extend well beyond the immediate vjcinit) ofthe sile processes depending upon meteorological conditions. Forexample, emissions ftomthermal leachate the beyond the site' Similarly, 5 km can be deposited over an area extending upto the site. plume of a landfill can extend to a considerable distance down The time scale over which the baseline assessment ofvarious parameters is conducted' vades widely. For instance, in Eroundwater assessmert, spo! samples coliected from slmtegic;liy located boreholes are generaliy sufficient But in the case ofair quality, the survey 'nav extend for 6 to l2 monihs. The prediction and evaluation of impacts Potentially associaied with a waste mana8ement operation must draw upon a vride range oftechniques Qualitative methods may suffice for quaniified sorne parameters ..g. landscape, aesthetics For most parameters ho*ever, impacts are For qualit)', risks) (noise' water health air, and and evaluated against numerical criteria 1o processes also necessary i! is various types ofhazardous wastes and waste management consirlerthe environmental consequences ofaccidental releases The impacts which an individual facility is likely to have on the surrounding environhent and the cumulative impact ofthe facility with other exisling or planned facilities are evaluated in an EiA stud)'
I I
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Enironnentai lmpactAssessment 173
The most effective environment managementplan (EMP) or the mitigation measures :a-
a \1'aste managemenl
:id
facility are preventive i.e. a combination ofappropriate abatement
cortrol systems in the design offacility. Landfills should be carefully sited arld suitable liners are provided to ensure protection ofgroundwater. The operation ofa :zndfi1i is in effect a continuum oi mitigatioo measures, with covering of waste by a soil cover on daily basis. Gas control should also b€ part ofmitigation plan, which :revents the migration ofmethane to the nearby areas and thus minimizes the risk of f:re hazards. EIA is conducted
on the assumpdo, thal necEssary mitigation measures
will be incorporated
inro the desigr, operation and maintenance ofwaste disposal facility. Regular monitoring ensures that EMP is efficiently implemented. Monitoring oftechniques depend upon the operational methods adopted for disposal. For landfills. moniloring ofgroundwater and ladoze zone is ofprime impofiance. For incinerators, srack monitoring for airpollution is essential.
EIA OF A DEVELOPMENT PBOJECT: CASE STUDY Delhi Development Authority (DDA) has planned to develop an Internatjonal Hotels Complex (IHC) in South Delhi in 315 Ha ofprime land. The project envisages construcrion of 12 luxury hotels, a few insritutions, a hospilal, a shopping mall, and recrealional and residential facilities amidst vast expanse ofgreen. The project has been initiated by DDA in response to acute shoftage oftourists/visitors accommodation in Delhi. The author has carried outthe EIA study, forthis project. This is a briefsummary ofthe EIA report. The complete EIA report ofthis study contains more than 300 pages plus several appendices and annexures. For defining the existing environment ofihe study area,35 pammeters have been carefully idenlified. These parameters have been divided into four major groups viz. Ecolog/, Environnental Polludon, Aeslhetics a,.1d Human Interest. Delphi tecbnique was usedto determine the weightage to be assigned to each parameter (PIU). The sum total ofthe pIU,s distributed to all the parameters under consideration is usuallv 1000. Higher the number, greater the relative
importance (Fig. ?.4).
Baseline lnlormation Dala was collecled for all the 35 parameters from boih the primary and secondary soutces. Env;ronmental sampling slations were selected according to environmental sensitivity ofthe region (with the site as the central station) covering an area of l0 km around the
site. A resistiviiy survey was conducted for the entire area upto a depth of2O m. The Lateral Electrical Soundings (LES) of Wenner's Eiectrode Method of Space Configuration was used to determine laleral extension ofthe geolog;cal formations. The Schlumburger method was used for groundwater resource assessmeut and water zoning ofarea, Various base maps ofthe study area were prepared and updated using available remote sensirg data and salellite imase.ies. Various maps e.g. hydrogeomorphology, vegetation density, drainage, landuse,/landcover, setrlements, lineament/lineament density, surface water bodies and topography have been prepared for the siudy area.
174
A Textbook ol Sotd Wastes Management Paameter Lmpo(ance Units
ENVIHONMEIITAL
Brodiversity (60)
BOD
(50)
DO
(15) (15)
pll ruS
(10)
saliniiy
00)
SPM
(s0)
co
(50)
HC
(50) (30)
so"
120)
Eosion
(1s)
(PlU)
Total= 1000
AESTHETICS(70)
Topography
(20)
Sanilalion
120)
Odour
(10)
Energy
Employmenl
(25) (3s)
hearih
(r o)
Culiu.al
herltage
(1s)
Fis. 7.4: Parameler lmporiance Units
Prediction ol lmPacls Prediction of impac! is an important step in an EIA study. It helps in canying out the
evaluation of impacts and in Preparing the Environmental Management Plan. There are many mathematical modeis and methodologies available to predict the impacts The mathematical models attempllo quanthatively describe the cause and effecl .elationships between sources ofpollution and different elements ofthe environment, e-g. air, water, noise. land and socio-economic aspects. In the present study, the prediction of traffic volumes has been carried oul by extrapolation. The predicted traffic voiume data has been used to predict the impacts on air quality and noise level. Prediction of impacts on the water quantity & quality, solid wasles, community health, energy, habitat and communities and on various other parameters have been carried out on the basis of Population Projections due to the project.
Evaluation ot lmPacls For the evalualion of the environmeltal quaiity value function graPhs for selected
paramelers pertaining to the environmental impact have been developed adopting the
Environmental lnpactAssessment 175
Battelle Eflvironmental Evaluation System (BEES). The environmental qualily (EQ) scaie Bas obtained for each ofthe identilied factors, through the use ofcorresponding functional ..larionship. Value function graphs were deveioPed for each ofthe 35 pammeters'
Evaluation of the environmental impacts !s:ng BEES, is 'a'i€d orli i! terms of an index known as Environmental IniPact Unit (EIU) For each of the alttinadles' i:l€ EIUs are obtain.d usiAg the following reiationship as explained earlier:
(EILrj = (EQ)ii.(PIU)i The resultsofthe evaluation ofimpacts onEcology' Environmental Pollution, Aesthetics,
Human lnter€sts, and overall impact evaluation are described below'
Ecotogy Bio-diversity: The preseni vegetation is sparse and stunted. Since the area is going to be occupied ty hotels of international standards, the area will be en.iched by extensive plantarion ani vegetation. A large area will be develoPed as green area Therefore-, the total impact on p:lantation/vegetation due to implementation of the project shall be positive. The animai and bird poPulation wilt be disturbed during the constructioo phase, but after the comPletion of project there will lie more plantation and green area l,ailaile at this site. overall, the imPact on biodiversity will be positive due to this p.ojec1.
Groundwater: Croundwater resources are meager, The project wilt increase the local population with a heavy demand on water This will further deplete these resources ihe impacr on Ep due to thls parameter will be significant and negative Lenduse Comprtibility: The Proposed ploject will not result in any eflvironmental project conflict from the landuse point of view- Further, as much as 44 percent ofthe g'een as will developed be area is kept in reserve for recreational oPen spaces. These reserves, parks and a golf course. The project of this;agnitude js bound to gererate direct employment as-well as indieci jo; opportunitieJe.g. services for vadous supplies' transportation & travel and services, tourism information and guides, photography, recleation, entertainment a host of other seavices, Env i ro n m e ntaI P o ll uti on Water: The groundwater table is very deep and there is little possibility of it being plantation contaminated; The effluent from hotels will be treated before it is utilized for and horticulture. The overall impact on environmental quality (BOD, DO' pH, TDS, and Salinity) will be insignificant. However the salinity ofgroundwater is already high' Air: The only source ofpollution.ofair environment will be the motor vehicle exhaust' It is anticipaied that the CO, HC, NO, and SO" Ievels will rise However, these are not likelyro eiceed the permissibie limits for residential and commercial area'
& Erosion: Allthe effluents from the hotels and commercialestablishments shall be treated before releasing it on land. Portiofl ofthe waste water will be disposed into municipal sewer lines No waste water or hazardous waste will be applied directly on Iana. Therefore. there will be no adverse impact oI1 land environmeni The soil
Lanal Pollution
I I 176
T
ATextbook of Solid Wastes Managernent
erosion
will
be reduced due to plantatiotr arld paving
ofthe roads. Hetrce, the envto seDral
quality l\'iil improve.
Ah.ri ro
roffLol[ solidlasJqs is likely to be geflerated everyday from ihis hd€r oornplex. The paper, plastic, glass, inetat! etc. shall be separately collected anal sold off ao the cont.actols. The wet garbage fto; the khcda and leftovers ftom the restaumnt shall be collected separately, stored in a cold rooE and uitimarebsoid to the contractor for coDPostiBg. Solial Wastes:
'
I
Noise: The noise levels iD the area will rise at road iictersections. The aircraft ooise is ofvery higl itrtensity but for shor! duration. Noise car be tak€D iDto accouDt at plalning aDd design stages ofthe various buildings.
Aesthetics Aesthetics of the area 'will be greatly eDhanced due to this ptoject. At presetrt it is a barren wasteland where it is scary to go iD the tright. The poachels are usitrg the site for fuel wood. Clandestitre stone miEiDg has disfigured the t.rPography. The alea is also us€d for dumping solid wastes creating odour and sanitation problems. Presetrtly it is a heakh and security risk. The overall impact of the hotei project oB aesthetics will be positive. Human lntetest Population: The.e will be a margiDal increase in the residertial population due to this p.oject. The hotel guests will constitute a tramitory populatiotr. The eEployees need not Decessarily live at the site itself.
Traftic and Tratrsport: Proper managemenl of trallic, adequate Provision ofparking space atrd providing grade separators at busy iDtersections can loitigale the impacl or traffic arld traDsport due to this ptoject. The overall impact oD enviroDmental quality due to traffic \r'ill be Degative. Energy: Energy requirements are predicted to be ofthe order of 20 to 40 MW Suitable measures are needed to augment this projected requircment.
EmploymeDt, Ecotromy and Education: The idpact of this Project oo EQ, due to empioymerlt, economy and education will be significaDtly high and positive. Is fact there will be multiple aDd ripple effect extendhg over a wide area arouEd the site
Eistorical and Archaeological Sit€s, Cultural Eeritage and Sociel InieractioDs: Ttis project will greatly boost the environmeDtal quality due to greater appreciation of India's historical, archaeological atrd cultural heritage. This will also provide greatel opponunities for pleasaDt socjal interactions and leisure activities. The Det effect oD environmental qualities due to all these thre€ factots will be positive. Environmental EvalLration: Overall The results ofenvirotrmental evaluatioD are suEmarized iD Table 7 10. Thiq tatrle reveals that for the 'No Prcject' case the Ecology ofthe aroa has already degraded ftom Good (EIU = 180) to almost 50% ofGood (EIU = 89). The 'No Project' option is lherefore ruied out.
T
I
Envircnfienlal lmpacl Assesszrenl 1Tf
TheEQduetoAeslbeticsaDdHumaDlBrelestwitbiEPlementalionoflheplojtct qualrty wrll lunner to ;.prove due ro this projecl The environmenlal various positive aspecls ofihe *".'"* *itr' trr. i-rrimentatioo of IMP ihis is 'lue to Ecoromv rhe etrvironmeDtar ao'r EmProvtue.t' deasures :^;i;;;"-;,. qorsen bur caD be coDtrolled with suitable
n"rJi.lJ i.rna
ff:T;;. il*#;;,;;;i;;,
on the edvirotrmetrtal qualitv is positive'
";;::"';"t1;;;;"i-*
"tt.,p"'"-t"rs iDPacr' e g' emplovment' econoEv' s"#1i,1. i""r.i"r"re a sigDificadtly high Positive will become sigrificaDtl) Posilive rl"ioii"n..."i r,;"r- rana uit erc sorne orler factorsplaq e g' solid rlasles Inarasemetrt' t*agemeat L]fi;; #if,;;ntxi;o of "o'oi'oorn"otul codmunity health etc. T,ble ?'10: Envirof,lrental Evallration: Overali E-8. vith 8.8. eith E,QE.8. \|ithott .EMP Assigned PIU EMP
(En,
(Pru)
(I80,
(Eru)
(EIr,
B
C
89
115
(500) (70) (2s0) interesr Huma!
34',7
269
326
63
63
t73
211
Total
559
Ecology Poliunon
39
o000)
Change in E.Q. with EMP
(EII'
(Ellr)
C_A
+26
+46
-38
+u
+19 +24
+19
+E7
'135
+t76
Environmental Managemeni Plan lhe public are oE accouDt of two Neealive impacls on EQ. of crilical coDcern 10 an Enr ironmental MaDageo:ent ?lan ;'":,ilil;.'g. *";;;i rraffrc' This necessirates Table 7' 11. '1EiH;X ;,il;;fu; p,opo""a o"uitoo*"otul Matragement Plan is showr iD Table 7.11: BriefourliDe ofE M P
l. Augmentatior of
Water Resour'es
2. Required upsrading of lr:ansPon
3. DeveloPmeDt of
GIeetr Areas and
Noise Barriers 4. Etrergy
(, (i, (,
Water Hawesting (Dilches, Lake). Grade separalors al cnlical junctiotrs'
(ii) (,i,) No parkiag or roads. (rr) SegregaEoo of slow t'a.6c.
(,) No oD-sEeet Bus PasseDger handlitrg' (4 Gtee! BeI! Plantatiotr. (,0 Roadside Honiculture.
(ii, Noise Bar.iers. (, Electric subslations.
(,,) Augmenralion of Power
eoer$ souces. e'g solar eDelgv' (,v) Etrergy conseft ation sYstemsColl€criou and DisPosal systems' (i, Hazartlous {astes 10 be properly disposed' (, Establisbsenr of Ervironmental Manageme Cell
(ri, \on-colveltional 5. Solid Wasre Management 6. Motritoring ard lmPiementarion
(,
174
A Textbook of Solb Wastes Management
This case srudy presents a methodology ofELd iD actual practice. It also reveals the necessity ofa proper management plaB for eDsurhg sustailable developmeDt. Th€ cost of this management plan should tlerefore be included in the overall cost ofthe project. EVALUATION OF LANDFILL SITES IN DELHI: CASE STUDY PreseDtl, the aDount ofsolid wastes produced in Dethi is 5300 ioDs. This cor$ists ofwasks ftoD residential, commercial and industrial areas. Disposal in sanitar-y la[dfiIls is commody practiced without any atiempt for material tecovery. Solid \raste is brougtrt to these sites with the help oftrucks. Afrer tippitrg over the waste is leveled by bulldoze.s. I urther compaction is achieved by trucks plyiDg over the progessively extending surface. past attempts at conversiol ard production ofeDergy haveDot beea successful. Incineration \yas also attempted a few years back, but at present such platrts are notfurlctiodlg. CompostiDg is preselltly car.ied out at one ofthe platts in SoulhDelhi. Dueto non-processing there is large deoaod on landfordisposal in sanitary landfills. A survey ofall the three current landfill sites (Table 7.12) ir Dehi v,as carried out to evaluate their impact on environment. The phvsical and chemical composiiion ofsolid wastes id these laod{ilis is presented i! Table 7.13 add 7.i4. Air qualit), monitored ar the landfill sites is presetrted in Table 7.15. Groundq'ater analysis ofsamples collected ftom tle vicir:ity oflandfill sites is preseDted in Table 7.16. Tabl€ 7.12:Details ofSelecred Sanitarf Landfill Siies
s1
s2 s3
(acres)
(tonsiday)
70 32 40
1200-2000
r0-15
1000-r800
10-20
1200-2000
10-15
Tabl.7.13: Physical
Food Card Board Plastics
Tedile Rubb€r
A
(KE)
llsis ofMSW
25.22 3.62 3.08 4.17 o.52 1_83
0.37 21.85
t.72 Glars Merals
o.49 0.,15
Othss4lel1 sp. wt.
(rE)
36.56 0.504 32.16
I I I I I I I I I I I I
I I I I I
I I
I
E
irc
nental lnpact
Assessme l?g
Table 7.I4r CheEical Charact€ristics ofMSW at LaEdfill Sites
(by Dry Weight)
oryanic Carbor Nin'oger
14.82 0.65 0.27
CA.]
22.80
0.91
lrw€r Calorift
Value (Kcal4ag.)
528.5
T! blc 7.15: .AfibieEr
A;
Qualiry ai LaldEll
SPM fue/-3) Site S1
Sile 32
Sites3.
S
ires
SO,
Gglnl
(id.'3)
1800-4000 450-1300 560-1140
0-60
5-36
6-16 6-2r
12-47 6-3E
200
80
80
Naticnal Ambient Ai. Qualiry Stmdrrds
Table 7.16: Grcund watei amlysis oi samplcs Dear s€lected lardfilt sites
Units Dislac! noE
EPA
Linirs
Site
,11
20-50
20-50
20-50
'1.2-8_0
0-3.5 9.0-22.0
0-3.6 5-9.5
2t0-550
300400
200-300 450-780
350480
6.5-7.5 o-3.2 3-4.6 400-650 150-250 300-430 210-260 6-8 500-620 890-1200
Msl l'rgl
ChlcEid:s
I{e4
sd&es
MEt\
Hddness (as CaCOr)
MC,
200 300 zoo
NTU
5
5-14
500
800-1250 1100-2400
Al(alhiy Tuiidity TJ,S.
w rrgl
Cc'du.tniiiy
}dI 250
2250
SJ
7.0-E.8
PH D.O. B.O.D.
6.5-6.8 s (mix)
s2
.350-450
150-170 300-360 5--l 650-850 1100-1400
The survey was coDducted ofthese landfill sites to collect the relevant informatiotr. Evaluation 1{as bas6d upon ttre exaEinatiotr of techniques to Ji"r" a, ".ptoy"a e[gineered landfill i.e. designed to protect the environo:egt aod promote aesthetics. A comprehensiv€ checklist was prepared aDd each parameter was given a rating ofGood, Fair, Poor, or Nil (c, I, B or N). A trume cai index has also bei worked orit for these sites by assigni[g eDvironmetrtal impact utrit (EIID to each category, as follows: Raat Synbol EIU Criteria
Good G
lm
Fan F
50
PooI P NINO
25
Effective or latest teclEiques beilg used-proper monito.ing
aual
control being €xeicised. Some &chniques being used bur monitoriag and control ineff€ctive. Techdques neid to be geally illploved. T€.bdques are old or inad.quate, ro moniroring or corrol. Simply opetr dmpiDg wihout any regEd forthe eryircEmenr
1&
ATextbook of Solicl wastes Maragenent
The above rating system has beetr further lefiDed by assigtriDg suitable weighiage (otr a s cale O to 1 ) to each attribute accordiog to its iBportallce. For hsta[ce glouad$aer protection is the most importal! parardeter aird is given a weightagc of 1; but compaction aDal leveling is assighed a weightage of0.5. The assiglment ofr€lative weightages i.e the parameter importance uni! (PIU) is one of the most controv€rsial decision in environmental Pact assessmeDt. No two experts agree on the level of iEporia!ce
i
(PIU) ofa pa icular attribute as il is highly subjective. Delphitechtrique and other similar strategies are often employed to remove 'bias' iD assigning weightage. In the presetrt stud), Delphitechnique has beetr employed for this purPose as it is most colcdonl)-
used in EIA studies.
Environmental Quality (EQ) has been detelmined by using the followilg relatioDshi!
:
EQ=PIUXEru Overall environmedtal quality at Iatrdfill site has been obtained by cuaulating the EQ for each attributeTable 7- 17 preserts aE evaluation ofthe landfill sites based otr the survey and aacordi-trg io the rating scale defined earlier. A total of 15 parameters have beetr examined and EQ determined for each attribute as pel the EIU aDd weightage (Pru) assigled to it Table 7.1?: Evaluatior of selected landfill sites iD Delhi Sne 52
PIU
Rating EIU 0.E0
1. 2_
Recycling
0.70
Shredding
o-70
compaction & Leveling 5-
9_
CoEtrol
1.00
N
Pollution
1.00
0.50 0.60
G. water 1.00
0.90
x
N00N00N00 ? ?5 2.5 F
Control Bnds Control RodeEts
Conrrol 15.
50
45
P
)5
25
25
v..5
Cas 0
0.80
1,{.
Eo
N
Odor
10. Drainage 11.
N
1.00
Cov*
EIU P?SX N00
EO Ratins
N00N00 N00N00
F5025Glm50Ffi25 ri{30F5030F5030 N00r5050P2525
Soil
6. 7.
EQ Rating EIU
Sir? 53
Motritoring
0.65
25
075
0.60 N l.mN0
18.75
0
0 0 112.5
t6.25
32.5
16.25
1m
P25 P25
E
'75
NO NO
15
u 39
_5
18.75
0 0
zu.5
I
Envircnmental lmpact
Assessment 181
only the Site 52 has a cumulative EQ of397.5 while the other two sites have EQ much' less. An ideal sire witi uifondly good ratint should have aD EQ of i200. Tte foilowing observatioN were made: . Presently, Delhi is rapidly expaDdifg.-New sites have to be selected iD order to limit
. . . .
.
. .
ttre loads oD existi.Eg sites and to reduce haul distarces. The large discrepancy bet$€en the load atrd caPacit! necessitates restarting some ofthe o1d sites. Effectiv€ measures treed to be takea to protect grould water. A Ilumber of optioDs are available e.8. geomembraDes, clay liD€rs, barier walls. Grormdwatel flow pattem should be carefully studied to adoptpiopet draiaage measules. Periodic monitoritrg should be done to check aetrace due to birds, animals, rodents or flies. Bird oeflace has to be coEtrolled especially as some ofthe areas itr the
South have low altitude flyingclubs. The fianagedent ofthese sites is poor, The equipment is ofteo out oforder and in Deed ofrepair Solid lv?ste disPosal requires ptoper maDagement *'ith adequate equipment
trahed staff. MaDagemeDr of landfill sites can be made much more efficient ifthe site staff is given a short traiDing in the use otequipdelt, co1rtrol ofvarious opemtions atd monitoring the €ffectiveness ofvarious m€asures Requirements ofaa engineered landfill can be expl3ifled thrugh video films, lectures and site visits. T.ainiEg modules can be developedfor each category ofstafseparately The aesthelics at all these siies need to be greatly i$proved UDauihorized rag pickers fiequently make a mess ofa[ already poor dallaged durrp. TLe €g pickers aEd ot}er atrd
unautborized persons ftequently eldaager &eir o*D health aDd become disease carriers. lDvisible contracto$ who paytheD1 apittance for their labor usually exploit them' These aspects Eeedto beProperly maDaged. Deep-rooted lrees should be Planted atrd tie sites can be developed as greerl aleas: parks, sports gouods, parki.ngaleas, bus terminals, etc. ! iDally it may be emphasized that the cost estimate for implemetrting tlese measlues is trot very hi8h but the likelybenefits are great andhave longterm value.
This study was carried out in 1993. Many implovem€Dt techniques siDce then have beeD developed and iBplemeIrted. ENVIRONMENTAL AUDIT EtrviroDEeotal Audit should be canied out for all industdes to ensure enviroDmental protectioD. An Environmental Audit (EA) is a Periodic evaluation of how well the syst€m is working. It should be systematic, objective and documented. An audit helps in achieviDg the following objectives:
(i) (ii)
Waste minimization;
Resource oPtimization;
(iir) Public awar€ness ofthe units eavironmetrtal (iv) Compliance \r ilh l€gal requiremetrl.
records; and
Earlier, EA was mandalory for indust es as per the BnviroDpedt (Protection) Rules, 1986 as norified on 19 November 1986. Later ihis provision was amended and the rcnn '€nvironmental audit'was diluted by 'elviroDmental statemeDt'. The legal requilemeDt
1*.
ATexlbook of Solidwastes Maragenent
l1ow is that the industrial utrits should fumishrhe requisite iBfomatioo for each financial year in the prescribed foimat i.e. Iorm V (See Box 7.2) to the Poliution Control BoarC
before 30 September ofeach Year.
OBJECTIVES OF ENVIRONMEN1AL AUOIT The audit may focus on some or all of the several aspects e.g. mat€rial utilizatioo' \laste minimization. etrergy coDsewation: equiP ent or staff. The objective ofvarious aspecl are as follows:
1. Matedals UtilizatioD
(i)
To delermine the mass balatrce of raw mateiials. (ir') To detertr]ine the water balance and wastewater output. (iii) To detemile the energy balatrce e.g. fuel corNumptioD, total energy cotrsumption'
2.
Wast€s MinimizatloD
(i) To ensur€ minimizaiion, tlrough recovery and recycling ofwaste compoDenls' (ii) To determine, quaiitatively and quantitatively, the Dature ofall emissiotrs e g'
solid. liquid wastes and hazaldous wastes. The waste disposal plactices be examined from enviro[menial considemtiotr.
3. 4.
Energy Conservation Equipment OperatioDMaintenaflce
(i) To monitor the performance ofprocess and pollution colllrol equipment (ii) To monilor the performanie of wasle handliDg equipment. i. staff Recruitmenr Training (l) To improve the technical competetrcy and environmental awaleDess of the sLa[1.
(i/) 6.
To develop the right attilude al1C concem for the environdent itr the employees.
staf
and
Rules and Regulations-to ensure coapliaDce with the rules aid regulations
per
as
1aw.
Benefits ol Environmental Audit The followirlg are the main and ditect beneflts of an eDvironmefltal audil.
(i) Ir enables the manageBenl (ri)
(ii,) (iv)
to rull the unit efficientl], minimizing wastes. atrd output. the maximizing It provides afl up-to-date record ofthe pedormance ofthe equipment. Obsolescence can be removed ard new technology especially for handling lhe wastes can be introduced. MainteDance is greaily improved It supplies to lhe managemeDt with tle enviionmenlal database ofthe units' This will ensure compliance with the legal requirements and avoid the risk of future litigarion or hidden liabilities. Timely aclions can be taken to avei any risk, or disaster in the futute by P.ovidi[g independent verifi calioD.
Environfienlal lnpact Assessmenl 183
(v)
Ia erabl€s the staff atrd employees eDviroDmental awareness.
(\i) ft safeguards
lo iDprove th€ir technical capability and
the etrvirondent, and imPloves goodwill and public iEage of the
compaEy.
Steps in Environmental Audll \?dous activities of the audit procedure e categoizel ilto three major stages viz' Pre-audit. At-site activities. and Post_audit. These activities are as follows:
1. Pre-audit
(l) Collection of backgrouDd idforBatiotr. (ii) Questionnairc based survey ofuDit. (iti) Idetrtificatiotr of main areas of cotrcerd(il') Prepaiatioa of audit team atrd assigEing
of specific task'
2. AFsile Activities til Interviews with slafI
(ti)
(iii)
Tour of various facilities Corbputing material balance Cotupuling water balsnce
(iv) (v) Analysis ofwaste flow quantity atrd quality ('r') CooductiDg monitoritrg, salapling. (Lii) Preparing and discussing draft report3
-
Post-audit
Evaluatioa of techrical capability and awareness oi staff to enviroDmeDtal concerns. (ii) Evaluaiion ofwaste generation, treatmen! faciliiies and disposal practices' (;rii ldeDtification and assessmeDt of €Bergy consumption, waste 'eduction and recycling measuies (;v) Preparation offinal report itrcludiDg recoEmefldations alld actiol plan' ()) Follow up ofthe aclion PIan. of .{D etrvironmef,tal aualii is a very valuable technique for conlitluous implovemeDt of experts a team by de practice aDd maintenance of a facility. lt may be coDduc:ed ass;b1ed fto& within the orgadzatio[ or by ilviting extemal experts' Properly conducted audits almost invariable result in the inclease ofprofits by oplimization of its material
(i)
a!d human resouices, Tle 'lSO l4OOl Envilonment Management System' of lntemational Olganizatio' for Statrdardizatio* (ISO) coDtains the guidelines aod general principles for car4 iDg out an Environmental Audit. It has various clauses aod subclauses e g Environmental
MaMgement System R€quiremetrts, ImPlementation aod OpelatioD. Checkiug and Corrective
Manalement Review. Checklists and queslioEdaires have also been included' ask The Univerial Audit Checklist (UAC) contaids key questions the auditoi may an €nviroDmental during information vital thal during atr auilit. Tle cbecklist ensures audit is obtaiDed.
-A.ctio-n,
$4
A Tenbook of Solid Wastes Management
UNIVERSAL AUDIT CHECKLIST Documelrt control-sample three to four documelts in each aree
tudited'
Does the procedlte complt itith lhe requirenents? )," ,t Qitt"ni"g ao""ments control meas res apptied to all rclevant environmental "
(a) thef ca be located (b) the), are periodicaltj rerie\ted, rctised
i"\ *iy "re opprored:for adequacv bv sathorized Persohnel sure'l against unintended us e i aj ti o t"t" ii r"*" nts are promPtly retflove d ol as ia aoru-""t"tio" is tegible, and dates aJ revision arc readill identiJiable o
Responsibilities aBd authorities-sadpl€ three io four' Are responsibilities and authorities clearly deJined and docunenled? Environmental policv-sample three to four' h the enviro,lnental polic, naae a|aitable to Personnel (\ahere requited b' Policy)'l How has the environnental
poliq
been communicaled to all personlel?
Training-sample three to four. What rype of training have you received to perform
these operations (relevant to
identifles "fleeds" and significant impacts)? Har€ -,-ou receited en|ironmenlal aware ess trai ing? Vthar trpe of training haw yor receired rclevant to the requircnents ol ISO 14001 ona apjh"oLt" progi.nes and procedures ofthe Ewilanmehtal Management Systemi llhat tlpe of eneryenq, prepatedness and response training hare yalt receired?
Records-sample three Io four Are environmentai records legible, ideDtifiable' alldtraceable to the activity'!roduct' or sen ice involved? Are records and forms used and completed as desigled?
Sorr.e: ISO 1'1001. A typical enlironmental audit report for a chemicals manufacturing compan-v is pr.r.r*.a t.lot . This is prepared as per the proforma laid doqn by the CPCB for an
I I I I I I I
T
I I I
T
T
I
environmenlal audir. BRTEF ENVIRONMENTAL AUOIT FEPORT
2.
Name and Address of lhe Unit Categor) Dates or lvhich Auditing was
M/s. XYZ Chemicals industries Chloro Alkali xx-xxx-xxxx to xx-xxx-xxxx
4.
Audit Team Names
Dr.A4r.A,Is. ABC. Team Leader Dr.nvlr. ,Ms. DEF, Expert Dr./Mr. ,^4s. GHl, Expefi
1.
Dr./Mr. /Ms. JKL, Expefi Dr.,Mr /Ms- MNO. Expert
T
t
I I I I
Eninnnental lnpact Assassment 185
5-
Date ofcommencemedt
5.
Production Details;
S.No-
ofunit
Name of the Product
Capacity (Tons/day)
Actual ProductioD 400
(r,
400 350
350
(rii)
Caustic Soda Chlorine Hydrogen
(;v) (v)
Hydro chloric Acid Sodium h]?ochio te
(,)
7. Water Consumptiofl, (i) Process (ii) Cooling (iii) DoEestic 8.
(tots/day)
l0 156
1t
KLD 1010
:
2200 450
:
:
Raw Material CoDsumption:
S.No. Nade of Rav{
co[suEption per Ton of product
Name of Product
Material
(i) Com&od Salt (rD Electricity (,iD Water 9.
Fuel Consumption:
10.
Firsl Eflluent:
( (ri)
I.5 T/T kwH/T
Caustic Soda Caustic Soda
6000
1.5 m3/T Not Applicable
Qusntity, KLD Domestic
54
Industrial
551
Quality Prescdbed Limit
S.No.
(, (,, (iii) (,v) (v) (v,) (v,i) All values
PH
5.5-9 100
coD Mercury except pH are id og/1.
204 406
t755
Chloride Residual Chlorine
10.65
5704
TDS SS
Actiral Discharge
t
11.9
0.01
0.008
16
A Texbook al Solid Wastes ManagPment
11. Final Emissionsl Chlorine stack
Chlorine
0.09 pprn
HCi
NT NT
Mercury Chlorhe HCI Mercury
ECl slack
I2. Solid S. No.
Solid \lhstes
(i)
From Process From Pollurion Control Facility Quantity recycled or reutilized Mode of Disposal
(,r,)
0.08 ppm 2.0 ppm
0.007 ppm
Wastesl
(jD
(iii)
Actual Emission
Emission Standards
Stack
Toral Quantity 14
?day Nil
Disposed off ai a site 3 km away from the locality
13, Assessmeot/Recommerdation:
(a)
(r) (.)
(d)
Coolingwaler can be reused for gardeniDs. This will reduce wastewater generation. House keeping needs to be upgraded. Sludge disposal arralgements is not satisfactory. The compafiy should make suitable arrangemerits for disposal of soiid wastes as per the guidelines Iaid down by CPCB. Staff training and awareness prograEmes may be orgaflized for minimizaiion of vvastes and oplimum resources ulilization.
The Central Pollulior Control Board vide its notification of22nd April, 1993 has laid down new ruies in this regard to amend the EdvilonmeDtal (Prolection) Rules, 1986 Accordingtothis notiflcalion industries are requiredto subfiit an Environmental Sta[emeDt for each financial year endiDg 31st March in the presc b€d fomat (Form V) Presciibed therein.
Envirc nentallmPact Assessmenl 187
Bor
Profo.ma for ErvnonEental StateBent
.FORMV" (Protection) Rules, 1986] [See Rule 14 of the Envircnmental Match EEvirotrmetrtal StateEoent for the fioatrcial year ending the 31st PART A of the hdustry operation or process lhe owner/occupier (,) Name anil atltlrcss of (.ii) Industry category Primary (SIC Code)/ Secondary (SIC Code) (r,i) Production capacitY _ units (iv) Year of establishment (v) Date of the last eDviroEmeDtal statement submitted PAR.T B CoDsutrnptioD Material Water end Raw (i) Waler consumPtiotr, KLD Process:
Cooli!g Domestic Name of Product
F[iiiTat".
coo"u.ption per unit of Product output
During the previous flnancial year (1)
During the current fiDancial year (2)
(1)
(2\ (3)
Raw Material Consumption
N"..
R"* C"*".pt' " of Raw Material per unit olltodu"t q]!ut "f During the current During the
Material*
Previous
fiDancial year
(r)
fiDancial year
(2)
(1) (2) (3) *Uausiry may,-rse codes ifalisclosing details ofrawmaterial would violat€ contlactual otf;g"tiJ*. otherwise all industries have to name the raw materials used'
I
i
I 18
I
ATextbook of solid wastes Managenent
PART C
Pollutioo discharged !o environmetrt/unit of output (Paramelers as specifled inthe consetrt issued)
toltut*$
I of
Pelcentage of ConceDtmtiotr fiom variation in Discharges Discharged (mass/day) Pollutants
Quatrlity
ofPollutatrts
(6ass/volume)
?rescribed Staodards with Reasons
(a) (6)
I
I
Water
An PART
I
I)
EAZAR'OUS WASTES (as specified uDder Hazardous Wastes (MaaagemeDt
Hazardous Wastes
lA, Irod ptocess (r) From pollution control
& Haodlirg) Rules, 1989)
Total Quantity (kg) During the curreni During the previous year fhancial year flnaflcial facilities
I
I
I PAiT E
SOLID WASTES
lotal QuaDtlty During the current During the previous fitrancial year
financial yeat
(a) From process (b) From pollution control facilities (c) (i) Quantiry recYcled or r€utilized within the uDit Sold (iii) Disposed
(ii)
PART F (io tetns ofco6position and quaDtity ofhazardous Please speciry lhe characteristics as well as solid wastes afld indicate disposal practice adoPted for both of these
categories of wastes, PART G
pollution abatement Beasures taketr otr coNeflatioD ofnatutal tesouceS
lmpact ofthe and on the cost ol production
PA.R'T
f,
Additional measures/investhe[t proPosal for etrvircnmenlal Protectio! itrcludi[g abatgac[t of pollution, preveDtion of polluliofl. PART I quality ofthe eEvirotrmcnt paniculars imProving the for Any other
I
Enironmental Inpact Assessmgrl 189
EXA"PLES Example 7.1: years' About one miliion vehicles have been added otr Delhi's toads durilg the Iast five This has increased the SO, level ftom 0. 1 to 0. I 5 ppm. Estimate the impact on Envi1tr1:ntal this parameter' Assume PIU for SO, is Quality. Also calculate 6e change in DIU due to udts). 10 (ou1 oftotal 1000
Solution: (a) Bnvironmedtal Qualily EQ (for SO, = 0.1 PPm) EQ (for so, = 0.15 ppm) chaDge in EQ
(r)
0.6 0.3
=
(from lig. 7.3a) (ftom Fig. 7.34)
0.3 - 0.6
0.3 vehicles has negative impact million ofone Hence- increase qualry. Change in Eru = Change in EQ x Pru Chatrg€ in EIU
=
-0.3 x
oD
the environmental
10 :-30
EXERCISE 1.
Wtat is the purpose of an EIA study? Discuss various methodology adopt€d for predictior
30 iEporta!1 paraseiers to be co$idered in lhe EIA for the seleclion of the most suitable laldfill site. 3. Explain tbe Battetle Ervirormental Evaluation System' the SPM 4. SPM level of a locality was 200 ppm. After a landfill was developed in the viciditv graPh for SPM' tuncrion ppm a value 450 DIa\r to phas€ incrcased the construclio, during Assu;ing the PIU for SPM to be 50 estiEate the change in EIU-
2 List
5. Briefly explain the foilowiDg:
value FuDction Graph, Leopold Matrix, Etrvirondetrtal Audit' Environmer'al StateBeut
I I I I I
Append.ix-I
r
Glossary An eDvironmeDtal condilion occuring in the presence
ofoxygen. Anaerolric
Environmentai condition occurring in the absence
of
oxygen, Ash
Incombustible residue that is oblained after bumins a foel or soiid waste.
Bacteria
A shgle-ceL microscopic organism. Some bacteria could be harmful as they may cause disease while pr€sence ofsome bacteria is desirable !o stabilization ofsolia! $aste, Bacteria can be aerobic, aDaerobic or facultative. Process in which solid waste or othet compound can be degraded or transformed to simpler compounds
Biodegradation
by microorganisms. Carbonaceous
matter CarboB dioxide
Carlron monoxid€
Carbon compounds ptesent in solid waste
A colorless, odotiess, nonpoisonous gas. Itis produced durirg thermal conversion and biodegadation ofsolid waste and forms carbonic acid $hen dissolved in wate.
A colorless. poisoDous gas with an exceedingiy f,-int meEllic odor k ato p-oduced during rheftDa I conve:lion and biodegradation ol solid wasies mder limited o!,gen supplt.,.
Collectior of
Process
Combustible mat€rial
Materials presedt in the waste steam containing carbonaceous after can be bumie.g. paper, cardboard, food waste, \trrood, yard waste.
ofpicking up \\'astes from its source ofgeneralion e-9. households. institutions. business and commercial centers; hauling it to rhe local transfer stations,
I I I I I
I I I I t t
I I I
Aryndix'l\Glossartl CombustioB
of oxygeD \xith Prccess ofchemical codbining hea(,
substatrce that produces
in a cotrtalner' Mixtute ofallt)?es ofwaste coltrpooents
CodBitrgled
FduiDment used
ComPactor Composi CoBPosting
volume of*asle densiry aBd reduce of solid \ta're' ll is used *",
1o
in".r.'n"itJ".o
as
manure
"omposthg
*!**rflli*llt*+:...:l*'-'t*Lffii:l"":r5: ofgeneratioo' ofsolid il..*,".nl* il;;;;J;;;;".' ",
CoutaiDer Cover material
wasle at irs source
""rage
the-coropacted
is useal as cover materiai
and
*ast'
io a
Iandfill usual) soil
or bacterial break ins
;;.; ";;;r''.;i. ;;;;;;.";;;;
DecomPositioD DeDsification
o r
orsanic material
"t'mical increase lbe specific $eishl ormaleriar "ulIo reduce itsvolume, *"er cofltent ofsolid waste ol sludge-
,."""."
Dewatering Energy recoverY
"t*O*rt ;:;;;';;;;;;;;,rc"1":sft qaste based tuers L*r'e iilJeT:[d^Ti:;,'.15lilry"i3i['"'[ or refuse delived
Flyash
a
191
"tsorrd
f!els'
flue gases during "#TffX1'rtH:;Liii it.. ."rtan"itu* t'sh, which escaPes with the :
Gorb.ge Groundwater
thermal conversioD of wastes food '{asle' wr.r.. n.o.r",.a i, ftilchen that mainly cool'ains soir ,i,e surrace orearth betwee sarurarEd ,
Eaul distance
, ii.,-u"-". u,".r"a ry u coreclrol v:ll*-alli*L1:T":i,]f ::iT,'Jl;: gEneration to mt
;",.;;:;;;;.;.;;;1b or rock,
i e from ooiDt oft\aste
in case orhauled con*iner il:;"t# il;;;;;fiioe15 21s 516red
system).
Ilazardous\ aste Eydro!en sulfide Incineratiod Integrated solid r aste$
:
nature mav pose a tbreatiilTr"lt$:l* ban0uDg' or environment duringits storage' authorilies as hazatdous o) regulatory ^'.'v orher material listed rrom produced ,he odor or roaeo esgs that is
\t astes co.pooent rhar
; ;;'*;;;;' ;;.;-.
th; reductiotr of sulfates'
*"
which wastes
Litter
are bumt and
convenedinto
"".*ir"ura**oy
sases and ash.
ilan""ar.",
Oased on a
hierarchical consideralion of\a'asre
;..l.ii"e traDsformation anddisPosal -;;ir"ii", "t-"*a
management Leachate
b! i$
Liouid
wasles in a landfi thar bas percolated through
ll il usuail) conuins
i]ll.".i.iu,,ail.*r,'d impunries exrracred from \rasles' disPosal oursrde the resular ..ii; *;;;;;,;;""1esslv discarded aod dererioratins aesth€rics
;li;,i;;;'";'i;i;
en'ironment
A
192
A Textbook of Solicl Wastes Management
MagEetic separation
Process i! which ferrous &etals are sepatated out using rl1agnets.
Materi6l balance
AD
ofsolid wastes by
accou[ting ofmass ofmaterials etrteriEg aad leaving aprocessilg
unit.
lffrterial recovery facility
Facilities constructed for separation and tecovery ofvarious compoDents ofsolid wastes for their recyclidg aDd proper disposal.
MetheDe
A colorless, odorless aDd asph,.(iatiDg decomposition of wastes.
Microorganisnrs
Geoerally referred to any living thing Eicroscopic ia size, e.g. bacteria, yeasts, simple Iiulgi, algae. protozolrD.
Moisture content
Loss
ofweight ofsolid
gas produced during aDaerobic
wastes when d.ied to a cotrstaat weight at a
temperature of 100-105 oC.
Orgatric Eaterial Pathogetl
CoBpouDds
contai
ng carbon coDbined
triih other chemical eleme s.
This is an orgaDism(e.9. bact€ria, viruses, protozoa, atrd helmhthes), which call cause disease.
Pollution
The preseDce ofcontamiDants in soil, water, or the atrDosphere due to discharge ofrdaste streams or othe! materials,
Pyrolysis
lrocess ofbrcaking down combustible Mstes a! high tempeBture in the absence ofoxygen.
RecycliDg
Process ofsepamtiEg outvatious useful material from waste stleam and processing it to make it suitable for reuse o! Ea1lufactu og of products which may or Eay Dor be similarto the origitral product_
Refuse
It is ofteD interchangeably used for solid wastes.
Reftse derived fuel
Solid wastes remaining afler removai ofrecyclable and Don-combustible materials- It is used for enetgl- recovery from wastes.
Reuse
Use ofwaste material orproduct tnore than once,
Sanitary laodfill
It is refenedto anengineered iaodfiil used fordisposal ofsolid wastes thar eDsures protecrio0 ofbu.mao bealth aDd €D!iroDoeDt.
Screenitrg Shr€dding
Method used for seg:egatirg solid wastes into different size categories. Process used for convertitrg iarge size particles into smaller pieces.
Source reduction
The proc€ss ofreducing quaotiqv ofwastes at the source by adoptiog
suitable measures. Sou rce
leparation
Separatiotr of differetrt cordpoDeDt ofwastes at the soutce of generatioD
storingthem in separate containers. Process of traDsfering the wastes fro!1 colieclion vehicles to larger sized vehicles for transportation to the dispos.l site. A faciiity where collected wastes is temporarily deposited afld then loaded into large size vehicle for transportatiotr to the disposal site. Process of carryhg wastes fiom transier station lo the disposal sites. and
1Y!Dsler ofr{!stes
TiaDsfer
station
:
of
:
TraDsportatiotr
I r I I
r I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
Appendix.ll6lossadt
1E3
Yadore Loac
The zone between thc ground surface and the water table.
Volatile solids
The fraction oforgadc solids tbat catr be released as gas wheD orgaoic Eatbrial is burnt in a lcuffle firmace at 550oC.
voluDe rcduction
The process used to decrease the voluEe
of*?ste io order to conserve
the space occupi€d duritrg its disposal. Waste
strerE
Wrste
trrEsforBation Site reBedistiotr
The wasle oulput ofa sowce. Theprocess ofcotrverting wastes ftom one phase to another(i.e. solid to gas). The process ofreclaiming a cotrtaminated site by physical, chemical or biological treatment.
I
I I I I I
Append.i.x-II
Conversion Factotrs Multiply
Bv
To obtaitr
Abbreyiation
acle acre
acre
4047
acfe
0.4047
Britishthermal Btu
i.05
5
Name Abbreyiation square meler m2 hectare lla Kilojoule KJ
unit
Britishthermal Bru/ft3
37
.259
uDit per cubic
Kilojoule
per
KJ/m3
cubic meter
foo!
Br;tishthermal Btu,&-ft2
23.
15 8
unit per hour
Joules per second ,/s-m2 per square meter
per square foot
Briiishthermal Btu&W'h u[it per kilowatthour British lhelmal unit per pound Britishthermal uDit per ton Cubic fool Cubic foot Cubic foot per minute Cubicyard
-vd3
Day
d
Degree Ceisius
f13
0.001
l6
0.0283
ft3
f1rlmin
per
kilowatt-hour 2.326
Btl,totr
kilojoules
0.0004719 0.7 646
86400 plus 273
Kilojoules per kiloglam Kilojoules per kilogram
eit
KJ/
kw-h
ru&g KJ/kC
cubic meter
m3
liter
L
cubic meter per
mr/s
cubic meter s
Kelvin
0.s5s ('F-32) degree celsius
Degree
fahre
1.05 5
K
I I I I I I I I I I I I I
a
I
Awendixll\Conve6ionFacbEl 193
Foot
f
0.3048
Fe.tpermiDute fl/Ein
Galloa Gallon eallon GraiD
gal
Hon€power
hp
0.00508
8al
gaymin gr
Pouad
second
m-ls
0.003785
cubic meler
3.785
liter
L
0.0631
liters pei second
Lls
0.0648
grar:l
e
kilowatt
kw
2.6t4
m€gajoule
MJ
in
2.54
cm
itr
0.0254
centimetel meter
3.600
eegojoule
MJ N
Kilowatt-hour ktr'h PouDd
Eeters per
o.746
l{orsepower-hour hph
Idch IDch
metet
u1
(force) lbr (mass) lb,
0.4536
kilograln
ke
acre
0.1t22
grams per
gJa2
0.4536
squar em9ter kilogram per day
kg/
capita per
capita-d
kilogram per cubic meter cubic loeters
ksm,
Pourds per
per
Pounds capila pei day Pouods per
4.44E
lb/acre lb/capita-d
0.5933
lb/yd3
cubic yard MillioD galloDs Mgayd
0.043E1
per day
mrls
Per secotrd
ml Miles Miles per gallon miA Miles per gallon Ei/gal
1.609
kilometers
lilo
0.447
meters per second
rn/s
km,/L
0.425
kilometers per liter
Ouuce
oz
2E.35
gmrns
e
Pouidsper square foot
tbtftz
47.88
N/m2
Pounds per
lb/in2
5.895
ne\{tois per square metet kiioEePtons per square meter square rDeter
m2
square kilometer
ksz
square Dteter
m2
907.2
kilograd
kC
kilojoule
KJ
square inch Square foot
ft,
0.0929
Square mile Square yard
1.59U
yd2 (2000lbn)
0.8361
Ton (2000 pouDds mass)
toa
watt-hour
wh
3.60
yard
yd
0.9144
kN/m2
I I Append.ix-III
r I
T
Snlient Featwres of the Envir onrnent (Prot e c ti o ro)
Act 1986 An Act to provide lor lhe protection and improvement of environment and for matlers connected lhere [,ith: WHEREAS the decisions were taken at the United Nations Conference on the Human Environmetrt held at Stockholm in June. 1972, in '!\hich India pafticipated, to take apptopriate steps for the protection
and improvemetrt of human enviroflment;
AND WHEREAS it is coosidered necessary further to implemeDt the decisions aforesaid in so far as they relate to,the protection and improvemeDt of eDvironmelt arld the prevention of hazatds to human beings, other livitg crealures, plants and prcperty; GENERAL POWEBS OFTHE CENTRAL GOVEBNMENT Power of CentralGovernment to iake Measures to protect and
improve Environment ( I ) Subj ect to the provisiods of this Act, the Central eovernment. shall have t]re powertotake all such measures as it deeasflec€ssary or expedieDt for the purpose of protecting and improving the quality ofthe enviroDment and preventing controtling and abating
(2)
environmentai pollutioD. In pa(icular, and without prejudice to the geDerality ofthe provisions of sub-section (1), such measures tr1ay include measures with respect 10 all or any ofthe followiog matters, namely:
(i)
co-ordination of actions b!. the State covemments. officers and other authorities: ia) under this Aci, or the ruies maale thereundet, or
1
J
II IJ IJ /
J
I ) ) / /
Salient Features ol Enironment(Protection) Act,
(r)
udder any other law for the time being
1986
197
i]I force $'hich is relatable to the
objecls oI this Ac(i
(ii) (iir) (i},)
(r) ()i) (1ii) (viii)
I :
I I I I
r t I r I
(7})
planning and execution ofanation-wide programde forthe prevention, control aod abatemeDt of environmetrtal pollution; laying do\Itr standards for the quality of etrvironment in its vadous aspects; layiDg do\ n standards foi emissior or discharge ofenvironmental pollutants from various sources \,r'hatsoever: Provideil that different standards for emission or discharge may be laid dow! under this clause from differeD! souces having rcgard to the quality or composition of the emission or discharge of edviroDmeDtal pollutants from such sources; restriction ofareas itr which ary itrdustries, opemtioDs or processes or class of industriis, operations or processes shall not be carried ou1 or shall be carried out subject to certain safeguards; laying down procedures aEd safeguards for the preventior of accidents which may cause environmental pollutiod and remedial measures for such accidents; laying dounprocedEes aDd safeguards for the haDdling ofhazardous substarces; examination of such manufacturing processes, oalerials and substaDces as are likely to cause enviionmeDtal pollution; carrying out and sponsorilg iDvestigations and research relatirg to problems
of en\ ironmeDral pollutioD: inspection of any premises, plaDt. equipme[t, machinery, maDufacturing or other processes, mate als or substances add givldg, by order, ofsuch directions to such aulhorities, officers or persoDs as it may consider [ecessary to take steps for the prevetrtion, control atrd abatement of envi{onmental pollution; (ri) establishmenl or recognition of environmeatal laboratories and institutes to carry out the functions entrustedto such envirarnmeDtal laboratories and instiotes uDder this Act; (:ii) collectioD aDd dissemination of hformation iD respect of matters relating to environmedtal pollutiotr; (r.iii) preparation of manuals, codes or guides relating to the prevention. contol and abatement of eEvironmeDtal pollution; (riv) such other maners as the Central Govemmetrt deems Decessary or expedient for the purpose of securing the effective implementation ofthe provisions of this Act.
(:)
(3) The Central Go!'emme[t may, if it co$iders it flecessary o, expedient so to do for the purpose ofthis Act, by order, publish€d in the Official Gazette, constitute aD authority or autho ties by such trame or names as may be specified in the order for the purpose of exercising and performing such ofthe powers aDd functions (includilg the power !o issue directions under section 5) ofthe Central GoverDment utrder this Act and foi taking measures with lespect to slrch ofthe nxatt€rs referred to in sub-section (2) as may be mentioned in the order aDd subjectto the supervisiotr andcontrol ofthe Central Goverrrment aadthe provisions ofsuch order, such authoritv or authorities may exercise ard polvers or perforB the funcliors or take the measures so mentioned in the order as if such authority or authoriti€s had been €mpowered by this Act to exercise those powers or perform those functioDs or take such measures.
r
1*
ATextbook of Solidwastes Managenent
Appoinment ot Otricers and their Powers and Functions (1) Without projudice to the provisions of sub-section (3) of section 3, the Central GoverEment may appoi.Dt oflicers with such desigDation as it thinks fit for the purposes ofthis Act aDd may entrust to them such ofthe powers and futrctiots uDder rhis Acl as ir may deem fit. (2) The officers appointed under sub-s€ction (1) shall be subject to tLe general control and directioo of th; Central GovertrEent or, if so directed ;v that Gov€rnment, also ofthe aut-hority or authorities, if any, cotrstituted unde"r subsection (3) of sectioE 3 or ofany other authority or officer. Power to Give Directions Notwithstanding a[ything contaifled in any other law Lut subject to the provisions of this Act. the Central Govemment may, in the exercise of its powe$ aDat pelforoatrce of its functions under this Act, issue ditectiotrs itr qritiEt to any perso;, officer or any authority and such percon, officer or autlority shall be bound to comply with sucb directions.s
Eiplatration: For the avoidance of doubts. jt is hereby d€clared that rhe power to
issue directions under this section ircludes the power to direct: (a) the closure. prohibition or regulatiotr ofany industry, operation o, process; or (6) stoppage or regulation ofthe supply of electricity or water or atry other service.
Rules to Regulate Envi.onmenial Pollution (1) The Centtal Govemment 6ay, by notification iD the Official Gazette, make rules in respect of all or any of the matte$ referred to itr section 3. (2) Itr particular, atrd wirhout prejudice to the getrerality ofthe foregoing power, such rules may provide for all or any ofthe followitrg matte$, namely:
(d)
(r)
(c) (d) (e) LO
the standards ofquality ofair, water or soil for various areas aDd purposes;a
the maximum allowable limits of concentmtion of various enviion ental pollulants (including troise) for diff€rent areas; the procedures aDd safeguards for the handlitrg of hazardous substances;t the prohibitiotr and restrictions on the handling of hazardous substances in different areas;6 the prohibition and rest ction on lhe location ofitrdusrries and tle carryitrg oD process and operatioDs in differenl areas;? the procedures atrd safeguards fo. the prevention of accidetrts which may cause environmental pollutioD and for providing for remedial measures for such accidents,3
PREVENTION, CONTROL, AND ABATEMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION
Persons ca.rying on tndugtry Operation, etc., not to allow emission o, Discharge of Environmental pollutanlg in excess ot the Standards No person carrying on any industry, operation or process shall discharge or emit or permit to be discharged or emitted any environmental pollutants in excess of such siandards as may be prescribed-e
I I I I I I I I I I I I
I I I I
a a a
I
Saliefi Faatures of EnvimnnentlPrcbcnan) Act,
1985
199
P.r3ons Handling Hazardous Subaiances to Comply with Procedural Ssteguards No persotr shall hatrdle or cause to be handled aoy hazardous substance except in accordatrc€ with such proceduie and after complying with such safeguards as may be presc!ibed.lo Furnlahing ol lnlormEtion lo Auihorities ard Agencies in Certain Ca9e9 (1) where the discharge ofany eDviroomeDtal pollutant iD excess ofthe prescribed standards occurs or is apprehended to occua due to any accidetrt or othea ulforeseen act or event, tle'person respoDsible for such discharge and the persoD in charge oflhe place at which such discharge occurs or is apprehended to occur shall be boutrd to prcveit or mitigale the enviroItmenial pollution caused as a result of
such discharge
ald shall also forthwith:
(a) iltiftale the fact of such
occurrence or applehension of such occurrence;
aDd
(b)
be bound. ifcaued upo!, to rellder all assistalce, to such authorities or agencies
as may be prescribed.rr
(2)
On receipt of informatio[ with respect to the fact o! apprehension on any occurence of the dature referred to sub-sectiofl (1), whether through ifltioatiotr uDder that sub-sectiotr or otherwise, ttre authorities or ageDcies referred to in subsection (l) shall, as early as placticable, carse such rQoedial aleasures to be taketr as Decessary to prevent or mitigate the eavironmeDtal pollutioD.
i!
(3) Tle expenses, if a!y, iocur€d by any authority or ageocy with respect to the rcEedial measures r€fered to itr sub-section (2), together with irterest (at such reasodable rate as the Govemmeot may, by order, fix) from the date whell a demand for the expetrses is made udtil it is paid, may be recovered by such autlority or agency ftom the pe$oD cooccrDed as alleals oi lard revenue or of public demaDd.
o, Entry and lnspectlon Subject to the provisiotrs ofthis sectioE! atry person eEpowered bythe CeDtral Govemmetrt in this behalfl2 shall have a right to eDter, at all reasonable times \r.itb such assislatrce as he considers lecessary, aDy place:
Povvers
(l)
(a) for
(r) (c)
the purpose ofperformitrg atry ofthe functioas ofthe Central Govemment entrusted to him; for the purpose of deterEining wh€ther aDd if so in rxhat maDner, aDy such firnctions are to be performed or whether any provisions of ihis Act or the rules Eade tlereunder oratry notice, order, directioD or authorisation served, Eade, give! or gralt€d under this Act is being or has been complied with; for the purpose of examinitrg atrd testitrg atry equipBeDt, iDdustrial plant, record, retister, doc[metrt or a[y ottre! aaterial object or for conducting a search of atry building in which he has reason to believe thal an offence unde! this Act or the rules made thereunder has been or is being or is about to be comruitted and for seizing any such equipment, iDdustrial plant, record,
l-
mO
A Texbook of Solid Wastes Managenent
jf it reeister. document or other material objecl he has reason 10 belie\e lhal this uDder putrisbable atr offeDce -i'-ir-iJ *,a.".. of the comaissiotr of prevent Aci ot the rules made thereulder or that such seizure is Decessarr_ to or Elitigale en\ ironEental pollutioo aDy (2\ E\erv DersoD carryiDg oD an] indusry. operation or process ofbandlitrg tazaidou, subslance stitl be bould to render all assistance to tbe person empo*ereo out the functions iiii" C"n,."f Co*rnnent undet sub'section (1) for carrying cause or reasotrable rxithout atry do so fails to if he uid.. th"t .ob-.".tioo aod this Act under atr offeDce excuse, he shall be guilty of tbe Ceolral (3) Ifan\ Der"on , ilfujli delals or obstrucls any persons eDpo\rered b) -C*i.ir."irra* he shall tunclions performance ofhis (l) in lhe tiru-se;tio! be guilly of an offence uoder this Act. Ihe (4) iiJir""it.r' oftbe Code of criminal Procedure. I973 or' in relatioo to lbe io force is nol tbat Code whlch i.ur"'ot:aomu *a Kashmir. or atr area in so far area 5hall Srale or io thal r.."i.ior. of .o" correspoodiDg law i-D force Io appl) as lbey section l. -"r u.. "ooti to ao)'"earch or seizures under lhis sectionuDdet issued i"t"* .;de uDder lbe authority of a warranl ot ""r-*"ril "i Code or as the case Ea) be. under lhe correspotrdiDg pro\isioD the 94 of 'aid
tie
said law.
fherewith Power toTake Sample and Proceduro to be Followed In Connection (1) The Central GovemmeDt or any officer empowered b].ir in-this beh-a]fr1,:?att \laler' soll or have power to take, fo! the purPose of analysis samples of ait' other substance from any factory, premises or other place iD such Elanner as may be Prescribed.ll
rlr
Theresuhofanlaoallsi'ofasamPletakeDundersub-section(l)shallD-orbe in any legal proceedilg uDless tbe provisions of subuaroit.;Ut" ,n
"iid.n.. (4) are complied \vith sectioDs (3) and
to it . pt*isions of sub-section (4), the person taking the sample under sub-secrion (1) shall: (a) sen'e on the occupier or his agent or persod in charge of 'he place' a notice'it have then and there, in such form as !1ay be prescribed, ofhis iDientiod to so anal!'sed; for il; in the iresence of the occupier ofhis agent or person' collect a samPle anaiysis; tft" sample !o be Placed in a container or conlainers which shall be i.r ' carie marked and sealed and ibail also be signed both by the persoE taking the sample and the occupier or hls agenl or persoo: rd) sendu'hhouldela).thecoDlainelorlhecontainerslolhelaboraloD eslablished or recognised 5) rhe Ceolral Govemment uDder seclion l2' (4) When a sample is taken for analysis under sub_section (1) and the Person laking ihe sample ;rves on the occupiea or his agent oi persol, a notice uDder ciause (a) of sub-section (3). then': (a) in a case where the occupier. his agent or person wilfull) -absents. hlmself' ' ' ihe person taking the sample shall collecl the sample for anal) sis lo be placed
(:) Soij."t
I I I
I
I
I I
I
!
I
Act' salent Features of Enl/lronmenllProloctionl
in
a coniainer
i",igo"aiv
1986
2o1
sealed and shall also ol contahers Y/hich shall be marked atrd tlt ptt"on takiag tbe samole and
{6)inacasewheretheoccuplelo,iJ"g.o.orpersotr.preseDlatth€.timeof or conlalDers ' "' illlg tt. ru.ptt'efu ses to sigD the marked and sealed coDtaioer (3)- the oarked aod ofthe
samDle as
requirto
*ot"i"*t
lc) ofsub_s'clioE
;:#;;;i;;;;;;:""rainerssbailbesigledb)fiePersonrakinsrh-esampres' bv rhe Person or codtainers shall be sent without delav' ;;;1;;;;it"t ot recoglised established i"totutoty takiag ihe sadPle for aaalysls to tn"
ADaiyst appointed ald sucl petsoa suatt inform rle GovemoleDl absence of the wi!tull tbe iz *'iti'g' about thtl"'e may be' his refusal to sigo the occupier ot his agetrt ot p"ttoo' oi' "t cootaidor or conta&ers'
rtnder seclion 12
H::U;ilil;""ti"'
i'
LaboratorieB Environmenlal -'itjio" a*", O""ernmentrs may' by notification
(4,
(r,
i!
the omcial cazette':
Iaboratories: establish ooe or more en\iroDmenlal iEstitutes as eDvironmeDial laboratories or recognise ooe or more laboratotles io utr eDvironmental laboratory uoder this to carr) out the iuo"t'oot tot'u""d
(2) The CedEat
in the Otrlcial Gazette' make rules Govemmetrt day' by trotificatior
sPecifYing:
environmenlal laboratory:l lr) the funclions 'r;;;;' ofthe samples or alr' submissrnn 1o the said laborarorv of the i"' i;; .i; waler.soilorothersubslaDceloranalysisortesls.lhe'folmoftbelabolatory *rii ii.t."" ""i ttt Iees pay'hle for such reoon:rB
..)suchothelmaltelsasmayDelrecessaryolexpedienttoenablethatlaboratory to carry oul its functions'
Governmgnt AnalYsis
apPoinr or re'ognrse ma) b) notificaliotr in tbe ofllcialGazene Govertrment the Drescribed oualificarionsr" lo be sucb DersoDs as il Ibio\s Iit aD'l havlng
il'" i."""-, i"'...."1
il;,fi,;;;;,;
fi;*
"ti"_11't::|";lTX,fi".i,X[i,l#i';il]llJ,,i:::';X'.Tiii: tz
sent for analysis to any envlroDmetrIal secrion tl ) of sectioD 12'
Repofis ol Government AnalYsis be used signeil by a Girvemmeut.aaal'vs1 may Any documenl purporling to be a report rhis Act' I'i",J.r*'"iin.'r""s itated rberein in anv proceeding under Provisions ot the Act and the Rules' Orders Penalty for Contravenlion of ihe and Directions
rl
i
wt'o"u",,u,r,'o ""'41 I't- 11:""'J",:"fi or the rules made or orders or ol
::.n ,";; i"t;; "' iii"i ."r:.-"tu
'
::;',#J*J"::f
lilil::t#l:l
for a relm enrion' be puni:hable $ ith imprisonment rupees' iakh one to '"ntra\ nve years uith fine which ma) extend
2n2 Alexbook ofsotd
Westes
Maragehent
or with both, atrd itr case the failue or coatravention conthues, with addilioial fioe which may extend to frve thousand rupee, fo, *"ry auy aurire *ii"il failure or cotrrmventio! coltiaues after thi convictioa ioi or cotrttaventioo. (2) Ifthe failure or coDtraveDtioD lefened !o itr sub-section (1.) coltilues beyord a period of one year after the date ofconviclior, t" on*a"i .iuir Jp*ii"ur. -wrrb imprisonneEt for a rerm which Bay extenal ,o y."ii. '-.'_
A;;ffJ;;;*" "*t
".r.o
Oftences by Companieg (1) Where aly ofetrce under this Act has b€en coElritted by a corDpatry, every persoD who, at the tiee lbe offence was coomitted, was directly il cf"rg" of aad was responsible to, the company for the conducr l.he t'".i""* ii,n" company._as well as rhe colopany, shall be deerned "fguilty of Ae offeoce to be aDd shall be liabte to be proceeded againsl aDa purislea aiorjiagiyf ' Provided that Dothing contaitred iB tbis sub-sectio! shall reoder aDv such person liabte to any punishmeDr provided iD this,Lct, ifte proves itai;;;tr""." was committed without his krowledge or that he exercisid all d;li[;;; rc prevent rhe commissio! of such offeDce.
(2) Notwithstandilg atr,lhing conraired in sub-sectio! (t), where a! offeDce !trder rhis Acr has.been cornEitred by a corDpaay aDA lt is piovea tUi oe oifeiclfas DeeD coEmlfted with the coflsent Or cotrrivaDce of, Or iS attributable tO aly Deglect on the part o{ aDy dtector, lraaager, sectetary or other office, ofthe compaEy, such directott managerr secretary or otbea o'fficer shall atso deeoea to be guitty ofrhat offence atrd shalt be liabl;to t" pro"."a"a ug"i*i*a pioiJi"a accordingly.
Explanation-For tbe purpose of this section: lo) _comlan) mears aD) body co4,orale aDd ilcludes a firm or other associatrotr ofhdividuals: (r) "dir€ctor,,, in relatioa to a furE, means a parttrer in the fiftr. Ollences by Government departmentg (1) Where an offence uDdet this Act has beetr commilled by aay Departmetrt of Govemmeot. Head of tbe DeparteeDr suatt ue aeeoea io'ue ,lhe ;;til;;io. onence and shall be liable to be proceeded agai.Esl ard punished ui"o.ili"f, provided fiar qotbiDg cooraioed i! rhis seciior shall render su"t ff."J Departmenr liable to aayputrisbment if he proves ttat tne offence i;;;;il"d"?ii. $ithout his knowledge or that he exercise all due dilig.".. ,;;;;;; ;;;;;i:;, of such offence. (2) NotwithstandiDg adythiDg co4tained in sub_sectioD (l), where an offence uador hI been comnined by a D€panmetrr or c"".*r.", oil, a urar rne orrence Das beeD comlnined wiih the consent or comivaace oi, or is atlrjburable ro an\ neglecr on tbe pafl of. om"... o,1., itaD ii. H.J Depanmenr. such officer shalt al;o be deemed "oy to hj "irt. eJi,y ,i"i
:ll:1"
*i'iij.
shall be Iiable to be proceeded agaiEst anal punishea aicorainet.r,_ "f
"ii.#';a
I I I I I I I I I I
r
I I I I I
1 1
1
I
Selieht F€atut6 ol Ehimnmont(Protectionl Acr'
1985
N
HISCELLANEOUS Protection ol ActionTaken In Good Falth shall lie agaiDst the GovtTT:',:l:y No sui! prosecution or othet Iegal Proceeding constituted utrder this .ti".t'"1_",1* employee of the Governmeni or aa1 authority ofsucb authorily i! respect ol an)'tnrag i.i", -r-r.rt*. "dicer or other enPlovee iiiJ rJ"* ".-""aed to be dose iE go;d faith io pursuance ofthis Aot ot the rules *"d" o, ord"r, or dir€ctiotrs issued theleunder'
Cognizancg oI OflencBa this Act €xoePt otr a ooEPlaiat No-"ou.t shutl tute cognizance of any offelce utrder made by: authorised in this behalf by (d) the Central Govemaetrl or any authority or ofticer that Govemaetrt,2o or days iD lhe maoler (r) "* *.." *1" has given noticc of not less than sixry a conplaist' 10 to Eake irreDtioo lii.Lri.l. "Iti. ,u.'-*ed offeoce and of his aforesaid' as authorised I;: ;;; ;";.;;;r or rhe aurhotitv or oflicer
lnlormatlon, R6Port3 or Rcturna fuociioo uader this Act' &onr time to The Central Govemoeut may, h relatio! to its od"",, st'te Gou"runetrt or oth"' altho'itv to firmish toandit ':;'""':;;;;";;;;oo. oi oni"' a,,v reDorts' retu.s statistics' accou'rs .,.n'pt"oo' oflicer' srare Go'emment or other authoiitv sball be boutrd to do so. Constltutsd UndGr Sccllon Itlembers, Officsrs and EmPloysr! of thr Aulhorlty 3 to be Public Servants s€ction 3 aod all offioels e,iiat" .".t"r. of the authority, coostitutetl' if ady' u'ldet in Pu$uaoce such authority whe! actilg or purPortiog ro act
:Tloff;::fi:i;il;''iiv h;;iffi;;;;
;;;;;; .--;l;** H;":;:;i"[J;;j;
of
issued thercunder a.'-i tr' rut" 'ua" or or
Bar ol Jutisdictlon
Nocivilcou(shallhavejudsdictioDtoetrteltainalysuitolproceeditrgid'esPeclof issued bv the central Govemoenr or ;;;;;;;;,'*,1";,akio or ortler or rlirection of any Povrer conferred by or in relalion to o, officer itr
]ii,l l!,
Pursuance uurloriw Act this utrder functions its or his
Powers to Oelegate wirh^nrnreiudicetolheDrovisioosofsub-section(3)ofsection3,theCeDttalG-overD$ent subject to sirch coaditioas and ilr"r"r Gazette, ::Y";';:f;";J;ii" 'lelesare'such of its powers and functions il;1;;i";;;;;;;.'specified in the notificatioos' atr authority uDder sub-sectioD (3) of under this Ac! lexcept the povrers to constitute decessarv or exPedietrt' ,ules uader sectioo 251 as it Eav deem ;;;il;;;;;"i: om".t, state Govemmeot or other authority' io
-y
2il
ATexhook of Solid Wastes Menagement
Etfect ot Other Laws (1) Subject to the provisiotrs of sub-sectioB (2), the Provisions ofthis Act aad the rules or orclers marle thereitr shall have effect rot\ .ithstalldhg atr)'thing ilrcodsisteDt therewith codaiDed in any eBactmeEt other thatr this Act (2) Wtrere any act or omissiotr coDstitutes an offence puDishable under tbis Act and also undei any ottrer Act theo the offeBder found guilfy ofsuch offence shall be liabie to be putrished utrder the other Act atrd Dot under this Act' Power to Make Rule6 (1) The Cedtral GovemEeBl may, by [otificatiotr in the Ofiicial Gazette, make rules for carrying out the purposes of this Act. (2) In pa(iculai, and without ptejudice to the generality of the foregoing Power, such rules aoay provide for all or a]]y ofthe follo\T ing matlers, tramely:
(a)
the standards in €xcess ofwhich etrviroDmeDtal Pollulatrts shall notbe discharged
or emitted under seclioo 7;rr (r) the procedure iD accoldaBce with and the safeguards i! comPiiadce with whi;h hazardous substances shall be handled or caused to be handled under seciion 8;22 (c) the authorities ol ageDcies to which intimatioD ofthe fact of occurredce or appr€hettsioD of occuEence of the discbarge of aDy enlironmeDtal pollutatrt inixcess ofthe prescribed sta[dards shall be giveD and to whom all assistance shall be bound io be rendered ulder sub_section (1) of sectiotl 9;2r (d) th. a"ooat ia which samPles of air, water, soil or other substance fo-r the purpose ofanalysis shall be taketr ulrder sub-section (1) of section 11;2r (e) ile form itr which notice of iDtetrtion to have a sample analysed shall be served under clause (a) of sub sectioD (3) of section 11;15 (D the fimctioN ofthe environoental laboratories,25 the procedure for tbe submission to such labotatories of samPles of air, water, soil aod other substaDces fol aDalysis or !est;27 the form of laboratory rcpofi: the fees payable for such r€port aDat othel matters to etrable such laboratories to carry out thei fiDctioDs under sub-sectioD (2) of section 12; ADalyst aPPoinled or recogaised fot the (g) '- the qualificatioDs of Govemment porpo.. of analysis of samPles of air, water, soil or othei substances under section l3i3 (r) the maDtrer i! which Dotice ofthe offeace and ofthe ifltentioD to mal'j a cofiplaitrt to the Central GovemmeDt shall be given under ciause (b) ofseclion 19;?e
(i)
the authority of officer to whod any ,epoits, leturns, stalistics, accounts and other infomalion shall be furDished under section 20; U) afly other Eatter which is required to be, or EIay be, prescribed'
Rules made under thls Act lo be laid belore Parliamenl Every rule made under this Act shall be laid, as sooD as may be aflff it is made' before each Hose of Parliametrt. while it is itr sessioD, for a total period ofthirty days \T hich may be comprised itr one session oa in two or more successive sessions, and if, before
T
I I
I
I !
I
I
I
Seti e nt Fe atu tss ot Envi rcn me 1t \P
rot49!!i!1y-:y
ortre--sessi* -T",1,"j:,J,j:t',:J'".t"H:::il:T';:';i:""':'Jn'il::: aforesaid. both Houses as'ee i t*lt Oa\e effecr oDly in made' t: i#'.i",ii***;, asree that lbe rule should not be tuy b"t so' hoEever' that any such tlt sich modified forE or be of no esect' "' """ to e validiry ofan)ahilg previously mortificatiotr or anDulEent sUall le 'T tlo'rt Ptejudice done uDdet that rule. vide Noliiicatioo rlt came ioto force io the whole of lDdia ou 19th NoveEber, 1986 No. 525 daied India of in tle Gazette No. G.S.R. 1198(E) dated l2-11-86 Published
rhe expiry
12-11-86.
:rhe ceorrat covern,re,r has delee:t.g" t.r#.T. -Act to the stale Govemments of Andhfl predesh. Mizoram. orissa. Rajasthan. Madhya illi*o;ii*J".r,, r"maralca. Kerala.
T:,j"..:Jl#:.i;:::Ttilt#;
qr!:1iiti"ni:*ti*:.:",j1;,"x;'JT:[:::'T]:::iT'T::'#,1 rv
' - - provrsrons revoLe suco u<'Egd'u! wr in,rhe the ,'roui"ioo, of tttiioo 5 of Ihe Acl'.if invoke "l,'l'-lil"Govemmeois or ma) itself i."i")'"'..*'t. pur 5 course of actioa is necessary ro ""tr. .i,1. Centtal Covemment sucl' of Jutta tO-z'gg puUlished in-Gazefle No 54 ""tti", iiterest. (Notilication No. S O I52 ttr Govemmetrts sIale il'J."-.'i",.i.'ri... ,owers bave been delegared to th; following 14-4-E8
NotificatioD No s 0 38e (E) dated *:""ll,il: Tfi:"fifii Unar rradesh videI44'R8: ,riTi.l.l i.,t" c","ne No 205 dared I7-5-88 published iD fie Gazene ir""'i-^ir." 'ii. N,ificarion No S o 488{E' dated No 255 dated 17'5-88; iiolNo'so ESi (E- dated 22-9- 88; published Goa atral JaDmu & KashEir
!ide Notlllcal
in rhe Gazette No. ?49 dated 22'9 Et
published ia the
;":"r;;;;il.r;;ir',,ide Nodficado! N s o 408 (E) dated 6-6-Ee; GazeBe No 319 daled 6-6'89; i,, thc Gazene No' id;; il;; i,#;;;o' ir" s o 41s (E) dated 25'7 -st published 414 dated 25-1-91.
Rules' 1986 rFor issuing ditections see r'4 of ltoviroEaeDt (?rotectiod) and Sch€dules lhereto' aSee r. 3 of Environmedt (Protection) Rules' 1986 i.schedulelliststhestao.laldsfor€ldissiotroldischargeofetr..,konmentalpollutaats their maximum allowable liniits frosr the inalustries, prot"t"t o' Jptiut;oot "nd of coDcentration; for tlischarse of effluents and their maxiauo
,, ;;"";;ii;i";;;Deral
staDdards
limits of conceotra!ioo allowable'
iii,Scledulellllistsambieotairqualitystandardsi.drespectofDoiseaoditsmaxidum _rrt,t allowable limirs;and elc' from motor "a'"i"d"i. iv standards for eEission of smoke' vapour Jlili.].i ""a ."'.i.,, allo$able limits of rheir emission' and ssee r. 13 of Environment (Protectioa) Rules 1986' Rules' 1989; Wastes (Manag€ment and Handling)
i.
Hazaralous
ffi
ATextoook ol Sotd Wast66 Managemanl
ii. iii.
MaDufactEre, Storage add lmport of Ilazardous CheEicals Rules, 1989; aad Rules for the Matrufacture, Use, I&port, Export aDd Storage ofHMaldous Miclo organisms, Gedetically-engitreered orgaoisms or Cells.
6Rule 13 TSee
suPRA.
r. 5 of EDvironEent (Protection) Rules, 1986.
3see
r. 12 ofEnvironmetrl (Protection) Rules atrd Schedule 11, and relevaDt Provisious of Hazardous wastes (ManageBent and Handling) Rules, Manufactule, StoBge and IElport of Hazardous CheEicals Rules aad Rules for the Manufacture, Use, IEPort Expoi and Storage ofhazardous Miclo-organisds, Genetically Engineered OrgaEisEs or Cells. esee r. 3 loSee
i. ii. iii.
of Envirotrment (Protectiotr) Rules, 14t6 atrd Schedule I.
r. 13 of Environrnetrt (Protection) Rules,
1986 atrd
llazardous Wastes (MatrageEent and Hatrdlitrg) Rules, 19891 Manufacture, Storage atrd hTlporl of Hazardous Cheaicals Rules, 1989; and Rules for the Matrufacture, Use ImPon, ExPon and Storage ofHazardous Micro organisms, Genetically Eogheered organisrns or Cells.
llFor authorities or agencies se€ r. 12 of EnvirotrmeEt (Protection) Rules, 1986
atrd
Schedule t2The Central Go1t. has eEpowered 60 persotrs listed io the Tabie (p. 251) vide S.O. t3 (E) published in the Cazette ofLldia No. 66 dated l6-2'87 aDd S.O. 63 (E) published
in the Gazette oflEdia No.42 dated
it-l-E8.
lrID excercise of powers cooferred utrder sub-section (i) of section 1l the CentBl covemtdetrt has empowered 60 officers listed in the Table (p 254) vide S O. 84 (E) published itr the Gazefte No. 66 dated 16-2-87 atrd S.O. 62(E) publisbed in the Gazctte No.42 dated 18-l-88. I4For procedure
for takiDg saoples
see
r. 6 of Environment (Protectiotr) Rules, 1986,
rsTbe Central Govemmeni has delegated ils po\*ers uader clause (b) of sub-section
(i)
of sectioD 12 and section 13 ofthe Act to th€ Central Pollution Contol Board vide Notification No. S.O. 145 (E) dat d 2l-2-91 publishod iE th. Gazette No. 12t da'.rd 27-2-91. l6The list of laboratories/rtrstitutes recoSlised as environmetltal laboratories: aDd the pe.sons recogpised as Gol't. AMlysts is giveu in the table (p. 223). r?See
r. 9 of EnvironmeDt (Protection) Rules, 19E6.
leSee
r. 8 of Enviroament (Protectio!) Rules, 19t6.
llFor qualifications of Govt. ADalyst see r. 10 ol EnviroElteut (Protectiotr) 1985.
Rules,
Salent F.aaneo ol
EnibnnentlPoleltonl Ad, 19,6 2o7
ofpowers confered utrder clause (a) ofsecaio! 19, rhe cetrtral_Govemmert has authorised the ofrcers arld authotilies listed ia the Talle G.238) vide S.O. 394 (E) published in the Gazette No. 1t5 dated i64-t7, s.o. 237(E) published in the Gazette No. 171 dated 29-3-89 and s.O. 656(E) dated 21-t-t9 published itr the Gazette No. 519 daled 21-8-89. 20In exercise
2lsee foottroto 2 otr Page 213. 22see
footnote 3 otr Page 213.
asee footnote I onPag€ 214, 2asee r.6
ofE[virotrmetrt (Protection) Rules, 19t6.
:5see r. 7
ofEtrviro[metrt (?rotection) Rules, 19E6.
26See
r.9 ofEavironment (Protectiotr) Rules, 1986 procedure for subnnissioD of saoples to labomto es a[d the form of Iaboratory see r. 8 ofEnvironment (ProlectioD) Rules, 1986.
27For the
repo
ofEflviroDE]etrt (Protectiou) Rules, 19t6'
23see
r.
2esee
r. 1I of
IO
Eivtoooetrt (protection)
Rules, 19t6.
il
Append.ix-IV
of Hozard.oas and Toxic Cheru,icals
List
Tte Hazardous Wastes (Matragemetrl& Hatrdlilg) Rules, 19t9 have beer laid dowD by lbe Midstry ofEEviroE&etrt aDd Fotasl. Govemmeot of lDdia. The followirg cheBicals have beetr declared itrthese Rules, as hazardous. None of the Chenical
I 2
Ac.torc Cyaaohydride
3
4
Ac.tylc Ctlorid. Acetylere (EthFe)
5
Acrolein (2-Propenal)
8
A]dicrrb Al&iD
9
aryl
Phthalat
10
AIyl Alcohol
1l t2
Alylaoine
13
A!:ioodiphenyl4
Alpha Naphthyl Thiourca
(ANTI,
t4 i5
l6 17 18 19
AE]-Boniun Nitates i! fenilizas A.EmouiuE Sulfamale
20 21
Aniline
22 23 24 25
Anisidine-p
T
I I
I
I
6 7
I I I I I I
ArtiEony ald Codpourds Antimony Hydride (Stibine) Arseaic Hydride (ArsiDe)
List ol Hezadous endToxb Chemicals
s No. Nade of the Chenical 26 ArseEic ?eotoxide, Ars€dc (v) Ac14 ald SaLs
27
Anenic Tnoxide' Alsedious GO Acids and Salts
28
AziDophos'Ilhyl
29 30
Azinophos'Methyl
31
32 33
Bellzidim
31
Beuzidhe Salts
l5 Berzoyl Chlonde Berzoyl Peroxid€
36 31
i8 39
Belryl Cbloride Berz,I Cyaoide
40
ReNlhuE iPowdets Compouad)
41
giobeoYl
42
2-ChloroEethYD Kerone Bis i2. 4. 6-TrinilrophFile) Amjne Bis i2, Cbroroethyle sulPt'ide) Bis ( Chloromethyu erher
43 15 46
B;
I
5t
Bis Iterl"Bu$ Iletox)) Butaoe_Z 2 I Bls r tert-Bulvip6!xy) CJclohex?oFl Elha8e Bis-1, 2 Tribroxmphenoxy Bis pherol Boron and CoEPounds Bromine
52
Bromine PeDlafluoride
47 48 49 50
53
!t II
I I
I I
rl
54 55
Butadine Butane
56
ButanethioL Butanone_2
5l 58
59 60 61
62 63
64 65
66 67
68
69 70 71
Bdoxy Ethanol Bulyl Glycidal Etber Bui)..l Peroxy acelate,
ter
No.
S.
Nade of the Che ical
12 13 74
Capta! Captofol
75
carbofrrfa!
16 77 18 79 80
Calbotr DisuiPhide Carbon Moloxide
Carbarvl (sevin)
Cdbor TeEachloridc
81
Cellulose Nitrate Chlorats (used in exptosives)
82 83
Chlordanc Cblorf€nvirphos
E4
Chlori.Dated BeMenes
85
Chlorine
E6
Cblonine Dioxide
87
C!]orhe Oxide
88 89 90
Cblorine Trifluoridc
9l
Cb.loroacetatdehYde
9Z 93 94 95 96
CbloroaliliE 2 Chloroadlioe4
Cblorode$al Cblorid€ Chtoroacclalchloride
ChlotodiphetrYl
101
chloropox)TroPane Cb.loroeiharcI Chlorocthyl ChloroforBat€ Chlorofluorocalbons Cbloroform
102
Chloroformyl_4, MerPholiDe
103
ChloroEethaie
104 105
Cblorcm€thYl Ether cbloroBethyl Methyl Ether
106
Chlotonitobenzetre
t0'l
ChloroPreoe
9l 98 99
100
108 109
Cltorosolphotric Acid
Btrr! I Perox\ rsopropll CarboDat€ ten
110
Chlorotrinito benzene Chloroxuon
Butyl Pero4maleate, ten Bubl PeroxYPivalate, TCRT But) MnY1 Ether Buty-tr-M€icaPta!
111
tl2
Chrodiue
ColrmafrYI
C-9. Alomalic Hldrocarbotr Flaclion
114 115 116
t1l
cresots
118
Clrmidine
Buq I Peroxlisobrryrale' tert
Cadmium and Colnaounds Cadmiunr oxid€ (tunes)
Calciunc)anide
N9
and ConPounds Cobalt aad ComPounds Copper and Com?ounds
Table (contd.
onP.210)
zlo
ATextbook of Solid Wasles Marwgehent
Table (contd. S.
No.
fun
p. 209\
S.
Nane of the Chenical
165 166
119
t20
C}llophos
r61
t2t
ClEothoate Cya.orrric Fluoride
r69
r22
Cyclohexarcl
t25 t26 t27 12t t29
Cyclohexamcuc
Nade of the Che tcat Dinethylca$onyl DimethylnitosamiDe DitriEophenol, Salts
168
t71
Dinitso-o-Cresol Dioxade Dioxarhioa
172
Dioxslae
t73 \14 t73
Diphaci.noDe
t16 t11
Dsulfotoo
170
123
124
No.
CyclohexiEide CyclopentadiEetre
130
CyclopcDbne Cyclotetram€thylenetrinitramine Cyclotriethyler€ TriuiEamift
131
DDT
t32
Dicarbomodiphenyl Oxide
133 134 135
DeEletou
17E
t19 180
18t
Diphosphoramide Oc&Eethyl Dipropylene Glycolðylelher
EDdosulfa ED&in Epi.blorohydrine EPN Epox)Tropaoe, 1, 2 Elhioo Ethyl CarbaDate
131
Di-Isobutyl Peroxide Di D-Propyl Peroxydica$onate D;sec-Butyl P€roxydicarbonatc Dalifos Mazoditritophewl
t3E
Diszomethane
r39
Diberzyl Peroxydicarbomie
1.10
Diehloroaeetylene
t4l 142
Diehloroberzeoe-0 Dichlorobeazere-2
t43
Di-chloro€thaEe
144 145
Dichloroedyl Eiher Dichloropherol-2, 4
192
146
Dichtorophenol-2, 6
193
t47
Dichlorophenoxy Ac€tic Acid -2,4 (2,4-D)
I4E
Dichloropropane-
149
Dichlorosalicylic Acid, -3,
150
152
Dichlorous (DD\ry) Dicrolophos Dieldrin
200
153
DiAoxybutare
201
Fluenetil Fluoro-4, 2-HydloxfbuE-ric Acid atrd
15,+
Diethyl Peioxydicarbonare Dierhyl Glycol Didtrate Diethylele Trialrine
202
Fluoroacetic Acid and Sairs, Esters,
t36
i5l
155
156
I,
2 5
t82 183
184 185 186 187 188 189 190
E1hyl ether
191
Ethyiere Chlorohydrine Ethyleie Diamiue
t94 195 196 197 198 199
Ethyl Ethyl Ethyl Ethyl
Hexanol -2 Mercaptan Metbacrylate Nitrate
Ethylrdine Ethylene
Ethylene Dbroloide Ethylene Dichloride . Ethylene Glycol Didaate EthyleDe Oxide Ethyleozmine Ethylthiocyanate
Fensulphothior
Salts, Esrers, A-Erides
157
Diethyleneglycol Butyl Ether/ Diethyleneglycol Burl Acetate
203
Fluorcbuqdc Acid4, md Srlts, EsraE
158
Diethyleneriamine @ETA)
204
Fltrorccrororic Acid4, ad Sal6, E$ers5
1i9
Digllcodl'l Ether
160
Dihydroperoxylropane, -2, 2
205
161
Diisobuq'r-al Peroxide Dimethoate Dimethyl Phosphoraxoido cymide Acid Dimehyl Phthaiate
206
162 163 164
207
GlycoiiEite (Hydroxyacetonitiite) Guaoyl-1, 4 Nirrosamiroguaryl-1-
208
Heptachlor
I I
I I
t
I
List of Hazadous andTadc
No.
S-
S.
Nane of the Chenical
209 ?10
}laxachloro CYcloPeE eii'De HexacLlorocyclohexa$
ii;
Hexacblorodibelzo-p'Dioxil-12'
213
HexafluoroProPere Hexatrl€thylPhosphonEide ttcxalaethYl -3, 3, 6, 6' 9,9,
t{exactrlolocycloaEethaDe
3,7,8.9
2I4 2t5
-1,2'
4. s-Tetroxacyclonooalle
216 217
llE
219 120 :2 I 722
HexamethylenediaBitre H€xaae
Hexadtrosstibere, _2,2, 4, Hexaval€trt
:1,
6,5'
Chor,ius
Hydrdrne
H) draziff Nitate Hydrochlot'ic AcId
Hy&ogen Hvd@aBrcmide (HY&obrcdic Aod)
1;; H;&;er cuoride Giqui6ed G&s) 225 Hy&ogen Cyadd€ 226 ttydrogetr Fluoride 221 Hydrogen Seledide 22A Hydros.- SJlPhide 229 HYalroquinone 230 Iodine 231 lsobenzatr 232 tsodritr 233 IsoPhorooeDiisooyasate )la IsoDroDvlEther
:!s
lueroneis'n:droxF+u$aea+t'+
116 li7
Lead (inorga-oic fu$es &dusts)
Lead2,4.6'IriDl'roresorciDoxide (Lead sqThla1e)
23E
Lead Azide
239
Lepto!hos
240
Li.Ddaoe
24t 242 213
Liquified Petoleum Gas (LPG) Maleic Arhydride Matrganese & ConPoulds
245
Mercalro Benzothia\'vle Mercur,v ALT1
246
Mercury Fulminate
241 218 119 250
Mer.uD'Meihyl
251
252
Methacr]lic Anhydride
Methacryloni!ite MelbacryloYl Chloiide MethanidoPhos
Mefi anesuhhoryl Iluoride
No.
Chafiicds
211
Nane of th. Chenicot
254 Me{boxyElhsol(2-lvtcthvlcclbsivs) 255 Mcthoxy ethYl Eercunc Aoetatc 256 MethylAcrylate ?.51 MethylAlcohol 25a Methyl Adylkerore 25g Mcthyl Brodide (Bro6oBethare) 260 Mcthyl Chloride 261 MelhYI Cbloroform 262 M.thyl Cyclohexere 263 Methyl Ethyl Kctorc P€roxide 264 Methyi HYdrazbe 265 Mcthyl Isobutyl Kctotrc 266 Metnvl lsobutyl Ketore ?eroxide 267 Methyl Isocyaaate 26A MethytlsothiocYarate 269 MethYl M€rcaptirl€ 210 MethYl MethacryIaie 211 MethylParafior 272 Methyl PhosPhodc Dicblonde a73 MethYlN, 2, 4, 6._TriDiEoaniline 214 Methylene Cbloride 213 M€&vleftbis,'4,4,(2'c1 oro?oilb€) 276 MethylEichlorosilaDe 217 Mevirphos 21a MolybdenuE & Coopoulds -.. 279 N-MethvI'N.2.4GN-TeE'nitooun 2ao Naptha (CoaI Tar) 281 NaPhthyladitr€' 2 282 Nickel & ComPoutrds 2a3 NickelTetracarbodyl 244
NiEoanilire-O
285 ?86 287
Ninoaailine-P NiEochloroberzere_P
288 zE9
NitIothage
290
Nitogen.Dioxide
29t
NiEogen Oxide
292 293
Nirrogen Triflucride
294
NitophenolP
295 296
NitroproPane-i
291 298
Nitosodimethylalnine
299
OcrabromoPhenYl Oxide
NitoglyceriDe
Niaropropane_2
Table (contd.
onP.2l2\
212
ATextbook ol Solid Wast€6 Mahagei,onl
'lzble (contd.
fion P 211,
i-fr . -iii
ot,t'" ct
S-
"^i"ot
300 301
olel]rn oleylaliine
302
OO-Diethy I S-ErhylsutphonvlEcthvl Phosbhorotiioate
303
oGDiethyi S-Etbylthio!*thvl Phos'
304
irGDerhyl S-E&ioBethyl PtosPhe
305
OO-Diethyl S-IsopropyljnioEethvt Phosphorolithroatc
306
Oo-diethyl s-PtoPYlthiometbYl Phosphorodithioate
307 308 309
310
O.yamyl o^Tdisulioror Oxygetr Giquid) OxygeD
Diiuo;de
311
3t2 313 314
3r5 316
Paraoxon (DiethYl 4-NitiophetrYl Phosphare) Faraquat
Paraihion Parathion MethYt
P
is gr€eD (Bis Ac€io Hexe@e@sinito
Tenacopper) 311 318 319 320
PeDlabroEodiphenyl oxide ?entacbloro Napbthaletre
321 32.2
323
324 325 326 321
P€ntact thritol TetsaniE'ate
Perchloroethylele PerchloroEethyl MercaPtEn
328 329 330
PeEtaDone, 2.4-Methyl Phetrol
331
Phenylene p-Diamine
332
PheEylmercury Acetate
Phenyl Glycidal Ethei
333
33E
3-t9
340 341
342
345
345
Phosfolrn Phosgene (CdbonYl Chloride)
Nane of the Chenical Phospbile (Hydrogen PhosPhide) Phosphoric Acid ard Estrs Phosphoric Aci4 Bronethyl BioEo (22dimethylpropyl) Br@oethvl Ln€r PhoQhoric Acid- Bronocrhyl Bromo (z2-Djfletlylptopyl) Cbtoo€tlylEsler Phosphoric Acid, Cuolo€thyl Brono (2,2-DimethoxTlpropyl) Chtoroethvl Ester Phosporous & CoEPoulds
Phostala! Pircic Acid (2,4,6TriniEopheDol)
347
Polybronimled Biphenyl
348 349 350
PoassiuE Chlorate Prorourir (1-(3,,{-Dichlorophenvl)'
351
3-TnazeDefi ocarboxamid€) PropanesultoDe- I , 3
352
Prcpeo,-1, 2-Chloro- 1,3"Do1 Diaceiale
353
hopylene Dicbloride
354
Propytene ordde
355
Prcpyleneimire
356 um Hexaiuond.
351 358 359 360
Sele
36r 362
sodiuE Chlorate
363
364 365 366 367 368 359 370 371
SeEicarbazide Hy&ochlonde
Sodium Cyaoide Sodium Picramate Sodiunc Selenite
StF€ne, 1, 1, 2, 2-T€tachlorcethate Sulfotep Sulphur Dichloride suiphul Dioxid€ Sulphur Triond€
Sulphrric Acid Sulphoxide, 3-Chloro!ropyloctYi
372
Telulium
373
Teluritm Hexafluoride T.pp
375
Terbufos
376
Tetrabromobisphenol-A Tetrachloro, 2. 2, 5, 6, 2. 5 Cyclo-
3',17
3]5 336 337
No.
hexadiene- I. 4-Dione 378
319
Tetrachlorodibenzo-p Dioxin. 2, 7, 8 (TCDD) Tetiaethyl Lead
l.
I I I I I I I
I I I I I I I r I I I I I
I T T
I I
Listol Hezadous andToxic
L
t I I I I I I I I I
II It
T
S.
No.
3EO 181 382 3E3 3t4 385 386 3a1 388 3E9 390 391 3g2 1ej 394 395
396 391
39t 399
400 401
402 403 404
S.
Nane of,he Che'nical TetrafluoroethaDe
TcrralrethyleredisulphoEEm,
e
Tetramcthyl Lead TeEaDritrometbaae
Tha]iu:r & CoEPouds
Thiozitr Thiodyl Cbloride
No.
Chanbals 219
Ndne of th. Chenical
405
TrichloroPhenol, 2, 2' 6
406
Trichlorophe$I,2'
401 408
Triethylmise
409 410
TriEethyl Chlorosilae TridethyloploPare Phosphite
411
TriDitromiline
4, 5
Triethylenemelalriae
4t2
Tri toadsole,2,2,4'
413 414
TndtobeEz€ae
Totuidi€rc-O
4t5
Toluetre 2, 6_Diisocyanatc Traos- 1, 4-Chlorobutm€ Tri. '1 (Cvclobexvl) StaE
416
Tdnitrocresol TriniuoDhenetot€. 2, 4, 5
417
Tnnitroes.ninoL 2, 4,
418 419 420
TriDitotol me
421
Turp€Dtine Uranium & coEPounos va[adiurtr & ConPounds rr,lyl Chloride
TfPate Toluere
Toluidieu-2,4Diisosya$te
vll
Il l'
2.4"frczole
Triamino, -1, 3, 5' 2,4,6-TriuitroTribroEoPhesol, 2, 4' 6 Trichloro Acetyl Cbloride Tricbloro EthaEe Tricbloro Na9htbalen€ Trichloro (cbloromeihyl) Silane TrichloIodicblorolhetrYlsitatre Trichloroeth$e, I' l, i Tdchioroethyl Silarc T.ichloroethyteDe TrichtoroBetbarcsdpheryl Chloride
423
424 425 426 421 424 429
6
Trhitobesoic Acid
6
(St)"hic AciO
Triotthoc.essyl Phosphale TriDhenYliD
.
Cbloiidc
VnylFiuoride Xylene
xytdhe Zinc & ClEPouds ziconiuD & ComPounds
Saarce: MOEI.
I I References I. 2.
ofDevelopnent Ploiects Asian ADB.1991. Guidelines fot Social Analvsis De!elo.Eert B.nk, Madla, Philippires hdidz s"ua **,e Marase"oesl Pla! for L'diaoMegacities'
ii.- 'illirg.
.I 3.
Environnental Protection' l9(2\: 1999 '
Del eloDrtrmr of Software 'il) ^i". nii,osst .a * r*ircnnehtot chattense'lo' the Nei Mittennnd 'iZ7i^',ii)n"i',' na" nkmohona cenne'NewDeLhi on 25-2TNovenber for E,vironf,ellal Managemmt'
1999.
4.
5.
6.
*a *aslfall. M' 1988 Selectio' ofHazardous wasle i*o-r"l"jrft.-"i'. u'i'g M,rhi-attribure Tteor) and Fuzzv Se( Analvsis' i1-o"uonnr.,
C.
t"*,,t otta'iro"nenat Slrrt'i l8l I ): 69_8{ vater a tEi. Gsa. srcaora a"thodsfor the tuanination af
wa'tevater'
Aeerica! PubIic Health Association' NY' entat Tsrru.Vsl-.')""",t B""k al ASrM standords-watet and Ewnon
'i""t
r"t.o.va. tOo Axoerrcan Sociery for Testing andolMarerjals al iiili."6nz.. s',,a*a ,e netaod tot detentaalion conpoiiion 7. '""ii"2a .**,pa *mvaJ,e' Americ'tr soci€! for Testing arra Matedais' ASTM '""r.it, Method D 5231-92' sttuction ond Mannotins ofsanitdrv'Landlitt toh" t Sotrs, NY."r, wilev &".1;0.
s. ;"*ll;n.l;0. a"', sa cansttuc on ond voano'iry olsan arv randflt' lobn Wile,t & Soos, NY -"-*".Ii. ls-t. C--a\arc- bdrotas.zrid edn Mccraw-Hill NY 10. Soits. En|irondentat Science Technotost' 11. s"ili, i. 1gss.,erd- L stine oJ t2.
22(121, PP ll97-1399. L. rsel.l,.i,rratorSstens Selecuon and D?rr8z' var NosEald
13.
Reilhold. NY. -s"-,. U. u.
14.
I5.
i-".*.'c
1988 Lawaer?t RadrcaLlne Wasle Regula!;on: Scieace' Patnls aad r ea'. Le\4s tublisbers ChelseaVi'h' ar.,"tf"Jl1. W. 'o.n Eavnonnehtal Inpac' As'e'5hent l\4cGra$-H:ll i.i*u*ira,t""., ci"lt flgineel-l.os seres' Mccraq'HiI tn( ' N/' -*"Ji".-i. i.al lsso. rr, /so i a00a Handbook ' A ptocticot conprehensite *,ae rc tSO t,A\asrc.dard: tnDlene'Q oa aad eawakacatal daaageneat
i.,,"- -.,t*, -
CLEM l,Iomarion ser\ rce'
Jarfax \ irgiDta'
I I I I I I I I I I I
I
I
I
I
I
Relerences 215
16.
ChapEar, N. A.
aEd
M.Kl[,lev, $A7 '
The Geotogicat
DBPo'al ofNuctear Waste
tl
llcv &
Soff, Chichest.t.
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wast' var Nostrand
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Notiications ks*s -rhercnder'.P.ottution "ad pcl/2n992 (voltm€ -I) central Pollutiotr Corttol Board' New Dclhi' ft,- to.isan;a afHazadous vaste Generation in Kerota' Ltazardors-vaste
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r
Fat s- Ewnonneatot Science dnd Tech|olog ' 2O(2)' Enironnentat evatuarin svsr"- fo' x. ), B anelle'ColuEbus Laborarories ' Ohio. rson Colurbus.
z+. ii",
.t liti.
rs. ;:;;';r. c )i. ilopp.r, r.r' Ai & Waste, 43
n"te' uso"'ces Ptannias FiL^l
roo: ro''erarioD ofHda'dous wasre:A critical R'view'
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Hzrris..l.C..Lar*D.D.J..andRechsteiEer,C.E.t984_sanptnsandAhottsisUethods{ot Ha,a out wastp .onb,srjo,. EPA 600-8-84-002. pB S4_i55; s 55. Hassetriis, F. 1984. Reluse Deriwd Fuet. Am trborscience boor, Butterwo(h, Bostotr_ 56_ H"uE. R T. ro80 . oapost Lh prih.pt"s a"d p,."t*e,. Aaa*;iscieni sine eihs: 54.
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lsgt. Technicat rnfotnation oJ the Use oI Orsanic Matetiats as soit ]le,;: C L A(edr "" Atuedneh!' Lite,aturc R?y,"v. sotidwasre Comeosring C;uDcii, wasii;s;;;i. Hyar.G $-reoj lhe Rote of.onsudet p,oducrs ionpaiies nsotid n;;;"" i;,;;;^.", Proc. of rhe Noflheasr Sotrd wasre Composri.Es CoDfer*".. Sotia w""" co.poi,;;t;;ti. Washinoron Da IAEA.^ia,o. Maaual on Radiotoltcot Safety ia Uraaiuh a Thotiun Min.s aad Mitts.
satety sefles. Irrematioral CoEmissioE oD Radiarjoa prorection. pergamoE press, NY, Indian staldaIds bjururiol]qlga. tndianstondad, htethodt_ pt";.;;;;4 sahpte fu chenr at d Mkrobiotosicat Anatysis. ts:s "ii.iir^_,
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rrensificatiotr. 3 3 ' 34 191 ;etrsiw. 20, 22'23' 25 33'34 5E-59'
rr- i.z. e t-tl, as. gs. g l. t t2-tt:' ri8, 131, 143, 151' 158, 173
DcositY scParatioE 33 Dcstructiv€ distittatioD' 43 Diccstior. ?. 13. 15.21 49
80'12r
fi]Ials, 109 Dioxi[s Disc so.etr.36 71 Disposal ofwasre l. 7' 62' 64 aad
131
t9'
I I ZZ2
r
A Tenbook of Solid Waste Managament
DrailaCe faciiities for
lar nlls,70
60,63-64, 109-12, llE-119. 125, 165, L9t- 2t0-t2
{
qydlo8eo aDalysis, 13
Eaerey recovery, 7. 11, 32, 35. 64, 66,'70. 77. 113, 116-19, 131, 141, 191-92 EnvnorEeotal audit, 126, 181-85, 189 EDviroErental impact assessmeEt (EIA), 2 1, 6869, 129, 156,57. i59-60, 172, 180
I
Envnonmeftal ioaDagemeEr plar,
Iustitutional wastes, 3 lnregrated solid wasre mznagemeot, 6 h-v€ssel composting, 48
15
7, 16i, 164,
168, t70,114,177 Etrviionmenral monilodrg. 67-6E, E6, 128,131,
1E5,
hcinelalioD,7, q. 14. J8.30.41-42. 128, r3331, r47, 17E, t91,
IrdBtriat waste, 3-4, 20,
81
J F
Junt dealers. 27
Field capacit), 8.9. 10,25, 89-90 Final cove!, 66, 72-75. 82. 84, 86, 114,
131
x Kjeldahl Eethod, 13-la
Flare burtrer, 119
Fleing oflarldfill gar,
1
17
L
Floatatioa sepalatioo, 33 Fluidiz€d bed incina'atioL 39 Flyash, 3. 75, 128.142"43,191 Food waste, 190,91
LaDdIill cov€r,74,76,89, 114, 117 La!df1ll gas, 1 3, 7 6-77, 83-8,1, 90, 93, 109-120,
Forklifr.36
LaDdfill gas cortrol, 83, 109
Fiesh leachate- 87-88
La.odEll gas Eigratioa, 109, 113-15, 122
fronl
Lad6[irg
end
loade!
t22
11
G Gas
cortrol. 62, 68, 73. 83, 109,
GasEigatioE,75, 109, 113-16,
115, 119, 173, 122
Ger€ration ofsolid wastes, 4 Oeographic IrforEatior Systern, ?.32. 171 GeomeD:brane, 66, 83, 92-97, 99,98, 107-08 Georerlile, 04
Glass, 3, 5, 6. 8-9, 12. 15,32-35,37-39,51,
56-5'.60,10, r28, r3r, r'6,
r78
Leachat€ cort'ol,68 Leachate treatmetrl, 67,
t0r, 104, 106, 108 Legal ftahework. 156-5?, 171 Lhers,68, 92-95. 97. 99, 173. 181 Magreti. separatiotr, 33
Eilis, 34 Haui distarce,29. 52-53,60. 67. 191, HaDrr1er
178
Hazardous wastes. 3. 16. 72, 81, 92, 197. 12329, t3t-32. t43-44, t5t, 154, 164 HELP nodel, 90-91 Hois: truck collectioE. 3 1 Hospital wasre, 3. 134, 136
Hurus,45,74
Il-13.
Leachare collectio!, 98
M E9
E
Hydrogen,
73,118 Layout of larxdfi li. 69:70 Leachare. 72. 88. 90. 92. 98. 106-0?
Gasifica.io& 7, 38, 44, 61
GovernEelt Euidelhes. 19 Groundwdter laonitoritrg, 7 7-7E,
methods, 6E
Larxdfills, 10, 18, 28-29, 38, 62-67,71,75-76. 89. 93-95. 97- I0l. I I l- 13, I I 8,19, 124, 1283:, 134-35, t4r, t44. 141,151. t62. t72-
15,24-25, 43-44. 41, 50, 59-
Material recovely, 6,9, 132, 178, 192 Mcchaaical size reduction. 34-3 5 Metals.5-?.9. 12. lS. lE..26-27,32, 35, 3839, 48, 51. 50, 100-01, 2, t25, t34,137, 1 43-47. 162, t65, 17 6, 11 8, 192 Methane, 43, 45, 50, 63-64, 83-84, 100, 104, 109-13, tt7-22, t47,165, 173,192 Mekic conversioD factors, 194-95 Moisiure content, 8-9. 1 1 . 22-25 , 42. 45 -4a. 5889-90, 94, 9?. 100-01, 111-12,144, t46, 17E. 192
I I I I
I I
I I I
I
a
I
Il
a a a a
lndex Molrtori4 o{lardfill gas' 71 -I{u,crpalsolid waste 4 S'19'I/ 39.4?,51, 108
.. -^ )r')u' rr' --
Residentral $as(e.43
Residues.7,2l,36. 39. 62. 82 128, 132 136
is]
too.
t,o',:'
l37 l44 i60 l62 to)'
I3
102_1 03
S
Sarlitar)'
Ialdfi[s,
t
7E
ScreeDing,7,35. 192 of geom€Bbrane, 96 SelectioD oI equiP6etrt, l7 sele.tioD olsile (also see site selecttotr)' 69'
l29'
151 SeDaratioE of solrd waste. 32'35
oil nod P}folysis, 43-44 old Ieachate, 87-8 8
S;eddiEg. 7. 33-3a, 4s. 66. 180, Sire remediaiioq 123, 143, 193
Tl oDeraliEg aJea at landfills ir ;1i1, i l'i; ir;i:ril 190'92. 211
162, 16'7
6
Seami.Dg
o
e';"'ilri
3
Rotathg biological cotrtactors,
179.211
Nitroge! atralYsis'
esource tecovery, 26,
R
63_64' NiF6pen. l1-13. 15, l4_15 45-4? 58
-
2j23
j'
;'.1
:i
.
192
Size reduction, 7, 34, 36, 49' 70 Size seDaratiotr,7.35
Soii covers, a9, 66-67. 85'86. 173 180
Solid wate EranagemeDI. I9. 26,61 177 Source reduction, 192
P
Soolce separatioD, 192
Scurces ofwasies geoerahoD. 2'4
dist burion.a-1o l4
P2;icle size p,.i.,:tare m"ne..
ll. to st tg; tor
Pathogenic oiganistns, 139
'".**iliitr. ol' -s' s:-t'1' Ea' ol-e4 9'7' ol' 107- 112_16. 14',1_46,
oHcotrtrol,46
it
vsk al compositLon ofwase'
H]:"l",,.ili:a,i:
I
i
l1",ff"1i!.'i}lill';il,, t.
u'Ll
31:11
;1;?t ;i;,
t6t'62' t6s' 167'
s6ecific weighr, 7-8, 21-22, 51,85,
Standdds for leachate disPosal, 89 Srationery container system' 31 Suctiotr lysimeter, 77 Surface \rarer draiMge,66' 75
T .IemDerarrre, 9,
'-7i
PubticDaniciPation l7I lc2 P!roly;is 7. i8,4l-44' 61 l2E
R Reactors,128
Reco!er] ofldare al'
21
tli"'.,*,"":::;l'!; 1Ti.1\,, 0,,0.,u.,,u, ), lar 183. 191-91 rq' tsl reirse derived fuel' i2'3r' 39 ResiatioE,l30. 198 R.;ote SensiBs. T. 69, l65 1ll' I /r
Il-I4.
3o. 4 I.4:.,14.48. 50. 51'
or. so. so-st, 95'96, l06-07 I12'll9' tzt:zl. tzt,135-38, 144-46, 158' 192
188
Post'closure Plan, 131
ll) l9t
S;ecificatiotrs for landfllls, 81 Sutfur aDalYsis' 14 Stack Eodroring, 81, 173
Thermal DrocessiDg, 32, 38
T.xicin.123'24, 126,144. 146 148 Trace compoutrds, i09-10 Transfer ofwaste, 31 Tralsfe! srations, 27-32. 190
Traasformatiotr of$aste, 38' 47, 50 Transponadon of wasre, 20 Tretrch f,ethod of landfilliDs, 64 Troflnel screen,56-57
U UltiBate analysis, 11, 13. 24
162
24
A Textbook ot Sotictwaste Manag€ment ryasle disposat, t0, I9,62-63,69, E2. 117. 15l.
Vadoze zoEe moritori.ug, 77
Vegetstion hlandfill cover. 73-74 Vehicles used h tratrsportation ofMSW Venicat gas well, 116
volul,e reduclior, 6-7, 3 8, 126,
193
157. 159, 173, rEl. r82 Vast€ generatiotr, 20, 31, 129,
3l
Waste qriadrities, 68
183.
191
weighirs f&iliries. J6 Wood, 3. 5, 8-9, 12, 15,22-24,34-35. 40. 70, t76, 178,190 Wood gritrders, 34-3j, 70
\l'aste chaiacreristics, 134. 136
Y ll'as1e corqposition, 7
t5l.
Yard wasre, 5, 35, 5E, 17E, 190
st.
