Television Production Handbook N
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Zettl
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The essential book for students and working professionals Considered the reference text in the industry, Herbert Zettl's Television Production Handbook covers all aspects of television production— from camera and audio to digital editing and special effects. With an accessible style and a hands-on approach, Zettl helps you achieve mastery of the production technologies and techniques that will enable you to move from idea to image with confidence, consistency, and effectiveness. Filled with clear illustrations, vivid photographs, and cutting-edge content, Zettl's Television Production Handbook has long been a trusted resource in the classroom—and one that working professionals refer to throughout their careers.
Get more from your course with these resources: Television Production Workbook by Herbert Zettl, San Francisco State University The essential Television P r o d u c t i o n W o r k b o o k will help you practice and reinforce y o u r television p r o d u c t i o n skills. Giving you a h a n d s - o n learning e n v i r o n m e n t , t h e W o r k b o o k helps y o u apply t h e concepts you'll learn in y o u r course to various s t u d i o a n d field p r o d u c t i o n s . As y o u progress t h r o u g h t h e W o r k b o o k ' s quizzes, skill-enhancing exercises, a n d p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g applications, you'll review i m p o r t a n t topics a n d check y o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of concepts a n d t e r m i n o l o g y vital to success in this fast-paced field. ISBN: 0-534-64728-6
Book Companion Website http://communication.wadsworth.com/zettl_tvph9 Free access! Link to the Book Companion Website, where you'll find interactive resources that help you study and learn. This outstanding site features chapter-by-chapter tutorial quizzes, web links, flashcards, and other chapter review materials, plus a practice final exam and much more.
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Television Production Handbook N
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Herbert Zettl San Francisco State University
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W A D S W O R T H AUSTRALIA
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Television Production Handbook, Ninth Edition Herbert Zettl
Publisher: Holly J. Allen
Print Buyer: Karen Hunt
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Brief Contents
1 The Television Production Process 1.1 What Television Production Is All About 1.2
11 Switching, or Instantaneous Editing 2 4 2
2 4
Studios, Master Control, and Support Areas
2 Analog and Digital Television 2.1
Analog and Digital Television
2.2
Scanning Systems
28
How Television Cameras Work
3.2
From Light to Video Image
How Switchers Work
11.2
What Switchers Do
244 254
12.1
How Video Recording Works
12.2
How Video Recording Is Done
13 Postproduction Editing
40
3.1
11.1
12 Video-recording and Storage Systems 2 6 0
26
36
3 The Television Camera
4 Lenses
18
42 63
262 276
284
13.1
How Postproduction Editing Works
13.2
Making Editing Decisions
286
308
14 Visual Effects 3 2 0
68
4.1
What Lenses Are
70
14.1
Electronic Effects and How to Use Them
4.2
What Lenses See
82
14.2
Nonelectronic Effects and How to Use Them
5 Camera Mounting Equipment 5.1 5.2
Special Camera Mounts
90
98
6 Camera Operation and Picture Composition 1 0 4 6.1
Working the Camera
6.2
Framing Effective Shots
106 115
7.1
Lighting Instruments and Lighting Controls
7.2
Light Intensity, Lamps, and Color Media
8 Techniques of Television Lighting Lighting in the Studio
8.2
Lighting in the Field
9 Audio: Sound Pickup
15.1
Designing and Using Television Graphics
15.2
Scenery and Props
16 Production People 3 6 6 16.1
What Production People Do
16.2
How to Do Makeup and What to Wear
368 386
128 150
17.1
What Producing Is All About
17.2
Dealing with Schedules, Legal Matters, and Ratings
392
178
18.1
How a Director Prepares
18.2
Moving from Script to Screen
414 431
19 The Director in Production and Postproduction 4 4 4
188
9.1
How Microphones Hear
190
19.1
Multicamera Control Room Directing
9.2
How Microphones Work
209
19.2
Single-camera Directing, Postproduction, and Timing 464
10.1
Sound Controls and Recording for Studio and Field Operations 220
10.2
Postproduction and Sound Aesthetics
407
18 The Director in Preproduction 4 1 2
156
158
446
10 Audio: Sound Control 2 1 8
vi
344
355
17 Producing 3 9 0
7 Lighting 1 2 6
8.1
337
15 Design 3 4 2
88
Standard Camera Mounts and Movements
322
20 Field Production and Big Remotes 4 7 0 235
20.1
ENG, EFP, and Big Remotes
20.2
Covering Major Events
487
472
Contents
Photo Credits
xxiii
About the Author Preface
CHAPTER
S E C T I O N
xxv
xxvi
1
The Television Production Process
1.1
What Television Production Is All About BASIC TELEVISION SYSTEM
2
4
4
EXPANDED STUDIO AND ELECTRONIC FIELD PRODUCTION SYSTEMS System Elements of Studio Production Studio System in Action
5
System Elements of Field Production PRODUCTION ELEMENTS Camera
8
9 10
Switching
12
Videotape Recording Tapeless Systems
13
14
Postproduction Editing Special Effects
S E C T I O N
1.2
7
8
Lighting Audio
4
14
16
Studios, Master Control, and Support Areas TELEVISION STUDIO
18
Physical Layout
18
Major Installations
19
STUDIO CONTROL ROOM
20
Program Control Switching
21
22
Audio Control
22
Lighting Control Video Control
22 23
18
4
Contents
viii MASTER CONTROL
23
Program Input 23 Program Storage 23 Program Retrieval 24 STUDIO SUPPORT AREAS
24
Scenery and Properties
24
Makeup and Dressing Rooms
CHAPTER
S E C T I O N
25
2
Analog and Digital Television
2.1
Analog and Digital Television BASIC IMAGE CREATION
28
28
BASIC COLORS OF THE VIDEO DISPLAY WHAT DIGITAL IS ALL ABOUT
28
28
Why Digital? 30 Difference Between Analog and Digital Digitization Process 30 BENEFITS OF DIGITAL TELEVISION
2.2
Scanning Systems
33
36
INTERLACED AND PROGRESSIVE SCANNING Interlaced Scanning System
36
36
Progressive Scanning System DTV SYSTEMS
30
32
Quality 32 Computer Compatibility and Flexibility Signal Transport 33 Compression 34 Aspect Ratio 34
S E C T I O N
26
36
37
480p System 720p System 1080i System
37 37 38
FLAT-PANEL DISPLAYS 38 Plasma Display Panel 38 Liquid Crystal Display 38
CHAPTER
S E C T I O N
3J
The Television Camera
3.1
How Television Cameras Work PARTS OF THE CAMERA
42
FROM LIGHT TO VIDEO SIGNAL Beam Splitter 42 Imaging Device 43
42
40 42
ix
Contents
CAMERA CHAIN
45
Camera Control Unit
45
Sync Generator and Power Supply TYPES OF CAMERAS
46
46
Analog Versus Digital Cameras 46 Studio Cameras 47 ENG/EFP Cameras and Camcorders 48 Consumer Camcorders 48 Prosumer Camcorders 50 ELECTRONIC CHARACTERISTICS Aspect Ratio 51 White Balance 51 Resolution 52 Operating Light Level Gain 55
50
55
Video Noise and Signal-to-noise Ratio 56 Image Blur and Electronic Shutter 56 Smear and Moire 56 Contrast 57 Shading 57 OPERATIONAL CHARACTERISTICS 57 Operational Items and Controls: Studio Cameras 57 Operational Items: ENG/EFP Cameras and Camcorders
59
External Operational Controls: ENG/EFP Cameras and Camcorders
S E C T I O N
3.2
From Light to Video Image CCD PROCESS
62
63
63
NATURE OF COLOR
64
Color Attributes 64 Color Mixing 64 CHROMINANCE AND LUMINANCE CHANNELS
65
Chrominance Channel 65 Luminance Channel 65 Encoder 66 ELECTRONIC CINEMA
CHAPTER
S E C T I O N
A
Lenses
4.1
What Lenses Are
66
68 70
TYPES OF ZOOM LENSES 70 Studio and Field Lenses Zoom Range 70 Lens Format 72
70
Contents
X
OPTICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF LENSES Focal Length Focus 74
72
73
Light Transmission: Iris, Aperture, and /-stop Depth of Field 76
75
OPERATIONAL CONTROLS 78 Zoom Control 78 Digital Zoom Lens 80 Focus Control 80
S E C T I O N
4.2
What Lenses See
82
HOW LENSES SEE THE WORLD
82
Wide-angle Lens 82 Normal Lens 84 Narrow-angle, or Telephoto, Lens
CHAPTER
S E C T I O N
85
5
Camera Mounting Equipment
5.1
Standard Camera Mounts and Movements BASIC CAMERA MOUNTS
90
Handheld and Shoulder-mounted Camera Monopod and Tripod 90 Studio Pedestal 92 CAMERA MOUNTING (PAN-AND-TILT) HEADS Fluid Heads 94 Cam Heads 95 Plate and Wedge Mount CAMERA MOVEMENTS
S E C T I O N
5.2
95
95
Special Camera Mounts SPECIAL MOUNTING DEVICES
98 98
High Hat 98 Beanbag and Other Car Mounts Steadicam 98 Short and Long Jibs 100 Studio Crane 100
98
ROBOTIC CAMERA MOUNTS 100 Robotic Pedestal 101 Stationary Robotic Camera Mount Rail System 102
102
94
90
88 90
Contents
CHAPTER
S E C T I O N
XI
U
Camera Operation and Picture Composition
6.1
Working the Camera
J06
WORKING THE CAMCORDER AND THE EFP CAMERA Some Basic Camera "Don'ts" Before the Shoot During the Shoot After the Shoot
104
106
106
107 108 111
WORKING THE STUDIO CAMERA
112
Before the Show 112 During the Show 113 After the Show 114
S E C T I O N
6.2
Framing Effective Shots
115
SCREEN SIZE AND FIELD OF VIEW Screen Size 115 Field of View 115
115
FRAMING A SHOT: STANDARD TV AND HDTV ASPECT RATIOS Dealing with Height and Width 116 Framing Close-ups 117 Headroom 118 Noseroom and Leadroom 119 Closure 120 DEPTH
123
SCREEN MOTION
CHAPTER
S E C T I O N
116
123
/
Lighting
7.1
Lighting Instruments and Lighting Controls STUDIO LIGHTING INSTRUMENTS Spotlights 128 Floodlights 130 FIELD LIGHTING INSTRUMENTS Portable Spotlights 133 Portable Floodlights 136 Diffusing Portable Spotlights Camera Lights 139 LIGHTING CONTROL EQUIPMENT Mounting Devices 140 Directional Controls 144
126 128
128
133
138
140
Intensity Controls: Instrument Size, Distance, and Beam Intensity Controls: Electronic Dimmers 147
146
Contents
S E C T I O N
7.2
JLiQ.
Light Intensity, Lamps, and Color Media LIGHT INTENSITY
150
Foot-candles and Lux Incident Light 150 Reflected Light 151
150
CALCULATING LIGHT INTENSITY
151
OPERATING LIGHT LEVEL: BASELIGHT Baselight Levels TYPES OF LAMPS
152
152
153
Incandescent 153 Fluorescent 153 HMI 153 COLOR MEDIA 153 How to Use Color Media Mixing Color Gels 154
CHAPTER S E C T I O N
154
0
Techniques of Television Lighting
8.1
Lighting in the Studio QUALITY OF LIGHT
158
158
Directional Light and Diffused Light COLOR TEMPERATURE
158
158
How to Control Color Temperature
159
LIGHTING FUNCTIONS 160 Terminology 161 Specific Functions of Main Light Sources SPECIFIC LIGHTING TECHNIQUES 165 Flat Lighting 165 Continuous-action Lighting 166 Large-area Lighting 167 High-contrast Lighting 167 Cameo Lighting 169 Silhouette Lighting 170 Chroma-key Area Lighting 170 Controlling Eye and Boom Shadows CONTRAST
172
Contrast Ratio
173
Measuring Contrast
173
Controlling Contrast
173
BALANCING LIGHT INTENSITIES 174 Key-to-back-light Ratio 174 Key-to-fill-light Ratio 174 LIGHT PLOT
175
171
161
156
xiii
Contents
OPERATION OF STUDIO LIGHTS Safety
176
176
Preserving Lamps and Power Using a Studio Monitor 176
S E C T I O N
8.2
Lighting in the Field SAFETY
176
17J
178
Electric Shock Cables
178
178
Fire Hazard
178
ENG/EFP LIGHTING 178 Shooting in Bright Sunlight 179 Shooting in Overcast Daylight 180 Shooting in Indoor Light 180 Shooting at Night 184 LOCATION SURVEY Power Supply
CHAPTER S E C T I O N
184 185
z
Audio: Sound Pickup
9.1
H o w Microphones Hear
188
190
ELECTRONIC CHARACTERISTICS OF MICROPHONES Sound-generating Elements Pickup Patterns 191 Microphone Features 192
OPERATIONAL CHARACTERISTICS OF MICROPHONES Lavaliere Microphones 193 Hand Microphones 195 Boom Microphones 197 Headset Microphones 201 Wireless Microphones 202 Desk Microphones 203 Stand Microphones 205 Hanging Microphones 206 Hidden Microphones 207 Long-distance Microphones 208
S E C T I O N
9.2
H o w Microphones Work
190
190
193
209
SOUND-GENERATING ELEMENTS 209 Dynamic Microphones 209 Condenser Microphones 209 Ribbon Microphones 209 Sound Quality 210 SPECIFIC MICROPHONE FEATURES 210 Impedance 210 Frequency Response 210 Balanced and Unbalanced Mies and Cables, and Audio Connectors
210
Contents
xiv MIC SETUPS FOR MUSIC PICKUP
214
Microphone Setup for Singer and Acoustic Guitar Microphone Setup for Singer and Piano
214
214
Microphone Setup for Small Rock Group and Direct Insertion MICROPHONE USE SPECIFIC TO ENG/EFP
CHAPTER
S E C T I O N
IU ID 10.1
215
215
Audio: Sound Control
215
Sound Controls and Recording for Studio and Field Operations PRODUCTION EQUIPMENT FOR STUDIO AUDIO Audio Console 220 Patchbay 224 Audio-recording Systems 225 Analog Recording Systems 225 Tape-based Digital Recording Systems Tapeless Recording Systems 228
220
227
AUDIO CONTROL IN THE STUDIO 229 Audio Control Booth 229 Basic Audio Operation 230 PRODUCTION EQUIPMENT AND BASIC OPERATION FOR FIELD AUDIO Keeping Sounds Separate Audio Mixer
233
233
AUDIO CONTROL IN THE FIELD
233
Using the AGC in ENG and EFP EFP Mixing 233
S E C T I O N
10.2
233
Postproduction and Sound Aesthetics AUDIO POSTPRODUCTION ACTIVITIES
235
Linear and Nonlinear Sound Editing Correcting Audio Problems 236 Postproduction Mixing 236 Controlling Sound Quality 236 AUDIO POSTPRODUCTION ROOM
237
Digital Audio Workstation 237 Analog Audio Synchronizer 238 Keyboards and Sampler 238 Automatic Dialogue Replacement SOUND AESTHETICS 239 Environment 239 Figure/Ground 239 Perspective 239 Continuity 240 Energy 240 STEREO AND SURROUND SOUND Stereo Sound 240 Surround Sound 241
235
240
238
235
232
220
Contents
CHAPTER
S E C T I O N
X V
I I 11.1
Switching, or Instantaneous Editing How Switchers Work
244
BASIC SWITCHER FUNCTIONS SIMPLE SWITCHER LAYOUT
244 244
Program Bus 244 Mix Buses 245 Preview Bus 245 Effects Buses 246 Multifunction Switchers BASIC SWITCHER OPERATION Cut or Take 248 Dissolve 249 Super 251 Fade 251
246 248
Additional Special-effects Controls
S E C T I O N
11.2
What Switchers Do
242
251
254
SWITCHER TYPES AND FUNCTIONS 254 Production Switchers 254 Postproduction Switchers 255 Master Control Switchers 256 Routing Switchers 256 ELECTRONIC DESIGNS 256 Composite and Component Switchers Analog and Digital Switchers 258 Audio-follow-video Switchers 258
CHAPTER
S E C T I O N
12 IZ
12.1
256
Video-recording and Storage Systems How Video Recording Works
262
RECORDING SYSTEMS AND TECHNOLOGY 262 Analog and Digital Systems 262 Linear and Nonlinear Systems 263 Composite and Component Systems 263 Sampling 265 Compression 265 TAPE-BASED RECORDING AND STORAGE SYSTEMS How Videotape Recording Works 266 Operational VTR Controls 267 Electronic Features 269 Analog Videotape Recorders 269 Digital Videotape Recorders 270
266
260
Contents
xvi TAPELESS RECORDING AND STORAGE SYSTEMS 273 Hard Disk Systems
273
Read/Write Optical Discs Flash Memory Devices Data Transfer
S E C T I O N
12.2
274 274
274
H o w Video Recording Is Done
276
USES OF VIDEO RECORDING AND STORAGE Building a Show 276 Time Delay 276
276
Program Duplication and Distribution 276 Record Protection and Reference 276 VIDEO-RECORDING PRODUCTION FACTORS
276
Preproduction 277 Production 279
CHAPTER S E C T I O N
13 13.1
Postproduction Editing
284
How Postproduction Editing Works EDITING MODES: OFF-AND ON-LINE
286
Linear Off-and On-line Editing
286
Nonlinear Off- and On-line Editing BASIC EDITING SYSTEMS
286
287
287
Linear Systems 287 Nonlinear Systems 287 Editing Principle 287 LINEAR EDITING SYSTEMS
288
Single-source System 288 Expanded Single-source System Multiple-source Systems 290
289
CONTROL TRACK AND TIME CODE EDITING Control Track, or Pulse-count, Editing Time Code Editing 293 LINEAR EDITING FEATURES AND TECHNIQUES Assemble Editing 294 Insert Editing 295 AB ROLLING AND AB-ROLL EDITING AB Rolling 295 AB-roll Editing 297 NONLINEAR EDITING SYSTEMS
297
295
291 291
294
Contents
xvii NONLINEAR EDITING FEATURES AND TECHNIQUES Capture
Compression Storage
298
298 299
299
Juxtaposing and Rearranging Video and Audio Files
299
PRE-EDITING PHASE 300 Shooting Phase 300 Review Phase 301 Preparation Phase 301 EDITING PROCEDURES
304
Shot Selection 304 Shot Sequencing 30S Audio Sweetening 30S Creating the Final Edit Master Tape Operational Hints
S E C T I O N
13.2
306
306
Making Editing Decisions
308
EDITING FUNCTIONS 308 Combine 308 Shorten 308 Correct 308 Build 309 BASIC TRANSITION DEVICES Cut 309 Dissolve 309 Wipe 309 Fade 310
309
MAJOR EDITING PRINCIPLES 310 Continuity Editing 312 Complexity Editing 317 Context 317 Ethics 318
CHAPTER
S E C T I O N
14 14.1
Visual Effects
325
Electronic Effects and How to Use Them STANDARD ANALOG VIDEO EFFECTS Superimposition 322 Key 322 Chroma Key 324 Wipe 327 DIGITAL VIDEO EFFECTS
322
329
Computer-manipulated Effects 330 Image Size, Shape, Light, and Color 330 Motion 333 Multi-images 335
322
Contents
xviii
SECTION
14.2
Nonelectronic Effects and How to Use Them OPTICAL EFFECTS
337
337
Television Gobos 337 Reflections 338 Star Filter 338 Diffusion Filters 338 Defocus 339 MECHANICAL EFFECTS
339
Rain 340 Snow 340 Fog 340 Wind 340 Smoke 340 Fire 340 Lightning 341
CHAPTER
S E C T I O N
15 15.1
Design
342
Designing and Using Television Graphics SPECIFICATIONS OF TELEVISION GRAPHICS Aspect Ratio 344 Scanning and Essential Areas Out-of-aspect-ratio Graphics
344
345 346
Matching STV and HDTV Aspect Ratios 346 Information Density and Readability 348 Color 350 Style 352 Synthetic Images
SECTION
15.2
353
Scenery and Props TELEVISION SCENERY
355 355
Standard Set Units 355 Hanging Units 357 Platforms and Wagons 358 Set Pieces 359 PROPERTIES AND SET DRESSINGS Stage Props 360 Set Dressings 360 Hand Properties 360 Prop List 360 ELEMENTS OF SCENE DESIGN Floor Plan 361
360
361
Set Backgrounds and Platforms Studio Floor Treatments 364
363
344
Contents
CHAPTER S E C T I O N
xix
10 16.1
m
Production People What Production People Do
368
NONTECHNICAL PRODUCTION PERSONNEL TECHNICAL PERSONNEL AND CREW
370
NEWS PRODUCTION PERSONNEL TELEVISION TALENT
370
371
PERFORMANCE TECHNIQUES
373
Performer and Camera 373 Performer and Audio 375 Performer and Timing 375 Performer and Postproduction Floor Manager's Cues 376 Prompting Devices 376 ACTING TECHNIQUES
S E C T I O N
16.2
How to Do Makeup and What to Wear
CLOTHING AND COSTUMING Clothing 388 Costuming 389
S E C T I O N
XL I / 17.1
384 384
384
MAKEUP 386 Materials 386 Application 387 Technical Requirements
CHAPTER
376
382
Audience 383 Blocking 383 Memorizing Lines 383 Timing 384 Actor and Postproduction Director/Actor Relationship AUDITIONS
368
386
387 388
m
Producing What Producing Is All About
392
PREPRODUCTION PLANNING: FROM IDEA TO SCRIPT Generating Program Ideas 392 Using Production Models 393 Writing the Program Proposal 395 Preparing a Budget 397 Writing the Script 401
392
Contents
X X
PREPRODUCTION PLANNING: COORDINATION People
401
401
Facilities Request Schedules
402
403
Permits and Clearances
403
Publicity and Promotion
404
LINE PRODUCER: HOST AND WATCHDOG Playing Host 404 Watching the Production Flow Evaluating the Production
404 404
404
POSTPRODUCTION ACTIVITIES 405 Postproduction Editing 405 Evaluation and Feedback 405 Recordkeeping 405
S E C T I O N
17.2
Dealing with Schedules, Legal Matters, and Ratings TIMELINE
407
INFORMATION RESOURCES
407
UNIONS AND LEGAL MATTERS
409
Unions 409 Copyrights and Clearances Other Legal Considerations AUDIENCE AND RATINGS
410
Ratings and Share
S E C T I O N
409 410
410
Target Audience
CHAPTER
407
410
18
The Director in Preproduction
18.1
H o w a Director Prepares THE DIRECTOR'S ROLES
414
414
Director as Artist 414 Director as Psychologist 414 Director as Technical Adviser 415 Director as Coordinator 415 PREPRODUCTION ACTIVITIES Process Message
415
415
Production Method 415 Production Team and Communication Scheduling 416 Script Formats Script Marking
416 419
Floor Plan and Location Sketch Facilities Request
428
427
416
412
Contents
xxi SUPPORT STAFF
429
Floor Manager
429
Associate, or Assistant, Director Production Assistant 430
S E C T I O N
18.2
430
Moving from Script to Screen VISUALIZATION AND SEQUENCING
431 431
Formulating the Process Message Medium Requirements 435
435
Interpreting the Floor Plan and the Location Sketch SCRIPT ANALYSIS 440 Locking-in Point and Translation Storyboard 440
437
440
The Director in Production and Postproduction S E C T I O N
19.1
Multicamera Control Room Directing THE DIRECTOR'S TERMINOLOGY
446
446
MULTICAMERA DIRECTING PROCEDURES 446 Directing from the Control Room 447 Control Room Intercom Systems 447 DIRECTING REHEARSALS 455 Script Reading 455 Dry Run, or Blocking Rehearsal 456 Walk-through 457 Camera and Dress Rehearsals 457 Walk-through/Camera Rehearsal Combination Preparing a Time Line 459
458
DIRECTING THE SHOW 461 Standby Procedures 461 On-the-air Procedures 461
S E C T I O N
19.2
Single-camera Directing, Postproduction, and Timing SINGLE-CAMERA DIRECTING PROCEDURES Visualization 464 Script Breakdown 464 Rehearsals 466 Videotaping 466 POSTPRODUCTION ACTIVITIES
464
466
CONTROLLING CLOCK TIME 467 Schedule Time and Running Time 467 Clock Back-timing and Front-timing 467 Converting Frames into Clock Time CONTROLLING SUBJECTIVE TIME
468
468
464
444
Contents
xxii
CHAPTER
S E C T I O N
20 20.1
Field Production and Big Remotes E N G , EFP, and Big Remotes
4Z2
ELECTRONIC NEWS GATHERING
472
ENG Production Features Satellite Uplink
410
473
473
ELECTRONIC FIELD PRODUCTION
474
Preproduction 474 Production: Equipment Check
475
Production: Setup 476 Production: Rehearsals 477 Production: Videotaping 477 Production: Strike and Equipment Check Postproduction BIG REMOTES
477
477
477
Preproduction: The Remote Survey 478 Production: Equipment Setup and Operation 480 Production: Floor Manager and Talent Procedures 485
S E C T I O N
20.2
Covering Major Events SPORTS REMOTES
481
487
LOCATION SKETCH AND REMOTE SETUPS
487
Reading Location Sketches 487 Production Requirements for Public Hearing (Indoor Remote) 495 Production Requirements for Parade (Outdoor Remote) 497 COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
499
ENG Communication Systems 499 EFP Communication Systems 499 Big-remote Communication Systems SIGNAL TRANSPORT
499
500
Microwave Transmission
500
Communication Satellites: Frequencies, Uplinks, and Downlinks Cable Distribution 503
Epilogue Glossary
505 506
Selected Reading Index
534
532
501
Photo Credits
360 Systems, 10.12
C h i m e r a , 7.20, 7.24
E d w a r d Aiona, a u t h o r p o r t r a i t p. xxv, 1.1, 1.2, 1.5, 1.13,
Cinekinetic Pty Ltd., Australia, 5.18
1.14, 1.15, 1.16, 1.17, 1.18, 1.19, 1.20, 1.21, 1.22, 1.24, 2 . 1 , 3.6, 3.9, 3.11, 3.19, 3.22, 3 . 2 3 , 4 . 1 , 4 . 2 , 4 . 5 , 4 . 1 5 , 4 . 1 8 , 4.19, 4.20, 4 . 2 1 , 4.22, 4.23, 4.24, 4.29, 4.30, 5.13, 5.15, 5.19, 6.1, 6.2, 6.3, 6.4, 6.5, 6.6, 6.7, 6.14, 6.15, 6.16, 6.17, 6.18, 6.19, 6 . 2 0 , 6 . 2 1 , 6 . 2 2 , 6 . 2 3 , 6 . 2 4 , 6 . 2 5 , 6 . 2 6 , 6 . 2 7 , 6 . 3 0 , 6 . 3 1 , 6.34,
F r a n k e D. Cocke, courtesy O k i n o , 15.21 C o o p e r a t i v e M e d i a G r o u p , 14.27 C r e a t i o n Technologies, LLC, 11.12
6.35, 6.36, 6.37, 7.4, 7.6, 7.22, 7.27, 7.28, 7.29, 7.33, 7.34, 7.37, 7.38, 7.39, 7.40, 7.44, 7.45, 7.47, 8.3, 8.4, 8.5, 8.6, 8.8, 8.9, 8.11, 8.16, 8.17, 8.18, 8.19, 8.20, 8.21, 8.22, 8.23, 8.24, 8.29, 9 . 1 , 9 . 7 , 9 . 8 , 9 . 9 , 9 . 1 5 , 9 . 1 6 , 9.17,9.18,9.24, 9.32, 9.35, 10.1, 10.3, 10.5, 10.7, 10.10, 10.16, 10.20, 11.1, 11.4, 11.5,
D e n o n Electronics, 10.15 DykorTech, 5.20 Echolab, LLC, 1.11
11.6, 11.7, 11.8, 11.9, 11.10, 11.11, 11.15, 11.16 (lower), 12.15, 12.18, 12.19, 13.2, 13.14, 13.16, 1 3 . 2 0 , 1 3 . 2 1 , 13.22,
Electro-Voice, 9.34
13.23,13.24,13.25,13.26,13.27,13.28,13.29,13.33,13.34, 13.35, 14.3, 14.8, 14.9, 14.11, 14.12, 14.13, 14.14, 14.16, 14.17,14.19,14.20,14.21,14.22,14.23,14.24,14.25,14.32, 14.34, 14.36, 14.37, 15.8, 15.9, 15.12, 15.13, 15.19 (left),
Frezzi Energy Systems, 7.25 Fujinon, Inc., 4.17
15.20, 15.27, 15.37, 16.6, 16.7, 19.1, 19.6, 20.1
Leviton, C o l o r t r a n Division, 7.1, 7.36, 7.41
AKG Acoustics, 9.6, 9.25, 9.34
L o u d Technologies, Inc., 1.10
Alesis, 10.13
Lowel-LightMfg., Inc., 1.8, 7.9, 7.10, 7.12, 7.14, 7.15, 7.18, 7.19, 7.21, 7.23, 7.26, 7.35
Alex Zettl, 4.27 M o l e - R i c h a r d s o n C o m p a n y , 7.3, 7.5, 7.7, 7.8, 7.11, 7.13, Apple C o m p u t e r , Inc., 10.14, 13.15
7.17
Avid Technology, Inc. ( o w n s Pro Tools), 10.21
N e u m a n n USA, 9.34
b e y e r d y n a m i c , Inc., 9.10, 9.34
NewTek, 11.14
Broadcast a n d Electronic C o m m u n i c a t i o n Arts D e p a r t m e n t
N i k o n , Inc., 4.6, 4 . 7 , 4 . 1 6
at San Francisco State University, 8.7, 9.29, 13.13, 14.18, 14.30, 15.26, 17.6
O C o n n o r Engineering, 5.4, 5.14
Renee Child, 14.31
G a r y Palmatier, 3.15, 3.16, 6.12, 12.20, 14.26, 20.2
xxiii
Photo
xxiv
Panasonic Broadcast & Digital Systems Co., 3.30,4.3,11.13, 12.14, 12.16, 13.1, 13.3, 13.4 P i o n e e r N e w M e d i a Technologies, 12.17 Professional S o u n d C o r p o r a t i o n , 9.34 QTV, 16.8 Steve Renick, 5.12, 5.19 (right) Sachtler G m b H & Co., 5.1 Selco P r o d u c t s C o m p a n y , 10.4
Credits
T h e Tiffen C o m p a n y , LLC, 5.16, 5.17 T h o m s o n / G r a s s Valley, 11.16 ( u p p e r ) , 14.15 Video Robotics, Inc., 5.24 V i n t e n , Inc., 5.2, 5.3, 5.5, 5.6, 5.8, 5.9, 5.10, 5.11, 5.21, 5.22, 5.23 Vizrt, 15.22, 15.23 H e r b e r t Zettl, 1.7, 3.8, 3.14, 3.20, 3.21, 4.12, 4.13, 4.25, 4.26, 4.28, 6.8, 6.9, 6.10, 6.11, 6.13, 6.28, 6.29, 6.32, 6.33, 7.16, 7.30, 7.31, 7.32, 7.42, 7.43, 9.5, 9.11, 9.12, 9.13, 9.19, 9.20,9.31,9.33,13.31,13.32,14.1,14.10,14.28,14.29,14.30
Sennheiser Electronic C o r p o r a t i o n , 9.14, 9.21, 9.34
(inset), 14.35, 15.16, 15.19 (center), 15.25, 15.28, 15.31, 15.36, 20.3, 20.4, 20.18
Shure, Inc., 1.9, 9.22, 9.23, 9.34, 10.18 T h e C N N logo (15.1) is courtesy of Cable News N e t w o r k . Sony Electronics, Inc., 1.6, 1.12, 3.5, 3.10, 3.12, 3.13, 9.34, 12.8, 12.9, 12.10, 12.11, 12.13
T h e h a n d - d r a w n s t o r y b o a r d (18.20) is c o u r t e s y of B o b F o r w a r d , D e t o n a t i o n Films.
TASCAM C o r p o r a t i o n , 10.8, 10.11 T h e c o m p u t e r - g e n e r a t e d s t o r y b o a r d (18.21) is courtesy of Telescript, Inc., 16.9
P o w e r P r o d u c t i o n Software.
About the Author
H
ERBERT ZETTL is a professor e m e r i t u s of the Broadcast a n d Electronic C o m m u n i c a t i o n Arts D e p a r t m e n t at San F r a n c i s c o State U n i v e r s i t y (SFSU). H e t a u g h t t h e r e for m a n y years in the fields of video p r o d u c t i o n a n d m e d i a aesthetics. W h i l e at SFSU h e h e a d e d t h e Institute of I n t e r n a t i o n a l M e d i a C o m m u n i c a t i o n . For his a c a d e m i c c o n t r i b u t i o n s , he received t h e California State Legislature D i s t i n g u i s h e d Teaching Award a n d , from t h e Broadcast Education Association, the Distinguished Education Service Award. P r i o r t o j o i n i n g t h e SFSU faculty, Zettl w o r k e d at KOVR ( S t o c k t o n - S a c r a m e n t o ) a n d as a p r o d u c e r - d i r e c t o r at KPIX, t h e CBS affiliate i n San Francisco. W h i l e at K P I X h e p a r t i c i p a t e d i n a v a r i e t y of CBS a n d N B C n e t w o r k television p r o d u c t i o n s . Because of his o u t s t a n d i n g con t r i b u t i o n s to t h e television profession, h e was elected to t h e prestigious Silver Circle of t h e N a t i o n a l A c a d e m y of Television Arts a n d Sciences (NATAS), N o r t h e r n California Chapter. H e is also a m e m b e r of t h e Broadcast Legends of t h e NATAS N o r t h e r n California Chapter. In a d d i t i o n t o this b o o k , Zettl has a u t h o r e d Televi sion Production Workbook, Sight Sound Motion, a n d Video Basics. All of his b o o k s have b e e n t r a n s l a t e d i n t o several languages a n d p u b l i s h e d overseas. His n u m e r o u s articles o n television p r o d u c t i o n a n d m e d i a aesthetics have a p peared in major m e d i a journals worldwide. H e has lectured extensively o n television p r o d u c t i o n a n d m e d i a aesthetics at universities a n d professional b r o a d c a s t i n s t i t u t i o n s in t h e U n i t e d States a n d a b r o a d a n d has presented key papers a t a v a r i e t y of n a t i o n a l a n d i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o m m u n i c a tion conventions. Zettl d e v e l o p e d a n i n t e r a c t i v e D V D - R O M , Zettl's VideoLab 3.0, p u b l i s h e d b y T h o m s o n W a d s w o r t h . His previous C D - R O M version w o n several prestigious awards, a m o n g t h e m t h e Macromedia People's C h o i c e Award, the New Media Invision Gold Medal for H i g h e r E d u c a t i o n , a n d Invision Silver Medals in t h e categories of C o n t i n u i n g E d u c a t i o n a n d Use of Video. X X V
Preface
T
HE FACT that anyone with a digital c o n s u m e r c a m c o r d e r a n d a l a p t o p c o m p u t e r l o a d e d w i t h special-effects software can p r o d u c e high-quality images m a y mislead s o m e s t u d e n t s into believing t h a t t h e y are ready t o s h o o t an E m m y award-caliber d o c u m e n t a r y even before taking a television p r o d u c t i o n class. Far from it. Even t h e especially gifted ones w h o have m a n a g e d t o p r o d u c e s o m e impressive v i d e o t a p e s e g m e n t s all b y themselves will s o o n discover t h a t professional television requires a m a s t e r y of a great m a n y m o r e p r o d u c t i o n tools a n d t e c h n i q u e s . All are u s u ally s u r p r i s e d b y t h e extent of t e a m w o r k r e q u i r e d for t h e efficient a n d effective p r o d u c t i o n of even a relatively simple show. T h e Television Production Handbook is designed t o help s t u d e n t s acquire these skills.
M y e m p h a s i s in this edition of t h e Handbook is n o t so m u c h o n highly detailed descriptions of available e q u i p m e n t , such as specific m o d e l n u m b e r s o r t h e locations of v a r i o u s switches a n d jacks o n a p o p u l a r camcorder, b u t rather o n w h a t the major tools of television p r o d u c t i o n are, what they can a n d c a n n o t do, a n d h o w t o m a k e use of t h e m in a variety of p r o d u c t i o n situations. In this edition I e m phasize t h e p r o d u c t i o n r e q u i r e m e n t s of digital television, without compromising the proven production methods.
p r o d u c t i o n as a system, they are better p r e p a r e d t o see a n d u n d e r s t a n d h o w t h e p r o d u c t i o n details interact as essential p a r t s of a larger process. Analog and digital
T h e text delineates t h e m a j o r dif
ferences b e t w e e n analog a n d digital television processes a n d h o w t h e y apply t o p r o d u c t i o n . Related coverage also clarifies t h e often-puzzling t e r m i n o l o g y of digital television a n d explains t h e v a r i o u s interlaced a n d progressive scan n i n g systems. T h e key concept a b o u t digital television is that its signal is highly robust, w h i c h m e a n s that it r e m a i n s relatively noise-free t h r o u g h m a n y g e n e r a t i o n s a n d can b e easily m a n i p u l a t e d .
Consumer, prosumer, and professional equipment T h e differences a m o n g c o n s u m e r , p r o s u m e r , a n d profes sional e q u i p m e n t are often exaggerated by t h e m a n u f a c t u r e r s a n d d i s t r i b u t o r s t o define their m a r k e t s r a t h e r t h a n t h e i r c o n c e r n w i t h p r o d u c t i o n quality. W i t h a d e q u a t e lighting t h e difference b e t w e e n a g o o d p r o s u m e r c a m e r a a n d l o w - e n d professional o n e is incidental. T h e v a r i o u s scanning, s a m p l i n g , a n d c o m p r e s s i o n s t a n d a r d s of digital television ( D T V ) , h i g h definition v i d e o ( H D V ) , a n d h i g h - d e f i n i t i o n television
PRODUCTION HIGHLIGHTS
( H D T V ) are e x p l a i n e d in v a r i o u s c h a p t e r s . T h e m a j o r differences b e t w e e n H D V a n d H D T V a r e listed, as are t h e
T h e Handbook
focuses o n a variety of p o i n t s t h a t are es
pecially relevant t o t h e television p r o d u c t i o n of t o d a y a n d
differences a m o n g t h e three digital s c a n n i n g s t a n d a r d s : 4 8 0 p , 720p, a n d 1080L
t o m o r r o w . T h e following s u m m a r i e s will provide y o u w i t h an overview of these m a j o r p r o d u c t i o n p o i n t s .
Television system Television p r o d u c t i o n is explained as a system i n w h i c h e q u i p m e n t , p e o p l e , a n d processes interrelate. It is i m p o r t a n t t o learn h o w every e l e m e n t in television p r o d u c t i o n is essential for t h e p r o p e r func t i o n i n g of all t h e others. O n c e s t u d e n t s perceive television
xxv i
Studio and field production Because of t h e m o b i l i t y of D T V e q u i p m e n t , t h e a r g u m e n t prevails t h a t s t u d i o s are obsolete a n d t h a t t h e t r a d i t i o n a l m u l t i c a m e r a a p p r o a c h to television p r o d u c t i o n has largely b e e n replaced b y t h e m u c h m o r e efficient single-camera field p r o d u c t i o n . B u t simply watching a day's television p r o g r a m s or reading t h e evening l i n e u p of shows in a p r o g r a m guide reveals t h a t a
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xxvii
surprising a m o u n t of shows were created as m u l t i c a m e r a studio p r o d u c t i o n s . T h e s t u d i o still provides m a x i m u m p r o d u c t i o n c o n t r o l for single- a n d m u l t i p l e - c a m e r a p r o d u c t i o n s . C o n t e m p o r a r y film directors t o o t e n d t o use a m u l t i c a m e r a television setup in a d d i t i o n t o t h e traditional film c a m e r a . N e v e r t h e l e s s , small, h i g h - q u a l i t y c a m c o r d e r s a n d p o r t a b l e a u d i o a n d lighting e q u i p m e n t often m a k e it m o r e
Two-tier approach T h e Handbook is designed t o serve b e g i n n i n g s t u d e n t s as well as t h o s e w h o are m o r e a d e p t at television p r o d u c t i o n . To prevent t h e less a d v a n c e d reader from getting b o g g e d d o w n by t h e m u l t i t u d e of technical details, each chapter is divided i n t o two sections. Section 1 contains t h e basic i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t a specific topic; sec tion 2 presents m o r e - d e t a i l e d material. T h e t w o sections can b e assigned a n d read t o g e t h e r o r i n d e p e n d e n t l y .
practical to take t h e p r o d u c t i o n t o t h e street c o r n e r r a t h e r t h a n simulate t h e street c o r n e r in t h e s t u d i o . To function effectively in video p r o d u c t i o n , we can n o longer specialize in studio or field p r o d u c t i o n b u t m u s t be equally proficient in b o t h . T h i s is w h y b o t h p r o d u c t i o n a p p r o a c h e s are t h o r o u g h l y integrated t h r o u g h o u t this b o o k . Aesthetics and design Despite the D T V revolution, it is still t h e story t h a t drives p r o d u c t i o n t e c h n i q u e s a n d n o t t h e o t h e r way a r o u n d . A n d m a n y t r a d i t i o n a l aesthetic fac t o r s of p i c t u r e c o m p o s i t i o n , lighting, a n d s h o t s e q u e n c i n g are relatively i n d e p e n d e n t of technological advances a n d therefore form t h e basis of effective television p r o d u c t i o n . T h e e x t e n d e d d e s c r i p t i o n of basic aesthetic principles is n o t i n t e n d e d to detract from l e a r n i n g t h e m a j o r technical aspects of p r o d u c t i o n e q u i p m e n t b u t r a t h e r t o facilitate their o p t i m a l application. Aspect ratio F o r s o m e t i m e t o c o m e , s t u d e n t s m u s t learn t o c o m p o s e shots for b o t h t h e 4 x 3 s t a n d a r d televi sion aspect ratio a n d t h e stretched 1 6 x 9 H D T V screen. Stretching t h e 4 x 3 pictures into a 16 x 9 frame is still n e c e s s a r y w h e n s h o w i n g o l d footage b u t is n o l o n g e r acceptable w h e n p r o d u c i n g exclusively for w i d e - s c r e e n H D T V . A l m o s t all screen images i n this b o o k are therefore p r e s e n t e d in t h e n e w 1 6 x 9 aspect ratio. This p r e s e n t a t i o n s h o u l d help s t u d e n t s visualize shots in t h e stretched f r a m e a n d s t u d y t h e a d v a n t a g e s a n d t h e disadvantages of t h e 1 6 x 9 ratio. Coverage also includes valuable i n f o r m a t i o n o n designing for t h e t r a d i t i o n a l 4 x 3 aspect ratio as well as for t h e stretched 1 6 x 9 H D T V screen.
Redundancy As in l e a r n i n g a n e w language, a certain a m o u n t of repetition is i m p o r t a n t in helping t h e s t u d e n t learn a n d r e m e m b e r t h e major television v o c a b u l a r y a n d p r o d u c t i o n concepts. T h e key t e r m s are listed at the begin n i n g of each chapter. To benefit from this l e a r n i n g aid, t h e student should read t h e key t e r m s before c o m m i t t i n g to t h e chapter. T h e key t e r m s a p p e a r in bold italic in t h e context in w h i c h t h e y are defined in t h e text a n d are repeated as part of t h e extensive glossary at t h e back of t h e b o o k . O t h e r glossary t e r m s appear in italictype t h r o u g h o u t the text. T h e M a i n Points section at t h e e n d of each chapter s u m m a r i z e s its essential c o n t e n t . S t u d e n t s s h o u l d use these s u m m a r i e s as a checklist of w h a t t h e y are expected t o know. illustrations T h e n u m e r o u s full-color p i c t u r e s a n d d i a g r a m s are i n t e n d e d t o bridge t h e gap b e t w e e n d e s c r i p t i o n a n d t h e real thing. All a p p r o p r i a t e illustrations t h a t simulate T V images are i n t h e 1 6 x 9 H D T V aspect ratio. In m o s t cases t h e pictures of e q u i p m e n t are t o represent a generic t y p e r a t h e r t h a n a specific preferred m o d e l . NEW TO T H I S E D I T I O N In r e s p o n s e t o t h e helpful feedback I've received from s t u d e n t s a n d teachers using t h e Handbook, a n d to keep t h e text c u r r e n t , I've m a d e several i m p o r t a n t changes. Readers familiar with t h e previous edition will n o t i c e t h e following differences in this n e w edition: Fully u p d a t e d t h r o u g h o u t Full-color interior design ; M o s t screen images i n t h e H D T V aspect ratio
PEDAGOGICAL FEATURES To facilitate s t u d e n t learning, I have i n c o r p o r a t e d several pedagogical principles i n t o t h e
Handbook.
Brief sections Each chapter is b r o k e n u p into relatively s h o r t sections m a r k e d b y separate h e a d i n g s . I h o p e t h a t such a layout will c o u n t e r a c t reading fatigue w i t h o u t frac t u r i n g chapter c o n t e n t .
E x t e n d e d coverage of t h e 1 6 x 9 aspect ratio in relation t o t h e 4 x 3 screen v N e w section o n H D V a n d t h e differences b e t w e e n HDV and HDTV E m p h a s i s o n n o n l i n e a r editing Detailed coverage of visual effects C o o r d i n a t i o n with Zettl's VideoLab 3.0 D V D - R O M
xxviii
Preface
ACCOMPANYING RESOURCES: AN EXCLUSIVE TEACHING AND LEARNING PACKAGE
THE
As w i t h p r e v i o u s editions, t h e N i n t h E d i t i o n of t h e Televi sion Production Handbook offers a wealth of s u p p o r t m a terials for b o t h s t u d e n t s a n d instructors. W a d s w o r t h has p r e p a r e d t h e following list for y o u r c o n s i d e r a t i o n .
This o u t s t a n d i n g site features such materials as chapter-by-
TELEVISION
PRODUCTION
WORKBOOK
W r i t t e n a n d revised by H e r b e r t Zettl, w i t h assistance from R o n a l d J. O s g o o d of I n d i a n a University, t h e
Workbook
enables s t u d e n t s to apply t h e concepts i n t r o d u c e d in t h e Television Production
Handbook
t o real-world p r o d u c t i o n
scenarios. Organized to follow t h e m a i n text, t h e
Workbook
c o n t a i n s t e a r - o u t w o r k s h e e t s t h a t reinforce a n d review t h e chapter material. Also, because s t u d e n t s in b e g i n n i n g p r o d u c t i o n classes t e n d to have widely differing experi ence levels, t h e Workbook can be a useful diagnostic tool to d e t e r m i n e w h o k n o w s w h a t a b o u t television p r o d u c t i o n . ZETTL'S
VIDEOLAB
3.0
DVD-ROM
Zettl's VideoLab 3.0is an interactive D V D - R O M ( W i n d o w s and Mac compatible), based on the award-winning C D - R O M Zettl's VideoLab 2.1. It is i n t e n d e d to give stu dents s o m e virtual h a n d s - o n practice a n d a proven shortcut from r e a d i n g a b o u t p r o d u c t i o n t e c h n i q u e s to actually applying t h e m in t h e s t u d i o a n d t h e field.
TELEVISION
HANDBOOK
PRODUCTION
COMPANION WEBSITE
http://communication.wadsworth.com/zettl_tvphb9 chapter tutorial quizzes, m a i n t a i n e d a n d u p d a t e d Web links, a n d key t e r m flashcards, as well as a practice final exam.
INSTRUCTOR'S ANSWER
MANUAL
KEY
TO
WITH
WORKBOOK
W r i t t e n by H e r b e r t Zettl, this m a n u a l is for t h e i n s t r u c t o r w h o m a y be quite experienced in television p r o d u c t i o n b u t relatively n e w t o teaching. Even as an experienced i n s t r u c tor, however, y o u m a y find i n f o r m a t i o n that makes y o u r difficult j o b of teaching television p r o d u c t i o n just a little easier. T h e m a n u a l c o m p r i s e s four parts: Part I, " G e n e r a l A p p r o a c h t o Teaching Television P r o d u c t i o n , " p r e s e n t s i n f o r m a t i o n o n teaching a p p r o a c h e s a n d ideas a b o u t h o w to teach television p r o d u c t i o n m o s t effectively. Part II, "Key C o n c e p t s , Activities, a n d Tests," c o n t a i n s e x p a n d e d definitions of t h e key concepts i n t r o d u c e d in each chapter, a p p r o p r i a t e activities for reinforcing t h e m , a n d m u l t i p l e choice p r o b l e m s to test s t u d e n t r e t e n t i o n of t h e material. Part III, "Additional Resources," is a c o m p a c t reference t h a t r e c o m m e n d s a d d i t i o n a l teaching a n d l e a r n i n g resources. Part IV is t h e answer key to all of t h e p r o b l e m s in t h e Television Production Workbook.
C h a n g e s t o ZVL 3.0 i n c l u d e t h e following: Greater freedom of c a m e r a m o v e m e n t
EXAMVIEW®
COMPUTERIZED
TESTING
C r e a t e , deliver, a n d c u s t o m i z e tests a n d s t u d y g u i d e s •
Increased interactivity, especially in t h e Try It a n d
( b o t h p r i n t a n d online) in m i n u t e s w i t h this easy-to-use
Q u i z sections
assessment a n d t u t o r i a l system. E x a m V i e w offers b o t h a
E n h a n c e d m o d u l e o n lighting, w h i c h allows stu d e n t s to e x p e r i m e n t with gels a n d t o choose specific i n s t r u m e n t s a n d p o s i t i o n t h e m to see t h e correlating lighting effects
y o u t o see t h e test y o u are creating o n - s c r e e n exactly as
5 E n h a n c e d m o d u l e o n a u d i o , w h i c h enables s t u d e n t s
it will p r i n t o r display online. You can b u i l d tests of u p to
Quick Test Wizard a n d an Online
Test Wizard t h a t guide
y o u s t e p - b y - s t e p t h r o u g h t h e process of c r e a t i n g tests, while its " w h a t y o u see is w h a t y o u get" interface allows
t o hear t h e quality a n d the directionality of v a r i o u s
250 q u e s t i o n s , using u p to 12 q u e s t i o n s types. Using t h e
microphones
c o m p l e t e w o r d - p r o c e s s i n g capabilities of ExamView, y o u can even e n t e r an u n l i m i t e d n u m b e r of n e w questions o r
A n e w section o n switching, which p e r m i t s s t u d e n t s t o practice takes, dissolves, wipes, a n d keys, w i t h preview a n d line m o n i t o r s s h o w i n g t h e results •
N e w editing exercises t h a t give s t u d e n t s experience w i t h s e q u e n c i n g a n d t r i m m i n g shots
edit existing ones. F o r a d d i t i o n a l i n f o r m a t i o n please see t h e P r e v i e w at t h e front of this b o o k , c o n s u l t y o u r local T h o m s o n Wadsworth representative, or contact the Wadsworth A c a d e m i c Resource C e n t e r at 1-800-423-0563.
Preface
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS O n c e a g a i n I w a s p r i v i l e g e d t o h a v e W a d s w o r t h call u p o n t h e expertise of its "A-team" t o p r o d u c e this N i n t h E d i t i o n of t h e Television Production Handbook: Holly Allen, publisher; Renee Deljon, senior d e v e l o p m e n t editor; M a r k Orr, marketing manager; Darlene Amidon-Brent, assistant e d i t o r ; S a r a h Allen, e d i t o r i a l assistant; M a r i a Epes, executive a r t d i r e c t o r ; Jennifer Klos, p r o d u c t i o n p r o j e c t m a n a g e r ; R o b e r t a Broyer, p h o t o e d i t o r ; G a r y P a l m a t i e r of Ideas t o I m a g e s , a r t d i r e c t o r a n d p r o j e c t m a n a g e r ; Robaire Ream, page layout artist a n d illustrator; Elizabeth v o n Radics, copy editor; a n d Ed Aiona, principal p h o t o g r a p h e r . All y o u n e e d t o d o is skim t h r o u g h this b o o k to u n d e r s t a n d m y a d m i r a t i o n a n d deep g r a t i t u d e for their exceptional work. A n u m b e r of dedicated instructors gave m e the benefit of their experience a n d n u m e r o u s excellent suggestions w h e n t h e y r e c o m m e n d e d changes for t h e N i n t h Edition. M a n y thanks to these reviewers: M a r a Alper, Ithaca College; George Bagley, University of Central Florida; Karyn Brown, Mississippi State University; H a m i d Khani, San Francisco State University; Michael Korpi, Baylor University; R o n a l d J. O s g o o d , I n d i a n a University; Paul Rose, University of U t a h ; a n d J o - A n n e Ryan, Western K e n t u c k y University. I a m also greatly i n d e b t e d to Michael Korpi a n d Paul Rose, w h o also reviewed t h e m a n u s c r i p t of this edition a n d suggested n u m e r o u s i m p r o v e m e n t s , a n d to R o n a l d J. O s g o o d , w h o r e c o m m e n d e d s o m e changes to t h e m a i n text a n d also h e l p e d revise t h e Workbook. M a n y t h a n k s to Joshua H e c h t a n d Vinay Shrivastava, w h o reviewed a n d helped u p d a t e t h e a u d i o chapters. I also received g e n e r o u s a s s i s t a n c e f r o m m y c o l l e a g u e s at S a n F r a n c i s c o State University: M a r t y G o n z a l e s , C h u l H e o , Rick H o u l b e r g , S t u a r t H y d e , H a m i d K h a n i , Phil K i p p e r , Steve Lahey, W i n s t o n T h a r p , Michelle Wolf, a n d Lena Z h a n g .
1
I also w a n t t o give a big t h a n k - y o u to all of t h e people a n d o r g a n i z a t i o n s w h o r e s p o n d e d quickly a n d positively to m y n u m e r o u s requests for assistance: Stanley Alten, Syracuse University; Rudolf Benzler, Plazamedia, M u n i c h , G e r m a n y ; John Beritzhoff a n d Greg G o d d a r d , S n a d e r a n d Associates; Corey C a r b o n a r a , Baylor University; Ed Cosci, associate chief engineer, K T V U , O a k l a n d - S a n Francisco; S o n n y Craven, Virginia Military Institute; Ed D u d k o w s k i , Creative Technologies; Elan Frank, Elan P r o d u c t i o n s ; Jim H a m a n , director of local p r o g r a m m i n g / p r o d u c t i o n , KTVU, O a k l a n d - S a n Francisco; M a n f r e d M u c k e n h a u p t , chair, M e d i a Studies, University of Tuebingen, G e r m a n y ; Steve Shlisky, p r o d u c e r / e d i t o r , K T V U , San F r a n c i s c o - O a k l a n d ; a n d Manfred Wolfram, chair, Electronic M e d i a Division, University of C i n c i n n a t i . T h e m a n y p e o p l e w h o gave a considerable a m o u n t of their t i m e a n d displayed a n a m a z i n g level of professional ism d u r i n g o u r p h o t o sessions also deserve high praise: Talia Aiona, Karen Austin, Ken Baird, J e r o m e B a k u m , Rudolf Benzler, T i e m o B i e m u e l l e r , M o n i c a C a i z a d a , W i l l i a m C a r p e n t e r , A n d r e w Child, L a u r a Child, Rebecca Child, Renee Child, Skye C h r i s t e n s e n , Ed Cosci, Carla C u r r i e , Sabrina Dorsey, T a m m y Feng, Jedediah Gildersleeve, C a s s a n d r a Hein, Sangyong H o n g , Akiko Kajiwara, H a m i d K h a n i , Philip Kipper, C h r i s t i n e Lojo, O r c u n Malkoclar, Michael M o n a , J o h n n y M o r e n o , Anita M o r g a n , Jacqueline Murray, T u a n N g u y e n , Richard Piscitello, M a t t h e w Prisk, M a r l i n Q u i n t e r o , Kerstin Riediger, S u z a n n e Saputo, Alisa S h a h o n i a n , Steve Shlisky, Talisha Teague, Takako Thorstadt, a n d Yanlan W u . O n c e again, I have dedicated t h e n e w edition of this b o o k to m y wife, Erika. It is m y h u m b l e a t t e m p t to let e v e r y b o d y k n o w h o w m u c h I appreciate h e r s u p p o r t each t i m e I retreat to a T V world while w o r k i n g o n the Television Production H e r b e r t Zettl
Handbook.
Television Production Process You may think that television production is a relatively simple task. After all, y o u do pretty well w i t h your camcorder. W h e n w a t c h i n g a newscast from t h e control room at a local television station, however, y o u realize that television production involves m u c h m o r e than just operating a camcorder. Even a seemingly simple p r o d u c t i o n — s u c h as a n e w s anchor first introducing a n d t h e n playing a v i d e o t a p e of the school principal s h o w i n g to parents a n d reporters t h e c o m p u t e r lab—involves a great n u m b e r of intricate operations by n e w s production personnel a n d the use of m a n y sophisticated machines. A 55-second chitchat b e t w e e n a T V news anchor in Portland and a tennis star in L o n d o n presents a formidable challenge e v e n for highly experienced production personnel.
W h e n w a t c h i n g television, viewers are largely u n a w a r e of such production complexities. But as y o u can see, professional television production—regardless of w h e t h e r it is d o n e in a television station or in t h e field—is a complex creative process in w h i c h people a n d machines interact to bring a variety of messages a n d experiences to a large a u d i e n c e . Even w h e n involved in a relatively small production, y o u n e e d to k n o w w h a t machines and p e o p l e are necessary to achieve a certain t y p e of television c o m m u n i c a t i o n a n d h o w to coordinate the m a n y creative and technical elements.
Chapter 1 is designed to provide y o u with an o v e r v i e w of t h e various e q u i p m e n t and production processes. S e c t i o n 1.1, W h a t Television Production Is All About, introduces t h e television system a n d its many production elements. Section 1.2, Studios, Master Control, a n d S u p p o r t Areas, describes the e n v i r o n m e n t in w h i c h the television studio system operates.
:
:
camcorder A portable camera with the videotape recorder or some other recording device attached or built into it to form a single unit. control room A room adjacent to the studio in which the director, the technical director, the audio engineer, and sometimes the lighting director perform their various production functions. electronic field production (EFP) Television production out side the studio that is usually shot for postproduction (not live). Usually called field production. electronic news gathering (ENG) The use of portable cam corders or cameras with separate portable VTRs, lights, and sound equipment for the production of daily news stories. ENG is usually not planned in advance and is usually trans mitted live or immediately after postproduction. expanded system A television system consisting of equip ment and procedures that allows for selection, control, recording, playback, and transmission of television pictures and sound. feed Signal transmission from one program source to another, such as a network feed or a remote feed. house number The in-house system of identification for each piece of recorded program material. Called the house number because the code numbers differ from station to station (house to house). intercom Short for intercommunication system. Used by all production and technical personnel. The most widely used system has telephone headsets to facilitate voice com munication on several wired or wireless channels. Includes other systems, such as I.F.B. and cell phones. lighting The manipulation of light and shadows: to provide the camera with adequate illumination for technically acceptable pictures; to tell us what the objects on-screen actually look like; and to establish the general mood of the event. 1
line monitor The monitor that shows only the line-out pictures that go on the air or on videotape. Also called master moni tor or program monitor. line-out The line that carries the final video or audio output for broadcast.
log The major operational document: a second-by-second list of every program aired on a particular day. It carries such information as program source or origin, scheduled pro gram time, program duration, video and audio information, code identification (house number, for example), program title, program type, and additional pertinent information. master control Nerve center for all telecasts. Controls the pro gram input, storage, and retrieval for on-the-air telecasts. Also oversees technical quality of all program material. monitor (1) Audio: speaker that carries the program sound in dependent of the line-out. (2) Video: high-quality television set used in the television studio and control rooms. Cannot receive broadcast signals. P.L. Stands for private line or phone line. Major intercommunica tion system in television production. preview (P/V) monitor (1) Any monitor that shows a video source, except for the line (master) and off-the-air monitors. (2) A color monitor that shows the director the picture to be used for the next shot. program speaker A loudspeaker in the control room that carries the program sound. Its volume can be controlled without affecting the actual line-out program feed. Also called audio monitor. studio talkback A public address loudspeaker system from the control room to the studio. Also called S.A. (studio address) or P.A. (public address) system. system The interrelationship of various elements and processes whereby the proper functioning of each element is depen dent on all others. tapeless system Refers to the recording, storage, and playback of audio and video information via computer storage devices rather than videotape. television system Equipment and people who operate the equipment for the production of specific programs. The basic television system consists of a television camera and a microphone that convert pictures and sound into electrical signals, and a television set and a loudspeaker that convert the signals back into pictures and sound.
3
1.1 What Television Production Is All About
T h e m a j o r p r o b l e m in learning a b o u t television p r o d u c tion is that to u n d e r s t a n d o n e specific p r o d u c t i o n t o o l o r t e c h n i q u e , s u c h as o p t i m a l lighting, y o u s h o u l d already k n o w the functions of the lens, the iris, m a x i m u m a n d m i n i m u m a p e r t u r e , a n d d e p t h of field. In t u r n , y o u n e e d to k n o w s o m e t h i n g a b o u t h o w colored light behaves before y o u c a n adequately u n d e r s t a n d h o w a c a m e r a o r a color television receiver w o r k s . Because I can't c r a m all the n e c essary i n f o r m a t i o n i n t o a single p a r a g r a p h , a n d y o u can't learn the various p r o d u c t i o n e l e m e n t s a n d o p e r a t i o n s all at once, we c o m p r o m i s e a n d begin this b o o k w i t h a b r o a d overview of t h e television p r o d u c t i o n system. By viewing television p r o d u c t i o n as a system, y o u will readily see t h e interconnections a m o n g the various system elements, even w h e n they are presented piecemeal. ^
BASIC T E L E V I S I O N
SYSTEM
The equipment that converts optical images and actual sounds into electric energy, and the people who operate it
•
E X P A N D E D STUDIO A N D E L E C T R O N I C F I E L D P R O D U C T I O N SYSTEMS The system elements of studio and field productions, and the studio system in action
^
PRODUCTION
ELEMENTS
Camera, lighting, audio, switching, videotape recording, tapeless systems, postproduction editing, and special effects
4
BASIC TELEVISION SYSTEM A system is a collection of e l e m e n t s t h a t w o r k t o g e t h e r t o achieve a specific p u r p o s e . Each of t h e e l e m e n t s is d e p e n d e n t o n the p r o p e r w o r k i n g s of all the o t h e r s , a n d n o n e of the individual e l e m e n t s can d o the j o b alone. T h e television system consists of e q u i p m e n t a n d p e o p l e w h o o p e r a t e t h a t e q u i p m e n t for t h e p r o d u c t i o n of specific p r o g r a m s . W h e t h e r t h e p r o d u c t i o n s are simple or elabo rate, o r originate in t h e studio o r in t h e field—that is, o n l o c a t i o n — t h e system w o r k s o n the s a m e basic principle: the television c a m e r a converts w h a t e v e r it "sees" (optical i m a g e s ) i n t o electrical signals t h a t c a n b e t e m p o r a r i l y stored or directly reconverted by the television set i n t o visible screen images. T h e m i c r o p h o n e converts whatever it " h e a r s " (actual s o u n d s ) into electrical signals t h a t can be t e m p o r a r i l y stored o r directly reconverted i n t o s o u n d s by t h e loudspeaker. In general, t h e basic television system t r a n s d u c e s (converts) o n e state of energy (optical image, actual s o u n d ) into a n o t h e r (electrical energy), S E E 1.1 T h e picture signals are called video signals, a n d the s o u n d signals are called audio signals. A n y small c o n s u m e r camcorder represents s u c h a system.
EXPANDED STUDIO AND ELECTRONIC FIELD PRODUCTION SYSTEMS T h e b a s i c t e l e v i s i o n s y s t e m is c o n s i d e r a b l y e x p a n d e d w h e n d o i n g a television p r o d u c t i o n in t h e s t u d i o or in t h e field, such as a telecast of a s p o r t i n g event. T h e expanded system n e e d s e q u i p m e n t a n d p r o c e d u r e s t h a t allow for the selection of various pictures a n d s o u n d sources; for t h e c o n t r o l a n d m o n i t o r i n g of picture a n d s o u n d quality; for t h e recording, playback, a n d t r a n s m i s s i o n of pictures a n d s o u n d ; a n d for t h e integration of additional video a n d a u d i o sources. SYSTEM ELEMENTS OF S T U D I O P R O D U C T I O N T h e e x p a n d e d studio television system in its m o s t e l e m e n tary stage includes: (1) o n e o r m o r e c a m e r a s , (2) a c a m e r a c o n t r o l u n i t ( C C U ) o r units, (3) preview m o n i t o r s , (4) a switcher, (5) a line m o n i t o r , (6) o n e o r m o r e v i d e o t a p e r e c o r d e r s , a n d (7) a l i n e - o u t t h a t t r a n s p o r t s t h e v i d e o signal to the v i d e o t a p e recorder a n d / o r t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n device, S E E 1.2 Usually integrated into t h e e x p a n d e d system are v i d e o t a p e m a c h i n e s for playback, character or graphic g e n e r a t o r s t h a t p r o d u c e v a r i o u s f o r m s of l e t t e r i n g o r g r a p h i c art, a n d an editing system.
Section
1.1
What
Television
Production
Is All
About
5
Videotape recorder • •I
Microphone
o
111
" • .
Audio signal Loudspeaker
Actual sounds
TV sound
Transmission TV picture Video signal Television receiver
Television camera Subject
1.1
BASIC TELEVISION SYSTEM
The basic television system converts light and sounds into electrical video and audio signals that are transmitted (wireless or by cable) and reconverted by the television receiver into television pictures and sound.
T h e a u d i o p o r t i o n of t h e e x p a n d e d system consists
for e x a m p l e , lighten t h e d a r k s h a d o w area o n t h e a n c h o r
of (1) o n e or m o r e m i c r o p h o n e s , (2) a n a u d i o m i x e r or
s h o w n o n c a m e r a 1 a n d reduce the glare o n t h e co-anchor's
console, (3) a n a u d i o m o n i t o r (speaker), a n d (4) a line-
forehead as seen b y c a m e r a 2. O r t h e video o p e r a t o r can
o u t that t r a n s p o r t s t h e s o u n d signal to t h e v i d e o r e c o r d e r
adjust t h e colors so t h a t t h e y l o o k t h e s a m e from c a m e r a
a n d / o r t h e t r a n s m i t t e r (see figure 1.2).
to camera.
N o t e t h a t t h e system e l e m e n t s are identical regardless
T h e quality-controlled pictures from b o t h c a m e r a s are
of w h e t h e r the i n d i v i d u a l pieces of e q u i p m e n t are a n a l o g
fed i n t o preview
o r digital.
see w h a t t h e y l o o k like. A t h i r d p r e v i e w m o n i t o r is neces
monitors,
o n e for each c a m e r a , so y o u can
sary to s h o w t h e v i d e o t a p e of t h e p r i n c i p a l . T h e s e t h r e e v i d e o signals (from c a m e r a s 1 a n d 2 a n d t h e v i d e o t a p e ) STUDIO SYSTEM IN ACTION
are s i m u l t a n e o u s l y fed i n t o t h e switcher, w h i c h allows y o u
Let us n o w p u t t h e e x p a n d e d system to w o r k a n d see h o w
t o select a n d switch any of t h e t h r e e v i d e o feeds t o t h e
t h e v a r i o u s e l e m e n t s i n t e r a c t w h e n a news a n c h o r in the
line-out
s t u d i o i n t r o d u c e s a v i d e o t a p e of t h e s c h o o l p r i n c i p a l
i n g t h e b u t t o n for c a m e r a 1 will p u t t h e close-up view of
for t r a n s m i s s i o n or v i d e o t a p e r e c o r d i n g . Press
s h o w i n g h e r guests t h e n e w c o m p u t e r lab. C a m e r a s 1 a n d
o n e of t h e a n c h o r s o n t h e line monitor, w h i c h displays t h e
2 are focused o n t h e t w o n e w s a n c h o r s . C a m e r a 1 p r o v i d e s
l i n e - o u t signals t h a t go o n t h e air or o n v i d e o t a p e . Pressing
a close-up of o n e of t h e a n c h o r s , a n d c a m e r a 2 shows a
t h e c a m e r a 2 b u t t o n will p u t c a m e r a 2's c l o s e - u p of t h e
c l o s e - u p of t h e c o - a n c h o r . T h e v i d e o signals from these
c o - a n c h o r o n t h e line m o n i t o r . Pressing t h e b u t t o n for the
c a m e r a s are fed a n d q u a l i t y - c o n t r o l l e d by their respective
v i d e o t a p e insert will p u t t h e p r i n c i p a l o n t h e line m o n i t o r .
camera control units (CCUs).
The CCUs can enhance and
W h a t e v e r a p p e a r s o n t h e line m o n i t o r will b e sent t o t h e
m a t c h certain v i d e o e l e m e n t s of t h e pictures sent b y t h e
l i n e - o u t t h a t feeds the t r a n s m i s s i o n device ( o n the air or
t w o c a m e r a s . W i t h t h e C C U s t h e video o p e r a t o r (VO) can,
cable) a n d / o r t h e video recorder.
Chapter
6
THE
1
TELEVISION
PRODUCTION
PROCESS
ecu'
Preview monitor camera 1
CCU 2 Preview monitor camera 2
"
... Ill
•
Videotape playback
Videotape preview monitor
Videotape audio
Mid Mic2 nd o
auunaodow
D D Q D B B B D B i S Q D a B B B I I D B a B O B D
ill
I i i I 6 .1. Audio console line-out
Video switcher line-out
Audio monitor (speaker)
Line or program monitor
... HI Home TV receiver with picture and sound
—
Video recorder (records audio and video signals)
Transmitter (audio and video signals)
1.2
EXPANDED STUDIO TELEVISION SYSTEM
The expanded studio television system contains quality controls ( C C U and audio console), selection controls (switcher and audio console), and monitors for previewing pictures and sound.
Section
1.1
What
Television
Production
Is All
About
7
T h e signals f r o m t h e n e w s a n c h o r s ' m i c r o p h o n e s
category a n d is a c c o m p l i s h e d with a relatively simple field
are fed i n t o t h e a u d i o console, as is t h e a u d i o track of t h e
p r o d u c t i o n system. All y o u really n e e d is s o m e o n e w h o
principal's v i d e o t a p e . T h e a u d i o console n o w p e r m i t s y o u
o p e r a t e s t h e c a m c o r d e r a n d a field r e p o r t e r w h o describes
t o select a m o n g t h e a n c h o r s ' voices a n d t h e s o u n d track o n
t h e a c t i o n a n d tries to get s o m e brief c o m m e n t s from t h e
t h e v i d e o t a p e a n d to c o n t r o l t h e quality of t h e t h r e e s o u n d
p r i n c i p a l a n d p e r h a p s a teacher or s t u d e n t . O n c e t h e foot
i n p u t s . You can, for e x a m p l e , select t h e voice of the p e r s o n
age reaches t h e n e w s r o o m , it is drastically cut a n d edited
o n t h e screen, m a t c h the v o l u m e of t h e three s o u n d sources
t o fit t h e brief t i m e s e g m e n t (10 s e c o n d s o r so) allotted to
(anchor, c o - a n c h o r , a n d principal), o r keep o n e lower t h a n
t h e story.
the others.
H a d the scene w i t h t h e principal been a live insert, you
U n a w a r e of all the complex p r o d u c t i o n m a n e u v e r s , the
w o u l d have h a d t o e x p a n d t h e system still further, w i t h a
viewer s i m p l y sees close-ups of t h e p e r s o n a b l e a n d k n o w l
p o r t a b l e t r a n s m i t t e r to t r a n s p o r t t h e signal from t h e field
edgeable n e w s a n c h o r s i n t r o d u c i n g t h e u p c o m i n g s t o r y
t o t h e s t a t i o n . T h e E N G signal is often t r a n s m i t t e d live to
a b o u t t h e school p r i n c i p a l a n d t h e n s h o w i n g t h e p r i n c i p a l
t h e s t u d i o , S E E 1.3
walking t h r o u g h t h e n e w facilities, p o i n t i n g p r o u d l y t o t h e latest c o m p u t e r e q u i p m e n t .
If t h e field p r o d u c t i o n is n o t for n e w s or is m o r e e l a b o r a t e , y o u are engaged in EFP (electronic tion).
SYSTEM OF
FIELD
ELEMENTS
separate VTRs [videotape
PRODUCTION
field
produc
S o m e t i m e s field c a m e r a s t h a t feed their o u t p u t to recorders) are used, S E E 1 . 4 Big
remotes are field p r o d u c t i o n s w h o s e p r o d u c t i o n system is
ENfiw The principal obviously could not bring her new
similar t o t h e studio's, except t h a t c a m e r a s are placed o n
EFP
l o c a t i o n a n d t h e c o n t r o l r o o m is h o u s e d in a large t r u c k c o m p u t e r lab i n t o t h e s t u d i o , so s o m e o n e h a d t o go
o n location to v i d e o t a p e t h e event. Such location s h o o t i n g n o r m a l l y falls i n t o t h e ENG {electronic
news
trailer. (For a detailed discussion of EFP a n d big r e m o t e s , see c h a p t e r 20.) 4
gathering)
1.3 ENG SYSTEM The basic ENG system con sists of a camcorder and a microphone. The camcorder includes all video and audio quality controls as well as video- and audio-recording facilities. A portable transmit ter is necessary to send a live field pickup to the studio.
Transmitter
Camcorder
1.4 EFP SYSTEM VTR1 • 0 Camera 1 with attached or separate VTR
in
I
1 • • « •
•
•
•
• ••nii
_ £
The EFP system is similar to that for ENG, but it may use more than one cam era to feed the output to separate VTRs.
8
Chapter
THE
7
TELEVISION
PRODUCTION
PROCESS
PRODUCTION ELEMENTS W i t h t h e e x p a n d e d television system in m i n d , w e briefly explore eight basic p r o d u c t i o n e l e m e n t s : (1) t h e c a m e r a , (2) lighting, (3) audio, (4) switching, (5) v i d e o t a p e record ing,
(6) tapeless systems (7) p o s t p r o d u c t i o n editing, a n d
(8) special effects. W h e n l e a r n i n g a b o u t television p r o d u c t i o n , always t r y to see each piece of e q u i p m e n t a n d its o p e r a t i o n within the larger context of the television system, t h a t is, in relation to all t h e o t h e r pieces of e q u i p m e n t t h a t are u s e d a n d t h e p e o p l e w h o use t h e m — t h e personnel.
production
It is, after all, t h e skilled a n d p r u d e n t use of t h e
television e q u i p m e n t by t h e p r o d u c t i o n t e a m , a n d n o t s i m p l y t h e s m o o t h i n t e r a c t i o n of the m a c h i n e s , t h a t gives t h e system its value. ( T h e specific roles of t h e p r o d u c t i o n p e r s o n n e l are o u t l i n e d in c h a p t e r 16.)
CAMERA The most obvious production element—the
camera—
c o m e s in all sizes a n d configurations. S o m e c a m e r a s are so small t h a t t h e y fit easily into y o u r coat pocket, w h e r e a s o t h e r s are so heavy t h a t y o u have to s t r a i n yourself to lift t h e m o n t o a c a m e r a m o u n t . T h e camera mount
enables
t h e o p e r a t o r t o m o v e a heavy c a m e r a / l e n s / t e l e p r o m p t e r a s s e m b l y o n t h e s t u d i o floor w i t h relative ease,
SEEI.S
Portable c a m e r a s are often used for E N G a n d EFP. M a n y E N G / E F P c a m e r a s are c a m c o r d e r s t h a t c o m b i n e t h e c a m e r a a n d the v i d e o t a p e r e c o r d e r in o n e u n i t , m u c h like p o p u l a r c o n s u m e r m o d e l s . T h e E N G / E F P c a m c o r d
1.5
ers,
High-quality studio cameras are mounted on a studio pedestal for smooth and easy maneuverability.
however, are of h i g h e r quality a n d cost c o n s i d e r a b l y
m o r e . It is often t h e h i g h - q u a l i t y lens t h a t distinguishes a
STUDIO CAMERA WITH PNEUMATIC PEDESTAL
professional E N G / E F P c a m e r a from a h i g h - e n d c o n s u m e r m o d e l . S o m e E N G / E F P c a m e r a s are built so t h a t they c a n " d o c k " with a v i d e o t a p e recorder, a digital disc, or h a r d -
a n d c o n t i n u o u s l y change from a long s h o t (showing a w i d e
drive r e c o r d i n g unit; such u n i t s are s i m p l y p l u g g e d i n t o
vista) to a close-up view w i t h o u t m o v i n g either t h e c a m e r a
t h e b a c k of t h e c a m e r a to f o r m a c a m c o r d e r . Regardless of
or t h e object y o u are p h o t o g r a p h i n g .
w h e t h e r t h e c a m c o r d e r is a n a l o g or digital, its o p e r a t i o n a l features are basically identical, S E E I . 6 T h e s t u d i o television c a m e r a h a s t h r e e f u n d a m e n t a l p a r t s : t h e lens, t h e c a m e r a itself, a n d t h e viewfinder.
T h e c a m e r a is p r i n c i p a l l y designed to c o n v e r t t h e optical i m a g e as projected b y t h e lens i n t o a n electrical s i g n a l — t h e v i d e o signal. As m e n t i o n e d ear lier, t h e m a j o r conversion e l e m e n t is t h e i m a g i n g device,
The lens
I n all photography
(meaning "writing with
a s m a l l e l e c t r o n i c c h i p called t h e CCD
[charge-coupled
light"), t h e lens selects p a r t of t h e visible e n v i r o n m e n t a n d
device).
It r e s p o n d s to light in a m a n n e r t h a t resembles
p r o d u c e s a small optical i m a g e of it. In s t a n d a r d still a n d
a light meter. W h e n t h e C C D receives a large a m o u n t of
m o v i e c a m e r a s , t h e i m a g e is t h e n projected o n t o film; in
light, it p r o d u c e s a s t r o n g v i d e o signal (just as t h e needle
digital still c a m e r a s a n d television c a m e r a s , it is projected
of a light m e t e r goes way u p ) ; w h e n it receives faint light,
o n t o the imaging
device, w h i c h converts t h e light f r o m
it p r o d u c e s a weak signal (just as t h e light m e t e r n e e d l e
t h e optical i m a g e i n t o a n electrical signal. All television
barely m o v e s from its original p o s i t i o n ) . O t h e r optical a n d
c a m e r a s have a zoom lens, w h i c h allows y o u to s m o o t h l y
electronic c o m p o n e n t s e n a b l e t h e c a m e r a to r e p r o d u c e
Section
1.1
What
Television
Production
Is All
t h e studio pedestal
9
About
( s h o w n in figure 1.5), w h i c h lets y o u
raise a n d lower t h e c a m e r a a n d m o v e it s m o o t h l y across the s t u d i o floor while it is "hot," t h a t is, o n t h e air. S o m e news studios use robotic cameras that are remotely controlled via c o m p u t e r b y a single o p e r a t o r in t h e s t u d i o c o n t r o l r o o m . Because h i g h - q u a l i t y c a m e r a s can b e relatively small a n d light, s u c h r o b o t i c systems have b e c o m e q u i t e p o p u l a r in newsrooms.
LIGHTING Like t h e h u m a n eye, t h e c a m e r a c a n n o t see well w i t h o u t a certain a m o u n t of light. Because it is n o t objects w e a c t u ally see b u t t h e light reflected off of t h e m , m a n i p u l a t i n g t h e light falling o n objects influences the way we perceive t h e m o n - s c r e e n . Such m a n i p u l a t i o n is called
lighting.
Lighting has four b r o a d p u r p o s e s : (1) to p r o v i d e t h e
1.6
television c a m e r a with a d e q u a t e i l l u m i n a t i o n for t e c h n i
PROFESSIONAL CAMCORDER
The professional camcorder is a highly portable, self-contained camera/video recording unit. It is usually battery-powered.
cally acceptable p i c t u r e s ; (2) to tell us w h a t t h e objects s h o w n o n - s c r e e n actually look like; (3) to s h o w us w h e r e t h e objects are in relation to o n e a n o t h e r a n d to t h e i r i m m e d i a t e e n v i r o n m e n t , a n d w h e n t h e event is t a k i n g place
t h e colors a n d t h e l i g h t - a n d - d a r k v a r i a t i o n s of the actual
in t e r m s of t i m e of day o r season; a n d (4) t o establish t h e
scene as accurately as possible, as well as t o amplify t h e
general m o o d of t h e event.
relatively weak v i d e o signal so t h a t it can b e sent t o t h e c a m e r a c o n t r o l u n i t w i t h o u t getting lost a l o n g t h e way.
Types of illumination
For b o t h analog a n d digital c a m e r a s , t h e basic i m a g i n g
involves t w o t y p e s of i l l u m i n a t i o n : d i r e c t i o n a l a n d dif
devices are t h e s a m e .
fused. Directional
All television lighting basically
light h a s a s h a r p b e a m a n d p r o d u c e s
h a r s h s h a d o w s . You can a i m t h e light b e a m to i l l u m i n a t e The viewfinder
T h e viewfinder
is a s m a l l television
a precise area. A flashlight a n d car h e a d l i g h t s p r o d u c e
set m o u n t e d o n t h e c a m e r a t h a t s h o w s w h a t t h e c a m e r a
d i r e c t i o n a l light. Diffused
is seeing. M o s t viewfinders of professional c a m e r a s are
t h a t illuminates a relatively large area a n d p r o d u c e s soft,
monochrome,
t r a n s l u c e n t s h a d o w s . T h e fluorescent l a m p s in a d e p a r t
w h i c h m e a n s that the display is in b l a c k - a n d -
white. M a n y c o n s u m e r c a m c o r d e r s a n d s o m e h i g h - q u a l i t y
lighthas
a wide, indistinct b e a m
m e n t store p r o d u c e diffused lighting.
s t u d i o c a m e r a s , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , have color viewfinders,
S t u d i o lighting consists of carefully c o n t r o l l i n g light
so y o u c a n see the color p i c t u r e s t h a t t h e c a m e r a delivers.
a n d s h a d o w areas. T h e lighting r e q u i r e m e n t s for electronic
Generally, b l a c k - a n d - w h i t e viewfinders s h o w m o r e p i c
field p r o d u c t i o n are u s u a l l y q u i t e different f r o m t h o s e
t u r e detail t h a n color displays do, w h i c h m a k e s it easier t o
for s t u d i o w o r k . I n electronic n e w s g a t h e r i n g , y o u w o r k
achieve s h a r p focus.
m o s t l y w i t h available light o r occasionally with a single lighting i n s t r u m e n t t h a t gives just e n o u g h i l l u m i n a t i o n
Mounting equipment
Portable c a m e r a s a n d c a m c o r d
for t h e c a m e r a t o record an event relatively close t o the
ers are d e s i g n e d t o rest m o r e o r less c o m f o r t a b l y o n y o u r
c a m e r a . For EFP y o u also use available light, especially
shoulder. But even a small, h a n d h e l d c a m c o r d e r can get
w h e n s h o o t i n g o u t d o o r s , o r highly diffused light t h a t p r o
q u i t e heavy w h e n y o u o p e r a t e it for p r o l o n g e d p e r i o d s of
vides o p t i m a l visibility i n d o o r s . S o m e field p r o d u c t i o n s ,
t i m e . In s u c h cases a tripod n o t only relieves y o u of h a v i n g
s u c h as d o c u m e n t a r i e s or d r a m a t i c scenes, r e q u i r e careful
t o c a r r y t h e c a m e r a b u t also e n s u r e s steady pictures. T h e
i n t e r i o r lighting t h a t resembles s t u d i o lighting t e c h n i q u e s .
heavy s t u d i o c a m e r a s also n e e d m o u n t s ; these r a n g e f r o m
T h e difference is t h a t t h e l o c a t i o n lighting for EFP is d o n e
t r i p o d s , similar to t h o s e u s e d for E N G / E F P c a m e r a s , to
w i t h p o r t a b l e lighting i n s t r u m e n t s r a t h e r t h a n with s t u d i o
large cranes. T h e m o s t c o m m o n s t u d i o c a m e r a m o u n t is
lights, w h i c h are m o r e or less p e r m a n e n t l y installed.
Chapter
10
THE
1
TELEVISION
PRODUCTION
PROCESS
1.7 STUDIO LIGHTING The typical studio lighting uses spotlights and a variety of floodlights.
Lighting instruments
T h e lighting i n s t r u m e n t s t h a t
p r o d u c e d i r e c t i o n a l light are called spotlights,
and the
o n e s t h a t p r o d u c e diffused light are called floodlights.
In
television lighting, especially o n n e w s a n d i n t e r v i e w sets, for g a m e shows a n d s i t u a t i o n c o m e d i e s , a n d in m a n y field productions.
t h e television s t u d i o , t h e v a r i o u s types of spotlights a n d floodlights are usually s u s p e n d e d from t h e ceiling, S E E 1.7 S t u d i o lights are m u c h t o o heavy a n d b u l k y t o b e u s e d outside t h e studio. M o s t EFPs use portable lighting packages
AUDIO A l t h o u g h t h e t e r m television
does not include audio, the
s o u n d p o r t i o n of a television s h o w is nevertheless o n e of its
that consist of several small, highly efficient i n s t r u m e n t s
m o s t i m p o r t a n t e l e m e n t s . Television a u d i o n o t o n l y c o m
t h a t c a n b e p l u g g e d i n t o o r d i n a r y electrical outlets. T h e r e
m u n i c a t e s precise i n f o r m a t i o n b u t also c o n t r i b u t e s greatly
are also larger fluorescent b a n k s for large-area o r v i r t u
to t h e m o o d a n d t h e a t m o s p h e r e of a scene. If y o u were t o
ally shadowless lighting. M o s t p o r t a b l e i n s t r u m e n t s c a n
t u r n off t h e a u d i o d u r i n g a newscast, even t h e best n e w s
either b e m o u n t e d o n collapsible floor stands o r clipped
a n c h o r s w o u l d have difficulty c o m m u n i c a t i n g their stories
o n t o d o o r s , windowsills, o r furniture. T h e s e i n s t r u m e n t s
t h r o u g h facial e x p r e s s i o n s , g r a p h i c s , a n d v i d e o i m a g e s
generally o p e r a t e as floodlights, b u t they can b e adjusted t o
a l o n e . T h e aesthetic f u n c t i o n of s o u n d (to m a k e us per
function as spotlights as well. To o b t a i n m o r e d i r e c t i o n a l
ceive an event o r feel i n a p a r t i c u l a r way) b e c o m e s o b v i o u s
c o n t r o l , EFP lighting packages i n c l u d e a n u m b e r of small
w h e n y o u listen to t h e b a c k g r o u n d s o u n d s d u r i n g a c r i m e
spotlights, w h i c h c a n b e diffused w i t h a collapsible diffu
show, for e x a m p l e . T h e squealing tires d u r i n g a h i g h - s p e e d
sion t e n t , often called soft box (see c h a p t e r 7). S E E 1.8
chase are real e n o u g h , b u t t h e r h y t h m i c a l l y fast, exciting b a c k g r o u n d m u s i c t h a t a c c o m p a n i e s t h e scene is definitely
Lighting techniques
All television l i g h t i n g is b a s e d
artificial. After all, t h e getaway car a n d t h e police car a r e
on a simple principle: use some instruments (usually
n o t followed in real life by a t h i r d vehicle w i t h m u s i c i a n s
spotlights a n d
playing t h e b a c k g r o u n d m u s i c . But w e have g r o w n so a c
floodlights)
t o i l l u m i n a t e specific areas,
soften s h a d o w s , a n d b r i n g t h e overall light o n a scene t o a n
c u s t o m e d t o s u c h devices t h a t w e p r o b a b l y w o u l d perceive
i n t e n s i t y level at w h i c h t h e c a m e r a s c a n generate o p t i m a l
t h e scene as less exciting if t h e m u s i c w e r e missing.
pictures. In general, television lighting has less c o n t r a s t
T h e v a r i o u s a u d i o p r o d u c t i o n e l e m e n t s are m i c r o
b e t w e e n light a n d s h a d o w areas t h a n d o film a n d t h e a t e r
phones, ENG/EFP a n d studio sound control equipment,
l i g h t i n g . Diffused light is t h e r e f o r e u s e d extensively i n
a n d s o u n d r e c o r d i n g a n d playback devices.
Section
1.8
1.1
What
Television
Production
Is All
About
PORTABLE LIGHTING INSTRUMENTS
Portable lighting instruments consist of versatile spotlights and floodlights that can be plugged into regular household outlets
Microphones
All m i c r o p h o n e s c o n v e r t s o u n d waves
i n t o electric e n e r g y — t h e a u d i o signals. T h e s o u n d signals are amplified a n d sent to t h e loudspeaker, w h i c h reconverts t h e m i n t o audible s o u n d . T h e m y r i a d m i c r o p h o n e s avail able t o d a y are designed to p e r f o r m different tasks. Picking u p a newscaster's voice, c a p t u r i n g t h e s o u n d s of a t e n n i s m a t c h , a n d r e c o r d i n g a r o c k c o n c e r t — a l l m a y require dif ferent m i c r o p h o n e s or m i c r o p h o n e sets.
Eggw
ENG/EFP sound control equipment
E \v
t h e a u d i o is n o r m a l l y c o n t r o l l e d by t h e c a m e r a o p
In E N G
erator, w h o wears a small e a r p h o n e t h a t carries the i n c o m
1.9
ing s o u n d . Because t h e c a m e r a o p e r a t o r is b u s y r u n n i n g
The portable audio mixer has a limited amount of inputs and volume controls.
t h e c a m e r a , t h e s o u n d controls o n t h e c a m c o r d e r are often switched t o t h e automatic
setting. In t h e m o r e critical EFP,
t h e v o l u m e of i n c o m i n g s o u n d s is usually c o n t r o l l e d by a p o r t a b l e mixer a n d r e c o r d e d n o t only o n v i d e o t a p e b u t also o n a p o r t a b l e a u d i o t a p e recorder, S E E 1.9 <
AUDIO MIXER
12
Chapter
THE
I
TELEVISION
PRODUCTION
PROCESS
Even a relatively simple audio console has many controls to adjust the volume and the quality of each incoming sound signal and to mix them in various ways.
console
But even in m o r e - c o m p l i c a t e d s t u d i o p r o d u c t i o n s s u c h
is used to c o n t r o l the s o u n d s of a p r o g r a m . At t h e a u d i o
as s o a p o p e r a s , t h e b a c k g r o u n d m u s i c a n d the s o u n d ef
console, y o u c a n (1) select a specific m i c r o p h o n e or o t h e r
fects are often a d d e d d u r i n g t h e live p i c k u p of t h e a c t o r s '
s o u n d i n p u t , (2) amplify a weak signal f r o m a m i c r o p h o n e
dialogue.
Studio sound control equipment
T h e audio
or o t h e r audio source for further processing, (3) control t h e
In large a n d c o m p l e x s t u d i o p r o d u c t i o n s in which a
v o l u m e a n d t h e quality of t h e s o u n d , a n d (4) mix ( c o m
single c a m e r a s h o o t s a scene piecemeal, m u c h in t h e way
bine) two o r m o r e i n c o m i n g s o u n d sources, S E E I . I O
films are m a d e , t h e a u d i o track is subjected to m u c h m a
Recall t h e e x a m p l e of t h e n e w s a n c h o r i n t r o d u c i n g a
n i p u l a t i o n in p o s t p r o d u c t i o n . T h e s o u n d s of explosions,
videotape of t h e principal a n d visitors at t h e n e w c o m p u t e r
sirens, a n d car crashes, for e x a m p l e , are n o r m a l l y
lab. T h e first t w o a u d i o i n p u t s c o m e from t h e signals of
in ( a d d e d ) d u r i n g the p o s t p r o d u c t i o n sessions. Even p a r t s
dubbed
t h e t w o a n c h o r s ' m i c r o p h o n e s . Because t h e p r i n c i p a l is
of t h e o r i g i n a l d i a l o g u e are o c c a s i o n a l l y r e - c r e a t e d in
b u s y escorting t h e visitors i n t o t h e r o o m , o n e of the n e w s
the studio.
a n c h o r s talks over the initial p a r t of the videotape insert. To
P r e r e c o r d e d s o u n d , such as m u s i c , is usually played
convey a sense of actuality, you can m i x u n d e r t h e a n c h o r ' s
back from v a r i o u s digital storage devices, s u c h as digital
n a r r a t i o n t h e actual s o u n d s o n t h e v i d e o t a p e — t h e excited
a u d i o t a p e (DAT), c o m p a c t discs ( C D s ) , a n d digital c o m
voices of t h e p a r e n t s , a q u e s t i o n or c o m m e n t b y o n e of
p u t e r disks. Various c o m p r e s s i o n t e c h n i q u e s allow a great
t h e r e p o r t e r s , a n d t h e occasional l a u g h t e r of the s t u d e n t s .
a m o u n t of such a u d i o i n f o r m a t i o n to b e recorded digitally
T h e n , w h e n t h e p r i n c i p a l finally begins to speak, y o u i n
w i t h o u t t h e n e e d for excessive storage space.
crease the v o l u m e of t h e v i d e o t a p e s o u n d track a n d switch off b o t h a n c h o r s ' m i c r o p h o n e s .
SWITCHING T h e switcher w o r k s o n a p r i n c i p l e similar t o t h a t of p u s h
Sound recording and playback devices
Even w h e n
b u t t o n s o n a car r a d i o , w h i c h allow y o u to select certain
a n event is r e c o r d e d o n v i d e o t a p e for p o s t p r o d u c t i o n , its
r a d i o stations. T h e switcher lets y o u select v a r i o u s v i d e o
s o u n d s are usually recorded at t h e s a m e t i m e as t h e picture.
sources, s u c h as c a m e r a s , v i d e o t a p e , a n d titles or o t h e r
In E N G t h e pictures, t h e r e p o r t e r ' s voice, a n d t h e a m b i e n t
special effects, a n d j o i n t h e m t h r o u g h a great variety of
s o u n d s are picked u p a n d r e c o r d e d simultaneously. In EFP
t r a n s i t i o n s while t h e event is in p r o g r e s s . In effect, t h e
m o s t speech s o u n d s , such as an interviewer's questions a n d
switcher allows y o u t o d o instantaneous
t h e interviewee's answers, are r e c o r d e d o n l o c a t i o n w i t h
editing.
Before learning a b o u t t h e switcher, look for a m o m e n t
t h e p i c t u r e . S o m e s o u n d s , s u c h as m u s i c a l b r i d g e s a n d a
at t h e d i a g r a m in figure 1.2 of t h e e x p a n d e d s t u d i o televi
n a r r a t o r ' s voice-over, are usually a d d e d in p o s t p r o d u c t i o n .
sion system. C a m e r a s 1 a n d 2 deliver their pictures first
Section
1.1
What
Television
Production
Is All
About
13
1.11 VIDEO PRODUCTION SWITCHER
1.12 VIDEOTAPE RECORDER
The production switcher has several rows of buttons and other controls for selecting and mixing various video inputs and creating transitions and special effects. It then sends the selected video to the line-out.
Almost all VTRs use videocassettes for recording and playback. All professional VTRs have various video- and audio-recording, playback, and editing controls.
t o t h e C C U s a n d t h e n t o t h e p r e v i e w m o n i t o r s . Preview
O n e of t h e u n i q u e features of television is its ability
m o n i t o r 1 shows all t h e p i c t u r e s t h a t c a m e r a 1 is taking,
t o t r a n s m i t a telecast live, w h i c h m e a n s c a p t u r i n g t h e pic
a n d p r e v i e w m o n i t o r 2 carries t h e pictures of c a m e r a 2.
t u r e s a n d t h e s o u n d s of a n o n g o i n g event a n d d i s t r i b u t i n g
Preview m o n i t o r 3 shows t h e selected videotape recordings.
t h e m instantly t o a w o r l d w i d e a u d i e n c e . M o s t television
T h e s e t h r e e video signals a r e fed i n t o t h e switcher. Each
p r o g r a m s , however, originate from playback of previ
source ( c a m e r a 1, c a m e r a 2, a n d V T R ) has its o w n switcher
ously r e c o r d e d material. V i d e o t a p e is still a n indispensable
i n p u t . Pressing t h e c a m e r a 1 b u t t o n p u t s c a m e r a l's signal
m e d i u m for production
o n t h e l i n e - o u t a n d shows its pictures o n t h e line m o n i t o r .
s h o w ) , for programming
Pressing t h e c a m e r a 2 b u t t o n p u t s c a m e r a 2's pictures o n
t h e s h o w is telecast), a n d for d i s t r i b u t i o n .
( t h e r e c o r d i n g a n d b u i l d i n g of a ( w h e n a n d over w h i c h c h a n n e l
t h e line m o n i t o r a n d o n t h e line-out. Pressing the V T R b u t t o n p u t s t h e pictures of t h e v i d e o t a p e o n t h e line m o n i t o r
Videotape recorders
a n d t h e l i n e - o u t . T h i s switcher " o u t p u t " ( l i n e - o u t ) is w h a t
for s o m e t i m e t o c o m e , y o u m u s t a c q u a i n t yourself with
goes o n t h e air o r is r e c o r d e d o n v i d e o t a p e .
t h e basics of v i d e o t a p e r e c o r d i n g . All v i d e o t a p e r e c o r d
A n y switcher, simple o r c o m p l e x , c a n p e r f o r m three
Because v i d e o t a p e will b e in use
ers, a n a l o g a n d digital, w o r k o n t h e s a m e p r i n c i p l e : t h e y
basic functions: (1) select a n a p p r o p r i a t e video source from
r e c o r d v i d e o a n d a u d i o signals o n a single strip of plastic
several i n p u t s , (2) p e r f o r m basic t r a n s i t i o n s b e t w e e n t w o
v i d e o t a p e a n d later reconvert t h e m into signals t h a t c a n b e
v i d e o s o u r c e s , a n d (3) create o r retrieve special effects,
seen as pictures a n d heard as s o u n d o n a television receiver.
s u c h as split screens. S o m e switchers have f u r t h e r p r o v i
M o s t V T R s u s e v i d e o t a p e cassettes, similar t o t h e o n e s
s i o n s for r e m o t e l y s t a r t i n g a n d s t o p p i n g v a r i o u s v i d e o
y o u use in y o u r c a m c o r d e r o r h o m e VCR
recorders,
recorder). Professional v i d e o t a p e r e c o r d e r s are similar t o
SEEI.II
(videocassette
a h o m e m a c h i n e , except t h a t they have m o r e o p e r a t i o n a l
VIDEOTAPE RECORDING
c o n t r o l s , m o r e - r u g g e d t a p e drives, a n d m o r e - s o p h i s t i
M o s t television shows are r e c o r d e d o n v i d e o t a p e o r c o m
cated electronics t h a t e n s u r e h i g h e r - q u a l i t y pictures a n d
p u t e r disk before t h e y are aired. Even live football b r o a d
s o u n d . S E E 1.12
casts i n c l u d e p l e n t y of p r e r e c o r d e d m a t e r i a l . T h e " i n s t a n t
V i d e o t a p e r e c o r d e r s a r e classified b y w h e t h e r t h e
replays" are n o t h i n g b u t digital replays of key m o m e n t s
r e c o r d i n g is d o n e in digital o r a n a l o g form; b y t h e elec
after t h e fact. V i d e o t a p e o r a c o m p u t e r h a r d disk is used
t r o n i c system u s e d for t h e r e c o r d i n g (Betacam SP o r SX,
for t h e p l a y b a c k of c o m m e r c i a l s , even t h o s e o r i g i n a l l y
D V C A M , D V C P R O , S-VHS, H i 8 , o r V H S ) ; a n d s o m e t i m e s
p r o d u c e d o n film.
b y t h e t a p e format
(the w i d t h of the videotape in the
14
Chapter
THE
7
TELEVISION
PRODUCTION
PROCESS
1 . 1 3 VARIOUS CASSETTE FORMATS Videocassettes come in a variety of sizes and are manufactured for specific recording systems.
videocassette). M a n y V T R systems use Vi-inch videocas-
write) let y o u r e c o r d a n d play b a c k entire video sequences
settes ( B e t a c a m SR digital B e t a c a m SX, Digital-S, S-VHS,
a n d reuse t h e m for o t h e r recordings.
a n d V H S ) , b u t there are also systems t h a t use small 8mm
S o m e c a m c o r d e r s use small b u t h i g h - c a p a c i t y
hard
cassettes (Hi8) or even n a r r o w e r digital V4-inch cassettes
drives instead of v i d e o t a p e to c a p t u r e a n d play b a c k v i d e o
(6.35mm D V C A M a n d D V C P R O ) .
a n d a u d i o i n f o r m a t i o n . High-capacity h a r d drives are used
SEEI.13
extensively for t h e storage, m a n i p u l a t i o n , a n d retrieval of
TAPELESS
video and audio information by desktop computers in
SYSTEMS
Great a n d r a p i d progress is b e i n g m a d e t o w a r d a tapeless
p o s t p r o d u c t i o n . H a r d drives t h a t are even larger (in t h e
e n v i r o n m e n t w h e r e i n all v i d e o r e c o r d i n g , s t o r a g e , a n d
m u l t i - t e r a b y t e range) have all b u t replaced v i d e o t a p e as
playback is d o n e w i t h n o n - t a p e - b a s e d s y s t e m s . Such a
t h e storage a n d playback device of daily p r o g r a m m i n g in
tapeless
television stations.
system
m a k e s use of m e m o r y sticks a n d cards,
optical discs s u c h as C D s a n d D V D s , a n d large-capacity c o m p u t e r disks r a t h e r t h a n v i d e o t a p e .
N o t e t h a t t h e optical, laser-activated discs are spelled w i t h a c, a n d t h e disks u s e d in h a r d drives are spelled w i t h a k.
Memory sticks and cards
T h e s e small yet powerful
m e m o r y devices are u s e d in s o m e c a m e r a s to r e c o r d brief
POSTPRODUCTION EDITING
video s e q u e n c e s . S o m e c a m e r a s also use t h e m as a video
For s o m e p e o p l e p o s t p r o d u c t i o n e d i t i n g is heaven: t h e y
buffer: s u c h a p r e r e c o r d device allows y o u to h a v e t h e
feel totally in c o m m a n d of p u t t i n g t o g e t h e r t h e bits a n d
c a m e r a o n a n d c a p t u r e footage while r u n n i n g t o w a r d a
pieces of r e c o r d e d m a t e r i a l i n t o a story t h a t tells t h e event
news event, w i t h o u t u s i n g tape. By pressing the record b u t
in a clarified a n d intensified way. For o t h e r s it is a t e d i o u s ,
t o n , y o u can t h e n transfer this f o o t a g e — d u m p i t — o n t o
albeit necessary, evil. Irrespective of h o w y o u feel a b o u t
videotape.
p o s t p r o d u c t i o n , it is usually t h e m o s t expensive a n d t i m e c o n s u m i n g p r o d u c t i o n phase. In principle,
Optical discs and hard drives as CD-ROMs DVD-ROMs
postproduction
is relatively simple: y o u select t h e m o s t effective
(compact disc-read-only memory) and
shots from the original source material, usually o n video
(digital versatile d i s c - r e a d - o n l y m e m o r y )
tape, a n d c o p y t h e m o n t o a n o t h e r v i d e o t a p e in a specific
m e a n i n g y o u c a n play b a c k t h e i n f o r m a
order. In p r a c t i c e , however, p o s t p r o d u c t i o n e d i t i n g c a n
t i o n o n the disc b u t y o u c a n n o t record y o u r o w n m a t e r i a l
b e extremely c o m p l i c a t e d , involving s u c h f u n d a m e n t a l l y
o n t o it. Digital r e a d / w r i t e discs s u c h as CD-RWs
different systems as n o n l i n e a r a n d linear editing a n d s p e
are read-only,
disc-read/write) a n d DVD-RWs
L
Optical discs such
editing
(compact
(digital versatile disc-read/
cial-effects e q u i p m e n t .
Section
What
1.1
Television
Production
Is All
About
1 5
1 . 1 4 LINEAR EDITING SYSTEM Source monitor Record monitor - Audio mixer
The linear, cuts-only editing system consists of a source VTR and a record VTR, source and record monitors, an edit controller, a title generator, an audiocassette player, and an audio mixer.
Audiocassette player
Edit controller Title generator
Source VTR
Record VTR
In nonlinear
editing y o u transfer all s o u r c e footage
even if it is b u r i e d m i d t a p e . It starts a n d stops t h e source
( v i d e o t a p e or c a m c o r d e r disks) t o a c o m p u t e r disk a n d
a n d r e c o r d m a c h i n e s a n d tells t h e record V T R to p e r f o r m
t h e n edit the v i d e o a n d a u d i o p o r t i o n s p r e t t y m u c h as y o u
t h e edit at t h e precise p o i n t y o u have designated, SEE 1.14
w o u l d edit text w i t h a w o r d - p r o c e s s i n g p r o g r a m . You call
N o n l i n e a r editing is d o n e exclusively w i t h a c o m p u t e r .
up, m o v e , cut, paste, a n d j o i n t h e v a r i o u s shots m u c h like
O n c e t h e analog video a n d audio i n f o r m a t i o n o n the source
w o r d s , sentences, a n d p a r a g r a p h s w h e n editing a d o c u
tapes h a s b e e n digitized a n d s t o r e d o n t h e h i g h - c a p a c i t y
m e n t . M o s t n o n l i n e a r software p r o g r a m s let y o u p r o d u c e
h a r d drives, y o u d o n o t n e e d V T R s in t h e editing process.
a n edit decision
and either low-resolution or
You can s i m p l y call u p p a r t i c u l a r shots a n d see w h e t h e r
h i g h - r e s o l u t i o n full-frame, f u l l - m o t i o n v i d e o a n d a u d i o
they p r o v i d e t h e desired sequence. T h e software p r o g r a m s
sequences. T h e final h i g h - r e s o l u t i o n editing sequence is
for n o n l i n e a r editing also offer a w i d e choice of electronic
list (EDL)
t h e n transferred directly o n t o a n edit m a s t e r t a p e for o n -
effects a n d t r a n s i t i o n s , SEE 1.15 O n c e y o u have decided o n
t h e - a i r use. T h e linear editing
system n o r m a l l y requires
t h e s e q u e n c i n g , t r a n s i t i o n s , a n d effects, y o u can tell t h e
t w o source VTRs, w h i c h c o n t a i n t h e original m a t e r i a l t h a t
c o m p u t e r to p r i n t o u t a n EDL. T h i s list is necessary for
y o u r e c o r d e d w i t h y o u r c a m e r a or c a m e r a s , a n d t h e record
editing t h e s o u r c e tapes i n t o t h e final edit m a s t e r tape.
VTR,
w h i c h p r o d u c e s t h e final edit m a s t e r t a p e .
S o m e systems p r o v i d e t h e EDL a n d t h e s e q u e n c e d a u d i o
T h e c o m p u t e r plays a n i m p o r t a n t role in b o t h linear a n d n o n l i n e a r editing. In linear editing t h e c o m p u t e r acts as an edit controller
(also called a n editing
control
a n d v i d e o m a t e r i a l for t h e final edit m a s t e r t a p e w i t h o u t having t o go b a c k t o t h e original source tapes.
unit),
Keep in m i n d t h a t even t h e m o s t e l a b o r a t e digital
w h i c h helps find a p a r t i c u l a r scene quickly a n d accurately,
editing system c a n n o t m a k e t h e creative decisions for you.
16
Chapter
I
THE
TELEVISION
1.15 NONLINEAR EDITING SYSTEM
PRODUCTION
Video monitor
In nonlinear editing, all audio and video information is stored on large-capacity hard drives. You manipulate pictures and sound with the computer much like words and paragraphs during word processing.
PROCESS
Speaker
Audio mixer
You can i m p r o v e o n t h e original source footage, such as
SPECIAL
by b a l a n c i n g t h e colors from s h o t to s h o t , b u t t h e better
Special
EFFECTS
t h e original m a t e r i a l is, t h e easier a n d m o r e efficient t h e
b a c k g r o u n d scene, d o n e w i t h a character generator
p o s t p r o d u c t i o n activities will be. T h i n k i n g a b o u t p o s t p r o
o r i n s e r t i n g t h e w e l l - k n o w n b o x over t h e n e w s c a s t e r ' s
effects c a n b e as s i m p l e as a d d i n g a title over a (C.G.),
d u c t i o n as early as the s h o o t i n g stage facilitates y o u r editing
shoulder,
chores considerably. Always consider p o s t p r o d u c t i o n a n
t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of a face i n t o a series of intensely colored,
extension of t h e creative process, n o t a salvage o p e r a t i o n .
mosaic-like screen p a t t e r n s ,
SEEI.16
O r t h e y can be as elaborate as t h e gradual SEEI.17
1.16 TITLE KEY
1.17 MOSAIC EFFECT
One of the most common effects is lettering keyed (cut into) a background scene. The key looks as though the title is printed on top of the background image.
Various special-effects devices can create or alter video images without the aid of a video camera. This mosaic effect was cre ated by the digital manipulation of a video picture.
Section
1.1
What
Television
Production
relatively
s i m p l e special effects. W i t h the r i g h t software, y o u can use y o u r d e s k t o p c o m p u t e r as a C.G. for s i m p l e titles. A graphics generator
Lighting is the manipulation of light and shadows that influences the way we perceive objects on-screen and how we feel about a screen event.
•
The two types of illumination are directional light, pro duced by spotlights, and diffused light, produced by floodlights.
•
Audio, the sound portion of a television show, is necessary to give specific information about what is said and to help set the mood of a scene.
•
Audio production elements include microphones, sound control equipment, and sound recording and playback devices.
•
The switcher enables us to do instantaneous editing by selecting a specific picture from several inputs and per forming basic transitions between two video sources.
•
There is a variety of analog and digital videotape record ers, which differ in terms of the electronic system used for recording as well as tape format and quality.
•
Television production is fast becoming a tapeless environ ment in which all video recording, storage, and playback is done with non-tape-based systems. These include memory sticks and cards, optical discs such as CDs and DVDs, and large-capacity computer disks.
•
Postproduction editing involves selecting various shots from the source material and putting them in a specific sequence. In nonlinear editing, the digital video and audio material is stored on a computer disk and manipulated using a computer program. Most nonlinear editing systems produce an edit decision list (EDL) and high-quality video and audio sequences that can be transferred directly to the edit master tape. In linear editing, videotape is used as the source material and for the final edit master tape.
•
Special effects are an important ingredient in video pre sentation. They range from simple lettering, produced by a character generator (C.G.), to elaborate effects, produced by a graphics generator. The right software can make your desktop computer a C.G. or graphics generator.
t w o - a n d t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l images. T h e c o m p l e x w e a t h e r ics generator. Using software a n d a s t a n d a r d desktop c o m p u t e r , y o u can create s t u n n i n g special effects. Even simple switchers have an a b u n d a n c e of b u i l t - i n special effects t h a t allow y o u to generate a great variety of (often
unnecessary)
t r a n s i t i o n s . These effects are used frequently in television n e w s , m u s i c v i d e o s , a n d c o m m e r c i a l s a n d are e x p l o r e d in d e p t h in c h a p t e r s 14 a n d 15.
•
•
The basic television system consists of equipment and the people who operate the equipment to produce specific programs. In its simplest form, the system consists of a television camera that converts what it sees into a video signal, a microphone that converts what it hears into an audio signal, and a television set and a loudspeaker that reconvert the two signals into pictures and sound. The expanded studio television system adds equipment and procedures to the basic system to make possible a wider choice of sources, better quality control of pictures and sound, and the recording and/or transmission of video and audio signals.
•
The ENG (electronic news gathering) television system consists basically of a camcorder and microphones. The EFP (electronic field production) system may include multiple camcorders or field cameras and some lighting and audio/ video control equipment.
•
The major production elements are the camera, lighting, audio, switching, videotape recording, tapeless systems, postproduction editing, and special effects.
•
All television cameras have three main parts: the lens; the camera itself with the camera imaging device (the CCD),
17
•
p r o d u c e s a n u m b e r of static or a n i m a t e d
m a p s in television newscasts are usually d o n e with a g r a p h
About
which converts an optical image into an electrical signal; and the viewfinder, which reconverts the signal into visible images.
A character g e n e r a t o r is a d e d i c a t e d c o m p u t e r system u s e d exclusively for still o r a n i m a t e d titles a n d
Is All
1.2
TELEVISION STUDIO A well-designed studio provides for t h e p r o p e r e n v i r o n m e n t a n d c o o r d i n a t i o n of all m a j o r p r o d u c t i o n e l e m e n t s — c a m e r a s , lighting, s o u n d , scenery, a n d t h e a c t i o n of p e r f o r m e r s . H e r e w e explore the physical layout of a typical studio a n d the m a j o r s t u d i o installations.
Studios, Master Control, and Support Areas
Telecasts can originate anywhere, i n d o o r s or out, so long as there is e n o u g h light for the c a m e r a to see. W i t h t h e highly portable, b a t t e r y - p o w e r e d cameras a n d recording facilities a n d t h e m o b i l e microwave t r a n s m i t t e r s , television has the whole earth as its stage. O u r ability to t r a n s m i t television p r o g r a m m i n g from just a b o u t anywhere does n o t r e n d e r t h e s t u d i o obsolete, however. Television s t u d i o s persist because, if properly designed, t h e y offer m a x i m u m control a n d o p t i m a l use of the e q u i p m e n t . This section focuses o n the t h r e e m a j o r television p r o d u c t i o n centers. ^
T E L E V I S I O N STUDIO The origination center where television production takes place
^
STUDIO CONTROL ROOM Where directors, producers, and technical personnel exercise program control, switching, audio control, lighting control, and video control
MASTER CONTROL The technical nerve center of a station, with tapebased or tapeless program input, program storage, and program retrieval
^
STUDIO SUPPORT AREAS Space for scene and property storage and for makeup and dressing rooms
18
PHYSICAL LAYOUT M o s t s t u d i o s are r e c t a n g u l a r w i t h v a r y i n g a m o u n t s of floor space. Because t h e z o o m lens can m a k e a scene look closer or farther away, it has drastically r e d u c e d the n e e d for actual c a m e r a m o v e m e n t , b u t r o o m size nevertheless greatly affects p r o d u c t i o n complexity a n d flexibility.
S i z e T h e larger the studio, t h e m o r e c o m p l e x the p r o d u c t i o n s can b e a n d t h e m o r e flexible t h e y will be. If all y o u d o in the s t u d i o is news a n d an occasional interview, y o u m a y get b y w i t h a m a z i n g l y little space. In fact, s o m e news sets are placed right in the m i d d l e of the actual n e w s r o o m , S E E 1 . 1 8 O t h e r news sets m a y take u p a substantial p o r t i o n of a large studio. Elaborate p r o d u c t i o n s , such as musical or dance n u m bers, d r a m a s , o r a u d i e n c e p a r t i c i p a t i o n shows, n e e d large studios. It is always easier to p r o d u c e a simple s h o w in a large studio t h a n a complex s h o w in a small one. T h e larger the studio, however, t h e m o r e difficult it is to m a n a g e , re q u i r i n g m o r e e q u i p m e n t a n d qualified p e o p l e t o p r o p e r l y r u n it. M e d i u m - s i z e d o r even small studios are generally m o r e efficient to m a n a g e , b u t t h e y are n o t as flexible.
Floor T h e s t u d i o floor m u s t b e even a n d level so t h a t c a m e r a s can travel s m o o t h l y a n d freely. It s h o u l d also be h a r d e n o u g h to w i t h s t a n d t h e m o v i n g a b o u t of heavy e q u i p m e n t , scenery, a n d set p r o p e r t i e s . M o s t studios have concrete floors t h a t are polished or covered with l i n o l e u m , tile, o r h a r d plastic.
Ceiling height Adequate ceiling height—a m i n i m u m of 12 feet—is o n e of the m o s t i m p o r t a n t design features of a television studio. If the ceiling is t o o low, t h e lights are t o o close to the scene for g o o d lighting c o n t r o l a n d t h e r e is n o t e n o u g h r o o m above t h e m for t h e heat to dissipate. Also, the low lights a n d the b o o m m i c r o p h o n e will encroach into the scene, as well as m a k e it uncomfortably hot. H i g h e r ceilings can a c c o m m o d a t e even tall scenery. M a n y large studios therefore have ceilings m o r e t h a n 30 feet high.
Section
Studios,
1.2
Master
Control,
and
Support
19
Areas
1.18 NEWS SET IN NEWSROOM This news set is part of a working newsroom. It is designed to project the up-to-date character of the news presentation.
Acoustic treatment
T h e s t u d i o ceiling a n d walls are
Intercommunication system
The intercommunica
usually t r e a t e d w i t h acoustic m a t e r i a l that p r e v e n t s s o u n d
t i o n system, or intercom,
allows all p r o d u c t i o n a n d engi
from b o u n c i n g i n d i s c r i m i n a t e l y a r o u n d t h e studio. This is
n e e r i n g p e r s o n n e l actively engaged in a p r o d u c t i o n to b e
w h y television s t u d i o s s o u n d "dead." W h e n y o u clap y o u r
in c o n s t a n t voice c o n t a c t w i t h o n e a n o t h e r . For e x a m p l e ,
h a n d s in an acoustically t r e a t e d s t u d i o , t h e s o u n d seems
t h e director, w h o sits in t h e c o n t r o l r o o m physically iso
t o go n o w h e r e ; in a m o r e "live" studio, y o u h e a r reverbera
lated from t h e s t u d i o , h a s to rely totally o n t h e i n t e r c o m
t i o n s , similar to a slight echo.
to c o m m u n i c a t e cues a n d i n s t r u c t i o n s to t h e p r o d u c t i o n t e a m . In m o s t small stations, the P.L. (private line or p h o n e
Because television s t u d i o s typically
line) system is used. Each m e m b e r of t h e p r o d u c t i o n t e a m
have n o w i n d o w s (to keep o u t noise a n d light), a i r - c o n d i
wears a t e l e p h o n e h e a d s e t w i t h a n e a r p h o n e a n d a small
t i o n i n g is essential. I n c a n d e s c e n t s t u d i o lights generate a
m i c r o p h o n e for talkback. Larger stations use a wireless
Air-conditioning
great a m o u n t of heat, w h i c h has a n adverse effect o n per
i n t e r c o m s y s t e m . (For a m o r e t h o r o u g h d i s c u s s i o n of
f o r m e r s a n d delicate electronic e q u i p m e n t . Unfortunately,
i n t e r c o m systems, see c h a p t e r s 19 a n d 20.)
m a n y a i r - c o n d i t i o n i n g systems are t o o n o i s y for s t u d i o p r o d u c t i o n s a n d m u s t b e t u r n e d off d u r i n g t h e r e c o r d i n g
S t u d i o monitors
of a s h o w — j u s t w h e n cool air is n e e d e d t h e m o s t .
ity television sets t h a t display t h e v i d e o feed f r o m t h e
S t u d i o monitors
are h i g h - q u a l
p r o g r a m switcher. C o n t r a r y to t h e television set in y o u r Studios n e e d heavy, s o u n d p r o o f d o o r s t h a t are
h o m e , a m o n i t o r c a n n o t receive a b r o a d c a s t signal. A
large e n o u g h to a c c o m m o d a t e scenery, furniture, a n d even
s t u d i o m o n i t o r is an i m p o r t a n t p r o d u c t i o n aid for b o t h
vehicles. Few t h i n g s are m o r e frustrating t h a n t r y i n g to
crew a n d talent. T h e p r o d u c t i o n crew can see t h e shots t h e
squeeze scenery a n d p r o p e r t i e s t h r o u g h u n d e r s i z e d s t u d i o
director h a s selected a n d t h u s a n t i c i p a t e their future tasks.
d o o r s or to have t h e d o o r s t r a n s m i t o u t s i d e s o u n d s , such
For e x a m p l e , if y o u see t h a t t h e o n - t h e - a i r c a m e r a is o n a
as a fire t r u c k s c r e a m i n g by, right in t h e m i d d l e of a show.
close-up r a t h e r t h a n a l o n g shot, y o u can w o r k closer to t h e set w i t h o u t getting i n t o c a m e r a range. Also, after seeing
MAJOR
INSTALLATIONS
t h a t o n e c a m e r a is o n a close-up, t h e o t h e r c a m e r a o p e r a
All s t u d i o s n e e d m a j o r i n s t a l l a t i o n s t h a t facilitate t h e
tors can go to different shots to give t h e d i r e c t o r a wider
p r o d u c t i o n process.
choice. T h e s t u d i o m o n i t o r is essential for t h e newscaster
20
Chapter 7
THE TELEVISION PRODUCTION
PROCESS
to see w h e t h e r t h e v a r i o u s t a p e o r live inserts are actually
Outlets m u s t b e clearly labeled t o avoid patching cables i n t o
a p p e a r i n g as p e r t h e script. S o m e t i m e s l a p t o p c o m p u t e r
t h e w r o n g t y p e of outlet.
screens serve as m o n i t o r s for n e w s a n c h o r s . In a u d i e n c e p a r t i c i p a t i o n shows, several s t u d i o m o n i t o r s are usually
Lighting dimmer and patchboard
p r o v i d e d so t h a t t h e s t u d i o a u d i e n c e can see h o w t h e event
a d i m m e r c o n t r o l b o a r d t o regulate t h e relative intensity of
looks o n - s c r e e n .
the studio lights. T h e lighting patchboard,
M o s t studios have or patchbay, c o n
nects t h e i n d i v i d u a l i n s t r u m e n t s t o t h e v a r i o u s d i m m e r s . Program speakers
(also called
Unless t h e p a t c h i n g is d o n e b y c o m p u t e r , t h e p a t c h b o a r d
fulfill a f u n c t i o n for a u d i o similar to w h a t
is usually located in t h e s t u d i o . T h e d i m m e r b o a r d itself
the s t u d i o m o n i t o r s d o for video. W h e n e v e r necessary they
is either in a c o r n e r of t h e s t u d i o o r in t h e c o n t r o l r o o m
can feed i n t o t h e s t u d i o t h e p r o g r a m s o u n d o r a n y o t h e r
(discussed in detail in section 7.1).
audio monitors)
T h e program
speakers
s o u n d — d a n c e m u s i c , t e l e p h o n e rings, o r o t h e r s o u n d ef fects—to b e s y n c h r o n i z e d w i t h t h e s t u d i o action. Wall outlets
As insignificant as t h e y m a y seem at first,
STUDIO CONTROL ROOM
t h e n u m b e r a n d t h e locations of wall outlets are critical
T h e control room, adjacent to t h e s t u d i o , is w h e r e all t h e
factors in s t u d i o p r o d u c t i o n . T h e outlets for c a m e r a a n d
p r o d u c t i o n activities are c o o r d i n a t e d . H e r e t h e director,
m i c r o p h o n e cables, i n t e r c o m s , a n d regular h o u s e h o l d cur
t h e associate director ( A D ) , t h e technical director ( T D ) ,
r e n t s h o u l d b e d i s t r i b u t e d a l o n g t h e four s t u d i o walls for
a n d a variety o f p r o d u c e r s a n d p r o d u c t i o n assistants m a k e
easy access. If all t h e outlets are o n o n e side of t h e studio,
t h e decisions c o n c e r n i n g m a x i m a l l y effective p i c t u r e a n d
you will have to string long a n d c u m b e r s o m e cables a r o u n d
s o u n d sequences, w h i c h are t o b e v i d e o t a p e d or b r o a d c a s t
the various sets to get e q u i p m e n t into t h e desired positions.
live. SEE 1.19
Preview monitors
Switcher/TD's position
Director's position
Associate director's position
Part of intercom system
1.19
STUDIO CONTROL ROOM
All control rooms have distinct controlling areas: the program control, the switcher, the audio control, and sometimes the lighting and video controls. The audio control is in an adjacent room.
Section
1.2
PROGRAM Program
Studios,
Master
Control,
CONTROL
and
Support
21
Areas
m o r e m o n i t o r s in t h e c o n t r o l r o o m of a m e d i u m - s i z e d
control d o e s n o t m e a n t h e critical e x a m i n a t i o n ,
studio. SEE 1.20
o r p e r h a p s even c e n s o r i n g , of p r o g r a m c o n t e n t ; it refers to t h e e q u i p m e n t t h e director n e e d s to select a n d organize t h e various video a n d a u d i o i n p u t s so that the e n d result m a k e s sense to t h e viewing a u d i e n c e . T h e p r o g r a m c o n t r o l area of t h e c o n t r o l r o o m is e q u i p p e d w i t h (1) v i d e o m o n i t o r s , (2) speakers for p r o g r a m s o u n d , (3) i n t e r c o m systems, a n d (4) clocks a n d s t o p w a t c h e s .
Speakers forprogram sound
The production person
nel in t h e c o n t r o l r o o m , especially t h e director, m u s t h e a r w h a t a u d i o is g o i n g o n t h e air. T h e director can adjust t h e v o l u m e of the m o n i t o r speaker w i t h o u t influencing t h e v o l u m e of t h e l i n e - o u t a u d i o . intercom systems
In a d d i t i o n t o t h e a l l - i m p o r t a n t
P.L. system t h a t c o n n e c t s t h e director w i t h all t h e o t h e r Video monitors
Even a s i m p l e c o n t r o l r o o m h o l d s
m e m b e r s of the p r o d u c t i o n crew, t h e r e is t h e PA. (public
a n a m a z i n g l y large n u m b e r of video m o n i t o r s . T h e r e is a
address system), or s i m p l y t h e director's s t u d i o talkback.
( u s u a l l y b l a c k - a n d - w h i t e ) preview
(P/V) monitorfor
each
T h e studio
talkback
allows t h e director to talk directly to
of t h e s t u d i o c a m e r a s a n d separate p r e v i e w m o n i t o r s for
t h e c r e w o r talent in t h e s t u d i o w h e n t h e s h o w is n o t in
v i d e o t a p e r e c o r d e r s , t h e C.G., a n d o t h e r special-effects
p r o g r e s s , b u t t h e s t u d i o p e o p l e c a n n o t use this system
devices. T h e r e is also a l a r g e r c o l o r P / V m o n i t o r t h a t
t o c o m m u n i c a t e w i t h t h e c o n t r o l r o o m . W i t h t h e I.F.B.
shows t h e director a n d t h e technical director t h e u p c o m
( i n t e r r u p t i b l e foldback or feedback) system, t h e director
ing p i c t u r e before it is p u n c h e d u p ( p u t o n t h e air), as well
a n d t h e p r o d u c e r s can talk to t h e talent while the s h o w is
as t h e large color line monitor,
o n t h e air.
w h i c h is fed by t h e v i d e o
l i n e - o u t . If y o u d o a live r e m o t e o r are c o n n e c t e d w i t h a television n e t w o r k , y o u n e e d at least t w o m o r e m o n i t o r s
Clocks a n dstopwatches
t o p r e v i e w t h e r e m o t e a n d n e t w o r k sources. Finally, t h e
ing e l e m e n t in television p r o d u c t i o n . P r o g r a m s are aired
T i m e is a n essential o r g a n i z
off-the-air television set receives t h e b r o a d c a s t signal t h a t
a c c o r d i n g to a s e c o n d - b y - s e c o n d schedule called t h e log.
y o u are telecasting. It is n o t u n c o m m o n to find t h i r t y or
T h e t w o t i m i n g tools for t h e director are t h e clock a n d t h e
;Previews for 6 cameras
/Clock
/ Remote feeds
Digital effects previews
Previews for videotape recorders
Preview monitor
1.20
VideoServers
Line or program monitor
Character generator and still store
Preview monitor
CONTROL ROOM MONITORS
Each of these monitors shows a specific video image as supplied by video sources such as studio cameras, VTRs, the C.G., special effects, or remote satellite feeds. The large preview monitor shows the upcoming shot. The large line monitor shows what goes on the air (and/or on videotape).
22
Chapter
I
THE TELEVISION
PRODUCTION
PROCESS
stopwatch. T h e clock indicates w h e n a certain p r o g r a m
T h e p r o g r a m c o n t r o l section s o m e t i m e s houses t h e
s h o u l d start or finish. All television clocks in t h e U n i t e d
c o m p u t e r a n d t h e c o n t r o l p a n e l for r o b o t i c c a m e r a s . A
States are precisely s y n c h r o n i z e d . T h e s t o p w a t c h is used
single r o b o t i c - c a m e r a o p e r a t o r can t h e n o p e r a t e all c a m
for t i m i n g inserts, such as a 2 0 - s e c o n d v i d e o t a p e d p u b l i c
eras f r o m the c o n t r o l r o o m .
service a n n o u n c e m e n t (PSA) w i t h i n a news p r o g r a m . Most c o n t r o l r o o m s have a regular clock (with h a n d s ) , a digital
AUDIO CONTROL
clock ( s h o w i n g t i m e in n u m b e r s ) , a n d digital stopwatches
T h e a u d i o c o n t r o l b o o t h can b e c o n s i d e r e d a small r a d i o
that can r u n forward a n d b a c k w a r d . T h e a d v a n t a g e of a
s t a t i o n a d j a c e n t to t h e s t u d i o c o n t r o l r o o m . It u s u a l l y
clock w i t h h a n d s is t h a t y o u can l o o k f o r w a r d in t i m e a n d ,
h o u s e s t h e a u d i o console a n d a p a t c h b a y (or p a t c h p a n e l ) ,
for example, actually see h o w m u c h t i m e y o u have left until
as well as a u d i o t a p e r e c o r d e r s , DAT m a c h i n e s , C D a n d
t h e e n d of a p r o g r a m . T h e digital clock simply indicates
D V D players, o r o t h e r r e a d / w r i t e digital devices. T h e a u d i o
w h e r e y o u are at a precise m o m e n t in t i m e .
engineer can listen to a cue speaker w h e n cueing an u p c o m
SWITCHING
p r o g r a m speakers. T h e a u d i o b o o t h also c o n t a i n s a clock
ing a u d i o s o u r c e a n d t h e p r o g r a m s o u n d o n h i g h - q u a l i t y refers to t h e selection a n d p r o p e r s e q u e n c i n g
a n d a line m o n i t o r , SEE 1.21 Because t h e a u d i o e n g i n e e r
of v i d e o i m a g e s as s u p p l i e d b y c a m e r a s o r o t h e r v i d e o
m u s t b e able t o w o r k u n d i s t u r b e d by t h e a p p a r e n t confu
sources. It also includes t h e c o n t r o l of v i d e o special ef
sion a n d inevitable noise in t h e c o n t r o l r o o m , t h e a u d i o
fects. T h e m a i n piece of i m a g e c o n t r o l e q u i p m e n t is t h e
c o n t r o l b o o t h has visual c o n t a c t w i t h t h e c o n t r o l r o o m
Switching
switcher, which is located next to t h e director's position (see
t h r o u g h a large w i n d o w b u t is o t h e r w i s e self-contained.
figure
T h e a u d i o e n g i n e e r listens to t h e director's cues t h r o u g h
1.19). A l t h o u g h t h e d i r e c t o r a n d t h e p e r s o n d o i n g
the switching (usually t h e technical director) are c o n n e c t e d
either the P.L. system o r a small i n t e r c o m speaker.
via the PL., t h e director often resorts to p o i n t i n g a n d finger s n a p p i n g to speed u p t h e cues t o t h e T D . In small stations
LIGHTING CONTROL
the director s o m e t i m e s d o e s his o r h e r o w n switching, b u t
T h e lighting c o n t r o l b o a r d c a n b e located in t h e c o n t r o l
that a r r a n g e m e n t has m o r e disadvantages t h a n advantages.
r o o m or in a c o r n e r of t h e s t u d i o . T h e a d v a n t a g e of plac
T h e C.G. is also located in the control r o o m so that the C.G.
i n g it in t h e c o n t r o l r o o m is t h a t t h e l i g h t i n g d i r e c t o r
o p e r a t o r c a n call u p t h e v a r i o u s p r e p r o g r a m m e d titles or
(LD) has close c o n t a c t w i t h o t h e r c o n t r o l r o o m p e r s o n
create n e w o n e s even d u r i n g t h e show.
nel. T h e lighting c o n t r o l o p e r a t o r is, as are all o t h e r p r o
1.21
AUDIO CONTROL
Videomonitors
The audio control area contains the audio console, patchbays, DAT machines, other digital record/play de vices, various computers that display log information or assist with the audio control functions, and a monitor that shows the line-out video.
Audio monitor
Patchbay
VU meter (volume indicators) 's
Sound quality controls
Volume controls
Section
1.2
Studios,
Master
Control,
and
Support
Areas
23
d u c t i o n t e a m m e m b e r s , c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e d i r e c t o r via
set by t h e Federal C o m m u n i c a t i o n s C o m m i s s i o n (FCC)
t h e P.L. system.
a n d a critical chief engineer.
VIDEO CONTROL
(1) p r o g r a m i n p u t , (2) p r o g r a m storage, a n d (3) p r o g r a m
T h e v i d e o c o n t r o l s allow t h e v i d e o o p e r a t o r to achieve
retrieval.
T h e specific activities of m a s t e r c o n t r o l consist of
o p t i m a l pictures. M o s t often t h e c a m e r a s are set u p for t h e prevailing lighting before t h e show, a n d t h e n adjusted as
PROGRAM INPUT
necessary d u r i n g t h e show.
P r o g r a m m a t e r i a l m a y reach m a s t e r c o n t r o l directly from its o w n s t u d i o s ; via satellite or o t h e r r e m o t e feeds, s u c h as a n e t w o r k s h o w o r a live telecast o u t s i d e t h e s t u d i o ; or b y
MASTER CONTROL
courier in t h e f o r m of v i d e o t a p e . T h e live shows are r o u t e d
control is t h e n e r v e center of a television station.
t h r o u g h m a s t e r c o n t r o l t o t h e t r a n s m i t t e r for b r o a d c a s t ,
Every second of p r o g r a m m i n g you see o n y o u r h o m e screen
b u t t h e b u l k of t h e p r o g r a m material m u s t b e stored before
h a s g o n e t h r o u g h t h e m a s t e r c o n t r o l r o o m of t h e s t a t i o n
being aired.
Master
t o w h i c h y o u are t u n e d . M a s t e r c o n t r o l acts as a clearing h o u s e for all p r o g r a m m a t e r i a l . It receives p r o g r a m
feeds
M a s t e r c o n t r o l also airs t h e v a r i o u s station breaks. A station
break is t h e cluster of c o m m e r c i a l s , teasers a b o u t
f r o m v a r i o u s sources t h e n telecasts t h e m at a specific t i m e .
u p c o m i n g p r o g r a m s , PSAs, a n d station identifications that
M a n y of t h e p r o g r a m s are still o n v i d e o t a p e b u t are u s u
appears between programs.
ally transferred t o t h e large-capacity h a r d drives of video servers (large c o m p u t e r s ) . T h e advantage of tapeless m a s t e r
In n o n b r o a d c a s t p r o d u c t i o n centers, master
control
refers t o a r o o m t h a t h o u s e s t h e c a m e r a c o n t r o l u n i t
c o n t r o l o p e r a t i o n is that t h e servers allow easy s e q u e n c i n g
( C C U ) , t h e h i g h - e n d v i d e o - r e c o r d i n g e q u i p m e n t , special-
of p r o g r a m events, highly precise starts a n d stops, a n d a
effects devices, large-capacity c o m p u t e r s t h a t p e r f o r m a
h i g h degree of a u t o m a t i o n , S E E 1.22
variety of p r o d u c t i o n f u n c t i o n s , a n d test e q u i p m e n t .
T h e major responsibility of master control is to see that t h e right p r o g r a m m a t e r i a l ( i n c l u d i n g c o m m e r c i a l s a n d
PROGRAM STORAGE
PSAs) is b r o a d c a s t at t h e r i g h t t i m e . Master c o n t r o l is also
All r e c o r d e d p r o g r a m m a t e r i a l ( v i d e o t a p e d or c a p t u r e d
responsible for t h e technical quality of t h e p r o g r a m s : it has
digitally o n o t h e r v i d e o - r e c o r d i n g devices) is s t o r e d in
t o check all p r o g r a m m a t e r i a l against technical s t a n d a r d s
m a s t e r c o n t r o l itself o r in a designated storage r o o m . Each
1.22 MASTER CONTROL SWITCHING AREA Master control serves as the final video and audio clearinghouse for all program material before it is broadcast or distributed by other means (satellite or cable). Computers run all master control func tions, with the master control technician overseeing the automated functions and, if necessary, taking over control manually in case of emergency.
Chapter
24
THE
I
TELEVISION
PRODUCTION
PROCESS
for fast
b a c k u p device. W h e n t h e c o m p u t e r goes d o w n , t h e m a s
identification a n d retrieval. A l t h o u g h c o m p u t e r retrieval
ter c o n t r o l t e c h n i c i a n m u s t take over a n d use t h e m a n u a l
has i n t r o d u c e d s o m e c o m m o n a l i t y in t e r m s , m a n y stations
switcher for all o n - t h e - a i r p r o g r a m sequences. W h e n all is
have their o w n p r o c e d u r e s a n d codes.
going well, the c o m p u t e r switching will follow the sequence
p r o g r a m is given a s t a t i o n code, o r house number,
of events as dictated b y t h e log. T h e c o m p u t e r will also
PROGRAM
RETRIEVAL
activate v a r i o u s playback o p e r a t i o n s . For e x a m p l e , it can
Program retrieval involves t h e selection, o r d e r i n g , a n d air
start a specific server a n d switch the p i c t u r e a n d s o u n d o n
ing of all p r o g r a m material. It is d e t e r m i n e d b y the p r o g r a m
t h e air at a precise t i m e , c h a n g e to a still p i c t u r e a n d play
log, the s e c o n d - b y - s e c o n d list of every p r o g r a m aired o n a
an a u d i o r e c o r d i n g of t h e a n n o u n c e r ' s voice, switch to
p a r t i c u l a r day. T h e log c o n t a i n s i n f o r m a t i o n necessary for
a n o t h e r s p o t in t h e server or play a brief V T R insert, a n d
efficient station o p e r a t i o n : it identifies scheduled p r o g r a m
t h e n switch to t h e n e t w o r k p r o g r a m . If t h e h o u s e n u m b e r
t i m e , length, a n d title; v i d e o a n d a u d i o o r i g i n ( v i d e o t a p e ,
of t h e actual p r o g r a m d o e s n o t m a t c h t h e n u m b e r speci
server, network, live, or r e m o t e ) ; h o u s e n u m b e r s ; a n d o t h e r
fied in t h e log, t h e c o m p u t e r c a n flash a w a r n i n g in t i m e
p e r t i n e n t i n f o r m a t i o n such as the n a m e of the sponsor. T h e
to correct t h e possible m i s t a k e .
log is issued daily, usually o n e or t w o days in advance. M o s t stations display t h e log o n c o m p u t e r screens b u t m a y also d i s t r i b u t e a h a r d copy to key p e r s o n n e l , S E E 1 . 2 3
STUDIO SUPPORT AREAS
T h e m a s t e r c o n t r o l switching area looks like t h e c o m
N o s t u d i o can function p r o p e r l y w i t h o u t a m i n i m u m of
b i n e d p r o g r a m c o n t r o l a n d switching areas of t h e s t u d i o
s u p p o r t areas. T h e s e i n c l u d e space for scene storage, p r o p
c o n t r o l r o o m . M a s t e r c o n t r o l h a s p r e v i e w m o n i t o r s for all
erty storage, a n d m a k e u p a n d dressing r o o m s .
s t u d i o c a m e r a s , v i d e o t a p e recorders, special effects, a n d n e t w o r k a n d o t h e r r e m o t e feeds, plus at least o n e off-the-
SCENERY A N D PROPERTIES
air m o n i t o r .
Television scenery consists of t h e t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l ele
A l t h o u g h all m a s t e r control switching is d o n e b y c o m
m e n t s used in t h e s t u d i o to create a specific e n v i r o n m e n t
puter, m o s t m a s t e r c o n t r o l s also have a m a n u a l switcher,
for t h e s h o w o r s h o w s e g m e n t . T h e m o s t c o m m o n scenic
w h i c h looks similar to t h e s t u d i o switcher, as a fail-safe
e l e m e n t is t h e flat, a w o o d frame covered w i t h soft m a t e rial ( m u s l i n o r canvas) o r h a r d w a l l ( p l y w o o d o r v a r i o u s types of f i b e r b o a r d ) . T h e flat is generally used to s i m u l a t e walls. O t h e r scenic e l e m e n t s i n c l u d e c o l u m n s , pedestals, p l a t f o r m s , d o o r s , w i n d o w s , a n d steps. Furniture, curtains, hanging pictures, lamps, books, desks, a n d t e l e p h o n e s are c o n s i d e r e d t h e p r o p e r t i e s , o r props, a n d set dressings. T h e p r o p s u s e d to m a k e t h e set functional, s u c h as tables a n d chairs, are t h e set
properties.
Items h a n d l e d b y t h e p e r f o r m e r s , such as t h e t e l e p h o n e , are called hand properties.
Pictures, i n d o o r p l a n t s , s c u l p
t u r e s — a n d a n y t h i n g else used to dress u p the s e t — c o n s t i t u t e t h e set dressings. D e p e n d i n g o n t h e t y p e of show, a set will s i m u l a t e a real e n v i r o n m e n t , such as a living r o o m , o r simply p r o v i d e a n efficient a n d attractive w o r k s p a c e , s u c h as an i n t e r v i e w set. S E E 1 . 2 4 W h a t e v e r t h e p u r p o s e of t h e set, it m u s t allow for g o o d lighting, favorable c a m e r a angles, o p t i m a l c a m e r a a n d m i c r o p h o n e p l a c e m e n t or m o v e m e n t , a n d s m o o t h a n d
1.23
COMPUTER DISPLAY OF LOG
The program log shows the schedule (start) times for each program segment, however short; program title and type; video and audio origin; the identification (house) number of the various program pieces; and sometimes other important information, such as the name of the sponsor.
logical action of t h e p e r f o r m e r s . P r o d u c i n g a large n u m b e r of vastly different televi sion p r o g r a m s , from daily newscasts to c o m p l e x d r a m a s , requires large p r o p a n d scenery storage areas. O t h e r w i s e , t h e s u p p o r t areas can b e fairly simple. T h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t
Section
1.2
Studios,
Master
Control,
and
Support
Areas
25
1.24
STUDIO SET
A set provides a specific environment in which the performers or actors can move about. Some sets simulate real environments such as a cafe or a living room; others provide suitable workspace for a specific type of show. The furniture in this set is part of the set properties.
p a r t of a n y storage area is its retrieval efficiency. If y o u
•
Major installations include intercom systems, studio video and audio monitors, various wall outlets, and the lighting patchboard.
•
The studio control room houses the program control with the various preview monitors, program speakers, intercoms, and clocks; the switcher; the audio control with the audio console, patchbay, program speakers, and audiotape recorders and other read/write digital devices; sometimes the lighting control board through which the intensity of the studio lights is regulated; and often the video control, which allows the video operator to achieve optimal pictures.
•
Master control is the nerve center of a television station. It has facilities for program input, storage, and retrieval. It also checks the technical quality of all the programs that are broadcast.
•
Program input is from such diverse sources as a station's own studios, via satellite or other remote feeds, or in the form of videotape. Program storage includes a unique house number for each program segment for fast identifi cation and retrieval. Program retrieval is coordinated by the log, a second-by-second list of every program aired on a particular day.
•
The studio support areas include space for property and scenery storage, as well as makeup and dressing rooms.
m u s t search for h o u r s to find t h e p r o p s to d e c o r a t e y o u r office set, even t h e m o s t extensive p r o p collection is w o r t h very little. Clearly label all storage areas, a n d always p u t t h e p r o p s a n d scenery b a c k in t h e i r d e s i g n a t e d places.
MAKEUP AND DRESSING ROOMS T h e s e s u p p o r t areas are c o m m o n p l a c e in large p r o d u c t i o n centers w h e r e s o a p o p e r a s or o t h e r daily series p r o g r a m s are p r o d u c e d . In smaller p r o d u c t i o n centers, m a k e u p a n d dressing are d o n e w h e r e v e r it's convenient. T h e closer t h e y are to t h e s t u d i o , t h e b e t t e r it is for t h e talent.
•
Telecasts can originate almost anywhere, but the television studio affords maximum production control.
•
The studio has three major production centers: the studio itself, the studio control room and master control, and the studio support areas.
•
Important aspects of the physical layout of the studio are a smooth, level floor; adequate ceiling height; acoustic treat ment and air-conditioning; and large, soundproof doors.
Analog and Digital Television T h e big buzzword in television, as in other branches of electronic communications, is digital. You have probably heard m a n y times that digital television {DTV) revolutionized television. In o n e w a y such claims are true; in another way, DTV influences certain pro duction techniques only minimally. For example, w h e r e a s the electronic characteristics of a digital camcorder differ considerably from the traditional analog o n e , its operation is pretty m u c h the same. B o t h types of c a m c o r d e r s — a n a l o g a n d digital—require that y o u look through a viewfinder and point t h e lens in a certain direction to get t h e desired image. O n the other hand, t h e switch to wide-screen DTV requires different w a y s of framing a shot. Changing from an analog (linear) editing system to a digital (nonlinear) o n e calls for not only different operational skills but also a w h o l e n e w concept of w h a t editing is all about. M o r e so, digital processes have led to a c o n v e r g e n c e of various m e dia: television is b e c o m i n g interactive; large, centralized digital databases offer televi sion n e w s organizations instant access to n e w s files; a n d computers are streaming audio a n d video "content" over t h e Internet.
A g o o d w a y to grasp the workings of a digital television system is to learn, first of all, s o m e basics a b o u t general analog a n d digital television processes.
26
Section 2.1, A n a l o g and Digital Television, explains t h e basics of h o w a color television image is c r e a t e d w h a t digital processes are all about, and h o w they differ from analog systems. Section 2.2, S c a n n i n g Systems, introduces y o u to interlaced a n d progressive scanning a n d the current major DTV standards.
480p The lowest-resolution scanning system of DTV (digital television). The p stands for progressive, which means that each complete television frame consists of 480 visible, or active, lines that are scanned one after the other (out of 525 total scanning lines). It is sometimes considered the low end of HDTV. 720p A progressive scanning system of HDTV (high-definition television). Each frame consists of 720 visible, or active, lines (out of 750 total scanning lines). 1080i An interlaced scanning system of HDTV (high-definition television). The /' stands for interlaced, which means that a complete frame is formed from two interlaced scanning fields. Each field consists of 539V4 visible, or active, lines (out of 1,125 total scanning lines). As with the traditional NTSC analog television system, the 1080i system produces 60 fields or 30 complete frames per second. analog A signal that fluctuates exactly like the original stimulus. aspect ratio The width-to-height proportions of the standard television screen and therefore of all analog television pic tures: 4 units wide by 3 units high. For DTV and HDTV, the aspect ratio is 16 x 9. binary A number system with the base of 2. binary digit (bit) The smallest amount of information a com puter can hold and process. A charge is either present, represented by a 7, or absent, represented by a 0. One bit can describe two levels, such as on/off or black/white. Two bits can describe four levels (22 bits); three bits, eight levels (23 bits); four bits, sixteen (24 bits); and so on. A group of eight bits (28) is called a byte. coding To change the quantized values into a binary code, represented by 0's and Vs. Also called encoding. compression Reducing the amount of data to be stored or transmitted by using coding schemes that pack all original data into less space (lossless compression) or by throwing away some of the least important data (lossy compression). decoding The reconstruction of a video or audio signal from a digital code.
downloading The transfer of files that are sent in data packets. Because these packets are often transferred out of order, the file cannot be seen or heard until the downloading process is complete. field (1) A location away from the studio. (2) One-half of a complete scanning cycle, with two fields necessary for one television picture frame. There are 60 fields, or 30 frames, per second in standard NTSC television. frame A complete scan of all picture lines by the electron beam. high-definition television (HDTV) Has at least twice the pic ture detail of standard (NTSC) television. The 720p uses 720 visible, or active, lines that are normally scanned progres sively each Veo second. The 1080i standard uses 60 fields per second, each field consisting of 539Vi visible, or active, lines. A complete frame consists of two interlaced scanning fields of 539V2 visible lines. The refresh rate (complete scan ning cycle) for HDTV systems can vary. interlaced scanning In this system the beam skips every other line during its first scan, reading only the odd-numbered lines. After the beam has scanned half of the last oddnumbered line, it jumps back to the top of the screen and finishes the unscanned half of the top line and continues to scan all the even-numbered lines. Each such even- or odd-numbered scan produces a field. Two fields produce a complete frame. Standard NTSC television operates with 60 fields per second, which translates into 30 frames per second. progressive scanning In this system the electron beam starts with line 1, then scans line 2, then line 3, and so forth, until all lines are scanned, at which point the beam jumps back to its starting position to repeat the scan of all lines. quantizing A step in the digitization of an analog signal. It changes the sampling points into discrete values. Also called quantization. refresh rate The number of complete digital scanning cycles per second. RGB Red, green, and blue—the basic colors of television.
digital Usually means the binary system—the representation of data in the form of binary digits (on/off pulses).
sampling The process of reading (selecting and recording) from an analog electronic signal a great many equally spaced, tiny portions (values) for conversion into a digital code.
digital television (DTV) Digital television systems that gener ally have a higher image resolution than STV (standard television). Also called advanced television (ATV).
streaming A way of delivering and receiving digital audio and/or video as a continuous data flow that can be listened to or watched while the delivery is in progress.
27
2.1 Analog and Digital Television
Before y o u s u b m e r g e yourself i n t o t h e digital w o r l d of television, you should k n o w h o w the basic television image you see on-screen is created. M a n y system elements a n d p r o d u c t i o n t e c h n i q u e s were developed to facilitate this basic technical image creation a n d display. Also, to really u n d e r s t a n d h o w various digital elements of t h e television s y s t e m — s u c h as digital c a m e r a s a n d n o n l i n e a r editing systems—interact, y o u n e e d to k n o w w h a t t h e basic digital processes are a n d h o w t h e y differ from analog ones. P> BASIC I M A G E C R E A T I O N The travel of the electron beam forming the television image and basic colors
^
BASIC COLORS O F T H E V I D E O DISPLAY Red, green, and blue as the primary colors
•
W H A T DIGITAL IS A L L A B O U T Why digital?—the difference between analog and digital and the process of digitization
B E N E F I T S O F DIGITAL T E L E V I S I O N Quality, computer compatibility and flexibility, signal trans port, compression, and aspect ratio
the television screen line b y line, from left to right, m u c h as we read. T h e inside of t h e television screen is d o t t e d w i t h light-sensitive picture elements, or pixels ( r o u n d dots o r tiny rectangles), t h a t light u p w h e n hit by t h e b e a m . If t h e b e a m is powerful, t h e d o t s light u p brightly. If t h e b e a m is weak, t h e dots light u p o n l y partially. If t h e b e a m is really tired, t h e dots d o n ' t light u p at all. T h e process is similar to t h e large displays t h a t use light bulbs for o u t d o o r advertising, except t h a t t h e light bulbs o n t h e screen are extremely tiny, S E E 2.1 T h e t r a d i t i o n a l t e l e v i s i o n s y s t e m c o n s i s t s of 5 2 5 lines o n t h e screen, of w h i c h y o u can only see 4 8 0 . It was developed by t h e N a t i o n a l Television System C o m m i t t e e a n d is a p p r o p r i a t e l y called t h e NTSC system. To p r o d u c e a n i m a g e , t h e e l e c t r o n b e a m scans t h e o d d - n u m b e r e d lines first, t h e n it j u m p s back t o t h e t o p of t h e screen a n d scans t h e e v e n - n u m b e r e d lines. T h e c o m p l e t e scan of all o d d - n u m b e r e d or e v e n - n u m b e r e d lines, w h i c h takes Vfco second, is called a field. A c o m p l e t e scan of all o d d - and e v e n - n u m b e r e d lines is called a frame. In t h e t r a d i t i o n a l N T S C system, there are 30 frames p e r second. Because t h e b e a m is such a s p e e d - r e a d e r a n d lights u p t h e pixels at a p r e t t y fast clip, we perceive t h e m as a c o m p l e t e video i m age. Because t h e b e a m scans different sets of lines for each field, t h e s c a n n i n g process is called interlaced. (Section 2.2 explores t h e v a r i o u s s c a n n i n g processes in m o r e detail.)
BASIC COLORS OF THE VIDEO DISPLAY All t h e beautiful images y o u see o n television—even t h e b l a c k - a n d - w h i t e p i c t u r e s — a r e a m i x t u r e of t h r e e basic colors: red, green, a n d blue. D e p e n d i n g o n h o w hard t h e pixels are hit b y a n electron b e a m , they light u p in different intensities. M i x i n g these intensities p r o d u c e s all t h e o t h e r colors. Each line m u s t , therefore, have g r o u p s of RGB (red, green, a n d blue) dots o r rectangles. B u t h o w c a n a single electron b e a m hit each RGB g r o u p (the three dots t h a t are g r o u p e d together) w i t h various intensities? It can't. T h e r e m u s t b e a separate electron b e a m for each basic color: o n e for t h e red dots, a second for t h e green d o t s , a n d a third for the blue ones, S E E 2.2 T h e three electron b e a m s c a n hit each g r o u p of RGB dots w i t h various intensities, thus p r o d u c i n g the different color mixes. Just h o w these three colors create all t h e others is explored in chapter 3.
BASIC IMAGE CREATION
WHAT DIGITAL IS ALL ABOUT
The video image is literally d r a w n o n t o t h e television screen by a n electronic p e n c i l — t h e electron beam. E m i t t e d by t h e electron gun, t h e electron b e a m scans t h e inside surface of
All digital c o m p u t e r s a n d digital video are based o n a bi nary code t h a t uses t h e either/or, on/off values of 0's a n d 1 's to i n t e r p r e t t h e w o r l d . T h e binary digit, or bit, acts like
28
Analog Section
2.1
2.1 INTERLACED SCANNING A The electron beam first scans all odd-numbered lines, from left to right and from top to bottom. This first scanning cycle produces the first field.
1 3 5 7
the second field.
_ ->1 '
-
1
- 1 _ - 6 _ 8
__-
*- '.
-
C The two fields make up a complete television picture, called a frame.
30
Chapter
ANALOG
2
AND
DIGITAL
TELEVISION
walking u p this r a m p , it m a t t e r s little w h e t h e r you use small o r big steps; t h e r a m p g r a d u a l l y a n d inevitably leads y o u to t h e desired elevation, SEE 2.3 To carry o n t h e m e t a p h o r , in t h e digital d o m a i n , y o u w o u l d have to use steps to get t o t h e s a m e elevation. This is m u c h m o r e a n e i t h e r / o r p r o p o s i t i o n . T h e elevation has Blue dot Green dot Red dot
n o w b e e n quantized
(divided) i n t o a n u m b e r of discrete
u n i t s — t h e steps. You either get to t h e next step or y o u don't. T h e r e is n o such t h i n g as a half or q u a r t e r step, SEE 2.4 M o r e technically, t h e analog system processes a n d records a c o n t i n u o u s signal t h a t fluctuates exactly like t h e original signal (the way y o u m o v e d u p o r d o w n t h e r a m p ) . Digital processing, however, changes t h e r a m p i n t o discrete values. This process is called digitization.
In t h e digital process, t h e
analog signal is c o n t i n u o u s l y s a m p l e d at fixed intervals; t h e
2.2
IMAGE FORMATION FOR COLOR TELEVISION
The color receiver has three electron guns, each responsible for either a red, a green, or a blue signal. Each of the beams is assigned to its color dots or rectangles. The shadow mask keeps the beams from spilling into the adjacent dots.
samples are t h e n q u a n t i z e d (assigned a concrete value) a n d c o d e d i n t o 0's a n d l's.
DIGITIZATION
PROCESS
Digitizing an analog v i d e o signal is a four-step process: (1) a n t i - a l i a s i n g , (2) s a m p l i n g , (3) q u a n t i z i n g , a n d a light switch: it is either o n or off. If it is o n , it is assigned
(4) c o d i n g , SEE 2.5
a 1; if it is off, it is assigned a 0. Anti-aliasing
WHY DIGITAL?
In this step e x t r e m e frequencies of t h e
a n a l o g signal t h a t are u n n e c e s s a r y for its p r o p e r s a m p l i n g
At first glance this e i t h e r / o r system of b i n a r y digits m a y
are filtered o u t .
s e e m awfully clumsy. F o r e x a m p l e , t h e s i m p l e d e c i m a l n u m b e r 17 reads 00010001 in t h e b i n a r y c o d e . ' N e v e r t h e less, this either/or, on/off system has great resistance to data d i s t o r t i o n a n d error. If, for e x a m p l e , y o u t u r n o n a light switch a n d t h e light flickers instead of staying o n , t h e r e is obviously s o m e t h i n g w r o n g . If y o u t u r n t h e switch off a n d the light stays o n , y o u certainly k n o w t h a t s o m e t h i n g w e n t w r o n g again. T h e digital system s i m p l y ignores s u c h aber r a t i o n s a n d reacts o n l y if t h e switch triggers t h e expected
Sampling
In t h e sampling
stage, t h e n u m b e r of p o i n t s
a l o n g t h e r a m p (analog signal) are selected for b u i l d i n g t h e steps (digital values). T h e h i g h e r t h e s a m p l i n g rate, t h e m o r e steps c h o s e n a n d t h e m o r e t h e y will l o o k like t h e original r a m p (analog signal). Obviously, a high s a m p l i n g rate ( m a n y smaller steps) is preferred over a low o n e (fewer b u t larger steps), SEE 2.6 AND 2.7 T h e sampling rate of a video signal is usually expressed in m e g a h e r t z ( M H z ) .
on/off actions.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ANALOG A N D DIGITAL Before getting t o o technical, let's use a simple m e t a p h o r to explain t h e difference b e t w e e n a n a l o g a n d digital signal processing. T h e analog signal is very m u c h like a r a m p t h a t leads c o n t i n u o u s l y from o n e elevation t o a n o t h e r . W h e n
Quantizing
At t h e quantizing
d i g i t i z a t i o n stage, w e
are actually b u i l d i n g t h e steps so t h a t we can reach t h e t o p of t h e staircase ( w h i c h was previously t h e p r e d e t e r m i n e d h i g h e n d of t h e r a m p ) a n d a s s i g n i n g t h e m n u m b e r s . Technically, quantizing
m e a n s to separate a c o n t i n u o u s l y
variable signal i n t o defined levels (steps) a n d fitting t h e m into t h e desired s a m p l e range (the h e i g h t of t h e r a m p ) . For
1. The binary system uses the base-2 numbering system. The number 17 is represented by an 8-bit binary code. All values are mathematically represented by either 0's or l's. An 8-bit representation of a single color pixel or sound has 2 , or 256, discrete values. For more-detailed information on the binary system, see Arch C. Luther and Andrew F. Inglis, Video Engineering, 3rd ed. (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1999), pp. 45-47.
e x a m p l e , a n 8-bit q u a n t i z i n g h a s a m a x i m u m n u m b e r of 8
256 ( 2 ) levels. (In o u r m e t a p h o r we c a n n o t use m o r e t h a n 256 steps), SEE2.8
s
T h e process of coding
(also called
encoding)
changes t h e q u a n t i z a t i o n n u m b e r s of each step to b i n a r y
Section
2.3
2.1
Analog
ANALOG SIGNAL
The analog signal can be represented by a ramp that leads continuously to a certain height.
and
2.4
Digital
31
Television
DIGITAL SIGNAL
The digital signal can be represented by a staircase that leads to a certain height in discrete steps.
2.5
DIGITIZATION
The digitization of an analog signal is a four-step process: anti-aliasing, sampling, quantizing, and coding (short for encoding).
2.6
HIGH SAMPLING RATE
Sampling selects points of the original analog signal. A high sampling rate selects more points of the original signal. The digital signal will be made of more, smaller steps, making it look more like the original ramp. The higher the sampling rate, the higher the signal quality.
2 . 7 LOW SAMPLING RATE A low sampling rate selects fewer points of the original signal. The digital signal will be made of a few large steps. Much of the original signal is lost.
32
Chapter
0
2.8
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
ANALOG
2
9
10 11 12 13
0
1
2
AND DIGITAL
3
4
5
TELEVISION
6
QUANTIZING
Quantizing assigns the selected signal samples a fixed position. This is the step-building stage. Each step gets a particular number assigned. A High sampling rate: many small steps. B Low sampling rate: fewer large steps.
n u m b e r s , consisting of 0's a n d l's, a n d t h e v a r i o u s g r o u p ing of t h e bits (for us, steps), SEE 2.9
BENEFITS OF DIGITAL TELEVISION W h y go t h r o u g h all these processes? W o u l d n ' t it b e easier s i m p l y to w a l k u p t h e r a m p ( u s i n g t h e a n a l o g signal) instead of c l i m b i n g t h o u s a n d s or even millions of steps p e r s e c o n d (digital signal)? After all, television w o r k e d q u i t e well before t h e digital r e v o l u t i o n . T h e s i m p l e a n swer is t h a t t h e digital f o r m a t h a s m a j o r advantages over t h e analog o n e : (1) quality, (2) c o m p u t e r c o m p a t i b i l i t y a n d flexibility, (3) signal t r a n s p o r t , (4) c o m p r e s s i o n , a n d (5) aspect r a t i o . 00000000
00000001
00000010
00000011
00000100
00000101
00000110
QUALITY 2.9
CODING
Coding, or encoding, assigns each step a binary number and groups the steps in a specific way.
Since l o n g before t h e advent of digital video a n d a u d i o systems, picture a n d s o u n d quality have been a major c o n c e r n of e q u i p m e n t m a n u f a c t u r e r s a n d p r o d u c t i o n p e r s o n n e l . A h i g h - e n d s t u d i o c a m e r a c a n cost m a n y t i m e s m o r e than a consumer camcorder, mainly because the s t u d i o c a m e r a p r o d u c e s h i g h e r - q u a l i t y p i c t u r e s . Even a m o d e s t digital
television
[DTV)
system delivers a m a z
ingly s h a r p a n d crisp p i c t u r e s t h a t s h o w n o t o n l y a great a m o u n t of fine detail b u t also i m p r o v e d color. Such initial h i g h - r e s o l u t i o n p i c t u r e quality is especially i m p o r t a n t for extensive p o s t p r o d u c t i o n .
Section
2.1
Analog
C o m p l e x editing a n d t h e r e n d e r i n g of special effects r e q u i r e m a n y t a p e g e n e r a t i o n s ( t h e n u m b e r of
and
Digital
33
Television
all b u t i m p o s s i b l e w i t h a n a l o g e q u i p m e n t . T h e o p e n i n g
dubs—
a n i m a t e d title, t h e scene t h a t e x p a n d s full-screen from t h e
copies—away from t h e original). Unfortunately, t h e higher
b o x over t h e newscaster's shoulder, o r t h e graphical t r a n s i
t h e n u m b e r of generations in analog recordings, t h e greater
t i o n f r o m o n e s t o r y t o t h e next w h e r e o n e p i c t u r e peels off
t h e loss of quality. This is n o t u n l i k e m a k i n g progressive
to reveal a n o t h e r u n d e r n e a t h — a l l s h o w t h e variety a n d t h e
copies of a letter b y p h o t o c o p y i n g each p r e v i o u s copy.
flexibility of digital effects. T h e m u l t i p l e s c r e e n s - w i t h i n -
Before l o n g t h e p r i n t has d e t e r i o r a t e d so m u c h t h a t y o u
t h e - s c r e e n a n d t h e v a r i o u s lines of text that r u n s i m u l t a n e
c a n h a r d l y read it.
ously o n t h e b o t t o m , sides, o r t o p of t h e m a i n television
But t h i s is w h e r e digital r e c o r d i n g s s h i n e : t h e r e is
screen are possible only t h r o u g h digital video effects
(DVE).
h a r d l y a n y n o t i c e a b l e q u a l i t y loss even after d o z e n s of
C o m p u t e r software that allows t h e alteration o r even t h e
g e n e r a t i o n s . For all practical p u r p o s e s , t h e t w e n t i e t h gen
synthetic creation of a u d i o a n d v i d e o images has b e c o m e
e r a t i o n looks as s h a r p as t h e original source t a p e . I n fact,
a n essential digital p r o d u c t i o n tool.
t h r o u g h s o m e digital wizardry, y o u c a n m a k e a copy l o o k even better t h a n t h e original recording! A n o t h e r i m p o r t a n t
SIGNAL TRANSPORT
quality factor is t h a t t h e s i m p l e b i n a r y c o d e is relatively
Your I n t e r n e t c o n n e c t i o n m o s t likely c o m e s i n t o y o u r
i m m u n e t o e x t r a n e o u s electronic signals—noise o r arti
r o o m via a regular telephone line. Becoming increas
facts—that
ingly m o r e c o m m o n are I S D N (integrated services digital
infiltrate a n d distort analog signals. W i t h digital
signal processing, electronic noise is held t o a m i n i m u m ,
n e t w o r k ) a n d DSL (digital subscriber line) c o n n e c t i o n s ,
if n o t altogether e l i m i n a t e d .
w h i c h are larger c o n d u i t s , o r pipelines, t h a t c a n get m o r e
T h e r e is a trade-off, however. W i t h h i g h - r e s o l u t i o n
digital i n f o r m a t i o n t o y o u r c o m p u t e r faster t h a n o r d i n a r y
pictures it is often difficult to o b t a i n a n d m a i n t a i n optical
t e l e p h o n e lines c a n . But, as y o u k n o w , even these larger
focus; a n d they require that we pay m o r e a t t e n t i o n to detail,
pipelines seem r a t h e r slow for W e b s t r e a m i n g o r w h e n
from m a k e u p a n d clothing t o scenery a n d properties. T h e r e
d o w n l o a d i n g a large file.
is a n o t h e r d o w n s i d e to superclean signals, especially w h e n
T h e r e is often confusion a b o u t t h e difference b e t w e e n
dealing w i t h s o u n d . S o m e t i m e s digital m u s i c r e c o r d i n g s
d o w n l o a d i n g a n d data streaming. W h e n y o u are
s o u n d so crisp a n d clean that they lack t h e w a r m t h a n d tex
ing, y o u receive d a t a t h a t are sent in packets. Because these
t u r e of t h e original p i e c e — o r even of an a n a l o g r e c o r d i n g .
d a t a packets are usually s e n t o u t of o r d e r t o m a k e full use
You m a y r e m e m b e r t h e m o n o t o n e s o u n d s of synthesized
of t h e available pipeline, y o u c a n n o t call u p t h e entire file
download
c o m p u t e r speech; it was m i s s i n g all t h e c o m p l e x i t y a n d
until t h e d o w n l o a d i n g process is complete. W i t h
subtleties (overtones) of actual speech. A u d i o professionals
o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , y o u receive digital a u d i o a n d / o r video
are using h i g h e r s a m p l i n g rates a n d m o r e - c o m p l e x digital
d a t a as a c o n t i n u o u s d a t a flow. Because t h e data s t r e a m
signal c o m b i n a t i o n s t o m a k e u p for this deficiency. Para
is sent c o n t i n u o u s l y a n d n o t c o n v e r t e d i n t o o u t - o f - o r d e r
streaming,
doxically, a certain a m o u n t of noise seems t o c o n t r i b u t e t o
packets, y o u c a n listen t o t h e m u s i c o r w a t c h t h e initial
t h e " w a r m t h " of s o u n d .
v i d e o frames while t h e files for t h e following frames are still b e i n g transferred.
COMPUTER COMPATIBILITY AND FLEXIBILITY
tively small for c a r r y i n g t h e h u g e a m o u n t of i n f o r m a t i o n
O n e of t h e big advantages of digital television is t h a t its
necessary for a f u l l - m o t i o n ( 3 0 - f r a m e s - p e r - s e c o n d ) , full
signals c a n b e transferred directly from t h e c a m e r a t o t h e
screen television s e q u e n c e . T h e h u g e a m o u n t of digital
c o m p u t e r w i t h o u t t h e n e e d for digitization. T h e e l i m i n a
d a t a necessary for high-definition
t i o n of this step is especially w e l c o m e t o news d e p a r t m e n t s ,
even m o r e so, interactive digital television n e e d s m u c h
U n f o r t u n a t e l y , t h e s e c o m p u t e r p i p e l i n e s a r e rela
television
(HDTV)
or,
w h o s e m e m b e r s w o r k u n d e r tight deadlines. It is also a
larger pipelines. O n e of these large pipelines is p r o v i d e d
great relief to p o s t p r o d u c t i o n editors, w h o c a n n o w devote
b y b r o a d b a n d t r a n s m i s s i o n . Broadband
m o r e t i m e t o t h e a r t of editing r a t h e r t h a n sitting idle d u r
original signal o r s i m u l t a n e o u s l y send a n u m b e r of dif
ing t h e digitizing process.
ferent signals (voice, m u s i c , o r v i d e o , for e x a m p l e ) via
T h e flexibility of t h e digital signal is especially i m p o r
lets y o u split t h e
several smaller pipelines. Ironically, to t r a n s p o r t t h e digital
t a n t for creating special effects a n d c o m p u t e r - g e n e r a t e d
d a t a over great distances at high speed, t h e y m u s t first be
images. Even a simple w e a t h e r c a s t o r a five-minute n e w s
t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o analog signals a n d t h e n r e c o n v e r t e d to
cast features a dazzling display of digital effects t h a t was
digital at t h e receiving e n d .
Chapter
34
ANALOG
2
AND
DIGITAL
TELEVISION
2.10 4 X 3 ASPECT RATIO The traditional aspect ratio of the television screen is 4 x 3 (4 units wide by 3 units high). It can also
be expressed as 1.33:1 (1.33 units in width for each unit of height).
You m i g h t ask yourself w h y such a c o m p l i c a t e d t r a n s
is r e t u r n e d w i t h o u t d i m i n i s h e d quality. T h e d i s a d v a n t a g e
mission process can be called a n advantage over processing
is t h a t it takes m o r e storage space a n d usually takes m o r e
a n d s e n d i n g a n a l o g signals. You already k n o w o n e reason:
t i m e t o t r a n s p o r t a n d b r i n g b a c k from storage. M o s t image
the b i n a r y system is extremely r o b u s t a n d highly resistant
c o m p r e s s i o n t e c h n i q u e s are therefore t h e lossy k i n d .
to signal d i s t o r t i o n a n d interference. A n o t h e r reason is t h a t
O n e of t h e m o s t w i d e l y u s e d digital c o m p r e s s i o n
t h e size of t h e digital signal c a n b e r e d u c e d d r a m a t i c a l l y
s t a n d a r d s for still images is JPEG ("jay-peg"), n a m e d for
w i t h o u t d o i n g t o o m u c h d a m a g e , t h r o u g h a process called
the organization that developed the system—the Joint
compression.
P h o t o g r a p h i c Experts G r o u p ; motion-JPEG
is for m o v i n g
c o m p u t e r i m a g e s . A l t h o u g h a lossless JPEG t e c h n i q u e
COMPRESSION
exists, t o save storage space m o s t JPEG c o m p r e s s i o n s a r e
Compression
lossy. A n o t h e r c o m p r e s s i o n s t a n d a r d for h i g h - q u a l i t y
is t h e t e m p o r a r y r e a r r a n g e m e n t o r e l i m i n a
tion of r e d u n d a n t i n f o r m a t i o n for easier storage a n d signal
v i d e o is MPEG-2
t r a n s m i s s i o n . Digital i n f o r m a t i o n can b e c o m p r e s s e d b y
b y t h e M o v i n g Picture Experts G r o u p . M P E G - 2 is also a
("em-peg two"), n a m e d and developed
r e g r o u p i n g t h e original data w i t h o u t t h r o w i n g a n y away.
lossy c o m p r e s s i o n t e c h n i q u e , based o n t h e e l i m i n a t i o n of
O n c e at t h e d e s t i n a t i o n , t h e d a t a can b e restored t o their
r e d u n d a n t i n f o r m a t i o n . M P E G - 4 a n d M P E G - 7 differ from
o r i g i n a l p o s i t i o n s — a p r o c e s s called decoding—for
M P E G - 2 in t h a t t h e y are i n t e n d e d m o r e as s t a n d a r d i z e d
an
o u t p u t t h a t is identical to t h e original i n p u t . W e d o this
systems for organizing m u l t i m e d i a c o n t e n t t h a n m e r e c o m
frequently w h e n "zipping" (on a W i n d o w s P C ) or "stuffing"
p r e s s i o n of m o v i n g images. (We discuss M P E G f o r m a t s i n
( o n a M a c ) large c o m p u t e r texts for storage a n d t r a n s m i s
m o r e d e p t h i n c h a p t e r 12.)
sion a n d t h e n " u n z i p p i n g " t h e m w h e n o p e n i n g t h e file. O r y o u c a n s i m p l y delete all data t h a t are r e d u n d a n t . C o m p r e s s i o n that results from r e a r r a n g i n g o r repack aging data is called lossless—the
ASPECT RATIO O n e of t h e m o s t visible differences b e t w e e n t r a d i t i o n a l
r e g e n e r a t e d i m a g e has t h e
(analog) a n d digital television systems is t h e h o r i z o n t a l l y
s a m e n u m b e r of pixels a n d values as t h e original. W h e n
stretched television p i c t u r e of H D T V . T h e n e w television
s o m e pixels a r e e l i m i n a t e d in s o m e frames because t h e y
aspect
are r e d u n d a n t o r b e y o n d o u r o r d i n a r y p e r c e p t i o n , t h e
s c r e e n — r e s e m b l e s m o r e a small m o t i o n p i c t u r e screen
ratio—the
w i d t h - t o - h e i g h t p r o p o r t i o n s of t h e
c o m p r e s s i o n is called lossy. Even if t h e lost pixels are n o t
t h a n t h e t r a d i t i o n a l television screen. A l t h o u g h we discuss
essential for t h e i m a g e c r e a t i o n , t h e r e g e n e r a t e d i m a g e is
t h e v a r i o u s aspect ratios m o r e t h o r o u g h l y in c h a p t e r 15,
nevertheless different f r o m t h e original. T h e o b v i o u s a d
we'll take a brief l o o k here at t h e m a i n characteristics of
vantage of lossless c o m p r e s s i o n is t h a t t h e original i m a g e
t h e t w o p r i n c i p a l aspect ratios.
Section
2.1
Analog
and
Digital
35
Television
2.11
16x9
ASPECT RATIO
The aspect ratio of DTV is 16 x 9 (16 units wide by 9 units high), which is a multiple of the 4 x 3 ratio (4 x 3 ). Its horizontally stretched aspect ratio of 1.78:1 resembles that of the movie screen (1.85:1). 2
4x3
aspect ratio
T h e aspect r a t i o of t h e t r a d i t i o n a l
M A I N
2
P
O
I
N
T
S
television screen a n d of c o m p u t e r screens, w h i c h dates back to the earliest m o t i o n p i c t u r e screens, is 4 x 3 , w h i c h m e a n s
•
In the basic interlaced scanning process, the electron beam reads all odd-numbered lines first (the first field), then the even-numbered lines (the second field). The two fields con stitute a single television frame. In the NTSC system, there are 60 fields, or 30 frames, per second.
•
The basic colors used in television are red, green, and blue—RGB. Each of the 480 visible lines on the face of the display tube consists of groups of red, green, and blue dots or rectangles. Three electron beams activate these basic color dots—one beam for the red dots, one for the green, and one for the blue. The varying intensities of the three beams produce the colors we see on television.
•
Digital computers use binary code, consisting of 0's and l's. This code resists data error.
•
In the digital process, the analog signal is continuously sampled at specific intervals. The samples are then quan tized (assigned a discrete value) and coded into groups of 0's and Vs.
•
Digital television produces pictures and sound of superior quality, allows many tape generations with virtually no signal deterioration, provides great flexibility in image manipulation and creation, and permits data compression for efficient signal transport and storage.
•
Compared with the traditional television aspect ratio of 4 x 3 (1.33:1), HDTV systems have a wider aspect ratio of 16x9(1.78:1).
t h a t its f r a m e is 4 u n i t s w i d e by 3 u n i t s h i g h , regardless of w h e t h e r t h e units are inches or feet. This aspect ratio is also expressed 1.33:1. F o r every u n i t in screen h e i g h t , t h e r e are 1.33 u n i t s in w i d t h , SEE
2.10
T h e a d v a n t a g e of this classic aspect r a t i o is t h a t t h e difference between the screen w i d t h a n d the screen height is n o t p r o n o u n c e d e n o u g h to u n d u l y e m p h a s i z e o n e d i m e n s i o n over t h e other. A c l o s e - u p o r a n e x t r e m e c l o s e - u p of a face fits well in this aspect r a t i o , as d o e s a h o r i z o n t a l l y 2
s t r e t c h e d l a n d s c a p e . T h e d i s a d v a n t a g e is t h a t it d o e s n o t a c c o m m o d a t e wide-screen movies that have the m u c h m o r e h o r i z o n t a l l y s t r e t c h e d aspect r a t i o of 1.85:1. T h e horizontally stretched as pect ratio of D T V systems is 1 6 x 9 ; t h a t is, t h e screen is 16 u n i t s w i d e b y 9 u n i t s h i g h , or 1.78:1. As y o u c a n see, this aspect r a t i o resembles t h a t of a m o v i e screen, SEE 2.11 Because this aspect ratio is so closely associated w i t h h i g h d e f i n i t i o n television, it is also called t h e H D T V aspect ratio. (See c h a p t e r 15 for a m o r e i n - d e p t h d i s c u s s i o n of aspect ratio.)
2.
See Herbert Zettl, Sight Sound Motion, 4th ed. (Belmont, Calif.: Thomson Wadsworth, 2005), pp. 83-92.
read all t h e e v e n - n u m b e r e d lines. In t h i s process s o m e of
2.2
t h e lines get lost. T h e lines w e actually see o n t h e screen are called active o r visible lines. T h e 525 lines of t r a d i t i o n a l ( N T S C ) analog television are divided i n t o t w o fields: 262 Vi lines for t h e first field a n d another
!
262 /2
lines for the second field. T h e b e a m scans 6 0
a l t e r n a t e fields, o r 30 c o m p l e t e frames, each second. T h i s
Scanning Systems
s c a n n i n g speed is so fast t h a t w e perceive t h e t w o fields as a c o m p l e t e , relatively flicker-free p i c t u r e . O f these 525 lines, only 480 are visible, o r active, SEE 2.12 T h e l i n e s a r e i n t e r l a c e d t o save bandwidth,
the
electronic p i p e l i n e t h a t t r a n s p o r t s t h e television signal. By s p l i t t i n g e a c h f r a m e in h a l f a n d s e n d i n g t h e t w o h a l v e s — t h e t w o fields—one right after t h e o t h e r instead of simultaneously, t h e video i n f o r m a t i o n is r e d u c e d a n d y o u get b y w i t h a smaller b a n d w i d t h . Retrace a n d blanking
Both the interlaced and the
progressive s c a n n i n g systems u s e r e t r a c e a n d b l a n k i n g . T h e r e p o s i t i o n i n g of t h e b e a m from t h e e n d of t h e s c a n n e d line t o t h e s t a r t i n g p o i n t of t h e next is called
horizontal
retrace. W h e n t h e b e a m reaches t h e e n d of t h e last line This section takes a closer look at interlaced a n d progressive
a n d j u m p s b a c k t o t h e starting p o i n t of line 1, it is referred
s c a n n i n g a n d digital display systems. All s t a n d a r d television
to as vertical
uses interlaced s c a n n i n g ; digital television systems, o n t h e
d u r i n g t h e h o r i z o n t a l a n d vertical retraces, t h e b e a m is
other h a n d , p r o d u c e their high-resolution pictures t h r o u g h
a u t o m a t i c a l l y starved so t h a t it w o n ' t light u p a n y pixels
either interlaced o r progressive s c a n n i n g .
t h a t m i g h t interfere w i t h t h e original scan; this process is
P>
INTERLACED AND PROGRESSIVE SCANNING
t h e h o r i z o n t a l retrace, a n d vertical blanking
The interlaced and progressive scanning systems
vertical retrace.
retrace. To avoid a n y p i c t u r e i n t e r f e r e n c e
called blanking.
H e n c e , horizontal
blanking
occurs d u r i n g is d u r i n g t h e
DTV SYSTEMS
PROGRESSIVE SCANNING
The 480p, 720p, and 10801 systems
SYSTEM
Unlike interlaced s c a n n i n g , w h i c h displays half t h e p i c t u r e FLAT-PANEL DISPLAYS
i n f o r m a t i o n followed i m m e d i a t e l y b y t h e s e c o n d half, t h e
Plasma displays and liquid crystal displays
progressive
scanning
system scans every line from t o p t o
b o t t o m a n d displays a full frame. Technically, t h e electron
INTERLACED AND PROGRESSIVE SCANNING
b e a m in t h e progressive system starts a t t h e t o p left of t h e screen a n d scans t h e first line, t h e n j u m p s b a c k t o t h e left
As m e n t i o n e d in c h a p t e r 1, t h e television i m a g e is f o r m e d
at t h e start of the s e c o n d line, scans t h e second line, j u m p s
by t h e t h r e e RGB (red, green, a n d blue) electron b e a m s
b a c k t o t h e t h i r d line, scans t h e t h i r d line, a n d so o n . As
that scan t h e light-sensitive pixels lining t h e i n n e r surface
s o o n as t h e s c a n n i n g of a frame is c o m p l e t e , t h e b e a m
of t h e television screen. A l t h o u g h color television s c a n n i n g
j u m p s b a c k t o its original starting p o i n t at t h e t o p left of
requires t h r e e electron b e a m s , t o simplify t h e e x p l a n a t i o n
t h e screen a n d starts s c a n n i n g t h e s e c o n d frame, a n d so
we a s s u m e h e r e t h a t o n l y a single b e a m is s c a n n i n g t h e
forth. As y o u c a n see, t h e b e a m scans all lines progressively,
surface of t h e screen.
h e n c e t h e n a m e of t h e system, SEE 2.13 T h e refresh rate, that is, h o w often t h e b e a m j u m p s b a c k t o scan a n o t h e r frame,
INTERLACED SCANNING In interlaced
scanning,
SYSTEM
t h e e l e c t r o n b e a m r e a d s all t h e
o d d - n u m b e r e d lines first, t h e n it j u m p s back t o t h e t o p t o
36
can b e 60 frames p e r second o r even higher. Let's apply t h e t w o s c a n n i n g systems t o D T V a n d see h o w they fare.
Section
Scanning
2.2
Systems
37
2.12 INTERLACED SCANNING
2.13 PROGRESSIVE SCANNING
In interlaced scanning, the beam reads every other line from top to bottom. Each scan produces one field (odd-numbered or even-numbered lines). Two fields make up a complete frame.
In progressive scanning, the beam reads every line from top to bottom. Each complete scan produces a television frame. Retrace lines (shown as dashed in these figures) are blanked so they do not appear on-screen.
DTV SYSTEMS {advanced
was delivered to t h e set. To m a k e t h i n g s even m o r e c o m
television) a n d D T V (digital television) scanning standards,
plicated, each of t h e s c a n n i n g formats (480, 720, a n d 1080)
After years of w r a n g l i n g over the f o r m e r ATV
t h e i n d u s t r y seems to have settled o n t h r e e systems: t h e
can have a variety of refresh rates. You may, for example,
480p, t h e 720p, a n d the 1080i.
assign a n H D T V c a m e r a t o s h o o t at a frame rate of 24p
480P SYSTEM
30 frames p e r s e c o n d ) sequence. To fool y o u i n t o a n even
T h e 480p system uses 480 active lines t h a t are s c a n n e d
h i g h e r r e s o l u t i o n , t h e receiver m a y decide to d o u b l e t h e
progressively every Vfeo second. Let's take a closer l o o k at
refresh rate a n d s h o w t h e s e q u e n c e at 60 frames p e r sec
these n u m b e r s . As y o u c a n see, t h e 4 8 0 p system h a s t h e
o n d . It all boils d o w n to giving y o u as s h a r p a p i c t u r e as
s a m e n u m b e r of s c a n n i n g lines as does s t a n d a r d television;
possible w i t h o u t taking u p t o o m u c h t r a n s m i s s i o n space
b u t b e c a u s e t h e b e a m in progressive s c a n n i n g reads all t h e
a n d t i m e to deliver it. T h e r e s o l u t i o n table gives s o m e idea
(24 frames per s e c o n d ) , b u t send it as a 60i (60 fields, or
lines before it j u m p s back to begin r e a d i n g t h e next page,
a b o u t t h e variations in s c a n n i n g lines (vertical pixels), lines
progressive s c a n n i n g generates a c o m p l e t e frame in each
of r e s o l u t i o n ( h o r i z o n t a l pixels) p e r line, a n d the v a r i o u s
s c a n n i n g cycle. Instead of t h e 60 fields, or 30 frames, per
refresh rates. SEE2.14 T h e n u m b e r of c o m b i n e d pixels d e
s e c o n d of s t a n d a r d television, t h e 4 8 0 p system generates
t e r m i n e s t h e spatial resolution; t h e n u m b e r of frames per
60 c o m p l e t e frames p e r second. T h e m a i n r e a s o n for t h e
s e c o n d (refresh rate) d e t e r m i n e s t h e t e m p o r a l r e s o l u t i o n .
higher refresh rate of this a n d all o t h e r progressive scanning
N o t e that the 480-line a n d 1,080-line digital frame can have
systems is to avoid flicker.
interlaced or progressive s c a n n i n g formats.
T h e p r o b l e m w i t h all these s c a n n i n g s t a n d a r d s is t h a t w h a t y o u get is n o t necessarily w h a t y o u see. Because t h e
720P SYSTEM
signals are digital, t h e digital display (what y o u r television
B o t h t h e 720 visible, or active, lines (of 750 actual s c a n n i n g
receiver shows) d o e s n o t have to m i r r o r exactly w h a t is
lines) t h a t are s c a n n e d progressively in the 720p system a n d
b e i n g sent. For e x a m p l e , a D T V receiver m a y receive a n
its refresh rate of 60 (all lines are s c a n n e d every Viso second)
interlaced frame b u t s h o w it as a progressive scan. It can
c o n t r i b u t e to t r u e h i g h - d e f i n i t i o n television images. This
also s h o w the frames at a different refresh rate from w h a t
m e a n s t h a t t h e pictures have s u p e r i o r resolution a n d color
38
Chapter
2.14
ANALOG
2
AND
DIGITAL
TELEVISION
DTV RESOLUTION TABLE
SPATIAL RESOLUTION
TEMPORAL RESOLUTION
Height in Pixels
Width in Pixels
Complete Frames per Second
(scanning lines)
(pixels per line)
i = interlaced scanning p = progressive scanning
480
704
24p
30p, 30i
60p
720
1,280
24p
30p
60p
1,080
1,920
24p
30p, 30i
60p
Table courtesy of Michael Korpi, Baylor University.
fidelity. T h e a d v a n t a g e s of t h e 720p system are a relatively
vision set, t h e i n d u s t r y h a s t u r n e d to flat-panel displays,
low n u m b e r of s c a n n i n g lines, efficient c o m p r e s s i o n , a n d
s u c h as t h o s e o n l a p t o p c o m p u t e r s . T h e a d v a n t a g e of
ease of conversion w h e n t r a n s m i t t e d via cable.
flat-panel displays over regular television receivers or large-
10801 S Y S T E M
very large w i t h o u t getting thicker or losing their resolution.
screen p r o j e c t i o n systems is t h a t flat panels can be m a d e T h e 1080i system (1,080 visible lines of 1,125 total lines)
In fact, a flat-panel display resembles a large p a i n t i n g with a
uses interlaced s c a n n i n g . M u c h like w i t h s t a n d a r d N T S C
m o d e s t frame. Even large flat panels c a n b e h u n g o n a wall
s c a n n i n g , each field of
visible lines is s c a n n e d every
like a p a i n t i n g . As always w i t h v i d e o technology, t h e r e are
Vfeo s e c o n d , p r o d u c i n g 30 frames p e r s e c o n d . T h e h i g h
two different, i n c o m p a t i b l e types of flat-panel displays t h a t
n u m b e r of s c a n n i n g lines of t h e 1080i system dramatically
can r e p r o d u c e h i g h - d e f i n i t i o n video images: t h e p l a s m a
i m p r o v e s t h e r e s o l u t i o n of t h e television p i c t u r e — a t t h e
display a n d t h e liquid crystal display.
539'/2
cost of r e q u i r i n g a fairly large b a n d w i d t h for signal t r a n s p o r t . But in t h e e n d , as we all k n o w , it d e p e n d s o n h o w m u c h of the original p i c t u r e quality is m a i n t a i n e d d u r i n g the entire p r o d u c t i o n process a n d , especially, d u r i n g signal transmission.
P L A S M A DISPLAY PANEL T h e plasma
display
panel
(PDP)
uses two t r a n s p a r e n t
(usually glass) w i r e d p a n e l s t h a t s a n d w i c h a t h i n layer of gas. W h e n t h e gas receives t h e voltages of t h e v i d e o signal,
Regardless of t h e relative p i c t u r e quality of t h e t h r e e s t a n d a r d s , like any o t h e r system all are u l t i m a t e l y d e p e n
it activates t h e RGB d o t s t h a t are a r r a n g e d very m u c h like t h o s e of t h e s t a n d a r d television receiver.
dent on the program content. A bad program remains bad even w h e n received in digital H D T V ; a g o o d p r o g r a m is g o o d even if t h e p i c t u r e quality is slightly inferior. N o t e ,
LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAY
however, that picture quality b e c o m e s a real issue w h e n u s
T h e liquid crystal display (LCD) also uses t w o t r a n s p a r e n t
ing a n H D T V system for instructional or training p u r p o s e s ,
sheets, b u t i n s t e a d of gas t h e p a n e l s s a n d w i c h a l i q u i d
such as m e d i c a l p r o g r a m s .
w h o s e crystal molecules c h a n g e w h e n an electric c u r r e n t is applied. R a t h e r t h a n RGB d o t s , t h e LCD uses tiny t r a n
FLAT-PANEL DISPLAYS H a n d - i n - h a n d w i t h t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of D T V goes t h e search for high-definition receivers. Because t h e r e is a limit to t h e size of t h e CRT (cathode ray tube) of the regular tele
sistors that light u p a c c o r d i n g to t h e voltages of t h e v i d e o signal. L a p t o p c o m p u t e r s , digital clocks, t e l e p h o n e s , a n d m a n y o t h e r c o n s u m e r electronics use LCD. B o t h flat-panel displays are capable of p r o d u c i n g t r u e h i g h - d e f i n i t i o n pictures.
Section
2.2
•
With interlaced scanning, the beam skips every other line during its first scan, reading only the odd-numbered lines. After the beam has scanned half of the last oddnumbered line, it jumps back to the top of the screen and finishes the unscanned half of the top line and continues to scan all the even-numbered lines. Each such even- or odd-numbered scan produces a field. Two fields produce a complete video frame.
•
In the progressive scanning system, the electron beam scans each line, starting with line 1, then line 2, then line 3, and so on. When all lines have been scanned, the beam jumps back to its starting point to repeat the sequential scanning of all lines. Each scan of all lines results in a video frame.
•
During the horizontal and vertical retraces, the beam is starved so that it will not activate the pixels and thus inter fere with the clarity of the picture.
•
The most common refresh rate of the 480p and 720p sys tems is 60 fps (frames per second), whereas for the 1080i system it is 30 fps. Many high-definition television (HDTV) systems have a variable frame rate.
•
Digital television (DTV) employs three principal scanning formats: the 480p (480 lines progressively scanned), the 720p, and the 1080i (1,080 lines with interlaced scanning). All have a 16 x 9 aspect ratio but can be switched to the traditional 4 x 3 aspect ratio.
•
The two flat-panel video displays are the plasma display panel (PDP), which sandwiches gas between two trans parent panels, and the liquid crystal display (LCD), which sandwiches a liquid between two transparent panels. The PDP activates RGB (red, green, and blue) dots; the LCD panel activates a number of tiny transistors that change according to the charge they receive.
Scanning
Systems
39
The Television Camera T h e television camera is t h e single most important piece of production e q u i p m e n t . Other production e q u i p m e n t a n d techniques are greatly influenced by t h e camera's technical a n d performance characteristics. Although t h e electronics of the television camera h a v e b e c o m e increasingly complex, its n e w systems m a k e it m u c h simpler to operate. As y o u probably k n o w from operating your o w n camcorder, y o u don't have to be a skilled electronics engineer to produce an optimal image—all y o u n e e d to do is press t h e right camera buttons. Section 3.1, H o w Television Cameras Work, identifies t h e parts, types, a n d characteristics of cameras a n d h o w they operate. Section 3.2, From Light to Video Image, provides more-detailed information a b o u t the function of the CCD, the nature of color, a n d the c h r o m i n a n c e a n d luminance channels.
40
beam splitter Compact internal optical system of prisms and filters within a television camera that separates white light into the three primary colors: red, green, and blue (RGB). Also called prism block.
brightness The color attribute that determines how dark or light a color appears on the monochrome television screen or how much light the color reflects. Also called lightness and
luminance.
camcorder A portable camera with the videotape recorder or some other recording device attached or built into it to form a single unit. camera chain The television camera (head) and associated elec tronic equipment, including the camera control unit, sync generator, and power supply. camera control unit (CCU) Equipment, separate from the camera head, that contains various video controls, includ ing color fidelity, color balance, contrast, and brightness. The CCU enables the video operator to adjust the camera picture during a show. camera head The actual television camera, which is at the head of a chain of essential electronic accessories. It comprises the imaging device, lens, and viewfinder. In ENG/EFP cameras, the camera head contains all the elements of the camera chain. charge-coupled device (CCD) The imaging element in a televi sion camera. Usually called the chip. chip A common name for the camera's imaging device. Technically, it is known as the charge-coupled
device (CCD).
The chip consists of a great number of imaging sensing elements, called pixels, that translate the optical (light) image into an electronic video signal. Also called camera pickup device.
chrominance channel Consists of the three color (chroma) signals in a video system. The chrominance channel is responsible for each of the basic color signals: red, green, and blue (RGB). Also called Cchannel. contrast ratio The difference between the brightest and the darkest portions in the picture (often measured by reflected light in foot-candles). The contrast ratio for most cameras is normally 40:1 to 50:1, which means that the brightest spot in the picture should not be more than forty or fifty times brighter than the darkest portion without causing loss of detail in the dark or light areas. High-end digital cameras can exceed this ratio. electronic cinema A high-definition television camera that has a frame rate of 24 frames per second, which is identical to the frame rate of a film camera. Most electronic cinema cameras use high-quality, state-of-the-art lenses and highdefinition viewfinders. ENG/EFP cameras and camcorders High-quality portable field production cameras. When the camera is docked with a VTR or other recording device, or has the recording device built into it, it is called a camcorder. gain Electronic amplification of the video signal, boosting pri marily picture brightness.
high-definition television (HDTV) camera Video camera that delivers pictures of superior resolution, color fidelity, and light-and-dark contrast; uses high-quality CCDs and zoom lens. high-definition video (HDV) A recording system that produces images of the same resolution as HDTV (720p and 1080i) with equipment that is similar to standard digital video camcorders. The video signals are much more compressed than those of HDTV, however, which results in lower overall video quality. hue One of the three basic color attributes; hue is the color itself—red, green, yellow, and so on. luminance channel A separate channel within color cameras that deals with brightness variations and allows them to produce a signal receivable on a black-and-white television. The luminance signal is usually electronically derived from the chrominance signals. Also called Ychannel. moire effect Color vibrations that occur when narrow, contrast ing stripes of a design interfere with the scanning lines of the television system. operating light level Amount of light needed by the camera to produce a video signal. Most color cameras need from 100 to 250 foot-candles of illumination for optimal performance at a particular/-stop, such a s / / 8 . Also called baselight level. pixel Short for picture e/ement. A single imaging element (like the single dot in a newspaper picture) that can be identified by a computer. The more pixels per picture area, the higher the picture quality. resolution The measurement of picture detail. Resolution is influenced by the imaging device, the lens, and the televi sion set that shows the camera picture. Often used synony mously with definition. saturation The color attribute that describes a color's richness or strength. shading Adjusting picture contrast to the optimal contrast range; controlling the color and the white and black levels. signal-to-noise (S/N) ratio The relation of the strength of the desired signal to the accompanying electronic interference (the noise). A high S/N ratio is desirable (strong video or audio signal relative to weak noise). studio camera High-quality camera and zoom lens that cannot be maneuvered properly without the aid of a pedestal or some other camera mount. sync generator Part of the camera chain; produces electronic synchronization signal. sync pulses Electronic pulses that synchronize the scanning in the various video origination sources (studio cameras and/or remote cameras) and various recording, process ing, and reproduction sources (videotape, monitors, and television receivers). white balance The adjustments of the color circuits in the cam era to produce a white color in lighting of various color tem peratures (relative reddishness or bluishness of white light).
41
PARTS OF THE CAMERA
3.1
W h e n y o u take v a c a t i o n p i c t u r e s w i t h y o u r c a m c o r d e r , p r o b a b l y t h e last thing o n y o u r m i n d is w h a t m a k e s a video c a m e r a w o r k . B u t if y o u were t o o p e n u p a c a m e r a ( n o t r e c o m m e n d e d ) a n d see t h e m y r i a d e l e c t r o n i c e l e m e n t s a n d circuits, y o u w o u l d p r o b a b l y w o n d e r h o w it functions at all. D e s p i t e their e l e c t r o n i c complexity, all television
How Television
c a m e r a s ( i n c l u d i n g t h e c o n s u m e r v i d e o c a m e r a s ) consist of t h r e e m a i n p a r t s .
Cameras Work
T h e first is t h e lens, which selects a certain field of view a n d p r o d u c e s a small optical i m a g e of it. T h e second p a r t is t h e c a m e r a itself, w i t h its imaging, o r pickup,
device t h a t
converts into electrical signals t h e optical image as delivered by t h e lens. T h e third is the viewfinder, w h i c h shows a small v i d e o image o f w h a t t h e lens is seeing. S o m e c a m e r a s have a small foldout screen that enables y o u to forgo l o o k i n g t h r o u g h a n eyepiece t o see t h e c a m e r a p i c t u r e , SEE 3.1
FROM LIGHT TO VIDEO SIGNAL All television c a m e r a s , w h e t h e r digital o r analog, b i g o r To u s e c o m p u t e r j a r g o n , television c a m e r a s have b e c o m e user-friendly, yet y o u still n e e d s o m e basic k n o w l e d g e o f h o w a c a m e r a w o r k s so that y o u can m a x i m i z e its p o t e n t i a l a n d u n d e r s t a n d h o w it affects t h e rest of a p r o d u c t i o n . This section takes a close l o o k at t h e c a m e r a . ^
small, w o r k o n t h e s a m e basic p r i n c i p l e : t h e c o n v e r s i o n o f a n optical i m a g e into electrical signals t h a t are reconverted b y a television set i n t o visible screen images, SEE 3.2 Spe cifically, t h e light that is reflected off a n object is g a t h e r e d b y a lens a n d focused o n t h e i m a g i n g ( p i c k u p ) device. T h e i m a g i n g device is t h e p r i n c i p a l c a m e r a e l e m e n t t h a t t r a n s d u c e s (converts) t h e light i n t o electric e n e r g y — t h e v i d e o
PARTS OF THE CAMERA
signal. T h a t signal is t h e n amplified a n d processed so t h a t
The lens, the camera Itself, and the viewfinder
it c a n b e r e c o n v e r t e d i n t o visible screen images. !•
FROM LIGHT TO VIDEO SIGNAL
W i t h these basic c a m e r a functions in m i n d , w e can ex
The beam splitter and the imaging device
a m i n e step-by-step t h e elements a n d t h e processes involved
CAMERA CHAIN
images. Specifically, w e l o o k at (1) t h e b e a m splitter a n d
The camera head, camera control unit, sync generator, and
(2) t h e i m a g i n g device.
in t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of light images i n t o color television ^
power supply
(•
TYPES OF CAMERAS
BEAM SPLITTER
Analog and digital cameras,studio cameras, ENG/EFP cameras and
T h e beam splitter c o n t a i n s v a r i o u s p r i s m s a n d filters. T h e y
camcorders, consumer camcorders, and prosumer
separate the white light that passes t h r o u g h the c a m e r a lens
camcorders
i n t o t h e t h r e e light b e a m s — r e d , green, a n d b l u e , usually ^
ELECTRONIC CHARACTERISTICS
referred t o as RGB. As discussed later i n this chapter, these
Aspect ratio, white balance, resolution, operating light level,
t h r e e p r i m a r y colors a r e t h e n electronically " m i x e d " i n t o
gain, video noise and signal-to-noise ratio, image blur and
t h e m a n y colors y o u see o n t h e television screen. Because
electronic shutter, smear and moire, contrast, and shading
P
Power supply, camera cable, connectors, filter wheel, viewfinder, tally light, intercom, and additional ENG/EFP
42
all of these p r i s m s a n d filters are c o n t a i n e d in a small block, t h e b e a m splitter is often called t h e prism block, SEE 3.3
OPERATIONAL CHARACTERISTICS elements
M o s t c o n s u m e r c a m c o r d e r s u s e a filter r a t h e r t h a n a p r i s m block to split t h e w h i t e light i n t o t h e t h r e e R G B
Section
3.1
How
Television
Cameras
Work
43
3.1 PARTS OF THE CAMERA The main parts of a televi sion (video) camera are the lens, the camera itself with the imaging device, and the viewfinder.
3.2 BASIC CAMERA FUNCTIONS The light reflected off the object is gathered by the lens and focused on the beam splitter, which splits the white light of the image into red, green, and blue pictures. These beams are directed toward their respective CCDs, which transform the RGB light into elec trical RGB signals; these are amplified, processed, and then reconverted by the viewfinder into video pictures.
p r i m a r i e s . T h a t filter, located b e h i n d t h e lens a n d in front
IMAGING DEVICE
of t h e chip ( C C D i m a g i n g device), consists of m a n y n a r
O n c e t h e white light that enters t h e lens h a s b e e n divided
r o w stripes that separate t h e i n c o m i n g w h i t e light i n t o t h e
i n t o t h e t h r e e p r i m a r y colors, each light b e a m m u s t b e
t h r e e p r i m a r y colors or i n t o only t w o colors, w i t h the third
t r a n s l a t e d i n t o electrical signals. T h e p r i n c i p a l electronic
o n e g e n e r a t e d electronically in t h e c a m e r a . More-efficient
c o m p o n e n t t h a t converts light i n t o electricity is called t h e
systems use a mosaic-like filter t h a t t r a n s f o r m s t h e colors
imaging
of t h e lens i m a g e i n t o t h e additive p r i m a r i e s of red, green,
of a small solid-state device ( a b o u t t h e size of a b u t t o n o n
device. This i m a g i n g , or p i c k u p , device consists
a n d blue, SEE 3.4
a s t a n d a r d t e l e p h o n e k e y p a d ) n o r m a l l y called a chip or,
44
Chapter
THE
3
TELEVISION
CAMERA
3.3 BEAMSPLITTER The beam splitter, or prism block, splits the incoming white light (representing the picture as seen by the lens) into RGB (red, green, and blue) light beams and directs them to their respective CCDs.
3.4 STRIPED AND MOSAIC FILTERS Most consumer cameras have only one imaging chip (CCD) and use a striped or mosaic-like filter instead of the prism block to divide the white light into RGB color beams. Each of these colored beams is then transduced (changed) by the single CCD into the RGB signals.
Striped RGB filter
technically, a charge-coupled
Mosaic RGB filter
device (CCD).
A CCD nor
mally contains h u n d r e d s of t h o u s a n d s or, for a high-quality C C D , millions of i m a g e - s e n s i n g e l e m e n t s , called pixels
(a
w o r d m a d e u p of pix, for picture, a n d els for elements), t h a t are a r r a n g e d in h o r i z o n t a l a n d vertical rows, SEE 3.5 Pixels f u n c t i o n very m u c h like tiles that c o m p o s e a complete m o s a i c image. A certain a m o u n t of such elements is n e e d e d to p r o d u c e a recognizable i m a g e . If t h e r e are relatively few m o s a i c tiles, t h e object m a y b e recognizable, b u t t h e p i c t u r e will n o t c o n t a i n m u c h detail, SEE 3.6 T h e m o r e a n d the smaller t h e tiles in the mosaic, the m o r e detail t h e p i c t u r e will have. T h e s a m e is t r u e for C C D s : t h e m o r e pixels the i m a g i n g chip c o n t a i n s , the h i g h e r t h e r e s o l u t i o n
3.5 CHARGE-COUPLED DEVICE The CCD holds many rows of thousands of pixels, each of which transforms light that enters through the window into an electric charge.
of t h e video i m a g e . E a c h pixel is a d i s c r e t e i m a g e e l e m e n t t h a t t r a n s f o r m s its color a n d b r i g h t n e s s i n f o r m a t i o n i n t o a specific electric charge. In digital c a m e r a s each pixel has a u n i q u e
Section
3.6
How
3.7
Television
Cameras
Work
45
PIXELIZED SUBJECT
Pixels function much like tiles that make up a complete mosaic image. Relatively few mosaic tiles—pixels—contain little detail. The more and the smaller the tiles, the sharper the image will look.
c o m p u t e r address. T h e electric charges f r o m all t h e pixels eventually b e c o m e t h e v i d e o signals for t h e three p r i m a r y light colors. T h e s e RGB signals m a k e u p t h e
chrominance
(color) i n f o r m a t i o n , or t h e C signal. T h e b l a c k - a n d - w h i t e , o r luminance,
i n f o r m a t i o n is p r o v i d e d b y a n a d d i t i o n a l
signal, t h e Ysignal
(explained in detail in section 3.2).
3.7 STANDARD STUDIO CAMERA CHAIN The standard camera chain consists of the camera head (the actual camera), the camera control unit (CCU), the sync generator, and the power supply.
CAMERA CHAIN
" m a s t e r black" o r "pedestal" (adjusting t h e c a m e r a for t h e
W h e n l o o k i n g at a h i g h - q u a l i t y s t u d i o c a m e r a , y o u can
darkest p a r t of t h e scene), a n d t h e "white level" o r "iris"
see t h a t it is c o n n e c t e d b y cable t o a n electrical o u t l e t .
(adjusting t h e / - s t o p of t h e lens so t h a t it will p e r m i t only
This cable c o n n e c t s t h e c a m e r a to a chain of e q u i p m e n t
the desired a m o u n t of light to reach t h e i m a g i n g device).
n e c e s s a r y t o p r o d u c e p i c t u r e s . T h e m a j o r p a r t s of t h e
T h e V O h a s t w o p r i m a r y i n s t r u m e n t s for c h e c k i n g t h e
camera chain are (1) t h e actual c a m e r a , called t h e
camera
relative quality of the color signal: t h e waveform
head because it is at t h e h e a d of t h e chain; (2) the
camera
also called t h e oscilloscope,
monitor,
t h a t displays t h e l u m i n a n c e
that p r o v i d e s
(brightness) i n f o r m a t i o n , a n d t h e vector scope that shows
t h e s y n c h r o n i z a t i o n pulses to k e e p t h e s c a n n i n g of t h e
t h e c h r o m i n a n c e (color) signals. B o t h displays enable t h e
v a r i o u s pieces of television e q u i p m e n t in step; a n d (4) t h e
V O to achieve o p t i m a l pictures, SEE 3.8
control unit, or C C U ; (3) t h e sync generator
p o w e r supply, SEE 3.7
S o m e t i m e s , w h e n t h e actual o p e r a t i o n a l controls are separated from t h e CCU, they are k n o w n as a remote
control
C A M E R A CONTROL UNIT
unit (RCU)
Each studio c a m e r a has its o w n camera control unit ( C C U ) .
(OCP).
T h e C C U p e r f o r m s two m a i n functions: setup a n d control.
m a s t e r c o n t r o l , b u t t h e O C P s are in t h e s t u d i o c o n t r o l
D u r i n g s e t u p each c a m e r a is adjusted for t h e correct color
r o o m . T h i s a r r a n g e m e n t allows t h e v i d e o o p e r a t o r to
r e n d i t i o n , t h e w h i t e b a l a n c e ( m a n i p u l a t i n g t h e three color
d o t h e initial c a m e r a s e t u p in m a s t e r c o n t r o l a n d t h e n sit
or, m o r e accurate, an operation
control
panel
For e x a m p l e , t h e actual C C U s m a y b e located i n '
signals so t h a t t h e y r e p r o d u c e w h i t e c o r r e c t l y u n d e r a
in t h e c o n t r o l r o o m w i t h t h e p r o d u c t i o n crew a n d " s h a d e " '
variety of lighting c o n d i t i o n s ) , t h e p r o p e r c o n t r a s t r a n g e
t h e p i c t u r e s ( m a i n t a i n o p t i m a l p i c t u r e quality) a c c o r d i n g
b e t w e e n t h e b r i g h t e s t a n d t h e darkest areas of a scene, a n d
n o t o n l y to technical s t a n d a r d s b u t also t o t h e aesthetic
t h e b r i g h t n e s s steps w i t h i n this r a n g e .
r e q u i r e m e n t s of t h e p r o d u c t i o n . N o w y o u k n o w w h y t h e
A s s u m i n g t h a t t h e c a m e r a s are set u p p r o p e r l y a n d
V O is also called a shader. T h e t e r m RCU also refers to a
have fair stability (which m e a n s t h a t t h e y retain their setup
small C C U t h a t c a n b e taken to EFP locations to m a k e field
values), t h e video o p e r a t o r (VO) usually n e e d c o n t r o l only
c a m e r a s p e r f o r m at o p t i m a l levels.
46
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T h e power supply generates t h e electricity (direct cur r e n t ) t h a t drives t h e c a m e r a . In a s t u d i o t h e p o w e r supply
Waveform monitors (for brightness adjustment) and vector scope (for color adjustment) ^
Monitors showing preview or line video / J
converts AC ( a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t ) to DC (direct c u r r e n t ) p o w e r a n d feeds it to t h e c a m e r a s . T h e c a m e r a cable feeds all t h e C C U functions to t h e c a m e r a a n d t r a n s p o r t s t h e v i d e o signals from t h e c a m e r a back to the CCU. Field ( E N G / E F P ) c a m e r a s a n d all c a m c o r d e r s are E F P ^ self-contained, w h i c h m e a n s t h a t t h e c a m e r a itself h o l d s all t h e e l e m e n t s of t h e c h a i n to p r o d u c e a n d deliver acceptable v i d e o images t o t h e V T R , w h i c h is either built i n t o t h e c a m e r a , a t t a c h e d to it, o r c o n n e c t e d to it b y cable. T h e o n l y p a r t of t h e n o r m a l c a m e r a c h a i n t h a t c a n b e d e t a c h e d from t h e field c a m e r a o r c a m c o r d e r is t h e p o w e r s u p p l y — t h e b a t t e n ' . All o t h e r controls are solidly builtin a n d a u t o m a t e d . S o m e of t h e m o r e sophisticated field c a m e r a s accept external sync, w h i c h m e a n s that t h e y can b e genlocked w i t h o t h e r c a m e r a s a n d / o r a n RCU. M o s t c a m e r a s have b u i l t - i n c o n t r o l e q u i p m e n t t h a t c a n execute t h e C C U functions automatically. W h y b o t h e r w i t h a C C U o r a n R C U if y o u c a n have t h e c a m e r a d o it
/ Video controls for 10 cameras
a u t o m a t i c a l l y ? Because t h e a u t o m a t e d c o n t r o l s c a n n o t exercise aesthetic j u d g m e n t ; t h a t is, they c a n n o t adjust t h e c a m e r a to deliver pictures t h a t suit t h e artistic r a t h e r t h a n t h e r o u t i n e technical r e q u i r e m e n t s . 4
Iris control adjusts exposure (reduces glare or lightens shadows)
TYPES OF CAMERAS Television c a m e r a s c a n b e classified b y t h e i r e l e c t r o n i c
Adjusts all luminance (grayscale) steps together
m a k e u p a n d b y h o w t h e y a r e u s e d . As y o u m a y h a v e guessed, c a m e r a s g r o u p e d by electronic m a k e u p are either a n a l o g or digital. C a m e r a s classified by f u n c t i o n are for either s t u d i o o r E N G / E F P use.
3 . 8 CAMERA CONTROL UNIT The CCU adjusts the camera for optimal color and brightness and can adjust for varying lighting conditions.
ANALOG V E R S U S DIGITAL C A M E R A S A l t h o u g h m o s t c a m e r a s are digital, regardless of w h e t h e r t h e y are large s t u d i o c a m e r a s o r small c a m c o r d e r s , t h e r e are nevertheless m a n y analog c a m e r a s still in use, m a i n l y b e c a u s e of t h e i r high initial cost (such as Sony B e t a c a m )
SYNC GENERATOR A N D POWER SUPPLY T h e sync generator
p r o d u c e s electronic s y n c h r o n i z a t i o n
a n d t h e i r r e m a r k a b l y g o o d p i c t u r e q u a l i t y ( s u c h as t h e S-VHS a n d Sony H i 8 c a m c o r d e r s ) . Regardless of t h e t y p e
k e e p in step t h e s c a n n i n g in
of c a m e r a , all of t h e m — a n a l o g a n d d i g i t a l , l a r g e a n d
t h e v a r i o u s pieces of e q u i p m e n t ( c a m e r a s , m o n i t o r s , a n d
s m a l l — s t a r t o u t with a n analog video signal. T h e light t h a t
p u l s e s — s y n c pulses—that
v i d e o t a p e r e c o r d e r s ) . A genlock p r o v i d e s v a r i o u s pieces of
is t r a n s p o r t e d t h r o u g h t h e lens to the b e a m splitter a n d
s t u d i o e q u i p m e n t w i t h a general s y n c h r o n i z a t i o n pulse,
from t h e r e to t h e i m a g i n g device r e m a i n s analog t h r o u g h
called house sync. T h r o u g h t h e g e n l o c k i n g p r o c e s s , t h e
o u t . Even after t h e translation of the t h r e e RGB light b e a m s
s c a n n i n g of v i d e o signals is perfectly s y n c h r o n i z e d , allow
by t h e C C D s , t h e resulting v i d e o signals are still analog.
ing y o u to switch a m o n g a n d i n t e r m i x t h e v i d e o signals
But f r o m t h e r e a n a l o g a n d digital p a r t c o m p a n y .
of v a r i o u s c a m e r a s a n d / o r v i d e o t a p e r e c o r d e r s (VTRs) w i t h o u t t h e n e e d for a d d i t i o n a l digital e q u i p m e n t .
In the a n a l o g c a m e r a , t h e v i d e o signal r e m a i n s a n a l o g t h r o u g h o u t t h e processing inside t h e c a m e r a a n d d u r i n g
Section
3.7
How
Television
Cameras
Work
47
t h e r e c o r d i n g , a s s u m i n g t h a t the V T R is also analog. In t h e digital c a m e r a , however, t h e a n a l o g RGB v i d e o signals are digitized a n d processed right after leaving t h e C C D s . A l t h o u g h digital signals are m u c h m o r e r o b u s t t h a n a n a l o g o n e s ( t h a t is, less p r o n e t o d i s t o r t i o n ) , t h e y are n o t a u t o m a t i c a l l y high-definition. Despite their s u p e r i o r p i c t u r e quality, m a n y digital c a m e r a s still o p e r a t e o n t h e t r a d i t i o n a l 480i (interlaced), 3 0 - f r a m e s - p e r - s e c o n d N T S C system a n d therefore are n o t c o n s i d e r e d h i g h - d e f i n i t i o n . S o m e t i m e s you will hear t h e 480p system described as highdefinition, which is n o t surprising w h e n looking at its highr e s o l u t i o n p i c t u r e s , b u t o n l y t h e 7 2 0 p a n d 1080i systems, o r s o m e v a r i a t i o n s thereof, are t r u l y h i g h - d e f i n i t i o n . Despite t h e differences b e t w e e n a n a l o g a n d digital, s t a n d a r d o r h i g h - d e f i n i t i o n , h i g h - e n d or l o w - e n d , televi s i o n c a m e r a s fall i n t o f o u r g r o u p s : (1) s t u d i o c a m e r a s , (2) E N G / E F P c a m e r a s a n d c a m c o r d e r s , (3) c o n s u m e r c a m corders, a n d (4) p r o s u m e r c a m c o r d e r s . This classification is m o r e useful because it is based o n t h e p r i m a r y p r o d u c t i o n function of t h e c a m e r a , n o t o n its electronic m a k e u p . S o m e c a m e r a t y p e s are b e t t e r suited for s t u d i o use, o t h e r s for t h e coverage of a d o w n t o w n fire or t h e p r o d u c t i o n of a d o c u m e n t a r y o n p o l l u t i o n , a n d still others for taking along o n v a c a t i o n to r e c o r d t h e m o r e m e m o r a b l e sights.
STUDIO CAMERAS T h e t e r m studio
camera
is g e n e r a l l y u s e d t o d e s c r i b e
h i g h - q u a l i t y c a m e r a s , i n c l u d i n g high-definition sion (HDTV)
cameras.
televi
T h e y are so h e a v y t h e y c a n n o t
b e m a n e u v e r e d p r o p e r l y w i t h o u t t h e aid of a p e d e s t a l or some other camera mount,
SEE 3.9
Studio cameras
are used for v a r i o u s s t u d i o p r o d u c t i o n s , s u c h as n e w s , interviews, a n d p a n e l s h o w s , a n d for daily serial d r a m a s , s i t u a t i o n c o m e d i e s , a n d i n s t r u c t i o n a l s h o w s t h a t require h i g h - q u a l i t y v i d e o . B u t y o u c a n also see t h e s e c a m e r a s
3.9 STUDIO CAMERA ON STUDIO PEDESTAL Studio cameras have high-quality lenses and CCDs. They are quality-controlled by the CCU. Studio cameras are too heavy to be carried and are mounted on a sturdy tripod or studio pedestal.
u s e d in s u c h "field" l o c a t i o n s as c o n c e r t a n d c o n v e n t i o n halls, football a n d baseball s t a d i u m s , t e n n i s c o u r t s , a n d m e d i c a l facilities.
heavy c a m e r a s a n d t h e rest of t h e c a m e r a chain? As i n d i cated, t h e o v e r r i d i n g criteria for t h e use of s t u d i o c a m e r a s
T h e o b v i o u s difference b e t w e e n the s t a n d a r d s t u d i o
are p i c t u r e quality a n d c o n t r o l . W e usually j u d g e picture
c a m e r a a n d E N G / E F P a n d c o n s u m e r c a m e r a s is t h a t stu
quality b y t h e a m o u n t of s h a r p p i c t u r e detail the c a m e r a
d i o c a m e r a s can f u n c t i o n only as p a r t of a c a m e r a chain;
a n d t h e m o n i t o r can g e n e r a t e . T h e v i r t u e of H D V a n d
all o t h e r c a m e r a t y p e s c a n b e self-contained, capable of
H D T V (480p, 7 2 0 p , a n d 1080i) is t h a t b o t h systems can
delivering a v i d e o signal t o a r e c o r d i n g device, s u c h as a
p r o d u c e h i g h - r e s o l u t i o n pictures. But quality is a relative
VTR, without any other peripheral control equipment.
t e r m . In m a n y p r o d u c t i o n s t h e extra quality a n d c o n t r o l
Because t h e p i c t u r e quality of a s t u d i o c a m e r a is deter
achieved with s t u d i o c a m e r a s is n o t w o r t h the a d d i t i o n a l
m i n e d b y t h e V O w h o is o p e r a t i n g t h e C C U , t h e r e are
t i m e a n d expense necessary for o p e r a t i n g s u c h e q u i p m e n t .
relatively few b u t t o n s o n s t u d i o c a m e r a s c o m p a r e d with
For e x a m p l e , if y o u are t o get a p i c t u r e of an a p p r o a c h i n g
ENG/EFP models.
t o r n a d o , y o u are p r o b a b l y n o t t h i n k i n g a b o u t o p t i m u m
C o n s i d e r i n g t h a t you can get p r e t t y g o o d pictures from
p i c t u r e quality. Your a t t e n t i o n is o n getting t h e s h o t a n d
a c a m e r a that fits i n t o y o u r pocket, w h y b o t h e r w i t h s u c h
t h e n getting o u t of h a r m ' s way as quickly as possible. But
Chapter
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if p i c t u r e quality is p a r a m o u n t , s u c h as in t h e p r o d u c t i o n
C C D s , t h e v i d e o - r e c o r d i n g device, a n d especially t h e lens
of c o m m e r c i a l s , m e d i c a l s h o w s , or d r a m a s , y o u w o u l d
are of m u c h h i g h e r quality. M o s t n e w e r digital c a m c o r d e r s
u n d o u b t e d l y c h o o s e a h i g h - e n d s t u d i o c a m e r a . O f course,
use either t h e S o n y D V C A M o r t h e P a n a s o n i c D V C P R O
picture quality is a n i m p o r t a n t factor for m o s t shows, even
system a n d r e c o r d o n Vi-inch ( 6 . 3 5 m m ) videocassettes. I n
in everyday n e w s coverage.
c o n f o r m i n g to a tapeless p r o d u c t i o n e n v i r o n m e n t , an ever-
Besides t h e e l e c t r o n i c s y s t e m u s e d in t h e c a m e r a ,
increasing n u m b e r of c a m c o r d e r s use small h a r d drives o r
a n o t h e r m a j o r factor t h a t affects p i c t u r e q u a l i t y is t h e
optical discs as t h e r e c o r d i n g device. (See c h a p t e r 12 for
lens. You will n o t i c e t h a t t h e lens of a s t u d i o c a m e r a is
more information on video recording).
as large as (or even larger t h a n ) t h e c a m e r a itself. W h e n
T h e E N G / E F P c a m e r a has m a n y m o r e b u t t o n s a n d
b u y i n g a m e d i u m - p r i c e d c a m e r a w i t h a t o p - q u a l i t y lens,
switches t h a n d o e s a s t u d i o c a m e r a o r a h o m e c a m c o r d e r
y o u will s p e n d quite a bit m o r e m o n e y for t h e lens t h a n
mainly because the video control (CCU) functions, the
for t h e c a m e r a . T h e H D T V c a m e r a s u s e d for t h e creation
V T R o p e r a t i o n , a n d t h e a u d i o c o n t r o l functions m u s t b e
of electronic c i n e m a use special, h i g h - q u a l i t y lenses. (We
managed by the camera operator. Fortunately, you can
elaborate o n v a r i o u s lenses in c h a p t e r 4.)
preset m a n y of these c o n t r o l s u s i n g an electronic m e n u o r b y switching t o a u t o m a t i c , similar to t h e a u t o - c o n t r o l s o n a c o n s u m e r c a m c o r d e r . T h e s e a u t o m a t i c features m a k e it
ENG/EFP CAMERAS A N D CAMCORDERS news
possible to p r o d u c e acceptable pictures even u n d e r d r a s
(EFP)
tically c h a n g i n g c o n d i t i o n s w i t h o u t h a v i n g to m a n u a l l y
ENGK. A S m e n t i o n e d before, the c a m e r a s for electronic EFP
gathering (ENG) a n d electronic field production
are p o r t a b l e , w h i c h m e a n s t h a t t h e y are usually carried b y
readjust t h e c a m e r a . <
a c a m e r a o p e r a t o r o r p u t o n a t r i p o d . T h e y are also self-
T h e p i c t u r e quality of t h e h i g h - e n d E N G / E F P c a m e r a
c o n t a i n e d a n d h o l d t h e entire c a m e r a c h a i n in t h e c a m e r a
is so g o o d t h a t it is frequently used as a s t u d i o c a m e r a .
head. With their built-in control equipment,
ENG/EFP
To m a k e it o p e r a t i o n a l l y c o m p a t i b l e w i t h regular s t u d i o
are d e s i g n e d t o p r o d u c e h i g h -
c a m e r a s , t h e E N G / E F P m o d e l is placed in a specially m a d e
quality p i c t u r e s (video signals) t h a t can b e r e c o r d e d o n a
c a m e r a frame; a large external tally light is a d d e d ; t h e small
cameras
and camcorders
separate VTR, o n a small V T R or disk-recording device that
(1 -inch) eyepiece viewfinder is replaced with a larger ( 5 - o r
is d o c k e d w i t h t h e c a m e r a , o r o n a b u i l t - i n V T R o r disk
7-inch) one; a n d z o o m a n d focus controls that can be oper
recorder. As n o t e d , w h e n d o c k e d with a r e c o r d i n g device, the c a m e r a f o r m s a camcorder,
SEE 3.10
ated f r o m t h e p a n n i n g h a n d l e s are a d d e d . T h e E N G / E F P lens, w h i c h offers a relatively w i d e - a n g l e view, m u s t b e
E N G / E F P c a m c o r d e r s o p e r a t e o n t h e s a m e basic
s u b s t i t u t e d w i t h a z o o m lens t h a t is m o r e suitable t o t h e
p r i n c i p l e as t h e smaller c o n s u m e r m o d e l s except t h a t t h e
s t u d i o e n v i r o n m e n t , SEE 3.11 O t h e r i m p o r t a n t c o n v e r s i o n factors include an i n t e r c o m system for t h e c a m e r a o p e r a t o r a n d a cable c o n n e c t i o n to t h e C C U t h a t enables t h e V O to c o n t r o l t h e c a m e r a from a r e m o t e p o s i t i o n j u s t like a standard studio camera.
CONSUMER
CAMCORDERS
Despite t h e dazzling variety advertised in t h e S u n d a y p a pers, m o s t c o n s u m e r c a m e r a s have a single-chip i m a g i n g device a n d a b u i l t - i n V T R . All have a u t o m a t e d features, s u c h as auto-focus,
w h i c h focuses o n w h a t t h e c a m e r a
p r e s u m e s t o b e t h e t a r g e t object, a n d auto-iris,
which
regulates t h e i n c o m i n g light. In a d d i t i o n to t h e regular eyepiece viewfinder, m o s t c o n s u m e r c a m c o r d e r s have a foldout screen o n w h i c h y o u c a n see t h e p i c t u r e y o u are t a k i n g w i t h o u t having to h o l d t h e c a m e r a close to y o u r
3.10
ENG/EFP CAMCORDER
This one-piece camcorder has its VTR permanently attached. Other models have a dockable VTR, which can be used independent of the camera.
eye. SEE
3.12
Even very small digital c a m c o r d e r s p r o d u c e a s t o n i s h ingly g o o d p i c t u r e s a n d , if e v e r y t h i n g is d o n e correctly, acceptable s o u n d . T h e V T R of the c o n s u m e r c a m c o r d e r
Section
3.1
High-quality ENG/EFP camera
How
Television
Camera housing
Cameras
49
Work
Tally light
Large 5" viewfinder
z Zoom control Zoom lens —
Teleprompter -- Panning handles
Camera cable --
3.11
x
Focus control
ENG/EFP CAMERA IN STUDIO CONFIGURATION
When converted for studio use, the high-quality ENG/EFP camera is mounted into a camera housing and equipped with a lens that is more suitable for studio operation, cable controls for zoom and focus, a large (5- or 7-inch) viewfinder, and an external tally light.
uses t h e digital video (DV) system, w h i c h records o n a very c o m p a c t (V4-inch, o r 6 . 3 5 m m ) m i n i t a p e cassette. Why, t h e n , are professional E N G / E F P c a m c o r d e r s y o u see o n the s h o u l d e r s of n e w s s h o o t e r s so large c o m p a r e d w i t h t h e c o n s u m e r c a m c o r d e r y o u can slip i n t o y o u r pocket? T h e reasons for their larger size are o u t l i n e d h e r e , as well as t h e v a r i o u s o t h e r advantages of professional c a m c o r d e r s over small c o n s u m e r m o d e l s : Professional c a m c o r d e r s have t h r e e h i g h - r e s o l u t i o n C C D s , whereas m o s t c o n s u m e r c a m c o r d e r s have only o n e . Each of t h e t h r e e C C D s is assigned to a specific color (red, green, o r blue) as p r o v i d e d b y t h e b e a m splitter. T h r e e C C D c a m e r a s p r o d u c e t r u e r colors t h a n d o c a m e r a s w i t h
3.12
a single C C D , especially in low light levels.
Small consumer camcorders have controls similar to those of professional models, with many of the functions fully automated. Most consumer camcorders have a single CCD imaging device.
Professional camcorders have larger a n d sturdier r e c o r d i n g devices (VTRs or disks).
CONSUMER CAMCORDER
Chapter
50
THE
3
TELEVISION
CAMERA
Professional c a m c o r d e r s use larger a n d b e t t e r - q u a l i t y lenses. Professional c a m c o r d e r s h a v e better a u d i o systems. T h e m i c r o p h o n e i n p u t s , preamplifiers, a n d s o u n d controls are less noisy a n d m o r e flexible t h a n t h e simple c a m e r a m i c r o p h o n e of t h e c o n s u m e r c a m c o r d e r . Professional c a m c o r d e r s have m o r e o p e r a t i o n a l c o n trols t h a t let y o u m a n u a l l y adjust t h e c a m e r a to a variety of p r o d u c t i o n c o n d i t i o n s . T h e a u t o m a t i c controls of t h e small c a m c o r d e r s m a y seem like a n advantage over m a n u a l o p e r a t i o n , b u t t h i s is t r u e only in ideal s i t u a t i o n s . If y o u
3.13
s h o o t u n d e r adverse c o n d i t i o n s , s u c h as in d i m light, ex
This high-end prosumer camera has three CCDs and can be used for on-the-air work.
tremely b r i g h t s u n s h i n e , or noisy s u r r o u n d i n g s , o r if y o u
PROSUMER CAMERA
w a n t t o achieve a certain m o o d , t h e a u t o m a t i c c o n t r o l s will n o l o n g e r suffice for p r o d u c i n g o p t i m a l images. Professional c a m c o r d e r s can t r a n s p o r t their signals
s c a n n i n g lines at 30 frames per s e c o n d ) system. D o e s this m e a n t h a t t h e H D V pictures l o o k as g o o d as t h e H D T V
to a n RCU. This t r a n s m i s s i o n c a n b e d o n e t h r o u g h a t h i n
ones? Yes a n d n o . U n d e r n o r m a l c i r c u m s t a n c e s y o u will
cable o r via a small t r a n s m i t t e r a t t a c h e d to t h e b a c k of
have a h a r d t i m e seeing a big difference b e t w e e n t h e two, especially if t h e H D V images are displayed o n a h i g h - r e s o
the camera.
l u t i o n m o n i t o r . T h a n k s to the signal processing of HDV, Professional c a m c o r d e r s have larger batteries.
w h i c h detects a n d corrects m a n y video signal e r r o r s , t h e
Professional c a m c o r d e r s have s m o o t h e r m e c h a n i s m s for z o o m i n g in a n d o u t , better focus c o n t r o l s , a n d larger a n d h i g h e r - r e s o l u t i o n viewfinders.
H D V pictures l o o k a m a z i n g l y s h a r p . T h e initial limiter for delivering p i c t u r e s as g o o d as o r b e t t e r t h a n H D T V systems is t h e lens. An H D T V lens c a n cost t h o u s a n d s of dollars m o r e t h a n the entire H D V c a m c o r d e r , w h i c h m a y n o t b e a w o r t h w h i l e i n v e s t m e n t for
PROSUMER CAMCORDERS
a slightly better picture. T h e single factor t h a t c o m p r o m i s e s
E N G v Nevertheless, t h e r e are smaller c a m c o r d e r s o n t h e
t h e quality of t h e H D V p i c t u r e the m o s t is t h e system's
EFv
market t h a t i n c o r p o r a t e m a n y of the a f o r e m e n t i o n e d
c o m p r e s s i o n . It generates m a n y m o r e artifacts t h a n H D T V ,
features of professional c a m c o r d e r s . T h e s e h i g h - e n d c o n
w h i c h y o u can clearly see, especially w h e n t h e scene c o n
s u m e r m o d e l s , called prosumer
tains a high a m o u n t of small detail or a great deal of object
camcorders,
are
finding
m o r e a n d m o r e acceptance in n e w s a n d d o c u m e n t a r y p r o
and/or camera motion.
d u c t i o n s . S o m e of t h e t o p d o c u m e n t a r i e s s h o w n in m o v i e
N e v e r t h e l e s s , y o u will find t h a t in m o s t s i t u a t i o n s
theaters are s h o t w i t h s u c h p r o s u m e r c a m c o r d e r s , SEE 3.13
y o u r H D V c a m e r a will p r o d u c e s t u n n i n g i m a g e s t h a t c o m e close in quality to t h o s e of the m u c h m o r e expensive
HDV camcorders
High-definition
video (HDV)
digital
H D T V systems.
c a m c o r d e r s are t h e p r o s u m e r m o d e l for h i g h - d e f i n i t i o n
W h a t e v e r c a m e r a y o u use, t h e r e is n o b e t t e r way to
television. T h e H D V c a m c o r d e r c a p t u r e s v i d e o w i t h t h r e e
learn h o w it w o r k s t h a n to use it for a while in a variety of
fairly h i g h - q u a l i t y i m a g i n g devices. T h e y can b e t h e stan
p r o d u c t i o n s i t u a t i o n s . You can, however, cut this l e a r n
d a r d h i g h - q u a l i t y C C D s o r h i g h - r e s o l u t i o n C M O S chips,
ing process s h o r t a n d save nerves a n d e q u i p m e n t by first
w h i c h are similar to C C D s b u t d r a w less power. This is
a c q u a i n t i n g yourself w i t h t h e m a j o r electronic a n d o p e r a
an i m p o r t a n t c o n s i d e r a t i o n w h e n u s i n g a relatively small
tional characteristics of v a r i o u s c a m e r a types. •
battery as t h e e n e r g y source. T h e H D V c a m c o r d e r uses a h i g h - d e f i n i t i o n V T R t h a t records o n V4-inch full-sized o r m i n i - c a s s e t t e s just like o t h e r digital v i d e o p r o s u m e r
ELECTRONIC CHARACTERISTICS
c a m c o r d e r s . A n d , like t h e H D T V c a m c o r d e r , t h e H D V
T h e r e are c e r t a i n e l e c t r o n i c characteristics c o m m o n to
c a m c o r d e r s use t h e 7 2 0 p / 3 0 (720 progressively s c a n n e d
all television c a m e r a s : (1) aspect ratio, (2) white balance,
lines at 30 frames per s e c o n d ) or t h e 1080i (1080 interlaced
(3) resolution, (4) o p e r a t i n g light level, (5) gain, (6) video
Section
3.1
How
Television
Cameras
51
Work
noise a n d signal-to-noise ratio, (7) image b l u r a n d elec
degrees) light, y o u n e e d t o tell t h e c a m e r a to c o m p e n s a t e
t r o n i c s h u t t e r , (8) s m e a r a n d m o i r e , (9) c o n t r a s t , a n d
for t h e r e d d i s h o r b l u i s h light a n d to p r e t e n d t h a t it is
(10) s h a d i n g . M o s t digital c a m c o r d e r s c a n be c o n n e c t e d
dealing w i t h perfectly w h i t e light (see c h a p t e r 7 ) .
to a digital V T R o r a c o m p u t e r via a FireWire (Apple) or
c o m p e n s a t i o n b y the c a m e r a is called white balance. W h e n
a n i-link (Sony), w h i c h is a cable t h a t allows fast t r a n s p o r t
a c a m e r a engages in w h i t e - b a l a n c i n g , it adjusts t h e RGB
of digital data.
1
This
c h a n n e l s in s u c h a way t h a t t h e w h i t e object looks white o n - s c r e e n regardless of w h e t h e r it is illuminated by reddish
ASPECT RATIO
or b l u i s h light, SEE 3.14
M o s t digital c a m e r a s allow y o u to switch electronically
In t h e s t u d i o t h e w h i t e - b a l a n c i n g is usually d o n e by
between t h e s t a n d a r d 4 x 3 aspect ratio a n d t h e horizontally
t h e VO, w h o adjusts t h e RGB c h a n n e l s at t h e C C U . W h e n
s t r e t c h e d H D T V aspect ratio of 16 x 9. This switchover
o p e r a t i n g a s t u d i o c a m e r a , y o u will p r o b a b l y b e asked by
o c c u r s in t h e C C D i m a g i n g device (discussed later in this
t h e V O t o z o o m in o n a w h i t e card in t h e p r i m a r y set area
c h a p t e r ) . In l o w - e n d c a m e r a s s u c h switchover inevitably
a n d r e m a i n on it until the white balance is accomplished.
reduces t h e i m a g e r e s o l u t i o n , regardless of w h e t h e r t h e
ENG
t r a n s i t i o n is f r o m 16 x 9 t o 4 x 3 o r from 4 x 3 to 16 x 9.
E F P' b a l a n c e c o n t r o l s , w h i c h m e a n s t h a t y o u n e e d to
T h e m o r e i m p o r t a n t facet of t h i s aspect r a t i o c h a n g e ,
p o i n t t h e c a m e r a at s o m e t h i n g w h i t e a n d press the w h i t e -
however, is a n aesthetic o n e , w h i c h we explore later in this
balance b u t t o n . Instead of t h e V O , t h e electronic circuits
All E N G / E F P c a m e r a s have s e m i a u t o m a t i c white-
c h a p t e r a n d in c h a p t e r 15.
WHITE BALANCE To g u a r a n t e e t h a t a w h i t e o b j e c t l o o k s w h i t e u n d e r slightly reddish (low Kelvin degrees) or bluish (high Kelvin
1. Kelvin degrees refer to the Kelvin temperature scale. In lighting, it is the specific measure of color temperature—the relative reddishness or bluishness of white light. The higher the K number, the more bluish the white light gets. The lower the K number, the more reddish the white light appears. (See chapter 7.)
Before white-balancing camera
3.14
WHITE BALANCE
To counteract tinting caused by variations in color temperature of the prevailing light (reddish light and bluish light), it is necessary to white-balance the camera (figure continued on the following page).
Chapter
52
THE TELEVISION
3
CAMERA
After white-balancing camera Scene has bluish tinge
Blue channel reduced
White shirt appears white
Red channel reduced
White shirt appears white
High-color-temperature light source—5,600Kand above
Scene has reddish tinge
Low-color-temperature light source—3.200K or below
3.14 WHITE BALANCE (continued) White-balancing the camera adjusts the RGB channels for the unwanted color cast and makes white look white under various lighting conditions.
in t h e c a m e r a will d o t h e adjusting of t h e RGB c h a n n e l s
floor m a n a g e r face t h e c a m e r a a n d h o l d t h e w h i t e card i n
to m a k e t h e object l o o k white u n d e r t h e c u r r e n t lighting
front of his or h e r face. Z o o m in o n t h e card until it fills t h e
conditions.
entire screen (viewfinder). Press t h e w h i t e - b a l a n c e b u t t o n
M o s t c o n s u m e r c a m c o r d e r s h a v e fully a u t o m a t e d
(often located at t h e front of t h e c a m e r a ) a n d wait u n t i l
white-balance controls that adjust i m m e d i a t e l y to t h e
t h e viewfinder display (usually a flashing light) indicates a
general color t e m p e r a t u r e of t h e prevailing light e n v i r o n
successful w h i t e balance.
m e n t . T h e c a m c o r d e r d o e s so b y l o o k i n g at t h e colors of a
If y o u d o n ' t have a white card, any white object will d o ,
scene a n d calculating t h e white reference, t h a t is, t h e color
b u t b e sure t h a t t h e object fills t h e entire screen; o t h e r w i s e ,
t e m p e r a t u r e of white even if t h e r e is n o w h i t e object in t h e
t h e c a m e r a will n o t k n o w w h e t h e r t o w h i t e - b a l a n c e o n t h e
picture. Unfortunately, these calculations are n o t always
f o r e g r o u n d (the white object) o r o n t h e b a c k g r o u n d , w h i c h
accurate, especially w h e n d o n e u n d e r colored light. A p r o
m a y well have a different lighting setup. M o s t camera utility
fessional c a m e r a therefore needs a m o r e accurate reference
bags have a w h i t e flap t h a t c a n b e used for w h i t e - b a l a n c
t h a t will tell it precisely w h a t is s u p p o s e d t o l o o k w h i t e
ing. Will y o u n e e d t o w h i t e - b a l a n c e again w h e n y o u m o v e
u n d e r a specific lighting setup. P r o s u m e r c a m e r a s give y o u
from t h e desk area i n t o t h e hallway t h a t is i l l u m i n a t e d
a choice b e t w e e n a u t o m a t i c a n d m a n u a l w h i t e - b a l a n c i n g .
by fluorescent lights? Absolutely. In fact, each t i m e y o u
How to white-balance
balance again. 333>LIGHTS-» Color temperature^ white balance
e n c o u n t e r a different lighting situation, y o u n e e d to w h i t e You w h i t e - b a l a n c e a c a m e r a
by focusing o n a white card, a piece of foam core, o r s o m e
j controlling
o t h e r nonreflecting w h i t e object t h a t is i l l u m i n a t e d b y t h e lighting in t h e p e r f o r m a n c e area. Have s o m e o n e h o l d a
RESOLUTION
w h i t e card t o w a r d t h e c a m e r a . If, for e x a m p l e , t h e s h o w
Resolution
has s o m e o n e sitting b e h i n d a desk, have t h a t p e r s o n o r t h e
the m a j o r factor that distinguishes s t a n d a r d television from
refers t o m e a s u r i n g detail in t h e p i c t u r e a n d is
Section
3.15
3.1
How
LOW-RESOLUTION IMAGE
Television
3.16
Cameras
Work
53
HIGH-RESOLUTION IMAGE
This low-resolution picture has relatively few pixels that make up the image.
This high-resolution picture has a relatively high number of pixels that make up the image.
H D T V pictures. R e s o l u t i o n is m e a s u r e d b y n u m b e r s of
tiles to w o r k w i t h . For m o r e detail in t h e m o s a i c , y o u n e e d
pixels p e r screen area, m u c h like in p r i n t , w h e r e r e s o l u t i o n
m o r e ( a n d smaller) tiles to increase t h e r e s o l u t i o n of t h e
is often m e a s u r e d in d p i , w h i c h m e a n s d o t s (pixels) per
same-sized m o s a i c .
inch. Because it plays s u c h a big role in v i d e o e q u i p m e n t
T h e r e s o l u t i o n of a v i d e o i m a g e can also be m e a s u r e d
a n d p r o d u c t i o n t e c h n i q u e s , we s u m m a r i z e t h e m a j o r fac
b y h o w m a n y pixels (dots) are u s e d to m a k e u p a scan
t o r s t h a t c o n t r i b u t e to h i g h e r resolution, SEE 3.15 A N D 3.16
n i n g line.
Figure 3.15 h a s c o n s i d e r a b l y fewer pixels p e r i m a g e area t h a n d o e s figure 3.16. T h e latter therefore has t h e h i g h e r
Number of scanning lines
resolution.
t h a t a television c a m e r a o r video m o n i t o r can deliver can
As y o u recall, t h e quality of a television c a m e r a is d e
The picture resolution
b e m e a s u r e d n o t only b y t h e n u m b e r of pixels b u t also by
t e r m i n e d p r i m a r i l y b y the degree of resolution of t h e video
the n u m b e r of lines that c o m p o s e t h e image. You m a y have
it p r o d u c e s . High-quality cameras p r o d u c e high-resolution
h e a r d a d v e r t i s e m e n t s for a h i g h - q u a l i t y c a m e r a b o a s t i n g
pictures; lower-quality c a m e r a s p r o d u c e l o w e r - r e s o l u t i o n
m o r e t h a n 700 lines of r e s o l u t i o n . But h o w is this possible
pictures. T h e p i c t u r e r e s o l u t i o n a c a m e r a can deliver d e
if the s t a n d a r d N T S C system has only 525 scanning lines, of
p e n d s o n v a r i o u s factors: (1) t h e quality of t h e lens, (2) t h e
w h i c h we can see only 480? To explain this r a t h e r confusing
n u m b e r pixels, (3) t h e n u m b e r of s c a n n i n g lines a n d t h e
c o n c e p t , let's take a n o t h e r close l o o k at figure 3.15.
s c a n n i n g system, a n d (4) t h e general signal processing.
N o t e t h a t t h e dots in figure 3.15 f o r m h o r i z o n t a l as well as vertical lines. Line u p a piece of p a p e r h o r i z o n t a l l y
Quality of lens
T h e c a m e r a ' s e l e c t r o n i c s y s t e m is
w i t h t h e first r o w of dots: you perceive a h o r i z o n t a l line. To
ultimately at t h e m e r c y of w h a t t h e lens delivers. If the
c o u n t t h e lines, slide the p a p e r d o w n t o w a r d t h e b o t t o m of
lens d o e s n o t p r o d u c e a h i g h - r e s o l u t i o n i m a g e , t h e rest of
the simulated screen. You m a y have c o u n t e d the h o r i z o n t a l
t h e c a m e r a functions will have a h a r d t i m e p r o d u c i n g a
lines in figure 3.15, b u t o n t h e television screen y o u w o u l d
h i g h e r - r e s o l u t i o n picture. S o m e t i m e s t h e signal processing
have c o u n t e d t h e vertical lines. Because, in the c o n t e x t of
can i m p r o v e o n p i c t u r e r e s o l u t i o n , b u t t h e average c a m e r a
r e s o l u t i o n , y o u m o v e d t h e p a p e r vertically to c o u n t t h e
m u s t w o r k with t h e p i c t u r e t h e lens p r o d u c e s .
n u m b e r of s c a n n i n g lines, they are paradoxically called
Number of pixels
Even if you have a h i g h - q u a l i t y lens,
by t h e w a y t h e lines are stacked. S t a n d a r d N T S C television
it is p r i m a r i l y t h e n u m b e r of pixels in the camera's i m a g
h a s a vertical stack of 525 lines, of w h i c h 480 are visible. In
ing device that d e t e r m i n e s the i m a g e r e s o l u t i o n . C C D s are
H D T V the 1,080 active s c a n n i n g lines increase the vertical
vertical lines of resolution.
In effect, r e s o l u t i o n is m e a s u r e d
usually m e a s u r e d by total n u m b e r of pixels. T h e C C D s
r e s o l u t i o n because t h e vertical stack c o m p r i s e s m o r e t h a n
in a g o o d digital c a m e r a m a y have a half m i l l i o n o r m o r e
twice t h e n u m b e r of lines, SEE 3.17
pixels each, a n d those in a high-definition c a m e r a m a y have
W h e n t r y i n g to c o u n t t h e horizontal
television lines,
several m i l l i o n (megapixels). For e x a m p l e , y o u c o u l d n o t
y o u n e e d to line u p t h e piece of p a p e r w i t h t h e vertical
p r o d u c e a very detailed m o s a i c if y o u h a d only a few large
rows of d o t s at t h e far left a n d slide it h o r i z o n t a l l y to
Chapter
54
THE TELEVISION
3
CAMERA
3.17 VERTICAL DETAIL (LINES OF RESOLUTION) To measure vertical detail, we count the vertical stack of horizontal (scanning) lines. The more lines the vertical stack contains, the higher the resolution. The number of lines is fixed by the system: the NTSC system has 525 lines, of which only 480 are visible on-screen; HDV and HDTV systems have 720 and 1,080 active (visible) lines, respectively.
Vertical stack = vertical detail
3.18 HORIZONTAL DETAIL (LINES OF RESOLUTION) To measure horizontal detail, we count the dots (pixels) of each horizontal line and then connect these dots vertically, which yields a horizontal stack of vertical lines. The more lines the horizontal stack contains (reading from left to right), the higher the resolution. This horizontal stack can contain many more lines (such as 700) than can the vertical stack.
screen-right. As you can see, each d o t forms t h e b e g i n n i n g
horizontal
of a n o t h e r line. Because t h e lines are stacked horizontally,
t h e vertical direction, vertical detail? As y o u can see, t h e r e
they are called horizontal
can b e m a n y m o r e d o t s h o r i z o n t a l l y t h a n vertically; h e n c e
lines of resolution.
If y o u c o u n t
detail, a n d t h o s e t h a t m a k e u p the r e s o l u t i o n in
700 d o t s (pixels) m a k i n g u p t h e h o r i z o n t a l line, it is a
the h o r i z o n t a l resolution can have 700 o r m o r e "lines" even
h o r i z o n t a l r e s o l u t i o n of 700 lines, w h i c h , incidentally, is
if t h e vertical detail is limited to 525 "lines."
r e m a r k a b l y g o o d for video, SEE 3.18 Because s u c h a p e r c e p t u a l switch of h o r i z o n t a l a n d
As y o u already k n o w , t h e s c a n n i n g system also has a say in h o w s h a r p we perceive a p i c t u r e to be. Generally,
vertical in t e r m s of r e s o l u t i o n is confusing even for e n gineering experts, s o m e a u t h o r s suggest calling t h e d o t s t h a t m a k e u p t h e r e s o l u t i o n in t h e h o r i z o n t a l d i r e c t i o n
2. Arch C. Luther and Andrew F. Inglis, Video Engineering, 3rd ed. (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1999), p. 7.
Section
3.1
How
Television
Cameras
Work
55
progressive s c a n n i n g , s u c h as in a 4 8 0 p system, p r o d u c e s
fairly great depth of field. (See c h a p t e r 7 for e x p l a n a t i o n s
s h a r p e r pictures t h a n a 480i i m a g e . T h e progressive scan
of foot-candles a n d lux, a n d see c h a p t e r 4 for / - s t o p a n d
n i n g system p r o d u c e s twice as m a n y frames p e r second (60)
d e p t h of field).
t h a n d o e s t h e interlaced s c a n n i n g system (30 fps). H e n c e
T h e m i n i m u m o p e r a t i n g l i g h t level u n d e r w h i c h
w i t h progressive s c a n n i n g y o u perceive twice t h e p i c t u r e
c a m e r a s p e r f o r m a d e q u a t e l y is n o t always easy to define.
i n f o r m a t i o n each second.
It is d e t e r m i n e d by h o w m u c h light t h e c a m e r a lens ad m i t s , t h e light sensitivity of t h e C C D s , a n d h o w m u c h
Signal processing
O n c e t h e C C D has changed t h e light
t h e v i d e o signal c a n b e b o o s t e d electronically—a process
i m a g e i n t o electrical video signals, these digitized signals
called gain—before
c a n be m a n i p u l a t e d considerably. This m a n i p u l a t i o n in
c a m e r a viewfinders can display a zebra-striped p a t t e r n that
t h e p i c t u r e begins to deteriorate. S o m e
digital c a m e r a s c a n e n h a n c e a n d even i m p r o v e o n t h e
starts p u l s a t i n g w h e n t h e light level in p a r t s of t h e p i c t u r e
r e s o l u t i o n . H D V uses s u c h m a n i p u l a t i o n t o great a d v a n
is t o o high. You c a n t h e n adjust t h e / - s t o p to limit t h e light
tage. M o s t digital c a m e r a s use i m a g e e n h a n c e r s . In this
t r a n s m i t t e d by t h e lens.
signal m a n i p u l a t i o n , t h e electronic circuits are designed t o s h a r p e n t h e c o n t o u r of t h e p i c t u r e i n f o r m a t i o n , b u t
GAIN
t h e y d o n o t increase the n u m b e r of pixels. You will n o t
A video c a m e r a can p r o d u c e pictures in extremely low light
see m o r e picture detail b u t r a t h e r a s h a r p e r d e m a r c a t i o n
levels because it can boost the video signal electronically—a
b e t w e e n o n e p i c t u r e area a n d t h e next. H u m a n p e r c e p t i o n
feature called gain. In effect, the electronic gain is fooling
translates this o u t l i n e i n t o a h i g h e r r e s o l u t i o n a n d h e n c e a
t h e c a m e r a i n t o believing t h a t it h a s a d e q u a t e light. In
sharper, h i g h e r - d e f i n i t i o n p i c t u r e .
s t u d i o c a m e r a s t h e gain is adjusted t h r o u g h t h e C C U .
As y o u can see o n c e again, television o p e r a t e s as a sys
E N G K In E N G / E F P c a m e r a s gain is m a n i p u l a t e d by t h e gain
t e m in w h i c h m o s t e l e m e n t s are d e p e n d e n t o n t h e p r o p e r
EFP
f u n c t i o n i n g of all t h e o t h e r s .
use the gain switch or y o u can c h a n g e to a u t o m a t i c gain.
c o n t r o l switch. In a c o n s u m e r c a m c o r d e r , y o u can
W h e n o p e r a t i n g an E N G / E F P c a m e r a , y o u can m o v e t h e
OPERATING LIGHT LEVEL
gain c o n t r o l switch to o n e of several b o o s t i n g p o s i t i o n s —
Because it is t h e j o b of t h e c a m e r a ' s i m a g i n g device to
m a r k e d b y u n i t s of dB (decibels), such as a + 6 , + 1 2 , + 1 8 ,
t r a n s d u c e light i n t o electricity, the c a m e r a obviously n e e d s
o r even + 2 4 dB g a i n — t o c o m p e n s a t e for low light levels.
light to p r o d u c e a video signal. B u t just h o w m u c h light
W h e n it is really d a r k a n d y o u can't w o r r y a b o u t p i c t u r e
is r e q u i r e d to p r o d u c e a n a d e q u a t e signal? T h e a n s w e r
quality, y o u c a n switch t o a h y p e r g a i n p o s i t i o n , w h i c h
d e p e n d s again o n a variety of i n t e r a c t i n g factors, s u c h as
m a k e s t h e c a m e r a "see" a l t h o u g h y o u m a y s t u m b l e in t h e
t h e light sensitivity of t h e i m a g i n g device a n d h o w m u c h
dark, SEE 3.19
light t h e lens t r a n s m i t s . T h e operating
light level, also called baselight
level,
is t h e a m o u n t of light n e e d e d b y t h e c a m e r a to p r o d u c e acceptable pictures ("acceptable" m e a n i n g a video i m a g e t h a t is relatively free of color distortion a n d electronic noise, w h i c h shows u p as b l a c k - a n d - w h i t e or c o l o r e d dots in t h e d a r k p i c t u r e a r e a s ) . W h e n l o o k i n g at t e c h n i c a l c a m e r a specifications, y o u m a y c o m e across t w o t e r m s t h a t refer to o p e r a t i n g light levels. Minimum
illumination
m e a n s that
y o u get s o m e k i n d of p i c t u r e u n d e r very low light levels. These images are just o n e c u t above the greenish, ghostlike pictures y o u get w h e n switching y o u r c a m c o r d e r t o t h e nightshot
m o d e . T h e o t h e r o p e r a t i n g light level specifica
t i o n is sensitivity,
w h i c h describes t h e a m o u n t of light n e c
essary to p r o d u c e acceptable, if n o t o p t i m a l , pictures w i t h g o o d detail a n d color fidelity. To get this m e a s u r e m e n t , the object is i l l u m i n a t e d by a s t a n d a r d a m o u n t of light (200 foot-candles,
or a p p r o x i m a t e l y 2,000 lux) w i t h a n
f-stop
b e t w e e n f/5.6 a n d / / 1 3 ) t h a t allows o p t i m a l focus a n d a
3.19
MANUAL GAIN CONTROL
The gain control compensates for low light levels. The higher the gain, the lower the light level can be. High gain causes video noise.
56
Chapter
THE
3
T h e c a m e r a is n o t fooled very easily, however. T h e higher t h e gain, t h e m o r e t h e picture suffers from excessive video noise a n d color d i s t o r t i o n — c a l l e d artifacts. Never theless, because of i m p r o v e d low-noise C C D s , m o r e a n d m o r e E N G / E F P cameras follow t h e c o n s u m e r c a m c o r d e r ' s lead, enabling y o u t o switch b e t w e e n t h e m a n u a l a n d t h e a u t o m a t i c gain controls. T h e advantage of a n a u t o m a t i c gain c o n t r o l is t h a t y o u can m o v e from b r i g h t o u t d o o r light to a d a r k interior o r vice versa w i t h o u t h a v i n g t o ac tivate t h e gain. Such a feature is especially w e l c o m e w h e n covering a n e w s story t h a t involves p e o p l e walking from a sunlit street i n t o a d i m hotel l o b b y o r a d a r k corridor. T h e p r o b l e m w i t h a u t o m a t i c gain is o b v i o u s w h e n focusing, for e x a m p l e , o n a p e r s o n i n a d a r k suit s t a n d i n g in front of a fairly b r i g h t b a c k g r o u n d : t h e a u t o m a t i c gain will n o t lighten u p t h e d a r k suit b u t will reduce t h e brightness of the b a c k g r o u n d . T h u s , t h e d a r k suit will a p p e a r t o b e darker t h a n before. W h e n this h a p p e n s y o u will b e glad t o switch back t o m a n u a l gain so t h a t y o u c a n adjust t h e gain for a n o p t i m a l exposure. <
VIDEO NOISE A N D S I G N A L - T O - N O I S E RATIO
CAMERA
objects, very much like photos taken w i t h a regular still c a m e r a at a slow s h u t t e r speed. For e x a m p l e , if a yellow tennis ball m o v e s from camera-left t o c a m e r a - r i g h t at high speed, t h e ball does n o t a p p e a r s h a r p a n d clear t h r o u g h o u t its travel across t h e s c r e e n — i t looks b l u r r e d a n d even leaves a trail. To avoid this b l u r a n d get a sharp image of a fast-moving object, C C D c a m e r a s are e q u i p p e d w i t h a n electronic shutter. Like t h e m e c h a n i c a l s h u t t e r o n t h e still c a m e r a , t h e electronic shutter controls t h e a m o u n t of t i m e t h a t light is received by t h e chip. T h e slower t h e s h u t t e r speed, t h e longer t h e pixels of t h e C C D i m a g i n g surface are charged with t h e light of t h e traveling ball a n d t h e m o r e t h e ball will blur. T h e h i g h e r t h e s h u t t e r speed, t h e less t i m e t h e pixels are charged w i t h t h e light of t h e m o v i n g ball, t h u s greatly reducing o r eliminating t h e blur. But because t h e increased s h u t t e r speed reduces t h e light received b y t h e C C D , t h e yellow ball will l o o k c o n s i d e r a b l y d a r k e r t h a n w i t h o u t electronic shutter. As w i t h a regular still c a m e r a , t h e faster t h e shutter speed, t h e m o r e light t h e c a m e r a requires. M o s t professional C C D cameras (studio or ENG/EFP) have s h u t t e r speeds t h a t r a n g e from Veo to Vi.ooo second. S o m e digital c a m c o r d e r s can go to 4 , 0 0 0 second or even higher. 1
You m a y have w o n d e r e d w h a t " n o i s e " h a s t o d o w i t h picture. T h e t e r m noise is b o r r o w e d from t h e a u d i o field a n d applied t o u n w a n t e d interference i n video. You can recognize "noisy" pictures quite readily b y t h e a m o u n t of " s n o w " — w h i t e o r colored vibrating spots o r color-distort ing artifacts—that a p p e a r s t h r o u g h o u t a n image, causing it t o b e less crisp. Technically, video noise w o r k s very m u c h like- a u d i o noise. W h e n playing regular (analog) a u d i o t a p e s , y o u can hear t h e speakers hiss a little as s o o n as y o u t u r n o n t h e system. But as s o o n as t h e m u s i c starts, y o u are n o longer aware of t h e hiss. O n l y w h e n t h e m u s i c is very soft d o y o u again hear t h e hiss, h u m , or r u m b l e . So l o n g as t h e signal (the m u s i c ) is stronger t h a n t h e noise ( t h e hiss), y o u w o n ' t perceive t h e noise. T h e s a m e is t r u e of v i d e o noise. If t h e picture signal is strong (mainly because t h e imaging device receives adequate light), it will cover u p t h e snow. This rela t i o n s h i p between signal a n d noise is a p p r o p r i a t e l y e n o u g h called signal-to-noise (S/N) ratio. It m e a n s t h a t t h e signal is high (strong picture i n f o r m a t i o n ) relative t o t h e noise (picture interference) u n d e r n o r m a l o p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n s . A high n u m b e r , such as 62 dB, is desirable.
I M A G E BLUR A N D ELECTRONIC
TELEVISION
SHUTTER
O n e of t h e negative aspects of t h e C C D i m a g i n g device is that it tends t o p r o d u c e blur in pictures of fast-moving
Fortunately, m o s t high-action events that require h i g h s h u t t e r s p e e d s o c c u r in p l e n t y of o u t d o o r o r i n d o o r light.
SMEAR A N D MOIRE Both s m e a r a n d m o i r e are specific f o r m s of v i d e o noise. O n occasion, extremely b r i g h t highlights o r certain colors (especially b r i g h t reds) cause s m e a r s i n t h e c a m e r a pic ture. Smears s h o w u p adjacent t o highlights as d i m b a n d s t h a t weave from t h e t o p of t h e p i c t u r e t o t h e b o t t o m . T h e highly s a t u r a t e d color of a r e d dress m a y bleed into t h e b a c k g r o u n d scenery, o r t h e r e d lipstick color m a y extend b e y o n d the m o u t h . Digital cameras with high-quality C C D s are practically smear-free. M o i r e interference shows u p in t h e picture as v i b r a t ing p a t t e r n s of r a i n b o w colors, SEE 3.20 You c a n see t h e moire effect o n a television screen w h e n t h e c a m e r a s h o o t s very n a r r o w a n d highly c o n t r a s t i n g p a t t e r n s , such as t h e h e r r i n g b o n e weave o n a jacket. T h e r a p i d c h a n g e of light a n d d a r k occurs at a frequency t h e c a m e r a uses for its color i n f o r m a t i o n , so it looks for t h e color t h a t isn't there. It cycles t h r o u g h t h e entire color palette, causing t h e m o v i n g color p a t t e r n s . A l t h o u g h t h e m o r e expensive s t u d i o m o n i tors have m o i r e c o m p r e s s i o n circuits built-in, t h e o r d i n a r y television set does n o t . Obviously, y o u s h o u l d avoid wear ing a n y t h i n g w i t h a n a r r o w , c o n t r a s t i n g p a t t e r n .
Section
3.1
How
Television
Cameras
Work
57
p i c t u r e areas are " c r u s h e d " i n t o a u n i f o r m l y m u d d y , noisy d a r k color. If y o u insist o n seeing detail in t h e d a r k p i c t u r e areas, t h e video o p e r a t o r can "stretch t h e blacks" t o w a r d the white e n d , b u t , i n all b u t t h e t o p - o f - t h e - l i n e c a m e r a s , that causes t h e b r i g h t areas to lose their definition a n d take o n a uniformly white a n d strangely flat a n d w a s h e d - o u t color. In effect, t h e p i c t u r e s l o o k as t h o u g h t h e c o n t r a s t is set m u c h t o o l o w w i t h t h e b r i g h t n e s s t u r n e d t o o high. Again, before t h e V O can p r o d u c e o p t i m a l pictures t h r o u g h shading, y o u m u s t t r y t o r e d u c e t h e c o n t r a s t t o tolerable limits.
3.20
OPERATIONAL CHARACTERISTICS
MOIRE PATTERN
Moire is a visual interference pattern that occurs when the color frequency of the color system approximates the frequency generated by the narrow and highly contrasting pattern on an object (usually clothing).
K n o w i n g s o m e of t h e o p e r a t i o n a l e l e m e n t s a n d functions of s t u d i o a n d field c a m e r a s will help y o u greatly in p r e p a r ing for a trouble-free, o p t i m a l c a m e r a p e r f o r m a n c e .
CONTRAST
OPERATIONAL ITEMS A N D CONTROLS: STUDIO CAMERAS
T h e r a n g e of c o n t r a s t b e t w e e n t h e b r i g h t e s t a n d t h e d a r k
This section focuses o n t h e m a j o r o p e r a t i o n a l i t e m s a n d
est p i c t u r e areas t h a t t h e v i d e o c a m e r a c a n a c c u r a t e l y
controls of s t u d i o c a m e r a s : (1) p o w e r supply, (2) c a m e r a
r e p r o d u c e is limited. T h a t limit, called contrast
cable, (3) c o n n e c t o r s , (4) filter w h e e l , (5) viewfinder,
range, is
expressed as a ratio. Despite their m a n u f a c t u r e r s ' overly
(6) tally light, a n d (7) i n t e r c o m .
o p t i m i s t i c claims, even t h e b e t t e r c a m e r a s have t r o u b l e h a n d l i n g h i g h c o n t r a s t in actual s h o o t i n g c o n d i t i o n s . You
P o w e r supply
will r u n i n t o this p r o b l e m every t i m e y o u v i d e o t a p e a scene
from a D C p o w e r supply, w h i c h is p a r t of t h e c a m e r a chain.
in b r i g h t sunlight. W h e n y o u adjust t h e c a m e r a for t h e ex
T h e p o w e r is s u p p l i e d t h r o u g h t h e c a m e r a cable.
All s t u d i o c a m e r a s receive their p o w e r
t r e m e l y b r i g h t sunlit areas, t h e s h a d o w b e c o m e u n i f o r m l y d a r k a n d dense. W h e n y o u t h e n adjust t h e lens ( o p e n its iris), y o u will p r o m p t l y overexpose—or,
i n video lingo,
"blow o u t " — t h e b r i g h t areas. It is best t o limit t h e c o n t r a s t a n d stay w i t h i n a contrast ratio of a b o u t 50:1, m e a n i n g that for o p t i m a l pictures t h e b r i g h t e s t p i c t u r e area can b e only fifty t i m e s b r i g h t e r t h a n t h e darkest area. Digital c a m e r a s
White level 100
w i t h h i g h - q u a l i t y C C D s can tolerate higher contrast ratios, b u t d o n ' t b e m i s l e d by t h e camera's specifications. ( H o w to c o n t r o l extremely h i g h c o n t r a s t a n d b r i n g it w i t h i n t h e r a n g e of tolerable limits is discussed in c h a p t e r s 4 a n d 8.)
Black level 7.5 Zero level
SHADING By w a t c h i n g a w a v e f o r m m o n i t o r , w h i c h g r a p h i c a l l y displays t h e w h i t e a n d black levels of a p i c t u r e , t h e video o p e r a t o r adjusts t h e p i c t u r e t o t h e o p t i m a l c o n t r a s t r a n g e , a n activity generally called shading,
SEE 3.21 To adjust a
less-than-ideal p i c t u r e , t h e V O tries t o "pull d o w n " t h e ex cessively b r i g h t values t o m a k e t h e m m a t c h t h e established w h i t e level ( w h i c h represents a 100 p e r c e n t video signal s t r e n g t h ) . But b e c a u s e t h e darkest value c a n n o t get a n y blacker a n d m o v e d o w n w i t h t h e b r i g h t areas, t h e d a r k e r
3.21 WAVEFORM MONITOR WITH WHITE AND BLACK LEVELS The waveform monitor shows a graph of the luminance (blackand-white) portion of the video signal. It also shows the white level (the upper limit of the signal) and the black level (the lower limit of the signal).
58
Chapter
:
...!^: • .•
C a m e r a cables
THE
3
differ significantly in
TELEVISION
CAMERA
how
they c a r r y t h e v a r i o u s electronic signals to a n d from t h e c a m e r a . W h e n r e q u e s t i n g cable r u n s , y o u n e e d t o k n o w w h i c h cable t h e c a m e r a can accept a n d , especially, h o w l o n g a cable r u n y o u n e e d . Triaxial (triax) cableshave o n e central wire s u r r o u n d e d by t w o c o n c e n t r i c shields. Fiber-optic flexible,
cables c o n t a i n t h i n ,
glass s t r a n d s instead of wires a n d are relatively
thin, b u t they can t r a n s p o r t a great a m o u n t of i n f o r m a t i o n over relatively l o n g distances. A t r i a x cable allows a m a x i m u m distance of a l m o s t 5,000 feet ( a b o u t 1,500 m e t e r s ) , a n d a fiber-optic cable c a n reach twice as far, to a l m o s t 3
2 miles ( u p to 3,000 m e t e r s ) . Such a reach is a d e q u a t e for m o s t r e m o t e o p e r a t i o n s . Before p l a n n i n g a c a m e r a setup w i t h t r i a x or
fiber-optic
cables, check w h i c h cables t h e
c a m e r a can accept a n d w h i c h a d a p t e r s y o u m a y n e e d . If y o u w a n t to s i m p l y t r a n s p o r t t h e video a n d a u d i o signals from a c o n s u m e r or p r o s u m e r c a m c o r d e r to a digital V T R o r c o m p u t e r h a r d drive, y o u can use a l o n g FireWire (IEEE 1394). S o m e a n a l o g c a m e r a s use a multicore
cable, w h i c h
c o n t a i n s a great n u m b e r of t h i n wires. M u l t i c o r e cables
3.22 STUDIO CAMERA VIEWFINDER The 7-inch studio camera viewfinder can be swiveled and tilted so that the screen faces the camera operator regardless of the camera position.
are relatively heavy a n d have a l i m i t e d reach, b u t t h e y are extremely reliable. Viewfinder
T h e viewfinder
is a small television set t h a t
W h e n in t h e s t u d i o , t h e c a m e r a cable is
shows t h e p i c t u r e t h e c a m e r a is getting. S t u d i o c a m e r a s
generally left p l u g g e d i n t o t h e c a m e r a a n d t h e c a m e r a
usually have a 5- or 7-inch viewfinder t h a t can b e swiveled
Connectors
wall jack ( o u t l e t ) . W h e n u s i n g s t u d i o c a m e r a s in t h e field,
a n d tilted so y o u can see w h a t y o u are d o i n g even w h e n
however, y o u n e e d t o carefully check w h e t h e r t h e cable
you're n o t s t a n d i n g directly b e h i n d t h e c a m e r a ,
c o n n e c t o r s fit t h e jacks of the r e m o t e t r u c k . Simple coaxial
M o s t viewfinders are monochrome,
video lines all have B N C c o n n e c t o r s (see figure 3.23 later
only a b l a c k - a n d - w h i t e p i c t u r e of t h e scene y o u are s h o o t ing.
in this c h a p t e r ) .
SEE 3.22
w h i c h m e a n s y o u see
Even H D T V c a m e r a s are n o t always e q u i p p e d with a
color viewfinder. This is s o m e w h a t u n f o r t u n a t e , especially Filter wheel
T h e filter
wheel is l o c a t e d b e t w e e n t h e
lens a n d t h e b e a m splitter. It n o r m a l l y h o l d s t w o density filters (NDs),
neutral
referred to as N D - 1 a n d N D - 2 , a n d
for H D T V , w h e r e t h e s t r e t c h e d aspect r a t i o a n d usually large p r o j e c t i o n s of its p i c t u r e s m a k e color a n i m p o r t a n t c o m p o s i t i o n a l factor. T h e reason for u s i n g m o n o c h r o m e
s o m e c o l o r - c o r r e c t i o n filters. T h e N D s r e d u c e t h e a m o u n t
v i e w f i n d e r s is t h a t t h e l u m i n a n c e
of light t r a n s m i t t e d to t h e i m a g i n g device w i t h o u t affect
signal p r o d u c e s a h i g h e r - r e s o l u t i o n i m a g e t h a n t h e color
(black-and-white)
ing t h e color of t h e scene. You use t h e m w h e n s h o o t i n g in
c h a n n e l s . This feature is especially i m p o r t a n t for H D T V
b r i g h t sunlight. T h e c o l o r - c o r r e c t i o n filters c o m p e n s a t e
c a m e r a s , w h o s e h i g h - d e f i n i t i o n p i c t u r e s are always dif
for t h e relative b l u i s h n e s s of o u t d o o r a n d fluorescent light
ficult to focus.
a n d t h e relative r e d d i s h n e s s of i n d o o r a n d c a n d l e l i g h t
Besides displaying t h e s o m e t i m e s extensive electronic
(see c h a p t e r 8). In s o m e s t u d i o c a m e r a s , these filters can
c o n t r o l m e n u , t h e c a m e r a viewfinder also acts as a small
be o p e r a t e d from t h e C C U . In m o s t o t h e r s y o u c a n rotate
i n f o r m a t i o n center, i n d i c a t i n g t h e following i t e m s a n d
t h e desired filter i n t o p o s i t i o n , usually w i t h a small t h u m b
conditions:
wheel o r w i t h a switch t h a t activates t h e filter wheel. •
Center marker. This shows t h e exact center of t h e screen.
3.
If the cable length is given in meters (m) and you want to find the equivalent in feet, simply divide the meters by 3. This is close enough to give you some idea of how far the cable will reach. For greater ac curacy, 1 meter = 39.37 inches, or 3.28 feet.
«
Safe title area. A rectangle in t h e viewfinder w i t h i n w h i c h y o u s h o u l d keep all essential p i c t u r e information.
Section
3.1
How
n Electronic setup. This includes a variety of c o n t r o l functions, s u c h as electronic gain, o p t i m a l v i d e o levels, electronic shutter, a n d so forth. Lens extenders. These are magnifying devices t h a t extend t h e t e l e p h o t o p o w e r of a lens (see c h a p t e r 4 ) . Multiple views. T h e viewfinder of s t u d i o c a m e r a s al lows y o u t o see t h e pictures o t h e r s t u d i o c a m e r a s are t a k i n g as well as special effects. Viewing t h e p i c t u r e of a n o t h e r c a m e r a helps y o u frame y o u r shot so t h a t it will c o m p l e m e n t t h e shot of t h e o t h e r c a m e r a a n d avoid meaningless d u p l i c a t i o n . W h e n special effects are i n t e n d e d , t h e viewfinder displays t h e partial ef fect so t h a t y o u can place y o u r p o r t i o n of t h e effect in t h e exact location w i t h i n t h e overall screen area.
Tally light T h e tally light is t h e r e d light o n t o p of a stu dio c a m e r a t h a t signals w h i c h of t h e t w o o r m o r e c a m e r a s is "hot," t h a t is, o n t h e air. T h e light indicates that t h e other cameras are free t o line u p their next shots. It also helps t h e talent address t h e correct c a m e r a . T h e r e is also a small tally light inside t h e viewfinder h o o d t h a t i n f o r m s t h e c a m e r a o p e r a t o r w h e n t h e c a m e r a is h o t . W h e n t w o c a m e r a s are u s e d simultaneously, such as for a split-screen effect o r a s u p e r i m p o s i t i o n (see c h a p t e r 14), t h e tally lights of b o t h c a m e r a s are o n . W h e n o p e r a t i n g a s t u d i o c a m e r a , wait until y o u r tally light is off before repositioning t h e c a m e r a . C o n s u m e r c a m e r a s usually d o n o t have a tally light. W h e n using p r o s u m e r c a m c o r d e r s for a m u l t i c a m e r a p r o d u c t i o n , y o u n e e d to rig a tally light system t h a t is activated b y t h e switcher i n t h e p r o g r a m c o n t r o l section. Intercom T h e intercom, or intercommunication system, is especially i m p o r t a n t for m u l t i c a m e r a p r o d u c t i o n s because t h e director a n d t h e technical director have t o c o o r d i n a t e t h e c a m e r a s ' o p e r a t i o n s . All s t u d i o c a m e r a s a n d several h i g h - e n d field c a m e r a s have at least t w o channels for i n t e r c o m m u n i c a t i o n — o n e for t h e p r o d u c t i o n crew a n d t h e o t h e r for t h e technical crew. S o m e studio c a m e r a s have a t h i r d c h a n n e l t h a t carries t h e p r o g r a m s o u n d . W h e n E N G / E F P c a m e r a s are c o n v e r t e d t o t h e s t u d i o configuration, i n t e r c o m a d a p t e r s are a n essential p a r t of t h e conversion. As t h e c a m e r a operator, y o u can listen t o t h e i n s t r u c t i o n s of t h e director, p r o d u c e r , a n d technical director a n d talk t o t h e m as well as t o t h e VO. W h e n using E N G / E F P c a m e r a s in isolated (iso) p o s i t i o n s , o r p r o s u m e r c a m e r a s i n a m u l t i c a m e r a configuration, y o u n e e d t o p r o vide for a n i n t e r c o m system. S o m e t i m e s it is easier t o use walkie-talkies, w h i c h let y o u listen t o t h e s o u n d via small
Television
Cameras
Work
59
e a r p h o n e s , t h a n t o s t r i n g cables for i n t e r c o m headsets. ( T h e v a r i o u s i n t e r c o m functions are discussed in d e p t h in c h a p t e r 20.)
OPERATIONAL ITEMS: ENG/EFP CAMERAS AND CAMCORDERS E N G V A l t h o u g h t h e o p e r a t i o n a l f e a t u r e s of E N G / E F P
EFP c a m e r a s are similar t o those of s t u d i o c a m e r a s , t h e y differ considerably in design a n d function. This section explains t h e o p e r a t i o n a l i t e m s of field c a m e r a s a n d their functions: (1) p o w e r supply, (2) c a m e r a cable, (3) con nectors, (4) interchangeable lenses, (5) filter wheel, a n d (6) viewfinder. Power supply M o s t professional c a m c o r d e r s are p o w ered b y a 13-volt (13.2 V) o r 14-volt (14.4 V ) b a t t e r y that is clipped o n , o r inserted in, t h e b a c k of t h e c a m e r a . C o n s u m e r camcorders have lower-voltage batteries that are also clipped o n t h e b a c k of t h e c a m e r a - V T R u n i t . Substitute p o w e r supplies are h o u s e h o l d AC c u r r e n t a n d car batteries, b o t h of w h i c h require a d a p t e r s . Use a car b a t t e r y o n l y in an emergency; car batteries are h a z a r d o u s t o t h e o p e r a t o r as well as t o t h e c a m e r a . D e p e n d i n g o n t h e p o w e r c o n s u m p t i o n of t h e c a m era o r c a m c o r d e r , m o s t batteries can supply c o n t i n u o u s p o w e r for u p t o t w o h o u r s before t h e y n e e d recharging. If y o u r c a m c o r d e r h a s a l o w p o w e r c o n s u m p t i o n , y o u m a y b e able to r u n it for four h o u r s o r m o r e w i t h a single b a t t e r y charge. S o m e o l d e r types of b a t t e r i e s for c o n s u m e r v i d e o e q u i p m e n t d e v e l o p a " m e m o r y " if t h e y are r e c h a r g e d before t h e y have completely r u n d o w n . This m e a n s that t h e b a t t e r y signals a full charge even if it is far from fully charged. To keep a battery from developing such a m e m o r y , r u n t h e b a t t e r y u n t i l it h a s lost all of its p o w e r before re charging it, o r discharge it p u r p o s e l y from t i m e t o t i m e . M a n y b a t t e r y rechargers have a discharge o p t i o n , w h i c h will completely discharge a b a t t e r y before recharging it. N e w e r batteries c a n b e t r a i n e d t o develop n o m e m o r y . Usually, y o u m u s t drain t h e battery's initial charge a n d t h e n fully recharge it. F r o m t h e n o n y o u can recharge t h e battery a n y t i m e w i t h o u t having t o discharge it completely. W h e n o p e r a t i n g a professional camcorder, y o u s h o u l d use a digital battery, w h i c h has a small b u i l t - i n chip t h a t c o m m u n i c a t e s w i t h t h e b a t t e r y charger t o receive a full charge. It also p o w e r s a gauge t h a t indicates h o w m u c h charge is left in t h e battery. O r d i n a r y batteries also let you k n o w w h e n their charge is r u n n i n g out, b u t this l o w - b a t t e r y w a r n i n g in t h e c a m e r a viewfinder often c o m e s o n just before t h e b a t t e r y r u n s
Chapter
60
THE
3
TELEVISION
CAMERA
shutdown
The regular 400 FireWire cable, which has a transfer
in t h e m i d d l e of a s h o o t , always change t h e b a t t e r y well
speed of 400 M B p s (megabytes p e r s e c o n d ) , c o m e s w i t h a
before t h e p e r i o d indicated b y t h e m a n u f a c t u r e r .
smaller 4 - p i n o r a larger 6- p i n c o n n e c t o r . T h e faster 800
d o w n completely. To avoid t h e risk of a c a m e r a
FireWire, w i t h a transfer speed of 800 M B p s , h a s a 9-pin W h e n using a n E N G / E F P c a m e r a r a t h e r
c o n n e c t o r a n d will n o t fit t h e regular 4 0 0 FireWire jacks.
than a camcorder, you m a y need to connect the camera
Cables are available t h a t c o m e w i t h a different c o n n e c t o r
to a v i d e o t a p e r e c o r d e r o r a r e m o t e c o n t r o l u n i t . Even a
o n each e n d t o avoid t h e n e e d for a d a p t e r s .
Camera cable
c a m c o r d e r n e e d s cables w h e n c o n n e c t i n g it t o e x t e r n a l e q u i p m e n t , s u c h as m o n i t o r feeds, a u d i o recorders, a n d
Interchangeable lenses
so forth.
corder, y o u m a y have h a d t r o u b l e getting a n overall s h o t
W h e n using y o u r h o m e c a m
of a b i r t h d a y p a r t y in a small living r o o m , even if z o o m e d Before going to the field location, carefullycheck t h a t t h e c o n n e c t o r s o n t h e v a r i o u s cables actually fit i n t o t h e c a m e r a jacks (receptacles) a n d t h e jacks of t h e auxiliary e q u i p m e n t . Little is m o r e a n n o y i n g t h a n h a v ing t h e w h o l e p r o d u c t i o n held u p for a n h o u r o r m o r e s i m p l y b e c a u s e a c o n n e c t o r o n a cable d o e s n o t m a t c h t h e receptacle o n t h e c a m e r a . M o s t p r o f e s s i o n a l v i d e o e q u i p m e n t uses BNC, S-video,
o r RCA phono
connectors
for v i d e o coaxial cables, a n d XLR o r R C A p h o n o plugs for a u d i o cables. S o m e a u d i o e q u i p m e n t requires cables with phone plugs. C o n s u m e r e q u i p m e n t usually uses R C A p h o n o for video cables a n d mini plugs for a u d i o . A l t h o u g h there a r e a d a p t e r s for all plugs (so, for e x a m p l e , y o u c a n
o u t all t h e way. S o m e h i g h - e n d c o n s u m e r m o d e l s allow y o u t o exchange t h e s t a n d a r d z o o m lens w i t h a w i d e - a n g l e one, b u t in m o s t cases y o u c a n d o so o n l y with a n adapter. M o s t professional E N G / E F P c a m e r a s let y o u a t t a c h t h e z o o m lens that provides t h e necessary wide-angle view a n d a g o o d z o o m range. Filter wheel
M u c h like s t u d i o c a m e r a s , field c a m e r a s
a n d c a m c o r d e r s have a filter wheel t h a t c o n t a i n s at least t w o N D a n d a variety of c o l o r - c o r r e c t i o n filters. You c a n r o t a t e t h e desired filter i n t o p o s i t i o n b y activating a filter switch o n t h e side of t h e c a m e r a o r b y selecting t h e a p p r o priate filter p o s i t i o n o n t h e m e n u . T h e switch is s o m e t i m e s labeled "color t e m p e r a t u r e . "
c h a n g e a B N C c o n n e c t o r into a n R C A p h o n o p l u g ) , t r y t o stay away from t h e m . Such makeshift c o n n e c t i o n s are n o t
Viewfinder
reliable, a n d each a d a p t e r i n t r o d u c e s a p o t e n t i a l t r o u b l e
tion, all E N G / E F P cameras a n d c a m c o r d e r s have a lVi-inch
spot. SEE 3.23
h i g h - r e s o l u t i o n m o n o c h r o m e viewfinder. It is shielded
Video connectors
BNC
S-video
Unless c o n v e r t e d t o t h e s t u d i o configura
Audio connectors
RCA phono plug (used for both video and audio)
XLR plug
XLR jack
Phone plug
Mini plug
3.23 STANDARD VIDEO AND AUDIO CONNECTORS Most professional video cables have BNC connectors. Video cables can also use S-video and RCA phono connectors. All profes sional microphones and three-wire cables use XLR connectors; some equipment uses the RCA phono plug or the two-wire phone plug; consumer equipment typically uses RCA phono or mini-plug connectors.
Section
3.1
How
Television
Cameras
Work
(5'II
f r o m o u t s i d e reflections b y a flexible r u b b e r eyepiece that
w h i t e light in w h i c h t h e c a m e r a is s h o o t i n g so t h a t a
y o u can adjust to y o u r eye. You can swivel t h e viewfinder in
w h i t e card looks w h i t e w h e n seen o n a well-adjusted
several d i r e c t i o n s — a n i m p o r t a n t feature w h e n t h e c a m e r a
m o n i t o r . C o l o r t e m p e r a t u r e controls are p a r t of t h e
c a n n o t b e o p e r a t e d from t h e c u s t o m a r y s h o u l d e r position.
white-balance adjustment.
M o s t small E N G / E F P c a m e r a s a n d c o n s u m e r c a m c o r d e r s
Battery status. This i n d i c a t o r shows t h e r e m a i n
have a n a d d i t i o n a l foldout screen w h o s e color i m a g e c o n
ing charge or a small icon, s u c h as a c r o s s e d - o u t
sists of a liquid crystal display (LCD) similar to t h a t of a
b a t t e r y or o n e t h a t shows t h e "juice" level. Such
laptop computer. Most consumer and prosumer cameras
w a r n i n g s c o m e only before t h e b a t t e r y has lost its
display t h e electronic c o n t r o l m e n u o n the foldout screen.
useful charge.
T h e p r o b l e m w i t h such displays is t h a t t h e y are n o t always easy to read, especially w h e n s h o o t i n g in b r i g h t sunlight.
Maximum
T h e viewfinder also acts as a n i m p o r t a n t c o m m u n i c a t i o n s
t e r n can b e set for a p a r t i c u l a r m a x i m u m light level.
and minimum
light levels. T h e zebra p a t
system, s h o w i n g t h e status of c a m e r a settings w h e n t h e
W h e n this level is exceeded, t h e p a t t e r n begins to
c a m e r a is in o p e r a t i o n . A l t h o u g h t h e actual display m o d e s
flash or vibrate.
v a r y f r o m m o d e l t o m o d e l , m o s t s t u d i o a n d field c a m e r a
Gain. In low-light c o n d i t i o n s , the viewfinder i n
viewfinders i n c l u d e t h e following i n d i c a t o r s :
dicates w h e t h e r the gain is active a n d at w h a t level it is set.
I VTR record. This indicates w h e t h e r t h e v i d e o t a p e in t h e V T R is rolling a n d r e c o r d i n g . This i n d i c a t o r
I
•
Optical filter positions.
T h e display tells y o u w h i c h
is usually a steady or flashing red light, or letters
specific filter is in place.
such as REC keyed over the scene. W h e n y o u use
Playback. T h e viewfinder or foldout screen c a n serve
the foldout screen o n a c a m c o r d e r , it will display
as a m o n i t o r w h e n playing b a c k from t h e c a m c o r d
t h e s a m e i n f o r m a t i o n b u t will deactivate t h e regular
er's V T R t h e scenes y o u have just r e c o r d e d . This
viewfinder.
playback feature allows y o u to i m m e d i a t e l y check
End-of-tape
warning.
T h e viewfinder m a y display a
message of h o w m u c h t a p e t i m e r e m a i n s . White balance. T h e w h i t e b a l a n c e adjusts t h e col ors t o t h e relative r e d d i s h n e s s or bluishness of t h e
Remaining-tape display Level meters for audio channels 1 and 2 Color temperature display Electronic shutter speed Time code display
Video gain on/off indicator
w h e t h e r t h e r e c o r d i n g t u r n e d o u t all r i g h t t e c h n i cally as well as aesthetically, SEE 3.24 If all these i n d i c a t i o n s are n o t e n o u g h for y o u , m o s t c a m c o r d e r v i e w f i n d e r s o r d i s p l a y p a n e l s also s h o w a n
s Lens/-stop
' Battery voltage
Gain level
- Low-battery warning
" Scene data mark display
- VTR problem warning light
3 . 2 4 VIEWFINDER DISPLAY OF INDICATORS The viewfinder of an ENG/EFP camera or camcorder acts as a small control center that displays a variety of status indicators. You can see these indicators without taking your eyes off the viewfinder. The operational menu can also be displayed on the foldout screen.
62
Chapter
THE
3
TELEVISION
CAMERA
e l a b o r a t e m e n u t h a t allows a variety of c a m e r a adjust
Sound volume a n d audio monitor
m e n t s . But, as m e n t i o n e d before, s u c h m e n u s are h a r d to
set an o p t i m a l v o l u m e for m o n i t o r i n g i n c o m i n g
read in b r i g h t s u n l i g h t a n d are often difficult to activate in
a u d i o sources.
the field. This is w h y h i g h - e n d p r o s u m e r c a m c o r d e r s a n d
controls let you
VTR controls help y o u l o a d a n d eject t h e v i d e o c a s -
m a n y E N G / E F P c a m c o r d e r s use external switches for t h e
sette a n d p u t t h e c a m c o r d e r in t h e r e c o r d m o d e .
m o r e i m p o r t a n t operational controls. < a
EXTERNAL OPERATIONAL CONTROLS: ENG/EFP CAMERAS A N D CAMCORDERS
Various jacks enable y o u to c o n n e c t c a m e r a , a u d i o , i n t e r c o m , a n d genlock cables, as well as t h e R C U and the setup equipment. <
E N G V . A l t h o u g h t h e specific o p e r a t i o n a l c o n t r o l s differ E F P ' from o n e c a m c o r d e r to a n o t h e r , y o u will find t h e following external switches o n a l m o s t all c a m c o r d e r s . •
T h e power switch obviously t u r n s t h e c a m e r a o n a n d off. O n a c a m c o r d e r it t u r n s o n t h e w h o l e system,
lM
T h e standby
b a t t e r y while k e e p i n g t h e c a m e r a ready to p e r f o r m
N
P
O
I
N
T
S
The television camera is one of the most important pro duction elements. Other production equipment and techniques are influenced by what the camera can and cannot do.
•
The major parts of the camera are the lens, the camera itself with the beam splitter and the CCD imaging device, and the viewfinder.
•
The beam splitter separates the entering white light into the three additive light primaries: red, green, and blue (RGB).
•
The imaging devices convert the light entering the camera into electric energy—the video signal. This is done by the charge-coupled device (CCD) or some variation of it, which is a solid-state chip containing rows of a great many lightsensitive pixels.
•
The standard studio camera chain consists of the camera head (the actual camera), the CCU (camera control unit), the sync generator, and the power supply.
•
The two majortypes of television cameras are the standard analog camera and the digital camera. Most cameras are digital, but some high-quality analog cameras are still in use.
•
When classified by function, the four types of standard television cameras are the standard studio camera, the ENG/EFP camera and camcorder, the consumer camcorder, and the prosumer camcorder.
•
The electronic characteristics include: aspect ratio, white balance, resolution, operating light level, gain, video noise and signal-to-noise ratio, image blur and electronic shutter, smear and moire, contrast, and shading. The FireWire cable allows fast transport of digital data.
•
The operational characteristics of studio and ENG/EFP cameras include: power supply, camera cable, connectors, filter wheel, viewfinder, tally light, and intercom.
•
Because ENG/EFP cameras and camcorders have a built-in CCU—and, for camcorders, a built-in VTR—they have many more operational controls than do studio cameras.
switch keeps t h e c a m e r a t u r n e d o n at
r e d u c e d power, therefore lessening t h e d r a i n o n t h e
I
•
i n c l u d i n g t h e c a m e r a a n d t h e VCR. •
A
a l m o s t instantly. It is like idling a car engine before driving off. H a v i n g a c a m e r a in t h e s t a n d b y m o d e r a t h e r t h a n continually t u r n i n g it o n a n d off is also gentler o n t h e camera's electronics a n d p r o l o n g s its life considerably. T h e s t a n d b y m o d e also keeps the viewfinder w a r m e d u p a n d ready to go, w h i c h is especially i m p o r t a n t for E N G / E F P c a m e r a s . T h e gain control keeps t h e c a m e r a o p e r a t i o n a l in low light levels. •
T h e white-balance
indicator shows w h e t h e r t h e
c a m e r a is adjusted to t h e p a r t i c u l a r t i n t of t h e light ( r e d d i s h o r b l u i s h ) in w h i c h y o u are s h o o t i n g (see c h a p t e r 8). •
T h e filter wheel enables y o u to select the a p p r o p r i a t e color filter to facilitate a w h i t e balance o r a n e u t r a l d e n s i t y filter to c u t d o w n excessive light.
® T h e VTR switch starts a n d stops t h e b u i l t - i n or d o c k e d V T R or t h e o n e c o n n e c t e d t o t h e c a m e r a b y cable. •
T h e shutter speed control lets y o u select t h e specific s h u t t e r speed necessary to avoid a b l u r r e d i m a g e of a rapidly m o v i n g object.
•
T h e camera/bars
selection switch lets y o u choose
b e t w e e n t h e video (pictures t h e c a m e r a sees) a n d t h e color b a r s t h a t serve as reference for t h e color m o n i t o r s o r t h e playback of t h e r e c o r d i n g . « T h e audio level control helps y o u adjust t h e v o l u m e of t h e c o n n e c t e d a u d i o sources.
can collect a certain a m o u n t of light—chrominance (color) a n d luminance
(black-and-white)
information—and
t r a n s d u c e it i n t o electric charges t h a t m a k e u p p a r t of t h e video signal. T h e s e charges are t h e n t e m p o r a r i l y s t o r e d in a n o t h e r layer of t h e chip so t h a t t h e front w i n d o w — t h e i m a g i n g , o r target, area of t h e c h i p — i s cleared t o receive a n o t h e r frame of light i n f o r m a t i o n . T h e s t o r e d charges are t h e n s c a n n e d a n d "clocked o u t " (transferred) at a par
From Light
ticular speed a n d amplified t o a w o r k a b l e signal voltage. T h e h i g h e r t h e light level a pixel receives, t h e s t r o n g e r t h e
to Videoimage
signal o u t p u t , SEE 3.25 T h e r e are variations of t h e s t a n d a r d C C D , s u c h as t h e C M O S chip, w h i c h are designed t o p r o d u c e a h i g h e r - r e s o l u t i o n image, m a k e t h e chip m o r e light sensitive, p r o d u c e better colors, a n d all b u t eliminate such p r o b l e m s as s m e a r a n d i m a g e blur. Regardless of w h e t h e r t h e c a m e r a is a n a l o g o r digital, the entire t r a n s d u c i n g process from light t o electrical signal is analog. T h e a n a l o g v i d e o signals are c h a n g e d into digital o n e s o n l y after this t r a n s d u c t i o n from light t o electricity. In c a m e r a s t h a t allow y o u t o switch b e t w e e n t h e 4 x 3 a n d 1 6 x 9 aspect ratios, t h e C C D s can have a 4 x 3 o r a 1 6 x 9 format. With 4 x 3 format CCDs, the top a n d bot
A l t h o u g h y o u n e e d n o t b e an electronics e x p e r t to o p e r a t e
t o m rows of pixel sensors are c u t off t o achieve t h e 1 6 x 9
m o s t television e q u i p m e n t , y o u s h o u l d at least k n o w h o w
aspect r a t i o . Because so m a n y pixels are lost, t h e switch
t h e light i m a g e t h a t is c a p t u r e d by t h e lens is c o n v e r t e d by
usually results i n a l o w e r - r e s o l u t i o n i m a g e . W i t h 1 6 x 9
t h e c a m e r a i n t o a video p i c t u r e . T h e s e basic principles will
f o r m a t C C D s , however, t h e 4 x 3 s c a n n i n g area is achieved
help y o u u n d e r s t a n d t h e reasons for using certain pieces of
by utilizing t h e center p o r t i o n of t h e chip. A s s u m i n g that it
television e q u i p m e n t a n d h o w to u s e t h e m effectively. ^
CCD PROCESS The solid-state imaging device that converts Ugh t into the
/Storage area
video signal
Imaging area ^
/
.Output area
NATURE OF COLOR Color attributes and additive and subtractive color mixing
^
CHROMINANCE AND LUMINANCE CHANNELS The three color signals, the black-and-white
signal, and how
they are combined
Light input ^
Output amplifier
ELECTRONIC CINEMA The HDTV camera, frame rate, scanning, and the "film look"
CCD PROCESS As y o u l e a r n e d i n s e c t i o n 3 . 1 , a C C D ( c h a r g e - c o u p l e d device) is a solid-state chip that has a small w i n d o w ( a b o u t t h e size of a t e l e p h o n e p u s h b u t t o n ) t h a t receives t h e light from t h e b e a m splitter. This w i n d o w c o n t a i n s a great n u m b e r (from several t h o u s a n d t o several million) of h o r i z o n t a l a n d vertical rows of light-sensing pixels. Each of t h e pixels
3 . 2 5 CCD PROCESS The charge-coupled device consists of an imaging area (the window), a storage area, and an output area. The imaging area contains the pixels, the storage area stores the pixel charges, and the output area delivers them to the amplifier to form the video signal.
63
64
Chapter
THE TELEVISION
3
CAMERA
is a h i g h - r e s o l u t i o n chip ( m a n y rows of pixels), its center
(see chapter 15). W h e n y o u see b l a c k - a n d - w h i t e television
p o r t i o n s h o u l d deliver basically t h e same resolution as does
pictures o n - s c r e e n , y o u see b r i g h t n e s s v a r i a t i o n s only; t h e
t h e 16 x 9 f o r m a t .
pictures have n o h u e o r s a t u r a t i o n . In television the h u e a n d s a t u r a t i o n p r o p e r t i e s of color are s o m e t i m e s n a m e d chrominance
(from chroma,
G r e e k for " c o l o r " ) , a n d the
NATURE OF COLOR
b r i g h t n e s s p r o p e r t i e s are called luminance
W h e n y o u look at a red ball, its color is n o t p a r t of t h e ball,
L a t i n for " l i g h t " ) . T h e c h r o m i n a n c e , o r C, c h a n n e l s
(from
lumen,
b u t s i m p l y light reflected off of it. T h e red p a i n t of t h e ball
a n d t h e l u m i n a n c e , or Y, c h a n n e l s are discussed later in
acts as a color filter, a b s o r b i n g all colors except red, w h i c h
this section.
it b o u n c e s back. T h u s t h e ball is stuck w i t h the only color
COLOR
it has rejected: red.
MIXING
W h e n y o u t h i n k back to y o u r finger-painting days, y o u
COLOR
ATTRIBUTES
p r o b a b l y h a d t h r e e p o t s of p a i n t : red, b l u e , a n d yellow.
W h e n y o u look at colors, y o u can easily distinguish a m o n g
W h e n mixing b l u e a n d yellow, y o u got green; w h e n mixing
hue, satura
red a n d blue, you got p u r p l e ; a n d w h e n s m e a r i n g red and
tion, a n d b r i g h t n e s s or lightness. In television language
green together, y o u got, at best, a m u d d y b r o w n . A n expert
t h r e e basic color sensations, called attributes: luminance
is yet a n o t h e r n a m e for b r i g h t n e s s , SEE 3.26
Hue describes the color itself, such as a red ball, a green
finger p a i n t e r could achieve a l m o s t all colors by s i m p l y m i x i n g t h e p r i m a r y p a i n t colors of red, blue, a n d yellow.
indicates t h e richness or
N o t so w h e n m i x i n g colored light. T h e t h r e e p r i m a r y light
s t r e n g t h of a color. T h e b r i g h t red p a i n t of a s p o r t s car is
colors are n o t red, b l u e , a n d yellow, b u t r a t h e r red, green,
highly saturated, whereas the w a s h e d - o u t blue of y o u r jeans
a n d blue—in
apple, o r a b l u e coat. Saturation
television l a n g u a g e , RGB.
or t h e beige of t h e s a n d o n a b e a c h are of low s a t u r a t i o n . Brightness
(lightness
or luminance)
is h o w d a r k o r light a
color a p p e a r s o n a b l a c k - a n d - w h i t e m o n i t o r or, roughly,
Additive mixing
A s s u m e t h a t you have three individual
slide p r o j e c t o r s w i t h a clear red slide (filter) in t h e first, a
h o w light or d a r k a color a p p e a r s . T h e v a r i o u s b r i g h t n e s s
clear green o n e in t h e second, a n d a clear b l u e o n e in t h e
steps of a television i m a g e are usually s h o w n as a grayscale
third. H o o k u p each of t h e projectors t o a separate d i m mer. W h e n t h e t h r e e d i m m e r s are u p full a n d y o u shine all t h r e e light b e a m s t o g e t h e r o n t h e s a m e s p o t of t h e screen, y o u get white light ( a s s u m i n g equal light t r a n s m i s s i o n b y
Saturation
all t h r e e slides a n d projector l a m p s ) . This is n o t s u r p r i s i n g
(color strength)
b e c a u s e we c a n split w h i t e light i n t o these three p r i m a r i e s . W h e n y o u t u r n off t h e blue projector a n d leave o n t h e red a n d green o n e s , y o u get yellow. If y o u t h e n d i m t h e green projector s o m e w h a t , y o u get o r a n g e or b r o w n . If y o u t u r n
QJ
off t h e green o n e a n d t u r n o n t h e blue o n e again, y o u get a r e d d i s h p u r p l e , called m a g e n t a . If y o u t h e n d i m t h e red projector, t h e p u r p l e b e c o m e s m o r e bluish. Because y o u
o
add v a r i o u s q u a n t i t i e s of colored light in t h e process, it is called additive Brightness
dl o s
(light reflectance—how light or dark a color appears on the grayscale)
SEE 3.27 Because t h e color
t h e t h r e e additive color p r i m a r i e s (red, green, a n d blue) to p r o d u c e all t h e colors y o u see o n t h e television screen. You c a n m a k e all o t h e r colors b y a d d i n g t h e t h r e e light
IS c
b e a m s — p r i m a r i e s — i n v a r i o u s p r o p o r t i o n s , t h a t is, in
1
v a r i o u s light intensities.
3 3.26
color mixing,
c a m e r a w o r k s w i t h light r a t h e r t h a n finger p a i n t , it n e e d s
COLOR ATTRIBUTES
Hue is the term used for the base color—blue, green, yellow, and so on. Saturation refers to the purity and intensity of the color. Brightness, lightness, or luminance describes the degree of reflectance: how light or dark a color appears on the grayscale.
Subtractive m i x i n g
W h e n using p a i n t instead of
colored light, y o u r p r i m a r y colors are red, b l u e , a n d yel low or, m o r e accurately, m a g e n t a (a b l u i s h r e d ) , cyan (a greenish blue), a n d yellow. In subtractive mixing, the colors
Section
From
3.2
Light
to Video
Image
65
CHROMINANCE CHANNEL Red
T h e chrominance
channel,
or C channel,
includes all h u e
attributes. It consists of t h e t h r e e "slide p r o j e c t o r s " t h a t p r o d u c e red, green, a n d b l u e light b e a m s of v a r y i n g in tensities, except t h a t in t h e television c a m e r a t h e "slide p r o j e c t o r s " consist of t h e C C D s t h a t p r o d u c e an electrical signal of v a r y i n g intensity (voltage) for each of t h e t h r e e p r i m a r y colors.
LUMINANCE CHANNEL T h e luminance
channel,
o r Y channel,
is responsible for
t h e b r i g h t n e s s i n f o r m a t i o n of t h e color pictures. Its single l u m i n a n c e signal fulfills t w o basic functions: it translates t h e brightness variations of the colors in a scene into black-
Cyan
a n d - w h i t e pictures for b l a c k - a n d - w h i t e receivers, a n d it p r o v i d e s color p i c t u r e s w i t h t h e necessary crispness a n d
3.27 ADDITIVE COLOR MIXING
definition, just like t h e black d o t s in a four-color p r i n t .
When mixing colored light, the additive primaries are red, green, and blue. All other colors can be achieved by mixing certain quantities of red, green, and blue light. For example, the additive mixture of red and green light produces yellow.
t h e p i c t u r e , t h e Y signal is very m u c h favored in t h e digital
Because it h a s s u c h a great influence o n t h e s h a r p n e s s of d o m a i n . Even in h i g h - e n d digital cameras, t h e color signals are s a m p l e d only half as often as t h e l u m i n a n c e signal, or only o n e - f o u r t h as often for l o w e r - e n d professional a n d
filter each o t h e r o u t . Because the television c a m e r a w o r k s w i t h light r a t h e r t h a n p a i n t , we skip subtractive m i x i n g
h i g h - e n d p r o s u m e r digital c a m e r a s . Even if t w o h u e s differ considerably, s u c h as red a n d blue, their b r i g h t n e s s attributes m a y b e so similar t h a t they
at this p o i n t .
are difficult to distinguish o n a m o n o c h r o m e m o n i t o r . For e x a m p l e , a red letter t h a t looks q u i t e p r o m i n e n t against a
CHROMINANCE AND LUMINANCE CHANNELS
b l u e b a c k g r o u n d m a y get lost in a b l a c k - a n d - w h i t e r e n d e r
As stated earlier, c h r o m i n a n c e deals w i t h t h e h u e a n d
ing. This p r o b l e m occurs because t h e b r i g h t n e s s attributes
s a t u r a t i o n a t t r i b u t e s of a color, l u m i n a n c e w i t h its b r i g h t
of t h e letter a n d t h e b a c k g r o u n d are a l m o s t i d e n t i c a l .
ness i n f o r m a t i o n . T h e c h r o m i n a n c e c h a n n e l in a c a m e r a
A l t h o u g h t h e h u e s are c o n t r a s t i n g c o n s i d e r a b l y , t h e i r
deals w i t h t h e color signals, a n d t h e l u m i n a n c e c h a n n e l
b r i g h t n e s s values are t h e s a m e . As a result, t h e letter is n o
t r a n s p o r t s the b l a c k - a n d - w h i t e signal.
longer legible in t h e b l a c k - a n d - w h i t e r e n d e r i n g , SEE 3.28
3.28 BRIGHTNESS: INSUFFICIENT CONTRAST Although the hue is sufficiently different for this letter to show up on the blue background of the color television set, it is barely readable on a black-and-white receiver. The brightness contrast is insufficient for good monochrome reproduction.
V
Chapter
66
THE
3
TELEVISION
CAMERA
3.29 BRIGHTNESS: GOOD CONTRAST The hues in this picture have enough difference in brightness to white receiver.
I O W up equally well on both a color and a black-and-
W h e n t h e b r i g h t n e s s a t t r i b u t e s of t h e t w o different colors are sufficiently far a p a r t , t h e letter s h o w s u p q u i t e well in b l a c k - a n d - w h i t e , SEE 3.29
ENCODER T h e e n c o d e r c o m b i n e s t h e t h r e e C (RGB) signals w i t h the Y ( l u m i n a n c e ) signal so t h a t t h e y c a n b e t r a n s p o r t e d inside the c a m e r a a n d t h e V T R a n d t r a n s m i t t e d a n d eas ily separated again by t h e color television receiver. This c o m b i n e d signal is called t h e composite,
or NTSC,
signal.
If t h e Y signal a n d t h e C signals are k e p t separate, it is a component
signal. (We revisit t h e c o m p o s i t e a n d c o m p o
n e n t signals in c h a p t e r 12.)
ELECTRONIC CINEMA T h e l o n g - a n t i c i p a t e d t i m e w h e n television c a m e r a s are used to p r o d u c e m o t i o n pictures i n t e n d e d for s h o w i n g in theaters has finally arrived. Electronic
cinema usually refers
to a t o p - o f - t h e - l i n e H D T V c a m e r a t h a t has b e e n a d a p t e d for m o t i o n picture p r o d u c t i o n . These c a m e r a s have C C D s , each of w h i c h has u p t o a m e g a m i l l i o n pixels. T h e s e c a m eras have different frame rates t h a t can b e set to t h e 24 fps
3.30 ELECTRONIC CINEMA CAMERA This top-of-the-line DVCPRO HDTV 720p camera can be set at various frame rates, including the 24 fps rate to match the traditional frame rate of motion pictures. It is equipped with attachments borrowed from the traditional film camera.
rate of m o t i o n pictures or to a m u c h slower or faster rate. O n e of t h e m o s t expensive p a r t s of t h e c a m e r a is t h e lens, w h i c h is specially m a d e for H D T V c a m e r a s , SEE 3.30
Some
"film look." T h e film l o o k has b e e n e r r o n e o u s l y a t t r i b u t e d
of these c a m e r a s have p r o v i s i o n s for a t t a c h i n g a variety
to h i g h - r e s o l u t i o n images a n d is p r o b a b l y t h e result of t h e
of p r i m a r y lenses, w h i c h are similar to t h e v a r i o u s lenses
high c o n t r a s t ratio a n d t h e b l a c k o u t s t h a t occur w h e n o n e
y o u m a y use w i t h y o u r still c a m e r a . A d d i t i o n a l items are
frame of t h e film changes over to t h e next. This c o n s t a n t
a matte box (a lens a t t a c h m e n t for optical special effects)
g o i n g - t o - b l a c k b e t w e e n frames m a k e s us perceive a softer
a n d a h i g h - r e s o l u t i o n m o n o c h r o m e c a m e r a viewfinder.
i m a g e . To copy this b l a c k o u t sensation, s o m e electronic
T h e images are t h e n r e c o r d e d o n a n H D T V r e c o r d e r (see
c i n e m a systems use filters, r e i n t r o d u c e a variety of artifacts,
c h a p t e r 12).
or m a n i p u l a t e the progressive s c a n n i n g . Unfortunately, all
M a n y film p e o p l e c o m p l a i n a b o u t t h e "in-your-face" look of H D T V images a n d l a m e n t the loss of the mysterious
such a t t e m p t s result in a l o w e r - q u a l i t y i m a g e b u t n o t in t h e softer f r a m e - b y - f r a m e c u s h i o n s .
Section
•
3.2
From
The solid-state charge-coupled device (CCD) consists of many (up to a megamillion) horizontal and vertical rows of pixels. Each of the pixels can collect a certain amount of light and transduce it into electric charges. The charges are then stored and read (clocked out) line-by-line and ampli fied into a workable video signal.
•
Color attributes are hue, the color itself; saturation, the richness or strength of a color; and brightness, how dark or light a color appears.
•
Color television operates on additive mixing of the three color primaries of light: red, green, and blue (RGB).
•
Color cameras contain a chrominance and a luminance channel. The chrominance channel processes the color sig nals—the C signals—and the luminance channel processes the black-and-white (brightness) signal, called the Y signal. The two types of signals are combined by the encoder.
•
Electronic cinema usually refers to a specially equipped, high-end HDTV camera for video capture.
Light
to
Video
Image
67
For your reference, or to track your work, the VideoLab program cue in this chapter is listed here with its cor responding page number.
E£H>
LIGHTS-^ Color temperature^ white balance | controlling
Lenses Lenses are used in all fields of photographic art. Their primary function is to project a small, clear i m a g e of t h e v i e w e d scene o n the film or, in t h e case of digital photography and television, on the electronic imaging device. As discussed in chapter 3, the lens is o n e of the three major parts of the camera. In studio cameras t h e lens is often considerably larger t h a n the camera itself. Section 4 . 1 , W h a t Lenses Are, covers the basic optical characteristics of lenses and their primary operational controls. T h e performance characteristics of lenses, that is, h o w they see t h e world, are explored in section 4.2, W h a t Lenses See.
68
aperture Iris opening of a lens, usually measured in /-stops. auto-focus Automated feature whereby the camera focuses on what it senses to be your target object.
iris Adjustable lens-opening that controls the amount of light passing through the lens. Also called diaphragm or lens diaphragm.
calibrate To preset a zoom lens to remain in focus throughout the zoom.
macro position A lens setting that allows it to be focused at very close distances from an object. Used for close-ups of small objects.
compression The crowding effect achieved by a narrow-angle (telephoto) lens wherein object proportions and relative distances seem shallower.
minimum object distance (MOD) How close the camera can get to an object and still focus on it.
depth of field The area in which all objects, located at different distances from the camera, appear in focus. Depth of field depends on the focal length of the lens, its /-stop, and the distance between the object and the camera. digital zooming Simulated zoom by cropping the center por tion of an image and electronically enlarging the cropped portion. Digital zooms lose picture resolution. digital zoom lens A lens that can be programmed through a small built-in computer to repeat zoom positions and their corresponding focus settings. fast lens A lens that permits a relatively great amount of light to pass through at its maximum aperture (relatively low /-stop number at its lowest setting). Can be used in lowlight conditions. field of view The portion of a scene visible through a particular lens; its vista. Expressed in symbols, such as CU for close-up. focal length The distance from the optical center of the lens to the front surface of the camera's imaging device at which the image appears in focus with the lens set at infinity. Focal lengths are measured in millimeters or inches. Shortfocal-length lenses have a wide angle of view (wide vista); long-focal-length (telephoto) lenses have a narrow angle of view (close-up). In a variable-focal-length (zoom) lens, the focal length can be changed continuously from wide-angle (zoomed out) to narrow-angle (zoomed in) and vice versa. A fixed-focal-length (or prime) lens has a single designated focal length. focus A picture is in focus when it appears sharp and clear on screen (technically, the point where the light rays refracted by the lens converge).
narrow-angle lens Gives a close-up view of an event relatively far away from the camera. Also called long-focal-length or telephoto lens. normal lens A lens or zoom lens position with a focal length that approximates the spatial relationships of normal vi sion. rack focus To change focus from one object or person closer to the camera to one farther away or vice versa. range extender An optical attachment to the zoom lens that extends its focal length. Also called extender. selective focus Emphasizing an object in a shallow depth of field through focus while keeping its foreground and/or background out of focus. servo zoom control Zoom control that activates motor-driven mechanisms. slow lens A lens that permits a relatively small amount of light to pass through at its maximum aperture (relatively high /-stop number at its lowest setting). Can be used only in well-lighted areas. wide-angle lens A short-focal-length lens that provides a broad vista of a scene. zoom lens A variable-focal-length lens. It can gradually change from a wide shot to a close-up and vice versa in one con tinuous move. zoom range The degree to which the focal length can be changed from a wide shot to a close-up during a zoom. The zoom range is often stated as a ratio; a 20:1 zoom ratio means that the zoom lens can increase its shortest focal length twenty times.
/ - s t o p The calibration on the lens indicating the aperture, or iris opening (and therefore the amount of light transmit ted through the lens). The larger the /-stop number, the smaller the aperture; the smaller the /-stop number, the larger the aperture.
69
And all may be talking a b o u t the s a m e zoom lens. This
4.1
section looks at these classifications.
STUDIO A N D FIELD LENSES As t h e n a m e i n d i c a t e s , studio
zoom
lenses are n o r m a l l y
u s e d w i t h s t u d i o c a m e r a s . Field zooms i n c l u d e large lenses m o u n t e d o n h i g h - q u a l i t y c a m e r a s t h a t are used for r e m o t e
What Lenses Are
telecasts, s u c h as s p o r t i n g events, p a r a d e s , a n d t h e like. T h e y also i n c l u d e t h e z o o m lenses a t t a c h e d to E N G / E F P c a m e r a s . T h e lenses of c o n s u m e r c a m c o r d e r s usually c o m e w i t h t h e c a m e r a a n d c a n n o t b e exchanged. S o m e h i g h - e n d p r o s u m e r m o d e l s , however, allow y o u to attach a variety of z o o m lenses. Because y o u can, of course, use a field lens in t h e s t u d i o a n d vice versa, a b e t t e r a n d m o r e a c c u r a t e way to classify t h e v a r i o u s z o o m lenses is b y their z o o m r a n g e a n d lens f o r m a t , that is, w h a t c a m e r a s they fit.
ZOOM RANGE If a z o o m lens p r o v i d e s a n overview, for e x a m p l e , of t h e w h o l e t e n n i s c o u r t a n d p a r t of t h e bleachers w h e n z o o m e d all t h e way o u t a n d ( w i t h o u t m o v i n g t h e c a m e r a closer t o t h e c o u r t ) a tight c l o s e - u p of t h e player's tense expression T h e lens d e t e r m i n e s w h a t t h e c a m e r a c a n see. O n e t y p e
w h e n z o o m e d all t h e way in, t h e lens has a g o o d z o o m
of lens can p r o v i d e a w i d e vista even t h o u g h y o u m a y b e
r a n g e . T h e zoom
relatively close to t h e scene; a n o t h e r t y p e m a y p r o v i d e a
c h a n g e t h e focal length of t h e lens ( a n d t h e r e b y t h e angle
close view of a n object t h a t is q u i t e far away. Different
of view, or vista) d u r i n g t h e z o o m .
range is t h e degree to w h i c h y o u c a n
types of lenses also d e t e r m i n e t h e basic visual p e r s p e c
T h e z o o m r a n g e of a lens is often stated as a ratio,
t i v e — w h e t h e r y o u see an object as d i s t o r t e d o r w h e t h e r
s u c h as 10:1 o r 4 0 : 1 . A 10:1 z o o m m e a n s t h a t y o u c a n
y o u perceive m o r e or less distance b e t w e e n objects t h a n
increase t h e shortest focal l e n g t h ten t i m e s ; a 4 0 : 1 , forty
t h e r e really is. T h e y also c o n t r i b u t e to a large extent to t h e
t i m e s . To m a k e t h i n g s easier, these ratios are usually listed
quality of t h e p i c t u r e a n d h o w m u c h y o u can z o o m in o r
as lOx (ten times) o r 4 0 x (forty t i m e s ) , referring to t h e
o u t o n a n object w i t h o u t m o v i n g t h e c a m e r a . This section
m a x i m u m m a g n i f i c a t i o n of t h e i m a g e of w h i c h t h e lens is
e x a m i n e s w h a t lenses c a n d o a n d h o w t o use t h e m .
capable. SEE4.1
T h e large ( s t u d i o ) c a m e r a s t h a t are p o s i t i o n e d o n ^
TYPES OF ZOOM LENSES
t o p of t h e bleachers for s p o r t s coverage m a y h a v e z o o m
Studio and field lenses, zoom range, and lens format
ranges of 4 0 x a n d even 7 0 x . In t h e s t u d i o t h e c a m e r a s are well served b y a 2 0 x z o o m lens. T h e smaller a n d lighter
OPTICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF LENSES
E N G / E F P c a m e r a lenses rarely exceed a 15x z o o m r a n g e .
Focal length, focus, light transmission (iris, aperture, and f-stop), and depth of field
Optical and digital z o o m r a n g e s OPERATIONAL CONTROLS
You m a y h a v e
n o t i c e d t h a t t h e z o o m r a n g e o n a c o n s u m e r c a m c o r d e r is
Zoom control, digital zoom lens, and focus control
r a t h e r limited; a n optical z o o m range of 15x is c o n s i d e r e d excellent even for h i g h - e n d c o n s u m e r c a m e r a s . This is w h y c o n s u m e r c a m e r a s offer t h e o p t i o n of increasing the z o o m
TYPES OF ZOOM LENSES
r a n g e digitally. D u r i n g a n optical z o o m to a t i g h t e r shot, zoom
t h e i m a g e m a g n i f i c a t i o n is achieved b y m o v i n g e l e m e n t s
lenses, you will m o s t likely hear o n e p e r s o n refer to a s t u d i o
w i t h i n t h e lens. In effect, y o u are c o n t i n u a l l y c h a n g i n g t h e
W h e n l i s t e n i n g to p r o d u c t i o n p e o p l e talk a b o u t
r a t h e r t h a n a field z o o m , a n o t h e r to a 2 0 x lens, a n d yet 2
a n o t h e r to a z o o m lens that fits a /3-inch i m a g e f o r m a t .
70
focal length d u r i n g t h e z o o m - i n or z o o m - o u t . In zooming
digital
such a c h a n g e in focal length d o e s n o t take place.
Section
4.1
What
Lenses
Are
71
4.1 MAXIMUM ZOOM POSITIONS OF A l O x LENS The 10x zoom lens can increase its focal length ten times. It magnifies a portion of the scene and seems to bring it closer to the camera and ultimately the viewer. - ,_$N
For a z o o m - i n , t h e electronics of t h e c a m e r a s i m p l y select
despite t h i s digital wizardry, t h e digital z o o m d o e s n o t
t h e center p o r t i o n of the l o n g s h o t a n d enlarge t h e c r o p p e d
achieve t h e crispness of t h e optical z o o m .
area to full-screen size. T h e p r o b l e m w i t h digital z o o m i n g
S t u d i o , field, a n d E N G / E F P lenses are all detachable
is t h a t t h e enlarged pixels noticeably r e d u c e t h e r e s o l u t i o n
from the camera. M o s t c o n s u m e r c a m c o r d e r s have a built-
of t h e i m a g e (recall t h e m o s a i c tiles in c h a p t e r 3). At o n e
in lens t h a t c a n n o t b e d e t a c h e d , SEE 4.2 A N D 4.3
p o i n t in digital z o o m i n g , t h e pixels can get so large t h a t t h e y look m o r e like a special effect t h a n a m a g n i f i c a t i o n of
Studio and large field lenses
t h e original i m a g e . H i g h e r - e n d c a m c o r d e r s , w h i c h have a
lens b e c o m e s a field lens if it is u s e d "in t h e field," t h a t is,
digital z o o m o p t i o n , t r y to restore t h e full-pixel r e s o l u t i o n
for a p r o d u c t i o n t h a t h a p p e n s o u t s i d e t h e s t u d i o . G e n
of t h e original i m a g e by a process called interpolation.
erally, however, field lenses have a m u c h greater z o o m
But
Note that a 20x studio
4.2 STUDIO ZOOM LENS High-quality studio lenses are quite heavy and often larger than the camera itself. They cannot be mounted on an ENG/EFP camera.
Mounting head *m*-^*
Panning handle with zoom control
72
Chapter
LENSES
4
o p e r a t i n g t h e c a m e r a , especially w h e n in a n a r r o w - a n g l e ( z o o m e d - i n ) p o s i t i o n . Realize, however, t h a t such stabiliz ers cause a n additional d r a i n o n t h e battery. Use this feature only if y o u d o n ' t have a t r i p o d o r are u n a b l e to stabilize t h e c a m e r a in any o t h e r way. 4 Consumer camcorder lenses
These z o o m lenses
generally have a n optical z o o m r a n g e of lOx to 18x. You m a y have n o t i c e d t h a t t h e p r o b l e m w i t h z o o m lenses o n c o n s u m e r c a m c o r d e r s is t h a t t h e m a x i m u m w i d e - a n g l e p o s i t i o n is often n o t w i d e e n o u g h , d e s p i t e t h e i r g o o d z o o m range. M o s t c a m c o r d e r s have s o m e sort of i m a g e stabilization. S o m e h i g h - e n d p r o s u m e r m o d e l s , w h i c h have a b u i l t - i n lens, let y o u attach e l e m e n t s t h a t allow a w i d e r angle or t i g h t e r close-ups.
4.3 ENG/EFP ZOOM LENS The ENG/EFP camera lens is considerably lighter and smaller than the studio zooms. Although these lenses are not as high quality as studio lenses, ENG/EFP lenses nevertheless have many of the studio zoom's features, such as servo and manual zoom controls, automatic iris control, and sometimes an autofocus feature.
Range extenders
If a z o o m lens d o e s n o t get you close
e n o u g h to a scene f r o m w h e r e t h e c a m e r a is located, y o u can use a n a d d i t i o n a l lens e l e m e n t called a range
extender,
or s i m p l y an extender. This optical e l e m e n t , usually avail able o n l y for lenses o n p r o f e s s i o n a l c a m e r a s , d o e s n o t actually e x t e n d t h e r a n g e of t h e z o o m b u t r a t h e r shifts t h e
range (from 4 0 x to 7 0 x ) t h a n s t u d i o c a m e r a s . S o m e field
m a g n i f i c a t i o n — t h e t e l e p h o t o p o w e r — o f t h e lens t o w a r d
lenses have even a greater z o o m range, allowing t h e c a m
t h e n a r r o w - a n g l e e n d of t h e z o o m r a n g e . M o s t lenses have
era o p e r a t o r to z o o m f r o m a w i d e establishing s h o t of t h e
2 x extenders, which m e a n s that they double the z o o m
football s t a d i u m to a tight c l o s e - u p of t h e q u a r t e r b a c k ' s
r a n g e in t h e n a r r o w - a n g l e p o s i t i o n , b u t t h e y also r e d u c e
face. D e s p i t e t h e great z o o m r a n g e , these lenses deliver
t h e w i d e - a n g l e lens p o s i t i o n b y t w o t i m e s . W i t h such a n
h i g h - q u a l i t y pictures even in relatively low light levels. For
extender, y o u c a n z o o m in to a closer s h o t , b u t y o u c a n n o t
s t u d i o use s u c h a z o o m r a n g e w o u l d b e u n n e c e s s a r y a n d
z o o m b a c k o u t as w i d e as y o u could w i t h o u t t h e extender.
often c o u n t e r p r o d u c t i v e .
T h e r e is a n o t h e r d i s a d v a n t a g e t o range extenders: they c u t d o w n c o n s i d e r a b l y t h e light e n t e r i n g t h e c a m e r a , w h i c h
Ejjjtiw ENG/EFP lenses EFP'
These lenses are m u c h smaller, to
can b e p r o b l e m a t i c in low-light c o n d i t i o n s .
fit the p o r t a b l e c a m e r a s . T h e i r n o r m a l z o o m r a n g e
varies b e t w e e n l l x a n d 2 0 x . A 15x z o o m lens w o u l d b e
LENS FORMAT
sufficient for m o s t E N G / E F P a s s i g n m e n t s , b u t s o m e t i m e s
Because c a m e r a lenses are designed to m a t c h the size of t h e
y o u m i g h t w a n t a closer view of a n event t h a t is relatively
C C D i m a g i n g device, y o u m a y h e a r a b o u t a lens format
far away. You w o u l d t h e n n e e d t o exchange t h e 15x z o o m
image format
lens for o n e w i t h a h i g h e r z o o m r a n g e — s u c h as 2 0 x o r
t h a t y o u c a n use o n l y a lens t h a t fits t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g
even 3 0 x . You c a n also use a range extender
(discussed
or
2
of Vi-inch, Vi-inch, o r /3-inch. This m e a n s
C C D i m a g e f o r m a t . Like film, t h e larger C C D s p r o d u c e
later in this c h a p t e r ) , w h i c h w o u l d let y o u z o o m b e y o n d
b e t t e r p i c t u r e s . T h e t e r m lens format
the n o r m a l z o o m range into a tighter shot.
w h e t h e r a l e n s is u s e d for s t a n d a r d N T S C c a m e r a s o r
A m o r e i m p o r t a n t c o n s i d e r a t i o n for E N G / E F P lenses
m a y also refer t o
H D T V cameras.
is w h e t h e r t h e y have a w i d e e n o u g h angle of view (a very s h o r t focal l e n g t h ) , w h i c h w o u l d allow y o u to s h o o t in highly c r a m p e d q u a r t e r s , s u c h as in a car, a small r o o m ,
OPTICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF LENSES
o r a n airplane. Also, t h e w i d e - a n g l e v i e w is i m p o r t a n t for
Effective use of a c a m e r a d e p e n d s to a great extent o n y o u r
s h o o t i n g in t h e wide-screen 1 6 x 9 f o r m a t .
u n d e r s t a n d i n g of f o u r o p t i c a l characteristics of lenses:
M a n y lenses have digital or m e c h a n i c a l stabilizers t h a t a b s o r b at least s o m e of the p i c t u r e wiggles resulting from
(1) focal l e n g t h ; (2) focus; ( 3 ) light t r a n s m i s s i o n — i r i s , a p e r t u r e , a n d / - s t o p ; a n d (4) d e p t h of field.
Section
4.1
What
Lenses
73
Are
4 . 4 FOCAL LENGTH Optical center of lens
Lens with focus .... set at infinity
Distant image in focus
The focal length is the dis tance from the optical center of the lens to the front sur face of the imaging device.
„ . . . , . CCD imaging device
i
FOCAL LENGTH Technically, focal length refers to t h e distance from t h e opti cal center of t h e lens to t h e p o i n t w h e r e t h e i m a g e t h e lens sees is in focus. This p o i n t is t h e camera's i m a g i n g device. SEE 4.4 Operationally, the focal length d e t e r m i n e s h o w w i d e o r n a r r o w a vista a p a r t i c u l a r c a m e r a h a s a n d h o w m u c h a n d in w h a t ways objects a p p e a r magnified. W h e n y o u z o o m all t h e way out, t h e focal length of the lens is s h o r t a n d at t h e m a x i m u m w i d e - a n g l e p o s i t i o n ; t h e c a m e r a will p r o v i d e a w i d e vista. W h e n y o u z o o m all t h e way in, t h e focal l e n g t h is l o n g a n d at t h e m a x i m u m n a r r o w - a n g l e ( t e l e p h o t o ) p o s i t i o n ; t h e c a m e r a will p r o vide a n a r r o w vista o r field of v i e w — a close-up view of t h e scene, SEE 4.5 W h e n y o u stop t h e z o o m a p p r o x i m a t e l y halfway in b e t w e e n these e x t r e m e p o s i t i o n s , t h e lens h a s t h e n o r m a l focal length. This m e a n s t h a t y o u will get a " n o r m a l " vista t h a t a p p r o x i m a t e s y o u r actually l o o k i n g at t h e scene. Because t h e z o o m lens can a s s u m e all focal lengths f r o m its m a x i m u m w i d e - a n g l e p o s i t i o n ( z o o m e d all t h e way o u t ) t o its m a x i m u m n a r r o w - a n g l e p o s i t i o n ( z o o m e d all t h e w a y i n ) , it is called a
variable-focal-length
lens. frA'i%»CAMERA-> Zoom lens^ normal | wide | narrow | try it O n t h e television screen, a z o o m - i n appears as t h o u g h t h e object is gradually c o m i n g t o w a r d y o u . A z o o m - o u t seems to m a k e t h e object m o v e away from y o u . Actually, all t h a t t h e m o v i n g e l e m e n t s w i t h i n t h e z o o m lens d o is
Wide angle
Narrow angle
g r a d u a l l y m a g n i f y ( z o o m - i n ) or r e d u c e t h e m a g n i f i c a t i o n ( z o o m - o u t ) of t h e object while k e e p i n g it in focus, but the camera remains stationary during both opera t i o n s . SEE 4.6
Minimum object distance and macro position You will find that t h e r e is often a limit to h o w close y o u can m o v e a c a m e r a ( a n d lens) to t h e object to be p h o t o g r a p h e d a n d still k e e p t h e p i c t u r e i n f o c u s . T h i s is e s p e c i a l l y
4 . 5 WIDE-ANGLE AND NARROW-ANGLE ZOOM POSITIONS A The wide-angle zoom position (zoomed out) has a wider vista (field of view) than B , the narrow-angle zoom position (zoomed in). Note that zooming in magnifies the subject.
Chapter
74
LENSES
4
4.6 ELEMENTS OF A ZOOM LENS A zoom lens consists of many sliding and stationary lens elements that interact to maintain focus throughout the continuous change of fo cal length. The front elements control the focus; the middle elements control the zoom.
Variator lens
Variator lens
Relay lens
Focusing lens
Beam-splitting prism
p r o b l e m a t i c w h e n t r y i n g to get a c l o s e - u p of a very small
a variable-focal-length lens to a
object. Even w h e n z o o m e d in all t h e way, t h e s h o t m a y still
prime, lens. T h e fixed focal l e n g t h is n o t a big disadvantage
fixed-focal-length,
or
look t o o w i d e . M o v i n g t h e c a m e r a closer to t h e object will
because t h e m a c r o p o s i t i o n is used only in highly specific
m a k e t h e shot tighter, b u t y o u can n o longer get t h e picture
c i r c u m s t a n c e s . For e x a m p l e , if y o u n e e d to get a screen-
in focus. Range extenders help little, b u t while t h e y provide
filling c l o s e - u p of a p o s t a g e s t a m p , y o u w o u l d switch t h e
y o u w i t h a tighter c l o s e - u p of t h e object, t h e y force y o u
c a m e r a to t h e m a c r o p o s i t i o n , b u t t h e n y o u c a n n o t use t h e
to back off w i t h t h e c a m e r a to get t h e s h o t in focus. O n e
c a m e r a for z o o m i n g u n t i l y o u switch b a c k to t h e n o r m a l
way t o solve this p r o b l e m is to z o o m all t h e way o u t to a
zoom mechanism.
wide-angle position. C o n t r a r y to n o r m a l expectations, the wide-angle z o o m position often allows y o u to get a tighter close-up of a small
FOCUS A p i c t u r e is " i n focus" w h e n t h e projected i m a g e is s h a r p
object t h a n does t h e extended n a r r o w - a n g l e z o o m position
a n d clear. T h e focus
( z o o m e d all t h e way in w i t h a 2 x e x t e n d e r ) . But even w i t h
lens t o t h e film (as in a still or m o v i e c a m e r a ) or from t h e
d e p e n d s o n t h e d i s t a n c e from t h e
t h e lens in the w i d e - a n g l e p o s i t i o n , t h e r e is usually a p o i n t
lens t o t h e camera's i m a g i n g device ( b e a m splitter w i t h
at w h i c h t h e c a m e r a will n o l o n g e r focus w h e n m o v e d
C C D s ) . Simply adjusting t h e distance f r o m t h e lens to t h e
t o o close to t h e object. T h e p o i n t w h e r e t h e c a m e r a is as
film o r i m a g i n g device b r i n g s a p i c t u r e i n t o focus or takes
close as it can get a n d still focus o n t h e object is called t h e
it o u t of focus. In television z o o m lenses, this a d j u s t m e n t
minimum
is a c c o m p l i s h e d n o t b y m o v i n g t h e l e n s o r t h e p r i s m
object distance
(MOD)
of t h e lens.
A l t h o u g h there are z o o m lenses t h a t allow y o u , w i t h
b l o c k ( b e a m splitter) b u t by m o v i n g certain lens e l e m e n t s
o u t extenders, to get e x t r e m e l y close t o t h e object while
relative to each o t h e r t h r o u g h t h e z o o m focus c o n t r o l (see
still m a i n t a i n i n g focus over t h e entire z o o m r a n g e , m o s t
figure
4.6).
z o o m lenses have a m i n i m u m object distance of 2 to 3 feet.
Focus c o n t r o l s c o m e in v a r i o u s c o n f i g u r a t i o n s . Por
H i g h - r a t i o z o o m lenses, s u c h as 4 0 x or 5 0 x , have a m u c h
table c a m e r a s have a focus r i n g o n t h e lens t h a t y o u t u r n ;
greater M O D t h a n d o lenses w i t h a w i d e - a n g l e starting
s t u d i o c a m e r a s have a twist g r i p a t t a c h e d to t h e p a n n i n g
p o s i t i o n a n d a relatively low z o o m ratio (such as l O x ) .
h a n d l e (see figure 4.18). M o s t c o n s u m e r c a m c o r d e r s have
This m e a n s t h a t y o u c a n p r o b a b l y get closer to a n object
a n a u t o m a t i c focus feature, called auto-focus,
w i t h a w i d e - a n g l e field lens t h a t can magnify t h e object
discussed in t h e c o n t e x t of o p e r a t i o n a l c o n t r o l s later in
only ten or twelve t i m e s t h a n w i t h a large field lens t h a t
this section.
starts with a n a r r o w e r angle b u t can magnify the scene fifty or m o r e t i m e s .
w h i c h is
If p r o p e r l y preset, a z o o m lens keeps in focus d u r i n g t h e entire z o o m r a n g e , a s s u m i n g t h a t n e i t h e r t h e c a m e r a
field
n o r t h e object moves very m u c h t o w a r d or away from t h e
lenses, m a n y field lenses o n E N G / E F P c a m e r a s have a
other. But because you walk a n d even r u n while carrying a n
macro position,
E N G / E F P c a m e r a , y o u c a n n o t always prefocus t h e z o o m .
D e s p i t e t h e relative a d v a n t a g e of w i d e - a n g l e
w h i c h lets y o u m o v e t h e c a m e r a e v e n
closer to a n object w i t h o u t losing focus. W h e n t h e lens
In s u c h cases y o u w o u l d d o well by z o o m i n g all t h e way
is in t h e m a c r o p o s i t i o n , y o u c a n a l m o s t t o u c h t h e object
o u t t o a w i d e - a n g l e p o s i t i o n , considerably r e d u c i n g t h e
with t h e lens a n d still retain focus; y o u can n o longer z o o m ,
n e e d to focus. This is e x a m i n e d m o r e t h o r o u g h l y in t h e
however. T h e m a c r o p o s i t i o n changes t h e z o o m lens from
discussion o n d e p t h o f field later in this section.
Section
4.1
What
Presetting (calibrating) the zoom lens s t a n d a r d p r o c e d u r e for presetting,
o r calibrating,
Lenses
Are
75
T h e r e is a the zoom
lens so t h a t t h e c a m e r a r e m a i n s in focus t h r o u g h o u t a z o o m : Z o o m all t h e way in o n t h e target object, s u c h as a newscaster o n a n e w s set. Focus o n t h e newscaster's face (eyes or t h e b r i d g e of h e r nose) b y t u r n i n g the focus c o n trol. W h e n z o o m i n g back o u t to a l o n g shot, y o u will notice t h a t e v e r y t h i n g r e m a i n s in focus. T h e s a m e is t r u e w h e n y o u z o o m in again. You s h o u l d n o w be able to m a i n t a i n focus over t h e entire z o o m range. If y o u m o v e t h e c a m e r a , however, or if t h e object m o v e s after y o u preset t h e z o o m lens, y o u n e e d to calibrate t h e lens again. For e x a m p l e , if y o u h a d preset t h e z o o m o n t h e news a n c h o r b u t t h e n t h e director i n s t r u c t e d y o u to m o v e t h e c a m e r a a little closer a n d t o t h e left so t h a t she could m o r e easily r e a d t h e t e l e p r o m p t e r , y o u w o u l d n o t b e able to
4.7
m a i n t a i n focus w i t h o u t p r e s e t t i n g t h e z o o m again from
The iris, or lens diaphragm, consists of a series of thin metal blades that form, through partial overlapping, an aperture, or lens opening, of variable size.
t h e n e w p o s i t i o n . If, after presetting t h e z o o m , y o u were asked to z o o m in o n t h e m a p b e h i n d t h e n e w s a n c h o r , y o u
LENS IRIS
w o u l d have to adjust t h e focus w h i l e z o o m i n g p a s t t h e a n c h o r — n o t a n easy task for even a n e x p e r i e n c e d c a m e r a operator. If t h e c a m e r a m o v e s are p r e d e t e r m i n e d a n d r e p e a t e d f r o m s h o w to show, as in a daily newscast, y o u c a n use t h e preset features of t h e digital z o o m lens. T h e lens t h e n r e m e m b e r s t h e v a r i o u s z o o m positions a n d p e r f o r m s t h e m a u t o m a t i c a l l y w i t h t h e p u s h of a b u t t o n . U n l e s s y o u h a v e a n a u t o m a t i c focus c o n t r o l , y o u m u s t preset t h e z o o m o n a n E N G / E F P c a m e r a even w h e n
Maximum aperture
Minimum aperture
covering a n e w s event in t h e field. You m a y have n o t i c e d t h a t u n e d i t e d v i d e o of a disaster (such as a t o r n a d o o r fire)
4.8
often c o n t a i n s b r i e f o u t - o f - f o c u s c l o s e - u p s followed b y
A At the maximum aperture, the iris blades form a large opening, permitting a great amount of light to enter the lens. B At the minimum setting, the blades overlap to form a small hole, admitting only a small amount of light.
focusing a n d q u i c k z o o m - o u t s . W h a t t h e c a m e r a o p e r a t o r is d o i n g is calibrating the z o o m lens to stay i n focus d u r i n g subsequent zoom-ins.
LIGHT T R A N S M I S S I O N : IRIS, APERTURE, A N D /-STOP
MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM APERTURES
y o u close t h e lens all t h e w a y — t h a t is, if y o u set it to its m i n i m u m a p e r t u r e — v e r y little light is a d m i t t e d , SEE 4.8B
Like t h e p u p i l in t h e h u m a n eye, all lenses have a m e c h a
S o m e irises can b e closed entirely, w h i c h m e a n s t h a t n o
n i s m t h a t c o n t r o l s h o w m u c h light is a d m i t t e d t h r o u g h
light at all goes t h r o u g h t h e lens.
t h e m . T h i s m e c h a n i s m is called t h e iris or lens
diaphragm.
T h e iris consists of a series of t h i n m e t a l blades that f o r m
/-stop
a fairly r o u n d h o l e — t h e aperture,
goes t h r o u g h a lens, regardless of t h e lens type, is the
or lens o p e n i n g — o f
variable size, SEE 4.7 If y o u " o p e n u p " t h e lens as w i d e as it will go, or,
T h e s t a n d a r d scale that indicates h o w m u c h light f-stop.
SEE 4.9 If, for example, y o u have t w o c a m e r a s — a c a m c o r d e r w i t h a lOx z o o m lens a n d a field c a m e r a w i t h a large 5 0 x
technically, if y o u set t h e lens to its m a x i m u m a p e r t u r e ,
l e n s — a n d b o t h lenses are set at f/5.6,
it a d m i t s t h e m a x i m u m a m o u n t of light, SEE 4.8A If y o u
in b o t h c a m e r a s will receive a n identical a m o u n t of light.
close the lens s o m e w h a t , t h e m e t a l blades of t h e iris f o r m a smaller h o l e a n d less light passes t h r o u g h t h e lens. If
the i m a g i n g devices
Regardless of c a m e r a t y p e , / - s t o p s are expressed in a series of n u m b e r s , s u c h as f/1.7, f/2.8, f/4, f/5.6,
//8,
76
Chapter
LENSES
4
for instance, from f/1.7 to / / 4 (see figure 4.9). T h i s r e d u c Zoom ring
Manual zoom lever
t i o n in light t r a n s m i s s i o n is n o t a big h a n d i c a p , however, because range extenders are n o r m a l l y used o u t d o o r s , w h e r e
/-stop calibration
\
^
/
Focus ring
t h e r e is e n o u g h light. T h e m o r e serious p r o b l e m is a slight d e t e r i o r a t i o n of t h e original p i c t u r e r e s o l u t i o n . Because t h e a m o u n t of light that strikes t h e c a m e r a ' s i m a g i n g device is s o i m p o r t a n t for p i c t u r e quality, t h e c o n t i n u o u s a d j u s t m e n t o f t h e iris is a fundamental function o f video control. Studio cameras have a remote iris control, w h i c h m e a n s t h a t t h e a p e r t u r e can b e c o n t i n u o u s l y adjusted b y t h e v i d e o o p e r a t o r ( V O ) f r o m t h e c a m e r a c o n t r o l u n i t ( C C U ) . If t h e set is p r o p e r l y lighted a n d t h e c a m e r a p r o p e r l y set u p (electronically a d j u s t e d t o t h e l i g h t / d a r k e x t r e m e s o f t h e scene), all t h a t t h e V O h a s t o d o to m a i n t a i n g o o d pictures is w o r k t h e r e m o t e iris c o n t r o l — o p e n t h e iris in low-light c o n d i t i o n s a n d close it d o w n s o m e w h a t w h e n t h e r e is m o r e light t h a n n e e d e d .
4 . 9 /-STOP SETTINGS The /-stop is a calibration that indicates how large or small the aperture is.
Most c a m e r a s , especially ENG/EFP and c o n s u m e r camcorders, can be switched from the m a n u a l t o t h e a u t o - i r i s m o d e , see 4.10 T h e c a m e r a t h e n
/ / I I , a n d f/16 (see figure 4.9). T h e lower / - s t o p n u m b e r s
senses t h e light e n t e r i n g the lens a n d a u t o m a t i c a l l y adjusts
indicate a relatively large a p e r t u r e o r iris o p e n i n g (lens is
the iris for o p t i m a l c a m e r a p e r f o r m a n c e . This auto-iris fea
relatively w i d e o p e n ) . T h e higher f-stop
t u r e w o r k s well s o long as the scene does n o t have t o o m u c h
n u m b e r s indicate a
relatively small aperture (lens is closed d o w n considerably).
c o n t r a s t . T h e r e are c i r c u m s t a n c e s , however, in w h i c h y o u
A lens t h a t is set at /71.7 has a m u c h larger iris o p e n i n g
m a y w a n t t o switch t h e c a m e r a over t o m a n u a l iris c o n t r o l .
a n d therefore a d m i t s m u c h m o r e light t h a n o n e t h a t is set
For e x a m p l e , if y o u t o o k a loose c l o s e - u p s h o t of a w o m a n
at / / 1 6 . ( T h e r e a s o n w h y t h e low / - s t o p n u m b e r s indicate
w e a r i n g a w h i t e h a t in b r i g h t sunlight, t h e a u t o m a t i c iris
large iris o p e n i n g s a n d h i g h / - s t o p n u m b e r s i n d i c a t e
w o u l d adjust t o t h e b r i g h t light of t h e w h i t e h a t , n o t t o
relatively small iris o p e n i n g s , r a t h e r t h a n t h e o t h e r way
t h e d a r k e r ( s h a d o w e d ) face u n d e r t h e hat. T h e auto-iris
a r o u n d , is that t h e / - s t o p n u m b e r s actually express a ratio.
c o n t r o l w o u l d therefore give y o u a perfectly e x p o s e d h a t
In this sense / / 4 is actually fl A; t h a t is, / o n e over four.)
b u t a n u n d e r e x p o s e d face. In this case y o u w o u l d switch t o
As m e n t i o n e d , m o s t lenses p r o d u c e t h e sharpest pictures
m a n u a l iris c o n t r o l , z o o m in o n t h e face t o e l i m i n a t e m o s t
b e t w e e n f/5.6 a n d / / 8 . S o m e lenses e x t e n d t h e o p t i m a l
of t h e w h i t e hat, t h e n adjust t h e iris t o t h e light reflecting
l
off t h e face r a t h e r t h a n t h e hat. W h e n switching t o m a n u a l
focus to / / l l .
iris c o n t r o l , however, y o u will find t h a t even a fairly g o o d T h e "speed" of a lens has n o t h i n g t o d o with
E N G / E F P c a m e r a can't h a n d l e such an extreme contrast. In
h o w fast it t r a n s m i t s light, b u t w i t h h o w m u c h light it lets
this case y o u m i g h t t r y a neutral density (ND) filter, w h i c h
t h r o u g h . A lens that allows a relatively great a m o u n t of light
w o u l d lower t h e e x t r e m e b r i g h t n e s s w i t h o u t m a k i n g t h e
Lens speed
to enter is called a fast lens. Fast lenses go d o w n t o a small
d e n s e s h a d o w areas a n y darker. ( O t h e r ways t o h a n d l e ex
/ - s t o p n u m b e r (such as / / 1 . 4 ) . M o s t g o o d s t u d i o z o o m
t r e m e c o n t r a s t are explained in chapter 8.) E32S>CAMERA^>
lenses o p e n u p to / / 1 . 6 , w h i c h is fast e n o u g h to m a k e t h e
Exposure control-* aperture | / - s t o p | auto iris | try it
c a m e r a w o r k p r o p e r l y even in low-light c o n d i t i o n s . A lens t h a t t r a n s m i t s relatively little light at t h e m a x i
D E P T H OF FIELD
m u m iris a p e r t u r e is called a slow lens. A s t u d i o lens w h o s e
If y o u place objects at different distances from t h e c a m e r a ,
lowest / - s t o p is / / 2 . 8 is obviously slower t h a n a lens t h a t
s o m e will b e in focus a n d o t h e r s will b e o u t o f focus. T h e
can o p e n u p t o / / 1 . 7 . Range extenders r e n d e r t h e z o o m
area in which the objects are in focus is called depth of field.
lens inevitably slower. A 2 x e x t e n d e r c a n r e d u c e t h e lens
T h e d e p t h of field c a n b e shallow o r great, b u t it is always
speed by as m u c h as t w o " s t o p s " (higher / - s t o p n u m b e r s ) ,
greater b e h i n d t h e object t h a n in front o f it. SEE 4.11
Section
4.7
What
Lenses
Are
_ _- - In focus
77
Outof f o c u s
Outof focus
4.11 DEPTH OF FIELD The depth of field is the area within which all objects, although located at different distances from the camera, are in focus.
4.10 AUTO-IRIS SWITCH The auto-iris switch lets you change the aperture control from manual to automatic. You can quickly change back to manual simply by pressing the auto-iris switch without interrupting your shot.
If y o u have a shallow d e p t h of field a n d y o u focus o n a n object in t h e f o r e g r o u n d , t h e m i d d l e g r o u n d a n d b a c k g r o u n d objects will b e o u t of focus, SEE 4.i 2 If t h e d e p t h of field is great, all objects ( f o r e g r o u n d , m i d d l e g r o u n d , a n d b a c k g r o u n d ) will b e in focus, even t h o u g h y o u focus o n t h e m i d d l e g r o u n d object only. SEE4.13 W i t h a great d e p t h of field, there is a large "sharp z o n e " in w h i c h p e o p l e o r objects can m o v e t o w a r d o r away from t h e c a m e r a w i t h o u t going o u t of focus o r w i t h o u t a n y n e e d
4.12 SHALLOW DEPTH OF FIELD With a shallow depth of field, the area in which an object is in focus is limited.
for adjusting t h e c a m e r a focus. If t h e y m o v e in a shallow d e p t h of field, however, t h e y can quickly b e c o m e b l u r r e d unless y o u adjust t h e c a m e r a focus. A similar thing h a p p e n s w h e n y o u m o v e t h e c a m e r a . A great d e p t h of field m a k e s it relatively easy t o m o v e t h e c a m e r a t o w a r d o r away from t h e object because y o u d o n o t have t o w o r k a n y controls t o keep t h e p i c t u r e in focus. If y o u m o v e t h e c a m e r a simi larly in a shallow d e p t h of field, y o u m u s t adjust t h e focus c o n t i n u o u s l y t o k e e p t h e target object s h a r p a n d clear. Operationally, t h e d e p t h of field d e p e n d s o n t h e c o o r d i n a t i o n of t h r e e factors: (1) t h e focal l e n g t h of t h e lens, (2) t h e a p e r t u r e , a n d (3) t h e distance b e t w e e n t h e c a m e r a a n d t h e object.
4.13 GREAT DEPTH OF FIELD Focal length
T h e focal length of t h e lens is t h e factor
t h a t m o s t influences t h e d e p t h of field. In general, w i d e angle lenses a n d , of course, wide-angle (short-focal-length) z o o m p o s i t i o n s ( z o o m e d o u t ) have a great d e p t h of field. N a r r o w - a n g l e lenses a n d n a r r o w - a n g l e (long-focal-length)
With a great depth of field, almost everything in the camera's field of view appears in focus.
78
Chapter
LENSES
4
4.14 DEPTH-OF-FIELD FACTORS DEPTH
mm I
APERTURE
Short
Small
m
OF F I E L D Great
LIGH r
SUBJECT/CAMERA
/-STOP
LEVE L
DISTANCE
Large /-stop
High
Far
number (//22) (bright light)
(wide-angle) Shallow
Near
Small /-stop
Large
number (//1.4)
Long
Low
(dim light)
(narrow-angle) This chart was prepared by Michael Hopkinson of Lane Community College.
z o o m p o s i t i o n s ( z o o m e d in) have a shallow d e p t h of field.
Camera-to-object distance
You m a y w a n t t o r e m e m b e r a s i m p l e r u l e of t h u m b :
t o t h e object, t h e shallower t h e d e p t h of field. T h e farther
T h e closer t h e c a m e r a is
t h e c a m e r a is from t h e object, t h e greater t h e d e p t h of field. Depth
of field increases as focal length
decreases.
C a m e r a - t o - o b j e c t distance also influences t h e focal-length
E N Q ^ W h e n r u n n i n g after a f a s t - m o v i n g n e w s e v e n t ,
effect o n d e p t h of field. For e x a m p l e , if y o u have a w i d e -
EFP
angle lens ( z o o m lens i n a w i d e - a n g l e p o s i t i o n ) , t h e d e p t h
s h o u l d y o u z o o m all t h e w a y in o r all t h e w a y out?
All the way out. Why? Because, first, t h e w i d e - a n g l e p o s i
of field is great. But as s o o n as y o u m o v e t h e c a m e r a close
t i o n of t h e z o o m lens will at least s h o w t h e viewer w h a t is
to t h e object, t h e d e p t h of field b e c o m e s shallow. T h e s a m e
going o n . Second, a n d m o s t i m p o r t a n t , t h e resulting great
is t r u e in reverse: If y o u w o r k w i t h t h e z o o m lens in a n a r
d e p t h of field will help keep m o s t of y o u r shots i n focus,
r o w - a n g l e p o s i t i o n ( z o o m e d i n ) , y o u have a shallow d e p t h
regardless of w h e t h e r y o u are close t o o r far away from t h e
of field. But if t h e c a m e r a is focused o n a n object relatively
event o r w h e t h e r y o u o r t h e event is o n t h e m o v e .
far away from t h e c a m e r a (such as a field c a m e r a located h i g h i n t h e s t a n d s t o cover a n a u t o m o b i l e race), y o u w o r k
Large iris o p e n i n g s cause a shallow d e p t h of
in a fairly great d e p t h of field a n d d o n o t have t o w o r r y
field; small iris o p e n i n g s cause a large d e p t h of field. T h e
t o o m u c h a b o u t adjusting focus, unless y o u z o o m in t o a n
rule of t h u m b for a p e r t u r e s is this:
e x t r e m e close-up. SEE4.i4<
Aperture
Large f-stop contribute numbers shallow
numbers
(such as f 116 or f 122)
to a great depth of field; small (such as f 11.7 or f 12) contribute
f-stop to a
depth of field.
Generally,
the depth of field is shallow
work with close-ups
and low-light
when
you
conditions.
depth of field is great when you work with long
The shots
and high light levels. M ' i * » C A M E R A - > Focusing^ focus ring | depth of field | great depth | shallow | rack focus | auto
H e r e is a n e x a m p l e of h o w everything in television
focus | try it
p r o d u c t i o n s e e m s t o influence e v e r y t h i n g else: If y o u have to w o r k in low-light c o n d i t i o n s , y o u n e e d t o o p e n u p t h e iris a n d t h e r e b y increase its a p e r t u r e t o get e n o u g h light for t h e c a m e r a . But this large a p e r t u r e (low / - s t o p n u m
OPERATIONAL CONTROLS
ber) reduces t h e d e p t h of field. T h u s , if y o u are t o cover a
You n e e d t w o basic c o n t r o l s t o o p e r a t e a z o o m lens: t h e
news s t o r y w h e n it is getting d a r k a n d y o u have n o t i m e
zoom control, w h i c h lets y o u z o o m o u t t o a w i d e s h o t o r
or o p p o r t u n i t y t o use artificial l i g h t i n g , focus b e c o m e s
z o o m in t o a close-up, a n d t h e focus control, w h i c h slides
critical—you are w o r k i n g in a shallow d e p t h of field. This
t h e lens e l e m e n t s t h a t lie close t o t h e front of t h e z o o m
p r o b l e m is c o m p o u n d e d w h e n z o o m i n g in t o tight close-
lens b a c k a n d forth u n t i l t h e i m a g e o r a specific p a r t of t h e
ups. O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , in b r i g h t s u n l i g h t y o u c a n stop
i m a g e is s h a r p . Both c o n t r o l s c a n b e o p e r a t e d m a n u a l l y o r
d o w n (decrease t h e a p e r t u r e ) a n d t h e r e b y achieve a large
t h r o u g h a m o t o r - d r i v e n servo c o n t r o l m e c h a n i s m .
d e p t h of field. N o w y o u can r u n w i t h t h e c a m e r a o r cover p e o p l e w h o are m o v i n g t o w a r d o r away from y o u w i t h o u t
ZOOM CONTROL
t o o m u c h w o r r y a b o u t staying in f o c u s — p r o v i d e d t h e
M o s t z o o m lenses of professional c a m e r a s are e q u i p p e d
z o o m lens is in a w i d e - a n g l e p o s i t i o n .
w i t h a servo m e c h a n i s m w h o s e m o t o r activates t h e z o o m ,
Section
4.1
What
Lenses
Are
7 9
Servo zoom control
4 . 1 5 SERVO ZOOM CONTROL FOR STUDIO CAMERA
4 . 1 6 SERVO ZOOM CONTROL FOR ENG/EFP CAMERA
This zoom control is attached to the camera panning handle. By moving the rocker switch with your thumb to the right or left, you zoom in or out, respectively. The farther you move the lever from the central position, the faster the zoom will be.
For ENG/EFP cameras and camcorders, the servo zoom control is part of the lens assembly.
b u t they also have a m e c h a n i c a l z o o m c o n t r o l t h a t can
z o o m o u t press t h e W s i d e . T h e servo c o n t r o l h o u s i n g has a s t r a p a t t a c h e d , w h i c h lets y o u s u p p o r t t h e s h o u l d e r -
o v e r r i d e t h e servo z o o m at a n y t i m e .
m o u n t e d or h a n d h e l d c a m c o r d e r while operating t h e Servo zoom c o r
All types of professional c a m e r a s
(studio a n d E N G / E F P ) have a servo zoom controlfor
their
z o o m c o n t r o l . This w a y y o u r left h a n d is free to o p e r a t e t h e m a n u a l focus c o n t r o l , SEE 4 . 1 6
lenses, usually called servo zooms. T h e servo z o o m c o n t r o l for studio c a m e r a s is usually m o u n t e d o n t h e right p a n n i n g
Manual zoom control
h a n d l e , a n d y o u z o o m in a n d o u t b y m o v i n g t h e t h u m b
extremely fast z o o m - i n s t o get fast close-ups o r t o calibrate
lever, similar to a rocker switch. W h e n pressing t h e right
the z o o m lens as quickly as possible. Even fast servo settings
side of t h e lever, y o u z o o m in; w h e n pressing t h e left side,
are usually t o o slow for s u c h m a n e u v e r s . E N G / E F P lenses
E N G a n d E F P often r e q u i r e
y o u z o o m o u t . T h e farther y o u m o v e t h e lever from t h e
( i n c l u d i n g t h e lenses o n p r o s u m e r c a m c o r d e r s ) therefore
central position, t h e faster t h e z o o m will be. W i t h t h e servo
have a n a d d i t i o n a l manual zoom control. T h e m a n u a l z o o m
system, t h e z o o m speed is a u t o m a t i c a l l y r e d u c e d as t h e
is activated b y a r i n g o n t h e lens barrel, SEE 4 . 1 7 By m o v i n g
z o o m a p p r o a c h e s either of t h e e x t r e m e z o o m p o s i t i o n s . , Manual zoom control
T h i s r e d u c t i o n p r e v e n t s jerks a n d a b r u p t stops at t h e e n d s of t h e z o o m r a n g e , SEE 4.1 s T h e a u t o m a t i o n lets y o u execute extremely s m o o t h z o o m s . M o s t servo m e c h a n i s m s for s t u d i o c a m e r a s offer a choice of at least t w o z o o m speeds: n o r m a l a n d fast. T h e fast z o o m setting is used w h e n fast z o o m - i n s are r e q u i r e d for e m p h a s i s . F o r e x a m p l e , t h e d i r e c t o r m a y call for a very fast z o o m - i n o n a r i n g i n g t e l e p h o n e o r a contestant's face. N o r m a l z o o m speeds are s i m p l y n o t fast e n o u g h t o h i g h l i g h t s u c h events.
Macro position
E N G ' v T h e servo z o o m c o n t r o l for E N G / E F P a n d p r o s u m e r EFP
c a m e r a s is directly attached t o t h e lens; for c o n s u m e r
c a m c o r d e r s it is built i n t o t h e c a m e r a h o u s i n g . T h e rocker
x
Manual focus control
switch (similar t o t h e t h u m b lever of s t u d i o c a m e r a s ) is m o u n t e d o n t o p of t h e b o x t h a t s u r r o u n d s t h e lens. It is usually m a r k e d w i t h a W (for w i d e ) a n d a T (for tight o r t e l e p h o t o ) . To z o o m i n press t h e T s i d e of t h e switch; t o
4.17
MANUAL ZOOM RING ON LENS
The ring behind the focus control on ENG/EFP and prosumer camera lenses activates a manual zoom control.
Chapter
80
LENSES
4
the r i n g clockwise (to z o o m in) or counterclockwise (to z o o m o u t ) , y o u can achieve e x t r e m e l y fast z o o m s n o t possible with t h e servo c o n t r o l . S o m e z o o m rings have a small lever a t t a c h e d to facilitate m e c h a n i c a l z o o m i n g (see figure 4.9). In a d d i t i o n to news coverage, this m a n u a l z o o m o p t i o n is especially i m p o r t a n t for s p o r t s , w h e r e getting quick close-ups is t h e r u l e r a t h e r t h e exception. < Digital zooming
In digital zooming,
t h e magnification
of t h e i m a g e is achieved n o t t h r o u g h optical m e a n s b u t b y enlarging t h e i m a g e electronically. T h e g r a d u a l increase of i m a g e size in a digital z o o m is similar to t h e g r a d u a l increase of the p i c t u r e t h r o u g h t h e optical magnification of a n o r m a l z o o m . As m e n t i o n e d earlier, t h e p r o b l e m with digital z o o m i n g is t h a t t h e enlarged pixels noticeably
4.18
reduce t h e resolution of the i m a g e a n d eventually s h o w u p
The twist grip of the servo focus control for a studio zoom lens turns clockwise and counterclockwise for focusing.
as m o s a i c tiles. Professional c a m e r a s , w h i c h have a digital
SERVO FOCUS CONTROL FOR STUDIO CAMERA
z o o m o p t i o n , a d d pixels d u r i n g t h e z o o m to avoid such negative pixalization of a n i m a g e . If y o u have a choice, however, use t h e optical r a t h e r t h a n t h e digital z o o m . T h e
ENGjv E N G / E F P
optical z o o m s i m p l y looks better.
EFP^
c a m e r a s a n d all c a m c o r d e r s have a focus
r i n g n e a r t h e front of t h e z o o m lens (see figure 4.9).
You focus t h e lens by t u r n i n g t h e focus r i n g clockwise or
DIGITAL ZOOM LENS
c o u n t e r c l o c k w i s e u n t i l t h e viewfinder s h o w s t h e i m a g e
T h e digital zoom lens h a s digital c o n t r o l s t h a t allow y o u to
s h a r p l y a n d clearly. You will n o t i c e w h e n focusing this
preset certain z o o m p o s i t i o n s a n d t h e n trigger t h e o p e r a
way t h a t t h e front e n d of t h e lens, i n c l u d i n g its lens shade,
t i o n w i t h the p u s h of a b u t t o n . This preset device, w h i c h
rotates. This r o t a t i o n is n o t p r o b l e m a t i c unless y o u w a n t
also r e m e m b e r s focus calibration, is highly accurate, p r o
to a t t a c h a special-effects filter, such as a star filter t h a t
vided t h e c a m e r a a n d t h e subject are in exactly t h e s a m e
t r a n s f o r m s light sources into starlike light b e a m s . W h e n fo
p o s i t i o n s as d u r i n g s e t u p . It is m o s t practical w h e n using
cusing with t h e filter attached, t h e effect will rotate with t h e
robotic cameras (cameras w h o s e m o v e m e n t s are controlled
lens a n d m a y e n d u p sideways w h e n you have the picture in
by c o m p u t e r a n d n o t by a n o p e r a t o r ) , such as d u r i n g studio
focus. Internal,
newscasts. D o n o t confuse the digital z o o m lens w i t h digital
front e n d w h e n t u r n i n g t h e focus ring. You can therefore
z o o m i n g : a digital z o o m lens facilitates various preset z o o m
focus I-F lenses w i t h o u t u p s e t t i n g t h e filter effect. 4
or inner, focus (I-F) lenses d o n o t r o t a t e the
positions; digital z o o m i n g enlarges t h e pixels. S o m e lenses used for r o b o t i c c a m e r a s can also stay in focus b y analyz
T h e servo focus control lets you preset the
ing t h e camera's video signal. Obviously, such t e c h n o l o g y
lens so t h a t it keeps focus d u r i n g carefully r e h e a r s e d c a m
is helpful only w h e n a specific sequence of shots is preset.
era a n d / o r subject m o v e m e n t s . Because even t h e s m a r t e s t servo focus c o n t r o l will n o t h e l p y o u stay in focus if t h e
FOCUS CONTROL
c a m e r a or subject m o v e m e n t s have n o t b e e n carefully re
T h e focus control activates the focus m e c h a n i s m in a z o o m
hearsed, m o s t c a m e r a o p e r a t o r s prefer t o use t h e m a n u a l
lens. For s t u d i o c a m e r a s t h e focus c o n t r o l o r d i n a r i l y c o n
focus c o n t r o l s .
sists of a twist g r i p similar to a m o t o r c y c l e t h r o t t l e , usually m o u n t e d o n t h e left p a n n i n g h a n d l e . Two or t h r e e t u r n s
T h e p r o b l e m w i t h auto-focus
is t h a t t h e
are sufficient t o achieve focus over t h e full z o o m range.
c a m e r a d o e s n o t k n o w exactly o n w h i c h object in t h e
As w i t h the servo z o o m control, t h e focus o p e r a t i o n s are
frame to focus. It usually settles for the object t h a t is m o r e
transferred by t h e drive cable from t h e p a n n i n g - h a n d l e
o r less in the center of t h e frame a n d closest to t h e c a m e r a .
c o n t r o l t o t h e lens, b u t t h e l e n s executes t h e f o c u s i n g
If y o u w a n t t o focus o n p a r t of t h e scene that is farther in
electronically, SEE 4.18
t h e b a c k g r o u n d a n d off to o n e side, t h e a u t o - f o c u s will
Section
4.1
n o t comply. Also, if y o u d o a fast z o o m w i t h a c o n s u m e r
What
A wide-angle lens (zoomed out) gives a wide vista. A narrow-angle lens (zoomed in) gives a narrow vista but magnifies the object so that it appears closer to the camera than it actually is. A normal lens (zoom position toward the midrange of the zoom) approximates the angle of human vision.
•
A picture is in focus when the projected image is sharp and clear. The lens needs to be preset (calibrated) so that focus is maintained over the zoom range. If the lens is properly focused when zoomed in, it should remain in focus when zoomed out and in again.
•
The lens iris, or diaphragm, controls the amount of light passing through the lens. It consists of a series of thin metal plates that form a hole known as the aperture, or lens opening.
•
The /-stop is a standard scale indicating how much light passes through the lens. Low /-stop numbers indicate large apertures; high /-stop numbers indicate small apertures.
•
Studio cameras have a remote iris control, which is oper ated by the VO (video operator) from the CCU (camera control unit). ENG/EFP cameras and consumer camcorders can be switched from manual to auto-iris control, whereby the lens adjusts itself for optimal exposure (amount of light reaching the imaging device).
•
The area in which objects at different distances from the camera are seen in focus is called depth of field. The depth of field depends on the focal length of the lens, the aper ture (/-stop), and the distance from camera to object.
•
The two basic operational controls for the zoom lens are the zoom control and the focus control. On ENG/EFP cam eras and camcorders, both can be operated either manually or automatically by servo control.
•
A digital zoom lens can be programmed to repeat zoom positions and their corresponding focus settings.
•
Digital zooming refers to the gradual enlarging of the center portion of the image. It usually extends the optical zoom.
•
Auto-focus is an automated feature whereby the camera fo cuses on what it senses to be the target area. HDTV lenses have a focus-assist feature whereby the camera operator selects the target area.
keep u p ; t h e p i c t u r e will p o p in a n d o u t of focus d u r i n g t h e z o o m . T h a t is w h y m a n u a l focus devices are often preferred in critical c a m e r a w o r k .
is n o t always easy b e c a u s e t h e h i g h r e s o l u t i o n can fool y o u i n t o believing t h a t t h e p i c t u r e is in focus. To h e l p H D T V c a m e r a o p e r a t o r s focus a n d stay in focus, s o m e lenses have a b u i l t - i n focus-assist feature. T h e c a m e r a o p e r a t o r c a n use a roller ball (similar t o t h a t of a c o m p u t e r m o u s e ) to select t h e p i c t u r e area t h a t n e e d s to b e in s h a r p focus, a n d t h e focus system in the lens will d o t h e rest. Obviously, this feature is n o t d e s i g n e d for t h e live H D T V coverage of s p o r t i n g events.
•
There are various ways to classify zoom lenses: as studio and field lenses and according to zoom range and lens format.
•
A range extender (an additional lens element) extends the telephoto power of the zoom lens (permits a closer shot) but reduces the range at the wide-angle end.
•
The primary function of the lens is to produce a small, sharp optical image on the front surface of the camera's imaging device.
•
All television cameras are equipped with zoom (variablefocal-length) lenses.
•
The major optical characteristics of lenses are focal length, focus, light transmission (iris, aperture, and /-stop), and depth of field.
•
The focal length of a lens determines how wide or narrow a vista the camera can show and how much and how close or far away the object seems to be from the camera (viewer). Zoom lenses have a variable focal length, whose major positions are wide-angle, normal, and narrow-angle (telephoto).
Are
•
c a m e r a , t h e a u t o m a t i c focus m a y n o t always b e able to
As m e n t i o n e d previously, focusing a n H D T V i m a g e
Lenses
Now let's adjust a z o o m lens to correspond to t h e wide-
4.2 What Lenses See
angle, n o r m a l , a n d n a r r o w - a n g l e focal lengths a n d observe their p e r f o r m a n c e characteristics. These include (1) field of view, (2) object a n d distance d i s t o r t i o n , (3) m o v e m e n t , a n d (4) d e p t h of field.
WIDE-ANGLE LENS As y o u recall, y o u n e e d to z o o m all t h e way o u t t o achieve t h e m a x i m u m s h o r t focal l e n g t h , o r w i d e angle, of t h e z o o m lens.
T h e p e r f o r m a n c e characteristics of a lens refer t o its vista, w h a t it can a n d c a n n o t d o , a n d h o w it generally behaves in c o m m o n p r o d u c t i o n practice. Because t h e c a m e r a n o r mally processes only visual i n f o r m a t i o n t h a t t h e lens can see, knowledge of t h e p e r f o r m a n c e characteristics—how it sees t h e w o r l d a n d h o w it influences t h e aesthetic elements of a p i c t u r e — w i l l aid y o u greatly in c o m p o s i n g effective shots a n d in m a n y o t h e r p r o d u c t i o n tasks. This section explores these concepts.
P
HOW LENSES SEE THE WORLD Field of view, distortion of objects and perceived distance, movement, and depth of field of wide-angle, normal, and narrow-angle lenses
HOW LENSES SEE THE WORLD A l t h o u g h all television c a m e r a s use z o o m lenses, it m i g h t be easier for y o u to learn h o w v a r i o u s z o o m p o s i t i o n s in fluence w h a t y o u see in t h e viewfinder b y describing three z o o m p o s i t i o n s as t h o u g h t h e y were fixed-focal-length lenses. Fixed-focal-length lenses (also called p r i m e lenses) have a specific focal length t h a t c a n n o t be changed. T h e y are n o r m a l l y classified as (1) w i d e - a n g l e , or short-focallength, lenses; (2) n o r m a l , or m e d i u m - f o c a l - l e n g t h , lenses; a n d (3) n a r r o w - a n g l e , o r long-focal-length, lenses, also called t e l e p h o t o lenses. 1
1.
82
When HDTV cameras are used for electronic filmmaking, the director of photography sometimes uses prime lenses instead of zoom lenses to ensure maximum picture resolution.
F i e l d o f v i e w T h e wide-angle lens affords a w i d e vista. You can have a relatively w i d e field of view—the portion of a scene visible t h r o u g h t h e l e n s — w i t h t h e c a m e r a rather close t o t h e scene. W h e n y o u n e e d a w i d e vista (long shot) or, for e x a m p l e , w h e n y o u n e e d to see all five p e o p l e o n a panel a n d t h e s t u d i o is relatively small, a w i d e - a n g l e lens (wide-angle z o o m position) is m a n d a t o r y . T h e wide-angle lens is also well suited t o p r o v i d e pictures that fit t h e h o r i zontally stretched 1 6 x 9 H D T V aspect ratio. O b j e c t a n d d i s t a n c e d i s t o r t i o n A w i d e - a n g l e lens m a k e s objects relatively close to t h e c a m e r a l o o k large a n d objects only a s h o r t distance away l o o k quite small. This distortion—large foreground objects, small m i d d l e g r o u n d , a n d even smaller b a c k g r o u n d objects—helps increase t h e illusion of d e p t h . T h e w i d e - a n g l e lens also influences o u r p e r c e p t i o n of perspective. Because parallel lines s e e m to converge faster w i t h this lens t h a n you o r d i n a r i l y perceive, it gives a forced perspective t h a t aids t h e illusion of exag gerated distance a n d d e p t h . W i t h a w i d e - a n g l e lens, y o u can m a k e a small r o o m a p p e a r spacious o r a hallway seem m u c h longer t h a n it really is. SEE4.19-4.23 Such d i s t o r t i o n s can also w o r k against y o u . If y o u take a close-up of a face w i t h a w i d e - a n g l e lens, t h e nose, o r whatever is closest t o t h e lens, will l o o k u n u s u a l l y large c o m p a r e d with t h e o t h e r parts of t h e face. Such distortions are often used purposely, however, for e m p h a s i z i n g stress o r psychological c o n d i t i o n s o r for stylistic special effects, SEE 4.24
Movement T h e wide-angle lens is also a good dolly lens. Its w i d e field of view d e - e m p h a s i z e s c a m e r a wobbles a n d b u m p s d u r i n g dollies, t r u c k s , a n d arcs (see c h a p t e r 5); b u t because t h e z o o m lens m a k e s it so easy to m o v e from a long shot t o a close-up a n d vice versa, dollying with a z o o m lens has a l m o s t b e c o m e a lost art. M o s t of t h e t i m e , a z o o m will be perfectly acceptable as a m e a n s of c h a n g i n g t h e field of view ( m o v i n g to a w i d e r or closer s h o t ) . You s h o u l d be aware, however, t h a t
Section
4.19
What
4.2
WIDE-ANGLE LONG SHOT
4.20
Lenses
See
83
WIDE-ANGLE DISTORTION: TRUCK
The wide-angle lens (zoom position) gives you a wide vista. Although the camera is relatively close to the news set, we can see the whole set.
The wide-angle lens intensifies the raw power of this truck. Note that the apparent size of the front grill is greatly exagger ated through the wide-angle lens.
4 . 2 1 WIDE-ANGLE DISTORTION: EMPHASIS ON FOREGROUND OBJECT
4.22
Shot with a wide-angle lens, the telephone and the right hand appear unusually large.
4.23 The
WIDE-ANGLE DISTORTION: LINEAR PERSPECTIVE
length of this hallway is greatly exaggerated.
WIDE-ANGLE DISTORTION: DEPTH ARTICULATION
Shooting through a permanent foreground piece with the wide-angle lens creates a spatially articulated, forceful picture.
4.24
WIDE-ANGLE DISTORTION: FACE
This face is greatly distorted because the shot was taken with a wide-angle lens at a close distance.
84
Chapter
4
LENSES
there is a significant aesthetic difference between a zoom a n d a dolly. W h e r e a s t h e zoom seems t o b r i n g t h e scene t o t h e viewer, a dolly seems to take t h e viewer into t h e scene. Because t h e c a m e r a d o e s n o t m o v e d u r i n g t h e z o o m , t h e spatial relationship a m o n g objects r e m a i n s c o n s t a n t . T h e objects a p p e a r t o be glued i n t o p o s i t i o n — t h e y s i m p l y get bigger ( z o o m - i n ) o r smaller ( z o o m - o u t ) . In a dolly, h o w ever, t h e relationships a m o n g objects c h a n g e constantly. 2
You s e e m t o m o v e past t h e m w h e n dollying in or o u t . Be sure t o recalibrate t h e z o o m w h e n y o u reach t h e e n d of the dolly so y o u c a n z o o m i n a n d o u t from t h e n e w p o s i t i o n w i t h o u t losing focus. frA i*»CAMERA-> Camera moves^ dolly T
4.25 NORMAL LENS FIELD OF VIEW AND PERSPECTIVE
zoom | try it W h e n p e o p l e o r objects m o v e t o w a r d o r away from
The normal lens gives a field of view that approximates normal vision.
t h e c a m e r a , t h e i r speed appears greatly accelerated b y t h e w i d e - a n g l e lens. T h e w i d e - a n g l e z o o m p o s i t i o n is often
seem larger t h a n t h e y actually are, t h e n o r m a l lens o r t h e
used t o accelerate t h e speed of a car o r a d a n c e r m o v i n g
m i d r a n g e z o o m p o s i t i o n s m a k e objects a n d their spatial
t o w a r d o r away from t h e c a m e r a .
relationships a p p e a r m o r e like o u r n o r m a l vision, SEE
4.25
ENGiK W h e n covering a news event t h a t exhibits a great E F P ^ d e a l of m o v e m e n t o r t h a t r e q u i r e s y o u t o m o v e
sitioned o n an easel, y o u s h o u l d p u t t h e z o o m lens in t h e
rapidly, y o u s h o u l d p u t t h e z o o m lens in its e x t r e m e w i d e -
m i d r a n g e position. These are t h e m a i n advantages: (1) You
angle p o s i t i o n . As y o u recall, t h e w i d e - a n g l e p o s i t i o n will
can quickly correct t h e f r a m i n g o n t h e card b y z o o m i n g
W h e n s h o o t i n g g r a p h i c s s u c h as c h a r t s t h a t are p o
reduce c a m e r a w o b b l e s t o a great extent a n d m a k e it m u c h
in o r o u t slightly o r b y dollying in o r o u t w i t h o u t u n d u e
easier t o keep t h e event in t h e viewfinder. Also, t h e great
focus change. (2) You are far e n o u g h away from t h e easel t o
d e p t h o f field helps y o u t o keep t h e pictures in focus. T h e
avoid c a m e r a s h a d o w s yet close e n o u g h so t h a t t h e d a n g e r
disadvantage of t h e e x t r e m e w i d e - a n g l e p o s i t i o n is t h a t
of s o m e o n e ' s walking i n front o f t h e c a m e r a is m i n i m a l .
y o u n e e d t o m o v e t h e c a m e r a q u i t e close t o t h e a c t i o n if
(3) By placing t h e easel at a s t a n d a r d distance from t h e
y o u w a n t a closer look. <
c a m e r a , a floor p e r s o n c a n h e l p y o u frame a n d focus o n t h e card w i t h m i n i m a l t i m e a n d effort.
D e p t h of field
T h e w i d e - a n g l e lens generally has a great
d e p t h of field. W h e n z o o m e d all t h e w a y o u t , y o u s h o u l d
Movemen
have few focus p r o b l e m s , unless y o u w o r k in low-light con
t i o n s ) , y o u have a m u c h m o r e difficult t i m e k e e p i n g t h e
ditions (which requires a large a p e r t u r e ) o r are extremely
p i c t u r e in focus a n d avoiding c a m e r a w o b b l e s , even w h e n
close t o t h e object.
t h e c a m e r a is m o u n t e d o n a s t u d i o pedestal. W h e n carry
W i t h t h e n o r m a l lens ( m i d r a n g e z o o m posi
ing a n E N G / E F P c a m e r a o r c a m c o r d e r , this lens p o s i t i o n
N O R M A L LENS
makes it h a r d t o avoid c a m e r a wobbles even w h e n s t a n d i n g
T h e z o o m p o s i t i o n for a n o r m a l focal l e n g t h lies s o m e
still. If y o u m u s t have s u c h a field of view, p u t t h e c a m e r a
where in t h e m i d r a n g e of a z o o m lens, p e r h a p s a little m o r e
on a tripod.
toward the wide-angle position.
Because t h e distance a n d t h e object p r o p o r t i o n s a p p r o x i m a t e o u r n o r m a l vision, t h e dolly speed a n d t h e speed
lens offers a field of v i e w (fo
of objects m o v i n g t o w a r d o r away from t h e c a m e r a also
cal length) that a p p r o x i m a t e s that of n o r m a l vision. It gives
T h e normal
a p p e a r n o r m a l . But again, such m o v e m e n t m a y cause focus
you the perspective between foreground a n d m i d d l e g r o u n d
p r o b l e m s , especially w h e n t h e object gets fairly close t o
that y o u actually see.
the camera.
Object a n d distance distortion
Whereas the wide-
angle lens m a k e s objects seem farther a p a r t a n d r o o m s
D e p t h of field
T h e n o r m a l lens h a s a considerably shal
lower d e p t h of field t h a n t h e w i d e - a n g l e lens u n d e r similar conditions (same / - s t o p and object-to-camera distance).
2.
See Herbert Zettl, Sight Sound Motion, 4th ed. (Belmont, Calif.: Thomson Wadsworth, 2005), pp. 272-74.
You m i g h t t h i n k t h a t a very great d e p t h o f field w o u l d b e t h e m o s t desirable c o n d i t i o n in s t u d i o o p e r a t i o n s because
Section
4.2
What
Lenses
See
85
it shows e v e r y t h i n g in focus. But a m e d i u m d e p t h of field is often p r e f e r r e d in s t u d i o w o r k a n d E F P b e c a u s e t h e in-focus objects are set off against a slightly out-of-focus b a c k g r o u n d . T h e o b j e c t s are e m p h a s i z e d , a n d a b u s y b a c k g r o u n d or t h e inevitable s m u d g e s o n t h e television scenery receive less a t t e n t i o n . Most i m p o r t a n t , foreground, m i d d l e g r o u n d , a n d b a c k g r o u n d are better defined.
3
Of course, a large d e p t h of field is necessary w h e n there is considerable m o v e m e n t of c a m e r a a n d / o r subjects. Also, w h e n t w o objects are located at widely different distances from the c a m e r a , a great d e p t h of field enables y o u to keep b o t h in focus simultaneously. M o s t o u t d o o r telecasts, such as s p o r t s r e m o t e s , require a large d e p t h of field, t h e p r i n cipal objective b e i n g to h e l p t h e viewer see as m u c h a n d as
4.26
NARROW-ANGLE LENS FIELD OF VIEW AND PERSPECTIVE
The narrow-angle (telephoto) lens compresses space.
well as possible.
N A R R O W - A N G L E , OR TELEPHOTO, LENS W h e n y o u z o o m all t h e w a y in, t h e lens is in t h e m a x i m u m n a r r o w - a n g l e , long-focal-length, o r t e l e p h o t o , p o s i t i o n . T h e narrow-angle
lens n o t only reduces
t h e vista b u t also magnifies t h e b a c k g r o u n d objects. A c t u ally, w h e n y o u z o o m in, all t h e z o o m lens d o e s is magnify t h e i m a g e . You get a view as t h o u g h y o u w e r e l o o k i n g t h r o u g h b i n o c u l a r s , w h i c h , in effect, act as t e l e p h o t o lenses, SEE 4.26 Object and distance distortion
Because t h e enlarged
b a c k g r o u n d o b j e c t s l o o k b i g in c o m p a r i s o n w i t h t h e f o r e g r o u n d objects, a n illusion is created t h a t t h e distance between foreground, middleground, and background has decreased. T h e l o n g lens seems to c o m p r e s s t h e space b e
4 . 2 7 POSITIVE AESTHETIC COMPRESSION WITH NARROW-ANGLE LENS With a narrow-angle lens, the background is greatly enlarged and the distance between the cars seems reduced. The feeling of a traffic jam is heightened.
tween t h e objects, in direct c o n t r a s t to t h e effect created by t h e w i d e - a n g l e lens, w h i c h exaggerates object p r o p o r t i o n s a n d therefore seems to increase relative distance b e t w e e n objects. A n a r r o w - a n g l e lens, or t e l e p h o t o z o o m p o s i t i o n , c r o w d s objects o n - s c r e e n . T h i s c r o w d i n g effect, called aesthetic compression,
c a n be positive or negative. If y o u
w a n t to s h o w h o w c r o w d e d t h e freeways are d u r i n g r u s h
at a considerable distance from t h e action in m o s t s p o r t i n g events, t h e z o o m lenses usually o p e r a t e at their e x t r e m e t e l e p h o t o p o s i t i o n s o r w i t h powerful range extenders. T h e resulting c o m p r e s s i o n effect m a k e s it difficult for viewers to j u d g e actual distances, SEE 4.28
h o u r , for example, use t h e z o o m lens in the t e l e p h o t o posi t i o n . T h e l o n g focal l e n g t h s h r i n k s t h e perceived distance b e t w e e n t h e cars a n d m a k e s t h e m a p p e a r t o b e b u m p e r t o - b u m p e r . SEE 4.27 But such d e p t h d i s t o r t i o n s b y t h e n a r r o w - a n g l e lens also w o r k to a disadvantage. You are certainly familiar with t h e deceptive closeness of t h e p i t c h e r to h o m e plate o n t h e television screen. Because television c a m e r a s m u s t r e m a i n
Movement
T h e n a r r o w - a n g l e lens gives t h e illusion of
reduced speed of a n object m o v i n g t o w a r d or away from t h e c a m e r a . Because t h e n a r r o w - a n g l e lens c h a n g e s t h e size of a n object m o v i n g t o w a r d o r away f r o m the c a m e r a m u c h m o r e g r a d u a l l y t h a n does t h e w i d e - a n g l e lens, t h e object seems to m o v e m o r e slowly t h a n it actually does; in fact, a n e x t r e m e n a r r o w - a n g l e lens virtually eliminates s u c h m o v e m e n t . T h e object does n o t s e e m to c h a n g e size perceptibly even w h e n traveling a c o n s i d e r a b l e distance
3.
Zettl, Sight Sound Motion, pp. 165-67.
relative t o t h e c a m e r a . S u c h a s l o w d o w n is especially
86
Chapter
LENSES
4
a n d often eliminate subtle i m a g e shifts caused b y m i n o r c a m e r a shakes. E N G K W h e n y o u have to walk, o r p e r h a p s even r u n , w i t h EF
t h e p o r t a b l e c a m e r a for a n e w s s t o r y or o t h e r type of
electronic field p r o d u c t i o n , however, p u t t h e z o o m lens in t h e w i d e - a n g l e p o s i t i o n . Even w i t h the best i m a g e stabiliz ers, t h e pictures will b e r e n d e r e d useless by t h e inevitable c a m e r a w o b b l e s w h e n m o v i n g t h e c a m e r a in t h e t e l e p h o t o position. < Depth of field
Unless the object is far away from the
c a m e r a , long-focal-length lenses have a shallow d e p t h of
4.28 NEGATIVE AESTHETIC COMPRESSION WITH NARROW-ANGLE LENS This shot was taken with a zoom lens in an extreme longfocal-length position. Note how the pitcher, batter, catcher, and umpire all seem to stand only a few feet apart from one another. The actual distance between the pitcher and the batter is 6016 feet.
field. Like the c o m p r e s s i o n effect, a shallow d e p t h of field can have advantages a n d disadvantages. Let's a s s u m e t h a t y o u are a b o u t t o take a q u i c k c l o s e - u p of a m e d i u m - s i z e d object, such as a can of s o u p . You d o n o t have t o b o t h e r p u t t i n g u p a b a c k g r o u n d for it—all you n e e d to d o is m o v e the c a m e r a back a n d z o o m in o n t h e display. W i t h the z o o m lens in a t e l e p h o t o ( n a r r o w - a n g l e ) p o s i t i o n , decreasing t h e d e p t h of field to a large extent, t h e b a c k g r o u n d is suf
effective if y o u w a n t t o e m p h a s i z e t h e f r u s t r a t i o n of
ficiently
s o m e o n e r u n n i n g but not getting anywhere. Added to
This t e c h n i q u e is called selective focus, m e a n i n g y o u can
o u t of focus to p r e v e n t u n d e s i r a b l e distractions.
t h e c o m p r e s s i o n effect ( s h o w n i n figure 4.27), t h e drastic
focus either o n the foreground, w i t h the m i d d l e g r o u n d a n d
r e d u c t i o n of t h e perceived speed of traffic will certainly
t h e b a c k g r o u n d o u t of focus; o n t h e m i d d l e g r o u n d , w i t h
e m p h a s i z e the c o n g e s t i o n . rA'J*--»CAMERA-» Picture d e p t h s
t h e f o r e g r o u n d a n d the b a c k g r o u n d o u t of focus; o r o n t h e
perspective and distortion | try it
background, with the foreground and the middleground
You c a n n o t dolly w i t h a n a r r o w - a n g l e lens o r w i t h a
OUt of foCUS. SEE 4.29 AN D 4.30
z o o m lens in t h e t e l e p h o t o p o s i t i o n ( z o o m e d in); its m a g
You can also shift e m p h a s i s easily from o n e object
nifying p o w e r m a k e s a n y m o v e m e n t of t h e c a m e r a i m p o s
to a n o t h e r w i t h t h e h e l p of selective focus. For e x a m p l e ,
sible. If y o u w o r k o u t d o o r s , even w i n d c a n b e a p r o b l e m .
y o u c a n z o o m in o n a f o r e g r o u n d object, t h u s r e d u c i n g
A stiff breeze m a y shake the c a m e r a to s u c h a degree t h a t
t h e d e p t h of field, a n d focus o n it w i t h t h e z o o m lens in
t h e greatly magnified v i b r a t i o n s b e c o m e clearly visible
t h e t e l e p h o t o p o s i t i o n . T h e n , b y refocusing o n t h e p e r s o n
on-screen.
b e h i n d it, y o u can quickly shift t h e e m p h a s i s f r o m t h e
In t h e s t u d i o t h e t e l e p h o t o p o s i t i o n m a y p r e s e n t
f o r e g r o u n d object to t h e p e r s o n ( m i d d l e g r o u n d ) . This
a n o t h e r p r o b l e m . T h e director m a y have y o u z o o m in o n
t e c h n i q u e is called racking focus or, simply, rack
p a r t of an event, such as t h e lead guitarist in a r o c k per
EJD^CAMERA^
focus.
Focusing-* rack focus | try it
f o r m a n c e , a n d t h e n , after y o u have z o o m e d in, ask y o u t o
T h e a d v a n t a g e of a shallow d e p t h of field also applies
truck ( m o v e t h e c a m e r a sideways) past t h e o t h e r m e m b e r s
to u n w a n t e d f o r e g r o u n d objects. In a h i g h - s c h o o l baseball
of t h e b a n d . B u t this m o v e m e n t is extremely difficult to d o
p i c k u p , for e x a m p l e , t h e c a m e r a b e h i n d h o m e plate m a y
in t h e t e l e p h o t o p o s i t i o n . W h a t y o u can d o is z o o m o u t
have to s h o o t t h r o u g h t h e chain-link backstop. But because
before t r u c k i n g to m i n i m i z e t h e w o b b l e s .
t h e c a m e r a is m o s t likely z o o m e d in o n t h e pitcher, or o n
Image stabilize.
As y o u recall, to c o n t r o l t h e slight
t h e c a m e r a , y o u w o r k w i t h a relatively shallow d e p t h of
image jitter caused by n a r r o w - a n g l e z o o m positions,
field. C o n s e q u e n t l y , e v e r y t h i n g fairly close t o t h e c a m
s o m e p r o f e s s i o n a l c a m e r a s h a v e a n i m a g e stabilization
era, s u c h as t h e c h a i n - l i n k fence, is so o u t of focus t h a t
o t h e r players p e r f o r m i n g at a c o n s i d e r a b l e distance from
device b u i l t - i n , very m u c h like t h e o n e s in m o s t c o n s u m e r
it b e c o m e s virtually invisible. T h e s a m e p r i n c i p l e w o r k s
c a m c o r d e r s . S o m e lenses have optical stabilizers; o t h e r s
for s h o o t i n g t h r o u g h birdcages, p r i s o n b a r s , o r similar
correct the p r o b l e m electronically. Both systems r e d u c e
f o r e g r o u n d objects.
Section
4.2
What
Lenses
87
See
4.29 SELECTIVE FOCUS: FOREGROUND IN FOCUS
4.30 SELECTIVE FOCUS: BACKGROUND IN FOCUS
In this shot the camera-near person is in focus, drawing atten tion away from the two people in the background.
Here the focus and attention are shifted from the camera-near person (foreground) to the two people farther away.
•
The performance characteristics of wide-angle, normal, and narrow-angle lenses (zoom lenses adjusted to these focal lengths) include field of view, object and distance distor tion, movement, and depth of field.
•
A wide-angle lens (zoom lens in the wide-angle position) offers a wide vista. It gives a wide field of view with the camera relatively close to the scene.
•
A wide-angle lens distorts objects close to the lens and exaggerates proportions. Objects relatively close to the lens look large, and those only a short distance away look quite small. The lens makes objects seem farther apart and makes rooms look larger than they actually are.
•
A wide-angle lens is ideal for camera movement. It minimizes camera wobbles and makes it easy to keep the picture in focus during camera movement. It also exagger ates the perception of object speed toward and away from the camera.
•
•
The normal lens gives a field of view that approximates that of normal vision. The normal lens (zoom lens in the midrange position) does not distort objects or the perception of distance. It is used when a normal perspective is desired. When a camera is moved with the lens in the midrange (normal lens) zoom position, camera wobbles are empha sized considerably more than with a wide-angle lens. The shallower depth of field makes it harder to keep the picture in focus.
increases the perceived distance between objects, the narrow-angle lens seems to compress the space between objects at different distances from the camera. It slows the perception of object speed toward and away from the camera. •
The magnifying power of a narrow-angle lens prevents any camera movement while on the air. Narrow-angle lenses have a shallow depth of field, which makes keeping in focus more difficult but allows for selective focus.
I ^ j ^ X
B23>
A narrow-angle lens (zoom lens in the telephoto position) has a narrow field of view and enlarges the objects in the background. Exactly opposite of the wide-angle lens, which
CAMERA-* Zoom l e n s ^ normal | wide | narrow | try it 73
VAUW* C A M E R A S Exposure controls aperture | f-stop | auto iris | try it 76
E53I>
CAMERA-* Focusing^ focus ring | depth of field | great depth | shallow | rack focus | auto focus | try it 78
EJJJ3> M'iW
•
For your reference, or to track your work, each VideoLab program cue in this chapter is listed here with its corresponding page number.
C A M E R A S Camera rmoves^ dolly | zoom | try it 84 C A M E R A S Picture d e p t h s perspective and distortion | try it 86 C A M E R A S Focusing-* rack focus | try it
86
Camera Mounting Equipment Because television cameras differ considerably in size a n d weight, various camera mounts are n e e d e d for ease a n d efficiency of operation. For example, y o u may find that a camera m o u n t for the studio has to support not only a heavy camera w i t h its large z o o m lens but also the a d d e d w e i g h t of a bulky teleprompting device. In contrast, most E N G / E F P cameras are designed to be carried on t h e operator's shoulder. A n d , as y o u know, some camcorders are so small that y o u can hold a n d operate t h e m w i t h o n e h a n d . But there are many production situations in w h i c h the E N G / E F P camera a n d the small camcorder should be m o u n t e d on a tripod rather than carried by the operator. Section 5.1, Standard Camera M o u n t s and M o v e m e n t s , examines the basics of camera mounts; section 5.2, Special Camera Mounts, discusses other m o u n t i n g devices.
88
arc To move the camera in a slightly curved dolly or truck. cam head A camera mounting head for heavy cameras that permits extremely smooth tilts and pans. cant Tilting the shoulder-mounted or handheld camera side ways. crab Sideways motion of the camera crane dolly base. crane (1) Motion picture camera support that resembles an actual crane in both appearance and operation. The crane can lift the camera from close to the studio floor to more than 10 feet above it. (2) To move the boom of the camera crane up or down. Also called boom. dolly (1) Camera support that enables the camera to move in all horizontal directions. (2) To move the camera toward (dolly in) or away from (dolly out or back) the object. fluid head Most popular mounting head for lightweight ENG/ EFP cameras. Balance is provided by springs. Because its moving parts operate in a heavy fluid, it allows very smooth pans and tilts. high hat Cylindrical camera mount that can be bolted to a dolly or scenery to permit panning and tilting the camera with out a tripod or pedestal. jib arm Similar to a camera crane. Permits the jib arm operator to raise, lower, and tongue (move sideways) the jib arm while titling and panning the camera. monopod A single pole onto which you can mount a camera.
quick-release plate Mounting plate used to attach camcorders and ENG/EFP cameras to the fluid head. robotic pedestal Motor-driven studio pedestal and mounting head. It is guided by a computerized system that can store and execute a great number of camera moves. Also called robotic. spreader A triangular base mount that provides stability and locks the tripod tips in place to prevent the legs from spreading. Steadicam Camera mount whose built-in springs hold the camera steady while the operator moves. tilt To point the camera up or down. tongue To move the boom or jib arm with the camera from left to right or right to left. track Another name for truck (lateral camera movement). tripod A three-legged camera mount. Can be connected to a dolly for easy maneuverability. truck To move the camera laterally by means of a mobile cam era mount. Also called track. wedge mount Wedge-shaped plate attached to the bottom of a studio camera; used to attach the heavier cameras to the cam head. zoom To change the lens gradually to a narrow-angle position (zoom-in) or to a wide-angle position (zoom-out) while the camera remains stationary.
pan To turn the camera horizontally. pedestal (1) Heavy camera dolly that permits raising and lower ing the camera while on the air. (2) To move the camera up and down via a studio pedestal.
89
The most common camera mounts are the tripod, the
5.1
t r i p o d dolly, a n d t h e s t u d i o pedestal. T h e m o r e elaborate c a m e r a m o u n t s , such as jib a r m s , s t u d i o c r a n e s , b o d y m o u n t s , a n d r o b o t i c devices are discussed in section 5.2. You will find t h a t m a n y gadgets are available to help y o u get g o o d shots a n d to generally m a k e y o u r life as a c a m e r a o p e r a t o r easier. For e x a m p l e , y o u can clip o n a flexible
Standard Camera Mounts and Movements
a r m w i t h a small plastic plate t h a t shields y o u r viewfinder from sunlight. Because they change from year to y e a r — a n d s o m e t i m e s d i s a p p e a r from t h e m a r k e t a l t o g e t h e r — w e ig n o r e such novelties here, b u t y o u s h o u l d certainly m a k e an effort to find o u t w h a t is c u r r e n t l y available from catalogs a n d W e b sites.
HANDHELD AND SHOULDERMOUNTED CAMERA
Even if y o u r c a m e r a is small a n d light e n o u g h to carry in y o u r h a n d s , y o u s h o u l d m o u n t it o n a c a m e r a s u p p o r t w h e n e v e r possible. Using a c a m e r a s u p p o r t will reduce fatigue a n d especially p r e v e n t u n n e c e s s a r y a n d distracting c a m e r a m o t i o n . This section discusses t h e m o r e c o m m o n c a m e r a m o u n t s a n d t h e basic c a m e r a m o v e m e n t s .
ft* BASIC CAMERA MOUNTS The handheld and shoulder-mounted camera, the monopod and the tripod, and the studio pedestal
^
CAMERA MOUNTING (PAN-AND-TILT) HEADS Fluid heads, cam heads, and the plate and the wedge mount
P
CAMERA MOVEMENTS Standard camera movements: pan, tilt, pedestal, tongue, crane or boom, dolly, truck or track, crab, arc, cant, and zoom
BASIC CAMERA MOUNTS W h e n using a c a m c o r d e r o n vacation o r w h e n r u n n i n g after a n e w s story, you will p r o b a b l y c a r r y it w i t h y o u r h a n d s o r o n y o u r shoulder. But w h e n m o r e - p r e c i s e camera w o r k is required, you n e e d t o s u p p o r t t h e c a m e r a w i t h a t r i p o d . Studio c a m e r a s t h a t have large s t u d i o lenses a n d t e l e p r o m p t e r s attached are so heavy t h a t t h e y are usually m o u n t e d on, a n d moved with, a heavy-duty tripod or studio pedestal.
90
If the c a m e r a is lightweight e n o u g h , t h e m o s t flexible c a m era m o u n t is y o u r a r m s or shoulder. You can lift a n d lower t h e c a m e r a , tilt it u p or d o w n , swing it a r o u n d , c a n t it (tilt it sideways), a n d walk o r r u n w i t h it. So w h y b o t h e r w i t h a tripod? First, w i t h a t r i p o d y o u will b e able t o o p e r a t e t h e c a m e r a m u c h l o n g e r w i t h o u t getting fatigued; even a small c a m c o r d e r can get awfully heavy w h e n s h o o t i n g over a p e r i o d of several h o u r s . Second, a n d p r o b a b l y m o r e i m p o r t a n t , using s o m e k i n d of c a m e r a s u p p o r t prevents u n m o t i v a t e d c a m e r a m o t i o n — s w i n g i n g a n d weaving it b a c k a n d forth n o t unlike a firefighter using a fire h o s e to p u t o u t a fire. Unless m o t i v a t e d , as in s o m e c o m m e r c i a l s a n d M T V shows, wild a n d r a p i d c a m e r a m o v e m e n t draws t o o m u c h a t t e n t i o n to itself a n d is o n e of t h e sure signs of a m a teur c a m e r a h a n d l i n g . T h i r d , even if y o u are exceptionally well c o o r d i n a t e d , t h e t r i p o d m a k e s for s m o o t h e r m o v e s . Nevertheless, t h e r e are s o m e t e c h n i q u e s that professional c a m e r a o p e r a t o r s have developed t o keep t h e h a n d h e l d o r s h o u l d e r - m o u n t e d c a m e r a as steady as possible. T h e s e are explored in c h a p t e r 6.
MONOPOD A N D TRIPOD E N G 4 . Y 0 U will find t h a t even a relatively light E N G / E F P E F P ' c a m e r a can get awfully heavy d u r i n g l o n g s h o o t s . Using a p o r t a b l e c a m e r a s u p p o r t , such as a m o n o p o d o r t r i p o d , will get t h e c a m e r a off y o u r h a n d s or back, a n d keep y o u from m a k i n g u n n e c e s s a r y or distracting c a m e r a movements. Monopod
T h e monopod
is a single pole, or a single
"pod," o n t o w h i c h you can m o u n t a c a m e r a . W h e n using a m o n o p o d , y o u still n e e d to balance t h e c a m e r a o n the pole as y o u w o u l d o n y o u r shoulder, b u t at least you are relieved
Section
5.1
Standard
Camera
Mounts
and
Movements
91
5.2 TRIPOD WITH BUILT-IN SPREADER The tripod is one of the most basic camera supports and is used extensively in field productions. This tripod has a built-in spreader at midlevel.
Tripod and tripod dolly
T h e tripod is used extensively
for all t y p e s of fiieldwork. Regardless of w h e t h e r y o u use a heavy t r i p o d for t h e s u p p o r t of a s t u d i o c a m e r a o r a lightweight o n e for a field c a m e r a o r c a m c o r d e r , all t r i p o d s w o r k o n a similar principle: they have t h r e e collapsible legs (pods) t h a t can b e individually extended so that t h e c a m e r a is level, even o n a n irregular surface such as a steep drive
5.1 MONOPOD
way, bleachers, o r stairs. T h e tips of t h e legs are e q u i p p e d
The monopod is designed to take the weight off your shoulders by letting you balance a small to medium-sized camcorder on a single pole.
w i t h spikes a n d / o r r u b b e r c u p s t h a t keep t h e t r i p o d from slipping. M o s t t r i p o d s c a n b e adjusted to specific h e i g h t s (usually from a b o u t 16 t o 60 inches) a n d have a b u i l t - i n spreader
of t h e camera's weight. S o m e m o n o p o d s u p p o r t s have a
that p r e v e n t s t h e t r i p o d legs f r o m s p r e a d i n g a n d
collapsing u n d e r a heavy load, SEE 5.2
f o l d - o u t extension t h a t y o u step o n t o steady t h e pole so
For t r i p o d s that d o n o t have a spreader built-in,
that you can work the camera with both hands. The advan
t h e r e a r e a u x i l i a r y s p r e a d e r s t h a t y o u c a n place o n t h e
tages of s u c h a c a m e r a s u p p o r t are t h a t it is easy t o c a r r y
g r o u n d a n d t h e n fasten t o t h e t h r e e t i p s of t h e t r i p o d .
a n d c a n b e set u p in less t h a n a m i n u t e . Such m o n o p o d s
These s p r e a d e r s c a n b e adjusted t o a c c o m m o d a t e a small
are b y n o m e a n s perfect, b u t t h e y offer a w e l c o m e relief
or large t r i a n g u l a r base. T h e d i s a d v a n t a g e of a separate
d u r i n g a l o n g s h o o t , n o t u n l i k e finding a log o r r o c k t o sit
s p r e a d e r is t h a t y o u c a n use it o n l y w h e n t h e g r o u n d is
o n after a l o n g hike, SEE S.I
relatively level, SEE 5.3
Chapter
92
CAMERA
5
MOUNTING
EQUIPMENT
5.3 TRIPOD MOUNTED ON SPREADER
5.4 TRIPOD ON STEPS
Tripods designed for heavy camera loads have a separate spreader that can be put on the level floor. The tips of the tri pod are anchored by the spreader.
Because each pod can be adjusted individually, the tripod can be leveled on extremely uneven ground.
W h e n setting u p a t r i p o d , y o u m u s t take p a r t i c u l a r
STUDIO PEDESTAL
care t h a t t h e t r i p o d , a n d with it t h e c a m e r a , is level. Such
W i t h a s t u d i o pedestal,
a s e t u p is especially difficult w h e n w o r k i n g o n steps or
directions ( a s s u m i n g t h e r e is a s m o o t h floor) a n d elevate
y o u c a n m o v e a c a m e r a in all
SEE 5.4 Fortunately, m o s t h i g h - q u a l i t y
a n d lower t h e c a m e r a while o n t h e air. T h i s u p - a n d - d o w n
t r i p o d s have a leveling bowl as a platform, w h i c h c a n accept
m o v e m e n t a d d s an i m p o r t a n t d i m e n s i o n to the a r t of tele
uneven ground,
a ball-like device a t t a c h e d to the b o t t o m of t h e fluid h e a d .
vision p h o t o g r a p h y . You can n o t only adjust the c a m e r a to
This simple device, w h i c h can b e adjusted by a twist grip,
a c o m f o r t a b l e w o r k i n g h e i g h t b u t also c h a n g e t h e eye level
allows y o u to level the c a m e r a w i t h o u t h a v i n g to adjust the
from w h i c h y o u look at a n event. For example, if y o u are in
length of each leg o n u n e v e n g r o u n d . M o s t p a n - a n d - t i l t
d a n g e r of o v e r s h o o t i n g t h e set, y o u can always pedestal
h e a d s h a v e a b u i l t - i n air b u b b l e t h a t indicates w h e n the
(raise t h e c a m e r a ) a n d l o o k d o w n o n t h e scene. O r y o u can
c a m e r a is level.
pedestal down (lower t h e c a m e r a ) a n d l o o k u p at t h e scene,
You can also place a t r i p o d o n a t h r e e - c a s t e r
dolly,
up
s u c h as at t h e lead singer of a r o c k g r o u p . S o m e pedestals
w h i c h is simply a s p r e a d e r with wheels. Because t h e t r i p o d
use c o u n t e r w e i g h t s to b a l a n c e t h e weight of t h e c a m e r a in
a n d t h e dolly are collapsible, t h e y are ideal for
its u p - a n d - d o w n m o v e m e n t ; o t h e r s use p n e u m a t i c p r e s
fieldwork.
You will find t r i p o d dollies used even in s t u d i o s e q u i p p e d
sure o r b o t h weights a n d p n e u m a t i c p r e s s u r e .
with s t u d i o - c o n v e r t e d E N G / E F P c a m e r a s . T h e dolly base
Regardless of t h e specific b a l a n c i n g m e c h a n i s m , all
s h o u l d b e adjustable so t h a t y o u c a n m a n e u v e r it t h r o u g h
s t u d i o pedestals have similar o p e r a t i n g features. You can
various-sized d o o r s , a n d it s h o u l d have cable guards
that
steer t h e pedestal s m o o t h l y in a n y d i r e c t i o n w i t h a large
p r e v e n t the c a m e r a cable from getting c a u g h t u n d e r t h e
h o r i z o n t a l steering ring or steering wheel. By pulling u p o n
dolly base or r u n over b y t h e dolly wheels, SEE 5.5 4
t h e steering ring, y o u m o v e t h e c a m e r a higher, or pedestal
Section
5.1
Standard
Camera
Mounts
and
Movements
93
5.5 COLLAPSIBLE TRIPOD MOUNTED ON DOLLY BASE The tripod can be mounted on a dolly, which permits quick repositioning of the camera. This is called a tripod dolly.
up.
By pressing d o w n o n it, you lower the camera, or p e d e s
tal d o w n . Pedestals are n o t necessarily j u d g e d b y h o w high t h e y can elevate t h e c a m e r a s b u t often b y h o w low t h e y can m o v e the camera relative t o the floor. T h e m o r e the pedestal
5.6 STUDIO PEDESTAL The studio pedestal permits smooth dollies and trucks and has a telescoping center column that pedestals the camera from a low of 2 feet to a maximum height of about 6 feet above the studio floor.
c o l u m n telescopes, t h e b e t t e r it is. T h e telescoping pedestal c o l u m n c a n b e locked at a n y h o r i z o n t a l p o s i t i o n . Like t r i p o d dollies, s t u d i o pedestals n e e d a cable guard t o keep f r o m r u n n i n g over cables. Always check t h a t t h e adjustable skirt of t h e pedestal base is low e n o u g h t o p u s h t h e cable o u t of t h e way r a t h e r t h a n roll over it. SEE 5.6 Generally, y o u w o r k t h e pedestal in t h e parallel, o r crab, steering p o s i t i o n , w h i c h m e a n s t h a t all t h r e e casters p o i n t in t h e s a m e direction, SEES.ZA If, however, y o u w a n t t o rotate t h e pedestal itself, to m o v e it closer to a wall or piece of scenery, for e x a m p l e , y o u can switch it from t h e crab to t h e tricycle steering p o s i t i o n , SEE S.7B T h e r e are also lighter p n e u m a t i c pedestals t h a t c a n b e adjusted t o t h e lightweight E N G / E F P c a m e r a s . T h e s e c a n b e t a k e n o n r e m o t e l o c a t i o n s a n d used w h e n s m o o t h dollies, trucks, a n d c a m e r a elevations are required. You can
5.7 PARALLEL (CRAB) AND TRICYCLE STEERING A In the parallel, or crab, position, all three casters point in the same direction. B In the tricycle position, only one wheel is steerable. A foot pedal allows a quick change from parallel to tricycle steering.
94
Chapter
CAMERA
5
MOUNTING
EQUIPMENT
5.9 FLUID HEAD Fluid heads are designed for mounting and operating ENG/EFP cameras and camcorders on tripods. They have a limited weight capacity. p o u n d s . T h e r e are h e a v y - d u t y fluid h e a d s that can o p e r a t e w i t h heavier loads, w h i c h m a y c o m e f r o m a t e l e p r o m p t e r
5.8 PORTABLE CAMERA PEDESTAL
o r t r a n s m i s s i o n e q u i p m e n t a t t a c h e d to t h e E N G / E F P
These pedestals are much lighter than the studio pedestals and can be disassembled and transported to various (usually indoor) field locations.
camcorders.
disassemble such pedestals for t r a n s p o r t a n d , as with t r i p o d
fluid h e a d s have four controls: a tilt a n d p a n d r a g a n d a
dollies, adjust t h e w i d t h of t h e dolly base to fit t h r o u g h
tilt a n d p a n lock. T h e d r a g controls give v a r i o u s degrees of
d o o r s . SEE 5.8
resistance to p a n n i n g a n d tilting to m a k e t h e c a m e r a m o v e
Fluid h e a d s c o n t a i n a s p r i n g - l o a d e d c o u n t e r b a l a n c i n g m e c h a n i s m t h a t is encased in thick oil, w h i c h supplies t h e drag necessary for s m o o t h p a n s a n d tilts. M o s t professional
m e n t s optimally s m o o t h . T h e lock controls i m m o b i l i z e t h e p a n - a n d - t i l t m e c h a n i s m to k e e p t h e c a m e r a from m o v i n g
CAMERA MOUNTING (PAN-AND-TILT) HEADS
w h e n left u n a t t e n d e d , SEE 5.9 Never use the drag
T h e camera
to lock the mounting
mounting
head c o n n e c t s t h e c a m e r a to t h e
controls
head, or the lock controls to assist the
t r i p o d or s t u d i o pedestal. T h e m o u n t i n g h e a d ( n o t to b e
drag. N e i t h e r practice will w o r k very well a n d will e v e n t u
confused with t h e camera head, w h i c h represents t h e actual
ally w r e c k t h e m o u n t i n g head.
c a m e r a ) allows y o u to tilt ( p o i n t t h e c a m e r a u p a n d d o w n )
T h e fluid h e a d a t t a c h e s t o t h e leveling ball, w h i c h
a n d pan ( t u r n it h o r i z o n t a l l y ) extremely s m o o t h l y . T h e
attaches to t h e t r i p o d p l a t f o r m w i t h t h e leveling bowl. As
m o u n t i n g devices for t h e lighter t r i p o d - s u p p o r t e d c a m
stated, t h e leveling ball enables y o u t o level t h e c a m e r a
eras are fluid
w i t h o u t a d j u s t i n g t h e t r i p o d legs, a s s u m i n g t h e t r i p o d
use cam
heads; t h e heavier field a n d s t u d i o c a m e r a s
heads.
is relatively level already. T h e actual p a n n i n g a n d tilting are d o n e w i t h a single p a n n i n g h a n d l e o r d o u b l e p a n n i n g
FLUID HEADS
h a n d l e s that are attached to the m o u n t i n g head. By m o v i n g
Fluid heads are n o r m a l l y used for E N G / E F P c a m e r a s
t h e p a n n i n g h a n d l e u p a n d d o w n , y o u tilt t h e c a m e r a ; b y
o r c o n s u m e r c a m c o r d e r s t h a t w e i g h less t h a n 30
m o v i n g it left a n d right, y o u p a n t h e c a m e r a . 4
Section
5.10
5.7
Standard
Camera
Mounts
5.11
CAM HEAD
The cam head is designed for heavier cameras. It is normally used for mounting studio cameras with teleprompters onto studio pedestals.
and
Movements
95
QUICK-RELEASE PLATE
The quick-release plate enables you to reattach the camera to the mounting head in a balanced position without time-con suming readjustment.
CAM HEADS Cam heads are designed t o c o n n e c t heavy s t u d i o o r field
t h e n r e t u r n to t h e t r i p o d p o s i t i o n . T h e quick-release plate
c a m e r a s t o s t u d i o or field pedestals. Like fluid h e a d s , c a m
makes it possible to detach the c a m e r a a n d p u t it back again
h e a d s have separate d r a g a n d lock m e c h a n i s m s . Be sure to
in a perfectly b a l a n c e d p o s i t i o n in seconds, SEE S.I 1
find o u t exactly w h i c h k n o b adjusts t h e friction (to m a k e
M a n y c a m h e a d s use a similar device, called a wedge
y o u r tilt a n d p a n m o v e m e n t s s o m e w h a t looser or tighter)
mount—a
a n d w h i c h o n e locks t h e c a m e r a m o u n t i n g h e a d , SEE S.IO
t h e studio camera. All y o u have to d o is slip the c a m e r a with
As w i t h fluid h e a d s , never use the drag control to lock the
t h e w e d g e plate o n t o t h e c a m h e a d receptacle; the c a m e r a
cam head, or the lock control to adjust the drag. Using t h e
is t h e n securely a t t a c h e d t o t h e c a m h e a d , balanced, a n d
d r a g c o n t r o l to lock the c a m e r a will r u i n t h e c a m h e a d in
ready to go. SEE 5.12
w e d g e - s h a p e d plate attached to t h e b o t t o m of
a very s h o r t t i m e , a n d t r y i n g to use t h e locking device for tilt a n d p a n d r a g c o n t r o l s will a l m o s t always result in jerky
CAMERA MOVEMENTS
and uneven camera movements.
Before l e a r n i n g t o o p e r a t e a c a m e r a , y o u s h o u l d b e c o m e
PLATE A N D W E D G E M O U N T H o w d o y o u a t t a c h the c a m e r a to t h e fluid h e a d so t h a t t h e c a m e r a is fairly well balanced d u r i n g tilts? This is d o n e with a n a t t a c h m e n t m e c h a n i s m called a quick-release
plate. You
attach a m e t a l plate to t h e b o t t o m of t h e c a m e r a (with o n e o r two bolts) a n d t h e n simply slide t h e plate (with the c a m era attached) o n t o its receptacle o n t h e fluid head. A simple lever h o l d s t h e c a m e r a in t h e preset b a l a n c e d p o s i t i o n .
familiar w i t h t h e m o s t c o m m o n c a m e r a m o v e m e n t s . Left a n d right always refer to t h e camera's p o i n t of view. T h e c a m e r a m o u n t i n g e q u i p m e n t h a s b e e n d e s i g n e d solely t o help y o u m o v e t h e c a m e r a s m o o t h l y a n d efficiently in v a r i o u s ways. T h e m a j o r c a m e r a m o v e m e n t s are p a n , tilt, pedestal, t o n g u e , crane or b o o m , dolly, t r u c k or track, crab, arc, cant, a n d z o o m , SEE 5.13
T h e p r o b l e m is h o w far f o r w a r d or b a c k w a r d to slide
Pan m e a n s t u r n the c a m e r a horizontally, from left to
t h e plate so t h a t t h e c a m e r a is i n d e e d b a l a n c e d . Digital
r i g h t o r f r o m r i g h t to left. W h e n t h e director tells y o u to
t e c h n o l o g y has again c o m e to t h e rescue. H i g h - e n d fluid
" p a n right," w h i c h m e a n s p o i n t t h e lens a n d t h e c a m e r a
h e a d s n o w have a digital r e a d o u t t h a t tells y o u just w h e r e
to the right (clockwise), you m u s t p u s h the p a n n i n g
t o place t h e quick-release plate for o p t i m a l balance. M a n y
h a n d l e s t o t h e left. To " p a n left," w h i c h m e a n s swivel t h e
field p r o d u c t i o n s r e q u i r e t h a t y o u take t h e c a m e r a off t h e
lens a n d t h e c a m e r a to t h e left ( c o u n t e r c l o c k w i s e ) , y o u
t r i p o d , r u n to a n e w p o s i t i o n for a few q u i c k shots, a n d
p u s h t h e p a n n i n g h a n d l e s to t h e right.
96
Chapter
Wedge (attaches to camera base) \
5
Wedge mount receptacle (attaches to cam head)
CAMERA
MOUNTING
EQUIPMENT
p o i n t i n g at a right angle to t h e direction of travel. To " t r u c k r i g h t " m e a n s to m o v e t h e c a m e r a m o u n t to t h e right with t h e c a m e r a p o i n t i n g at a right angle to t h e d i r e c t i o n of travel. •
Crab m e a n s a n y sideways m o t i o n of t h e crane dolly.
A crab is similar t o a t r u c k except t h a t t h e c a m e r a m o u n t d o e s n o t have to stay lateral to t h e action t h e w h o l e time; it can m o v e t o w a r d or away from t h e action as well. C r a b b i n g is u s e d m o r e in film t h a n in television. T h e t e r m is s o m e t i m e s used t o m e a n t r u c k i n g . Arc m e a n s m o v e t h e c a m e r a in a slightly curved dolly o r t r u c k m o v e m e n t w i t h a m o b i l e c a m e r a m o u n t . To "arc left" m e a n s to dolly in or o u t in a camera-left curve or to t r u c k left in a curve a r o u n d t h e object; to "arc right" m e a n s to dolly in o r o u t in a c a m e r a - r i g h t curve o r to t r u c k right in a curve a r o u n d t h e object.
5 . 1 2 WEDGE MOUNT The wedge mount makes it easy to connect the studio camera to the cam head in a balanced position.
Cant m e a n s tilting t h e s h o u l d e r - m o u n t e d or h a n d held c a m e r a sideways. T h e result, called a canting
effect,
is a slanted h o r i z o n line, w h i c h p u t s the scene o n a tilt. T h r o u g h the skewed h o r i z o n line, y o u can achieve a highly d y n a m i c scene.
•
Tilt m e a n s p o i n t t h e c a m e r a u p o r d o w n . W h e n Zoom
y o u "tilt u p , " y o u m a k e t h e c a m e r a p o i n t u p gradually.
m e a n s c h a n g e t h e focal l e n g t h of t h e l e n s
W h e n y o u "tilt d o w n , " y o u m a k e t h e c a m e r a p o i n t d o w n
t h r o u g h t h e use of a z o o m c o n t r o l while t h e c a m e r a re
gradually.
m a i n s stationary. To " z o o m in" m e a n s to c h a n g e t h e lens g r a d u a l l y to a n a r r o w - a n g l e p o s i t i o n , t h e r e b y m a k i n g t h e
•
Pedestal
m e a n s elevate o r l o w e r t h e c a m e r a o n a
scene a p p e a r to m o v e closer to t h e viewer; t o " z o o m o u t "
s t u d i o pedestal. To "pedestal up," y o u raise t h e c a m e r a ; to
m e a n s to c h a n g e t h e lens g r a d u a l l y to a w i d e - a n g l e posi
"pedestal d o w n , " y o u lower t h e c a m e r a .
tion, thereby m a k i n g the scene a p p e a r to m o v e farther away
m e a n s m o v e t h e w h o l e c a m e r a from left to
from t h e viewer. A l t h o u g h n o t a c a m e r a m o v e m e n t p e r se,
right or from right to left w i t h the b o o m of a c a m e r a crane.
t h e z o o m effect looks similar to t h a t of a m o v i n g c a m e r a
W h e n y o u t o n g u e left or right, t h e c a m e r a usually p o i n t s
a n d is therefore classified as such. BJH^CAMERA^ Camera
in t h e s a m e general direction, w i t h only t h e b o o m m o v i n g
moves-> dolly | zoom | truck | pan | tilt | pedestal | try it
•
Tongue
left (counterclockwise) or r i g h t (clockwise). •
Crane or boom m e a n s m o v e t h e w h o l e c a m e r a u p o r
d o w n o n a c a m e r a crane or jib a r m . T h e effect is s o m e w h a t similar to an u p o r d o w n pedestal except t h a t t h e c a m e r a s w o o p s over a m u c h greater vertical distance. You either
•
The basic camera mounts are handheld and shouldermounted, the monopod, the tripod and the tripod dolly, and the studio pedestal.
•
A monopod is a single pole upon which a small camcorder is mounted. Tripods are used extensively for supporting ENG/EFP cameras or smaller camcorders in field pro ductions. The tripod can be mounted on a three-caster dolly base.
•
Studio pedestals can support heavy studio cameras and permit extremely smooth camera movements, such as dollies, trucks, and arcs. The camera can also be raised and lowered while on the air.
"crane [or b o o m ] u p " or " c r a n e [or b o o m ] d o w n . " Dolly m e a n s m o v e the c a m e r a toward or away from the scene in m o r e o r less a straight line by m e a n s of a m o b i l e c a m e r a m o u n t . W h e n y o u "dolly in," y o u m o v e t h e c a m e r a closer to t h e scene; w h e n y o u "dolly o u t " or "dolly back," y o u m o v e t h e c a m e r a farther away f r o m t h e scene. •
Truck or track m e a n s m o v e t h e c a m e r a laterally b y
m e a n s of a m o b i l e c a m e r a m o u n t . To " t r u c k left" m e a n s t o m o v e t h e c a m e r a m o u n t to t h e left w i t h t h e c a m e r a
Section
5.7
Standard
Camera
Mounts
and
Movements
97
5.13 CAMERA MOVEMENTS Major camera movements include pan, tilt, pedestal, tongue, crane or boom, dolly, truck or track, arc, and cant.
•
The camera mounting head connects the camera to the camera mount and allows the camera to be smoothly tilted up and down and panned horizontally. There are two types of mounting heads: fluid heads, used for consumer cam corders and ENG/EFP cameras; and cam heads, designed for use with studio cameras or heavy camcorders with teleprompters or transmission equipment.
•
The quick-release mounting plate is used to attach cam corders and ENG/EFP cameras to the fluid head. The wedge mount attaches the heavier cameras to the cam head.
•
The most common camera movements are pan, turning the camera horizontally; tilt, pointing the camera up or down; pedestal, lowering or elevating the camera on a studio pedestal; tongue, moving the whole camera from
left to right or from right to left with the boom of a camera crane or jib arm; crane or boom, moving the whole camera up or down on a camera crane or jib arm; dolly, moving the camera toward or away from the scene; truck or track, mov ing the camera laterally; crab, moving the whole base of a camera crane sideways; arc, moving the camera in a slightly curved dolly or truck movement; cant, tilting the camera sideways; and zoom, changing the focal length of the lens while the camera is stationary.
expensive e q u i p m e n t , h o w w o u l d y o u d o it? H e r e are s o m e
5.2
of t h e m o r e accessible m o u n t i n g devices: (1) t h e h i g h h a t , (2) t h e b e a n b a g a n d o t h e r car m o u n t s , (3) t h e Steadicam, (4) s h o r t a n d l o n g jibs, a n d (5) t h e s t u d i o crane.
H I G H HAT T h e high hatis a s h o r t ( a b o u t 6 inches) c y l i n d e r - s h a p e d o r
Special Camera Mounts
three-legged m e t a l m o u n t t h a t accepts t h e usual fluid o r c a m m o u n t i n g head. You c a n b o l t o r c l a m p t h e high h a t o n t o p a r t of t h e scenery, o n t h e bleachers of a s t a d i u m , o n a fence post, or, for low-angle shots, o n a piece of p l y w o o d fastened t o a t r i p o d dolly, SEE 5.14
B E A N B A G A N D OTHER CAR M O U N T S N o k i d d i n g ! T h e b e a n b a g h a s its place as a n effective c a m era m o u n t . It is s i m p l y a canvas b a g filled n o t w i t h b e a n s b u t w i t h h i g h - t e c h foam t h a t m o l d s itself t o t h e s h a p e o f any E N G / E F P c a m e r a o r c a m c o r d e r . All y o u d o is set t h e camera o n the bag a n d then strap the bag with the camera to t h e object t h a t acts as a c a m e r a m o u n t . You c a n use this b a g m o u n t o n cars, b o a t s , m o u n t a i n ledges, bicycles, o r ladders, SEE 5.15 N o n c o n v e n t i o n a l c a m e r a m o u n t s are designed t o help y o u
If y o u have a big b u d g e t , y o u c a n r e n t s h o c k - a b s o r b
o p e r a t e a c a m e r a in u n u s u a l s h o o t i n g c o n d i t i o n s , s u c h as
ing car m o u n t s that are specially designed for a t t a c h i n g
w h e n covering a scene in a c r a m p e d living r o o m o r field
t h e c a m e r a t o a car. T h e s p r i n g - l o a d e d devices a r e usually
p o s i t i o n , s w o o p i n g from a view high a b o v e t h e event t o
a t t a c h e d t o t h e h o o d o r t h e sides of t h e car b y m e a n s of
below eye level, r u n n i n g u p a flight of stairs, o r s h o o t i n g
large s u c t i o n c u p s .
from t h e perspective o f a s p e e d i n g car. S o m e p e d e s t a l s are designed t o d o w i t h o u t y o u ; their m o v e m e n t s are
STEADICAM
controlled n o t by t h e c a m e r a o p e r a t o r b u t b y a c o m p u t e r .
Just as w e u s e t h e t e r m Xerox t o m e a n any k i n d of p h o
This section e x a m i n e s s u c h n o n s t a n d a r d c a m e r a m o u n t
tocopier, we u s e Steadicam
ing devices.
w o r n b y t h e c a m e r a o p e r a t o r . This c a m e r a m o u n t uses
to m e a n a n y c a m e r a m o u n t
v a r i o u s springs to a b s o r b t h e wobbles a n d jitters while y o u ^
SPECIAL MOUNTING DEVICES The high hat, the beanbag and other car mounts, the Steadicam, short and long jibs, and the studio crane
)•
r u n w i t h t h e c a m e r a . D u r i n g t h e take, y o u c a n w a t c h t h e scene in a small viewfinder m o u n t e d b e l o w t h e c a m e r a . T h e c o u n t e r b a l a n c e m e c h a n i s m keeps t h e c a m e r a so steady
ROBOTIC CAMERA MOUNTS
t h a t even w h e n y o u r u n u p s t a i r s o r o n a m o u n t a i n trail
Used for shows with rigid production formats, such as newscasts
t h e c a m e r a s h o t s will c o m e o u t as t h o u g h y o u h a d used a large c a m e r a c r a n e . T h e Steadicam h a r n e s s a n d m o u n t for m o t i o n p i c t u r e c a m e r a s a n d large E N G / E F P c a m c o r d e r s
SPECIAL MOUNTING DEVICES
are relatively heavy, a n d only experienced o p e r a t o r s c a n
Despite their flexibility t h e t r i p o d a n d t h e s t u d i o pedestal
wear t h e m a n d t h e c a m e r a / m o n i t o r c o m b i n a t i o n for a n
c a n n o t always facilitate t h e required c a m e r a m o v e m e n t s . If
e x t e n d e d p e r i o d , SEE 5.16
d u r i n g a field p r o d u c t i o n , for example, t h e director w a n t e d
There are, however, m o r e - c o m p a c t spring-loaded
y o u t o follow t h e m a i n character from t h e car t h r o u g h t h e
c a m e r a m o u n t s that s u p p o r t lighter (from 8 to 17 p o u n d s )
front d o o r a n d d o w n t h e hall w i t h great fluidity, a n d t h e n
E N G / E F P c a m e r a s o r small ( 2 - t o 6 - p o u n d ) digital o r
follow t h e c h a r a c t e r r u n n i n g u p a flight of stairs w i t h
c o n s u m e r c a m c o r d e r s . T h e c a m e r a m o u n t s for s u c h
o u t a n y distracting c a m e r a wiggles, y o u ' d n e e d a special
lightweight c a m e r a s d o n o t n e e d a b o d y b r a c e . You s i m
m o u n t i n g device. If t h e d i r e c t o r t h e n asked y o u t o a t t a c h
ply g r a b t h e w h o l e u n i t with b o t h h a n d s a n d r u n w i t h it,
the c a m e r a t o a m o v i n g car w i t h o u t r e s o r t i n g t o extremely
similar t o c a r r y i n g a small flag, SEE 5.17
98
Unless y o u are a
Section
5.14
5.2
Special
Camera
Mounts
99
HIGH HAT
The high hat can be bolted or clamped to scenery, bleachers, or a fence post. You can use it with a fluid head or even a cam head.
5.15
BEANBAG
This canvas bag filled with synthetic material adjusts to any camera and any object on which the camera is mounted. Both bag and camera can be easily secured with nylon rope.
5.16
CAMERA STABILIZING SYSTEM
This type of stabilizing system, generically called a Steadicam, allows you to walk or run with the camera while keeping the pictures perfectly steady. The rather heavy spring-balanced mechanism is connected to a body harness.
5.17
STEADICAM MOUNT FOR LIGHTWEIGHT CAMCORDERS
The Steadicam JR mount is designed for lightweight consumer camcorders, such as the Hi8 or DTV models.
100
5.18
Chapter
5
CAMERA
MOUNTING
EQUIPMENT
SHORT JIB
This lightweight, counterbalanced jib arm can be clamped onto any suitable surface. It is especially useful when work ing in cramped quarters.
5.19
LONG JIB
With the long jib, the camera operator can dolly, truck, and boom the camera up and down and simultaneously pan, tilt, focus, and zoom.
weightlifter, however, even a lightweight c a m e r a seems to
S o m e jib a r m c a m e r a m o u n t s are specially designed
get heavy w h e n carried this way for a p r o l o n g e d p e r i o d .
for fieldwork. You can quickly a n d easily collapse the whole
T h e r e are small b o d y braces available even for relatively
jib a n d c a r r y it i n a single 6-foot bag. O n c e at t h e r e m o t e
light p r o s u m e r a n d c o n s u m e r c a m c o r d e r s .
l o c a t i o n , y o u can have t h e 12-foot jib assembled a n d o p e r a t i o n a l in less t h a n five m i n u t e s , SEE 5.20
SHORT A N D LONG JIBS T h e s h o r t jib arm is a c o u n t e r b a l a n c e d c a m e r a m o u n t designed for s h o o t i n g o n location. You can c l a m p it o n t o a d o o r f r a m e , a chair, a deck railing, or a car w i n d o w a n d t h e n t o n g u e t h e c a m e r a sideways a n d b o o m it u p a n d d o w n , SEE 5.18 T h a t way y o u can n o t only p e r f o r m s m o o t h c a m e r a m o v e m e n t s b u t also pay full a t t e n t i o n to p a n n i n g a n d z o o m i n g a n d t h e general c o m p o s i t i o n of y o u r shots. T h e l o n g jib o r long jib a r m is a cranelike device that
STUDIO CRANE A l t h o u g h a crane is desirable for creative c a m e r a w o r k , it is used in very few television s t u d i o s . In m o s t cases t h e long jib a r m is preferred over a crane because it is lighter a n d c a n p e r f o r m a l m o s t all t h e functions of a c r a n e . T h e stu d i o c r a n e is used m o r e frequently in film w o r k o r w i t h an H D T V c a m e r a for electronic c i n e m a p r o d u c t i o n , SEE 5.21
lets y o u — b y y o u r s e l f — l o w e r t h e c a m e r a practically t o t h e s t u d i o floor, raise it 12 feet or even higher, t o n g u e t h e jib a r m a n d swing it a full 360 degrees, dolly o r t r u c k t h e
ROBOTIC CAMERA MOUNTS
w h o l e assembly, a n d , at t h e s a m e t i m e , tilt, p a n , focus,
A u t o m a t e d pedestals a n d m o u n t i n g heads, sometimes
a n d z o o m t h e c a m e r a . Obviously, all of these m o v e m e n t s
called robotics, are used m o r e a n d m o r e for shows with rigid
r e q u i r e practice if t h e y are t o l o o k s m o o t h o n t h e air. T h e
p r o d u c t i o n f o r m a t s , s u c h as newscasts, teleconferences,
c a m e r a a n d the jib a r m are b a l a n c e d by a m o n i t o r , t h e b a t
a n d c e r t a i n i n s t r u c t i o n a l p r o g r a m s . T h e r e are basically
t e r y pack, r e m o t e c a m e r a controls, a n d , for g o o d m e a s u r e ,
t h r e e types of robotics: (1) t h e r o b o t i c pedestal, (2) t h e sta
actual c o u n t e r w e i g h t s , SEE 5.19
t i o n a r y r o b o t i c c a m e r a m o u n t , a n d (3) the rail system.
Section
5.2
Special
Camera
Mounts
5.20 FIELD JIB
5.21 STUDIO CRANE
This field jib can be easily disassembled, carried in a canvas bag, and reassembled in minutes.
Studio cranes are used for elaborate productions. Besides the camera operator, cranes need one or two extra people to operate the crane dolly and boom.
101
ROBOTIC PEDESTAL T h e robotic
pedestal
consists of a m o t o r - d r i v e n s t u d i o
pedestal and a m o u n t i n g head. The robotic pedestal a n d t h e r e m o t e z o o m a n d focus c o n t r o l s are g u i d e d by a c o m p u t e r i z e d system t h a t can store u p t o 800 c a m e r a m o v e s . SEE 5.22 For e x a m p l e , t h e c o m p u t e r list for a p o r t i o n of a n e w s s h o w m a y display a n d eventually activate t h e follow ing scenario: while c a m e r a s 2 a n d 3 are still o n t h e n e w s a n c h o r , c a m e r a 1 relocates to t h e w e a t h e r set a n d sets u p t h e o p e n i n g s h o t b y tilting u p a n d z o o m i n g o u t to a l o n g s h o t of t h e w e a t h e r p e r s o n a n d t h e m a p ; c a m e r a 1 is t h e n j o i n e d by c a m e r a 2 for close-ups of t h e w e a t h e r m a p ; in t h e m e a n t i m e c a m e r a 3 t r u c k s to t h e center of t h e set a n d z o o m s o u t for a cover s h o t — a n d all this w i t h o u t a c a m e r a o p e r a t o r in sight o n t h e s t u d i o floor. T h e o n l y h u m a n b e ings in t h e s t u d i o are t h e n e w s a n c h o r , t h e w e a t h e r p e r s o n , t h e sportscaster, a n d s o m e t i m e s a lonely floor m a n a g e r . Even t h e d i r e c t o r n o l o n g e r gives a n y c a m e r a i n s t r u c t i o n b u t s i m p l y checks t h e c o m p u t e r list in t h e n e w s script against t h e actual r o b o t i c execution of c a m e r a shots in t h e preview monitors.
5.22 ROBOTIC PEDESTAL The robotic pedestal is fully automated and needs no camera operator. All necessary camera movements and functions are computer-controlled.
102
Chapter
5
CAMERA
MOUNTING
EQUIPMENT
5.23 OPERATOR CONTROL PANEL FOR ROBOTIC PEDESTAL With such computer control panels, an individual can operate several cameras by remote control.
Because a small e r r o r in setting t h e pedestal wheels o n long dollies c a n cause t h e c a m e r a to e n d u p in t h e w r o n g place, s o m e systems use a l u m i n u m tape o n the s t u d i o floor to g u i d e accurate c a m e r a travel. A n operator control
panel
in t h e s t u d i o c o n t r o l r o o m allows for r e m o t e c o n t r o l of t h e c a m e r a m o v e m e n t s t h a t have n o t b e e n s t o r e d in t h e c o m p u t e r , SEE 5.23 But w h a t h a p p e n s if t h e c o m p u t e r fails? You m u s t have s o m e b o d y ready to o v e r r i d e t h e a u t o m a t i c system, r u n i n t o t h e s t u d i o , g r a b t h e nearest c a m e r a , a n d z o o m o u t t o a l o n g s h o t of t h e news set.
STATIONARY ROBOTIC CAMERA MOUNT T h a n k s to smaller a n d lighter-weight c a m e r a s , s o m e n e w s stations use small s t a t i o n a r y m o u n t s . T h e s e m o u n t s are
5.24 STATIONARY ROBOTIC MOUNTS The stationary robotic mounts enable an ENG/EFP camera or a prosumer camera to pan, tilt, and zoom. It is normally attached to a standard tripod. It is controlled by a joystick panel and can be interfaced with a laptop computer for storing and executing predetermined camera moves.
in a fixed p o s i t i o n b u t allow t h e c a m e r a t o b e p a n n e d a n d tilted from a r e m o t e l y c o n t r o l l e d joystick p a n e l . This r e m o t e c o n t r o l can also activate t h e z o o m lens for closer or w i d e r shots. S o m e r o b o t i c systems u s e d p r i m a r i l y for
RAIL SYSTEM
news have c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m s that c o n t r o l a variety of
You have u n d o u b t e d l y seen a rail system in action. T h e
a d d i t i o n a l event functions, s u c h as switching from c a m e r a
c a m e r a that follows s p r i n t e r s o r speed skaters a r o u n d t h e
to c a m e r a , o p e n i n g a n d closing m i c r o p h o n e s , a n d c o n t r o l
racetrack o r ice r i n k is m o u n t e d o n a c a r t t h a t resembles a
ling t h e t e l e p r o m p t e r . T h e s e small s t a t i o n a r y systems are
small railroad car. It r u n s o n rails that are laid parallel to t h e
also p o p u l a r in classrooms a n d teleconferences, w h e r e t h e
t r a c k o r rink. T h e speed of t h e cart a n d all c u s t o m a r y c a m
c a m e r a action can b e precisely preset, SEE 5.24
era f u n c t i o n s are r e m o t e l y c o n t r o l l e d via a joystick p a n e l .
Section
5.2
•
The high hat is a short (about 6 inches) cylinder-shaped or three-legged metal mount that accepts the usual fluid or cam mounting head.
•
The beanbag is a canvas bag filled with synthetic foam that molds itself to the shape of any ENG/EFP camera or cam corder. It can be tied to the hood of a car. Spring-loaded, shock-absorbing car mounts are usually attached with suction cups.
•
•
•
The Steadicam is a spring-loaded device that keeps the camera steady even if the operator, who wears a harness and a mount, runs with the camera. Steadicam JR mounts are available for lightweight consumer camcorders; these are handheld by the operator or attached to a body harness.
Special
Mounts
103
•
The robotic pedestal, or robotic, consists of a motor-driven studio pedestal and a mounting head. The robotic pedestal and the remote zoom and focus controls are guided by a computerized system that can store and execute a great number of camera moves. The stationary robotic mount usually allows pans, tilts, and zooms of small cameras from a fixed position.
•
Some robotic news systems include software that also controls a variety of additional event functions, such as switching among cameras, opening and closing micro phones, and controlling the teleprompter.
•
The rail system consists of a small cart that runs on rails that are laid parallel to a racetrack or ice rink.
The short jib arm is a camera mount that can be attached to furniture or scenery. The long jib has a longer arm that allows a single camera operator to simultaneously dolly, pan and tilt, move the camera up and down, and activate the zoom. The studio crane is larger than the jib arm and can sup port a heavy camera. It is usually used in film or electronic cinema productions.
Camera
For your reference, or to track your work, the VideoLab program cue in this chapter is listed here with its cor responding page number.
__J__>
C A M E R A S Camera moves^- dolly | zoom | truck | pan | tilt | pedestal | try it
Camera Operation and Picture Composition Although television cameras are getting more complex so far as digital electronics are c o n c e r n e d , they are also b e c o m i n g more user-friendly. The a u t o m a t i o n of s o m e camera functions c a n n o t m a k e y o u an expert camera operator overnight, however. Even the smartest a u t o m a t e d camera has no w a y of knowing w h a t part of the e v e n t you consider important a n d h o w best to clarify a n d intensify the selected e v e n t details t h r o u g h maximally effective shots. Nor can it exercise aesthetic j u d g m e n t — h o w to frame an extreme close-up, for example. This is w h y it is important to learn as m u c h as possible a b o u t camera operation before trying to do your blockbuster documentary. Section 6.1, W o r k i n g the Camera, discusses t h e basic do's a n d don'ts of camera operation. Section 6.2, Framing Effective Shots, focuses o n s o m e of the aesthetic aspects of picture composition.
104
automatic gain control (AGC) Regulates the volume of the audio or video level automatically, without using manual controls.
knee shot Framing of a person from approximately the knees up. leadroom The space left in front of a person or an object
bust shot Framing of a person from the upper torso to the top of the head.
moving toward the edge of the screen. long shot (LS) Object seen from far away or framed loosely.
close-up (CU) Object or any part of it seen at close range and framed tightly. The close-up can be extreme (extreme or big close-up—ECU) or rather loose (medium closeup— MCU). closure Short for psychological closure. Mentally filling in spaces of an incomplete picture. cross-shot (X/S) Similar to the over-the-shoulder shot except that the camera-near person is completely out of the shot. extreme close-up (ECU) Shows the object with very tight framing. extreme long shot (ELS) Shows the object from a great distance. Also called establishing shot. follow focus Maintaining the focus of the lens in a shallow depth of field so that the image of an object is con tinuously kept sharp and clear even when the camera or object moves. headroom The space left between the top of the head and the upper screen edge.
Also called establishing shot or full shot. medium shot (MS) Object seen from a medium distance. Covers any framing between a long shot and a close-up. Also called waist shot. noseroom The space left in front of a person looking or point ing toward the edge of the screen. over-the-shoulder shot (O/S) Camera looks over a person's shoulder (shoulder and back of head included in shot) at another person. shot sheet A list of every shot a particular camera has to get. It is attached to the camera to help the camera operator remember the shot sequence. Also called shot list. three-shot Framing of three people. two-shot Framing of two people. z-axis Line representing an extension of the lens from the camera to the horizon—the depth dimension.
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6.1
of the o p e r a t i o n a l steps are similar or identical regardless of the type of c a m e r a , except t h a t d u r i n g EFP y o u n o r m a l l y have a few m o r e p e o p l e h e l p i n g y o u . W h e n caught u p in a large s t u d i o p r o d u c t i o n or cover ing a h o t news story, it's easy to forget t h a t t h e c a m e r a is a n extremely c o m p l e x piece of m a c h i n e r y . A l t h o u g h it m a y n o t b e as p r e c i o u s or fragile as y o u r g r a n d m o t h e r ' s china,
Working the Camera
it still n e e d s careful h a n d l i n g a n d a m e a s u r e of respect. H e r e are s o m e " d o n ' t s " y o u s h o u l d k n o w before l e a r n i n g t h e " d o ' s " of c a m e r a o p e r a t i o n . These early w a r n i n g s m a y well p r e v e n t y o u from d a m a g i n g o r losing t h e e q u i p m e n t before y o u ever get to use it. In this light these t a b o o s r e p resent a r a t h e r positive b e g i n n i n g .
SOME BASIC CAMERA
"DON'TS"
D o n ' t leave a c a m c o r d e r in a c a r — e v e n in t h e t r u n k — for a n extended p e r i o d of time unless the car is safely locked in a garage. Like p e o p l e a n d animals, electronic e q u i p m e n t t e n d s to suffer from excessive heat. M o r e i m p o r t a n t , k e e p ing t h e c a m e r a gear w i t h y o u as m u c h as possible is a fairly s i m p l e way of p r e v e n t i n g theft. W h e n reading a b o u t all t h e details of setting u p a n d o p e r ating a c a m e r a or c a m c o r d e r , y o u m a y feel o v e r w h e l m e d . D o n ' t worry. After y o u have s t u d i e d a n d u n d e r s t o o d t h e procedures a n d practiced with t h e c a m e r a a few times, such o p e r a t i o n a l details b e c o m e r o u t i n e , very m u c h like driving a car. Section 6.1 helps clarify s t u d i o a n d p o r t a b l e c a m e r a o p e r a t i o n by laying o u t t h e sequential steps t h a t y o u — t h e c a m e r a o p e r a t o r — n e e d to follow before, d u r i n g , a n d after a p r o d u c t i o n . O n c e y o u are familiar w i t h t h e t e c h n i c a l details of c a m e r a o p e r a t i o n , y o u can t u r n y o u r a t t e n t i o n to h o w to get effective, d y n a m i c shots.
D o n o t leave a c a m c o r d e r u n p r o t e c t e d in t h e rain, h o t s u n , o r e x t r e m e cold or, worse, e x p o s e d in a car o n a h o t day. W h e n y o u m u s t use a c a m c o r d e r in t h e rain, protect it with a " r a i n c o a t " — a prefabricated plastic h o o d — o r at least a plastic sheet. A simple b u t effective m e a n s of keeping rain away from a c a m e r a is a large u m b r e l l a . S o m e z o o m lenses stick in extremely wet o r cold weather. Test t h e lens before u s i n g it o n location. Prevent t h e videocassettes o r optical discs from getting wet, a n d n e v e r use w e t t a p e s . A w e t t a p e m a y get sticky a n d r u i n t h e drive m o t o r in t h e V T R . M o i s t u r e is a m a j o r h a z a r d to all electronic e q u i p m e n t . D o n o t p o i n t the lens for a n extended p e r i o d of t i m e at
)•
^
WORKING THE CAMCORDER AND THE EFP CAMERA
t h e m i d d a y s u n . A l t h o u g h t h e C C D s will n o t b e d a m a g e d
Some basic camera "don'ts"; and camera setup, operation, and care—the basic operational steps before, during, and after a field production
b y t h e intensity of t h e sunlight, t h e y m a y suffer from t h e h e a t g e n e r a t e d by t h e focused rays. T h e s a m e goes for t h e viewfinder: d o n ' t leave it p o i n t e d at t h e s u n for a n extended
WORKING THE STUDIO CAMERA
p e r i o d of t i m e ; the viewfinder's magnifying lens can collect
Camera setup, operation, and care—the basic operational steps before, during, and after a studio production
t h e sun's rays, m e l t i n g its h o u s i n g a n d electronics. D o n o t leave c a m c o r d e r batteries in t h e s u n or, worse, d r o p t h e m . A l t h o u g h a b a t t e r y m a y l o o k r u g g e d from t h e
WORKING THE CAMCORDER AND THE EFP CAMERA ENGv W h e t h e r y o u are w o r k i n g w i t h a small c o n s u m e r E F W camcorder, a large professional E N G / E F P camcorder,
o u t s i d e , it is actually q u i t e sensitive t o h e a t a n d shock. S o m e batteries s h o u l d n o t b e charged in extremely cold temperatures.
or a h i g h - e n d EFP c a m e r a with a separate VTR, you s h o u l d
D o n o t lay a c a m c o r d e r o n its side. You r u n t h e risk
k n o w s o m e t h i n g a b o u t h o w to check it before the s h o o t a n d
of d a m a g i n g t h e viewfinder or t h e c l i p p e d - o n m i c r o p h o n e
w h a t t o d o w i t h it d u r i n g a n d after the p r o d u c t i o n . M a n y
o n t h e o t h e r side. W h e n finished s h o o t i n g , cap t h e c a m e r a
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w i t h t h e external lens cover a n d , just to m a k e sure, close t h e a p e r t u r e to t h e C (cap) p o s i t i o n . Given these i m p o r t a n t w a r n i n g s , y o u can n o w relax a n d devote y o u r full a t t e n t i o n to learning w h a t to d o before, d u r i n g , a n d after t h e s h o o t .
BEFORE THE S H O O T Before d o i n g a n y t h i n g else, c o u n t all t h e pieces of e q u i p m e n t a n d m a r k t h e m o n y o u r checklist (see c h a p t e r 20). If y o u n e e d auxiliary e q u i p m e n t , s u c h as external m i c r o p h o n e s , c a m e r a lights, a p o w e r supply, or field m o n i tors, m a k e sure y o u have t h e right c o n n e c t o r s a n d cables. Recall t h a t B N C a n d S-video are t h e s t a n d a r d c o n n e c t o r s for professional v i d e o cables, a n d RCA p h o n o is t h e stan d a r d v i d e o c o n n e c t o r for c o n s u m e r e q u i p m e n t . T h e RCA p h o n o c o n n e c t o r is also used for c o n s u m e r a u d i o e q u i p m e n t (see figure 3.23). Take s o m e extra a d a p t e r s along just in case you n e e d to c o n n e c t a B N C cable to a n RCA p h o n o jack. Unless y o u are r u n n i n g after h o t news, first set u p t h e t r i p o d a n d check w h e t h e r t h e c a m e r a plate fits t h e receptacle o n the fluid h e a d a n d balances t h e c a m e r a w h e n locked in place. D o s o m e p a n n i n g a n d tilting to d e t e r m i n e t h e o p t i m a l p a n a n d tilt drag. C h e c k t h e p a n a n d tilt locks. Insert t h e battery or c o n n e c t t h e c a m c o r d e r to its alternate p o w e r s u p p l y ( A C / D C converter a n d t r a n s f o r m e r ) a n d d o a brief test r e c o r d i n g before t a k i n g the c a m c o r d e r into t h e field. C h e c k t h a t t h e c a m c o r d e r records video as well as a u d i o . If y o u are engaged in m o r e - e l a b o r a t e field p r o d u c t i o n s using h i g h - q u a l i t y EFP c a m e r a s a n d separate V T R s , check t h e connecting cables a n d t h e various power supplies (usually batteries). You m a y n e e d a video feed from t h e c a m e r a (or VTR) to a b a t t e r y - p o w e r e d field m o n i t o r for t h e director. Be especially aware of c o n n e c t o r s . In EFP a loose c o n n e c t o r can m e a n a lost p r o d u c t i o n day. As w i t h t h e camcorder, hook up all the equipment you will use in the field and do a test recording before going on location. Never assume t h a t everything will w o r k merely because it w o r k e d in t h e past. C h e c k t h a t t h e external m i c r o p h o n e (usually a h a n d m i c ) a n d t h e c a m e r a m i c are w o r k i n g p r o p e r l y . M o s t c a m e r a m i c s n e e d to be switched o n before t h e y b e c o m e o p e r a t i o n a l . Is t h e r e sufficient cable for t h e external m i c so that t h e r e p o r t e r can w o r k far e n o u g h away from t h e camera? If you are p r i m a r i l y d o i n g news t h a t requires an
Working
the
Camera
107
external m i c for t h e field reporter, you m a y w a n t to keep the external m i c plugged in t o save t i m e a n d m i n i m i z e costly mistakes. You can coil t h e m i c cable a n d b o w - t i e it w i t h a string o r s h o e l a c e — o n e t u g , a n d t h e cable is uncoiled with the mic. D o e s t h e p o r t a b l e c a m e r a light work? D o n ' t just look at the l a m p . T u r n o n t h e light to verify that it works. W h e n using a separate battery for the light, m a k e sure that t h e bat tery is fully charged. If y o u have a d d i t i o n a l lights, are t h e y all operational? D o y o u have e n o u g h AC extension cords to p o w e r the a d d i t i o n a l lights? A l t h o u g h m o s t h o u s e h o l d s have t h r e e - p r o n g receptacles, y o u s h o u l d still c a r r y s o m e t h r e e - p r o n g to t w o - p r o n g a d a p t e r s to fit older h o u s e h o l d outlets. W h e n using a separate VTR for EFP, d o a test record ing to e n s u r e t h a t t h e V T R is in g o o d w o r k i n g order. (See chapter 12 for details o n V T R o p e r a t i o n . ) O p e n t h e videocassette b o x a n d verify t h a t it c o n t a i n s t h e cassette t h a t fits t h e V T R o r c a m c o r d e r a n d t h a t it m a t c h e s t h e tape length indicated o n t h e b o x ( n o r m a l l y given in s t a n d a r d - s p e e d playing t i m e , such as 60 m i n u t e s , 120 m i n u t e s , or 180 m i n u t e s ) . C h e c k t h a t t h e cassette's supply reel has e n o u g h t a p e to justify t h e indicated play ing t i m e . Even if y o u can't be sure a b o u t t h e exact length, a 1 8 0 - m i n u t e cassette will obviously have a fuller supply reel t h a n a 1 2 0 - m i n u t e tape. C h e c k w h e t h e r t h e c a m e r a accepts a mini-cassette o r a D V C P R O or D V C A M tape. S o m e relatively large p r o s u m e r c a m e r a s c a n n o t accept the larger tapes a n d use o n l y mini-cassettes. Check t h a t the safety t a b is in place. If it has b e e n r e m o v e d , you c a n n o t record o n t h a t t a p e (see c h a p t e r 12). Always take along a few m o r e cassettes o r other storage m e d i a t h a n y o u t h i n k y o u will n e e d . A l t h o u g h y o u are n o t a m a i n t e n a n c e engineer, carry s o m e spare fuses for the principal e q u i p m e n t . S o m e E N G / EFP cameras a n d professional camcorders have a spare fuse right n e x t to t h e active o n e . N o t e , however, t h a t a b l o w n fuse indicates a m a l f u n c t i o n in t h e e q u i p m e n t . Even if t h e c a m c o r d e r w o r k s again w i t h t h e n e w fuse, have it checked w h e n y o u r e t u r n from t h e shoot. Like carrying a m e d i c a l first-aid kit, you s h o u l d al ways have afield production ki t t h a t c o n t a i n s t h e following items: several videocassettes or a p p r o p r i a t e storage m e d i a , an audiocassette recorder a n d several audiocassettes, an a d d i t i o n a l m i c r o p h o n e a n d a small m i c r o p h o n e stand,
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AND
PICTURE
COMPOSITION
one or more p o r t a b l e lights a n d stands, a d d i t i o n a l l a m p s for all lighting i n s t r u m e n t s , AC cords, spares for all types of batteries, v a r i o u s clips or w o o d e n clothespins, gaffer's tape, a small reflector, a roll of a l u m i n u m foil, a small white card for w h i t e - b a l a n c i n g , light-diffusing m a t e r i a l , v a r i o u s effects filters, a c a n of c o m p r e s s e d air for cleaning lenses, a n d a c a m e r a raincoat. You s h o u l d also carry such personal survival items as a w o r k i n g flashlight, an u m b r e l l a , s o m e spare clothes, a n d , yes, toilet paper. O n c e y o u have w o r k e d in t h e field a few times, y o u will k n o w h o w to p u t t o g e t h e r y o u r o w n field p r o d u c t i o n kit.
D U R I N G THE SHOOT After s o m e field p r o d u c t i o n experience, y o u will p r o b a b l y develop your o w n t e c h n i q u e s for c a r r y i n g a n d o p e r a t i n g a camcorder or ENG/EFP camera. Nevertheless, there are s o m e well-established basics t h a t will h e l p y o u w h e n starting o u t .
Handheld camcorder operating techniques You m a y t h i n k that t h e small, h a n d h e l d c a m c o r d e r is m u c h easier t o o p e r a t e t h a n its heavier cousin. This m a y be t r u e if all y o u d o w i t h t h e c a m c o r d e r is s h o o t vacation pictures. T h e small c a m c o r d e r is lightweight e n o u g h to b e tilted, held in o n e h a n d , a n d m o v e d freely t h r o u g h t h e air. Al
6.1
t h o u g h such wild c a m e r a m o v e m e n t may, o n occasion, fit
Steady the camcorder with both hands, with your elbows pressed against your body.
the style of t h e event, it usually reflects t h e inexperience
HOLDING THE SMALL CAMCORDER
of t h e o p e r a t o r o r disrespect for t h e a u d i e n c e . In m o s t p r o d u c t i o n situations, t h e c a m c o r d e r ' s small size a n d light weight require steady h a n d s a n d s m o o t h m o v e m e n t s .
foldout screen is often r e n d e r e d useless b y t h e s u n s h i n i n g o n it, o b l i t e r a t i n g the i m a g e . Use the foldout screen only if
To avoid jittery pictures, y o u m u s t keep t h e c a m e r a as steady as possible. This is especially i m p o r t a n t w h e n t h e
y o u r c a m e r a is in t h e a u t o m a t i c m o d e a n d y o u n e e d only a r o u g h guide to f r a m i n g a shot.
z o o m lens is in the t e l e p h o t o p o s i t i o n . S u p p o r t t h e small c a m c o r d e r in t h e p a l m of y o u r h a n d a n d use t h e o t h e r
W h e n m o v i n g t h e c a m e r a , s h o u l d y o u b e z o o m e d in
h a n d to s u p p o r t the " c a m e r a a r m " or t h e c a m c o r d e r itself.
or out? Z o o m e d out, of course. By z o o m i n g o u t all the way,
SEE 6.1 W h e n e v e r possible, press y o u r elbows against y o u r
y o u p u t t h e z o o m lens in t h e w i d e - a n g l e p o s i t i o n , w h i c h is
body, inhale, a n d h o l d y o u r b r e a t h d u r i n g t h e s h o t . Bend
very forgiving a n d d o e s n o t s h o w m i n o r c a m e r a w o b b l e s .
y o u r k n e e s slightly w h e n s h o o t i n g , or lean against a s t u r d y
Also, b e c a u s e of t h e great d e p t h of field, y o u have fewer
s u p p o r t to increase the stability of t h e camera, SEE 6.2 Such
p r o b l e m s k e e p i n g the event in focus, even if y o u or t h e
c a m e r a h a n d l i n g is r e c o m m e n d e d even if you have t h e i m
subject m o v e s . But even in t h e w i d e - a n g l e p o s i t i o n , y o u
age stabilizer t u r n e d o n . N o t e t h a t i m a g e stabilizers d r a i n
s h o u l d m o v e t h e c a m e r a as s m o o t h l y as possible.
the b a t t e r y relatively quickly, unless y o u have a n optical o n e built i n t o t h e lens.
To pan t h e c a m e r a ( p o i n t it sideways), m o v e it w i t h y o u r w h o l e b o d y r a t h e r t h a n just y o u r a r m s . First, p o i n t
W h e n e v e r possible, use t h e viewfinder r a t h e r t h a n
y o u r k n e e s in t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e end of the p a n . T h e n
the foldout screen to c o m p o s e y o u r shots. T h e viewfinder
twist y o u r b o d y with t h e c a m e r a a i m e d t o w a r d t h e
m a k e s focusing m o r e a c c u r a t e (you get a s h a r p e r image)
ning of t h e p a n . D u r i n g t h e p a n y o u are like a s p r i n g t h a t
begin
a n d is a better guide to p r o p e r e x p o s u r e ( / - s t o p ) t h a n t h e
is u n c o i l i n g f r o m t h e start of t h e action to t h e finish. T h i s
flat screen. W h e n s h o o t i n g o u t d o o r s , y o u will find t h a t t h e
p o s i t i o n is m u c h s m o o t h e r t h a n if y o u r knees are p o i n t e d
Section
6.2
Working
6.1
STEADYING THE CAMERA OPERATOR
6.3
the
Camera
109
PANNING THE CAMCORDER
Lean against a tree or wall to steady yourself and the camcorder.
Before panning, point your knees in the direction of the end of the pan, then uncoil your upper body during the pan.
t o w a r d t h e start of the a c t i o n a n d y o u are forced t o w i n d
y o u are often closer to t h e object t h a n the viewfinder image
u p y o u r b o d y d u r i n g t h e p a n . Always b e n d y o u r k n e e s
i n d i c a t e s . Be careful n o t to h i t s o m e t h i n g or s o m e o n e
slightly w h e n shooting; as in skiing, y o u r knees act as shock
w i t h t h e c a m e r a , especially if y o u walk f o r w a r d w i t h it
a b s o r b e r s . D o n ' t p a n i c if y o u lose t h e subject t e m p o r a r i l y
into a crowd.
i n t h e viewfinder. Keep t h e c a m e r a steady, l o o k u p to see w h e r e t h e subject is, a n d a i m t h e c a m e r a s m o o t h l y in t h e n e w direction, SEE 6.3 W h e n m o v i n g w i t h p e o p l e w h o are walking, get in
Effflw ENG/EFP camera or camcorder operating techniques
W h e n o p e r a t i n g t h e larger a n d h e a v i e r
p r o s u m e r or s h o u l d e r - m o u n t e d ENG/EFP camcorder, m a n y of t h e rules for small c a m c o r d e r s still apply.
front of t h e m w i t h t h e c a m e r a a n d walk b a c k w a r d at t h e s a m e speed. This way y o u can see their faces r a t h e r t h a n their backs. M o v i n g b a c k w a r d also forces y o u to w a l k o n t h e balls of y o u r feet, w h i c h are better shock absorbers t h a n y o u r heels, SEE 6.4
W a t c h t h a t y o u d o n o t b u m p i n t o or
First a n d foremost, p u t t h e c a m e r a o n a t r i p o d w h e n ever possible. You will have m o r e c o n t r o l over f r a m i n g a n d steadying t h e shot. You will also get less tired d u r i n g a long shoot.
s t u m b l e over s o m e t h i n g while walking b a c k w a r d . A q u i c k
All large E N G / E F P c a m e r a s or c a m c o r d e r s are d e
c h e c k of y o u r p r o p o s e d r o u t e c a n p r e v e n t u n e x p e c t e d
signed t o b e c a r r i e d o n t h e o p e r a t o r ' s shoulder. T h e r e are
m i s h a p s . W i t h t h e z o o m lens in t h e w i d e - a n g l e p o s i t i o n ,
s h o u l d e r p o d s available for the larger p r o s u m e r c a m e r a s .
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COMPOSITION
6.4 WALKING BACKWARD When moving with some thing or somebody, walk backward rather than for ward. The balls of your feet act like shock absorbers.
A s s u m i n g that y o u are r i g h t - h a n d e d , c a r r y t h e c a m e r a o n y o u r right s h o u l d e r a n d slip y o u r right h a n d t h r o u g h t h e s u p p o r t s t r a p o n t h e z o o m lens. T h i s helps y o u steady t h e c a m e r a while allowing y o u to o p e r a t e t h e z o o m a n d a u t o focus c o n t r o l s . Your left h a n d is free to o p e r a t e t h e m a n u a l focus r i n g . If y o u are left-handed, reverse t h e p r o c e d u r e s . You can also switch the viewfinder to t h e o t h e r side so t h a t y o u c a n w a t c h t h e scene with y o u r left r a t h e r t h a n y o u r right eye. SEE 6.5 Keep y o u r b o d y a n d , w i t h it, t h e c a m e r a as steady as possible. P u t t h e z o o m lens in t h e w i d e - a n g l e p o s i t i o n w h e n m o v i n g . Preset y o u r knees d u r i n g a p a n , a n d walk b a c k w a r d r a t h e r t h a n f o r w a r d w h e n m o v i n g with t h e event. Unless t h e c a m e r a h a s a fully a u t o m a t e d white balance (as d o m o s t c o n s u m e r c a m c o r d e r s ) , y o u m u s t w h i t e - b a l ance it before starting to shoot. Be sure to white-balance camera in the same light that illuminates
the
the scene you are
shooting. If y o u d o n ' t have a w h i t e card, focus t h e c a m e r a o n a n y t h i n g w h i t e , such as s o m e b o d y ' s shirt or t h e b a c k of a script. M o s t c a m e r a utility bags have a w h i t e sheet sewn into t h e flap for w h i t e - b a l a n c i n g . Repeat t h e white balance
6.5 SHOULDER-MOUNTED ENG/EFP CAMERA
each t i m e y o u e n c o u n t e r n e w lighting c o n d i t i o n s , such as
Carry the larger professional camcorder on your shoulder. One hand slips through the strap on the lens to steady the camcorder and to operate the zoom. Your other hand is free to operate the focus ring at the front of the zoom lens and to provide further support for the camcorder.
w h e n m o v i n g from an i n t e r v i e w o n a street c o r n e r to t h e interior of a n e w r e s t a u r a n t . Careful w h i t e - b a l a n c i n g m a y save y o u h o u r s of color c o r r e c t i o n in p o s t p r o d u c t i o n .
Section
6.1
Working
U n d e r n o r m a l c o n d i t i o n s p u t t h e c a m e r a in t h e a u t o iris m o d e . Normal
conditions
m e a n s that y o u d o n ' t have to
reveal picture detail in a dense s h a d o w area o r struggle with e x t r e m e c o n t r a s t p r o b l e m s , such as w h e n t r y i n g to get a decent exposure of s o m e b o d y s t a n d i n g in t h e bright s u n or in front of a brightly lit wall. Despite the objections of s o m e especially critical c a m e r a o p e r a t o r s , using t h e c a m c o r d e r in t h e auto-iris m o d e o n an overcast day will often yield b e t t e r - e x p o s e d v i d e o t h a n d o i n g it manually, especially during ENG. Try t o calibrate (preset) the z o o m lens as m u c h as p o s sible, even w h e n o n t h e r u n d u r i n g E N G . M o r e often t h a n n o t , such a r o u t i n e will pay off with good, in-focus pictures. Just as a r e m i n d e r : y o u calibrate a z o o m lens b y z o o m i n g i n o n t h e target object, such as t h e l i m o u s i n e carrying t h e celebrities, focusing t h e c a m e r a , a n d z o o m i n g b a c k o u t again to t h e o p e n i n g shot. W h e n y o u t h e n z o o m in o n t h e people getting o u t of t h e car, t h e c a m e r a will r e m a i n i n focus even for t h e close-ups. Or, better yet, start w i t h a focused close-up a n d t h e n z o o m b a c k t o a w i d e r shot. In effect, w h a t y o u are d o i n g is presetting t h e z o o m while o n the air. If y o u haven't calibrated t h e z o o m lens a n d n e e d to z o o m in from a w i d e shot, you n e e d to follow focus as well as you can. This m e a n s t h a t y o u have to t u r n t h e focus r i n g to keep t h e p i c t u r e s h a r p a n d clear while z o o m i n g i n — n o t an easy task by any m e a n s . T h e focus b e c o m e s m o r e critical w h e n y o u s h o o t u n d e r low-light c o n d i t i o n s . Recall t h a t low light levels necessitate a large lens a p e r t u r e (iris o p e n i n g ) , w h i c h in t u r n reduces t h e d e p t h of field. Unless you're s h o o t i n g v a c a t i o n pictures o r for an H D V focus check, p u t t i n g a camera in the auto-focus m o d e is n o t r e c o m m e n d e d ; t h e c a m e r a frequently gets confused a b o u t just w h a t it is y o u i n t e n d t o focus o n , a n d fast z o o m s are frequently o u t of focus w i t h c o n s u m e r c a m c o r d e r s . Achieving o p t i m a l focus is especially difficult w i t h H D V a n d H D T V because the high-resolution picture looks in focus even if it is slightly o u t of focus. If t h e scene is rather steady, p u t t h e c a m e r a in t h e auto-focus m o d e if available. Otherwise, rack t h r o u g h t h e focus a few t i m e s to see w h e r e t h e o p t i m a l focus lies. Look t h r o u g h t h e viewfinder r a t h e r t h a n at t h e foldout screen w h e n focusing. All E N G / E F P a n d m o s t p r o s u m e r c a m c o r d e r s display a u d i o levels of t h e two a u d i o channels. S o m e E N G / E F P c a m e r a s a n d c a m c o r d e r s have a small speaker attached to their side, in w h i c h case y o u listen to t h e a u d i o w i t h y o u r right ear resting against t h e speaker. Usually, camera o p e r a tors hear t h e a u d i o t h r o u g h headsets or a m o l d e d earpiece
the
Camera
111
t h a t fits t h e ear. W h e n e v e r possible, check the a u d i o level before a n d d u r i n g recording. W h e n w o r k i n g in relatively quiet s u r r o u n d i n g s , r e c o r d w i t h t h e automatic gain con trol (AGC). O t h e r w i s e , y o u n e e d t o switch to m a n u a l gain control, take a s o u n d level, a n d record. (See chapters 9 a n d 10 for m o r e i n f o r m a t i o n o n E N G s o u n d . ) W h e n e v e r v i d e o t a p i n g , record s o u n d w i t h t h e c a m era m i c regardless of w h e t h e r s o m e b o d y is talking. This a m b i e n t s o u n d is i m p o r t a n t to achieve c o n t i n u i t y in p o s t p r o d u c t i o n editing. W h e n t h e r e p o r t e r is h o l d i n g t h e external m i c , d o n o t start to r u n away from h i m or h e r to get a better shot of the event. Either you b o t h r u n together, or you m u s t stay p u t . H e e d t h e w a r n i n g signals in t h e viewfinder display or foldout screen. It is usually the e q u i p m e n t , n o t the w a r n i n g display, t h a t is m a l f u n c t i o n i n g . In EFP y o u usually w o r k w i t h o t h e r c r e w m e m b e r s . Even w i t h a small p r o d u c t i o n t e a m , you m u s t assign each m e m b e r specific functions. For e x a m p l e , a s s u m i n g that y o u w o r k w i t h a separate VTR, y o u m i g h t r u n t h e c a m e r a , w i t h s o m e b o d y else taking care of all V T R functions. A t h i r d p e r s o n m i g h t d o t h e lighting a n d w o r k t h e external m i c r o p h o n e . W h e n y o u r E N G / E F P c a m e r a is p a r t of a m u l t i c a m e r a s h o o t , y o u n e e d a g o o d cable puller w h o will anticipate y o u r m o v e s a n d feed t h e cable so t h a t y o u can walk or r u n freely to t h e n e x t s h o o t i n g position. Above all, use common sense. Always be m i n d f u l of y o u r a n d o t h e r people's safety. Use s o u n d j u d g m e n t in d e t e r m i n i n g w h e t h e r t h e risk is w o r t h t h e story. In E N G reliability a n d consistency are m o r e i m p o r t a n t t h a n s p o radic feats, however spectacular. D o n o t risk y o u r n e c k a n d t h e e q u i p m e n t t o get a shot t h a t w o u l d simply embellish a story already o n tape. Leave t h a t t y p e of s h o o t i n g to t h e gifted a m a t e u r s .
AFTER THE SHOOT Unless y o u have just shot a really h o t story t h a t m u s t air immediately, even u n e d i t e d , take care of the e q u i p m e n t before delivering t h e tape. If you are p r o p e r l y organized, it s h o u l d take j u s t a few m i n u t e s . Take the full videocassette or o t h e r m e d i a o u t of t h e V T R a n d i m m e d i a t e l y replace it w i t h a n e w one. Label all cassettes or discs right away. P u t all t h e switches in the qfjposition, unless y o u are h e a d i n g for a n o t h e r a s s i g n m e n t , in w h i c h case p u t t h e c a m e r a in t h e standby
position.
112
Chapter
6
C a p t h e c a m e r a by closing t h e iris all t h e way a n d s n a p p i n g o n t h e lens cover. Roll u p t h e m i c cable a n d b o w - t i e it w i t h a string or shoelace. I m m e d i a t e l y p u t e v e r y t h i n g back i n t o its designated box or bag. D o n ' t leave it for t h e n e x t day because y o u m a y find yourself having to cover an i m p o r t a n t news story o n y o u r way h o m e . Recharge all batteries as s o o n as you r e t u r n from t h e assignment. If the c a m c o r d e r got wet, wait until everything has d r i e d o u t before p u t t i n g t h e c a m e r a b a c k i n t o its case. M o s t c a m e r a o p e r a t o r s a n d E N G / E F P crews c a r r y a bat t e r y - p o w e r e d h a i r d r y e r or fan t h a t will accelerate t h e d r y i n g . M o i s t u r e is o n e of t h e m o s t s e r i o u s t h r e a t s t o c a m c o r d e r VTRs. If you have t i m e , check all t h e p o r t a b l e lights so t h e y will w o r k for t h e next a s s i g n m e n t . Coil all AC extension c o r d s — y o u will n o t have t i m e to u n t a n g l e t h e m d u r i n g an o n g o i n g event. 4
WORKING THE STUDIO CAMERA T h e big difference b e t w e e n o p e r a t i n g a n E N G / E F P c a m c o r d e r a n d a s t u d i o c a m e r a is t h a t t h e latter is always m o u n t e d o n s o m e k i n d of c a m e r a s u p p o r t — u s u a l l y a studio pedestal. In o n e way the s t u d i o c a m e r a is easier to o p e r a t e t h a n t h e p o r t a b l e c a m e r a : all electronic adjust m e n t s are p e r f o r m e d for you by t h e v i d e o o p e r a t o r ( V O ) , w h o " s h a d e s " t h e c a m e r a at t h e C C U ( c a m e r a c o n t r o l u n i t ) . In a n o t h e r way, however, y o u m a y find t h a t o p e r a t ing t h e studio c a m e r a is m o r e difficult because y o u have to steer t h e pedestal (or o t h e r c a m e r a m o u n t ) a n d adjust t h e focus while c o m p o s i n g effective pictures. H e r e are t h e i m p o r t a n t steps to observe before, d u r i n g , a n d after a show o r rehearsal.
BEFORE THE SHOW P u t o n y o u r headset a n d check that t h e i n t e r c o m sys t e m is functioning. You s h o u l d hear at least t h e director, t h e technical director ( T D ) , a n d t h e v i d e o operator. Unlock the pan-and-tilt mechanism on the camera m o u n t i n g h e a d a n d adjust t h e h o r i z o n t a l a n d vertical drag, if necessary. C h e c k t h a t t h e c a m e r a is balanced o n t h e m o u n t i n g h e a d . U n l o c k t h e pedestal, t h e n pedestal u p a n d d o w n . C h e c k t h a t the pedestal is correctly c o u n t e r weighted. A p r o p e r l y b a l a n c e d c a m e r a r e m a i n s p u t in any
CAMERA
OPERATION
AND
PICTURE
COMPOSITION
given vertical position. If it drops down or moves up by itself, t h e pedestal is n o t p r o p e r l y c o u n t e r w e i g h t e d . See h o w m u c h c a m e r a cable you have a n d w h e t h e r there are any obstacles t h a t m a y interfere with t h e cable r u n . C h e c k t h a t t h e pedestal skirt or o t h e r t y p e of cable guard is low e n o u g h to m o v e the cable o u t of the way rather t h a n roll over it. Ask the V O to u n c a p t h e c a m e r a from t h e C C U , a n d ask if y o u can r e m o v e t h e lens cap. You can t h e n see in t h e viewfinder the pictures t h e c a m e r a actually takes. Is t h e viewfinder p r o p e r l y adjusted? Like a h o m e television set, t h e viewfinder c a n b e a d j u s t e d for b r i g h t n e s s a n d contrast. If y o u n e e d framing guides, flip t h e switch t h a t shows t h e essential area a n d t h e screen-center m a r k (see c h a p t e r 15). C h e c k t h e z o o m lens. Z o o m in a n d o u t . D o e s t h e lens stick, or does it m o v e s m o o t h l y t h r o u g h o u t t h e z o o m range? W h a t exactly is t h e range? Get a feel for h o w close you can get to t h e m a i n event from a certain p o s i t i o n . If you w o r k w i t h a digital z o o m lens, check w h e t h e r the lens r e t u r n s to t h e designated p o s i t i o n (focal length) in s u b s e q u e n t z o o m s . Is t h e lens clean? If it is dusty, use a fine camel-hair b r u s h and carefully clean off t h e larger dust par ticles. W i t h a small r u b b e r b u l b o r a can of c o m p r e s s e d air, b l o w off t h e finer dust. D o n o t b l o w o n t h e lens w i t h y o u r m o u t h : t h e m o i s t u r e will fog it u p a n d get it even dirtier. Rack t h r o u g h f o c u s — t h a t is, m o v e t h e focus c o n t r o l from o n e e x t r e m e p o s i t i o n to t h e other. C a n y o u m o v e easily a n d s m o o t h l y into a n d o u t of focus, especially w h e n in a n a r r o w - a n g l e , z o o m e d - i n position? Calibrate the z o o m lens. Z o o m all the way in o n t h e target object in t h e z o o m r a n g e , such as t h e newscaster or t h e d o o r o n the far wall of t h e living r o o m set. Focus o n t h i s far object. N o w z o o m all t h e way b a c k t o t h e w i d e s t - a n g l e setting. You s h o u l d n o w r e m a i n in focus t h r o u g h o u t t h e z o o m , p r o v i d e d neither t h e object n o r t h e c a m e r a moves. If y o u have a shot sheet (also called a shot list), this is a g o o d t i m e t o practice t h e m o r e complicated z o o m a n d dolly or t r u c k shots. A shot sheet is a list of every shot a p a r t i c u l a r c a m e r a has to get. It is attached to t h e c a m e r a to help t h e c a m e r a o p e r a t o r r e m e m b e r t h e shot sequence. If a t e l e p r o m p t e r is a t t a c h e d to t h e camera, check all the connections. Lock the c a m e r a again (the pedestal a n d the p a n - a n d tilt m e c h a n i s m ) before leaving it. Don't ever leave a camera
Section
6.7
unlocked,
even for a short while. S o m e of t h e newer p e d e s
Working
the
Camera
113
before leaving t h e c a m e r a .
In a straight dolly, you can keep b o t h h a n d s o n the p a n n i n g h a n d l e s . If you have to steer t h e camera, steer w i t h y o u r right h a n d , keeping y o u r left h a n d o n t h e focus control.
C a p t h e c a m e r a if y o u leave it for a p r o l o n g e d p e r i o d of t i m e .
before it hits t h e stops at t h e e x t r e m e pedestal positions.
D U R I N G THE S H O W
t h e d i r e c t o r i n s t r u c t s y o u to s h o o t f r o m either a h i g h
tals have a p a r k i n g b r a k e . Set t h e brake(s) o n t h e pedestal
If y o u pedestal u p o r d o w n , t r y to b r a k e t h e c a m e r a Generally, keep y o u r shots at t h e talent's eye level unless
P u t o n the headset a n d establish c o n t a c t with t h e di rector, technical director, a n d v i d e o operator. U n l o c k t h e
(pedestal u p a n d look d o w n ) or a low (pedestal d o w n a n d l o o k u p ) angle.
c a m e r a a n d recheck t h e p a n a n d tilt drag a n d t h e pedestal movement. C a l i b r a t e t h e z o o m at each n e w c a m e r a p o s i t i o n . See w h e t h e r y o u can stay in focus over t h e entire z o o m range. W h e n checking t h e focus b e t w e e n shots, rack t h r o u g h focus a few times to d e t e r m i n e at which position the picture is t h e sharpest. W h e n focusing o n a p e r s o n , t h e hairline usually gives y o u e n o u g h detail t o d e t e r m i n e the s h a r p est focus, or you m a y focus o n eyes. In extreme close-ups (ECUs), focus o n the bridge of the nose. As m e n t i o n e d , you will p r o b a b l y find t h a t achieving a n d r e m a i n i n g in p r o p e r focus is m o r e difficult w i t h an H D T V c a m e r a . Because t h e H D T V p i c t u r e detail looks so s h a r p in t h e viewfinder even if y o u are slightly o u t of focus, y o u m a y n o t notice t h e p r o b l e m until y o u r v i d e o is played b a c k o n a larger m o n i t o r . After s o m e practice, however, y o u will be able to read t h e H D T V i m a g e for p r o p e r focus.
W h e n y o u o p e r a t e a freewheel c a m e r a dolly, always preset t h e wheels toward t h e i n t e n d e d camera m o v e m e n t to prevent the dolly from starting off in t h e w r o n g direction. Check t h a t t h e cable g u a r d s are l o w e n o u g h to p r e v e n t t h e c a m e r a from r u n n i n g over t h e cables o n t h e s t u d i o floor instead of p u s h i n g t h e m o u t of t h e way. D e t e r m i n e t h e a p p r o x i m a t e reach of t h e c a m e r a cable. In a l o n g dolly, t h e cable m a y t u g a n n o y i n g l y at t h e c a m era. D o n o t t r y t o pull t h e cable along with y o u r h a n d . To ease t h e tension, l o o p it over y o u r s h o u l d e r or tie it to t h e pedestal base, leaving e n o u g h slack so t h a t you can freely pan, tilt, and pedestal. O n complicated camera m o v e m e n t s , have a floor p e r s o n help y o u w i t h t h e cable; otherwise, the m i c r o p h o n e m a y pick u p t h e dragging s o u n d . If t h e cable gets twisted d u r i n g a dolly, d o n o t drag t h e w h o l e mess along; have a floor p e r s o n u n t a n g l e it.
If y o u a n t i c i p a t e a dolly, set t h e z o o m lens to t h e w i d e - a n g l e p o s i t i o n . Preset the focus at t h e a p p r o x i m a t e m i d p o i n t of t h e dolly distance. W i t h t h e z o o m lens in t h e e x t r e m e w i d e - a n g l e position, t h e d e p t h of field s h o u l d be large e n o u g h so t h a t you n e e d to adjust focus o n l y w h e n you are very close to t h e object or event.
At all times d u r i n g t h e show, be aware of t h e activity a r o u n d you. W h e r e are t h e other cameras? T h e m i c r o p h o n e b o o m ? T h e floor m o n i t o r ? It is y o u r responsibility to keep o u t of t h e view of t h e o t h e r c a m e r a s a n d n o t hit a n y t h i n g (including floor p e r s o n n e l or talent) d u r i n g y o u r moves. Watch especially for obstacles in y o u r dolly p a t h , such as scenery, p r o p e r t i e s , a n d floor lights. Rugs are a c o n s t a n t hazard t o c a m e r a m o v e m e n t . W h e n dollying into a set that has a rug, watch t h e floor so that y o u d o n o t suddenly dolly u p o n t o t h e rug. Better yet, have a floor p e r s o n w a r n you w h e n y o u c o m e close t o t h e r u g . Be particularly careful w h e n dollying back. A g o o d floor m a n a g e r will h e l p clear t h e way a n d t a p you o n t h e s h o u l d e r to p r e v e n t y o u from b a c k i n g into s o m e t h i n g .
A l t h o u g h a c a m e r a pedestal allows y o u to dolly ex tremely smoothly, you m a y have s o m e difficulty m o v i n g or s t o p p i n g it w i t h o u t jerking t h e c a m e r a . Start slowly to o v e r c o m e t h e inertia, a n d slow d o w n just before t h e e n d of t h e dolly o r truck. If y o u have a difficult t r u c k o r arc t o p e r f o r m , have a floor p e r s o n help you m o v e a n d steer t h e camera. You can t h e n concentrate o n t h e c a m e r a operation.
In general, keep y o u r eyes o n t h e viewfinder. If t h e f o r m a t allows, l o o k a r o u n d for s o m e t h i n g interesting to s h o o t b e t w e e n shots. T h e d i r e c t o r will a p p r e c i a t e good visuals in a n a d - l i b s h o w (in w h i c h t h e shots have n o t b e e n r e h e a r s e d ) . If you have a shot sheet, t h o u g h , stick to it, however t e m p t i n g t h e shot possibilities m a y be. D o n o t t r y to o u t d i r e c t t h e director.
As y o u l e a r n e d in t h e section o n lenses, s o m e have a built-in focus-assist m e c h a n i s m : you select the critical area of the image with a roller ball (similar to t h a t of a c o m p u t e r m o u s e ) a n d tell t h e lens t h a t this is t h e area that n e e d s to be in s h a r p focus. T h e lens will t h e n t r y t o comply. Such m a n e u v e r s are obviously possible only w i t h a static scene a n d p l e n t y of p r o d u c t i o n t i m e .
114
Chapter
6
Watch for t h e tally light to go o u t before calibrating the
CAMERA
At t h e e n d of t h e show, wait for t h e "all clear" signal
Ask t h e V O w h e t h e r y o u c a n cap t h e lens w i t h t h e lens cap.
D u r i n g r e h e a r s a l i n f o r m t h e floor m a n a g e r o r t h e director of u n u s u a l p r o d u c t i o n p r o b l e m s , s u c h as a n in ability to prevent a c a m e r a shadow. T h e director will decide w h e t h e r to c h a n g e the c a m e r a p o s i t i o n or t h e lighting. T h e c a m e r a m a y b e t o o close to t h e object to keep it i n focus, o r t h e d i r e c t o r m a y n o t give y o u e n o u g h t i m e to preset t h e z o o m again after y o u m o v e i n t o a n e w s h o o t i n g p o s i t i o n .
Lock t h e c a m e r a m o u n t i n g h e a d a n d the pedestal a n d p u s h t h e c a m e r a to its d e s i g n a t e d " p a r k i n g p l a c e " in t h e s t u d i o . If t h e c a m e r a is so e q u i p p e d , set t h e b r a k e . D o n o t leave t h e c a m e r a in t h e m i d d l e of t h e s t u d i o , w h e r e it can easily b e d a m a g e d by a piece of scenery b e i n g m o v e d or by o t h e r s t u d i o traffic.
Alert t h e director if h e o r she h a s t o l d y o u to m o v e t h e c a m e r a while o n t h e air a n d y o u r z o o m lens is i n a n a r
COMPOSITION
before y o u lock the c a m e r a .
special effects. W i t h s o m e effects t h e tally lights of b o t h c a m e r a s involved are o n (see c h a p t e r 11).
AND PICTURE
AFTER THE SHOW
zoom or moving the camera into a new shooting position. This is especially i m p o r t a n t if y o u r c a m e r a is engaged in
OPERATION
Coil t h e cable as neatly as possible in t h e c u s t o m a r y figure-eight
loops.
r o w - a n g l e p o s i t i o n . S o m e t i m e s it is h a r d for t h e d i r e c t o r to tell from t h e preview m o n i t o r t h e exact z o o m p o s i t i o n of a lens. M a r k all shot changes o n t h e s h o t sheet. Use m a s k i n g tape o n t h e s t u d i o floor t o m a r k t h e criti
•
When working a camcorder or portable camera, be sure to handle it with the utmost care. Do not leave it unprotected in the sun or uncovered in the rain.
•
Before using a camcorder, check that the batteries are fully charged and that you have enough videotape or other re cording media for the assignment. Do an audio check with the camera mic and the external mic.
•
When shooting pay particular attention at all times to white balance, presetting the zoom, and recording ambient sound. If the lighting is fairly even, you can switch to autoiris control. Respond immediately to any warning signals in the viewfinder or foldout screen.
•
After the production put everything back carefully so that the equipment is ready for the next assignment.
•
Before operating the studio camera, check the headset, the camera mount (tripod dolly, pedestal, or crane), and the zoom and focus mechanisms.
•
During the show pay particular attention to calibrating the zoom, smooth camera movements, the camera cable's reach and travel, and focus.
•
After the show lock the camera mounting head, cap the camera, and move it to its designated place in the studio. If available, set the parking brake.
cal c a m e r a positions. Line u p exactly o n these m a r k s d u r i n g t h e actual show. If you d o n ' t have a shot sheet, m a k e o n e o n y o u r o w n . M a r k particularly t h e c a m e r a m o v e m e n t s (dollies, trucks, a n d t h e like) so t h a t y o u can set t h e z o o m in a w i d e - a n g l e p o s i t i o n . If y o u w o r k w i t h o u t shot sheets, t r y t o r e m e m b e r t h e t y p e a n d t h e s e q u e n c e of shots from t h e rehearsal. A g o o d camera o p e r a t o r has the next shot lined u p before t h e direc t o r calls for it. If y o u w o r k from a s h o t sheet, go to t h e next shot i m m e d i a t e l y after t h e p r e c e d i n g o n e — d o n ' t wait until the last m i n u t e . T h e director m a y have to " p u n c h u p " y o u r camera ( p u t it o n the air) m u c h s o o n e r t h a n y o u r e m e m b e r from rehearsal. D o n o t z o o m in or o u t needlessly d u r i n g shots unless y o u are calibrating t h e z o o m lens. Listen carefully to w h a t the director tells all the c a m e r a o p e r a t o r s ( n o t just y o u ) so t h a t y o u can c o o r d i n a t e y o u r shots w i t h t h o s e of the o t h e r c a m e r a s . Also, y o u c a n avoid wasteful d u p l i c a t i o n of shots b y k n o w i n g a p p r o x i m a t e l y w h a t t h e o t h e r c a m e r a s are d o i n g . Avoid u n n e c e s s a r y chatter o n t h e i n t e r c o m .
^
6.2
DEPTH Creating the illusion of a third dimension in both aspect ratios: choice of lens, positioning of objects, depth of field, and light ing and color
^
SCREEN MOTION Z-axis motion (movement toward and away from the camera) and lateral movement in both aspect ratios'
Framing Effective Shots
SCREEN SIZE AND FIELD OF VIEW Screen size a n d field of view are closely related. O n t h e large m o v i e screen, y o u c a n s h o w a relatively large vista w i t h a great a m o u n t of event detail. W h e n t h e s a m e scene is s h o w n o n television, however, y o u will n o t o n l y have difficulty m a k i n g o u t t h e smaller event details b u t , m o r e i m p o r t a n t , y o u will lose t h e aesthetic i m p a c t of t h e shot. This is w h y s o m e film critics suggest seeing a p a r t i c u l a r film " o n t h e big screen."
SCREEN SIZE M o s t television sets have a relatively small screen, especially w h e n c o m p a r e d w i t h t h e average m o v i e screen. To reveal event details, y o u m u s t s h o w t h e m in close-ups r a t h e r t h a n T h e basic p u r p o s e of f r a m i n g a s h o t is to s h o w images as clearly as possible a n d to p r e s e n t t h e m so t h a t t h e y convey m e a n i n g a n d energy. Essentially, y o u clarify a n d intensify t h e event before y o u . W h e n w o r k i n g a c a m c o r d e r , y o u are t h e only o n e w h o sees t h e television pictures before t h e y
long shots. In o t h e r w o r d s , y o u r field of view m u s t gener ally b e t i g h t e r o n television t h a n o n t h e m o t i o n p i c t u r e screen. Such a close-up a p p r o a c h necessitates choosing a n d e m p h a s i z i n g t h o s e details t h a t c o n t r i b u t e m o s t effectively to t h e overall event.
are v i d e o t a p e d . You therefore c a n n o t rely o n a d i r e c t o r t o tell y o u h o w t o frame every p i c t u r e for m a x i m u m ef
FIELD OF V I E W
fectiveness.
Field of view refers to h o w w i d e o r h o w close t h e object
The m o r e you know about picture composition, the
a p p e a r s relative t o t h e c a m e r a , t h a t is, h o w close it will a p
m o r e effective y o u r clarification a n d intensification of t h e
pear to t h e viewer. It is basically o r g a n i z e d into five steps:
event will be. But even if y o u are w o r k i n g as a c a m e r a o p
(1) extreme
erator d u r i n g a m u l t i c a m e r a s t u d i o s h o w o r a large r e m o t e
(2) long shot (LS), also called full shot or establishing
w h e r e t h e d i r e c t o r can p r e v i e w all t h e c a m e r a p i c t u r e s ,
(3) medium
long shot (ELS), also called establishing shot (MS), also called waist shot; (4)
y o u still n e e d to k n o w h o w to c o m p o s e effective s h o t s .
(CU);
T h e director m i g h t be able to correct s o m e of y o u r shots,
CAMERA-* Composition-* field of view
b u t h e o r she will certainly n o t have t i m e t o teach y o u t h e f u n d a m e n t a l s of g o o d c o m p o s i t i o n . T h i s section describes t h e m a j o r c o m p o s i t i o n a l p r i n
a n d (5) extreme
close-up
(ECU),
shot; shot;
close-up
SEE 6.6
F o u r o t h e r ways of designating conventional shots are: bust shot, w h i c h frames t h e subject from t h e u p p e r t o r s o to t h e t o p of t h e h e a d ; knee shot, w h i c h frames t h e subject
ciples a n d explains h o w to frame a s h o t for m a x i m u m
from just above or b e l o w t h e k n e e s ; two-shot,
w i t h two
clarity a n d i m p a c t .
p e o p l e o r objects in t h e frame; a n d three-shot,
with three
P
SCREEN SIZE AND FIELD OF VIEW Operating with close-ups and medium shots rather than long shots and extreme long shots
^
FRAMING A SHOT: STANDARD TV AND HDTV ASPECT RATIOS Dealing with height and width, framing close-ups, headroom, noseroom and leadroom, and closure
p e o p l e o r objects in t h e frame. A l t h o u g h m o r e a b l o c k i n g a r r a n g e m e n t t h a n a field of view, y o u s h o u l d also k n o w t w o a d d i t i o n a l shots: t h e o v e r - t h e - s h o u l d e r s h o t a n d t h e
1.
For an extensive discussion of screen forces and how they can be used for effective picture composition, see Herbert Zettl, Sight Sound Motion, 4th ed. (Belmont, Calif.: T h o m s o n Wadsworth, 2005), pp. 93-194.
115
116
Chapter
CAMERA
6
OPERATION
AND
PICTURE
COMPOSITION
6 . 6 FIELD-OF-VIEW STEPS The shot designations range from ELS (extreme long shot) to ECU (extreme close-up).
Extreme long shot (ELS), or establishing shot
Long shot (LS), or FULL shot
Close-up (CU)
cross-shot. In t h e over-the-shoulder
shot (O/S), t h e c a m e r a
Medium shot (MS), or waist shot
Extreme close-up (ECU)
ratios of s t a n d a r d television a n d H D T V are quite different
looks at s o m e o n e over t h e s h o u l d e r of t h e c a m e r a - n e a r
a n d r e q u i r e different technical m a n i p u l a t i o n s , m a n y of
p e r s o n . In a cross-shot
t h e c a m e r a looks alternately
t h e aesthetic p r i n c i p l e s of g o o d p i c t u r e c o m p o s i t i o n a p
at o n e o r t h e o t h e r p e r s o n , w i t h t h e c a m e r a - n e a r p e r s o n
ply to b o t h . Nevertheless, in f r a m i n g effective shots s o m e
(X/S),
a e s t h e t i c p r i n c i p l e s n e e d to b e a d j u s t e d to t h e specific
completely o u t of the shot, SEE 6.7 O f course, exactly h o w to frame s u c h shots d e p e n d s
r e q u i r e m e n t s of the aspect ratio. This section takes a closer
n o t only o n y o u r sensitivity to c o m p o s i t i o n b u t also o n t h e
l o o k at (1) dealing w i t h h e i g h t a n d w i d t h , (2) f r a m i n g
director's preference.
c l o s e - u p s , (3) h e a d r o o m , (4) n o s e r o o m a n d l e a d r o o m , a n d (5) closure.
FRAMING A SHOT: STANDARD TV AND HDTV ASPECT RATIOS
DEALING WITH HEIGHT A N D WIDTH You will find t h a t t h e 4 x 3 aspect r a t i o is well suited t o
Many high-end studio cameras, ENG/EFP cameras, and
f r a m i n g a vertical scene, such as a h i g h - r i s e b u i l d i n g , as
even s o m e h i g h - q u a l i t y c o n s u m e r c a m c o r d e r s h a v e a
well as a h o r i z o n t a l l y o r i e n t e d vista, SEE 6.8 AND 6.9 It is also
switch for c h a n g i n g t h e aspect ratio f r o m t h e s t a n d a r d
relatively easy t o a c c o m m o d a t e a scene t h a t h a s b o t h w i d e
4 x 3 f o r m a t t o t h e H D T V 1 6 x 9 . A l t h o u g h t h e aspect
a n d h i g h e l e m e n t s . SEE6.10
6 . 7 OTHER SHOT DESIGNATIONS Other common shot designa tions are the bust shot, knee shot, two-shot, three-shot, over-the-shoulder shot, and cross-shot. Note that the bust shot is similar to the MS and that the knee shot is similar to the LS.
Bust shot
Knee shot
Two-shot (two persons or objects in frame)
Three-shot (three persons or objects in frame)
Over-the-shoulder shot (0/S)
Cross-shot(X/S)
Section
6.2
Framing
Effective
6.8 FRAMING A VERTICAL VIEW
6.9 FRAMING A HORIZONTAL VIEW
The 4 x 3 aspect ratio allows you to frame a vertical scene without having to use extreme camera distance or angles.
The 4 x 3 aspect ratio readily accommodates a horizontal vista.
6.11 FRAMING A HORIZONTAL VIEW IN THE HDTV ASPECT RATIO The
Shots
117
6.10 FRAMING HEIGHT AND WIDTH IN A SINGLE SHOT T h 4 x 3 aspect ratio easily accommodates both horizontal and vertical vistas. e
6.12 FRAMING A VERTICAL VIEW IN THE HDTV ASPECT RATIO
16 x 9 format is ideal for framing wide horizontal vistas.
The 1 6 x 9 format makes it quite difficult to frame a vertical object. One way to frame a tall object is to shoot it from below and cant the camera.
A l t h o u g h t h e horizontally stretched 1 6 x 9 aspect ratio m a k e s h o r i z o n t a l scenes l o o k q u i t e spectacular, it p r e s e n t s a f o r m i d a b l e obstacle to framing a vertical view.
SEE6.II
You can either tilt t h e c a m e r a u p t o reveal t h e h e i g h t of t h e object or s h o o t f r o m b e l o w a n d cant t h e c a m e r a to m a k e t h e subject fit i n t o t h e diagonal screen space, SEE6.12 A n o t h e r frequently used film t e c h n i q u e for dealing w i t h vertical objects is to have o t h e r p i c t u r e e l e m e n t s b l o c k t h e sides of t h e screen a n d , in effect, give y o u a vertical aspect ratio in w h i c h to frame t h e shot, SEE 6.13
FRAMING CLOSE-UPS C l o s e - u p s (CUs) a n d e x t r e m e close-ups (ECUs) are c o m m o n e l e m e n t s in t h e visual language of television b e c a u s e , c o m p a r e d w i t h t h e large m o t i o n p i c t u r e screen, even large television screens are relatively small. T h e 4 x 3 aspect ratio a n d t h e small screen of t h e s t a n d a r d television receiver are
6.13 NATURAL MASKING OF THE SCREEN SIDES IN THE HDTV ASPECT RATIO You can use parts of the natural environment to block the sides of the wide 1 6 x 9 screen to create a vertical space in which to frame the vertical object. In this shot the foreground buildings create a vertical aspect ratio for the high-rise building.
118
Chapter
6.14
6
CAMERA
6.15
FRAMING A CLOSE-UP
The normal close-up shows the head of the person and part of the shoulders.
t h e ideal c o m b i n a t i o n for close-ups a n d e x t r e m e close-ups
OPERATION
AND
PICTURE
FRAMING AN EXTREME CLOSE-UP
In an extreme close-up, you should crop the top of the head while keeping the upper part of the shoulders in the shot.
b y i n c l u d i n g s o m e visual e l e m e n t s in t h e shot t h a t fill t h e e m p t y spaces o n either side, SEE 6.18
of people's h e a d s , SEE 6.14
COMPOSITION
S o m e directors simply
As y o u can see, t h e n o r m a l close-up shows t h e c u s
tilt t h e c a m e r a o r t h e talent s o m e w h a t so t h a t t h e s h o t oc
t o m a r y h e a d r o o m a n d p a r t of t h e u p p e r body. T h e E C U
cupies m o r e of t h e h o r i z o n t a l space. O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , the
is s o m e w h a t trickier to frame: t h e t o p screen edge cuts
H D T V aspect r a t i o lets y o u easily frame close-ups of t w o
across t h e t o p p a r t of t h e h e a d , a n d the lower edge cuts
p e o p l e face-to-face. Such an a r r a n g e m e n t is quite difficult
just b e l o w t h e t o p p a r t of t h e s h o u l d e r s , SEE 6.15
BSE^
CAMERA-* Composition-* close-ups
in the t r a d i t i o n a l f o r m a t because t h e two dialogue p a r t n e r s m u s t s t a n d u n c o m f o r t a b l y close together, SEE 6.19
W h e n y o u t r y to frame t h e s a m e s h o t in t h e H D T V 1 6 x 9 aspect r a t i o , h o w e v e r , y o u are left w i t h a great
HEADROOM
a m o u n t of leftover space o n b o t h sides of t h e subject's
Because t h e edges of t h e television frame seem t o attract
face. T h e c l o s e - u p l o o k s s o m e w h a t l o s t in t h e w i d e -
like m a g n e t s w h a t e v e r is close t o t h e m , leave s o m e space
screen f o r m a t , a n d t h e e x t r e m e c l o s e - u p looks as t h o u g h
a b o v e p e o p l e ' s h e a d s — c a l l e d headroom—in
it is squeezed b e t w e e n t h e t o p a n d b o t t o m screen edges.
l o n g shots, m e d i u m shots, a n d c l o s e - u p s . SEE 6.20 Avoid
SEE6.16AND 6.17 You can solve this p r o b l e m relatively easily
h a v i n g t h e h e a d " g l u e d " to t h e u p p e r edge of t h e frame.
6.16
6 . 1 7 FRAMING AN EXTREME CLOSE-UP IN THE HDTV ASPECT RATIO
FRAMING A CLOSE-UP IN THE HDTV ASPECT RATIO
When framing the same close-up in the 1 6 x 9 format, both screen sides look conspicuously empty.
normal
In the 1 6 x 9 format, the ECU of the person seems oddly squeezed between the upper and lower screen edges.
Section
Framing
6.2
Effective
119
Shots
6.18 NATURAL MASKING OF A CLOSE-UP IN THE HDTV ASPECT RATIO To avoid excessive empty space when framing a screencenter close-up of a person in thel 6 x 9 format, you can mask the sides with objects from the actual environment.
6.19 FACE-TO-FACE CLOSE-UPS IN THE HDTV ASPECT RATIO The 1 6 x 9 format makes it relatively easy to have two people face each other on a close-up without having to stand uncomfortably close together.
6.20 NORMAL HEADROOM
6.21 TOO LITTLE HEADROOM
6.22 TOO MUCH HEADROOM
Headroom counters the magnetic pull of the upper frame. The person appears comfortably placed in the frame.
With no, or too little, headroom, the person looks cramped in the frame. The head seems to be glued to the upper screen edge.
With too much headroom, the pull of the bottom edge makes the picture bottomheavy and strangely unbalanced.
SEE 6.21 Because y o u lose a certain a m o u n t of p i c t u r e area
NOSEROOM AND LEADROOM
in v i d e o t a p i n g a n d t r a n s m i s s i o n , y o u n e e d to leave a little
S o m e b o d y l o o k i n g o r p o i n t i n g in a p a r t i c u l a r d i r e c t i o n
m o r e h e a d r o o m t h a n feels comfortable. Leaving t o o m u c h
o t h e r t h a n straight i n t o t h e c a m e r a creates a screen force
h e a d r o o m , however, is just as b a d as t o o little, SEE 6.22 If
called a n index vector. You m u s t c o m p e n s a t e for this force
y o u r c a m e r a is so e q u i p p e d , y o u c a n use t h e frame guide
by leaving s o m e space in front of t h e vector. W h e n s o m e
in the viewfinder to see t h e p i c t u r e area t h a t actually a p
o n e looks or p o i n t s screen-left or screen-right, t h e i n d e x
pears o n t h e television screen. T h e h e a d r o o m rale applies
v e c t o r n e e d s to b e b a l a n c e d w i t h noseroom.
equally t o b o t h aspect ratios. QJJJ^CAMERA-> Composition^
n o s e r o o m or l e a d r o o m m a k e s t h e p i c t u r e look o d d l y o u t
headroom
A lack of
120
Chapter
6
CAMERA
OPERATION
AND PICTURE
COMPOSITION
6.23 PROPER NOSEROOM
6.24 LACK OF NOSEROOM
To absorb the force of the strong index vector created by the person's looking toward the screen edge, you need to leave some noseroom.
Without noseroom the person seems to be blocked by the screen edge, and the picture looks unbalanced.
6.25 PROPER LEADROOM
6.26 LACK OF LEADROOM
Assuming that the cyclist is actually moving, his motion vector is properly neutralized by the screen space in front of him. We like to see where the person is heading, not where he has been. Note that a still picture cannot show a motion vector. What you see here is an index vector.
Without leadroom the moving person or object seems to be hindered or stopped by the screen edge.
of balance; t h e p e r s o n seems to be blocked by t h e screen
d o n ' t m o v e b u t simply p o i n t in a specific direction, they are
edge. SEE 6.23 A N D 6.24
i n d e x vectors. M'Jg»CAIVIERA-» Composition-* leadroom
Screen m o t i o n creates a motion vector. W h e n s o m e o n e or s o m e t h i n g m o v e s in a screen-right or screen-left direc tion, y o u m u s t leave leadroom
to b a l a n c e t h e force of t h e
CLOSURE
m o t i o n vector, SEE 6.25 Even in a still p h o t o y o u can see that
Closure,
w i t h o u t p r o p e r l e a d r o o m t h e cyclist seems to b e crashing
w h i c h o u r m i n d s fill in i n f o r m a t i o n t h a t we c a n n o t a c t u
s h o r t for psychological
closure, is t h e process b y
into right screen border. SEE6.26 To avoid such crashes, y o u
ally see o n - s c r e e n . Take a look a r o u n d y o u : y o u see o n l y
m u s t always lead t h e m o v i n g object with t h e c a m e r a r a t h e r
p a r t s of the objects t h a t lie in y o u r field of vision. T h e r e is
t h a n follow it. After all, we w a n t to see w h e r e t h e m o v i n g
n o w a y y o u c a n ever see an object in its e n t i r e t y unless t h e
object is going, n o t w h e r e it has b e e n . N o t e , however, t h a t
object m o v e s a r o u n d y o u or y o u m o v e a r o u n d t h e object.
n e i t h e r of t h e l e a d r o o m e x a m p l e s here r e p r e s e n t actual
T h r o u g h experience we have learned to mentally supply the
m o t i o n vectors because they are still pictures; because they
missing parts, w h i c h allows us to perceive a w h o l e w o r l d
Section
Framing
6.2
Effective
121
Shots
6.27 FACILITATING CLOSURE BEYOND THE FRAME In this shot we perceive the whole figure of the person and her guitar although we see only part of them. This shot gives us sufficient clues to project the figure beyond the frame and apply psychological closure in the off-screen space.
6.28 TRIANGLE CLOSURE We tend to organize things into easily recognizable patterns. This group of similar objects forms a triangle.
6.29 SEMICIRCLE CLOSURE These objects organize the screen space into a semicircle.
a l t h o u g h we actually see only a fraction of it. Because close-
t h e figure b e y o n d t h e screen edges a n d perceive a sensible
u p s usually show only p a r t of an object, y o u r psychological
whole.
closure m e c h a n i s m m u s t w o r k o v e r t i m e .
also a u t o m a t i c a l l y g r o u p things together so that t h e y form
Positive closure
pressed not t o perceive figure 6.28 as a t r i a n g u l a r p a t t e r n
SEE6.27
To organize t h e visual w o r l d a r o u n d us, w e
a sensible p a t t e r n , To facilitate closure y o u s h o u l d always
frame a s h o t in s u c h a w a y t h a t t h e viewer c a n easily extend
SEE 6.28 AND 6.29
a n d figure 6.29 as a semicircle.
You w o u l d b e h a r d -
6.30
UNDESIRABLE CLOSURE WITHIN THE FRAME
This shot is badly framed because we apply closure within the frame without projecting the rest of the person into off-screen space.
6.31
DESIRABLE CLOSURE IN OFF-SCREEN SPACE
In this ECU there are enough on-screen clues to project the rest of the person's head and body into off-screen space, thus applying closure to the total figure.
T h i s c l o s u r e a u t o m a t i o n can also w o r k against g o o d c o m p o s i t i o n . For e x a m p l e , w h e n fram ing a close-up of a face w i t h o u t giving p r o m i n e n t visual clues t o help viewers project t h e image b e y o n d t h e screen edges, t h e h e a d seems o d d l y cut off from its body, SEE 6.30 You therefore n e e d to p r o v i d e e n o u g h visual clues to lead t h e v i e w e r s ' eyes b e y o n d t h e f r a m e so t h e y c a n a p p l y c l o s u r e a n d perceive t h e c o m p l e t e p e r s o n in off-screen space. SEE 6.31 O u r m e c h a n i s m to organize our e n v i r o n m e n t into s i m p l e p a t t e r n s is so s t r o n g t h a t it often w o r k s against
6.32
ILLOGICAL CLOSURE
Although we know better, we perceive this reporter as balancing a street sign on his head.
r e a s o n . In t h e excitement of getting a g o o d s t o r y a n d a n interesting shot, it is easy to forget to look behind t h e object of a t t e n t i o n , b u t it is often t h e b a c k g r o u n d t h a t spoils a g o o d p i c t u r e c o m p o s i t i o n , SEE 6.32
As y o u can see in figure
6.32, we tend to perceive the b a c k g r o u n d as p a r t of the fore g r o u n d . T h e r e p o r t e r seems to b e b a l a n c i n g a street sign
Section
6.2
Framing
Effective
Shots
123
o n his h e a d . M o s t often y o u m u s t g u a r d against c o m p o s i t i o n s w h e r e i n b a c k g r o u n d objects seem to b e g r o w i n g o u t of the f o r e g r o u n d people's h e a d s . A slightly tilted h o r i z o n line is a n o t h e r c o m m o n c o m p o s i t i o n a l p r o b l e m . O n c e y o u are aware of t h e b a c k g r o u n d , it is relatively easy to avoid illogical closure. rVi*--»CAMERA-» Composition-} closure
DEPTH Because t h e television screen is a flat, t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l piece of glass u p o n w h i c h t h e i m a g e a p p e a r s , we m u s t create t h e illusion of a t h i r d d i m e n s i o n . Fortunately, t h e p r i n c i p l e s for creating t h e illusion of d e p t h o n a t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l surface have b e e n a m p l y e x p l o r e d a n d estab lished by p a i n t e r s a n d p h o t o g r a p h e r s over t h e years. For creating a n d intensifying t h e illusion of d e p t h o n t h e m o s t
6.33 FOREGROUND, MIDDLEGROUND, AND BACKGROUND In general, try to divide the z-axis (depth dimension) into a prominent foreground (dead tree), middleground (pine trees), and background (ski run). Such a division helps create the illusion of screen depth.
basic level, t r y to establish a clear division of t h e i m a g e into f o r e g r o u n d , m i d d l e g r o u n d , a n d b a c k g r o u n d . To d o this y o u n e e d to c o n s i d e r t h e following factors:
m o v i n g images requires q u i c k reactions a n d full a t t e n t i o n
Choice of lens. A w i d e - a n g l e z o o m p o s i t i o n exagger ates d e p t h . N a r r o w - a n g l e p o s i t i o n s r e d u c e t h e illu
t h r o u g h o u t t h e telecast. T h e s t u d y of the m o v i n g i m a g e is a n i m p o r t a n t p a r t of l e a r n i n g t h e fine a r t of television a n d film p r o d u c t i o n ; h e r e we l o o k at s o m e of its m o s t
sion of a t h i r d d i m e n s i o n .
basic principles. i Positioning
of objects. T h e z-axis—the
line r e p r e
s e n t i n g an extension of t h e lens from t h e c a m e r a to
9
t h e h o r i z o n — h a s significant b e a r i n g o n perceiving
away from t h e c a m e r a ) are stronger t h a n any type of lateral
d e p t h . A n y t h i n g p o s i t i o n e d a l o n g t h e z-axis relative
m o t i o n (from o n e screen edge to t h e o t h e r ) . Fortunately,
to t h e c a m e r a will create t h e illusion of d e p t h .
t h e y are also t h e easiest to frame: y o u s i m p l y k e e p t h e
Depth of field. A slightly shallow d e p t h of field is usually m o r e effective to define d e p t h because t h e in-focus f o r e g r o u n d object is m o r e clearly set off against t h e o u t - o f - f o c u s b a c k g r o u n d .
e
W h e n f r a m i n g for t h e t r a d i t i o n a l 4 x 3 aspect ratio a n d small screen, m o v e m e n t s a l o n g t h e z-axis ( t o w a r d or
Lighting
c a m e r a as steady as possible a n d m a k e sure that t h e m o v ing object does n o t go o u t of focus as it a p p r o a c h e s t h e c a m e r a . R e m e m b e r t h a t a w i d e - a n g l e z o o m lens p o s i t i o n gives t h e impression of accelerated m o t i o n along the z-axis, whereas a n a r r o w - a n g l e p o s i t i o n slows z-axis m o t i o n for
and color. A b r i g h t l y lighted object w i t h
s t r o n g (highly s a t u r a t e d ) color seems closer t h a n
t h e viewer. W h e n w o r k i n g in t h e 16 x 9 H D T V a s p e c t r a t i o ,
o n e t h a t is d i m l y lighted a n d h a s w a s h e d - o u t (low-
however, lateral m o v e m e n t takes o n m o r e p r o m i n e n c e .
s a t u r a t i o n ) colors, SEE6.33
A l t h o u g h t h e stretched screen w i d t h gives y o u a little m o r e
CAMERA-* Picture
depth-* z-axis | lens choice | perspective and
distortion
b r e a t h i n g r o o m , y o u m u s t still have p r o p e r l e a d r o o m d u r ing the entire p a n . As m e n t i o n e d , t h e viewer w a n t s t o k n o w w h e r e t h e object is going, n o t w h e r e it has b e e n . If y o u are o n a close-up a n d t h e subject shifts back a n d
SCREEN MOTION
forth, d o n ' t t r y to follow each m i n o r wiggle. You m i g h t r u n
C o n t r a r y to t h e p a i n t e r o r t h e still p h o t o g r a p h e r , w h o
t h e risk of m a k i n g viewers seasick; at t h e very least, they
deals w i t h t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n of static i m a g e s w i t h i n t h e
will n o t b e able to c o n c e n t r a t e o n t h e subject for very long.
p i c t u r e frame, t h e television c a m e r a o p e r a t o r m u s t a l m o s t
Keep t h e c a m e r a p o i n t e d at t h e m a j o r a c t i o n area o r z o o m
always c o p e w i t h framing images in m o t i o n . C o m p o s i n g
o u t (or pull b a c k ) to a slightly w i d e r shot.
124
Chapter
6.34
TWO PERSONS SAYING GOOD-BYE
CAMERA
6
6.35
If in a two-shot the people walk away from each other toward the screen edges, don't try to keep both people in the shot.
OPERATION
AND
PICTURE
COMPOSITION
CAMERA STAYS WITH ONE OF THEM
You must decide which person you will keep in the frame and let the other move off-camera.
W h e n o n e of t h e p e r s o n s in a t w o - s h o t m o v e s o u t of
W h a t e v e r y o u d o to o r g a n i z e screen m o t i o n , d o it
t h e frame, d o n o t t r y to keep b o t h p e o p l e in t h e f r a m e —
smoothly. Try t o m o v e t h e c a m e r a as little as possible unless
stay w i t h just o n e of t h e m , SEE 6.34 AND 6.35 M i»>CAMERA->
y o u n e e d to follow a m o v i n g object or d r a m a t i z e a s h o t
Screen motion-* z-axis | lateral | close-ups
t h r o u g h m o t i o n . Because y o u c a n m o v e a c a m c o r d e r so
T
If even after extensive rehearsals y o u find t h a t in a n
easily, it m a y b e t e m p t i n g to " a n i m a t e " a basically static
o v e r - t h e - s h o u l d e r s h o t t h e p e r s o n closer to t h e c a m e r a
scene b y m o v i n g t h e c a m e r a w i t h great fervor. D o n ' t d o
blocks t h e o t h e r p e r s o n , w h o is f a r t h e r away f r o m t h e
it. Excessive c a m e r a m o t i o n is a telltale sign of a n a m a t e u r
c a m e r a , y o u can solve t h e p r o b l e m by t r u c k i n g o r arcing
camera operator.
to t h e right or left, SEE 6.36 AND
6.36
6.37
CAMERA-FAR PERSON BLOCKED
In an over-the-shoulder shot, you may find that the cameranear person blocks the camera-far person.
6.37
CAMERA TRUCKS TO CORRECT
To correct this over-the-shoulder shot so that the camera-far person can be seen, simply truck or arc the camera to the right.
Section
6.2
•
Because the television screen size is relatively small, we use more close-ups and medium shots than long shots. When shooting for wide-aspect-ratio, large-screen HDTV, you can use more medium shots and long shots.
•
Field of view refers to how much of a scene you show in the viewfinder, that is, how close the object appears relative to the viewer. The field of view is organized into five steps: ESL (extreme long shot, or establishing shot), LS (long shot, or full shot), MS (medium shot, or waist shot), CU (close-up), and ECU (extreme close-up).
•
•
Alternate shot designations include the bust shot, the knee shot, the two-shot, the three-shot, the over-the-shoulder shot (O/S), and the cross-shot (X/S). In organizing the screen area for the traditional 4 x 3 and the HDTV 1 6 x 9 aspect ratios, the major considerations are: dealing with height and width, framing close-ups, headroom, noseroom and leadroom, and closure.
•
In organizing screen depth, a simple and effective way is to establish a distinct foreground, middleground, and back ground.
•
In creating the illusion of a third dimension (depth), you need to consider the choice of lens, positioning of objects, depth of field, and lighting and color.
•
In organizing screen motion for the 4 x 3 aspect ratio, z-axis motion (movement toward or away from the camera) is stronger than lateral movement (from one side of the screen to the other). When working in the 1 6 x 9 aspect ratio, lateral movement becomes more prominent.
Framing
Effective
125
Shots
For your reference, or to track your work, each Video Lab program cue in this chapter is listed here with its corresponding page number.
E3H>
CAMERAS Composition^ field of view CAMERA-^ Compositions close-ups CAMERAS Compositions headroom CAMERA-} Composition^- leadroom CAMERA-} Composition-* closure CAMERAS Picture d e p t h s z-axis | lens choice | perspective and distortion CAMERAS Screen motion^ z-axis | lateral | close-ups 124
115 118 119 120 123
123
Lighting Lighting m e a n s to control light a n d s h a d o w s for three principal reasons: (1) to help the television camera see well, that is, produce technically optimal pictures; (2) to help the v i e w e r see w e l l — t o recognize w h a t things a n d p e o p l e look like a n d w h e r e t h e y are in relation to o n e another a n d to their immediate environment; a n d (3) to establish for the v i e w e r a specific m o o d that helps intensify t h e feeling about t h e event.
Section 7 . 1 , Lighting Instruments a n d Lighting Controls, describes the tools y o u n e e d to accomplish these lighting objectives. Section 7.2, Light Intensity, Lamps, a n d Color Media, introduces a few m o r e elements about light, h o w to control a n d measure it, a n d h o w to use colored light.
126
barn doors Metal flaps mounted in front of a lighting instru ment that control the spread of the light beam. baselight Even, nondirectional (diffused) light necessary for the camera to operate optimally. Normal baselight levels are 150 to 200 foot-candles (1,500 to 2,000 lux) at f/8 to f/16. Also called base.
HMI light Stands for hydragyrum medium arc-length iodide. Uses a high-intensity lamp that produces light by passing electricity through a specific type of gas. Needs a separate ballast. Similar to the HID light. incandescent The light produced by the hot tungsten filament of ordinary glass-globe or quartz-iodine light bulbs (in con trast to fluorescent light).
broad A floodlight with a broadside, panlike reflector. clip light Small internal reflector spotlight that is clipped to pieces of scenery or furniture with a gator clip. Also called PAR (parabolic aluminized reflector) lamp.
incident light Light that strikes the object directly from its source. An incident-light reading is the measure of light in foot-candles (or lux) from the object to the light source. The light meter is pointed directly into the light source or toward the camera.
cookie A popularization of the original term cucolorisor cucaloris. Any pattern cut out of thin metal that, when placed inside or in front of an ellipsoidal spotlight (pattern projector), produces a shadow pattern. Also called gobo.
lumen The light intensity power of one candle (light source radiating isotropically, i.e., in all directions).
dimmer A device that controls the intensity of light by throt tling the electric current flowing to the lamp.
luminant Lamp that produces the light; the light source.
ellipsoidal spotlight Spotlight producing a very defined beam, which can be shaped further by metal shutters. flag A thin, rectangular sheet of metal, plastic, or cloth used to block light from falling on specific areas. Also called gobo. floodlight Lighting instrument that produces diffused light with a relatively undefined beam edge. fluorescent Lamps that generate light by activating a gas-filled tube to give off ultraviolet radiation, which lights up the phosphorous coating inside the tubes. follow spot Powerful special-effects spotlight used primarily to simulate theater stage effects. It generally follows action, such as dancers, ice skaters, or single performers moving in front of a stage curtain. foot-candle (fc) The American unit of measurement of illumi nation, or the amount of light that falls on an object. One foot-candle is the amount of light from a single candle that falls on a 1-square-foot area located 1 foot away from the light source. Fresnel spotlight One of the most common spotlights, named after the inventor of its lens. Its lens has steplike concentric rings. gel Generic term for color filters put in front of spotlights or floodlights to give the light beam a specific hue. Gel comes from gelatin, the filter material used before the invention of more-durable plastics. Also called color media.
luminaire Technical term for lighting instrument.
lux European standard unit for measuring light intensity. 10.75 lux = 1 fc; usually roughly translated as 10 lux = 1 fc. neutral density (ND) filter Filter that reduces the incoming light without distorting the color of the scene. patchboard A device that connects various inputs with specific outputs. Also called patchbay. pattern projector An ellipsoidal spotlight with a cookie (cucoloris) insert, which projects the cookie's pattern as a cast shadow. quartz A high-intensity incandescent light whose lamp consists of a quartz or silica housing (instead of the customary glass) that contains halogen gas and a tungsten filament. Produces a very bright light of stable color temperature (3,200K). Also called TH (tungsten-halogen) lamp. reflected light Light that is bounced off the illuminated object. A reflected-light reading is done with a light meter held close to the illuminated object. scoop A scooplike television floodlight. scrim A spun-glass material that is put in front of a lighting in strument as an additional light diffuser or intensity reducer. softlight Television floodlight that produces extremely dif fused light. spotlight A lighting instrument that produces directional, relatively undiffused light with a relatively well-defined beam edge.
127
7.1 Lighting Instruments
STUDIO LIGHTING INSTRUMENTS All s t u d i o lighting is a c c o m p l i s h e d with a variety of s p o t lights a n d floodlights. These i n s t r u m e n t s , technically called luminaires,
are designed t o o p e r a t e from t h e s t u d i o ceiling
or from floor s t a n d s .
SPOTLIGHTS Spotlights
p r o d u c e directional, well-defined light w h o s e
b e a m can b e adjusted f r o m a s h a r p light b e a m like t h e o n e
and Lighting Controls
from a focused flashlight or a car headlight to a softer b e a m that is still highly directional b u t that lights u p a larger area. All s t u d i o spotlights have a lens t h a t helps s h a r p e n t h e b e a m . M o s t s t u d i o lighting uses t h r e e basic types of s p o t lights: t h e Fresnel, t h e ellipsoidal, a n d t h e follow spot. Fresnel spotlight
N a m e d for t h e early-nineteenth-cen
t u r y F r e n c h physicist A u g u s t i n Fresnel ( p r o n o u n c e d "franel") w h o invented t h e lens used in it, t h e Fresnel
spotlight
is widely used in television s t u d i o p r o d u c t i o n , SEE 7.1 It is relatively lightweight a n d flexible a n d h a s a h i g h o u t p u t . T h e spotlight can b e adjusted t o a "flood" b e a m p o s i t i o n , W h e n y o u t u r n o n t h e light in y o u r r o o m , y o u a r e c o n cerned primarily with having enough illumination to
w h i c h gives off a w i d e s p r e a d light b e a m ; or it can b e "spot ted," o r focused t o a s h a r p , clearly defined b e a m .
see well a n d get a r o u n d . C o n t r a r y to t h e lighting in y o u r h o m e , however, television l i g h t i n g m u s t also please t h e 'anning mechanism controlled by poleoperated knob (see inset)
television c a m e r a a n d fulfill certain aesthetic f u n c t i o n s , such as s i m u l a t i n g o u t d o o r o r i n d o o r lighting o r creating a h a p p y o r sinister m o o d . S t u d i o lighting requires i n s t r u m e n t s that can s i m u l a t e b r i g h t sunlight, a street l a m p at a lonely bus stop, t h e efficiency of a hospital o p e r a t i n g r o o m , or t h e h o r r o r of a medieval d u n g e o n . It m u s t also reflect
Gel and scrim holder
t h e credibility of a news anchor, t h e high energy of a g a m e show, o r t h e r o m a n t i c m o o d in a soap o p e r a scene. W h e n in t h e field, y o u n e e d lighting i n s t r u m e n t s t h a t are easy t o t r a n s p o r t a n d set u p a n d flexible e n o u g h t o
Fresnel lens
w o r k in a great variety of e n v i r o n m e n t s for a m u l t i t u d e of lighting tasks. This section describes t h e m a j o r s t u d i o a n d field lighting i n s t r u m e n t s a n d t h e v a r i o u s types of light Other side:
ing controls. Section 7.2 provides i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t light intensity, v a r i o u s types of l a m p s , a n d color m e d i a . T h e t e c h n i q u e s of lighting are discussed in c h a p t e r 8. ^
STUDIO LIGHTING INSTRUMENTS Spotlights and floodlights Focus knob
Pan knob
Tilt knob
FIELD LIGHTING INSTRUMENTS Portable spotlights, portable floodlights, and camera lights
7 . 1 FRESNEL SPOTLIGHT •
LIGHTING CONTROL EQUIPMENT Mounting devices, directional controls, and intensity controls
128
This spotlight is one of the most useful lighting instruments in the studio.
Section
7. 1
Lighting
Instruments
and
Lighting
Controls
129
You m a n i p u l a t e the relative s p r e a d of t h e b e a m w i t h a b e a m c o n t r o l t h a t changes t h e distance b e t w e e n t h e light b u l b a n d t h e lens. M o s t Fresnel spotlights have a reflector
lamp-
unit i n s i d e t h e l i g h t i n g i n s t r u m e n t t h a t slides
A
Flood position
B
Spot position
t o w a r d o r away from the lens. S o m e i n s t r u m e n t s have a spindle that y o u c r a n k a n d thereby m o v e the lamp-reflector u n i t t o w a r d or away from t h e lens; o t h e r s have a r i n g or k n o b t h a t can be t u r n e d b y h a n d o r from t h e s t u d i o floor w i t h a small h o o k o n t o p of a l o n g pole, called a
lighting
pole. W h a t e v e r t h e m e c h a n i s m , t h e r e s u l t is t h e s a m e : To spot, o r focus, t h e b e a m , t u r n t h e c o n t r o l so t h a t t h e lamp-reflector u n i t m o v e s away from t h e lens. To flood, o r spread, t h e b e a m , t u r n t h e c o n t r o l so t h a t t h e l a m p reflector u n i t moves toward the lens. Even in t h e flood posi tion, t h e b e a m of t h e spotlight is still directional a n d m u c h sharper t h a n that of a floodlight. T h e flood position merely softens t h e b e a m ( a n d w i t h it t h e s h a d o w s ) a n d s i m u l t a n e o u s l y reduces t h e a m o u n t of light falling o n t h e object. Always adjust the b e a m gently. W h e n t h e b u l b is t u r n e d o n , its h o t
filament
is h i g h l y sensitive to shock,
SEE 7.2
S o m e Fresnel spots h a v e a d d i t i o n a l external k n o b s w i t h w h i c h y o u c a n also c o n t r o l t h e p a n a n d the tilt of the i n s t r u m e n t w i t h o u t c l i m b i n g a l a d d e r a n d d o i n g it m a n u ally (see figure 7.1). Fresnel spotlights c o m e in different sizes, d e p e n d i n g o n h o w m u c h light they p r o d u c e . Obviously, t h e larger i n s t r u m e n t s p r o d u c e m o r e light t h a n the smaller ones. T h e size of Fresnel spotlights is n o r m a l l y given in the w a t t a g e of t h e l a m p . For e x a m p l e , you m i g h t b e asked to r e h a n g t h e l k W (1 kilowatt = 1,000 watts) Fresnel or c h a n g e the l a m p in t h e 2 k W Fresnel.
7.2 BEAM CONTROL OF FRESNEL SPOTLIGHT
T h e size of l i g h t i n g i n s t r u m e n t to use d e p e n d s o n several factors: (1) t h e t y p e of c a m e r a a n d t h e sensitivity of t h e i m a g i n g device; (2) t h e distance of the lighting i n s t r u m e n t from t h e object or scene to b e i l l u m i n a t e d ; (3) t h e
A To flood (or spread) the beam, turn the focus spindle, ring, or knob so that the lamp-reflector unit moves toward the lens. B To spot (or focus) the beam, turn the focus spindle, ring, or knob so that the lamp-reflector unit moves away from the lens.
reflectance of t h e scenery, objects, c l o t h i n g , a n d s t u d i o floor; a n d , of course (4) t h e m o o d y o u w a n t to convey. In m o s t television studios, the m o s t c o m m o n Fresnels
a m p l e , if y o u w a n t to create pools of light reflecting off the
are t h e l k W a n d t h e 2 k W i n s t r u m e n t s . For m a x i m u m
s t u d i o floor, t h e ellipsoidal spot is t h e i n s t r u m e n t t o use.
lighting control, t e c h n i c i a n s usually prefer t o o p e r a t e with
As w i t h t h e Fresnel, y o u can s p o t a n d flood t h e light
as few (yet a d e q u a t e l y powerful) lighting i n s t r u m e n t s as
b e a m of t h e ellipsoidal. Instead of sliding t h e l a m p inside
possible. T h e increased sensitivity of cameras has m a d e the
t h e i n s t r u m e n t , however, y o u focus t h e ellipsoidal s p o t by
l k W Fresnel t h e w o r k h o r s e in average-sized studios.
m o v i n g its lens in a n d out. Because of the peculiarity of t h e
Ellipsoidal spotlight
even s h a p e t h e b e a m i n t o a triangle or rectangle by adjust
ellipsoidal reflector (which has t w o focal p o i n t s ) , y o u can T h e ellipsoidal
spotlightproduces
a sharp, highly defined b e a m . Even w h e n in a flood p o s i
ing t h e four m e t a l s h u t t e r s inside t h e i n s t r u m e n t , SEE 7.3
t i o n , t h e ellipsoidal b e a m is still s h a r p e r t h a n t h e focused
Ellipsoidal s p o t l i g h t s c o m e i n sizes f r o m 5 0 0 W to
b e a m of a Fresnel spot. Ellipsoidal spots are generally used
2,000W, b u t t h e m o s t c o m m o n is 750W. S o m e ellipsoidal
w h e n specific, precise lighting tasks are necessary. For ex-
s p o t l i g h t s can also b e u s e d as pattern
projectors.
These
130
Chapter
LIGHTING
7
7.5 FOLLOW SPOT The follow spot allows you to follow action and simultaneously adjust the light beam.
To m a k e lighting t e r m i n o l o g y a little m o r e confusing,
7.3 ELLIPSOIDAL SPOTLIGHT
s o m e lighting people call these p a t t e r n s gobos. U n f o r t u
The highly focused beam of the ellipsoidal spotlight can be further shaped by shutters. It produces the most directional beam of all spotlights.
nately, gobo seems to have as a m b i g u o u s a m e a n i n g as t h e w o r d spring. If a lighting director (LD) asked y o u to fetch a g o b o , h e or she c o u l d m e a n a cookie; a flag, w h i c h is a r e c t a n g u l a r piece of plastic o r m e t a l t o keep light f r o m
i n s t r u m e n t s are e q u i p p e d w i t h a slot n e x t to t h e b e a m s h a p i n g s h u t t e r s , w h i c h can h o l d a m e t a l p a t t e r n called a cucoloris, or cookie for s h o r t . T h e ellipsoidal s p o t projects
falling o n t o certain areas; or even a freestanding piece of scenery, s u c h as p r i s o n bars o r a p i c t u r e frame, t h r o u g h w h i c h t h e c a m e r a can s h o o t a related scene.
t h e cookie as a s h a d o w p a t t e r n o n a n y surface. M o s t often it is u s e d to b r e a k u p flat surfaces, s u c h as t h e
cyclorama
Follow spot
S o m e t i m e s y o u m a y find that a television
(large cloth d r a p e used for backing of scenery) or t h e s t u d i o
s h o w r e q u i r e s a follow
floor. SEE 7.4
spotlight u s e d p r i m a r i l y to s i m u l a t e t h e a t e r stage effects.
spot,
a powerful
special-effects
T h e follow s p o t generally follows a c t i o n , such as d a n c e r s , ice skaters, or single p e r f o r m e r s m o v i n g in front of a stage c u r t a i n , SEE 7.5 In smaller s t u d i o s , y o u c a n use a n ellipsoi dal spotlight t o s i m u l a t e a follow spot.
FLOODLIGHTS Floodlights
are d e s i g n e d t o p r o d u c e great a m o u n t s of
h i g h l y diffused light. T h e y a r e often used as p r i n c i p a l sources of light (key lights) in situations w h e r e s h a d o w s are to b e kept to a m i n i m u m , s u c h as n e w s sets a n d p r o d u c t displays; to slow d o w n falloff
(reduce contrast between
light a n d s h a d o w areas); a n d to p r o v i d e baselight.
With
s o m e floodlights, as w i t h s o m e spotlights, y o u can adjust
7.4 COOKIE PATTERN ON CYCLORAMA The cookie pattern is projected by an ellipsoidal spotlight (pattern projector) in which you can insert a variety of metal templates. Because the spotlight can be focused, you can make the projected pattern look sharp or soft.
t h e s p r e a d of t h e b e a m so t h a t u n d u e spill i n t o o t h e r set areas can b e m i n i m i z e d . You c a n also create a floodlight effect by flooding t h e b e a m of a spotlight a n d diffusing it further w i t h a scrim—a
spun-glass m a t e r i a l held in a m e t a l
f r a m e — i n front of t h e i n s t r u m e n t .
Section
Lighting
7.7
Instruments
and
Lighting
Controls
131
7.7 INCANDESCENT SOFTLIGHT The softlight produces extremely diffused light and is used for illumination with slow fa 11 off. It renders a scene almost shadow less.
Adjustable-focus
scoops have adjustable b e a m s , from
7.6 SCOOP
m e d i u m - s p r e a d p o s i t i o n s to full flood. You m a y use t h e
The scoop is a rugged, all-purpose floodlight. Its scooplike reflector gives its beam some directionality. This scoop has a scrim attached to soften the beam.
adjustable scoops as key lights a n d fill in the resulting shad ows w i t h o t h e r floodlights that e m i t a m o r e highly diffused light. M o s t s c o o p s range from l k W t o 2 k W ( 1 , 0 0 0 W t o 2 , 0 0 0 W ) , w i t h t h e 1,500W scoop b e i n g t h e m o s t p o p u l a r .
T h e r e are four basic types of s t u d i o floodlights: (1) the
BJH^UGHTS^ Instruments^ studio | field
s c o o p , (2) t h e softlight a n d t h e b r o a d , (3) t h e fluorescent floodlight b a n k , a n d (4) t h e strip, o r eye, light.
Softlight and broad
Softlights
are u s e d for even, ex
t r e m e l y diffused lighting. T h e y have large tubelike l a m p s , for its p e c u l i a r scooplike reflector, t h e
a diffusing reflector in t h e back of the large h o u s i n g , a n d
scoop is o n e of t h e m o r e p o p u l a r floodlights. A l t h o u g h it
a diffusing m a t e r i a l covering the front o p e n i n g to further
has n o lens, it nevertheless p r o d u c e s a fairly directional b u t
diffuse t h e light. Softlights are often used for flat (virtually
Z - N a m e d
diffused light b e a m , SEE 7.6
shadowless) l i g h t i n g s e t u p s . You c a n also use softlights
T h e r e are t w o types of scoops: fixed-focus a n d adjust
t o increase t h e baselight level w i t h o u t affecting specific
able-focus. The fixed-focus scoop p e r m i t s n o simple adjust
lighting w h e r e highlights a n d s h a d o w areas are carefully
m e n t of its light b e a m . You c a n increase t h e diffusion of
c o n t r o l l e d . For e x a m p l e , if a scene calls for a hallway with
t h e b e a m by a t t a c h i n g a s c r i m (see figure 7.6). A l t h o u g h
a l t e r n a t i n g b r i g h t a n d d a r k areas, y o u can lighten u p t h e
t h e light o u t p u t t h r o u g h t h e scrim is considerably reduced,
d a r k areas with softlights t o p r o v i d e e n o u g h baselight for
s o m e lighting p e o p l e p u t s c r i m s o n all scoops, n o t only
t h e c a m e r a to see well even in t h e d a r k areas. Softlights
t o p r o d u c e highly diffused light b u t also to p r o t e c t s t u d i o
c o m e in v a r i o u s sizes a n d use i n c a n d e s c e n t o r H M I l a m p s ,
p e r s o n n e l in case t h e h o t l a m p inside t h e s c o o p shatters.
w h i c h are discussed in section 7.2. SEE 7.7
Chapter
132
7.8
LIGHTING
7
LARGE BROAD
This instrument illuminates a fairly large area with diffused light. Its light output is normally greater than that of a softlight of equal size.
T h e broad (from broadside)
7.9
FLUORESCENT FLOODLIGHT BANK
These floodlight banks act like softlights except that they do not get as hot as incandescent floodlights of equal output. Some floodlight banks use lamps that operate on various fluorescent-like principles.
is similar t o a softlight
except t h a t it h a s a h i g h e r light o u t p u t t h a t causes m o r e d i s t i n c t s h a d o w s . B r o a d s also h a v e s o m e p r o v i s i o n for
m u c h m o r e c o o l l y — a definite a d v a n t a g e w h e n lighting
b e a m control. T h e y are generally used t o evenly i l l u m i n a t e
interiors with p o o r ventilation. T h e disadvantages are
large areas w i t h diffused light, SEE 7.8 Smaller b r o a d s e m i t
t h a t fluorescent b a n k s are still quite large a n d b u l k y a n d
a m o r e directional light b e a m t h a n d o t h e larger types,
t h e i r color s p e c t r u m is s o m e t i m e s u n e v e n . T h i s m e a n s
for evenly i l l u m i n a t i n g s m a l l e r areas. To p e r m i t s o m e
t h a t t h e light e m i t t e d d o e s n o t r e p r o d u c e all colors faith
directional c o n t r o l over t h e b e a m , s o m e b r o a d s have barn
fully. S o m e i n s t r u m e n t s cause a persistent a n d noticeable
doors—movable
greenish sheen.
metal flaps—to block gross light spill i n t o
o t h e r set areas.
Floodlight b a n k s have rows of l o w - p o w e r e d fluores cent l a m p s inside a h o u s i n g t h a t looks similar t o a softT h e fluorescent flood
light. These l a m p s l o o k m u c h like t h e fluorescent b u l b s
light b a n k goes back t o t h e early days of television lighting.
you c a n n o w b u y t o replace n o r m a l i n c a n d e s c e n t b u l b s .
In t h o s e days t h e b a n k s were large, heavy, a n d n o t very ef
SEE 7.9 S o m e fluorescent s t u d i o l i g h t i n g fixtures have a
ficient. Today's fluorescent b a n k s are relatively lightweight,
gridlike c o n t r a p t i o n , called a n egg crate, a t t a c h e d t o m a k e
m u c h m o r e efficient, a n d c a n b u r n close t o t h e s t a n d a r d
the light b e a m m o r e d i r e c t i o n a l w i t h o u t losing its soft
i n d o o r color t e m p e r a t u r e (3,200K) o r even a lower o n e
ness. SEE 7.10
Fluorescent floodlight bank
(giving off m o r e - r e d d i s h light). By s i m p l y c h a n g i n g t h e tubes, y o u c a n a p p r o x i m a t e t h e s t a n d a r d o u t d o o r color
Strip, or eye, light
t e m p e r a t u r e (5,600K) o r achieve even h i g h e r o n e s ( m o r e -
m o n l y used t o achieve even i l l u m i n a t i o n of large set areas,
T h i s t y p e of i n s t r u m e n t is c o m
bluish light) t h a t resemble t h e extremely b l u i s h m i d d a y
such as t h e eye (cyclorama)
sunlight filtered by a h a z y sky. (Color t e m p e r a t u r e is ex
b a c k g r o u n d . Similar t o t h e border, o r eye, lights of t h e t h e
p l a i n e d in detail in c h a p t e r 8. F o r n o w it s h o u l d suffice t o
ater, television strip lights consist of rows of t h r e e t o twelve
or some other uninterrupted
k n o w that a h i g h color t e m p e r a t u r e refers to w h i t e light
q u a r t z l a m p s m o u n t e d in long, boxlike reflectors. T h e m o r e
w i t h a slight bluish tint, a n d a low color t e m p e r a t u r e t o
sophisticated strip lights have, like t h e a t e r b o r d e r lights,
white light w i t h a slight r e d d i s h tint. C o l o r t e m p e r a t u r e
colored-glass frames for each of t h e reflector u n i t s so t h a t
has n o t h i n g t o d o w i t h h o w h o t a l a m p gets.)
t h e eye c a n b e i l l u m i n a t e d in different colors, SEE 7.11
O t h e r advantages of fluorescent b a n k s are that t h e y
You c a n also use strip lights as general floodlights by
use less p o w e r t h a n i n c a n d e s c e n t l a m p s a n d t h e y b u r n
s u s p e n d i n g t h e m from t h e s t u d i o ceiling, o r y o u c a n place
Section
7.1
Lighting
Instruments
and
Lighting
Controls
133
grid. T h e r e are several advantages to u s i n g these lighter i n s t r u m e n t s instead of t h o s e o n t h e grid: (1) you can place t h e small i n s t r u m e n t s a n y w h e r e in the s t u d i o with a m i n i m u m of effort, (2) t h e y c a n b e r e p o s i t i o n e d quite easily to get t h e desired lighting effect, (3) t h e y d r a w considerably less p o w e r t h a n t h e larger i n s t r u m e n t s , a n d (4) they gener ate less heat. T h e following section highlights s o m e of t h e m a j o r p o r t a b l e field lighting i n s t r u m e n t s .
FIELD LIGHTING INSTRUMENTS ENGW You
can use s t u d i o lighting i n s t r u m e n t s o n r e m o t e
E F P ^ locations, b u t you'll find t h a t m o s t of t h e m are t o o b u l k y to m o v e a r o u n d easily, t h e i r large plugs d o n o t fit t h e n o r m a l h o u s e h o l d receptacles, a n d they d r a w t o o m u c h power. O n c e in place a n d o p e r a t i n g , they m a y n o t p r o v i d e t h e a m o u n t or type of i l l u m i n a t i o n y o u n e e d for g o o d field lighting. Besides, m o s t s t u d i o lights are s u s p e n d e d o n an o v e r h e a d lighting grid. To take t h e m d o w n each t i m e y o u h a v e to light a r e m o t e telecast n o t only wastes valuable p r o d u c t i o n t i m e b u t , m o r e i m p o r t a n t , r o b s t h e s t u d i o of t h e lighting i n s t r u m e n t s . Unless y o u d o big r e m o t e s w h e r e t h e lighting r e q u i r e m e n t s rival s t u d i o lighting, you n e e d in
7.10
EGG CRATE ON FLUORESCENT FIXTURE
The egg crate makes the floodlight from a fluorescent fixture more directional without influencing the light's softness.
s t r u m e n t s that are easy to t r a n s p o r t a n d quick to set u p a n d t h a t give y o u t h e lighting flexibility n e e d e d in the field. A l t h o u g h m a n y p o r t a b l e lighting i n s t r u m e n t s fulfill d u a l spotlight a n d floodlight functions, y o u m a y still find it useful to g r o u p t h e m , like s t u d i o lights, i n t o those catego ries. N o t e , however, that b y b o u n c i n g a spotlight b e a m off t h e ceiling or t h e wall or b y p u t t i n g s o m e k i n d of diffuser in front of t h e lens, t h e spotlight will take o n t h e function of a floodlight. O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , y o u can use a small floodlight a n d c o n t r o l its b e a m w i t h b a r n d o o r s so t h a t it i l l u m i n a t e s a relatively l i m i t e d area, o p e r a t i n g as a s p o t .
7.11
PORTABLE SPOTLIGHTS
STRIP, OR CYC, LIGHT
Strip lights are used to illuminate cycloramas and other large areas that need even illumination.
Portable spotlights are designed to b e lightweight, rugged, efficient (which m e a n s t h a t t h e light o u t p u t is great relative t o t h e size of t h e i n s t r u m e n t ) , easy t o set u p a n d t r a n s p o r t , a n d small e n o u g h to be effectively h i d d e n from c a m e r a
t h e m o n t h e s t u d i o floor t o separate pillars a n d o t h e r set
view even in c r a m p e d i n t e r i o r s . T h e m o s t frequently used
pieces from t h e lighted b a c k g r o u n d . Strip lights are s o m e
spotlights are (1) t h e small Fresnel spot, (2) t h e H M I light,
t i m e s used for silhouette
(3) t h e small focusable s p o t , (4) t h e open-face spot, a n d
lighting ( w h e r e t h e b a c k g r o u n d is
evenly i l l u m i n a t e d a n d t h e f o r e g r o u n d objects r e m a i n u n lit) a n d special-effects chroma-key
(5) t h e i n t e r n a l reflector s p o t .
lighting (see c h a p t e r 8).
E3S>LIGHTS^ Design-* silhouette
Small Fresnel spot
If y o u n e e d precise lighting for EFP,
For relatively static scenes, such as news o r interviews,
s u c h as for a scene t h a t takes place in a n actual living r o o m
y o u will find t h a t it is often easier t o use t h e m u c h lighter
r a t h e r t h a n o n a s t u d i o set, y o u m a y w a n t t o use l o w - p o w
a n d m o r e flexible field lighting i n s t r u m e n t s , even if there's
ered ( 3 0 0 W to 6 5 0 W ) Fresnel spotlights. T h e y have all t h e
a great variety of s t u d i o lights h a n g i n g f r o m the lighting
features of the larger Fresnel spots, b u t they are smaller a n d
134
Chapter
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LIGHTING
7.12 SMALL FRESNEL SPOTLIGHT This low-powered (300W to 650W) Fresnel spotlight is espe cially effective in EFP lighting. You can focus or diffuse its beam and attach four-way barn doors and color media (gels).
7.13 PORTABLE HMI FRESNEL SPOT WITH BALLAST lighter weight. You can m o u n t t h e m o n light stands or even clip t h e m o n v a r i o u s braces or h a n g e r s , SEE 7.12
The HMI Fresnel spotlight burns with the daylight standard (5,600K). It needs considerably less power than does an incan descent light of equal intensity.
The HMI light is a Fresnel spotlight that h a s
t h e p h o t o g r a p h i c daylight ( o u t d o o r ) s t a n d a r d of 5,600K.
proved highly successful in elaborate EFP, large r e m o t e s ,
You c a n use t h e m as t h e p r i n c i p a l light source o r to fill in
a n d film p r o d u c t i o n s . SEE7.13 It h a s a l a m p t h a t delivers
s h a d o w s w h e n s h o o t i n g o u t d o o r s . You can also use t h e m
from three to five times the illumination of an incandescent
i n d o o r s to fill in s h a d o w s caused by daylight s t r e a m i n g
q u a r t z i n s t r u m e n t of t h e s a m e wattage. This m e a n s t h a t
through a window.
you can get t h e s a m e level of i l l u m i n a t i o n w i t h a 5 0 0 W
O n e of t h e m a j o r advantages of these superefficient
H M I Fresnel as w i t h a 2 , 5 0 0 W i n c a n d e s c e n t Fresnel. T h e
H M I lights is that y o u can use u p to five 2 0 0 W i n s t r u m e n t s
H M I l a m p also generates c o n s i d e r a b l y less heat t h a n d o e s
s i m u l t a n e o u s l y w i t h o u t o v e r l o a d i n g a single circuit, as
an incandescent l a m p of the s a m e wattage. To p e r f o r m such
s u m i n g t h a t n o t h i n g else is plugged i n t o t h e s a m e circuit.
miracles, each i n s t r u m e n t n e e d s its o w n starter a n d ballast
Because you p l u g m o s t of the lights i n t o h o u s e h o l d outlets,
units to p o w e r t h e l a m p . It is used p r i m a r i l y for s i m u l a t i n g
y o u can light m o s t interiors w i t h a m i n i m u m of t i m e a n d
o r s u p p l e m e n t i n g o u t d o o r light. (See section 7.2 for m o r e -
effort. All y o u actually n e e d are p l e n t y of e x t e n s i o n cords
technical details a b o u t h o w t h e v a r i o u s l a m p s w o r k . )
a n d p o w e r strips. As m e n t i o n e d before, t h e H M I l a m p s
For n o r m a l EFP w o r k , y o u m a y find t h a t t h e 200W,
d o n ' t g e n e r a t e m u c h heat, w h i c h keeps interiors relatively
575W, a n d 1,200W i n s t r u m e n t s are t h e m o s t useful. H M I
cool even w h e n several i n s t r u m e n t s are a i m e d at a small
lights are designed for location s h o o t i n g a n d b u r n w i t h
a c t i o n area.
Section
7.7
Lighting
Instruments
and
Lighting
Controls
135
But t h e r e is a d o w n s i d e to these m i r a c l e lights. T h e ballast b o x of t h e H M I light is relatively heavy, c a n get q u i t e w a r m , a n d occasionally h u m s . Even t h e l a m p can e m i t a h i g h - f r e q u e n c y noise. W h e n switched o n , t h e l a m p ' takes a n y w h e r e from o n e to t h r e e m i n u t e s t o reach full i l l u m i n a t i o n power. H M I lights c a n also cause flicker in t h e video image u n d e r certain c i r c u m s t a n c e s (high s h u t t e r speeds). You c a n n o t d i m t h e lights w i t h o u t a noticeable color shift (change in color t e m p e r a t u r e ) . All H M I lights are expensive, a n d even t h e smaller 5 0 0 W i n s t r u m e n t s are b u l k y c o m p a r e d w i t h t h e i r i n c a n d e s c e n t cousins. This small, l o w - p o w e r e d ( 1 2 5 W t o 2 0 0 W ) spotlight functions m u c h like a Fresnel except t h a t it h a s a different lens. Because of its efficient reflector a n d lens, it gives off m o r e light t h a n a Fresnel of equal watt age.
Its b e a m can b e focused or spread, m u c h like t h a t of
a Fresnel. It is especially effective w h e n h i g h l i g h t i n g small areas, SEE 7.14 Open-face spot
M a i n l y b e c a u s e of weight c o n s i d e r
a t i o n s a n d light efficiency, t h e open-face
spotlight
has n o
lens. This p e r m i t s a higher light o u t p u t , b u t t h e b e a m is less even a n d precise t h a n t h a t of t h e Fresnel. I n m o s t r e m o t e
7.14 SMALL SPOTLIGHT This small, low-powered (125W to 200W) spotlight has an efficient reflector and lens (not a Fresnel) that, despite its small size, make it into a highly effective lighting instrument. It is primarily used for ENG and EFP.
lighting tasks, however, a highly defined b e a m offers n o p a r t i c u l a r advantage. Because y o u usually have to w o r k w i t h a m i n i m u m of lighting i n s t r u m e n t s , a fairly general i l l u m i n a t i o n is often b e t t e r t h a n a highly defined o n e . Even in the field, you s h o u l d t r y to achieve t h e lighting t h a t best fits t h e c o m m u n i c a t i o n p u r p o s e . For e x a m p l e , if y o u light a simple i n t e r v i e w in a h o t e l r o o m , flat lighting for o p t i m a l visibility is all y o u n e e d . But if y o u d o a d o c u m e n t a r y o n big-city s l u m s , d o n ' t light u p a d a r k t e n e m e n t as t h o u g h it w e r e a n elegant d e p a r t m e n t store. S u c h a s i t u a t i o n requires more-careful lighting t h a t will retain the actual lighting c o n d i t i o n s of t h e scene while still p r o v i d i n g e n o u g h light to satisfy the needs of the c a m e r a . T h e open-face spot c a n serve b o t h of these r e q u i r e m e n t s . You can s p o t or s p r e a d t h e b e a m of t h e high-effi ciency q u a r t z l a m p t h r o u g h a focus c o n t r o l lever or k n o b o n the back. SEE7.15 Unfortunately, the focused b e a m is n o t always even. W h e n y o u place t h e s p o t close to t h e object, y o u m a y notice ( a n d t h e c a m e r a surely will) that t h e r i m of the b e a m is intense a n d " h o t " while t h e center of t h e b e a m h a s a hole—a l o w - i n t e n s i t y d a r k spot. If y o u place t h e i n s t r u m e n t t o o close w h e n lighting a face, for e x a m p l e , t h e hot spot m a y cause a glowing w h i t e area s u r r o u n d e d b y red o n t h e lighted face or, at best, a distinct color distortion. B u t by s p r e a d i n g t h e b e a m a little a n d p u l l i n g t h e i n s t r u m e n t farther away from t h e person, or by placing a scrim in
7.15 OPEN-FACE SPOT The open-face (external reflector) spot has no lens. Its beam spread can be adjusted to a spot or moderate flood position. It is one of the most versatile lighting instruments in field production.
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7
LIGHTING
front of the spotlight, y o u c a n usually correct t h e p r o b l e m . In fact, w h e n u s i n g a s p o t for general i n d o o r lighting, y o u s h o u l d r o u t i n e l y place a scrim or similar light-diffusing material in front of the i n s t r u m e n t . M o s t o p e n - f a c e s p o t s u s e 5 0 0 W t o 1,000W l a m p s a n d c a n therefore b e p l u g g e d i n t o a regular h o u s e h o l d receptacle w i t h o u t risking a circuit overload. M o s t of these i n s t r u m e n t s have a p o w e r switch close t o t h e l a m p , so t o extend t h e life of t h e l a m p y o u c a n t u r n t h e i n s t r u m e n t off a n y t i m e it is n o t in use. All of these small spotlights c o m e as p a r t of a lighting kit—a suitcase c o n t a i n i n g several such i n s t r u m e n t s a n d light s t a n d s . You m a y find that s o m e t i m e s the relatively inexpensive 5 0 0 W "utility lights" y o u c a n b u y in a n y h a r d w a r e store will d o t h e s a m e j o b as t h e m o r e expensive i n s t r u m e n t s
7.16
in lighting kits. Note, however, t h a t utility lights are m u c h
The clip light, or PAR lamp, consists of a normal internal reflector bulb (such as a PAR 38), a socket with an on/off switch, and a clip for fastening the lamp to a support.
better suited for general-area r a t h e r t h a n specific light ing. T h e y also get extremely h o t : d o n ' t t o u c h t h e front of
CLIP LIGHT
t h e i n s t r u m e n t w h e n h a n d l i n g it, a n d place it far e n o u g h away from c u r t a i n s a n d o t h e r c o m b u s t i b l e materials t o p r e v e n t fires.
Internal reflector bulb
W i t h a n y lighting i n s t r u m e n t , always b e careful n o t to overload t h e circuit; t h a t is, d o n o t exceed t h e circuit's
Metal housing
rated a m p e r a g e by p l u g g i n g in m o r e t h a n o n e i n s t r u m e n t per outlet. Extension cords also a d d their o w n resistance to Barn doors
that o f the l a m p , especially w h e n they get w a r m . O r d i n a r y h o u s e h o l d outlets c a n tolerate a load of u p to 1,200 watts. You c a n therefore p l u g t w o 5 0 0 W spots o r o n e 1,000W i n s t r u m e n t into a single circuit w i t h o u t risking a n overload (see c h a p t e r 8 ) . Internal reflector spot
This spotlight is also k n o w n as
a clip %fofbecause it is usually clipped o n t o things. It looks
Gaffer grip or gator clip
like a n o v e r g r o w n , slightly s q u a s h e d h o u s e h o l d b u l b . You have m o s t likely used it already in still p h o t o g r a p h y or t o light u p y o u r driveway. These l a m p s are often called PAR
7 . 1 7 CLIP LIGHT WITH METAL HOUSING AND BARN DOORS The metal housing and the barn doors help control the beam.
lamps for their p a r a b o l i c a l u m i n i z e d reflector, w h i c h is t h e inside coating of the l a m p . SEE7.16 T h e clip light is easy to use a n d can p r o v i d e a d d i t i o n a l
p o w e r r e q u i r e m e n t s . Floodlights are therefore preferred
subtle highlights a n d accents i n h a r d - t o - r e a c h areas. I n
over h i g h l y d i r e c t i o n a l s p o t l i g h t s . W e l o o k first at t h e
ternal reflector spots c o m e in a variety of b e a m s p r e a d s ,
m o r e p o p u l a r p o r t a b l e floodlights: (1) t h e V-light, (2) t h e
from a soft, diffused b e a m t o a h a r d , precisely s h a p e d b e a m
p o r t a b l e softlight, (3) t h e p o r t a b l e fluorescent b a n k , a n d
(often called PAR 38 lamp). F o r even b e t t e r b e a m c o n t r o l ,
(4) t h e LED light. W e t h e n discuss h o w y o u c a n c h a n g e
as well as for t h e p r o t e c t i o n of t h e i n t e r n a l reflector b u l b ,
p o r t a b l e open-face, a n d even Fresnel, s p o t s i n t o effective
t h e l a m p c a n b e used i n a m e t a l h o u s i n g with b a r n d o o r s
floodlights.
attached, SEE 7.17 O n e of t h e m o r e p o p u l a r floodlights is t h e PORTABLE
FLOODLIGHTS
V-light. A l t h o u g h t h e V - l i g h t w a s o r i g i n a l l y a specific
M o s t E N G / E F P lighting requires a m a x i m u m a m o u n t o f
floodlight m a n u f a c t u r e d b y t h e Lowel-Light M a n u f a c
even i l l u m i n a t i o n w i t h a m i n i m u m of i n s t r u m e n t s a n d
t u r i n g c o m p a n y , it h a s b e c o m e t h e generic n a m e for a n y
Section
7.18
7.1
Lighting
Instruments
V-LIGHT
and
7.19
This small lighting instrument is popular in field productions because of its light weight and high output.
Lighting
Controls
137
ENG/EFP PORTABLE SOFTLIGHT
The softlight comes as a single unit of lamp and diffusion tent. It can be folded up for easy transport.
small i n s t r u m e n t t h a t consists of a large ( 5 0 0 W t o 7 5 0 W ) incandescent quartz lamp wedged into a V-shaped metal reflector, SEE 7.18
T h e V-light is h i g h l y p o r t a b l e a n d easy
to set u p a n d can light u p large areas relatively evenly. Be careful w h e n h a n d l i n g such lights—they get very hot. D o n ' t t o u c h t h e m w h e n t h e y are switched o n , a n d keep t h e m away from c o m b u s t i b l e materials. Portable softlight
P o r t a b l e s o f t l i g h t s c o n s i s t of a
h i g h - i n t e n s i t y ( 2 5 0 W t o 1,000W) l a m p t h a t is placed i n t o a soft-box, also called a diffusion
tent, w h i c h is n o t h i n g b u t
a black heat-resistant cloth b a g w i t h a scrim at its o p e n i n g . (Diffusion tents that can b e attached to a variety of portable lights are discussed in section 7.2.) SEE 7.19 A h i g h l y effective p o r t a b l e softlight is t h e lantern.
Chinese
This softlight is a m o r e d u r a b l e v e r s i o n of a n
actual r o u n d o r b u l b - s h a p e d C h i n e s e l a n t e r n . It is usually s u s p e n d e d from a m i c s t a n d o r a m i c r o p h o n e fish pole (see c h a p t e r 9). You can p u t v a r i o u s k i n d s of l o w - p o w e r e d
7.20
l a m p s inside t h e s a m e l a n t e r n , s u c h as a 2 5 0 W clip light,
This floodlight is modeled after a Chinese lantern. It can be suspended from a pole and illuminates a relatively large area with extremely soft light.
a 2 0 0 W h o u s e h o l d light b u l b , o r even a daylight (5,600K) l a m p if y o u w a n t t o m a t c h o u t d o o r light, SEE
7.20
T h e C h i n e s e l a n t e r n gives off a very soft yet n o t i c e able light t h a t is especially useful for c l o s e - u p s h o t s . T h e
CHINESE LANTERN
Chapter
138
LIGHTING
7
a d v a n t a g e of u s i n g t h e l a n t e r n as a p r i n c i p a l light source is t h a t y o u c a n follow t h e subject as y o u w o u l d w i t h a m i c r o p h o n e ( b u t y o u h a v e t o secure t h e l a n t e r n t o t h e pole so t h a t it d o e s n ' t swing). Because t h e l a n t e r n has a n o p e n i n g o n t h e b o t t o m t o vent t h e heat, keep t h e b r i g h t spot c o m i n g f r o m this h o l e o u t of y o u r p i c t u r e . F o r brief takes, covering it with a light s c r i m w o r k s well. T h e r e are h u g e C h i n e s e l a n t e r n s available t h a t a r e used p r i m a r i l y for p r o v i d i n g even light for large, reflective objects, s u c h as a u t o m o b i l e s o r large appliances. Portable fluorescent bank
Even small p o r t a b l e fluo
rescent floodlights are c o n s i d e r a b l y b u l k i e r a n d heavier t h a n c o m p a r a b l e i n c a n d e s c e n t i n s t r u m e n t s . But because fluorescent floodlights u s e m u c h less p o w e r a n d generate practically n o heat, they are frequently used for i n d o o r EFP lighting. As m e n t i o n e d , t h e p r o b l e m with fluorescent lights is that they d o n o t accurately r e p r o d u c e all colors, even if t h e c a m e r a has b e e n p r o p e r l y w h i t e - b a l a n c e d . If highly ac curate color r e p r o d u c t i o n is n o t a m a j o r c o n c e r n , however, the small fluorescent u n i t is a valuable EFP lighting tool. W h e n lighting for E F P in relatively c r a m p e d q u a r t e r s , y o u c a n use s o m e of t h e smaller, lightweight fluorescent
7.21
b a n k s a n d m o u n t t h e m o n light stands, SEE 7.21
The portable fluorescent bank can be mounted on a light stand. It has great light output and emits no heat.
Because
fluorescent i n s t r u m e n t s d o n o t always b u r n at t h e s t a n d a r d
PORTABLE FLUORESCENT BANK
Kelvin ratings of 3,200K a n d 5,600K, p a y p a r t i c u l a r a t t e n t i o n t o w h i t e - b a l a n c i n g t h e c a m e r a s . C h e c k t h e colors a n d especially t h e skin t o n e s o n a well-adjusted field m o n i t o r
several ways t o achieve a m o r e diffused light w i t h these
before starting t o v i d e o t a p e .
instruments.
LED light
L E D lights are like small c o m p u t e r screens o r
a stretched foldout viewfinder, b u t instead of displaying
Bouncing the light
T h e s i m p l e s t w a y t o diffuse t h e
light is t o b o u n c e it off t h e wall o r ceiling. U n f o r t u n a t e l y ,
an image, they s i m p l y s h o w w h i t e light. T h e LEDs (light-
b o u n c i n g light drastically reduces its intensity, even if t h e
e m i t t i n g d i o d e s ) of t h e s e small p a n e l s ( a b o u t 7 i n c h e s
walls are p a i n t e d a light color. To salvage m a x i m u m light
wide) p u t o u t e n o u g h light t o i l l u m i n a t e a n object suf
intensity, t r y t o get t h e i n s t r u m e n t as close t o t h e wall o r
ficiently
ceiling as possible w i t h o u t c h a r r i n g t h e paint.
for acceptable video images, p r o v i d e d t h e p a n e l
is fairly close t o t h e object. T h e b a t t e r y - p o w e r e d ( 1 2 V t o 24V) p a n e l p r o d u c e s light w i t h t h e 5,600K daylight color
Attaching a scrim
t e m p e r a t u r e t h a t c a n b e d i m m e d w i t h a k n o b o n its t o p
scrims a n d frosted gels. As m e n t i o n e d , scrims a r e s p u n -
side. It is a n ideal c a m e r a light because y o u c a n get fairly
glass diffusers t h a t y o u c a n p u t i n front of small spotlights,
close t o t h e subject w i t h o u t c a u s i n g a h o t spot. W h e n it's
floodlights, o r open-face spots t o achieve m a x i m u m dif
T h e m o s t p o p u l a r diffusers a r e
n o t m o u n t e d o n t h e camera, y o u can use it to light u p small
fusion of t h e light. T h e simplest way t o attach a scrim t o
areas, s u c h as a car interior.
a n open-face i n s t r u m e n t is t o clip it o n t h e b a r n d o o r s w i t h w o o d e n clothespins. D o n ' t use plastic o n e s : o p e n -
DIFFUSING PORTABLE SPOTLIGHTS
face lights get very h o t a n d will m e l t plastic w i t h i n a few
T h e open-face i n s t r u m e n t s (discussed at t h e b e g i n n i n g of
m i n u t e s , SEE 7.22
this section) c a n also b e used as floodlights—just c h a n g e
Scrims c o m e i n v a r i o u s thicknesses; t h e t h i n n e r o n e s
the light from a s p o t t o a flood p o s i t i o n . You will find t h a t
a b s o r b less light, a n d t h e thicker o n e s a b s o r b m o r e light.
despite t h e flood c o n t r o l , however, y o u will n o t always get
You c a n also convert a s c o o p i n t o a softlight by a t t a c h i n g a
t h e even diffusion y o u m a y n e e d . Fortunately, t h e r e are
scrim t h a t is t r i m m e d t o fit a s c r i m h o l d e r (see figure 7.6).
Section
7.1
Lighting
Instruments
and Lighting
7.23
Controls
139
DIFFUSION UMBRELLA
The umbrella reflector is a popular diffusion device. Note that the lighting instrument shines into, not away from, the inside of the umbrella.
N o t e , however, t h a t a n y t i m e y o u p u t t h e spotlight in
7.22
SCRIM ATTACHED TO BARN DOORS
To further diffuse the beam of an open-face instrument, you can attach a scrim to the barn doors with wooden clothespins.
t h e flood p o s i t i o n , o r p u t a diffuser in front of t h e lens, y o u r e d u c e t h e light o u t p u t . Here's a g o o d rule of t h u m b : the more you diffuse the light, the weaker it gets. W h e n d o i n g e l a b o r a t e field p r o d u c t i o n s , s u c h as covering a h i g h - s c h o o l basketball g a m e , y o u can t r y t o use
S o m e lighting people prefer frosted gels as diffusers. Frosted
h i g h - p o w e r e d V-lights a n d u m b r e l l a s , b u t y o u m a y n e e d
gels are w h i t e t r a n s l u c e n t sheets of plastic t h a t h a v e a
larger floodlights, such as scoops, o r floodlight b a n k s . If
s e m i o p a q u e surface. Like scrims, t h e y c o m e in different
available, H M I floodlights w o u l d p r o b a b l y be t h e m o s t
densities that diffuse a n d therefore r e d u c e t h e intensity of
efficient i n s t r u m e n t s . A few l k W s o r even 5 7 5 W i n s t r u
t h e light b e a m by v a r y i n g degrees.
m e n t s in t h e flood p o s i t i o n are all y o u n e e d to light u p a gymnasium.
Using a diffusion umbrella
A n o t h e r highly effective
diffusion device is t h e umbrella.
T h e small, silvery, h e a t -
CAMERA LIGHTS
resistant u m b r e l l a is n o t t o protect y o u from t h e rain b u t to
Electronic news gathering requires yet a n o t h e r type of light,
reflect a n d diffuse t h e light source t h a t shines i n t o it. You
w h i c h c a n b e m o u n t e d o n t o p of t h e c a m e r a o r h a n d h e l d
c a n a t t a c h t h e scooplike u m b r e l l a t o t h e lighting i n s t r u
by t h e c a m e r a o p e r a t o r o r an assistant, SEE 7.25
m e n t a n d / o r t h e light s t a n d a n d t h e n a i m t h e umbrella's
lights have a h i g h light o u t p u t . T h e y are o p e n - f a c e d a n d
Camera
o p e n i n g in t h e general direction of i l l u m i n a t i o n . You n e e d
relatively small a n d have a n a s s o r t m e n t of diffusion filters
to shine t h e light i n t o t h e u m b r e l l a o p e n i n g , n o t o n t h e
a n d a daylight filter (5,600K), w h i c h y o u can flip over t h e
r o u n d e d surface, SEE 7.23
o p e n i n g of the small light. C a m e r a lights d r a w their p o w e r
Attaching a tent
t h a t c a n b e a t t a c h e d t o a t r i p o d o r carried by t h e c a m e r a
either f r o m t h e c a m e r a b a t t e r y o r from a larger b a t t e r y As m e n t i o n e d earlier y o u c a n u s e a
diffusion tent r a t h e r t h a n a tentlike softlight u n i t to c h a n g e
operator.
an i n c a n d e s c e n t spotlight i n t o an effective softlight. M o s t
If y o u d e t a c h t h e light from t h e c a m e r a , avoid s h i n i n g
Fresnel s p o t s c a n be c h a n g e d i n t o softlights by a t t a c h i n g
it directly o n t h e scene right away—it is often a n n o y i n g t o
a diffusion tent t o t h e front of t h e i n s t r u m e n t . You n e e d
a p e r s o n t o have a h i g h - p o w e r e d light p o p into his o r h e r
t h e ring a t t a c h m e n t t h a t c o n n e c t s t h e tent t o t h e spotlight.
eyes w i t h o u t at least a little w a r n i n g . First p o i n t t h e c a m e r a
SEE 7.24 EJH>I_IGHTS^ Instruments^ field
light t o w a r d t h e ceiling a n d t h e n tilt it d o w n gradually.
140
Chapter
LIGHTING
7
This also gives t h e auto-iris o n t h e c a m e r a sufficient t i m e
kits help y o u k e e p t r a c k of t h e various instruments and
to adjust to t h e n e w lighting c o n d i t i o n s w i t h o u t noticeable
accessories a n d facilitate their t r a n s p o r t , setup, a n d stor
b r i g h t n e s s a n d color changes. W h e n y o u have an assistant
age.
SEE 7.26 •
to h a n d l e t h e light, h e o r she c a n direct its b e a m so t h a t it strikes t h e o n - c a m e r a p e r s o n at a slight angle r a t h e r t h a n directly from t h e front.
LIGHTING CONTROL EQUIPMENT
Lighting kits
w i t h s o m e specific e q u i p m e n t : (1) m o u n t i n g d e v i c e s ,
To u n d e r s t a n d lighting c o n t r o l , y o u n e e d t o b e familiar S t a n d a r d lighting kits c o n t a i n a variety
of s p o t a n d flood i n s t r u m e n t s , light s t a n d s , b a r n d o o r s ,
(2) directional controls, a n d (3) i n t e n s i t y c o n t r o l s .
v a r i o u s diffusion materials, cables, a n d extra l a m p s . These
MOUNTING DEVICES M o u n t i n g devices let y o u safely s u p p o r t a variety of light ing i n s t r u m e n t s a n d a i m t h e m in t h e desired d i r e c t i o n . G o o d m o u n t i n g devices are as i m p o r t a n t as t h e i n s t r u m e n t s themselves. T h e m a j o r devices specially designed a n d i n t e n d e d for s t u d i o lights are: (1) t h e p i p e grid a n d t h e c o u n t e r w e i g h t b a t t e n s , (2) t h e C - c l a m p , (3) t h e sliding r o d a n d t h e p a n t o g r a p h , a n d (4) a variety of floor s t a n d s . Portable lights are m o u n t e d p r i m a r i l y o n collapsible stands
7.24 DIFFUSION TENT ON FRESNEL SPOTLIGHT You can turn a small Fresnel spot into a softlight by diffusing its beam with a portable diffusion tent.
7.25 CAMERA LIGHT
7.26 LIGHTING KIT
This small light is mounted on the camera and powered by the camcorder battery or a separate battery pack. Its beam is further diffused by a small diffusion tent.
A typical EFP lighting kit contains a variety of floodlights and spotlights and such accessories as light stands, barn doors, and diffusers.
Section
7.7
Lighting
Instruments
and
Lighting
141
Controls
7.27
PIPE GRID
This simple pipe grid supports all the lighting necessary for a small performance area, such as a news, interview, or kitchen set.
t h a t are typically p a r t of a lighting kit. For o n - l o c a t i o n
tells h o w m a n y weights a r e necessary t o b a l a n c e each t y p e
lighting, t h e r e is a variety of m o u n t i n g devices available,
of i n s t r u m e n t , p l u s t h e weight of t h e e m p t y b a t t e n .
s u c h as small b o o m s , cross braces, a n d braces t h a t fit over doors or furniture.
T h e o b v i o u s a d v a n t a g e of t h e c o u n t e r w e i g h t b a t t e n s over t h e p i p e g r i d system is t h a t t h e i n s t r u m e n t s c a n b e h u n g , adjusted, a n d m a i n t a i n e d from t h e s t u d i o floor. You
Pipe grid and counterweight battens
S t u d i o lights
will find, however, t h a t y o u c a n n o t d o entirely w i t h o u t a
are h u n g either from a fixed pipe grid o r from c o u n t e r
ladder. First, a l t h o u g h y o u c a n initially adjust t h e i n s t r u
weight b a t t e n s . T h e pipe grid consists of heavy steel p i p e
m e n t s t o a r o u g h o p e r a t i n g position, y o u n e e d t o r e - a i m
s t r u n g e i t h e r crosswise o r parallel a n d m o u n t e d 12 t o
t h e m o n c e t h e b a t t e n s are locked at t h e o p t i m a l height.
18 feet above t h e s t u d i o floor. T h e height of t h e g r i d is d e t e r m i n e d b y t h e height of t h e s t u d i o ceiling; b u t even in r o o m s w i t h l o w ceilings, t h e p i p e s h o u l d b e m o u n t e d a p p r o x i m a t e l y 2 feet below t h e ceiling so t h a t t h e lighting
g
a t t e n
,
Power outlets
Trough to catch power cable when raising batten
i n s t r u m e n t s or h a n g i n g devices c a n b e easily attached. T h e space above t h e g r i d is also necessary t o dissipate t h e heat g e n e r a t e d b y t h e lights, SEE 7.27 Unlike t h e p i p e grid, w h i c h is p e r m a n e n t l y m o u n t e d b e l o w t h e ceiling, t h e counterweight
battens can b e raised
a n d lowered t o a n y desired p o s i t i o n a n d locked firmly in place, SEE 7.28 T h e b a t t e n s a n d t h e i n s t r u m e n t s are c o u n terweighted b y heavy iron weights a n d m o v e d b y m e a n s of a r o p e - a n d - p u l l e y system o r b y i n d i v i d u a l m o t o r s , SEE 7.29 Before u n l o c k i n g a c o u n t e r w e i g h t r o p e to m o v e t h e b a t t e n u p o r d o w n , always check t h a t t h e b a t t e n is p r o p e r l y weighted. You c a n d o this b y c o u n t i n g t h e weights a n d c o m p a r i n g t h e m w i t h t h e t y p e a n d n u m b e r of i n s t r u ments m o u n t e d o n the batten. T h e counterweights and
7 . 2 8 COUNTERWEIGHT BATTEN
t h e i n s t r u m e n t s s h o u l d r o u g h l y b a l a n c e each other. Such
The counterweight batten can be raised and lowered and locked at a specific operating height.
r o p e - a n d - p u l l e y systems s h o u l d h a v e a sign p o s t e d t h a t
Chapter
142
LIGHTING
7
7.30
C-CLAMP
The C-clamp is the connection between the lighting instrument and the batten. Even when the C-clamp is securely tightened to the batten, you can swivel the instrument as necessary.
all lighting i n s t r u m e n t s s h o u l d b e c h a i n e d or secured to t h e b a t t e n itself by a s t r o n g steel cable l o o p . Similarly, t h e b a r n d o o r s m u s t be secured to t h e lighting i n s t r u m e n t s . Even if y o u are u n d e r severe t i m e p r e s s u r e w h e n r e h a n g ing lights, do not neglect to secure each instrument
with
the
safety chain or cable, SEE 7.30
7.29
COUNTERWEIGHT RAIL
The battens and the lighting instruments attached to them are counterweighted by heavy iron weights and moved up and down by a rope-and-pulley system from a common rail.
Sliding rod and pantograph
If t h e s t u d i o h a s a fixed
pipe grid, or if y o u n e e d to raise o r lower i n d i v i d u a l i n s t r u m e n t s w i t h o u t m o v i n g a n entire batten, y o u can use sliding rods. A sliding rod consists of a s t u r d y p i p e a t t a c h e d to t h e b a t t e n b y a m o d i f i e d C - c l a m p ; it can b e m o v e d a n d locked into a specific vertical p o s i t i o n . For a d d i t i o n a l flexibility,
Second, by t h e t i m e y o u n e e d t o trim, o r fine-tune, t h e
t h e m o r e expensive sliding rods have telescopic extensions.
lights, t h e s t u d i o floor is generally c r o w d e d with sets, c a m
SEE 7.31 More-elaborate lighting systems have m o t o r - d r i v e n
eras, a n d m i c r o p h o n e s , w h i c h prevent lowering t h e b a t t e n s
sliding r o d s w h o s e vertical m o v e m e n t can b e r e m o t e l y
to a c o m f o r t a b l e w o r k i n g height. You c a n t h e n squeeze
activated from t h e s t u d i o lighting c o n t r o l .
t h e l a d d e r i n t o the set o r use a lighting pole to d o t h e final
S o m e s t u d i o s use t h e pantograph,
a spring-loaded
t r i m m i n g . As y o u recall, h i g h - e n d Fresnel spots have k n o b s
h a n g i n g device that c a n b e adjusted from t h e s t u d i o floor
that allow y o u to tilt, p a n , a n d focus t h e i n s t r u m e n t from
to a n y vertical p o s i t i o n w i t h i n its 12-foot r a n g e , SEE 7.32
the s t u d i o floor with a lighting pole (see figure 7.1).
P a n t o g r a p h s are m o s t useful for adjusting t h e h e i g h t of
C-clamp
T h e lighting i n s t r u m e n t s are directly a t t a c h e d
g r a p h is that y o u can adjust it from the s t u d i o floor w i t h o u t
either to the b a t t e n by a large C-clamp or to h a n g i n g devices
affecting the h e i g h t of spotlights that m a y b e h u n g o n t h e
scoops a n d o t h e r floodlights. T h e a d v a n t a g e of a p a n t o
(discussed n e x t ) . You n e e d a w r e n c h o r key to securely
s a m e b a t t e n . T h e disadvantages are t h a t t h e p a n t o g r a p h
fasten t h e C - c l a m p to t h e r o u n d m e t a l b a t t e n . T h e lighting
is b u l k y a n d t h a t the c o u n t e r b a l a n c i n g s p r i n g s get o u t of
i n s t r u m e n t is attached to the C - c l a m p a n d can b e swiveled
a d j u s t m e n t a n d , worse, wear o u t from e x t e n d e d use.
h o r i z o n t a l l y w i t h o u t l o o s e n i n g t h e b o l t t h a t h o l d s it to t h e b a t t e n . A l t h o u g h t h e C - c l a m p will s u p p o r t t h e lighting
Floor stand
i n s t r u m e n t a n d n o t fall off t h e b a t t e n even if t h e large bolt
p i p e grid or b a t t e n s . S o m e are m o u n t e d o n roller-caster
is loose, you s h o u l d nevertheless check that all C-clamps o n
floor stands t h a t can b e rolled a r o u n d t h e s t u d i o a n d verti
the grid are securely tightened. As an a d d e d safety m e a s u r e ,
cally e x t e n d e d , SEE 7.33
N o t all s t u d i o lights are m o u n t e d o n t h e
Such s t a n d s c a n h o l d all types of
Section
7.7
Lighting
Instruments
and
Lighting
Controls
143
C-clamp
Locking screw
7.31 Sliding rod
SLIDING ROD (TELESCOPE HANGER)
This sliding rod, called a telescope hanger, allows you to move the instrument up and down and lock it into position. It is used primarily on lighting grids but also on counterweight systems when more vertical control is needed.
Locking screw
Telescopic extension
7.32
PANTOGRAPH
You can adjust this spring-loaded pantograph quickly and easily by pushing it up or pulling it down with a lighting pole. The springs act as a counterweight for the lights attached to it.
7.33
FLOOR STANDS
The floor stand can support a variety of lighting instruments and can be adapted for an easel or for large reflectors.
Chapter
144
LIGHTING
7
7.35
CROSS BRACE
This extendible cross brace can be clamped to scenery or furni ture as a battenlike support for portable lighting instruments.
specifically d e s i g n e d t o h o l d small lighting i n s t r u m e n t s . T h e advantage of such a b o o m is t h a t y o u can s u s p e n d t h e light over the scene o u t of c a m e r a range a n d easily relocate it as necessary. T h e disadvantages are t h a t b o o m s are q u i t e expensive a n d t h a t even a small o n e takes u p m o r e space t h a n is often available. M a n y i n g e n i o u s m o u n t i n g devices are available, s u c h as cross braces a n d braces t h a t fit conveniently over d o o r s , a n d o t h e r s t h a t let y o u attach small lighting i n s t r u m e n t s to scenery, desks, furniture, t r a s h c a n s , o r any o t h e r c o n v e
7.34
PORTABLE LIGHT STANDS
These light stands are designed for relatively light weight portable instruments and can be extended to a height of 8 to 10 feet. Because light stands tend to tip over when fully extended, always secure them with sandbags.
n i e n t object i n t h e r e m o t e location, SEE 7.35 You can also m a k e a simple lighting bridge o u t of 1 x 3 l u m b e r t h a t will h o l d o n e o r t w o p o r t a b l e spotlights for b a c k - l i g h t i n g . Whatever m o u n t i n g devices y o u u s e — i n c l u d i n g y o u r o w n c o n t r a p t i o n s — s e e to it t h a t t h e lighting i n s t r u m e n t is securely fastened a n d sufficiently far f r o m c u r t a i n s , upholstery, o r o t h e r ignitable materials. Light s t a n d s t h a t
i n s t r u m e n t s : scoops, b r o a d s , spots, a n d even strip lights.
are fully e x t e n d e d t e n d to t o p p l e at t h e slightest pull o n
T h e s t a n d s usually have a switch to t u r n t h e light o n a n d
t h e p o w e r cable o r even in a s t r o n g breeze. Always put a
off. Floor s t a n d s are especially i m p o r t a n t if y o u light for
sandbag
on the light stand to prevent
it from
tipping
over.
film-style s h o o t i n g , w h i c h m e a n s that y o u adjust t h e light ing, o r light separately, for each take.
DIRECTIONAL CONTROLS You are familiar w i t h t h e s p o t a n d flood b e a m c o n t r o l
Portable light stand
Because y o u w o n ' t find b a t t e n s
o n spotlights. Several o t h e r devices can help y o u c o n t r o l
or grids conveniently installed at field l o c a t i o n s , y o u n e e d
t h e d i r e c t i o n of the b e a m , s u c h as b a r n d o o r s , flags, a n d
to c a r r y t h e lighting s u p p o r t s w i t h y o u . A large ^variety of
reflectors. You can use reflectors for intensity as well as
l i g h t w e i g h t a n d d u r a b l e m o u n t i n g devices is*''available,
directional c o n t r o l . M o s t of t h e t i m e , however, reflectors
a n d all of t h e m consist basically of collapsible s t a n d s a n d
are used for s h a d o w c o n t r o l .
extendible poles, SEE 7.34 You can attach to t h e s t a n d s a n d poles a w i d e a r r a y
Barn door.';
This admittedly c r u d e b e a m control m e t h o d
of p o r t a b l e lighting i n s t r u m e n t s a n d o t h e r devices, s u c h
is very effective for b l o c k i n g certain set areas partially or
as reflectors, s c r i m s , a n d flags (see figures 7.37-7.39). I n
totally from i l l u m i n a t i o n . Barn
m o r e - e l a b o r a t e p r o d u c t i o n s , y o u can use a p o r t a b l e b o o m
four m e t a l flaps t h a t y o u can fold over t h e lens of t h e
doors consist of t w o o r
Section
7.1
Lighting
Instruments
and Lighting
Controls
7.36 FOUR-WAY BARN DOOR
7.37 FLAG
This four-way barn door allows you to control the beam spread on all four sides—top and bottom, and left and right.
Flags come in various sizes and densities. You use them to prevent light from hitting specific set areas.
145
lighting i n s t r u m e n t t o p r e v e n t t h e light from falling o n
c a m e r a . I n m o v i e lingo, flags are also called g o b o s . Yes,
certain areas. For e x a m p l e , if y o u w a n t t o keep t h e u p p e r
this is yet a n o t h e r definition of gobo; this t i m e it refers
p a r t of t h e scenery d a r k w i t h o u t sacrificing i l l u m i n a t i o n
to a flag a n d n o t t o a c o o k i e — t h e m e t a l t e m p l a t e t h a t is
of t h e lower p a r t , y o u s i m p l y b l o c k off t h e u p p e r p a r t of
inserted i n t o an ellipsoidal spotlight to p r o d u c e a s h a d o w
t h e b e a m w i t h a b a r n d o o r . O r if y o u w a n t t o eliminate a
p a t t e r n (see figure 7.4). Obviously, y o u c a n use flags only
b o o m shadow, y o u can partially close a b a r n door, SEE
if t h e c a m e r a a n d talent m o v e m e n t s have b e e n carefully
7.36
EBtfrllGHTS-* Instruments-* beam control
rehearsed, SEE
7.37
B a r n d o o r s are also effective for p r e v e n t i n g t h e back light from s h i n i n g into t h e c a m e r a lens, w h i c h c a n cause
Reflectors
lens flare (an u n c o n t r o l l e d light reflection inside t h e lens
You c a n p o s i t i o n t h e m t o redirect a light source (often t h e
M i r r o r s a r e t h e m o s t efficient reflectors.
t h a t shows u p as s u p e r i m p o s e d rays of light circles). Be
s u n ) i n t o areas t h a t are t o o small o r n a r r o w for setting u p
cause b a r n d o o r s slide i n t o their h o l d e r s easily, they have a
lighting i n s t r u m e n t s . For e x a m p l e , if y o u h a d t o light u p
t e n d e n c y to slide o u t of t h e m just as readily. Always secure
a long, d a r k hallway t h a t h a s a n exterior door, y o u could
all b a r n d o o r s t o their i n s t r u m e n t s w i t h t h e safety c h a i n o r
use m i r r o r s to redirect t h e sunlight into t h e hall a n d reflect
cable. Barn d o o r s also get very hot: wear protective gloves
it off t h e wall. This t e c h n i q u e w o u l d save y o u s e t u p t i m e ,
while adjusting t h e m w h e n t h e i n s t r u m e n t is t u r n e d o n .
e q u i p m e n t , a n d electricity. M o s t often, however, y o u use reflectors to p r o d u c e highly diffused light t o lighten u p
Flags
Rectangular metal frames w i t h heat-resistant cloth
o r t h i n m e t a l sheets of v a r i o u s sizes, flags act very m u c h
dense s h a d o w s ( i n m e d i a aesthetic language, t o slow falloff)
down
o n s o m e o n e ' s face or o n a n object. You d o n ' t use
like b a r n d o o r s except t h a t y o u d o n ' t place t h e m directly
m i r r o r s t o slow d o w n falloff; rather, y o u u s e m a t e r i a l that
o n t h e lighting i n s t r u m e n t . Flags are m o u n t e d o n light
will reflect only a p o r t i o n of t h e light a n d diffuse it at t h e
s t a n d s a n d p u t a n y w h e r e they're n e e d e d to b l o c k t h e light
s a m e t i m e . M o s t LDs prefer a large sheet of w h i t e foam
from falling o n a specific area w i t h o u t b e i n g seen b y t h e
core; it is lightweight, q u i t e sturdy, s i m p l e to set u p , a n d
Chapter
146
7.38
LIGHTING
7
7.39
FOIL REFLECTOR
This homemade but highly efficient reflector uses crumpled aluminum foil taped to a piece of cardboard.
PORTABLE REFLECTOR
Small portable reflectors are round and can be folded up for easy transport. Most of them have a silver-colored reflector on one side and a warmer, gold-colored reflector on the other.
easily replaced if it gets d i r t y or b r o k e n . A n y large w h i t e
of i n c a n d e s c e n t a n d fluorescent l a m p s , y o u d o n ' t n e e d
c a r d b o a r d will d o a l m o s t as well. If y o u n e e d a m o r e ef
t h e large i n s t r u m e n t s y o u m a y still see i n m o t i o n p i c t u r e
ficient reflector ( o n e t h a t reflects m o r e light), y o u c a n
p r o d u c t i o n . T h e largest i n s t r u m e n t used in m o s t television
c r u m p l e u p s o m e a l u m i n u m foil t o get a n u n e v e n surface
studios is a 2 k W Fresnel spotlight. T h e lights for E F P / E N G
(for a m o r e diffused reflection) a n d t h e n tape it t o a piece
rarely exceed 6 5 0 watts.
of c a r d b o a r d , SEE 7.38
frVi*»LIGHTS->
Field-* use of reflectors
C o m m e r c i a l r e f l e c t o r s c o m e i n w h i t e , silver, a n d
Dista nee
W h e n you m o v e t h e lighting i n s t r u m e n t closer
gold a n d can b e folded u p for easy t r a n s p o r t a n d setup.
to t h e object, t h e i n t e n s i t y of t h e light increases; if y o u
SEE 7.39 T h e silver a n d white m o d e l s reflect a h i g h e r - c o l o r -
m o v e it farther away, t h e intensity decreases. You c a n apply
t e m p e r a t u r e light t h a n d o t h e g o l d - c o l o r e d o n e s .
this principle easily so l o n g as t h e i n s t r u m e n t s are m o u n t e d
INTENSITY CONTROLS: INSTRUMENT SIZE, DISTANCE, A N D BEAM
effort. In m a n y cases this is t h e m o s t efficient w a y of c o n trolling light intensity o n a n E N G / E F P s h o o t . You can also
T h e r e are t h r e e basic m e t h o d s of c o n t r o l l i n g t h e intensity
apply this p r i n c i p l e in t h e s t u d i o if t h e lights are m o u n t e d
o n light s t a n d s a n d y o u can m o v e t h e m w i t h o u t t o o m u c h
of light w i t h o u t t h e use of d i m m e r s : (1) selecting an in
o n a m o v a b l e b a t t e n . I n general, t r y t o p o s i t i o n t h e i n s t r u
s t r u m e n t of t h e p r o p e r size, (2) adjusting t h e distance of
m e n t s as low as possible w i t h o u t getting t h e m i n t o c a m e r a
lighting i n s t r u m e n t t o object, a n d (3) focusing or diffusing
range. This w a y y o u achieve m a x i m u m light intensity w i t h
t h e light b e a m .
m i n i m a l power. M if--»LIGHTS-» Instruments-* field
Instrument size
T
T h e s i m p l e s t w a y t o c o n t r o l light
intensity is obviously t o t u r n o n only a certain n u m b e r of
Beam
T h e m o r e focused t h e light b e a m , t h e h i g h e r its
intensity. T h e m o r e diffused t h e light b e a m is, t h e less i n
i n s t r u m e n t s of a specific size (wattage). Because of t h e light
tensity it h a s . You have already l e a r n e d a b o u t t h e v a r i o u s
sensitivity of m o d e r n c a m e r a s a n d t h e h i g h light o u t p u t
m e t h o d s of diffusing t h e b e a m using t h e focus c o n t r o l in
Section
7.1
Lighting
Instruments
and
Lighting
147
Controls
t h e i n s t r u m e n t a n d with v a r i o u s scrims a n d reflectors. You can also use a specially designed wire-mesh
screen t o dif
fuse a n d block a certain a m o u n t of light. You s i m p l y slide t h e m e t a l screen directly i n front of t h e i n s t r u m e n t , m u c h like s c r i m s a n d frosted gels. D e p e n d i n g o n t h e fineness of t h e m e s h , t h e screen d i m s t h e light w i t h o u t influencing its color t e m p e r a t u r e . T h e p r o b l e m w i t h w i r e - m e s h screens is t h a t t h e heat of t h e q u a r t z l a m p t e n d s t o b u r n u p t h e fine m e t a l wires w i t h i n a relatively s h o r t t i m e ; t h e screens b e c o m e brittle a n d eventually disintegrate (see figure 7.13).
INTENSITY CONTROLS: ELECTRONIC D I M M E R S T h e m o s t precise light c o n t r o l is t h e electronic d i m m e r .
7.40
W i t h a dimmer
The higher you push the lever on this manual dimmer, the more voltage flows to the lamp. At the 0 setting, no voltage flows to the lamp; at a setting of 10, the lamp burns at full intensity.
y o u c a n easily m a n i p u l a t e each light, o r
a g r o u p of lights, t o b u r n at a given intensity, from 0 {off p o s i t i o n ) t o full strength. A l t h o u g h d i m m e r s are technically complex, their basic
MANUAL DIMMER CALIBRATION
o p e r a t i o n a l p r i n c i p l e is simple: b y allowing m o r e o r less voltage t o flow to t h e l a m p , t h e l a m p b u r n s w i t h a h i g h e r o r lower intensity. If y o u w a n t t h e lighting i n s t r u m e n t t o b u r n at full intensity, t h e d i m m e r lets all t h e voltage flow t o t h e l a m p . If y o u w a n t it to b u r n at a lesser intensity, t h e d i m m e r reduces t h e voltage. To d i m t h e light completely—called a blackout—the
d i m m e r p e r m i t s n o voltage (or at least an
i n a d e q u a t e voltage) t o reach t h e l a m p .
Individual dimmers
A useful d i m m e r system s h o u l d
h a v e a fair n u m b e r of i n d i v i d u a l d i m m e r s ( t w e n t y o r m o r e ) , each w i t h a n intensity calibration. T h e u s u a l cali b r a t i o n is n o r m a l l y in i n c r e m e n t s u p t o 10, w i t h 0 p r e v e n t ing a n y voltage from reaching t h e i n s t r u m e n t ( t h e light is off) a n d 10 allowing t h e full voltage to flow t o t h e l a m p ( t h e l a m p b u r n s a t full i n t e n s i t y ) . A l t h o u g h m o s t s t u d i o s '
Individual dimmers
d i m m e r s are c o m p u t e r - c o n t r o l l e d , it is easier t o learn t h e
Group faders
Computer memory input
Remote control
p r i n c i p l e of d i m m e r s by l o o k i n g at a m a n u a l system. T h e c o m p u t e r does n o t c h a n g e t h e basic principle of d i m m i n g ; it simply facilitates t h e storage a n d retrieval of t h e v a r i o u s
7.41
d i m m i n g c o m m a n d s , p r o v i d e s a w i d e variety of d i m m i n g
The computerized dimmer can store, recall, and execute a wide variety of dimming functions. You can also switch it to manual control.
options, a n d activates t h e actual d i m m i n g process at precise m o m e n t s in t h e p r o d u c t i o n .
COMPUTERIZED DIMMER CONTROL
O n m a n u a l d i m m e r s y o u p u s h t h e c o n t r o l lever t o t h e desired setting b e t w e e n 0 a n d 10. Such calibrations are necessary n o t only t o set t h e initial light intensity b u t
store a n d recall t h e m either a u t o m a t i c a l l y o r b y p u s h i n g
also t o r e c o r d t h e exact settings so that t h e y c a n b e s t o r e d
a single b u t t o n . It is n o t u n c o m m o n for a c o m p u t e r i z e d
a n d recalled with m i n i m a l effort, SEE 7.40 C o m p u t e r i z e d
d i m m e r t o offer h u n d r e d s of i n d i v i d u a l f u n c t i o n s that
d i m m e r s h a v e s i m i l a r slide faders t h a t c a n b e m a n u
y o u can store o n disk. M o s t c o m p u t e r d i m m e r s keep y o u r
ally o r a u t o m a t i c a l l y controlled. A variety of c o n t r o l s lets
i n p u t i n s h o r t - t e r m m e m o r y , even if y o u have switched
y o u c o m b i n e a great n u m b e r of d i m m i n g functions a n d
t h e m off. SEE 7.4i
148
Chapter
LIGHTING
7
7.42 MANUAL PATCHBOARD
Instrument connected to dimmer
The patchboard enables you to establish power connections between specific lighting instru ments and specific dimmers.
Patch cord (connection to lighting instrument)
Power sockets, or jacks (connection to dimmer)
Breakers
T h e d o w n s i d e of d i m m i n g is t h a t lowering t h e voltage
T h e p a t c h b o a r d t h u s allows for m a n y c o m b i n a t i o n s
will cause incandescent l a m p s to lower their color t e m p e r a
of specific lighting i n s t r u m e n t s from different s t u d i o areas
t u r e t o a m o r e r e d d i s h light. (We discuss this p r o b l e m in
a n d lets y o u c o n t r o l their intensity either individually or in g r o u p s . As a safety m e a s u r e , all p a t c h b o a r d s have circuit
m o r e detail in c h a p t e r 8.)
breakers for each p o w e r c o n n e c t i o n to t h e d i m m e r . Do not Patchboard
T h e patchboard,
o r patchbay,
m a k e s it
turn on the breaker before plugging
possible to c o n n e c t each lighting i n s t r u m e n t to a specific
appropriate
d i m m e r . Let's a s s u m e t h a t y o u have o n e l a m p in y o u r study
patching,
a n d a n o t h e r l a m p in y o u r b e d r o o m b u t o n l y o n e d i m m e r .
and—especially—you.
the patch cord into
the
dimmer jack. If t h e b r e a k e r is o n , y o u are hota practice t h a t can d a m a g e b o t h t h e e q u i p m e n t
Because y o u can't b e in t h e s t u d y a n d t h e b e d r o o m at t h e
T h e software p r o g r a m in a c o m p u t e r - a s s i s t e d d i m
s a m e t i m e , y o u can p l u g l a m p 1 i n t o t h e d i m m e r w h e n in
m i n g system will r e c o r d y o u r p a t c h i n g decisions a n d trig
t h e study, a n d l a m p 2 w h e n in t h e b e d r o o m . W h a t y o u
ger t h e actual p a t c h e s o n c o m m a n d . For e x a m p l e , if y o u
have d o n e is patched
w a n t t o t u r n u p all t h e fill lights while t u r n i n g off all t h e
different lighting i n s t r u m e n t s to a
single d i m m e r . If y o u h a d t w e n t y lights t h a t y o u w a n t e d
spotlights or vice versa, y o u simply type t h e n u m b e r s of the
to d i m at different t i m e s , y o u c o u l d select a n y o n e of t h e m
v a r i o u s i n s t r u m e n t s a n d tell t h e c o m p u t e r w h i c h o n e s to
a n d p a t c h it i n t o t h e single d i m m e r . T h e p a t c h b o a r d of a n
c o m b i n e for a specific g r o u p function. T h e n all y o u n e e d
actual d i m m e r system w o r k s in t h e s a m e way.
to d o is press t h e g r o u p b u t t o n at t h e specific t i m e , a n d t h e
To patch a specific lighting i n s t r u m e n t into a specific
c o m p u t e r will take care of t h e rest. W h a t formerly required
d i m m e r , y o u select its designated patch c o r d a n d p l u g it
c u m b e r s o m e r e p a t c h i n g can n o w b e a c c o m p l i s h e d with a
into t h e d i m m e r receptacle (called a jack),
SEE 7.42
Just for practice let's d o s o m e p a t c h i n g . You are asked to p a t c h i n s t r u m e n t 5 (a spotlight plugged into t h e #5 b a t
single c o m p u t e r c o m m a n d . T h e computer-assisted system, however, does n o t c h a n g e t h e simple p r i n c i p l e of p a t c h i n g t h a t y o u used w i t h y o u r s t u d y a n d b e d r o o m lights.
ten outlet) a n d i n s t r u m e n t 27 (a scoop plugged into the #27
T h e r e are m a n y t y p e s of d i m m e r s o n t h e m a r k e t ,
batten outlet at t h e o t h e r e n d of t h e studio) to d i m m e r 1. At
r a n g i n g from simple r h e o s t a t s t o sophisticated c o m p u t e r -
the p a t c h b o a r d y o u look for the p a t c h cords #5 a n d #27 a n d
d r i v e n m o d e l s . Regardless of t h e e l e c t r o n i c s i n v o l v e d ,
plug t h e m into t h e jacks for d i m m e r 1. W h e n y o u b r i n g u p
t h e d i m m e r systems used in television s t u d i o s have two
d i m m e r 1 at t h e p a t c h b o a r d , b o t h i n s t r u m e n t s — s p o t l i g h t
basic features: a series of i n d i v i d u a l d i m m e r s t h a t c o n t r o l
5 a n d s c o o p 2 7 — s h o u l d light u p s i m u l t a n e o u s l y a n d be
t h e c u r r e n t flowing t o t h e l i g h t i n g i n s t r u m e n t s , a n d a
d i m m e d at e q u a l intensity, SEE 7.43 If y o u w a n t to c o n t r o l
p a t c h b o a r d a n d o t h e r g r o u p i n g devices with t h e necessary
t h e m separately, y o u w o u l d plug spotlight 5 i n t o d i m m e r
storage a n d retrieval e q u i p m e n t .
1 a n d s c o o p 27 i n t o d i m m e r 2.
Section
7.1
Lighting
Instruments
and
Besides c o n t r o l l i n g t h e intensity of t h e light, d i m m e r s lighting i n a p a r t i c u l a r area to a n o t h e r . For e x a m p l e , y o u m a y c h a n g e a d i n i n g r o o m set from day to n i g h t by s i m p l y d i m m i n g o n e lighting s e t u p a n d b r i n g i n g u p a n o t h e r . You also can light several s t u d i o areas at once, store t h e lighting s e t u p in t h e d i m m e r ' s m e m o r y , a n d activate p a r t or all of t h e s t o r e d i n f o r m a t i o n w h e n e v e r necessary. S o m e s h o w s m a y r e q u i r e t h a t y o u go from o n e b a c k g r o u n d color t o a n o t h e r , s u c h as from a r e d to a b l u e o n e . W i t h t h e d i m m e r y o u can s i m p l y fade d o w n all i n s t r u m e n t s t h a t t h r o w red light o n t o t h e b a c k g r o u n d while at t h e s a m e t i m e b r i n g i n g u p t h e b l u e lights.
149
All studio lighting is accomplished by a variety of spotlights and floodlights.
•
Studio spotlights include the Fresnel spot, the ellipsoidal spot, and the follow spot. Ellipsoidal and follow spots are for special lighting effects.
•
Studio floodlights include the scoop, the softlight and the broad, the fluorescent floodlight bank, and the strip, or eye, light.
•
Field lighting uses the small Fresnel spot, the HMI light, the small focusable spot, the open-face spot, and the internal reflector spot (clip light or PAR lamp).
•
Most portable floodlights are open-faced, which means that they have no lens. Small fluorescent banks are also used as portable floodlights. Diffusers can turn a spotlight into a floodlight.
•
ENG lighting is often done with small, versatile lights that are mounted on the camera or handheld.
•
Lighting kits contain a variety of field lighting equipment.
•
Lighting control equipment includes a variety of mounting devices, directional controls, and intensity controls.
•
Major mounting devices are the pipe grid and the coun terweight battens, the C-clamp, the sliding rod and the pantograph, and a variety of floor stands.
•
Directional controls include barn doors, flags, and reflectors.
•
Intensity controls are the size of the instrument (lamp watt age), the relative distance of lighting instrument to target object, and the relative focus or diffusion of the beam.
•
With an electronic dimmer, you can easily manipulate a light, or a group of lights, to burn at a given intensity. The patchboard, or patchbay, makes it possible to connect each lighting instrument to a specific dimmer.
7.43 MANUAL PATCHING
e n a b l e y o u to quickly a n d easily c h a n g e f r o m o n e t y p e of
Controls
•
Dimmer 1
As you can see, the patches for the lighting instruments (spotlight 5 and scoop 27) are both patched to dimmer 1. Consequently, both lighting instruments respond identically to any dimmer 1 setting.
Lighting
7.2
a n object actually reflects, a n d h o w m u c h light t h e c a m e r a lens actually receives. A light meter gives u s a m o r e accurate r e a d i n g of light intensity.
F O O T - C A N D L E S A N D LUX T h e s t a n d a r d u n i t s of m e a s u r i n g light i n t e n s i t y a r e t h e A m e r i c a n foot-candle
Light Intensity, Lamps, and Color Media
(fc) a n d t h e E u r o p e a n lux. Because
o r d i n a r y television lighting doesn't require extremely precise u n i t s of intensity, y o u c a n s i m p l y figure l u x b y m u l t i p l y i n g foot-candles b y a factor of t e n , o r y o u c a n figure foot-candles b y dividing lux b y ten: To find lux w h e n given foot-candles, m u l t i p l y footcandles b y ten. To find foot-candles w h e n given lux, divide l u x by ten. As a n e x a m p l e , 100 f o o t - c a n d l e s a r e a b o u t 1,000 l u x (100 x 10), a n d 2,000 l u x a r e a b o u t 200 foot-candles (2,000 •*•10). If y o u w a n t to b e m o r e accurate, use a factor of 10.75 t o calculate foot-candles from lux, o r l u x from foot-candles. E q u i p p e d w i t h f o o t - c a n d l e s o r l u x as t h e u n i t o f
Before l e a r n i n g t o d o actual lighting i n t h e s t u d i o a n d t h e
light intensity, y o u c a n n o w m e a s u r e either of t h e t w o
field, y o u n e e d t o s t u d y a few m o r e e l e m e n t s a b o u t light,
t y p e s of light intensity: incident
h o w t o c o n t r o l a n d m e a s u r e it, a n d h o w t o p r o d u c e col
E 2 ^ L I G H T S - » Measurement-* meters
light a n d reflected
light.
o r e d light. T h i s section a d d s t o t h e technical details given in section 7.1. ^
LIGHT INTENSITY Incident and reflected light measured in foot-candles and lux
INCIDENT LIGHT T h e r e a d i n g of incident
light gives y o u s o m e idea of h o w
m u c h light reaches a specific set area. W h e n m e a s u r i n g i n c i d e n t light, y o u a r e actually m e a s u r i n g t h e a m o u n t
^
CALCULATING LIGHT INTENSITY
of light t h a t falls o n a subject o r a p e r f o r m a n c e area b u t
The lumen and the inverse square law
n o t w h a t is reflected b y it. To m e a s u r e i n c i d e n t light, y o u
OPERATING LIGHT LEVEL: BASELIGHT
p o i n t the i n c i d e n t - l i g h t m e t e r toward the camera lens. T h e
Providing the optimal operating light level, or baselight
m e t e r will give a q u i c k reading of the overall light level that
m u s t s t a n d in t h e lighted area o r next t o t h e subject a n d ^
^
TYPES OF LAMPS The basic luminants: incandescent, fluorescent, and HMI
^
reaches t h e p a r t i c u l a r set area. T h i s general light level is also called baselight. But i n c i d e n t light can also refer t o t h e light t h a t c o m e s t o y o u from a specific i n s t r u m e n t . If you
COLOR MEDIA
w a n t a r e a d i n g of t h e i n t e n s i t y of t h e light c o m i n g from
Plastic sheets (gels) that change the color of light
p a r t i c u l a r i n s t r u m e n t s , y o u s h o u l d p o i n t t h e foot-candle ( o r lux) m e t e r into t h e lights, SEE 7.44 Such m e a s u r e m e n t s m a y c o m e in h a n d y , especially
LIGHT INTENSITY
w h e n y o u n e e d t o duplicate t h e i l l u m i n a t i o n for a scene
A l t h o u g h there are video cameras that can p r o d u c e pictures
s h o t o n t h e same set over a p e r i o d of several days. For s o m e
in a l m o s t t o t a l d a r k n e s s , m o s t s t a n d a r d c a m e r a s n e e d
r e a s o n d u p l i c a t i n g t h e exact lighting from o n e day t o t h e
a c e r t a i n a m o u n t o f light for o p t i m a l p e r f o r m a n c e . As
n e x t is difficult t o d o , even w h e n y o u r c o m p u t e r - a s s i s t e d
sensitive as o u r eyes are, t h e y c a n n o t always tell accurately
p a t c h b o a r d faithfully duplicates the d i m m e r settings of the
j u s t h o w m u c h light a n i n s t r u m e n t p r o d u c e s , h o w m u c h
p r e v i o u s day. A n incident-light check, however, guarantees
light is actually o n t h e set o r o n l o c a t i o n , h o w m u c h light
identical o r fairly close intensities.
150
Section
7.2
Light
Intensity,
Lamps,
and
Color
Media
151
7.44 INCIDENT-LIGHT READING
7.45 REFLECTED-LIGHT READING
To read incident light, you point the light meter at the camera or into the lights while standing next to the lighted subject or performance area.
To measure reflected light, you point the reflected-light meter (used in normal still photography) close to the lighted subject or object.
To discover possible holes in t h e lighting ( u n l i g h t e d
visually display t h e light levels against c a m e r a tolerances
o r u n d e r l i g h t e d areas), w a l k a r o u n d t h e set with t h e light
t h a t t h e y forget t o look at t h e m o n i t o r to see w h e t h e r t h e
m e t e r p o i n t e d at t h e m a j o r c a m e r a p o s i t i o n s . W a t c h t h e
lighting looks t h e way it was i n t e n d e d . If y o u c o m b i n e your
light m e t e r : w h e n e v e r t h e needle d i p s way d o w n , it is i n
knowledge of h o w the c a m e r a w o r k s with artistic sensitivity
dicating a hole.
a n d , especially, c o m m o n sense, y o u will n o t let t h e light
REFLECTED LIGHT
m a k e y o u r j o b m o r e efficient.
m e t e r tell y o u h o w to light b u t r a t h e r use it as a g u i d e to T h e reading of reflected light gives y o u an idea of h o w m u c h light is b o u n c e d off the v a r i o u s objects. It is p r i m a r i l y used to measure
contrast.
To m e a s u r e reflected light, y o u m u s t use a reflected-
CALCULATING LIGHT INTENSITY Light intensity
m e a s u r e s h o w m u c h light strikes an object.
light m e t e r ( m o s t c o m m o n p h o t o g r a p h i c light m e t e r s
O n e f o o t - c a n d l e is t h e a m o u n t of light of a single candle
m e a s u r e reflected l i g h t ) . P o i n t it closely at t h e l i g h t e d
t h a t falls o n a 1 -by-1 foot surface located 1 foot away from
o b j e c t — s u c h as t h e p e r f o r m e r ' s face o r w h i t e b l o u s e or
t h e candle. O n e lux is t h e light t h a t falls o n a surface of
t h e d a r k b l u e b a c k g r o u n d c u r t a i n — f r o m t h e d i r e c t i o n of
1 s q u a r e m e t e r ( a b o u t 3 b y 3 feet) g e n e r a t e d by a single
t h e c a m e r a (the b a c k of t h e m e t e r s h o u l d face the principal
candle t h a t b u r n s at a distance of 1 m e t e r ( r o u g h l y 3 feet).
c a m e r a p o s i t i o n ) , SEE 7.45
T h e n o r m for t h e light i n t e n s i t y of o n e candle is 1
D o n o t s t a n d b e t w e e n t h e light
source a n d t h e subject w h e n taking this r e a d i n g or y o u will
lumen.
Light intensity is subject to t h e inverse square law. This
m e a s u r e y o u r s h a d o w instead of t h e light actually reflect
law states that if a light s o u r c e radiates isotropically
i n g off t h e subject. To m e a s u r e c o n t r a s t , p o i n t t h e m e t e r
formly in all directions), s u c h as a candle o r a single light
first at t h e lighted side of the object a n d t h e n m o v e it t o
b u l b b u r n i n g in t h e m i d d l e of a r o o m , t h e light intensity
t h e s h a d o w side. T h e difference b e t w e e n t h e t w o r e a d i n g s
falls off (gets weaker) as l/d
gives y o u t h e contrast ratio. ( C h a p t e r 8 describes c o n t r a s t
t h e source. For e x a m p l e , if t h e intensity of a light is 1 fc
ratio a n d its i m p o r t a n c e in television lighting.) D o n o t b e a slave to all these m e a s u r e m e n t s a n d ra
2
(uni
w h e r e d is t h e distance from
at a distance of 1 foot f r o m t h e source, its intensity at a distance of 2 feet is Vi fc. SEE 7.46
tios, however. A q u i c k check of t h e baselight is all t h a t is
T h e inverse s q u a r e law also applies to lux. In this case
generally n e e d e d for m o s t lighting s i t u a t i o n s . In especially
t h e light i n t e n s i t y is m e a s u r e d off a surface of 1 m located
critical situations, y o u m a y w a n t t o check t h e reflectance
1 m e t e r from t h e light source of 1 l u m e n .
2
of faces o r exceptionally b r i g h t objects. S o m e p e o p l e get
T h i s f o r m u l a tells y o u t h a t light intensity decreases
so involved in r e a d i n g light m e t e r s a n d oscilloscopes t h a t
t h e farther away y o u m o v e t h e lighting i n s t r u m e n t from
152
Chapter
LIGHTING
7
level, called baselight o r base. As y o u recall, baselight is t h e general, overall light level o n a scene.
power of source in , foot-candles or lux ntensity = distance v
BASELIGHT LEVELS
2
M a n y a n a r g u m e n t has b e e n raised c o n c e r n i n g a d e q u a t e Intensity = 1 feat V from the light source (1 candle = 1 lumen)
m i n i m u m baselight levels for v a r i o u s c a m e r a s . T h e p r o b lem is t h a t baselight levels d o n o t represent absolute values b u t are d e p e n d e n t o n o t h e r p r o d u c t i o n factors, s u c h as t h e sensitivity of t h e c a m e r a , t h e desired lighting c o n t r a s t , the general reflectance of t h e scenery, a n d , of course, t h e a p e r t u r e of t h e lens ( / - s t o p ) . W h e n s h o o t i n g o u t d o o r s o n a n E N G a s s i g n m e n t , y o u d o n o t have m u c h c o n t r o l over baselight levels; y o u m u s t accept whatever light t h e r e is. But even t h e r e y o u m i g h t b e able to use s u n l i g h t reflectors
Intensity = % feat 2'from the light source
to lighten u p s h a d o w areas, or a d d i t i o n a l lighting i n s t r u m e n t s to b o o s t available light. M o s t often t h e p r o b l e m is i n a d e q u a t e baselight. But there are also situations in w h i c h y o u struggle w i t h c o n t r o l l i n g t o o m u c h light.
Not enough baselight
A l t h o u g h y o u often h e a r t h a t
c o n s u m e r c a m c o r d e r s c a n o p e r a t e in light levels as low as
7.46
INVERSE SQUARE LAW
0.1 fc o r even 0.02 fc (10 or even 2 l u x ) , t h e light levels for
Note that the inverse square law applies only to light sources that radiate isotropically (uniformly in all directions). This law applies equally to lux.
o p t i m a l c a m e r a p e r f o r m a n c e are m u c h higher. Professional E N G / E F P a n d s t u d i o c a m e r a s n o r m a l l y n e e d a b o u t 150 fc, or a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1,500 lux, for o p t i m a l p i c t u r e quality at an a p e r t u r e setting of f/5.6 to f/8.0. T h e s e / - s t o p s p r o d u c e
t h e object, a n d increases if y o u m o v e t h e l i g h t closer.
t h e highest-resolution images. You will p r o b a b l y read c a m
O t h e r w i s e , t h e f o r m u l a does little to m a k e television light
era specifications that use 200 fc (2,000 lux) as t h e s t a n d a r d
ing m o r e accurate. T h e b e a m s of a searchlight, a flashlight,
i l l u m i n a t i o n a n d t h e n give t h e highest / - s t o p , s u c h as / / l 1,
car h e a d l i g h t s , a n d a Fresnel o r an ellipsoidal s p o t l i g h t
at w h i c h t h e c a m e r a still delivers o p t i m a l pictures.
d o n o t radiate light isotropically b u t are collimated
(the
M o s t v i d e o c a m e r a s can w o r k at baselight levels t h a t
light rays are m a d e to r u n parallel as m u c h as possible)
are c o n s i d e r a b l y lower, w i t h o u t noticeable loss of p i c t u r e
a n d , therefore, d o n o t o b e y t h e inverse s q u a r e law. Even
quality. By switching to a low gain setting (which, as y o u
floodlights radiate their light m o r e in t h e direction of t h e
recall, will electronically b o o s t t h e v i d e o signal), y o u m a y
reflector o p e n i n g t h a n its back. T h e m o r e collimated t h e
get a n acceptable i m a g e even in low-light c o n d i t i o n s . D e
l i g h t — t h a t is, t h e m o r e focused its b e a m — t h e slower its
spite m a n u f a c t u r e r s ' claims to t h e contrary, high gain c a n
intensity decreases with distance. This is w h y we "focus" a
cause increased video noise a n d occasional color distor
spotlight w h e n we want m o r e light o n an object a n d "flood"
t i o n . For h o m e video o r even E N G , video quality m a y b e
its b e a m w h e n we w a n t less light, w i t h o u t c h a n g i n g t h e
s e c o n d a r y to p i c t u r e c o n t e n t , b u t it is of m a j o r c o n c e r n
distance b e t w e e n the lighting i n s t r u m e n t a n d t h e object.
for EFP a n d s t u d i o shows t h a t m u s t tolerate m a n y copies
An e x a m p l e of a n extremely well-collimated light is a laser
a n d p i c t u r e m a n i p u l a t i o n s in p o s t p r o d u c t i o n editing. In
b e a m , which, as y o u k n o w , m a i n t a i n s its intensity over a
general, digital c a m e r a s tolerate higher gain t h a n d o analog
great distance.
c a m e r a s , w i t h o u t noticeable p i c t u r e d e t e r i o r a t i o n . If y o u w o r k w i t h sets o r c o s t u m e s w h o s e colors a n d
OPERATING LIGHT LEVEL: BASELIGHT To m a k e t h e c a m e r a "see well" so t h a t t h e p i c t u r e s are
t e x t u r e s a b s o r b a great a m o u n t of light, y o u o b v i o u s l y n e e d h i g h e r baselight levels t h a n with a set w h o s e brightly p a i n t e d surface reflects a m o d e r a t e a m o u n t of light.
relatively free of video noise (artifacts in t h e p i c t u r e , or
A n o t h e r p r o b l e m with s h o o t i n g in i n a d e q u a t e b a s e -
" s n o w " ) , y o u m u s t establish a m i n i m u m o p e r a t i n g light
light is t h e resulting shallow d e p t h of field. In low-light
Section
7.2
Light
Intensity,
c o n d i t i o n s , t h e iris m u s t b e fairly w i d e o p e n (low / - s t o p
Lamps,
and
Color
153
Media
h o m e fixtures except that they usually have m o r e wattage
n u m b e r ) to allow as m u c h light as possible to strike t h e
a n d t h e r e f o r e p r o d u c e h i g h e r - i n t e n s i t y light. T h e y also
c a m e r a p i c k u p device. But, as y o u recall, a lens w h o s e iris
i n c l u d e t h e smaller b u t h o t t e r quartz
is set at its m a x i m u m a p e r t u r e gives a fairly shallow d e p t h
disadvantages of regular i n c a n d e s c e n t l a m p s are t h a t t h e
of field. C o n s e q u e n t l y , focusing b e c o m e s a p r o b l e m , a n d ,
higher-wattage l a m p s are quite large, the color t e m p e r a t u r e
if t h e r e is a great deal of object a n d / o r c a m e r a m o v e m e n t ,
b e c o m e s progressively lower ( m o r e r e d d i s h ) as t h e l a m p
y o u m a y e x p e r i e n c e noticeable lag ( s m e a r t h a t follows t h e
ages, a n d t h e y have a relatively s h o r t life.
lamps. The major
m o v i n g object). H e r e is t h e r u l e of t h u m b : in general, a c a m e r a h a s less t r o u b l e p r o d u c i n g high-quality, crisp pictures w h e n
Quartz
T h e quartz
l a m p h a s a filament t h a t is encased
in a q u a r t z b u l b filled w i t h h a l o g e n gas. T h e advantages
t h e light level is fairly h i g h a n d t h e c o n t r a s t limited t h a n
of a q u a r t z l a m p over regular i n c a n d e s c e n t systems are
u n d e r very low levels w i t h h i g h - c o n t r a s t lighting.
t h a t it is s m a l l e r a n d m a i n t a i n s its c o l o r t e m p e r a t u r e over its entire life. T h e d i s a d v a n t a g e is t h a t it b u r n s at an
Too much base;
Despite t h e validity of this general
rule for baselight a n d picture quality, there will be instances
e x t r e m e l y h o t t e m p e r a t u r e . When changing
quartz
lights,
do not touch the lamp with your fingers. T h e old l a m p m a y
w h e n t h e r e is s i m p l y t o o m u c h light for t h e c a m e r a t o
still b e h o t e n o u g h to b u r n y o u r skin, a n d y o u r finger
o p e r a t e properly. You can c o p e w i t h t o o m u c h light by
p r i n t s will cause t h e n e w o n e to have a m u c h s h o r t e r life
r e d u c i n g t h e lens a p e r t u r e , w h i c h translates into setting
s p a n . Always use gloves, a p a p e r towel, o r a clean rag w h e n
t h e / - s t o p to a h i g h e r n u m b e r , s u c h as f/22,
handling lamps.
or u s i n g a n
N D filter that is p a r t of t h e filter wheel inside t h e c a m e r a . M u c h like a small a p e r t u r e , neutral
density
(ND)
filters
FLUORESCENT
r e d u c e t h e a m o u n t of light falling o n a scene or e n t e r i n g
Fluorescent
t h e b e a m splitter in t h e c a m e r a w i t h o u t c h a n g i n g t h e color
t u b e to give off ultraviolet r a d i a t i o n . This r a d i a t i o n in t u r n
t e m p e r a t u r e of t h e light. ( C o l o r t e m p e r a t u r e is explained
lights u p the p h o s p h o r o u s coating inside t h e t u b e s , similar
in detail in c h a p t e r 8.) Such N D filters will also h e l p you
t o the way the electron b e a m lights u p the television screen.
c o n t r o l t h e e x t r e m e c o n t r a s t b e t w e e n light a n d s h a d o w s
Despite i m p r o v e d fluorescent l a m p s that p r o d u c e a fairly
t u b e s g e n e r a t e light b y activating a gas-filled
w h e n s h o o t i n g o u t d o o r s o n a s u n n y day. fr4Ti*:»l_l0iHT.s-»
even w h i t e light, m a n y fluorescent t u b e s have a t e n d e n c y
Measurement-* baselight
t o give off a slightly greenish light or, at best, a color t e m p e r a t u r e t h a t m a k e s it difficult to b l e n d w i t h o t h e r i n d o o r o r o u t d o o r light sources.
TYPES OF LAMPS Lighting i n s t r u m e n t s are classified n o t o n l y by function
HMI
(spotlight or floodlight) b u t also b y t h e l a m p (bulb) they
HMI
use. W h e n classifying i n s t r u m e n t s b y t y p e of l a m p , w e
iodide) l a m p s g e n e r a t e light by m o v i n g electricity t h r o u g h
( w h i c h s t a n d s for hydragyrum
medium
arc-length
c a n refer t o t h e p o w e r rating, such as 12V o r 30V for b a t
v a r i o u s types of gases. This creates a sort of lightning inside
t e r y - p o w e r e d l a m p s or l k W or 2 k W ( 1 , 0 0 0 W or 2,000W)
t h e b u l b , w h i c h is t h e discharge t h a t creates t h e light. To
l a m p s for studio lighting, o r to a specific way of generating
create t h e l i g h t n i n g inside the l a m p , y o u n e e d a
a light o u t p u t — t h e luminant.
Obviously, y o u s h o u l d n o t
fairly heavy t r a n s f o r m e r . H M I l a m p s p r o d u c e light w i t h a
use a 12V l a m p w i t h a 30V b a t t e r y o r p u t a 2 k W l a m p in
color t e m p e r a t u r e of 5,600K, the o u t d o o r s t a n d a r d . (See
a n i n s t r u m e n t t h a t is r a t e d for o n l y a l k W . Television l i g h t i n g generally uses t h r e e basic t y p e s
ballast—a
section 7.1 for t h e advantages a n d disadvantages of t h e H M I w h e n used in p r o d u c t i o n . ) As with q u a r t z b u l b s , d o
o f l u m i n a n t s : (1) i n c a n d e s c e n t , (2) f l u o r e s c e n t , a n d
n o t t o u c h H M I l a m p s w i t h y o u r h a n d s : y o u r fingerprints
(3) H M I .
will weaken the q u a r t z h o u s i n g a n d cause t h e l a m p to b u r n o u t in a relatively s h o r t t i m e .
INCANDESCENT T h e incandescent
lamp operates on the same principle
as t h e o r d i n a r y h o u s e h o l d light b u l b . It generates light
COLOR MEDIA
b y h e a t i n g u p a filament w i t h electricity. T h e i n c a n d e s
You can p r o d u c e a great variety of colored light s i m p l y
cent l a m p s used in television r e s e m b l e the o n e s in y o u r
b y p u t t i n g different color media,
o r gels, in front of t h e
Chapter
154
7.47
7
LIGHTING
COLOR MEDIA
Color media, or gels, are colored filters that are put in front of lighting instruments to produce colored light.
lighting i n s t r u m e n t . (Gel is s h o r t for gelatin, w h i c h was the
t h e g r e e n — i n front of t h e s a m e i n s t r u m e n t , y o u w o u l d
color m e d i u m u s e d before t h e m o r e h e a t - a n d m o i s t u r e -
get n o light from t h e i n s t r u m e n t . This is because t h e red
resistant plastic was developed.) Color m e d i a are sheets of
gel blocks (subtracts) all t h e green light, a n d t h e green gel
highly heat-resistant plastic t h a t act as color filters. T h e y
negates all t h e red light.
are used extensively to c o l o r - t i n t scenic b a c k g r o u n d s or
A similar p r o b l e m occurs if y o u shine colored lights o n
to create color special effects, s u c h as in d a n c e p r o g r a m s ,
colored objects. We see a n apple as red because t h e color
rock concerts, o r s o m e m y s t e r y o r o u t e r - s p a c e a d v e n t u r e
filters in t h e apple a b s o r b all colors of white light except red,
shows. SEE 7.47
w h i c h is reflected b a c k to o u r eyes. A green a p p l e a b s o r b s
HOW TO U S E COLOR M E D I A
t h e a p p l e look green. W h a t w o u l d h a p p e n if y o u s h i n e d a
You c a n cut t h e color m e d i a sheet to fit t h e frame of t h e
red light o n a green apple? W o u l d it t u r n yellow? N o , t h e
gel h o l d e r of t h e lighting i n s t r u m e n t . You t h e n slip the
apple w o u l d l o o k d a r k b r o w n o r black. Why? Because t h e
all colors except green, w h i c h is reflected b a c k a n d m a k e s
gel h o l d e r i n t o brackets in front of t h e lens of t h e lighting
red light that shines o n t h e green apple c o n t a i n s n o green.
i n s t r u m e n t . If t h e colored lighting does n o t have t o b e t o o
T h e apple, w h i c h absorbs all or m o s t of t h e red light, has n o
precise, y o u can use w o o d e n clothespins (plastic o n e s melt)
or very little red to reflect back. In the s a m e way, y o u m a y
to h a n g t h e color sheets from t h e b a r n d o o r s like l a u n d r y
have a p r o b l e m u s i n g yellow objects u n d e r b l u e " n i g h t "
o n a clothesline. T h e advantages of this m e t h o d are t h a t it
i l l u m i n a t i o n : t h e blue light c o n t a i n s n o yellow, a n d t h e
saves you from having to cut t h e expensive gels a n d they are
objects therefore have n o yellow to reflect, so t h e y t u r n
farther away from the h e a t g e n e r a t e d by t h e l a m p . H i g h l y
d a r k gray or black.
focused i n s t r u m e n t s g e n e r a t e so m u c h h e a t that t h e y m a y
M o s t l i g h t i n g e x p e r t s advise against u s i n g c o l o r e d
b u r n o u t t h e center of even t h e m o s t h e a t - r e s i s t a n t gels.
lights to i l l u m i n a t e t a l e n t a n d p e r f o r m a n c e areas unless,
You c a n avoid s u c h b u r n s by p u t t i n g t h e i n s t r u m e n t i n t o
of course, it's for special effect, such as the greenish t i n t
m o r e of a flood p o s i t i o n (by m o v i n g t h e lamp-reflector
o n c r i m e shows or t h e m u l t i c o l o r e d lights o n a rock m u s i c
u n i t t o w a r d t h e lens), t h e r e b y dissipating s o m e w h a t t h e
scene. If colors are critical, t r y to keep t h e colored light
heat of t h e b e a m .
away from t h e faces.
M I X I N G COLOR GELS
j o b of color correction in p o s t p r o d u c t i o n editing (explored
You m a y have h e a r d a b o u t t h e t e d i o u s b u t i m p o r t a n t subtrac-
in d e p t h in c h a p t e r 13). A l t h o u g h this h a s n o t h i n g to d o
tively. For e x a m p l e , if y o u p u t a red gel in o n e i n s t r u m e n t
w i t h u s i n g color m e d i a in s t u d i o lighting, it nevertheless
a n d a green gel in t h e o t h e r a n d t h e n partially overlap
is b a s e d o n electronically r e m i x i n g t h e RGB q u a n t i t i e s
their b e a m s , you get yellow in t h e overlap. Because y o u
a n d qualities of t h e RGB light p r i m a r i e s . This p r o c e d u r e
W h e n using gels the colors can m i x additively
or
a d d e d o n e light o n t o p of the other, this is additive
mix
ing. If, however, y o u were t o p u t b o t h g e l s — t h e red a n d
is a special skill, however, a n d its t e c h n i q u e s far exceed t h e scope of this h a n d b o o k .
Section
7.2
Light
intensity,
•
Light intensity is measured in foot-candles (fc) or lux. To find lux when given foot-candles, multiply foot-candles by ten. To find foot-candles when given lux, divide lux by ten.
•
Although the general conversion factor of foot-candles into lux is 10, the more accurate conversion factor is 10.75; thus, 1 fc = 10.75 lux, and 10.75 lux = 1 fc.
•
To measure incident light (the light that falls on the scene), point the light meter away from the lighted scene toward the camera or into the lights that are illuminating the subject.
Lamps,
and
Color
155
Media
For your reference, or to track your work, each VideoLab program cue in this chapter is listed here with its corresponding page number.
B3D>
LIGHTS-* Instruments-* studio | field
E33>
LIGHTS^ Design-* silhouette
133
BSS>
LIGHTS^ Instruments-* field
139
LIGHTS-* Instruments-* beam control LIGHTS^ Field-* use of reflectors
•
To measure reflected light, use a reflected (standard) light meter and point it closely at various areas of the lighted subject or object. Reflected-light readings measure primar ily contrast.
•
The inverse square law in illumination applies only if the light source radiates isotropically (uniformly in all direc tions), such as a bare light bulb or a candle. Because most television lighting instruments collimate the light (focus the light rays), the inverse square law does not apply to the same degree. The general principle, however, still holds true: the farther away the light source is from the object, the less intense the light; the closer the light is to the ob ject, the more intense the light.
•
Baselight is the overall light level on a scene. Cameras require a minimum baselight level for optimal operation.
•
Lamps are rated by the voltage they need to operate—their power rating. They are also labeled by the type of luminant: (1) incandescent, including quartz, (2) fluorescent, and (3) HMI. Incandescent lamps include regular household bulbs and the more efficient quartz lamps. Fluorescent lamps produce ultraviolet rays that light up the phosphorous layer inside the tube. The HMI lamp generates light by discharging electricity through various gases.
•
Color media, normally called gels, are colored plastic filters that, when put in front of the lens of a lighting instrument, give the light beam the color of the gel.
•
Colored light beams mix additively, but overlaying filters mix subtractively.
131
EE2>
LIGHTS^ Instruments-* field
145 146
146
LIGHTS-* Measurement-* meters LIGHTS-} Measurement-* baselight
150 153
Techniques of Television Lighting W h e n w a t c h i n g television, y o u will probably notice that p e o p l e a n d sometimes t h e entire scenes in newscasts, situation comedies, and g a m e shows are brightly lit with a m i n i m u m of s h a d o w s on their faces. But w h e n w a t c h i n g crime shows or soap operas, there are often more d e e p s h a d o w s on the actors' faces than light, a n d even t h e colors are sometimes distorted. T h e techniques of television lighting suggest h o w to achieve such different lighting effects and more.
In most video production situations, especially EFP, available space, time, a n d people are insufficient for y o u to accomplish motion picture-quality lighting. You may find, for instance, that t h e time allotted to lighting is so short that all you c a n do is flood the studio or location site with highly diffused light, regardless of t h e nature of the e v e n t to be illuminated. A l t h o u g h such a t e c h n i q u e may please the camera a n d probably the v i d e o operator ( w h o because of the uniform light levels has little shading to do), it does not always fulfill t h e aesthetic requirements of the production. For example, a dramatic scene that is supposed to play on a dark street corner will not look convincing if every thing is brightly a n d evenly illuminated by softlights. O n the other h a n d , there is no reason to spend a great deal of time on dramatic lighting for such events as newscasts, interviews, or the corporate manager's telling her e m p l o y e e s about recent sales. Even lighting will do just fine.
156
The ever-present time limitation should not preclude g o o d a n d creative television light ing, but it does call for a high d e g r e e of efficiency. W i t h o u t a t h o r o u g h understanding of t h e basic lighting principles, you c a n easily spend all your allotted time, and part of the rehearsal time, o n trying t o achieve a specific lighting effect that, in t h e e n d , might look out of place. Efficiency in lighting also m e a n s careful preparation.
This chapter will help you w i t h such preparations. Section 8.1, Lighting in t h e Studio, covers basic a n d special-effects studio lighting techniques a n d principles; section 8.2, Lighting in t h e Field, addresses lighting techniques for E N G a n d EFP.
background light Illumination of the set, set pieces, and back drops. Also called set light. back light Illumination from behind the subject and opposite the camera. cameo lighting Foreground figures are lighted with highly directional light, with the background remaining dark. chroma keying Effect that uses color (usually blue or green) for the backdrop, which is replaced by the background image during a key. color temperature The standard by which we measure the relative reddishness or bluishness of white light. It is measured on the Kelvin (K) scale. The standard color tem perature for indoor light is 3,200K, for outdoor light, 5,600K. Technically, the numbers express Kelvin degrees. contrast ratio The difference between the brightest and the darkest portions in the picture (often measured by reflected light in foot-candles). The contrast ratio for most cameras is normally 40:1 to 50:1, which means that the brightest spot in the picture should not be more than forty or fifty times brighter than the darkest portion without causing loss of detail in the dark or light areas. High-end digital cameras can exceed this ratio. cross-keying The crossing of key lights for two people facing each other. diffused light Light that illuminates a relatively large area with an indistinct light beam. Diffused light, created by flood lights, produces soft shadows. directional light Light that illuminates a relatively small area with a distinct light beam. Directional light, produced by spotlights, creates harsh, clearly defined shadows. falloff (1) The speed with which light intensity decays. (2) The speed (degree) with which a light picture portion turns into shadow area. Fast falloff means that the light areas turn abruptly into shadow areas and there is a great brightness difference between light and shadow areas. Slow falloffin dicates a very gradual change from light to dark and a mini mal brightness difference between light and shadow areas.
fill light Additional light on the opposite side of the camera from the key light to illuminate shadow areas and thereby reduce falloff. Usually done with floodlights. floor plan A diagram of scenery and properties drawn onto a grid pattern. Can also refer to floor plan pattern. high-key Light background and ample light on the scene. Has nothing to do with the vertical positioning of the key light. Kelvin (K) Refers to the Kelvin temperature scale. In lighting it is the specific measure of color temperature—the relative reddishness or bluishness of white light. The higher the K number, the more bluish the white light. The lower the K number, the more reddish the white light. key light Principal source of illumination. kicker light Usually directional light that is positioned low and from the side and the back of the subject. light plot A plan, similarto a floor plan, that shows the type, size (wattage), and location of the lighting instruments relative to the scene to be illuminated and the general direction of the beams. location survey Written assessment, usually in the form of a checklist, of the production requirements for a remote. low-key Dark background and illumination of selected areas. Has nothing to do with the vertical positioning of the key light. photographic lighting principle The triangular arrangement of key, back, and fill lights, with the back light opposite the camera and directly behind the object, and the key and fill lights on opposite sides of the camera and to the front and the side of the object. Also called triangle lighting. side light Usually directional light coming from the side of an object. Acts as additional fill light or a second key light and provides contour. silhouette lighting Unlighted objects or people in front of a brightly illuminated background.
157
8.1
^
CONTRAST Contrast ratio, measuring contrast, and controlling contrast
^
BALANCING LIGHT INTENSITIES Key-to-back-light ratio and key-to-fill-light ratio
•
Lighting in the Studio
LIGHT PLOT Indicating the location of instruments and their beams
P-
OPERATION OF STUDIO LIGHTS Safety, preserving lamps and power, and using a studio monitor
QUALITY OF LIGHT W h a t e v e r y o u r l i g h t i n g objective, y o u will b e w o r k i n g w i t h t w o types of light: directional a n d diffused. N o r m a l w h i t e light, w h i c h y o u get f r o m the s u n o r the light y o u use while r e a d i n g , is never p u r e white b u t h a s a slight r e d dish o r b l u i s h tinge. Technically, white light h a s a certain color
temperature.
DIRECTIONAL AND
DIFFUSED
LIGHT LIGHT
Lighting m e a n s t h e c o n t r o l of light a n d s h a d o w s . Both are
Directional
necessary to s h o w t h e s h a p e a n d t h e t e x t u r e of a face o r
relatively small area with a distinct light b e a m a n d p r o d u c e s
an object, to suggest a p a r t i c u l a r e n v i r o n m e n t , a n d , like
d e n s e , well-defined s h a d o w s . T h e s u n o n a cloudless day
m u s i c , to create a specific m o o d . Regardless of w h e t h e r
acts like a giant spotlight, p r o d u c i n g d e n s e a n d distinct
you d o lighting for d r a m a t i c o r n o n d r a m a t i c p r o d u c t i o n s ,
shadows.
y o u will find t h a t t h e r e are usually m a n y s o l u t i o n s to a n y
light, p r o d u c e d b y s p o t l i g h t s , i l l u m i n a t e s a
Diffused
light illuminates a relatively large area w i t h
o n e p r o b l e m . A n d t h o u g h t h e r e is n o universal recipe t h a t
a w i d e , indistinct b e a m . It is p r o d u c e d by
w o r k s for every possible lighting s i t u a t i o n , t h e r e are s o m e
creates soft, t r a n s p a r e n t s h a d o w s . T h e s u n o n a c l o u d y o r
basic principles t h a t y o u can easily a d a p t to a great variety
foggy day acts like a n ideal floodlight b e c a u s e t h e overcast
of specific r e q u i r e m e n t s . W h e n faced w i t h a lighting task,
t r a n s f o r m s t h e h a r s h light b e a m s of t h e s u n i n t o highly
d o n o t start w i t h a n t i c i p a t e d l i m i t a t i o n s . Start w i t h h o w
diffused light.
you w o u l d like the lighting to look a n d t h e n adapt to the ex isting technical facilities a n d especially t h e available t i m e . Section 8.1 covers the following lighting t e c h n i q u e s :
floodlights
and
Actually, it is t h e d e n s i t y of t h e s h a d o w s a n d t h e i r falloff
t h a t i n d i c a t e s w h e t h e r t h e light is d i r e c t i o n a l o r
diffused. If y o u l o o k e d only at t h e i l l u m i n a t e d side, y o u w o u l d have a h a r d t i m e telling w h e t h e r it was d i r e c t i o n a l
QUALITY OF LIGHT
o r diffused light.
Directional and diffused ^
COLOR TEMPERATURE
COLOR TEMPERATURE
The reddishness and bluishness of white light and how to control it
You m a y have n o t i c e d that a
fluorescent
t u b e gives off a
different " w h i t e " light t h a n d o e s a candle. T h e fluorescent ^
^
LIGHTING FUNCTIONS
t u b e actually emits a white light t h a t h a s a b l u i s h - g r e e n
Terminology and specific functions of the main light sources
tinge, w h e r e a s t h e c a n d l e p r o d u c e s a m o r e r e d d i s h w h i t e
SPECIFIC LIGHTING TECHNIQUES Flat, continuous-action, large-area, high-contrast, cameo, silhouette, and chroma-key area lighting, and controlling eye and boom shadows
158
light. T h e setting s u n gives off a m u c h m o r e r e d d i s h light t h a n does t h e m i d d a y s u n , w h i c h is m o r e bluish. T h e s e color v a r i a t i o n s in light are called color temperature.
Note
t h a t color t e m p e r a t u r e has n o t h i n g t o d o w i t h physical
Section
8.1
Lighting
in the
159
Studio
8 . 1 COLOR TEMPERATURE Reddish-white light
1,000K
3,200K
Candlelight
Indoor standard for white light
Bluish-white light
4,000K
5,600K
7,000+K
Outdoor standard for white light
Actual outdoor light
Color temperature is mea sured on the Kelvin (K) scale. It measures the relative reddishness or bluishness of white light. The norm for indoor light is 3,200K; for out door light, 5,600K.
t e m p e r a t u r e , that is, h o w h o t t h e light b u l b actually gets;
w i t h o u t t h e color c h a n g e b e c o m i n g t o o noticeable o n a
it is strictly a m e a s u r e of t h e relative r e d d i s h n e s s or b l u i s h
color m o n i t o r . Incidentally, d i m m i n g t h e lights by at least 10 p e r c e n t will n o t only r e d u c e p o w e r c o n s u m p t i o n b u t
ness of w h i t e light. This r e d d i s h n e s s a n d b l u i s h n e s s of w h i t e light c a n b e precisely m e a s u r e d a n d are expressed in degrees of color t e m p e r a t u r e , or Kelvin
j u s t a b o u t d o u b l e t h e life of t h e b u l b s . H ' i H FLIGHTS^ Color temperature-^ white balance | controlling | try it
(K) degrees. In lighting lingo t h e
degrees are d r o p p e d a n d a specific color t e m p e r a t u r e is
HOW TO CONTROL COLOR T E M P E R A T U R E
referred t o only as a certain a m o u n t of K.
As y o u l e a r n e d in chapter 3, y o u n e e d to w h i t e - b a l a n c e t h e
T h e color t e m p e r a t u r e s t a n d a r d for i n d o o r i l l u m i n a
c a m e r a to ensure t h e correct color r e p r o d u c t i o n even if the
t i o n is 3,200K, w h i c h is a fairly w h i t e light w i t h just a little
i l l u m i n a t i o n h a s different color t e m p e r a t u r e s . You m a y
r e d d i s h ( w a r m ) tinge. All s t u d i o lighting i n s t r u m e n t s a n d
find, however, t h a t occasionally t h e c a m e r a will refuse to
p o r t a b l e lights i n t e n d e d for i n d o o r i l l u m i n a t i o n are r a t e d
w h i t e - b a l a n c e a l t h o u g h y o u follow exactly t h e p r o c e d u r e s
a t 3,200K, a s s u m i n g t h e y receive full voltage. L i g h t i n g
o u t l i n e d here. T h i s difficulty m a y b e caused b y a color
i n s t r u m e n t s used to a u g m e n t or s i m u l a t e o u t d o o r light
t e m p e r a t u r e t h a t is t o o l o w (light is t o o r e d d i s h ) o r t o o
have l a m p s t h a t e m i t a 5,600K light. T h e y a p p r o x i m a t e
h i g h (light is t o o bluish) for t h e a u t o m a t i c white balance
m o r e t h e bluish light of t h e o u t d o o r s , S E E S . I
t o h a n d l e . In this case y o u n e e d to c h o o s e o n e of t h e color
W h e n y o u d i m a l a m p t h a t is r a t e d at 3,200K, the light
filters o n t h e filter wheel inside t h e c a m e r a (see c h a p t e r 3).
b e c o m e s progressively m o r e r e d d i s h , similar to sunlight at
Light-blue filters c o m p e n s a t e for t h e r e d d i s h n e s s of low-
sunset. T h e color c a m e r a , w h e n adjusted t o seeing w h i t e
c o l o r - t e m p e r a t u r e light, a n d a m b e r or l i g h t - o r a n g e filters
in 3,200K light, will faithfully s h o w this increasing red
c o m p e n s a t e for t h e b l u i s h n e s s of h i g h - c o l o r - t e m p e r a -
dishness. For e x a m p l e , t h e w h i t e shirt of a p e r f o r m e r will
t u r e light.
g r a d u a l l y t u r n o r a n g e or p i n k , a n d t h e skin t o n e s will take
M o s t professional E N G / E F P c a m e r a s r e m e m b e r s o m e
o n a n u n n a t u r a l r e d glow. S o m e lighting experts therefore
of these setups, so y o u c a n go b a c k to the p r e v i o u s light
w a r n against any d i m m i n g of lights t h a t i l l u m i n a t e per
ing e n v i r o n m e n t a n d recall t h e a p p r o p r i a t e white balance
f o r m e r s o r p e r f o r m a n c e areas. T h e skin t o n e s are, after all,
automatically. Experienced camerapersons, however, prefer
t h e only real s t a n d a r d viewers have by w h i c h to j u d g e t h e
t o w h i t e - b a l a n c e from scratch to b e sure t h a t t h e actual
accuracy of t h e television color s c h e m e . If t h e skin colors
colors as seen b y t h e c a m e r a , i n c l u d i n g w h i t e , are as t r u e
are d i s t o r t e d , h o w can we t r u s t t h e o t h e r colors to b e true?
as possible.
So goes t h e a r g u m e n t . Practice h a s s h o w n , however, t h a t
A n o t h e r w a y to raise t h e c o l o r t e m p e r a t u r e of t h e
y o u can d i m a light by 10 p e r c e n t or even a little m o r e
r e d d i s h light (to m a k e it m o r e bluish) is by p u t t i n g a light-
160
8.2
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8
TECHNIQUES
OF TELEVISION
LIGHTING
MATCHING COLOR TEMPERATURES OF DIFFERENT LIGHT SOURCES
A When illuminating an object with indoor light mixed with outdoor light coming through a window, you need to equalize the color temperatures of both light sources to ensure proper white-balancing.
B To equalize the color temperatures, you can put light-blue gels on the indoor lighting instruments to raise their 3,200K color temperature to the more prominent 5,600K daylight com ing through the window.
b l u e gel (sheet of colored plastic) in front of t h e lighting
In certain c i r c u m s t a n c e s y o u c a n get away w i t h m i x
i n s t r u m e n t ' s lens; or y o u c a n lower t h e color t e m p e r a t u r e
ing lights of different color t e m p e r a t u r e s so long as o n e or
(to m a k e it m o r e r e d d i s h ) b y placing a l i g h t - o r a n g e gel in
t h e o t h e r d o m i n a t e s t h e i l l u m i n a t i o n . For e x a m p l e , if y o u
front of t h e lighting i n s t r u m e n t .
are in an office t h a t is i l l u m i n a t e d b y o v e r h e a d fluorescent
W h e n s h o o t i n g a n i n d o o r s c e n e t h a t is p a r t i a l l y
t u b e s a n d y o u n e e d to a d d key a n d back lights (see t h e fol
i l l u m i n a t e d by o u t d o o r (5,600K) light c o m i n g t h r o u g h a
lowing discussion) to p r o v i d e m o r e sparkle a n d d i m e n s i o n
w i n d o w a n d by p o r t a b l e i n d o o r (3,200K) lighting i n s t r u
to t h e p e r f o r m e r , y o u can m o s t likely use n o r m a l p o r t a b l e
m e n t s , y o u have t w o choices: either lower t h e high o u t d o o r
lighting i n s t r u m e n t s t h a t b u r n at t h e i n d o o r color t e m
color t e m p e r a t u r e (bluish light) or raise t h e i n d o o r color
p e r a t u r e s t a n d a r d (3,200K). Why? Because t h e p o r t a b l e
t e m p e r a t u r e ( r e d d i s h light) to m a t c h t h e daylight s t r e a m
i n s t r u m e n t s p r o v i d e t h e d o m i n a n t light, o v e r p o w e r i n g
ing t h r o u g h t h e w i n d o w . In elaborate field p r o d u c t i o n s ,
t h e o v e r h e a d lights t h a t n o w act as r a t h e r w e a k fill lights.
t h e usual way is t o cover t h e entire w i n d o w w i t h a m b e r
T h e c a m e r a will have little t r o u b l e w h i t e - b a l a n c i n g o n t h e
plastic sheets t h a t act like gigantic filters, l o w e r i n g t h e
s t r o n g i n d o o r lights while m o r e or less i g n o r i n g t h e h i g h e r
high o u t d o o r color t e m p e r a t u r e to the lower i n d o o r
color t e m p e r a t u r e of t h e o v e r h e a d fluorescent lights.
s t a n d a r d . T h e a d v a n t a g e of this m e t h o d is t h a t t h e w h o l e i n t e r i o r is adjusted to t h e 3,200K s t a n d a r d . A quicker a n d c h e a p e r way is to let t h e h i g h - c o l o r - t e m p e r a t u r e o u t d o o r
LIGHTING FUNCTIONS
light s t r e a m t h r o u g h t h e w i n d o w a n d p u t b l u i s h filters
You will n o t i c e t h a t l i g h t i n g t e r m i n o l o g y is b a s e d n o t
in front of t h e i n d o o r lighting i n s t r u m e n t s to raise their
so m u c h o n w h e t h e r t h e i n s t r u m e n t s are s p o t l i g h t s or
light to t h e o u t d o o r s t a n d a r d , SEE 8.2 KVJ»»LlGHTS-» Color
floodlights b u t r a t h e r o n their functions a n d their p o s i t i o n
temperature-^ light sources
relative t o t h e object to b e lighted.
Section
8.1
Lighting
in the
161
Studio
TERMINOLOGY A l t h o u g h there are variations for t h e following t e r m s , m o s t lighting p e o p l e in t h e p h o t o g r a p h i c arts ( i n c l u d i n g video) use this s t a n d a r d t e r m i n o l o g y . •
T h e key light is t h e a p p a r e n t p r i n c i p a l s o u r c e of di rectional i l l u m i n a t i o n falling o n a subject o r a n area; it reveals t h e basic s h a p e of t h e object. T h e back light p r o d u c e s i l l u m i n a t i o n f r o m b e h i n d t h e subject a n d o p p o s i t e t h e c a m e r a ; it distinguishes t h e s h a d o w of t h e object from t h e b a c k g r o u n d a n d e m p h a s i z e s t h e object's o u t l i n e . T h e fill light p r o v i d e s generally diffused i l l u m i n a t i o n t o r e d u c e s h a d o w o r c o n t r a s t r a n g e (to slow falloff). It c a n b e directional if t h e area t o b e "filled in" is r a t h e r limited. T h e background
light, o r set light, is u s e d specifically
to i l l u m i n a t e t h e b a c k g r o u n d o r t h e set a n d is sepa rate from t h e light p r o v i d e d for t h e p e r f o r m e r s or Key light (spot or flood)
p e r f o r m a n c e area. 9 T h e side light is placed directly t o t h e side of t h e subject, usually o n t h e o p p o s i t e side of t h e c a m e r a
8 . 3 KEY LIGHT
from t h e key light. S o m e t i m e s t w o side lights are
The key light represents the principal light source and reveals the basic shape of the object or person.
used o p p o s i t e each other, acting as t w o keys for special-effects lighting of a face. •
T h e kicker light is a directional i l l u m i n a t i o n f r o m t h e back, off t o o n e side of t h e subject, usually from a l o w angle o p p o s i t e t h e key light. W h e r e a s t h e b a c k light m e r e l y highlights t h e b a c k of t h e h e a d a n d t h e s h o u l d e r s , t h e kicker light highlights a n d defines t h e entire side of t h e p e r s o n , s e p a r a t i n g h i m o r h e r from the b a c k g r o u n d .
a cue from
filmmakers
a n d still p h o t o g r a p h e r s a n d use
reflectors as key a n d fill lights. Instead of diffusing t h e key a n d fill lights w i t h diffusion material, s u c h as scrims or frosted gels, y o u d o n o t a i m t h e key light (a Fresnel spot) directly a t t h e subject b u t r a t h e r b o u n c e it off white foam core o r a large w h i t e p o s t e r b o a r d . T h e reflected, highly diffused light nevertheless p r o d u c e s distinct, yet extremely
SPECIFIC FUNCTIONS OF M A I N L I G H T S O U R C E S
soft, slow-falloff s h a d o w s . S o m e LDs prefer this m e t h o d
H o w d o these lights n o w function i n basic lighting tasks?
gives t h e m m o r e g r a d u a l (slower) falloff.
Let's take a look.
over key-lighting directly w i t h a softlight, claiming t h a t it B e c a u s e d u r i n g t h e d a y w e see t h e p r i n c i p a l light s o u r c e — t h e s u n — c o m i n g from a b o v e , t h e key light is
Key light
As t h e p r i n c i p a l source of i l l u m i n a t i o n , t h e
n o r m a l l y placed above a n d t o t h e r i g h t o r left front side of
m a j o r function of t h e key light is t o reveal t h e basic s h a p e
t h e object, from t h e camera's p o i n t of view. L o o k again at
of t h e subject, SEE 8.3 To achieve this t h e k e y light m u s t
figure 8.3, w h i c h shows t h e w o m a n i l l u m i n a t e d w i t h t h e
p r o d u c e s o m e shadows. Fresnel spotlights, m e d i u m spread,
key light only, a n d notice t h a t t h e falloff is very fast, b l e n d
are n o r m a l l y used for key i l l u m i n a t i o n . B u t y o u c a n use
ing p a r t of h e r h a i r a n d s h o u l d e r w i t h t h e b a c k g r o u n d . To
a scoop, a b r o a d , o r even a softlight for a k e y if y o u w a n t
help clarify t h e outline a n d t h e texture of the w o m a n ' s right
softer shadows or, technically, slower falloff. I n t h e absence
(camera-left) side, y o u obviously n e e d light sources o t h e r
of expensive softlights, s o m e lighting directors (LDs) take
t h a n t h e single k e y light.
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LIGHTING
b a c k g r o u n d a n d giving t h e h a i r sparkle, the light s i m p l y brightens the t o p of her head, causing dense shadows below h e r eyes a n d chin. O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , if t h e b a c k light is p o s i t i o n e d t o o low, it shines i n t o t h e c a m e r a . To get g o o d back lighting o n a set, y o u n e e d a generous space b e t w e e n t h e p e r f o r m a n c e areas ( t h e areas in w h i c h t h e talent m o v e ) a n d t h e b a c k g r o u n d scenery. T h e r e f o r e y o u m u s t place "active" f u r n i t u r e , s u c h as chairs, tables, sofas, o r b e d s actually u s e d b y t h e p e r f o r m e r s , at least 8 to 10 feet away f r o m t h e walls t o w a r d t h e center of t h e set. If t h e talent w o r k s t o o close to t h e scenery, t h e b a c k lights m u s t b e tilted at very steep angles to reach over t h e flats, a n d s u c h steep angles inevitably cause u n d e s i r a b l e t o p light. Fill l i g h t
N o w take a n o t h e r l o o k at figure 8.4. Despite
t h e b a c k light, the difference b e t w e e n t h e light a n d s h a d o w sides is still rather extreme, a n d t h e light side of t h e face still c h a n g e s a b r u p t l y to a d e n s e s h a d o w . This c h a n g e is called falloff. Falloff m e a n s t h e speed (degree) to w h i c h a light p i c t u r e p o r t i o n t u r n s i n t o s h a d o w area. If t h e c h a n g e is s u d d e n , as in figure 8.4, it is fast falloff. W i t h fast falloff t h e s h a d o w side of t h e subject's face is very dense; t h e c a m e r a sees n o s h a d o w detail. To slow d o w n t h e falloff, that is, t o Key light (spot or flood)
m a k e t h e s h a d o w less p r o m i n e n t a n d m o r e t r a n s p a r e n t , y o u n e e d s o m e fill light, SEE 8.5
^^^^^^^^
N o t surprisingly, you place the fill light o n t h e opposite
8 . 4 KEY AND BACK LIGHTS The back light provides more definition to the actual shape of the subject (her hair on camera-left), separates her from the background, and gives her hair sparkle and highlights.
side of t h e c a m e r a from t h e key light. A highly diffused floodlight or reflected light is generally used as fill. T h e m o r e fill light you use, t h e slower the falloff b e c o m e s . W h e n t h e intensity of t h e fill light a p p r o a c h e s or even m a t c h e s t h a t of t h e key light, t h e s h a d o w s , a n d w i t h t h e m t h e fall-
Back light
Adding illumination from behind helps
off, are virtually eliminated. T h i s gives t h e subject a flat
SEE 8.4 N o t e
l o o k — s h a d o w s n o l o n g e r h e l p define s h a p e a n d t e x t u r e .
separate t h e subject from t h e b a c k g r o u n d ,
h o w t h e back light helps distinguish b e t w e e n t h e s h a d o w
W h e n d o i n g critical l i g h t i n g in a specific area a n d
side of the w o m a n a n d t h e d a r k b a c k g r o u n d , e m p h a s i z i n g
y o u d o n ' t w a n t t h e fill light t o spill over t o o m u c h i n t o
t h e o u t l i n e — t h e c o n t o u r — o f h e r hair a n d s h o u l d e r s . W e
t h e o t h e r set areas, y o u c a n use a Fresnel s p o t l i g h t as fill
have n o w established a clear
relationship,
by s p r e a d i n g t h e b e a m as m u c h as possible or b y p u t t i n g a
w h i c h m e a n s t h a t we c a n easily p e r c e i v e a figure ( t h e
s c r i m in front of t h e lens. You c a n t h e n use t h e b a r n d o o r s
w o m a n ) in front of a (dark) b a c k g r o u n d . Besides providing
to f u r t h e r c o n t r o l the spill.
figure/ground
spatial definition, t h e b a c k light a d d s sparkle a n d profes sional polish. In general, t r y to p o s i t i o n t h e b a c k light as directly b e h i n d t h e subject ( o p p o s i t e t h e c a m e r a ) as possible; t h e r e
The photographic ing
principle, o r triangle
light
W i t h t h e three m a i n light sources (key, fill, a n d back)
in t h e triangle setup, y o u have established t h e basic pho
is n o i n h e r e n t v i r t u e in placing it s o m e w h a t to o n e side o r
tographic
t h e o t h e r unless it is in t h e camera's view. A m o r e critical
8.5). But y o u are n o t d o n e yet! You m u s t n o w fine-tune this
lighting principle,
o r triangle lighting (see
figure
p r o b l e m is controlling t h e vertical angle at w h i c h t h e b a c k
lighting a r r a n g e m e n t . Take a g o o d h a r d look at t h e lighted
light strikes t h e subject. If it is p o s i t i o n e d directly above
object or, if possible, t h e s t u d i o m o n i t o r to see w h e t h e r
the p e r s o n , or s o m e w h e r e in t h a t n e i g h b o r h o o d , t h e b a c k
t h e scene (in o u r case, t h e c l o s e - u p of t h e w o m a n ) n e e d s
light b e c o m e s a n u n d e s i r a b l e t o p light. Instead of reveal
s o m e f u r t h e r a d j u s t m e n t for o p t i m a l lighting. Are t h e r e
ing t h e subject's c o n t o u r to m a k e h e r s t a n d o u t from t h e
any u n d e s i r a b l e shadows? Are t h e r e s h a d o w s t h a t d i s t o r t
Section
8.1
Lighting
8 . 5 KEY, BACK, A N D FILL LIGHTS The fill light slows falloff, making the shadow side (camera-left) more transparent and revealing details without erasing the form-revealing shadows altogether.
in the
163
Studio
8 . 6 BACKGROUND LIGHT The background light illuminates the background area. It must be on the same side of the camera as the key light to keep the background shadows (curtain) on the same side as the fore ground shadows (woman).
r a t h e r t h a n reveal t h e face? H o w is t h e light balance? D o e s
t h e key, t h e viewer m a y a s s u m e t h a t there are t w o separate
t h e fill light wash o u t all t h e necessary s h a d o w s , o r are t h e
light sources i l l u m i n a t i n g t h e scene or, worse, that t h e r e
s h a d o w s still t o o dense? Is t h e back light t o o s t r o n g for t h e
are t w o s u n s i n o u r solar system. H'J*»LlGHTS-> Triangle
key/fill c o m b i n a t i o n ?
lighting-* key | back | fill | background | try it B a c k g r o u n d light f r e q u e n t l y goes b e y o n d its m e r e
Background, or set, light
To i l l u m i n a t e t h e b a c k
s u p p o r t i n g role t o b e c o m e a m a j o r p r o d u c t i o n e l e m e n t .
g r o u n d (walls o r c y c l o r a m a ) of t h e set o r p o r t i o n s o f t h e
Besides accentuating an otherwise dull, m o n o t o n o u s back
set t h a t are n o t a direct p a r t of t h e p r i n c i p a l p e r f o r m a n c e
g r o u n d w i t h a slice of light or a n interesting cookie, t h e
area, y o u use t h e background
b a c k g r o u n d light c a n b e a m a j o r i n d i c a t o r of t h e show's
light, or, as it is frequently
SEE 8.7
called, t h e set light. To keep t h e s h a d o w s of t h e b a c k g r o u n d
locale, t i m e of day, a n d m o o d ,
o n t h e s a m e side as t h o s e o f t h e p e r s o n o r object in front
t i o n of p r i s o n b a r s o n t h e wall, i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e
A cookie projec
of it, t h e b a c k g r o u n d light m u s t strike t h e b a c k g r o u n d
clanging of cell d o o r s , i m m e d i a t e l y places t h e event in a
from t h e s a m e d i r e c t i o n as t h e key light, SEE 8.6
p r i s o n , SEE 8.8
As y o u
c a n see in t h e figure, t h e key light is placed o n t h e c a m e r a -
A l o n g slice o f light o r l o n g s h a d o w s falling across
right side, causing t h e s h a d o w s o n t h e subject t o fall o n
t h e b a c k wall of a n i n t e r i o r set suggests, i n c o n n e c t i o n
t h e camera-left side. C o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e b a c k g r o u n d light
w i t h o t h e r c o n g r u e n t p r o d u c t i o n clues, late a f t e r n o o n o r
is also placed o n c a m e r a - r i g h t t o m a k e t h e s h a d o w s o n
evening. D a r k b a c k g r o u n d s a n d distinct shadows generally
camera-left c o r r e s p o n d w i t h t h o s e of t h e f o r e g r o u n d . If
suggest a low-key
y o u place t h e b a c k g r o u n d light o n t h e o p p o s i t e side f r o m
fast-falloff lighting) a n d a d r a m a t i c o r m y s t e r i o u s m o o d .
scene ( d a r k b a c k g r o u n d with selective
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LIGHTING
8 . 7 SETTING MOOD WITH BACKGROUND LIGHTING The colorful background lighting in this set suggests a trendy environment and an upbeat mood.
Side (spot, flooded)
Side (spot, flooded)
8 . 8 SETTING LOCALE WITH BACKGROUND LIGHTING
Camera
Background lighting can place an event in a specific locale or environment. Here the background light produces barlike shad ows, suggesting that the scene takes place in a prison.
A light b a c k g r o u n d a n d a generally h i g h baselight level are usually regarded as a high-key
scene w i t h an u p b e a t , h a p p y
8.9
SIDELIGHT
The side light strikes the subject from the side. It can act as key and/or fill light. In this case two opposing side lights are used as two keys.
m o o d . T h a t is w h y s i t u a t i o n c o m e d i e s a n d g a m e shows are m u c h m o r e brightly lighted (higher baselight level a n d
m e d i u m - a n d d a r k - c o l o r e d c l o t h i n g are nicely set off b y
less c o n t r a s t ) t h a n are m y s t e r y a n d police d r a m a s (lower
t h e lighter lower p o r t i o n s of t h e set. (3) T h e d a r k u p p e r
baselight level a n d m o r e contrast). D o n o t confuse
high-key
p o r t i o n s suggest a ceiling. You c a n d a r k e n t h e u p p e r p o r
a n d low-key with high a n d low vertical h a n g i n g positions o f
t i o n s of t h e set easily b y using b a r n d o o r s t o block off a n y
the key light o r w i t h t h e intensity with w h i c h it b u r n s . In n o r m a l b a c k g r o u n d lighting of a n i n t e r i o r setting,
spotlight ( i n c l u d i n g t h e b a c k g r o u n d lights) t h a t w o u l d h i t t h o s e areas.
t r y t o keep t h e u p p e r p o r t i o n s of t h e set relatively d a r k , with only the m i d d l e a n d lower p o r t i o n s (such as the walls)
Side light
illuminated. T h e r e are three m a i n reasons for this c o m m o n
subject, t h e side light c a n function as a key o r fill light.
lighting practice: (1) M o s t i n d o o r lighting is designed t o
W h e n used as a key, it p r o d u c e s fast falloff, leaving half of
illuminate l o w w o r k areas r a t h e r t h a n t h e u p p e r p o r t i o n s
t h e face in d e n s e s h a d o w . W h e n used as a fill, it lightens
U s u a l l y p l a c e d directly t o t h e side of t h e
of walls. (2) T h e p e r f o r m e r ' s h e a d is m o r e pleasingly c o n
u p t h e w h o l e s h a d o w side of t h e face. W h e n y o u place side
trasted against a slightly d a r k e r b a c k g r o u n d . T o o m u c h
lights o n o p p o s i t e sides of t h e p e r s o n , t h e sides of the face
light at that height m i g h t cause a silhouette died,
rendering
are b r i g h t , w i t h t h e front of t h e face r e m a i n i n g s h a d o w e d .
t h e face u n u s u a l l y d a r k . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , f u r n i t u r e a n d
SEE 8.9 T h e side light b e c o m e s a m a j o r light source if t h e
Section
8.1
Lighting
in the
165
Studio
Back light
8 . 1 0 SIDE FILL-LIGHT SETUP The side (ill light provides soft illumination, with the key (spot) adding sparkle. When the key is turned off, the side fill takes over the function of the key light.
camera's s h o o t i n g arc is exceptionally wide. If, for instance, t h e c a m e r a m o v e s a r o u n d t h e subject from a 6 o'clock to a n 8 o'clock p o s i t i o n , t h e side light takes o n t h e function of t h e key light a n d provides essential m o d e l i n g (lighting
Key light
for t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l effect). A l t h o u g h Fresnel spots at a w i d e - b e a m setting are generally u s e d for side lighting, u s ing s c o o p s o r b r o a d s as side lights can p r o d u c e interesting lighting effects. For extrabrilliant h i g h - k e y lighting, y o u can s u p p o r t
8 . 1 1 KICKER LIGHT The kicker light rims the subject opposite the key, emphasizing contour. Like the back light, the kicker helps separate the fore ground subject from the background.
t h e key light w i t h side fill light. T h e fill light gives t h e key side of t h e subject basic i l l u m i n a t i o n , w i t h t h e key light p r o v i d i n g t h e necessary sparkle a n d accent, S E E S . I O (1) flat lighting, (2) c o n t i n u o u s - a c t i o n lighting, (3) largeGenerally a s h a r p l y focused Fresnel spot,
area lighting, (4) h i g h - c o n t r a s t lighting, (5) c a m e o lighting,
t h e kicker light strikes t h e subject from b e h i n d a n d o n t h e
(6) silhouette lighting, (7) c h r o m a - k e y area lighting, a n d
opposite side of t h e c a m e r a from t h e key light (the fill-light
(8) controlling eye a n d b o o m s h a d o w s .
Kicker light
side). Its m a i n p u r p o s e is t o highlight t h e subject's c o n t o u r at a place w h e r e key-light falloff is t h e densest a n d w h e r e
FLAT L I G H T I N G
t h e dense s h a d o w of t h e subject o p p o s i t e t h e key-lighted
Flat lightingmeans
^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^
side t e n d s to m e r g e with t h e d a r k b a c k g r o u n d . T h e func
m i n i m a l s h a d o w s . M o s t flat-lighting setups use floodlights
that y o u light for o p t i m a l visibility with
t i o n of t h e kicker is similar to t h a t of t h e b a c k light, except
(softlights o r fluorescent b a n k s ) for front l i g h t i n g a n d
t h a t t h e kicker " r i m s " t h e subject n o t at t h e t o p - b a c k b u t
b a c k g r o u n d lighting a n d m o r e - f o c u s e d i n s t r u m e n t s (Fres
at t h e lower side-back. It usually strikes t h e subject from
nel spots or small b r o a d s ) for back lights. T h i s s e t u p is t h e
b e l o w eye level. Kicker lights are especially useful for creat
favorite lighting t e c h n i q u e for m o r e o r less p e r m a n e n t l y
ing t h e illusion of m o o n l i g h t ,
SEES.II
installed news sets a n d interview areas, SEE 8.12 As y o u can see in t h e figure, t h e basic lighting triangle is preserved. In effect, y o u have t h r e e key lights, or, if y o u wish, t h r e e fill
SPECIFIC LIGHTING TECHNIQUES
lights, evenly i l l u m i n a t i n g t h e front area. T h e back lights
O n c e y o u are familiar w i t h h o w t o apply t h e p h o t o g r a p h i c
a d d t h e sparkle a n d m a k e t h e flatness of t h e lighting setup
principle in a variety of lighting situations, y o u can m o v e
less noticeable. T h e additional b a c k g r o u n d lights illuminate
o n t o a few specific l i g h t i n g t e c h n i q u e s . T h e s e i n c l u d e :
t h e set. T h e flat lighting of such p e r m a n e n t p e r f o r m a n c e
166
Chapter
8
TECHNIQUES
OF TELEVISION
LIGHTING
Back 2
8.12
FLAT-LIGHTING SETUP FOR NEWS
This flat-lighting setup consists of three frontal softlights that act as key and fill lights, three spots or spotted floods for back lights, and three background floodlights.
areas h a s several advantages: ( 1 ) It is q u i c k — a l l y o u n e e d to d o is t u r n o n o n e switch a n d y o u r lighting is d o n e . (2) It is flexible—two o r m o r e n e w s p e o p l e c a n join t h e n e w s a n c h o r w i t h o u t y o u r h a v i n g t o reset a n y l i g h t s .
Camera
8.13
MULTIPLE-TRIANGLE APPLICATION
In this lighting setup, a separate lighting triangle with its own key, back, and fill light is used for each of the two persons (per formance areas). If floodlights are used for the keys, you can probably dispense with the fill lights.
(3) It is f l a t t e r i n g — t h e virtually shadowless lighting hides any wrinkles t h a t m a y have survived t h e m a k e u p . (4) T h e c a m e r a s c a n m a i n t a i n their original s e t u p a n d d o n ' t have to be w h i t e - b a l a n c e d for every show. T h e m a j o r disadvantage is t h a t it looks like w h a t it
b e m u l t i p l i e d a n d o v e r l a p p e d for each set o r p e r f o r m a n c e area for continuous-action
lighting. Even if t h e r e are only
t w o p e o p l e sitting at a table, y o u have to use a m u l t i p l e
is: flat.
a p p l i c a t i o n of t h e basic lighting triangle, S E E 8.13
CONTINUOUS-ACTION LIGHTING
y o u s h o u l d i l l u m i n a t e all adjacent p e r f o r m a n c e areas so
W h e n w a t c h i n g d r a m a s o r s o a p operas o n television, y o u
t h a t t h e basic triangle-lighted areas overlap. T h e p u r p o s e
probably notice that m a n y of t h e m have fast-falloff, low-key
of overlapping is to give t h e performers c o n t i n u o u s lighting
To c o m p e n s a t e for t h e m o v e m e n t o f t h e p e r f o r m e r s ,
lighting, w h i c h m e a n s p r o m i n e n t s h a d o w s a n d relatively
as t h e y m o v e from o n e area t o a n o t h e r . It is all t o o easy t o
dark b a c k g r o u n d s . In s u c h m u l t i c a m e r a p r o d u c t i o n s , t h e
c o n c e n t r a t e o n l y o n t h e m a j o r p e r f o r m a n c e areas a n d t o
c a m e r a s look a t a scene from different p o i n t s of view, a n d
neglect t h e small, seemingly insignificant areas in between.
p e o p l e a n d c a m e r a s are always o n t h e m o v e . W o u l d n ' t it b e
You m a y n o t even n o t i c e t h e u n e v e n n e s s of s u c h lighting
easier t o light "flat," t h a t is, t o flood the w h o l e p e r f o r m a n c e
until t h e p e r f o r m e r s m o v e across t h e set a n d all of a s u d
area w i t h flat light rather t h a n w i t h spotlights? Yes, b u t t h e n
d e n t h e y s e e m t o b e playing a " n o w y o u see m e , n o w y o u
the lighting w o u l d n o t c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e m o o d of t h e scene
d o n ' t " g a m e , p o p p i n g alternately from a well-lighted area
or h o w we feel a b o u t t h e p e r s o n s acting in it. Fortunately,
into d e n s e shadow. I n s u c h s i t u a t i o n s a light m e t e r c o m e s
t h e basic lighting triangle of key, back, a n d fill lights c a n
in h a n d y t o p i n p o i n t t h e "black holes."
Section
Lighting
8.1
in the
Studio
167
h a s b e e n precisely lighted are n o t very p o p u l a r with t h e lighting crew. Accurate lighting is always d o n e with basic c a m e r a p o s i t i o n s a n d p o i n t s of view in m i n d . It therefore helps i m m e n s e l y to k n o w at least t h e basic c a m e r a p o s i t i o n s a n d t h e r a n g e of all m a j o r c a m e r a v i e w p o i n t s before starting w i t h t h e lighting (see figures 8.27 a n d 8.28). For e x a m p l e , a n object that appears perfectly well lighted from a 6 o'clock c a m e r a p o s i t i o n m a y look woefully unlit from a 10 o'clock p o s i t i o n . S o m e t i m e s , as in d r a m a s , variety shows, o r rock concerts, " u n l i g h t e d " s h o t s from s h o o t i n g angles t h a t lie o u t s i d e t h e lighted p a r a m e t e r s m a y look q u i t e startling; in m o s t o t h e r shows of less flexible lighting formats, s u c h as news features o r instructional p r o g r a m s , these shots simply look bad. Key 2
LARGE-AREA LIGHTING For large-area lighting, such as for a n audience o r orchestra, t h e basic p h o t o g r a p h i c p r i n c i p l e still h o l d s : all y o u d o is partially overlap o n e triangle o n a n o t h e r u n t i l y o u have a d e q u a t e l y covered t h e entire area. Instead of key-lighting f r o m just o n e side of t h e c a m e r a a n d fill-lighting from t h e other, however, key-light from b o t h sides of t h e c a m e r a w i t h Fresnel spots in t h e flood position. T h e key lights from
Camera
o n e side act as fill for t h e o t h e r side. If the area is really big, y o u c a n have a d d i t i o n a l sets of Fresnel s p o t s p o s i t i o n e d closer t o t h e center.
8.14
CROSS-KEYING
T h e b a c k lights are s t r u n g o u t in a r o w o r a semicircle
In this lighting setup, the key light for person A (the cam era-near person) also functions as a back light for person B (the camera-far person), and the back light for person A is the key for person B.
o p p o s i t e t h e m a i n c a m e r a p o s i t i o n . T h e fill lights ( b r o a d s o r scoops) usually c o m e directly from t h e front. If t h e c a m e r a s m o v e to t h e side, s o m e of t h e key lights also func t i o n as b a c k lights. You c a n also u s e b r o a d s o r fluorescent b a n k s instead of Fresnel s p o t s for this t y p e of area light
If y o u d o n o t h a v e e n o u g h i n s t r u m e n t s t o a p p l y
ing. SEE 8.15
m u l t i p l e - t r i a n g l e l i g h t i n g for several p e r f o r m a n c e areas
For s o m e a s s i g n m e n t s , s u c h as lighting a school g y m
w h e n lighting for c o n t i n u o u s action, y o u m u s t place t h e
for a basketball g a m e , all y o u n e e d is e n o u g h light for
i n s t r u m e n t s so t h a t each c a n serve t w o o r m o r e functions.
t h e c a m e r a s to see t h e players a n d at least s o m e of t h e
In reverse-angle shooting, for instance, t h e key light for o n e
spectators. In this case s i m p l y flood t h e g y m with highly
p e r f o r m e r m a y b e c o m e t h e back light for t h e o t h e r a n d vice
diffused light. As m e n t i o n e d , o n e possibility is to use fairly
versa. This t e c h n i q u e is generally called cross-keying.
h i g h - p o w e r e d open-face i n s t r u m e n t s with light-diffusing
Or
y o u m a y have t o u s e a key light t o serve also as directional
umbrellas.
fill in a n o t h e r area. Because fill lights have a diffused b e a m , y o u can use a single fill light to lighten u p d e n s e s h a d o w s
HIGH-CONTRAST LIGHTING
in m o r e t h a n o n e area, S E E 8 . 1 4
T h e o p p o s i t e of flat lighting is high-contrast
O f course, t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of lighting i n s t r u m e n t s for
lighting, m u c h
of w h i c h m i r r o r s m o t i o n p i c t u r e lighting t e c h n i q u e s . Be
m u l t i p l e functions requires exact p o s i t i o n i n g of set pieces
cause of t h e increased tolerance of today's video c a m e r a s t o
such as tables a n d chairs, clearly defined p e r f o r m a n c e areas,
l o w light levels a n d h i g h e r - c o n t r a s t lighting, m a n y televi
a n d blocking ( m o v e m e n t s of p e r f o r m e r s ) . D i r e c t o r s w h o
sion plays m a k e extensive use of fast-falloff lighting. You
decide to c h a n g e b l o c k i n g o r m o v e set pieces after t h e set
m a y have noticed t h a t s o m e series, such as c r i m e o r medical
168
8.15
Chapter
8
TECHNIQUES
OF TELEVISION
LIGHTING
LARGE-AREA KEYING
In this lighting setup, the Fresnel spots at the left and right sides function as keys and directional fill lights. Fresnel spots are also strung out as regular back lights behind the main action area. If necessary, scoops provide additional fill light from the front.
8.16
FAST-FALLOFF LIGHTING ON FACE
The fast-falloff lighting increases the dramatic impact of this close-up.
shows, use n o t only extremely fast-falloff lighting ( h a r s h
In a d d i t i o n to fast-falloff lighting, color d i s t o r t i o n c a n
s h a d o w s ) b u t also color d i s t o r t i o n t o intensify t h e scenes.
a d d d r a m a t i c impact. In this example t h e scene is p u r p o s e l y
For example, extremely fast falloff o n a face inevitably looks
given a green tint, SEE
m o r e d r a m a t i c t h a n if it were lighted w i t h slow falloff. SEE 8.16 M'Jt»LIGHTS-^ Design^ high key | low key P r o m i n e n t side lighting a n d fast-falloff lighting c a n
8.19
Realize t h a t such lighting effects r e q u i r e n o t only skill b u t also a lot of p r o d u c t i o n t i m e . T h a t said, y o u s h o u l d still t r y t o apply s o m e of these lighting t e c h n i q u e s w h e n e v e r
A n d instead
p o s s i b l e — a n d w h e n a p p r o p r i a t e t o t h e show. If y o u r light
of always h a v i n g t h e k e y - l i g h t e d side face t h e c a m e r a ,
ing t i m e is limited, however, stay away from such precision
b e c o m b i n e d for d r a m a t i c effect,
SEES.17
you m a y show the s h a d o w side to establish a certain
lighting a n d stick t o t h e classic triangle-lighting a p p r o a c h .
m o o d , SEE
You m i g h t be pleasantly s u r p r i s e d to find that b y t u r n i n g
8.18
Section
Lighting
8.1
8.17
in the
Studio
169
HARSH SIDE LIGHT
The fast falloff and prominent side lighting intensify the mysterious mood of the scene.
8.18
SHADOW SIDE TOWARD CAMERA
The camera-far person is lighted so that his shadow side, rather than key side, is seen by the camera. This shadow reversal has dramatic impact.
8.19
COLOR DISTORTION
In addition to fast-falloff lighting, the precariousness of this scene is further emphasized by the green tint.
o n a few Fresnel spots a n d fill lights, y o u r lighting will look
background), SEE 8 . 2 0
q u i t e acceptable.
c o n c e n t r a t e s o n t h e talent a n d n o t the e n v i r o n m e n t .
Like t h e close-up, c a m e o lighting
CAMEO LIGHTING
m o s t effectively u s i n g spotlights w i t h b a r n - d o o r s . In small
C e r t a i n television shows, especially t h o s e of a d r a m a t i c
s t u d i o s t h e b a c k g r o u n d areas are carefully shielded from
All c a m e o lighting is highly directional a n d is achieved
n a t u r e , are staged in the m i d d l e of a n e m p t y s t u d i o against
a n y k i n d of distracting spill light w i t h black, l i g h t - a b s o r b
a n u n l i g h t e d b a c k g r o u n d . T h i s t e c h n i q u e , w h e r e t h e per
i n g draperies. O n e of the p r o b l e m s with c a m e o lighting is
f o r m e r s are h i g h l i g h t e d against a p l a i n d a r k b a c k g r o u n d ,
t h a t it often exceeds t h e acceptable contrast ratio b e t w e e n
is c o m m o n l y k n o w n as cameo
(from t h e c a m e o
t h e darkest a n d b r i g h t e s t spots in t h e p i c t u r e , w h i c h m a y
a r t f o r m in w h i c h a light relief figure is set against a d a r k e r
lead to overexposed bright areas a n d loss of detail, as well as
lighting
170
8.20
Chapter
8
TECHNIQUES
CAMEO LIGHTING
8.21
OF TELEVISION
LIGHTING
SILHOUETTE LIGHTING
In cameo lighting, the background is kept dark, with only the foreground person illuminated by highly directional spotlights.
In silhouette lighting, only the background is lighted, with the figure in front remaining unlighted. It emphasizes contour.
possible color d i s t o r t i o n in the d a r k areas. Also, because t h e
i n t o a m o n i t o r to see t h e m a p . SEE 8.22 (See c h a p t e r 14 for
lighting is highly directional, t h e talent m u s t m e t i c u l o u s l y
a n i n - d e p t h e x p l a n a t i o n of t h e c h r o m a - k e y process.)
a d h e r e to t h e r e h e a r s e d blocking. A slight deviation m e a n s
T h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t aspect of lighting the c h r o m a - k e y
that t h e talent steps o u t of t h e light a n d , for all practical
set area is even b a c k g r o u n d i l l u m i n a t i o n , which m e a n s t h a t
p u r p o s e s , d i s a p p e a r s f r o m t h e screen. Finally, if a m i c r o
t h e b l u e or green b a c k d r o p m u s t b e lighted w i t h highly dif
p h o n e b o o m is used for s o u n d p i c k u p , its distinct s h a d o w s
fused i n s t r u m e n t s , s u c h as softlights o r floodlight b a n k s .
p r e s e n t a c o n s t a n t h a z a r d . S o m e p r o d u c t i o n p e o p l e use
If t h e r e are u n u s u a l l y d a r k areas o r hot spots ( u n d e s i r a b l e
t h e t e r m cameo lighting even w h e n s h o w i n g p a r t of a set
c o n c e n t r a t i o n s of light in o n e area), the electronically s u p
in t h e scene.
plied b a c k g r o u n d i m a g e looks discolored or, worse, breaks u p . W h e n lighting t h e weathercaster in the f o r e g r o u n d , p r e v e n t any of t h e lights u s e d for t h e f o r e g r o u n d from
SILHOUETTE LIGHTING Lighting for a silhouette effect is the o p p o s i t e of c a m e o
h i t t i n g t h e b a c k d r o p . Such spill w o u l d u p s e t t h e evenness
y o u light t h e b a c k g r o u n d
of t h e c h r o m a - k e y b a c k g r o u n d i l l u m i n a t i o n a n d lead t o
b u t leave the figures in front u n l i g h t e d . This way y o u see
keying p r o b l e m s . In practice this m e a n s that t h e key a n d
only t h e c o n t o u r of objects a n d p e o p l e b u t n o t their vol
directional fill light (a Fresnel in the flood p o s i t i o n ) m u s t
u m e a n d texture. To achieve silhouette lighting, use highly
strike t h e subject f r o m a s t e e p e r - t h a n - n o r m a l angle. You
lighting. In silhouette
lighting
diffused light, usually from softlights, eye lights, o r s c o o p s
m a y find t h a t using softlights for t h e key a n d fill lights o n
with scrims, to evenly i l l u m i n a t e t h e b a c k g r o u n d . O b v i
t h e w e a t h e r c a s t e r will n o t affect t h e c h r o m a key even if
ously, you light in silhouette only t h o s e scenes t h a t gain b y
they spill o n t o t h e b a c k d r o p .
e m p h a s i z i n g c o n t o u r , SEE 8.21 You can also use silhouette
S o m e t i m e s t h e o u t l i n e of a weathercaster looks o u t of
lighting to conceal t h e identity of a p e r s o n a p p e a r i n g o n -
focus or seems to vibrate d u r i n g t h e c h r o m a key. O n e of
c a m e r a . M ' i F L I G H T S - > Design^ silhouette
t h e reasons for s u c h v i b r a t i o n s is t h a t especially d a r k col
CHROMA-KEY AREA LIGHTING
tinge, caused by a reflection from t h e colored b a c k d r o p .
ors o r s h a d o w s at t h e c o n t o u r line take o n a b l u e or green T h e c h r o m a - k e y set area n o r m a l l y consists of a p l a i n b l u e
D u r i n g t h e c h r o m a key, these b l u e or green spots b e c o m e
or green b a c k d r o p . It is used to p r o v i d e a variety of b a c k
t r a n s p a r e n t a n d let t h e b a c k g r o u n d p i c t u r e s h o w t h r o u g h .
g r o u n d s t h a t are electronically g e n e r a t e d , replacing t h e
To c o u n t e r a c t a blue reflection, try p u t t i n g a light-yellow o r
blue o r green areas d u r i n g the k e y — a process called
a m b e r gel o n all t h e b a c k lights or kicker lights. For green
chroma
keying. A p o p u l a r use of the c h r o m a key is a weather report.
reflections, use a l i g h t - m a g e n t a or soft-pink gel. T h e b a c k
A l t h o u g h t h e weathercaster seems to b e s t a n d i n g in front
lights t h e n n o t only separate t h e f o r e g r o u n d subject from
of a large w e a t h e r m a p , she is in fact s t a n d i n g in front of
the background picture through contour illumination b u t
an empty, evenly lighted blue or green b a c k d r o p . W h e n
also n e u t r a l i z e t h e b l u e or green s h a d o w s with t h e c o m p l e
t h e blue or green areas are electronically replaced by t h e
m e n t a r y yellow o r p i n k filters. As a result, t h e o u t l i n e of
w e a t h e r m a p d u r i n g t h e key, t h e weathercaster m u s t l o o k
t h e w e a t h e r c a s t e r will r e m a i n relatively s h a r p even d u r i n g
Section
8,1
Lighting
in the
171
Studio
8.22 CHROMA-KEY EFFECT: WEATHERCAST A In this weathercast, the blue background is evenly lighted with floodlights. The weathercaster is lighted with the standard triangle arrangement of key, back, and fill lights.
B During the chroma key, the weathercaster seems to stand in front of the satellite view.
t h e c h r o m a key. Be careful, however, n o t t o let any of t h e
Key light and eye shadows
c o l o r e d b a c k light h i t t h e a r m s o r h a n d s o f t h e p e r s o n
subject from a steep angle will cause large d a r k s h a d o w s
s t a n d i n g in t h e c h r o m a - k e y area.
i n a n y i n d e n t a t i o n a n d u n d e r a n y p r o t r u s i o n , such as in
T h e key light's striking t h e
Because t h e b l u e reflections f r o m t h e sky are h a r d
t h e eye sockets a n d u n d e r t h e n o s e a n d chin. If t h e subject
t o c o n t r o l o u t d o o r s , in E F P green is t h e preferred color
wears glasses, t h e s h a d o w of t h e u p p e r r i m of t h e frames
for a c h r o m a - k e y b a c k d r o p . You c a n also use green as t h e
m a y fall directly across t h e eyes, preventing t h e c a m e r a ( a n d
c h r o m a - k e y color in t h e studio, especially if t h e talent likes
t h e viewer) from seeing t h e m clearly, SEE 8.23
t o wear b l u e .
T h e r e are several ways t o r e d u c e t h e s e u n d e s i r a b l e s h a d o w s . First, t r y t o lower t h e vertical p o s i t i o n o f t h e
C O N T R O L L I N G EYE A N D B O O M S H A D O W S
light itself or use a key light farther away from t h e s u b
Two fairly persistent p r o b l e m s in s t u d i o lighting are t h e
ject. W h e n y o u lower it (with a m o v a b l e b a t t e n o r a r o d ) ,
s h a d o w s c a u s e d b y eyeglasses a n d m i c r o p h o n e b o o m s .
n o t i c e t h a t t h e eye s h a d o w s seem t o m o v e farther u p t h e
D e p e n d i n g o n t h e specific lighting setup, s u c h u n w a n t e d
face. As s o o n as t h e s h a d o w s are h i d d e n b e h i n d t h e u p p e r
s h a d o w s c a n p r e s e n t a f o r m i d a b l e challenge t o t h e lighting
r i m of t h e glasses, lock t h e key light in p o s i t i o n . Such a
crew. M o s t often, however, y o u will b e able t o correct s u c h
t e c h n i q u e w o r k s well so l o n g as t h e subject d o e s n o t m o v e
p r o b l e m s r a t h e r quickly.
a r o u n d t o o m u c h , SEE 8.24 Second, y o u c a n t r y to r e d u c e
8.23 SHADOW CAUSED BY GLASSES
8.24 KEY LIGHT LOWERED
The steep angle of the key light causes the shadow of the woman's glasses to fall right across her eyes.
By lowering the key light, the shadow moves up and is hidden behind the glasses.
172
Chapter
8
TECHNIQUES
OF TELEVISION
LIGHTING
eye s h a d o w s by i l l u m i n a t i n g t h e p e r s o n from b o t h sides with similar i n s t r u m e n t s . You can also r e p o s i t i o n t h e fill light so that it strikes t h e subject directly from t h e front a n d from a lower angle, t h u s placing t h e s h a d o w s u p w a r d , away from t h e eyes. A n n o y i n g reflections from eyeglasses can b e e l i m i n a t e d w i t h the s a m e recipe. A l t h o u g h you m a y not n o r m a l l y use a large m i c r o p h o n e b o o m in t h e s t u d i o except for s o m e d r a m a t i c p r o d u c t i o n s , t h e principles of dealing with b o o m s h a d o w s also apply to h a n d h e l d m i c r o p h o n e b o o m s , s u c h as fishpoles a n d even h a n d h e l d s h o t g u n mics. W h e n y o u m o v e a b o o m m i c in front of a lighted s c e n e — i n this case a single p e r s o n — a n d m o v e t h e b o o m a r o u n d a little, y o u m a y notice s h a d o w s o n t h e actor or o n the b a c k g r o u n d w h e n e v e r the m i c or b o o m passes t h r o u g h
8.25
a spotlight b e a m . (You can easily test for s h a d o w s by s u b
The instrument that causes the undesirable boom shadow lies at the extension of a line drawn from the shadow to the micro phone causing it.
s t i t u t i n g a b r o o m s t i c k or t h e lighting pole.) Such s h a d o w s are especially distracting w h e n they m o v e in a n d o u t d u r i n g
LOCATING THE SHADOW-CAUSING LIGHT
a highly d r a m a t i c scene. You c a n deal w i t h b o o m s h a d o w s in t w o ways: m o v e t h e lights a n d / o r t h e m i c b o o m so t h a t t h e s h a d o w falls o u t of c a m e r a range, o r use s u c h highly
A n o t h e r simple way to avoid b o o m s h a d o w s is to light
diffused lighting that t h e s h a d o w b e c o m e s all b u t invisible.
m o r e steeply t h a n usual. You d o this by m o v i n g the key
First of all, you n e e d to find the light that is causing t h e
light closer t o t h e set area. T h e closer t h e lights are to t h e
b o o m shadow. As simple as this m a y seem, it is n o t always
p e r f o r m a n c e area, t h e steeper they will have t o b e angled
so easy to s p o t t h e t r o u b l e m a k i n g i n s t r u m e n t , especially
to h i t t h e target. T h e b o o m will n o w cast its s h a d o w o n t h e
if several spotlights are i l l u m i n a t i n g v a r i o u s adjacent areas
s t u d i o floor r a t h e r t h a n o n t h e talent's face o r b a c k g r o u n d
o n t h e set. T h e easiest way to locate t h e light is to m o v e
scenery a n d t h u s b e o u t of c a m e r a r a n g e . T h e d o w n s i d e
your h e a d directly in front of t h e b o o m s h a d o w a n d look at
to this t e c h n i q u e is t h a t t h e steep key lights p r o d u c e dense
the m i c r o p h o n e s u s p e n d e d from the b o o m . T h e s h a d o w -
a n d p r o m i n e n t s h a d o w s u n d e r the eyes, nose, a n d chin.
c a u s i n g light will n o w inevitably shine i n t o y o u r eyes. Be
You c a n also t r y to use b a r n d o o r s to b l o c k off t h e
careful n o t to stare i n t o t h e light for any p r o l o n g e d p e r i o d .
p a r t of t h e spotlight t h a t causes the b o o m shadow. Such a
M o r e precisely, the i n s t r u m e n t lies at t h e e x t e n s i o n of a
t e c h n i q u e is especially useful w h e n t h e s h a d o w appears in
line d r a w n from the s h a d o w t o t h e m i c r o p h o n e causing
the u p p e r p a r t of t h e b a c k g r o u n d scenery.
it. SEE 8.25 To get r i d of t h e shadow, simply t u r n off the offending i n s t r u m e n t . You m a y b e pleasantly s u r p r i s e d to find t h a t
CONTRAST
y o u have e l i m i n a t e d t h e s h a d o w w i t h o u t i m p e d i n g t h e
In c h a p t e r 3 y o u l e a r n e d a b o u t c o n t r a s t r a t i o a n d t h e
overall lighting. If s u c h a drastic step seriously weakens
way television c a m e r a s react t o it. In this s e g m e n t you get
t h e lighting s e t u p , try t o p o s i t i o n t h e b o o m so t h a t it d o e s
a c q u a i n t e d w i t h h o w lighting affects c o n t r a s t a n d h o w t o
n o t have to travel t h r o u g h this light. If y o u use a h a n d h e l d
keep it w i t h i n tolerable limits (40:1 to 50:1). C o n t r a s t d o e s
fishpole
b o o m , walk a r o u n d t h e set while p o i n t i n g t h e
n o t d e p e n d so m u c h o n h o w m u c h light c o m e s from t h e
m i c t o w a r d t h e s o u n d source. W a t c h t h e s h a d o w m o v e
lighting i n s t r u m e n t s (incident-light reading) as o n h o w
o n t h e b a c k g r o u n d wall u n t i l it is o u t of c a m e r a r a n g e .
m u c h light is reflected by the i l l u m i n a t e d objects (reflected-
If t h e m i c r o p h o n e is still in a p o s i t i o n for o p t i m a l s o u n d
light r e a d i n g ) . For e x a m p l e , a white refrigerator, a yellow
p i c k u p , y o u have solved t h e p r o b l e m . You m a y locate s u c h
plastic raincoat, a n d a p o l i s h e d brass plate reflect m u c h
a shadow-safe spot m o r e readily w h e n h o l d i n g or placing
m o r e light t h a n does a d a r k - b l u e velvet cloth, even if t h e y
the b o o m parallel to t h e key-light b e a m r a t h e r t h a n w h e n
are i l l u m i n a t e d by t h e very s a m e source. If y o u place t h e
crossing it. S o m e LDs use t h e key a n d fill lights close t o
b r a s s plate o n t h e velvet cloth, t h e r e m a y b e t o o m u c h
side-light p o s i t i o n s t o p r o v i d e a " c o r r i d o r " in w h i c h t o
contrast for the television c a m e r a to h a n d l e p r o p e r l y — a n d
operate the b o o m .
y o u have n o t even b e g u n w i t h t h e lighting.
Section
8.1
Lighting
W h a t you have to consider w h e n dealing with c o n t r a s t is a c o n s t a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p a m o n g v a r i o u s factors, s u c h as
in the
Such h e l p is m u c h a p p r e c i a t e d by t h e video (VO),
173
Studio
operator
also called t h e shader, w h o is ultimately responsible
h o w m u c h light falls o n t h e subject, h o w m u c h light is
for c o n t r o l l i n g c o n t r a s t . If t h e r e is t o o m u c h c o n t r a s t ,
reflected, a n d h o w m u c h difference there is b e t w e e n t h e
however, even t h e best VOs have difficulty unless you're
f o r e g r o u n d a n d t h e b a c k g r o u n d or t h e lightest a n d darkest
w o r k i n g w i t h t o p - o f - t h e - l i n e c a m e r a s . By "pulling d o w n , "
s p o t s in t h e s a m e p i c t u r e . Because w e deal w i t h r e l a t i o n
or clipping, the brightest areas of t h e scene, t h e VO causes
ships r a t h e r t h a n absolute values, we express t h e camera's
t h e d a r k areas in t h e p i c t u r e to also b e c o m e c o m p r e s s e d , a n d they are often r e n d e r e d u n i f o r m l y black. This is w h y
c o n t r a s t limit as a ratio.
y o u d o n o t see m u c h detail in the s h a d o w s of a h i g h - c o n t r a s t scene. For e x a m p l e , it is difficult for t h e c a m e r a to
CONTRAST RATIO As s t a t e d in c h a p t e r 3, contrast
ratio
is t h e difference
b e t w e e n t h e b r i g h t e s t a n d t h e d a r k e s t s p o t s in t h e p i c t u r e (often m e a s u r e d by reflected light in f o o t - c a n d l e s ) . T h e b r i g h t e s t spot, that is, t h e area reflecting t h e greatest a m o u n t of light, is called t h e reference white, a n d it deter m i n e s the "white level." T h e area reflecting t h e least a m o u n t of light is t h e reference black, w h i c h d e t e r m i n e s t h e "black
r e p r o d u c e t r u e skin color if t h e talent is w e a r i n g a highly reflective starched white s h i r t a n d a l i g h t - a b s o r b i n g black jacket. If t h e c a m e r a adjusts for t h e white shirt by clipping t h e w h i t e level, t h e talent's face will go d a r k . If t h e c a m e r a tries to b r i n g u p t h e black level ( m a k i n g t h e black areas in t h e p i c t u r e light e n o u g h to distinguish s h a d o w detail), the face will w a s h o u t .
level." W i t h a c o n t r a s t limit of 40:1 or 50:1, t h e reference
D o e s this m e a n t h a t y o u have to m e a s u r e all items
w h i t e s h o u l d n o t reflect m o r e t h a n forty or fifty t i m e s t h e
t o see w h e t h e r t h e y exceed t h e acceptable contrast ratio
light of t h e reference black. R e m e m b e r that t h e c o n t r a s t is
w h e n seen together? N o t at all. A few small, shiny items
d e t e r m i n e d n o t necessarily by the a m o u n t of light gener
in t h e p i c t u r e will n o t u p s e t a limited c o n t r a s t ratio, espe
ated by t h e l a m p s b u t by h o w m u c h light the objects reflect
cially w h e n using h i g h - q u a l i t y c a m e r a s . R h i n e s t o n e s o n a
b a c k to t h e c a m e r a lens.
dress, for e x a m p l e , m a k e t h e p i c t u r e c o m e alive a n d give it sparkle. In fact, video o p e r a t o r s like to have s o m e t h i n g w h i t e a n d s o m e t h i n g black o n the set so t h a t they can set
MEASURING CONTRAST
t h e a p p r o p r i a t e video levels. But avoid h a v i n g relatively
You m e a s u r e c o n t r a s t w i t h a reflected-light r e a d i n g — b y
large, extremely b r i g h t areas a n d extremely d a r k o n e s right
first p o i n t i n g t h e light m e t e r close t o t h e brightest s p o t
next to each other.
(often a small w h i t e card o n t h e set, w h i c h serves as t h e
O n e big advantage of s h o o t i n g in the studio is that you
reference white) a n d t h e n to t h e darkest s p o t (serving as
c a n c o n t r o l t h e light intensity a n d , with it, t h e c o n t r a s t .
t h e reference black). Even if y o u d o n ' t have a light m e t e r
Even if t h e talent w e a r c o n t r a s t i n g clothes, y o u can always
o r waveform m o n i t o r for checking t h e c o n t r a s t ratio, y o u
r e d u c e t h e c o n t r a s t b y adjusting t h e key a n d fill lights so
c a n tell b y l o o k i n g at t h e m o n i t o r . W h e n t h e white areas,
t h a t the differences b e t w e e n light a n d d a r k areas are s o m e
s u c h as t h e white tablecloths in a r e s t a u r a n t set, l o o k aw
what reduced.
fully bright, or t h e black clothing of the p e o p l e sitting at t h e tables awfully black w i t h o u t a n y detail, t h e c o n t r a s t is
H e r e are a few tips for p r e v e n t i n g an overly high c o n trast r a t i o .
o b v i o u s l y great a n d p r o b a b l y exceeds t h e o p t i m a l ratio. W i t h a little practice, s q u i n t i n g y o u r eyes w h e n t a k i n g a
•
Be aware of t h e general reflectance of t h e objects.
brief l o o k at the set will give y o u a g o o d idea a b o u t t h e
A highly reflective object obviously n e e d s less illu
c o n t r a s t ratio even w i t h o u t using t h e light meter. A look
m i n a t i o n t h a n does a highly l i g h t - a b s o r b i n g o n e .
at t h e c a m e r a viewfinder o r s t u d i o m o n i t o r is, of course, a m o r e a c c u r a t e a n d reliable m e a s u r i n g tool. KVJr-»LIGHTS-»
Avoid e x t r e m e b r i g h t n e s s c o n t r a s t s in t h e s a m e shot. For e x a m p l e , if y o u n e e d to s h o w a n e w line of white
Measurement-* contrast
china, d o n o t p u t it o n a d a r k - p u r p l e tablecloth. By
CONTROLLING
CONTRAST
If y o u feel t h a t t h e c o n t r a s t ratio is t o o h i g h , t h i n k a b o u t w h a t y o u can d o t o r e d u c e it before fussing w i t h t h e light
displaying it o n a lighter, m o r e light-reflecting cloth, you can limit t h e a m o u n t of light falling o n t h e p o r c e l a i n w i t h o u t m a k i n g t h e tablecloth a p p e a r t o o dark and muddy.
ing. For example, changing the white tablecloth to a p i n k or light-blue o n e will help eliminate t h e c o n t r a s t m o r e readily
Have t h e talent avoid clothes w h o s e colors are t o o
t h a n d i m m i n g s o m e of t h e lights o r asking t h e talent to
c o n t r a s t i n g (such as a starched white shirt with a
c h a n g e i n t o slightly lighter-colored clothes.
black suit).
Chapter
174
TECHNIQUES
8
M a n y contrast p r o b l e m s , however, o c c u r w h e n s h o o t ing o u t d o o r s o n a s u n n y day. T h e s e p r o b l e m s a n d h o w t o solve t h e m are explored in section 8.2.
OF TELEVISION
LIGHTING
light ratio, b u t for starters y o u m a y w a n t to t r y a
fill-light
i n t e n s i t y t h a t is half t h a t of t h e key a n d go from there. Re m e m b e r t h a t t h e m o r e fill light y o u use, t h e less m o d e l i n g t h e key light is d o i n g b u t t h e s m o o t h e r t h e texture (such as of a p e r s o n ' s face) b e c o m e s . If y o u use a l m o s t n o fill light,
BALANCING LIGHT INTENSITIES
t h e dense s h a d o w s reveal n o p i c t u r e detail a n d y o u r u n t h e
Even if y o u have carefully adjusted the p o s i t i o n a n d t h e
risk of s o m e color d i s t o r t i o n in t h e s h a d o w areas. If, for
b e a m of the key, back, a n d fill lights, y o u still n e e d to b a l
example, a detective refers to a small scar o n t h e left side
ance t h e i r relative intensities. For e x a m p l e , it is n o t o n l y
of a w o m a n ' s face a n d a close-up of h e r face shows n o t h i n g
t h e d i r e c t i o n of the lights that o r i e n t s t h e viewer in t i m e
b u t a dense s h a d o w w h e r e t h e scar s h o u l d be, or w h e n t h e
b u t also their relative intensities. A s t r o n g b a c k light w i t h
s h a d o w hides a n i m p o r t a n t detail in a p r o d u c t d e m o n s t r a
high-key, slow-falloff front lighting can suggest t h e early-
t i o n , t h e key-to-fill-light ratio is o b v i o u s l y w r o n g .
m o r n i n g s u n ; a g e n e r o u s a m o u n t of s t r o n g b a c k light
If y o u are asked to light for a h i g h - b a s e l i g h t , low-
a n d low-key, very l o w - i n t e n s i t y front lighting can suggest
c o n t r a s t scene ( h i g h - k e y lighting), y o u m a y w a n t to use
moonlight.
1
floodlights for b o t h t h e key a n d t h e fill, with t h e fill b u r n
T h e r e is s o m e a r g u m e n t a b o u t w h e t h e r to first balance
ing at almost t h e s a m e intensity as the key. As y o u k n o w b y
the key a n d back lights, or the key a n d fill lights. Actually, it
now, high-key has n o t h i n g to d o with t h e actual p o s i t i o n i n g
m a t t e r s little w h i c h y o u d o first so l o n g as t h e e n d effect is
of t h e key light b u t r a t h e r t h e i n t e n s i t y of t h e overall light
a well-balanced p i c t u r e . Because b a l a n c i n g t h e t h r e e lights
level. T h e b a c k light s h o u l d p r o b a b l y b u r n w i t h a h i g h e r
of t h e lighting t r i a n g l e d e p e n d s o n w h a t y o u i n t e n d t o
intensity t h a n t h e key or t h e fill light to p r o v i d e t h e n e c
convey to the viewer, y o u can't use precise i n t e n s i t y ratios
essary sparkle. In a low-key scene, t h e b a c k light is often
a m o n g key, back, a n d fill lights as an absolute guide for
considerably b r i g h t e r t h a n t h e key a n d fill lights, SEE 8.26
effective lighting. Nevertheless, t h e r e are s o m e ratios t h a t have p r o v e d beneficial for a n u m b e r of r o u t i n e lighting a s s i g n m e n t s . You can always start w i t h these ratios a n d t h e n adjust t h e m to y o u r specific lighting task. Back (same as key: 200 fc or 2,000 lux)
KEY-TO-BACK-LIGHT RATIO In n o r m a l c o n d i t i o n s b a c k lights have a p p r o x i m a t e l y t h e same intensity as key lights. A n u n u s u a l l y intense back light t e n d s to g l a m o r i z e p e o p l e ; a b a c k light w i t h an intensity m u c h lower t h a n t h a t of t h e key t e n d s t o get lost o n t h e m o n i t o r . A television p e r f o r m e r w i t h b l o n d h a i r a n d a l i g h t - c o l o r e d suit will n e e d c o n s i d e r a b l y less b a c k light
Background (100 fc or 1,000 lux)
t h a n will a d a r k - h a i r e d p e r f o r m e r in a d a r k suit. T h e 1:1 k e y - t o - b a c k - l i g h t r a t i o (key a n d b a c k lights have e q u a l intensities) c a n go as high as 1:1.5 (the b a c k light h a s o n e a n d a half t i m e s t h e i n t e n s i t y of the key) if y o u n e e d a fair a m o u n t of sparkle or if the talent has dark, l i g h t - a b s o r b i n g
(150 fc or 1,500 lux)
Key (200 fc or 2,000 lux)
t e x t u r e d hair.
KEY-TO-FILL-LIGHT RATIO T h e fill-light i n t e n s i t y d e p e n d s o n h o w fast a falloff y o u want. If y o u w a n t fast falloff for d r a m a t i c effect, little fill
Camera
is n e e d e d . If y o u w a n t very slow falloff, h i g h e r - i n t e n s i t y fill is n e e d e d . As you c a n see, t h e r e is n o single key-to-fill-
8.26 1. Sec Herbert Zettl, Sight Sound Motion, 4th ed. (Belmont, Calif.: Thomson Wadsworth, 2005), pp. 28-30.
LIGHTING RATIOS
Lighting ratios differ, depending on the specific 'ighting task. These ratios are a good starting point.
Section
8.1
Again, as helpful as light m e t e r s are in establishing r o u g h lighting r a t i o s , d o n o t rely solely o n t h e m . Your
Lighting
175
Studio
a r b i t r a r y a n d saves t h e crew considerable t i m e a n d energy. You can also use it again later for similar s e t u p s .
final c r i t e r i o n is h o w t h e p i c t u r e looks o n a well-adjusted monitor.
in the
A n easy way to m a k e a light p l o t is to p u t a t r a n s p a r ency over a c o p y of t h e floor p l a n a n d d r a w the lighting i n f o r m a t i o n o n t h e transparency. Use different icons for spotlights a n d floodlights, d r a w i n g a r r o w s to indicate t h e
LIGHT PLOT
m a i n directions of t h e b e a m s , SEE 8.27 AND 8.28
S o m e LDs
use small c u t o u t s of their spotlights a n d floodlights, which
T h e light plot shows: (1) t h e location of t h e lighting i n s t r u
t h e y t h e n lay o n t h e floor plan a n d m o v e i n t o t h e a p p r o
m e n t s relative to t h e set a n d t h e i l l u m i n a t e d objects a n d
priate p o s i t i o n s .
areas; (2) t h e principal directions of the b e a m s ; a n d , ideally (3) t h e t y p e a n d t h e size of t h e i n s t r u m e n t s used.
Try t o w o r k with the set designer (usually the art direc t o r ) or t h e floor m a n a g e r ( w h o is responsible for p u t t i n g
In d r a w i n g a successful light plot, you n e e d an accurate
u p t h e set) as m u c h as possible to have t h e m place t h e set
floor plan that shows t h e scenery a n d t h e stage p r o p s , the
in the s t u d i o w h e r e y o u w o n ' t have to m o v e any, o r only
p r i n c i p a l talent p o s i t i o n s , a n d t h e m a j o r c a m e r a p o s i t i o n s
a few, i n s t r u m e n t s to achieve t h e desired lighting. Plac
a n d s h o o t i n g angles (see section 15.2). M o s t r o u t i n e shows,
ing the small set to suit t h e available lighting p o s i t i o n s is
s u c h as n e w s , interviews, o r p a n e l shows, are relatively easy
m u c h easier t h a n m o v i n g t h e lights to suit the location of
to light a n d d o n o t c h a n g e their lighting s e t u p from s h o w
a small set.
t o show, so y o u d o n ' t n e e d a light plot. If y o u have to light
S t u d i o lighting is successful w h e n y o u get it d o n e o n
a n atypical show, however, such as a g r a d u a t e dance project
t i m e . W i t h d u e respect to creative lighting, d o n ' t fuss over
o r an interview w i t h the university p r e s i d e n t a n d m e m b e r s
a single d e n s e s h a d o w s o m e w h e r e o n t h e b a c k g r o u n d
of t h e b o a r d of trustees, a light p l o t makes t h e lighting less
while neglecting t o light t h e rest of t h e set. If y o u are really
Camera on CU
8.27
LIGHT PLOT FOR FLAT LIGHTING OF INTERVIEW
This light plot shows the slow-falloff (flat) lighting setup for a simple interview. Ordinarily, such a simple setup would not reguire a light plot. Note that the sketch is not to scale.
8.28
LIGHT PLOT FOR INTERVIEW, USING FLOODS AND SPOTS
This interview is lighted for faster falloff. It uses spots for key and back lights, and scoops for fill and background lights.
176
Chapter
TECHNIQUES
8
OF TELEVISION
LIGHTING
pressed for time, t u r n o n s o m e floodlights and b a c k lights
strikes it. If you must look into the light, wear dark glasses
that h a n g in a p p r o x i m a t e positions a n d h o p e for t h e best.
a n d d o so o n l y briefly.
M o r e often t h a n n o t , t h e lighting will l o o k acceptable.
Before y o u start p a t c h i n g ( a s s u m i n g t h a t you use a physical p a t c h b o a r d ) have all d i m m e r s a n d breakers in t h e
OPERATION OF STUDIO LIGHTS
o p p o s i t i o n . D o n o t " h o t - p a t c h " by c o n n e c t i n g t h e p o w e r
W h e n initially h a n g i n g lights, divide the s t u d i o i n t o major
cord of t h e i n s t r u m e n t to t h e p o w e r outlet o n t h e b a t t e n
p e r f o r m a n c e areas a n d h a n g t h e a p p r o p r i a t e i n s t r u m e n t s
with t h e breaker switched on. H o t - p a t c h i n g can b u r n y o u r
(spotlights a n d floodlights) in t h e triangular a r r a n g e m e n t s
h a n d a n d also pit t h e patches so that t h e y n o longer m a k e
of the basic p h o t o g r a p h i c principle. Try to p o s i t i o n t h e
the proper connection.
i n s t r u m e n t s so that t h e y can serve m u l t i p l e functions, that is, light m o r e t h a n o n e p e r s o n o r several p a r t s of t h e set.
PRESERVING L A M P S A N D POWER
This will help y o u illuminate all major p e r f o r m a n c e areas
Try t o w a r m u p large i n s t r u m e n t s t h r o u g h r e d u c e d p o w e r by keeping t h e d i m m e r low for a s h o r t while before s u p plying full power. This will p r o l o n g t h e l a m p life a n d t h e Fresnel lenses, which occasionally crack w h e n w a r m e d u p too fast. This w a r m - u p p e r i o d (about o n e to three m i n u t e s ) is essential for getting H M I lights u p to full o p e r a t i o n . D o n o t overload a circuit: it m a y h o l d d u r i n g rehearsal b u t t h e n go o u t just at t h e w r o n g t i m e d u r i n g the actual show. If e x t e n s i o n c o r d s s t a r t to get h o t , u n p l u g a n d replace t h e m i m m e d i a t e l y w i t h lower-gauge (thicker wire, such as 14-gauge) cables.
adequately w i t h m i n i m u m effort a n d i n s t r u m e n t s .
SAFETY In t h e actual o p e r a t i o n of lighting i n s t r u m e n t s a n d t h e associated control e q u i p m e n t , y o u s h o u l d h e e d t h e rule for all p r o d u c t i o n activities: safety
first.
As m e n t i o n e d in c h a p t e r 7, always wear gloves working
with active lighting
instruments.
when
T h e gloves will
protect you from b u r n s w h e n t o u c h i n g h o t b a r n d o o r s or l a m p s a n d will give y o u s o m e p r o t e c t i o n from electric shock. Always secure t h e lighting i n s t r u m e n t s to t h e b a t t e n s with safety chains or cables a n d attach t h e b a r n d o o r s a n d scrims to t h e lighting i n s t r u m e n t s . C h e c k all C - c l a m p s periodically, especially t h e bolts t h a t c o n n e c t t h e lighting i n s t r u m e n t s to the h a n g i n g device. Be careful w h e n plugging in lights a n d w h e n m o v i n g active ( s w i t c h e d - o n ) i n s t r u m e n t s . Because t h e h o t l a m p s are especially v u l n e r a b l e to physical shock, t r y n o t to jolt the i n s t r u m e n t ; m o v e it gently. W h e n replacing l a m p s , wait until t h e i n s t r u m e n t has cooled s o m e w h a t . Always t u r n off t h e i n s t r u m e n t before reaching in to r e m o v e a b u r n e d - o u t l a m p . As a d o u b l e p r o t e c t i o n , u n p l u g t h e light at t h e b a t t e n . Do not touch the new quartz lamp with your fingers. Fingerprints, or any other stuff clinging to t h e quartz h o u s i n g of the l a m p , cause the l a m p to overheat a n d b u r n o u t . W e a r gloves or, if you have n o t h i n g else, use a tissue o r even y o u r shirttail w h e n handling the lamp. W a t c h for obstacles above a n d below w h e n m o v i n g ladders. D o n o t take any chances by leaning way o u t to reach an i n s t r u m e n t . Position t h e l a d d e r so that you can work from b e h i n d , r a t h e r t h a n in front of, t h e i n s t r u m e n t . W h e n adjusting a light, t r y n o t t o look directly i n t o it; look instead at t h e object to be lighted a n d see h o w t h e b e a m
Do not waste energy. D r y r u n s ( w i t h o u t c a m e r a s ) can be d o n e just as efficiently w h e n i l l u m i n a t e d by w o r k lights as by full s t u d i o lighting. If you have m o v a b l e battens, tele scope hangers, or p a n t o g r a p h s , t r y to b r i n g the lights d o w n as close as possible to t h e object or scene to be illuminated. As y o u know, light intensity d r o p s off considerably t h e farther the light moves from t h e object. Bring the lights u p full only w h e n necessary.
USING A STUDIO MONITOR If y o u i n t e n d to use a well-adjusted color m o n i t o r as a guide for lighting, y o u m u s t be ready for s o m e c o m p r o m i s e . As n o t e d , t h e lighting is correct if t h e s t u d i o m o n i t o r shows w h a t y o u w a n t t h e viewer to perceive. To get to this p o i n t , you s h o u l d use t h e monitor as a guide t o lighting, r a t h e r t h a n t h e less direct light meter. But you m a y r u n i n t o diffi culties. T h e video o p e r a t o r m a y tell you t h a t she c a n n o t set u p t h e c a m e r a s (adjust t h e m for an o p t i m a l v i d e o signal) before you have finished t h e lighting. A n d y o u r a r g u m e n t p r o b a b l y is ( a n d s h o u l d be) t h a t you c a n n o t finish t h e lighting w i t h o u t checking it o n t h e m o n i t o r . A p p r o a c h this a r g u m e n t w i t h a readiness for c o m p r o mise because b o t h parties have a valid p o i n t . You can d o t h e basic lighting w i t h o u t the camera. A n i n c i d e n t - l i g h t r e a d i n g (foot-candle o r lux) can help you detect gross in adequacies, such as insufficient baselight levels, extremely u n e v e n i l l u m i n a t i o n , o r t o o h i g h a contrast. W i t h s o m e
Section
8.1
e x p e r i e n c e y o u c a n also tell w h e t h e r a s h a d o w is t o o d e n s e
Lighting
Studio
177
•
Specific lighting techniques include flat lighting, continu ous-action lighting, large-area lighting, high-contrast lighting, cameo lighting, silhouette lighting, chroma-key area lighting, and controlling eye and boom shadows.
•
Falloff indicates how fast the lighted side of a subject changes to shadow and how dense the shadows are. Fast falloff means that the light and shadow areas are distinct and that the shadows are dense. Slow falloff means that the transition from light to shadow is more gradual and that the shadows are transparent. Generally, fast falloff means high-contrast lighting; slow fall-off means low-contrast, or flat, lighting.
•
A low-key scene has a dark background with selective fast-falloff lighting and a dramatic or mysterious mood. A high-key scene has a light background, a generally high baselight level, and usually an upbeat, happy mood.
•
Contrast is the difference between the lightest and the darkest areas in a picture as measured by reflected light.
•
The contrast ratio is the contrast as measured by reflected light. The normal optimal contrast ratio is 40:1 to 50:1. It can be higher for digital cameras, which means that they can tolerate a higher contrast.
for a d e q u a t e r e p r o d u c t i o n of color a n d detail. B u t for t h e fine t r i m m i n g , y o u need at least o n e c a m e r a . Ask t h e V O t o w o r k w i t h you; after all, it is also t h e VO's r e s p o n s i b i l i t y to deliver o p t i m a l p i c t u r e s . T h e single c a m e r a c a n b e r o u g h l y
in the
set u p t o t h e existing i l l u m i n a t i o n a n d p o i n t e d at t h e set. W i t h t h e direct feedback of t h e p i c t u r e o n t h e studio m o n i tor, y o u c a n p r o c e e d to correct glaring discrepancies o r s i m p l y t o u c h u p s o m e of t h e lighting as t o b e a m d i r e c t i o n a n d intensity. After this fine t r i m m i n g , all c a m e r a s c a n b e set u p a n d b a l a n c e d for o p t i m a l p e r f o r m a n c e .
•
All lighting uses directional and/or diffused light.
•
The key light is the principal source of illumination and reveals the basic shape of the object.
•
The back light provides more definition to the object's out line, separates it from the background, and gives it sparkle.
•
The fill light reduces falloff and makes the shadows less dense.
•
Balancing the intensities of the various lights depends largely on the desired effect.
Most television lighting setups use the basic photographic principle, or triangle lighting, of key, back, and fill lights.
•
The background, or set, light illuminates the background of the scene and the set. The side light acts as additional fill or a side key. The kicker light is used to outline the con tour of an object that would otherwise blend in with the background.
The light plot indicates the location of the lighting instru ments, the principal direction of their light beams, and sometimes the type and size of the instruments used.
•
Exercise caution during all lighting operations. Do not look directly into the instruments, and wear gloves when han dling the hot lights.
•
•
8.2
ELECTRIC
SHOCK
Be especially careful w i t h electric p o w e r w h e n o n location. A charge of 110 volts c a n b e deadly. Secure cables so t h a t p e o p l e d o n o t trip over t h e m . Every c o n n e c t i o n — f r o m cable t o p o w e r outlet, from cable to cable, a n d from cable to lighting i n s t r u m e n t — c a n cause a n electric s h o c k if n o t p r o p e r l y j o i n e d a n d secured.
Lighting in the Field
CABLES String the cables above d o o r w a y s or tape t h e m to the floor a n d cover t h e m w i t h a r u b b e r m a t o r flattened c a r d b o a r d at p o i n t s of heavy foot traffic. A loose cable n o t only c a n t r i p s o m e b o d y b u t m a y also t o p p l e a lighting i n s t r u m e n t a n d start a fire. See t h a t all light stands are secured w i t h sandbags.
FIRE H A Z A R D As discussed in c h a p t e r 7, p o r t a b l e i n c a n d e s c e n t lighting i n s t r u m e n t s get very h o t w h e n t u r n e d o n for only brief p e r i o d s of t i m e . Place t h e m as far away as possible from E N G K W h e n lighting field p r o d u c t i o n s , y o u are n o t w o r k i n g
c o m b u s t i b l e materials, such as d r a p e s , b o o k s , tablecloths,
EFP
w o o d ceilings, a n d walls. It pays to d o u b l e - c h e c k . If t h e y
in t h e s t u d i o , w h e r e all t h e lighting e q u i p m e n t is in
place a n d ready to go. Every piece of e q u i p m e n t , h o w e v e r
m u s t b e close to walls o r o t h e r combustibles, insulate t h e m
large o r small, m u s t be h a u l e d t o t h e r e m o t e location a n d
w i t h a l u m i n u m foil.
set u p in places t h a t always s e e m either t o o small o r t o o large for g o o d television lighting. Also, y o u never seem to get e n o u g h t i m e to e x p e r i m e n t w i t h v a r i o u s lighting
ENG/EFP LIGHTING
setups to find t h e m o s t effective o n e . W h a t e v e r t h e r e m o t e
E N G w T h e r e is n o clear-cut division b e t w e e n lighting for
l i g h t i n g task, y o u n e e d to b e especially efficient in t h e
E F P ^ E N G a n d EFP, except t h a t in electronic news gather
choice of i n s t r u m e n t s a n d their use. This section explains
ing y o u often have to s h o o t in whatever light t h e r e is o r
the t e c h n i q u e s of field lighting a n d describes s o m e of its
as s u p p l i e d by t h e c a m e r a light. But w h e n called u p o n to
essential r e q u i r e m e n t s .
d o a n i n t e r v i e w in a h o t e l r o o m or in t h e office of a C E O ,
^
SAFETY
E N G a n d E F P l i g h t i n g t e c h n i q u e s are p r e t t y m u c h t h e
Primary safety concerns: electric shock, cables, and fires
s a m e . T h e big difference is t h a t in EFP y o u have e n o u g h
or w h e n covering a c e r e m o n y at the e n t r a n c e to city hall,
lead t i m e to survey t h e lighting r e q u i r e m e n t s before t h e ^
ENG/EFP LIGHTING Shooting in bright sunlight, in overcast daylight, in indoor light, and at night
event is t a k i n g place; b u t t h e n y o u m a y b e expected t o m a k e t h e office of a c o r p o r a t e p r e s i d e n t look like the best H o l l y w o o d c a n m u s t e r or to i l l u m i n a t e t h e h e a r i n g r o o m
LOCATION SURVEY
of t h e b o a r d of s u p e r v i s o r s so t h a t it rivals a c o u r t r o o m
Survey checklists and power supply
scene in the latest blockbuster movie—all w i t h o u t adequate time or equipment.
SAFETY
W h e n e n g a g e d in field lighting, y o u will find yourself confronted with problems b o t h indoors and out. W h e n
E N G K As in t h e studio, safety is a p r i m a r y c o n c e r n w h e n
o u t d o o r s y o u have to w o r k w i t h available l i g h t — t h e illu
EFP
lighting in the field. In fact, there are m o r e safety
m i n a t i o n already p r e s e n t at t h e scene. At n i g h t y o u m u s t
h a z a r d s in t h e field t h a n in t h e s t u d i o . N o p r o d u c t i o n ,
s u p p l e m e n t available light or p r o v i d e t h e entire i l l u m i n a
however exciting or difficult, excuses y o u from a b a n d o n i n g
t i o n . A l t h o u g h y o u have a little m o r e t i m e in EFP t h a n in
safety for e x p e d i e n c y o r effect.
E N G , y o u m u s t still w o r k quickly a n d efficiently to o b t a i n
178
Section
8.2
Lighting
in
the
Field
179
n o t only a d e q u a t e lighting b u t also t h e m o s t effective light ing possible u n d e r t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s .
SHOOTING IN BRIGHT SUNLIGHT ENG w M o s t l i g h t i n g p r o b l e m s o c c u r w h e n y o u h a v e to EFP
s h o o t in b r i g h t sunlight. A shooter's n i g h t m a r e is
h a v i n g t o cover a m i x e d choir, w i t h t h e w o m e n dressed in starched white blouses a n d t h e m e n in w h i t e shirts a n d black jackets, w i t h half of t h e m s t a n d i n g in the s u n a n d t h e rest of t h e m in a d e e p s h a d o w against a s u n - f l o o d e d w h i t e b u i l d i n g . Even a g o o d digital E N G / E F P c a m c o r d e r w o u l d have t r o u b l e h a n d l i n g such high c o n t r a s t . If y o u p u t t h e c a m e r a in t h e a u t o - i r i s m o d e , it will faithfully read t h e b r i g h t light of t h e shirts a n d t h e light b a c k g r o u n d a n d close its iris for o p t i m a l e x p o s u r e . T h e p r o b l e m is t h a t t h e d r a s t i c r e d u c t i o n of light c o m i n g t h r o u g h t h e lens will d a r k e n equally drastically t h e s h a d o w area a n d t h e p e o p l e s t a n d i n g in it. T h e black jackets will t u r n i n t o a dull black a n d lose all detail. If y o u switch to m a n u a l iris to o p e n the a p e r t u r e s o m e w h a t t o achieve s o m e t r a n s p a r e n c y in t h e s h a d o w s a n d t h e black jackets, t h e white shirts a n d t h e sunlit b a c k g r o u n d will b e overexposed. Worse, the highlights on the perspiring foreheads and occasional bald spots of t h e choir m e m b e r s will begin to " b l o o m , " t u r n i n g the skin color i n t o strangely l u m i n e s c e n t white spots surrounded by a pinkish rim. S h o u l d y o u give up? N o , even t h o u g h y o u r o p t i o n s are s o m e w h a t limited, here are s o m e p o t e n t i a l remedies: Whenever possible, t r y to position the talent in a s h a d o w area, away from a b r i g h t b a c k g r o u n d . You could p r o b a b l y m o v e t h e w h o l e c h o i r in t h e s h a d o w a n d away from t h e sunlit b u i l d i n g . For a single o n - c a m e r a p e r s o n , y o u can always create a s h a d o w area with a large u m b r e l l a . Ask w h e t h e r t h e m a l e c h o i r m e m b e r s can take off t h e i r black jackets. This is w o r t h a try, even t h o u g h y o u will p r o b a b l y be t u r n e d d o w n .
8.29
S h o o t from a n angle t h a t avoids t h e w h i t e b u i l d i n g in the background.
USING A REFLECTOR: SHOOTING AGAINST THE SUN
When shooting against the sun, reflect as much sunlight as possible back to the talent with a simple reflector (in this case a white card).
Use a reflector t o slow d o w n falloff. S E E 8 . 2 9 A N D 8 . 3 0 C o n t r o l the a p e r t u r e . O n c e t h e talent is in t h e s h a d o w area, y o u can p u t the c a m e r a back in auto-iris m o d e for a n a p p r o p r i a t e e x p o s u r e . If this fails t o correct the p r o b l e m , switch t h e iris back to m a n u a l a n d see w h e t h e r you can get t h e right e x p o s u r e . Use a n e u t r a l - d e n s i t y filter. T h e neutral density
a m o u n t of light t h a t falls o n t h e p i c k u p device w i t h o u t d i s t o r t i n g t h e actual colors of t h e scene. In fact, t h e N D filter seems to r e d u c e e x t r e m e b r i g h t n e s s while still reveal ing detail in t h e s h a d o w areas. It will certainly eliminate t h e r e d - r i m m e d flares o n t h e shirts a n d t h e p e r s p i r i n g
(ND)
filters act like sunglasses of v a r y i n g densities, r e d u c i n g t h e
foreheads of t h e choir, w i t h o u t r e n d e r i n g the rest of t h e p e o p l e invisible.
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nated by the daylight that comes through large windows, others by high-color temperature
fluorescent
banks that
m a k e u p a light ceiling. Still o t h e r s , s u c h as w i n d o w l e s s hotel r o o m s , have desk a n d floor lighting that p r o v i d e a r o m a n t i c m o o d b u t h a r d l y t h e p r o p e r i l l u m i n a t i o n for g o o d television pictures. T h e m a j o r p r o b l e m h e r e is n o t so m u c h h o w t o s u p p l y a d d i t i o n a l light, b u t h o w t o place t h e i n s t r u m e n t s for o p t i m a l aesthetic effect a n d h o w t o m a t c h t h e v a r i o u s color t e m p e r a t u r e s . I n all cases t r y first to m a i n t a i n t h e p h o t o g r a p h i c p r i n c i p l e of key, fill, a n d back lights. If this isn't possible, t r y t o adjust t h e s e t u p so t h a t y o u m a i n t a i n at least t h e effect of triangle lighting. W h e n e v e r possible t r y t o m a i n t a i n a back-light effect; it is t h e b a c k light t h a t distinguishes g o o d lighting f r o m m e r e illumination. Let's a s s u m e t h a t y o u are lighting a n i n t e r v i e w of t h e C E O of a software c o m p a n y . Except for s o m e c u t a w a y close-ups of t h e interviewer at t h e e n d of t h e show, t h e C E O
8.30
USING A REFLECTOR: SHOOTING WITH THE SUN
When shooting in bright sunlight, the dark shadows can be easily lightened with a reflector.
is seen in a close-up for m o s t of t h e interview. Let's p u t h e r in t h r e e different e n v i r o n m e n t s : (1) in a w i n d o w l e s s h o t e l r o o m , (2) in a hotel r o o m w i t h a w i n d o w , a n d (3) in h e r office w i t h a large p i c t u r e w i n d o w b e h i n d h e r desk.
W h a t if y o u are r u n n i n g after a n e w s story a n d have n o t i m e for any of these remedies? P u t t h e c a m e r a in a u t o -
Windowless room
In a r o o m w i t h n o w i n d o w s , y o u
can s i m p l y set u p p o r t a b l e , open-face lights in a typical
iris m o d e — o r , if y o u have t i m e , p o p in a n e u t r a l density
triangle fashion. Use a diffused key light, a m o r e focused
h o p e for t h e best. EJB^UGHTS-* Fields outdoor
b a c k light of t h e s a m e k i n d , a n d a reflector or softlight ( o r
filter—and
a diffusion t e n t ) for t h e fill (see figure 8.5). If y o u have a
indoor | mixed | try it
f o u r t h i n s t r u m e n t , y o u can use it as a b a c k g r o u n d light. If
S H O O T I N G IN O V E R C A S T D A Y L I G H T
only t w o i n s t r u m e n t s are available, use a n open-face s p o t
ENflw T h e ideal light for o u t d o o r s h o o t i n g is a n overcast F-Flr day: t h e clouds or fog act as diffusers for t h e h a r s h
as a b a c k light a n d use a diffused light (open-face spot w i t h
sunlight, p r o v i d i n g a n even i l l u m i n a t i o n similar t o that of
t h e face is i l l u m i n a t e d . T h e spill of t h e key will also take
softlights. D o n o t be s u r p r i s e d if y o u have t o use a n N D
care of t h e b a c k g r o u n d lighting, SEE 8.31
s c r i m , tent, or u m b r e l l a ) as a key, placed so t h a t m o s t of
a n d / o r c o l o r - c o r r e c t i o n filter. T h e light of a c l o u d y day
If t h e d i r e c t o r insists o n cross s h o o t i n g w i t h t w o
is often surprisingly b r i g h t a n d usually h a s a h i g h color
c a m e r a s to catch t h e i m m e d i a c y of t h e interviewer's asking
temperature.
q u e s t i o n s o r reacting t o t h e C E O , y o u c a n still get b y w i t h
Even i n diffused l i g h t i n g , t r y t o a v o i d a n o v e r l y
two o r t h r e e i n s t r u m e n t s . Place t w o open-face spots or
b r i g h t b a c k g r o u n d . If y o u have to s h o o t against a light
small Fresnel spots with tents, scrims, or umbrella reflectors
b a c k g r o u n d , z o o m in o n t h e p e r s o n ( t h e r e b y avoiding as
so t h a t t h e y s h i n e over t h e s h o u l d e r of t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s sit
m u c h of t h e b a c k g r o u n d as possible). Be sure that y o u have
ting opposite each other. In this cross-keying, t h e t w o lights
m a n u a l iris c o n t r o l , a n d adjust t h e iris t o m e e t t h e light
n o w serve as m u l t i f u n c t i o n key a n d b a c k lights. You c a n
r e q u i r e m e n t s of t h e p e r s o n r a t h e r t h a n t h e b a c k g r o u n d .
use t h e t h i r d i n s t r u m e n t as general fill light. T h i s lighting
It is b e t t e r to have an overexposed b a c k g r o u n d t h a n an
setup can also b e used for an i n t e r v i e w i n a hallway, living
u n d e r e x p o s e d p e r s o n . Despite t h e highly diffused light,
r o o m , or any o t h e r s u c h location, SEE 8.32
t r y t o use a reflector o n t h e p e r s o n . Room with window
S H O O T I N G IN I N D O O R
ENGiV You e n c o u n t e r EFP'
w
LIGHT
W h e n t h e r e is a w i n d o w in t h e
r o o m , y o u can use it as a key or even a back light. If y o u use
v a r i o u s a m o u n t s a n d types of light
the w i n d o w as a key, y o u n e e d a reflector o r a fill light o n t h e
h e n s h o o t i n g i n d o o r s . S o m e interiors are illumi-
o p p o s i t e side. I n a n y case y o u n e e d a s t r o n g back light. To
Section
8.2
Lighting
in the
181
Field
Open-face spot (back light for interviewee, key for interviewer) Interviewee
Interviewer Open-face spot (back light for interviewer, key for interviewee)
Camera
8 . 3 1 TRIANGLE INTERVIEW LIGHTING This one-person lighting setup uses two instruments. The dif fused key light is an open-face spot with a scrim, a tent, or an umbrella. The back light is a spread or focused open-face spot. If fill light is necessary, it can be created with a softlight or a reflector. You can use an additional softlight as a background light. Note that the interviewee is looking at the interviewer, who is sitting or standing next to the camera, out of the shot.
8 . 3 2 CROSS KEYING FOR INTERVIEW The two portable lights serve multiple functions: key and back lights for the interviewer and the interviewee. If you have a third light, use it as fill.
m a t c h t h e o u t d o o r color t e m p e r a t u r e of t h e w i n d o w light,
D r a w the d r a p e s o r the b l i n d s and light the person
b o t h t h e fill a n d back lights n e e d either 5,600K l a m p s or
w i t h p o r t a b l e i n s t r u m e n t s . O r go to a tight close-up a n d
3.200K l a m p s w i t h blue gels to raise their color t e m p e r a
cut o u t as m u c h b a c k g r o u n d as possible. Unfortunately,
ture, SEE 8.33 T h e better way of lighting is to p o s i t i o n t h e
m a n y w i n d o w s d o n o t have d r a p e s or blinds, a n d n o t all
C E O so that t h e w i n d o w acts as a b a c k l i g h t — w i t h o u t let
c o m p a n y officials look g o o d in e x t r e m e close-up.
ting it get into t h e shot. You can t h e n use a single diffused 5,600K key light (an open-face s p o t w i t h 5,600K l a m p or
M o v e t h e c a m e r a t o t h e side of t h e desk a n d have the
a 3,200K l a m p w i t h a b l u e gel) t o i l l u m i n a t e m o s t of h e r
p e r s o n face t h e c a m e r a . You can t h e n s h o o t parallel to the
face, e l i m i n a t i n g t h e n e e d for a fill light, SEE 8.34
w i n d o w . You can use t h e light from the w i n d o w as key, a n d fill w i t h a large reflector or an additional light o n a s t a n d
Panoramic office window
A typical p r o b l e m is having
(see figure 8.33).
to s h o o t against a large w i n d o w . If, for e x a m p l e , t h e C E O insists o n m a k i n g h e r s t a t e m e n t from b e h i n d h e r desk that
If t h e p e r s o n insists o n h a v i n g t h e w i n d o w in t h e
is located in front of a large p i c t u r e w i n d o w , y o u r light
b a c k g r o u n d , y o u m u s t cover it with large color t e m p e r a t u r e
ing p r o b l e m is identical w i t h t h a t of a p e r s o n s t a n d i n g in
filters a n d / o r N D filters (plastic sheets) of v a r y i n g densi
front of a b r i g h t b a c k g r o u n d : If y o u set t h e iris a c c o r d i n g
ties. Use t w o s t r o n g b u t diffused open-face i n s t r u m e n t s
to t h e b a c k g r o u n d b r i g h t n e s s , t h e p e r s o n in front t e n d s to
(5,600K) as key a n d fill, or use a large, highly efficient
a p p e a r in silhouette. If y o u adjust t h e iris for t h e p e r s o n
reflector that b o u n c e s t h e light from the w i n d o w o n t o the
in front, t h e b a c k g r o u n d is overexposed. H e r e are s o m e
CEO's face. Bear in m i n d t h a t these p r o c e d u r e s take u p a
possible s o l u t i o n s :
great a m o u n t of t i m e a n d are generally left to EFP.
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Window
Window
Camera Camera
8.33 WINDOW AS KEY LIGHT
8.34 WINDOW AS BACK LIGHT
The daylight shining through a window can serve as the key light, and a reflector as the fill light. If you use a portable light as fill and/or back light, you need to bring its color temperature up to the 5,600K daylight standard.
You can use a window as back light so long as you place the talent with the window out of the shot. The key light can be a diffused open-face spot that burns at 5,600K.
Take a p i c t u r e of t h e w i n d o w view a n d u s e it as a c h r o m a - k e y video source (see c h a p t e r 14).
light b e a m with scrims. T h e m o s t effective m e t h o d is t o use p o r t a b l e H M I , q u a r t z , o r fluorescent softlights a n d flood the active area. Always b e sure t o w h i t e - b a l a n c e t h e c a m e r a
S o m e t i m e s you have to
for t h e light in w h i c h t h e event actually takes place.
deal w i t h g r o u p s of p e o p l e w h o are g a t h e r e d in locations
As y o u p r o b a b l y n o t i c e d , all these lighting t e c h n i q u e s
w i t h i n a d e q u a t e i l l u m i n a t i o n . Typical e x a m p l e s are m e e t
a i m to establish a high baselight level. Even w h e n pressed
ing r o o m s , hotel lobbies, a n d hallways. M o s t of t h e t i m e ,
for t i m e , t r y t o place o n e o r t w o diffused b a c k lights o u t of
a c a m e r a light p r o v i d e s e n o u g h i l l u m i n a t i o n t o cover t h e
c a m e r a range. T h e y will p r o v i d e sparkle a n d professional
speaker a n d i n d i v i d u a l a u d i e n c e m e m b e r s . If y o u are to
polish to an o t h e r w i s e flat scene, SEE 8.35
d o extensive coverage of s u c h a n event, however, y o u n e e d additional illumination. T h e quickest a n d m o s t efficient w a y to light such a
Working with fiuorescents
T h e b a s i c p r o b l e m of
w o r k i n g w i t h t h e fluorescent lights used i n stores, offices,
location is t o establish a general, n o n d i r e c t i o n a l baselight
a n d p u b l i c buildings is their color t e m p e r a t u r e . It is usually
level. Use t w o o r t h r e e o p e n - f a c e spots o r V-lights a n d
h i g h e r t h a n t h e 3,200K i n d o o r s t a n d a r d of i n c a n d e s c e n t
b o u n c e t h e light off t h e ceiling o r walls. If y o u have light-
lights. Even if s o m e fluorescent t u b e s b u r n at t h e w a r m e r
reflecting u m b r e l l a s , direct t h e lights i n t o t h e u m b r e l l a s
i n d o o r color t e m p e r a t u r e , they have a strange greenish blue
a n d place t h e m so t h a t y o u can cover t h e event area. You
tint. So if y o u t u r n o n t h e c a m e r a light for a d d i t i o n a l illu
will be surprised by h o w m u c h i l l u m i n a t i o n y o u can get o u t
m i n a t i o n , y o u are confronted w i t h t w o color t e m p e r a t u r e s .
of a single V-light w h e n diffused b y an u m b r e l l a . If t h a t is
S o m e lighting p e o p l e advise t u r n i n g off t h e fiuorescents
n o t possible, direct t h e lights o n t h e g r o u p , b u t diffuse t h e
altogether w h e n w o r k i n g w i t h q u a r t z lights (3,200K), b u t
Section
8.2
Lighting
in the
Field
183
Audience
Portable light with umbrella
8 . 3 5 LARGE-AREA LIGHTING To establish sufficient baselight over a large area, you need highly diffused light. Here three portable incandescent lights and lightdiffusing umbrellas provide maximally diffused light over the entire area. You can, of course, use fluorescent or HMI lights in place of the quartz lights.
this is unrealistic. If y o u n e e d to get a fast-breaking story
As m e n t i o n e d i n c h a p t e r 7, t h e p o r t a b l e i n c a n d e s c e n t
a n d y o u s h o o t in a hallway t h a t is i l l u m i n a t e d b y fluores
l i g h t s — i n c l u d i n g t h e c a m e r a l i g h t — a r e s t r o n g e n o u g h to
cent lights, y o u certainly d o n o t have t i m e to locate a n d
wash o u t t h e fluorescent baselight. If available, t h e better
p e r s u a d e t h e b u i l d i n g m a n a g e r t o t u r n off the lights a n d
s o l u t i o n , of course, is t o use floodlights t h a t b u r n at t h e
t h e n to relight t h e scene before starting to s h o o t .
o u t d o o r color t e m p e r a t u r e of 5,600K or floodlights w h o s e
If t h e fluorescent lights give e n o u g h i l l u m i n a t i o n ,
color t e m p e r a t u r e is raised by light-blue gels.
simply select the a p p r o p r i a t e color t e m p e r a t u r e filter in the
One word of caution: Despite all t h e praise for fluores
c a m e r a (to b r i n g d o w n t h e high color t e m p e r a t u r e of t h e
cent field lights, stay away from t h e m if color r e p r o d u c t i o n
fiuorescents) a n d white-balance t h e c a m e r a with t h e avail
is critical. Even t h e best fluorescent l a m p s d o n o t give y o u
able light. If y o u have to use a c a m e r a light for a d d i t i o n a l
t h e color m i x for white light t h a t y o u get from i n c a n d e s
i l l u m i n a t i o n , either b o o s t t h e c o l o r t e m p e r a t u r e of t h e
cent a n d H M I l a m p s . Careful w h i t e - b a l a n c i n g will help,
c a m e r a light (by inserting a dichroic filter t h a t often comes
b u t y o u m a y still discover a greenish or b l u i s h tint to y o u r
with t h e c a m e r a light) o r w h i t e - b a l a n c e t h e c a m e r a w i t h
pictures that is difficult, if possible at all, t o correct in p o s t -
t h e i l l u m i n a t i o n p r o v i d e d b y t h e c a m e r a light (3,200K).
production.
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S H O O T I N G AT N I G H T
the opposite side to generate somefill.Once again, avoid
ENGiv W h e n c o v e r i n g a n i g h t t i m e n e w s event, y o u will
s h o o t i n g against a b r i g h t l y lighted b a c k g r o u n d .
EFP'
m o s t often use t h e c a m e r a light or a single light t h a t
is o p e r a t e d by t h e c a m e r a assistant. H e r e are s o m e p o i n t s to consider:
If y o u are to cover a brief feature r e p o r t o u t s i d e the c o u n t y hospital, for e x a m p l e , a n d y o u are n o t u n d e r great t i m e pressure, use a portable light m o u n t e d o n a light stand
A s s u m i n g t h a t y o u have only o n e c a m e r a light a n d
as a key. Use t h e lighted h o s p i t a l d o o r or a w i n d o w as fill
n o assistant, use t h e c a m e r a light a n d a i m it straight at
or b a c k light. In this case p o s i t i o n t h e field r e p o r t e r so t h a t
t h e field reporter. T h e closer t h e r e p o r t e r is to t h e c a m e r a ,
h e or she is n o t directly in front of t h e d o o r or w i n d o w b u t
t h e s t r o n g e r t h e i l l u m i n a t i o n . You can c h a n g e t h e light
off to o n e side a n d o u t of c a m e r a r a n g e (see figure 8.34).
intensity b y m o v i n g just o n e or t w o steps t o w a r d or away
W h e n e v e r possible, p l u g t h e lights into regular h o u s e h o l d
from t h e r e p o r t e r a n d z o o m in o r o u t to c o m p e n s a t e for
outlets r a t h e r t h a n u s i n g batteries as a p o w e r source.
y o u r r e p o s i t i o n i n g . A l m o s t all professional c a m e r a lights have diffusion filters t h a t y o u c a n use to soften the s h a d o w o n the r e p o r t e r ' s face.
If t h e r e p o r t e r n e e d s a r e m o t e t e l e p r o m p t e r , check t h a t t h e p r o m p t i n g device is w o r k i n g before t h e r e p o r t e r goes o n t h e air. As a reporter, ask t h e p r o d u c t i o n p e r s o n
If y o u have an assistant, h e o r she c a n h o l d t h e light
in charge to r u n t h e first few lines for y o u .
s o m e w h a t above c a m e r a level (to avoid s h i n i n g t h e light directly i n t o t h e r e p o r t e r ' s eyes) a n d a little to t h e side of the c a m e r a so t h a t t h e single c a m e r a light acts as a key
LOCATION SURVEY
light. If y o u are fairly close to the event, p u t this single light
E N G r ^ O n e of t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t aspects of lighting for
i n t o a semiflood p o s i t i o n to avoid h o t spots. Take a d v a n
EFP
tage of any a d d i t i o n a l light source, s u c h as a lighted store
SEES.36 T h e survey checklists in figure 8.36 are i n t e n d e d
w i n d o w or a street l a m p , as fill b y p o s i t i o n i n g the subject
for relatively s i m p l e p r o d u c t i o n s , as are all o t h e r discus
appropriately. D o n ' t w o r r y a b o u t m i x i n g color t e m p e r a
sions of EFP. (For m o r e - d e t a i l e d i n f o r m a t i o n o n location
EFP is a t h o r o u g h location survey of the r e m o t e site.
tures; viewers readily accept color d i s t o r t i o n s w h e n seeing
surveys, see t h e r e m o t e survey section in chapter 20). T h e
events s h o t at night. You could also use t h e store w i n d o w
lighting for large a n d c o m p l e x electronic field p r o d u c t i o n s
as a key light a n d have y o u r assistant h o l d a reflector o n
is m o r e closely related t o m o t i o n p i c t u r e t e c h n i q u e s a n d is
8.36
EFP LOCATION SURVEY
Is the available light sufficient? If not, w h a t additional lights do you need? W h a t type of available light do you have? Incandescent? Fluorescent? Daylight coming through w i n d o w s ? PRINCIPAL
Do you need any additional lights? W h e r e is the sun in relation to the planned action? Is there enough room to place the necessary reflectors?
BACKGROUND
Is there any action planned against a white wall? Are there w i n d o w s in the background? If so, do they have curtains, drapes, or Venetian blinds that can be drawn? If you w a n t to use the daylight from the window, do you have lights that match the color temperature of the daylight (5,600K)? If the w i n d o w is too bright, or if you have to reduce the color temperature coming through the window, do you have the appropriate ND or color filters to attach to the w i n d o w ? You will certainly need some reflectors or other type of fill-light illumination.
How bright is the background? Even if the sun is not hitting the background at the time of the survey, will it be there w h e n the actual production takes place? W h e n shooting at the beach, does the director plan to have people perform with the ocean as the background? You will need reflectors and/or additional lights (HMIs) to prevent the people from turning into silhouettes, unless the director plans on ECUs most of the time.
Section
8.36
8.2
Lighting
EFP LOCATION SURVEY
in the
Field
1 8 5
(continued)
INDOORS
OUTDOORS
CONTRAST If there are dense shadows or if the event takes place in high-contrast areas (sunlight and shadows), you need extra fill light and/or ND filters to reduce the contrast.
LIGHT
Does the production take place in bright sunlight? Can the scene be moved into the shadow area? If not, you must then provide for a generous amount offilllight (reflectors and/or HMI spotlights) to render the shadows transparent, or NDfiltersto reduce the glare of overly bright areas.
POSITIONS
Can you place the lights out of camera range? What lighting supports do you need (light stands, gaffer grip, clamps)? Do you need special mounting devices, such as battens or cross braces? Are the lighting instruments far enough away from combustible materials? Are the lights positioned so that they do not interfere with the event? People who are not used to television complain mostly about the brightness of the lights. POWER
If you need reflectors or additional lights on stands, is the ground level enough for the stands to be securely placed? If out doors, will you need to take extra precautions because of wind? (Take plenty of sandbags along, or even some tent stakes and rope, so that you can secure the light stands in case of wind.)
REQUIREMENTS
Your main concern will be power and how to get it to the lighting instruments. Is the necessary power available nearby? Do you need a generator? If you can tap available power, make sure you can tell the engineer in charge the approximate power requirement for all lights. (Simply add up the wattage of all the lights you plan to use, plus another 10 percent to ensure enough power.) Do you have enough extension cords to reach all the lighting instruments?
You do not need to use lighting instruments very often when shooting outdoors unless you shoot at night or need to fill in particularly dense shadows that cannot be reached with a simple reflector.
Do you know exactly where the outlets are, what the rating of the circuits is, and which outlets are on the same circuit? Make a rough sketch of all outlets and indicate the distance to the corresponding light or lights. What adapters do you need to plug lights into the available outlets? Do you have the necessary cables, extension cords, and power strips so that you can get by with a minimum of cable runs? In the projected cable runs, have you taken all possible safety precautions?
n o t addressed here. But even in a relatively s i m p l e EFP, you
T h e m o s t frequently used p o w e r s u p p l y is h o u s e h o l d
will find t h a t the p o w e r s u p p l y is o n e of t h e key e l e m e n t s
c u r r e n t . W h e n u s i n g regular wall outlets, b e aware of t h e
for g o o d r e m o t e lighting.
p o w e r r a t i n g of t h e circuits, w h i c h is usually 15 or 20 a m p s
POWER SUPPLY
retically p l u g in a 1,500W (or 2 , 0 0 0 W ) i n s t r u m e n t , or any
( a m p e r e s ) per circuit. This rating m e a n s t h a t y o u can t h e o In EFP y o u have to w o r k w i t h t h r e e types of p o w e r for
c o m b i n a t i o n of lights t h a t does n o t exceed 1,500 (or 2,000)
lighting i n s t r u m e n t s : h o u s e h o l d c u r r e n t (usually from 110
watts, w i t h o u t o v e r l o a d i n g t h e circuit, p r o v i d e d n o t h i n g
t o 120 volts), g e n e r a t o r s , a n d 12V or 30V b a t t e r i e s .
else is o n t h e s a m e circuit. But t h a t is n o t always wise to
186
Chapter
TECHNIQUES
8
OF TELEVISION
LIGHTING
8.37 CALCULATING ELECTRIC POWER REQUIREMENTS WATTAGE O F L A M P
N U M B E R OF INSTRUMENTS P E R 1 5 - A M P CIRCUIT
100
15
150
10
175
9
200
7
350
4
500
3
750
2
1,000
1
1,500
1
To find the maximum load (watts) for a single circuit, use the following formula: amperes x volts = watts The ampere rating of a standard household circuit is 15 amps (normally stamped on the circuit breaker). This means that the circuit can theo retically hold a maximum load of 15 amps x 110 volts = 1,650 watts. To be safe always figure 100 volts instead of 110 volts: 15 amps x 100 = 1,500 watts To calculate how many instruments to plug into a single circuit, divide their total w a t t a g e into 1,500 watts (maximum load). The table lists the number of instruments of a certain w a t t a g e that you can safely plug into a single 15-amp circuit.
do. Recall t h e discussion a b o u t extension cords t h a t b u i l d
s a m e circuit b r e a k e r o r fuse. If t h e light goes o u t , t h e plugs
u p a d d i t i o n a l resistance, especially w h e n w a r m . To b e o n
are o n t h e s a m e circuit. If t h e light stays o n , it's a different
t h e safe side, do not load up a single circuit to full
circuit a n d y o u are safe to use it.
capacity.
O t h e r w i s e , y o u m a y find t h a t t h e lights g o o u t just at t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t p a r t of t h e s h o o t . You c a n find t h e capacity of t h e circuit b y checking its
Safe power extensions
Obviously, y o u n e e d e n o u g h
fuse o r breaker. Each b r e a k e r is labeled w i t h t h e n u m b e r
extension c o r d s t o get from t h e outlets t o t h e lighting i n
of a m p s it can h a n d l e . You c a n n o w figure t h e total w a t t
s t r u m e n t s . You c a n m i n i m i z e cable r u n s b y u s i n g p o w e r
age capacity of each circuit: s i m p l y m u l t i p l y t h e n u m b e r
strips ( m u l t i p l e - o u t l e t boxes), especially if y o u use low-
of a m p s of t h e circuit (15 o r 20 a m p s ) b y 100 ( a s s u m i n g
w a t t a g e i n s t r u m e n t s . T h e larger t h e wires in t h e extension
t h e h o u s e h o l d c u r r e n t rates b e t w e e n 110 a n d 120 volts).
cords (lower g a u g e r a t i n g s ) , t h e m o r e w a t t a g e t h e y c a n
This gives y o u a n u p p e r limit: 1,500 w a t t s for a 1 5 - a m p
h a n d l e w i t h o u t getting u n d u l y h o t . Have e n o u g h a n d vari
breaker (100 volts x 15 a m p s = 1,500 total wattage) o r 2,000
o u s k i n d s of adapters available so that lights can be plugged
watts for a 2 0 - a m p b r e a k e r ( 1 0 0 V = 2 , 0 0 0 W ) . B u t d o n ' t
i n t o t h e existing outlets.
press y o u r luck. Try to use lower-wattage i n s t r u m e n t s p e r
W h e n e v e r t h e r e is d o u b t a b o u t t h e availability o r
circuit t o e n s u r e that t h e lights will w o r k p r o p e r l y d u r i n g
reliability of power, u s e a generator, t h e responsibility of
t h e entire p r o d u c t i o n , SEE 8.37
w h i c h falls to t h e e n g i n e e r i n g crew. T h e circuit ratings a n d
If y o u n e e d t o p o w e r m o r e lights t h a n a single circuit can h a n d l e , p l u g t h e m i n t o different circuits. But h o w d o y o u k n o w w h i c h outlets are o n separate circuits?
t h e allowable c o m b i n e d w a t t a g e of t h e lights p e r circuit still apply. For relatively s i m p l e o n - l o c a t i o n p r o d u c t i o n s , y o u m a y p o w e r t h e lights w i t h batteries. First check w h e t h e r t h e
Determining the circuits
N o r m a l l y , several d o u b l e
l a m p s in t h e p o r t a b l e lights are a p p r o p r i a t e for t h e voltage
wall outlets are c o n n e c t e d to a single circuit. You c a n d e
of t h e battery. Obviously, y o u c a n n o t use a 12-volt l a m p
t e r m i n e w h i c h outlets are o n t h e s a m e circuit b y p l u g g i n g
w i t h a 30-volt battery. T h e n check that t h e batteries are
o n e l o w - p o w e r e d l a m p i n t o a p a r t i c u l a r outlet. F i n d t h e
p r o p e r l y c h a r g e d a n d t h a t t h e r e are e n o u g h spares for t h e
specific circuit b r e a k e r t h a t t u r n s off t h e l a m p . Switch t h e
d u r a t i o n of t h e p r o d u c t i o n . T u r n i n g off t h e lights whenever
breaker o n again. T h e light s h o u l d light u p again. N o w plug
possible saves b a t t e r y p o w e r a n d greatly extends t h e life o f
the light into t h e next c o n v e n i e n t outlet a n d switch off t h e
the l a m p s . <
Section
8.2
Lighting
in the
187
Field
liii •
When shooting in bright sunlight, try to place the talent in the shade rather than the sun. If you must shoot in the sun, use a reflector and/or a neutral density (ND) filter to reduce contrast.
•
The best outdoor shooting light is an overcast day. The clouds act as a giant diffusion filter.
•
Use the basic photographic principle when lighting a single-person interview in a windowless room. If you have only two instruments, use a softlight from the front as key and fill and use a second instrument as a back light. When cross shooting use two instruments to fulfill key- and back light functions.
For your reference, or to track your work, each VideoLab program cue in this chapter is listed here with its corresponding page number.
EEH>
•
When a window is present, use it for fill or back light. Any indoor lights must then burn at 5,600K. Gel your 3,200K indoor lights with light-blue media, or use 5.600K lamps. Use a large panoramic window for the key light or cover it with a curtain and use a triangle lighting setup. If the win dow is in the shot, filter the intensity of the light and lower the color temperature with gels on the window, and add 3,200K key and fill lights.
•
When shooting in fluorescent light, use 5,600K lights for ad ditional key and back lights, or "wash ouf'the fluorescent ceiling lights with incandescent key, back, and fill lights.
•
When shooting at night, use the camera light as the princi pal light source if no other light is available. Use a diffusion filter on the camera light and any other available light or a reflector for fill.
•
Before doing any EFP lighting, conduct a location survey.
•
The formula for figuring the electric power rating is watt = volt x ampere.
•
When powering portable lights with household current, check the capacity of the circuits and do not overload them.
EDO
BS1>
LIGHTS-* Color temperature^ white balance | controlling | try it 159 UGHTS-> Color temperature-* light sources LIGHTS^ Triangle lighting^ key [ back | fill | background | try it 163
ES2J>
LIGHTS^" Design-* high key | low key
EEZS>
LIGHTS^ Design-* silhouette
170
LIGHTS-* Measurement-* contrast
EEZ5>
168
LIGHTS^ Fields outdoor | indoor | mixed | try it 180
173
160
Audio: Sound Pickup W e are usually so engrossed in the barrage of colorful pictures w h e n w a t c h i n g television that w e are often totally u n a w a r e of t h e s o u n d — u n l e s s there is an audio problem. All of a s u d d e n w e realize that w i t h o u t sound w e have a hard time following w h a t is going o n . But so long as w e c a n hear t h e sound track, w e can turn a w a y from the TV and still know pretty m u c h what's h a p p e n i n g on-screen. But isn't a picture w o r t h a t h o u s a n d words? Apparently not in television. Because so m u c h information is transmitted by s o m e o n e talking, t h e infamous "talking h e a d " is not such a bad production t e c h n i q u e after all, provided t h e person talking has something w o r t h w h i l e to say.
S o u n d is important for establishing m o o d a n d intensifying an event. A g o o d chase sequence invariably has a barrage of sounds, including agitated music a n d squealing tires. The sound track also helps us c o n n e c t t h e visual fragments of the relatively small, low-definition television i m a g e to form a meaningful w h o l e .
If sound is, indeed, such an important production element, w h y do w e fail to have better sound on television? Even w h e n y o u produce a short scene as an exercise in t h e studio, y o u will probably notice that although the pictures may look acceptable, it is usually the sound portion that could stand s o m e improvement. It is often assumed, unfortunately, that by sticking a m i c r o p h o n e into a scene at t h e last minute t h e audio requirements
188
have b e e n satisfied. Don't believe it. G o o d television audio needs at least as m u c h preparation and attention as the video portion. A n d , like any other production element, television audio should not simply be a d d e d — i t should be integrated
into the produc
tion planning from the v e r y beginning.
Section 9.1, H o w M i c r o p h o n e s Hear, covers the sound pickup portion of audio
(from t h e
Latin v e r b audire, "to hear"), including the electronic and operational characteristics of microphones. In Section 9.2, H o w M i c r o p h o n e s Work, you learn about the more t e c h n i cal aspects of sound-generating elements a n d the various m i c r o p h o n e uses in E N G / E F P .
'A audio The sound portion of television and its production. Tech nically, the electronic reproduction of audible sound. cardioid Heart-shaped pickup pattern of a unidirectional mi crophone. condenser microphone A microphone whose diaphragm consists of a condenser plate that vibrates with the sound pressure against another fixed condenser plate, called the backplate. Also called electret or capacitor microphone. direct insertion Recording technigue wherein the sound sig nals of electric instruments are fed directly to the mixing console without the use of speaker and microphone. Also called direct input. dynamic microphone A microphone whose sound pickup de vice consists of a diaphragm that is attached to a movable coil. As the diaphragm vibrates with the air pressure from the sound, the coil moves within a magnetic field, generat ing an electric current. Also called moving-coil microphone. fishpoie A suspension device for a microphone; the mic is at tached to a pole and held over the scene for brief periods. flat response Measure of a microphone's ability to hear equally well over its entire frequency range. Is also used as a measure for devices that record and play back a specific frequency range. foldback The return of the total or partial audio mix to the talent through headsets or I.F.B. channels. Also called cuesend. frequency response Measure of the range of frequencies a microphone can hear and reproduce. headset microphone Small but good-quality omni- or unidi rectional mic attached to padded earphones; similar to a telephone headset but with a higher-quality mic.
impedance Type of resistance to the signal flow. Important es pecially in matching high- or low-impedance microphones with high- or low-impedance recorders. lavaliere microphone A small microphone that can be clipped onto clothing. omnidirectional Pickup pattern in which the microphone can pick up sounds equally well from all directions. phantom power The power for preamplification in a condenser microphone, supplied by the audio console rather than a battery. pickup pattern The territory around the microphone within which the microphone can "hear equally well,"that is, has optimal sound pickup. polar pattern The two-dimensional representation of a micro phone pickup pattern. ribbon microphone A microphone whose sound pickup device consists of a ribbon that vibrates with the sound pressures within a magnetic field. Also called velocity mic. shotgun microphone A highly directional microphone for picking up sounds from a relatively great distance. system microphone Microphone consisting of a base upon which several heads can be attached that change its sound pickup characteristic. unidirectional Pickup pattern in which the microphone can pick up sounds better from the front than from the sides or back. wireless microphone A system that transmits audio signals over the air rather than through microphone cables. The mic is attached to a small transmitter, and the signals are received by a small receiver connected to the audio con sole or recording device. Also called RF (radio freguency) mic or radio mic.
189
9.1
There are t h r e e major types of s o u n d - c o n v e r t i n g systems, which are used t o classify m i c r o p h o n e s : dynamic,
condenser,
a n d ribbon. Section 9.2 explores h o w t h e v a r i o u s types of m i c r o p h o n e s t r a n s d u c e s o u n d i n t o electrical signals. These are t h e m o s t rugged. Dy namic microphones,
How Microphones Hear
also called moving-coil
microphones,
can tolerate r e a s o n a b l y well t h e r o u g h h a n d l i n g t h a t tele vision m i c r o p h o n e s frequently ( t h o u g h u n i n t e n t i o n a l l y ) receive. T h e y c a n b e w o r k e d close t o t h e s o u n d s o u r c e a n d still w i t h s t a n d h i g h s o u n d levels w i t h o u t d a m a g e t o t h e m i c r o p h o n e o r excessive input overload ( d i s t o r t i o n of very h i g h - v o l u m e s o u n d s ) . T h e y can also w i t h s t a n d fairly e x t r e m e t e m p e r a t u r e s . As y o u c a n p r o b a b l y guess, they are a n ideal o u t d o o r m i c . Condenser microphones mics, condenser
microphones
Compared with dynamic are m u c h m o r e sensitive t o
physical shock, t e m p e r a t u r e c h a n g e , a n d i n p u t overload, but they usually produce higher-quality s o u n d when used at greater distances from t h e s o u n d source. Unlike d y n a m i c mics, t h e c o n d e n s e r m i c (or, m o r e precisely, t h e T h e pickup of live s o u n d s is d o n e t h r o u g h a variety of m i c r o p h o n e s . H o w g o o d o r b a d a p a r t i c u l a r m i c r o p h o n e is d e p e n d s n o t only o n h o w it is built b u t especially o n h o w it is used. Section 9.1 focuses o n t h e specific m a k e a n d use of m i c r o p h o n e s . P
n e e d s a small b a t t e r y t o p o w e r its built-
t h o u s a n d h o u r s , y o u s h o u l d always keep spares o n h a n d , especially if y o u are u s i n g c o n d e n s e r m i c s for E N G o r EFP. M a n y t i m e s c o n d e n s e r m i c failures can b e traced to a d e a d or w r o n g l y inserted battery, SEES-.I
ELECTRONIC CHARACTERISTICS OF MICROPHONES Sound-generating elements (dynamic, condenser, and ribbon), pickup patterns (omnidirectional and unidirectional), polar patterns, pop filter, windscreen, and system microphones
fc-
electret condenser)
in preamplifier. A l t h o u g h these batteries last for a b o u t a
C o n d e n s e r mics c a n also b e p o w e r e d t h r o u g h t h e a p p r o p r i a t e voltage supplied by t h e a u d i o console o r mixer
OPERATIONAL CHARACTERISTICS OF MICROPHONES Mobile microphones (lavaliere, hand, boom, headset, and wireless) and stationary microphones (desk, stand, hanging, hidden, and long-distance)
ELECTRONIC CHARACTERISTICS OF MICROPHONES Choosing the most appropriate microphone, or mic ( p r o n o u n c e d " m i k e " ) , a n d o p e r a t i n g it for o p t i m a l s o u n d p i c k u p requires that y o u k n o w a b o u t t h r e e basic electronic characteristics: (1) s o u n d - g e n e r a t i n g e l e m e n t s , (2) p i c k u p p a t t e r n s , a n d (3) m i c r o p h o n e features.
SOUND-GENERATING ELEMENTS All m i c r o p h o n e s transduce
( c o n v e r t ) s o u n d waves i n t o
electric energy, which is amplified a n d reconverted i n t o s o u n d waves b y t h e loudspeaker. T h e initial conversion is accomplished b y t h e generating element o( t h e m i c r o p h o n e .
190
9.1
POWER SUPPLY BATTERY FOR CONDENSER MICROPHONE
Many condenser microphones are powered by a battery rather than from the console (phantom power); be sure to observe the + and - poles as indicated on the battery housing.
Section
How
9.1
Microphones
191
Hear
t h r o u g h t h e a u d i o cable. T h i s m e t h o d of s u p p l y i n g p o w e r
ter w h e n they c o m e f r o m a specific d i r e c t i o n . T h e t e r r i
t o t h e mic's preamplifier is called phantom
t o r y w i t h i n w h i c h a m i c r o p h o n e can h e a r equally well is
power.
called its pickup pattern; Ribbon microphones
Similar i n sensitivity a n d q u a l
ity to t h e c o n d e n s e r m i c s , ribbon
microphones
produce
its t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l representa
t i o n is called t h e polar pattern,
as s h o w n in figures 9.2
t h r o u g h 9.4.
a w a r m e r s o u n d , frequently preferred by singers. Unlike
In television p r o d u c t i o n y o u n e e d t o u s e b o t h o m n i
c o n d e n s e r mics, w h i c h y o u m a y use o u t d o o r s u n d e r cer
directional and unidirectional microphones, depending
t a i n c i r c u m s t a n c e s , r i b b o n mics are strictly for i n d o o r use.
o n w h a t a n d h o w y o u w a n t t o hear. T h e
T h e y are also called velocity
m i c r o p h o n e hears s o u n d s from all (omnis in Latin) direc
microphones.
BJH^AUDIO^
Microphones-* mic choice | transducer
tions m o r e o r less equally well, SEE 9.2 T h e m i c r o p h o n e h e a r s b e t t e r in o n e {unus
PICKUP PATTERNS
omnidirectional unidirectional
i n Latin) d i r e c
t i o n — t h e front of t h e m i c — t h a n from its sides o r back.
W h e r e a s s o m e m i c r o p h o n e s , like o u r ears, h e a r s o u n d s
Because t h e p o l a r p a t t e r n s of u n i d i r e c t i o n a l m i c r o p h o n e s
f r o m all d i r e c t i o n s equally well, o t h e r s h e a r s o u n d s bet
are r o u g h l y h e a r t - s h a p e d , t h e y a r e called cardioid.
SEE 9.3
9 . 2 OMNIDIRECTIONAL PICKUP AND POLAR PATTERNS The omnidirectional pickup pattern is like a small rubber ball with the mic in its center. All sounds that originate within its pickup pattern are heard by the mic without marked difference.
9 . 3 CARDIOID PICKUP AND POLAR PATTERNS The heart-shaped pickup pat tern makes the mic hear bet ter from the front than from the sides. Sounds to its rear are suppressed.
192
Chapter
9
AUDIO:
SOUND
PICKUP
9.4 HYPERCARDIOID PICKUP AND POLAR PATTERNS The supercardioid and hypercardioid pickup patterns narrow the sound pickup. They have a long but narrow reach in front and eliminate most sounds coming from the sides. They also hear sounds coming from the back.
T h e supercardioid,
hypercardioid,
and
ultracardioid
MICROPHONE FEATURES
m i c r o p h o n e s have progressively narrower pickup pat
M i c r o p h o n e s t h a t are held close to the m o u t h have a built-
terns, w h i c h m e a n s t h a t their h e a r i n g is m o r e a n d m o r e
in pop filter, w h i c h eliminates t h e s u d d e n b r e a t h p o p s t h a t
c o n c e n t r a t e d in t h e front. T h e i r claim to fame is t h a t they
m i g h t o c c u r w h e n s o m e o n e speaks directly i n t o t h e m i c .
can h e a r s o u n d s from far away a n d m a k e t h e m a p p e a r to
S E E 9.5 W h e n u s e d o u t s i d e , all types of m i c r o p h o n e s are
be relatively close. T h e s e mics also hear s o u n d s t h a t are
susceptible to w i n d , w h i c h they r e p r o d u c e as low r u m b l i n g
in b a c k of t h e m ; b u t b e c a u s e they excel o n h e a r i n g in o n e
noises. To r e d u c e w i n d noise, p u t a windscreen
direction (a n a r r o w p a t h in front), t h e y still b e l o n g to t h e
acoustic f o a m r u b b e r over t h e m i c r o p h o n e . T h e p o p u l a r
u n i d i r e c t i o n a l g r o u p , SEE 9.4
n a m e is zeppelin because it resembles an airship, S E E 9.6 To
W h i c h t y p e y o u use d e p e n d s p r i m a r i l y o n the p r o d u c
cut t h e w i n d noise even m o r e , y o u n e e d to pull a
t i o n s i t u a t i o n a n d t h e s o u n d quality r e q u i r e d . If y o u are d o i n g a s t a n d - u p r e p o r t ( s t a n d i n g in front of t h e actual scene) o n c o n d i t i o n s at t h e local zoo, y o u w o u l d w a n t a rugged, o m n i d i r e c t i o n a l m i c t h a t n o t only favors speech b u t also picks u p s o m e of t h e a n i m a l s o u n d s for a u t h e n t i c ity. If, o n the o t h e r h a n d , y o u are v i d e o t a p i n g a singer in the s t u d i o , y o u s h o u l d p r o b a b l y c h o o s e a h i g h - q u a l i t y m i c with a m o r e directional cardioid p i c k u p p a t t e r n . To record an i n t i m a t e c o n v e r s a t i o n b e t w e e n t w o s o a p o p e r a c h a r a c ters, a h y p e r c a r d i o i d s h o t g u n m i c is p r o b a b l y y o u r best bet. Unlike t h e o m n i d i r e c t i o n a l m i c , t h e s h o t g u n m i c can pick u p their conversation from relatively far away w i t h o u t losing s o u n d presence (the closeness of t h e s o u n d ) , while i g n o r i n g to a large extent m a n y of t h e o t h e r s t u d i o noises, such as p e o p l e a n d c a m e r a s m o v i n g a b o u t , t h e h u m m i n g of lights, o r t h e r u m b l e of air c o n d i t i o n i n g . A table of t h e m o s t c o m m o n m i c r o p h o n e s a n d their characteristics is i n c l u d e d in section 9.2 (see figure 9.34). i-4 i»-»AUDlO->
9 . 5 POP FILTER
Microphones-* pickup patterns
The built-in pop filter eliminates breath pops.
T
m a d e of
windsock,
Section
How
9.7
Microphones
Hear
193
T h e s t a t i o n a r y m i c r o p h o n e s i n c l u d e (1) desk, (2) stand, (3) h a n g i n g , (4) h i d d e n , a n d (5) l o n g - d i s t a n c e mics.
LAVALIERE M I C R O P H O N E S T h e first of t h e m o b i l e t y p e , t h e lavaliere
microphone,
usually referred t o as a lav, is p r o b a b l y t h e m o s t frequently used o n - c a m e r a m i c r o p h o n e in television. T h e h i g h - q u a l ity lavalieres, w h i c h range in size from a small p u s h b u t t o n o n y o u r h o m e t e l e p h o n e t o t h e eraser section o n t h e back of y o u r pencil, c a n b e fastened to clothing w i t h a small clip. Because of their size, t h e y are u n o b t r u s i v e a n d l o o k m o r e like jewelry t h a n a technical device, SEE 9.7 Lavaliere m i c r o p h o n e s are o m n i d i r e c t i o n a l or u n i d i rectional, w i t h a d y n a m i c or c o n d e n s e r s o u n d - g e n e r a t i n g element. T h e y are designed p r i m a r i l y for voice pickup. T h e
9 . 6 WINDSCREEN
quality of even t h e smallest o n e is amazingly high. O n c e the
The windscreen, normally made of acoustic foam rubber, covers the whole microphone to reduce the low rumble of wind noise.
lav is p r o p e r l y a t t a c h e d to t h e p e r f o r m e r ( a p p r o x i m a t e l y 5 to 8 inches b e l o w t h e chin, o n t o p of t h e clothes, a n d away from a n y t h i n g t h a t could r u b or b a n g against it), t h e s o u n d p i c k u p is n o longer a worry. T h e a u d i o engi neer also h a s less difficulty riding the gain (adjusting the
or wind jammer,
over the w i n d s c r e e n . T h e w i n d j a m m e r is
v o l u m e ) of t h e lavaliere t h a n the b o o m m i c or h a n d m i c .
m a d e from synthetic m a t e r i a l a n d resembles m o r e a m o p
Because t h e distance b e t w e e n the m i c a n d t h e s o u n d source
t h a n a sophisticated a u d i o device (see figure 9.15). W h a t
does n o t c h a n g e d u r i n g t h e p e r f o r m a n c e , an even s o u n d
ever y o u use, b e a r in m i n d t h a t t h e r u m b l e of w i n d noise
level c a n b e achieved m o r e easily t h a n w i t h o t h e r m o b i l e
c a n n o t be eliminated totally. T h e only way t o have n o w i n d
microphones.
n o i s e o n t h e v i d e o t a p e is t o s h o o t w h e n t h e r e is n o w i n d .
T h e use of lavaliere m i c r o p h o n e s frees the lighting
You can, however, use certain filters in p o s t p r o d u c t i o n that
p e o p l e from "lighting a r o u n d the b o o m " to avoid shadows.
can r e d u c e or eliminate s o m e w i n d noise.
T h e y can c o n c e n t r a t e m o r e o n t h e aesthetic subtleties of
To r e d u c e t h e n e e d for m i c r o p h o n e s w i t h v a r i o u s p i c k u p p a t t e r n s , y o u can use a system microphone,
lighting as r e q u i r e d b y t h e scene.
which
A l t h o u g h t h e a c t i o n r a d i u s of p e r f o r m e r s is still
c o n s i s t s of a b a s e u p o n w h i c h several " h e a d s " c a n b e
limited b y t h e lavaliere cable, t h e cable is flexible e n o u g h
attached. These heads change the pickup pattern from
t h a t t h e y can m o v e quickly a n d relatively u n r e s t r i c t e d in a
o m n i d i r e c t i o n a l to h y p e r c a r d i o i d . As c o n v e n i e n t as this
limited s t u d i o area. For greater m o b i l i t y y o u can p l u g t h e
m a y be, y o u will find t h a t m o s t a u d i o engineers favor t h e
lavaliere i n t o a small t r a n s m i t t e r , w h i c h y o u can clip o n a
i n d i v i d u a l mics built for specific applications.
OPERATIONAL CHARACTERISTICS OF MICROPHONES S o m e m i c r o p h o n e s are designed a n d used p r i m a r i l y for s o u n d sources t h a t are m o v i n g , w h e r e a s o t h e r s are used m o r e for s t a t i o n a r y s o u n d s o u r c e s . W h e n g r o u p e d ac c o r d i n g to their actual o p e r a t i o n , t h e r e are mobile stationary
and
m i c r o p h o n e s (see figure 9.34). Of course, a n y of
t h e m o b i l e m i c s c a n b e u s e d in a s t a t i o n a r y p o s i t i o n , a n d t h e s t a t i o n a r y m i c s can b e m o v e d a b o u t if t h e p r o d u c t i o n s i t u a t i o n so requires. T h e m o b i l e m i c r o p h o n e s i n c l u d e (1) l a v a l i e r e , (2) h a n d , (3) b o o m , (4) headset, a n d (5) wireless mics.
9.7
LAVALIERE MICROPHONE
This lavaliere mic is properly attached for optimal sound pickup.
194
Chapter
AUDIO:
9
belt or put in a coat pocket, and use it as a wireless mic (see figure 9.23). Despite their small size a n d high-quality s o u n d pickup characteristics, lavs are durable a n d relatively i m m u n e to physical shock. Because t h e y are so small a n d lightweight, s o m e p r o d u c t i o n p e o p l e u n f o r t u n a t e l y take m u c h less care w h e n h a n d l i n g a lav t h a n w i t h other, larger mics. If y o u h a p p e n to d r o p a lavaliere, o r any o t h e r m i c , check it i m m e d i a t e l y to see if it is still o p e r a t i o n a l . When to use lavaliere microphones H e r e are s o m e typical p r o d u c t i o n s t h a t use lavs as t h e p r i m a r y m i c r o phone: N e w s T h e lavaliere is t h e m o s t efficacious s o u n d p i c k u p device for all types of i n d o o r news shows a n d interviews. You c a n also use it o u t d o o r s w i t h a small w i n d s c r e e n at tached for ENG/EFP. I n t e r v i e w s So long as t h e interview takes place in o n e location, t h e w e a r i n g of lavaliere mics b y t h e interviewer a n d each guest ensures g o o d , consistent voice p i c k u p . Panel s h o w s R a t h e r t h a n use desk m i c s , w h i c h are a p t to pick u p t h e u n a v o i d a b l e b a n g i n g o n t h e table, y o u can achieve good a u d i o with individual lavalieres. But n o t e that each panel m e m b e r n e e d s his o r h e r o w n lavaliere m i c . Instructional s h o w s I n shows with a principal p e r f o r m e r o r television teacher, t h e lavaliere is ideal. T h e s o u n d p i c k u p is the s a m e w h e t h e r t h e i n s t r u c t o r speaks to t h e class o r t u r n s t o t h e blackboard. D r a m a s S o m e m u l t i c a m e r a studio p r o d u c t i o n s , such as soap operas, u s e wireless lavalieres for a u d i o p i c k u p . I n such p r o d u c t i o n s t h e lavs are h i d d e n from c a m e r a view. If properly attached to t h e talent's clothing so that t h e voices do n o t s o u n d muffled, a lavaliere m i c seems t h e ideal solu tion to a traditionally difficult s o u n d pickup p r o b l e m . Once the levels are set, t h e a u d i o engineer n e e d d o very little to keep t h e voices balanced. M o r e i m p o r t a n t , t h e lighting director (LD) can design t h e lighting w i t h o u t w o r r y i n g a b o u t b o o m o r c a m e r a shadows. T h e m a i n p r o b l e m w i t h using lavs for d r a m a is n o t o p erational b u t aesthetic. Because the lavaliere m i c is always at the s a m e distance from its s o u n d source, long shots s o u n d exactly t h e s a m e as close-ups. T h e u n c h a n g i n g presence does n o t c o n t r i b u t e to a credible sound perspective (closeups s o u n d closer a n d l o n g shots s o u n d farther away). T h i s is w h y m o s t p r o d u c t i o n s of television d r a m a s use a b o o m m i c r a t h e r t h a n a lavaliere (see c h a p t e r 10). Wireless m i c s are discussed in m o r e detail later in this chapter.
SOUND
PICKUP
Music The lavaliere m i c h a s b e e n successfully used for singers (even w h e n a c c o m p a n y i n g themselves o n guitar) a n d for t h e p i c k u p of certain i n s t r u m e n t s , such as a string bass, w i t h t h e m i c t a p e d b e l o w t h e fingerboard. I n t h e realm of m u s i c , there is always r o o m for e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n ; d o n o t b e too limited by convention. If the lavaliere s o u n d s as g o o d as or better t h a n a larger, m o r e expensive m i c , stick to t h e lavaliere.
ENQk. ENG/EFP
T h e lav is often used for field r e p o r t s , i n E F P " w h i c h case y o u n e e d to attach the little w i n d s c r e e n . Wireless lavs are used w h e n t h e field r e p o r t e r needs a great deal of mobility. For example, if y o u talk w i t h a farmer a b o u t t h e d r o u g h t while walking with h i m in t h e p a r c h e d field, two wireless lavs will solve t h e a u d i o p r o b l e m . W i r e less lavs can also save y o u m a n y headaches w h e n picking u p the principal's c o m m e n t s while c o n d u c t i n g a t o u r t h r o u g h t h e newly c o m p l e t e d c o m p u t e r lab. i
Disadvantages of lavaliere mics disadvantages to t h e lavaliere:
T h e r e are also s o m e
T h e w e a r e r c a n n o t m o v e t h e m i c a n y closer to his m o u t h ; consequently, if there is extraneous noise, it is easily picked u p by a n o m n i d i r e c t i o n a l mic, a l t h o u g h a u n i d i r e c tional lavaliere will usually take care of this p r o b l e m . T h e lavaliere can b e used for only o n e s o u n d source at a t i m e — t h a t of t h e wearer. Even for a simple interview, each p a r t i c i p a n t m u s t wear his or h e r o w n m i c . A l t h o u g h t h e lavaliere m i c allows considerable m o bility, a wired lavaliere can limit t h e p e r f o r m e r ' s action radius. Because it is attached to clothing, t h e lavaliere t e n d s to pick u p occasional r u b b i n g noises, especially if the per former moves a r o u n d a great deal. This noise is emphasized w h e n the m i c r o p h o n e is concealed u n d e r n e a t h a blouse o r jacket. If t h e p e r f o r m e r ' s clothes generate static electricity, the discharge m a y be picked u p by t h e m i c as l o u d , s h a r p pops. If t w o lavalieres are at a certain distance from each other, they m a y cancel o u t s o m e frequencies a n d m a k e t h e voices s o u n d strangely "thin" (see figure 9.28).
How to use lavaliere microphones Lavalieres are easy to use, b u t t h e r e are s o m e p o i n t s y o u n e e d to consider:
Section
9.1
Be sure to p u t it on. You w o u l d n o t b e t h e first per f o r m e r t o be discovered sitting o n , rather t h a n wearing, the microphone by airtime. To p u t o n the m i c r o p h o n e , b r i n g it u p u n d e r n e a t h t h e b l o u s e o r jacket a n d t h e n attach it o n t h e o u t s i d e . Clip it firmly to t h e clothing so t h a t it does n o t r u b against any t h i n g . D o n o t w e a r jewelry in p r o x i m i t y to t h e m i c . If y o u get r u b b i n g noises, p u t a piece of foam r u b b e r b e t w e e n the m i c a n d t h e clothing. T h r e a d t h e m i c cable u n d e r n e a t h t h e c l o t h i n g a n d secure t h e cable so t h a t it c a n n o t pull t h e m i c r o p h o n e sideways. L o o p the cable or even m a k e a loose k n o t in it just below t h e clip to block s o m e u n w a n t e d p o p s a n d r u b b i n g noises. If y o u e n c o u n t e r electrostatic p o p s , t r y to treat t h e clothes w i t h antistatic l a u n d r y spray, available at super markets. If y o u m u s t conceal t h e mic, d o n o t b u r y it u n d e r layers of clothing; keep it as close to t h e surface as possible. If y o u use t h e dual-redundancy m i c r o p h o n e system ( w h i c h uses t w o i d e n t i c a l m i c r o p h o n e s for t h e s o u n d p i c k u p in case o n e fails), fasten b o t h mics securely a n d use a clip designed to h o l d t w o lavalieres so t h a t t h e y d o n o t t o u c h each other. Avoid hitting the m i c r o p h o n e w i t h any object y o u m a y be demonstrating on-camera. If t h e lavaliere is a wireless a n d / o r c o n d e n s e r m i c , check t h a t t h e b a t t e r y is in g o o d c o n d i t i o n a n d installed correctly. D o u b l e - c h e c k that t h e t r a n s m i t t e r is t u r n e d o n (there are n o r m a l l y two s w i t c h e s — o n e for p o w e r a n d o n e for t h e m i c ) a n d t h a t it is t u r n e d off w h e n leaving t h e set. If y o u r lavaliere was u s e d as a wireless m i c , d o n ' t walk off w i t h t h e m i c still clipped to y o u r clothing. T u r n off t h e transmitter, take off the m i c r o p h o n e , a n d remove t h e cable from u n d e r t h e clothing before leaving the set. P u t t h e m i c d o w n gently. E N G v W h e n using a lavaliere o u t d o o r s , attach t h e w i n d E F P screen. You can also m a k e a w i n d s c r e e n by t a p i n g a small piece of acoustic foam or cheesecloth over t h e m i c . Experienced EFP people claim t h a t b y w r a p p i n g t h e m i c in cheesecloth a n d covering it with t h e tip of a child's w o o l e n glove, t h e w i n d noise is virtually e l i m i n a t e d . <
How
Microphones
Hear
195
HAND MICROPHONES As the n a m e implies, the hand microphone is h a n d l e d by the performer. It is u s e d in all p r o d u c t i o n situations in which it is m o s t practical, if n o t imperative, t h a t t h e p e r f o r m e r exercise s o m e c o n t r o l over the s o u n d p i c k u p . H a n d mics are u s e d extensively in E N G , w h e r e t h e r e p o r t e r often w o r k s in t h e m i d s t of m u c h c o m m o t i o n a n d noise. In t h e studio o r on-stage, h a n d mics are used by singers a n d by performers w h o d o audience participation shows. W i t h the h a n d m i c , t h e p e r f o r m e r can a p p r o a c h a n d talk at r a n d o m to a n y o n e in t h e audience. For singers t h e h a n d m i c is p a r t of the act. T h e y switch t h e m i c from o n e h a n d to t h e o t h e r to visually s u p p o r t a t r a n s i t i o n in t h e song, or t h e y caress it d u r i n g an especially t e n d e r passage. M o s t i m p o r t a n t , however, the h a n d m i c enables singers t o exercise s o u n d control. First, t h e y can choose a m i c w h o s e s o u n d r e p r o d u c t i o n suits their voice quality a n d style of singing. Second, t h e y can " w o r k " t h e mic d u r i n g a song, h o l d i n g it close to the m o u t h to increase t h e i n t i m a c y d u r i n g soft passages or farther away d u r i n g louder, m o r e external ones. Third, t h e h a n d mic gives t h e m freedom of m o v e m e n t , especially if it is wireless. T h e wide variety of uses m a k e s heavy d e m a n d s o n t h e p e r f o r m a n c e characteristics of a h a n d m i c . Because it is h a n d l e d so m u c h , it m u s t be rugged a n d capable of w i t h s t a n d i n g physical shock. A n d because it is often used extremely close t o t h e s o u n d source, it m u s t be insensitive to plosive b r e a t h p o p s a n d i n p u t overload d i s t o r t i o n (see section 9.2). W h e n u s e d o u t d o o r s o n r e m o t e locations, it m u s t w i t h s t a n d rain, snow, h u m i d i t y , heat, a n d e x t r e m e t e m p e r a t u r e changes a n d yet be sensitive e n o u g h to pick u p t h e full r a n g e a n d subtle t o n e qualities of a singer's voice. Finally, it m u s t be small e n o u g h to b e h a n d l e d comfortably b y the performer. Of course, n o single m i c can fulfill all these r e q u i r e m e n t s equally, w h i c h is w h y s o m e h a n d mics are built for o u t d o o r use, w h e r e a s o t h e r s w o r k best in the controlled studio e n v i r o n m e n t . Normally, y o u s h o u l d use d y n a m i c mics for o u t d o o r p r o d u c t i o n s . T h e i r b u i l t - i n p o p filter a n d s o m e t i m e s even b u i l t - i n w i n d s c r e e n p r o d u c e accept able a u d i o even in b a d w e a t h e r c o n d i t i o n s , SEE 9.8 C o n denser o r r i b b o n mics d o n o t fare as well o u t d o o r s b u t are excellent for m o r e - d e m a n d i n g s o u n d p i c k u p , such as of singers, SEE 9.9 T h e major disadvantage of t h e h a n d m i c is w h a t we just listed as o n e of its advantages: t h e s o u n d c o n t r o l by the performer. If a p e r f o r m e r is inexperienced in using a h a n d m i c , he or she m i g h t p r o d u c e m o r e p o p s a n d bangs t h a n intelligible s o u n d s , o r may, m u c h to t h e dismay of t h e c a m e r a operator, cover t h e m o u t h or p a r t of t h e face w i t h
196
Chapter
9.8
AUDIO:
9
DYNAMIC HAND MICROPHONE FOR OUTDOOR USE
The hand mic is rugged, has a built-in windscreen, and is insu lated to prevent rubbing sounds from the talent's hands.
9.10
SOUND
PICKUP
POSITION OF DIRECTIONAL HAND MIC DURING SONG
For optimal sound pickup, the singer holds the microphone close to her mouth, at approximately a 45-degree angle.
t h e v o l u m e level a n d feed t h e clanks a n d b a n g s back o u t i n t o t h e s t u d i o for t h e p e r f o r m e r to hear. Before t h e telecast check y o u r a c t i o n r a d i u s to see if t h e m i c cable is l o n g e n o u g h for y o u r actions a n d laid o u t for m a x i m u m m i c mobility. T h e action r a d i u s is especially i m p o r t a n t in E N G , w h e r e t h e r e p o r t e r is closely tied to t h e c a m c o r d e r . If y o u have to m o v e a b o u t a great deal, use a wireless h a n d m i c or lavaliere.
9.9
RIBBON MICROPHONE FOR HIGH-QUALITY SOUND PICKUP
This ribbon mic (Beyerdynamic 500) has a built-in pop filter and an excellent frequency response. Because of its warm tone, it is a favorite with singers. {Note: Beyerdynamic is a trade name—not the type of microphone. The mic pictured here is a ribbon microphone.)
Always test t h e m i c r o p h o n e before t h e s h o w or n e w s r e p o r t b y s p e a k i n g i n t o it or lightly s c r a t c h i n g t h e p o p filter o r w i n d s c r e e n . D o n o t b l o w i n t o it. Have t h e a u d i o e n g i n e e r or t h e c a m c o r d e r o p e r a t o r c o n f i r m t h a t t h e m i c is w o r k i n g properly. W h e n using an omnidirectional mic, speak
across
r a t h e r t h a n i n t o it. W i t h a directional h a n d m i c , h o l d it t h e m i c . A n o t h e r disadvantage of m o s t h a n d m i c s is t h a t
close to y o u r m o u t h at a p p r o x i m a t e l y a 45-degree angle
their cables c a n restrict m o v e m e n t s o m e w h a t , especially
to achieve o p t i m a l s o u n d p i c k u p . Unlike the reporter, w h o
in E N G , w h e n a field r e p o r t e r is tied to the c a m c o r d e r .
speaks across t h e o m n i d i r e c t i o n a l h a n d m i c , t h e singer
A l t h o u g h wireless h a n d mics are successfully u s e d in t h e
sings into the d i r e c t i o n a l m i c . SEE 9.10
s t u d i o , stay away from t h e m w h e n w o r k i n g o u t d o o r s . A
If t h e m i c cable gets tangled, d o n o t y a n k o n it. Stop
cable is still t h e m o s t reliable c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e m i c
a n d t r y to get t h e a t t e n t i o n of t h e floor m a n a g e r .
a n d t h e a u d i o mixer or c a m c o r d e r .
W h e n walking a c o n s i d e r a b l e distance, d o n o t pull How to use hand microphones
Working with the
h a n d m i c requires dexterity a n d foresight. H e r e are s o m e hints: A l t h o u g h t h e h a n d m i c is fairly rugged, treat it gently.
t h e cable w i t h t h e m i c . Tug t h e cable gently with o n e h a n d while h o l d i n g t h e m i c r o p h o n e w i t h t h e other.
ENGiv W h e n EFP'
in t h e field, always test t h e m i c r o p h o n e before
t h e s h o w or n e w s r e p o r t by h a v i n g the c a m c o r d e r
If you n e e d b o t h h a n d s d u r i n g a p e r f o r m a n c e , d o n o t just
o p e r a t o r r e c o r d s o m e of y o u r o p e n i n g r e m a r k s a n d t h e n
d r o p t h e mic; p u t it d o w n gently or w e d g e it u n d e r y o u r
play t h e m back for a n a u d i o check. Insist o n a m i c check,
a r m . If you w a n t to impress o n t h e p e r f o r m e r the sensitivity
especially if t h e crew tells y o u n o t to w o r r y because they've
of a m i c r o p h o n e , especially t h a t of t h e h a n d m i c , t u r n u p
" d o n e it a t h o u s a n d t i m e s before"!
Section
9.11
9.1
How
HAND MIC POSITION: CHEST
When used in a fairly quiet environment, the hand mic should be held chest high, parallel to the body.
Microphones
9.12
197
Hear
HAND MIC POSITION: MOUTH
In a noisy environment, the hand mic must be held closer to the mouth. Note that the talent is still speaking across the mic, rather than into it.
W h e n d o i n g a s t a n d - u p news r e p o r t in t h e field u n d e r n o r m a l c o n d i t i o n s ( n o excessively l o u d e n v i r o n m e n t , n o s t r o n g w i n d ) , h o l d the m i c r o p h o n e at chest level, SEE9.11 Speak t o w a r d t h e c a m e r a , across t h e m i c r o p h o n e . If t h e b a c k g r o u n d n o i s e is h i g h , raise t h e m i c closer t o y o u r m o u t h while still s p e a k i n g across it. SEE 9.12 W h e n interviewing s o m e o n e , h o l d the m i c r o p h o n e to y o u r m o u t h w h e n e v e r y o u speak a n d to t h e guest's w h e n ever h e o r she answers. U n f o r t u n a t e l y , this o b v i o u s p r o c e d u r e is s o m e t i m e s reversed by m a n y novice p e r f o r m e r s . D o n o t r e m a i n s t a n d i n g w h e n i n t e r v i e w i n g a child. C r o u c h d o w n so t h a t y o u are at t h e child's eye level; y o u can then keep the m i c r o p h o n e close to the child in a n a t u r a l way. You b e c o m e a psychological e q u a l to the child a n d
9.13
USE OF HAND MIC WITH CHILD
When interviewing a child, crouch down to the child's eye level. The child is more at ease, and the camera operator is able to frame a better shot.
also help t h e c a m e r a o p e r a t o r frame an acceptable p i c a m i c t h a t can pick u p s o u n d over a fairly great distance
t u r e . SEE 9.13
while m a k i n g it seem to c o m e from close u p (presence) Always coil t h e m i c cables i m m e d i a t e l y after u s e
a n d w h i c h keeps o u t m o s t of t h e e x t r a n e o u s noises sur
t o p r o t e c t t h e cables a n d have t h e m r e a d y for t h e n e x t
r o u n d i n g t h e scene. T h e shotgun
project. <
It is highly directional ( s u p e r c a r d i o i d o r h y p e r c a r d i o i d )
BOOM MICROPHONES
Because it is usually s u s p e n d e d from s o m e k i n d of b o o m ,
W h e n a p r o d u c t i o n , such as a d r a m a t i c scene, requires that
o r is h a n d h e l d w i t h y o u r a r m s acting as a b o o m , we call it
y o u keep t h e m i c r o p h o n e o u t of c a m e r a r a n g e , y o u n e e d
a boom
microphone fills t h a t bill.
a n d has a far reach w i t h little loss of presence,
9.14
microphone.
SHOTGUN MIC
The shotgun mic has a highly directional (super- or hypercardioid) pickup pattern and a far reach, permitting the pickup of sounds that are relatively far away.
SEE 9.14
198
Chapter
9
AUDIO:
SOUND
PICKUP
This section examines the following boom operations: (1) t h e h a n d h e l d s h o t g u n , (2) t h e fishpole b o o m , (3) t h e giraffe, or t r i p o d , b o o m , a n d (4) the big, or p e r a m b u l a tor, b o o m . T h e m o s t c o m m o n ways of using t h e s h o t g u n m i c in E F P or small s t u d i o p r o d u c t i o n s are to h o l d it by h a n d or t o s u s p e n d it from a fishpole b o o m . B o t h m e t h o d s w o r k fairly well for s h o r t scenes, w h e r e t h e m i c r o p h o n e is to b e kept o u t of c a m e r a r a n g e . T h e advantages of h o l d i n g it or s u s p e n d i n g it from a
fishpole
b o o m are: (1) t h e m i c r o p h o n e is extremely flexible—you can c a r r y it i n t o t h e scene a n d a i m it in a n y d i r e c t i o n w i t h o u t any e x t r a n e o u s e q u i p m e n t ; (2) b y h o l d i n g t h e s h o t g u n , or by w o r k i n g the fishpole, y o u take u p very little p r o d u c t i o n space; a n d (3) y o u can easily w o r k a r o u n d the existing lighting s e t u p to keep t h e m i c s h a d o w s o u t s i d e c a m e r a range.
9.15
HANDHELD SHOTGUN MIC
Always hold the shotgun mic by its shock mount. When out doors a windscreen is mandatory. This mic has an additional wind jammer attached.
T h e disadvantages are: (1) y o u can cover only relatively s h o r t scenes w i t h o u t getting tired; (2) y o u have to b e rela tively close to t h e scene to get g o o d s o u n d p i c k u p , w h i c h
hear s o u n d s t h a t are n o t s u p p o s e d to b e there, tell the direc
is often difficult, especially if t h e set is c r o w d e d ; (3) if t h e
t o r a b o u t t h e interference i m m e d i a t e l y after the take (from
scene is shot w i t h m u l t i p l e c a m e r a s (as in a s t u d i o p r o d u c
start t o stop of t h e s h o w s e g m e n t b e i n g v i d e o t a p e d ) .
t i o n ) , y o u are often in d a n g e r of getting in t h e w i d e - s h o t
W a t c h for u n w a n t e d m i c s h a d o w s .
c a m e r a view; a n d (4) w h e n y o u are h o l d i n g it, t h e m i c is apt to pick u p s o m e h a n d l i n g noises, even if y o u c a r r y it by t h e shock mount
(a s u s p e n s i o n device t h a t p r e v e n t s
t r a n s m i t t i n g h a n d l i n g noises to t h e m i c ) .
An extendible metal pole t h a t lets y o u m o u n t a s h o t g u n m i c , a fishpole is u s e d m o s t l y o u t d o o r s for E N G / E F P b u t can, of course, b e u s e d for brief scenes in t h e s t u d i o in place of t h e big p e r a m b u l a t o r b o o m . You
Erjfiw
How to use shotgun microphones
W h e n hold-
will find that a s h o r t fishpole is relatively easy t o h a n d l e ,
EFP
ing t h e s h o t g u n m i c d u r i n g a p r o d u c t i o n , pay p a r
w h e r e a s w o r k i n g a l o n g or fully e x t e n d e d fishpole can b e
ticular a t t e n t i o n to t h e following p o i n t s :
q u i t e tiring, especially d u r i n g l o n g , u n i n t e r r u p t e d takes.
Always c a r r y the s h o t g u n m i c by the shock m o u n t . D o n o t c a r r y it directly o r you'll e n d u p w i t h m o r e h a n d l i n g
How to use fishpole microphones
noises t h a n actors' dialogue, SEE 9.15
fishpole,
D o n o t cover t h e ports ( o p e n i n g s ) at t h e sides of t h e shotgun with anything but the windscreen. These ports m u s t b e able to receive s o u n d s t o keep t h e p i c k u p p a t t e r n directional. H o l d i n g t h e m i c b y t h e s h o c k m o u n t m i n i mizes the d a n g e r of covering t h e p o r t s . W a t c h t h a t y o u d o n o t hit a n y t h i n g w i t h t h e m i c a n d that y o u d o n o t d r o p it. A i m it as m u c h as possible toward whoever is speaking, especially if y o u are close to t h e s o u n d source.
W h e n using the
m a n y of t h e foregoing p o i n t s apply. H e r e are
some more: C h e c k t h a t t h e m i c is p r o p e r l y s h o c k - m o u n t e d so t h a t it d o e s n o t t o u c h t h e p o l e or t h e m i c cable. Fasten t h e m i c cable to t h e pole. S o m e c o m m e r c i a l l y available fishpoles d o u b l e as a c o n d u i t for t h e cable. Hold the
fishpole
from either above or below the
s o u n d source, SEE 9.16 AND 9.17
If y o u are r e c o r d i n g t w o
p e o p l e talking to each other, p o i n t t h e m i c at w h o e v e r is speaking.
Always wear e a r p h o n e s so t h a t y o u can h e a r w h a t t h e
If t h e actors speak while walking, walk w i t h t h e m at
m i c is actually picking u p . Listen n o t o n l y to t h e s o u n d
exactly t h e s a m e speed, h o l d i n g t h e m i c in front of t h e m
quality of t h e dialogue b u t also for u n w a n t e d noise. If y o u
d u r i n g the entire take.
Section
9.16
9.1
FROM-ABOVE MIC POSITION
The short fishpole is usually held as high as possible and dipped into the scene from above.
W a t c h for obstacles t h a t m a y b l o c k y o u r way, s u c h as
How
Microphones
9.17
199
Hear
FROM-BELOW MIC POSITION
The fishpole can also be held low, with the mic aimed at the sound source from below.
Giraffe, or t r i p o d , b o o m
M a n y s t u d i o s use a small
cables, lights, c a m e r a s , pieces of scenery, or trees. Because
b o o m , called a giraffe, or tripod, boom. T h e giraffe consists
you usually walk backward while watching the actors,
of a n extendible h o r i z o n t a l b o o m a r m that is m o u n t e d o n
rehearse y o u r r o u t e a few t i m e s .
a t r i p o d dolly, SEE 9.19
Before each take check that y o u have e n o u g h m i c cable for t h e entire walk. If y o u have a l o n g fishpole, a n c h o r it in y o u r belt a n d
You can tilt t h e b o o m u p a n d d o w n a n d s i m u l t a n e ously r o t a t e t h e m i c in t h e desired direction. A n d y o u can r e p o s i t i o n t h e entire b o o m assembly by s i m p l y p u s h i n g it. T h e advantages of t h e giraffe b o o m for s t u d i o w o r k are:
lower it i n t o t h e scene as t h o u g h y o u were "fishing" for t h e
(1) unlike t h e fishpole, y o u d o n o t have to h o l d t h e b o o m
a p p r o p r i a t e s o u n d , SEE 9.1 s
assembly w i t h t h e m i c ; (2) the giraffe takes u p relatively
9.18
HANDLING THE LONG FISHPOLE BOOM
The long fishpole can be anchored in the belt and raised and lowered similar to an actual fishing pole.
9.19
GIRAFFE, OR TRIPOD, BOOM
The small giraffe boom can be repositioned with its tripod dolly. The boom can be tilted up and down and panned hori zontally. The mic can be rotated to the exact pickup position.
200
9.20 BIG, OR PERAMBULATOR, BOOM
9
Chapter
AUDIO:
Mic tilt and turn grip
The big boom can extend to a 20-foot reach, pan 360 de grees, and tilt up and down. The microphone itself can be rotated by about 300 de grees—almost a full circle.
SOUND
PICKUP
Crank to adjust boom length
Operator's seat
Pan-and-tilt lock screws
Steering control Control to raise or lower platform
Break and • gear change
little s t u d i o space; (3) because of its low h e i g h t a n d n a r r o w
Platform for operator and TV monitor
•
T h e floor space t h a t t h e b o o m takes u p may, in a
wheelbase, y o u c a n m o v e it easily t h r o u g h n a r r o w d o o r
small s t u d i o , c u t d o w n c o n s i d e r a b l y t h e m a n e u v e r
ways o r hallways; a n d (4) it c a n be disassembled quickly
ability of t h e c a m e r a s .
a n d taken t o r e m o t e locations if necessary.
Like t h e giraffe b o o m , t h e big b o o m requires a m a
U n f o r t u n a t e l y , even t h e giraffe is n o t w i t h o u t seri
n i p u l a t i o n of t h e lighting so that its s h a d o w falls
o u s o p e r a t i o n a l disadvantages: (1) T h e lighting m u s t b e
o u t s i d e of c a m e r a range. Even in larger s t u d i o s , t h e
carefully adjusted so t h a t t h e b o o m s h a d o w s fall o u t s i d e
lighting p r o b l e m s often p r e c l u d e t h e use o f a b o o m ,
of c a m e r a view (see c h a p t e r 8 ) . (2) T h e extension of t h e
available p e r s o n n e l a n d space n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g .
relatively light giraffe b o o m is limited. It requires t h a t t h e b o o m o p e r a t o r s t a n d closer to t h e s o u n d source, a position
T h e b o o m is difficult t o o p e r a t e , especially w h e n t h e
t h a t t e n d s to increase t h e general noise level. (3) Because
actors are m o v i n g a b o u t .
t h e b o o m h a s t o r e m a i n relatively l o w d u r i n g o p e r a t i o n ,
T h e big b o o m n e v e r t h e l e s s h a s several a d v a n t a g e s ,
t h e risk of getting t h e b o o m o r t h e m i c in t h e p i c t u r e is
especially w h e n used for m u l t i c a m e r a shows t h a t are d o n e
increased considerably. (4) Because of its light weight, t h e
l i v e - o n - t a p e o r c o n t a i n fairly long, u n i n t e r r u p t e d takes:
b o o m is subject t o s h o c k a n d v i b r a t i o n s , which, despite its s h o c k m o u n t s , c a n b e transferred to t h e m i c r o p h o n e .
•
It allows s m o o t h a n d r a p i d m o v e m e n t of t h e m i c r o p h o n e above a n d in front of t h e s o u n d sources a n d
The big, or perambulator, boom
from o n e s p o t t o a n o t h e r a n y w h e r e in t h e s t u d i o
W h e n working with
w i t h i n its e x t e n d e d range. You c a n e x t e n d o r r e t r a c t
large, m u l t i c a m e r a s t u d i o p r o d u c t i o n s , s u c h as s i t u a t i o n
t h e m i c , s i m u l t a n e o u s l y p a n t h e b o o m horizontally,
c o m e d i e s a n d s o a p o p e r a s , y o u will find t h a t despite t h e
m o v e it u p a n d d o w n vertically, a n d rotate a n d tilt
presence of lavaliere mics, t h e b i g p e r a m b u l a t o r b o o m is
t h e m i c t o allow for directional s o u n d p i c k u p . D u r
very m u c h alive a n d well. In t h e c o n t r o l l e d e n v i r o n m e n t
i n g all these o p e r a t i o n s , t h e b o o m assembly can b e
of t h e studio, t h e big b o o m is still o n e of t h e m o s t effective
m o v e d t o v a r i o u s l o c a t i o n s , in case t h e b o o m c a n
ways of getting a h i g h - q u a l i t y m i c close t o t h e t a l e n t while
n o t reach t h e s o u n d source w h e n fully e x t e n d e d .
keeping it o u t of c a m e r a view, SEE 9.20
It c a n r i d e high e n o u g h t o keep t h e b o o m a n d its
T h e r e are several r e a s o n s w h y t h e b i g b o o m h a s n o t
m i c o u t of c a m e r a view.
achieved great p o p u l a r i t y in r o u t i n e s t u d i o p r o d u c t i o n s : Using t h e big b o o m usually requires t w o o p e r a t o r s : the b o o m operator, w h o works the microphone
•
It p e r m i t s t h e m o u n t i n g of h i g h - q u a l i t y s h o t g u n mics.
b o o m , a n d t h e dolly o p e r a t o r , w h o helps r e p o s i t i o n
It can reach i n t o p e r f o r m a n c e areas w i t h o u t t h e
t h e w h o l e b o o m a s s e m b l y w h e n e v e r necessary.
b o o m assembly's m o v i n g t o o close to t h e scene.
Section
9.1
How
Microphones
201
Hear
T h e o p e r a t i o n of the big b o o m is similar to t h a t of t h e
Listen for g o o d a u d i o balance. If y o u have t o cover
giraffe (see figure 9.19). T h e m a j o r o p e r a t i o n a l difference
t w o p e o p l e w h o are fairly close t o g e t h e r a n d stationary,
b e t w e e n t h e giraffe a n d t h e big b o o m is t h a t t h e latter
y o u m a y achieve g o o d a u d i o balance b y s i m p l y p o s i t i o n i n g
allows b e t t e r s o u n d p i c k u p : y o u c a n m o v e t h e m i c m u c h
t h e m i c b e t w e e n t h e m a n d k e e p i n g it t h e r e until s o m e o n e
m o r e quickly a n d s m o o t h l y a n d can extend it m u c h farther
m o v e s . Favor t h e weaker voice b y p o i n t i n g the m i c m o r e
i n t o a scene t h a n w i t h the giraffe. O n c e p r o p e r l y m o u n t e d ,
t o w a r d it. M o r e often, however, y o u will find that y o u m u s t
t h e b o o m noise is n o t transferred t o t h e m i c .
rotate t h e u n i d i r e c t i o n a l m i c t o w a r d w h o e v e r is talking. In fully scripted shows, t h e a u d i o e n g i n e e r in the b o o t h m a y
How to use boom microphones
T h e following tips
follow t h e scripted dialogue a n d signal t h e b o o m o p e r a t o r
apply to o p e r a t i n g b o t h t h e small giraffe b o o m a n d the
w h e n e v e r t h e m i c n e e d s to b e r o t a t e d from o n e actor to
big p e r a m b u l a t o r b o o m :
the Other. H ' i * » A U D I O - > Microphones-* mic types | placement
Try t o keep t h e m i c in front of t h e s o u n d s o u r c e a n d as low as possible w i t h o u t getting it in the p i c t u r e . D o n o t
HEADSET MICROPHONES
ride the m i c directly above the talent's h e a d — t h e p e r f o r m e r
E N G w T h e headset microphone
speaks from t h e m o u t h , n o t t h e t o p of t h e h e a d . W a t c h t h e s t u d i o line m o n i t o r (which shows t h e p i c
consists of a small b u t good-
EFP q u a l i t y o m n i - or u n i d i r e c t i o n a l m i c a t t a c h e d t o e a r p h o n e s . O n e of t h e e a r p h o n e s carries t h e p r o g r a m
t u r e t h a t goes o n t h e air o r is v i d e o t a p e d ) . Try to ascertain
s o u n d (whatever s o u n d s t h e h e a d s e t m i c picks u p o r is fed
d u r i n g rehearsal h o w far y o u can dip t h e m i c t o w a r d the
from t h e s t a t i o n ) , a n d t h e o t h e r carries t h e I.F.B. (inter-
s o u n d source w i t h o u t getting it o r t h e b o o m in t h e p i c
r u p t i b l e foldback or feedback) cues a n d i n s t r u c t i o n s of
t u r e . T h e closer t h e m i c , t h e b e t t e r t h e s o u n d . (In b o o m
t h e d i r e c t o r or p r o d u c e r . H e a d s e t mics are used in certain
m i c o p e r a t i o n , y o u can never get close e n o u g h to violate
EFP situations, s u c h as s p o r t s r e p o r t i n g , or in E N G from
t h e m i n i m u m distance r e q u i r e d of cardioid mics to avoid
a helicopter or c o n v e n t i o n floor. T h e h e a d s e t m i c isolates
b r e a t h p o p s or similar s o u n d distortions.)
y o u sufficiently from t h e o u t s i d e w o r l d so t h a t y o u can
T h e o p t i m u m distance for b o o m m i c s is w h e n t h e
c o n c e n t r a t e o n y o u r specific r e p o r t i n g j o b in the m i d s t of
talent c a n almost t o u c h t h e m i c b y reaching u p at a b o u t a
m u c h noise a n d c o m m o t i o n while at the s a m e time keeping
4 5 - d e g r e e angle.
y o u r h a n d s free t o shuffle p a p e r s w i t h players' statistics or b u t t o n h o l e s o m e o n e for a n interview, SEE 9.21 <
If t h e b o o m gets in t h e p i c t u r e , it is b e t t e r to pull it b a c k t h a n t o raise it. By r e t r a c t i n g t h e b o o m , y o u pull t h e m i c r o p h o n e o u t of t h e camera's view a n d at t h e s a m e t i m e keep t h e m i c in front of, r a t h e r t h a n above, t h e s o u n d source. W a t c h for s h a d o w s . Even t h e best L D c a n n o t avoid s h a d o w s b u t can only redirect t h e m . If t h e major b o o m p o s i t i o n s are k n o w n before t h e show, w o r k w i t h t h e LD to light a r o u n d t h e m . You m a y s o m e t i m e s have to sacrifice a u d i o quality to avoid b o o m s h a d o w s . If y o u discover a b o o m s h a d o w w h e n t h e c a m e r a is al ready o n the air, d o n o t s u d d e n l y m o v e the m i c — e v e r y o n e will see t h e s h a d o w travel across t h e screen. Try to sneak it o u t of t h e p i c t u r e very slowly or, better, just keep t h e m i c a n d t h e s h a d o w as steady as possible u n t i l a relief s h o t p e r m i t s y o u to m o v e i n t o a m o r e a d v a n t a g e o u s p o s i t i o n . Anticipate t h e m o v e m e n t s of p e r f o r m e r s so t h a t y o u c a n lead t h e m w i t h t h e m i c r a t h e r t h a n frantically follow t h e m . Unless t h e s h o w is very well rehearsed, d o n o t lock t h e p a n - a n d - t i l t devices o n the b o o m . If the p e r f o r m e r s rise unexpectedly, t h e y m a y b u m p t h e i r h e a d s o n t h e locked microphone.
9 . 2 1 HEADSET MICROPHONE The headset mic is similar to an ordinary telephone headset except that it has bigger, padded earphones and a higherquality microphone.
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9.23 WIRELESS LAVALIERE MIC AND TRANSMITTER
Mic with transmitter and built-in antenna
The wireless lavaliere mic has a separate transmitter that is worn by the talent. The re ceiver picks up the mic's sig nal and routes it via ordinary mic cable to the audio mixer, console, or camcorder.
Belt-pack transmitter lavaliere mic are m o r e adverse, the r a n g e m a y s h r i n k to a b o u t 100 feet ( a b o u t 33 m e t e r s ) . To e n s u r e o p t i m a l signal reception, y o u can set u p several receiving stations in t h e s t u d i o as well as
9.22 WIRELESS HAND MIC AND RECEIVER
in the field. W h e n t u n e d to the s a m e frequency, t h e receiver
The wireless hand mic normally has the transmitter built into the housing. The antenna either is built into the mic or sticks out at the bottom. The receiver, which is tuned to the frequency of the hand mic's transmitter, picks up the signal and sends it via ordinary mic cable to the audio console or camcorder.
will switch to a m o r e favorable frequency o r h a v e a n o t h e r receiver take over w h e n t h e signal gets t o o weak. This is called diversity
reception.
T h e wireless m i c w o r k s best in the controlled e n v i r o n m e n t of a s t u d i o or stage, w h e r e y o u c a n d e t e r m i n e t h e precise range of t h e p e r f o r m e r ' s m o v e m e n t s a n d find t h e
WIRELESS
MICROPHONES
o p t i m a l p o s i t i o n for t h e receiver(s). M o s t singers prefer
In p r o d u c t i o n s i t u a t i o n s in w h i c h c o m p l e t e a n d u n r e stricted m o b i l i t y of t h e s o u n d s o u r c e is r e q u i r e d , microphones
w o r k i n g with t h e wireless h a n d m i c because it affords t h e m
wireless
unrestricted m o v e m e n t . It is also useful in audience partici
are used. If, for e x a m p l e , y o u are r e c o r d i n g a
p a t i o n shows, w h e r e t h e p e r f o r m e r walks into the audience
g r o u p of singers w h o are also d a n c i n g , o r if y o u are asked
for brief, u n p l a n n e d interviews. T h e wireless lavaliere m i c
to pick u p a s k i e r s g r u n t s a n d t h e clatter of t h e skis o n a
has b e e n used successfully for musicals a n d d r a m a t i c shows
d o w n h i l l course, the wireless m i c is t h e o b v i o u s choice.
a n d , of course, in m a n y E N G / E F P s i t u a t i o n s .
Wireless mics are also used extensively for newscasts, for EFP, a n d occasionally for m u l t i c a m e r a s t u d i o p r o d u c t i o n s of d r a m a t i c shows. Wireless m i c s actually broadcast
Despite t h e o b v i o u s advantages of using wireless mics, t h e r e are also s o m e m a j o r disadvantages:
their
frequency)
T h e signal p i c k u p c a n b e u n e v e n , especially if t h e
mics o r radio mics. M o s t wireless m i c r o p h o n e s are used as
s o u n d s o u r c e m o v e s o v e r a fairly g r e a t d i s t a n c e a n d
signals. T h e y are therefore also called RF (radio either h a n d or lavaliere mics.
t h r o u g h hilly t e r r a i n — a skier, for e x a m p l e . If y o u d o n o t
In wireless h a n d mics, t h e b a t t e r y - p o w e r e d t r a n s m i t
have line of sight b e t w e e n t h e t r a n s m i t t e r ( o n t h e p e r
ter is built into t h e m i c r o p h o n e itself. S o m e m o d e l s have a
f o r m e r ) a n d t h e receiver, y o u m a y e n c o u n t e r fades a n d
s h o r t a n t e n n a p r o t r u d i n g from t h e b o t t o m of t h e m i c , b u t
even occasional d r o p o u t s . Diversity r e c e p t i o n , w h i c h uses
in m o s t the a n t e n n a is i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o t h e m i c r o p h o n e
m u l t i p l e receivers, is a m u s t in s u c h situations.
h o u s i n g or cable, SEE 9.22 T h e wireless lavaliere m i c is c o n n e c t e d t o a s m a l l b a t t e r y - p o w e r e d t r a n s m i t t e r t h a t is either w o r n in t h e h i p
If t h e t r a n s m i t t e r is t a p e d t o t h e body, t h e p e r f o r m e r ' s p e r s p i r a t i o n can r e d u c e signal s t r e n g t h , as does, of course, t h e increasing distance from t r a n s m i t t e r to receiver.
p o c k e t or t a p e d to t h e body. T h e a n t e n n a is usually t u c k e d into t h e p o c k e t or s t r u n g inside t h e clothing. SEE 9.23 T h e o t h e r i m p o r t a n t e l e m e n t of t h e wireless m i c r o p h o n e system is the receiver (see figure 9.22). T h e receiver tunes in to the frequency of the wireless t r a n s m i t t e r a n d can
Large m e t a l objects, high-voltage lines a n d t r a n s f o r m ers, X-ray m a c h i n e s , microwave transmissions, a n d cellular p h o n e s can all interfere w i t h t h e p r o p e r r e c e p t i o n of t h e wireless m i c signal.
receive the signal from as far as 1,000 feet ( a p p r o x i m a t e l y
A l t h o u g h m o s t wireless e q u i p m e n t offers several fre
330 m e t e r s ) u n d e r favorable c o n d i t i o n s . W h e n c o n d i t i o n s
q u e n c y c h a n n e l s , t h e r e is still s o m e d a n g e r of picking u p
Section
9.1
How
Microphones
203
Hear
e x t r a n e o u s signals, especially if the receiver is n o t t u n e d ac curately o r if it o p e r a t e s in the p r o x i m i t y of s o m e o n e else's wireless signals o r o t h e r s t r o n g r a d i o signals. Interference is evident by p o p s , t h u m p s , signal d r o p o u t s , a n d even t h e p i c k u p of police b a n d t r a n s m i s s i o n s . If y o u use several wireless mics, t h e y n e e d t o b e fed i n t o a m i x e r for p r o p e r a u d i o c o n t r o l . T h e basic o p e r a t i o n a l t e c h n i q u e s of the wireless m i c are identical to t h o s e of the wired lavaliere a n d h a n d mics, b u t h e r e are s o m e a d d i t i o n a l p o i n t s to consider: Always install n e w b a t t e r i e s before each s h o o t — a n d c a r r y p l e n t y of spares. T h e u p p e r frequencies s o u n d t h i n
9.24
w h e n t h e m i c has a weak battery.
In television production desk mics are usually hand mics clipped to a desk stand.
DESK MICROPHONE ON DESK STAND
If t h e receiver is fairly far from t h e wireless t r a n s m i t t e r t h a t is w o r n by t h e talent, t h e t r a n s m i t t e r a n t e n n a m u s t b e fully e x t e n d e d . You can tie o n e e n d of a r u b b e r b a n d to t h e tip of the a n t e n n a a n d tape t h e o t h e r e n d to t h e performer's c l o t h i n g . T h a t will keep t h e a n t e n n a fully e x t e n d e d while p r e v e n t i n g it from being s n a p p e d off its c o n n e c t o r w h e n t h e talent m o v e s . If y o u m u s t t a p e t h e t r a n s m i t t e r to the body, avoid at t a c h i n g t h e tape directly to skin because excessive m o i s t u r e c a n interfere w i t h t h e signal. Position t h e receiver(s) so that t h e r e are n o b l i n d spots (ideally in line of sight w i t h t h e t r a n s m i t t e r at all t i m e s ) . Always test t h e s o u n d p i c k u p over t h e entire r a n g e of t h e s o u n d source. W a t c h for possible interfering signals or objects.
9.25
DESK MICROPHONES As t h e n a m e implies, desk microphones
are usually p u t o n
tables or desks. T h e s e s t a t i o n a r y m i c s are widely used in
BOUNDARY MICROPHONE
This mic must be mounted or put on a reflecting surface to build up the "pressure zone"at which all sound waves reach the mic at the same time.
p a n e l shows, p u b l i c h e a r i n g s , speeches, press conferences, a n d o t h e r p r o g r a m s w h e r e t h e p e r f o r m e r is speaking from b e h i n d a desk, table, or lectern. T h e s e m i c s are u s e d for
Boundary microphone
voice p i c k u p only. Because t h e p e r f o r m e r is usually d o i n g
boundary
s o m e t h i n g — s h u f f l i n g p a p e r s , p u t t i n g t h i n g s o n t h e desk,
pressure zone microphone
accidentally b u m p i n g t h e desk w i t h feet o r k n e e s — d e s k
ent from o r d i n a r y m i c r o p h o n e s a n d o p e r a t e o n a different
m i c r o p h o n e s m u s t b e r u g g e d a n d able to w i t h s t a n d physi
principle, SEE 9.25
microphone
O n e t y p e of desk m i c is the
or, as it is c o m m o n l y called, t h e ]
{PZM).
T h e s e m i c s look differ
cal shock. D y n a m i c , o m n i d i r e c t i o n a l mics are generally
T h e b o u n d a r y m i c r o p h o n e is m o u n t e d or p o s i t i o n e d
u s e d . If a h i g h s e p a r a t i o n of s o u n d s o u r c e s is desired,
close to a reflecting surface, such as a table or a plastic plate
however, u n i d i r e c t i o n a l m i c s are a n o t h e r o p t i o n . G e n e r
accessory, SEE 9.26 W h e n placed i n t o this s o u n d "pressure
ally, m o s t h a n d m i c s d o u b l e as desk m i c s — a l l y o u d o is
zone," t h e m i c receives b o t h t h e direct a n d the reflected
place t h e m in a desk s t a n d a n d p o s i t i o n t h e m for o p t i m a l s o u n d p i c k u p , SEE 9.24
1. PZM is a trademark of Crown International, Inc.
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9 . 2 7 DESK MICROPHONE PLACEMENT FOR SINGLE PERFORMER
9 . 2 6 BOUNDARY MICROPHONE USED FOR MULTIPLE-VOICE PICKUP With the boundary mic in the middle of the table, the sound pickup is equal for all people sitting around it.
The desk mic should be placed to the side of the talent and aimed at the talent's collarbone so that he or she speaks across, rather than into, it. If the talent uses a monitor, put the mic on the monitor side.
s o u n d s at t h e s a m e t i m e . U n d e r o p t i m a l c o n d i t i o n s t h e
w h a t to t h e side of the p e r f o r m e r a n d p o i n t it at his o r h e r
b o u n d a r y m i c r o p h o n e p r o d u c e s a clearer s o u n d t h a n d o
c o l l a r b o n e r a t h e r t h a n m o u t h , giving a r e a s o n a b l y g o o d
o r d i n a r y mics. Its chief a d v a n t a g e is t h a t it can b e u s e d
s o u n d p i c k u p while allowing t h e c a m e r a a clear shot of
for t h e s i m u l t a n e o u s voice p i c k u p of several p e o p l e w i t h
t h e p e r f o r m e r ' s face, SEE 9.27
equal fidelity. B o u n d a r y m i c s have a w i d e , h e m i s p h e r i c
W h e n integrating t h e m i c unobtrusively in t h e picture,
p i c k u p p a t t e r n a n d are therefore well suited for large g r o u p
d o n o t forget a b o u t t h e m i c cable. Even if t h e d i r e c t o r as
discussions a n d a u d i e n c e reactions. You can, for e x a m p l e ,
sures you that the m i c cable o n t h e floor will never b e seen,
s i m p l y place this m i c o n a table a n d achieve a r e m a r k a b l y
d o n ' t bet o n it. Try to string t h e cable as neatly as possible
g o o d p i c k u p of the people sitting a r o u n d it. Unfortunately,
a n d use gaffer's or black m a s k i n g t a p e to secure it to t h e
w h e n used as a table m i c , t h e b o u n d a r y m i c also picks u p
desk a n d floor. T h e viewer inevitably i n t e r p r e t s a s h o t t h a t
p a p e r rustling, finger t a p p i n g , a n d the t h u m p s of p e o p l e
shows cable " s p a g h e t t i " as inefficient a n d sloppy, regardless
k n o c k i n g against t h e table, b u t p a d s for t h e m i c m i n i m i z e
of t h e overall quality of t h e show.
or virtually eliminate s u c h p r o b l e m s .
How to use desk microphones
H e r e are a few m o r e tips o n using a desk m i c : D e s k mics, like p e a
n u t s , s e e m to b e i r r e s i s t i b l e — n o t t h a t p e r f o r m e r s w a n t t o eat t h e m , b u t w h e n sitting or s t a n d i n g b e h i n d a desk m i c they feel c o m p e l l e d to g r a b it a n d pull it t o w a r d t h e m , n o m a t t e r h o w carefully y o u m i g h t have p o s i t i o n e d it. Polite or n o t - s o - p o l i t e requests n o t to t o u c h t h e m i c s e e m futile. S o o n e r or later t h e talent will m o v e t h e m i c . To c o u n t e r this c o m p u l s i o n , c o n s i d e r t a p i n g t h e m i c s t a n d t o t h e table, or at least tape t h e m i c r o p h o n e cable securely a n d u n o b t r u s i v e l y so t h a t t h e m i c c a n b e m o v e d o n l y a s h o r t distance.
W h e n u s i n g t w o desk m i c s for t h e s a m e speaker as a d u a l - r e d u n d a n c y p r e c a u t i o n , use i d e n t i c a l m i c s a n d place t h e m as close t o g e t h e r as possible. As n o t e d , redundancy
dual-
is t h e r a t h e r c l u m s y t e r m for using t w o m i c s
for a single s o u n d source so t h a t y o u c a n switch from o n e to t h e o t h e r in case o n e fails. D o n o t activate t h e m at t h e s a m e t i m e unless y o u are feeding separate a u d i o c h a n n e l s . If b o t h mics are o n at t h e s a m e t i m e , y o u m a y e x p e r i e n c e multiple-microphone
interference:
w h e n t w o m i c s are close
to each o t h e r yet far e n o u g h a p a r t t h a t they pick u p t h e identical s o u n d s o u r c e at slightly different t i m e s , they c a n cancel o u t certain frequencies, giving t h e s o u n d a strangely
As w i t h t h e h a n d m i c , n o a t t e m p t is m a d e t o conceal
t h i n quality. If y o u m u s t activate b o t h mics at t h e s a m e
the desk m i c from the viewer. Nevertheless, w h e n placing it
t i m e , place t h e m as close to each o t h e r as possible so t h a t
on a desktop or lectern, consider the camera picture as well
t h e y receive t h e s o u n d simultaneously.
as o p t i m a l s o u n d p i c k u p . P e r f o r m e r s certainly a p p r e c i a t e it if t h e c a m e r a shows m o r e of t h e m t h a n t h e m i c r o p h o n e .
W h e n u s i n g desk mics for a p a n e l discussion, d o n o t
If t h e c a m e r a s h o o t s from straight o n , place the m i c s o m e -
give each m e m b e r a separate m i c unless t h e y sit far a p a r t .
Section
9.1
How
Microphones
205
Hear
9 . 2 8 MULTIPLEMICROPHONE SETUP When using a multiplemicrophone setup, keep the individual mics at least three times as far apart as the dis tance any mic is from its user.
Using o n e m i c for t w o p a n e l m e m b e r s n o t o n l y saves mics
of a r o c k g r o u p ; o n the c o n t r a r y , they are a n i m p o r t a n t
a n d s e t u p t i m e b u t also m i n i m i z e s m u l t i p l e - m i c r o p h o n e
s h o w e l e m e n t . You are certainly familiar w i t h t h e great
interference. Place the mics so that they are at least
m a n y ways rock p e r f o r m e r s h a n d l e the s t a n d m i c . S o m e
three
times as far apart as any mic is from its user, SEE 9.28
tilt it, lift it, lean against it, h o l d themselves u p b y it, a n d , w h e n t h e m u s i c rocks w i t h especially high intensity, even
Position the m i c r o p h o n e s to achieve o p t i m a l s o u n d pickup from all participants. Finalize the mic positions only after h a v i n g seen t h e total p a n e l s e t u p a n d t h e i n t e r a c t i o n
swing it t h r o u g h t h e air like a s w o r d ( n o t r e c o m m e n d e d , by the way). T h e q u a l i t y of s t a n d m i c s r a n g e s f r o m
dynamic
of t h e m e m b e r s . P a r t i c i p a n t s will n o t only r e s p o n d t o t h e
h a n d m i c s clipped to a s t a n d to highly sensitive r i b b o n
m o d e r a t o r b u t also talk a m o n g themselves, t u r n i n g i n o p
or c o n d e n s e r m i c s used exclusively for m u s i c r e c o r d i n g
posite directions.
sessions.
A l t h o u g h a l m o s t a lost cause, r e m i n d t h e p a n e l m e m b e r s — o r a n y o n e w o r k i n g w i t h a desk m i c — n o t to r e p o s i t i o n it o n c e it is set a n d t o avoid b a n g i n g o n t h e table or kicking t h e lectern, even if t h e discussion gets lively. Tell p a r t i c i p a n t s n o t t o lean i n t o t h e m i c s w h e n speaking.
How to use s t a n d microphones
Stand mics are
usually placed in front of t h e s o u n d source, regardless of w h e t h e r it is a singer or t h e speaker of an amplified elec tric guitar, SEE 9.29 In s o m e cases, such as for t h e p i c k u p
W h e n t w o p e o p l e sit o p p o s i t e each other, give each one a mic. E N G v W h e n o n a n E N G a s s i g n m e n t , always b r i n g a l o n g a small collapsible desk stand. You c a n t h e n use t h e h a n d m i c (or even the s h o t g u n m i c ) , usually clipped to t h e c a m e r a , as a desk m i c . A c l a m p - o n m i c h o l d e r w i t h a g o o s e n e c k is very handy, especially w h e n a d d i n g y o u r m i c t o a cluster of o t h e r mics o n a speaker's lectern d u r i n g a n e w s conference. 4
STAND MICROPHONES Stand
microphones
are u s e d w h e n e v e r t h e s o u n d source
is fixed a n d the t y p e of p r o g r a m m i n g p e r m i t s t h e m to be seen. For e x a m p l e , t h e r e is n o n e e d t o conceal t h e mics
9 . 2 9 STAND MIC FOR SINGER The singer stands in front of the stand mic and sings directly into it.
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of a singer u s i n g an acoustic guitar, y o u may attach t w o
a n n o y i n g t e n d e n c y to pick u p t h e shuffling of feet a n d t h e
m i c r o p h o n e s t o a single s t a n d .
r u m b l i n g of m o v i n g c a m e r a pedestals a l m o s t as well as t h e voices. A further disadvantage is t h a t w h e n p o s i t i o n e d close
HANGING MICROPHONES
t o t h e s t u d i o lights, t h e h a n g i n g m i c m i g h t p i c k u p a n d
Hanging
amplify their h u m .
microphones
are used w h e n e v e r any o t h e r c o n
c e a l e d - m i c r o p h o n e m e t h o d ( b o o m or fishpole) is i m p r a c
H a n g i n g m i c s are nevertheless p o p u l a r in d r a m a s ,
tical. You can h a n g t h e mics (high-quality cardioid, b u t also
studio productions, and audience participation shows.
lavalieres) b y their cables over a n y fairly s t a t i o n a r y s o u n d
T h e y are easy t o set u p a n d take d o w n a n d , w h e n in t h e
s o u r c e . M o s t often, h a n g i n g m i c s are u s e d in d r a m a t i c
right p o s i t i o n s , p r o d u c e acceptable s o u n d .
p r e s e n t a t i o n s w h e r e t h e action is fully b l o c k e d so t h a t t h e
You m a y find t h a t a single s u s p e n d e d b o u n d a r y m i c
actors are in a precise location for each delivery of lines. A
will m e e t the a u d i o r e q u i r e m e n t s better t h a n several regular
favorite spot for h a n g i n g mics is t h e u p s t a g e d o o r (at t h e
h a n g i n g mics. M o u n t t h e b o u n d a r y m i c o n a sound-reflect
back of t h e set), from w h i c h t h e actors deliver their hellos
ing b o a r d (such as 3-by-4-foot Plexiglas o r p l y w o o d ) , s u s
a n d g o o d - b y e s w h e n e n t e r i n g o r leaving t h e m a j o r per
p e n d it above a n d in front of t h e general s o u n d - g e n e r a t i n g
f o r m a n c e area. T h e b o o m can generally n o t reach t h a t far
area (such as a n a u d i e n c e area), a n d angle the reflecting
to a d e q u a t e l y pick u p voices. T h e actors have to take care
b o a r d for o p t i m a l p i c k u p , SEE 9.31
to speak only w i t h i n t h e " a u d i o p o o l " of t h e h a n g i n g mic.
the s o u n d source is n e a r the m i c or farther away, t h e s o u n d s
Similar to t h e spotlight pool, w h e r e t h e actors are visible
still have g o o d presence. This positive aspect t u r n s n e g a
only so long as t h e y m o v e w i t h i n t h e limited circle of light,
tive in d r a m a t i c p r o d u c t i o n s , w h e r e s o u n d perspective is
they are h e a r d only w h e n they are w i t h i n t h e limited r a n g e
a n i m p o r t a n t factor. T h i s is o n e of t h e r e a s o n s w h y i n
of t h e a u d i o p o o l , SEE 9.30 T h e s o u n d quality from h a n g i n g mics is n o t always the
Regardless of w h e t h e r
c o m p l e x p r o d u c t i o n s t h e b o o m is still preferred over t h e b o u n d a r y mic.
best. T h e s o u n d source is always relatively far away from t h e m i c ; a n d if t h e p e r f o r m e r is n o t precisely w i t h i n t h e a u d i o p o o l , his or h e r voice is off-mic. In t h e case of t h e u p s t a g e door, s u c h quality loss is actually an asset because it u n d e r s c o r e s t h e physical a n d psychological distance of the d e p a r t i n g person. Unfortunately, h a n g i n g mics have the
How to use h a n g i n g microphones
Although no
p a r t i c u l a r skill is r e q u i r e d for h a n g i n g a m i c , h e r e are s o m e tips: H a n g t h e m i c as low as possible to get reasonably g o o d presence. Use t a p e or fishing line to tilt t h e m i c t o w a r d speakers o r m u s i c i a n s (see figure 9.30). If necessary, m a r k the s t u d i o floor for the talent at t h e spot of t h e best s o u n d p i c k u p . Secure t h e m i c cable sufficiently so t h a t t h e m i c d o e s n o t c o m e c r a s h i n g d o w n . A small piece of gaffer's t a p e will d o t h e trick. Separate t h e m i c cables f r o m t h e s t u d i o lights or t h e A C cables to m i n i m i z e electronic interference. If t h a t is n o t possible, cross t h e m i c a n d p o w e r cables at right angles r a t h e r t h a n h a v i n g t h e m r u n parallel. D o n o t place t h e m i c n e x t to a h o t lighting i n s t r u ment. Be especially careful w h e n striking
(taking down)
h a n g i n g m i c r o p h o n e s . D o n o t d r o p t h e m i c o r t h e cable c o n n e c t o r s o n t o t h e s t u d i o floor or, w o r s e , s o m e b o d y ' s
9.30
AUDIO POOL OF HANGING MICROPHONE
Hanging microphones are high-quality unidirectional mics that are normally suspended by their cables from the lighting grid. The talent must remain in the "audio pool" to be properly heard.
head. D o n o t inadvertently hit h a n g i n g mics against ladders, lighting poles, o r lighting i n s t r u m e n t s .
Section
How
9.1
Microphones
Hear
207
9 . 3 1 BOUNDARY MIC USED AS HANGING MICROPHONE When using a boundary mic as a hanging microphone, mount it on an additional sound-reflecting board and angle it toward the sound source for optimal pickup. The shotgun mics are for the host and guests' audio pickup.
Hanging shotgun mics for hosts and guests
Hanging boundary mic with reflector for audience pickup
HIDDEN MICROPHONES You m a y s o m e t i m e s find t h a t y o u n e e d t o h i d e a small lavaliere m i c r o p h o n e in a b o u q u e t of flowers, b e h i n d a centerpiece, o r i n a car t o pick u p a conversation d u r i n g s t u d i o p r o d u c t i o n s o r in EFP w h e r e m i c r o p h o n e s s h o u l d b e o u t of c a m e r a range, SEE 9.32 Realize that it is t i m e - c o n s u m i n g t o place a h i d d e n m i c so t h a t it yields a satisfactory pickup. Often y o u get a m a r v e l o u s p i c k u p of various noises caused by people hitting t h e table o r m o v i n g their chairs b u t only a p o o r p i c k u p of their conversation. Again, t h e b o u n d a r y m i c c a n serve as a n efficient " h i d d e n " m i c . Especially because it looks n o t h i n g like an o r d i n a r y m i c , y o u m a y get away w i t h n o t h i d i n g it at all; s i m p l y place it o n a table a m o n g o t h e r eclectic objects. How to use hidden microphones
H i d i n g m i c s seems
to p r e s e n t u n e x p e c t e d p r o b l e m s . T h e s e tips m a y m i n i m i z e o r eliminate s o m e of t h e m : Try t o s h o c k - m o u n t t h e lavaliere so t h a t it d o e s n o t transfer u n i n t e n t i o n a l b a n g i n g noises. Use t h e lavaliere clip
9.32
LAVALIERE AS HIDDEN MIC
This "hidden" lavaliere microphone is attached to the rear-view mirror to pick up the conversation inside the car. Note that the mic is not covered, to ensure optimal sound pickup.
o r p u t s o m e foam r u b b e r b e t w e e n t h e m i c a n d t h e object to w h i c h it is a t t a c h e d . D o n o t try to conceal the m i c completely, unless t h e r e is a n e x t r e m e c l o s e - u p of t h e object t o w h i c h it is attached. Realize that y o u m u s t h i d e n o t only t h e m i c r o p h o n e
Secure t h e m i c r o p h o n e a n d t h e cable w i t h t a p e so t h a t t h e y d o n o t c o m e loose. T h e s e t u p m u s t w i t h s t a n d t h e rigors of t h e rehearsals a n d t h e v i d e o t a p i n g sessions. D o n o t h i d e a m i c i n such enclosed spaces as e m p t y drawers or boxes. T h e highly reflecting enclosure will act
b u t also t h e cable. If y o u use a wireless setup, y o u m u s t
as a r e v e r b e r a t i o n c h a m b e r a n d m a k e t h e voices s o u n d as
h i d e t h e t r a n s m i t t e r as well.
t h o u g h t h e actors themselves were t r a p p e d in t h e drawer.
208
Chapter
AUDIO:
9
SOUND
PICKUP
•
Audio is the sound portion of a television show. It transmits information (such as a news story), helps establish the spe cific time and locale of the action, contributes to the mood, and provides continuity for the various picture portions.
•
The three major types of microphones are dynamic, condenser, and ribbon. Each type has a different soundgenerating element that converts sound waves into electric energy—the audio signal.
•
Some microphones can hear sounds equally well from all directions (omnidirectional); others hear better from a specific direction (unidirectional or cardioid).
•
Microphones are classified according to their operation and are either mobile or stationary. The mobile types include lavaliere, hand, boom, headset, and wireless microphones. The stationary types are desk, stand, hanging, hidden, and long-distance mics.
•
The lavaliere microphone, or lav for short, is most common in small studio operations. It is usually clipped to clothing. Although it is extremely small, it provides high-quality sound reproduction.
•
Hand microphones are used when the performer needs to exercise some control over the sound pickup.
•
When the microphone must be kept out of camera range, it is usually mounted on and operated from a fishpole or microphone boom. All boom mics are highly directional.
•
The headset microphone is used when the talent needs both hands free to take notes or work with scripts. Headset microphones are especially practical for sportscasting or for ENG from a helicopter or convention floor.
•
When unrestricted mobility of the sound source is required, a wireless, or RF (radio frequency), microphone is used. Wireless mics need a transmitter and a receiver.
•
Desk microphones are simply hand mics clipped to a desk stand. They are often used for panel discussions.
•
Stand microphones are employed whenever the sound source is fixed and the type of programming permits the mics to be seen by the camera, such as in rock concerts.
•
Hanging microphones are popular in some studio pro ductions because the mics are kept out of camera range without using booms.
•
Hidden microphones are small lavalieres concealed behind or within set dressings.
•
Long-distance mics are shotgun or parabolic reflector mics that pick up sound over relatively great distances.
9 . 3 3 PARABOLIC REFLECTOR MICROPHONE The parabolic reflector mic is used primarily for sound pickup over long distances, such as crowd noises in a stadium.
LONG-DISTANCE MICROPHONES We have finally realized t h a t it is often t h e s o u n d s m o r e t h a n t h e p i c t u r e s t h a t c a r r y a n d c o m m u n i c a t e t h e energy of an event. T h e simplest way t o pick u p t h e s o u n d of a s p o r t i n g event, for e x a m p l e , is t o place n o r m a l s h o t g u n ( h y p e r c a r d i o i d ) mics at strategic p o s i t i o n s a n d a i m t h e m at t h e m a i n action. T h e s o u n d s of t h e spectators are picked u p by a d d i t i o n a l o m n i d i r e c t i o n a l mics. Coverage of a single tennis m a t c h m a y involve six or m o r e m i c r o p h o n e s to pick u p t h e s o u n d s of t h e players, t h e judges, a n d the crowd. Place a fairly d e n s e w i n d s c r e e n o n every m i c to e l i m i n a t e w i n d n o i s e as m u c h as p o s s i b l e .
2
A n o l d - f a s h i o n e d b u t successful m e a n s of p i c k i n g u p distant s o u n d s is t h e parabolic
reflector microphone,
which
consists of a parabolic dish (similar to a small satellite dish) t h a t h a s an o m n i d i r e c t i o n a l m i c r o p h o n e facing i n w a r d at its focal p o i n t . All i n c o m i n g s o u n d s are reflected t o w a r d a n d c o n c e n t r a t e d at t h e m i c . SEE 9.33 A p o p u l a r u s e of t h e p a r a b o l i c m i c is t o pick u p the s o u n d s of t h e b a n d s d u r i n g a p a r a d e , the collisions of football players, or t h e e n t h u s i astic c h a n t i n g of a g r o u p of h o m e - t e a m fans. Because t h e p a r a b o l i c reflector directs t h e h i g h e r s o u n d frequencies to the m i c b e t t e r t h a n t h e lower o n e s , t h e s o u n d s take o n a slight telephonic-like t o n e . We t e n d to i g n o r e this i m p a i r e d s o u n d quality, however, w h e n t h e m i c is u s e d p r i m a r i l y for ambient (environmental) s o u n d s t h a t c o m m u n i c a t e the feel of a n event (such as a football g a m e ) r a t h e r t h a n precise information.
2. You will find highly useful suggestions on how to mic a variety of sports for ambient sound in Stanley R. Alten, Audio in Media, 7th ed. (Belmont, Calif.: Thomson Wadsworth, 2005), pp. 259-74. Note that wireless mics play an important role in miking some indoor sporting events.
d i a p h r a g m i n t o electric energy, b u t t h e p a r t i c u l a r process
9.2
each m i c uses t o a c c o m p l i s h this conversion d e t e r m i n e s its quality a n d use.
DYNAMIC
MICROPHONES
In t h e dynamic
m i c r o p h o n e , t h e d i a p h r a g m is a t t a c h e d
to a c o i l — t h e voice coil. W h e n s o m e o n e speaks i n t o t h e mic, t h e d i a p h r a g m vibrates w i t h the air p r e s s u r e from
How Microphones Work
t h e s o u n d a n d m a k e s t h e voice coil m o v e back a n d forth w i t h i n a m a g n e t i c field. This action p r o d u c e s a fluctuating electric c u r r e n t which, w h e n amplified, transmits the vibra t i o n s to t h e c o n e of a speaker, m a k i n g t h e s o u n d a u d i b l e again. Because of this physical process, d y n a m i c m i c s are s o m e t i m e s called moving-coil
microphones.
Because the d i a p h r a g m - v o i c e coil element is physically rugged, t h e m i c can w i t h s t a n d a n d accurately translate high s o u n d levels or o t h e r air blasts close to it w i t h little or n o s o u n d distortion. It can also tolerate fairly extreme o u t d o o r t e m p e r a t u r e s a n d seems i m m u n e t o rain a n d snow.
CONDENSER MICROPHONES In t h e condenser Section 9.1 e x a m i n e d s o u n d p i c k u p a n d t h e electronic a n d
m i c r o p h o n e , also called electret or ca
pacitor m i c r o p h o n e , t h e m o v a b l e d i a p h r a g m constitutes
o p e r a t i o n a l characteristics of m i c r o p h o n e s . This section
o n e of t h e two plates necessary for a c o n d e n s e r to func
takes a closer look at h o w s o u n d - g e n e r a t i n g elements w o r k .
tion; t h e other, called t h e backplate,
It includes a list of p o p u l a r mics a n d their p r i m a r y use a n d
d i a p h r a g m m o v e s with t h e air v i b r a t i o n s against t h e fixed
looks at m i c a n d line i n p u t s a n d w h a t c o n n e c t o r s t o use.
backplate, the capacitance of this condenser is continuously
It also explores further c o n s i d e r a t i o n s of m i c r o p h o n e use
c h a n g e d , t h u s m o d u l a t i n g t h e electric c u r r e n t . T h e m a j o r
in ENG/EFP.
a d v a n t a g e of t h e c o n d e n s e r m i c r o p h o n e over o t h e r types is its extremely w i d e frequency
fc-
SOUND-GENERATING ELEMENTS
response a n d p i c k u p sensi
tivity. B u t this sensitivity is also o n e of its disadvantages.
The diaphragm and the sound-generating element—and sound quality—of dynamic, condenser, and ribbon microphones
P
is fixed. Because t h e
If placed close t o h i g h - i n t e n s i t y s o u n d sources, s u c h as t h e h i g h - o u t p u t speakers of a r o c k b a n d , it overloads a n d distorts t h e i n c o m i n g s o u n d — a c o n d i t i o n k n o w n as input
SPECIFIC MICROPHONE FEATURES High and low impedance, frequency response, flat response, bal anced and unbalanced mics and cables, and audio connectors
overload distortion.
T h e c o n d e n s e r is a s u p e r i o r r e c o r d i n g
mic, however, especially w h e n used u n d e r t h e highly c o n trolled c o n d i t i o n s of the studio. You will find t h a t m o s t
fc-
P
MIC SETUPS FOR MUSIC PICKUP
h i g h - q u a l i t y lavalieres a n d s h o t g u n s are c o n d e n s e r r a t h e r
Possible setups for various musical events
than dynamic mics.
MICROPHONE USE SPECIFIC TO ENG/EFP
RIBBON MICROPHONES
Ambient sounds and line-out tie-in
In t h e ribbon or velocity m i c r o p h o n e , a very t h i n m e t a l r i b b o n vibrates w i t h i n a m a g n e t i c field. T h e r i b b o n is so fragile t h a t even m o d e r a t e physical shocks to t h e m i c , or
SOUND-GENERATING ELEMENTS
sharp air blasts close to it, can d a m a g e a n d even destroy the
Simply s p e a k i n g , m i c r o p h o n e s c o n v e r t o n e t y p e of e n
i n s t r u m e n t . W h e n it is used o u t d o o r s , even a light breeze
e r g y — s o u n d w a v e s — t o a n o t h e r — e l e c t r i c e n e r g y . All
m o v e s t h e r i b b o n a n d t h u s p r o d u c e s a great a m o u n t of
m i c r o p h o n e s have a diaphragm,
noise. You s h o u l d n o t use this k i n d of m i c o u t d o o r s or in
w h i c h vibrates w i t h t h e which
p r o d u c t i o n situations t h a t require its frequent m o v e m e n t .
t r a n s d u c e s (changes) t h e physical v i b r a t i o n s of the
A g o o d r i b b o n m i c is nevertheless a n excellent r e c o r d i n g
s o u n d pressures, a n d a sound-generating
element,
209
210
Chapter
9
AUDIO:
mic, even in television productions. Singers like the ribbon
SOUND
PICKUP
flow. You can have h i g h - i m p e d a n c e ( s o m e t i m e s abbrevi
mic because of its rich, w a r m s o u n d . Because of this w a r m
ated high-Z)
s o u n d quality, s o m e t a l k - s h o w hosts use it as a desk m i c .
A h i g h - i m p e d a n c e m i c (usually t h e less expensive a n d
a n d l o w - i m p e d a n c e (low-Z)
microphones.
A l t h o u g h it h a s a l o w tolerance of high s o u n d levels, t h e
lower-quality mics) works only with a relatively s h o r t cable
delicate r i b b o n r e s p o n d s well t o a wide frequency range
(a longer cable has t o o m u c h resistance), whereas a low-
a n d r e p r o d u c e s with great fidelity t h e subtle n u a n c e s of
i m p e d a n c e m i c (all h i g h - q u a l i t y professional mics) can b e
t o n e color, especially in t h e bass range.
used w i t h several h u n d r e d feet of cable.
SOUND QUALITY
h i g h - i m p e d a n c e m i c o r vice versa, y o u n e e d a n
Semiprofessional mics d o n o t have as w i d e a frequency response as d o h i g h - q u a l i t y m i c r o p h o n e s , which m e a n s that h i g h - q u a l i t y mics c a n better hear h i g h e r a n d lower s o u n d s t h a n can t h e less expensive m o d e l s . ( F r e q u e n c y response is discussed in d e p t h later in this section.) Other, less definable quality factors are w h e t h e r a m i c p r o d u c e s especially w a r m o r crisp s o u n d s , b u t d o n ' t b e misled by specifications, "professional" a n d "semiprofessional" labels, or the personal preferences of singers or s o u n d engineers. If you can, t r y o u t several different mics, listen carefully, a n d choose whichever p r o d u c e s t h e s o u n d y o u w a n t .
transformer.
If y o u m u s t feed a l o w - i m p e d a n c e r e c o r d e r w i t h a
T h e type of m i c t o use for v a r i o u s m u s i c recordings d e p e n d s o n such a variety of factors t h a t specific sugges tions w o u l d p r o b a b l y b e m o r e confusing t h a n helpful at this stage. S t u d i o acoustics, t h e t y p e a n d c o m b i n a t i o n of i n s t r u m e n t s u s e d , a n d t h e a e s t h e t i c q u a l i t y of t h e desired s o u n d — a l l play i m p o r t a n t p a r t s in t h e choice a n d t h e p l a c e m e n t of m i c r o p h o n e s . In general, r u g g e d d y n a m i c — o m n i d i r e c t i o n a l or c a r d i o i d — m i c s are used for h i g h - v o l u m e s o u n d sources such as d r u m s , electric guitars, a n d s o m e singers, whereas c o n d e n s e r or r i b b o n mics are used for t h e more-gentle s o u n d sources, such as strings a n d acoustic guitars. Figures 9.36 t h r o u g h 9.38 s h o w c o m m o n m i c setups. T h e m i c r o p h o n e table lists s o m e of t h e m o r e p o p u l a r mics a n d their m o s t c o m m o n use. SEE9.34
SPECIFIC MICROPHONE FEATURES W h e n w o r k i n g with a u d i o e q u i p m e n t , y o u will p r o b a b l y hear s o m e t e r m s that a r e n o t self-explanatory: high- a n d low-impedance unbalanced
m i c s , flat
response,
a n d balanced
and
mics a n d cables. A l t h o u g h these features are
quite technical in n a t u r e , y o u n e e d t o k n o w at least their operational requirements.
IMPEDANCE W h e n w o r k i n g with s o u n d e q u i p m e n t , y o u have t o watch that t h e i m p e d a n c e of t h e m i c r o p h o n e a n d t h e recorder m a t c h . Impedance
is a t y p e of resistance t o t h e signal
impedance
M a n y electric i n s t r u m e n t s , such as electric
guitars, have a h i g h - i m p e d a n c e o u t p u t . For t h e m t o m a t c h u p w i t h l o w - i m p e d a n c e e q u i p m e n t , they have to b e r o u t e d t h r o u g h a direct box—a b o x c o n t a i n i n g t h e t r a n s f o r m e r like electronics t h a t adjust t h e h i g h - i m p e d a n c e signal t o a l o w - i m p e d a n c e o n e . You will find, however, t h a t n e w e q u i p m e n t is m u c h m o r e tolerant t h a n older e q u i p m e n t to i m p e d a n c e differences a n d will often m a t c h i m p e d a n c e s w i t h o u t a transformer.
FREQUENCY RESPONSE The ability of a m i c r o p h o n e to hear extremely high a n d low s o u n d s is k n o w n as t h e frequency
response. A g o o d m i c r o
p h o n e hears better t h a n m o s t h u m a n s a n d has a frequency range of 20 to 20,000 H z [hertz, w h i c h m e a s u r e s cycles p e r s e c o n d ) . M a n y h i g h - q u a l i t y m i c s are built t o h e a r equally well over t h e entire frequency range, a feature called flat response. H i g h - q u a l i t y mics s h o u l d therefore have a great frequency range a n d a relatively flat response.
BALANCED AND UNBALANCED MICS AND CABLES, A N D AUDIO CONNECTORS All professional m i c r o p h o n e s have a balanced o u t p u t that is c o n n e c t e d by t h r e e - w i r e m i c r o p h o n e cables t o a b a l a n c e d i n p u t at recorders a n d mixers. Two of t h e wires c a r r y t h e a u d i o signal, a n d t h e t h i r d wire is a shield t h a t acts as a g r o u n d . T h e balanced line rejects h u m a n d other electronic interference. All balanced (three-wire) m i c r o p h o n e s a n d m i c cables u s e t h r e e - p r o n g e d c o n n e c t o r s , called XLR connectors. W h e n working with semiprofessional equipment, y o u m a y c o m e across unbalanced mics a n d cables t h a t u s e only t w o wires t o c a r r y t h e signals: o n e for t h e a u d i o sig nal a n d t h e o t h e r for t h e g r o u n d . These u n b a l a n c e d lines use a variety of t w o - w i r e c o n n e c t o r s : t h e phone plug, t h e RCA phono plug, a n d t h e mini plug, SEE 9.3S F A W V a u d i o - * Connectors-> overview T h e p r o b l e m with u n b a l a n c e d (two-wire) mics a n d lines is t h a t t h e y are m u c h m o r e susceptible t o h u m a n d
Section
9.34
How
9.2
Microphones
Work
TABLE OF MICROPHONES ELEMENT TYPE
MICROPHONE SHOTGUN
PICKUP PATTERN —
MIC
USE
Excellent reach and presence, there
B o o m , fishpole, handheld. Best for
LONG
Condenser
Sennheiser MKH 70
CHARACTERISTICS
Supercardioid
fore excellent distance mic. Extremely
EFP and sports remotes to capture
directional. Quite heavy w h e n held
sounds over considerable distances.
on extended fishpole.
SHOTGUN
MICS
—
SHORT
Good reach and wider pickup pattern
Condenser
Sennheiser MKH 60
Supercardioid
B o o m , fishpole, handheld.
than long shotguns. Less presence
Especially good for
over long distances but requires less
EFP indoor use.
precise aiming at sound source. Lighter and easier to handle than long shotgun mics.
Condenser
Neumann KMR81i
Slightly less reach than the M K H 60
B o o m , fishpole, handheld.
but has w a r m e r sound.
Especially good for EFP. Excellent dialogue mic.
Supercardioid
Sony ECM 672
Condenser Supercardioid
HAND,
DESK,
Electro-Voice 635N/D
AND
STAND
Dynamic Omnidirectional
Highly focused but
B o o m , fishpole, handheld.
slightly less presence
Especially good for
t h a n long shotguns.
EFP indoor use.
MICS
An improved version of the classic
Excellent mic (and therefore
635 A. Has good voice pickup that
standard) for all-weather ENG
seems to know h o w to differentiate
and EFP reporting assignments.
b e t w e e n voice and ambience. Extremely rugged. Can tolerate rough handling and extreme outdoor conditions.
2
212
9.34
Chapter
9
AUDIO:
SOUND
PICKUP
TABLE OF MICROPHONES (continued) ELEMENT TYPE
MICROPHONE HAND,
PICKUP PATTERN DESK,
Electro-Voice RE50
Beyerdynamic M58
ShureSM57
AND
STAND
MICS
CHARACTERISTICS (continued)
S i m i l a r t o t h e E-V 635N/D.
Good, reliable desk and stand mic.
Rugged. Internal shock mount
Good for music pickup, such as
Omnidirectional
and blast filter.
vocals, guitar, and drums.
Dynamic
S m o o t h frequency response,
Good E N G / E F P mic.
Dynamic
bright sound. Rugged. Internal
Especially designed as
Omnidirectional
shock mount. Low handling noise.
an easy-to-use hand mic.
Dynamic
Good-quality frequency response.
Good for music, vocals, electric
Can stand fairly high input volume.
guitars, keyboard instruments, and even drums.
Cardioid
Shure SM58
USE
Dynamic
Rugged. Good for indoors and
Standard for vocals and speech.
outdoors. Cardioid
Shure SM81
Dynamic
W i d e frequency response.
Excellent for miking acoustic
Also good for outdoors.
instruments.
Sensitive mic with excellent frequency
Especially good for all sorts of music
response. Can tolerate fairly high
pickup, such as strings, brass, and
input volume.
piano. Also works well as a stand
Cardioid
Beyerdynamic M160
Double ribbon Hypercardioid
mic for voice pickup.
Beyerdynamic M500
Dynamic
Classic ribbon mic.
Good vocal mic. Very good for a variety of music and voice
Hypercardioid
recordings. W a r m sound.
Section
9.2
How
9 . 3 4 TABLE OF MICROPHONES
Microphones
Work
(continued)
ELEMENTTYPE
MICROPHONE HAND,
DESK,
PICKUP PATTERN AND
AKGD112
STAND
Dynamic Cardioid
LAVALIERE
SonyECM55
MICS
CHARACTERISTICS
USE
( c o n t i n u e d )
Rugged. Specially
For close miking
built for high-energy
of kick drum.
percussive sound.
MICS
Condenser Omnidirectional
Excellent presence. Produces close-up
Excellent for voice pickup in a
sounds. But, because of this excellent
controlled environment (studio
presence, does not mix well w i t h boom
interviews, studio n e w s ,
mics, which are normally farther a w a y
and presentations).
from the sound source.
SennheiserMKE 102
Condenser Omnidirectional
Mixes well w i t h boom mics.
Excellent for most lavaliere uses.
Excellent, smooth overall sound pickup.
Works well as a concealed mic.
Very sensitive to clothes noise and even rubbing of cable, however. Must be securely fastened to avoid rubbing noises.
Sony ECM 77
Condenser Omnidirectional
Highly directional. Isolates most
Excellent pickup of all sounds.
ambient noise w h e n used for speech
Good for concealed mic use
pickup in noisy surroundings. High
and even for the pickup of some
directionality can be a problem w h e n
musical instruments.
mic shifts from original point. Blends well w i t h boom mic. Mic and cable are sensitive to rubbing on clothes. Must be securely fastened.
Professional Sound
Condenser
PSCMilliMic Omnidirectional
Extremely small yet has excellent
Excellent as a concealed mic for
pickup quality. Blends well w i t h boom
interviews, dramas, and d o c u m e n
mics. Well shielded against electro
taries. Works well outdoors.
magnetic interference.
213
214
Chapter
9
AUDIO:
SOUND
PICKUP
9 . 3 5 AUDIO CONNECTORS Balanced audio cables use XLR connectors (A and B); unbalanced cables use the phone plug (C), the RCA phono plug (D), and the mini plug (E).
A
B
C
D
E
o t h e r electronic noise t h a n are b a l a n c e d mics a n d lines.
such as d r u m s , electric guitar speakers, a n d s o m e singers,
W i t h a d a p t e r s y o u c a n c o n n e c t a n XLR to t h e u n b a l
whereas r i b b o n or c o n d e n s e r m i c s are used for such s o u n d
a n c e d c o n n e c t o r s a n d vice versa. N o t e , h o w e v e r , t h a t
sources as singers, strings, a n d acoustic guitars. A l t h o u g h
every a d a p t e r is a p o t e n t i a l t r o u b l e spot. If at all possible,
m a n y factors influence t h e type of m i c r o p h o n e used a n d its
t r y to find a m i c cable w i t h t h e a p p r o p r i a t e c o n n e c t o r
p l a c e m e n t , the figures in this section give s o m e idea of h o w
already attached.
t h r e e different yet typical m u s i c a l events m a y b e m i k e d . Again, t h e final c r i t e r i o n is n o t w h a t e v e r y b o d y tells y o u b u t w h e t h e r t h e playback l o u d s p e a k e r s reflect t h e s o u n d s
MIC SETUPS FOR MUSIC PICKUP
y o u have in m i n d . T h e following suggestions of h o w to m i k e m u s i c a l events s h o u l d be taken with a grain of salt. A n y t w o a u d i o experts milked a n d w h a t mics t o use. Nevertheless, t h e suggested
M I C R O P H O N E SETUP FOR SINGER A N D ACOUSTIC GUITAR
setups will h e l p y o u get started.
For a singer a c c o m p a n y i n g himself or herself o n a n acoustic
w o u l d rarely agree o n just h o w a m u s i c a l event s h o u l d b e
T h e s o u n d p i c k u p of a n i n s t r u m e n t a l g r o u p , such as
guitar, y o u m a y t r y to a t t a c h t w o m i c r o p h o n e s o n a single
a r o c k b a n d , is n o r m a l l y a c c o m p l i s h e d w i t h several s t a n d
m i c s t a n d , s u c h as a B e y e r d y n a m i c M 1 6 0 for t h e singer,
mics. T h e s e are placed i n front of each speaker t h a t emits
p o i n t i n g just b e l o w t h e m o u t h , a n d a n o t h e r p o i n t i n g at
t h e amplified s o u n d of a p a r t i c u l a r i n s t r u m e n t as well as
t h e guitar, SEE 9.36 Of course, y o u can also use t w o stands,
in front of u n a m p l i f i e d s o u n d sources, s u c h as singers a n d
b u t t h e y usually get in t h e way of g o o d shots.
d r u m s . T h e m i c to use d e p e n d s o n such factors as s t u d i o acoustics, the t y p e a n d c o m b i n a t i o n of i n s t r u m e n t s , a n d t h e aesthetic quality of t h e desired s o u n d .
3
Generally, t h e r u g g e d d y n a m i c , o m n i d i r e c t i o n a l , or c a r d i o i d mics are used for h i g h - v o l u m e s o u n d sources,
MICROPHONE SETUP FOR S I N G E R A N D P I A N O If t h e c o n c e r t is formal, w i t h t h e vocalist singing classical songs, y o u s h o u l d k e e p t h e m i c s o u t of t h e pictures. You m a y w a n t to t r y a B e y e r d y n a m i c M l 6 0 m i c s u s p e n d e d
3.
See Alten, Audio in Media, p p . 3 1 6 - 2 1 .
from a small giraffe b o o m . For t h e p i a n o t a p e a b o u n d a r y
Section
9.2
How
Microphones
2 1 5
Work
9 . 3 6 MICROPHONE SETUP FOR SINGER AND ACOUSTIC GUITAR
9.37
The mic setup for a singer with an acoustic guitar is to have one mic for the voice and another lower on the same mic stand for the guitar.
If the singer's mic is to be out of camera view, it should be suspended from a boom. The piano is miked separately. For an on-camera mic, the singer can use a hand mic.
MICROPHONE SETUP FOR SINGER AND PIANO
m i c o n t h e lid in the l o w - p e g p o s i t i o n o r directly o n t h e
low i m p e d a n c e , y o u n e e d to m a t c h i m p e d a n c e s t h r o u g h the
s o u n d b o a r d , SEE 9.37 A n o t h e r way of m i k i n g a p i a n o is
direct box, unless t h e i n p u t e q u i p m e n t d o e s it for y o u .
t o have o n e S h u r e S M 8 1 m i c p o i n t i n g at t h e lower half
W h e n setting up mics and speakers, watch
of t h e strings a n d a n o t h e r at t h e u p p e r half. G o o d results
m u l t i p l e feedback o r m i c r o p h o n e interference. For t h e
have also b e e n achieved by p u t t i n g t h e m i c u n d e r n e a t h t h e
b a n d m e m b e r s t o h e a r themselves, y o u m u s t s u p p l y t h e
p i a n o close to t h e s o u n d b o a r d a n d a b o u t a foot b e h i n d
foldback s o u n d m i x t h r o u g h either e a r p h o n e s or speak
t h e pedals.
ers. Foldback,
If t h e recital consists of p o p u l a r songs, such as light classics o r rock, a h a n d m i c , such as a Beyerdynamic M 5 0 0
also called cue-send,
for
is t h e r e t u r n of t h e
total or partial a u d i o m i x from t h e m i x i n g console t o t h e m u s i c i a n s , SEE 9.38
o r a S h u r e S M 5 8 , m a y b e t h e m o r e a p p r o p r i a t e choice for t h e singer. T h e m i k i n g of t h e p i a n o does n o t c h a n g e .
MICROPHONE USE SPECIFIC TO ENG/EFP E N G K T h e s o u n d p i c k u p r e q u i r e m e n t s in E N G / E F P d o n o t
M I C R O P H O N E S E T U P FOR S M A L L R O C K GROUP A N D DIRECT INSERTION
EFP
W h e n setting u p for a r o c k g r o u p , y o u n e e d m i c r o p h o n e s
s o u n d . You will find, however, t h a t s o u n d p i c k u p in t h e
for the singers, d r u m s , a n d o t h e r direct s o u n d - e m i t t i n g
field is m u c h m o r e challenging t h a n in t h e studio. W h e n
i n s t r u m e n t s , s u c h as s a x o p h o n e s a n d p i a n o s , as well as for
o u t d o o r s t h e r e is t h e ever-present p r o b l e m of w i n d noise
differ significantly from t h o s e in studio o p e r a t i o n . In
t h e field as in the studio, y o u r u l t i m a t e objective is o p t i m a l
t h e speakers that c a r r y t h e s o u n d of amplified i n s t r u m e n t s ,
a n d o t h e r u n w a n t e d s o u n d s , s u c h as airplanes o r t r u c k s
such as electric guitars a n d keyboards. T h e s o u n d signals of
passing b y d u r i n g a critical scene. T h e best way to c o m b a t
electric i n s t r u m e n t s , such as t h e bass, are often fed directly
w i n d noise is to use a highly directional m i c , cover it with
t o t h e m i x i n g console w i t h o u t t h e use of a speaker a n d a
a n effective w i n d s c r e e n a n d w i n d j a m m e r , a n d h o l d it as
m i c r o p h o n e . T h i s t e c h n i q u e is called direct insertion
or
close to t h e s o u n d source as possible. But c o n t r a r y t o m o s t
Because m o s t electric i n s t r u m e n t s are high
s t u d i o s h o w s , a m b i e n t ( e n v i r o n m e n t a l ) s o u n d s are often
i m p e d a n c e a n d all o t h e r professional s o u n d e q u i p m e n t is
n e e d e d to s u p p o r t t h e video. W i e n i n d o o r s you n e e d to
direct input.
216
9.38
Chapter
9
AUDIO:
SOUND
PICKUP
MICROPHONE SETUP FOR SMALL ROCK BAND
The types and the placement of microphones in this illustration are merely a suggestion for how you may start with the mic setup. The final criterion for a successful setup is when the sounds coming out of the control room speakers are satisfactory.
"silence" of an e m p t y r o o m w i t h o u t
If y o u have only o n e m i c r o p h o n e , w h i c h y o u m u s t use
speaker or a u d i e n c e a n d the a m b i e n t s o u n d s of t h e r o o m
for voice p i c k u p , r e c o r d t h e a m b i e n t s o u n d s o n a small,
w i t h the a u d i e n c e p r e s e n t b u t w i t h o u t t h e speaker's voice.
p o r t a b l e a u d i o c a s s e t t e r e c o r d e r o r o n v i d e o t a p e after
These a m b i e n t s o u n d s are essential for m a s k i n g the v a r i o u s
finishing
cuts in p o s t p r o d u c t i o n .
s o m e a u t h e n t i c s o u n d s w i t h w h i c h t o b r i d g e t h e edits.
record room tone—the
t h e voice w o r k . Again, the editor will appreciate
W h e n o n an E N G a s s i g n m e n t , always have a m i c r o
You m a y find t h a t a seemingly simple a u d i o p i c k u p ,
p h o n e o p e n to r e c o r d a m b i e n t s o u n d s , even w h e n s h o o t
s u c h as a speech in a large conference r o o m , can p o s e a
ing "silent" footage. In fact, w h e n u s i n g a h a n d m i c for a
f o r m i d a b l e a u d i o p r o b l e m especially if y o u c a n n o t get
s t a n d - u p r e p o r t (with t h e r e p o r t e r telling a b o u t a n e w s
close e n o u g h in t h e c r o w d e d a n d noisy r o o m for a clean
event while s t a n d i n g in a p a r t i c u l a r l o c a t i o n ) , y o u s h o u l d
voice p i c k u p . In this case it m a y b e easier t o ask t h e e n
also t u r n o n t h e c a m e r a m i c ( t h e s h o t g u n m i c , w h i c h
gineer in charge (usually t h e audiovisual m a n a g e r of the
is built into, or clipped to, t h e c a m e r a ) for t h e a m b i e n t
h o t e l or conference r o o m ) t o assist y o u w i t h a
s o u n d s . Feed each of t h e t w o m i c s i n t o a separate V T R
tie-in. In s u c h a setup, y o u d o n o t n e e d a m i c r o p h o n e to
a u d i o track. As w i t h r o o m t o n e , s u c h a m b i e n t s o u n d s are
pick u p t h e speaker's s o u n d b u t s i m p l y a direct feed from
essential for s o u n d c o n t i n u i t y in p o s t p r o d u c t i o n editing.
t h e audio control b o a r d of t h e i n - h o u s e audio system to the
T h e split tracks allow t h e v i d e o e d i t o r to c o n t r o l t h e m i x
a u d i o i n p u t of y o u r camcorder. In effect, y o u "tie in" to the
b e t w e e n t h e r e p o r t e r ' s voice a n d the a m b i e n t s o u n d s .
audio feed from the audio system of t h e conference r o o m . 4
line-out
Section
9.2
How
Microphones
217
Work
lower sounds without distortion—called a flat response— than can low-quality mics. •
All microphones have a diaphragm, which vibrates with sound pressure, and a generating element, which transduces the physical vibrations of the diaphragm into electric energy.
•
In the dynamic, or moving coil, mic, the diaphragm is at tached to the voice coil. The air pressure moves the voice coil back and forth within a magnetic field. This type of generating element is quite rugged.
•
The condenser, or electret, mic has a condenser-like generating element. The movable diaphragm constitutes one of the two condenser plates; a fixed backplate is the other. The varying air pressure of the incoming sounds moves the diaphragm plate against the fixed backplate, thus continuously changing the capacitance of the condenser and modulating the current of the audio signal. Condenser mics have a wide frequency response.
•
In the ribbon, or velocity, mic, a thin metal ribbon vibrates within a magnetic field. Because the ribbon is fragile, the mics are generally used indoors under controlled conditions.
•
Impedance, usually expressed as high-Z or low-Z, is a type of resistance to the signal flow. The impedances of mics and electric instruments must be matched with that of the other electronic audio equipment. When using the direct-insertion (direct-input) method, whereby the output of electric instruments is patched directly into the mixing console, the high-Z instruments must first be routed through a direct box, which changes the signal to a low-Z impedance. Most modern equipment will match impedances automatically.
•
High-quality microphones pick up sounds equally well over a wide frequency range. They can better hear higher and
•
Microphones can be balanced or unbalanced. Most profes sional mics have a balanced output. Balanced microphone cables have two wires for the audio signal and a third wire as a ground shield. The balanced audio cable prevents external signals from causing a hum in the audio track. Un balanced cables have only a single wire for the audio signal and a second wire as a ground. They cannot be as long as unbalanced cables and are more vulnerable to signal interference.
•
All professional microphones and audio equipment use the three-pronged XLR connectors for balanced cables. Unbal anced connectors include the phone plug, the RCA phono plug, and the mini plug.
•
Foldback is the return of the total or partial audio mix from the mixing console to the musicians.
For your reference, or to track your work, each VideoLab program cue in this chapter is listed here with its corresponding page number. B S D
A U D I O ^ Microphones-* mic choice | transducer
EJffi^ E2H>
AUDIO-* Microphones-* pickup patterns A U D I O ^ Microphones-* mic types | placement
EEDE^
191
201
AUDIO-* Connectors^ overview
210
192
Audio: Sound Control T h e previous chapter dealt mostly w i t h sound pickup—the t y p e s of microphones and their uses. This chapter explores the e q u i p m e n t and t h e techniques of controlling sound a n d sound recording in television studio a n d field production. Section 10.1, S o u n d Controls a n d Recording for Studio a n d Field Operations, identifies the major e q u i p m e n t a n d production techniques for mixing a n d recording sound in the studio and t h e field. Section 10.2, Postproduction a n d S o u n d Aesthetics, familiarizes you w i t h basic informa tion on analog a n d digital audio postproduction e q u i p m e n t a n d their primary uses. It also highlights the principal aesthetic factors of sound.
You should realize that audio production is a highly specialized field in its o w n right a n d that that this chapter is limited to the major equipment, t h e basic production tech niques, a n d s o m e f u n d a m e n t a l aesthetic considerations. Even if you don't intend to b e c o m e a sound designer, y o u n e e d to know w h a t g o o d audio is all about. W h a t e v e r you do, the most important prerequisite to successful audio for television is, a n d will always be, a g o o d pair of ears. E J H ^ A U D I O Audio introduction
218
ambience Background sounds. audio control booth Houses the audio, or mixing, console; ana log and digital playback machines; a turntable; a patchbay; computer(s); speakers; intercom systems; a clock; and a line monitor.
figure/ground Emphasizing the most important sound source over the general background sounds. flash memory device A small read/write portable storage device that can download, store, and upload very fast (in a flash) a fairly large amount (1 gigabyte or more) of digital information. Also called flash drive, stick flash, flash stick, or
audio postproduction room For postproduction activities such as sweetening; composing music tracks; adding mu sic, sound effects, or laugh tracks; and assembling music bridges and announcements.
mini disc (MD) Optical 2V2-inch-wide disc that can store one hour of CD-quality audio.
automatic dialogue replacement (ADR) The synchronization of speech with the lip movements of the speaker in postproduction. Not really automatic.
mixing Combining two or more sounds in specific proportions (volume variations) as determined by the event (show) context.
automatic gain control (AGC) Regulates the volume of the audio or video level automatically, without using manual controls.
mix-minus Type of multiple audio feed missing the part that is being recorded, such as an orchestra feed with the solo instrument being recorded. Also refers to program sound feed without the portion supplied by the source that is receiving the feed.
calibrate To make all VU meters (usually of the audio console and the record VTR) respond in the same way to a specific audio signal. cassette A video- or audiotape recording or playback device that uses tape cassettes. A cassette is a plastic case contain ing two reels—a supply reel and a takeup reel. compact disc (CD) A small, shiny disc that contains information (usually sound signals) in digital form. A CD player reads the encoded digital information using a laser beam. digital audiotape (DAT) The sound signals are encoded on audiotape in digital form. Includes digital recorders as well as digital recording processes. digital cart system A digital audio system that uses built-in hard drives, removable high-capacity disks, or read/write optical discs to store and access almost instantaneously a great amount of audio information. It is normally used for the playback of brief announcements and music bridges. digital versatile disc (DVD) The standard DVD is a read-only, high-capacity (4.7 gigabytes or more) storage device of digital audio and video information. Also called digital videodisc.
flash memory
card.
M P 3 A widely used compression system for digital audio. Most Internet-distributed audio is compressed in the MP3 format. musical instrument digital interface (MIDI) A standardized protocol that allows the connection and interaction of vari ous digital audio equipment and computers. peak program meter (PPM) Meter in audio console that measures loudness. Especially sensitive to volume peaks, it indicates overmodulation. sound perspective Distant sound must go with a long shot, close sound with a close-up. surround sound Sound that produces a soundfield in front of, to the sides of, and behind the listener by positioning loud speakers either to the front and rear or to the front, sides, and rear of the listener. sweetening Variety of quality adjustments of recorded sound in postproduction. volume unit (VU) meter Measures volume units, the relative loudness of amplified sound.
equalization Controlling the quality of sound by emphasizing certain frequencies while de-emphasizing others.
219
10.1
AUDIO CONSOLE Regardless of i n d i v i d u a l d e s i g n s — a n a l o g or digital—all audio consoles, or a u d i o control b o a r d s , are built to p e r f o r m five m a j o r functions: •
Input: to p r e a m p l i f y a n d c o n t r o l t h e v o l u m e of t h e v a r i o u s i n c o m i n g signals
Sound Controls and
s
Mix: to c o m b i n e a n d b a l a n c e t w o o r m o r e i n c o m i n g signals
Recording for Studio
Quality
control: to m a n i p u l a t e the s o u n d
characteristics
and Field Operations
Output:
to r o u t e t h e c o m b i n e d signals to a
specific o u t p u t •
Monitor:
t o listen t o the s o u n d s before or as their
signals are actually r e c o r d e d or b r o a d c a s t , SEE 10.1
:; - .
S t u d i o consoles have m u l t i p l e i n p u t s to accept a
:
variety of s o u n d sources. Even small s t u d i o consoles m a y have sixteen o r m o r e i n p u t s . A l t h o u g h that m a n y i n p u t s are rarely used in t h e average i n - h o u s e p r o d u c t i o n or b r o a d c a s t W h e n w a t c h i n g a television p r o g r a m , we are generally n o t
day, t h e y m u s t nevertheless be available for t h e p r o g r a m
aware of s o u n d as a separate m e d i u m . S o m e h o w it seems to
y o u m a y have to d o t h e next day.
b e l o n g to t h e pictures, a n d we b e c o m e aware of t h e a u d i o
E a c h i n p u t m o d u l e r e q u i r e s t h a t y o u select e i t h e r
p o r t i o n only w h e n it is u n e x p e c t e d l y i n t e r r u p t e d . But in
t h e mic o r t h e line i n p u t . Mic-level
y o u r o w n v i d e o t a p e s , y o u p r o b a b l y n o t i c e t h a t t h e r e are
sources t h a t n e e d to b e preamplified before t h e y are sent
inputs
are for s o u n d
always s o m e m i n o r or even m a j o r audio p r o b l e m s t h a t t e n d
to t h e v a r i o u s i n p u t c o n t r o l s . All m i c r o p h o n e s n e e d s u c h
to d r a w attention away from y o u r beautiful shots. A l t h o u g h
preamplification a n d are therefore r o u t e d to the m i c i n p u t .
a u d i o is often t r e a t e d casually, y o u quickly realize t h a t t h e
Line-level
s o u n d p o r t i o n is, indeed, a critical p r o d u c t i o n element that
recorders, have a s t r o n g e n o u g h signal t o b e r o u t e d to t h e
inputs, such as C D players, D V D players, or DAT
requires y o u r full a t t e n t i o n . ^
PRODUCTION EQUIPMENT FOR STUDIO AUDIO The audio console, the patchbay, and analog and digital tapebased and tapeless audio-recording systems
^
AUDIO CONTROL IN THE STUDIO The audio control booth and basic audio operation
^
PRODUCTION EQUIPMENT AND BASIC OPERATION FOR FIELD AUDIO Keeping sounds separate and the audio mixer
^
AUDIO CONTROL IN THE FIELD Using the automatic gain control in ENG and EFP, and EFP mixing
PRODUCTION EQUIPMENT FOR STUDIO AUDIO T h e m a j o r c o m p o n e n t s of a u d i o e q u i p m e n t are (1) t h e a u d i o console, (2) t h e patchbay, a n d (3) a n a l o g a n d digital t a p e - b a s e d a n d tapeless a u d i o - r e c o r d i n g systems.
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10.1
AUDIO CONSOLE
Each module of this audio console contains a volume control (slide fader), various quality controls, and assignment switches. It can route several mixes to various destinations.
Section
10.1
Sound
Controls
and
Recording
for Studio
and
Field
Operations
line input without preamplification. All incoming audio signals must reach line-level strength before they can be further adjusted or mixed at the audio console. Because not all input levels of microphones or line signals are the same, they run the risk of becoming overamplified. To prevent this from occurring, you can manipulate the signals individually with the trim control, which adjusts the input strength of the microphone signals so that they won't become distorted during further amplification. Regardless of input, the audio signals are then routed to the volume control, a variety of quality controls, switches (mute or solo) that silence all the other inputs when you want to listen to a specific one, and assignment switches that route the signal to certain parts of the audio console and to signal outputs, SEE 10.2
Sub pot Input selectors
Equalizers (quality controls)
V o l u m e control All sounds fluctuate in volume (loud ness). Some sounds are relatively weak, so you have to increase their volume to make them perceptible. Other sounds come in so loud that they overload the audio system and become distorted or they outweigh the weaker ones so much that there is no longer proper balance between the two. The volume control that helps you adjust the incoming sound signals to their proper levels is usually called a pot (short for potentiometer) or a fader (also called attenuator or gain
Auxiliary (send) outputs (headphones, etc.)
control).
To increase the volume, turn the knob clockwise or push the fader up, away from you. To decrease the volume, turn the knob counterclockwise or pull the fader down, toward you. SEE 10.3
Mix The audio console lets you combine, or mix, the signals from various inputs, such as two lavaliere mics, the background music, and the sound effect of a phone ring. The mix bus combines these various audio signals with the specific volume that you assign. Without the mixing capability of the board, you could control only one input at a time. The completed mix is then fed to the line-out. A mix bus is like a riverbed that receives the water (signals) from several different streams (inputs). These streams (various sound signals) converge (mixed sound signal) and finally flow downstream along the riverbed (mix bus) to their destination (recorder). r4.'J»»AUDlO-» Consoles and mixersparts | signals | control | try it
•Pan pot
Solo monitor
Slide faders
Output selectors
1 0 . 2 AUDIO CONSOLE MODULE Q u a l i t y c o n t r o l All audio consoles have various con trols that let you shape the character of a sound (see figure 10.2). Among the most important are equalization, filters, and reverberation (reverb) controls.
The major controls on this module are the slide fader volume control, equalizers, assignment switches, the mute switch (silences this input), the pan pot (moves the sound horizontally from one stereo speaker to the next), and various other quality controls.
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CONTROL
10.4 ANALOG VU METER 10.3 SLIDE FADERS Pushing the fader up increases the volume; pulling it down decreases the volume.
The VU meter indicates the relative loudness of a sound. The upper figures ranging from -20 to +3 are the volume units (decibels). The lower figures represent a percentage scale, ranging from 0 to 100 percent signal modulation (signal am plification). Overmodulation (too much signal amplification) is indicated by the red line on the right (0 to +3 VU).
T h e process of controlling t h e a u d i o signal b y e m p h a sizing certain frequencies a n d d e - e m p h a s i z i n g or eliminat ing o t h e r s is called equalization.
It can b e a c c o m p l i s h e d
m a n u a l l y or a u t o m a t i c a l l y t h r o u g h an equalizer,
which
w o r k s like t h e t o n e c o n t r o l o n y o u r h o m e stereo receiver. It can b o o s t o r reduce selected frequencies a n d t h e r e b y influence t h e c h a r a c t e r of t h e s o u n d . For e x a m p l e , y o u can m a k e a s o u n d m o r e b r i l l i a n t b y b o o s t i n g t h e h i g h frequencies or m o r e solid by b o o s t i n g t h e lows, o r y o u can eliminate a low-frequency h u m or a h i g h - f r e q u e n c y hiss. Filters eliminate a u t o m a t i c a l l y all frequencies above or below a certain p o i n t . T h e reverb c o n t r o l s c a n a d d a n increasing a m o u n t of r e v e r b e r a t i o n to each of t h e selected
"in t h e m u d . " If t h e needle oscillates a r o u n d t h e m i d d l e of t h e scale a n d p e a k s at, o r occasionally over, t h e red line o n the right, y o u are r i d i n g t h e gain correctly. If t h e n e e d l e swings almost exclusively in the red o n t h e right side of t h e scale, a n d even occasionally hits t h e right edge of t h e meter, t h e v o l u m e is t o o h i g h — y o u are " b e n d i n g t h e needle," "spilling over," or " r i d i n g in t h e red." M u c h like t h e v o l u m e i n d i c a t o r amplifier of a h o m e stereo system, t h e V U m e t e r in s o m e a u d i o consoles c o n sists of light-emitting
diodes (LEDs), w h i c h show u p as thin,
colored light c o l u m n s t h a t fluctuate u p a n d d o w n a scale. W h e n y o u ride t h e gain t o o h i g h , the c o l u m n s h o o t s u p o n
inputs.
t h e scale a n d c h a n g e s color, SEE 10.5 A m o n g the additional quality controls o n large c o n s o l e s are s w i t c h e s t h a t a l l o w y o u t o a c c o m m o d a t e the relative strengths of i n c o m i n g s o u n d signals or t h a t p r e v e n t i n p u t overloads, a n d o t h e r s that let y o u " p a n " t h e stereo s o u n d t o a p a r t i c u l a r s p o t b e t w e e n t h e t w o stereo speakers.
S o m e a u d i o consoles have a n additional peak meter
(PPM),
program
which measures loudness peaks. A P P M
reacts m o r e quickly t o t h e v o l u m e p e a k s t h a n does t h e needle of the V U m e t e r a n d clearly shows w h e n y o u are o v e r m o d u l a t i n g ( r i d i n g t h e gain t o o h i g h ) . O u t p u t channels We often classify a u d i o consoles by t h e
T h e m i x e d a n d q u a l i t y - p r o c e s s e d s i g n a l is
n u m b e r of o u t p u t channels. O l d e r television consoles h a d
To e n s u r e
several i n p u t channels b u t only o n e o u t p u t c h a n n e l because
that t h e m i x e d signals stay w i t h i n the acceptable v o l u m e
television s o u n d was m o n o p h o n i c . Today, however, even
t h e n r o u t e d to t h e o u t p u t , called t h e line-out.
limits, t h e y are regulated b y final v o l u m e c o n t r o l s — t h e
small television consoles have at least t w o o u t p u t c h a n
m a s t e r p o t s — a n d m e t e r e d by v o l u m e indicators, t h e m o s t
nels t o h a n d l e s t e r e o p h o n i c s o u n d or to feed t w o pieces of
c o m m o n of w h i c h is t h e volume
unit (VU) meter. As t h e
e q u i p m e n t (such as h e a d p h o n e s a n d a v i d e o t a p e recorder)
v o l u m e varies, t h e needle of t h e V U m e t e r oscillates b a c k
s i m u l t a n e o u s l y w i t h t w o i n d e p e n d e n t signals. W i t h h i g h -
a n d forth a l o n g a calibrated scale, SEE 10.4 If t h e v o l u m e is so low t h a t t h e needle barely m o v e s from t h e e x t r e m e left, y o u are r i d i n g t h e gain (or v o l u m e )
definition television ( H D T V ) , t h e s o u n d r e q u i r e m e n t s also c h a n g e . Very m u c h like m o t i o n p i c t u r e s , large-screen T V displays will r e q u i r e surround
sound, w h i c h involves
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Controls
and
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for Studio
and
Field
223
Operations
c h a n n e l s of a stereo recorder. But if y o u w a n t to keep t h e various s o u n d s separated to exercise m o r e control in the fi nal p o s t p r o d u c t i o n mix, o r if y o u w a n t to feed separate sur r o u n d - s o u n d speakers, y o u n e e d m o r e o u t p u t s . Even w h e n covering a s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d rock c o n c e r t , for e x a m p l e , y o u m a y have to p r o v i d e o n e m i x for t h e musicians, a n o t h e r for t h e a u d i e n c e , o n e for t h e v i d e o t a p e r e c o r d e r ( V T R ) , a n d yet a n o t h e r for t h e m u l t i t r a c k a u d i o t a p e recorder (ATR). You will b e s u r p r i s e d b y h o w fast y o u r u n o u t of available i n p u t s a n d o u t p u t s even o n a big console. consoles called in-line
S o m e of t h e m o r e elaborate consoles,
consoles, h a v e i n p u t / o u t p u t , o r I/O,
mod
ules, w h i c h m e a n s t h a t each i n p u t h a s its o w n o u t p u t . If, for e x a m p l e , t h e r e are t w e n t y - f o u r i n p u t s a n d each o n e receives a different s o u n d signal, y o u c o u l d s e n d each of t h e m directly t o t h e separate tracks of a twenty-fourt r a c k recorder w i t h o u t feeding t h e m t h r o u g h any of t h e m i x b u s e s . T h a t way y o u use t h e console to c o n t r o l the v o l u m e of each i n p u t , b u t t h e console d o e s n o t function as a m i x i n g o r q u a l i t y - c o n t r o l device. In fact, t h e s o u n d is
10.5 LED VU METER The LED (light-emitting diode) VU meters indicate overmodulation by lighting up in a different color (usually red).
sent to t h e tape r e c o r d e r in its r a w state. T h e m i x i n g a n d quality c o n t r o l of t h e v a r i o u s s o u n d s are all d o n e in the p o s t p r o d u c t i o n a n d m i x d o w n sessions. T h e I/O circuits let y o u t r y o u t a n d listen to all sorts of mixes a n d s o u n d m a n i p u l a t i o n s w i t h o u t affecting t h e original signal sent
multiple discrete o u t p u t channels a n d a variety of speak
to t h e recorder.
ers that are strategically placed in front a n d in back of t h e display screen (see figure 10.22). This increasing d e m a n d
P h a n t o m power
for h i g h - q u a l i t y a u d i o has led to greater use of m u l t i c h a n
m e n t i o n e d before, t h e " p h a n t o m " in phantom
nel ( o u t p u t ) consoles in t h e a u d i o c o n t r o l b o o t h a n d es
m o r e like "virtual." All it m e a n s is that t h e a u d i o console
D o n ' t let t h e n a m e scare y o u : As power
is
pecially in t h e a u d i o p r o d u c t i o n r o o m ( w h i c h is explored
o r s o m e o t h e r source, r a t h e r t h a n a battery, supplies the
in section 10.2).
p r e a m p l i f i c a t i o n p o w e r t o s o m e c o n d e n s e r mics.
To identify h o w m a n y i n p u t s a n d o u t p u t s a specific console has, they are labeled with t h e n u m b e r of i n p u t a n d
Monitor and cue
o u t p u t c h a n n e l s , s u c h as a n 8 x 1 o r a 32 x 4 console. This
w h i c h lets y o u h e a r t h e final s o u n d m i x o r allows y o u to
m e a n s t h a t t h e small 8 x 1 console has eight i n p u t s a n d
listen to a n d adjust the m i x before switching it to t h e line-
o n e o u t p u t ; t h e larger 32 X 4 console has t h i r t y - t w o i n p u t s
o u t . A separate a u d i t i o n o r cue r e t u r n system lets y o u hear
All consoles have a m o n i t o r system,
a n d four o u t p u t s . W i t h a single o u t p u t c h a n n e l , t h e 8 x 1
a particular s o u n d source w i t h o u t r o u t i n g it to the m i x bus.
b o a r d obviously is m o n o p h o n i c .
This system is especially i m p o r t a n t w h e n y o u w a n t to cue a
M o s t larger television a u d i o consoles have eight or
digital a u d i o t a p e (DAT) o r a cassette or y o u w a n t to check
m o r e o u t p u t c h a n n e l s (with eight m a s t e r p o t s a n d eight
t h e b e g i n n i n g s o u n d s of a c o m p a c t disc ( C D ) or a digital
V U m e t e r s ) , each of which can carry a discrete s o u n d signal
versatile disc ( D V D ) track while o n t h e air w i t h the rest of
o r mix. T h e a d v a n t a g e of m u l t i p l e o u t p u t s is that y o u can
t h e s o u n d sources.
feed t h e i n d i v i d u a l signals o n t o a m u l t i t r a c k a u d i o t a p e recorder for p o s t p r o d u c t i o n m i x i n g .
Computer-assisted consoles
A l m o s t all n e w e r c o n
If, for e x a m p l e , t h e r e are t w e n t y - f o u r i n p u t s b u t only
soles c o n t a i n a c o m p u t e r t h r o u g h w h i c h y o u can preset,
t w o o u t p u t s , y o u n e e d to m i x t h e various i n p u t signals
store, recall, a n d activate m a n y of t h e a u d i o c o n t r o l func
d o w n to two, w h i c h y o u c a n t h e n feed to t h e left a n d r i g h t
t i o n s . For e x a m p l e , y o u c a n t r y o u t a p a r t i c u l a r m i x with
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specific volume, equalization, and reverberation values for each of the individual s o u n d s , store it all in t h e c o m p u t e r ' s m e m o r y , t r y s o m e t h i n g else, a n d t h e n recall t h e original setup w i t h t h e press of a b u t t o n . Digital consoles
T h e s e consoles l o o k like t h e i r a n a l o g
cousins except that t h e y have centralized controls t h a t trig ger v a r i o u s s o u n d c o n t r o l a n d r o u t i n g f u n c t i o n s for each i n p u t m o d u l e . These controls are n o t unlike the delegation controls of a video switcher (see figure 11.4). T h e advantage is t h a t this r o u t i n g architecture keeps t h e console relatively small a n d w o r k a b l e .
PATCHBAY T h e p r i m a r y function of the patchbay,
or p a t c h panel, is
c o n n e c t i n g a n d r o u t i n g a u d i o signals to a n d from v a r i o u s pieces of e q u i p m e n t . You c a n a c c o m p l i s h this b y u s i n g actual wires t h a t establish specific c o n n e c t i o n s , o r w i t h a c o m p u t e r t h a t r e a r r a n g e s the signals a n d sends t h e m ac cording to y o u r instructions. Whatever m e t h o d y o u use, t h e principle of p a t c h i n g is t h e s a m e . H e r e w e use wires, called patch cords, to explain a simple p a t c h i n g p r o c e d u r e . A s s u m e t h a t y o u w a n t to have t w o m i c r o p h o n e s , a r e Fader 2 (controls lavl)
m o t e feed from a field reporter, a n d a C D o p e r a t i n g d u r i n g a newscast. Lav 1 a n d 2 are t h e newscasters' lavalieres. T h e
Fader 3 (controls lav 2)
r e m o t e feed c o m e s from t h e field r e p o r t e r w i t h a live story. T h e C D c o n t a i n s t h e o p e n i n g a n d closing t h e m e m u s i c for
10.6
t h e newscast. Just as t h e i n d i v i d u a l l i g h t i n g i n s t r u m e n t s c a n b e p a t c h e d i n t o a n y of t h e d i m m e r s , any o n e of these a u d i o sources can b e p a t c h e d to individual v o l u m e controls (pots
PATCHING
This patching shows that the signal outputs (audio sources) of two microphones, a remote feed, and a CD are grouped in the following order of fader inputs: CD, lavaliere 1, lavaliere 2, remote feed.
or faders) in a n y desired order. S u p p o s e y o u w a n t t o o p e r ate t h e v o l u m e controls in the following order, from left to right: C D , lavaliere 1, lavaliere 2, r e m o t e feed. You c a n
p e r - r o w jack t o a n o t h e r u p p e r - r o w jack) or i n p u t to i n p u t
easily patch these i n p u t s to t h e a u d i o console in t h a t order.
(lower-row jack to l o w e r - r o w jack) will give y o u n o t h i n g
If y o u w a n t t h e i n p u t s in a different order, y o u n e e d n o t
but headaches.
u n p l u g t h e e q u i p m e n t ; all y o u d o is pull t h e p a t c h cords a n d r e p a t c h t h e i n p u t s in t h e different order, SEE IO.6
To r e d u c e t h e n u m b e r of p a t c h c o r d s , c e r t a i n fre q u e n t l y used c o n n e c t i o n s b e t w e e n o u t p u t s (a specific m i c , DAT m a c h i n e , or C D ) a n d i n p u t s (specific v o l u m e controls
Wired patchbay
All wired p a t c h panels c o n t a i n rows of
holes, called jacks, w h i c h represent the various o u t p u t s a n d
assigned to t h e m ) are directly wired, o r normaled,
to o n e
a n o t h e r . T h i s m e a n s t h a t t h e o u t p u t a n d t h e i n p u t of a
i n p u t s . T h e u p p e r rows of jacks are n o r m a l l y t h e o u t p u t s
circuit are c o n n e c t e d w i t h o u t a p a t c h cord. By i n s e r t i n g a
(which c a r r y t h e signals from mics, C D s , a n d so f o r t h ) .
p a t c h cord i n t o o n e of t h e jacks of a n o r m a l e d circuit, y o u
T h e rows of jacks i m m e d i a t e l y below t h e o u t p u t jacks are
break, r a t h e r t h a n establish, t h e c o n n e c t i o n .
t h e i n p u t jacks, w h i c h are c o n n e c t e d to t h e a u d i o console.
A l t h o u g h p a t c h i n g helps m a k e t h e r o u t i n g of an a u
T h e c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n o u t p u t a n d i n p u t is m a d e w i t h
dio signal m o r e flexible, it can also cause s o m e p r o b l e m s .
the p a t c h cord.
P a t c h i n g takes t i m e ; p a t c h cords a n d jacks get w o r n o u t af
To accomplish a p r o p e r patch, you m u s t p l u g the patch
ter frequent use, w h i c h can cause a h u m or an i n t e r m i t t e n t
cord from o n e of the u p p e r o u t p u t jacks i n t o o n e of t h e
c o n n e c t i o n ; a n d m a n y patch cords crisscrossing each o t h e r
lower i n p u t jacks, SEE 10.7 P a t c h i n g o u t p u t to o u t p u t ( u p -
are confusing a n d l o o k m o r e like spaghetti t h a n o r d e r l y
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Operations
w i t h a separate a u d i o r e c o r d i n g , o r record the a u d i o o n a separate system for h i g h - e n d p o s t p r o d u c t i o n . Even if y o u d o n ' t i n t e n d to b e c o m e a n a u d i o expert, y o u n e e d to k n o w w h a t systems are available to y o u . In general, a u d i o - r e c o r d i n g systems can r e c o r d a u d i o signals in a n a l o g or digital f o r m . As explained in chapter 2, analog m e a n s t h a t t h e signal fluctuates exactly like t h e original stimulus; digital m e a n s t h a t the signal is translated i n t o m a n y discrete digits (on/off pulses). A l m o s t all a u d i o r e c o r d i n g in professional television is d o n e digitally. As with video, digital a u d i o recordings excel n o t only in s o u n d quality b u t also in m a i n t a i n i n g t h a t quality in extensive p o s t p r o d u c t i o n editing. Because digital systems allow y o u t o see a visual display of t h e r e c o r d e d s o u n d s , t h e y m a k e editing m u c h m o r e precise t h a n w i t h the analog m e t h o d s .
10.7
PATCHBAY WITH PATCHES
All patchbays connect the signal outputs (mics, CDs, VTRs) to specific input modules of the audio console. The patching is accomplished by connecting the audio outputs (top row) to the inputs (bottom row) with patch cords.
But d o n ' t dismiss analog a u d i o just yet. M a n y older c a m corders a n d V H S r e c o r d e r s are still analog, a n d t h e r e are extensive analog s o u n d archives that will m o s t likely r e m a i n analog even in t h e digital age. You m a y still have a collection of a n a l o g e q u i p m e n t t h a t m o s t likely includes a n analog cassette m a c h i n e . S o m e a u d i o p u r i s t s have r e t u r n e d to analog s o u n d systems because, a c c o r d i n g to t h e m , analog
c o n n e c t i o n s , m a k i n g i n d i v i d u a l patches difficult to trace.
r e c o r d i n g s have a w a r m e r s o u n d t h a n digital ones.
Also, w h e n p a t c h i n g with a c o r r e s p o n d i n g fader still set at a r e a s o n a b l y high v o l u m e , t h e p o p caused b y p l u g g i n g or
ANALOG RECORDING SYSTEMS
u n p l u g g i n g t h e p a t c h cord can b l o w even t h e m o s t r o b u s t
All a n a l o g r e c o r d i n g s y s t e m s are t a p e - b a s e d . H e r e we
speaker. O n c e again, a l t h o u g h physical c o n n e c t i o n s are
briefly t o u c h o n t h e t w o analog a u d i o systems t h a t are still
i m p o r t a n t b e c a u s e y o u c a n see w h i c h signal goes w h e r e ,
in use: t h e o p e n - r e e l a u d i o t a p e recorder a n d the a u d i o c a s -
t h e c o m p u t e r c a n p e r f o r m m a n y of the r o u t i n e p a t c h i n g
sette recorder. T h e o p e r a t i o n a l features of a n a l o g ATRs
functions m o r e efficiently.
have b e e n i n h e r i t e d by t h e digital recorders.
Computer patching
Open-reel audiotape recorder
In computer patching, the sound
signals from the various sources, s u c h as mics, direct boxes,
m e r l y called reel-to-reel, audiotape
T h e open-reel,
for
recorder is generally
C D s , D V D s , or v i d e o t a p e s , are r o u t e d to t h e p a t c h p a n e l
used for m u l t i t r a c k r e c o r d i n g or for playing back longer
p r o g r a m m e r , w h i c h assigns t h e m u l t i p l e signals to specific
pieces of a u d i o m a t e r i a l . For e x a m p l e , t h e b a c k g r o u n d
fader m o d u l e s of t h e a u d i o console for further process
m u s i c a n d t h e s o u n d effects, s u c h as traffic n o i s e , are
ing. To r o u t e lavaliere 1 to p o t 2, a n d t h e C D to p o t 1, for
generally p r e m i x e d ( p r e r e c o r d e d ) o n a u d i o t a p e a n d t h e n
e x a m p l e , you d o n ' t n e e d a n y physical patches; y o u s i m p l y
played b a c k a n d m i x e d again w i t h the dialogue d u r i n g an
enter t h e r o u t i n g i n f o r m a t i o n i n t o the c o m p u t e r (patch
actual p r o d u c t i o n . T h e ATR is also used to r e c o r d m a t e r i a l
p a n e l p r o g r a m m e r ) , w h i c h tells t h e electronic p a t c h p a n e l
for archival p u r p o s e s . A l t h o u g h a great variety of ATRs are
t o c o n n e c t the i n p u t s to t h e desired faders o n t h e console,
used in television p r o d u c t i o n , t h e y all o p e r a t e o n c o m m o n
s h o w t h e i n f o r m a t i o n o n t h e display screen, a n d store y o u r
principles a n d w i t h similar c o n t r o l s .
p a t c h i n g c o m m a n d s o n a disk for future use. P a t c h i n g is
All professional ATRs, analog a n d digital, have, in ad
n o w as easy as p a s t i n g w o r d s w i t h a w o r d processor.
d i t i o n t o t h e switch for t h e v a r i o u s r e c o r d i n g speeds, five
AUDIO-RECORDING SYSTEMS
w h i c h m o v e s the t a p e at t h e designated r e c o r d i n g speed;
T h e s o u n d of r o u t i n e television p r o d u c t i o n s is u s u a l l y
(2) fast-forward,
r e c o r d e d s i m u l t a n e o u s l y w i t h t h e pictures o n o n e of t h e
(3) stop, w h i c h brakes t h e reels to a stop; (4) rewind, which
c o n t r o l b u t t o n s t h a t regulate t h e t a p e m o t i o n : (1) play, w h i c h advances t h e tape at high speed;
a u d i o tracks of t h e v i d e o t a p e recorder. T h e r e are occasions,
r e w i n d s t h e t a p e at high speed; a n d (5) record, w h i c h acti
however, w h e n y o u n e e d t o b a c k u p y o u r s o u n d r e c o r d i n g
vates b o t h t h e erase a n d t h e r e c o r d heads, SEE IO.8
Many
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CONTROL
1 0 . 8 OPEN-REEL ANALOG AUDIOTAPE RECORDER This open-reel ATR can record up to eight separate audio tracks on a Vi-inch audiotape and can locate certain cue points automatically. It can interface with the SMPTE time code for audio/video synchronization. All of the controls—including the standard operational controls of play, fast-forward,
Supply reel
Takeup reel
VU meters
stop,
rewind, and record—are
on
a panel that can be used from a remote location.
Remote transport controls
Transport controls
Stationary head assembly
t a p e recorders also have a cue c o n t r o l , w h i c h enables you
n e w a u d i o m a t e r i a l o n t h e t a p e . W h e n t h e t a p e is played
to h e a r t h e s o u n d o n a t a p e even w h e n r u n n i n g at fast-
back, t h e p l a y b a c k h e a d r e p r o d u c e s t h e a u d i o m a t e r i a l
forward o r r e w i n d speeds.
p r e v i o u s l y r e c o r d e d . T h e erase a n d r e c o r d h e a d s are n o t
T h e tape m o v e s from a supply reel to a takeup reel over
activated d u r i n g playback.
at least three h e a d s : t h e erase h e a d , t h e record h e a d , a n d
S o m e a u d i o p r o d u c t i o n r o o m s in large stations have
t h e playback h e a d , SEE 10.9 T h i s h e a d assembly a r r a n g e
m u l t i t r a c k recorders t h a t use w i d e r f o r m a t s t h a n t h e stan
m e n t is s t a n d a r d for all analog t a p e recorders. W h e n t h e
d a r d Vi-inch (such as ¥i-, 1 - , o r 2 - i n c h ) to a c c o m m o d a t e
ATR is being used for r e c o r d i n g , t h e erase h e a d clears t h e
t h e multiple ( u p to twenty-four) tracks. H i g h - q u a l i t y four-
p o r t i o n s of t h e tape t h a t receive t h e r e c o r d i n g (tracks) of
track m a c h i n e s use Vi- or 1-inch tape. T h e 2 - i n c h t a p e is
all a u d i o m a t e r i a l that m i g h t have b e e n left o n t h e t a p e
used for sixteen or m o r e a n a l o g tracks.
from a p r e v i o u s recording; t h e r e c o r d h e a d t h e n p u t s t h e Audiocassette recorder Erase head
Professional cassette systems
are similar to the o n e y o u have at h o m e or c a r r y a r o u n d except t h a t t h e y have m o r e - s o p h i s t i c a t e d electronics t o r e d u c e noise a n d m o r e - d u r a b l e t a p e t r a n s p o r t s t h a t allow faster a n d s m o o t h e r fast-forward a n d r e w i n d speeds. As y o u k n o w from experience, cassettes are easy t o store a n d h a n d l e a n d c a n play u p to 120 m i n u t e s of a u d i o material. Despite t h e n a r r o w t a p e , cassettes p r o d u c e g o o d s o u n d , especially if t h e y are t h e n e w e r , m e t a l - p a r t i c l e coated variety. D e s p i t e t h e digital r e v o l u t i o n , a n a l o g cas
1 0 . 9 ANALOG AUDIOTAPE HEAD ASSEMBLY The head assembly of an analog reel-to-reel ATR consists of an erase head, a record head, and a playback head.
settes are still p o p u l a r in television p r o d u c t i o n . If y o u w a n t s u p e r i o r a u d i o quality from cassettes, however, y o u s h o u l d use a DAT recorder.
Section
10.1
Sound
Controls
and Recording
for Studio
and Field
227
Operations
1 0 . 1 0 ANALOG AND DAT CASSETTES The DAT cassette is consider ably smaller than the regular analog audiocassette.
Analog audiocassette
DAT cassette
Digital r e c o r d i n g is d o n e w i t h either t a p e - b a s e d sys
Besides r e c o r d i n g s o u n d w i t h the c u s t o m a r y digital,
t e m s or a variety of tapeless devices.
virtually noise-free high fidelity, h i g h - e n d DAT recorders
TAPE-BASED DIGITAL RECORDING SYSTEMS
for v i d e o p r o d u c t i o n :
include t h e following features that are especially i m p o r t a n t
T h e t a p e - b a s e d systems i n c l u d e v i d e o t a p e u s e d b y t h e
H i g h - s p e e d search a n d extremely a c c u r a t e c u e i n g
s t a n d - a l o n e o r c a m c o r d e r V T R s , a n d DAT r e c o r d e r s .
Verbal slating (identifying a scene or take) t h r o u g h a
S o m e p o s t p r o d u c t i o n r o o m s have larger digital m u l t i t r a c k
built-in microphone
recorders that use S-VHS o r H i 8 v i d e o t a p e , b u t t h e m o r e flexible a n d efficient h a r d disk r e c o r d e r s have m a d e these modular
digital multitrack
( M D M ) recorders a n d
tape recording systems {DTRSs)
digital
all b u t obsolete.
T i m e code r e c o r d i n g s i m u l t a n e o u s l y w i t h the a u d i o material, for cueing a n d for m a t c h i n g s o u n d a n d p i c t u r e s in p o s t p r o d u c t i o n Display t h a t shows t h e t i m e r e m a i n i n g o n the t a p e
Videotape recorders
M o s t digital a u d i o r e c o r d i n g for
video is d o n e simultaneously with t h e video o n o n e o r b o t h tracks of t h e v i d e o t a p e (see figure 12.6). S o m e p r o s u m e r a n d professional c a m c o r d e r s let y o u choose b e t w e e n h i g h -
S y n c h r o n i z a t i o n , if desired, of its i n t e r n a l t i m e code w i t h an external t i m e c o d e (such as t h e o n e supplied b y o r to the c a m e r a s )
q u a l i t y (16-bit) a n d a s o m e w h a t l o w e r - q u a l i t y (12-bit)
R e c o r d i n g a n d display of t h e c u r r e n t d a t e a n d t i m e
recording mode.
SEE 10.11
Digital
audiotape
{DAT)
recorders
c a n use o p e n - r e e l t a p e or cassettes. T h e digital o p e n - r e e l m a c h i n e s look a n d o p e r a t e m u c h like t h e analog o p e n - r e e l r e c o r d e r s — t h e y have a s u p p l y a n d a t a k e u p r e e l — b u t t h e h e a d assembly is m o r e like t h a t of a V T R . Its r e c o r d i n g a n d playback h e a d s r o t a t e at h i g h speed while t h e a u d i o t a p e passes by t h e m . Because t h e r e c o r d i n g a n d playback h e a d s r o t a t e , these m a c h i n e s are also called R-DAT
recorders.
Normally, a DAT r e c o r d e r refers to a digital cassette recorder. T h e s e m a c h i n e s o p e r a t e m o r e like videocassette recorders t h a n audiocassette r e c o r d e r s . As w i t h o p e n - r e e l DAT recorders, t h e h e a d s of t h e cassette recorders rotate at high speed. Because of t h e r o t a t i n g h e a d s , t h e cassettes can b e smaller t h a n a n a l o g cassettes, b u t at their slowest speed t h e y still r e c o r d u p to four h o u r s of h i g h - q u a l i t y a u d i o . As w i t h v i d e o t a p e , however, t h e slower t a p e speeds p r o d u c e lower-quality recordings, SEE IO.IO
10.11
PORTABLE DAT RECORDER
This portable DAT recorder can record up to two hours on a single battery charge. It has one balanced stereo input (two XLR jacks) and four unbalanced inputs (RCA phono jacks). Its excellent frequency response lets you make high-fidelity recordings of speech and music.
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CONTROL
B u t these w o n d e r m a c h i n e s are n o t p r o b l e m - f r e e . T h e h i g h - s p e e d r o t a r y h e a d s are subject t o w e a r a n d tear, especially if n o t p r o p e r l y m a i n t a i n e d , a n d t h e r e c o r d e r s are sensitive to m o i s t u r e . DAT cassettes c a n n o t have a n y flaws, o r t h e r e c o r d i n g will b e equally flawed. Finally, DAT recorders are quite expensive, which is w h y tapeless record ers are b e c o m i n g m o r e p o p u l a r . TAPELESS RECORDING
SYSTEMS
High-capacity, rugged h a r d drives c o u p l e d w i t h efficient compression systems such as MP3 make disk-based systems the p r i m e a u d i o - r e c o r d i n g m e d i u m i n television p r o d u c tion. T h e m o r e p o p u l a r systems include: (1) t h e digital cart system, (2) m i n i disks a n d flash m e m o r y devices, (3) h a r d
10.12
drives with r e m o v a b l e o r fixed disks, a n d (4) optical disc
This digital cart system uses a removable high-density com puter disk and allows random and instant cueing and playback via remote control.
systems w i t h a variety of C D a n d D V D f o r m a t s .
DIGITAL CART RECORDER/PLAYER
T h e digital recorder/players that constitute a digital
cart system
use regular h i g h - c a p a c i t y
r e m o v a b l e c o m p u t e r disks, s u c h as t h e 2 5 0 - m e g a b y t e Z i p disks, for r e c o r d i n g a n d playback, o r r e a d / w r i t e optical discs o r m i n i discs. These digital systems operate very m u c h
capacity, a n d easy c u e i n g m a k e it a useful playback device for television p r o d u c t i o n . T h e flash
memory
device,
o r flash
drive, is a s m a l l
m e m o r y stick, very m u c h like t h e o n e y o u m i g h t b e u s i n g
like a h o m e C D player. You c a n select a p a r t i c u l a r cut a n d
in y o u r digital still c a m e r a o r p r o s u m e r c a m c o r d e r . It h a s
start t h e a u d i o track instantly. You c a n also interface t h e
n o m o v i n g p a r t s b u t c a n store 1 gigabyte of i n f o r m a t i o n .
digital cart w i t h a d e s k t o p c o m p u t e r that lets y o u assemble
This m e a n s t h a t t h e flash drive c a n hold a p p r o x i m a t e l y o n e
a playlist, w h i c h will a u t o m a t i c a l l y cue a n d start v a r i o u s
h o u r of high-quality a u d i o . It plugs right into t h e USB p o r t
a u d i o s e g m e n t s , SEE 10.12
on your computer.
Mini discs and
flash memory devices
T h e mini
disc
Hard drives
T h e r e are large-capacity systems built
(MD) is a small ( a b o u t 2 / 2 - i n c h ) r e a d - o n l y o r r e a d / w r i t e
specifically for a u d i o p r o d u c t i o n a n d p o s t p r o d u c t i o n
optical disc t h a t c a n store m o r e t h a n a n h o u r of h i g h -
t h a t store a u d i o i n f o r m a t i o n just like y o u w o u l d o n y o u r
quality digital stereo a u d i o . Its small size, large s t o r a g e
c o m p u t e r h a r d drive, SEE 10.13
1
10.13
Despite its d i m i n u t i v e size,
DIGITAL MULTITRACK RECORDER/PLAYER
This digital recorder can record twenty-four tracks on two high-capacity hard drives. Both hard disks (10 megabytes each) are removable and can be swapped from bay to bay.
Section 10.1
Sound Controls and Recording for Studio and Field Operations
229
t h e u b i q u i t o u s A p p l e iPod has a 20-gigabyte h a r d drive t h a t y o u c a n c o n n e c t to y o u r c o m p u t e r via USB cable or FireWire (IEEE 1394) for s t o r i n g a u d i o files a n d o t h e r data. You can t h e n transfer these files to a digital editing system, SEE 10.14
S o m e have b u i l t - i n h a r d drives; o t h e r s
have r e m o v a b l e disks t h a t can b e e x c h a n g e d f r o m o n e recorder/player to a n o t h e r . T h e professional compact digital versatile
disc (DVD)
disc (CD)
and
players are often used in tele
vision ( a n d r a d i o ) stations for playing b a c k c o m m e r c i a l l y p r o d u c e d m u s i c a n d o t h e r a u d i o m a t e r i a l . T h e rewritable C D s a n d D V D s are used for m u l t i p l e r e c o r d i n g a n d play back. T h e r e are several different C D a n d D V D f o r m a t s o n t h e m a r k e t , all of w h i c h p e r f o r m similar p r o d u c t i o n functions: t h e storage a n d playback of a variety of a u d i o material.
1
SEE 10.15
Professional C D a n d D V D players allow r a n d o m access of a specific track; let y o u enter, store, a n d activate v a r i o u s play sequences; a n d display, a m o n g o t h e r things, t h e m e n u of t h e playlist, w h a t t h e disc is playing, a n d h o w m u c h of t h e s e g m e n t t i m e is r e m a i n i n g . A l t h o u g h C D s a n d D V D s can theoretically w i t h s t a n d a n u n l i m i t e d a m o u n t of playbacks w i t h o u t d e t e r i o r a t i o n , t h e y are nevertheless q u i t e v u l n e r a b l e . If y o u scratch t h e shiny side or even t h e label side, the disc w o n ' t play past the
10.14
scratch. A n d if t h e r e are
This tiny player can store a great amount of music and other data on its 20-megabyte hard drive.
m a y t r y t o read t h e
fingerprints
fingerprints
o n t h e disc, t h e laser
instead of t h e i m p r i n t e d
APPLE IPOD DIGITAL MUSIC PLAYER
digits. W h e n h a n d l i n g C D s a n d D V D s , t r y to keep y o u r h a n d s off t h e surface a n d always p u t d o w n t h e disc o n its
it. S o m e p r o v i d e visual access to t h e s t u d i o or, at least, to
label s i d e — n o t its shiny side.
t h e p r o g r a m c o n t r o l r o o m . W h e n walking i n t o t h e a u d i o b o o t h , y o u will p r o b a b l y b e surprised by the variety a n d the
AUDIO CONTROL IN THE STUDIO Recall f r o m c h a p t e r 1 t h a t m o s t a u d i o b o o t h s are separate
c o m p l e x i t y of a u d i o e q u i p m e n t , especially because we are generally u n a w a r e of t h e a u d i o aspect of television unless s o m e t h i n g goes w r o n g .
from the p r o g r a m c o n t r o l section yet in close p r o x i m i t y to AUDIO CONTROL 1. Stanley R. Alten, Audio in Media, 7th ed. (Belmont, Calif.: Thomson Wadsworth, 2005), pp. 122-29.
BOOTH
T h e audio control booth h o u s e s t h e audio, o r m i x i n g , c o n sole; analog a n d digital recording a n d playback e q u i p m e n t ,
10.15 PROFESSIONAL CD PLAYER Professional CD and DVD players allow instant random access to various tracks. The play sequence can be stored and displayed on playback.
230
10.16
Chapter
AUDIO
10
AUDIO:
Window to video control room
^
SOUND
CONTROL
Computer display of console functions
CONTROL BOOTH The television audio control booth contains a variety of audio control equipment, such as the control console with computer display, patchbay, CD and DVD players, DAT machines, loudspeakers, intercom systems, and a video line monitor.
^ Audio console
Studio talkback
such as cassette recorders, a reel-to-reel a n a l o g ATR, DAT
m a t c h e s t h e console o u t p u t ( l i n e - o u t signal). This process
recorders, an M D player, C D a n d / o r D V D m a c h i n e s ; a n d ,
is called a u d i o system c a l i b r a t i o n or s i m p l y calibration.
largely for nostalgic reasons, a t u r n t a b l e . T h e r e is also a
calibrate
To
a system is to m a k e all t h e V U m e t e r s (usually of
physical p a t c h b a y despite t h e presence of c o m p u t e r p a t c h
the a u d i o console a n d t h e record VTR) r e s p o n d in the s a m e
ing, a n d o n e o r m o r e d e s k t o p c o m p u t e r s fulfilling v a r i o u s
way t o a specific a u d i o s i g n a l — t h e control tone. ( N o t e t h a t
functions. You will also find cue a n d p r o g r a m speakers,
a u d i o calibration has n o t h i n g to d o w i t h t h e z o o m lens
i n t e r c o m systems, a clock, a n d a line m o n i t o r . O n e a u d i o
calibration, w h e r e b y y o u adjust t h e z o o m lens so t h a t it
e n g i n e e r (or a u d i o o p e r a t o r or a u d i o technician) operates
stays in focus d u r i n g t h e entire z o o m range.)
the a u d i o c o n t r o l s d u r i n g a show, SEE 10.16 H e r e are t h e basic steps of a u d i o calibration: B A S I C
A U D I O
O P E R A T I O N
1. W i t h all faders o n t h e console or m i x e r t u r n e d all t h e
L e a r n i n g to o p e r a t e all this e q u i p m e n t takes t i m e a n d
way d o w n , activate the c o n t r o l t o n e , w h i c h is either a
p r a c t i c e . F o r t u n a t e l y , in m o s t s t u d i o p r o d u c t i o n s y o u r
c o n t i n u o u s t o n e o r a n i n t e r m i t t e n t beep. M o s t p r o
a u d i o tasks consist m o s t l y of m a k i n g s u r e that t h e voices
fessional a u d i o consoles a n d m i x e r s have s u c h a t o n e
of the news a n c h o r s or panel guests have acceptable v o l u m e
generator built-in.
levels a n d are relatively free of e x t r a n e o u s noise a n d t h a t t h e s o u n d appears with the pictures w h e n video recordings are played. M o s t likely y o u will n o t b e asked to d o intricate s o u n d m a n i p u l a t i o n s d u r i n g complex recording sessions— at least n o t right away. C o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e focus h e r e is o n t h e basic a u d i o c o n t r o l factors: (1) a u d i o system calibra t i o n , (2) v o l u m e c o n t r o l , a n d (3) live s t u d i o m i x i n g .
2. Bring u p t h e m a s t e r ( l i n e - o u t ) fader o n t h e console o r m i x e r to t h e 0 V U m a r k . 3. Bring u p t h e fader for the control t o n e until t h e m a s t e r ( l i n e - o u t ) V U m e t e r reads 0 VU. W h i l e b r i n g i n g u p t h e fader, y o u s h o u l d h e a r t h e s o u n d b e c o m i n g p r o gressively l o u d e r u n t i l it h a s r e a c h e d t h e 0 V U level.
Before d o i n g a n y s e r i o u s
4. N o w t u r n u p t h e i n c o m i n g v o l u m e c o n t r o l o n t h e
volume adjustment or mixing, you need to make sure
V T R u n t i l its V U m e t e r also reads 0 VU. W h e n b o t h
A u d i o system calibration
that t h e a u d i o console a n d t h e V T R or any o t h e r device
t h e m a s t e r V U m e t e r of t h e console or mixer a n d t h e
o n w h i c h y o u are r e c o r d i n g t h e a u d i o " h e a r " in the s a m e
V U m e t e r of t h e V T R r e a d t h e s a m e 0 V U level, t h e
way, t h a t is, t h a t t h e V T R i n p u t v o l u m e ( r e c o r d i n g level)
system h a s b e e n calibrated.
Section
10.1
Sound
Controls
and Recording
for Studio
and Field
231
Operations
VTR input (record level): O V U Audio console line-out: O V U
1 0 . 1 7 AUDIO SYSTEM CALIBRATION An audio system is calibrated when all VU meters respond in the same way to a specific audio signal. Here the line-out of the audio mixer is calibrated with the input (record level) of the VTR. Both VU meters show the same value.
F r o m this p o i n t o n t h r o u g h o u t t h e recording, t h e V T R
a n d s i m p l y c o u n t r a p i d l y t o t h r e e o r four; t h e n , w h e n they
o p e r a t o r s h o u l d n o t t o u c h t h e a u d i o i n p u t level, even if t h e
are o n t h e air, their voices rise to t h e o c c a s i o n — a n d also
V U m e t e r indicates low v o l u m e levels. It is u p to y o u — t h e
in v o l u m e . Always be p r e p a r e d for this s u d d e n v o l u m e
console o p e r a t o r — t o m a i n t a i n p r o p e r a u d i o levels.
increase. Experienced p e r f o r m e r s give a few of their o p e n
Because t h e V T R is n o w receiving exactly w h a t y o u send from t h e console or mixer, y o u can confidently engage in s o m e s e r i o u s v o l u m e c o n t r o l , SEE 10.17
frA'i*»AUDIO^
Consoles and mixers-> calibration
ing r e m a r k s in a b o u t as l o u d a voice as t h e y will use w h e n o n t h e air. W h e n o v e r m o d u l a t i n g speech (riding t h e gain consis tently at t o o high a level), y o u e n d u p n o t w i t h a r e c o r d i n g t h a t is slightly t o o l o u d b u t with distorted s o u n d . A l t h o u g h
O n c e t h e system is calibrated, y o u c a n
it is relatively easy t o b o o s t s o u n d that w a s r e c o r d e d at a
p a y a t t e n t i o n t o t h e finer p o i n t s of adjusting t h e v o l u m e
slightly l o w e r - t h a n - n o r m a l level (even at t h e risk of a m plifying s o m e of t h e noise with t h e low-level s o u n d s ) , it is
of t h e i n c o m i n g s o u n d sources.
very difficult a n d often i m p o s s i b l e t o fix o v e r m o d u l a t e d , Taking a l e v e l Except w h e n literally r u n n i n g after a story
d i s t o r t e d s o u n d in p o s t p r o d u c t i o n . Digital s o u n d is espe
o n an E N G assignment, before starting t h e videotape
cially susceptible t o o v e r m o d u l a t i o n .
r e c o r d i n g y o u s h o u l d always take a level—that
is, adjust
t h e i n p u t level so t h a t t h e talent's speech falls m o r e o r less
Live studio mixing
w i t h i n t h e tolerable v o l u m e r a n g e ( n o t r i d i n g in t h e m u d
a n d b a l a n c e s o u n d s while t h e p r o d u c t i o n is in progress.
a n d n o t b e n d i n g t h e n e e d l e ) . Ask t h e talent t o talk long
S t u d i o m i x i n g m a y range from t h e relatively simple task of
Live mixingmeans
that you c o m b i n e
e n o u g h for y o u to see w h e r e t h e lower a n d u p p e r limits of
r i d i n g gain for t h e newscaster's lavaliere m i c o r b a l a n c i n g
t h e speech v o l u m e are, t h e n place t h e fader b e t w e e n these
t h e voices of several p a n e l m e m b e r s d u r i n g a discussion,
t w o e x t r e m e s . A n e x p e r i e n c e d p e r f o r m e r will stay w i t h i n
t o t h e m o r e c o m p l i c a t e d j o b of switching a m o n g v a r i o u s
this v o l u m e range even in s u b s e q u e n t takes. Unfortunately, w h e n asked t o give a level, m o s t per f o r m e r s c o n s i d e r it a n i n t r u s i o n o n their c o n c e n t r a t i o n
a u d i o sources d u r i n g a newscast o r r e c o r d i n g a rock b a n d o r even a d r a m a t i c scene for an interactive m u l t i m e d i a p r o g r a m o n h o w t o recognize p o t e n t i a l shoplifters.
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10
As with the setup of mics for a complex production, there is no formula for how an optimal mix is achieved. When riding gain for the single mic of the news anchor, simply keep his or her level within the acceptable audio range and watch that the anchor is clearly heard. When controlling the audio of the panel discussion, riding gain is easiest if every member wears a lavaliere. Once the levels are set, you have little to do except bring down the fader somewhat if one of the members gets excited and starts talking much louder than normal, or bring it up when somebody drifts off mumbling. When using desk mics, the most important audio job is before the show even starts—the mic setup. Remember to place the mics at least three times as far apart as the distance of any mic to the panel member (as described in chapter 9) to eliminate possible multiple-microphone interference. After taking preliminary levels, adjust the mics for optimal positions and tape them down. Take another level, adjust the faders for all mics, and hope that the panel members' kicking and banging on the table will be kept to a minimum. The multisource newscast is more challenging. For example, you may need to switch quickly from the anchor's introduction to SOT [sound on tape), and from there to the co-anchor, to the guest in London (remote source), back to the co-anchor, to another VTR, back to the anchor, to a commercial, and so forth. You will find that labeling each audio input will greatly facilitate your audio control: sim ply put a strip of masking tape below the faders and mark them with a grease pencil. As for volume control, you have to watch the remote sources and the SOT segments more than the mics of the anchors and weathercaster (whose voice levels you have set before the newscast). The mixing for the rock band or dramatic scene for the multimedia project can be quite complicated and is best left to an audio expert. Again, the initial choice of mics and their proper placement are more challenging than the mix ing itself. You may also have to patch the mics for various audio feeds, such as foldback, mix-minus, audience feed, or videotape feed. A mix-minus feed is a type of foldback in which you send into the studio a complete mix (usually the band or orchestra) minus the sound generated in the studio (such as the singer's voice). Regardless of the com plexity of the setup, there are some basic steps to follow: 1. Label each input. 2. Calibrate the audio system. 3. Check the mics individually by having an assistant lightly scratch the surface of each mic. This will
AUDIO:
SOUND
CONTROL
identify the specific mic whose input you are trying to locate. Having someone talk in the vicinity of the mic is not as accurate—you may well think you are testing one mic while actually receiving sound from another. 4. If foldback is required, check the foldback levels in the studio. 5. Do a brief test recording and listen to the play back mix. 6. Adjust the necessary quality controls until the singer's voice sounds the way you like it to sound. Check with the band's manager or producer, who usually likes to listen to the rehearsal in the audio control booth, before deciding on the final recording setup. 7. Try to record major sound sources (voice and instru ments, dialogue and sound effects, guitar, bass, and keyboard) on separate tracks. Such separation makes postproduction mixing much easier than if you mix everything live on a single track. 8. Anticipate the director's cues. For example, be pre pared to open (activate) a specific person's mic so that you can react immediately to the director's cue. 9. Do not panic and lose your temper if you hear some accidental noise, such as a door slamming or some thing being dropped. Although such noise may sound to you like irreparable damage at the time, most view ers will not even be aware of it. Don't take this friendly advice as an invitation to sloppy sound control but rather as an appeal to common sense. If, however, you are doing a recording meant for postproduction, alert the director of such incidents and let him or her decide whether to do a retake.
PRODUCTION EQUIPMENT AND BASIC OPERATION FOR FIELD AUDIO ENfiwAs with all audio, the better the sound
pickup, the EFP easier the sound control during the production or in postproduction. (Refer to chapter 9 for information and advice on what mics to use outdoors and how to achieve optimal sound under various field conditions.) Unless you are engaged in a big remote (see chapter 20), the audio equipment in the field is much less elaborate than its studio counterparts. This is not because you don't need to produce optimal audio in the field but simply because in ENG the audio requirements are usually more
Section
10.1
Sound
Controls
and Recording
for Studio
modest. Similarly, in EFP most of the quality control is done in postproduction in the studio. But don't be fooled into thinking that field audio is somehow easier than studio audio. On the contrary—sound pickup and recording in the field are actually more difficult. In the field you have to worry about wind noise, barking dogs, traffic sounds, airplanes overhead, chattering onlookers, or rooms that produce the dreaded inside-a-barrel sounds. KEEPING SOUNDS SEPARATE The key to good field audio is keeping the primary sounds as separate from the environmental sounds as possible. For example, you usually want to record the reporter's mic input on one audio track and the camera mic's input of primarily ambient sounds on the second audio track. There will nevertheless be circumstances in which you need to mix and balance several sound sources in the field. For example, if you have to cover an interview of several people in somebody's living room, you should balance their voices right then and there. This is where the field mixer comes in. AUDIO MIXER An audio mixer differs from a console in that it normally serves only the input (volume control) and the mixing (combining two or more signals) functions, SEE 10.18 Most portable mixers have only three or four input channels and one or two outputs. Even then the small mixers require that you distinguish between low-level and high-level input sources. A switch above or below each sound input must be set either to mic for low-level inputs,
10.18
PORTABLE MIXER
This portable mixer has three inputs and two outputs. The volume controls are rotary knobs. Such big knobs and switches are especially convenient in the field, where digital menus are often hard to see and activate.
and Field
Operations
233
such as all microphones, or to line for high-level sources, such as the output of a CD player. Because most of the time you will use the field mixer for mixing microphones, double-check that the input switch is set to mic. If you are not sure whether a particular piece of audio equipment produces a mic-level or a line-level signal, do a brief test recording. Don't rely on the VU meter when playing back the test recording—you should actually listen to it with headphones. The VU meter might show the recording to be in the acceptable volume range, but it will not reflect sound distortions. Even though some digital mixers have more inputs as well as some quality controls, elaborate mixing in the field is not recommended unless you're doing a live telecast.
AUDIO CONTROL IN THE FIELD ENSw You usually do not need a mixer when doing ENG. EFP^You can plug the external mic into one of the cam corder audio inputs and plug the camera shotgun mic into the other audio input. U S I N G THE A G C IN E N G A N D EFP Be especially conscious of the overmodulation problem during ENG or EFP. When you are on an ENG assign ment and cannot watch the VU meter on the camcorder, switch on the automatic
gain control (AGC),
which boosts
low sounds and reduces high-volume sounds so that they conform to the acceptable volume range. The AGC does not discriminate between wanted and unwanted sounds, however; it faithfully boosts the sound of the passing truck and the coughing crewmember and even the noise of the pauses when the field reporter is thinking of something clever to say. But whenever possible, and especially when in noisy surroundings, switch off the AGC, take a level, and try to watch the audio levels. When using DAT, turn down the pot (volume control) a bit from where you had it while taking a level. This way you can be pretty sure not to overmodulate once you are on the air. EFP M I X I N G In EFP mixing there are always assignments for which you have to control more audio sources than the two micro phones. Even a simple assignment such as covering the opening of the local elementary school's new gym will most likely require that you mix at least three microphones: the field reporter's mic, the lectern mic for the speeches, and a mic to pick up the school choir. If you run out of mic inputs on the mixer, you can always cover the choir with the camera mic.
234
Chapter
AUDIO:
10
Despite the number of mics, the mixing itself is fairly simple. Once you have set the level for each input, you probably need to ride gain only for the reporter's mic dur ing interviews and for the various speakers at the lectern. You may also want to bring up (increase the gain of) the choir mic during the performance. Although in an emer gency you could try to pick up most of these sounds with the camera mic or by pointing a shotgun mic at the various areas, the multiple-mic setup and the portable mixer afford you better control. Here are a few basic guidelines for live ENG/EFP mixing: Even if you have only a few inputs, label each one with what it controls, such as field reporter's mic, audience mic, and so forth. You would be surprised at how quickly you forget whose mic corresponds to which pot. In case you have to turn over the audio control to someone else, he or she can take over without long explanations.
It is usually easier to do complicated and subtle mixing
•
The major production equipment for studio audio includes the audio console, the patchbay, analog and digital tapebased recording systems (VTR, ATR, and DAT), and tapeless recording systems (digital cart, mini disc and flash memory devices, hard drives with removable or fixed disks, and opti cal disc systems, such as CDs and DVDs).
•
Audio consoles perform five major functions: input—select, preamplify, and control the volume of the various incoming signals; mix—combine and balance two or more incoming signals; quality control—manipulate the sound charac teristics; output—route the combined signal to a specific output; and monitor—route the output or specific sounds to a speaker or headphones so that they can be heard.
•
The audio control area of a television studio includes the basic audio control booth, which is used for the sound control of daily broadcasts. It houses the audio console, the patchbay, various recording and playback systems, high-quality speakers, a video monitor, and at least one computer that carries the essential in-house information.
•
The basic audio operation includes: the audio system cali bration, which means that all VU meters in the system must respond in the same way to a specific audio signal (control tone); volume control; and live studio mixing.
•
Live studio mixing usually involves combining and balanc ing sounds while the production is in progress.
•
In EFP the key to good field audio is keeping the various sound sources reasonably separate so that they can be properly mixed in postproduction.
•
The automatic gain control (AGC) is a convenient means of keeping the volume within acceptable limits, but in its automatic amplification it will not distinguish between important sounds and unwanted sounds.
If you feed the mixer line-out to the camcorder and a backup audio recorder, you must calibrate all of the equip ment. Double-check all inputs from wireless mic systems— they have a tendency to malfunction just before the start of an event. If recording for postproduction, try to put distinctly different sound sources on separate audio tracks of the videotape, such as the reporter's and guests' voices on one track and the speaker's lectern mic and the choir on the other. That way it will be easier during postproduction sweetening (getting rid of unwanted noises and improving the sound quality) to balance the reporter's voice with the other sounds.
CONTROL
in postproduction rather than live in the field. This does not mean that you should forgo filtering out as much un wanted sound as possible during the on-location pickup, assuming that the mixer has some basic quality controls available. If it doesn't, don't worry. If any sweetening is to be done, do it in postproduction. Remember that the more attention you pay to good sound pickup in the field, the less time you need in postproduction. <:
If you work with a separate VTR, calibrate the audio output of the camera with the audio input of the VTR. If you do a complicated mix in the field, protect your self by feeding it not only to the camcorder and the VTR but also to a separate audio recorder for probable remixing in postproduction.
SOUND
t o t h e video editor b u t has b e c o m e a d e m a n d i n g field in its
10.2
o w n right. T h a t said, y o u will find t h a t y o u d o n ' t have to b e a n a u d i o p h i l e to a c c o m p l i s h basic a u d i o p o s t p r o d u c t i o n tasks, a n d y o u n e e d to k n o w at least t h e p o t e n t i a l of digital a u d i o p o s t p r o d u c t i o n . W i t h o u t this k n o w l e d g e y o u will be u n s u r e of yourself a n d either fall for the excuses of a s o u n d editor or become unreasonably demanding.
Postproduction
LINEAR A N D NONLINEAR S O U N D EDITING
and Sound Aesthetics
You will find t h a t t h e m o s t c o m m o n p o s t p r o d u c t i o n task is m a n a g i n g t h e s o u n d t r a c k d u r i n g v i d e o editing. In a n e w s s t o r y a b o u t a political c a n d i d a t e , y o u p r o b a b l y see a n d h e a r h e r m a k e a brief b u t especially striking state m e n t , b u t t h e n y o u h e a r t h e r e p o r t e r s u m m a r i z e t h e rest of her c o m m e n t s . D u r i n g her brief s t a t e m e n t — t h e bite—the
sound
a u d i o is s y n c h r o n i z e d w i t h the picture, b u t w h e n
t h e r e p o r t e r ' s s u m m a r y c o m e s in, t h e n e w s o u n d track is o b v i o u s l y edited in later to t h e existing video. B u t even editing a v i d e o t a p e for significant s o u n d bites by c u t t i n g o u t e x t r a n e o u s i n f o r m a t i o n takes practice. W h e n editing t h e a u d i o track of a v i d e o t a p e , y o u n e e d to select t h e v i d e o a n d a u d i o If y o u w a n t to replace a n existing s o u n d t r a c k o n a v i d e o tape, a d d m u s i c or s o u n d effects to a n edited v i d e o t a p e , get r i d of s o m e noise or o t h e r a u d i o interference, or p r e m i x a s o u n d t r a c k to serve as a guide for v i d e o editing, y o u are engaged in audio postproduction.
This section t o u c h e s
o n s o m e f u n d a m e n t a l p o s t p r o d u c t i o n activities, b a s i c p o s t p r o d u c t i o n e q u i p m e n t , a n d m a j o r aesthetic c o n s i d erations. P
AUDIO POSTPRODUCTION ACTIVITIES Linear and nonlinear sound editing, correcting audio prob lems, postproduction mixing, and controlling sound quality
p o r t i o n s from t h e source V T R t h a t c o n t a i n s t h e original footage, t h e n c o p y the video a n d t h e a u d i o (or the a u d i o only) o n t o t h e edit master tape of t h e r e c o r d VTR. You can adjust t h e record V T R or t h e v i d e o edit controller so that it reads t h e a u d i o track i n d e p e n d e n t of t h e v i d e o track. To a c c o m p l i s h this split, t h e v i d e o - e d i t i n g system m u s t b e in t h e insert mode. If y o u w a n t t o a d d a u d i o t h a t is n o t o n t h e s o u r c e t a p e , y o u n e e d t o feed t h e n e w a u d i o to t h e r e c o r d V T R via a small mixer. (These features a n d o p e r a t i o n s are e x p l a i n e d in detail in c h a p t e r 13.) Nonlinear audio editing
P-
P
If y o u w o r k w i t h a n o n l i n e a r
AUDIO POSTPRODUCTION ROOM
v i d e o - e d i t i n g system, all of t h e video a n d a u d i o i n f o r m a
The digital audio workstation, analog audio synchronizer, keyboards and sampler, and automatic dialogue replacement
t i o n is s t o r e d as c o m p u t e r files o n a h i g h - c a p a c i t y h a r d
SOUND AESTHETICS
words and sentences with a word-processing program.
Environment, figure/ground, perspective, continuity, and energy
drive. A u d i o editing t h e n resembles c u t t i n g a n d pasting T h e great a d v a n t a g e of n o n l i n e a r a u d i o e d i t i n g is t h a t y o u can n o t o n l y h e a r t h e s o u n d s b u t also see t h e m as a
P-
STEREO AND SURROUND SOUND
g r a p h i c o n - s c r e e n . Such a visual r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of s o u n d
Horizontal positioning and creating the soundfield
h e l p s m a k e a u d i o e d i t i n g e x t r e m e l y p r e c i s e , especially w h e n y o u w o r k w i t h several s o u n d tracks. A n o t h e r ad
AUDIO POSTPRODUCTION ACTIVITIES Because of t h e sophisticated v i d e o - e d i t i n g t e c h n i q u e s a n d
v a n t a g e is t h a t y o u can s y n c h r o n i z e specific s o u n d s with t h e selected v i d e o or m o v e t h e m from place to place w i t h relative ease.
2
SEE
10.19
large-screen, h i g h - d e f i n i t i o n video displays, the quality of television a u d i o h a s b e c o m e of p r i m a r y i m p o r t a n c e . C o n sequently, c o m p l e x a u d i o p o s t p r o d u c t i o n is n o l o n g e r left
2.
For an excellent and detailed discussion of nonlinear audio editing, see Alten, Audio in Media, pp. 372-97.
235
236
Chapter
10
AUDIO:
SOUND
CONTROL
if you have to try to lip-sync the new word or words in p o s t p r o d u c t i o n . M if--»EDITING-» Functions-* correct T
Filtering o u t t h e l o w r u m b l e of w i n d d u r i n g a n o u t d o o r s h o o t o r t h e h u m of a lighting i n s t r u m e n t in t h e s t u d i o is possible with sophisticated e q u i p m e n t b u t is n e v ertheless difficult a n d t i m e - c o n s u m i n g . Even e x p e r i e n c e d a u d i o p r o d u c t i o n p e o p l e labor l o n g h o u r s correcting w h a t m a y seem like a relatively simple a u d i o p r o b l e m . T h e m o r e care y o u take d u r i n g t h e a u d i o acquisition, t h e m o r e t i m e y o u save in t h e long r u n .
POSTPRODUCTION Postproduction
mixing
MIXING
is n o t m u c h different f r o m live
m i x i n g except t h a t y o u r e m i x separately r e c o r d e d s o u n d
10.19
tracks instead of live i n p u t s . Because y o u m i x r e c o r d e d
VISUAL REPRESENTATION OF SOUND
All nonlinear audio-editing systems show a visual representa tion of various sound tracks.
s o u n d tracks, y o u can b e m u c h m o r e d i s c r i m i n a t i n g in h o w t o c o m b i n e t h e v a r i o u s s o u n d s for o p t i m a l quality. In a critical p r o d u c t i o n s u c h as t h e H D T V r e c o r d i n g of a play, s o u n d designers a n d engineers can spend weeks, if n o t
Editing video to audio a n d transcribing audio
m o n t h s , o n a u d i o p o s t p r o d u c t i o n . But d o n ' t w o r r y — n o
W h e n d o i n g a brief news feature or s e g m e n t s of a d o c u
b o d y will ask y o u to d o c o m p l i c a t e d a u d i o p o s t p r o d u c t i o n
m e n t a r y , it is often easier to edit t h e s o u n d t r a c k first
for v i d e o p r o d u c t i o n unless y o u have h a d a great deal of
a n d t h e n " d r o p in," or m a t c h , t h e a p p r o p r i a t e v i d e o to
experience.
t h e edited a u d i o track. You will s o o n discover, however, t h a t editing a u d i o involves playing t h e source a u d i o (or
Mixdowns—during
w h i c h a m u l t i t u d e of d i s c r e t e
a u d i o tracks are c o m b i n e d a n d r e d u c e d to stereo or sur
a c o p y t h e r e o f ) over a n d over again to find t h e right edit
round-sound
p o i n t s ; this c a n be extremely w e a r i n g o n the e q u i p m e n t
s h o u l d definitely be left to the experts. M i x i n g s u r r o u n d
as well as o n y o u , so regardless of w h e t h e r y o u edit o n
s o u n d is especially c o m p l i c a t e d because y o u m u s t deal n o t
a linear or a n o n l i n e a r system, y o u m u s t transcribe
the
a u d i o track, t h a t is, play back t h e track in s e g m e n t s a n d
tracks—are even m o r e complicated and
only w i t h intricate aural mixes b u t w i t h c o m p l e x spatial relationships as well.
type o u t every s p o k e n w o r d . B u t isn't this p r o c e d u r e m o r e t i m e - c o n s u m i n g t h a n editing t h e s o u n d t r a c k r i g h t away?
CONTROLLING SOUND
Yes, if y o u have only a few s o u n d bites t o e d i t — b u t n o t if
T h e m a n a g e m e n t of s o u n d quality is p r o b a b l y t h e m o s t
y o u have to edit l o n g e r or m o r e c o m p l e x speeches. T h e
difficult aspect of a u d i o c o n t r o l . You m u s t b e t h o r o u g h l y
QUALITY
big a d v a n t a g e of t r a n s c r i b i n g t h e dialogue is t h a t y o u can
familiar w i t h t h e v a r i o u s types of signal-processing e q u i p
locate t h e e d i t i n g c u e s — a n d c h a n g e t h e m m u c h m o r e
m e n t ( s u c h as e q u a l i z e r s , r e v e r b e r a t i o n c o n t r o l s , a n d
r e a d i l y — w h e n l o o k i n g at the t y p e d p a g e t h a n w h e n lis
filters),
t e n i n g to t h e t a p e d a u d i o . _ 4 _ _ » EDITING-* Postproduction
v o l u m e control in live m i x i n g , y o u m u s t b e careful h o w y o u
guidelines-* audio transcript
a n d y o u especially n e e d a t r a i n e d ear. As w i t h t h e
use these quality c o n t r o l s . If t h e r e is a n o b v i o u s h u m o r hiss t h a t y o u c a n filter o u t , b y all m e a n s d o so; b u t d o n o t
CORRECTING AUDIO PROBLEMS
t r y t o adjust t h e quality of each i n p u t before you've d o n e
Fixing a s e e m i n g l y s i m p l e m i s t a k e , s u c h as t h e talent's
at least a p r e l i m i n a r y m i x .
m i s p r o n o u n c i n g a w o r d o r giving t h e w r o n g address, c a n
For e x a m p l e , y o u m a y decide t h a t t h e s o u n d effect
b e c o m e a f o r m i d a b l e if n o t i m p o s s i b l e p o s t p r o d u c t i o n
of a police siren s o u n d s m u c h t o o t h i n ; b u t w h e n m i x e d
task. W h e n a politician says "I a m n o t a cook" instead of
w i t h t h e traffic s o u n d s , t h e t h i n a n d piercing siren m a y b e
"crook" in t h e m i d d l e of v i d e o t a p i n g his defense, "fixing
perfect for c o m m u n i c a t i n g m o u n t i n g tension. Before m a k
it in p o s t " can b e very labor-intensive. It is m u c h easier
ing a n y final quality j u d g m e n t s , listen t o t h e a u d i o t r a c k
to correct t h e p r o b l e m right away a n d have the politician
in relation to t h e v i d e o . A n a u d i o m i x t h a t s o u n d s w a r m
repeat his c o m m e n t s a few sentences before h e m a d e t h e
a n d rich b y itself m a y lose t h o s e qualities w h e n j u x t a p o s e d
mistake. Such p r o b l e m s b e c o m e a l m o s t i m p o s s i b l e to fix
w i t h a h i g h - i m p a c t v i d e o scene. As in all o t h e r aspects of
Section
Postproduction
10.2
MIDI interface to control ProTools
ProTools system
\
/
1
Reel-to-reel audiotape recorder
and
Sound
M i x i n
^ console /
'
Power Macintosh to drive ProTools system
\' Digital multitrack recorder
237
Aesthetics
Digital audio console and video interface /
\ PC system to run the x
audio software
1 0 . 2 0 AUDIO POSTPRODUCTION ROOM The audio postproduction room is equipped to handle most postproduction tasks. It typically contains a digital audio console, a patchbay, a digital audio workstation, a reel-to-reel audiotape recorder, digital cart players, a MIDI interface, and DAT recorders.
television p r o d u c t i o n , t h e c o m m u n i c a t i o n goal a n d y o u r
b o a r d s a n d a sampler; larger p r o d u c t i o n centers even s p o r t
aesthetic sensitivity, n o t t h e availability a n d p r o d u c t i o n
(4) an a u t o m a t i c dialogue r e p l a c e m e n t r o o m , SEE 10.20
capacity of t h e e q u i p m e n t , s h o u l d d e t e r m i n e w h a t y o u w a n t the audience to hear. N o v o l u m e meter in the world or
DIGITAL AUDIO WORKSTATION
t h e best c o m p u t e r audio display can substitute for aesthetic
T h e digital audio workstation
judgment.
t h e s o u n d tracks a n d s y n c h r o n i z i n g t h e m with t h e video
(DAW)
is designed for editing
tracks. T h e DAW is a sophisticated c o m p u t e r - d r i v e n system that facilitates s o u n d editing, signal processing, m i x i n g ,
AUDIO POSTPRODUCTION ROOM
a n d s y n c h r o n i z i n g video a n d a u d i o . W i t h t h e musical
T h e e q u i p m e n t t o p e r f o r m all the p o s t p r o d u c t i o n miracles
strument
digital interface (MIDI)
in
standardization device (a
The
specific cable), y o u can c o n n e c t t h e DAW w i t h a variety of
specific m a c h i n e r y t h a t is installed in s u c h a r o o m , o r
o t h e r a u d i o e q u i p m e n t for a d d i t i o n a l m a n i p u l a t i o n of the
p r o d u c t i o n studio, d e p e n d s entirely o n the s o u n d designer
a u d i o track. T h e DAW screen displays a variety of g r a p h s ,
o r s o u n d editor, b u t generally y o u will find t h e s a m e basic
i n c l u d i n g the editing t i m e line, i n d i c a t i n g the length of
e q u i p m e n t as in t h e a u d i o c o n t r o l b o o t h : elaborate a u d i o
a u d i o s e g m e n t s f r o m a great m a n y s o u n d tracks; t h e t i m e
consoles, a patchbay, a n a l o g a n d digital a u d i o - r e c o r d i n g
code for edit-in a n d e d i t - o u t p o i n t s ; v a r i o u s graphics of
is usually h o u s e d in an audio postproduction
room.
systems, a n d several V T R s .
selected s o u n d t r a c k s a n d t h e i r a u d i o c o n t e n t ; a n d so
A d d i t i o n a l a u d i o e q u i p m e n t , w h i c h y o u r a r e l y see
forth. D o n ' t be s u r p r i s e d w h e n y o u see a physical m i x i n g
in t h e a u d i o c o n t r o l b o o t h , includes: (1) a digital a u d i o
b o a r d m o v i n g its faders all b y itself, dutifully following
workstation, (2) a n analog audio synchronizer, a n d (3) key
t h e c o m m a n d s of t h e DAW software, SEE 10.21 T h e digital
238
10.21
Chapter
10
AUDIO:
SOUND
CONTROL
DIGITAL A U D I O
WORKSTATION DISPLAY
There are several computer programs that facilitate audio editing, audio quality control, audio effects, and audio/ video synchronization.
a u d i o i n f o r m a t i o n c a n even b e sent via t e l e p h o n e line
a n electronic s o u n d - s h a p i n g device that can take a specific
to DAW stations located in different cities or even o t h e r
s o u n d , such as a d o o r closing, a n d m o r p h it into t h e s o u n d s
countries.
of a n e a r t h q u a k e , a t h u n d e r s t o r m , or a n explosion.
ANALOG AUDIO
SYNCHRONIZER
W h e n using analog v i d e o - a n d a u d i o t a p e , y o u n e e d a m a chine called a synchronizer
for m a t c h i n g each v i d e o frame
AUTOMATIC DIALOGUE
REPLACEMENT
S o m e large p o s t p r o d u c t i o n h o u s e s have a r o o m specifically for automatic
dialogue
replacement
{ADR).
Technically,
w i t h its a p p r o p r i a t e a u d i o . M o s t a u d i o s y n c h r o n i z e r s use
ADR m e a n s t h e p o s t d u b b i n g of dialogue, b u t it s o m e t i m e s
t h e SMPTE
time code, w h i c h divides t h e a u d i o t a p e i n t o
refers t o t h e s y n c h r o n i z a t i o n of s o u n d effects as well.
i m a g i n a r y "frames." These frames c o r r e s p o n d with those of
T h i s a u d i o - d u b b i n g p r o c e s s is b o r r o w e d directly f r o m
the videotape a n d provide a m u t u a l "time address" as speci
m o t i o n pictures. M a n y s o u n d s , i n c l u d i n g dialogue, t h a t
fied b y h o u r s , m i n u t e s , seconds, a n d frames (30 frames
are r e c o r d e d s i m u l t a n e o u s l y w i t h pictures d o n o t always
m a k e u p 1 s e c o n d ) . (For m o r e i n f o r m a t i o n o n t i m e code,
live u p to t h e expected s o u n d quality, so they are replaced
see c h a p t e r 13.) But y o u will find t h a t m o s t a u d i o / v i d e o
by dialogue a n d s o u n d s re-created in t h e s t u d i o . M o s t of
m a t c h i n g is n o w d o n e digitally, u s i n g a DAW.
t h e t i m e , t h e A D R is a n y t h i n g b u t a u t o m a t i c a n d requires p a i n s t a k i n g r e - c r e a t i o n s a n d m i x i n g of dialogue, s o u n d
KEYBOARDS AND SAMPLER
effects, a n d a m b i e n t s o u n d s .
If t h e s o u n d designer is also a p r a c t i c i n g m u s i c i a n , t h e
E l a b o r a t e A D R h a s t h e actors repeat their lines while
p o s t p r o d u c t i o n r o o m s are usually e q u i p p e d w i t h v a r i o u s
w a t c h i n g footage of themselves o n a large-screen p r o j e c
keyboards a n d a sampler. As you u n d o u b t e d l y know, a key
tion. Recording s o u n d effects is usually d o n e with the Foley
b o a r d can re-create percussion s o u n d s , r e a d y - m a d e chords
stage, w h i c h consists of a variety of e q u i p m e n t that is set u p
for a c c o m p a n i m e n t , a n d the s o u n d s of m a n y i n s t r u m e n t s .
in a r e c o r d i n g s t u d i o t o p r o d u c e c o m m o n s o u n d effects,
M o s t have a b u i l t - i n r e c o r d i n g device so y o u can save a n d
such as footsteps, o p e n i n g a n d closing of d o o r s , a n d so
play b a c k y o u r m u s i c a l i n s p i r a t i o n s . A sampler is actually
forth. T h e Foley stage uses sound-effects e q u i p m e n t m u c h
Section
10.2
Postproduction
like that of traditional radio and film productions, which includes different types of floor sections, little doors with numerous locks and squeaks, or boxes with different types of gravel. The Foley artists step on the various surfaces to produce the desired sound effects of someone walking in a hallway or on a driveway. Foley offers this equipment in efficiently packaged boxes so that it can be transported by truck, sound-effect artists included.
SOUND AESTHETICS As reiterated throughout this chapter, the bewildering array of audio equipment is of little use if you cannot exercise some aesthetic judgment—make decisions about how to work with television sound artistically rather than just technically. Yet aesthetic judgment is not arbitrary or totally personal; there are some common aesthetic factors to which we all react similarly. When dealing with television sound, you should pay particular attention to five basic aesthetic factors: (1) envi ronment, (2) the figure/ground principle, (3) perspective, (4) continuity, and (5) energy. ENVIRONMENT In most studio recordings, we try to eliminate as much ambient sound as possible. In the field these sounds, when heard in the background of the main sound source, are often important indicators of where the event takes place or even how it feels. Such sounds help establish the general environment of the event. For example, when covering a downtown fire, the sirens, the crackling of the fire, the noise of the fire engines and the pumps, the tense commands of the firefighters, and the agitated voices of onlookers are significant in communicating to the television viewer some of the excite ment and apprehension. Now consider the recording of a small orchestra. In a studio recording, the coughing of a crewmember or musician would, during an especially soft passage, certainly prompt a retake. Not so in a live concert. We have learned to identify occasional coughing and other such environmental sounds as important indicators of the immediacy of the event. Environmental sounds are especially important in ENG. By using an omnidirectional mic, you pick up the ambient sounds automatically with the main audio source. But, as mentioned before, if you intend to do some postproduction, try to use one mic and one audio track of the videotape for the recording of the main sound source, such
and
Sound
Aesthetics
239
as the reporter or the guest, and the other mic (usually the camera mic) and the second audio track for the recording of the ambient sounds. Separating the sounds facilitates mixing them in the proper proportions in postproduc tion. FIGURE/GROUND One important perceptual factor is the figure/ground prin ciple, whereby we tend to organize our visual environment into a relatively mobile figure (a person or a car) and a relatively stable background (a wall, houses, or moun tains). If we expand this principle a little, we can say that we single out an event that is important to us and make it the foreground while relegating all other events to the background—the environment. For example, if you are looking for someone and finally discover her in a crowd, she immediately becomes the focus of your attention—the foreground—while the rest of the people become the background. The same happens in the field of sound. We have the ability to perceive, within lim its, the sounds we want or need to hear (the figure) while ignoring to a large extent all other sounds (the ground), even if the background sounds are relatively louder. When showing a close-up of someone in a noisy en vironment, you should make the figure (CU of the person talking) louder and the background sounds softer. When showing the person in a long shot, however, you should increase the volume of the environmental sounds so that the figure/ground relationship is more equal. When emphasizing the foreground, the sounds must not only be louder but also have more presence (explained in the following section). You can now see why it is so important to separate sounds as much as possible during the recording. If you re cord background and foreground all on one track, you have to live with whatever the mic picked up; manipulating the individual sounds would be very difficult, if possible at all. With the figure sounds on one track and the background sounds on the other, the manipulation is relatively easy. PERSPECTIVE Sound perspective means that close-up pictures are matched with relatively nearby sounds, and long shots cor respond with sounds that seem to come from farther away. Close sounds have more presence than distant sounds—a sound quality that makes us feel in proximity to the sound source. Generally, background sounds have less presence, and close-ups have more presence. Experienced singers
240
Chapter
10
hold their mics close to the mouth during intimate pas sages but pull them back a little when the song becomes less personal. Such a desirable variation of sound presence is vir tually eliminated when using lavaliere mics in a drama. Because the distance between mic and mouth is about the same for each actor, their voices exhibit the same pres ence regardless of whether they are seen in a close-up or a long shot. The necessary presence must then be achieved in time-consuming and costly postproduction. This is why boom mics are still preferred in many multicamera productions of television plays such as soap operas. The boom mic can be close to an actor during a close-up and moved somewhat farther away during a long shot to stay out of the picture—a simple solution to a big problem. CONTINUITY Sound continuity is especially important in postproduction. You may have noticed the sound quality of a reporter's voice change depending on whether he was speaking on- or off-camera. When on-camera the reporter used one type of microphone and was speaking from a remote location, then he returned to the acoustically treated studio to narrate the off-camera segments of the videotaped story, using a high-quality mic. The change in microphones and locales gave the recordings distinctly different qualities. This difference may not be too noticeable during the actual recordings, but it becomes obvious when they are edited together in the final show. How can you avoid such continuity problems? First, have the reporter record the narration on-site. Second, use identical mics, or mics that produce a similar sound quality, for the on- and off-camera narrations. Third, if you have time for a sweetening session, try to match the on-camera sound quality through equalization and reverberation. Fourth, if you recorded some ambience at the on-camera location, mix it with the off-camera narration. When pro ducing this mix, feed the ambient sounds to the reporter through earphones while he is doing the voice-over nar ration; this will help him recapture the on-site energy. Sometimes you may hear the ambience punctured by brief silences at the edit points. The effect is as startling as when an airplane engine changes its pitch unexpectedly. The easiest way to restore the background continuity is to cover up these silences with prerecorded ambience. Always record a few minutes of "silence" (room tone or background sounds) before and after videotaping or
AUDIO:
SOUND
CONTROL
whenever the ambience changes decisively (such as a con cert hall with and without an audience). ___T=_»EDlTlNG-» Continuity-* sound
Sound is also a chief element in establishing visual continuity. A rhythmically precise piece of music can help a disparate series of pictures seem continuous. Music and sound are often the important connecting link among abruptly changing visual sequences. ENERGY Unless you want to achieve a special effect through con tradiction, you should match the general energy of the pictures with a similar sound intensity. Energy refers to all the factors in a scene that communicate a certain degree of aesthetic force and power. Obviously, high-energy scenes, such as a series of close-ups of an ice-hockey game or a rock band in action, can stand higher-energy sounds than can a more tranquil scene, such as lovers walking through a meadow. Good television audio depends a great deal on your ability to sense the general energy of the pictures or sequences and to adjust the volume and sound presence T
accordingly. M i%_>AUDIO^ Aesthetics-* continuity | environment ] sound perspective | try it
STEREO AND SURROUND SOUND As you read this brief discussion of stereo and surround sound, apply it to the context of video—either film or standard-sized and large-screen television. STEREO SOUND Stereo sound, which defines especially the horizontal audio field (left-right or right-left positioning of the major audio source) is of little use when playing it back on a standardsized television set. Because the horizontal dimension of the screen is so small, any panning (horizontal position ing) of sound will inevitably lead to off-screen space, even if you sit in the sweet spot (the center where you perceive the two channels as one). At best, stereo for television will enrich the general shape of the sound, that is, make it more spacious. With large-screen, home-theater HDTV video projec tions, however, stereo sound becomes extremely important for keeping up with and balancing the high-energy video. In fact, the movielike experience when watching largescreen video projections will be greatly intensified by a surround-sound system.
Section
TO.2
Postproduction
and
Sound
241
Aesthetics
Most audio postproduction involves linear or nonlinear editing of the sound tracks of video recordings. When editing the audio track to serve as a guide for sub sequent video editing, you must transcribe all spoken material on the source tapes. Postproduction mixing means "sweetening" or mixing recorded sound tracks for optimal quality. When engaged in mixdowns (reducing the various sound tracks to stereo or surround sound) of the audio portion of a video production, always judge the audio mix relative to the video. The audio postproduction room contains the equipment of a television audio control booth, plus a digital audio work station (DAW), an analog audio synchronizer, keyboards and a sampler, and sometimes an automatic dialogue replacement (ADR) room.
10.22
The five major aesthetic factors in sound control are: envi ronment—sharpening an event through ambient sounds; figure/ground—emphasizing the most important sound source over the general background sounds; perspec tive—matching close-up pictures with nearby sounds, and long shots with distant sounds; continuity—maintaining the quality of sound when combining various takes; and energy—matching the force and the power of the pictures with a similar intensity of sound.
SURROUND SOUND
The 5.1 Dolby surround-sound system uses six speakers— three in front and three in back. The rear-center speaker is a subwoofer for very low sounds.
Surround-sound technology uses three speakers placed in front of the listener and three in back to produce a sound field that surrounds the listener.
SURROUND SOUND Surround
sound is a t e c h n o l o g y t h a t p r o d u c e s a soundfield
i n front of, to t h e sides of, a n d b e h i n d the listener, enabling o n e to h e a r s o u n d s from t h e front, sides, a n d back. Devel o p e d originally for film r e p r o d u c t i o n , it is n o w u s e d for For your reference, or to track your work, each VideoLab program cue in this chapter is listed here with its corresponding page number.
H D T V a n d other large-screen h o m e - t h e a t e r a r r a n g e m e n t s . T h e m o s t p r e v a l e n t s u r r o u n d - s o u n d system is D o l b y 5.1, w h i c h positions t h r e e speakers in front a n d t w o in t h e b a c k for s o u n d r e p r o d u c t i o n . T h e s e five speakers are s u p p o r t e d b y an a d d i t i o n a l s u b w o o f e r t h a t is usually p o s i t i o n e d b e t w e e n t h e t w o rear speakers. This .1 speaker can r e p r o d u c e especially low-frequency, t h u n d e r o u s s o u n d s , SEE
10.22
G o o d s u r r o u n d - s o u n d m i x i n g generally restricts o n screen d i a l o g u e t o t h e c e n t e r - f r o n t speaker a n d laterally
E_33> AUDIO-* Audio introduction E3_
__> __>
spreads a c t i o n to all t h r e e front speakers. But if t h e video shows t h e h e r o s t a n d i n g a m i d d o w n t o w n traffic, playing in an o r c h e s t r a , or d o d g i n g b o m b s , all five speakers are active, as well as t h e " t h u n d e r b o x " at r e a r - c e n t e r .
3.
See Alten, Audio in Media, pp. 413-24.
E_E>
3
E__
218
AUDIO-* Consoles and mixers-* parts | signals | control | try it 221 AUDIO-* Consoles and mixers-* calibration
231
EDITING-* Postproduction guidelines-* audio transcript 236 EDITING-* Functions^ correct
236
EDITING-* Continuity^ sound
240
AUDIO-* Aesthetics-* continuity | environment | sound perspective | try it 240
Switching, or Instantaneous Editing W h e n w a t c h i n g a television director during a live multicamera show, such as a newscast or a basketball g a m e , you might be surprised to find that the primary activity of the director is not telling the camerapersons w h a t to do but rather selecting the most ef fective shots from t h e variety of video sources displayed on a row of preview monitors. In fact, the director is e n g a g e d in a sort of editing, except that it's the selection of shots during
rather than after the production. Cutting from o n e v i d e o source to another or
calling for other transitions, such as dissolves, wipes, a n d fades, while a show is in prog ress is k n o w n as switching
242
or instantaneous
editing.
Unlike postproduction editing, in w h i c h y o u have t h e time t o deliberate exactly w h i c h shots a n d transitions t o use, switching d e m a n d s snap decisions. A l t h o u g h the aesthetic principles o f s w i t c h i n g are identical t o t h o s e u s e d in p o s t p r o d u c t i o n , t h e t e c h n o l o g y in v o l v e d is q u i t e d i f f e r e n t . I n s t e a d o f v a r i o u s l i n e a r a n d n o n l i n e a r e d i t i n g s y s t e m s , t h e m a j o r e d i t i n g t o o l is t h e v i d e o s w i t c h e r o r a c o m p u t e r t h a t p e r f o r m s t h e s w i t c h e r f u n c t i o n s .
Section 11.1, H o w Switchers Work, acquaints y o u with the basic functions, layout, a n d o p e r a t i o n o f a p r o d u c t i o n s w i t c h e r in a t e l e v i s i o n c o n t r o l r o o m . S e c t i o n 11.2, W h a t Switchers Do, looks at s o m e specific switching systems a n d features.
auto transition An electronic device that functions like a fader bar.
layering Combining two or more key effects for a more complex effect.
bus A row of buttons on the switcher.
M/E bus Short for mix/effects bus. A row of buttons on the switcher that can serve a mix or an effects function.
delegation controls Controls on the switcher that assign specific functions to a bus. downstream keyer (DSK) A control that allows a title to be keyed (cut in) over the picture (line-out signal) as it leaves the switcher. effects buses Program and preview buses on the switcher, assigned to perform effects transitions. fader bar A lever on the switcher that activates preset transi tions, such as dissolves, fades, and wipes, at different speeds. It is also used to create superimpositions. key bus A row of buttons on the switcher, used to select the video source to be inserted into a background image.
mix bus Rows of buttons on the switcher that permit the mixing of video sources, as in a dissolve or a super. preview/preset bus Rows of buttons on the switcher used to select the upcoming video (preset function) and route it to the preview monitor (preview function) independent of the line-out video. Also called preset/background. program bus The bus on a switcher whose inputs are directly switched to the line-out. Also allows cuts-only switching. Also called direct bus or program/background. switching A change from one video source to another during a show or show segment with the aid of a switcher. Also called instantaneous editing.
key-level control Switcher control that adjusts the key signal so that the title to be keyed appears sharp and clear. Also called clip control or clipper.
243
11.1
(3) to create o r access special effects. S o m e switchers can a u t o m a t i c a l l y switch t h e p r o g r a m a u d i o with t h e video. As i n t r o d u c e d in c h a p t e r 1, each v i d e o i n p u t o n a switcher has a c o r r e s p o n d i n g b u t t o n . If y o u have only t w o c a m e r a s a n d all y o u w a n t to d o is cut from o n e to the other, t w o b u t t o n s ( o n e for c a m e r a 1 a n d t h e o t h e r for c a m e r a 2) are sufficient. By pressing t h e c a m e r a 1 b u t t o n , y o u p u t
How Switchers Work
c a m e r a 1 "on t h e air," t h a t is, r o u t e its video to t h e l i n e - o u t , w h i c h carries it to t h e t r a n s m i t t e r or t h e video recorder. Pressing t h e c a m e r a 2 b u t t o n will p u t c a m e r a 2 o n the air. W h a t if y o u w a n t e d to e x p a n d y o u r switching to include a v i d e o recorder, a character g e n e r a t o r (C.G.), a n d a r e m o t e feed? You w o u l d n e e d three a d d i t i o n a l b u t t o n s — o n e for the video recorder, o n e for the C.G., a n d o n e for t h e r e m o t e feed. W h e n y o u w a n t t h e screen in black before switching to o n e of t h e v i d e o sources a n d t h e n go to black again at t h e e n d of t h e show, y o u n e e d an a d d i t i o n a l BLK (black) b u t t o n . T h e r o w of b u t t o n s , called a bus, h a s increased to six i n p u t s . P r o d u c t i o n switchers have n o t only m a n y m o r e b u t t o n s b u t several buses as well. Let's find o u t why. r-4_%_-SWITCHING-» Switching functions-* select | connect
W h e n you look at a large p r o d u c t i o n switcher w i t h all t h e different-colored rows of b u t t o n s a n d v a r i o u s levers, y o u m a y feel as i n t i m i d a t e d as w h e n l o o k i n g i n t o t h e cockpit
SIMPLE SWITCHER LAYOUT It m a y b e easier to u n d e r s t a n d t h e p a r t s of a switcher b y
of an airliner. But once y o u u n d e r s t a n d t h e basic principles
c o n s t r u c t i n g o n e t h a t fulfills t h e basic switcher functions:
a n d functions of a switcher, y o u can learn to o p e r a t e it
cuts, dissolves, supers, a n d fades. This switcher s h o u l d
1
faster t h a n r u n n i n g a n e w c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m . Even t h e
also let y o u see t h e selected video i n p u t s or effects before
m o s t e l a b o r a t e digital v i d e o - s w i t c h i n g system p e r f o r m s
y o u p u n c h t h e m u p o n t h e air. W h i l e b u i l d i n g a switcher,
t h e s a m e basic f u n c t i o n s as a s i m p l e p r o d u c t i o n switcher,
y o u will realize that even a simple switcher can get q u i t e
except that large switchers have m o r e video i n p u t s a n d can
complicated a n d that we n e e d to c o m b i n e several functions
p e r f o r m m o r e visual tricks.
to keep it m a n a g e a b l e .
This section explores w h a t a p r o d u c t i o n switcher does a n d h o w it basically w o r k s .
PROGRAM BUS If all y o u w a n t e d to d o is cut (switch i n s t a n t a n e o u s l y ) from
P
•
P
BASIC SWITCHER FUNCTIONS
o n e video source to a n o t h e r w i t h o u t previewing t h e m , y o u
Selecting video sources, performing transitions between them, and creating special effects
could d o it with a single row of b u t t o n s , each o n e represent
SIMPLE SWITCHER LAYOUT
w h i c h sends e v e r y t h i n g y o u p u n c h u p directly to t h e line-
Program bus, mix buses, preview bus, effects buses, and multi function switchers and additional switcher controls
is called t h e program
BASIC SWITCHER OPERATION Cut or take, dissolve, super, fade, and additional special-effects controls
ing a different video i n p u t , SEE 11.1 T h i s r o w of b u t t o n s , o u t ( a n d from t h e r e to t h e t r a n s m i t t e r o r video r e c o r d e r ) , bus. Also called
program/background,
t h e p r o g r a m b u s represents, in effect, a selector switch for t h e l i n e - o u t . It is a direct i n p u t / o u t p u t link a n d therefore is also called t h e direct bus. N o t e t h a t t h e r e is an a d d i t i o n a l b u t t o n at t h e b e g i n n i n g of t h e p r o g r a m b u s , labeled BLK
BASIC SWITCHER FUNCTIONS T h e basic functions of a p r o d u c t i o n switcher are (1) to se lect an a p p r o p r i a t e video source from several i n p u t s , (2) to p e r f o r m basic t r a n s i t i o n s b e t w e e n t w o v i d e o sources, a n d
244
1. See Stuart W. Hyde, Television and Radio Announcing, 4th ed. (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1983), pp. 226-35. He explains the workings of an audio console by building one. I am using his construction metaphor with his permission.
Section
11.1
How
Switchers
245
Work
1 1 . 1 PROGRAM BUS Whatever source is punched up on the program bus goes directly to the line-out.
Program bus
1 1 . 2 PROGRAM BUS WITH MIX BUSES AND FADER BAR The mix buses A and B enable the mixing of two video sources.
Mix bus A
Mix bus B
Program bus
o r BLACK. Instead of calling u p a specific p i c t u r e , t h e BLK
PREVIEW BUS
b u t t o n p u t s t h e screen to black.
T h e preview
bus is identical to t h e p r o g r a m b u s in t h e
n u m b e r , type, a n d a r r a n g e m e n t of b u t t o n s . T h e functions
MIX BUSES
of t h e b u t t o n s are also similar, except t h a t t h e " l i n e - o u t "
If y o u w a n t the switcher t o d o dissolves ( d u r i n g w h i c h o n e
of t h e p r e v i e w b u s does n o t go o n t h e air or to a r e c o r d
image gradually replaces t h e o t h e r t h r o u g h a t e m p o r a r y
ing device b u t simply to a preview
double exposure), supers (a double exposure of two images,
e x a m p l e , y o u p r e s s t h e c a m e r a 1 (C-1)
w i t h t h e t o p o n e letting t h e b o t t o m o n e s h o w t h r o u g h ) ,
p r e v i e w b u s , c a m e r a l's p i c t u r e appears o n t h e preview
a n d fades (the g r a d u a l a p p e a r a n c e of an i m a g e from black
m o n i t o r w i t h o u t affecting t h e o u t p u t of t h e p r o g r a m b u s ,
or d i s a p p e a r a n c e to black) in a d d i t i o n to simple cuts, y o u
such as t h e C G . text. If y o u d o n ' t like c a m e r a l's p i c t u r e
(P/V)
monitor.
If, for
button on the
a lever, called
a n d w a n t to switch to c a m e r a 2, y o u s i m p l y press t h e C-2
t h e fader bar, t h a t controls t h e speed of t h e m i x (dissolves
b u t t o n o n t h e p r e v i e w b u s . T h e p r o g r a m b u s will still dis
n e e d t w o m o r e b u s e s — t h e mix buses—and
play t h e C G . text o n the line m o n i t o r a n d will n o t switch
a n d fades) a n d t h e n a t u r e of the super, SEE 11.2 W h e n m o v i n g t h e fader b a r t o t h e full extent of travel, t h e p i c t u r e of o n e b u s is faded in while t h e p i c t u r e of the
to c a m e r a 2. T h e p r e v i e w b u s is also called t h e preset
bus
if it also functions as a m o n i t o r t h a t shows v a r i o u s preset
o t h e r b u s is faded o u t . T h e actual dissolve h a p p e n s w h e n
effects. ( T h e preview/preset b u s is explored further later
t h e v i d e o images of t h e t w o buses t e m p o r a r i l y m i x . W h e n
in this section.)
y o u s t o p t h e fader b a r s o m e w h a t in the m i d d l e , y o u ar
Like t h e t w o - s c r e e n c o m p u t e r display o n a p o s t p r o
of t h e two
d u c t i o n editing u n i t , t h e p r e v i e w a n d line m o n i t o r s are
H o w does t h e p r o g r a m b u s get this " m i x " to t h e line-
will c u t t o g e t h e r well, t h a t is, preserve vector c o n t i n u i t y
rest t h e dissolve a n d create a superimposition video sources.
out? You m u s t a d d still a n o t h e r b u t t o n to t h e p r o g r a m
usually side-by-side to s h o w w h e t h e r t w o succeeding shots a n d m e n t a l m a p p o s i t i o n s (see c h a p t e r 13).
b u s t h a t can transfer to t h e l i n e - o u t t h e v i d e o g e n e r a t e d
As y o u c a n see, o u r s i m p l e switcher h a s g r o w n t o
b y t h e m i x b u s e s . This MIX b u t t o n is at t h e far r i g h t of t h e
twenty-six b u t t o n s , a r r a n g e d in four buses, a n d h a s a fader
p r o g r a m bus.
bar added, SEEIT.3
246
Chapter
I1
1 1 . 3 BASIC PRODUCTION SWITCHER WITH PREVIEW BUS This basic production switcher has a program bus, two mix buses, and a preview bus. Note that the preview bus is identical to the program bus except that its output is routed to the preview moni tor rather than to the line-out.
SWITCHING,
OR INSTANTANEOUS
EDITING
Preview bus
Mix bus A
Mix bus E
Program bus
EFFECTS B U S E S
b u t t o n s ) , a p r o g r a m b u s ( m i d d l e r o w ) , a n d a key b u s ( u p
If y o u n o w w a n t e d y o u r switcher to p e r f o r m s o m e special
p e r r o w ) . It also has a n u m b e r of b u t t o n g r o u p s that let
effects, such as a variety of wipes (one i m a g e f r a m e d in a
y o u create certain effects.
geometrical s h a p e gradually replacing t h e o t h e r ) , title keys
Let's briefly review t h e functions of t h e v a r i o u s buses.
(lettering inserted i n t o a b a c k g r o u n d p i c t u r e ) , a n d o t h e r
T h e p r o g r a m b u s always directs its o u t p u t to t h e l i n e - o u t .
image manipulations (shape a n d / o r color transforma
If, for e x a m p l e , y o u press t h e C-1 b u t t o n o n t h e p r o g r a m
t i o n s ) , t h e basic design w o u l d have to i n c l u d e at least two
bus, c a m e r a 1 is o n t h e air. If y o u t h e n press t h e VTR b u t
or m o r e effects buses a n d o n e a d d i t i o n a l fader bar. You
t o n , y o u cut f r o m c a m e r a 1 to t h e V T R video. If y o u d o n ' t
would p r o b a b l y t h e n w a n t to e x p a n d the o t h e r video i n p u t s
n e e d to preview the u p c o m i n g pictures a n d y o u r switching
to a c c o m m o d a t e several m o r e cameras, t w o or t h r e e VTRs,
is "cuts-only," y o u can d o it all o n the p r o g r a m b u s . W h e n
a n electronic still store (ESS) system, a graphics generator,
assigned a m i x o r a n effects f u n c t i o n , it b e c o m e s M / E
a n d r e m o t e feeds. In n o t i m e y o u r switcher w o u l d have so
b u s A. SEE 11.5
m a n y b u t t o n s a n d levers that operating t h e m w o u l d require roller skates to get to all of t h e m in a h u r r y .
T h e preview/preset
bus, also called
preset/background,
lets y o u p r e v i e w t h e v i d e o source t h a t y o u selected as y o u r next shot. W h e n e v e r y o u press t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g b u t t o n
MULTIFUNCTION SWITCHERS
o n t h e preset b u s , t h e selected s h o t will a u t o m a t i c a l l y a p
To keep switchers m a n a g e a b l e , m a n u f a c t u r e r s h a v e d e
pear o n the preview/preset m o n i t o r . As s o o n as y o u activate
signed buses t h a t p e r f o r m m u l t i p l e functions. R a t h e r t h a n
a certain t r a n s i t i o n (cut, dissolve, or w i p e ) , this preview
have separate p r o g r a m , mix, effects, a n d preview buses, y o u
p i c t u r e will replace t h e o n - t h e - a i r p i c t u r e as s h o w n o n t h e
can assign a m i n i m u m of buses v a r i o u s mix/effects
(M/E)
line m o n i t o r . As y o u c a n see, this preview/preset b u s n o w
functions. W h e n y o u assign two M/E buses (A a n d B) to
functions as M / E b u s B. You can n o w u n d e r s t a n d w h y this
t h e m i x m o d e , y o u can dissolve from A t o B or even d o a
is called a p r e v i e w / p r e s e t b u s : it is a p r e v i e w b u s because it
super (by stopping the dissolve m i d w a y ) . By assigning t h e m
lets y o u p r e v i e w t h e u p c o m i n g source; it is a preset b u s b e
to t h e effects m o d e , y o u can achieve special effects, such
cause it lets y o u preset t h e u p c o m i n g effect. Despite its dual
as a variety of wipes from A to B. You c a n even assign t h e
function, this b u s is generally k n o w n as t h e p r e v i e w b u s .
p r o g r a m a n d p r e v i e w buses v a r i o u s M / E functions while
C o m p l i c a t i n g t h e t e r m i n o l o g y a little m o r e , b o t h t h e
still preserving t h e i r original functions. T h e b u t t o n s w i t h
p r o g r a m a n d the preview/preset buses are s o m e t i m e s called
which you delegate w h a t a b u s is to d o are, logically e n o u g h ,
" b a c k g r o u n d " buses because they can serve as b a c k g r o u n d
called delegation
controls. T h e following discussion identi
for v a r i o u s effects. Let's a s s u m e that y o u have c a m e r a 1
fies the v a r i o u s buses a n d h o w t h e y i n t e r a c t o n a simple
p u n c h e d up on the program bus (M/E bus A), showing
m u l t i f u n c t i o n switcher, SEE 11.4
a C U (close-up) of t h e latest c o m p u t e r m o d e l . W h e n y o u insert t h e n a m e of t h e c o m p u t e r over this shot, t h e p r o
As y o u c a n see, t h e switcher in figure 11.4 has only t h r e e buses: a p r e v i e w / p r e s e t b u s (lower r o w of
g r a m b u s supplies t h e b a c k g r o u n d i m a g e (the C U of t h e c o m p u t e r ) for this title key.
Section
11.1
How
Switchers
, Wipe selectors
247
Work
Color background controls
Joystick - Auto transition rate
Key controls
Clipper Soft wipe
^
Downstream keyer
Black buttons
Delegation controls
Key bus Program bus (M/E bus A)
• p - D S K fade-toblack button
Preset/preview bus (M/E bus B)
Fader bar
Take button '
Auto transition button
1 1 . 4 MULTIFUNCTION SWITCHER This multifunction switcher (Grass Valley 100) has only three buses: a preview/preset bus, a program bus, and a key bus. You can delegate the program and preview/preset buses M/E functions.
1 1 . 5 SWITCHING ON THE PROGRAM BUS Program bus
"Take one.'
Program bus
"Take two.'
T h e third ( t o p ) r o w of b u t t o n s is t h e key bus. It lets y o u
When switching on the program bus, the transitions will be cuts-only. With cam era 1 on the air, you can cut to camera 2 by pressing the C-2 button.
Delegation controls
T h e s e c o n t r o l s let y o u c h o o s e a
select t h e v i d e o sources, s u c h as lettering s u p p l i e d b y t h e
t r a n s i t i o n or a n effect. O n this m u l t i f u n c t i o n switcher, they
C.G., t o b e i n s e r t e d i n t o t h e b a c k g r o u n d i m a g e , s u p p l i e d
are l o c a t e d t o t h e i m m e d i a t e left o f t h e fader bar. SEE 11.6
b y t h e p r o g r a m b u s . •Vi»»SWITCHING-> Architecture^ program bus | preview bus | mix buses | fader bar automatic transition | try it
By pressing t h e b a c k g r o u n d b u t t o n (BKGD),
you put
t h e p r o g r a m a n d p r e v i e w / p r e s e t (A a n d B) buses in m i x
248
Chapter
SWITCHING,
I 7
OR INSTANTANEOUS
EDITING
tional b u t t o n s to achieve the s a m e key effect. ES^SWITCHING-* Switching functions-^ transitions | create effects Before m o v i n g o n t o s o m e o t h e r m a j o r s w i t c h e r controls, let's p u t s o m e of the t h e o r y i n t o practice a n d d o s o m e simple switching.
BASIC SWITCHER OPERATION A l t h o u g h y o u are n o w w o r k i n g w i t h a specific a n a l o g 2
switcher (Grass Valley 1 0 0 ) w h o s e controls are a r r a n g e d in a p a r t i c u l a r way, m o s t m u l t i f u n c t i o n switchers o p e r a t e o n a similar switcher architecture. O n c e y o u k n o w h o w to o p e r a t e a specific p r o d u c t i o n switcher, y o u can readily transfer t h o s e skills to a n o t h e r o n e . L o o k again at the switcher in figure 11.4. H o w w o u l d y o u achieve a cut, a dissolve, a super, a fade from black, a n d a fade to black?
CUT OR TAKE 11.6
As y o u recall, t h e p r o g r a m b u s (A) lets y o u cut f r o m o n e
DELEGATION CONTROLS
The delegation controls assign the function of the buses and the specific transition mode.
s o u r c e to a n o t h e r by s i m p l y pressing t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g b u t t o n . If y o u w a n t c a m e r a 1 o n t h e air, press t h e C-1 b u t t o n ; t o cut to c a m e r a 2, press t h e C-2 b u t t o n . T h e p r o b l e m with s u c h direct switching is t h a t t h e n e x t s h o t will n o t
m o d e . Whatever you p u n c h u p o n the p r o g r a m b u s (A) will
a p p e a r o n the preview m o n i t o r . A l t h o u g h each video
go o n t h e air a n d , therefore, s h o w u p o n the line m o n i t o r .
i n p u t shows u p o n a designated m o n i t o r in t h e c o n t r o l
Whatever you press o n t h e preview/preset b u s (B) will show
r o o m , y o u will have a difficult t i m e seeing w h e t h e r t h e
u p o n the p r e v i e w m o n i t o r , ready to r e p l a c e — t h r o u g h a
n e w s h o t ( c a m e r a 2) will cut t o g e t h e r well ( p r o v i d e visual c o n t i n u i t y ) w i t h t h e o n e already o n t h e air ( c a m e r a 1).
c u t — t h e p i c t u r e from b u s A c u r r e n t l y o n t h e air. By additionally pressing t h e red MIX
b u t t o n in the
W i t h a preview/preset m o n i t o r p o s i t i o n e d next t o t h e line
delegation c o n t r o l s section of t h e switcher, y o u have ex
m o n i t o r , y o u c a n j u d g e w h e t h e r c a m e r a 2's i m a g e will
p a n d e d t h e t r a n s i t i o n s from c u t s - o n l y to i n c l u d e dissolves
p r o v i d e t h e necessary c o n t i n u i t y w h e n c u t w i t h t h e i m a g e
as well. You can n o w c u t from o n e video s o u r c e to a n o t h e r
o n c a m e r a 1. To effect such a preview, y o u have to p u n c h
or dissolve b e t w e e n t h e m . W h e n y o u press t h e r e d
up camera 2 on the preset/preview bus.
WIPE
b u t t o n instead of t h e M I X b u t t o n , t h e t r a n s i t i o n will b e a wipe instead of a dissolve (see c h a p t e r 14). By pressing t h e X E Y b u t t o n , y o u activate t h e t o p (key)
But wait! You first n e e d to tell the p r o g r a m a n d preview buses t h a t t h e y are s u p p o s e d t o i n t e r a c t as a p a i r of M / E buses. Pressing t h e BKGD delegation c o n t r o l b u t t o n will
bus. O n this b u s y o u c a n select a p r o p e r key source, such as
a c c o m p l i s h this a s s i g n m e n t . M / E b u s A (also the p r o g r a m
the C.G., t h a t is to b e inserted i n t o t h e b a c k g r o u n d picture
b u s ) is n o w feeding c a m e r a l's p i c t u r e t o the line m o n i t o r
c u r r e n t l y activated o n t h e p r o g r a m b u s (A) a n d , therefore,
( a n d to t h e l i n e - o u t ) , a n d M / E b u s B (also the preset b u s )
o n t h e air. G o i n g back t o o u r c o m p u t e r e x a m p l e , t h e C-1
is feeding c a m e r a 2's p i c t u r e to t h e p r e v i e w m o n i t o r , ready
b u t t o n o n t h e p r o g r a m b u s (A) w o u l d p r o v i d e t h e back
to replace c a m e r a l's p i c t u r e , SEE I 1.7
g r o u n d image of t h e c o m p u t e r , a n d t h e CG b u t t o n o n t h e key b u s w o u l d p r o v i d e t h e n a m e of t h e c o m p u t e r . T h e advantage of a m u l t i f u n c t i o n switcher is t h a t y o u can achieve all of these effects w i t h only t h r e e b u s e s . If y o u h a d c o n t i n u e d the architecture—the
electronic design
logic—of the switcher w e were b u i l d i n g , y o u w o u l d have n e e d e d at least five buses, two fader bars, a n d several a d d i
2. The GV100 switcher is a classic that you still find in many smaller pro fessional and educational television studios. Whereas more-modern digital switchers have greater effects capabilities, which allow the layering of a variety of effects through multiple keys, a high-capacity effects memory, and two or more downstream channels to provide separate video feeds, they still operate on the principal M/E architec ture of the GV 100.
Section
How
11.1
Switchers
Preview monitor (camera 2)
11.7
249
Work
Line monitor (camera 1)
DUAL FUNCTION OF PROGRAM AND PRESET BUSES
When delegated a background and mix function, the program bus becomes M/E bus A and the preview/preset bus becomes M/E bus B. Here camera 1 is punched up on bus A and is on the air. Camera 2 is preset to replace camera 1 as soon as you press the CUT button.
Preview monitor (cameral)
Line monitor (camera 2)
1 1 . 8 IMAGE CHANGE AFTER CUT When the cut is completed, the program bus shows camera 2 on the air, and the preview/preset bus switches automatically to camera 1.
To p e r f o r m t h e actual cut from c a m e r a 1 to c a m e r a 2,
b u s (which n o w shows c a m e r a 1) a n d p r o g r a m b u s (which
you m u s t press t h e CUT b u t t o n right b e l o w t h e MIX b u t
h a s c a m e r a 2 o n the air)? Yes. T h i s toggle feature of the
t o n (see figure 11.6). T h e p i c t u r e o n t h e line m o n i t o r will
C U T b u t t o n is helpful w h e n e v e r y o u have t o switch quickly
i n s t a n t l y switch from c a m e r a 1 to c a m e r a 2, a n d t h e p i c
a n d repeatedly b e t w e e n t h e s a m e t w o v i d e o sources. For
t u r e o n t h e p r e v i e w m o n i t o r will switch from c a m e r a 2 to
example, in switching an interview, t h e single CUT b u t t o n
c a m e r a 1. T h e light of t h e C-1 b u t t o n o n t h e p r o g r a m b u s
lets y o u react quickly to w h a t is b e i n g said a n d p e r f o r m
(indicating that its video source is o n t h e air) will d i m , a n d
w i t h great accuracy r e p e a t e d cuts b e t w e e n the close-ups
the C-2 b u t t o n will light (indicating t h a t c a m e r a 2 is n o w
of t h e h o s t a n d t h e guest.
o n the air). T h e o p p o s i t e will h a p p e n o n t h e preset b u s : t h e C-2 b u t t o n will d i m (indicating t h a t its source is n o longer
DISSOLVE
p r e v i e w e d ) , a n d t h e C-1 b u t t o n will light ( i n d i c a t i n g that
To achieve a dissolve, y o u m u s t n o w press t h e MIX b u t t o n
its source is n o w fed to t h e p r e v i e w m o n i t o r ) . By pressing
in a d d i t i o n to t h e BKGD b u t t o n t o delegate t h e m i x func
t h e C L T b u t t o n , y o u have, in effect, transferred the o u t p u t
tion to b o t h buses. If for s o m e reason the BKGD b u t t o n has
of the p r e v i e w b u s to t h e p r o g r a m b u s a n d transferred t h e
b e e n t u r n e d off, y o u n e e d to also press this b u t t o n again.
former o u t p u t of t h e p r o g r a m b u s back to t h e preview b u s .
W h e n b o t h t h e BKGD a n d t h e MIX b u t t o n s are lighted,
This m a n e u v e r is also called flip-flop
switching,
SEE 11.8
t h e switcher is in t h e correct m i x m o d e .
W h a t if y o u were t o press t h e CUT b u t t o n again?
To dissolve from c a m e r a 1 t o c a m e r a 2, y o u n e e d to
Would y o u get t h e same flip-flop effect between the preview
first p u n c h u p c a m e r a 1 o n t h e p r o g r a m b u s (A) to p u t
250
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SWITCHING,
OR INSTANTANEOUS
EDITING
A
Mix bus A Preview monitor (camera 2)
Line monitor (camera!)
Preview monitor (camera 2)
Line monitor (superimposition)
Preview monitor (camera!)
Line monitor (camera 2)
Mix bus B
B
Mix bus A
Mix bus B
C
Mix bus A
Mix busB
11.9
DISSOLVE
Once assigned the mix function through the mix delegation control, you can dissolve from camera 1 to camera 2. Assuming that camera 1 is on the air on bus A, you need to preset camera 2 on bus B. By moving the fader bar to the full extent of travel (in this case, up), you activate the dissolve from camera 1 to camera 2. Once the dissolve is completed, camera 2 will replace camera 1 on the program bus. Note that you can move the fader bar either up or down for the dissolve.
c a m e r a 1 o n t h e air. N o w p u n c h u p c a m e r a 2 o n t h e p r e
revert to their p r o g r a m a n d p r e v i e w functions. Because
view b u s (B). As s o o n as y o u press t h e C-2 b u t t o n o n t h e
t h e p r o g r a m b u s has c o m m a n d over w h a t picture is o n the
preset b u s , it will light u p a n d r o u t e c a m e r a 2's video to the
air, t h e preset b u s transfers c a m e r a 2's v i d e o i n p u t to the
preview m o n i t o r . But instead of pressing t h e CUT b u t t o n
p r o g r a m b u s a n d c a m e r a l's p i c t u r e to its o w n b u s just in
as you w o u l d d u r i n g a take, y o u m o v e t h e fader b a r all
case y o u w a n t to dissolve back to c a m e r a 1 at t h e e n d of
t h e way u p (away from y o u ) or d o w n ( t o w a r d y o u ) to t h e
t h e dissolve.
full extent of travel. T h e speed of t h e dissolve d e p e n d s o n
You can also use t h e auto transition
device to execute
h o w fast y o u m o v e t h e fader bar. W h e n y o u have reached
t h e dissolve. Instead of m o v i n g t h e fader b a r u p o r d o w n ,
t h e limit of travel with t h e fader bar, the dissolve is c o m
y o u can press t h e AUTO
plete a n d c a m e r a 2's p i c t u r e will have replaced c a m e r a l's
b u t t o n — s e e figure 11.4), w h i c h t h e n takes over t h e fader
p i c t u r e , SEE 11.9
b a r function. T h e rate of t h e dissolve is d e t e r m i n e d by t h e
You can w a t c h the dissolve o n t h e line m o n i t o r , w h i c h
TRANS b u t t o n (next to t h e TAKE
n u m b e r of frames y o u p u n c h u p in t h e a u t o t r a n s i t i o n
displays c a m e r a l's p i c t u r e at t h e start of the dissolve a n d
section. Because o u r television system o p e r a t e s w i t h 30
c a m e r a 2's p i c t u r e at the e n d of it. A l t h o u g h y o u h a d b o t h
frames p e r second, a frame rate of 60 w o u l d give y o u a
buses act t e m p o r a r i l y as M / E b u s e s A a n d B, they quickly
2-second dissolve. S o u n d complicated? Yes, b u t o n c e you've
Section
11.1
How
Switchers
251
Work
Mix bus A
Mix bus B
Preview monitor
Line monitor
(black)
(camera 2)
1 1 . 1 0 FADE When fading to black from camera 2, you need to punch up the BLK button on bus B (preview/preset) and then dissolve into it by moving the fader bar to the full extent of travel (in this case, down).
d o n e it a few t i m e s , p u n c h i n g all these b u t t o n s b e c o m e s as m u c h a r o u t i n e as u s i n g a c o m p u t e r k e y b o a r d w i t h a word-processing program.
To fade t o black from c a m e r a 2 (which h a s b e e n t r a n s ferred to t h e p r o g r a m b u s a n d is therefore o n t h e air) y o u press t h e 5UC~button o n t h e preset b u s a n d m o v e t h e fader b a r t o t h e o p p o s i t e limit of travel, S E E I I . I O Because y o u lit
SUPER
erally dissolve from a n i m a g e t o black, y o u c a n also use t h e
If y o u w e r e t o s t o p t h e dissolve halfway b e t w e e n t h e p r o
a u t o t r a n s i t i o n c o n t r o l for t h e fade to black. Q2J>swiTCH-
g r a m (A) a n d preset (B) buses, y o u w o u l d have a s u p e r -
ING-> Transitions-* cut | mix/dissolve | wipe | fade | try it
i m p o s i t i o n , o r super (see figure 11.9b). B o t h buses will b e activated, each delivering a p i c t u r e w i t h exactly o n e - h a l f
ADDITIONAL SPECIAL-EFFECTS CONTROLS
video (signal s t r e n g t h ) . If y o u w a n t t o favor t h e p i c t u r e
B e c a u s e y o u h a v e b e c o m e so proficient i n p e r f o r m i n g
from b u s A ( m a k e t h e "old" video source s t r o n g e r ) , simply
simple switcher o p e r a t i o n s , y o u c a n w o r k w i t h a few m o r e
s t o p t h e travel of t h e fader b a r before it reaches m i d p o i n t .
controls t o create a variety of special effects. These include:
To favor t h e source from b u s B ( t h e " n e w " i m a g e ) , m o v e
(1) w i p e controls a n d w i p e p a t t e r n s , (2) k e y a n d clip c o n
t h e fader b a r past t h e m i d p o i n t .
trols, (3) t h e d o w n s t r e a m keyer, a n d (4) color b a c k g r o u n d c o n t r o l s . At this p o i n t d o n ' t w o r r y a b o u t exactly h o w these
FADE
controls are o p e r a t e d . A l t h o u g h all professional p r o d u c is a dissolve from black t o a p i c t u r e ; t o "fade to
t i o n switchers have these a d d i t i o n a l c o n t r o l s , t h e y often
black" o r "go t o black" is a dissolve from t h e o n - t h e - a i r
require different m e a n s of o p e r a t i o n . To b e c o m e efficient
p i c t u r e t o black. Using o u r switcher, h o w w o u l d y o u fade
in using a p a r t i c u l a r switcher, y o u n e e d t o s t u d y its o p e r a
A fade-in
in c a m e r a 2 from black? H e r e is t h e switching s e q u e n c e
t i o n s m a n u a l a n d , above all, practice, as y o u w o u l d w h e n
for d o i n g so:
l e a r n i n g t o play a m u s i c a l i n s t r u m e n t .
1. Press t h e BLK b u t t o n o n t h e p r o g r a m b u s . Because t h e p r o g r a m b u s delivers its p i c t u r e t o t h e l i n e - o u t , t h e line m o n i t o r shows black v i d e o .
Realize that these controls d o n o t b y themselves create t h e effect; rather, it is t h e special-effects
generator
(SEG)
t h a t p e r f o r m s this task (see c h a p t e r 14). All p r o d u c t i o n switchers have a b u i l t - i n SEG. I n fact, y o u will find that
2. Press b o t h t h e BKGD a n d t h e MIX b u t t o n s . As y o u
t h e m a n u f a c t u r e r s of m o s t digital p r o d u c t i o n switchers
recall, these delegation controls assign t h e p r o g r a m
p r i d e t h e m s e l v e s n o t so m u c h o n o p e r a t i o n a l ease b u t
a n d preset b u s e s ' mix/effects functions. 3. Press t h e C-2 b u t t o n o n t h e preset b u s . 4. M o v e t h e fader b a r t o t h e o p p o s i t e position. T h e speed
o n t h e m a n y visual tricks their SEGs c a n p e r f o r m . T h e b u z z w o r d is layering, w h i c h m e a n s c o m b i n i n g several key effects i n t o a m o r e c o m p l e x o n e . W h e n d o i n g c o m p l i c a t e d p o s t p r o d u c t i o n editing, y o u will find t h a t t h e s t a n d a r d
of t h e fade-in is d e t e r m i n e d b y h o w fast y o u m o v e
switcher SEG will n o t give y o u e n o u g h variety. In this case
t h e fader bar. T h e c a m e r a 2 p i c t u r e "develops" o n t h e
y o u n e e d t o u s e a p o s t p r o d u c t i o n switcher o r a c o m p u t e r
line-out monitor.
with special-effects software.
252
Chapter
SWITCHING,
1I
OR INSTANTANEOUS
EDITING
3. In the delegation controls section (effects/transition g r o u p ) , press t h e KEY a n d M I X b u t t o n s . 4. In t h e key controls, press t h e KEY BUS b u t t o n , w h i c h will m a k e t h e k e y s o u r c e a p p e a r o n t h e p r e v i e w monitor. 5. Adjust t h e clipper a n d the gain c o n t r o l ( t u r n clockwise o r counterclockwise) until the key looks s h a r p . If t h e ' Joystick positioner
Wipe patterns
key does n o t a p p e a r as i n d i c a t e d in step 4, adjust t h e clip c o n t r o l until it does.
1 1 . 1 1 WIPE MODE SELECTORS The wipe mode selectors offer a choice of geometrical wipe patterns. The configurations can be placed in a specific screen position using the joystick.
6. Press t h e CUT b u t t o n to activate t h e key. T h e back g r o u n d i m a g e a n d t h e key s h o u l d b o t h a p p e a r o n t h e line m o n i t o r . N o t e t h a t v a r i o u s switcher m o d e l s require different sequences to achieve a key effect. W h a t e v e r t h e steps, y o u
Wipe controls and wipe patterns
W h e n pressing
the WIPE b u t t o n in t h e delegation controls section in ad dition to the BKGD b u t t o n , all t r a n s i t i o n s will b e wipes. D u r i n g a w i p e t h e source v i d e o is gradually replaced b y t h e s e c o n d i m a g e t h a t is framed in a g e o m e t r i c a l s h a p e (see c h a p t e r 14). You c a n select t h e specific p a t t e r n in t h e g r o u p of b u t t o n s called wipe mode or pattern
n e e d t o select t h e b a c k g r o u n d i m a g e ( t h e m a i n i m a g e i n t o w h i c h y o u w a n t to i n s e r t t h e title) a n d t h e key s o u r c e ( t h e title) a n d t h e n w o r k w i t h the clip c o n t r o l so t h a t t h e key has s h a r p a n d clear edges. (For m o r e i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t h o w a key w o r k s , as well as an a d d i t i o n a l f o r m of keying called t h e chroma key, see c h a p t e r 14.)
selectors.
C o m m o n w i p e p a t t e r n s are e x p a n d i n g d i a m o n d s , boxes, or circles, SEE 1 1 . 1 1 O n large switchers these controls can b e e x t e n d e d to nearly 100 different p a t t e r n s b y i n p u t t i n g a code into the switcher. You c a n also c o n t r o l t h e d i r e c t i o n of the w i p e ( w h e t h e r a h o r i z o n t a l wipe, for e x a m p l e , starts from screen-left or screen-right d u r i n g t h e t r a n s i t i o n ) . T h e joystick p o s i t i o n e r lets y o u m o v e p a t t e r n s o n t h e screen. O t h e r controls give t h e wipes a soft or h a r d edge a n d give letters different b o r d e r s a n d s h a d o w s .
Downstream keyer keyer (DSK)
T h e " d o w n s t r e a m " in
downstream
refers to t h e m a n i p u l a t i o n of t h e signal at t h e
l i n e - o u t ( d o w n s t r e a m ) , r a t h e r t h a n at t h e M / E ( u p s t r e a m ) stage. W i t h a d o w n s t r e a m keyer, y o u c a n insert (key) a title or o t h e r g r a p h i c over t h e signal as it leaves t h e switcher. This l a s t - m i n u t e m a n e u v e r , w h i c h is totally i n d e p e n d e n t of a n y of t h e controls o n t h e buses, is d o n e to keep as m a n y M / E buses as possible available for the o t h e r switching a n d effects functions. M o s t switchers w i t h a DSK have a master fader, w h i c h consists of a n a d d i t i o n a l fader b a r or, m o r e
Key and clip controls
Keying lets y o u insert lettering
c o m m o n , a f a d e - t o - b l a c k AUTO
TRANS
button, with
or o t h e r p i c t u r e e l e m e n t s into t h e existing, o r b a c k g r o u n d ,
w h i c h you c a n fade-to-black t h e base p i c t u r e together w i t h
scene. T h e m o s t c o m m o n use of keys is to p u t lettering over
t h e d o w n s t r e a m key effect (see figure 11.4).
p e o p l e or scenes, or t h e familiar b o x over t h e newscaster's
You m a y ask w h y this fade-to-black c o n t r o l is neces
shoulder. T h e key b u s lets y o u select t h e p a r t i c u l a r video
sary w h e n , as just d e m o n s t r a t e d , y o u c a n fade t o black b y
source to insert i n t o t h e b a c k g r o u n d scene, s u c h as t h e
s i m p l y dissolving to black o n t h e p r o g r a m b u s . T h e reason
titles from t h e C G . T h e key-level
for t h e extra fade c o n t r o l is t h a t t h e effect p r o d u c e d by t h e
control,
also called the
clip control or clipper, adjusts t h e key signal so t h a t t h e let
DSK is totally i n d e p e n d e n t of the rest of t h e ( u p s t r e a m )
ters a p p e a r s h a r p a n d clear d u r i n g t h e key. O n t h e Grass
switcher c o n t r o l s . T h e BLK b u t t o n o n t h e p r o g r a m b u s
Valley 100 switcher, y o u w o u l d use t h e following steps to
will e l i m i n a t e t h e b a c k g r o u n d b u t n o t t h e key itself. O n l y
achieve a key:
t h e BLK b u t t o n in t h e d o w n s t r e a m keyer section (to t h e
1. O n the preset b u s , select t h e b a c k g r o u n d i n t o w h i c h y o u w a n t to insert a key. 2. O n t h e key b u s , select the video s o u r c e to b e keyed ( n o r m a l l y t h e C.G.).
right of t h e fader bar) will fade t h e entire screen to black. Wl^SWITCHING-) Effects-* keys | key types | downstream keyer | special effects
As a n e x a m p l e , let's set u p a s i m p l e DSK effect at t h e e n d of a p r o d u c t d e m o n s t r a t i o n of t h e latest c o m p u t e r
Section
How
11.1
Switchers
Work
253
m o d e l a n d t h e n fade to black. T h e final scene s h o w s a C U of t h e c o m p u t e r as t h e b a c k g r o u n d , w i t h t h e n a m e of t h e c o m p u t e r i n s e r t e d by the DSK. Recall t h a t o n e way t o fade
•
Instantaneous editing is the switching from one video source to another, or the combining of two or more sources while the show, or show segment, is in progress.
•
All switchers, simple or complex, perform the same basic functions: selecting an appropriate video source from several inputs, performing basic transitions between two video sources, and creating or accessing special effects.
•
The switcher has a separate button for each video input. There is a button for each camera, VTR, C.G., and other video sources, such as a remote input. The buttons are arranged in rows, called buses.
•
The basic multifunction switcher has a preset bus for selecting and previewing the upcoming shot; a program bus that sends its video input to the line-out; a key bus for selecting the video to be inserted over a background picture; a fader bar to activate mix effects; and various special-effects controls.
•
The program bus is a direct input/output (I/O) link and is therefore also called the direct bus. Whatever is punched up on the program bus goes directly to the line-out. It can also serve as a mix/effects (M/E) bus.
•
The preview/preset bus is used to select the upcoming video (preset function) and route it to the preview monitor (preview function). It also serves as an M/E bus.
•
The M/E bus can serve a mix (dissolve, super, or fade) or an effects function.
•
The key bus is used to select the video source to be inserted (keyed) into a background image.
•
Delegation controls are used to assign the buses specific functions.
•
The actual transition is activated by moving the fader bar from one limit of travel to the other, or by an AUTOTRANS button that takes on the functions of the fader bar.
•
Most switchers offer additional effects, such as a variety of wipe patterns, borders, and background colors, and the possibility of effects layering.
t o black is to press t h e BLK b u t t o n o n t h e preset b u s a n d t h e n dissolve i n t o it by m o v i n g t h e fader b a r or pressing t h e AUTO
TRANS
b u t t o n . But w h e n y o u l o o k at t h e line
m o n i t o r , t h e b a c k g r o u n d i m a g e ( C U of t h e c o m p u t e r ) h a s b e e n replaced b y black as it s h o u l d , b u t t h e n a m e of t h e c o m p u t e r r e m a i n s o n - s c r e e n . You n o w k n o w why. T h e d o w n s t r e a m keyer is unaffected by w h a t y o u d o in t h e u p s t r e a m p a r t of t h e s w i t c h e r — s u c h as g o i n g t o b l a c k o n t h e M / E b u s . Totally i n d e p e n d e n t of t h e rest of t h e switcher c o n t r o l s , t h e DSK obeys o n l y t h o s e controls in its o w n ( d o w n s t r e a m ) territory, h e n c e t h e n e e d for its o w n black c o n t r o l s . Color b a c k g r o u n d controls
M o s t switchers have
c o n t r o l s w i t h w h i c h y o u c a n p r o v i d e color b a c k g r o u n d s to keys a n d even give the lettering of titles a n d o t h e r w r i t t e n i n f o r m a t i o n v a r i o u s colors or c o l o r e d o u t l i n e s . C o l o r g e n e r a t o r s built i n t o t h e switcher consist of dials t h a t y o u c a n use to adjust hue (the color itself), saturation s t r e n g t h ) , a n d brightness
o r luminance
(the color
(the relative d a r k
ness a n d lightness of the color) (see figure 11.4). O n large p r o d u c t i o n switchers, these color c o n t r o l s are r e p e a t e d o n each M / E b u s .
rooms and remote trucks. Their primary purpose is to
11.2
select specific video sources t o go o n t h e air; to c o n n e c t t h e selected v i d e o t h r o u g h cuts, dissolves, or wipes; a n d to create a n d a p p l y keys a n d o t h e r effects. P r o d u c t i o n switchers m u s t let y o u p e r f o r m these tasks reliably a n d w i t h relative ease. W h e n switching a live football g a m e , t h e r e is n o r o o m for error.
What Switchers Do
P r o d u c t i o n s w i t c h e r s m u s t offer e n o u g h i n p u t s t o a c c o m m o d a t e t h e v a r i o u s v i d e o sources available. Even a small s t u d i o p r o d u c t i o n m a y require i n p u t s f r o m t h r e e c a m e r a s , a C.G., t w o or t h r e e VTRs, a n ESS (electronic still store) system, a n d two o r t h r e e r e m o t e feeds (such as a m o b i l e E N G t r u c k , n e t w o r k p r o g r a m , o r satellite h o o k u p ) . Because each b u t t o n o n a switcher c a n h a n d l e only a single i n p u t , this p r o d u c t i o n w o u l d r e q u i r e a b u s w i t h a m i n i m u m of t e n b u t t o n s , c o u n t i n g the B I X b u t t o n as a black v i d e o i n p u t . Despite t h e fact t h a t large p r o d u c t i o n switchers have t h i r t y or m o r e i n p u t s , t h e r e are occa sions w h e n a T D (technical d i r e c t o r ) feels s t r a p p e d for m o r e , especially d u r i n g live coverage of i n t e r n a t i o n a l n e w s or large s p o r t i n g events. You m a y t h e n have to press i n t o service a n a d d i t i o n a l switcher t h a t can take over a specific
This s e c t i o n gives a brief o v e r v i e w of a n a l o g a n d digi
a s s i g n m e n t , s u c h as t h e i n s t a n t replays.
tal s w i t c h e r s a n d s w i t c h i n g software. V i r t u a l l y all n e w
Yet in m a n y cases y o u d o n ' t n e e d a large t h i r t y - i n p u t
switchers are digital in design a n d partially or fully c o m
switcher a n d a r e m o t e t r u c k to d o a live or l i v e - o n - t a p e
p u t e r - d r i v e n . W i t h the p r e d o m i n a n c e of c o m p o n e n t video
p i c k u p of a variety of m u l t i c a m e r a events, such as a w e d
recorders, the electronic design of switchers h a s c h a n g e d
d i n g , b a s k e t b a l l g a m e , r o c k s h o w , classical c o n c e r t , o r
accordingly.
g r a d u a t i o n ceremony. For e x a m p l e , t h e PixBox features a complete a u d i o / v i d e o switching system, i n c l u d i n g a variety
•
P
SWITCHER TYPES AND FUNCTIONS
of t r a n s i t i o n s a n d special effects—all p a c k e d i n t o a small
Production and postproduction switchers, master control switchers, and routing switchers
suitcase. You c a n c o n n e c t u p to t e n video i n p u t s — a n y four
ELECTRONIC DESIGNS Composite and component switchers, analog and digital switchers, and audio-follow-video switchers
of w h i c h are s w i t c h a b l e — a n d a n u m b e r of stereo line- a n d mic-level a u d i o sources. It also h a s efficient t w o - w a y inter c o m a n d tally light systems. M u c h like a l a p t o p c o m p u t e r , the lid of t h e suitcase serves as t h e source m o n i t o r s a n d t h e larger p r e v i e w a n d line m o n i t o r pair, SEE 1 1 . 1 2 A l t h o u g h t h e p r i m a r y f u n c t i o n of p r o d u c t i o n
SWITCHER TYPES AND FUNCTIONS
s w i t c h e r s is t o facilitate i n s t a n t a n e o u s e d i t i n g — s e l e c t
W h e n l o o k i n g m o r e carefully at switchers, a n d especially
ing v a r i o u s video sources a n d s e q u e n c i n g t h e m t h r o u g h
w h e n y o u begin to o p e r a t e t h e m , y o u will notice t h a t t h e y
t r a n s i t i o n s — t h e y are expected t o p e r f o r m m o r e a n d m o r e
are designed to fulfill specific p r o d u c t i o n functions. T h e
c o m p l e x effects t h a t rival t h o s e of p o s t p r o d u c t i o n edit
m a j o r types of switchers are: (1) p r o d u c t i o n switchers,
ing. Are such effects necessary o r even a p p r o p r i a t e w h e n
(2) p o s t p r o d u c t i o n switchers, (3) master control switchers,
switching a live or l i v e - o n - t a p e show? Isn't t h e p r i m a r y
a n d (4) r o u t i n g switchers. M o s t switchers are built to fulfill
task of live switching t o select shots a n d s e q u e n c e t h e m
b o t h p r o d u c t i o n a n d p o s t p r o d u c t i o n functions.
p r o p e r l y t h r o u g h a variety of transitions? Yes. B u t because
PRODUCTION SWITCHERS
dazzle of p o s t p r o d u c t i o n effects, live s h o w s (such as n e w s
Production
a n d sports) c a n n o t afford to l o o k any less exciting. At least
audiences have b e c o m e so a c c u s t o m e d to the visual razzle-
switchers
are u s e d i n m u l t i c a m e r a s t u d i o or
field p r o d u c t i o n s . You will find t h e m in s t u d i o c o n t r o l
254
so goes t h e a r g u m e n t .
Section
What
11.2
Switchers
255
Do
Camera previews
Line monitor
Preview monitor
Video and audio outputs
Tally line output Video and audio inputs Switcher with effects
11.12
PORTABLE SWITCHING SYSTEM
This portable production switching system (PixBox2) is designed for multicamera live and live-on-tape productions. It has eight video and six audio inputs, a tally light, an intercom hookup, and a rich transition menu. The LCD panel displays all video inputs and simulates a larger preview and line monitor. All this technology is contained in a relatively small suitcase.
A m o r e persuasive a r g u m e n t is that expensive switch
e q u i p m e n t that c a n b u i l d , step-by-step, a highly c o m p l e x
ers c a n n o t be limited to t h e few live o r l i v e - o n - t a p e p r o
effect. For e x a m p l e , t h e small p o s t p r o d u c t i o n switcher in
d u c t i o n s d o n e in m o s t television stations; they m u s t b e
figure 11.13 can p r o d u c e 1,600 different effects—more t h a n
able to p e r f o r m t h e m o r e c o m p l e x p o s t p r o d u c t i o n tasks
e n o u g h for even t h e m o s t a r d e n t special-effects fanatic.
as well. Fortunately, all p r o d u c t i o n switchers have a c o n
A n d just in case y o u w a n t even m o r e effects, y o u can h o o k
siderable n u m b e r of digital effects b u i l t - i n , a n d t h e y can
u p via USB or FireWire cable to a c o m p u t e r with special-
b e easily h o o k e d u p to c o m p l e x digital effects e q u i p m e n t
effects software. SEE 11.13
t o b e used as p o s t p r o d u c t i o n switchers. Because switch
S o m e p o s t p r o d u c t i o n switchers have a small a u d i o
ers are basically c o m p u t e r - d r i v e n , they allow y o u to store
mixer b u i l t - i n , w h i c h for r o u t i n e a u d i o p o s t p r o d u c t i o n
a great n u m b e r of p r e p r o d u c e d special effects a n d recall
jobs m a k e s p a t c h i n g to a n external mixer unnecessary.
t h e m instantly by pressing a single b u t t o n , w i t h o u t h a v i n g
P o s t p r o d u c t i o n switchers are basically m e n u - d r i v e n :
t o c l i m b all over t h e p a n e l to reach t h e necessary b u t t o n s
you activate t h e major functions n o t by pressing b u t t o n s o n
a n d levers.
t h e switcher p a n e l b u t b y c h o o s i n g o p t i o n s o n p u l l - d o w n m e n u s in a software p r o g r a m . T h e c o m p u t e r r e s p o n d s
POSTPRODUCTION SWITCHERS
to t h e c o m m a n d s , activating t h e switcher b u t t o n s a n d ,
T h e switcher in p o s t p r o d u c t i o n is used for i n s t a n t a n e o u s
if e v e r y t h i n g goes r i g h t , d e l i v e r i n g t h e specified effect
editing r a t h e r t h a n for creating t r a n s i t i o n s a n d special ef
or transition.
fects. A g o o d postproduction
switcher is n o t necessarily t h e
Because such switchers are c o m p u t e r - d r i v e n , c o u l d n ' t
o n e w i t h the m o s t video i n p u t s b u t r a t h e r t h e o n e t h a t of
we d o away w i t h the actual switcher a n d s i m p l y use c o m
fers t h e greatest n u m b e r of key effects a n d o t h e r multilevel
p u t e r software to execute t h e various transitions? Yes. There
256
Chapter
SWITCHING,
7 7
11.13 SMALL DIGITAL PRODUCTION SWITCHER
OR INSTANTANEOUS
Joystick
EDITING
Control panel
This postproduction switcher (Panasonic AG-MX70) can cre ate 600 effects, which, with a special-effects board, can be expanded to 1,600 two- and three-dimensional effects. It has a built-in audio mixer with six inputs. Its large con trol panel displays operation and monitoring information, and, like all postproduction switchers, it can also be used for simple live switching.
Mix buses
Audio mixer
Fader bar
are software p r o g r a m s for b o t h W i n d o w s a n d M a c i n t o s h
matically to r e m o t e feeds, such as a n e t w o r k p r o g r a m o r
platforms that function as basic switchers. Instead of press
live event, SEE 11.15
ing a b u t t o n , y o u click a m o u s e , SEE 1 1 . 1 4 T h e r e are also c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m s t h a t have a w h o l e switching sequence
ROUTING SWITCHERS
p r o g r a m m e d for highly predictable s h o w formats, such as
Routing
a s i n g l e - a n c h o r news o r w e a t h e r p r o g r a m . Such software
tions. For e x a m p l e , y o u s h o u l d use a r o u t i n g switcher t o
n o t only takes care of t h e switching from c a m e r a to c a m e r a
feed v a r i o u s m o n i t o r s w i t h t h e l i n e - o u t v i d e o , t h e n switch
b u t also tells t h e r o b o t i c c a m e r a s w h a t t o do.
to the preview video, a n d t h e n t o t h e satellite video. O r y o u
switchers
r o u t e video signals t o specific destina
C o m p u t e r t e c h n o l o g y n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g , t h e switcher
m a y assign the line-out signal to the video server instead of
as y o u k n o w it will have its place for s o m e t i m e . Even t h e
V T R 2 because V T R 2 is involved in editing. T h e b u t t o n s
m o s t sophisticated c o m p u t e r switchers are s i m p l y n o t as
o n a r o u t i n g switcher are usually arranged in rows that look
flexible a n d functional as t h e actual switcher p a n e l w i t h its
very m u c h like t h e p r o g r a m b u s o n a p r o d u c t i o n switcher
b u t t o n s a n d levers. A T D pressing b u t t o n s o n a switcher
or p a r t of a c o m p u t e r - c o n t r o l l e d system.
p a n e l is still t h e m o s t effective m e a n s of i n s t a n t a n e o u s editing, p r o v i d e d h e or she presses t h e r i g h t b u t t o n s at t h e right t i m e .
ELECTRONIC DESIGNS A l t h o u g h the ability to operate a switcher does n o t hinge o n
MASTER CONTROL SWITCHERS
a n i n t i m a t e k n o w l e d g e of its electronic design, y o u s h o u l d
Computer-assisted switching is especially helpful in master
have s o m e idea of t h e major electronic characteristics of
c o n t r o l . In fact, t h e c o m p u t e r is so i m p o r t a n t in m a s t e r
switchers: (1) c o m p o s i t e a n d c o m p o n e n t , (2) analog a n d
c o n t r o l o p e r a t i o n that often t h e e n g i n e e r assists t h e c o m
digital, a n d (3) audio-follow-video.
p u t e r rather t h a n t h e o t h e r way a r o u n d . T h e c o m p u t e r i z e d master control switcher retrieves all t h e p r o g r a m m a t e r i a l
COMPOSITE AND COMPONENT SWITCHERS
stored in the p r o g r a m server (an extralarge c o m p u t e r stor
T h e composite switcher is built t o t r a n s p o r t a n d process t h e
age device) a c c o r d i n g to t h e p r o g r a m log t i m e line; it cues,
NTSC
rolls, a n d stops V T R s a n d video cart m a c h i n e s ; it calls u p
(C) v i d e o signals i n t o a single o n e . C o m p o s i t e switchers
any n u m b e r of still shots from t h e ESS system; it activates
n e e d only a single wire to t r a n s p o r t the v i d e o signal. If y o u
any n u m b e r of t r a n s i t i o n sequences; a n d it switches a u t o
use t h e switcher strictly for m u l t i c a m e r a live switching,
signal t h a t c o m b i n e s t h e l u m i n a n c e (Y) a n d color
Section
11.2
What
Switchers
257
Do
1 1 . 1 4 COMPUTER SWITCHER INTERFACE This software program of the NewTek switcher VT[4] displays and activates all basic production and postproduc tion switcher functions. It has an amazing array of built-in test and video-guality equip ment, as well as a multitrack audio console. This switcher can be used for live switching or postproduction work.
11.15 The
MASTER CONTROL SWITCHER
computerized master control switcher switches specific video and audio sources automatically.
258
Chapter
I7
SWITCHING,
OR INSTANTANEOUS
EDITING
such as a s t u d i o s h o w or a s p o r t s r e m o t e , t h e c o m p o s i t e switcher is perfectly a d e q u a t e because y o u deal o n l y w i t h N T S C signals. For h i g h - q u a l i t y p o s t p r o d u c t i o n , however, you n e e d a switcher t h a t allows Y/C c o m p o n e n t , Y/color difference c o m p o n e n t , or RGB c o m p o n e n t signal process ing (see figures 12.1-12.4). Component
switchers process the v i d e o signal in either
the Y/C or t h e Y/color difference configuration. In the Y / C c o m p o n e n t switcher, t h e l u m i n a n c e a n d color i n f o r m a t i o n are processed separately a n d t r a n s p o r t e d via two wires. In the Y/color difference c o m p o n e n t switcher, t h r e e signals (a l u m i n a n c e a n d two color signals, o r RGB) are t r a n s p o r t e d separately by t h r e e wires t h r o u g h o u t t h e switcher a n d processed separately. M o s t digital switchers are built to a d a p t to either c o m p o s i t e o r c o m p o n e n t signals or t o accept either configuration. (These systems are e x p l a i n e d
GV Model 110-HD digital switcher
in d e p t h in c h a p t e r 12.)
ANALOG A N D DIGITAL SWITCHERS A l t h o u g h m o s t analog switchers digital video effects (DVE)
have a digital device for
or t h e storage of s u c h effects,
they basically process t h e analog video signals as supplied by a n a l o g c a m e r a s or V T R s in t h e i r original analog f o r m . Digital switchers, o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , process all i n c o m i n g video signals digitally. M o s t digital switchers are c o m p o n e n t systems, b u t they let y o u c h a n g e from t h e c o m p o n e n t to t h e c o m p o s i t e configuration. O n e advantage of digital switchers is t h a t y o u can use as t h e video source signals t h a t c o m e directly from digital e q u i p m e n t , such as digital cameras, digital editing systems, servers, c o m p u t e r h a r d drives, r e a d / w r i t e optical discs, a n d any n u m b e r of digital storage devices. F o r t u n a t e l y , digital s w i t c h e r s h a v e m a i n t a i n e d t h e
GV Model 100 analog switcher
architecture of their analog cousins, w h i c h for o u r p u r poses m e a n s t h a t t h e digital switcher p a n e l still h a s M / E , p r o g r a m , p r e v i e w / p r e s e t , a n d key b u s e s a n d fader b a r s
1 1 . 1 6 ANALOG AND DIGITAL SWITCHERS
m u c h like an a n a l o g switcher. I n fact, t h e a p p e a r a n c e of
The appearance and operational functions of the digital switcher are very similar to those of its analog cousin.
a switcher alone will n o t tell y o u w h e t h e r it is a n a l o g o r digital. M o r e i m p o r t a n t , t h e r e is m u c h similarity in t h e o p e r a t i o n of t h e two types, S E E 1 1 . 1 6
to t h e p e r s o n o n t h e far e n d of t h e conversation. W h e n
AUDIO-FOLLOW-VIDEO SWITCHERS
switching b a c k to t h e "close" p e r s o n , t h e switcher cuts o u t
Audio-follow-video
t h e a u d i o filter a n d y o u h e a r t h e regular a u d i o .
switchers
switch t h e a u d i o w i t h t h e
pictures t h a t go w i t h it. For e x a m p l e , w h e n switching a
M a s t e r c o n t r o l s w i t c h e r s are a u d i o - f o l l o w - v i d e o
scene in w h i c h t w o p e o p l e are talking o n t h e p h o n e , a
switchers—they automatically change the accompanying
t e l e p h o n e - q u a l i t y a u d i o filter cuts in every t i m e y o u switch
a u d i o along w i t h t h e v i d e o source.
Section
1 1.2
•
Production switchers are used to facilitate instantaneous editing during multicamera productions. They must have enough video inputs to accommodate the number of video sources used during the production.
•
Postproduction switchers are used primarily for creating transitions and special effects rather than for instantaneous editing.
•
Master control switchers are computer-driven. They not only switch from one program source to the next but also roll VTRs and video cart machines and call up DVE (digital video effects), ESS (electronic still store) video, or material stored on video servers.
•
Routing switchers simply direct a video signal to a specific destination.
•
Composite switchers are built to transport and process NTSC video signals.
•
Component switchers are built to handle Y/C component, Y/color difference, or RGB video signals. Most digital switchers can handle both composite and component signals.
•
Analog switchers process analog video inputs throughout the switching operation, although they often treat special effects digitally.
•
Digital switchers are mainly component switchers, pro cessing the video inputs exclusively in digital form. They normally maintain the switcher architecture (switching logic and the arrangement and functions of buses) in a similar way to analog switchers.
•
Audio-follow-video switchers switch the audio with the pictures that go with it.
What
Switchers
259
Do
For your reference, or to track your work, each VideoLab program cue in this chapter is listed here with its corresponding page number. SWITCHINGS Switching functions^ select | connect 244 SWITCHINGS Architectures program bus | preview bus | mix buses | fader bar automatic transition | try it 247 SWITCHINGS Switching functionsS transitions I create effects 248 SWITCHINGS TransitionsS cut | mix/dissolve | wipe | fade | try it
251
SWITCHINGS EffectsS keys | key types | downstream keyer | special effects 252
Video-recording and Storage Systems Although one of television's great assets is its capability to transmit an event "live,"that is, while t h e event is in progress, most programs have been prerecorded on s o m e kind of video-recording device. Even live newscasts contain a p r e p o n d e r a n c e of prerecorded material. In corporate v i d e o a n d in i n d e p e n d e n t production houses, almost all program material originates from s o m e kind of video recording.
Because of the importance of video recording, manufacturers are constantly striving to compress more a n d more video a n d audio information o n t o ever smaller storage devices w h i l e making the retrieval of program material as quick and simple as possible. Section 12.1, H o w Video Recording Works, acquaints y o u w i t h t h e major tape-based a n d tapeless video-recording a n d storage systems. A tape-based system uses v i d e o t a p e as t h e storage m e d i u m for a n a l o g or digital video a n d audio signals. Tapeless systems store only digital video a n d audio signals on computer hard disks, read/write optical discs, or large-capacity flash m e m o r y devices. Because today almost all video footage is captured w i t h digital cameras, great strides have b e e n m a d e toward tapeless recording, editing, a n d playback.
Section 12.2, H o w Video Recording Is Done, introduces you to s o m e of the operational uses of v i d e o recording a n d the major studio and E N G / E F P recording procedures.
260
analog recording systems Record the continually fluctuating video and audio signals generated by the video and/or audio source. composite system A process in which the luminance (Y, or black-and-white) signal and the chrominance (C, or red, green, and blue) signal as well as sync information are encoded into a single video signal and transported via a single wire. Also called NTSCsignal.
J P E G A video compression method mostly for still pictures, developed by the Joint Photographic Experts Group. M P E G A compression technique for moving pictures, devel oped by the Moving Picture Experts Group. M P E G - 2 The compression standard for motion video. M P E G - 4 The compression standard for Internet streaming. RGB component system Analog video-recording system
compression Reducing the amount of data to be stored or transmitted by using coding schemes that pack all original data into less space (lossless compression) or by throwing away some of the least important data (lossy compression). control track The area of the videotape used for recording the synchronization information (sync pulse). Provides refer ence for the running speed of the VTR, for the placing and reading of the video tracks, and for counting the number of frames. digital recording systems Sample the analog video and audio signals and convert them into discrete on/off pulses. These digits are recorded as O's and Vs. disk-based video recorder All digital video recorders that record or store information on a hard disk or read/write optical disc. All disk-based systems are nonlinear. electronic still store (ESS) system An electronic device that can grab a single frame from any video source and store it in digital form. It can retrieve the frame randomly in a frac tion of a second. field log A record of each take during the videotaping. flash memory device A small read/write portable storage device that can download, store, and upload very fast (in a flash) a fairly large amount (1 gigabyte or more) of digital information. Also called flash drive, stick flash, flash stick, or flash memory card. framestore synchronizer Image stabilization and synchroniza tion system that stores and reads out one complete video frame. Used to synchronize signals from a variety of video sources that are not genlocked.
wherein the red, green, and blue signals are kept separate throughout the entire recording and storage process and are transported via three separate wires. tape-based video recorder All video recorders (analog and digital) that record or store information on videotape. All tape-based systems are linear. time base corrector (TBC) Electronic accessory to a video recorder that helps make playbacks or transfers electronically stable. video leader Visual material and a control tone recorded ahead of the program material. Serves as a technical guide for playback. videotape recorder (VTR) Electronic recording device that records video and audio signals on videotape for later play back or postproduction editing. videotape tracks Most videotape systems have a video track, two or more audio tracks, a control track, and sometimes a separate time code track. Y/C component system Analog video-recording system wherein the luminance (Y) and chrominance (C) signals are kept separate during signal encoding and transport but are combined and occupy the same track when actually laid down on videotape. The Y/C component signal is trans ported via two wires. Also called S-video. Y/color difference component system Video-recording system in which three signals—the luminance (Y) signal, the red signal minus its luminance (R-Y) signal, and the blue signal minus its luminance (B-Y)—are kept separate throughout the recording and storage process.
261
ANALOG A N D DIGITAL
12.1 How Video Recording Works
SYSTEMS
A l t h o u g h digital v i d e o is firmly established as t h e profes sional system of choice, y o u will also find that t h e h i g h - e n d Betacam r e c o r d i n g systems are very m u c h alive a n d well in m a n y professional o p e r a t i o n s .
Analog videotape recording
A n a l o g v i d e o t a p i n g is
similar to t h e analog a u d i o t a p e - r e c o r d i n g process. W i t h analog recording
systems,
t h e electronic i m p u l s e s of tele
vision p i c t u r e s (the v i d e o signal) a n d s o u n d ( t h e a u d i o signal) are r e c o r d e d a n d stored o n t h e plastic v i d e o t a p e by m a g n e t i z i n g its i r o n - o x i d e coating. D u r i n g playback t h e s t o r e d i n f o r m a t i o n is r e c o n v e r t e d i n t o video a n d a u d i o signals a n d t r a n s l a t e d by t h e television set i n t o television pictures a n d s o u n d . T h e a m o u n t of electronic i n f o r m a t i o n is m a n y t i m e s greater for v i d e o t h a n for a u d i o r e c o r d i n g . N o t surprisingly, n o t all a n a l o g systems are t h e s a m e . S o m e , such as y o u r V H S recorder, are designed for costeffective h o m e use a n d o p e r a t i o n a l ease. Its p i c t u r e a n d s o u n d quality is n o t great, b u t it's sufficient for a reasonably
D e s p i t e t h e g r e a t v a r i e t y of v i d e o r e c o r d i n g d e v i c e s ,
g o o d r e c o r d i n g of a football g a m e o r s o a p o p e r a s e g m e n t
t h e r e are basically t w o types of systems: t a p e - b a s e d a n d
y o u missed. But as s o o n as y o u start m a k i n g copies for
tapeless. Tape-based systems c a n r e c o r d analog o r digital
y o u r friends, t h e quality deteriorates even after t h e first
signals; tapeless systems can r e c o r d o n l y digital i n f o r m a
d u b . T h e S-video system is similar t o t h e V H S system b u t
t i o n . T h e o p e r a t i o n a l a d v a n t a g e s of a tapeless system are
is designed for professional use. T h e initial r e c o r d i n g will
t h a t it is generally faster a n d it allows r a n d o m access of
have considerably higher image a n d audio quality that
information.
will n o t d e t e r i o r a t e f r o m d u b t o d u b as q u i c k l y as t h e
To help y o u m a k e sense of t h e v a r i o u s systems, this section gives a n overview of s o m e i m p o r t a n t r e c o r d i n g
V H S copies. H i g h - q u a l i t y a n a l o g s y s t e m s , s u c h as t h e
Betacam
systems a n d t e c h n o l o g y a n d a m o r e detailed d e s c r i p t i o n
SP, p r o d u c e p i c t u r e s as g o o d as t h e best digital systems.
of t h e v a r i o u s t a p e - b a s e d a n d tapeless r e c o r d i n g devices.
A l t h o u g h t h e s e r e c o r d i n g s d e t e r i o r a t e relatively little in a l i m i t e d a m o u n t of p o s t p r o d u c t i o n d u b s , t h e y d o
P
RECORDING SYSTEMS AND TECHNOLOGY Analog and digital systems, linear and nonlinear systems, com posite and component systems, sampling, and compression
P
(A generation
is t h e n u m b e r of d u b s away from t h e original
recording.)
TAPED-BASED RECORDING AND STORAGE SYSTEMS How videotape recording works, operational VTR controls, electronic features, and major analog and digital systems
•
s h o w noticeable quality loss after a b o u t t e n g e n e r a t i o n s .
Digital video recording cording systems
T h e a d v a n t a g e of digital
re
over analog is t h a t digital systems can u s e
TAPELESS RECORDING AND STORAGE SYSTEMS
recording media other than videotape, which do n o t sus
Hard disk systems, read/write optical discs, flash memory
tain quality loss even after a great n u m b e r of g e n e r a t i o n s .
devices, and data transfer
For all practical p u r p o s e s , t h e fiftieth g e n e r a t i o n looks t h e s a m e as t h e original r e c o r d i n g . Besides v i d e o t a p e , digital
RECORDING SYSTEMS AND TECHNOLOGY This section e x a m i n e s t h e following r e c o r d i n g systems a n d
v i d e o a n d a u d i o signals can b e r e c o r d e d o n , a n d played back from, c o m p u t e r h a r d drives, optical discs ( C D s a n d D V D s ) , a n d flash m e m o r y devices. ( T h e specifics of these
technology: (1) analog a n d digital systems, (2) linear a n d
r e c o r d i n g devices are e x p l o r e d later in this section.) N o t e
n o n l i n e a r systems, (3) c o m p o s i t e a n d c o m p o n e n t systems,
t h a t c o m p u t e r h a r d disks are spelled w i t h a k, a n d optical
(4) s a m p l i n g , a n d (5) c o m p r e s s i o n .
discs with a c.
262
Section
12.1
How
LINEAR A N D NONLINEAR SYSTEMS Although the terms linear and nonlinear apply more to the way the recorded information is retrieved rather than stored, you may also hear tape-based systems described as linear recording devices, and disk-based systems as nonlinear ones. Linear systems All tape-based video recorders are lin ear, regardless of whether the signals recorded are analog or digital. Linear systems record their information serially, which means that during retrieval you need to roll through shots 1 and 2 before reaching shot 3. Even if a tape-based system records the information digitally rather than in ana log, it is linear and does not allow random access. You can't call up shot 3 without first rolling through shots 1 and 2. Nonlinear syst
All disk-based
video
recorders
(including optical discs and flash memory devices) are nonlinear, which means that you can randomly access any shot without having to roll through the previous mate rial. For example, you can access shot 3 directly by simply calling up the shot 3 file. Of course you can also watch the recording in linear fashion, starting with shot 1 and then watching shot 2, shot 3, and so on. Random access is especially important when editing because it lets you call up instantaneously any video frame or audio file regardless of where it may be buried on the disk. (The difference between linear and nonlinear systems
Video
Recording
263
Works
is explored further in the context of postproduction editing in chapter 13.) COMPOSITE AND COMPONENT SYSTEMS The division of video recorders into composite and com ponent systems is significant because the two systems are not compatible and they differ in production application. Analog and digital recording systems can treat their signals in one of four basic ways: (1) composite, (2) Y/C com ponent, (3) Y/color difference component, and (4) RGB component. Composite system The composite system combines the color (C, or chrominance) and the brightness (Y, or luminance) information into a single (composite) signal. Only one wire is necessary to transport the composite sig nal. Because this electronic combination was standardized some time ago by the National Television System Commit tee (NTSC), the composite signal is also called the NTSC signal or, simply, NTSC. The NTSC system is different from other composite systems, such as the European PAL system. A standard conversion is necessary when systems don't match. Most such standard conversions are done in the satellite that distributes the signals. The major disadvantage of the composite signal is that there usually is some interference between chrominance and luminance information that gets worse and therefore more noticeable with each videotape generation, SEE 12.1
Color (RGB)
luminance (Y)
Composite NTSC signal
Chrominance (C) channel
12.1
Luminance (Y) channel
COMPOSITE SYSTEM
The composite system uses a video signal that combines the luminance (Y, or brightness) and color (C) information. It needs a single wire to be transported and recorded on videotape as a single signal. It is the standard NTSC system.
264
Chapter
Y/C component system system,
also called S-video,
12
In t h e a n a l o g Y/C
VIDEO-RECORDING
AND
STORAGE
SYSTEMS
component
t h e l u m i n a n c e (Y) a n d c h r o Luminance (Y)
m i n a n c e (C) signals are kept separate d u r i n g t h e e n c o d i n g ("write") a n d t h e d e c o d i n g ("read") processes. D u r i n g t h e r e c o r d i n g process, however, the t w o signals are c o m b i n e d a n d o c c u p y t h e s a m e t r a c k w h e n s t o r e d , t h a t is, w h e n
Color(C)
actually laid d o w n o n t h e v i d e o t a p e . T h e Y/C configura t i o n requires t w o wires to t r a n s p o r t t h e Y/C c o m p o n e n t signal, SEE 12.2 To m a i n t a i n the advantages of Y/C c o m p o n e n t record ing, o t h e r e q u i p m e n t used in t h e system, such as m o n i t o r s , m u s t also keep t h e Y a n d C signals separate. This m e a n s t h a t y o u c a n n o t play a Y/C c o m p o n e n t v i d e o t a p e o n a regular V H S r e c o r d e r b u t only o n an S-VHS recorder. T h e
1 2 . 2 Y/C COMPONENT SYSTEM The Y/C component system separates the Y (luminance) and C (color) information during signal encoding and transport, but it combines the two signals on the videotape. It needs two wires to transport the separate signals.
advantage of t h e Y/C c o m p o n e n t system is that it p r o d u c e s h i g h e r - q u a l i t y pictures that will suffer less in s u b s e q u e n t tape g e n e r a t i o n s t h a n d o c o m p o s i t e tapes.
Y/color difference component system log Y/color difference
component
system,
In t h e ana
the luminance
signal, t h e red signal m i n u s its l u m i n a n c e ( R - Y ) , a n d t h e b l u e signal m i n u s its l u m i n a n c e ( B - Y ) are t r a n s p o r t e d a n d s t o r e d as three separate signals. T h e green signal is r e g e n e r a t e d ( m a t r i x e d ) f r o m t h e s e t h r e e signals. T h i s system n e e d s t h r e e wires to t r a n s p o r t t h e t h r e e separate signals, SEE 12.3 RGB
component system
tem,
t h e red, green, a n d b l u e signals are k e p t separate a n d
In t h e RGB component
sys
treated as separate c o m p o n e n t s t h r o u g h o u t t h e r e c o r d i n g a n d storage process. Each of the t h r e e signals r e m a i n s sepa rate even w h e n laid d o w n o n t h e v i d e o t a p e . Because t h e RGB system n e e d s t h r e e wires t o t r a n s p o r t the c o m p o n e n t
1 2 . 3 Y/COLOR DIFFERENCE COMPONENT SYSTEM The Y/color difference component system separates the three RGB signals throughout the recording process. It needs three wires to transport the three component signals: the Y (lumi nance) signal, the R-Y (red minus luminance) signal, and the B-Y (blue minus luminance) signal. The green signal is then matrixed (regenerated) from these signals.
signal, all o t h e r associated e q u i p m e n t , s u c h as switchers, editors, a n d m o n i t o r s , m u s t also b e capable of processing t h e t h r e e separate RGB signal c o m p o n e n t s . This m e a n s that t h e y all m u s t have "three w i r e s " to h a n d l e t h e video
Red (R)
signal instead of t h e single wire of t h e n o r m a l c o m p o s i t e system—all in all a r a t h e r expensive r e q u i r e m e n t , SEE 12.4
Green (G) T h e big a d v a n t a g e of t h e t h r e e - s i g n a l c o m p o n e n t system is that even its analog recordings m a i n t a i n m u c h of
Blue(B)
their original quality t h r o u g h m a n y tape g e n e r a t i o n s . Such a feature is especially i m p o r t a n t if a p r o d u c t i o n requires m a n y special effects, s u c h as a n i m a t i o n scenes, t h a t n e e d to b e built u p t h r o u g h several r e c o r d i n g s . Obviously, the Y/C, Y/color difference, a n d RGB c o m p o n e n t systems eventually m u s t c o m b i n e the separate parts of their video signals i n t o a single N T S C c o m p o s i t e signal for t r a d i t i o n a l analog b r o a d c a s t or t a p e d i s t r i b u t i o n .
1 2 . 4 RGB COMPONENT SYSTEM Like the Y/color difference system, the RGB component system (also called the RGB system) separates the three RGB signals throughout the recording process. It needs three wires to trans port the signals. It provides the greatest color quality but takes up an inordinate amount of frequency space.
Section
12.1
How
Video
Recording
265
Works
SAMPLING
k i n d — t h e y t h r o w away r e d u n d a n t data. W h e n dealing with
You will u n d o u b t e d l y hear people talk a b o u t t h e relative benefits of 4:2:2 over 4:1:1 s a m p l i n g ratios i n all f o r m s of video recording. All t h a t this m e a n s is that in t h e digitizing process, t h e C (color) signals are s a m p l e d less frequently t h a n t h e Y ( l u m i n a n c e , o r b l a c k - a n d - w h i t e ) signal. I n fact, in 4:1:1 s a m p l i n g t h e Y signal is s a m p l e d four times, whereas t h e C signals are s a m p l e d o n l y once. I n 4:2:2 s a m pling the Y signal is s a m p l e d twice as often as t h e C signals: t h e Y signal is s a m p l e d four times, b u t t h e C signals only twice d u r i n g a certain p e r i o d of t i m e . T h e l u m i n a n c e signal receives s u c h privileged t r e a t m e n t because it is a m a j o r c o n t r i b u t o r t o p i c t u r e sharpness.
video compression, there are two basic systems: intraframe
M o s t n o r m a l p r o d u c t i o n s l o o k s t u n n i n g with 4:1:1 s a m p l i n g . If, however, y o u require h i g h - q u a l i t y color t h a t m u s t w i t h s t a n d a variety of special effects, s u c h as v a r i o u s b l u e - s c r e e n o r c h r o m a - k e y effects (see c h a p t e r 14) o r a great n u m b e r of key layers, y o u will d o well t o use e q u i p m e n t that e m p l o y s t h e h i g h e r 4:2:2 s a m p l i n g ratio. Confused? D o n ' t worry. T h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t things t o r e m e m b e r a b o u t these systems are that, i n c o m p a r i s o n , t h e video signal of t h e N T S C c o m p o s i t e system is of lower quality t h a n t h a t of t h e Y / C c o m p o n e n t system, w h i c h is s o m e w h a t inferior t o t h e Y/color difference c o m p o n e n t system o r t h e RGB c o m p o n e n t system. A 4:2:2 s a m p l i n g ratio p r o d u c e s better pictures t h a n does a 4:1:1 ratio, al t h o u g h t h e latter certainly p r o d u c e s g o o d images. I n fact, y o u w o u l d notice t h e difference b e t w e e n t h e t w o s a m p l i n g ratios only w h e n building c o m p l e x effects o r w h e n record ing u n d e r e x t r e m e ( h i g h - c o n t r a s t ) lighting c o n d i t i o n s . O t h e r i m p o r t a n t p o i n t s t o r e m e m b e r are t h a t s o m e of these systems are i n c o m p a t i b l e w i t h t h e others, a n d all n e e d their o w n r e c o r d i n g a n d playback e q u i p m e n t . Also, c o n t r a r y t o analog ones, digital recordings s h o w n o notice able d e t e r i o r a t i o n even after m a n y g e n e r a t i o n s .
COMPRESSION As y o u recall from c h a p t e r 2, compression refers t o t h e r e a r r a n g e m e n t o r e l i m i n a t i o n of r e d u n d a n t p i c t u r e i n f o r m a t i o n for more-efficient storage a n d signal t r a n s p o r t . Lossless compression m e a n s t h a t w e r e a r r a n g e t h e d a t a so t h a t they take u p less space. This t e c h n i q u e is similar t o repacking a suitcase to m a k e all t h e stuff fit i n t o it. I n lossy compression we t h r o w away s o m e of t h e u n n e c e s s a r y items a n d therefore c a n use a m u c h smaller suitcase. Digital pictures require a great a m o u n t of t i m e for t r a n s p o r t a n d c o n s i d e r a b l e disk space for s t o r a g e . Be cause it is m u c h easier t o store a n d travel w i t h a smaller digital "suitcase," m o s t c o m p r e s s i o n systems are t h e lossy
a n d interframe.
Intraframe compression
This c o m p r e s s i o n system is
designed p r i m a r i l y for still images, b u t it c a n also b e a p plied t o i n d i v i d u a l video frames. Intraframe
compression
looks at each frame a n d t h r o w s away all video i n f o r m a t i o n t h a t is u n n e c e s s a r y t o perceiving p r e t t y m u c h t h e s a m e p i c t u r e as t h e original. I n technical t e r m s it eliminates spatial redundancy. Let's consider o u r overstuffed suitcase again. To save s o m e space, w e m u s t l o o k at each p a r t of t h e p a c k e d suitcase a n d ask w h e t h e r w e c a n get along w i t h t w o shirts instead of six; t h e n we m o v e to t h e sweater section a n d take o u t five of t h e six sweaters we packed, especially since we are going t o go t o a w a r m , s u n n y location. We c o n t i n u e t o check all t h e spaces in t h e suitcase t o see w h a t w e c a n leave b e h i n d . Pretty s o o n w e will have discarded e n o u g h u n n e c e s s a r y clothing ( r e d u n d a n t pixels) t o get b y w i t h a m u c h smaller suitcase. T h e JPEG s y s t e m — a video c o m pression m e t h o d used m o s t l y for still p i c t u r e s — e m p l o y s this i n t r a f r a m e c o m p r e s s i o n t e c h n i q u e .
Interframe compression T h i s system w a s developed for m o v i n g video images. Rather t h a n compress each frame i n d e p e n d e n t of all the others, interframe compression looks for r e d u n d a n c i e s from o n e frame t o t h e next. Basically, t h e system c o m p a r e s each frame w i t h t h e preceding o n e a n d keeps only t h e pixels t h a t c o n s t i t u t e a c h a n g e . For e x a m p l e , if y o u see a cyclist m o v i n g against a cloudless b l u e sky, t h e system will n o t b o t h e r with repeating all t h e i n f o r m a t i o n that m a k e s u p t h e b l u e sky b u t only with t h e p o s i t i o n change of t h e cyclist. As y o u c a n see, interframe c o m p r e s s i o n looks for temporal redundancy (change from frame t o frame) r a t h e r t h a n spatial r e d u n d a n c y w i t h i n a single frame. Let's use t h e suitcase example o n e last t i m e . We n o w have t w o people w i t h suitcases. J o h n has already p a c k e d his big suitcase, a n d Ellen is ready t o begin packing. Before she starts, however, she checks w i t h John to see what h e has packed (full v i d e o frame 1). To h e r delight h e has packed a lot of stuff she w a n t e d t o take along, so s h e n e e d s t o fit only a few m o r e items into a very small suitcase (interframe c o m p r e s s e d frame 2). MPEG-2, t h e c o m p r e s s i o n s t a n d a r d for m o t i o n video, uses t h e interframe t e c h n i q u e . (MPEG is a c o m p r e s s i o n t e c h n i q u e for m o v i n g pictures, developed by t h e M o v i n g Picture Experts G r o u p . )
266
Chapter
VIDEO-RECORDING
12
AND STORAGE
SYSTEMS
The problem with this system is in editing. Because some of the compressed frames are very lossy, they can't be used as the starting or end point of an edit. The system therefore periodically sends a full reference frame (say, every fifth or tenth frame) that is independent and not the result of a comparison with the previous one. The editor can then go to the full frame to do the actual cut. Being restricted to every fifth or tenth frame for a cut does not please an editor who may need to match each frame of lip movement with the corresponding sound, but in most cases a five-frame cutting restriction is not too much of a handicap. This is why systems designed for editing include these refer ence frames as often as feasible. Some more-sophisticated MPEG-2 editing systems can recalculate a complete frame anywhere in the compressed video. Regardless of the compression technique, you can always apply a simple compression/quality formula: the less compression,
the better the image quality. But then there
is another, not so happy, formula: the less compression, the more unwieldy
the huge amount
of information
becomes.
12.5
HELICAL SCAN, OR SLANT-TRACK, SYSTEM
The video track is slanted to gain a sufficient amount of area on a narrow tape.
TAPE-BASED RECORDING AND STORAGE SYSTEMS This section explores (1) how videotape recording works, (2) the operational VTR controls, (3) their electronic features and how they function, and (4) the major analog and digital VTRs currently in use. HOW VIDEOTAPE RECORDING WORKS Generally speaking, a videotape recorder (VTR) is any electronic recording device that records video and audio signals on videotape for later playback or postproduction editing. During video recording, the videotape moves past a rotating head assembly that "writes" the video and audio signals on the tape during the recording process and "reads" the magnetically stored information off the tape during playback. Some VTRs use two or four heads for the record/play (write/read) functions. Some digital VTRs have even more read/write heads for various video, audio, and control tracks. In the play mode on some VTRs, the same heads used for recording are also used to read the informa tion off the tracks and convert it back into video signals. Others use different heads for the record and playback functions. For a simple explanation of how video recording works, the following discussion uses an analog VTR with only two record/playback heads. Record/playback heads The two heads are mounted opposite each other either on a rapidly spinning head drum or on a bar that spins inside a stationary head drum, in
which case they make contact with the tape through a slot in the drum. To gain as much tape space as possible for the large amount of video information without undue tape or drum speed, the tape is wound around the head drum in a slanted, spiral-like configuration. Based on helix—the Greek word for "spiral"—we call this tape wrap, and often the whole video-recording system, the helical scan, or slanttrack, system.
SEE 12.5
Videotape tracks four separate videotape
The standard VHS recorder puts tracks on the tape: the video
track
containing the picture information, two audio tracks containing all sound information, and a control track that regulates the videotape and rotation speed of the VTR heads, SEE 12.6 As we shall soon see, digital VTRs operate with a totally different track arrangement. EDITINGS Postproduction guidelines-> tape basics
Analog video track When you record the video signal in the normal NTSC composite configuration, one pass of the head records a complete field of video information (Y + C). The next pass of the head—or, with a two-head machine, the second head—lays down the second field right next to it, thus completing a single video frame. Because two fields make up a single frame, the two heads must write 60 tracks for 60 fields, or 30 frames, for each second of NTSC video.
Section
How
12.1
Video
Recording
267
Works
o n a similar m a c h i n e can b e played back w i t h o u t p i c t u r e b r e a k u p s . As explained in chapter 13, t h e c o n t r o l track is also essential for precise v i d e o t a p e editing. S o m e V T R s have a sync track (reserving t h e c o n t r o l track for editing p u r p o s e s ) a n d still a n o t h e r track for additional data, such as t h e SMPTE
time code. Because space is so scarce in a
small videocassette, s o m e systems squeeze t h e t i m e code a n d o t h e r data b e t w e e n t h e video a n d a u d i o p o r t i o n s of a single track.
1 2 . 6 BASIC VIDEOTAPE TRACK SYSTEM The basic videotape track system consists of a slanted video track, two or more audio tracks, and a control track.
Rather than a video o r a u d i o signal, digital systems r e c o r d on/off pulses t h a t a r e usually c o d e d as O's a n d l's. S o m e digital systems, such as t h e D V C P R O a n d t h e D V C A M systems, use very small (V4-inch) cassette
In Y / C c o m p o n e n t V T R s , t h e separate l u m i n a n c e a n d
tapes for their h i g h - q u a l i t y recording. Instead of using just
c h r o m i n a n c e signals are c o m b i n e d a n d laid d o w n o n a
t w o tracks for recording a full frame of video, these systems
single t r a c k w i t h each pass of t h e r e c o r d h e a d . In t h e RGB
use as m a n y as t e n o r m o r e tracks t o r e c o r d a single video
a n d Y/color difference c o m p o n e n t systems, three passes
frame. For e x a m p l e , t h e h i g h - q u a l i t y D V C P R O 50 system
are r e q u i r e d t o lay t h e t h r e e signals next t o each other.
uses t w e n t y t r a c k s for e a c h c o m p l e t e f r a m e . E x t r e m e l y h i g h r e c o r d - h e a d speeds m a k e u p for t h e lack of t a p e
A n a l o g a u d i o i n f o r m a t i o n is g e n e r
w i d t h . T h e a u d i o tracks are e m b e d d e d in t h e video track.
ally r e c o r d e d o n l o n g i t u d i n a l tracks n e a r t h e edge of t h e
T h e c o n t r o l t r a c k a n d c u e tracks (for t h e t i m e code) are
tape. Because of t h e d e m a n d for stereo a u d i o a n d for k e e p
l o n g i t u d i n a l , w h i c h m e a n s that t h e y r u n along t h e edge of
ing certain s o u n d s separate even i n m o n o p h o n i c s o u n d ,
t h e tape, SEE 12.7
A u d i o tracks
all V T R systems (even V H S recorders) p r o v i d e at least t w o
OPERATIONAL VTR CONTROLS
a u d i o tracks.
T h e b a s i c o p e r a t i o n a l c o n t r o l s a n d f e a t u r e s of V T R s T h e control track c o n t a i n s evenly spaced
are similar, regardless of w h e t h e r t h e i n f o r m a t i o n t h e y
blips o r spikes, called t h e sync pulse, w h i c h m a r k each
record is analog o r digital. A typical V T R has t h e s a m e
Control track
c o m p l e t e television frame. These pulses s y n c h r o n i z e t h e
controls as o n y o u r h o m e VCR, except that t h e professional
t a p e speed ( t h e s p e e d w i t h w h i c h t h e t a p e passes from
m o d e l s have a few a d d i t i o n a l s h u t t l e a n d edit c o n t r o l s .
t h e s u p p l y reel t o t h e t a k e u p reel i n t h e cassette) a n d t h e
Each of these b u t t o n s o r k n o b s lets y o u c o n t r o l a specific
r o t a t i o n speed of t h e r e c o r d h e a d s so t h a t a t a p e m a d e
V T R function.
Cue track Overwrite margin Subcode area Gap 3 Video area Gap 2 Audio area Gap 1 ITI area Control track
1 2 . 7 DVCPRO 50 TRACK PATTERN The digital DVCPRO 50 system writes twenty tracks to record a single video frame.
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1 2 . 8 BASIC VTR CONTROLS Standard VTR controls are similar to those on a home videocassette recorder.
The most basic controls on any VTR—regardless of type or sophistication, analog or digital—are the play, stop, record, fast-forward,
rewind,
and eject buttons and
the audio volume controls, SEE T2.8 The more sophisti cated VTRs have these additional functions: (1) standby, (2) pause or still, (3) search or shuttle, (4) audio controls, and (5) tracking. In the standby mode, the VTR threads the tape and rotates the video heads, but the tape is still stationary. The rotating video heads are disengaged and not in contact with the tape. The pause control will stop the tape with the heads still moving. In this mode the rotating video heads are in contact with the tape and will continu ously scan the adjacent video fields and produce a still—or freeze—frame on the video monitor or in the camera viewfinder. But do not keep the machine in pause too long—the heads are apt to scrape the iron-oxide coating off the tape and leave you with nothing but clogged heads and video noise on the monitor.
or lower than the normal record/play speed. The shuttle feature is especially important when searching for a par ticular shot or scene on the videotape. You can advance the video frame-by-frame or rattle through a whole scene until you find the right picture. You can also slow down the shuttle enough to get a jogging effect, which shows a frame-by-frame advancement of the videotape. Some elaborate recorders have separate shuttle and jog controls. You should note that in the search or shuttle mode, the heads are still engaged and in contact with the tape. If you have a rough idea of where a particular scene is located, use the fast-forward or rewind controls instead of search. The fast-forward and rewind modes disengage the heads, thus preventing excessive tape and head wear; but because you can no longer see the pictures, you have to watch the tape counter.
Most home VCRs switch out of pause mode if the tape has had enough abuse. Some professional recorders, however, will not do this automatically, to avoid interfer ing with the creative process. Don't leave a tape too long in pause mode, especially if you want to use it for editing.
Audio The main audio controls are the volume control and VU monitoring for each audio channel. Some record ers have separate volume controls for sound recording and playback. The audio dub control lets you record sound in formation without erasing the pictures already recorded on the video track. Most professional VTRs give you a choice of selecting regular (analog) and hi-fi (digital) audio. De pending on how the sound on the videotape was recorded, you may have to switch to or from hi-fi audio. If the audio doesn't play back properly, try the other mode.
Search or shuttle This control lets you advance or re verse the tape at variable speeds that may be much higher
Tracking Tracking errors usually show up as a jittery picture. It happens when the playback head of the playback
Section
12. 1
How
VTR is not exactly aligned with the heads of the VTR on which the program was recorded. Most professional VTRs do this alignment automatically, but some lower-end machines have manual controls. ELECTRONIC FEATURES The major electronic features that you need to know to operate a VTR are: (1) input and output jacks, (2) the time base corrector, (3) the framestore synchronizer, and (4) the automatic moisture shutdown. Input and output jacks The most important jacks (receptacles) are the video input (camera or any other video feed, such as the signal from a television set) and video output (to other VTRs for editing and to monitors or televi sion sets). Digital recorders have standard analog SMPTE composite and component video as well as S-video output jacks. Most consumer VTRs have in and out RF(radio fre quency) jacks, which let you use a regular television set as a monitor. You simply connect the coaxial cable from the RF output of the VTR to the antenna input of the television set and switch the set to a particular channel (usually channel 3 or 4). The RF signal also carries the audio. Besides the RF connection, the VTR has separate video and audio output jacks that operate independent of the RF. They are designed for RCA phono plugs and are normally color-coded white and red for audio and yellow for video. Good television receivers have similar video and audio input jacks. Time base corrector All good-quality videotape sys tems need some device that stabilizes the picture and elimi nates jitter during playback. Two of the most common are the time base corrector (TBC) and the more versatile digital framestore synchronizer. Both electronic devices adjust the scanning of the source signal to that of the playback device to keep both scanning "clocks" in step. This synchroniza tion of the scanning of both video sources allows you to interface VTRs with a variety of video equipment without temporary picture breakup. Normally, you need to provide the same synchronization information—called house sync—to all video sources if you expect to switch among them without picture glitches. When you import a video source without such genlock, that is, without supplying house sync to all video sources, the TBC will help prevent picture breakup when switching from one video source to the other. Most high-end VTRs have a built-in TBC to prevent picture breakup and ensure jitter-free pictures.
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269
Framestore synchronizer The digital framestore syn chronizers a more sophisticated digital version of a TBC. The framestore synchronizer grabs each digitized frame of the video signal and stores it momentarily until its scanning is synchronized with that of another video source. This system is so efficient that you can switch among various independent video sources that are not genlocked. You may have seen a picture freeze momentarily when watching a live report from a different city: when the signal is tem porarily interrupted, the framestore synchronizer holds everything until the video is in sync again. Automatic moisture shutdown This feature can prevent you from losing a hard day's work or it can drive you crazy. Because the tape heads and the videotape itself are especially sensitive to moisture, stand-alone VTRs and those in camcorders shut down automatically if they get too damp. When in the field, such a shutdown can be frustrat ing and time-consuming. Experienced VTR operators, or "shooters," therefore carry a battery-powered hair dryer to dry out the VTR and get it up and running again. ANALOG VIDEOTAPE RECORDERS Professional VTR models are as varied and ever-changing as consumer models. Rather than concentrate on specific makes, this overview looks at the quality differences and the specific functions of tape-based analog and digital recording systems. You can accomplish many production tasks with lessthan-top-of-the-line VTRs. Even home VCRs are sufficient if all you want to do is look for a particular shot or scene. The more popular analog VTRs in television stations and production centers, in descending order of qual ity, include (1) Betacam SP, (2) S-VHS, and—yes—even (3) VHS models. :am SP The SP of this system stands, quite aptly, for superior performance. This is the improved version of the original Betacam recording process. Despite the digital revolution, Betacam SP is still used in quite a few broadcast stations, independent production companies, and corporate video operations. This is because it cap tures high-quality video and audio and because it is hard to retire such a good and initially very expensive piece of equipment. The Betacam SP keeps the Y (luminance) signal and the Y/color difference signals (R-Y and B-Y) separate throughout the recording process and is, there fore, a Y/color difference component system. Two of its
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1 2 . 9 BETACAM SP STUDIO VTR
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Audio controls
AND
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Editing controls
This high-quality Betacam SP VTR has all the controls of a standard VTR plus additional audio, shuttle, and editing controls.
Operational controls
Shuttle controls
four a u d i o tracks p r o d u c e high-fidelity s o u n d . This VTR, which c a n also b e a t t a c h e d to a c a m c o r d e r , is u s e d m a i n l y for c a p t u r i n g video, SEE 12.9 A N D 12.10 T h e S-VHS v i d e o t a p e recorder is a greatly i m proved version of t h e w e l l - k n o w n c o n s u m e r V H S record ers. You can find S-VHS systems in television n e w s r o o m s , in e d i t i n g suites of c o r p o r a t e p r o d u c t i o n h o u s e s , a n d especially in schools t h a t teach v i d e o p r o d u c t i o n or that p r o d u c e p r o g r a m s for a local cable station. S o m e are used for viewing footage that has been shot with S-VHS c a m e r a s or d u b b e d from digital tape, SEE 12.11 T h e S - V H S s y s t e m r e c o r d s v i d e o i n f o r m a t i o n as
Camera
Betacam SP recorder
Y/C c o m p o n e n t signals. H i g h - e n d m o d e l s have a b u i l t - i n
12.10
T B C t h a t e n s u r e s p i c t u r e stability d u r i n g playback a n d
Many professional camcorders can be docked with a variety of VTRs. This camera is docked with a Betacam SP VTR.
editing. T h e S-VHS recorders p r o v i d e four s o u n d tracks
BETACAM SP VTR DOCKED WITH CAMERA
(two of w h i c h are for high-fidelity s o u n d ) a n d a separate c o n t r o l track. editing, d o c u m e n t i n g shows for tape archives, a n d even VHS
T h e V H S system, w h i c h y o u u n d o u b t e d l y have in
your h o m e , records the video signals in t h e N T S C c o m p o s
off-line editing. (Logging a n d editing p r o c e d u r e s are ex p l o r e d in c h a p t e r 13.)
ite f o r m a t . Its pictures a n d s o u n d are noticeably inferior to o t h e r analog a n d especially digital systems, b u t d o n ' t
DIGITAL VIDEOTAPE RECORDERS
t h r o w away y o u r V H S r e c o r d e r just yet. T h e V H S system
At this p o i n t y o u m a y w o n d e r w h y we b o t h e r w i t h digital
still serves i m p o r t a n t p r o d u c t i o n functions. You can use
r e c o r d i n g systems w h e n t h e a n a l o g V T R s d e s c r i b e d p r o
these inexpensive m a c h i n e s for basic p r o g r a m screening,
d u c e perfectly acceptable p i c t u r e s a n d s o u n d . T h e m a j o r
previewing a n d logging of scenes s h o t for p o s t p r o d u c t i o n
advantages of digital V T R s are t h a t they are m o r e c o m p a c t
Section
How
12.1
Video
Recording
271
Works
12.11 S-VHS STUDIO VTR This S-VHS studio VTR uses Vi-inch cassettes to record Y/C component video and four separate audio tracks. Two of the audio tracks are for highfidelity sound.
a n d t h a t even inexpensive m o d e l s p r o d u c e h i g h - q u a l i t y
press t h e r i g h t b u t t o n s . Nevertheless, to o p e r a t e a specific
p i c t u r e s a n d s o u n d t h a t m a i n t a i n their q u a l i t y t h r o u g h
V T R reliably a n d efficiently, y o u n e e d to b e familiar w i t h
r e p e a t e d d u b s . Digital r e c o r d i n g s also d o n o t n e e d to b e
at least s o m e of t h e m a j o r digital systems a n d t h e i r basic
c o n v e r t e d — u n l i k e analog r e c o r d i n g s — f o r c o m p u t e r stor
features: (1) DV, (2) D V C A M , (3) D V C P R O , (4) B e t a c a m
age o n a h a r d disk for n o n l i n e a r editing a n d special-effects
SX, (5) H D V , a n d (6) H D T V , SEE 12.12
manipulation. W h e n o p e r a t i n g a V T R , it d o e s n ' t really m a t t e r w h a t
All small digital c o n s u m e r c a m c o r d e r s use t h e DV
system y o u are u s i n g so l o n g as y o u use the p r o p e r t a p e a n d
system, b u t it quickly f o u n d its w a y i n t o n e w s r o o m s a n d
12.12 DIGITAL RECORDING SYSTEMS This table lists the most widespread digital video systems. SYSTEM
CASSETTE
PRODUCTION CHARACTERISTICS
DV
14-inch (6.35mm) mini-cassette
Good digital quality.
DVCAM
14-inch (6.35mm) full-sized cassette
Excellent quality. Cassette not compatible with DVCPRO.
DVCPRO
Vi-inch (12.65mm) full-sized cassette
Excellent quality. Cassette not compatible w i t h DVCAM.
Betacam SX
1
/2-inch (12.65mm) full-sized cassette
Excellent quality. Bulky.
HDV
1
/4-inch (6.35mm) mini-cassette
Excellent quality. Superior resolution. Records only half the video information of HDTV.
HDTV
%-inch (6.35mm) full-sized cassette
Superior resolution and color.
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1 2 . 1 3 DVCAM DESKTOP VTR This DVCAM digital VTR can record high-quality digital video and high-fidelity audio on a V4-inch cassette as well as on DV mini-cassettes. It can be connected directly to a computer via a FireWire (i-link or IEEE 1394) interface cable.
i n d e p e n d e n t p r o d u c t i o n h o u s e s because of t h e a s t o n i s h ingly g o o d q u a l i t y a n d small size of its c a m c o r d e r a n d VTR. In fact, t h e D V r e c o r d i n g m e t h o d is the f o r e r u n n e r of t h e D V C P R O a n d D V C A M systems, a n d several p r o s u m e r c a m e r a s use D V r e c o r d i n g . T h e m i n i - c a s s e t t e used in t h e D V system can r e c o r d u p t o a n h o u r of c o n t i n u o u s p r o g r a m m i n g . N o t e , however, t h a t extensive editing w i t h t h e D V system is n o t r e c o m m e n d e d ; in t h e D V m o d e , t h e a u d i o / v i d e o s y n c h r o n i z a t i o n is n o t "locked," w h i c h m e a n s t h a t it is n o t f r a m e - a c c u r a t e .
12.14 T h e Sony DVCAM
V T R has a 4:1:1 s a m p l i n g
ratio w h e n recording Y/color difference c o m p o n e n t signals. It uses i n t r a f r a m e c o m p r e s s i o n a n d t h e '/4-inch ( 6 . 3 5 m m )
DVCPRO 50 STUDIO VTR
This recorder uses twenty tracks on a 14-inch (6.35mm) tape for each frame—twice as many tracks as the standard DVCPRO VTR. It can record ninety minutes of program material.
cassette, w h i c h is a little larger t h a n t h e m i n i - c a s s e t t e . T h e cassettes c o n t a i n v a r i o u s t a p e l e n g t h s c a p a b l e of r e c o r d i n g u p t o t h r e e h o u r s of p r o g r a m m i n g . Besides the
( t w e n t y instead of t e n ) , a h i g h e r s a m p l i n g ratio (4:2:2 for
D V C A M ' s small size a n d excellent a u d i o a n d v i d e o q u a l
interlaced f o r m a t s instead of 4:1:1), a n d a lower c o m p r e s
ity, t h e recordings suffer virtually n o d e t e r i o r a t i o n d u r i n g
sion rate t h a n t h e s t a n d a r d D V C P R O system, SEE
12.14
p o s t p r o d u c t i o n because they stay c o m p r e s s e d t h r o u g h the entire editing process, SEE
12.13
T h e digital Betacam
SX s y s t e m uses a
Y/color difference c o m p o n e n t signal a n d has a 4:2:2 s a m u s e s a Vi-inch
pling ratio. It uses Vi-inch t a p e cassettes t h a t can r e c o r d
( 6 . 3 5 m m ) cassette t h a t c a n r e c o r d a b o u t t w o h o u r s of
c o n t i n u o u s l y for a b o u t t h r e e h o u r s . T h i s s y s t e m n e v e r
p r o g r a m m i n g . It is similar to t h e D V C A M cassette b u t
achieved t h e p o p u l a r i t y of its analog c o u n t e r p a r t , Betacam
uses a v i d e o t a p e with a different coating. Like t h e D V C A M
SP, m a i n l y because it was u p s t a g e d by t h e lighter a n d m o r e
system, t h e D V C P R O uses Y/color difference c o m p o n e n t
flexible D V C A M a n d D V C P R O systems.
T h i s P a n a s o n i c DVCPRO
signals, a 4:1:1 sampling ratio, a n d intraframe compression. As y o u recall, this m e a n s t h a t y o u can use a n y frame for a n edit-in or e d i t - o u t p o i n t .
High-definition
video (HDV)
is a p r o s u m e r f o r m a t
t h a t m a k e s high-definition television accessible to p r o d u c
T h e D V C P R O 50 system, for h i g h - e n d V T R s a n d
t i o n c o m p a n i e s t h a t c a n n o t s p e n d tens of t h o u s a n d s of
c a m c o r d e r s , uses twice as m a n y tracks for each video frame
dollars o n a c a m c o r d e r . As can be expected, t h e v a r i o u s
Section
12.1
How
formats on the market have their own recording systems and are not compatible, except for one thing: they all record on standard DV mini-cassettes. Some operational systems (JVC and Panasonic) record with a 720p (progressive) scanning standard; Sony with a 1080i (interlaced) one (see chapter 2). All use MPEG-2 compression. Although properly produced HDV has the same picture resolution as HDTV, purists insist that HDV's colors and grayscale are still a far cry from those of HDTV. You will find that the real problems of prosumer HDV are not only the lack of color information but also a lower-quality lens and playback equipment. When played back on standard television equipment, you obviously lose the resolution advantage you gained with HDV recording. Much like HDTV, HDV requires large-capacity hard drives to import the massive amount of digital information. You will also find that your favorite editing software may still not support HDV without first having to decompress and reconfigure the stored HDV data. The ultimate in image quality is high-definition television (HDTV). Of the many recording systems, two are considered standard: VTRs that use the 1080i or the 720p system. As discussed in chapter 2, the 1080i is an interlaced system that produces 60 fields, or 30 frames, per second. The 720p system produces 720 visible lines, which are scanned progressively to produce 30 frames per second. Like DTV, HDTV needs not only HDTV cameras or cam corders with high-quality HDTV lenses and HDTV record ers but also HDTV playback and display equipment. Although many television operations are producing shows in HDTV, it is still much too expensive for most smaller production houses and individual video producers. This is one of the reasons for the development of HDV.
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273
HARD DISK SYSTEMS These video-recording systems include: (1) large-capacity hard disks, (2) portable hard drives, and (3) electronic still store (ESS) systems. Large-capacity hard disks The simplest way to store and retrieve digital video and audio information for postproduction editing is with large-capacity hard disks. Accel erated hard-drive speeds and highly efficient compression techniques enable you to store hours of video and audio information and call up any frame in a fraction of a second. Unlike videotape, which inevitably degrades after repeated use, the hard disk has no such problem—it remains like new even after a great many recordings and erasures. In the ongoing move to an entirely tapeless operation, many television stations use video servers, which are very large-capacity disk systems that can record, store, and play many hours of television programming. These servers are controlled by computers that tell them what to play at a particular time. Servers are also used in newsrooms so that editors, writers, and producers have instant access to the news material stored on them, SEE 12.15
TAPELESS RECORDING AND STORAGE SYSTEMS The basis for nonlinear postproduction editing is the development of large-capacity hard disks and read/write optical discs with fast access times. All tapeless digital video-recording systems operate on the same principle: they store digital data in computer files that can be iden tified and randomly retrieved. If that sounds familiar, it's because disk-based systems are, indeed, specialized computers. This is why you can use a desktop computer and appropriate software as the key elements for a diskbased editing system. This overview looks at (1) hard disk systems, (2) read/write optical discs, (3) flash memory devices, and (4) data transfer.
12.15
VIDEOSERVER
The video server consists of large-capacity computer disks that can store a great number of brief program segments, such as commercials and promotional announcements.
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T h e s e small hard drives,
E F P ^ s o m e t i m e s called fieldpacks,
are d e s i g n e d t o b e
AND
STORAGE
SYSTEMS
READ/WRITE OPTICAL DISCS T h e r e is a variety of read/write
optical discs that can re
docked with ENG/EFP cameras. The Ikegami Editcam
cord a n d play b a c k a great a m o u n t of digital i n f o r m a t i o n .
c a m c o r d e r , for e x a m p l e , has an 80-gigabyte fieldpack a n d
T h e o p t i c a l discs m o s t often u s e d are C D s a n d D V D s ,
is a b o u t t h e size of a d o c k a b l e V T R , yet it can store u p
a l t h o u g h t r u e t o t h e n a t u r e of digital r e c o r d i n g , y o u m a y
t o six h o u r s of DV video a n d a u d i o . Such portable
hard
n o t b e able to play b a c k y o u r v i d e o m a s t e r p i e c e from a
drives r e c o r d h i g h - q u a l i t y digital video, t i m e c o d e , a n d
D V D unless y o u used certain a u t h o r i n g software for the
two- or f o u r - c h a n n e l a u d i o . T h e y all have i n / o u t FireWire
r e c o r d i n g , SEE 12.17
c o n n e c t i o n s , w h i c h g r e a t l y facilitates t r a n s f e r r i n g t h e
S o m e c a m c o r d e r s use r e a d / w r i t e optical discs r a t h e r
c a p t u r e d video a n d a u d i o to t h e editing c o m p u t e r . T h e r e
t h a n h a r d disks as their r e c o r d i n g m e d i a . T h e great a d v a n
are p o r t a b l e drives t h a t c a n b e c o n n e c t e d via FireWire t o
tages of such optical discs are t h a t they are easy to store a n d
p r o s u m e r DV camcorders. S o m e portable h a r d drives allow
they p e r m i t extremely fast access t i m e . T h e disadvantage is
you to d o editing in t h e field w i t h an externally c o n n e c t e d
that, despite v a r i o u s c o m p r e s s i o n t e c h n i q u e s , t h e storage
l a p t o p — a big a d v a n t a g e in E N G . S o m e c a m c o r d e r s have
capacity is r a t h e r limited.
a t a p e - b a s e d as well as a disk-based r e c o r d i n g system. You can use b o t h s i m u l t a n e o u s l y for r e c o r d i n g , or use t h e t a p e
FLASH MEMORY DEVICES
as a b a c k u p in case t h e h a r d drive crashes. <
Flash memory
devices, which are basically solid-state digital
storage devices, are s o m e t i m e s u s e d in D V r e c o r d e r s in In effect a large slide col
stead of h a r d disks. T h e advantages of flash drives are that
lection t h a t allows y o u t o access a n y slide in a b o u t a t e n t h
they are small, lightweight, a n d extremely fast in c a p t u r i n g
Electronic still store systems
still store (ESS) system can grab
digital i n f o r m a t i o n . T h e d o w n s i d e is t h a t their storage ca
any frame from v a r i o u s video sources ( c a m e r a , v i d e o t a p e ,
pacity is relatively limited, especially in t h e arena of video
of a second, t h e electronic
or c o m p u t e r ) a n d store it in digital form o n a h a r d disk. It is
c a p t u r e , which gives y o u only a b o u t four m i n u t e s of video
n o t u n u s u a l to find ESS systems t h a t h o l d several t h o u s a n d
p e r gigabyte. Flash m e m o r y devices that c a n record longer
images. Each still has its o w n filename (address) a n d can
events can b e q u i t e costly, especially w h e n c o m p a r e d w i t h
therefore be accessed r a n d o m l y a n d almost instantaneously
t h e c o s t - p e r - m e g a b y t e of a h a r d drive.
d u r i n g p r o d u c t i o n or in p o s t p r o d u c t i o n editing. Largec a p a c i t y g r a p h i c s g e n e r a t o r s w o r k s i m i l a r l y w i t h titles
DATA T R A N S F E R
a n d a limited a m o u n t of stills, s u c h as t h e vital statistics of
T h e transfer of digital d a t a is i m p o r t a n t e n o u g h to recap
s p o r t s figures o r people in t h e news. S o m e of t h e smaller
here. W h e n c a p t u r i n g digital video o n a n a l o g v i d e o t a p e ,
ESS systems use regular Z i p disks. Even a tiny 2-inch floppy
y o u d o n ' t n e e d to digitize t h e video a n d a u d i o i n f o r m a
can h o l d u p to 200 frames, SEE 12.16
t i o n for storage. A l t h o u g h this is a great timesaver, y o u still
12.16
SMALL DISK USED FOR ESS
This tiny floppy disk, a little larger than a postage stamp, stores up to 200 still pictures (video frames), which can be randomly accessed by the ESS system.
12.17
DVD RECORDER
This relatively small DVD unit records and plays a great amount of video and audio information. It operates with a laser beam, similar to the CD system.
Section
12.1
How
need to transfer the data recorded by the digital camcorder to a temporary digital storage device, such as the editing computer's hard disk, for postproduction editing. FireWire (Apple) or i-link (Sony) cables let you trans fer digital data directly from storage (like the camcorder VTR) to a desktop computer. The more formal name for this transfer standard is IEEE 1394. Because this cable trans fers about 400 megabytes per second, it is commonly re ferred to as FireWire 400. The faster FireWire 800 transfers information in half the time, but not all computers have FireWire 800 ports. Assuming that the connectors fit both the camcorder and the computer ports, these IEEE 1394 cables let you transfer all your camcorder footage much faster than digitizing analog tape footage before storing it on the hard disk of the editing computer. Similar to streaming audio, streaming video is an Internet delivery system that sends compressed data as a continuous stream. It updates the video continuously as you are watching it. The usual compression standard for streaming video is MPEG-4. The more efficient the compression systems are, the more video you will be able to store on the receiving end on conventional stor age media.
•
Recording systems can be analog or digital, linear or non linear, composite or component.
•
All analog recording systems use videotape as the record ing medium. Analog recordings can be high-quality, but they deteriorate quickly from generation to generation. Digital recordings are virtually immune to deterioration in subsequent dubs.
Video
Recording
Works
275
signals, which are kept separate throughout the recording process. In the RGB component system, the red, green, and blue signals are kept separate throughout the transport as well as on the videotape. None of these systems is compat ible with the others, and all need their own recording and playback equipment. •
Component systems deliver better-quality video than do composite systems, especially after multiple generations.
•
When sampling an analog color signal, the Y (luminance, or black-and-white) signal is sampled more often than the color signal because the luminance signal provides more resolution.
•
A 4:2:2 sampling ratio results in a high-quality signal. It samples the luminance signal twice as often as the color signals. A 4:1:1 ratio reduces the color information some what. The Y signal is sampled four times as often as the C signals.
•
Intraframe compression means that every frame is ex amined for, and purged of, redundant data. It eliminates spatial redundancy.
•
Interframe compression compares each frame to the previous one and keeps only information that is new. It eliminates temporal (sequential) redundancy.
•
All tape-based systems use the helical scan, or slant-track, recording method. One or more heads rotate with, or through, the head drum to put the video tracks on the tape that moves past the rotating heads.
•
The time base corrector (TBC) and the framestore synchro nizer are electronic devices that help stabilize the playback of video recorders and synchronize the scanning sync from remote sources so that you can switch among them with out temporary picture breakup.
•
Analog VTRs include, in descending order of quality,
Betacam SP, S-VHS, and VHS.
•
All tape-based systems are linear, regardless of whether the recorded signals are analog or digital.
•
Digital VTRs have various recording systems: DV, DVCAM, DVCPRO, Betacam SX, HDV, and HDTV.
•
Video recorders treat their signals in one of four basic ways: composite, Y/C component, Y/color difference component, and RGB component.
•
Tapeless recording systems use large-capacity hard disks and read/write optical discs. Flash memory devices are used for low-capacity storage.
•
Tapeless, disk-based systems are nonlinear and allow random access.
•
•
Video recorders are also classified by how they transport and record the video signal. Recorders that operate with the NTSC composite system combine the luminance (blackand-white, or Y) information and the chrominance (C, or red, green, and blue) information in a single signal. Y/C component recorders transport the Y and C signals sepa rately but combine them on the videotape. The Y/color difference component system consists of Y, R-Y, and B-Y
Hard disk systems include large-capacity hard disks, por table hard drives, and the electronic still store (ESS) system. Large-capacity disk systems are used as video servers for programming automation and multiple users.
•
Read/write optical discs include a variety of CD and DVD formats.
•
Data transfer methods include IEEE 1394 cables such as the FireWire and the i-link as well as streaming video via the Internet.
s i m p l y involve c o n d e n s i n g a news story b y c u t t i n g o u t t h e nonessential parts. It also includes stringing together longer
12.2
m u l t i c a m e r a scenes t h a t were switched ( i n s t a n t a n e o u s l y edited) a n d recorded o n v i d e o t a p e . A g o o d e x a m p l e of this t e c h n i q u e is t h e r e c o r d i n g of relatively l o n g a n d u n i n t e r r u p t e d s t u d i o s e g m e n t s of s o a p o p e r a s a n d t h e n editing t h e m t o g e t h e r in a p o s t p r o d u c t i o n session.
How Video
TIME DELAY
Recording Is Done
back i m m e d i a t e l y o r h o u r s , days, o r even years after its
T h r o u g h video recording an event can b e stored a n d played o c c u r r e n c e . I n s p o r t s m a n y k e y plays a r e r e c o r d e d a n d s h o w n right after they occur. Because t h e playback of t h e r e c o r d i n g h a p p e n s so quickly after t h e actual event, t h e y are called instant
replays. N e t w o r k s h o w s t h a t y o u can
w a t c h at t h e s a m e s c h e d u l e t i m e in each t i m e z o n e are t i m e delayed t h r o u g h v i d e o t a p e . For e x a m p l e , t h r o u g h video r e c o r d i n g y o u c a n delay t h e a i r t i m e so t h a t t h e s a m e awards s h o w b r o a d c a s t at 6 p . m . in N e w York is seen at 6 p . m . in San Francisco.
N o w t h a t y o u k n o w all a b o u t t h e v a r i o u s v i d e o - r e c o r d i n g systems, y o u n e e d to k n o w w h a t t o d o w i t h t h e m . This
PROGRAM DUPLICATION AND DISTRIBUTION Video r e c o r d i n g s can b e easily d u p l i c a t e d a n d d i s t r i b u t e d
section i n t r o d u c e s y o u t o t h e m a j o r o p e r a t i o n a l uses of
to a variety of television outlets b y mail, courier, cable, tele
video r e c o r d i n g a n d t h e v i d e o - r e c o r d i n g p r o c e d u r e s i n
p h o n e line, coax o r fiber-optic cable, satellite, o r I n t e r n e t s t r e a m i n g . W i t h satellite o r I n t e r n e t s t r e a m i n g , a single
studio production a n d ENG/EFP.
video r e c o r d i n g can b e d i s t r i b u t e d s i m u l t a n e o u s l y t o m u l P
tiple d e s t i n a t i o n s a r o u n d t h e w o r l d w i t h m i n i m a l effort.
USES OF VIDEO RECORDING AND STORAGE Building a show, time delay, program duplication and distribu
RECORD PROTECTION A N D REFERENCE
tion, and record protection and reference
P
To p r o t e c t t h e r e c o r d i n g s of i m p o r t a n t e v e n t s , m a k e
VIDEO-RECORDING PRODUCTION FACTORS
p r o t e c t i o n copies right after t h e actual t a p i n g . M a k e these
Preproduction (schedule, equipment, and preparation for postproduction
editing) and production (video leader, record
d u b s w i t h e q u i p m e n t t h a t has t h e same o r better recording
ing checks, time code, recordkeeping, and specific aspects of
quality as that w h i c h y o u used t o shoot t h e original footage.
disk-based video recording)
D V D s are an excellent archival r e c o r d i n g device. T h e y take u p very little space, a n d t h e playback e q u i p m e n t is small a n d readily available.
USES OF VIDEO RECORDING AND STORAGE
T h e p r o b l e m w i t h digital r e c o r d k e e p i n g is t h e rapidly
Video r e c o r d i n g is p r i m a r i l y used for (1) b u i l d i n g a show,
c h a n g i n g t e c h n o l o g y t h a t m a k e s o n e r e c o r d i n g device
(2) t i m e delay, (3) p r o g r a m d u p l i c a t i o n a n d d i s t r i b u t i o n ,
obsolete in just a few years. You have p r o b a b l y r u n i n t o
a n d (4) t h e creation of a p r o t e c t i o n copy of a video record
this p r o b l e m w i t h floppy disks o r w i t h t h e e v e r - c h a n g
ing for reference a n d study.
ing systems software. Unless y o u transferred y o u r digital
BUILDING A SHOW
worthless.
records periodically t o t h e latest system, y o u r archives are O n e of t h e m a j o r uses of v i d e o t a p e is t o b u i l d a televi sion s h o w from previously r e c o r d e d t a p e s e g m e n t s . This b u i l d i n g process is d o n e t h r o u g h postproduction
editing.
VIDEO-RECORDING PRODUCTION FACTORS
T h e b u i l d i n g process m a y i n c l u d e a s s e m b l i n g m u l t i p l e
T h e r e are certain o p e r a t i o n a l steps in v i d e o r e c o r d i n g that
s e g m e n t s s h o t at different times a n d locations, o r it m a y
are n e c e s s a r y for effective p r e p r o d u c t i o n , p r o d u c t i o n ,
276
Section
12.2
How
and postproduction activities. Because postproduction is explored extensively in chapter 13, this discussion focuses on the major preproduction and production factors of video recording. PREPRODUCTION Production efficiency is determined to a large extent by how well prepared you are. This production preparation is called preproduction. Its steps include: (1) preparing the schedule, (2) making an equipment checklist, and (3) edit preparation. Unless you are working in news, where the equipment and the people are scheduled to respond immediately to unexpected situations, you need to follow some procedures that will guarantee you the availability of the equipment and the time you need to get your video-recording project done. But even the most careful scheduling will not help if the camcorder battery is dead or you forget to bring the right connecting cable for the external mics during a field production. S c h e d u l e Is the videotaping equipment actually avail able for the studio production or remote shoot? Most likely, your operation will have more than one type of video re corder available. Which VTR do you need? Be reasonable in your request. You will find that recording equipment is usually available for the actual studio or field production but not always for your playback demands. If you need a VTR simply for reviewing the scenes shot on location or for timing purposes, have the material dubbed down to a regular Vi-inch VHS format and watch it on your home VCR. That way you free the high-quality machines for more important tasks and you are not tied to a precise schedule when reviewing your tapes. Unless you use the camcorder as the source VTR when doing any dubbing, you must schedule not only the record VTR (the machine doing the dub) but also the VTR that plays the source tapes. Always try to use a regular stand alone VTR and not the VTR of your camcorder when viewing the source footage. The studio VTRs are obviously much more rugged than the smaller camcorder VTRs. Couldn't you import the footage from the camcorder to the hard drive of your computer without making a preview dub? Yes, this is a good idea but only if you have relatively brief footage or unlimited storage on your hard drive—even a brief scene takes up a generous amount of gigabytes. In all of your time and equipment requests, be sensitive to the other production people who need to work with the same machines you do.
Video
Recording
ENftw E q u i p n
Is
Done
277
Like a pilot who goes
E F P ^ through a checklist before every flight, you should have your own equipment checklist every time you do a production. Such a list is especially important in field pro ductions. This brief checklist is limited to video recording and uses the generic term VTR throughout, referring to tape-based as well as disk-based systems. VTR status. Does the VTR actually work? If at all pos sible, do a brief test recording to ensure that it functions properly. Power supply. If you use a VTR in the field, or if you
use a camcorder, do you have enough batteries for the en tire shoot? Are they fully charged? When using household current for the power supply, you need the appropriate transformer/adapter. Before leaving for the field location, check that the connecting cable from the power supply fits the jack on the VTR or camcorder. Do not try to make a connector fit if it is not designed for that jack. You may blow more than a fuse if you do. Correct tape. Do you have the correct tape, that is, the cassette format that fits the camcorder or VTR? Although the difference between a Vi-inch mini-cassette and a Vi-inch DVCPRO cassette is obvious, you may not see quite as readily the difference between a DVCAM and a DVCPRO full-sized cassette. Videotapes can look similar or even identical when you're in a hurry. Also check that the vari ous boxes contain the correct tapes. For example, the Sony DVCAM VTRs and the Panasonic DVCPRO systems use different-sized cassettes that may not fit the camcorder you are using. Because even same-sized cassettes can be loaded with various lengths of tape, check the supply reel to see if it contains the amount of tape indicated on the label. If, for example, the box says that it contains a 184-minute tape but your check shows only a relatively small amount of tape on the supply reel, the box is obviously mislabeled. Enough tapes. Do you have enough tapes for the pro posed production? This is especially important when you record a multicamera live event in its entirety for a liveon-tape production or for playback at a later time. If the largest cassette does not hold enough tape for the entire event, you need to schedule two machines or you will lose a few minutes during the tape change. Especially when doing multiple recordings for instant replay, you need three or four times the normal tape supply. Tapes do not take up much room and, compared with other production costs, are relatively inexpensive. Always take along more than you think you'll need.
278
Chapter
12
VIDEO-RECORDING
AND STORAGE
SYSTEMS
1 2 . 1 8 VHS CASSETTE TAB REMOVED To protect VHS and S-VHS cassettes from erasure, you need to break off the record-protect tab. To reuse the cassette for recording, put a small piece of masking tape over the hole.
Record-protect tab
Record protection.
If a V T R refuses t o record despite a
careful check of the c o n n e c t i n g cables, r e m o v e t h e cassette a n d see w h e t h e r its r e c o r d i n g is enabled. All cassettes have a device, s o m e t i m e s called t h e record inhibitor,
to p r o t e c t
t h e v i d e o t a p e from accidental e r a s u r e . V H S a n d S-VHS Vi-inch cassettes have a small r e c o r d - p r o t e c t t a b o n t h e back edge at t h e lower left. W h e n this t a b is b r o k e n off, t h e cassette is r e c o r d - p r o t e c t e d , SEE 12.18 Is t h e cassette n o w p e r m a n e n t l y disabled for future recordings? N o t a t all: t o restore its r e c o r d i n g capability, s i m p l y p u t a small piece of
Record-protect tab
m a s k i n g tape o r even gaffer's t a p e over t h e t a b o p e n i n g . Similar to c o m p u t e r floppy disks, m o s t digital v i d e o cassettes have a t a b t h a t y o u c a n m o v e i n t o o r o u t of a r e c o r d - p r o t e c t p o s i t i o n , SEE 12.19 S o m e , s u c h as Z i p disks, can b e p r o t e c t e d t h r o u g h software b y clicking t h e a p p r o priate c o m m a n d . R o u t i n e l y check t h e r e c o r d - p r o t e c t t a b before using a cassette for recording. A l t h o u g h y o u c a n n o t
1 2 . 1 9 DIGITAL VIDEOCASSETTE IN RECORD-PROTECT POSITION Digital videocassettes have a movable tab that prevents accidental erasure. To record on the cassette, the tab must be in the closed position.
record o n a r e c o r d - p r o t e c t e d t a p e , a n y cassette will play back w i t h o r w i t h o u t a r e c o r d - p r o t e c t device in place. 4
of an edit m a s t e r tape takes as m u c h t i m e as y o u w o u l d n e e d t o r e c o r d regular scenes i n s t e a d of black: laying a
Before starting y o u r p o s t p r o d u c t i o n
6 0 - m i n u t e c o n t r o l t r a c k takes 60 m i n u t e s . N o t e , however,
activities, y o u m a y n e e d t o p r e p a r e t h e videotapes a h e a d of
t h a t y o u n e e d t o blacken a tape only if y o u i n t e n d to use it
t i m e for certain types of editing. If, for e x a m p l e , y o u w a n t
as a n edit m a s t e r a n d t h e n only if y o u i n t e n d t o d o insert
to d o analog insert editing a n d t h e record (edit) V T R uses
editing. If y o u edit in t h e assemble m o d e , o r if t h e V T R
Edit preparation
a control track for recording t h e s y n c h r o n i z a t i o n i n f o r m a
does n o t n e e d a c o n t r o l track, s u c h p r e v i o u s blacking of
t i o n (sync p u l s e ) , y o u n e e d t o r e c o r d a c o n t i n u o u s control
t h e edit m a s t e r tape is unnecessary. (See c h a p t e r 13 for a n
track o n t h e edit master tape (the t a p e o n t o w h i c h y o u copy
i n - d e p t h discussion of p o s t p r o d u c t i o n editing.)
the selected p o r t i o n s of t h e source tapes) before y o u c a n d o a n y insert editing.
Unless y o u use digital c a m c o r d e r s w h o s e V T R s allow l i m i t e d e d i t i n g in t h e field, all digital v i d e o t a p e s — r e
T h e easiest w a y t o lay d o w n t h e c o n t r o l t r a c k is t o
gardless of w h e t h e r t h e y store a n a l o g o r digital i n f o r m a
"record black," t h a t is, a black video signal. This "blacking"
t i o n — m u s t be transferred to t h e hard disk of the n o n l i n e a r
Section
r
12.2
How
Blank tape for threading
Video
Recording
Is
Done
Color bars (30 to 60 seconds)
Slate visual (15 seconds!
Blacker leader numbers (8 seconds)
OVU audio tone
Silence
8 audio beeps (optional)
279
Black (2 seconds)
Program video
Video track
Silence
Silence
Program audio
Audio track
1 2 . 2 0 VIDEO LEADER The video leader helps adjust the playback and record machines to standard audio and video levels.
is always
tification slate, a n d p e r h a p s s o m e n u m b e r s flashing by
t i m e - c o n s u m i n g , as is t h e identification of t h e c a p t u r e d
w i t h a c c o m p a n y i n g a u d i o beeps. T h e s e i t e m s , collectively
editing system. T h i s process, called capturing,
files. You m a y find t h a t if y o u are in a h u r r y a n d y o u r
called t h e video leader, help adjust t h e playback a n d record
t r a n s i t i o n s are o n l y cuts, a linear e d i t o r (see figure 13.4)
m a c h i n e s to s t a n d a r d a u d i o a n d v i d e o levels, SEE 12.20 Let
m a y be t h e better choice. T h e u p s i d e of n o n l i n e a r editing
u s l o o k at t h e m o n e b y o n e . H'i»»EDITING-> Postproduction
is n o t necessarily t h a t y o u will save t i m e b u t t h a t y o u can
guidelines-^ leader
r a n d o m l y access each frame or s e q u e n c e , t h a t y o u have a n y n u m b e r of t r a n s i t i o n s a n d effects at y o u r
Color bars h e l p t h e v i d e o t a p e o p e r a t o r m a t c h t h e
fingertips,
colors of t h e playback m a c h i n e w i t h t h o s e of t h e record
a n d that y o u can view a n d save m u l t i p l e versions of a scene
m a c h i n e . It is therefore i m p o r t a n t t h a t you record t h e color
before c o m m i t t i n g yourself to t h e final edit.
b a r s (fed by color-bar generators located in m a s t e r control
W h e n using t a p e for editing o r o n - t h e - a i r playback,
o r built i n t o E N G / E F P c a m e r a s ) for a m i n i m u m of t h i r t y
p r e v i e w a m i n u t e o r so of each t a p e to verify t h a t t h e label
s e c o n d s each t i m e y o u use a n e w v i d e o t a p e o r begin a n e w
o n the box matches the one on the tape and that the tape
t a p i n g session. S o m e VOs (video o p e r a t o r s ) prefer to have
label m a t c h e s its c o n t e n t . T h o u g h y o u m a y consider such
t h e color b a r s r u n for a full m i n u t e or m o r e so t h a t t h e y d o
p r o c e d u r e s r e d u n d a n t a n d a waste of t i m e , t h e y are n o t .
n o t have to r e r u n the bars if the e q u i p m e n t requires further
A h a b i t of t r i p l e - c h e c k i n g will n o t o n l y p r e v e n t costly
adjustment.
p r o d u c t i o n e r r o r s b u t also save t i m e , energy, a n d , ulti mately, nerves.
M o s t a u d i o consoles a n d even s o m e field m i x e r s can generate a test tone that y o u n e e d in calibrating the l i n e - o u t level of t h e a u d i o console o r mixer w i t h t h e i n p u t (record)
PRODUCTION
level of t h e V T R (see c h a p t e r 10). You s h o u l d record this
If y o u have followed t h e basic p r e p r o d u c t i o n steps, y o u
0 V U test t o n e a l o n g w i t h t h e color bars. Obviously, these
s h o u l d h a v e little t r o u b l e d u r i n g t h e a c t u a l r e c o r d i n g ,
test signals s h o u l d b e r e c o r d e d w i t h t h e e q u i p m e n t that
a l t h o u g h t h e f o l l o w i n g e l e m e n t s still n e e d a t t e n t i o n :
y o u use for t h e s u b s e q u e n t v i d e o t a p i n g . O t h e r w i s e , t h e
(1) t h e v i d e o leader, (2) r e c o r d i n g checks, (3) t i m e code,
playback will b e referenced to t h e r e c o r d e d color b a r s a n d
(4) r e c o r d k e e p i n g , a n d (5) specific aspects of disk-based
test t o n e b u t n o t to t h e v i d e o t a p e d m a t e r i a l . T h e director
video recording.
refers to these test signals as " b a r s a n d tone." W h e n d o ing a s t u d i o show, y o u will h e a r t h e d i r e c t o r call for bars W h e n playing b a c k a p r o p e r l y executed
a n d t o n e right after t h e v i d e o t a p e roll. In EFP t h e c a m e r a
v i d e o r e c o r d i n g , y o u will n o t i c e s o m e front m a t t e r at t h e
or V T R o p e r a t o r will, hopefully, take care of this refer
h e a d of t h e recording: color bars, a steady t o n e , a n iden
ence r e c o r d i n g .
Video leader
280
Chapter
12
VIDEO-RECORDING
AND
STORAGE
SYSTEMS
again. It reads: scene 1, take 1. B u t s h o u l d n ' t t h e slate read: scene 1, take 2? Yes—the C G . o p e r a t o r obviously forgot to change the slate. S h o u l d y o u go o n , or stop the tape again to correct the slate? In this case y o u m i g h t as well k e e p going. T h e V T R o p e r a t o r , w h o keeps t h e field log, can n o t e t h e false 10-second start a n d r e c o r d t h e s e c o n d take as take 1. If, however, y o u are b r e a k i n g u p the president's "chat" i n t o several s h o r t takes to b e assembled in p o s t p r o d u c t i o n , t h e slate n u m b e r s m u s t b e accurate. Leader
numbers
are used for t h e accurate c u e i n g of
t h e v i d e o t a p e d u r i n g playback. T h e leader n u m b e r s flash
12.21
CHARACTER-GENERATED SLATE
The slate gives pertinent information about the production. It is recorded at the beginning of each take.
at 1-second intervals from 10 to 3 or from 5 to 3 a n d are usually s y n c h r o n i z e d w i t h s h o r t a u d i o b e e p s . T h e last t w o seconds are n o r m a l l y k e p t in black a n d silent so t h a t t h e y d o n o t accidentally a p p e a r o n t h e air if t h e v i d e o t a p e is p u n c h e d u p early ( s o m e t i m e s t h e n u m b e r s go d o w n to t h e last s e c o n d ) . T h e first frame of r e c o r d e d p r o g r a m m a t e
T h e slate gives p e r t i n e n t p r o d u c t i o n i n f o r m a t i o n along
rial s h o u l d a p p e a r at t h e zero c o u n t d o w n . W h e n cueing a
with s o m e technical details. Normally, t h e slate indicates
videotape for playback, y o u can stop the tape at a particular
t h e following identification data:
leader n u m b e r , say, 4; or y o u can a d v a n c e t h e t a p e right
•
S h o w title
to t h e first v i d e o frame. W h e n y o u stop t h e t a p e at the last leader n u m b e r , 4, y o u m u s t preroll t h e t a p e exactly 4 sec
Scene n u m b e r ( c o r r e s p o n d i n g to t h a t in t h e script)
o n d s before t h e p r o g r a m material is to a p p e a r o n t h e air. If,
Take n u m b e r ( h o w often y o u r e c o r d the s a m e thing)
interval b e t w e e n t h e leader n u m b e r 4 a n d the first v i d e o
after starting t h e tape o n leader n u m b e r 4, t h e r e is a longer •
frame, t h e T D (technical director) will n o t k n o w exactly Recording date S o m e slates also list t h e director, t h e l o c a t i o n (espe cially for EFP), a n d a d d i t i o n a l i n - h o u s e i n f o r m a t i o n , such as reel n u m b e r s , editing i n s t r u c t i o n s , n a m e of p r o d u c e r ,
w h e n to p u n c h u p t h e v i d e o t a p e a n d a l m o s t certainly will miss t h e first s e c o n d of the playback. If y o u start t h e t a p e o n leader n u m b e r 4, t h e first v i d e o frame s h o u l d c o m e u p after exactly 4 seconds.
a n d so o n . T h e essential i n f o r m a t i o n is t h e n a m e of t h e s h o w a n d t h e scene a n d take n u m b e r s . In t h e s t u d i o t h e slate is usually g e n e r a t e d b y t h e C G . (character g e n e r a t o r ) a n d r e c o r d e d r i g h t after t h e color bars, SEE 12.21
In the absence of a C.G., y o u can use a small
w h i t e b o a r d w i t h a 4 x 3 aspect ratio (4 u n i t s wide b y 3 units
As the V T R o p e r a t o r , you are re sponsible for seeing that the pictures a n d the s o u n d are actually r e c o r d e d o n t h e v i d e o t a p e . H e r e are s o m e check p o i n t s that greatly r e d u c e r e c o r d i n g p r o b l e m s :
h i g h ) . Because t h e i n f o r m a t i o n o n the slate changes from
Always d o a brief test r e c o r d i n g , t h e n play b a c k t h e
take to take, the slate surface s h o u l d b e easily cleaned (chalk
t a p e t o e n s u r e t h a t t h e w h o l e system w o r k s properly. Just
or dry-erase m a r k e r s w o r k well). T h e slate identifies t h e
b e c a u s e y o u see a p i c t u r e o n t h e V T R m o n i t o r a n d see t h e
scene as well as t h e take, so y o u m u s t use it every t i m e y o u
V U m e t e r fluctuate d u r i n g t h e test r e c o r d i n g , it does n o t
record a n e w take, regardless of h o w s h o r t or h o w complete
m e a n that the video a n d a u d i o signals are actually recorded
t h e take m a y b e . H'J*»EDn"ING-> Production guidelines-^ slate
o n t a p e . But o n c e t h e test r e c o r d i n g plays back all right,
A s s u m e t h a t y o u a r e t h e d i r e c t o r of t h e w e e k l y
y o u c a n t r u s t t h a t t h e s u b s e q u e n t v i d e o a n d a u d i o feeds
President's
Chat p r o d u c t i o n . You have j u s t r e c o r d e d a b o u t
will b e r e c o r d e d .
ten seconds of the first take w h e n t h e college p r e s i d e n t stumbles over t h e n a m e of t h e n e w dean. You stop t h e tape,
Reset t h e t a p e c o u n t e r o n t h e V T R before s t a r t i n g
keep calm, roll t h e t a p e again, a n d wait for t h e " i n - r e c o r d "
t h e actual p r o g r a m r e c o r d i n g . If y o u n e e d to r e c o r d t i m e
c o n f i r m a t i o n f r o m t h e V T R o p e r a t o r . Before r e p e a t i n g
code at t h e actual v i d e o t a p i n g , m a k e sure it is r e c o r d e d
t h e president's i n t r o d u c t i o n , y o u n e e d t o record the slate
with the picture.
Section
12.2
How
Wait u n t i l t h e V T R h a s r e a c h e d o p e r a t i n g speed a n d h a s stabilized before s t a r t i n g t o record. This lockup
Video
Recording
Is
281
Done
L o n g i n t e r r u p t i o n s n o t only waste t i m e b u t also lower
time
t h e e n e r g y level of t h e p r o d u c t i o n t e a m a n d talent. O n
m a y take a n y w h e r e from o n e - h a l f t o four s e c o n d s . T h e
t h e o t h e r h a n d , d o n o t r u s h t h r o u g h t a p i n g sessions at a
V T R has a c o n t r o l light t h a t flashes d u r i n g t h e l o c k u p p e
frenetic pace. If y o u feel t h a t a n o t h e r take is w a r r a n t e d ,
r i o d a n d r e m a i n s steady o n c e t h e system is locked, t h a t is,
d o it r i g h t t h e n a n d there. It is far less expensive a n d t i m e -
sufficiently stabilized for r e c o r d i n g . As t h e V T R o p e r a t o r ,
c o n s u m i n g t o repeat a take i m m e d i a t e l y t h a n t o re-create a
y o u s h o u l d w a t c h t h e flashing light a n d , w h e n y o u see a
w h o l e scene later simply because o n e of y o u r takes t u r n e d
steady light, call o u t , " s p e e d " o r " i n record." T h e d i r e c t o r
out to be unusable.
will t h e n p r o c e e d w i t h t h e actual r e c o r d i n g . Watch t h e a u d i o a n d video levels d u r i n g t h e recording. If y o u d o n o t have a separate a u d i o setup b u t instead feed t h e m i c directly t o t h e V T R , p a y p a r t i c u l a r a t t e n t i o n t o t h e a u d i o p o r t i o n . You m a y find that a d i r e c t o r b e c o m e s so captivated b y t h e beautiful c a m e r a shots that he o r she does n o t even hear, for e x a m p l e , t h e talent giving an African country the w r o n g name, an airplane noise interrupting t h e m e d i e v a l scene s h o t o n l o c a t i o n , or t h e wireless m i c c u t t i n g o u t briefly d u r i n g a n especially m o v i n g m o m e n t of a song. W h e n r e c o r d i n g for p o s t p r o d u c t i o n , r e c o r d e n o u g h
Time code
T h e time, o r address, code is an electronic
m a r k that provides each frame with a u n i q u e address (frame n u m b e r ) . If y o u n e e d t o r e c o r d t i m e code s i m u l t a neously w i t h each take, verify that t h e time code is recorded o n its d e s i g n a t e d address track or, if necessary, o n a free a u d i o track. Unless t h e c a m e r a o r V T R has a b u i l t - i n t i m e code generator, y o u n e e d a separate time code generator for the address system. T i m e code can also b e laid d o w n later in p o s t p r o d u c t i o n (as explained in chapter 13).M'JgfrEDITING-> Postproduction guidelines-* time code
Recordkeeping
Keeping accurate records of w h a t y o u
of each s e g m e n t so t h a t t h e action overlaps t h e p r e c e d i n g
v i d e o t a p e a n d t h e p r o p e r labeling of v i d e o t a p e s m a y seem
a n d following scenes. At t h e e n d of each take, r e c o r d a few
insignificant while in t h e m i d d l e of a p r o d u c t i o n , b u t they
seconds of black before s t o p p i n g t h e t a p e . This
are critical w h e n y o u w a n t t o locate a p a r t i c u l a r scene o r
run-out
signal acts as a p a d a n d greatly facilitates editing.
a specific tape a m o n g t h e various tape boxes. You will be
Ask t h e director w h e t h e r y o u s h o u l d v i d e o t a p e t h e
s u r p r i s e d at h o w quickly y o u c a n forget t h e "unforget
c a m e r a rehearsals. S o m e t i m e s y o u get a better p e r f o r m a n c e
t a b l e " scene a n d especially t h e n u m b e r a n d t h e sequence
d u r i n g rehearsal t h a n d u r i n g t h e actual take. T h e c a m e r a
of takes.
rehearsals ( w h e n r u n like full dress rehearsal) can t h e n be edited i n t o t h e rest of t h e p r o d u c t i o n . Again, b e s u r e t o slate every take y o u have o n tape, r e h e a r s a l o r n o t . W h e n y o u are i n a h u r r y ,
Keeping accurate records d u r i n g the taping saves m u c h t i m e i n p o s t p r o d u c t i o n editing. A l t h o u g h y o u will m o s t
audio-slate
each take by h a v i n g t h e a u d i o o p e r a t o r use t h e console m i c . W h e n in t h e field, have t h e floor m a n a g e r r e a d t h e brief slate i n f o r m a t i o n i n t o t h e talent's lavaliere o r fishpole s h o t g u n m i c : "President's C h a t , take 12." S o m e directors like a n a d d i t i o n a l brief verbal c o u n t d o w n , such as "five, four, t h r e e " w i t h t h e last t w o s e c o n d s silent before t h e cue t o t h e talent. M a n y field p r o d u c t i o n s are slated m o r e extensively only at t h e b e g i n n i n g of t h e video r e c o r d i n g , w i t h s u b s e q u e n t takes b e i n g only verbally slated.
likely log t h e v a r i o u s takes a n d scenes w h e n reviewing t h e v i d e o t a p e after t h e p r o d u c t i o n , y o u are still greatly aided by a r o u g h record kept duringthe
p r o d u c t i o n , called
afield
log. As a V T R operator, y o u s h o u l d keep a field log even w h e n r e c o r d i n g i n t h e studio. A field log is especially useful in m o r e - c o m p l e x field p r o d u c t i o n s ( h e n c e its n a m e ) that involve a n u m b e r of locations. M a r k t h e g o o d takes ( u s u ally w i t h a circle) a n d identify especially t h o s e takes that seem u n u s a b l e at t h a t t i m e . Label each v i d e o t a p e a n d b o x , a n d m a r k t h e field log w i t h t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g i n f o r m a t i o n . SEE 12.22
D o n o t waste t i m e b e t w e e n takes. If y o u are p r o p e r l y
Specific aspects of disk-based video recording T h e
p r e p a r e d , y o u c a n keep t h e intervals t o a m i n i m u m . Al
p r e p r o d u c t i o n a n d p r o d u c t i o n e l e m e n t s discussed h e r e
t h o u g h t h e playback of each take m a y occasionally i m p r o v e
a p p l y equally w h e t h e r y o u r e c o r d w i t h a n a n a l o g o r a
t h e s u b s e q u e n t p e r f o r m a n c e by cast a n d crew, it often does
digital V T R or s o m e tapeless r e c o r d i n g device. T h e r e are,
n o t justify t h e t i m e it takes away from t h e actual p r o d u c
of course, s o m e different p r o d u c t i o n r e q u i r e m e n t s w h e n
t i o n . If y o u pay close a t t e n t i o n d u r i n g t h e v i d e o t a p i n g , y o u
y o u u s e t h e disk-based system for editing, w h i c h is t h e
d o n o t n e e d to review each take.
subject of c h a p t e r 13.
282
Chapter
12
VIDEO-RECORDING
AND
STORAGE
SYSTEMS
1 2 . 2 2 FIELD LOG The field log is kept by the VTR operator during the taping. It normally indicates the tape or reel number, scene and take numbers, approximately where the take is located on the tape, and other information useful in postproduction editing.
Section
12.2
How
Video
Recording
Is
Done
283
I Li I •
•
Video recording is primarily used for building a whole show by assembling parts that have been recorded at different times and/or locations; time delay; duplication and distri bution of programs; and records for protection, reference, and study. The production purpose should determine the type of video recorder used. Simple material destined for home consumption does not need top-of-the-line videotape recorders (VTRs). High-quality VTRs are necessary for productions that require a great amount of color fidelity and resolution and for material requiring extensive postproduction.
•
The important preproduction steps for video recording include scheduling, equipment checklists, and specific edit preparations. Take along enough tape and be sure that it fits the specific camcorder or VTR. Check that none of the cassettes used for recording is record-protected.
•
The major production factors in video recording are the video leader (color bars, test tone, slate information, and leader numbers and beeps), recording checks, time code, accurate recordkeeping, and specific aspects of disk-based operations. Slate all takes, either visually and/or verbally.
•
The field log is kept during the actual studio or field production. It lists all tape numbers, scenes, takes, and comments about shots and audio.
For your reference, or to track your work, each VideoLab program cue in this chapter is listed here with its corresponding page number.
E$33>
EDITINGS Postproduction guidelines-* tape basics 266
E5H>
EDITINGS Postproduction guidelines-* leader
H31>
EDITINGS Production guidelines^ slate EDITINGS Postproduction guidelines^ time code 281
279 280
Postproduction Editing Almost all programs you see on television have b e e n edited in s o m e way, either during or after t h e actual production. W h e n editing is d o n e after (posf in Latin), it is k n o w n as postproduction
editing. Its processes differ considerably from switching, the instanta
neous editing d o n e during production.
Today most postproduction editing is d o n e w i t h disk-based nonlinear systems rather t h a n tape-based linear e q u i p m e n t . This d e v e l o p m e n t has a profound influence on h o w w e edit. Nonlinear editing resembles more t h e cut-and-paste approach of w o r d process ing; in linear editing you select portions from o n e t a p e a n d copy t h e m onto another. Despite t h e dramatic evolution of editing e q u i p m e n t a n d techniques, however, y o u , as the editor, remain unquestionably in c h a r g e of aesthetic decisions. H'i%»FDiTiNG-> Editing introduction
Section 13.1, H o w Postproduction Editing Works, examines t h e basic editing func tions a n d t h e major editing systems. Section 13.2, M a k i n g Editing Decisions, helps you sharpen your aesthetic j u d g m e n t a b o u t w h y a n d h o w to assemble shots. Despite the p r e d o m i n a n c e of nonlinear editing, t a p e - b a s e d linear editing is discussed first because k n o w i n g h o w linear editing works will help y o u understand nonlinear editing a n d h o w to apply it with m a x i m u m efficiency.
284
AB-roll editing Creating an edit master tape from two source VTRs, one containing the A-roll, the other the B-roll. The editing is initiated by the edit controller rather than through switching. A B rolling The simultaneous and synchronized feed from two source VTRs (one supplying the A-roll, the other the B-roll) to the switcher for instantaneous editing as though they were live sources. assemble editing Adding shots in linear editing on videotape in consecutive order without first recording a control track on the edit master tape. capture Transferring video and audio information to a com puter hard drive for nonlinear editing. complexity editing The juxtaposition of shots that primarily, though not exclusively, helps intensify the screen event. Editing conventions as advocated in continuity editing are often purposely violated. continuity editing The preservation of visual continuity from shot to shot. control track system An editing system that counts the control track pulses and translates this count into elapsed time and frame numbers. It is not frame-accurate. Also called pulsecount system.
mental map Tells viewers where things are or are supposed to be in on- and off-screen space. nonlinear editing (NLE) Allows instant random access to shots and sequences and easy rearrangement. The video and audio information is stored in digital form on computer hard disks or read/write optical discs. Uses disk-based computer systems. off-line editing In linear editing it produces an edit decision list or a videotape not intended for broadcast. In nonlinear editing the selected shots are captured in low resolution to save computer storage space. on-line editing In linear editing it produces the final highquality edit master tape for broadcast or program dupli cation. In nonlinear editing it requires recapturing the selected shots at a higher resolution. record VTR The videotape recorder that edits the program seg ments as supplied by the source VTR(s) into the final edit master tape. Also called edit VTR. slate (1) Visual and/or verbal identification of each videotaped segment. (2) A small blackboard or whiteboard upon which essential production information is written. It is recorded at the beginning of each take. source tape The videotape with the original footage.
cutaway A shot of an object or event that is peripherally con nected with the overall event and that is often neutral as to its screen direction (such as a straight-on shot). Used to intercut between shots to facilitate continuity. edit controller Machine that assists in various editing func tions, such as marking edit-in and edit-out points, rolling source and record VTRs, and activating effects equipment. Often a desktop computer with specialized software. Also called editing control unit. edit decision list (EDL) Consists of edit-in and edit-out points, expressed in time code numbers, and the nature of transi tions between shots. edit master tape The videotape on which the selected portions of the source tapes are edited. Used with the record VTR.
source VTR The videotape recorder that supplies the program segments to be assembled by the record VTR. Also called play VTR. time code Gives each television frame a specific address (num ber that shows hours, minutes, seconds, and frames of elapsed tape). It is frame-accurate. vector Refers to a force with a direction. Graphic vectors suggest a direction through lines or a series of objects that form a line. Index vectors point unquestionably in a specific direc tion, such as an arrow. Motion vectors are created by an object or a screen image in motion.
insert editing Requires the prior laying of a control track on the edit master tape. The shots are edited in sequence or in serted into an already existing recording. Necessary mode for editing audio and video tracks separately.
VTR log A list of all takes on the source videotapes compiled during the screening (logging) of the source material. It lists all takes—both good (acceptable) and no good (unac ceptable)—in consecutive order by time code address. Often done with computerized logging programs. A vector column facilitates shot selection.
linear editing Analog or digital editing that uses tape-based systems. Selection of shots is nonrandom.
window dub A "bumped-down"copy of all source tapes that has the time code keyed over each frame.
285
13.1
P
Using the control track (pulse count) and time code systems P
LINEAR EDITING FEATURES AND TECHNIQUES Assemble and insert editing
fc-
How Postproduction
CONTROL TRACK AND TIME CODE EDITING
AB ROLLING AND AB-ROLL EDITING Creating an edit master tape from two source VTRs
P
NONLINEAR EDITING SYSTEMS Basic desktop systems
Editing Works fc-
NONLINEAR EDITING FEATURES AND TECHNIQUES Capture, compression, and storage of information, and shot juxtaposition and rearrangement
P-
PRE-EDITING PHASES The shooting, review, and preparation phases
fc-
EDITING PROCEDURES Shot selection, shot sequencing, audio sweetening, creating the final edit master tape, and operational hints
EDITING MODES: O F F - A N D ON-LINE Although editing e q u i p m e n t changes almost from day
Unless y o u edit news footage for a n u p c o m i n g newscast o r
to day, t h e basic editing functions r e m a i n t h e s a m e — t o
a s h o r t , basically c u t s - o n l y piece, y o u will p r o b a b l y engage
c o m b i n e , s h o r t e n , correct, a n d b u i l d . H o w y o u d o this
in off-line a n d o n - l i n e editing p r o c e d u r e s . Off-line
d e p e n d s a great deal o n just w h a t t h e editing j o b involves,
results in a rough-cut.
h o w m u c h p o s t p r o d u c t i o n time y o u have, a n d w h a t e q u i p
series that serves as a guide for the final edit. On-line
m e n t is available. If, for example, y o u n e e d to edit an M T V
p r o d u c e s t h e final edit m a s t e r t a p e or disc. A l t h o u g h simi
s e g m e n t t h a t consists of m a n y c o m p l e x effects t h a t have
lar in intent, t h e p r o c e d u r e s for these t w o m o d e s of editing
to m a t c h t h e m u s i c track exactly, y o u c a n n o t use a simple,
are different for linear a n d n o n l i n e a r editing.
editing
It will p r o d u c e a l o w - q u a l i t y p i c t u r e editing
t a p e - b a s e d c u t s - o n l y editor n o m a t t e r h o w h a r d y o u try. O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , a simple c u t s - o n l y t a p e editing system
LINEAR OFF- A N D ON-LINE EDITING
is perfectly a d e q u a t e if all y o u have to d o is select o n e o r
Linear off-line editing is d o n e to give y o u a r o u g h idea of
t w o s o u n d bites from a brief speech.
h o w t h e i n t e n d e d s h o t s e q u e n c e looks a n d feels. It is a
Section 13.1 explains t h e m a j o r e d i t i n g p r o c e d u r e s
sketch, n o t t h e final p a i n t i n g . Even skilled editors like to d o
a n d systems a n d w h a t t h e y d o best. A l t h o u g h editing, like
a n off-line edit to check t h e r h y t h m of t h e shot s e q u e n c e ,
bicycling, is difficult to learn from a b o o k , this section will
decide o n v a r i o u s t r a n s i t i o n s a n d effects, a n d get s o m e
at least m a k e y o u c o m f o r t a b l e w h e n y o u are finally called
idea of t h e a u d i o r e q u i r e m e n t s . Linear off-line editing is
u p o n to d o it. •
EDITING MODES: OFF-AND ON-LINE Linear and nonlinear on- and off-line editing—defined by quality and editing intent
usually d o n e w i t h l o w - e n d e q u i p m e n t . You c o u l d even use t w o V H S recorders for an off-line r o u g h - c u t : o n e feeds t h e s o u r c e tapes, t h e o t h e r records t h e selected s h o t s in t h e desired s e q u e n c e (see figure 13.2). Never m i n d t h e sloppy t r a n s i t i o n s or a u d i o — a l l y o u w a n t to see is w h e t h e r t h e
P
P-
286
BASIC EDITING SYSTEMS
sequences m a k e sense, t h a t is, tell t h e i n t e n d e d story. If
Basic linear and nonlinear systems and their corresponding operational principles
y o u d o a p r e l i m i n a r y edit for a client, of course, t h e off-line
LINEAR EDITING SYSTEMS
V H S m a c h i n e s will n o longer suffice. T h e m o s t valuable
Single-source, expanded single-source, and multiplesource systems
b y - p r o d u c t of off-line editing is a final edit decision
edit s h o u l d l o o k as g o o d as y o u can possibly m a k e it, so
(EDL) t h a t y o u can t h e n use for o n - l i n e editing.
list
Section
13.1
Linear on-line
How
Postproduction
Editing
287
Works
editing results in the final p r o d u c t in
t e n d e d for b r o a d c a s t or o t h e r f o r m s of d i s t r i b u t i o n . It is actually a re-edit according to the EDL. It contains all of t h e
Timeline for arrang ing video and audio clips and controlling transitions
t r a n s i t i o n s a n d effects as well as a clean a u d i o track. This is t h e version y o u are pleased to h a n d to y o u r client o r t o see b r o a d c a s t or projected in a theater. You obviously use t h e best e q u i p m e n t available to p r o d u c e t h e o n - l i n e version. M o s t h i g h - e n d , c o m p u t e r - a s s i s t e d edit controllers will use t h e EDL as a guide for t h e final edit.
Available shots
NONLINEAR OFF- A N D ON-LINE
EDITING
In n o n l i n e a r editing off-line m e a n s t h a t y o u c a p t u r e t h e selected s h o t s in l o w - r e s o l u t i o n v i d e o a n d use t h e m for y o u r r o u g h - c u t . T h e r e a s o n for i m p o r t i n g the v i d e o in l o w - r e s o l u t i o n is to save s t o r a g e space a n d p r o c e s s i n g t i m e . Even t h o u g h y o u c a n r u n t h e edited l o w - r e s o l u t i o n version f r o m b e g i n n i n g t o e n d , y o u r final a i m is actually a n a c c u r a t e EDL. W h e n editing t h e on-line version, y o u redigitize t h e selected clips in high resolution a n d sequence t h e m a c c o r d i n g t o t h e EDL. This p r o c e d u r e m a k e s little sense if you're editing a relatively s h o r t piece. If y o u kept a fairly a c c u r a t e VTR log, y o u c a n c a p t u r e t h e selected clips
13.1
NONLINEAR DISPLAY OF SHOTS TO BE EDITED
A nonlinear editing system can display a number of still frames, a choice of transitions and effects, and graphic representations of various audio tracks. It allows you to run shot sequences with or without sound and preview various transitions and effects.
in h i g h - r e s o l u t i o n w i t h o u t straining y o u r h a r d drive. T h e n every t i m e y o u t r y o u t a p a r t i c u l a r editing s e q u e n c e , y o u r editing is o n - l i n e even t h o u g h y o u r i n t e n t i o n s m a y b e to
NONLINEAR SYSTEMS
d o just a r o u g h - c u t . As y o u can see, this is o n e of t h e h u g e
W h e n i n f o r m a t i o n is stored o n a disk-based editing system,
a d v a n t a g e s of n o n l i n e a r editing.
y o u can j u m p to s h o t 25 directly w i t h o u t rolling t h r o u g h t h e p r e c e d i n g t w e n t y - f o u r shots. Being able t o access any specific s h o t or frame in r a n d o m o r d e r is a n o n l i n e a r p r o
BASIC EDITING SYSTEMS As explained in c h a p t e r 12, all t a p e d - b a s e d r e c o r d i n g sys
cess. All disk-based systems are, therefore, called
nonlinear.
Because they are c o m p u t e r - d r i v e n , they can o p e r a t e only w i t h digital signals. In effect, t h e n o n l i n e a r editing system
t e m s are linear, a n d all disk-based systems are n o n l i n e a r .
operates like a large ESS (electronic still store) system that
Similarly, all editing systems u s i n g v i d e o t a p e are linear,
allows y o u to identify a n d access each frame o r frame
regardless of w h e t h e r t h e i n f o r m a t i o n r e c o r d e d o n t h e
s e q u e n c e in a fraction of a s e c o n d . Because t h e system is
t a p e is a n a l o g or digital. All e d i t i n g systems t h a t are disk-
n o n l i n e a r , it can display a n y t w o o r m o r e frames side-by-
based are n o n l i n e a r . W h a t exactly d o e s t h i s m e a n from
side o n a single c o m p u t e r screen so y o u c a n see h o w well
a p r o d u c t i o n p o i n t of view? Let's l o o k at h o w r e c o r d e d
t h e s h o t s will edit together. SEE 13.1
i n f o r m a t i o n is retrieved.
EDITING PRINCIPLE LINEAR SYSTEMS
This big o p e r a t i o n a l difference between the t w o systems has
As y o u recall from chapter 12, h a v i n g to roll t h r o u g h all the
c h a n g e d t h e f u n d a m e n t a l c o n c e p t of h o w editing w o r k s .
p r e c e d i n g shots is a l i n e a r — o n e - a f t e r - t h e - o t h e r — p r o c e s s .
Linear editing is basically selecting shots from o n e t a p e a n d
To locate s h o t 25 o n a v i d e o t a p e , y o u n e e d t o roll t h r o u g h
copying t h e m in a specific o r d e r o n t o a n o t h e r t a p e . T h e
t h e p r e v i o u s t w e n t y - f o u r shots before reaching s h o t 25.
o p e r a t i o n a l p r i n c i p l e of linear editing is copying.
You c a n n o t s i m p l y j u m p t o s h o t 25, skipping all p r e c e d i n g shots. All t a p e - b a s e d editing systems are therefore called
Nonlinear
editing (NLE) allows y o u to select a n d rear
range frames a n d shots. R a t h e r t h a n copy certain images
linear, regardless of w h e t h e r t h e tapes c o n t a i n a n a l o g or
(as in linear e d i t i n g ) , y o u sort t h r o u g h t h e image files a n d
digital signals.
m a r k t h e m to play back in a specific order. T h e o p e r a t i o n a l
288
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p r i n c i p l e of n o n l i n e a r editing is selecting video and data files and making specific
the computer
EDITING
audio
W h e n d o i n g t h e actual editing, y o u use t h e s o u r c e
play them back as a
V T R t o find t h e exact i n - a n d o u t - p o i n t s of the footage y o u
sequence.
w a n t t o copy t o t h e edit m a s t e r t a p e . T h e record V T R d o e s t h e actual c o p y i n g of t h e m a t e r i a l s u p p l i e d b y t h e source V T R a n d j o i n s t h e frames at p r e d e t e r m i n e d p o i n t s — t h e
LINEAR EDITING SYSTEMS
edit points. You have t o tell t h e record V T R w h e n t o start
Regardless of h o w c o m p l e x t a p e - b a s e d linear editing sys
r e c o r d i n g (copying) t h e source material a n d w h e n to stop
t e m s m a y be, t h e y all w o r k o n t h e s a m e basic principle:
r e c o r d i n g . A n "in" o r " e n t r a n c e " c u e tells t h e r e c o r d V T R
o n e o r several V T R s play back p o r t i o n s of t h e tape with t h e
w h e n t o start r e c o r d i n g t h e s o u r c e m a t e r i a l ; a n " o u t " o r
original footage, a n d a n o t h e r V T R records o n its o w n t a p e
"exit" cue tells it w h e n t o stop. Assisting y o u in this task is
t h e selected m a t e r i a l from t h e original t a p e . T h e different
a piece of e q u i p m e n t called t h e edit controller.
tape-based systems fall i n t o t h r e e categories: (1) t h e singlesource system, (2) t h e e x p a n d e d single-source system, a n d
Edit controller
(3) m u l t i p l e - s o u r c e systems.
unit, a u t o m a t e s editing to a certain extent. It m e m o r i z e s
T h e edit controller,
o r editing
control
y o u r c o m m a n d s a n d executes t h e m w i t h p r e c i s i o n a n d
SINGLE-SOURCE
SYSTEM
reliability,
A basic system t h a t h a s only o n e V T R s u p p l y i n g t h e m a terial t o be e d i t e d is called a single-source,
or
cuts-only,
C o n t r o l s V T R search m o d e s (variable forward a n d
editing system. T h e m a c h i n e t h a t plays b a c k t h e t a p e w i t h t h e original footage is called t h e source VTR o r play
SEE 13.3 A basic edit controller p e r f o r m s t h e
following functions:
reverse speeds) separately for t h e s o u r c e a n d record
VTR.
V T R s t o locate scenes
T h e m a c h i n e t h a t copies t h e selected m a t e r i a l is called t h e record VTR o r edit VTR. In t h e s a m e m a n n e r , t h e videotape
Reads a n d displays elapsed t i m e a n d frame n u m b e r s
with t h e original footage is t h e source tape, a n d t h e o n e
o r t i m e c o d e (frame address) for a c c u r a t e c u e i n g of
o n t o w h i c h t h e selected p o r t i o n s are r e c o r d e d in a specific
t h e source a n d edit m a s t e r tapes
editing sequence is t h e edit master
tape. To see w h a t is o n
b o t h t h e s o u r c e a n d edit m a s t e r tapes, y o u n e e d m o n i t o r s
3 M a r k s a n d r e m e m b e r s precise e d i t - i n a n d - o u t p o i n t s (cues)
for b o t h VTRs. SEE 13.2
Backs u p , o r "backspaces," b o t h V T R s t o precisely t h e s a m e preroll p o i n t ( o n s o m e edit controllers, a switch gives y o u several preroll choices, s u c h as Source (play) VTR monitor shows first frame of new shot Shot 3
Record (edit) VTR monitor shows last frame of previous shot Shot 2
a 2 - s e c o n d o r a 5-second preroll; preroll helps t h e V T R s achieve o p t i m a l speed for jitter-free r e c o r d i n g ) S i m u l t a n e o u s l y starts b o t h m a c h i n e s a n d s y n c h r o nizes t h e i r t a p e speeds «
M a k e s t h e record V T R p e r f o r m in either t h e as s e m b l e o r t h e insert edit m o d e (discussed later in this section) M o s t single-source system edit controllers c a n also d o
a d d i t i o n a l editing tasks, such as letting y o u d o a trial r u n before p e r f o r m i n g t h e actual edit, p e r f o r m i n g s e p a r a t e Source (play) VTR and monitor
Record (edit) VTR and monitor
edits for v i d e o a n d a u d i o tracks w i t h o u t o n e affecting t h e other, o r p r o d u c i n g intelligible s o u n d s at v a r i o u s fast-for w a r d tape speeds.
1 3 . 2 BASIC TAPE-BASED SINGLE-SOURCE SYSTEM The source VTR supplies specific sections of the source tape (displayed on the source VTR monitor). The record VTR copies in a particular sequence and adds each new shot to the previously recorded shot (displayed on the record VTR monitor).
Compact portable editor
C o m p a c t p o r t a b l e digital
editing systems, often called laptop editors, are similar t o t h e p o r t a b l e switcher discussed in chapter 11. T h e y contain source a n d record VTRs that can record u p to two hours
Section
13.1
How
Postproduction
Editing
289
Works
13.3
EDIT CONTROLLER
The edit controller is an interface between the source and record VTRs. It displays elapsed tape time and frames, controls source and record VTR rolls, stores edit-in and edit-out points and tells the VTRs to locate them on the tape, and offers previewing before the edit and reviewing after the edit.
13.4
LAPTOP EDITOR
This briefcase-sized linear laptop editor contains source and record VTRs, video dis plays for the two VTRs, audio speakers, and an edit control ler that can remember a hun dred editing decisions.
of p r o g r a m m i n g material; source a n d r e c o r d LCD (liquid
EXPANDED SINGLE-SOURCE
crystal display) v i d e o m o n i t o r s ; a u d i o speakers; a n d a n
You will n o t i c e t h a t the basic single-source editing system
SYSTEM
edit controller t h a t can r e m e m b e r a h u n d r e d editing deci
m a y n o t always give y o u e n o u g h flexibility. For e x a m p l e ,
sions—all in o n e small, briefcase-sized package. It is a c u t s -
you may want to mix in music under some wedding
o n l y editor, b u t it's ideal for E N G . You can edit t h e n e w s
scenes; o r in a d o c u m e n t a r y o n r u s h - h o u r traffic, y o u m a y
footage o n t h e way back to t h e station ( p r o v i d e d s o m e o n e
w a n t to a d d m o r e traffic s o u n d s to intensify t h e s h o t s of
else is driving the n e w s vehicle!), SEE 13.4
a d o w n t o w n gridlock. Such m a n i p u l a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e
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EDITING
1 3 . 5 EXPANDED SINGLE-SOURCE SYSTEM The expanded single-source linear system integrates special effects, a video switcher, a CD player, and an audio mixer.
source tape a u d i o a n d t h e desired a u d i o track o n t h e edit
v i d e o t a p e is pulling itself u p b y its o w n b o o t s t r a p s . ) This
m a s t e r t a p e r e q u i r e s interfacing a n audio
mixer. If y o u
m e a n s that y o u can create a dissolve, or any o t h e r available
also w a n t to a d d titles t o t h e d o c u m e n t a r y , y o u n e e d a
transition, b e t w e e n t w o shots t h a t are supplied b y only o n e
CG. [character generator)
a n d a switcher t h a t c a n m i x t h e
s o u r c e VTR. A l t h o u g h s u c h a feat is c o m m o n p l a c e w i t h
titles w i t h t h e scene f r o m t h e source t a p e w i t h o u t t h e edit
NLE systems, linear single-source systems n o r m a l l y use
m a s t e r tape's u n d e r g o i n g a n o t h e r g e n e r a t i o n . N o t e t h a t
t w o o r m o r e source V T R s for t r a n s i t i o n s o t h e r t h a n cuts.
t h e l i n e - o u t s from t h e a u d i o m i x e r a n d t h e v i d e o switcher
You will find this p r e r e a d function especially useful w h e n
go directly to the r e c o r d V T R a n d n o t t h r o u g h t h e edit
i n s e r t i n g t i t l e s — w i t h o u t h a v i n g to m a k e yet a n o t h e r d u b .
controller, SEE 13.5 T h e r e is a variety of software t h a t can t r a n s f o r m a
MULTIPLE-SOURCE SYSTEMS
d e s k t o p c o m p u t e r i n t o a sophisticated edit controller o r
T h e t a p e - b a s e d multiple-source
NLE system. As an edit controller, t h e c o m p u t e r interfaces
t w o o r m o r e source V T R s (generally labeled w i t h letters A,
editing system consists of
with t h e source a n d r e c o r d VTRs, t h e a u d i o mixer, a n d t h e
B, C, etc.), a single r e c o r d V T R , a n d a c o m p u t e r - a s s i s t e d
video switcher a n d offers a variety of special effects a n d
edit controller. Like t h e e x p a n d e d single-source system, t h e
t r a n s i t i o n s . Wi*r*EDITING-*
Linear editing^ system
m u l t i s o u r c e systems can, a n d usually d o , i n c l u d e an a u d i o mixer, a switcher, a n d special-effects e q u i p m e n t . T h e c o m
Because t h e s i n g l e - s o u r c e e d i t i n g
puterized edit controller directs t h e functions of the source
system has only a single s o u r c e VTR, edits are n o r m a l l y
A a n d B VTRs, the C G . or effects g e n e r a t o r (unless p a r t of
cuts-only, t h a t is, y o u c a n n o t d o t r a n s i t i o n s s u c h as dis
t h e software p r o g r a m ) , t h e a u d i o mixer, a n d , finally, t h e
solves or wipes. Right? Yes a n d n o .
edit a n d r e c o r d functions of t h e r e c o r d VTR. SEE 13.6
:
M o s t single-source systems can p r o d u c e only cuts a n d are therefore called cuts-only
systems; b u t b e c a u s e s o m e
record VTRs have a preread function
b u i l t - i n , y o u can have
T h e m u l t i p l e - s o u r c e e d i t i n g s y s t e m allows y o u t o s y n c h r o n o u s l y r u n t w o or m o r e source VTRs a n d c o m b i n e the shots a n d / o r a u d i o tracks from any of t h e m quickly a n d
the V T R read (play) a p a r t i c u l a r scene while s i m u l t a n e
effectively t h r o u g h a variety of t r a n s i t i o n s or o t h e r special
ously r e c o r d i n g n e w material o n t h e s a m e v i d e o t a p e . ( T h e
effects. T h e big advantage of this system is that it facilitates
Section
13.6
13.1
How
Postproduction
Editing
Works
291
MULTIPLE-SOURCE EDITING SYSTEM
The multiple-source linear editing system has two or more source VTRs (A and B) and interfaces special effects, audio, and switcher equipment or functions.
a great variety of t r a n s i t i o n s (such as cuts, dissolves, a n d
which m e a n s that the actual edit p o i n t s m a y b e a few frames
wipes) a n d allows t h e m i x i n g of a u d i o t r a c k s from two
off from t h e o n e s y o u chose.
o r m o r e source tapes. A n o t h e r advantage is t h a t y o u can
T h e m o r e s o p h i s t i c a t e d a n d m o r e a c c u r a t e linear
a r r a n g e all e v e n - n u m b e r e d shots o n t h e A-roll (the t a p e
systems use t i m e c o d e to a c c o m p l i s h these tasks. Time code
used for t h e s o u r c e A V T R ) a n d all o d d - n u m b e r e d shots
gives each television frame a u n i q u e a d d r e s s — a n u m b e r
o n t h e B-roll ( t h e v i d e o t a p e for t h e s o u r c e B V T R ) . By
that s h o w s h o u r s , m i n u t e s , seconds, a n d frames. T h e t i m e
switching from t h e A-roll t o t h e B-roll d u r i n g editing, y o u
code system is f r a m e - a c c u r a t e .
c a n quickly assemble t h e " p r e - e d i t e d " shots, as explained
CONTROL TRACK, OR PULSE-COUNT, EDITING
later in this section.
As y o u n o w k n o w , t h e c o n t r o l track o n a v i d e o t a p e m a r k s
CONTROL TRACK AND TIME CODE EDITING
each frame of r e c o r d e d material. It therefore takes t h i r t y
All linear editing systems are g u i d e d by t h e c o n t r o l track
c o n t r o l t r a c k "spikes" to m a r k each second of t a p e play.
o r a specific address code. T h e control track system
counts
SEE 13.7 A n y o n e of t h e i n d i v i d u a l spikes, o r sync pulses, of
t h e c o n t r o l t r a c k pulses a n d t r a n s l a t e s t h i s c o u n t i n t o
t h e c o n t r o l track can b e c o m e an actual e d i t - i n or e d i t - o u t
elapsed t i m e a n d frame n u m b e r s , w h i c h y o u use t o find
p o i n t (frame). By c o u n t i n g t h e n u m b e r of c o n t r o l track
specific shots o n t h e source tapes a n d d e t e r m i n e t h e edit-
pulses, y o u can, for e x a m p l e , locate specific edit-in a n d
in a n d e d i t - o u t p o i n t s o n t h e record VTR. Also k n o w n as
e d i t - o u t p o i n t s w i t h greater accuracy t h a n b y s i m p l y look
t h e pulse-count
ing at t h e video pictures. Control track editingis
system, this m e t h o d is n o t f r a m e - a c c u r a t e ,
also called
292
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POSTPRODUCTION
EDITING
1 3 . 7 CONTROL TRACK PULSES The control track, or pulsecount, system counts the control track pulses to mark a specific spot on the videotape. Every thirty pulses mark one second of elapsed tape time. Control track
15 pulses = / 2 second 30 pulses = 1 second
13.8
PULSE-COUNT OR TIME CODE DISPLAY
This display shows elapsed hours, minutes, seconds, and frames. The frames roll over (into seconds) after 29, the seconds to minutes, and the minutes to hours after 59; the hours are reset to 0 after 24.
Hours
Minutes
Seconds
Frames
editing because the edit controller c o u n t s t h e
ficult w h e n y o u have to find h o u s e n u m b e r 110. A n d w h a t
n u m b e r of c o n t r o l t r a c k pulses. •A'i*»EDITING-» Postproduc
if y o u have t o find h o u s e n u m b e r 1,010? You are sure t o
tion guidelines-* tape basics
m i s c o u n t s o m e w h e r e along the line a n d arrive at t h e w r o n g
pulse-count
T h e edit controller counts t h e pulses of b o t h the source
address. W h a t if y o u were to start c o u n t i n g s o m e w h e r e
a n d t h e edit m a s t e r tapes from t h e b e g i n n i n g a n d displays
in t h e m i d d l e of t h e block instead of at t h e b e g i n n i n g ?
the c o u n t as elapsed t i m e — h o u r s , m i n u t e s , seconds, a n d
C o u n t i n g to t e n w o u l d definitely take y o u to a different
n u m b e r of frames. Because t h e r e are 30 frames p e r second,
h o u s e t h a n t h e o n e originally i n t e n d e d .
t h e seconds are advanced by o n e digit after 29 frames (with
T h e p u l s e - c o u n t system h a s similar difficulties. T h e
t h e t h i r t i e t h frame m a k i n g u p t h e next s e c o n d ) . T h e sec
c o n t r o l t r a c k pulses d o n o t have specific addresses b u t
o n d s a n d m i n u t e s roll over to t h e next after 59.
1
SEE 13.8
are s i m p l y c o u n t e d b y t h e edit controller a n d , as y o u have seen, t r a n s l a t e d i n t o t e m p o r a r y t i m e a n d frame addresses. A s s u m i n g t h a t y o u have reset the p u l s e c o u n t e r to 0 a n d
Finding the right address
Although the pulse-count
h a v e rolled t h e t a p e f r o m its very b e g i n n i n g , t h e
first
system can identify a specific frame w i t h a p u l s e - c o u n t
s e c o n d o n t h e c o u n t e r s h o u l d s h o w t h e n u m b e r 01 in t h e
n u m b e r , it is n o t f r a m e - a c c u r a t e . This d r a w b a c k m e a n s
seconds c o l u m n of t h e t a p e c o u n t e r a n d 00 in t h e frames
that y o u m a y get different frames w h e n a d v a n c i n g r e p e a t
c o l u m n (the frame n u m b e r s roll over to t h e first second
edly t o t h e s a m e p u l s e - c o u n t n u m b e r .
after frame 29). Let's a s s u m e t h a t this
I m a g i n e t h a t y o u n e e d to find a specific address i n
first-second
frame
shows a glass of m i l k a l m o s t t o u c h i n g a child's lips. If y o u
a l o n g r o w of identical h o u s e s — b u t t h e r e are n o h o u s e
r e w i n d t h e t a p e to 0 a n d r u n it again t o t h e
n u m b e r s o n a n y of t h e m . If y o u are t o l d to find t h e t e n t h
m a r k , y o u will m o s t likely get the same f r a m e — b u t it m i g h t
first-second
h o u s e o n the left, y o u s h o u l d have n o t r o u b l e . You s i m p l y
instead s h o w t h e glass already t o u c h i n g t h e lips. T h e t a p e
start at the b e g i n n i n g of the r o w a n d c o u n t t h e h o u s e s
h a s m o v e d o n e frame t o o far. Just as w i t h c o u n t i n g h o u s e s ,
until y o u reach t h e t e n t h h o u s e . T h e task gets m o r e dif-
the edit controller has a t e n d e n c y to get even m o r e off-track w h e n c o u n t i n g t h o u s a n d s of pulses repeatedly, particularly at h i g h speed.
1. In countries that use a 25-frame-per-second system, the rollover oc curs, of course, after the twenty-fourth frame instead of the twentyninth as in the 30-frame NTSC system.
Realize that w h e n you advance the t a p e by only 2 m i n utes, t h e edit c o n t r o l l e r m u s t c o u n t 3,600 pulses. So if y o u
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Editing
293
Works
were t o b a c k u p t h e t a p e t o t h e b e g i n n i n g a n d r u n it again
Several t i m e c o d e systems are available. Even s o m e
for 2 m i n u t e s , y o u w o u l d p r o b a b l y e n d u p w i t h a different
small c o n s u m e r c a m c o r d e r s c a n g e n e r a t e their o w n t i m e
frame, even if y o u started t h e t a p e at 0 as displayed b y t h e
c o d e . M o s t professional editing e q u i p m e n t is built t o read
edit controller a n d s t o p p e d it w h e n it i n d i c a t e d exactly
t h e SMPTE/EBU
2 m i n u t e s . Why? Because d u r i n g h i g h - s p e e d shuttles o r
s t a n d s for Society of M o t i o n Picture a n d Television Engi
repeated t h r e a d i n g a n d u n t h r e a d i n g , t h e t a p e m a y stretch
neers. EBUis s h o r t for E u r o p e a n Broadcasting U n i o n . Both
o r slip, o r t h e u n i t m a y s i m p l y skip s o m e pulses w h e n
o r g a n i z a t i o n s set a n d t r a c k technical s t a n d a r d s .
time code. SMPTE ( p r o n o u n c e d "sempty")
c o u n t i n g t h o u s a n d s of t h e m . Fortunately, m a n y editing j o b s d o n o t have t o b e f r a m e - a c c u r a t e ; unless y o u have t o
ad/write mechanisms
m a t c h t h e lip m o v e m e n t t o t h e w o r d s u t t e r e d , b e i n g a few
VTRs, p o r t a b l e professional VTRs, a n d c a m c o r d e r s have a
Many studio
frames off does n o t p r e s e n t a serious h a n d i c a p .
b u i l t - i n t i m e c o d e g e n e r a t o r for w r i t i n g t i m e c o d e d u r i n g t h e p r o d u c t i o n a n d r e a d i n g it d u r i n g playback. M o s t o t h
Finding t h e r i g h t s t a r t i n g p o i n t
Another poten
tial p r o b l e m of t h e c o n t r o l track system is t h a t it begins
ers have jacks for a t t a c h i n g a separate t i m e c o d e generator.
J3jmyEDITING->
c o u n t i n g from whatever s t a r t i n g p o i n t y o u assign. If, for
rdint-
e x a m p l e , y o u forget to reset t h e c o u n t e r t o 0 at t h e b e g i n n i n g of t h e tape, o r if y o u have n o t r e w o u n d t h e t a p e c o m p l e t e l y w h e n resetting t h e c o u n t e r t o 0, t h e c o u n t will b e off. Because t h e addresses given t o frames b y t h e p u l s e c o u n t system are t e m p o r a r y a n d , i n effect, arbitrary, t h e p u l s e - c o u n t system is n o t a n address code. W h e n e d i t i n g w i t h t h e p u l s e - c o u n t system, always reset t h e c o u n t e r t o 0 at t h e b e g i n n i n g of t h e tape a n d n o t s o m e w h e r e in t h e m i d d l e o f it.
Postproduction guidelines-* time code
In larger s t u d i o p r o d u c t i o n s , the
t i m e c o d e is r o u t i n e l y r e c o r d e d w i t h t h e p r o g r a m . H i g h quality c a m c o r d e r s p r o d u c e their o w n t i m e code a n d lay it o n a designated track d u r i n g v i d e o t a p i n g . If t i m e c o d e is n e e d e d for EFP p r o d u c t i o n s , o r w h e n t h e c a m c o r d e r y o u are using does n o t have a b u i l t - i n t i m e code generator, y o u c a n a d d t h e t i m e c o d e after t h e p r o g r a m h a s already b e e n recorded o n videotape. For example, w h e n y o u " d u b d o w n " ( m a k e a lower-quality copy) for a workprint,
o r you " b u m p
u p " ( m a k e a h i g h e r - q u a l i t y copy) for t h e actual editing copy, y o u c a n lay d o w n t h e t i m e c o d e o n t h e source tape
TIME CODE EDITING
a n d o n its copy simultaneously.
W h e n m o r e - p r e c i s e e d i t i n g is r e q u i r e d , s u c h as w h e n
You c a n set t h e code t o c o r r e s p o n d with t h e actual time
editing video t o t h e beat of m u s i c o r w h e n s y n c h r o n i z i n g
of day or, m o r e c o m m o n , t o s i m p l y start from 0 regardless
dialogue o r specific s o u n d effects t o t h e v i d e o track, y o u
of t i m e o f day. You will find that s o m e v i d e o g r a p h e r s use
n e e d t o edit with a system t h a t uses precise frame addresses.
t h e h o u r n u m b e r t o indicate t h e t a p e (reel) n u m b e r . For
Time code is an electronic signal t h a t p r o v i d e s a specific
e x a m p l e , y o u w o u l d m a r k t h e first t a p e w i t h 01/00/00/00
a n d u n i q u e address for each electronic frame. T h e address
a n d t h e s e c o n d t a p e w i t h 0 2 , a n d c o n t i n u e o n t h e 02 t a p e
is usually r e c o r d e d o n a d e d i c a t e d address code t r a c k of
w i t h t h e t i m e c o d e t h a t was r e c o r d e d at t h e e n d of t a p e 0 1 .
t h e v i d e o t a p e , o n an available a u d i o track, or i n t e g r a t e d
T h e t h i r d t a p e w o u l d s h o w 03 in t h e h o u r c o l u m n a n d so
i n t o , o r r e c o r d e d alongside, t h e v i d e o signal. F r o m t h e r e
forth. Actually, y o u c a n start a n y w h e r e w i t h t h e t i m e code
it c a n b e visually displayed, as in t h e p u l s e - c o u n t system
so l o n g as it c o n t i n u e s w i t h i n t h e source t a p e a n d from
(see figure 13.8). W i t h t i m e c o d e each of t h e h o u s e s in o u r
tape to tape.
e x a m p l e n o w has its o w n h o u s e n u m b e r affixed, so y o u n o
If y o u u s e t h r e e c a m c o r d e r s for a s y n c h r o n i z e d
longer have t o c o u n t t h e h o u s e s t o find a specific o n e ; y o u
p i c k u p — f o r e x a m p l e , o n e is o n a c o n t i n u o u s l o n g shot,
c a n s i m p l y look for its address a n d drive t o h o u s e n u m b e r
a n o t h e r is o n c o n t i n u o u s m e d i u m shot, a n d t h e t h i r d is
1,010 directly.
o n a continuous close-up—you can synchronize the cam
Because each frame h a s its o w n address, y o u can locate
eras b y h a v i n g t h e m start w i t h t h e s a m e t i m e code. This is
a specific frame relatively quickly a n d reliably, even if it is
tricky in practice, however, a n d it takes t i m e t o get all t h e
b u r i e d in h o u r s of r e c o r d e d p r o g r a m m a t e r i a l o r despite
c a m c o r d e r s exactly t i m e - c o d e s y n c h r o n i z e d . Fortunately,
occasional tape slippage d u r i n g repeated high-speed
t h e r e is a n easy m e t h o d for s y n c h r o n i z i n g c a m e r a s t h a t w e
shuttles. O n c e t h e edit controller is told w h i c h frame t o
l e a r n e d f r o m film: start all t h e c a m e r a s m o r e or less at t h e
use as an edit p o i n t , it will find it again n o m a t t e r h o w
s a m e t i m e a n d have t h e m focus o n s o m e b o d y w h o triggers
m a n y times y o u shuttle t h e t a p e back a n d forth a n d will n o t
t h e flash of a still c a m e r a . T h e overexposed frame will be
initiate a n edit u n t i l t h e right address is located.
t h e s t a r t i n g p o i n t for all t i m e c o d e s y n c h r o n i z a t i o n .
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EDITING
Non-drop frame and drop frame modes Although
LINEAR EDITING FEATURES AND TECHNIQUES
w e a l w a y s f i g u r e t h a t t h e N T S C s y s t e m o p e r a t e s at
M o s t professional V T R s let y o u switch b e t w e e n t w o m a j o r
30 frames p e r second, this is n o t quite accurate. In fact,
e d i t i n g m o d e s : assemble editing a n d insert
editing.
each frame takes just a little bit less t h a n V30 s e c o n d . This difference is so m i n u t e t h a t for m o s t editing projects y o u can s i m p l y i g n o r e it. But w h e n y o u have t o b e absolutely f r a m e - a c c u r a t e , s u c h as w h e n t r y i n g t o m a i n t a i n lip sync over a long p e r i o d of t i m e , y o u will find t h a t t h e t i m e code is s o m e w h a t off. In fact, w h e n a s t o p w a t c h reads exactly o n e h o u r of elapsed r e c o r d i n g t i m e , t h e t i m e c o d e displays 1:00:03:18, w h i c h is 3.6 seconds longer. If this difference is n o t crucial t o y o u r editing, y o u can keep t h e c a m c o r d e r in non-drop frame mode, assuming that it gives y o u t h e choice. If y o u m u s t b e perfectly in sync w i t h t h e actual event t i m e , y o u n e e d t o w o r k in drop frame mode. This m e a n s that t h e time c o d e skips s o m e frames from time t o t i m e w h e n keep ing c o u n t . You will usually d o just fine in t h e n o n - d r o p frame m o d e , at least m o s t of t h e t i m e . Audio/video synchronizing
ASSEMBLE EDITING W h e n in t h e assemble m o d e , t h e record V T R erases every t h i n g o n its t a p e (video, a u d i o , control, a n d address tracks) just a h e a d of copying t h e m a t e r i a l supplied by t h e source VTR. W h e n y o u use a t a p e t h a t h a s last year's vacation pic tures o n it to chronicle y o u r n e w adventures, t h e c a m c o r d e r will, i n effect, use assemble
editing
every t i m e y o u s h o o t a
n e w scene: it will s i m p l y erase w h a t w a s t h e r e before a n d replace it w i t h t h e n e w video a n d a u d i o . T h e s a m e t h i n g h a p p e n s in a m o r e s o p h i s t i c a t e d editing system. Even if t h e edit m a s t e r t a p e has a p r e v i o u s recording o n it, t h e assemble m o d e will clear t h e p o r t i o n of t h e t a p e that is n e e d e d for t h e n e w first shot. W h e n editing s h o t 2 o n t o s h o t 1, t h e r e c o r d V T R will erase e v e r y t h i n g
T i m e code lets y o u r u n in
o n t h e edit m a s t e r t a p e following s h o t 1 t o m a k e r o o m for
sync n o t only several V T R s b u t also v i d e o - a n d a u d i o t a p e
c o p y i n g t h e n e w video a n d a u d i o i n f o r m a t i o n . T h e r e c o r d
recorders. Because t h e s y n c h r o n i z a t i o n is f r a m e - a c c u r a t e ,
V T R will t h e n supply a n e w c o n t r o l track that is m o d e l e d
you c a n m a t c h video a n d a u d i o tracks f r a m e - b y - f r a m e i n
exactly after t h e c o n t r o l track i n f o r m a t i o n c o n t a i n e d i n
p o s t p r o d u c t i o n . You c a n , for e x a m p l e , strip l o w - q u a l i t y
shot 2 of t h e source t a p e . T h e s a m e h a p p e n s w h e n y o u
speech s o u n d s a n d o t h e r s o u n d effects off t h e v i d e o t a p e
assemble t h e s u b s e q u e n t shots, SEE 13.9
a n d replace t h e m f r a m e - b y - f r a m e with n e w dialogue a n d
T h e p r o b l e m w i t h assemble e d i t i n g is that t h e c o n t r o l
s o u n d effects from a n a u d i o t a p e . As explained in c h a p
track o n t h e edit master tape, as reconstructed by t h e record
ter 10, this process is called automatic
V T R from t h e bits a n d pieces of t h e source tapes, is n o t
ment
Control track of e d i t ' master tape
13.9
dialogue
{ADR).
replace
always s m o o t h a n d evenly spaced. For e x a m p l e , t h e r e c o r d
n. Control pulses must align at the edit point
ASSEMBLE EDITING
In assemble editing, the record VTR produces the control track in bits and pieces. The record VTR copies from the source VTR all video and audio information of shot 2. The control track for shot 2 stays with the source VTR but is regenerated and attached to the shot 1 control track by the record VTR.
Section
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How
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Editing
295
Works
color reference. As t h o u g h it were r e c o r d i n g an i m p o r t a n t event, the V T R faithfully lays d o w n a c o n t r o l track in the process. T h e " b l a c k e n e d " t a p e h a s n o w b e c o m e an e m p t y edit master, ready to receive t h e m o m e n t o u s scenes from y o u r s o u r c e tapes. T h e r e c o r d i n g of black or color bars ( a n d t h e r e b y lay ing a c o n t r o l track) h a p p e n s in real time, w h i c h m e a n s that y o u c a n n o t speed u p the process b u t m u s t take 30 m i n u t e s t o lay a 3 0 - m i n u t e c o n t r o l track. T h o u g h this m a y seem like w a s t e d t i m e , it h a s t h e following advantages: •
13.10
All edits are roll-free a n d tear-free.
SYNC ROLL
Even a slight misalignment of the control tracks from shots 1 and 2 will cause a sync roll—a momentary breakup of the picture at the edit point.
•
You c a n easily insert n e w video a n d / o r a u d i o m a t e rial a n y w h e r e in t h e t a p e w i t h o u t affecting a n y t h i n g p r e c e d i n g or following t h e insert (hence t h e n a m e ) .
•
You c a n edit t h e video w i t h o u t affecting t h e s o u n d
V T R is expected to m a k e a perfectly c o n t i n u o u s c o n t r o l
track, or y o u can edit t h e a u d i o w i t h o u t affecting
track o u t of the fragments from shots 1,7, a n d 11. Even t h e
the p i c t u r e s (called a split edit). This is especially
best VTRs d o n o t always succeed at this. A slight m i s m a t c h
i m p o r t a n t w h e n y o u w a n t to insert s o m e shots
of sync pulses will cause s o m e edits t o "tear," causing a sync
w i t h o u t d i s t u r b i n g t h e c o n t i n u i t y of t h e original
roll, w h i c h m e a n s t h a t t h e p i c t u r e will b r e a k u p or roll
s o u n d track. In fact, t h e m o s t efficient way of edit
m o m e n t a r i l y at t h e edit p o i n t d u r i n g playback, SEE 1 3 . 1 0
ing d o c u m e n t a r i e s or m u s i c p r o g r a m s is to lay
T h e p r i m a r y a d v a n t a g e of assemble editing is t h a t it
d o w n t h e a u d i o track first a n d t h e n insert-edit t h e
is fast. You d o n o t have to first lay d o w n o n t h e edit m a s t e r
v i d e o to m a t c h t h e a u d i o , SEE
13.11
t a p e a black video signal w i t h its c o n t i n u o u s c o n t r o l t r a c k before y o u begin editing. In fact, y o u can use any t a p e for t h e edit master, regardless of w h e t h e r it c o n t a i n s p r e v i o u s
AB ROLLING AND AB-ROLL EDITING
video material ( n o t r e c o m m e n d e d for use as a n edit m a s t e r in any case) o r h a s a c o n t r o l track already r e c o r d e d o n it.
A l t h o u g h b o t h of these t e c h n i q u e s are a d m i t t e d l y c r u d e
Because y o u d o n ' t have to first record a c o n t i n u o u s c o n t r o l
a n d m o s t l y r e n d e r e d obsolete by n o n l i n e a r editing, they
t r a c k o n t h e edit m a s t e r t a p e , s o m e " h o t n e w s " editing
n e v e r t h e l e s s h a v e t h e i r p l a c e in t e l e v i s i o n p r o d u c t i o n .
is d o n e in t h e assemble, r a t h e r t h a n t h e insert, m o d e . A
T h e s e m e t h o d s are useful n o t for their accuracy b u t for
c a m c o r d e r edits in t h e assemble m o d e each t i m e y o u press
t h e i r speed. B o t h t e c h n i q u e s resemble i n s t a n t a n e o u s edit
t h e record b u t t o n .
ing (switching) m o r e t h a n p o s t p r o d u c t i o n editing.
INSERT
AB-roll editing is t h a t in AB rollingyou
In a nutshell t h e difference b e t w e e n AB rolling a n d
EDITING
W o u l d n ' t it b e sensible to lay d o w n a c o n t i n u o u s c o n t r o l track o n t h e edit m a s t e r t a p e w i t h o u t t r y i n g to m a t c h u p all t h e c o n t r o l track bits a n d pieces from t h e v a r i o u s source t a p e selections? You could t h e n i n s t r u c t the r e c o r d V T R to
switch (do i n s t a n
t a n e o u s editing via t h e switcher) b e t w e e n t h e t w o s o u r c e V T R s as t h o u g h t h e y w e r e live v i d e o sources; in editingyou
AB-roll
use t h e edit controller t o set u p t h e t r a n s i t i o n s
b e t w e e n t h e s o u r c e A V T R a n d t h e source B VTR.
yield to t h e c o n t i n u o u s c o n t r o l track o n the edit master. As y o u p r o b a b l y guessed, this is i n d e e d possible. T h e process
AB
of using a c o n t i n u o u s c o n t r o l t r a c k is called insert
edit
Because t w o separate sources s u p p l y visual material simul
ROLLING
ing. But h e r e is t h e r u b : to p r e p a r e t h e edit m a s t e r tape
t a n e o u s l y in AB rolling, y o u can switch at a n y given p o i n t
for insert editing, y o u n e e d to first r e c o r d a c o n t i n u o u s
from the m a t e r i a l o n the A-roll (source A V T R ) to t h a t o n
c o n t r o l t r a c k o n it. T h e simplest way to d o this is to r e c o r d
t h e B-roll (source B V T R ) , a n d vice versa, a n d c o m b i n e
"black," w i t h t h e video a n d a u d i o i n p u t s in t h e o p p o s i t i o n .
t h e m w i t h v a r i o u s t r a n s i t i o n devices o r effects available
S o m e editors prefer to record color bars as a c o n t i n u o u s
in t h e switcher, SEE
13.12
296
Chapter
13.11
13
POSTPRODUCTION
EDITING
INSERT EDITING
In insert editing, the source material is transferred without its control track and placed according to the prerecorded continuous control track of the edit master tape.
13.12
AB ROLLING
In AB rolling, the source A VTR supplies the A-roll and the source B VTR supplies the B-roll. Both machines are synchronized and feed their video material to the switcher. Because they represent two simultaneous video feeds, they can be switched (instanta neously edited) as though they were two live sources.
T h e advantages of AB rolling are that it can greatly
can't m a t c h t h e speed of AB rolling. But w h a t y o u gain in
speed u p t h e e d i t i n g process a n d it allows y o u to r e d o
speed, y o u lose in accuracy. AB rolling w o r k s best w h e n
t h e editing a n u m b e r of t i m e s u n t i l y o u are satisfied w i t h
t h e edit p o i n t s b e t w e e n t h e A a n d B rolls d o n o t have to
the s h o t sequence. If y o u d o n ' t like t h e editing y o u have
b e t o o precise.
just d o n e , y o u can r e w i n d t h e source V T R s a n d cut t h e
H e r e is a n e x a m p l e of a n e d i t i n g a s s i g n m e n t t h a t
p r o d u c t i o n again. Even t h e m o s t experienced p o s t p r o d u c
l e n d s itself well to AB rolling: A s s u m e t h a t o n e of t h e
tion editors u s i n g c o n v e n t i o n a l linear editing e q u i p m e n t
source tapes—the A-roll—contains primarily long a n d
Section
13. 1
How
Postproduction
Editing
Works
297
1 3 . 1 3 AB ROLLING TO COMMON SOUND TRACK In this AB-roll editing exam ple, the A-roll consists of long and medium shots of the band; the B-roll contains CUs of the individual members. Because both source VTRs are synchronized, you can use the A-roll sound track to insert the B-roll video.
m e d i u m shots of a rock b a n d . T h e second source t a p e — t h e
a t t e m p t a similarly precise cut d u r i n g AB rolling w o u l d
B-roll—has various CUs (close-ups) of the b a n d m e m b e r s .
p r o b a b l y require several retakes.
A s s u m i n g that t h e source tapes have a c o m m o n t i m e c o d e
T h e advantage of AB-roll editing is t h a t y o u c a n ac
a n d , in this case, a c o m m o n a u d i o track ( t h e b a n d play
cess t h e s o u r c e m a t e r i a l f r o m two sources r a t h e r t h a n just
ing),
one,
y o u c a n roll b o t h t a p e s s i m u l t a n e o u s l y a n d k e e p
w h i c h allows a great variety of t r a n s i t i o n s . T h e A a n d
t h e m in sync; feed t h e m t o t h e switcher as t w o separate
B rolls d o n o t have to r u n in sync from b e g i n n i n g t o end,
v i d e o sources; cut, dissolve, or w i p e b e t w e e n t h e l o n g a n d
a n d y o u can advance either tape to a specific edit p o i n t a n d
m e d i u m shots o n t h e A-roll a n d t h e close-ups o n t h e B-roll
c o p y the m a t e r i a l over to t h e r e c o r d V T R w i t h o u t h a v i n g
as t h o u g h t h e y w e r e live sources; a n d record t h e switcher's
t o c h a n g e v i d e o t a p e s o n t h e source m a c h i n e .
l i n e - o u t signal o n t h e r e c o r d V T R . Because t h e t w o source
In AB-roll editing the edit controller has its h a n d s full:
tapes are s y n c h r o n i z e d by their t i m e code, y o u can feed
it m u s t r e s p o n d t o edit-in a n d - o u t p o i n t s for t h e source
t h e s o u n d track from only o n e s o u r c e t a p e to t h e r e c o r d
A VTR, t h e s o u r c e B V T R , a n d t h e record VTR; initiate
V T R a n d still m a i n t a i n lip-sync for t h e A-roll a n d B-roll
prerolls for all t h r e e m a c h i n e s ; a n d tell t h e record V T R
video, SEE
w h e n to start r e c o r d i n g a n d t h e switcher w h a t t r a n s i t i o n
13.13
t o p e r f o r m . Fortunately, t h e c o m p u t e r c a n h a n d l e these
AB-ROLL EDITING
c o n t r o l functions w i t h ease a n d efficiency. O n c e y o u have
If y o u n o w s u b s t i t u t e t h e edit controller for t h e switcher,
e n t e r e d y o u r EDL into t h e editing p r o g r a m , it will seek o u t
y o u are engaged in AB-roll editing. Let's edit t h e rock video
t h e listed t i m e c o d e n u m b e r s specifying the edit p o i n t s a n d
again b u t this t i m e w i t h t h e edit controller. You c a n first
faithfully initiate t h e various transitions as stipulated by the
lay d o w n t h e entire s o u n d track o n t h e edit m a s t e r t a p e
E D L — a s s u m i n g t h a t e v e r y t h i n g w o r k s right.
while r e c o r d i n g black. T h e s i m u l t a n e o u s r e c o r d i n g of t h e s o u n d t r a c k a n d black v i d e o will also establish t h e c o n t r o l t r a c k necessary for insert editing. N o w y o u c a n use t h e s o u n d t r a c k as a g u i d e a n d
NONLINEAR EDITING SYSTEMS All n o n l i n e a r editing systems are basically c o m p u t e r s that
i n s e r t - e d i t i n t o t h e l o n g shots of t h e A-roll t h e v a r i o u s
store digital video a n d a u d i o i n f o r m a t i o n o n high-capacity
close-ups o n t h e B-roll, w i t h a variety of t r a n s i t i o n s . By
h a r d disks or read/write optical discs. Besides the c o m p u t e r
r u n n i n g t h e two source V T R s in sync, y o u d o n o t have to
a n d a h i g h - c a p a c i t y h a r d drive, t h e n o r m a l N L E system
engage in t i m e - c o n s u m i n g shuttles to search for t h e a p
c o n t a i n s a V T R t o play t h e source tapes, o r s o m e o t h e r
p r o p r i a t e C U — y o u can s i m p l y choose b e t w e e n t h e A- a n d
digital device that holds t h e original footage (external h a r d
B-roll shots at any given m o m e n t . A l t h o u g h this m e t h o d is
drive or server), a small a u d i o mixer, a large m o n i t o r t h a t
considerably slower t h a n AB rolling, it is m o r e precise. For
displays t h e editing interface, a n d a second m o n i t o r that
e x a m p l e , if y o u w a n t a close-up of t h e lead guitarist at t h e
plays b a c k t h e edited sequences, SEE
13.14
exact m o m e n t w h e n h e b e g i n s his solo, t h e edit controller
Recall t h a t t h e f u n d a m e n t a l difference b e t w e e n linear
c a n locate t h e s t a r t i n g frame w i t h precision a n d ease. To
a n d n o n l i n e a r editing systems is t h a t linear systems copy
298
Chapter
13
POSTPRODUCTION
EDITING
1 3 . 1 4 BASIC NONLINEAR EDITING SYSTEM The basic nonlinear editing system consists of a computer with large-capacity storage devices and editing/effects software. The output of this editing system is an EDL as well as high-quality on-line video and audio material.
Computer
Keyboard
Audio mixer
i n f o r m a t i o n from o n e v i d e o t a p e to a n o t h e r w h e r e a s n o n
p l a t f o r m s a n d offer a greater n u m b e r of t r a n s i t i o n s a n d
linear systems allow r a n d o m access of shots a n d sequences
special effects.
a n d enable their playback in a p a r t i c u l a r order. Instead of
T h a n k s t o readily available a n d sophisticated editing
editing o n e shot next to another, with NLE y o u are basically
software, even y o u r n o t e b o o k c o m p u t e r c a n b e t u r n e d
engaged in file management.
q u i t e easily i n t o a p o w e r f u l n o n l i n e a r e d i t i n g s y s t e m .
N o n l i n e a r editing allows y o u
to try, c o m p a r e , a n d keep as m a n y editing versions as y o u
Giving y o u even m o r e o p t i o n s (and h e a d a c h e s ) , m o s t n o n
like, w i t h o u t b e i n g c o m m i t t e d to a n y o n e . All y o u actually
linear systems can b e linked as n e t w o r k s for s h a r i n g video
d o is create v a r i o u s EDLs, t h a t is, m a r k certain files to play
a n d a u d i o data files, for a u d i o sweetening, o r for s e n d i n g
b a c k in v a r i o u s l e n g t h s a n d sequences. O n c e y o u decide
r o u g h - c u t s to a client for final approval. »Vi*--»EDITING->
o n a p a r t i c u l a r a r r a n g e m e n t , y o u tell t h e c o m p u t e r t h a t
Nonlinear editing-* system
this version is y o u r final editing choice a n d t o e x p o r t it t o t h e edit m a s t e r t a p e or, w i t h p r o p e r a u t h o r i n g software, to a n o t h e r digital storage device, such as a D V D . T h e o t h e r b i g a d v a n t a g e of N L E is t h e ease w i t h
NONLINEAR EDITING FEATURES AND TECHNIQUES N o n l i n e a r editing systems are as varied as desktop c o m p u t
video
ers a n d w o r d - p r o c e s s i n g p r o g r a m s . Their features, soft
effects (DVE). You c a n b u i l d these effects in real t i m e — t h e
w a r e , a n d t e c h n i q u e s are varied a n d often q u i t e intricate.
w h i c h y o u can i n t e g r a t e a great n u m b e r of digital
r e n d e r i n g t i m e h a s b e e n drastically r e d u c e d ; w h a t u s e d to
Even if y o u have s o m e e x p e r i e n c e in n o n l i n e a r editing,
take h o u r s can n o w b e d o n e in m i n u t e s . But t h e ease w i t h
y o u will n e e d the o p e r a t i n g m a n u a l close by. Despite the
w h i c h y o u can create DVE m i g h t t e m p t y o u to p a y m o r e
different m o d e l s , t h e r e are features a n d t e c h n i q u e s c o m
a t t e n t i o n to t h e effects t h a n to t h e story. Use s u c h " k n o c k -
m o n to all NLE systems: (1) c a p t u r i n g , c o m p r e s s i n g , a n d
your-socks-off" effects o n l y if t h e y fit t h e c o n t e n t of t h e
s t o r i n g i n f o r m a t i o n ; a n d (2) j u x t a p o s i n g a n d r e a r r a n g i n g
s t o r y a n d help energize t h e message.
t h e video a n d a u d i o files.
Because of i m p r o v e d h a r d w a r e , software, a n d c o m pression methods, combined with high-capacity hard
CAPTURE
disks a n d optical discs, d e s k t o p software can p r o d u c e h i g h -
You m a y b e s u r p r i s e d to h e a r t h a t o n e of t h e real b o t t l e
quality v i d e o a n d C D - q u a l i t y a u d i o in t h e editing process.
n e c k s in n o n l i n e a r editing is getting the a n a l o g or digital
H i g h - e n d N L E systems r u n o n b o t h P C a n d M a c i n t o s h
video a n d a u d i o i n f o r m a t i o n i n t o t h e c o m p u t e r , a process
Section
13.1
How
Postproduction
Editing
Works
299
called capture. If y o u have ever b a c k e d u p m a t e r i a l from a
frame, b u t t h e " h o u s e n u m b e r " d o e s n o t tell you w h a t t h e
h a r d disk, y o u k n o w that it can t r y y o u r patience. Transfer
h o u s e looks like. Similarly, t h e t i m e c o d e reveals n o t h i n g
r i n g a n a l o g v i d e o t a p e s to digital storage devices is always
a b o u t the n a t u r e of the shot it is identifying. W h a t you need
quite t i m e - c o n s u m i n g . Even if the footage was recorded o n
is a list t h a t tells y o u w h a t is actually stored. C o m p u t e r i z e d
a digital c a m c o r d e r or V T R , t r a n s f e r r i n g it from t a p e to
logging systems c a n create file m e n u s , or s h o t lists, a n d
h a r d disk takes t i m e . S o m e N L E systems, designed p r i m a r
transfer t o a data file t h e S M P T E t i m e c o d e addresses of
ily for n e w s , load t h e digital source v i d e o faster t h a n real
t h e scenes y o u w a n t . T h e r e is also software t h a t helps you
t i m e (the t i m e it w o u l d take for a straight d u b ) . N e v e r t h e
create a list of stored files. Such lists s h o w t h e in- a n d o u t
less, all s u c h transfers take l o n g e r t h a n y o u t h i n k .
n u m b e r s for each s h o t as well as i n f o r m a t i o n like the n a m e
This is w h e r e a g o o d field log c o m e s in handy. You c a n check t h e field log a n d i m p o r t only t h e g o o d takes.
of t h e shot, its c o n t e n t , a n d so forth. A shot list, or r a t h e r a n editing file m e n u , is similar to a regular V T R log.
Such a p r o c e d u r e m a y n o t always save y o u t i m e , b u t it will certainly save y o u a fair a m o u n t of disk space.
JUXTAPOSING AND REARRANGING V I D E O A N D A U D I O FILES
COMPRESSION T h e r e are h i g h - e n d p r o p r i e t a r y editing systems that capture
N o w y o u are finally ready to d o s o m e editing, or, rather,
a n d process all source m a t e r i a l w i t h o u t any c o m p r e s s i o n ,
juxtapose images and rearrange video a n d audio
b u t such systems m u s t rely o n high-capacity storage devices
Because y o u have fast a n d easy access to each of t h e stored
a n d h i g h - s p e e d c o m p u t e r s to deal w i t h t h e h u g e a m o u n t
f r a m e s , y o u have t h e u l t i m a t e m u l t i p l e - s o u r c e e d i t i n g
of digital i n f o r m a t i o n . To speed u p t h e c a p t u r e a n d edit
system at y o u r disposal. To duplicate t h e s a m e feat with
files.
i n g p r o c e s s , m a n y n o n l i n e a r systems t h e r e f o r e o p e r a t e
a t a p e d - b a s e d system, y o u w o u l d n e e d a separate s o u r c e
w i t h s o m e k i n d of compression.
Recall from c h a p t e r 12 the
V T R for each single frame r e c o r d e d o n t h e source tapes.
detailed discussion of c o m p r e s s i o n — t h a t it's like t r y i n g to
As p o i n t e d o u t earlier, n o n l i n e a r e d i t i n g is c o m p a r a b l e to
p u t half y o u r w a r d r o b e into a c a r r y - o n suitcase. Sometimes
r e a r r a n g i n g letters, w o r d s , sentences, a n d p a r a g r a p h s with
y o u succeed by refolding y o u r clothes a n d b y using all the
a word-processing program.
available space; this is t h e lossless k i n d of c o m p r e s s i o n .
Because the stored i n f o r m a t i o n allows r a n d o m access,
M o s t c o m p r e s s i o n is t h e lossy kind, w h i c h m e a n s t h a t y o u
y o u can call u p a n y frame, or v i d e o a n d a u d i o sequence,
n e e d to leave s o m e c l o t h i n g b e h i n d . D o y o u really n e e d
in a fraction of a s e c o n d a n d display it as a series of still
t h r e e sweaters or can y o u get by w i t h one? Obviously, t h e
images o n the c o m p u t e r screen. Such access speed c o m e s as
less you discard, t h e m o r e c o m p l e t e y o u r w a r d r o b e will be.
a great relief to v i d e o t a p e editors w h o were used to waiting
In c o m p r e s s i o n t e r m s , t h e less c o m p r e s s i o n t h e r e is, t h e
a n x i o u s l y for a p a r t i c u l a r s h o t that was b u r i e d s o m e w h e r e
h i g h e r t h e video a n d s o u n d quality will b e .
t o w a r d t h e e n d of t h e source tape. N o w y o u simply click
T h e bigger p r o b l e m for you as a p o s t p r o d u c t i o n editor is that the generally accepted M P E G - 2 interframe
compres
t h e m o u s e o r press a b u t t o n , a n d t h e next frame or series of frames, called a clip, a p p e a r s o n - s c r e e n .
s i o n s t a n d a r d m a k e s it difficult to d o precise f r a m e - a c
Besides h a v i n g a l m o s t i n s t a n t access to a n y frame of
c u r a t e editing. As y o u recall, to save "suitcase space," n o t
t h e s t o r e d v i d e o a n d a u d i o data, y o u can j u x t a p o s e two
all frames c o n t a i n t h e c o m p l e t e v i d e o i n f o r m a t i o n . For
frames o r clips t o see h o w well t h e y c u t t o g e t h e r . T h e
f r a m e - a c c u r a t e editing, y o u n e e d M P E G - 2 systems t h a t
side-by-side display consists, in effect, of t h e last frame
u s e f r e q u e n t reference frames or t h a t can calculate t h e
of t h e p r e v i o u s s h o t a n d t h e first frame of t h e following
full frame wherever y o u w a n t to cut. T h e a d v a n t a g e of t h e
s h o t . SEE 13.15
intraframe
t e c h n i q u e , in w h i c h each frame u n d e r g o e s its
By r u n n i n g t h e newly "edited" s e q u e n c e , y o u can see
o w n c o m p r e s s i o n , is that y o u can use any given frame as a n
w h e t h e r it fulfills y o u r s t o r y c o n t i n u i t y a n d aesthetic re
edit p o i n t w i t h o u t a d d i t i o n a l d e c o d i n g software.
q u i r e m e n t s . If it doesn't, y o u can call u p a n o t h e r frame o r s e q u e n c e a n d t r y o u t a n e w a r r a n g e m e n t . You can also test
STORAGE
a n u m b e r of transitions a n d effects. O n c e y o u are satisfied,
T h e greatest library in t h e w o r l d is useless if the b o o k s are
y o u can tell t h e c o m p u t e r t o r e c o r d a n d r e m e m b e r t h e in-
n o t cataloged so t h a t you c a n easily find t h e m . T h e s a m e
a n d o u t - n u m b e r s for each of t h e selected sequences. T h e
is t r u e of video material, regardless of w h e t h e r it is s t o r e d
c o m p l e t e list of s u c h in- a n d o u t - n u m b e r s constitutes t h e
o n v i d e o t a p e or a h a r d disk. You already k n o w a b o u t t h e
final edit decision list. F r o m n o w o n this EDL serves as
S M P T E t i m e c o d e t h a t gives a u n i q u e a d d r e s s to each
t h e g u i d e for t h e final editing p r o c e d u r e .
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Chapter
13
POSTPRODUCTION
EDITING
13.15 NONLINEAR EDITING DISPLAY This shot display shows the last frames of the previous shot and the first frames of the new shot.
PRE-EDITING PHASE
t h e t a p e . For e x a m p l e , if t h e field r e p o r t e r has j u s t e n d e d t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n to a story, have h i m o r her r e m a i n silent
While shooting video and recording audio during a p r o d u c t i o n , e x p e r i e n c e d p r o d u c t i o n p e o p l e are already t h i n k i n g of p o s t p r o d u c t i o n editing. T h e actual editing will also b e greatly facilitated if y o u s p e n d s o m e t i m e l o o k i n g over a n d keeping a c c u r a t e r e c o r d s of w h a t y o u have s h o t . Finally, y o u h a v e t o select t h e m o s t effective s h o t s a n d decide h o w t o p u t t h e m t o g e t h e r to give the v i d e o p r o g r a m clarity a n d i m p a c t . T h e p r e - e d i t i n g phase includes: (1) t h e s h o o t i n g phase, (2) t h e review p h a s e , a n d (3) t h e preparation phase.
SHOOTING
PHASE
M u c h of t h e editing is p r e d e t e r m i n e d b y t h e way the m a terial is shot. S o m e novice directors or c a m e r a o p e r a t o r s stop o n e s h o t or scene a n d b e g i n t h e next w i t h o u t a n y pads ( o v e r l a p p i n g a c t i o n ) o r c o n s i d e r a t i o n for c o n t i n u i t y . O t h e r s have t h e ability a n d foresight to visualize transitions b e t w e e n shots a n d scenes a n d t o p r o v i d e images t h a t cut t o g e t h e r well in p o s t p r o d u c t i o n . T h e key here is to visual ize n o t just individual shots b u t a shot sequence. I m a g i n i n g a s h o t s e q u e n c e will help y o u c o m p o s e shots t h a t can b e j o i n e d t o g e t h e r to f o r m seamless t r a n s i t i o n s .
a n d in place for a few m o r e seconds. This p a u s e will give y o u a video p a d , called trim handles, in case t h e e n d of t h e actual r e p o r t a n d t h e b e g i n n i n g of the following scene d o n o t p r o v i d e p r o p e r video or a u d i o continuity. For the s a m e reason, roll t h e t a p e for several seconds before b e g i n n i n g a n a c t i o n t h a t will b e used in t h e edited version. A c h a n g e in t h e angle a n d field of view ( m o v i n g t h e c a m e r a nearer o r farther away f r o m t h e event) b e t w e e n s h o t s will also h e l p T
m a k e t h e cuts l o o k o r g a n i c a n d s m o o t h . n i*.-»EDlTlNG-> Production guidelines-* pickup
Always get s o m e cutaway shots. A cutaway
t h e necessary video p a d w h e n editing a c c o r d i n g to s o u n d bites ( p o r t i o n of v i d e o t a p e d interview in w h i c h we see a n d hear the p e r s o n talk); a n d , in m o r e - a m b i t i o u s p r o d u c t i o n s , helps b r i d g e j u m p s in t i m e a n d / o r l o c a t i o n . T h e cutaway m a y o r m a y n o t b e p a r t of the p r i n c i p a l action, b u t it m u s t b e t h e m a t i c a l l y related to t h e actual event. G o o d cutaways are relatively static a n d n e u t r a l as to screen direction. Ex a m p l e s are s t r a i g h t - o n shots of o n l o o k e r s , r e p o r t e r s w i t h still c a m e r a s o r c a m c o r d e r s , b u i l d i n g s t h a t s h o w t h e loca tion, h o u s e n u m b e r s , or objects t h a t are p a r t of t h e s t o r y T
W h e n r e c o r d i n g v i d e o t a p e d o n o t stop exactly at t h e e n d of a scene—record a few m o r e seconds before s t o p p i n g
is a brief
shot that establishes continuity between t w o shots; provides
(such as the b o o k the guest h a s w r i t t e n ) . M i»>EDITING-> Production guidelines-* cutaways
Section
How
13.1
Postproduction
ENGv
W h e n o n an E N G a s s i g n m e n t , t r y to get s o m e cut-
EFP
away shots t h a t identify the location of t h e event. For
example, after covering t h e d o w n t o w n fire, get a shot of t h e street signs of t h e nearest intersection, t h e traffic t h a t has b a c k e d u p because of t h e fire, a n d s o m e close-ups of o n l o o k e r s a n d exhausted
firefighters.
For g o o d m e a s u r e
also get several w i d e shots of t h e event location. You will t h e n have cutaways that n o t only facilitate t r a n s i t i o n s b u t also show exactly w h e r e t h e fire t o o k place. Always r e c o r d t h e a m b i e n t s o u n d w i t h t h e cutaways. T h e s o u n d is often as i m p o r t a n t as t h e pictures for s m o o t h t r a n s i t i o n s . T h e c o n t i n u i t y of a m b i e n t ( b a c k g r o u n d ) s o u n d can also help i m m e n s e l y in preserving shot continuity, even if the visuals d o n o t cut together t o o well. Always record a m i n u t e or two of " r o o m t o n e " o r any o t h e r k i n d of e n v i r o n m e n t a l s o u n d , even if t h e c a m e r a has n o t h i n g interesting to s h o o t . W h e n e v e r possible d u r i n g E N G , verbally slate (iden tify) the v a r i o u s takes or at least t h e shot series. You can d o this by simply calling o u t t h e n a m e of t h e event a n d the take n u m b e r , such as: " M a r k e t Street police station, take 2." You can d o t h e slating o n t h e c a m e r a m i c o r t h e p o r t a b l e (reporter's) m i c . After saying the take n u m b e r , c o u n t back w a r d from five or t h r e e to o n e . This c o u n t i n g is similar to t h e b e e p e r after t h e slate in studio p r o d u c t i o n s . A l t h o u g h n o t essential, it helps locate t h e take a n d cue it u p d u r i n g editing, especially if n o address code is u s e d . '
REVIEW PHASE Unless y o u deal w i t h news footage t h a t m u s t be edited for t h e u p c o m i n g newscast, y o u n e e d to m a k e copies of all t h e source tapes. This is especially i m p o r t a n t for linear editing because y o u can n o w preserve the original source tapes for t h e actual editing while reviewing t h e tape copies. W h e n transferring the analog o r digital source tapes to t h e h a r d disk of t h e editing system, b a c k u p t h e h a r d disk immediately. You m a y t h i n k t h a t backing u p is overkill a n d basically a waste of time; this is t r u e — u n t i l y o u r superd e p e n d a b l e c o m p u t e r crashes or s o m e b o d y else erases your h a r d drive to m a k e r o o m for a n e w project. Reviewing Before you can m a k e decisions a b o u t w h a t t o include a n d w h a t to cut, you n e e d to k n o w w h a t you've got. Regardless of w h e t h e r you are editing a brief n e w s story or a play t h a t was shot film-style, you m u s t l o o k at everything o n t h e source tape or, m o r e likely, o n t h e stack of videotapes that c o n t a i n t h e bits a n d pieces of t h e source material. This way you get an overall i m p r e s s i o n of w h a t y o u have t o w o r k w i t h . Repeated screening of the source
Editing
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301
tapes will reveal n e w things every t i m e you play t h e m a n d will suggest o p t i m a l ways of sequencing. Even if y o u have n o t t a k e n p a r t in t h e actual p r o d u c t i o n , this preview s h o u l d give you (the editor) an idea of w h a t the story is all a b o u t . W i e n you w o r k in c o r p o r a t e television, w h e r e m a n y of the p r o d u c t i o n s have specific i n s t r u c t i o n a l objectives, y o u n e e d to k n o w w h a t t h o s e o b jectives are. If you c a n n o t d e d u c e story or objectives from t h e first preview, ask s o m e o n e w h o k n o w s . After all, the story a n d c o m m u n i c a t i o n objective will greatly influence y o u r selection of shots or scenes a n d their sequencing. Read t h e script a n d discuss t h e c o m m u n i c a t i o n objectives w i t h t h e writer or p r o d u c e r / d i r e c t o r . Discussions a b o u t overall story, m o o d , a n d style are especially i m p o r t a n t w h e n edit ing d o c u m e n t a r i e s or plays. E N G v W h e n editing s o m e o n e else's E N G footage, however, E F P y o u rarely get a chance to learn e n o u g h a b o u t the total event. Worse, y o u have to keep to a rigid t i m e frame ("Be s u r e to k e e p this s t o r y to t w e n t y s e c o n d s ! " ) a n d w o r k w i t h limited footage ("Sorry, I just c o u l d n ' t get close e n o u g h t o get g o o d s h o t s " or " T h e m i c was w o r k i n g w h e n I checked it"). Also, you have precious little t i m e to get t h e j o b d o n e ("Aren't you finished yet? We go o n the air in forty-five m i n u t e s ! " ) . Very m u c h like a reporter, an E N G c a m e r a operator, o r an e m e r g e n c y - r o o m doctor, the E N G editor has to w o r k quickly yet accurately a n d w i t h little preproduction preparation. Get as m u c h i n f o r m a t i o n as y o u can a b o u t t h e story before y o u start editing. Ask the reporter, t h e c a m e r a o p erator, o r the p r o d u c e r to fill y o u in. After s o m e practice y o u will be able t o sense t h e story c o n t a i n e d o n t h e tape a n d edit it accordingly. You will also find t h a t you often get a better idea a b o u t t h e story b y listening to t h e s o u n d t r a c k t h a n by l o o k i n g at t h e pictures. <
PREPARATION
PHASE
Before y o u can engage in actual editing, y o u still have to take care of a few o p e r a t i o n a l p r o c e d u r e s : (1) t i m e code a n d w i n d o w d u b b i n g a n d (2) logging. T i m e c o d e a n d w i n d o w d u b All critical editing re quires t i m e code. Unless you recorded the t i m e code d u r i n g t h e v i d e o t a p i n g , y o u n e e d to add it to all t h e source tapes. Like " b l a c k e n i n g " the edit master t a p e for insert editing, laying t h e t i m e code takes place in real t i m e — a d d i n g 30 m i n u t e s of t i m e code takes 30 m i n u t e s of recording time. But while y o u are laying the t i m e code, y o u can simul taneously m a k e a window dub—a " b u m p e d - d o w n " (lowerquality, such as V H S ) copy of all source tapes that has the t i m e code keyed in a w i n d o w over each frame, SEE 13.16
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EDITING
1 3 . 1 6 TIME CODE DISPLAY IN WINDOW DUB The
window dub shows the unique time code number keyed over each frame.
W h e n working w i t h tape-based systems, a w i n d o w d u b
t h e cassette w i t h a n u m b e r a n d t h e title of w h a t t h e t a p e
is necessary for creating an a c c u r a t e V T R log d u r i n g t h e
c o n t a i n s . If t h e V T R log f o r m a t h a s n o place for t h e s h o w
preview p h a s e . It will also help y o u c o m p i l e a p r e l i m i n a r y
title, p u t it in the Remarks
EDL w i t h o u t h a v i n g t o t o u c h t h e original s o u r c e tapes. As
code in t h e field, t h e Hour c o l u m n o n t h e field log usually
p o i n t e d o u t before, avoid u s i n g t h e original source tapes
indicates t h e tape n u m b e r .
for p r e v i e w i n g a n d logging unless y o u are w o r k i n g w i t h news footage. Each pass will d i m i n i s h t h e quality of t h e original material; a n d each t i m e y o u play the tapes, y o u r u n t h e risk of d a m a g i n g t h e m .
Scene and take numbers.
c o l u m n . If y o u r e c o r d e d t i m e
Use these only if t h e y are use
ful in locating t h e m a t e r i a l o n t h e source tape. If y o u have p r o p e r l y slated t h e scenes a n d takes, copy t h e n u m b e r s f r o m t h e slates. O t h e r w i s e , s i m p l y list all s h o t s as t h e y a p p e a r o n t h e source t a p e in a s c e n d i n g order.
Willi t h e e x c e p t i o n of e d i t i n g for news o r o t h e r such events t h a t go o n t h e air r i g h t after t h e y occur,
Time code. Enter t h e t i m e c o d e n u m b e r of t h e first
you s h o u l d m a k e a list of every take o n t h e source tapes,
frame of t h e shot in t h e In c o l u m n a n d the last frame of
regardless of w h e t h e r it is usable or p r o p e r l y slated. T h i s
the s h o t in t h e O u r c o l u m n , regardless of w h e t h e r t h e s h o t
list, called t h e VTR log, represents a m u c h m o r e precise
is O K or n o g o o d .
record of w h a t is o n t h e source tapes t h a n t h e field log
OK or no good. M a r k t h e acceptable shots b y circling
kept b y t h e V T R o p e r a t o r d u r i n g t h e p r o d u c t i o n . ( N o t e
t h e s h o t n u m b e r or b y w r i t i n g " O K " o r " N G " ( n o g o o d )
that we call it " V T R log" even if t h e c a m c o r d e r c a p t u r e s
in t h e a p p r o p r i a t e c o l u m n . Unless y o u have already elimi
the original footage o n disc r a t h e r t h a n tape.) T h e p u r p o s e
n a t e d all shots t h a t were labeled " N G " o n the field log, y o u
of t h e V T R log is to h e l p y o u locate specific shots o n t h e
can n o w see if y o u agree w i t h p r e v i o u s d e t e r m i n a t i o n s of
s o u r c e tapes w i t h o u t h a v i n g t o p r e v i e w t h e m over a n d
w h e t h e r or n o t a take was OK.
over again, or t o m a k e t h e c a p t u r i n g process for n o n l i n e a r editing m o r e efficient.
W h e n evaluating shots look for obvious m i s t a k e s — b u t also l o o k for w h e t h e r t h e s h o t is suitable in t h e context of
If y o u have a n accurate V T R long, y o u can eliminate
the defined c o m m u n i c a t i o n p u r p o s e a n d / o r overall story.
right away m o s t of t h e shots labeled " N G . " W h e n p r e p a r
A n o u t - o f - f o c u s s h o t m a y b e u n u s a b l e in o n e c o n t e x t
ing a V T R log, the field logs will be invaluable in h e l p i n g
b u t q u i t e a p p r o p r i a t e if y o u t r y to d e m o n s t r a t e i m p a i r e d
you quick locate a p a r t i c u l a r t a p e or s h o t s e q u e n c e . T h i s
v i s i o n . L o o k b e h i n d t h e p r i n c i p a l a c t i o n : Is t h e b a c k
m a y n o t s e e m a big deal w h e n y o u have only t w o tapes t o
g r o u n d a p p r o p r i a t e ? Too b u s y or cluttered? It is often t h e
review, b u t it is a lifesaver w h e n y o u m u s t log a stack of
b a c k g r o u n d r a t h e r t h a n the f o r e g r o u n d t h a t p r o v i d e s t h e
t w e n t y or m o r e s o u r c e tapes.
necessary visual continuity. Will the b a c k g r o u n d s facilitate
T h e following is t h e b a s i c i n f o r m a t i o n a V T R log
c o n t i n u i t y w h e n t h e s h o t s are edited together?
s h o u l d c o n t a i n . SEE13.17 Sound. H e r e y o u n o t e in- a n d o u t - c u e s for dialogue Tape (or reel) numbers.
T h e s e refer to t h e n u m b e r
a n d s o u n d effects that n e e d a t t e n t i o n d u r i n g editing. Listen
the V T R o p e r a t o r has given t h e t a p e d u r i n g p r o d u c t i o n .
carefully n o t only to the f o r e g r o u n d s o u n d s b u t also t o
H e o r she s h o u l d have labeled n o t o n l y t h e b o x b u t also
t h e b a c k g r o u n d s o u n d s . Is t h e r e t o o m u c h ambience? N o t
Section
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Editing
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1 3 . 1 7 VTR LOG The VTR log contains all the necessary information about the video and audio recorded on the source tapes. Notice the notations in the Vectors column: g, /,and m refer to graphic, index, and motion vectors. The arrows show the principal direction of the index and motion vectors. Z-axis index and motion vectors are labeled with ® (toward the camera) or • (away from the camera).
e n o u g h ? N o t e a n y o b v i o u s a u d i o p r o b l e m s , such as t r u c k s
ably in a specific direction, such as a n a r r o w o r a person's
going by, s o m e b o d y h i t t i n g the m i c r o p h o n e o r kicking t h e
gaze. A motion vector is b r o u g h t a b o u t b y s o m e t h i n g m o v
table, i n t e r c o m chatter of t h e crew, o r talent flubs in a n
ing. Take a n o t h e r look at the Vectors c o l u m n in figure 13.17.
o t h e r w i s e g o o d take. W r i t e d o w n t h e n a t u r e of t h e s o u n d
T h e g, i, a n d m refer to t h e vector type (graphic, index, or
p r o b l e m a n d its t i m e c o d e address.
m o t i o n ) ; t h e a r r o w s indicate t h e p r i n c i p a l direction. T h e
Remarks.
Use this c o l u m n to indicate w h a t t h e shot
is all a b o u t , s u c h as " C U of w a t c h , " a n d t o r e c o r d t h e a u d i o cues (unless y o u have a designated a u d i o c o l u m n ) . pJ3H>EDITING^ Postproduction guidelines-* VTR log
circled-dot s y m b o l indicates m o v e m e n t o r p o i n t i n g toward t h e c a m e r a ; t h e d o t alone indicates m o v e m e n t o r p o i n t i n g away from t h e c a m e r a . r4'i*--»EDITING-> Continuity-* vectors For the actual logging, y o u can take the w i n d o w d u b s h o m e
Vectors. Vectors indicate the major directions of lines or
a n d view t h e m o n y o u r h o m e VCR. A l t h o u g h the VCR will
m o t i o n s w i t h i n a shot. N o t i n g s u c h directional vectors will
n o t s h o w the h i g h - q u a l i t y pictures of the source tapes, it is
h e l p y o u locate specific shots that c o n t i n u e o r p u r p o s e l y
certainly sufficient for giving you a n idea of w h a t video a n d
o p p o s e a p r i n c i p a l direction.
a u d i o m a t e r i a l y o u have. It also lets y o u freeze t h e starting
T h e r e are t h r e e types of vectors: g r a p h i c , index, a n d m o t i o n . A graphic vector is created b y s t a t i o n a r y e l e m e n t s
a n d e n d i n g frames of each shot so y o u c a n read a n d log their respective t i m e c o d e n u m b e r s .
t h a t g u i d e o u r eyes in a specific direction, s u c h as a line
If y o u s h o t t h e m a t e r i a l yourself, y o u are p r o b a b l y
f o r m e d b y t h e w i n d o w frame o r t h e edge of a b o o k . A n in
familiar w i t h m o s t takes. You c a n therefore get b y with a
dex vector is created b y s o m e t h i n g t h a t p o i n t s u n q u e s t i o n
rather sketchy V T R log that indicates reel a n d take n u m b e r s
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EDITING
a n d some s h o t identification. B u t if y o u arc given material
T h e extreme time restrictions in E N G require that y o u
that was s h o t b y s o m e o n e else, y o u s h o u l d log as m u c h
tell t h e stories as economically as possible. W h e n l o o k i n g at
a b o u t it as possible so t h a t you will n o t have to go back to
t h e footage, t h e highlights of t h e event usually reveal t h e m
t h e source tapes to l o o k for a p p r o p r i a t e s h o t s . T h e m o r e
selves quite readily. T h e reporter or p r o d u c e r will occasion
careful a n d accurate y o u r logging, the m o r e t i m e , m o n e y ,
ally select the sound bite—a brief m e m o r a b l e p h r a s e — t h a t
a n d nerves y o u will save d u r i n g t h e actual editing.
drives t h e story. M'i*l'»EDITING-> Continuity-* quiz
T h e r e are several g o o d c o m p u t e r i z e d logging p r o
Nevertheless, u n d e r n o r m a l circumstances, E N G edit
g r a m s available. Because t h e c o m p u t e r c a n display each
ing requires t h a t y o u l o o k at t h e source m a t e r i a l repeat
frame w i t h its t i m e c o d e address, you can use t h e clips y o u
edly t o see w h a t y o u h a v e to w o r k with. After a few such
i m p o r t e d from t h e s o u r c e tapes. Such logging software
screenings, t h e story s h o u l d p r e t t y m u c h reveal itself. All
provides space for the n a m e of t h e scene or shot a n d for
t h e p r e v i e w i n g a n d editing is d o n e w i t h t h e actual source
identifying certain a u d i o segments. Note, however, that the
tapes o r footage i m p o r t e d from o t h e r r e c o r d e d m e d i a . 4
c o m p u t e r will n o t d o t h e logging all by itself. It c a n n o t tell
All o t h e r p o s t p r o d u c t i o n e d i t i n g requires a careful
h o w y o u w a n t t o n a m e a p a r t i c u l a r shot, for e x a m p l e , or
a n d deliberate selection of shots that h e l p clarify, intensify,
w h e t h e r you consider a take acceptable o r u n a c c e p t a b l e .
a n d i n t e r p r e t t h e i n t e n d e d message. S o m e t i m e s y o u r job is m a d e relatively easy b e c a u s e y o u c a n w o r k from a detailed script or s t o r y b o a r d (see section 18.2). For e x a m p l e , m o s t
EDITING PROCEDURES
commercials are carefully designed, with every shot a n d the s h o t s e q u e n c e sketched o u t in p r e p r o d u c t i o n . A s s u m i n g
N o w y o u are finally ready to d o s o m e editing. W h a t does editing actually m e a n ? In video a n d film p r o d u c t i o n , it is the selecting a n d assembling of shots in a seamless sequence
that t h e director followed the s t o r y b o a r d in the p r o d u c t i o n p h a s e , all y o u n e e d to d o is l o o k for t h e shots that best r e p r e s e n t t h e s t o r y b o a r d sketch a n d clip t h e m together. At
that tells t h e s t o r y m o s t effectively. Editing requires a sense
o t h e r times y o u n e e d to view t h e material repeatedly before
for h o w a story develops, a g o o d eye a n d ear, a n d patience.
y o u c a n select t h e m o s t effective shots.
But before you t u r n o n t h e e q u i p m e n t a n d start w i t h edit ing, y o u should pay special a t t e n t i o n to these m a j o r editing steps: (1) shot selection, (2) s h o t s e q u e n c i n g , (3) a u d i o sweetening, (4) creating t h e final edit m a s t e r t a p e , a n d
Because t h e a u d i o t r a c k is often used as guide for edit ing t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g video, t h e t r a n s c r i b e d a u d i o t r a c k is e d i t e d first, t h e n t h e v i d e o is " d r o p p e d in" a c c o r d i n g t o t h e edited a u d i o track (see section 10.2).
(5) o p e r a t i o n a l h i n t s . Preparing a paper-and-pencil EDL
W h e n y o u edit a
SHOT SELECTION
longer a n d m o r e c o m p l e x p r o d u c t i o n , s u c h as a d o c u m e n
In this d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g p h a s e y o u m u s t first b e guided
t a r y o r d r a m a , y o u r m a i n c o n c e r n is picking the shots t h a t
by t h e context of t h e total s t o r y a n d its o v e r r i d i n g c o m
m o s t effectively fulfill t h e story a n d c o n t r i b u t e to a s m o o t h
m u n i c a t i o n i n t e n t . A n o t h e r i m p o r t a n t selection criterion
s h o t s e q u e n c e (see c h a p t e r s 14 a n d 18). You c a n save a
is w h e t h e r t h e shots c o n t r i b u t e t o a s m o o t h , seamless se
great a m o u n t of actual editing t i m e by simply w a t c h i n g t h e
q u e n c e . G o o d editing s h o u l d go u n n o t i c e d b y t h e viewer.
w i n d o w d u b s (in linear editing) or t h e clips (in n o n l i n e a r editing) a n d m a k i n g a list of t h e e d i t - i n a n d - o u t p o i n t s
Select only those shots that are essential
for each selected shot. This list will b e y o u r p r e l i m i n a r y
to tell t h e story. D o n ' t use ten shots if y o u can d o t h e j o b
EDL. Because this list is usually w r i t t e n by h a n d , this d e
with t h r e e . T h i s is especially t r u e w h e n editing news. It is
c i s i o n - m a k i n g activity is called paper-and-pencil
n o t u n c o m m o n to cut t o a b o u t seven s e c o n d s of visuals
or paper editing for s h o r t . SEE13.18 rt'i%t»EDITING-> tinear
a s t o r y t h e E N G c a m e r a / r e p o r t e r t e a m m a y have s p e n t a
editing-* paper edit
Choosing shots
w h o l e day risking their lives to get. E N G v Editing n e w s footage does n o t allow y o u t h e l u x u r y EFP
editing,
W h e n u s i n g a c o m p u t e r - a s s i s t e d logging system, t h e c o m p u t e r will store y o u r decisions a n d p r i n t o u t t h e p r e
of p o n d e r i n g over a shot s e q u e n c e o r t r y i n g o u t sev
l i m i n a r y E D L . M o s t h i g h - e n d editing software will give
eral different ways before settling o n t h e m o s t a p p r o p r i a t e
y o u a n o p t i o n to display s i m u l t a n e o u s l y a certain n u m b e r
one. In fact, m a n y E N G stories are e d i t e d in the E N G v a n
of v i d e o a n d a u d i o tracks. T h e tracks, stacked u n d e r n e a t h
in the field or o n t h e way back t o t h e station. If t h e news
t h e s o u r c e a n d r e c o r d m o n i t o r s , display t h e v i d e o a n d
event is big e n o u g h , the footage m a y even b e sent u p t o t h e
a u d i o tracks w i t h their t i m e c o d e n u m b e r s . Such displays
satellite u n e d i t e d .
can greatly facilitate b u i l d i n g y o u r p r e l i m i n a r y EDL.
Section
13.18
13.1
How
Postproduction
Editing
305
Works
HANDWRITTEN EDIT DECISION LIST
Paper-and-pencil off-line editing normally produces a handwritten EDL containing information similar to that generated by a
computerized system.
SHOT S E Q U E N C I N G
so t h a t n o w o r d s are lost or m a n g l e d , a n d a d d i n g s o m e
O n c e y o u have a p r e l i m i n a r y EDL, y o u can p r o c e e d t o t h e
m u s i c or s o u n d effects. In linear editing y o u can m a t c h t h e
first tentative s e q u e n c i n g of s h o t s — t h e r o u g h cut. W i t h
s o u n d t r a c k w i t h t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g video via t i m e code.
a linear system, y o u insert t h e v a r i o u s tapes i n d i c a t e d o n
T h i s is b y n o m e a n s a n easy j o b , a n d it takes practice, b u t
t h e p r e l i m i n a r y EDL, tell t h e edit controller to search for
this is w h e r e t h e a d v a n t a g e of n o n l i n e a r editing c o m e s in.
t h e selected shots, a n d c o p y t h e m over to t h e record V T R .
Even the simplest editing software allows y o u to m i x at least
W i t h a n o n l i n e a r system, y o u s i m p l y tell t h e c o m p u t e r to
t w o s o u n d tracks, a n d m o r e - s o p h i s t i c a t e d p r o g r a m s let
r u n t h e selected sequence.
y o u m a n i p u l a t e close to a h u n d r e d tracks. Because s o u n d s
W h e n l o o k i n g at the r o u g h cut, y o u will u n d o u b t e d l y
in NLE are treated as clips, m u c h like video, y o u c a n call
see s o m e shots t h a t d o n ' t m a k e sense (despite their artistic
u p t h e s o u n d files in r a n d o m order, look at t h e m in addi
value) or t h a t i n t e r r u p t t h e continuity. This is t h e t i m e to
t i o n to h e a r i n g t h e m , scrub t h r o u g h t h e m ( m o v e t h r o u g h
eliminate r e d u n d a n t shots or look for similar shots in t h e
t h e s o u n d sequence using t h e m o u s e ) to find a p a r t i c u l a r
V T R log t h a t facilitate continuity.
p o i n t or frame, a n d m a n i p u l a t e a n d c o m b i n e t h e m in any n u m b e r of ways. N o t e , however, t h a t m o r e c o m p l i c a t e d
Adding transitions
O n c e satisfied w i t h t h e r o u g h cut,
y o u can m o v e to t h e next stage of deciding t r a n s i t i o n s a n d
s o u n d w o r k takes an a d d i t i o n a l set of skills a n d is best left t o the s o u n d designer or s o u n d editor.
2
special effects. Again, d o n ' t go o v e r b o a r d w i t h dissolves,
O n c e y o u have c o m p l e t e d t h e final s h o t s e q u e n c i n g ,
wipes, a n d flips. Because t h e y are so readily available in
y o u can p r i n t o u t the final EDL t h a t eventually triggers all
NLE, t h e y are especially t e m p t i n g . Even if y o u see a n excess
t h e c o m m a n d s for the final edit, or tell t h e c o m p u t e r to
of effects o n the air every day, d o n ' t t r y to c o m p e t e . A clean
r u n t h e final editing sequence, SEE 13.19 At this p o i n t even m i n o r e d i t i n g c h a n g e s are quite
c u t is still o n e of t h e m o s t effective a n d u n o b t r u s i v e ways of c o m b i n i n g shots.
t i m e - c o n s u m i n g in linear editing a n d m a y even require t h a t y o u r e d o all t h e edits t h a t follow the p o i n t of change.
AUDIO SWEETENING In relatively simple editing projects, t h e s o u n d editing will consist m a i n l y of c o m b i n i n g t h e s o u n d tracks of t h e shots
2.
See Stanley R. Alten, Audio in Media, 7th ed. (Belmont, Calif.: Thomson Wadsworth, 2005), pp. 135-44.
306
Chapter
POSTPRODUCTION
13
EDITING
13.19 COMPUTER-GENERATED EDL The computer-generated EDL is similar to the handwritten one. It contains in- and out numbers for both the source and record VTRs and the nature of the transitions.
TITLE: TRAFFIC SAFETYHeader 001 003 V c 001 004 V W001 204 EFFECTS NAME IS SWING IN
00:00:03:12 00:00:05:14 01:00:20:01 01:00:22:03 00:00:06:24 00:00:12:23 01:00:08:12 01:00:14:11
002 004 V C 002 001 V W003 204 EFFECTS NAME IS SWING IN
01:16:22:03 01:16:29:02 01:00:06:24 01:00:13:25 01:18:27:15 01:18:34:09 01:00:06:24 01:00:13:18
V c 003 004 V W000 204 003 001 EFFECTS NAME IS SWING IN
01:18:33:15 01:00:25:14 01:00:13:18 01:00:20:12 01:18:38:02 01:18:44:26 01:00:13:18 01:00:20:12
004 004 V C V W002 204 004 001 EFFECTS NAME IS SWING IN
01:19:10:02 01:19:15:03 01:19:20:12 01:19:25:12 01:19:23:19 01:19:30:13 01:00:20:12 01:00:27:06
005 004 V c 005 001 V W011 203 EFFECTS NAME IS ZOOM
01:34:12:02 01:34:16:04 01:00:22:05 01:00:26:06 01:50:15:29 01:50:22:22 01:00:27:06 01:00:33:29
006
003
V
c
01:52:14:25 01:52:16:05 01:00:33:29 01:00:35:15
007
001
V
c
01:39:08:00 01:39:14:24 01:00:58:15 01:01:05:09
T Event number
T Edit mode Source reel ID
Source in
I Source out
I Record in
" Record out
Transition type
T h e s a m e c h a n g e can b e d o n e m u c h m o r e quickly w i t h t h e
OPERATIONAL HINTS
NLE system. W h a t y o u see a n d h e a r d u r i n g the playback is
N o w y o u have to sit d o w n a n d practice. You c a n n o t learn
simply video a n d a u d i o data files a r r a n g e d in a p a r t i c u l a r
editing simply by r e a d i n g a b o o k — e v e n this o n e . 'There
order. All y o u d o to m a k e a n editing c h a n g e is r e a r r a n g e
are also so m a n y linear a n d n o n l i n e a r editing systems o n
s o m e c o m p u t e r files a n d generate a n e w play o r d e r — a n e w
t h e m a r k e t t h a t it w o u l d b e i m p o s s i b l e to list t h e m all.
EDL. Obviously, this takes c o n s i d e r a b l y less t i m e t h a n r e -
T h e variety of editing e q u i p m e n t places m o r e a n d m o r e
editing tape.
i m p o r t a n c e o n t h e aesthetic p r i n c i p l e s — h o w t o achieve
CREATING THE FINAL EDIT MASTER TAPE
jolts viewers o u t of their p e r c e p t u a l c o m p l a c e n c y (such
All that's left for y o u t o d o is to create a final edit m a s t e r
basic o p e r a t i o n a l steps for editing o n either t a p e - b a s e d or
tape. In linear editing t h e creation of t h e final edit m a s t e r
disk-based systems:
a shot sequence that looks seamless or that purposely
d e p e n d s o n t h e relative sophistication of t h e system. S o m e edit controllers can use t h e final EDL to select t h e p r o p e r shots from t h e source V T R s a n d i n s t r u c t t h e r e c o r d V T R to r e c o r d t h e m a c c o r d i n g to t h e i n - a n d o u t n u m b e r s indicated. If y o u w o r k with a n o n l i n e a r system, y o u tell
principles are the focus of section 13.2). H e r e are s o m e
If y o u share editing facilities, d o u b l e - c h e c k o n their availability. Have y o u r e q u e s t e d a d d i t i o n a l e q u i p m e n t y o u m a y n e e d to interface, such as a C O , a switcher, a u d i o e q u i p m e n t , o r DVE?
t h e c o m p u t e r to r u n t h e entire s e q u e n c e a n d e x p o r t t h e
If w o r k i n g with a t a p e - b a s e d system, check t h e tapes
selected video a n d a u d i o files in t h e specified s e q u e n c e for
t h a t y o u i n t e n d to use for edit m a s t e r s . Use only n e w tapes
r e c o r d i n g o n t h e edit m a s t e r t a p e o r disc.
for t h e r e c o r d VTR. W h e n d o i n g insert editing, t h e edit
Section
How
1 3.7
Postproduction
m a s t e r t a p e s m u s t have black or color b a r s r e c o r d e d o n
Editing
Works
307
•
Linear editing is performed with single-source, expanded single-source, and multiple-source systems. Single-source systems have a source (or play) VTR and a record (or edit) VTR, which are normally governed by an edit controller. Ex panded single-source systems may contain an audio mixer, a switcher, and a C G . (character generator). Multiple-source systems have two or more source VTRs and permit a great variety of transitions.
•
The control track, or pulse-count, linear editing system uses pulses of the control track for locating specific edit-in and -out points, automatic prerolling of the source and record VTRs, previewing and executing the edit at a specific point on the edit master tape, and reviewing the edit. The con trol track system does not supply a specific frame address, however, and is not frame-accurate.
•
Time code editing uses a specific code that gives each frame a unique address. It fulfills the same functions as the control track system but is frame-accurate. The most popu lar time code is the SMPTE/EBU time code.
•
In assemble editing all video, audio, control, and address tracks on the edit master tape are erased to make room for the shot to be copied over from the source tape (contain ing its own video, audio, and control track information for the record VTR). The record VTR will regenerate the control tracks of the copied shots and try to form a continuous control track. If the newly assembled control track is not perfectly aligned, the edits will cause brief video break ups—or sync rolls—at the edit points.
•
In insert editing the entire control track is prerecorded con tinuously on the edit master tape before any editing takes place. It prevents breakups at the edit points and allows separate video and audio editing.
•
In AB rolling two VTRs (A-roll and B-roll) feed their mate rial simultaneously into two separate video inputs of the switcher. The editing is done by switching between the A-roll and the B-roll tapes.
•
In AB-roll editing the switcher is replaced by the edit con troller, which helps select the various shots from the source A VTR and the source B VTR.
•
Nonlinear editing (NLE) reguires capturing all analog and digital source tapes on the hard disk or optical disc storage systems. Digital source tapes must still be transferred to the hard disk of the editing system. Most storage systems use some kind of compression to store a maximum amount of video and audio data.
•
The re-editing phase consists of the shooting phase, the review phase, and the preparation phase.
•
The editing procedures include shot selection, shot se quencing, audio sweetening, and creation of the final edit master tape.
t h e m . ( R e m e m b e r t h a t t h e r e a l - t i m e r e c o r d i n g of black will give y o u the c o n t i n u o u s c o n t r o l track n e e d e d for insert editing.) To m i n i m i z e tracking p r o b l e m s , m a n y editors like t o lay t h e c o n t r o l t r a c k w i t h t h e V T R t h a t is actually used as a r e c o r d V T R d u r i n g t h e e d i t i n g process. In a t a p e - b a s e d system, set u p b o t h s o u r c e a n d r e c o r d V T R s . T h e r e c o r d V T R m u s t be i n t h e assemble or i n s e r t m o d e . Calibrate t h e a u d i o levels of the s o u r c e a n d r e c o r d V T R s (see section 10.2). When
finished
editing, r e w i n d t h e edit m a s t e r tape
a n d play it w i t h o u t i n t e r r u p t i o n . You m a y discover s o m e discrepancies b e t w e e n t h e v i d e o a n d a u d i o tracks o r p r o b lems with continuity that you did not notice w h e n you w o r k e d edit b y edit. N o n l i n e a r e d i t i n g lets y o u r e a r r a n g e t h e v i d e o a n d a u d i o d a t a files to s m o o t h t h e t r a n s i t i o n s relatively easily. A u d i o s w e e t e n i n g is a little m o r e c u m bersome. Complex audio sweetening requires that you strip the a u d i o t r a c k off t h e v i d e o t a p e for t h e necessary manipulation and then d u b the audio track back onto the v i d e o t a p e again. F r a m e - a c c u r a t e s y n c h r o n i z a t i o n of video a n d a u d i o requires S M P T E t i m e c o d e for b o t h v i d e o a n d audio tracks. W h e n w o r k i n g w i t h a d i s k - b a s e d system, allow p l e n t y of t i m e for t r a n s f e r r i n g t h e s o u r c e t a p e s t o t h e h a r d disk of t h e e d i t i n g system. Back u p t h e stored m a t e r i a l , even if it is t i m e - c o n s u m i n g . Backing u p v i d e o a n d a u d i o files is m u c h less t i m e - c o n s u m i n g t h a n h a v i n g to r e c a p t u r e all the source material. P u t the v a r i o u s t a p e s of a specific scene into o n e file (also called a bin) a n d t h o s e of t h e n e x t scene in a n o t h e r . This storage m e t h o d will m a k e it easier for y o u to visualize w h e r e t h i n g s are a n d to call u p t h e v a r i o u s s h o t s .
•
•
There are two basic editing modes, off-line and on-line. Off-line in linear editing means to use lower-quality eguipment for the rough cut; in nonlinear editing it means to capture the selected shots in low-resolution. It can be used by both systems to produce an edit decision list (EDL). On-line means for both systems to prepare the final edit master tape. Linear systems are all tape-based and do not allow random access of information. Nonlinear systems are all disk-based and allow random access.
13.2
EDITING FUNCTIONS Editing is d o n e for different reasons. S o m e t i m e s y o u n e e d to a r r a n g e shots so t h a t they tell a story. O t h e r t i m e s y o u m a y have to eliminate e x t r a n e o u s m a t e r i a l to m a k e a story fit a given t i m e slot, or y o u m a y w a n t to cut o u t t h e shot w h e r e t h e t a l e n t s t u m b l e d over a w o r d o r s u b s t i t u t e a
Making Editing Decisions
close-up for an uninteresting m e d i u m shot. These different reasons are all examples of the four basic editing functions: (1) c o m b i n e , (2) s h o r t e n , (3) correct, a n d (4) build.
COMBINE T h e simplest e d i t i n g is c o m b i n i n g p r o g r a m p o r t i o n s by h o o k i n g t h e v a r i o u s v i d e o - r e c o r d e d pieces t o g e t h e r in t h e p r o p e r s e q u e n c e . T h e m o r e care t h a t w a s t a k e n d u r i n g t h e p r o d u c t i o n , t h e less w o r k y o u have t o d o in p o s t p r o d u c t i o n . For e x a m p l e , m o s t s o a p o p e r a s are shot in long, c o m p l e t e scenes or in even l o n g e r sequences w i t h a m u l t i c a m e r a s t u d i o setup; t h e sequences are t h e n c o m b i n e d in p o s t p r o d u c t i o n . Or, y o u m a y select v a r i o u s shots taken at a friend's w e d d i n g a n d s i m p l y c o m b i n e t h e m in t h e o r d e r in w h i c h they o c c u r r e d .
SHORTEN G o o d editors m u s t b e able to tell a story efficiently while
M a n y editing a s s i g n m e n t s involve c u t t i n g t h e available
m a x i m i z i n g viewer interest. This requires t h a t they operate
m a t e r i a l to m a k e t h e final v i d e o t a p e fit a given t i m e slot
an editing system, visualize a s m o o t h s h o t s e q u e n c e while
or to eliminate e x t r a n e o u s material. As a n E N G editor, you
l o o k i n g at a n u m b e r of single shots, a n d select t h e a p p r o
will find t h a t y o u often have to tell a c o m p l e t e s t o r y in a n
priate t r a n s i t i o n s for s u c h a s e q u e n c e . G o o d editors c a n
u n r e a s o n a b l y s h o r t a m o u n t of t i m e a n d t h a t y o u have to
also detect c o n t i n u i t y p r o b l e m s , s u c h as t h e talent h o l d i n g
p a r e d o w n t h e available m a t e r i a l to its b a r e m i n i m u m . For
t h e coffee c u p in his left h a n d in t h e m e d i u m s h o t a n d in
e x a m p l e , the p r o d u c e r m a y give y o u o n l y t w e n t y seconds
his right h a n d in the following close-up. O n c e y o u have
to tell the s t o r y of a d o w n t o w n fire, a l t h o u g h t h e E N G
m a s t e r e d t h e editing system you are using, y o u will realize
t e a m h a d p r o u d l y r e t u r n e d w i t h t w e n t y m i n u t e s of excit
that t h e real a r t of editing is in storytelling a n d a p p l y i n g
ing footage.
aesthetic s e q u e n c i n g principles. This section d e m o n s t r a t e s s o m e of t h e m a j o r o n e s .
3
Paradoxically, w h e n e d i t i n g E N G footage, y o u will discover that a l t h o u g h y o u have an a b u n d a n c e of similar material, y o u m a y lack certain s h o t s to tell t h e story coher
EDITING FUNCTIONS
P
Combine, shorten, correct, and build
fc-
BASIC TRANSITION DEVICES The cut, the dissolve, the wipe, and the fade
ently. For example, w h e n screening the fire footage you m a y find t h a t there are m a n y beautiful shots of flames s h o o t i n g o u t of w i n d o w s a n d of firefighters o n ladders, p o u r i n g wa ter i n t o t h e b u i l d i n g , b u t n o pictures of t h e wall collapsing, w h i c h injured a firefighter.
MAJOR EDITING PRINCIPLES
P
Continuity editing (subject identification, the mental map, vectors, movement, color, and sound), complexity editing, context, and ethics
CORRECT M u c h editing t i m e is s p e n t o n c o r r e c t i n g mistakes, either b y e l i m i n a t i n g u n a c c e p t a b l e p o r t i o n s of a scene or by replacing t h e m w i t h better o n e s . This t y p e of editing can be simple—merely cutting out the part during which the
3.
For a more detailed treatment of aesthetic principles, see Herbert Zettl, Sight Sound Motion, 4th ed. (Belmont, Calif.: T h o m s o n Wadsworth, 2005).
308
talent c o u g h e d a n d replacing it with a retake. B u t it can also b e challenging, especially if t h e retake does n o t m a t c h
Section
13.2
Making
t h e rest of t h e r e c o r d i n g . You m a y find, for e x a m p l e , t h a t
Editing
Decisions
309
y o u see are t h e p r e c e d i n g a n d following shots. It resembles
s o m e of t h e c o r r e c t e d scenes differ noticeably from t h e
m o s t closely t h e c h a n g i n g field of t h e h u m a n eye. Try t o
o t h e r s in c o l o r t e m p e r a t u r e , s o u n d quality, o r field of
l o o k f r o m o n e object to a n o t h e r located s o m e distance
view ( s h o t t o o close or t o o loose in relation to the rest of
away. Notice t h a t y o u d o n o t look at t h i n g s in b e t w e e n , as
t h e footage). In such cases t h e relatively simple editing j o b
y o u w o u l d in a c a m e r a p a n , b u t t h a t y o u r eyes j u m p ahead
b e c o m e s a f o r m i d a b l e p o s t p r o d u c t i o n challenge a n d , in
to t h e s e c o n d p o s i t i o n , as in a cut.
s o m e cases, a n i g h t m a r e . A l t h o u g h m o s t n o n l i n e a r edit
T h e cut, like all o t h e r t r a n s i t i o n devices, is basically
ing software m a k e s r e m a r k a b l y powerful color c o r r e c t i o n
used for t h e clarification a n d intensification of an event.
features available, a p p l y i n g t h e m is often a t e d i o u s a n d
Clarification
highly t i m e - c o n s u m i n g affair. This is o n e of t h e r e a s o n s
clearly as possible. For e x a m p l e , in an interview s h o w t h e
m e a n s t h a t y o u s h o w t h e viewer the event as
w h y you s h o u l d p a y p a r t i c u l a r a t t e n t i o n to color m a t c h i n g
guest h o l d s u p t h e b o o k she has written. To help the viewer
during production.
identify t h e b o o k , y o u cut to a c l o s e - u p of it.
BUILD
t h e screen event. In a n e x t r e m e l o n g shot, for example,
Intensification
m e a n s t h a t y o u s h a r p e n the i m p a c t of
T h e m o s t difficult, b u t also t h e m o s t satisfying, editing
a football tackle m i g h t l o o k q u i t e t a m e ; w h e n seen as a
a s s i g n m e n t s are w h e n y o u can b u i l d a s h o w from a great
tight close-up, however, t h e a c t i o n reveals its b r u t e force.
m a n y takes. P o s t p r o d u c t i o n is n o l o n g e r ancillary t o p r o
By c u t t i n g to t h e close-up, t h e a c t i o n has b e e n intensified.
d u c t i o n b u t constitutes t h e m a j o r p r o d u c t i o n p h a s e . For example, w h e n y o u use a single c a m c o r d e r d u r i n g a film-
DISSOLVE
style field p r o d u c t i o n , y o u n e e d to select t h e best shots a n d
T h e dissolve, or lap dissolve, is a g r a d u a l t r a n s i t i o n from
p u t t h e m in the p r o p e r sequence in p o s t p r o d u c t i o n editing.
shot to shot, the two images temporarily overlapping.
Film-style refers to a m o t i o n picture t e c h n i q u e whereby y o u
W h e r e a s t h e cut itself c a n n o t be seen o n - s c r e e n , t h e dis
repeat a brief scene several times a n d s h o o t it from a variety
solve is a clearly visible t r a n s i t i o n . Dissolves are often used
of angles a n d fields of view, irrespective of t h e scripted
to p r o v i d e a s m o o t h b r i d g e for a c t i o n or to indicate t h e
event s e q u e n c e . B u t w h e n editing these shots, y o u c a n n o t
passage of t i m e . D e p e n d i n g o n t h e overall r h y t h m of an
s i m p l y select s o m e a n d c o m b i n e t h e m in t h e s e q u e n c e in
event, y o u can use slow o r fast dissolves. A very fast o n e
w h i c h t h e y were t a k e n ; rather, y o u have to go back to t h e
functions a l m o s t like a c u t a n d is therefore called a soft-
script a n d r e a r r a n g e t h e shots to fit the s t o r y l i n e . T h e story is literally built s h o t - b y - s h o t .
B25F>EDITING^
Functions^
select | combine | condense | correct | try it
cut. For an interesting a n d s m o o t h t r a n s i t i o n from a w i d e s h o t of a d a n c e r t o a close-up, for instance, simply dissolve from o n e c a m e r a to t h e other. W h e n y o u h o l d t h e dissolve in the m i d d l e , y o u will create a superimposition,
BASIC TRANSITION DEVICES W h e n e v e r you p u t t w o s h o t s together, y o u n e e d a
or super. A
slow dissolve will indicate a relatively l o n g passage of time; a fast dissolve, a s h o r t o n e . transi
Because dissolves are so readily available in N L E soft
tion—a device t h a t implies t h a t t h e t w o s h o t s are related.
ware, y o u m a y b e t e m p t e d to use t h e m m o r e often t h a n
T h e r e are four basic t r a n s i t i o n devices: (1) t h e cut, (2) t h e
necessary or even desirable. A dissolve will inevitably slow
dissolve, (3) t h e w i p e , a n d (4) t h e fade. In a d d i t i o n , t h e r e
d o w n t h e t r a n s i t i o n a n d , w i t h it, t h e scene. If dissolves are
a r e c o u n t l e s s special effects available t h a t c a n serve as
overused, t h e p r e s e n t a t i o n will lack precision a n d accent
t r a n s i t i o n s . E x a m p l e s are flips, p a g e t u r n s , or fly effects
a n d will b o r e t h e viewer.
(see c h a p t e r 14). A l t h o u g h t h e y all have t h e s a m e basic p u r p o s e — t o p r o v i d e an acceptable link b e t w e e n s h o t s —
WIPE
t h e y differ in function, t h a t is, h o w we are to perceive t h e
T h e r e is a great variety of wipes available, t h e simplest of
t r a n s i t i o n in a s h o t s e q u e n c e .
w h i c h is w h e n t h e base p i c t u r e is replaced by a n o t h e r o n e t h a t m o v e s c o n s p i c u o u s l y from o n e screen edge to the
CUT
other. O t h e r w i p e effects look as t h o u g h t h e t o p p i c t u r e is
T h e cut is an i n s t a n t a n e o u s c h a n g e from o n e i m a g e (shot)
peeled off a stack of o t h e r s , or a d i a m o n d e x p a n d i n g from
t o another. It is t h e m o s t c o m m o n a n d least obtrusive t r a n
t h e center of t h e t o p p i c t u r e gradually s h o w s the o n e u n
sition device, a s s u m i n g t h a t t h e p r e c e d i n g a n d following
d e r n e a t h . T h e w i p e is such an u n a b a s h e d t r a n s i t i o n device
shots s h o w s o m e continuity. T h e c u t itself is n o t visible; all
t h a t it is n o r m a l l y classified as a special effect.
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The wipe tells the viewers that they are definitely go A brief dip to black could reduce, or even eliminate, this ing to see s o m e t h i n g else, or it injects s o m e interest or fun
potentially funny or i n a p p r o p r i a t e m o n t a g e effect.
into t h e shot sequence. Wipes a n d o t h e r such effects are
T h a t said, d o n o t go to black t o o o f t e n — t h e p r o g r a m
especially magnified o n t h e large 1 6 x 9 H D T V screen. Like
c o n t i n u i t y will be i n t e r r u p t e d t o o m a n y times by fades t h a t
with a n y o t h e r special effect, y o u s h o u l d use discretion;
all suggest final e n d i n g s . T h e o t h e r e x t r e m e is t h e never-
o v e r u s e d or i n a p p r o p r i a t e w i p e s easily u p s t a g e t h e shots
g o - t o - b l a c k craze: s o m e directors d o n o t dare go to black
they are c o n n e c t i n g . ( T h e v a r i o u s wipes a n d special-effects
for fear of giving the viewer a c h a n c e to switch t o a n o t h e r
t r a n s i t i o n s are discussed in c h a p t e r 14.)
c h a n n e l . If a c o n s t a n t d r i b b l e of p r o g r a m m a t e r i a l is t h e only way to h o l d a viewer's attention, however, the p r o g r a m
FADE
content, rather than the presentation techniques, should
In a fade t h e p i c t u r e either goes gradually to black
(fade-
out)
black
or appears gradually on the screen from
(fade-in).
You use t h e fade to signal a definite b e g i n n i n g
b e e x a m i n e d . FjJHE^SWITCHING^ Transitions-* fade ] try it
(fade-in) or e n d (fade-out) of a scene. Like t h e c u r t a i n in
MAJOR EDITING PRINCIPLES
a theater, it defines the b e g i n n i n g or t h e e n d of a p o r t i o n
To give y o u r editing d i r e c t i o n a n d m a k e y o u r s e q u e n c i n g
of a screen event.
choices less arbitrary, y o u n e e d to k n o w t h e p u r p o s e of
As such, t h e fade is technically n o t a t r u e t r a n s i t i o n .
t h e s h o w a n d t h e specific c o n t e x t of t h e event y o u are t o
for a
re-create t h r o u g h editing. For e x a m p l e , t h e event c o n t e x t
quick fade to black followed immediately by a fade-in to t h e
for t h e five o u t - o f - o r d e r shots (clips) in figure 13.20 is a
next i m a g e . H e r e t h e fade acts as a t r a n s i t i o n device, deci
y o u n g w o m a n getting into her car to drive h o m e after work.
sively s e p a r a t i n g the p r e c e d i n g a n d following images from
SEE 13.20 Take a close l o o k at these five frames, r e p r e s e n t i n g
each other. T h e cross-fade is also called a dip to black.
t h e b e g i n n i n g s of brief shots r e c o r d e d o n t h e source t a p e .
S o m e directors a n d editors use t h e t e r m cross-fade
You are certainly familiar w i t h t h e u n f o r t u n a t e t e n d e n c y to cut directly from o n e c o m m e r c i a l to t h e o t h e r
H o w w o u l d y o u a r r a n g e t h e m so that they cut together well while effectively telling t h e story?
w i t h o u t c o n n e c t i n g t h e m w i t h s o m e t r a n s i t i o n device that
W i t h o u t p e e k i n g a h e a d , r e n u m b e r t h e s h o t s in t h e
would tell us w h e r e o n e c o m m e r c i a l e n d s a n d the o t h e r
o r d e r y o u w o u l d s e q u e n c e t h e m to tell t h e s t o r y of t h e
begins. Such j u x t a p o s i t i o n s can easily lead to e m b a r r a s s i n g
w o m a n getting i n t o t h e car a n d d r i v i n g off. N o w look at
m e a n i n g s , similar to a m o n t a g e effect i n film, w h e r e two
t h e t h r e e e d i t e d versions, SEE
adjoining images are i n t e n d e d t o create special m e a n i n g s .
y o u t h i n k is t h e best c o m b i n a t i o n of shots.
Shot 1—car in motion
13.20
Identify t h e o n e
Shot 3
Shot 2
Shot 4—backing up
13.21-13.23
Shot 5
SOURCE TAPE SHOT SEQUENCE
The event context for these shots is a woman getting into a car to drive home after work. This sequence is as it appears on the source tape.
Section
13.21
Making
13.2
Editing
Decisions
EDITING SEQUENCE 1
Evaluate this sequence to determine whether the shots are ordered to pro vide event continuity.
13.22
EDITING SEQUENCE 2
Evaluate this sequence to determine whether the shots are ordered to pro vide event continuity.
13.23
EDITING SEQUENCE 3
Evaluate this sequence to determine whether the shots are ordered to pro vide event continuity.
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If y o u selected s e q u e n c e 3, you m a d e t h e right choice.
POSTPRODUCTION
actually
missing, and t o assemble t h e shots
EDITING
in
such a way
Here's why: Obviously, t h e driver n e e d s t o walk to t h e car
t h a t viewers are largely u n a w a r e of t h e edits. Specifically,
(shot 3) a n d u n l o c k t h e d o o r (shot 2) before fastening t h e
y o u n e e d t o o b s e r v e t h e s e aesthetic factors: (1) subject
seat belt (shot 5 ) . T h e n e x t action is t o b a c k t h e car o u t
identification, (2) t h e m e n t a l m a p , (3) vectors, (4) m o v e
(shot 4 ) . Finally, we see t h e car d r i v i n g off (shot 1).
m e n t , (5) color, a n d (6) s o u n d .
N o n l i n e a r editing is n o t unlike t h e p r e c e d i n g exercise: to s u p p l y s t r u c t u r e to a n u m b e r of shots, initially repre
Subject identification
sented as i n d i v i d u a l stills, w h i c h y o u t h e n r u n as clips. You
to recognize a subject o r a n object from o n e s h o t t o t h e
T h e v i e w e r s h o u l d be able
p r o b a b l y n o t i c e d that this is t h e exact o p p o s i t e of linear
next. Therefore, avoid editing b e t w e e n shots of extreme
editing, w h e r e y o u start o u t w i t h r u n n i n g sequences a n d
changes in distance, SEE 13.24
t h e n freeze p a r t i c u l a r frames t h a t m a r k t h e edit p o i n t s .
c o n t i n u i t y for identification, b r i d g e t h e g a p by telling t h e
This shot selection was based primarily o n story continuity. Equally i m p o r t a n t aspects of editing c o n c e r n
If y o u c a n n o t m a i n t a i n visual
viewer t h a t t h e shot is, i n d e e d , t h e s a m e p e r s o n o r t h i n g . Mmt»EDITING-> Continuity^ subject ID
c o m p l e x i t y e d i t i n g a n d p r e s e r v i n g context. You s h o u l d
Despite w h a t was just n o t e d , t r y i n g to edit t o g e t h e r
realize t h a t all e d i t i n g p r i n c i p l e s — i n c l u d i n g a e s t h e t i c
s h o t s t h a t are t o o similar c a n lead to even w o r s e t r o u
ones—are conventions a n d n o t absolutes. They work
b l e — t h e jump
well u n d e r m o s t c i r c u m s t a n c e s a n d are a basic p a r t of t h e
are identical i n subject yet slightly different in screen l o
cut. T h i s occurs w h e n y o u edit shots that
visual literacy o f m o s t television viewers a n d p r o d u c t i o n
cation; t h e subject seems to jerk from o n e screen l o c a t i o n
p e r s o n n e l . D e p e n d i n g o n t h e event c o n t e x t a n d t h e c o m
to a n o t h e r as if p u s h e d b y a n u n s e e n force, SEE 13.25 To
m u n i c a t i o n a i m , s o m e of t h e "do's" of editing m a y easily
avoid a j u m p c u t , t r y t o find a succeeding shot t h a t shows
b e c o m e t h e " d o n ' t s " a n d vice versa.
t h e object from a different angle o r field o f view, o r insert a cutaway shot, SEE 13.26
CONTINUITY EDITING Continuity
editing refers to t h e a c h i e v e m e n t of s t o r y c o n
t i n u i t y despite t h e fact t h a t great c h u n k s of t h e s t o r y are
13.24
Mental map
Because television has a relatively small
screen, w e n o r m a l l y see little o f a total scene in t h e o n -
EXTREME CHANGES IN DISTANCE
When you cut from an extreme long shot to a tight close-up, viewers may not recognize exactly whose close-up it is.
13.25
JUMP CUT
If the size, screen position, or shooting angle of an object is only slightly differ ent in two succeeding shots, the object seems to jump within the screen.
Section
13.26
13.2
Making
Editing
Decisions
313
CUTAWAY
You can avoid a jump cut by changing image size and/or angle of view or by separating the two shots with a cutaway, as shown here.
screen space. Rather, the m a n y close-ups suggest, or s h o u l d
viewer c o n s t r u c t a mental
suggest, t h a t t h e event c o n t i n u e s in the off-screen space.
in a logical place regardless of w h e t h e r t h e y are in o n - or
map t h a t p u t s people a n d things
W h a t y o u s h o w in t h e o n - s c r e e n space defines t h e off
off-screen space. O n c e t h e m a p is in place, t h e viewer ex
screen space as well. For e x a m p l e , if y o u s h o w p e r s o n A
pects t h e s u b s e q u e n t screen p o s i t i o n s to a d h e r e to it.
l o o k i n g s c r e e n - r i g h t in a close-up, o b v i o u s l y talking to an
T h e m e n t a l m a p is so s t r o n g that if t h e s u b s e q u e n t
off-screen p e r s o n (B), t h e viewer w o u l d expect p e r s o n B to
shot s h o w e d p e r s o n B also looking screen-right, the viewer
look screen-left o n a s u b s e q u e n t close-up. SEE 13.27 AND
w o u l d t h i n k t h a t b o t h p e r s o n s A a n d B are talking to a
13.28
W h a t y o u have d o n e — q u i t e u n c o n s c i o u s l y — i s h e l p t h e
13.27
t h i r d party.
MENTAL MAP SHOT 1
Here person A's screen-right gaze (his index vector) suggests that person B must be located in the off-screen space to the right.
13.28
MENTAL MAP SHOT 2
When we now see person B in a close-up looking screen-left, we assume person A to be in the left off-screen space.
314
Chapter
13.29
13
POSTPRODUCTION
EDITING
MAINTAINING SCREEN POSITIONS IN REVERSE-ANGLE SHOOTING
In this over-the-shoulder reverse-angle shot sequence, the interviewer and the interviewee maintain their basic screen positions.
map,
To help you facilitate a n d m a i n t a i n t h e viewer's m e n t a l y o u need t o k n o w s o m e t h i n g m o r e a b o u t vectors.
C o n t i n u i t y editing is little m o r e t h a n using graphic, index, a n d m o t i o n vectors in t h e source m a t e rial t o establish o r m a i n t a i n t h e viewer's m e n t a l m a p . If you were t o a p p l y t h e vectors t o t h e e x a m p l e of o n - s c r e e n p e r s o n A talking t o off-screen p e r s o n B, t h e screen-right i n d e x vector o f A n e e d s t o b e edited t o t h e screen-left index vector of B. A l t h o u g h t h e index vectors of t h e t w o p e r s o n s are converging in off-screen space, t h e y indicate t h a t A a n d B are talking with each o t h e r rather t h a n away from each other. M a i n t a i n i n g screen p o s i t i o n s is especially i m p o r t a n t in o v e r - t h e - s h o u l d e r shots. If, for e x a m p l e , y o u s h o w a r e p o r t e r interviewing s o m e b o d y in a n o v e r - t h e - s h o u l d e r t w o - s h o t , the viewer's m e n t a l m a p expects t h e t w o people to r e m a i n in their relative screen p o s i t i o n s a n d n o t switch places d u r i n g a reverse-angle shot, SEE 13.29 O n e i m p o r t a n t aid in m a i n t a i n i n g t h e viewer's m e n t a l m a p a n d keeping t h e subjects i n t h e expected screen space in reverse-angle s h o o t i n g is t h e vector line. T h e vector line (also called t h e line, t h e line of conversation and action, o r t h e hundredeighty) is a n extension of converging i n d e x vectors or of a m o t i o n vector i n t h e direction of object travel, SEE 13.30 W h e n d o i n g reverse-angle switching from c a m e r a 1 to c a m e r a 2, y o u need t o position t h e c a m e r a s o n t h e s a m e side o f t h e vector line, SEE 13.31 Crossing t h e line with o n e of the two cameras will switch t h e subjects' screen positions a n d m a k e t h e m a p p e a r t o be playing m u s i c a l chairs, t h u s upsetting the m e n t a l m a p . SEE 13.32
13.30
VECTOR LINE
The vector line is formed by extending converging index vec tors or a motion vector.
Crossing t h e m o t i o n vector line w i t h cameras (placing c a m e r a s o n o p p o s i t e sides of a m o v i n g object) will reverse the direction o f object m o t i o n every t i m e you cut. You will also see t h e o p p o s i t e c a m e r a in t h e b a c k g r o u n d , SEE 13.33 To c o n t i n u e a screen-left o r screen-right object m o t i o n , y o u m u s t keep b o t h c a m e r a s o n the s a m e side of t h e vector line. E£J5E>EDrriNG-» Continuity-* mental map | try it W h e n editing, o r c u t t i n g a n action w i t h a switcher, t r y t o c o n t i n u e t h e action as m u c h as possible from shot t o shot. T h e following discussion covers s o m e of t h e major p o i n t s t o keep in m i n d . To preserve m o t i o n continuity, cut duringihe m o t i o n of t h e subject, n o t before o r after it. F o r e x a m p l e , if y o u have a close-up of a m a n p r e p a r i n g to rise from a chair, c u t to a w i d e r s h o t just after h e has started to rise b u t before
Section
13.2
Making
Editing
315
Decisions
1 3 . 3 1 VECTOR LINE AND PROPER CAMERA POSITIONS To maintain the screen posi tions of persons A and B in over-the-shoulder shooting, the cameras must be on the same side of the vector line.
1 3 . 3 2 CROSSING THE VECTOR LINE When one of the cameras crosses the vector line, per sons A and B will switch positions every time you cut between the two cameras.
316
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EDITING
13.33 CROSSING THE MOTION VECTOR LINE When crossing the motion vector line with cameras, the object motion will be reversed in each shot.
h e finishes the m o v e m e n t . Or, if y o u have t h e choice, y o u
W h e n w o r k i n g w i t h f o o t a g e in w h i c h t h e a c t i o n
can let h i m a l m o s t finish the a c t i o n o n t h e c l o s e - u p (even
has b e e n shot from b o t h sides of t h e m o t i o n vector line
if h e goes o u t of t h e frame t e m p o r a r i l y ) before c u t t i n g to
(resulting in a reversal of screen d i r e c t i o n s ) , y o u m u s t
t h e w i d e r shot. But d o n o t wait until h e h a s finished get-
separate t h e t w o shots w i t h a cutaway o r a h e a d - o n s h o t
ting u p before going to the w i d e r shot.
so t h a t t h e reversed screen direction c a n b e perceived as
Wl%[•">EDITING-*
Continuity-* cutting on motion
c o n t i n u i n g , SEE
13.34
If o n e s h o t c o n t a i n s a m o v i n g object, d o n o t follow it
O n e of t h e m o s t s e r i o u s c o n t i n u i t y p r o b l e m s
with a shot t h a t shows t h e object stationary. Similarly, if
o c c u r s w h e n colors in the s a m e scene d o n ' t m a t c h . For
you follow a m o v i n g object in o n e shot w i t h a c a m e r a p a n ,
e x a m p l e , if t h e script for an EFP calls for a n exterior M S
d o n o t c u t to a s t a t i o n a r y c a m e r a in the next shot. Equally
( m e d i u m s h o t ) of a w h i t e b u i l d i n g followed b y a n M S
j a r r i n g w o u l d b e a cut from a s t a t i o n a r y object to a m o v i n g
of s o m e b o d y walking t o t h e front of t h e s a m e b u i l d i n g ,
one.
it s h o u l d n o t s u d d e n l y t u r n b l u e . As o b v i o u s as such a
You n e e d t o have t h e subject or c a m e r a m o v e in b o t h
t h e p r e c e d i n g a n d t h e s u b s e q u e n t shots.
13.34
discrepancy m a y be, color c o n t i n u i t y is n o t always easy
CUTAWAY
If you want to suggest continuing motion of two shots that show the objects converging, you need to insert a cutaway that has a neutral screen direction.
Section
13.2
Making
Editing
Decisions
317
t o m a i n t a i n , even if y o u are careful to w h i t e - b a l a n c e t h e
casual o r flowing, dissolves are usually m o r e a p p r o p r i a t e
cameras for each n e w location a n d lighting situation. W h a t
t h a n h a r d cuts. B u t d o n o t be a slave to this c o n v e n t i o n .
c a n t h r o w y o u off are lighting c h a n g e s y o u m a y n o t n o t i c e
C u t t i n g " a r o u n d t h e b e a t " (slightly earlier or later t h a n
in t h e fervor of p r o d u c t i o n . For e x a m p l e , t h e t e m p o r a r y
t h e beat) o n occasion can m a k e t h e c u t t i n g r h y t h m less
b l o c k i n g of t h e s u n by s o m e clouds can drastically influ
m e c h a n i c a l a n d intensify t h e scene.
ence the color t e m p e r a t u r e , as can t h e highly p o l i s h e d red p a i n t of a car reflecting o n t o t h e white shirt of a p e r s o n s t a n d i n g next t o it.
COMPLEXITY EDITING Complexity
editing is a deliberate break w i t h editing con
T h e m o r e a t t e n t i o n y o u pay t o w h i t e - b a l a n c i n g the
ventions to increase the complexity a n d intensity of a scene.
c a m e r a to the prevailing color t e m p e r a t u r e of the lighting,
Your selection a n d s e q u e n c i n g of shots is g u i d e d n o longer
t h e easier it is t o m a i n t a i n color c o n t i n u i t y in p o s t p r o d u c
by t h e n e e d to m a i n t a i n visual a n d aural c o n t i n u i t y b u t by
t i o n . As m e n t i o n e d before, any t y p e of color c o r r e c t i o n in
ways of getting a n d keeping t h e viewers' a t t e n t i o n a n d in
p o s t p r o d u c t i o n is difficult a n d t i m e - c o n s u m i n g .
creasing their e m o t i o n a l involvement. C o m p l e x i t y editing does n o t m e a n t h a t y o u s h o u l d flaunt t h e rules of c o n t i n u
W h e n editing dialogue or c o m m e n t a r y , take extra care to preserve t h e general r h y t h m of the speech.
ity editing b u t r a t h e r that y o u m a y deliberately break s o m e of t h e m to intensify y o u r c o m m u n i c a t i o n i n t e n t .
T h e pauses b e t w e e n shots of a c o n t i n u i n g c o n v e r s a t i o n
M a n y c o m m e r c i a l s use c o m p l e x i t y editing to m a k e
should be neither m u c h shorter n o r m u c h longer than
us sit u p a n d take n o t i c e . Even t h e j u m p cut h a s gained
t h e o n e s in t h e u n e d i t e d version. In a n i n t e r v i e w t h e c u t
p r o m i n e n c e as a n aesthetic intensifier. You have u n d o u b t
(edit or switcher-activated) usually occurs at t h e e n d of a
edly seen t h e erratic editing that makes a p e r s o n j u m p from
q u e s t i o n or an answer. Reaction shots, however, are often
o n e screen location to the next, even w h e n h e is only talking
s m o o t h e r w h e n t h e y o c c u r d u r i n g , r a t h e r t h a n at t h e e n d
a b o u t t h e v i r t u e s of a credit card. M u c h of m u s i c televi
of, p h r a s e s or sentences. But n o t e t h a t action is generally a
sion ( M T V ) editing is based o n t h e c o m p l e x i t y principle.
s t r o n g e r m o t i v a t i o n for a c u t t h a n dialogue. If s o m e b o d y
A l t h o u g h h a r d l y necessary, t h e j a r r i n g d i s c o n t i n u i t y of
m o v e s d u r i n g the conversation, y o u m u s t cut o n t h e m o v e ,
s h o t s further intensifies t h e high e n e r g y of t h e m u s i c .
even if t h e o t h e r p e r s o n is still in t h e m i d d l e of a s t a t e m e n t . E J H S ^ E D I T I N G - * Continuity^ sound
C o m p l e x i t y e d i t i n g is also an effective intensification device in television plays. For e x a m p l e , t o c a p t u r e t h e
As discussed in c h a p t e r 10, a m b i e n t ( b a c k g r o u n d )
e x t r e m e confusion of a p e r s o n driven to the p o i n t of a
s o u n d s are very i m p o r t a n t in m a i n t a i n i n g editing c o n t i n u
b r e a k d o w n , y o u m a y w a n t to cross t h e vector line with t h e
ity. If the b a c k g r o u n d noise acts as e n v i r o n m e n t a l s o u n d s ,
c a m e r a s to s h o w t h e p e r s o n in a q u i c k series of flip-flop
w h i c h give clues to w h e r e t h e event takes place, y o u n e e d
S h o t s . SEE 13.35
to m a i n t a i n these s o u n d s t h r o u g h o u t t h e scene, even if it was built from shots actually t a k e n from different angles
CONTEXT
a n d at different times. You m a y have to supply this c o n t i n u
E N Q w In all types of editing, b u t especially w h e n editing
ity b y m i x i n g in a d d i t i o n a l s o u n d s in t h e p o s t p r o d u c t i o n
E FP
sweetening sessions.
t h e t r u e context in w h i c h t h e m a i n event t o o k place. As
W h e n editing video to m u s i c , t r y to cut w i t h t h e beat.
news stories a n d d o c u m e n t a r i e s , y o u m u s t preserve
s u m e t h a t t h e n e w s footage of a speech by a local political
C u t s d e t e r m i n e t h e beat of the visual s e q u e n c e a n d keep
c a n d i d a t e c o n t a i n s a funny c l o s e - u p of an a u d i e n c e m e m
t h e a c t i o n r h y t h m i c a l l y tight, m u c h as t h e bars m e a s u r e
b e r s o u n d asleep. But w h e n y o u screen t h e rest of t h e foot
divisions in m u s i c . If t h e general r h y t h m of t h e m u s i c is
age, y o u discover t h a t all t h e o t h e r a u d i e n c e m e m b e r s were
13.35
COMPLEXITY EDITING
Here the shooting from both sides of the vector line creates a disturbing flip-flop, intensifying the subject's confusion.
318
Chapter
13
not only wide awake but quite stimulated by the candidate's r e m a r k s . Are y o u going t o use t h e close-up? Of course not. T h e p e r s o n asleep was in n o way representative of t h e over all context in w h i c h t h e e v e n t — t h e s p e e c h — t o o k place. You m u s t be especially careful w h e n using stock shots in editing. A stock shot depicts a c o m m o n o c c u r r e n c e — clouds, beach scenes, s n o w falling, traffic, c r o w d s — t h a t can be applied in a variety of contexts because its qualities are typical. S o m e television stations either subscribe to a stock-shot library or m a i n t a i n their o w n collections. H e r e are t w o examples of using stock shots in editing: W h e n editing t h e speech by t h e political c a n d i d a t e , y o u find t h a t you n e e d a cutaway to m a i n t a i n c o n t i n u i t y d u r ing a change in screen direction. You have a stock shot of a news p h o t o g r a p h e r . C a n you use it? Yes, because a news p h o t o g r a p h e r certainly fits into the actual event context. But s h o u l d y o u use a stock s h o t of t h e a u d i e n c e happily clapping after t h e c a n d i d a t e reads t h e g r i m statistics of Labor Day traffic accidents, just to preserve visual c o n t i n u ity? Definitely not. T h e smiling faces of t h e a u d i e n c e are certainly o u t of place in this context.
ETHICS Because as e d i t o r y o u have even m o r e p o w e r t h a n t h e c a m e r a p e r s o n over w h a t a n d w h a t n o t t o s h o w a n d to construct different m e a n i n g s of the basic event footage, this section ends with a brief discussion of ethics, or principles of right c o n d u c t . T h e willful d i s t o r t i o n of an event t h r o u g h editing is n o t a case of p o o r aesthetic j u d g m e n t b u t a q u e s t i o n of ethics. T h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t p r i n c i p l e for t h e editor, as for all p r o d u c t i o n people w o r k i n g w i t h t h e p r e s e n t a t i o n of nonfictional events (news a n d d o c u m e n t a r i e s r a t h e r t h a n d r a m a ) , is to r e m a i n as t r u e to t h e actual event as possible. For example, if you were to a d d applause simply because y o u r favorite political c a n d i d a t e said s o m e t h i n g y o u h a p p e n t o s u p p o r t , a l t h o u g h in reality there was d e a d silence, you w o u l d definitely be acting unethically. It w o u l d b e
POSTPRODUCTION
EDITING
equally wrong t o edit out all the s t a t e m e n t s t h a t go against y o u r convictions a n d leave o n l y t h e o n e s w i t h w h i c h you agree. If s o m e o n e presents p r o a n d con a r g u m e n t s , be sure to p r e s e n t t h e m o s t representative of each. D o n o t edit o u t all of o n e side or the o t h e r to m e e t t h e p r e s c r i b e d length of t h e segment. Be especially careful w h e n j u x t a p o s i n g two shots t h a t m a y generate b y i m p l i c a t i o n a t h i r d idea n o t c o n t a i n e d in either of t h e t w o shots. To follow a politician's plea for i n creased a r m a m e n t s w i t h t h e explosion of an a t o m i c b o m b m a y unfairly i m p l y t h a t this politician favors n u c l e a r war. These types of m o n t a g e shots are as powerful as they are d a n g e r o u s . M o n t a g e effects b e t w e e n v i d e o a n d a u d i o i n f o r m a t i o n are especially effective; they m a y be m o r e subtle t h a n t h e v i d e o - o n l y m o n t a g e s b u t are n o less p o t e n t . For example, a d d i n g t h e p e n e t r a t i n g a n d aggravating s o u n d s of police sirens to t h e footage of "for sale" signs of several h o u s e s in a wealthy n e i g h b o r h o o d w o u l d p r o b a b l y sug gest t h a t t h e n e i g h b o r h o o d is c h a n g i n g for t h e worse. T h e implied message is t o n o t b u y any h o u s e s in this " c r i m e ridden" neighborhood. D o n o t stage events just t o get exciting footage. For e x a m p l e , if a police officer has m a d e a successful rescue a n d all you got was t h e rescued p e r s o n o n a stretcher, d o n o t ask t h e officer to r e t u r n t o the scene of t h e accident to s i m u l a t e t h e d a r i n g feat. A l t h o u g h r e e n a c t m e n t s of this sort have b e c o m e r o u t i n e for s o m e E N G teams, stay away from t h e m . T h e r e is e n o u g h d r a m a in all events if you look closely e n o u g h a n d take effective pictures. You d o n o t have to stage anything. Finally, y o u are ultimately responsible to t h e viewers for y o u r choices as an editor. D o n o t violate the trust t h e y p u t in you. As you can see, t h e r e is a fine line b e t w e e n in tensifying an event t h r o u g h careful editing practices a n d d i s t o r t i n g an event t h r o u g h careless o r u n e t h i c a l o n e s . T h e o n l y safeguard t h e viewers have against irresponsible p e r s u a s i o n a n d m a n i p u l a t i o n is y o u r responsibility as a professional c o m m u n i c a t o r a n d y o u r basic respect for y o u r audience.
Section
•
•
13.2
The four basic editing functions are: (1) to combine—to hook various videotaped pieces together pretty much in the sequence in which they were videotaped; (2) to shorten—to make the program fit a given time slot and to eliminate extraneous material; (3) to correct—to cut out bad portions of a scene and replace them with good ones; and (4) to build—to select and sequence shots that will advance a specific story. There are four basic transition devices: (1) the cut—an instantaneous change from one shot to another; (2) the dissolve—a temporary overlapping of two shots; (3) the wipe—having one image gradually replace another in various ways; and (4) the fade—having the picture gradually appear from black or go to black.
Making
Editing
319
Decisions
For your reference, or to track your work, each VideoLab program cue in this chapter is listed here with its corresponding page number. EDITING-* Editing introduction
284
EDITING-* Linear editing-} system
290
EDITING-* Postproduction guidelines-* tape basics 292 EDITING-* Postproduction guidelines-* time code 293 EDITINGS Nonlinear editings system EDITINGS Production guidelines-* pickup
•
There is a great variety of special effects that also can be used for transitions.
•
The three major editing principles are continuity, complexity, and maintaining context.
300
EDITING-* Production guidelines-* cutaways
300
EDITING-* Postproduction guidelines-*
•
•
•
•
Continuity editing means to establish continuity in subject identification, subject placement, movement, color, and sound. It should facilitate the viewer's mental map of where things are or should be or where they should move. Graphic, index, and motion vectors are pictorial forces that play an important part in establishing and maintaining continuity from shot to shot. Complexity editing is a deliberate break with editing conventions to increase the complexity and intensity of a scene. In editing nonfiction, ethics becomes the overriding editing principle.
VTR log
303
EDITING-} Continuity^ vectors EDITING-} Continuity-} quiz
303 304
EDITING-* Linear editing-* paper edit
304
EDITING-} Functions-* select | combine | condense | correct | try it 309 SWITCHINGS Transitions^ fade | try it EDITING-* Continuity-* subject ID
310 312
EDITINGS Continuity-* mental map | try it
314
EDITING-* Continuity-* cutting on motion
316
EDITING-} Continuity^ sound
317
Effects Even n e w s presentations are so loaded with video special effects that they often rival, if not surpass, the latest v i d e o games. Titles d a n c e across the screen, c h a n g e color, a n d z o o m in a n d out. N e w s anchors, field reporters, and guests are squeezed into side-byside boxes w h e n talking to o n e another. The brief stories that introduce the latest trou bles in this world often e n d in a freeze-frame a n d t h e n peel off the screen and t u m b l e out of sight to make room for the next batch of maladies.
The screen is often loaded with simultaneous information. W h i l e the anchor's c o m m e n t s a b o u t a tragic traffic accident are a c c o m p a n i e d by graphic v i d e o footage, the stock market quotes crawl across the b o t t o m of t h e screen, a n d the side panel reveals the latest sports scores a n d weather. T h r o u g h o u t it all, t h e station or network logo is solidly e m b e d d e d in a corner.
S u c h electronic wizardry is so readily available that it may t e m p t you to substitute effect for content. Do not fall into the trap of camouflaging insignificant content or poorly shot or edited pictures with electronic effects. As dazzling as the effects may be, they c a n n o t replace t h e basic message. W h e n used judiciously, however, many effects can e n h a n c e production considerably a n d give t h e message a d d e d impact.
W h e n e v e r you intend to use a visual effect, ask yourself: Is it really necessary? clarify and intensify
my message?
Is it appropriate?
Does it help
For example, a freeze-frame showing
t h e n e w tennis c h a m p i o n lifting her trophy in triumph is a perfectly appropriate closing shot; to apply t h e same technique to a victim of a terrorist b o m b i n g is not. If y o u can answer yes to these three basic questions, leave the effect in. If you answer no or even m a y b e to any of t h e m , leave it out.
In section 14.1, Electronic Effects a n d H o w to Use T h e m , w e examine standard electronic effects a n d digital video effects; section 14.2, Nonelectronic Effects a n d H o w to Use T h e m , looks at s o m e of t h e more practical optical a n d mechanical effects.
chroma keying Effect that uses color (usually blue or green) for the backdrop, which is replaced by the background image during a key.
key An electronic effect. Keying means cutting with an elec tronic signal one image (usually lettering) into a different background image.
computer-manipulated DVE Digital video effects created by a computer using an existing image (camera-generated video sequence, video frame, photo, or painting) and en hancing or changing it in some way.
matte key Keyed (electronically cut in) title whose letters are filled with shades of gray or a specific color.
defocus Simple yet highly effective optical effect wherein the camera operator zooms in, racks out of focus, and, on cue, back into focus again. Used as a transitional device or to indicate strong psychological disturbances or physiological imbalance. diffusion filter Filter that attaches to the front of the lens; gives a scene a soft, slightly out-of-focus look. digital video effects (DVE) Visual effects generated by a com puter or digital effects equipment in the switcher.
special-effects generator (SEG) An image generator built into the switcher that produces special-effects wipe patterns and key effects. star filter Filter that attaches to the front of the lens; changes prominent light sources into starlike light beams. super Short for superimposition. A double exposure of two images, with the top one letting the bottom one show through. wipe Transition in which a second image, framed in some geometric shape, gradually replaces all or part of the first image.
gobo In television, a scenic foreground piece through which the camera can shoot, thus integrating the decorative foreground with the background action. In film a gobo is an opaque shield used for partially blocking a light, or the metal cutout that projects a pattern on a flat surface.
321
14.1
SUPERIMPOSITION A superimposition,
or super for s h o r t , is a form of d o u b l e
e x p o s u r e . T h e p i c t u r e f r o m o n e v i d e o s o u r c e is elec tronically s u p e r i m p o s e d over t h e p i c t u r e from a n o t h e r . As explained in c h a p t e r 11, t h e s u p e r is easily achieved by activating b o t h m i x b u s e s w i t h t h e fader b a r (see
figure
11.9b). A distinct characteristic of a s u p e r is t h a t y o u can
Electronic Effects and
see t h r o u g h t h e s u p e r i m p o s e d i m a g e to t h e o n e that lies b e n e a t h it. You can t h e n v a r y t h e s t r e n g t h of either p i c t u r e
How to Use Them
(signal) b y m o v i n g t h e fader b a r t o w a r d o n e m i x b u s o r t h e other. I n case y o u c a n n o t key a title over a b a c k g r o u n d image, y o u c a n still use a super for the title effect. W h e n " s u p e r i n g " titles, o n e c a m e r a is focused o n t h e s u p e r card, w h i c h has white letters o n a black b a c k g r o u n d . T h e b a c k g r o u n d pic t u r e c a n be supplied b y either a n o t h e r c a m e r a (focused o n a live event, s u c h as a l o n g shot of a s p o r t s s t a d i u m ) or any o t h e r v i d e o source. Because t h e black card does n o t reflect any light, or o n l y an insignificant a m o u n t , it will r e m a i n invisible d u r i n g t h e m i x i n g of t h e t w o v i d e o sources. M o r e often supers are u s e d for creating t h e effects of i n n e r e v e n t s — t h o u g h t s , d r e a m s , o r processes of i m a g i n a t i o n . T h e t r a d i t i o n a l (albeit overused) s u p e r of a d r e a m
A judicious use of visual effects p r e s u p p o s e s that y o u k n o w
s e q u e n c e shows a c l o s e - u p of a sleeping p e r s o n , with i m
which effects are available. S o m e effects c a n b e readily cre
ages s u p e r i m p o s e d over his or h e r face. S o m e t i m e s supers
ated d u r i n g a p r o d u c t i o n , s u c h as title keys a n d v a r i o u s
are u s e d to m a k e an event m o r e c o m p l e x . For e x a m p l e ,
wipes; o t h e r s n e e d to b e built w i t h digital e q u i p m e n t in
y o u m a y w a n t to s u p e r a c l o s e - u p of a d a n c e r over a l o n g
t h e p r e - or p o s t p r o d u c t i o n p h a s e . This section discusses
shot of t h e s a m e dancer. If t h e effect is d o n e properly, w e
t h e t w o m a j o r t y p e s of visual effects.
are given n e w insight i n t o t h e d a n c e . You are n o l o n g e r p h o t o g r a p h i n g a dance b u t helping create it. M'i ^ S W I T C H
P-
STANDARD ANALOG VIDEO EFFECTS
ING-* Transitions-* mix/dissolve
Superimposition, key, chroma key, and wipe
fc-
DIGITAL VIDEO EFFECTS
KEY
Computer-manipulated effects; manipulation of image size, shape, light, and color; manipulation of motion; and manipu lation of multi-images.
Keying means using an electronic signal t o cut o u t p o r t i o n s of a television picture a n d fill t h e m in with various colors or p o r t i o n s of a n o t h e r image. T h e basic p u r p o s e of a key is to a d d titles to a b a c k g r o u n d picture or to cut a n o t h e r picture (the i m a g e of a weathercaster) into t h e b a c k g r o u n d p i c
STANDARD ANALOG VIDEO EFFECTS
t u r e ( t h e satellite w e a t h e r m a p ) . T h e lettering for t h e title
T h e special-effects
is generally s u p p l i e d b y a C.G. (character
generator
(SEG) is built into all p r o d u c
generator)
(see
t i o n switchers. It can p r o d u c e a dazzling variety of special
c h a p t e r 15). You can also use a title card for keying titles.
effects reliably a n d w i t h ease. M a n y electronic effects have
T h e card l o o k s exactly like t h e s u p e r card (white letters o n
b e c o m e so c o m m o n p l a c e in television p r o d u c t i o n t h a t they
a black b a c k g r o u n d ) , b u t in a key t h e letters are electroni
have lost their specialty status a n d are s i m p l y c o n s i d e r e d
cally cut i n t o t h e base p i c t u r e a n d t h e n filled w i t h a w h i t e
p a r t of t h e s t a n d a r d visual arsenal. T h e s e i n c l u d e (1) t h e
or color signal, SEE 14.1 FCTf»SW[TCHING-» Effects^ keys
s u p e r i m p o s i t i o n , (2) t h e key, (3) t h e c h r o m a key, a n d
You m a y b e s o m e w h a t bewildered h e a r i n g a b o u t keys,
(4) t h e wipe. You can a c c o m p l i s h all of these effects w i t h
m a t t e s , a n d m a t t e keys—all seemingly referring to the s a m e
the s t a n d a r d analog switcher a n d its b u i l t - i n SEG.
t h i n g . It really doesn't m a t t e r w h a t t e r m y o u use, so l o n g
322
Section
14.1
Electronic
Effects
and
How
to Use
323
Them
as y o u are consistent a n d all m e m b e r s of t h e p r o d u c t i o n t e a m k n o w w h a t y o u m e a n . T h e r e are basically t h r e e types of keys: (1) the internal key, (2) the external key, a n d (3) t h e m a t t e key. Because c h r o m a keying w o r k s o n a different principle, we discuss it separately later in this section. Internal key
T h e internal
key uses t w o s i g n a l s — o n e
supplies t h e b a c k g r o u n d p i c t u r e , a n d t h e o t h e r supplies t h e o u t l i n e for " c u t t i n g " ( t h e letters). T h e signal t h a t is d o i n g the c u t t i n g is also u s e d to fill t h e holes (in t h e f o r m of t h e letters), SEE 14.2 To achieve a clean key, in w h i c h t h e letters are cut i n t o t h e base p i c t u r e w i t h o u t any t e a r i n g or b r e a k u p , y o u
1 4 . 1 KEY
m a y have to first adjust t h e key-level
When keying a title over a base picture, the key signal cuts a hole into the base picture in the shape of the letters supplied by the C G .
(or clip) control a n d
t h e gain control (see c h a p t e r 11). O n o u r Grass Valley 100 switcher, t h e gain c o n t r o l is right above t h e clip c o n t r o l in t h e key c o n t r o l section (see figure 11.4). T h e clip c o n t r o l , o r clipper, adjusts t h e o p t i m a l l u m i n a n c e (brightness) level for t h e key signal, a n d the gain c o n t r o l adjusts t h e signal strength. B o t h have a n o p t i m a l setting for a clean, tear-free key. You c a n preset t h e key effect a n d t h e n w a t c h the p r e view m o n i t o r to check that t h e key shows u p a n d w h e t h e r t h e letters are t e a r i n g or o t h e r w i s e displaying fuzzy edges. Simply t u r n t h e clipper k n o b until t h e letters a p p e a r s h a r p . If this m a n e u v e r d o e s n o t fix t h e p r o b l e m , adjust t h e gain c o n t r o l . O n m a n y switchers with downstream
keyers, y o u
c a n p u s h d o w n t h e key-level c o n t r o l to display t h e total key effect o n t h e p r e v i e w m o n i t o r . You can, of course, also key shapes of objects i n t o t h e base p i c t u r e so l o n g as t h e y have e n o u g h c o n t r a s t relative t o t h e base picture t h a t t h e i r edges d o n o t tear. External key
T h e external
key uses t h r e e signals: t h e
Background signal (base picture)
b a c k g r o u n d signal, t h e h o l e - c u t t i n g signal, a n d a t h i r d
Key signal cuts hole and fills it
signal, often called t h e f o r e g r o u n d signal, w h i c h is filling t h e hole. This t h i r d video source c a n b e colors f r o m the C.G., a V T R ( v i d e o t a p e r e c o r d e r ) , o r even a second c a m era ( a s s u m i n g t h e b a c k g r o u n d v i d e o is also supplied by a c a m e r a ) . For e x a m p l e , if y o u w a n t to key t h e character-
1 4 . 2 INTERNAL KEY In an internal key, the signal that is doing the cutting is also used to fill in the hole.
g e n e r a t e d letter L over a dancer, a n d y o u w a n t to fill t h e L with b u r l a p to give it s o m e texture, y o u could have a second c a m e r a focus o n a piece of b u r l a p a n d t h e n c o m b i n e t h e effect t h r o u g h external keying so t h a t t h e letter a p p e a r s as
o r e m b e l l i s h e d w i t h c o n t o u r s o r s h a d o w s , it is a
t h o u g h it were cut o u t of b u r l a p , SEE 14.3 You could also
key.
matte
SEE 14.4 You c a n select any of t h e p o p u l a r m a t t e key
fill t h e letter, or a n y o t h e r base p i c t u r e c u t o u t , w i t h a n
m o d e s : t h e edge m o d e , t h e d r o p - s h a d o w m o d e , o r t h e
a n i m a t e d scene.
outline mode. In t h e edge mode, each letter h a s a t h i n , black o u t l i n e
If t h e c u t o u t p o r t i o n s of the title are filled w i t h v a r i o u s grays o r c o l o r s g e n e r a t e d b y t h e s w i t c h e r
a r o u n d it. SEE 14.5 In t h e drop-shadow
mode, t h e letters
have a b l a c k s h a d o w c o n t o u r t h a t m a k e s t h e m a p p e a r
324
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14
VISUAL
EFFECTS
14.3 EXTERNAL KEY In this example the letter L is supplied by the C G . and keyed into the camera 1 video (base picture of the dancer). Camera 2 is focused on the burlap and supplies the external signal that fills the cutout letters.
t h r e e d i m e n s i o n a l , SEE 14.6 In t h e outline mode, t h e letters
Because t h e c h r o m a key r e s p o n d s to t h e hue of t h e
themselves a p p e a r in o u t l i n e f o r m , w i t h t h e base p i c t u r e
b a c k d r o p r a t h e r t h a n to t h e brightness
filling t h e inside, SEE 14.7
trast as in a regular key, b e sure t h a t t h e c h r o m a - k e y area
M o s t s w i t c h e r s allow y o u to c h o o s e t h e key m o d e
(luminance) con
is p a i n t e d u n i f o r m l y (even b l u e or green w i t h a fairly h i g h
t h a t will m a k e t h e titles l o o k attractive or p r e v e n t t h e m
s a t u r a t i o n t h r o u g h o u t t h e a r e a ) a n d especially evenly
from getting lost in a b u s y b a c k g r o u n d . S o m e keys are
lighted. U n e v e n b a c k g r o u n d lighting will p r e v e n t a full
s e m i t r a n s p a r e n t a n d let t h e b a c k g r o u n d s h o w t h r o u g h ,
r e p l a c e m e n t of t h e b l u e or green b a c k d r o p by t h e b a c k
similar to a super. T h i s effect is a favorite t e c h n i q u e for
g r o u n d video or cause t h e f o r e g r o u n d i m a g e to tear.
displaying statistics while still letting y o u see the full-screen
If the o n - c a m e r a talent wears s o m e t h i n g similar to t h e
b a c k g r o u n d action.
b a c k d r o p color, such as a b l u e sweater, while s t a n d i n g in
C H R O M A KEY
will also b e replaced b y t h e b a c k g r o u n d i m a g e d u r i n g t h e
Chroma
key. Unless y o u w a n t t o shock y o u r a u d i e n c e w i t h a special
front of t h e b l u e c h r o m a - k e y area, t h e b l u e of t h e sweater keying is a special effect t h a t uses a specific color
( c h r o m a ) , usually b l u e or green, as t h e b a c k d r o p for t h e
effect in w h i c h p a r t of t h e w e a t h e r c a s t e r d i s a p p e a r s , d o n ' t
p e r s o n or object that is to a p p e a r in front of t h e b a c k
let h i m or h e r w e a r a n y t h i n g b l u e in front of t h e b l u e
g r o u n d scene. D u r i n g t h e key t h e blue o r green b a c k d r o p
c h r o m a - k e y set. If t h e talent likes to w e a r blue, use green
will b e replaced by t h e b a c k g r o u n d v i d e o source w i t h o u t
as t h e b a c k d r o p color.
affecting t h e f o r e g r o u n d object. A typical e x a m p l e is t h e
Even blue eyes can present a p r o b l e m d u r i n g close-ups
w e a t h e r c a s t e r s t a n d i n g in front of a w e a t h e r m a p o r a
in c h r o m a keying, a l t h o u g h , fortunately, m o s t b l u e eyes
satellite p i c t u r e . D u r i n g t h e c h r o m a key, t h e c o m p u t e r -
reflect or c o n t a i n e n o u g h o t h e r colors a n d are n o t s a t u
g e n e r a t e d w e a t h e r m a p or satellite i m a g e replaces all b l u e
r a t e d e n o u g h to k e e p t h e m f r o m b e c o m i n g t r a n s p a r e n t .
or green a r e a s — b u t n o t t h e weathercaster. T h e key effect
If t h e weathercaster s t a n d s t o o close t o t h e c h r o m a - k e y
m a k e s t h e w e a t h e r c a s t e r a p p e a r to b e s t a n d i n g in front of
area, t h e reflections of t h e b l u e b a c k g r o u n d o n p a r t of
t h e w e a t h e r m a p or satellite image, SEE 14.8
his o r h e r c l o t h i n g or hair m a y cause t h e key to tear. Such
Section
14.4
14.1
Electronic
14.5
MATTE KEY
In a matte key, the cutout letter is filled with shades of gray or with a color supplied by the switcher or C.G.
14.6
MATTE KEY IN DROP-SHADOW MODE
and
How to Use
Them
325
MATTE KEY IN EDGE MODE
The edge mode matte key puts a black border around the letter to make it more readable than with the normal key.
1 4 . 7 MATTE KEY IN OUTLINE MODE
The drop-shadow matte key adds a prominent attached shadow to the letter as though a threedimensional letter were illuminated by a strong spotlight.
14.8
Effects
The outline matte key makes the letter appear in outline form. It shows only the contour of the letter.
CHROMA KEY EFFECT: WEATHERCAST
A In this chroma key, the weathercaster stands in front of a blue backdrop.
B During the key the blue backdrop is replaced by this computer-enhanced satellite photo.
C The weathercaster seems to be stand ing in front of the satellite photo.
326
Chapter
14
VISUAL
wanted t h e
EFFECTS
capture h e r against t h e
p r o b l e m s m a y also o c c u r especially if t h e lighting o n t h e
lar view, she
weathercaster has extremely fast falloff. T h e deep shadows,
w i n d o w . If t h e suggested lighting s o l u t i o n s d o n o t r e m e d y
w h i c h are apt to be seen as b l u e b y t h e c a m e r a , m a y cause
t h e lighting p r o b l e m s (silhouette effect, high color t e m
t h e i m a g e to tear d u r i n g t h e key.
p e r a t u r e ) , y o u can t r a n s p o r t h e r office i n t o t h e s t u d i o for
c a m e r a to
Recall t h a t y o u c a n c o u n t e r a c t this n u i s a n c e to s o m e
a c h r o m a - k e y effect. Set u p a similar desk a n d chair in t h e
extent by using light-yellow or a m b e r gels o n the back lights
s t u d i o in front of a b l u e c h r o m a - k e y b a c k d r o p . T h e n have
( n o t b a c k g r o u n d lights) because t h e yellow or a m b e r b a c k
a c a m e r a focus o n a p h o t o g r a p h of t h e spectacular view.
light neutralizes t h e b l u e s h a d o w s , t h u s e l i m i n a t i n g t h e
Use this c a m e r a to s u p p l y t h e b a c k g r o u n d i m a g e d u r i n g
tearing. W h e n using green as t h e c h r o m a - k e y color, y o u
t h e key. Because t h e s t u d i o gives y o u s u c h g o o d lighting
need to use a light ( d e s a t u r a t e d ) m a g e n t a (bluish red) gel
c o n t r o l , y o u can m a k e t h e c h r o m a key look a l m o s t m o r e
to c o u n t e r a c t t h e green reflections.
realistic t h a n if y o u w e r e in h e r actual office, SEE 14.9
Studio use of chroma key
Despite the availability of
scenic b a c k g r o u n d s or e n v i r o n m e n t s . Assume, for example,
highly sophisticated digital video effects (DVE), t h e c h r o m a -
that y o u w o u l d like t o s h o w a t o u r i s t s h o o t i n g s o m e foot
key process is used extensively in various studio p r o d u c t i o n
age of a m u s e u m . T h e m u s e u m b a c k g r o u n d is accessed
situations. T h e p r e v i o u s discussion focuses o n s o m e of t h e
f r o m an ESS "slide" (electronic still store f r a m e ) . C a m e r a
You can also use c h r o m a keying t o create a variety of
m o s t p o p u l a r uses of c h r o m a - k e y effects in weathercasts,
1 focuses o n t h e t o u r i s t w i t h his c a m c o r d e r , s t a n d i n g in
b u t t h e r e are o t h e r situations i n w h i c h c h r o m a keying is
front of a n evenly lighted, w e l l - s a t u r a t e d blue b a c k d r o p .
equally applicable a n d effective. Recall t h e lighting situa
T h r o u g h c h r o m a keying, all t h e b l u e areas will b e replaced
t i o n discussed briefly in c h a p t e r 8: t h e C E O w a n t e d to give
b y t h e b a c k g r o u n d i m a g e as p r o v i d e d by t h e ESS system,
h e r speech sitting b e h i n d h e r desk, w h i c h was in front of a
a n d t h e t o u r i s t will a p p e a r to b e s t a n d i n g in front of t h e
large picture w i n d o w . Because she is p r o u d of the spectacu
m u s e u m . SEE 14.IO M'i*»SWITCHING-> Effects-* special effects
14.9
CHROMA-KEY EFFECT: WINDOW
A In this chroma key, a suitable back ground view is selected from the ESS (electronic still store) system.
14.10
B A studio camera focuses on the office set in front of a green chromakey backdrop.
C Through chroma keying there seems to be a picture window behind the CEO sitting at her desk.
CHROMA-KEY EFFECT: SIMULATED LOCATION
A The source for the background image is a video frame of the museum exterior from the ESS system.
B The studio camera focuses on the actor playing a tourist in front of a blue chroma-key backdrop.
C All blue areas are replaced by the back ground image; the tourist appears to be in front of the museum.
Section
Electronic
14.1
Ultimatte
T h e Ultimate
Effects
is a specific t y p e of b l u e -
screen ( c h r o m a ) keying. This system p r o d u c e s a crisp a n d
and
How
to Use
327
Them
t h e s t u d i o , with t h e r e m o t e feed ( l o n g shot of t h e football s t a d i u m ) serving as t h e c h r o m a - k e y b a c k g r o u n d .
highly stable key t h a t is h a r d t o distinguish from a n actual
If y o u d o t h e c h r o m a keying o n l o c a t i o n , w i t h the
f o r e g r o u n d / b a c k g r o u n d scene. It allows y o u to m i x fore
talent s t a n d i n g o u t d o o r s , watch o u t for reflections from
g r o u n d a n d b a c k g r o u n d c a m e r a s so precisely so t h a t t h e
t h e sky. W i t h b l u e as the c h r o m a - k e y color, the b l u e re
lighting a n d m o v e m e n t of f o r e g r o u n d are transferred to
flections from t h e sky m a y fool t h e c h r o m a keyer a n d let
t h e b a c k g r o u n d . For example, if t h e figure were to m o v e in
t h e b a c k g r o u n d i m a g e s h i n e t h r o u g h , or at least cause t h e
front of t h e blue screen d u r i n g t h e key, the s h a d o w w o u l d
edges of the f o r e g r o u n d figure to b r e a k u p . To avoid such
also b e c o m e p a r t of the b a c k g r o u n d a n d m o v e across t h e
p r o b l e m s , switch to green for the c h r o m a - k e y color a n d
b a c k g r o u n d scene. S o m e c o m p l e x m u l t i c a m e r a p r o d u c
p u t t h e talent in front of a green cloth b a c k d r o p . <
t i o n s , s u c h as s o a p o p e r a s , use U l t i m a t t e to key in ceilings of t h e realistic sets of living r o o m s or hallways.
WIPE
If y o u use live a c t i o n in front of a
In a wipe a second image in s o m e geometric shape gradually
b l u e b a c k d r o p to key it i n t o a small, t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l set
replaces p a r t s o r all of t h e first ( o n - a i r ) i m a g e . A l t h o u g h ,
m o d e l , such as t h e i n t e r i o r of a n airliner o r a spaceship,
technically, t h e s e c o n d p i c t u r e gradually overlaps t h e first
Auto key tracking
y o u need t o synchronize t h e m o v e m e n t s of t h e f o r e g r o u n d
in s o m e g e o m e t r i c fashion, perceptually it looks as t h o u g h
c a m e r a (looking at t h e live a c t i o n ) a n d t h e b a c k g r o u n d
t h e s e c o n d i m a g e wipes t h e first i m a g e off t h e screen.
c a m e r a (looking at the m o d e l ) . This s y n c h r o n i z a t i o n is
T h e two simplest w i p e s are t h e vertical a n d t h e h o r i
necessary to m a k e t h e shift of perspective of t h e foreground
zontal. A vertical wipe gives the s a m e effect as pulling d o w n
c a m e r a coincide w i t h t h a t of t h e b a c k g r o u n d c a m e r a . For
a w i n d o w shade over t h e screen. Just as t h e w i n d o w shade
e x a m p l e , if y o u z o o m in o n t h e p e o p l e in t h e f o r e g r o u n d ,
wipes o u t t h e p i c t u r e y o u see t h r o u g h the w i n d o w , t h e i m
t h e b a c k g r o u n d scene n e e d s to c h a n g e in size also. A m b i
age from o n e c a m e r a is g r a d u a l l y replaced b y a second i m
t i o u s film a n d H D T V (high-definition television) p r o d u c
age that seems to p u s h the first image u p w a r d or d o w n w a r d
t i o n s still rely o n s u c h auto key tracking effects, a l t h o u g h
off-screen, SEE 14.11
sophisticated c o m p u t e r software c a n accomplish such per
w a y except that t h e base p i c t u r e is replaced by the s e c o n d
spective s y n c h r o n i z a t i o n in p o s t p r o d u c t i o n quite readily.
i m a g e from t h e side, SEE 14.12 T h e line t h a t separates t h e
ENG
C h r o m a keying is also useful
Transitions-* wipe | try it
E Fr
d u r i n g electronic field p r o d u c t i o n s a n d big r e m o t e s ,
The/iorizonfa/wipeworksinthesame
t w o images is called t h e wipe border.
EJjJ^SWITCHING^
especially if t h e talent is n o t able to s t a n d directly in front
Soft wipe
of t h e desired b a c k g r o u n d scene, s u c h as a s t a d i u m o r gov
o b s c u r e d or eliminated to have the two images blend
e r n m e n t b u i l d i n g . W h e n u s i n g a c h r o m a - k e y effect d u r i n g
i n t o each other. You can adjust t h e softness of the b o r d e r
a s p o r t s r e m o t e , for e x a m p l e , the talent m a y even b e in
t h r o u g h a r o t a r y c o n t r o l o n t h e switcher (see figure 11.4).
14.11
VERTICAL WIPE
In a vertical wipe, one picture is gradually replaced by another from the bottom up or from the top down.
14.12
In a soft wipe, t h e w i p e b o r d e r is p u r p o s e l y
HORIZONTAL WIPE
In a horizontal wipe, one picture is gradually replaced by another from the side.
328
Chapter
14.13
14
VISUAL
EFFECTS
SOFT WIPE
In a soft wipe, the demarcation line between the two images—the wipe border—is softened so that the images blend together.
14.14
DIAMOND WIPE
In a diamond wipe, the second video source is gradually revealed in an ex panding diamond-shaped cutout.
T h e soft w i p e looks a l m o s t like a single s h o t consisting of
t h e vertical w i p e m o v e s from t o p t o b o t t o m . In t h e reversal
t w o separate images, SEE 14.13
m o d e , t h e w i p e m o v e s from b o t t o m to t o p . Similarly, y o u
Wipe patterns
to screen-left o r vice versa. T h e w i p e c a n also b e m a d e t o
can reverse t h e w i p e a n d have it m o v e from s c r e e n - r i g h t T h e m o r e c o m p l i c a t e d w i p e s c a n take
o n g e o m e t r i c shapes. I n a diamond
wipe, o n e p i c t u r e starts
in t h e m i d d l e of t h e o t h e r p i c t u r e a n d w i p e s it off t h e
reverse itself i n flip-flop fashion every t i m e y o u m o v e t h e fader bar.
screen o u t w a r d l y in t h e s h a p e of a d i a m o n d , SEE 14.14 I n
If you use a b o x w i p e o r a circle w i p e , y o u usually have
a corner wipe, t h e second image starts from a screen c o r n e r
s o m e l a t i t u d e in c h a n g i n g its s h a p e . For e x a m p l e , y o u c a n
a n d wipes t h e base p i c t u r e off t h e screen diagonally. Box
m a k e an ellipse o u t of a circle o r a rectangle o u t of a square.
wipes a n d circle wipes a r e also frequently used: instead of
W i t h t h e joystick y o u c a n p o s i t i o n t h e w i p e p a t t e r n (such
the d i a m o n d , t h e g e o m e t r i c shape is a rectangle o r a circle.
as a circle w i p e ) a n y w h e r e o n - s c r e e n (see figure 11.11).
You c a n select t h e a p p r o p r i a t e w i p e c o n f i g u r a t i o n by pressing t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g b u t t o n i n t h e w i p e selec
Split screen
tors section of t h e switcher (see figure 11.4) o r b y calling
agonal w i p e before its c o m p l e t i o n , y o u get a split-screen
If y o u stop a vertical, h o r i z o n t a l , o r d i
u p a p r e p r o g r a m m e d w i p e from t h e switcher's m e m o r y .
effect, or, simply, a split screen. Each p o r t i o n shows a dif
SEE 14.1s As p o i n t e d o u t in c h a p t e r 1 1 , t h e speed of t h e
ferent p i c t u r e . To set u p for a n effective split screen w i t h
w i p e is d e t e r m i n e d by h o w fast y o u m o v e t h e fader b a r o r
a horizontal wipe, y o u m u s t have o n e camera's image
by dialing in a certain auto transition
rate.
(designated for t h e left half of t h e split screen) in t h e left side of t h e viewfinder a n d t h e o t h e r camera's i m a g e in t h e
If y o u activate wipes
right side (for t h e right half of t h e split screen). D u r i n g t h e
w i t h t h e special-effects fader bar, y o u c a n stop t h e w i p e
w i p e t h e left- a n d right-screen areas b l o c k o u t each o t h e r ' s
anyplace a l o n g its travel, d e p e n d i n g o n h o w far y o u m o v e
u n w a n t e d p i c t u r e p o r t i o n s , SEE 14.16 It goes w i t h o u t say
the fader bar. If the switcher h a s a directional m o d e switch
ing t h a t y o u n e e d to preview such effects before p u t t i n g
for wipes, check that it is set properly. I n t h e n o r m a l m o d e ,
t h e m o n t h e air.
Section
14.1
Electronic
Effects
and
How
to Use
Them
14.15
329
WIPE PATTERNS
The various wipe configurations are normally marked on the buttons in the wipe selectors section of the switcher.
14.16
SPLIT SCREEN
A In this horizontal split-screen effect, camera 1 frames in the left side of the viewfinder the image designated to become the left half of the split screen.
Spotlight effect
T h e spotlight
B Camera 2 places its image in the right side of the viewfinder.
C In the completed split-screen wipe, the two images appear in the designated sides of the frame,
effect looks like a soft-
edged circle w i p e except t h a t it lets t h e base p i c t u r e s h o w t h r o u g h (similar to a s u p e r ) . You can use this effect to d r a w a t t e n t i o n t o a specific p o r t i o n of t h e screen as t h o u g h y o u were s h i n i n g a spotlight o n it. SEE
14.17
DIGITAL VIDEO EFFECTS As y o u k n o w , digital video effects (DVE)
are m u c h richer
a n d m o r e flexible t h a n t h e i r a n a l o g c o u n t e r p a r t s . T h e c o m p u t e r has a n a s t o n i s h i n g capacity to m a n i p u l a t e v i d e o images a n d , m o r e i m p o r t a n t , create n e w ones. O n c e a video image is in digital form, y o u can change its shape a n d color p r e t t y m u c h at will a n d a d d n e w o n e s f r o m y o u r digital r e p e r t o i r e . If y o u n e e d n e w images, t h e r e is a n a b u n d a n c e of software p r o g r a m s to create landscapes, sets, c a r t o o n figures, a n d even realistic-looking p e o p l e f r o m scratch. A l t h o u g h m a n y digitally g e n e r a t e d video effects are d o n e in p o s t p r o d u c t i o n , y o u will have access t o m a n y D V E before a n d d u r i n g p r o d u c t i o n . Various weather m a p s , c o m plex transitions between stories, or a n i m a t e d titles are often d o n e in p r e p r o d u c t i o n a n d t h e n s i m p l y called u p b y t h e
1 4 . 1 7 SPOTLIGHT EFFECT The spotlight effect looks like a soft-edged circle wipe with the base picture showing through.
330
Chapter
14
T D (technical director) w h e n needed. Many less complex DVE are r o u t i n e l y u s e d d u r i n g a live p r o d u c t i o n , such as
VISUAL
EFFECTS
When interfacing digital with standard (analog) effects (such as keys a n d wipes), you can greatly increase t h e visual
placing t h e a n c h o r p e r s o n a n d guests in side-by-side boxes
effects palette. To m a k e sense o u t of t h e potential of DVE,
o n - s c r e e n or displaying m u l t i p l e boxes t h a t s h o w different
we divide t h e m into three areas: (1) m a n i p u l a t i o n of image
views of a playback of an especially i n t r i g u i n g m o m e n t i n
size, shape, light, a n d color; (2) m a n i p u l a t i o n of m o t i o n ;
s p o r t s . All n o n l i n e a r editing (NLE) systems offer an array
a n d (3) creation a n d m a n i p u l a t i o n of m u l t i - i m a g e s .
of effects for m a k i n g t r a n s i t i o n s a n d c o m b i n i n g o r altering video images. As y o u u n d o u b t e d l y k n o w , effects software
I M A G E S I Z E , S H A P E , LIGHT, A N D COLOR
can t u r n y o u r desktop c o m p u t e r into a powerful NLE a n d
A great variety of effects is available for m a n i p u l a t i n g t h e size, shape, light, a n d color of a n image. S o m e of the m o r e p r o m i n e n t are: (1) s h r i n k i n g a n d e x p a n d i n g , (2) stretch ing, (3) p o s i t i o n i n g a n d p o i n t of view, (4) perspective, (5) mosaic, a n d (6) p o s t e r i z a t i o n a n d solarization. M a n y of these D V E c h a n g e a realistic p i c t u r e i n t o a basically graphical image.
DVE m a c h i n e .
COMPUTER-MANIPULATED
EFFECTS
Computer-manipulated DVE t a k e a n e x i s t i n g i m a g e ( c a m e r a - g e n e r a t e d v i d e o s e q u e n c e , v i d e o frame, p h o t o , or painting) a n d e n h a n c e or c h a n g e it in s o m e way. Al t h o u g h t h e actual process of digitally m a n i p u l a t i n g images is quite complicated, t h e principle is relatively simple. As an example, let's m a n i p u l a t e t h e color, shape, a n d size of a video frame s h o w i n g a close-up of a face. I n digitizing t h e v i d e o t a p e frame, y o u translate t h e c o n t i n u o u s change of color, b r i g h t n e s s , a n d shapes (analog) of t h e face into a great n u m b e r of discrete dots—pixels—each having several assigned values ( b i n a r y n u m b e r s ) for such attributes as hue, b r i g h t n e s s , s a t u r a t i o n , a n d p o s i t i o n . This process is n o t unlike translating a p h o t o i n t o a tile m o s a i c . Let's a s s u m e that y o u w a n t to m a n i p u l a t e a m o s a i c of y o u r friend t h a t was copied from a p h o t o . You c a n readily c h a n g e t h e color as well as t h e shape of t h e face. To m a k e the b r o w n eyes blue, y o u simply replace s o m e of t h e b r o w n tiles w i t h b l u e ones. If you w a n t t o m a k e t h e n o s e red, y o u can a d d s o m e red tiles t o t h e n o s e . You c a n also c h a n g e t h e s h a p e of t h e nose. Take s o m e tiles o u t t o m a k e t h e n o s e smaller or t h i n n e r , o r a d d s o m e t o m a k e it bigger. You can also use smaller o r larger tiles to decrease o r increase t h e size of t h e whole h e a d . W h e n using D V E r a t h e r t h a n m o s a i c tiles, such changes are d o n e w i t h incredible speed a n d accuracy. T h e c o m p u t e r stores all s u c h effects, so y o u can retrieve t h e m in a n instant. Fast access t o a n effect o r a n effects sequence is espe cially i m p o r t a n t w h e n c o m p l e x effects follow o n e a n o t h e r in rapid succession d u r i n g a p r o d u c t i o n , such as a weather or s p o r t s r e p o r t . D u r i n g t h e p r o d u c t i o n even t h e best T D w i t h t h e m o s t e l a b o r a t e special-effects s w i t c h e r c o u l d n o t create in real t i m e all t h e effects n o r m a l l y c o n t a i n e d in bumpers (the very brief yet visually c o m p l e x p r o g r a m material dividing s h o w segments or separating a s h o w from a c o m m e r c i a l ) . This is w h y c o m p l e x effects are usually r e n d e r e d in p r e p r o d u c t i o n a n d t h e n called u p b y t h e T D in p r o d u c t i o n .
Shrinking and expanding Shrinking refers to decreas ing a picture's size while keeping t h e entire p i c t u r e a n d its aspect ratio ( w i d t h t o height) intact. Unlike c r o p p i n g , w h e r e y o u actually r e m o v e s o m e of t h e p i c t u r e i n f o r m a t i o n , y o u s i m p l y r e n d e r t h e w h o l e p i c t u r e smaller. D V E allow y o u t o s h r i n k t h e entire p i c t u r e from its original full-screen size t o a m e r e p o i n t o n t h e screen (zero-size). O r y o u c a n d o t h e reverse, starting w i t h a zero-size i m a g e a n d e x p a n d i n g it t o full frame or even larger so t h a t y o u see o n l y a close-up detail of t h e e x p a n d e d image. Because t h e visual effect is similar to a z o o m - o u t (shrinking) or a z o o m - i n ( e x p a n s i o n ) , this effect is also called a squeezezoom. SEE 14.18 Stretching
W i t h D V E y o u can stretch an i m a g e h o r i
zontally o r vertically. Again, t h e stretching is n o t d o n e by c r o p p i n g t h e picture to fit a n e w frame b u t b y d i s t o r t i n g t h e total i m a g e so t h a t its b o r d e r s a t t a i n a n e w aspect ratio, SEE 14.19 Positioning and point of view T h e s h r u n k (squeezez o o m e d ) image can b e p o s i t i o n e d anywhere in t h e frame. For e x a m p l e , y o u c a n freeze t h e first f r a m e of a n e w s v i d e o t a p e , s h r i n k t h e image t h r o u g h a s q u e e z e - z o o m in, a n d position it in a b o x over t h e newscaster's shoulder. You can t h e n roll t h e V T R , letting t h e story c o m e alive while s i m u l t a n e o u s l y e x p a n d i n g it ( s q u e e z e - z o o m o u t ) t o a full screen image. SEE 14.20 Perspective You can distort an image in such a way t h a t it looks as t h o u g h it is floating in t h e t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l v i d e o space. W h e n c o m b i n e d w i t h m o t i o n , such a 3 - D v i d e o space is greatly intensified, SEE 14.21
Section
14.1
Electronic
Effects
and
14.18
How
to Use
Them
SHRINKING
Through shrinking, also called a squeeze-zoom, you can reduce the total full-frame image to a smaller frame that contains the same picture information.
1 4 . 1 9 STRETCHING With DVE you can change the aspect ratio of an image so that it appears vertically stretched.
1 4 . 2 0 POSITIONING OF SQUEEZE-ZOOMED IMAGE In this case a frame from a news clip was shrunk (squeeze-zoomed in) and then placed over the newscaster's shoulder.
14.21
PERSPECTIVE
Through DVE you can distort an image so that it seems to float in the threedimensional screen space.
331
332
Mosaic
Chapter
In t h e mosaic effect, t h e
14
video
VISUAL
i m a g e (static
Posterization and solarization In
EFFECTS
posterization
the
or in m o t i o n ) is distilled i n t o m a n y discrete, equal-sized
b r i g h t n e s s values ( l u m i n a n c e ) a n d t h e shades of t h e i n
squares of limited b r i g h t n e s s a n d color (see figure 3.6).
dividual colors are collapsed so t h a t t h e image is r e d u c e d
T h e resulting screen i m a g e looks like a n actual tile m o s a i c .
to a few single colors a n d b r i g h t n e s s steps. For e x a m p l e ,
Such a n i m a g e a p p e a r s to c o n t a i n greatly enlarged pixels.
t h e colors o n a face s h o w u p as t h o u g h they were p a i n t e d
SEE 14.22
b y n u m b e r w i t h only a few p a i n t s . This i m a g e looks like a
T h i s t e c h n i q u e is s o m e t i m e s u s e d to o b s c u r e
p a r t s of t h e b o d y o r a guest's identity. T h e m o s a i c l i k e d i s t o r t i o n shows t h e person's face b u t r e n d e r s t h e features unrecognizable.
poster, h e n c e t h e n a m e of the effect, SEE Solarization
14.23
c o m b i n e s a positive a n d a negative i m a g e
of t h e subject. S o m e solarization effects result in a complete
14.22
MOSAIC EFFECT
Here the image is changed into equalsized squares resembling mosaic tiles. In the electronic mosaic, as in a tradi tional tile mosaic, you can change the size of the tiles.
14.23
POSTERIZATION
In posterization the brightness values are severely reduced. The picture takes on a high-contrast look.
14.24
SOLARIZATION
Solarization is a special effect that is produced by a partial polarity reversal of an image. In a color image, the rever sal results in a combination of comple mentary hues.
Section
14.1
Electronic
Effects
and
How to Use
333
Them
p o l a r i t y reversal, i n w h i c h t h e black areas t u r n w h i t e a n d
Slide and peel effects
t h e w h i t e areas t u r n black. I n color t h e p o l a r i t y reversal
of a h o r i z o n t a l w i p e . Instead of h a v i n g t h e second p i c t u r e
T h e slide effect is t h e o p p o s i t e
p r o d u c e s c o m p l e m e n t a r y colors (yellow a n d blue, r e d a n d
(B) take over t h e t e r r i t o r y of the first p i c t u r e (A), in a slide
g r e e n ) . W h e n c o m b i n e d s u c h effects often l o o k like highly
t h e first p i c t u r e (A) s i m p l y slides t o o n e side, revealing t h e
overexposed images, SEE 14.24
second p i c t u r e (B) u n d e r n e a t h , SEE 14.2s
T h e slide effect
can also w o r k vertically o r diagonally. A v a r i a t i o n of t h e slide effect is t h e peel effect, w h e r e i n
MOTION
image A curls u p as t h o u g h it were peeled off a p a d of paper
T h e r e a r e so m a n y possibilities for m a k i n g v a r i o u s effects
images, revealing i m a g e B u n d e r n e a t h , SEE 14.26
m o v e t h a t a sensible a n d c o m m o n t e r m i n o l o g y has n o t yet b e e n developed. D o n ' t b e s u r p r i s e d t o h e a r t h e d i r e c t o r in
Snapshots
t h e c o n t r o l r o o m o r t h e editor in t h e editing r o o m using
freeze-frames t h a t u p d a t e i n d i v i d u a l l y a t v a r i o u s rates.
t h e s o u n d l a n g u a g e of c a r t o o n s — " s q u e e z e , " " b o u n c e , "
W h a t y o u see on-screen is a kind of ripple effect from image
o r " f l y " — w h e n calling for certain m o t i o n effects. S o m e
to i m a g e . Each frame area c a n b e filled w i t h a separate
t e r m s have b e e n c o i n e d b y D V E m a n u f a c t u r e r s , o t h e r s b y
p i c t u r e , t o b u i l d sequentially a m u l t i s c r e e n effect, SEE 14.27
T h e snapshot
effect c o n s i s t s o f m u l t i p l e
imaginative p r o d u c t i o n p e r s o n n e l . Let's l o o k at a few of t h e m o r e p o p u l a r effects: (1) slide a n d peel effects, (2) s n a p
Rotation and bounce effects
shots, (3) r o t a t i o n a n d b o u n c e effects, (4) fly effect, a n d
y o u c a n spin a n y image o n all t h r e e axes, individually o r
(5) c u b e spin.
s i m u l t a n e o u s l y : t h e x-axis, r e p r e s e n t i n g w i d t h ; t h e y-axis,
14.25
SLIDE EFFECT
In a slide effect, video A seems to slide off to one side or corner, revealing video B underneath.
14.26
W i t h t h e rotation
effect,
PEEL EFFECT
In a peel effect, video A seems to curl and peel off a stack of pictures, revealing video B underneath.
14.27
SNAPSHOT EFFECT
In a snapshot effect, the individual screen divisions show successively updated freeze-frames.
334
14.28
Chapter
14
VISUAL
EFFECTS
ROTATION EFFECT
In a rotation effect, the image can be revolved around the x-axis (tumble), the y-axis (flip), and the z-axis (spin).
14.29
BOUNCE EFFECT
In a bounce effect, the image seems to bounce from screen edge to screen edge.
r e p r e s e n t i n g height; a n d t h e z-axis, r e p r e s e n t i n g d e p t h . A l t h o u g h rotation t e r m i n o l o g y varies, n o r m a l l y a " t u m b l e " refers t o an x-axis r o t a t i o n , a "flip" to a y-axis r o t a t i o n , a n d a " s p i n " to a z-axis r o t a t i o n , SEE
14.28
In a bounce effect, t h e s h r u n k video A image is deflected from screen edge to screen edge against t h e v i d e o B back g r o u n d . T h e v i d e o A " b o u n c i n g ball" c a n c h a n g e s h a p e o r flip while m o v i n g , SEE
14.29
Section
Electronic
14.1
Effects
and
How
to Use
335
Them
14.30 FLY EFFECT
14.31 CUBE SPIN
In a fly effect, video B enlarges from zero-size as it moves and spins to a different screen position on top of the video A background.
In a cube spin, a rotating cube displays a different static or moving image on each of the three visible sides.
Fly effect
T h e secondary
In t h e fly effect, a v i d e o B i n s e r t e x p a n d s
fame
effect s h o w s
f r o m zero-size a n d flies to a n o t h e r screen p o s i t i o n against
several images, each clearly contained within its o w n frame.
t h e v i d e o A b a c k g r o u n d . D u r i n g t h e fly v i d e o B c a n r o
A c o m m o n use of s u c h a n effect is t o s h o w h o s t a n d guest
t a t e , t u m b l e , flip, s p i n — o r w h a t e v e r tickles y o u r fancy.
s i m u l t a n e o u s l y in separate frames, talking to each o t h e r
SEE 14.30
from different locations. To e m p h a s i z e that t h e y are speak i n g to each other, a l t h o u g h b o t h are actually l o o k i n g into
Cube spin
T h e r o t a t i o n c a n also b e a p p l i e d to t h r e e -
t h e c a m e r a (at t h e viewer), t h e frames are s o m e t i m e s tilted
d i m e n s i o n a l effects. T h e w e l l - k n o w n cube spin shows a
t o w a r d each o t h e r t h r o u g h a digital perspective c h a n g e .
rotating cube, with each of t h e three visible sides displaying
SEE 14.32 You can split the screen i n t o four o r m o r e areas,
a different static o r m o v i n g image. SEE14.31
each w i t h four or m o r e p e o p l e or events displayed.
MULTI-IMAGES
Echo
T h e multi-image
effects i n c l u d e t h e v a r i o u s possibilities
m i r r o r e d , similar to seeing yourself m a n y t i m e s in o p p o s
of dividing the screen i n t o sections or of h a v i n g a specific
ing b a r b e r s h o p m i r r o r s , o r a m o v i n g object that leaves a
T h e echo effect is created w h e n a static object is
i m a g e u p d a t e itself. T h e f o r m e r we call s e c o n d a r y frame
c o n t i n u o u s trail of p r e v i o u s positions, SEE 14.33 A N D 14.34
effects, t h e latter, e c h o effects.
You can also m a k e each successive echo i m a g e smaller or
14,32 SECONDARY FRAME EFFECT The trapezoidal distortion of the frames makes us perceive two people talking to each other rather than to the viewer.
336
Chapter
14.33
14
ECHO EFFECT: STATIC OBJECT
In this echo effect, a static image is repeated many times and the copies are placed in close proximity to one another.
larger so t h a t t o g e t h e r they seem to recede to or a d v a n c e
VISUAL
14.34
•
A matte key effect fills the base picture cutouts with vari ous grays or colors generated by the switcher. The standard matte key modes are edge, drop shadow, and outline.
•
Chroma keying uses a blue or green backdrop, which, during the key, is replaced by the background image. The foreground image appears to be in front of the keyed back ground image.
•
In a wipe a portion of or a complete television picture is gradually replaced by another. The geometrically shaped wipe configurations can be selected via buttons on the switcher or by calling up a preprogrammed effect from the switcher's memory.
•
DVE can be interfaced with standard (analog) effects.
•
Some DVE are the result of computer manipulations of camera-generated video. A computer-manipulated effect is often created in real time during the production.
•
The more common DVE used in production are prere corded manipulations of image size, shape, light, and color (shrinking and expanding, stretching, positioning and point of view, perspective, mosaic, and posterization and solarization); motion (slide and peel effects, snapshots, and rotation, bounce, fly, and cube-spin effects); and multiimages (secondary frame and echo effects).
pear at the h o r i z o n ) .
The two types of electronic visual effects are standard electronic (analog) effects and digital video effects (DVE).
•
The four standard electronic effects are the superimposition, key, chroma key, and wipe.
•
•
A superimposition, or super, is a form of double exposure. The picture from one camera is electronically superim posed over the picture from another, making the supered image seem transparent. Keying means electronically cutting out portions of a television picture and filling them in with a color or a third image. The main purpose of a key is to add titles or objects to a base (background) picture. There are three basic types of keys: internal key, external key, and matte key.
ECHO EFFECT: MOTION
In this echo effect, the moving dancer trails her previous movements.
from t h e vanishing p o i n t (where the i m a g e seems to disap
•
EFFECTS
curtail o r e l i m i n a t e a variety of video effects b y c o m b i n
14.2
ing g o o d s o u n d effects w i t h a simple video p r e s e n t a t i o n . T h e s o u n d of p o u r i n g rain, for e x a m p l e , c o m b i n e d with a close-up of a d r i p p i n g - w e t actor m a y well p r e c l u d e the use of a rain m a c h i n e . O n television, reaction is often m o r e telling t h a n action. For e x a m p l e , to suggest a car crash, y o u can simply s h o w a c l o s e - u p of a s h o c k e d o n l o o k e r
Nonelectronic Effects and How to Use Them
c o m b i n e d with t h e familiar c r a s h i n g s o u n d s , m a k i n g the scene certainly m o r e e c o n o m i c a l a n d safer t h a n h a v i n g s t u n t drivers w r e c k n e w cars. This section takes a brief l o o k at s o m e of the optical a n d m e c h a n i c a l effects t h a t are still in use b e c a u s e t h e y have p r o v e n to b e effective, reliable, a n d easy to d o . ^
OPTICAL EFFECTS Television gobos, reflections, star filter, diffusion filters, and defocus
MECHANICAL EFFECTS Rain, snow, fog, wind, smoke,fire,and lightning
OPTICAL EFFECTS T h e r e are five m a j o r optical effects: (1) television gobos, Will y o u n o w n e e d expensive, h i g h - e n d s w i t c h e r s a n d
(2) reflections, (3) star filter, (4) diffusion
c o m p u t e r s with u n i q u e software p r o g r a m s to create t h e
(5) defocus.
filters,
and
dazzling digital video effects discussed in section 14.1? N o t at all. You will b e s u r p r i s e d to find that even a m o d e r a t e
TELEVISION
d e s k t o p s y s t e m c a n create m a n y k n o c k - t h e i r - s o c k s - o f f
In television a n d film p r o d u c t i o n , t h e t e r m gobo enjoys
GOBOS
effects. A n d y o u c a n save a great deal of t i m e a n d effort
great p o p u l a r i t y . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , t h i s p o p u l a r i t y e x t e n d s
b y staying with s o m e of t h e t r i e d - a n d - t r u e optical a n d
to t h e n u m b e r of definitions. In film p r o d u c t i o n gobo is
m e c h a n i c a l effects perfected in filmmaking a n d d u r i n g t h e
often u s e d to m e a n flag, which, as y o u recall, refers to a
predigital stages of television p r o d u c t i o n .
small solid or s e m i t r a n s p a r e n t shield used t o block t h e light
Optical effects i n c l u d e t h e use of scenic devices placed
from h i t t i n g certain areas. In lighting t e r m i n o l o g y it c a n
in front of t h e c a m e r a or a t t a c h m e n t s to t h e lens t h a t m a
s t a n d for cucoloris or cookie, the small m e t a l c u t o u t that is
n i p u l a t e t h e i m a g e . T h e illusion of snow, rain, or s m o k e
inserted i n t o a n ellipsoidal spotlight to p r o d u c e s h a d o w
c a n often b e p r o d u c e d m o r e readily by m e c h a n i c a l r a t h e r
patterns. In video p r o d u c t i o n a gobo is a c u t o u t or an object
t h a n by digital m e a n s . Before u s i n g such effects, however,
that acts as a n actual f o r e g r o u n d frame for b a c k g r o u n d ac
ask w h e t h e r they are really necessary. If t h e answer is yes,
t i o n . Traditional gobos consist of such f o r e g r o u n d pieces
t r y t h e m o u t before t h e p r o d u c t i o n to e n s u r e t h a t they
as p i c t u r e frames, p r i s o n b a r s , or oversized keyholes. For
are reliable. T h e r e are t w o o t h e r factors to consider before
e x a m p l e , y o u m a y w a n t t o i n t r o d u c e a fashion m o d e l by
setting u p optical or m e c h a n i c a l effects.
l o o k i n g at h e r first t h r o u g h a p i c t u r e frame, t h e n dollying
T h e first is t h e relative m o b i l i t y of television e q u i p
in to a closer s h o t while losing the p i c t u r e frame. A s i m p l e
m e n t . R a t h e r t h a n b r i n g i n g a c u m b e r s o m e fog m a c h i n e
c a r d b o a r d c u t o u t can s i m u l a t e t h e p o p u l a r keyhole gobo.
i n t o t h e s t u d i o t o s i m u l a t e fog, s i m p l y take t h e c a m e r a
T h e c a m e r a c a n dolly in t o it a n d t h e n l o o k t h r o u g h it to
o u t s i d e o n a foggy day o r use a lens filter t h a t simulates
observe t h e goings o n in t h e m a g i c toy k i n g d o m . A few
fog. W h e n using I-F (internal focus) lenses o n E N G / E F P
simple b a r s a t t a c h e d to m i c s t a n d s will lock the p r i s o n e r
c a m e r a s , y o u can attach a n y t y p e of filter to t h e front of
firmly in his cell, SEE 14.35
t h e lens a n d k e e p it from r o t a t i n g even w h e n y o u focus.
T h e advantage of using a g o b o instead of a n electronic
T h e second factor is t h e e n o r m o u s c o m m u n i c a t i v e
key is t h a t y o u c a n dolly in to t h e gobo, o r arc past it, to
p o w e r of t e l e v i s i o n a u d i o . In m a n y i n s t a n c e s y o u c a n
g r a d u a l l y reveal the total b a c k g r o u n d event. To create a
337
338
Chapter
14.35
14
VISUAL
EFFECTS
TELEVISION GOBO
This television gobo places the actor behind bars.
similar effect t h r o u g h D V E w o u l d r e q u i r e c o m p l i c a t e d
p a i n t e d black. If you n e e d m o r e control over the reflections,
pre- o r p o s t p r o d u c t i o n w o r k .
of course, y o u n e e d to use D V E .
REFLECTIONS
light m u s t b e o n t h e event t h a t is to b e reflected a n d n o t
You can achieve startling effects by reflecting a scene off
o n t h e reflector itself. For e x a m p l e , if s o m e b o d y looks t o o
W h e n e v e r y o u w a n t to achieve g o o d reflections, t h e
m i r r o r s , silver polyester sheets, o r water. You are n o d o u b t
d a r k w h e n seen in a m i r r o r or water t u b shot, p u t m o r e
familiar with t h e w e l l - k n o w n ( a n d w e l l - w o r n ) o v e r - t h e -
light o n the p e r s o n , n o t o n t h e m i r r o r o r water.
s h o u l d e r shot of a p e r s o n l o o k i n g i n t o a m i r r o r a n d t h e n seeing s o m e o n e a p p r o a c h i n g from b e h i n d . (Be careful t h a t
S T A R FILTER
this " s o m e o n e " isn't t h e camera!)
O n e of t h e m o s t c o m m o n filter effects is created w i t h t h e
B o u n c i n g s o m e lights off a m i r r o r m o s a i c c a n p r o
star filter, a lens a t t a c h m e n t t h a t c h a n g e s h i g h - i n t e n s i t y
d u c e i n t e r e s t i n g effects, a n d s h o o t i n g i n t o it will m a k e
light sources o r reflections i n t o four or six starlike b e a m s .
the reflected scene look startlingly cubist. To m a k e s u c h a
This effect is often u s e d to intensify t h e street l a m p s o n a
m i r r o r mosaic, glue several large pieces of a b r o k e n m i r r o r
rainy night, t h e b e a m s of car h e a d l i g h t s , or t h e c o l o r e d
o n t o p l y w o o d o r M a s o n i t e . If y o u are s u p e r s t i t i o u s , see
lights i l l u m i n a t i n g a singer or m u s i c a l g r o u p . T h e s t u d i o
if y o u r software c o n t a i n s s u c h a n effect before b r e a k i n g
lights as c a u g h t by the w i d e - a n g l e c a m e r a , a n d even t h e
a mirror.
glitter o n t h e p e r f o r m e r ' s clothes as seen b y t h e c l o s e - u p
Sheets of h i g h l y reflecting polyester, s u c h as silver
c a m e r a , are all t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o p r o m i n e n t starlike rays
Mylar, serve as a flexible m i r r o r . For e x a m p l e , y o u can
o n t h e television screen. You c a n also use a star filter t o
have d a n c e r s m o v e in front of s u s p e n d e d panels (such as
h e i g h t e n t h e e m o t i o n a l i m p a c t of a c a n d l e l i g h t p r o c e s
10-by-4-foot Mylar sheets) a n d t h e n p o i n t the c a m e r a at
sion, a c h u r c h service, or a n establishing s h o t of a n i g h t
t h e reflections. By allowing t h e Mylar sheets to m o v e (by
scene, SEE 14.36
the air m o v e m e n t from t h e s t u d i o a i r - c o n d i t i o n i n g system or a s l o w - m o v i n g fan), y o u will create a great variety of
DIFFUSION
FILTERS
r a n d o m effects.
Diffusion
give a n entire scene a soft, slightly o u t -
filters
You can achieve a similar effect by p o i n t i n g t h e c a m e r a
of-focus look. S o m e diffusion filters soften only t h e edges
at a t u b filled w i t h w a t e r a n d t h e n causing t h e w a t e r to
of a p i c t u r e a n d leave t h e center clear a n d s h a r p . O t h e r s
ripple. For g o o d reflections t h e inside of t h e t u b s h o u l d b e
soften t h e w h o l e scene. You can use diffusion filters to e m -
Section
14.2
Nonelectronic
Effects
and
How
to Use
Them
339
filter device you use, keep it away from the lens glass—even a small scratch will p u t a lens o u t of service.
DEFOCUS T h e defocus effect is o n e of t h e simplest yet m o s t highly effective optical effects. T h e c a m e r a o p e r a t o r simply z o o m s in, racks o u t of focus, a n d , o n cue, back i n t o focus again. T h i s effect is u s e d as a t r a n s i t i o n a l device or to indicate s t r o n g psychological d i s t u r b a n c e s or physiological i m balance. A p o p u l a r rack focus a p p l i c a t i o n is to start o u t of focus o n a series of lights, such as b u r n i n g candles or reflecting water d r o p s , a n d t h e n r a c k i n t o focus to reveal
14.36
STAR FILTER EFFECT
t h e actual light s o u r c e in t h e scene.
The star filter changes bright light sources into starlike light beams.
For a transition y o u could rack o u t of focus o n a closeu p of a y o u n g girl seated at a table, c h a n g e actors quickly,
phasize t h e gentle o r r o m a n t i c n a t u r e of a scene o r even to soften a p e r f o r m e r ' s face, SEE 14.37
Paradoxically, H D T V
h a s r e k i n d l e d the use of diffusion filters. In t h e q u e s t for m a k i n g electronic c i n e m a l o o k like film, DPs (directors of p h o t o g r a p h y ) have b e e n t r y i n g o u t a variety of diffusion
a n d t h e n rack b a c k i n t o focus o n a n old w o m a n sitting in t h e s a m e chair. Because c o m p l e t e defocusing conceals t h e image a l m o s t as completely as going to black, it is possible t o c h a n g e t h e field of view or the objects in front of the c a m e r a while o n t h e air.
filters to soften t h e h a r s h , s u p e r d e f i n i t i o n of H D T V . Try e x p e r i m e n t i n g w i t h v a r i o u s filter m e d i a t h a t y o u c a n stretch over t h e lens, such as plastic w r a p , gauze, o r ny
MECHANICAL EFFECTS
lon stockings. You m a y find that software filters look m u c h
Mechanical effects are n e e d e d m o s t l y in the p r e s e n t a t i o n of
m o r e artificial t h a n y o u r s t o c k i n g - o v e r - t h e - l e n s m e t h o d .
television plays. A l t h o u g h small c o m m e r c i a l stations m a y
A fog filter, a specific t y p e of diffusion filter, creates
have little o p p o r t u n i t y to d o d r a m a , colleges a n d universi
t h e illusion of fog. If y o u d o n ' t have such a filter, y o u can
ties are m o r e frequently involved in t h e p r o d u c t i o n of plays.
achieve a similar effect by very lightly greasing the edges
You m a y also find that n o n b r o a d c a s t television p r o d u c t i o n s
of a piece of glass w i t h a t h i n layer of p e t r o l e u m jelly a n d
call for s u c h effects. For e x a m p l e , t h e s t u d i o p r o d u c t i o n of
t a p i n g it over t h e lens. If y o u grease only t h e edges, leaving
a scene o n traffic safety m a y call for rain, a n d o n e o n fire
a clear area in t h e m i d d l e , y o u get a softening of t h e edges,
safety m a y call for s m o k e .
w i t h the center r e m a i n i n g in s h a r p focus. Do not grease the
A l t h o u g h t h e t e c h n i q u e s for p r o d u c i n g c o m m o n
lens directly! T h e grease, o r its s u b s e q u e n t r e m o v a l , c o u l d
m e c h a n i c a l effects are n o t universally agreed u p o n , such
p e r m a n e n t l y d a m a g e a n expensive z o o m lens. W h a t e v e r
effects offer an excellent o p p o r t u n i t y for e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n .
14.37
DIFFUSION EFFECT
A The original close-up without filtration.
B The image takes on a dreamlike quality when shot with a diffusion filter.
340
Before y o u engage
Chapter
in
14
applying any mechanical
VISUAL
effect,
EFFECTS
ask
yourself t h r e e q u e s t i o n s : Is the effect doable? Is it reliable? Is it safe? If y o u r answer to all t h r e e is yes, go a h e a d . If o n e of t h e m is a n o , resort t o y o u r D V D software. R e m e m b e r t h a t m a n y effects are b e s t a c h i e v e d b y s h o o t i n g u n d e r t h e desired c o n d i t i o n s . For e x a m p l e , to v i d e o t a p e s o m e b o d y waiting at a b u s s t o p in the r a i n , take t h e c a m c o r d e r to a b u s s t o p o n a rainy day. As m e n t i o n e d , y o u can also suggest m a n y situations b y s h o w i n g an effect only partially while relying o n t h e a u d i o track t o s u p p l y the rest of the i n f o r m a t i o n . Also, t h r o u g h c h r o m a keying y o u can use m a n y effects from a p r e r e c o r d e d source, such as a still p h o t o , a v i d e o t a p e , or t h e ESS system. T h a t said, s o m e special effects are relatively easy to achieve mechanically, especially if t h e effect itself r e m a i n s p e r i p h e r a l a n d a u t h e n t i c i t y is n o t a p r i m a r y concern. Keep in m i n d t h a t effects n e e d n o t l o o k realistic to the p e o p l e in t h e s t u d i o ; all t h a t c o u n t s is h o w they a p p e a r to t h e televi-
1 4 . 3 8 FIRE EFFECT To project flickering onto a set, move a batten with silk or nylon strips stapled to it in front of an ellipsoidal or PAR spot.
sion viewer.
RAIN
t h e noise w i t h t h e desired s o u n d s in p o s t p r o d u c t i o n . To
Soak t h e actors' clothes w i t h w a t e r a n d s u p e r i m p o s e t h e
m i n i m i z e t h e fan noise, t r y to " b l i m p " t h e fans as m u c h as
rain from a v i d e o t a p e r e c o r d i n g . If y o u w a n t to s h o w rain
possible by shielding t h e m w i t h s o u n d - a b s o r b i n g m a t e
t h r o u g h a window, mist the w i n d o w p a n e with a spray
rial. Have t h e p e r f o r m e r s wear lavalieres for voice p i c k u p
bottle, back the w i n d o w with a chroma-key drop, and
or use s h o t g u n mics t h a t are close to t h e p e r f o r m e r s b u t
c h r o m a - k e y r a i n i n t o t h e w i n d o w area. Avoid w a t e r in t h e
t u r n e d away f r o m the fans. If y o u s i m u l a t e the w i n d effect
studio—even a small a m o u n t can be h a z a r d o u s to p e r f o r m
caused by r i d i n g in a convertible, n o t e t h a t t h e o c c u p a n t s '
ers a n d e q u i p m e n t . T h e best o p t i o n is to simply wait for a
hair often flies t o w a r d t h e front, against t h e d i r e c t i o n of
rainy day a n d s h o o t o u t s i d e .
travel, a n d n o t t o w a r d t h e b a c k of t h e car, o p p o s i t e t h e d i r e c t i o n of travel.
SNOW Spray c o m m e r c i a l s n o w from aerosol cans o n a piece of
SMOKE
glass in front of t h e lens or s p r i n k l e plastic s n o w from
D o n o t m a k e s m o k e b y p o u r i n g m i n e r a l oil o n a h o t p l a t e ;
above. Cover t h e actors w i t h plastic snow. As w i t h rain,
a l t h o u g h effective visually, this type of s m o k e smells b a d
take y o u r scene o u t s i d e w h e n it is s n o w i n g .
a n d irritates t h e eyes a n d t h r o a t s of crew a n d talent. A n d if t h e oil gets t o o h o t , it m a y catch fire. C o m m e r c i a l s m o k e
FOG
m a c h i n e s p r o d u c e less-irritating s m o k e , b u t t h e y t e n d to
T h e widely used m e t h o d of p u t t i n g d r y ice i n t o h o t water
leave a n oily film o n p e r f o r m e r s , lenses, e q u i p m e n t , a n d
u n f o r t u n a t e l y w o r k s o n l y in silent scenes b e c a u s e t h e
t h e s t u d i o floor. It m a y b e easiest a n d least expensive t o
b u b b l i n g noise it m a k e s m a y b e so l o u d t h a t it d r o w n s o u t
s i m p l y s u p e r a stock s h o t of s m o k e over a scene.
t h e dialogue. Dry-ice fog is also heavier t h a n air a n d t e n d s to settle just above t h e s t u d i o floor. If y o u m u s t s h o o t fog i n d o o r s , r e n t a fog m a c h i n e . If t h e fog does n o t have to
Never use fire inside the studio. T h e risk is s i m p l y t o o great
m o v e , simply use a fog filter o n t h e lens.
for t h e effect. Use s o u n d effects of b u r n i n g , a n d h a v e
WIND
tions, staple large strips of silk o r n y l o n cloth or a l u m i n u m
Use large electric fans to s i m u l a t e w i n d . T h e p r o b l e m , of
foil o n a small b a t t e n a n d project t h e s h a d o w s o n t o t h e
course, is the noise. You can either d r o w n o u t the fan noise
set w i t h an ellipsoidal spot, SEE 14.38 You can also reflect
with recorded w i n d noise d u r i n g the videotaping or replace
a s t r o n g spotlight off of a l u m i n u m foil or a silver Mylar
flickering light effects in the b a c k g r o u n d . For the fire reflec
Section
14.2
Nonelectronic
Effects
and
How
to Use
341
Them
sheet. By m o v i n g t h e sheet, t h e light reflections o n t h e ac t o r s a n d t h e set suggest t h e flickering of fire. You c a n also t r y to s u p e r a v i d e o t a p e of flames over t h e scene.
•
Optical effects include television gobos, reflections, star filters, diffusion filters, and defocus.
•
A television gobo is a cutout or three-dimensional object through which the camera looks at the scene.
•
Mirrors can be used for unusual camera angles and cubist effects. Water is also effective for reflections.
•
Star filters turn light sources into four- or six-point starlike rays. Diffusion filters soften all or part of the camera picture and can simulate fog. Defocus effects are used as transi tions and for suggesting an actor's subjective experience.
•
Mechanical effects include rain, snow, fog, wind, smoke, fire, and lightning. Avoid water—and at all costs, fire—inside the studio. Never set off a detonating device; simply suggest explosions through appropriate light and sound effects.
W h e n using a b a r b e c u e grill o u t d o o r s , carefully ignite rags soaked in k e r o s e n e a n d s h o o t t h e scene t h r o u g h t h e flames. Again, b e extremely careful w i t h even small fires. Always have a fire extinguisher at the ready a n d b e sure t h a t t h e fire is completely o u t before leaving the scene. LIGHTNING Place t w o large p h o t o flash u n i t s a b o u t t e n feet a p a r t . Trigger t h e m o n e right after the other. L i g h t n i n g s h o u l d always c o m e from b e h i n d the set or scene. D o n ' t forget t h e a u d i o effect of t h u n d e r . Obviously, t h e q u i c k e r t h e t h u n d e r succeeds the light flash, t h e closer w e perceive t h e t h u n d e r s t o r m to be. You m a y b e t e m p t e d t o i m i t a t e t h e spectacular explo sions y o u see in so m a n y m o v i e s (usually t o m a k e u p for s t o r y deficiencies). D o n ' t even t h i n k of it. Even d e m o l i t i o n experts, t h e p r o d u c t i o n crew, a n d especially t h e s t u n t p e o p l e are a p p r e h e n s i v e o n "pyro-days," p r o d u c t i o n times w h e n p y r o t e c h n i c devices are used. As w i t h fire, stay away f r o m explosive devices, even if y o u have " e x p e r t s " guar anteeing t h a t n o t h i n g b a d will h a p p e n . You can
suggest
explosions: Take a c l o s e - u p of a frightened face a n d slowly solarize it to t h e s o u n d s of v a r i o u s explosions. Your n e x t s h o t can s h o w d u s t settling over t h e scene of d e s t r u c t i o n . A bag of flour d u m p e d i n t o the scene f r o m a l a d d e r will d o t h e trick.
For your reference, or to track your work, each VideoLab program cue in this chapter is listed here with its corresponding page number. SWITCHINGS Transitions-* mix/dissolve SWITCHINGS EffectsS keys
322
322
SWITCHINGS EffectsS special effects SWITCHINGS TransitionsS wipe | try it
326 327
Design Although y o u are probably very conscious of design a n d style w h e n buying clothes or a n automobile, y o u may b e u n a w a r e of specific design elements w h e n w a t c h i n g an o p e n i n g show title or the living room set of a d a y t i m e drama. You may be dazzled by an a n i m a t e d title that does everything but pop out of the screen, but you're prob ably not motivated to analyze its aesthetic qualities. A n d you probably perceive t h e living room in t h e daytime drama as exactly that—a living r o o m — n o t carefully placed scenery a n d properties. W e all know, of course, that all such design elements are meticulously planned.
In fact, design, or t h e lack of it, permeates everything a television production c o m p a n y shows on t h e air a n d off. It sets the style of t h e video presentation, if not of the produc tion c o m p a n y as a w h o l e . Design includes not only t h e colors a n d the letters of a show title and t h e look of a studio set but also the production company's stationery, office furniture, hallway artwork, a n d logo. T h e C N N logo, for example, suggests up-to-date, no-nonsense news, SEE 15.1
342
But a h a n d s o m e logo does not automatically carry its design qualities over to t h e pro g r a m m i n g or the on-air graphics or scenery. It is important to d e v e l o p a design c o n sciousness for everything y o u do; a well-executed logo is merely the symbol for such
1 5 . 1 CNN LOGO
awareness, not its sole cause.
Section 15.1, Designing a n d Using Television Graphics, stresses t h e major design consid erations of television graphics. Section 15.2, Scenery and Props, looks at major aspects of television scenery and properties.
aliasing The steplike appearance of a computer-generated diagonal or curved line. Also called jaggies or stairsteps.
floor plan A diagram of scenery and properties drawn on a grid pattern. Can also refer to floor plan pattern.
aspect ratio The width-to-height proportions of the standard television screen and therefore of all analog television pic tures: 4 units wide by 3 units high. For DTV and HDTV, the aspect ratio is 16 x 9.
floor plan pattern A plan of the studio floor, showing the walls, the main doors, the location of the control room, and the lighting grid or batten.
character generator (C.G.) A dedicated computer system that electronically produces a series of letters, numbers, and simple graphic images for video display. Any desktop com puter can become a C.G. with the appropriate software.
allows a designer to draw, color, animate, store, and retrieve images electronically. Any desktop computer with a highcapacity RAM and hard drive can become a graphics generator with the use of 2-D and 3-D software.
color compatibility Color signals that can be perceived as black-and-white pictures on monochrome television sets. Generally used to mean that the color scheme has enough brightness contrast for monochrome reproduction with a good grayscale contrast. essential area The section of the television picture, centered within the scanning area, that is seen by the home viewer, regardless of masking or slight misalignment of the re ceiver. Also called safe title area or safe area.
graphics generator Dedicated computer or software that
grayscale A scale indicating intermediate steps from TV white to TV black. Usually measured with a nine- or seven-step scale. props Short for properties. Furniture and other objects used for set decoration and by actors or performers. scanning area Picture area that is scanned by the camera pickup device; in general, the picture area usually seen in the camera viewfinder and the preview monitor.
flat A piece of standing scenery used as a background or to simulate the walls of a room.
343
small
15.1
size of
t h e STV
screen limits
the
amount
of
writing
y o u c a n display a n d d e m a n d s fonts (lettering) t h a t c a n be clearly seen. T h e l i m i t e d screen w i d t h in relation to its h e i g h t m e a n s t h a t the titles d o n o t have as m u c h r o o m t o play across t h e screen a n d therefore m u s t b e kept closer to t h e center. O t h e r design r e q u i r e m e n t s of television g r a p h ics are c o m m o n to all g r a p h i c design a n d deal m o r e w i t h
Designing and Using
readability, style, a n d color.
Television Graphics
design r e q u i r e m e n t s a n d specifications: (1) aspect ratio,
T h i s s e c t i o n t a k e s a c l o s e r l o o k at t h e f o l l o w i n g (2) s c a n n i n g a n d essential areas, (3) o u t - o f - a s p e c t - r a t i o g r a p h i c s , (4) m a t c h i n g STV a n d H D T V a s p e c t r a t i o s , (5) i n f o r m a t i o n density a n d readability, (6) color, (7) style, a n d (8) synthetic images. ASPECT
RATIO
As discussed in c h a p t e r 2, aspect ratio is the r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n screen w i d t h a n d screen h e i g h t — t h e s h a p e of t h e television frame. T h e frame a n d t h e size of t h e screen ultimately determine h o w m u c h information you can place i n t o t h e screen a n d w h e r e to p o s i t i o n it for m a x i W h e n w a t c h i n g television y o u m a y b e m o r e captivated b y the o p e n i n g titles t h a n the show that follows. Even w h e n the p r o g r a m consists of a n o - n o n s e n s e i n t e r v i e w or a simple
m u m i m p a c t . Because t h e aspect ratios of s t a n d a r d a n d h i g h - d e f i n i t i o n television are different, we discuss t h e m separately w h e n e v e r necessary.
p r o d u c t d e m o n s t r a t i o n , we seem obliged to have the title b u r s t o n t o the scene, m a k e its d a n c i n g letters c h a n g e shape a n d color at least once, a n d have at least t h r e e different b a c k g r o u n d s m o v i n g slowly u n d e r n e a t h it. Such titles are usually s u p p o r t e d by h i g h - e n e r g y s o u n d effects. You m a y w o n d e r w h e t h e r we s p e n d a n i n o r d i n a t e a m o u n t of t i m e a n d effort o n t h e graphics c o m p a r e d w i t h the p r o g r a m itself. Even if we d o n ' t , c o m p u t e r - g e n e r a t e d video graphics have b e c o m e a major factor in television p r o d u c t i o n . Because creating such titles requires highly special ized c o m p u t e r skills, r a t h e r t h a n c o m p e t e n c e in television p r o d u c t i o n , we limit o u r discussion to t h e following: ^
STV aspect ratio
T h e aspect ratio of t h e t r a d i t i o n a l
television screen is 4 x 3; t h a t is, the ratio of p i c t u r e w i d t h to p i c t u r e h e i g h t is 1.33:1. You m a y w a n t to r e m e m b e r t h e aspect ratio as b e i n g 4 u n i t s w i d e by 3 u n i t s h i g h , regard less of w h e t h e r t h e u n i t s are inches or feet. A n y t h i n g t h a t a p p e a r s o n - s c r e e n m u s t o b v i o u s l y fit w i t h i n t h i s aspect ratio, SEE 15.2 HDTV aspect ratio
T h e aspect ratio of the high-defini
t i o n television screen is 16 x 9, w h i c h can also b e expressed as 1.78:1. C o m p a r e d w i t h s t a n d a r d television, t h e H D T V
SPECIFICATIONS OF TELEVISION GRAPHICS
screen is h o r i z o n t a l l y stretched, r e s e m b l i n g m o r e t h e m o
Aspect ratio, scanning and essential areas,
t i o n p i c t u r e aspect ratio, SEE I 5.3
out-of-aspect-ratio
All graphical i n f o r m a t i o n m u s t b e c o n t a i n e d w i t h i n
graphics, matching STVand HDTV aspect ratios, information density and readability, color, style, and synthetic images
these aspect ratios. Recall from chapter 14 that y o u can c h a n g e the aspect r a t i o of p i c t u r e s w i t h i n t h e television
SPECIFICATIONS OF TELEVISION GRAPHICS
screen t h r o u g h various digital video effects (DVE), b u t y o u
W h e n c o m p a r i n g a television screen w i t h a m o v i e screen,
divide t h e screen i n t o s e c o n d a r y screens of v a r i o u s aspect
you will see two obvious differences: the s t a n d a r d television
ratios, a n d y o u can b l o c k off areas of t h e screen a n d t h u s
(STV) screen is m u c h smaller a n d m u c h n a r r o w e r t h a n the
s i m u l a t e different aspect ratios, b u t y o u are nevertheless
m o v i e screen. These two factors have a p r o f o u n d influence
confined to t h e set aspect ratio of the television screen.
can't c h a n g e t h e d i m e n s i o n s of t h e screen itself. You can
1
o n t h e design specifications of television graphics. Even a large-screen television set is c o n s i d e r a b l y smaller t h a n t h e average-sized m o t i o n p i c t u r e screen. T h e relatively
344
1.
See Herbert Zettl, Sight Sound Motion, 4th ed. (Belmont, Calif.: Thomson Wadsworth, 2005), pp. 186-95.
Section 15.1
Designing
and
Using
Television
Graphics
345
1 5 . 4 SCANNING AND ESSENTIAL AREAS 1 5 . 2 STV ASPECT RATIO The STV (standard television) aspect ratio is 4 units wide by 3 units high.
1 5 . 3 HDTV ASPECT RATIO The HDTV (high-definition television) aspect ratio is 16 units wide by 9 units high. Compared with STV, it is horizontally stretched.
SCANNING AND ESSENTIAL AREAS Unlike the painter or still photographer, who has full control over how much of the picture shows within the frame, we cannot be so sure about how much of the video pictures videotaped or broadcast are actually seen on the home screen. There is an inevitable picture loss every time you make another videotape dub and, especially, during transmission. Also, not all television receivers are as care fully adjusted as the preview monitors in a control room or editing room. Even if you gave the proper headroom when framing a close-up shot in a studio interview, your shots may have lost most or all the headroom by the time they reach the home receiver. The same is true for titles
The scanning area is what the camera viewfinder and the preview monitor show. The essential, or safe title, area is what appears on the home television screen.
that are framed too close to the screen edge. Because the edge information is often lost, you may end up with in complete titles or the first and last digits missing from a telephone number. How can you ensure that the information you send is actually seen on the home screen? Is there a standard that will more or less guarantee that all essential picture infor mation, such as a title or telephone number, will appear in its entirety? The answer is a qualified yes. Although not mathematically precise, there are guidelines to help you keep picture information from getting lost during dubbing or transmission. Basically, these guidelines tell you to keep vital information away from the screen edges. Just how far away you should be from the edge when framing a shot is prescribed by the scanning and essential areas. The scanning area includes the picture you see in the camera viewfinder and on preview monitors in the control room. It is the area actually scanned by the camera pickup device (the CCDs). The essential area, also called safe title area or, simply, safe area, is centered within the scanning area. It is the portion seen by the home viewer, regardless of the masking of the set, transmission loss, or slight misadjustment of the receiver, SEE 15.4 Obviously, information such as titles and telephone numbers should be contained within the essential area. But just how large is the essential area? It is usually smaller than you think—about 70 percent of the total area. Many character generators (C.G.s) automatically keep a title within the essential area. The better studio cameras have a device that electronically generates a frame within the viewfinder, outlining the safe area. If your C.G. does not have such a built-in safety net, you need to create your own. Most word-processing or
346
15.5
Chapter
75
TITLE BEYOND ESSENTIAL AREA
A On the preview monitor, you can still see the complete title, although it comes close to the edges. B When viewed on the home receiver, the information that lies outside the essential area is lost.
d r a w i n g p r o g r a m s let y o u c r e a t e a r e c t a n g l e a n d t h e n
c a m e r a close e n o u g h t h a t t h e g r a p h i c fits t h e aspect ratio
reduce it by a specific p e r c e n t a g e . You could, for e x a m p l e ,
of t h e television screen, y o u inevitably c u t o u t i m p o r t a n t
d r a w a rectangle t h a t is close t o y o u r c o m p u t e r screen
i n f o r m a t i o n , SEE
b o r d e r s , t h e n r e d u c e this 100 p e r c e n t area to a 70 p e r c e n t one.
15.7
If the lettering a n d other visual i n f o r m a t i o n are simple
T h e s e n e w b o r d e r s w o u l d t h e n o u t l i n e t h e essential
a n d b o l d e n o u g h , y o u c a n m o u n t the entire out-of-aspect-
area for you. You could use t h e s a m e m e t h o d for creating
r a t i o c h a r t o n a larger c a r d t h a t is in aspect r a t i o . You
t h e essential area for a 16 x 9 f o r m a t .
2
s i m p l y pull b a c k w i t h t h e c a m e r a a n d frame u p o n t h e
After s o m e practice y o u will b e able t o c o m p e n s a t e
large card, k e e p i n g t h e o u t - o f - a s p e c t - r a t i o i n f o r m a t i o n as
in the c a m e r a f r a m i n g for t h e p i c t u r e loss or place a title
screen-center as possible. O n a vertically o r i e n t e d g r a p h i c
w i t h i n the essential area w i t h o u t having t o juggle p e r c e n t
w i t h o u t lettering, y o u c o u l d possibly tilt u p a n d reveal
ages. T h e surest way to test a title is to project it o n t h e
the i n f o r m a t i o n bit by bit. If d o n e s m o o t h l y , this g r a d u a l
p r e v i e w m o n i t o r . If the letters c o m e close to t h e edges of
revelation a d d s d r a m a . W i t h lettering, however, s u c h a tilt
the p r e v i e w m o n i t o r , t h e title extends b e y o n d t h e essential
does n o t a d d d r a m a b u t s i m p l y makes t h e g r a p h i c m o r e
area a n d will certainly b e cut off w h e n seen b y t h e h o m e
difficult to read.
viewer, SEE
15.5
You e n c o u n t e r the s a m e f r a m i n g difficulty w h e n t r y ing to cover w r i t i n g o n a b l a c k b o a r d or w h i t e b o a r d for t h e
O U T - O F - A S P E C T - R A T I O
G R A P H I C S
You will inevitably r u n i n t o situations in w h i c h the pictures
s t a n d a r d 4 x 3 aspect ratio. If y o u z o o m o u t all t h e way to s h o w t h e entire w h i t e b o a r d , t h e text is difficult to read.
to be s h o w n d o n o t fit t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s of t h e television
If y o u z o o m in to a close-up, y o u can see only p a r t of t h e
aspect ratio a n d essential area. M o s t often y o u e n c o u n t e r
writing, SEE 15.8
this p r o b l e m w h e n s o m e o n e b r i n g s in a n o u t - o f - a s p e c t -
i n f o r m a t i o n is to divide the w h i t e b o a r d i n t o 4 x 3 or 1 6 x 9
T h e correct way of p r e s e n t i n g w h i t e b o a r d
ratio c h a r t o r poster to pitch a n u p c o m i n g event d u r i n g
aspect ratio fields a n d c o n t a i n t h e w r i t i n g w i t h i n each of
a p r o m o t i o n a l i n t e r v i e w or to illustrate a p o i n t in a sales
these fields. T h e c a m e r a can t h e n get a c l o s e - u p of t h e
m e e t i n g . M o r e often t h a n n o t , y o u m u s t cover s u c h m e e t
entire sentence. Even w h e n w o r k i n g in t h e H D T V aspect
ings live-on-tape w i t h o u t m u c h chance for p o s t p r o d u c t i o n .
ratio, y o u s h o u l d w r i t e t h e i n f o r m a t i o n in blocks r a t h e r
M a n y oversized g r a p h i c s are vertical a n d d o n o t a d h e r e to
t h a n across t h e w i d t h of t h e w h i t e b o a r d , SEE
15.9
the 4 x 3 , m u c h less t h e 16 x 9, aspect ratio. T h e p r o b l e m with a n o u t - o f - a s p e c t - r a t i o g r a p h i c is t h a t , w h e n s h o w n
M A T C H I N G
in its entirety, t h e i n f o r m a t i o n o n the g r a p h i c b e c o m e s so
H D T V
small t h a t it is n o longer readable, SEE 15.6
You m a y w o n d e r w h y digital television did n o t m a i n t a i n
By m o v i n g t h e
S T V
A S P E C T
A N D R A T I O S
the traditional 4 x 3 aspect ratio, m u c h as c o m p u t e r screens 2.
The Adobe Photoshop software, for example, lets you type in the aspect ratio and the desired area percentage.
did. T h e m a i n reason for t h e h o r i z o n t a l l y stretched 1 6 x 9 ratio is that it readily a c c o m m o d a t e s the wide-screen m o v i e
Section
75.7
Designing
and
Using
Television
Graphics
AN
347
E X H I B I T OF
Victorian Fashions OPENING T H I S WEEKEND AT THE
15.6
OUT-OF-ASPECT-RATIO GRAPHIC
When trying to frame this out-of-aspect-ratio graphic in its entirety, most of the information becomes difficult to read if not totally illegible.
15.8
15.7
INFORMATION LOSS IN CLOSE-UP
When you try to get a closer shot, all information outside the aspect ratio is lost.
ASPECT RATIO PROBLEM
Normal writing on a whiteboard can present a typical aspect ratio problem. The camera cannot show a close-up of a message that spans the full width of the whiteboard.
15.9
PROPER USE OF ASPECT RATIO
If the whiteboard is divided into proper aspect ratio fields, the camera can see the entire message even in a close-up.
348
Chapter
15.10
15
DESIGN
FULL-FRAME MOVIES ON STV
15.11
STV PICTURE ON HDTV SCREEN
Making the entire frame of a wide-screen movie fit into the 4 x 3 aspect ratio of STV re sults in empty (black) screen space on the top and the bottom of the screen. The resulting horizontal aspect ratio is called letterbox.
When showing a standard 4 x 3 television picture on the 1 6 x 9 screen, there are empty dead zones, or side bars, on both sides of the screen. This is called the pillarbox aspect ratio.
format. W h e n showing a wide-screen movie o n a tradi
wide-screen movie presentation rather t h a n television
tional television, either b o t h sides of t h e frame are crudely
d i s t r i b u t i o n , w h i c h s u p p o s e d l y lends m o r e prestige t o t h e
a m p u t a t e d o r t h e images are displayed i n t h e " l e t t e r b o x "
p r o g r a m . M a n y p r o d u c e r s are q u i t e pleased to have this
t h a t s h o w s t h e m o v i e in its full w i d t h b u t necessitates
a d d i t i o n a l screen space. T h e y consider t h e side bars any
t h e black stripes at t h e t o p a n d t h e b o t t o m of t h e screen.
t h i n g b u t " d e a d " space a n d fill it with a d d i t i o n a l p r o g r a m
SEE 15.10 S o m e t i m e s , t h e 1 6 x 9 frame is digitally squeezed
i n f o r m a t i o n a n d a d v e r t i s e m e n t s . T h e side b a r s are also a
into t h e 4 x 3 frame, m a k i n g e v e r y t h i n g look taller a n d
t i m e s a v e r — o f t e n t h e p r e v i o u s show's credits are s h o w n
skinnier t h a n i n t h e original s h o t . To avoid s u c h p i c t u r e
o n a side b a r while t h e n e w p r o g r a m s e g m e n t is already
d i s t o r t i o n s , s o m e films are subjected t o t h e
u n d e r way. We as viewers seem t o accept q u i t e readily t h e
pan-and-scan
process w h e r e b y the m o r e i m p o r t a n t p o r t i o n s of t h e w i d e -
stretching o r fattening effect o f digital m a n i p u l a t i o n .
screen frame are selected to fit t h e 4 x 3 frame. But this process is q u i t e costly a n d d o e s n o t m a i n t a i n t h e integrity of t h e original s h o t c o m p o s i t i o n s . W h e n s h o w n o n t h e 16 x 9 H D T V screen, m o v i e s suffer only slight p i c t u r e loss, b u t w e are n o w faced w i t h
INFORMATION DENSITY AND READABILITY Taking a c u e from o v e r c r o w d e d W e b pages, t h e r e is a t e n
the p r o b l e m of s h o w i n g t h e s t a n d a r d 4 x 3 television p r o
d e n c y t o load t h e screen w i t h a great a m o u n t of i n f o r m a
g r a m s . We c a n either stretch o r enlarge t h e STV i m a g e so
t i o n . A n d in o u r q u e s t to squeeze as m u c h i n f o r m a t i o n as
that it fills t h e full w i d t h of t h e H D T V screen. W h e n w e
possible o n t h e relatively small television screen, t h e p r i n t
stretch t h e S T V image t o fill t h e w i d t h of t h e w i d e screen,
used for o n - t h e - a i r copy gets smaller a n d smaller.
everything looks fat, i n c l u d i n g t h e people. W h e n enlarging t h e S T V image so t h a t it fills t h e 1 6 x 9 screen, objects a n d
Information density
p e o p l e u n d o u b t e d l y lose s o m e of their h e a d r o o m — a n d
c r o w d i n g t h e screen if t h e d a t a s i m u l t a n e o u s l y displayed
s o m e t i m e s even their h e a d s a n d feet! You c a n also place
are related a n d a d d relevant i n f o r m a t i o n . For e x a m p l e , if
the full 4 x 3 frame i n t h e center of t h e 16 x 9 screen,
in a h o m e - s h o p p i n g s h o w y o u s h o w a c l o s e - u p of an item
leaving black stripes, called dead zones o r side bars. This is
a n d s i m u l t a n e o u s l y display t h e retail price, t h e sale price,
s o m e t i m e s called pillarboxing.
SEE 1 S.I 1
T h e r e is s o m e justification for
a n d t h e t e l e p h o n e n u m b e r t o call, y o u are p r o v i d i n g t h e
Interestingly e n o u g h , s o m e p r o g r a m s m a k e a v i r t u e
viewer with a valuable service. O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , if y o u
o u t o f t h i s u n a v o i d a b l e h a n d i c a p . You m a y h a v e seen
s h o w a newscaster r e a d i n g t h e news in o n e c o r n e r of t h e
M T V p r e s e n t a t i o n s o r c o m m e r c i a l s t h a t are letterboxed,
screen, display t h e w e a t h e r r e p o r t in a n o t h e r , r u n stock
w i t h b l a c k b o r d e r s at t h e t o p a n d t h e b o t t o m o f t h e
m a r k e t n u m b e r s a n d s p o r t s scores across t h e t o p a n d t h e
screen. This is t o i m p l y that t h e y were originally shot for
b o t t o m , a n d s h o w station logos a n d a d s all at t h e s a m e
Section
Designing
15.1
and
Using
Television
Graphics
349
are so small a n d detailed t h a t y o u can't r e a d t h e m w i t h o u t a magnifying glass. Such readability p r o b l e m s o c c u r regularly w h e n m o t i o n p i c t u r e credits are s h o w n o n a t r a d i t i o n a l 4 x 3 screen. First, as already p o i n t e d o u t , t h e titles generally e x t e n d b e y o n d t h e essential area, so y o u can see only p a r t s of t h e m . Second, the credit lines are so small that they are u s u ally i m p o s s i b l e t o read o n t h e l o w - r e s o l u t i o n STV screen. T h i r d , t h e letters themselves are n o t b o l d e n o u g h t o show u p well o n television, especially if t h e b a c k g r o u n d is busy. T h e s e p r o b l e m s are greatly m i n i m i z e d o n a 16 x 9 H D T V screen; b u t in c o n s i d e r a t i o n of t h e m a n y viewers w a t c h
15.12
SCREEN CLUTTER
i n g s t a n d a r d television, y o u n e e d t o a i m for a high degree
This screen has so much unrelated information that it is difficult to make sense of it amid the visual clutter.
of readability. W h a t , t h e n , m a k e s for o p t i m a l readability? H e r e are s o m e r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s : Keep all w r i t t e n i n f o r m a t i o n w i t h i n t h e essential area. C h o o s e fonts (letters of a p a r t i c u l a r size a n d style) t h a t have a bold, clean c o n t o u r . T h e limited r e s o l u t i o n of t h e television i m a g e does n o t r e p r o d u c e t h i n - l i n e d fonts, w h o s e fine strokes a n d serifs are susceptible to b r e a k u p w h e n keyed. S o m e t i m e s even b o l d , sans serif fonts c a n get lost in t h e b a c k g r o u n d a n d n e e d to be reinforced w i t h a d r o p s h a d o w or color o u t l i n e . Limit t h e a m o u n t of i n f o r m a t i o n . T h e less i n f o r m a t i o n t h a t appears o n - s c r e e n , the easier it is t o c o m p r e h e n d . S o m e television experts suggest a m a x i m u m of seven lines
15.13 The eas
PROPER STRUCTURE OF MULTIPLE SCREEN ELEMENTS
arrangement of these multiple screens and information ar makes it relatively easy to seek out the desired information.
p e r title. It is m o r e sensible to p r e p a r e a series of titles o n several C.G. "pages," each displaying a small a m o u n t of text, t h a n a single p a g e w i t h a n o v e r a b u n d a n c e of information. F o r m a t all lettering i n t o blocks for easily perceivable
t i m e , y o u r u n t h e risk of i n f o r m a t i o n overload in a d d i t i o n t o excessive screen clutter, SEE
g r a p h i c a l units, SEE 15.14
This block layout is often used
in well-designed W e b pages. If t h e titles are scattered, they
15.12
If t h e e l e m e n t s are p r o p e r l y a r r a n g e d a c c o r d i n g to
l o o k u n b a l a n c e d a n d are h a r d to read, SEE 15.15
Scattered
t h e p r i n c i p l e s of c o m p o s i t i o n , however, s u c h a d d i t i o n a l
i n f o r m a t i o n is a typical characteristic of a p o o r l y designed
i n f o r m a t i o n can a d d significantly to t h e basic c o m m u n i c a
W e b page.
t i o n . W h e n these m i n i - s c r e e n s are t h o u g h t f u l l y a r r a n g e d w i t h i n t h e basic television frame, w e are less likely to b e o v e r w h e l m e d a n d can pick a n d choose a m o n g the informa t i o n p r e s e n t e d . SEE
15.13
In television g r a p h i c s readability
D o n o t key lettering i n t o t o o b u s y a b a c k g r o u n d . If y o u m u s t a d d l e t t e r i n g over a b u s y b a c k g r o u n d — s u c h as scores a n d n a m e s of players over t h e live p i c t u r e of a football s t a d i u m — s e l e c t a simple, b o l d font, SEE
means
t h a t y o u s h o u l d b e able to r e a d t h e w o r d s t h a t a p p e a r o n screen. As o b v i o u s as this s t a t e m e n t is, it s e e m s to have eluded m a n y a graphic artist. S o m e t i m e s titles explode o n t o
15.I6
T h e s a m e principles a p p l y w h e n y o u a n i m a t e a title u s i n g special effects. In fact, if t h e title twists a n d t u m b l e s a r o u n d t h e screen, t h e letters m u s t b e even m o r e legible t h a n if t h e y were u s e d for a static, s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d title.
a n d d i s a p p e a r f r o m t h e screen so quickly t h a t only video
Bear in m i n d that w h e n e v e r y o u use p r i n t e d m a t e r i a l
g a m e c h a m p s a n d p e o p l e w i t h s u p e r i o r perceptive abilities
as o n - a i r g r a p h i c s , i n c l u d i n g r e p r o d u c t i o n s of f a m o u s
c a n actually see a n d m a k e sense o u t of t h e m ; or t h e letters
paintings, professional p h o t o g r a p h s , illustrated books,
DESIGN
15.14
BLOCK ORGANIZATION OF TITLES
When titles are arranged in blocks, related information is graphically organized for easy perception.
15.15
15.16
SCATTERED TITLES
BOLD LETTERS OVER A BUSY BACKGROUND
When titles are scattered, the information is difficult to read.
This title reads well despite the busy background. The letters are bold and differ sufficiently in brightness from the background.
a n d similar m a t t e r , y o u m u s t o b t a i n c o p y r i g h t clearance.
o r luminance,
If y o u have s u b s c r i b e d to a c o m p u t e r i m a g e service, y o u r
M o s t h i g h - e n d digital e d i t i n g e q u i p m e n t a n d g r a p h i c s
copyright limits d e p e n d o n the a m o u n t of user fees you pay.
p r o g r a m s list these attributes as i m p o r t a n t factors for color
indicates h o w light o r d a r k a color a p p e a r s .
manipulation.
COLOR Because color is a n i m p o r t a n t design e l e m e n t , y o u n e e d
Grayscale
to k n o w s o m e t h i n g a b o u t its a t t r i b u t e s a n d c o m p o n e n t s .
m e a s u r e d b y h o w m u c h light it reflects. T h e television sys
M o s t i m p o r t a n t , y o u m u s t familiarize yourself w i t h t h e
t e m is n o t capable of r e p r o d u c i n g p u r e w h i t e (100 p e r c e n t
aesthetics of c o l o r — t h a t is, h o w various colors go t o g e t h e r
reflectance) o r p u r e black (0 p e r c e n t reflectance); at best it
T h e relative b r i g h t n e s s of a color is usually
can r e p r o d u c e a n off-white ( a b o u t 70 p e r c e n t reflectance
a n d h o w t h e television system reacts to t h e m .
for m o n o c h r o m e television a n d only a b o u t 60 p e r c e n t for Color attributes
As e x p l a i n e d in c h a p t e r 3, color is
d e t e r m i n e d b y three factors, called attributes:
hue, satura
color) a n d a n off-black ( a b o u t 3 p e r c e n t reflectance). We call these brightness extremes TVwhiteand
TVblack.
If y o u
tion, a n d b r i g h t n e s s . Hue refers to t h e color itself—that
divide the brightness range between T V white a n d TV black
is, w h e t h e r it is b l u e , green, r e d , o r yellow.
i n t o distinct steps, y o u have t h e television
Saturation
( s o m e t i m e s called chroma) indicates t h e color s t r e n g t h — a s t r o n g o r pale red, a w a s h e d - o u t or rich green.
Brightness,
grayscale.
T h e m o s t c o m m o n n u m b e r of b r i g h t n e s s steps b e t w e e n T V w h i t e a n d T V black o n a grayscale is n i n e ,
Section
Designing
15.1
and
Using
Television
Graphics
351
a n d - w h i t e television set as o n a color o n e . In p r o d u c t i o n it s i m p l y m e a n s t h a t a color p i c t u r e shows u p well a n d with e n o u g h brightness contrast o n a black-and-white television set. For titles t h e r e s h o u l d b e a healthy b r i g h t n e s s contrast. 1 \
2 3 TV white: 7 0 % reflectance (60% for color)
4
5\
6 7 8 / 9 M 8% reflectance / /
T V b l a c k : 3 %
reflectance'
W h e n y o u use exclusively h i g h - e n e r g y colors for a title, s u c h as r e d lettering o n a green o r b l u e b a c k g r o u n d , t h e difference in h u e is so o b v i o u s t h a t y o u m i g h t b e t e m p t e d to neglect t h e grayscale difference. As different as t h e y seem o n a color m o n i t o r , if t h e y have t h e s a m e b r i g h t ness t h e y are u n r e a d a b l e o n a m o n o c h r o m e m o n i t o r (see figure 3.28). Even if t h e colors y o u use are n o t i n t e n d e d for r e p r o
1 5 . 1 7 NINE-STEP GRAYSCALE
d u c t i o n o n a b l a c k - a n d - w h i t e television set, g o o d b r i g h t
The nine-step grayscale shows nine different grays, ranging from TV white on the left to TV black on the right.
ness c o n t r a s t is also i m p o r t a n t for a color r e n d i t i o n . It aids t h e picture's r e s o l u t i o n a n d t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l i t y a n d helps separate t h e v a r i o u s colors (see figure 3.29). W i t h a little experience y o u will find t h a t just by s q u i n t i n g y o u r eyes while l o o k i n g at t h e set, y o u can d e t e r m i n e fairly well w h e t h e r t w o colors have e n o u g h b r i g h t n e s s c o n t r a s t to e n s u r e compatibility. A e s t h e t i c s of color
T h e recognition a n d the applica
t i o n of color h a r m o n y c a n n o t b e e x p l a i n e d in a s h o r t p a r a g r a p h ; they require experience, practice, sensitivity, a n d taste. R a t h e r t h a n t r y to dictate w h i c h colors go w i t h w h a t o t h e r colors, y o u c a n m o r e easily divide the colors into "high-energy" and "low-energy" and then match their energies.
1 5 . 1 8 SEVEN-STEP GRAYSCALE
The high-energy colors include bright,
Most STV sets reproduce seven distinct grays, from TV white to TV black.
highly
s a t u r a t e d h u e s , s u c h as rich reds, yellows, a n d blues. T h e l o w - e n e r g y g r o u p c o n t a i n s m o r e - s u b t l e h u e s w i t h a low degree of s a t u r a t i o n , s u c h as pastel colors. Normally, y o u s h o u l d keep t h e colors of the b a c k g r o u n d l o w - e n e r g y a n d
a l t h o u g h y o u will find t h a t by t h e t i m e t h e signal arrives
t h e f o r e g r o u n d high-energy. In a set (as in y o u r h o m e ) ,
at y o u r h o m e receiver, y o u can be lucky to m e a s u r e seven
t h e b a c k g r o u n d (walls) is usually less colorful t h a n t h e set
steps, SEE 15.17 A grayscale of seven steps is therefore m o r e
pieces a n d dressings, s u c h as rugs, sofas, p i c t u r e s , a n d pil
SEE 15.1 s T h e n e w
lows, SEE 15.19 A N D 15.20 Titles w o r k o n t h e s a m e principle:
H D T V systems, however, n o t only p r o d u c e s u p e r i o r reso
y o u will find t h a t an easily readable title h a s h i g h - e n e r g y
l u t i o n (picture s h a r p n e s s ) b u t also extend the grayscale.
lettering o n a l o w - e n e r g y b a c k g r o u n d .
realistic for m o n o c h r o m e television,
Such a n e x t e n d e d grayscale is necessary for achieving the
Of course, t h e colors m u s t also b e a p p r o p r i a t e for t h e
"film l o o k " of H D T V . Like film, H D T V c a n display m a n y
event. For e x a m p l e , if t h e titles are i n t e n d e d to a n n o u n c e
m o r e subtle steps of gray b e t w e e n T V white a n d T V black.
a h i g h - e n e r g y show, s u c h as a vivacious d a n c e n u m b e r ,
N o t e that the m i d d l e value of the grayscale is n o t 30 percent
h i g h - e n e r g y colors for b o t h t h e title a n d t h e b a c k g r o u n d
b u t 18 p e r c e n t . This m e a n s t h a t y o u n e e d c o n s i d e r a b l y
are fitting. If, h o w e v e r , y o u use t h e s a m e h i g h - e n e r g y
m o r e light to get from t h e very b r i g h t step 3 to a n even
colors t o i n t r o d u c e a discussion o n t h e latest b u d g e t defi
b r i g h t e r step 2 t h a n w h e n m o v i n g f r o m the d a r k e r 8 to t h e
cit, t h e choice is i n a p p r o p r i a t e , even if t h e title h a s g o o d
slightly lighter 7.
readability. I n d e p e n d e n t of aesthetics, o n l y top-of-the-line televi compatibility
sion cameras can h a n d l e highly saturated reds. Unless there
m e a n s t h a t t h e g r a p h i c is e q u a l l y r e a d a b l e o n a black-
is an a b u n d a n c e of baselight, t h e v i d e o c a m e r a "sees r e d "
Compatible color
T e c h n i c a l l y , color
352
Chapter
15
DESIGN
15.19 HIGH-ENERGY COLORS The energy of a color is determined mainly by its saturation. High-energy colors are highly saturated hues, usually at the red and yellow end of the spectrum. They are especially effective when set against a low-energy background.
15.20 LOW-ENERGY COLORS Low-energy colors are desaturated hues. Most pastel colors are low-energy.
w h e n l o o k i n g at r e d — a t best, d i s t o r t i n g t h e red color or,
creativity or social need. As e m p h a s i z e d in chapter 14, DVE
in s o m e cases, m a k i n g red areas in t h e s h o t vibrate (exces
e q u i p m e n t c o n t r i b u t e d n o t o n l y to a n e w graphical aware
sive v i d e o noise) or bleed into adjacent areas. This color
ness b u t also t o an abuse of style. Often a n i m a t e d titles are
bleeding is n o t unlike t h e bleeding of o n e s o u n d track into
g e n e r a t e d n o t to reflect t h e prevailing aesthetic taste or t o
a n o t h e r . W h e n w o r k i n g w i t h p r o s u m e r a n d lesser-quality
signal t h e n a t u r e of t h e u p c o m i n g show b u t simply because
c a m e r a s , suggest t h a t t h e talent n o t w e a r highly s a t u r a t e d
it is fun to see letters d a n c e o n - s c r e e n . A l t h o u g h flashy
red clothing a n d t h a t scene designers n o t p a i n t large areas
graphics in news m a y b e tolerated because they express a n d
w i t h s a t u r a t e d r e d s . T h i s p r o b l e m b e c o m e s especially
intensify t h e urgency of the message, they are i n a p p r o p r i a t e
noticeable in EFP, w h e r e y o u generally w o r k in less-than-
for shows t h a t explore a n a t u r a l disaster or plays t h a t delve
o p t i m a l lighting c o n d i t i o n s .
i n t o a n intense relationship b e t w e e n t w o p e o p l e .
STYLE
graphics are i m i t a t i n g t h e colors a n d layout of c o m p u t e r
Style, like language, is a n i m a t e a n d n o n s t a t i c . It changes
Web pages. S o m e television graphics even p a r r o t t h e
a c c o r d i n g to t h e specific aesthetic d e m a n d s of a given lo
s h o r t c o m i n g s of the c o m p u t e r image, such as t h e
c a t i o n a n d t i m e . To i g n o r e it m e a n s to c o m m u n i c a t e less
ing ("jaggies") of diagonals or curves in lines a n d letters,
effectively. You learn style n o t f r o m a b o o k b u t p r i m a r i l y
differently colored h o r i z o n t a l strips t h a t c o n t a i n lettering
You m a y have n o t i c e d t h a t c o n t e m p o r a r y television
alias
t h r o u g h being sensitive to y o u r e n v i r o n m e n t — b y experi
a n d small p r o d u c t icons, or the scattering of tiny s e c o n d a r y
encing life with o p e n eyes a n d ears a n d , especially, a n o p e n
w i n d o w s o n t h e m a i n television screen (see figure 15.12).
heart. T h e way y o u dress n o w c o m p a r e d w i t h the way y o u
O n e of t h e reasons for such e m u l a t i o n is to b e h i p a n d o n
dressed ten years ago is an e x a m p l e of a c h a n g e in style.
the cutting edge. M o r e often t h a n not, however, such screen
S o m e p e o p l e n o t only sense t h e prevailing style b u t also
clutter reflects m o r e t h e b a d taste of t h e g r a p h i c designer
m a n a g e to e n h a n c e it w i t h a p e r s o n a l , distinctive flair.
than a new trend.
S o m e t i m e s it is t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of television e q u i p
Regardless of w h e t h e r you are a trendsetter, y o u should
m e n t that influences presentation styles m o r e t h a n personal
t r y t o m a t c h t h e style of t h e a r t w o r k w i t h that of t h e show.
Section
15.1
Designing
and
Using
Television
353
Graphics
SYNTHETIC IMAGES Synthetic
images refer to p i c t u r e s t h a t are created entirely
w i t h t h e c o m p u t e r . M o s t d e s k t o p i m a g i n g software offers t h o u s a n d s of different h u e s , t h i n a n d thick lines, shapes, a n d v a r i o u s b r u s h strokes a n d textures for creating elec t r o n i c art. A television w e a t h e r c a s t is a g o o d e x a m p l e of t h e m a n y capabilities of a large-scale graphics
generator.
T h e basic territorial m a p , t e m p e r a t u r e zones, h i g h - a n d l o w - p r e s s u r e z o n e s , s y m b o l s for s u n s h i n e a n d f o r m s of p r e c i p i t a t i o n , l e t t e r i n g , m o v i n g c l o u d s , a n d v a r i o u s t e m p e r a t u r e n u m b e r s — a l l are g e n e r a t e d by t h e digital g r a p h i c s generator.
15.21
ANIMATED 3-D RENDERING
High-powered digital software can generate and animate realistic-looking three-dimensional objects.
D e p e n d i n g on storage capacity and software so p h i s t i c a t i o n , y o u can create a n d store c o m p l e x graphical sequences, s u c h as a n i m a t e d t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l titles that u n f o l d w i t h i n a n o t h e r a n i m a t e d 3-D e n v i r o n m e n t , or multilayered m a t t e s t h a t twist w i t h i n a 3-D video s p a c e .
B u t d o n o t go o v e r b o a r d a n d identify y o u r guest from
3
SEE 15.21-15.23
C h i n a w i t h C h i n e s e lettering or y o u r news s t o r y a b o u t t h e
Some computer programs, based on complex m a t h
d e v a s t a t i n g flood w i t h titles t h a t b o b across t h e screen. D o
ematical f o r m u l a s , allow y o u to p a i n t irregular s h a p e s ,
n o t a b a n d o n g o o d taste for effect. In a successful design,
called fractals, w h i c h are used to create realistic a n d fantasy
all images a n d objects interrelate a n d h a r m o n i z e w i t h o n e
l a n d s c a p e s a n d countless abstract p a t t e r n s , SEE 15.24
a n o t h e r — f r o m t h e largest, such as t h e b a c k g r o u n d scenery, to t h e smallest, s u c h as t h e fruit b o w l o n t h e table. G o o d design displays a c o n t i n u i t y a n d c o h e r e n c e of style.
15.22
3.
Zettl's VideoLab 3.0 has a great number of 2-D and 3-D animated renderings, which you can control interactively.
GENERATED GRAPHICS
Software specifically for graphics generators can create a variety of three-dimensional titles or moving images.
15.23
DIGITAL RENDERING: THE VATICAN
This animated fly-by sequence shows the Piazza San Pietro in Vatican City from various points of view.
354
Chapter
15
DESIGN
stretched HDTV screen format accommodates wide-screen movies. •
The scanning area is what the camera viewfinder and the preview monitor show. The essential, or safe title, area is the portion seen by the viewer, regardless of transmission loss or slight misadjustment of the receiver.
•
Out-of-aspect-ratio graphics need special consideration to make them fit the STV or HDTV television screen.
•
To show the full width of movies or HDTV on the 3 x 4 STV screen, letterboxing (leaving black stripes on the top and the bottom of the frame) is necessary. When STV programs are shown on wide-screen HDTV, black stripes, called dead zones or side bars, are used on both sides of the screen, a process called pillarboxing.
•
To avoid information overload when showing unrelated information simultaneously on a single screen, arrange the elements in easy-to-read mini-screens or text blocks.
•
Good readability results when the written information is within the essential area, the letters are relatively large and have a clean contour, the background is not too busy, and there is good color and brightness contrast between the lettering and the background.
•
Color compatibility means that the color image translates into distinct brightness values (grayscale steps) when seen on a monochrome receiver. Most television systems repro duce at best nine separate brightness steps. These steps, ranging from TV white (1) to TV black (9), make up the television grayscale.
•
Synthetic images are generated entirely by computer graphics. They can be still or animated.
1 5 . 2 4 FRACTAL LANDSCAPE Most painting software allows you to "paint" irregular images using mathematical formulas.
•
Design is an overall concept that includes such elements as the fonts for titles, the station logo, the look of the news set, and even the office furniture.
•
The major purposes of television graphics are to give you specific information, to tell you something about the na ture of the event, and to grab your attention.
•
The standard television (STV) aspect ratio is 4 x 3, which means that the screen is 4 units wide by 3 units high. Wide-screen high-definition television (HDTV) has a wider aspect ratio of 16 x 9. The aspect ratios are also expressed as 1.33:1 for STV and 1.78:1 for HDTV. The horizontally
or a realistic living r o o m , a set s h o u l d allow for o p t i m a l
15.2
c a m e r a angles a n d m o v e m e n t , m i c r o p h o n e p l a c e m e n t a n d occasionally b o o m m o v e m e n t , a p p r o p r i a t e light ing, a n d m a x i m u m a c t i o n b y p e r f o r m e r s . Fulfilling these r e q u i r e m e n t s are four types of scenery: ( 1 ) s t a n d a r d set u n i t s , (2) h a n g i n g units, (3) p l a t f o r m s a n d w a g o n s , a n d (4) set pieces.
Scenery and Props
STANDARD
SET UNITS
S t a n d a r d set u n i t s consist of softwall a n d hardwall
flats
a n d a variety of set m o d u l e s . B o t h are used to s i m u l a t e interior o r exterior walls. A l t h o u g h television stations a n d n o n b r o a d c a s t p r o d u c t i o n h o u s e s use h a r d w a l l s c e n e r y a l m o s t exclusively, softwall scenery is m o r e practical for h i g h - s c h o o l a n d college television o p e r a t i o n s . Softwall flats
T h e flats for s t a n d a r d softwall set u n i t s
are c o n s t r u c t e d of a lightweight w o o d frame covered w i t h m u s l i n o r canvas. T h e y have a u n i f o r m h e i g h t b u t v a r i o u s w i d t h s . T h e h e i g h t is usually 10 feet ( a b o u t 3 m e t e r s ) o r 8 feet ( a b o u t 2 V i m e t e r s ) for small sets or s t u d i o s w i t h low A l t h o u g h y o u m a y never b e called u p o n t o design o r b u i l d scenery, y o u will likely set u p scenery in t h e s t u d i o o r fix u p a n interior at a r e m o t e location. Setting u p even a small i n terview set requires that y o u k n o w w h a t t h e v a r i o u s pieces of scenery are called a n d h o w t o r e a d a floor plan. Your ability t o see an existing o n - l o c a t i o n i n t e r i o r as a "set" will n o t only speed u p c a m e r a p l a c e m e n t a n d lighting b u t also help y o u d e t e r m i n e if it n e e d s r e d e c o r a t i n g for m a x i m a l l y effective c a m e r a shots. K n o w i n g h o w to m a n a g e s t u d i o space t h r o u g h scenery a n d p r o p e r t i e s will also help y o u s t r u c t u r e screen space in general.
ceilings. W i d t h ranges f r o m 1 to 5 feet (30 c e n t i m e t e r s to W i m e t e r s ) . W h e n t w o o r three flats are h i n g e d together, t h e y are called twofolds (also called a book) o r
threefolds.
Flats are s u p p o r t e d b y jacks, w o o d braces t h a t are h i n g e d o r c l a m p e d t o t h e flats a n d weighted d o w n b y sandbags or m e t a l weights, SEE 15.25 Softwall scenery h a s n u m e r o u s advantages: it is rela tively inexpensive t o c o n s t r u c t a n d can usually b e d o n e in t h e scene s h o p s of t h e a t e r d e p a r t m e n t s ; it lends itself t o a great variety of set b a c k g r o u n d s ; it is easy t o m o v e a n d store; it is easy t o set u p , brace, a n d strike; a n d it is relatively easy t o m a i n t a i n a n d repair. T h e p r o b l e m s w i t h softwall
^
fr>
TELEVISION SCENERY
scenery are t h a t it is difficult t o h a n g pictures o n t h e flats,
Standard set units, hanging units, platforms and wagons, and set pieces
a n d t h e y often shake w h e n s o m e o n e closes a d o o r o r a w i n
PROPERTIES AND SET DRESSINGS Stage props, set dressings, hand properties, and the prop list
^
d o w o n t h e set o r w h e n s o m e t h i n g b r u s h e s against t h e m . Hardwall
flats a r e m u c h
sturdier
t h a n softwall flats a n d are preferred for m o r e - a m b i t i o u s
ELEMENTS OF SCENE DESIGN
television p r o d u c t i o n s . Hardwall scenery does have a
The floor plan, set backgrounds and platforms, and studio floor treatments
few d r a w b a c k s : h a r d w a l l u n i t s d o n o t always c o n f o r m t o t h e s t a n d a r d set d i m e n s i o n s o f softwall scenery, a n d t h e flats are heavy a n d difficult t o store. (In t h e interest
TELEVISION SCENERY
of y o u r — a n d t h e
flats'—well-being,
do n o t try to move
h a r d w a l l scenery b y yourself.) H a r d w a l l flats also reflect
Because t h e television c a m e r a looks at a set b o t h at close
s o u n d m o r e readily t h a n d o softwall flats, w h i c h c a n eas
range a n d at a distance, scenery m u s t b e detailed e n o u g h
ily interfere w i t h g o o d a u d i o p i c k u p . For e x a m p l e , if a set
to a p p e a r realistic yet plain e n o u g h t o p r e v e n t cluttered
design requires t h a t t w o h a r d w a l l flats s t a n d o p p o s i t e a n d
p i c t u r e s . Regardless of w h e t h e r it's a s i m p l e i n t e r v i e w set
in close p r o x i m i t y t o each other, t h e talent o p e r a t i n g in this
355
356
15.25
Chapter
15
DESIGN
SOFTWALL FLATS
Softwall flats consist of a wood frame covered with muslin or canvas.
1 5 . 2 6 H A R D W A L L SET This set was constructed with hardwall flats for a specific television drama. Note the specific set props that give the set its character.
space will m o s t likely s o u n d as t h o u g h t h e y were speaking inside a barrel. Most hardwall scenery is built for specific s h o w s — s u c h
For small television stations or educational i n s t i t u t i o n s , w h e r e y o u d o n o t have t h e l u x u r y of b u i l d i n g n e w sets for every show, y o u m a y consider versatile set
as n e w s c a s t s , i n t e r v i e w a r e a s , a n d s o a p o p e r a s — a n d
m o d u l e s t h a t can be used in a variety of c o n f i g u r a t i o n s .
r e m a i n s set u p for t h e l e n g t h of t h e series. C a r e f u l l y
A set module is a series of flats a n d t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l set
c o n s t r u c t e d h a r d w a l l scenery is a m u s t for H D T V or a n y
pieces w h o s e d i m e n s i o n s m a t c h , w h e t h e r t h e y are u s e d
o t h e r form of digital television that h a s a h i g h e r p i c t u r e
vertically (right side u p ) , h o r i z o n t a l l y ( o n t h e i r sides), o r
r e s o l u t i o n t h a n STV. SEE 15.26
in v a r i o u s c o m b i n a t i o n s .
Section
Scenery
15.2
and
357
Props
15.27 MUSLIN CYCLORAMA The muslin eye runs on over head tracks and normally cov ers three sides of the studio.
For e x a m p l e , y o u m i g h t use a m o d u l a r h a r d w a l l set piece as a flat in o n e p r o d u c t i o n a n d as a p l a t f o r m in the next. O r y o u can d i s m a n t l e a m o d u l a r desk a n d use t h e boxes ( r e p r e s e n t i n g the drawers) a n d t h e t o p as display u n i t s . A w i d e v a r i e t y of set m o d u l e s is c o m m e r c i a l l y available.
HANGING UNITS W h e r e a s flats s t a n d o n t h e s t u d i o floor, hanging
units are
s u p p o r t e d from overhead tracks, t h e lighting grid, o r light ing b a t t e n s . T h e y i n c l u d e (1) t h e cyclorama, (2) d r o p s , a n d (3) d r a p e s a n d c u r t a i n s .
Cyclorama cyclorama,
T h e m o s t versatile h a n g i n g b a c k g r o u n d is a
or eye, a c o n t i n u o u s piece of m u s l i n or canvas
stretched a l o n g t w o , t h r e e , a n d s o m e t i m e s even all four s t u d i o walls, SEE 15.27 S o m e eyes have o n a s e c o n d t r a c k a c u r t a i n of loosely w o v e n material, called a scrim, h a n g i n g in front of t h e m t o b r e a k t h e light before it hits t h e eye, p r o d u c i n g a soft, u n i f o r m b a c k g r o u n d . A fairly light color (light gray or beige) is m o r e a d v a n t a g e o u s t h a n a d a r k eye. You c a n always m a k e a light eye d a r k b y k e e p i n g the light off it, a n d y o u can colorize it easily u s i n g floodlights (scoops o r softlights) w i t h color gels attached. A d a r k eye will let y o u d o neither. S o m e s t u d i o s have h a r d w a l l eyes,
15.28
w h i c h are n o t actually h a n g i n g u n i t s b u t are built solidly
The hardwall eye is made of hardwall material and is perma nently installed on one or two sides of the studio.
against t h e s t u d i o wall, SEE 15.28 M o s t s t u d i o s use a ground
row t o b l e n d t h e b o t t o m
edge of t h e m u s l i n eye i n t o t h e s t u d i o floor, SEE 15.29
HARDWALL CYC
358
Chapter
15
DESIGN
15.30
SEAMLESS PAPER DROP
A simple yet effective backdrop can be constructed by hanging a roll of seamless paper from a row of flats.
15.29
GROUND ROW
The ground row runs along the bottom of the eye to make it blend into the studio floor.
PLATFORMS AND WAGONS T h e v a r i o u s t y p e s of p l a t f o r m s are e l e v a t i o n d e v i c e s . Typical p l a t f o r m s are 6 o r 12 inches ( r o u g h l y 15 or 30
A drop is a w i d e roll of canvas w i t h a b a c k g r o u n d
centimeters) high a n d can be stacked. S o m e t i m e s the w h o l e
scene p a i n t e d o n it. It c o m m o n l y serves stylized settings
p l a t f o r m is called a riser, a l t h o u g h technically a riser is
w h e r e t h e viewer is aware t h a t t h e a c t i o n o c c u r s in a n
only t h e elevation p a r t of t h e p l a t f o r m w i t h o u t its (often
artificial setting. S o m e d r o p s consist of large p h o t o m u r a l s
r e m o v a b l e ) t o p . If y o u use a p l a t f o r m for interviews, for
( w h i c h are c o m m e r c i a l l y available) for m o r e - r e a l i s t i c
e x a m p l e , y o u m a y w a n t to cover it w i t h c a r p e t i n g . This cover n o t only will l o o k g o o d o n c a m e r a b u t will also a b
b a c k g r o u n d effects. drop is a w i d e roll of c h r o m a - k e y b l u e
s o r b t h e h o l l o w s o u n d s of p e o p l e m o v i n g o n the p l a t f o r m .
or green cloth t h a t can b e p u l l e d d o w n a n d even s t r e t c h e d
You c a n f u r t h e r d a m p e n this s o u n d by filling t h e p l a t f o r m
over p a r t of t h e s t u d i o floor for c h r o m a keying.
interior with foam rubber.
A chroma-key
You can m a k e a simple a n d inexpensive d r o p by s u s
S o m e of t h e 6 - i n c h p l a t f o r m s have four casters so
p e n d i n g a roll of seamless p a p e r (9 feet w i d e b y 36 feet
that t h e y can b e m o v e d a r o u n d . Such p l a t f o r m s are called
l o n g ) , w h i c h c o m e s in a variety of colors. Seamless p a p e r
wagons. You c a n m o u n t a p o r t i o n of a set, or even a w h o l e
h u n g from a r o w of flats p r o v i d e s a c o n t i n u o u s cyclike
set, o n a series of w a g o n s a n d , if the d o o r s are big e n o u g h ,
b a c k g r o u n d . Simply roll it sideways a n d staple t h e t o p edge
m o v e these sections w i t h relative ease in a n d o u t of t h e
to the flats. You can p a i n t it for a m o r e detailed b a c k g r o u n d
studio. O n c e in place, w a g o n s s h o u l d b e secured w i t h w o o d
or use it for a cookie projection, SEE 15.30
wedges a n d / o r s a n d b a g s so t h e y d o n o t m o v e u n e x p e c t edly. SEE 15.31
Stay away f r o m overly detailed
L a r g e r r i s e r s a n d h a r d w a l l s c e n e r y are often s u p
p a t t e r n s or fine stripes w h e n c h o o s i n g d r a p e s . Unless y o u
p o r t e d b y a slotted-steel f r a m e , w h i c h w o r k s like a big
s h o o t w i t h H D T V c a m e r a s , fine p a t t e r n s t e n d t o l o o k
erector set. You can c u t t h e v a r i o u s slotted-steel pieces t o
smudgy, a n d c o n t r a s t i n g stripes often cause moire interfer
any length a n d bolt t h e m t o g e t h e r in a n y configuration.
Drapes and curtains
ence. D r a p e s are usually stapled to 1 x 3 b a t t e n s a n d h u n g
Slotted steel h a s several advantages: it is d u r a b l e a n d rela
from t h e tops of t h e flats. M o s t c u r t a i n s s h o u l d b e t r a n s
tively lightweight, a n d it allows easy d i s m a n t l i n g of scenic
l u c e n t e n o u g h to let t h e back light c o m e t h r o u g h w i t h o u t
p i e c e s — a n i m p o r t a n t c o n s i d e r a t i o n w h e n storage space is
revealing scenic pieces that m a y b e in b a c k of t h e set.
at a p r e m i u m .
Section
15.2
15.31
Scenery
and
Props
359
PLATFORMS AND WAGONS
Platforms are usually 6 or 12 inches high. When equipped with sturdy casters, they are called wagons.
15.32
SET PIECES
Set pieces are freestanding scenic elements that roll on casters for quick and easy repositioning.
SET
PIECES
y o u can c h a n g e t h e neutral yellow b a c k g r o u n d to any scene
Set pieces are i m p o r t a n t scenic e l e m e n t s . T h e y consist of
b y swiveling t h e p e r i a k t o s to t h e c h r o m a b l u e side while
f r e e s t a n d i n g t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l objects, s u c h as pillars,
c h r o m a - k e y i n g a specific b a c k g r o u n d scene, SEE
pylons
15.32
(which l o o k like t h i n , t h r e e - s i d e d pillars), sweeps
T h e r e are n u m e r o u s a d v a n t a g e s to u s i n g set pieces:
( c u r v e d pieces of s c e n e r y ) , f o l d i n g s c r e e n s , steps, a n d
y o u can m o v e t h e m easily, they are self-supporting, a n d
periaktoi,
three-sided standing unit
t h e y quickly a n d easily establish t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l space.
t h a t looks like a large p y l o n . M o s t p e r i a k t o i m o v e a n d
A l t h o u g h set pieces are freestanding a n d s e l f - s u p p o r t i n g
p l u r a l for periaktos—a
swivel o n casters a n d are p a i n t e d differently o n each side
( w h i c h are, after all, their m a j o r a d v a n t a g e s ) , always check
t o allow for q u i c k scene changes. For e x a m p l e , if o n e side
w h e t h e r t h e y n e e d a d d i t i o n a l b r a c i n g . At a m i n i m u m they
is p a i n t e d a w a r m yellow a n d t h e o t h e r a c h r o m a - k e y b l u e ,
m u s t b e able t o w i t h s t a n d b u m p s by p e o p l e o r c a m e r a s .
360
Chapter
15
DESIGN
As a general rule, it is always better to overbrace t h a n to
silverware, telephones, radios, a n d d e s k t o p computers.
u n d e r b r a c e a set. As in all o t h e r aspects of television p r o
In television t h e h a n d p r o p s m u s t b e realistic: use o n l y real objects. A p a p i e r - m a c h e chalice m a y l o o k regal a n d impressive o n stage, b u t o n t h e television screen it looks d i s h o n e s t if n o t ridiculous. Television is very d e p e n d e n t o n h u m a n action. T h i n k of h a n d p r o p s as extensions of gestures. If y o u w a n t t h e actions to b e sincere a n d g e n u i n e , t h e extension of t h e m m u s t b e real as well. If a n actor is s u p p o s e d to c a r r y a heavy suitcase, m a k e sure t h e suitcase is actually heavy. P r e t e n d i n g t h a t it is heavy does n o t go over well o n television.
d u c t i o n , d o n o t forsake safety for convenience o r speed.
PROPERTIES AND SET DRESSINGS After having struggled w i t h softwall a n d h a r d w a l l scenery, you will find t h a t it is really t h e p r o p e r t i e s a n d t h e set dressings that give t h e e n v i r o n m e n t a specific l o o k a n d style. M u c h like d e c o r a t i n g y o u r r o o m , it is p r i m a r i l y t h e furniture a n d w h a t y o u h a n g o n t h e walls t h a t distinguish a particular e n v i r o n m e n t , rather t h a n the walls themselves. Because g o o d television has m o r e close-ups t h a n m e d i u m a n d l o n g shots, t h e t h r e e types of props—stage p r o p s , set dressings, a n d h a n d p r o p s — m u s t b e realistic e n o u g h t o w i t h s t a n d the close scrutiny of t h e c a m e r a .
STAGE PROPS Stage props i n c l u d e c o m m o n f u r n i t u r e a n d i t e m s c o n s t r u c t e d for a specific p u r p o s e , such as news desks, p a n e l tables, a n d a variety of chairs. You s h o u l d also have e n o u g h furniture to create settings for a m o d e r n living r o o m , a study, a n office, a comfortable interview area, a n d p e r h a p s some type of o u t d o o r area with a patio table a n d chairs. For an interview set, relatively simple chairs are m o r e useful t h a n large, u p h o l s t e r e d ones. You d o n ' t w a n t t h e chairs t o take o n m o r e p r o m i n e n c e t h a n t h e people sitting i n t h e m . Try to get chairs a n d couches t h a t are n o t t o o low, so t h a t sitting a n d rising gracefully is n o t p r o b l e m a t i c , especially for tall people. T h e p r o b l e m w i t h stage p r o p s is finding a d e q u a t e storage space for t h e m . Store t h e heavier items o n t h e floor a n d t h e smaller p r o p s o n shelves. Always use a p r o p cart to t r a n s p o r t heavy i t e m s — i t will save y o u r b a c k a n d t h e stage p r o p s .
SET D R E S S I N G S Set dressings are a m a j o r factor in d e t e r m i n i n g the style a n d t h e character of a set. A l t h o u g h t h e flats m a y r e m a i n t h e s a m e from o n e s h o w to a n o t h e r , t h e dressings h e l p give each set individual character. T h e y i n c l u d e such items as draperies, pictures, l a m p s a n d chandeliers, fireplaces, flowerpots, plants, c a n d l e h o l d e r s , a n d sculptures. Second h a n d stores p r o v i d e a n u n l i m i t e d source for these things. In a n e m e r g e n c y y o u c a n always raid y o u r o w n office o r living q u a r t e r s .
HAND
PROPERTIES
Hand properties consist of all i t e m s t h a t are actually h a n dled b y t h e p e r f o r m e r d u r i n g a show. T h e y i n c l u d e dishes,
If y o u m u s t use food, check carefully that it is fresh a n d t h a t t h e dishes a n d silverware are m e t i c u l o u s l y clean. L i q u o r is generally replaced b y water (for clear spirits), tea (for whiskey), or fruit juice (for r e d w i n e ) . W i t h all d u e respect for realism, such s u b s t i t u t i o n s are perfectly appropriate. As o b v i o u s as it s o u n d s , see to it t h a t h a n d p r o p s actu ally w o r k a n d t h a t t h e y are o n t h e set for t h e p e r f o r m e r s t o u s e . A missing p r o p or a bottle t h a t doesn't o p e n at t h e right t i m e m a y cause costly p r o d u c t i o n delays.
P R O P LIST I n s m a l l r o u t i n e p r o d u c t i o n s , t h e floor m a n a g e r o r a m e m b e r of t h e floor crew n o r m a l l y takes care of t h e p r o p s . M o r e - e l a b o r a t e p r o d u c t i o n s , however, have a p e r s o n as signed exclusively to t h e h a n d l i n g of p r o p s — t h e property manager. To p r o c u r e t h e various p r o p s a n d ensure that they are available at t h e c a m e r a rehearsal a n d t a p i n g sessions, y o u n e e d to p r e p a r e a prop list. S o m e p r o p p e o p l e divide t h e list into stage p r o p s , set dressings, a n d h a n d p r o p s , a l t h o u g h in m o s t cases the various types of p r o p s are c o m b i n e d o n a single list, SEE 15.33 Always d o u b l e - c h e c k t h a t all t h e p r o p s m e n t i o n e d in t h e script a p p e a r o n t h e p r o p list a n d that t h e y are actually available for c a m e r a rehearsal a n d t a p i n g sessions. If y o u n e e d to strike t h e set a n d set it u p again for s u b s e q u e n t t a p i n g sessions, m a r k all t h e p r o p s a n d take several digital p h o t o s of t h e set before p u t t i n g t h e p r o p s away. This w a y y o u will have a n i n s t a n t record of w h a t p r o p s were used a n d w h e r e t h e y are i n t h e set. A missing p r o p , or o n e t h a t is placed in a different location for t h e next t a p i n g session can create a serious c o n t i n u i t y p r o b l e m for t h e editor. M o s t p r o d u c t i o n studios have a collection of s t a n d a r d p r o p s — v a s e s , plants, tablecloths, tables, chairs, couches, a n d so forth. Unless y o u d o p r o d u c t i o n s that need p r o p s o n a regular basis, such as a c o m e d y series o r d a y t i m e d r a m a , y o u can b o r r o w m o s t set a n d h a n d p r o p s w h e n n e e d e d . It is usually easier to find an office t h a t can b e s t r i p p e d of
Section
15.2
Scenery
and
Props
361
lawyer, y o u d o n ' t a u t o m a t i c a l l y have to set u p a typical lawyer's office c o m p l e t e w i t h a n t i q u e desk, leather chairs, five outside bushes
6' blue sofa
a n d law b o o k s in t h e b a c k g r o u n d . Ask a b o u t t h e n a t u r e of
t w o rubber plants
set of eight family photos
t h e i n t e r v i e w a n d its i n t e n d e d c o m m u n i c a t i o n objective.
potted palm
sunflower painting
Your design d e p e n d s o n t h e answers y o u get, such as: " T h e basic idea is to p r o b e the conscience a n d t h e feelings of
transparent curtains
Picasso print
low 8'cabinet
magazines
strategies. T h e viewer s h o u l d see i n t i m a t e close-ups of the
square end table
newspaper
guest d u r i n g m o s t of the interview." Does this i n t e r v i e w
small chest of drawers
books
require a n elaborate lawyer's set? N o t at all. C o n s i d e r i n g the
t w o bookcases
stereo
chair (with armrests)
tea set
blue wing chair
lamp for end table
coffee table
Indian sculpture
round end table
louvered screen
t h e defense lawyer r a t h e r t h a n h e a r a b o u t future defense
s h o o t i n g style t h a t includes a m a j o r i t y of tight close-ups, t w o c o m f o r t a b l e chairs in front of a s i m p l e b a c k g r o u n d will d o just fine. W h e n t h e s h o w is sketched o u t o n a fairly detailed storyboard,
y o u r set d e i g n is frequently p r e d e t e r m i n e d .
Nevertheless, speak to t h e p r o d u c e r a n d director if y o u t h i n k y o u have a m u c h b e t t e r idea. Let's n o w m o v e to t h e major elements of scene design:
15.33
PROP LIST
This prop list contains all set props, set dressings, and hand properties shown in the set in figure 15.35.
(1) t h e floor plan, (2) set b a c k g r o u n d s a n d p l a t f o r m s , a n d (3) s t u d i o floor t r e a t m e n t s . FLOOR
PLAN
A set design is d r a w n o n t h e floor plan pattern,
w h i c h is
its furniture for t h e p r o d u c t i o n day t h a n to b u y a n d store
literally a p l a n of t h e s t u d i o floor. It shows t h e floor area,
v a r i o u s office sets. If y o u d o an especially a m b i t i o u s p r o
t h e m a i n s t u d i o d o o r s , t h e location of the c o n t r o l r o o m ,
d u c t i o n , s u c h as a p e r i o d play, y o u can always call o n t h e
a n d t h e s t u d i o walls. T h e lighting g r i d or b a t t e n locations
t h e a t e r arts d e p a r t m e n t of a local college o r high school
are n o r m a l l y d r a w n o n t h e floor area to give a specific
o r r e n t t h e p r o p s from a c o m m e r c i a l c o m p a n y .
o r i e n t a t i o n p a t t e r n a c c o r d i n g to w h i c h t h e sets c a n b e placed. In effect, t h e grid resembles t h e o r i e n t a t i o n squares
ELEMENTS OF SCENE DESIGN Before y o u design a set, y o u m u s t k n o w w h a t t h e s h o w is
of a city m a p . SEE 15.34 T h e c o m p l e t e d floor plan
should
convey e n o u g h i n f o r m a t i o n t h a t t h e floor m a n a g e r a n d crew can p u t u p t h e set a n d dress it, even in t h e absence
all a b o u t . Talk to t h e director a b o u t his or h e r c o n c e p t for
of t h e director or set designer. You m a y find t h a t b o t h t h e
t h e show, even if it is a s i m p l e interview. You arrive at a
floor p l a n p a t t e r n a n d the finished floor p l a n t h a t shows
set design b y defining t h e necessary spatial e n v i r o n m e n t
t h e scenic design are called "floor plan."
for o p t i m a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n r a t h e r t h a n b y c o p y i n g w h a t
T h e scale of t h e floor p l a n p a t t e r n varies, b u t it is
y o u see o n t h e air. For e x a m p l e , y o u m a y feel that t h e best
n o r m a l l y M inch = 1 foot. All scenery a n d set p r o p e r t i e s
w a y to i n f o r m viewers is n o t b y h a v i n g an a u t h o r i t a t i v e
are t h e n d r a w n o n t h e floor p l a n p a t t e r n in t h e p r o p e r
newscaster read stories from a pulpitlike c o n t r a p t i o n b u t
p o s i t i o n relative t o t h e s t u d i o walls a n d t h e lighting grid.
b y m o v i n g t h e c a m e r a s i n t o t h e n e w s r o o m itself a n d o u t
For s i m p l e setups y o u m a y n o t n e e d to d r a w t h e flats a n d
i n t o t h e street w h e r e events are h a p p e n i n g . If the s h o w is
t h e set p r o p e r t i e s to scale; y o u can a p p r o x i m a t e their size
i n t e n d e d t o b e s h o t w i t h a single c a m e r a for heavy p o s t -
a n d p l a c e m e n t relative to t h e grid, SEE 15.35
p r o d u c t i o n editing, it m a y b e easier to take t h e c a m e r a to
M o r e - e l a b o r a t e sets, however, r e q u i r e a floor p l a n
t h e street c o r n e r r a t h e r t h a n to re-create t h e street c o r n e r
t h a t , like a b l u e p r i n t for a h o u s e , is d r a w n precisely to
in t h e s t u d i o .
scale. Even if y o u d o n ' t have to d r a w a floor p l a n to scale,
But even if t h e s h o w is slated for t h e s t u d i o , y o u can
y o u are greatly aided if y o u use t e m p l a t e s t h a t have c u t o u t s
often s t r e a m l i n e t h e set design b y t a k i n g s o m e t i m e to
of s t a n d a r d furniture. T h e y n o r m a l l y c o m e in a scale of
discover j u s t w h a t t h e s h o w is all a b o u t . Try to visualize
Vi inch = 1 foot a n d are readily available in college b o o k
t h e entire s h o w in screen images a n d w o r k f r o m t h e r e . For
stores or a r t - s u p p l y stores. M o s t art directors use c o m p u t e r
e x a m p l e , even if t h e i n t e r v i e w guest is a f a m o u s defense
software t o m a k e floor p l a n s a n d set designs.
362
Chapter
15.34 FLOOR PLAN PATTERN The floor plan pattern shows the dimensions of the studio floor, which is further defined by the lighting grid or similar pattern. The set is drawn on this basic studio grid.
DESIGN
15
Control room door ~<
Studio door
Lighting / grid
Studio door
Big doors for scene storage and props
15.35
SIMPLE FLOOR PLAN
This floor plan shows all the necessary scenery, set props, and dressings as well as the more prominent hand props. It is usually not drawn precisely to scale.
Section
15.2
Floor plan functions T h e floor p l a n is a n i m p o r t a n t t o o l for all p r o d u c t i o n a n d e n g i n e e r i n g p e r s o n n e l . T h e director uses it to visualize t h e s h o w a n d to block the major actions of performers, cameras, a n d m i c r o p h o n e b o o m s . It is essential to t h e floor crew, w h o m u s t set u p t h e scenery a n d place t h e m a j o r p r o p e r t i e s . T h e LD (lighting director) n e e d s it for designing t h e general light plot. T h e a u d i o t e c h n i c i a n can b e c o m e familiar w i t h specific m i c r o p h o n e p l a c e m e n t a n d possible a u d i o p r o b l e m s . A l t h o u g h y o u m a y n o t i n t e n d to b e c o m e a set d e signer, y o u s h o u l d nevertheless k n o w h o w t o d r a w a basic floor plan a n d translate it into an actual set, into m o v e m e n t of p e r f o r m e r s a n d c a m e r a s , a n d , finally, into televi sion images. Set positioning W h e n e v e r possible, try to locate the set w h e r e t h e lights are. Position it so t h a t t h e back lights, key lights, a n d fill lights h a n g in a p p r o x i m a t e l y t h e r i g h t positions. S o m e t i m e s an i n e x p e r i e n c e d designer will place a set in a s t u d i o corner, w h e r e m o s t of t h e lighting i n s t r u m e n t s have to b e r e h u n g for p r o p e r i l l u m i n a t i o n , whereas in a n o t h e r p a r t of t h e s t u d i o t h e s a m e set could have b e e n lighted w i t h t h e i n s t r u m e n t s already in place. If y o u use t h e floor p l a n as t h e basis for t h e light plot, simply a d d a t r a n s p a r e n t overlay a n d sketch in t h e major light sources. As y o u c a n see o n c e a g a i n , y o u c a n n o t afford t o specialize in a single aspect of television p r o d u c t i o n . Ev e r y t h i n g interrelates, a n d t h e m o r e y o u k n o w a b o u t t h e v a r i o u s p r o d u c t i o n t e c h n i q u e s a n d functions, t h e better y o u r c o o r d i n a t i o n of those e l e m e n t s will be. W h e n d r a w i n g a floor plan, w a t c h for t h e following potential p r o b l e m areas. M a n y times a carelessly d r a w n floor p l a n will indicate scenery backing, such as t h e walls of a living r o o m , n o t w i d e e n o u g h to p r o v i d e a d e q u a t e cover for t h e furniture or o t h e r items placed in front of it. T h e usual p r o b l e m is t h a t t h e furniture a n d o t h e r set pieces are d r a w n m u c h t o o small relative to t h e b a c k g r o u n d flats. For example, o n an out-of-scale floor p l a n a single threefold (covering a b o u t 10 feet of w i d t h ) m i g h t s h o w a d e q u a t e cover for an entire set of living r o o m furniture, w h e n it actually is barely w i d e e n o u g h to back a single c o u c h in t h e actual set. T h e furni t u r e always seems t o take u p m o r e r o o m in reality t h a n o n t h e floor p l a n . O n e way to avoid such design mistakes is t o d r a w t h e in-scale furniture o n the floor p l a n first, t h e n a d d t h e flats for t h e backing. You will find that t h e c o m p u t e r helps greatly with such design tasks. Basic interior-decorat ing software p r o g r a m s s h o w t h e m o s t c o m m o n pieces of furniture t o scale a n d let y o u m o v e t h e m a r o u n d on-screen u n t i l they a r e in t h e right place o n y o u r floor plan.
Scenery
and
Props
363
D u r i n g the setup you m a y notice that t h e available stu dio floor space is always less t h a n t h e floor p l a n indicates. Limit t h e set design to t h e actual space available. Always place active furniture (used by t h e performers) at least 6 feet (roughly 2 m e t e r s ) from t h e set wall so that t h e back lights c a n b e directed at t h e p e r f o r m a n c e areas at n o t t o o steep a n angle. Also, t h e director can use t h e space b e t w e e n wall a n d f u r n i t u r e for c a m e r a p l a c e m e n t a n d talent m o v e m e n t .
SET B A C K G R O U N D S A N D P L A T F O R M S T h e b a c k g r o u n d of a set helps unify a sequence of shots a n d places t h e action i n a single c o n t i n u o u s e n v i r o n m e n t . It can also p r o v i d e visual variety b e h i n d relatively static f o r e g r o u n d action. M o s t p l a t f o r m s are u s e d to keep t h e c a m e r a at eye level w i t h t h e seated talent. Backgrounds You c a n achieve scenic c o n t i n u i t y b y p a i n t i n g t h e b a c k g r o u n d a u n i f o r m , usually low-energy color or b y d e c o r a t i n g it so t h a t viewers c a n easily relate o n e p o r t i o n of t h e set to another. Because in television we see m o s t l y e n v i r o n m e n t a l detail, y o u m u s t give viewers clues so t h e y can a p p l y closure to t h e shot details a n d form a m e n t a l m a p of t h e c o n t i n u o u s e n v i r o n m e n t (see c h a p t e r 13). A u n i f o r m b a c k g r o u n d color o r design, or p r o p e r t i e s t h a t p o i n t to a single e n v i r o n m e n t s u c h as t h e typical fur nishings of a k i t c h e n — a l l help viewers relate t h e v a r i o u s shots to a specific location. A l t h o u g h set c o n t i n u i t y is an i m p o r t a n t e l e m e n t in scene design, a plain b a c k g r o u n d is n o t the m o s t interesting scenic b a c k g r o u n d . You n e e d to "dress" t h e set b y h a n g i n g a r t w o r k , posters, o r o t h e r objects o n t h e wall to break it u p into smaller yet related areas. W h e n y o u dress a plain b a c k g r o u n d w i t h pictures o r o t h e r objects, place t h e m so t h a t t h e y are in c a m e r a r a n g e . For example, if y o u h a n g a p i c t u r e b e t w e e n t w o i n t e r v i e w chairs, it will s h o w o n l y in t h e s t r a i g h t - o n t w o - s h o t b u t n o t i n t h e individual closeups. If y o u w a n t m o r e b a c k g r o u n d texture i n the close-up shots, position pictures so t h a t they are seen b y the cameras d u r i n g cross-shooting, SEE 15.36 Platforms Because c a m e r a o p e r a t o r s like to adjust their c a m e r a s t o t h e m o s t comfortable w o r k i n g height, which is n o t necessarily t h e m o s t effective aesthetic p o i n t of view, p e r f o r m e r s seated in n o r m a l chairs o n t h e s t u d i o floor are p o s i t i o n e d lower t h a n t h e average c a m e r a w o r k i n g height, so t h e c a m e r a looks d o w n o n t h e m . This p o i n t of view carries subtle psychological implications of inferiority a n d also creates a n u n p l e a s a n t c o m p o s i t i o n . For events w h e r e p e r f o r m e r s are seated m o s t of t h e time, place t h e chairs
364
Chapter
15
DESIGN
Shotl
Long shot (camera 2)
Shot 2 CU host (camera 3)
Shot 3 CU guest 2 (camera 1)
Shot 4 CU guest 1 (camera 2)
15.36
BACKGROUND DRESSING
The establishing (long) shot of this interview set shows that the background flats provide some visual texture and interest for the host (camera-left) and guest 2 (far right), but not for guest 1 in the middle. The subsequent close-ups confirm this design problem.
o n a p l a t f o r m ( a n y w h e r e from 6 to 12 inches h i g h ) . T h e
R u g s and mat;
c a m e r a can t h e n r e m a i n at a c o m f o r t a b l e o p e r a t i n g height,
realistic f l o o r t r e a t m e n t , t h e y often get in t h e w a y o f
s h o o t i n g the scene at eye level, SEE 15.37
A l t h o u g h r u g s are a n excellent a n d
c a m e r a s a n d b o o m s . Tape t h e edges of a r u g in place t o p r e v e n t it f r o m b u n c h i n g u p u n d e r t h e dolly wheels o r
S T U D I O FLOOR T R E A T M E N T S
pedestal skirt w h e n t h e c a m e r a travels over it. T h e s a m e
A c o m m o n s o u r c e of h e a d a c h e s for t h e scene designer is
goes for grass m a t s : secure t h e m w i t h t a p e so t h a t they d o
t h e s t u d i o floor. A l t h o u g h seen only occasionally in l o n g
n o t slip o n t h e s m o o t h s t u d i o floor. T h e r u g is usually t h e
s h o t s , a n u n t r e a t e d s t u d i o floor l o o k s u n a t t r a c t i v e , as
first p r o p e r t y placed so t h a t o t h e r scenery a n d p r o p s c a n
t h o u g h the scene were played in a w a r e h o u s e or garage. Two
b e p u t o n it as necessary.
p r i m a r y considerations in dressing t h e s t u d i o floor are t h a t the t r e a t m e n t n o t interfere w i t h c a m e r a a n d b o o m travel
Flexible r u b b e r tiles m a k e excellent floor
a n d t h a t it be easily r e m o v a b l e o n c e t h e s h o w is over. T h e
p a t t e r n s for offices, d a n c e sets, large r o o m s , o r hallways.
m o s t p o p u l a r floor t r e a t m e n t s i n c l u d e (1) r u g s a n d m a t s ,
T h e y are available in c o n t r a s t i n g , l o w - e n e r g y colors ( n o r
(2) r u b b e r tiles, (3) g l u e - o n strips, a n d (4) p a i n t ; t h e r e is
m a l l y off-white a n d off-black) a n d are easy to install. Sim
also t h e o p t i o n of (5) v i r t u a l floors.
ply lay t h e tiles (each is 3 s q u a r e feet, o r r o u g h l y 1 s q u a r e
Section
Scenery
15.2
and
365
Props
1 5 . 3 7 PLATFORM COMPENSATING FOR CAMERA HEIGHT To avoid having the camera look down at people who are seated, chairs should be placed on a platform so that the camera can shoot from eye level.
m e t e r ) o n t h e s t u d i o floor i n t h e d e s i r e d p a t t e r n , a n d t h e n a t u r a l a d h e s i o n keeps t h e m i n place. Just for g o o d m e a s u r e , t a p e t h e o u t e r edges to t h e s t u d i o floor so t h a t
•
Television scenery encompasses the three-dimensional aspects of design.
•
There are four types of scenery: standard set units, that is, hardwall and softwall flats and set modules; hanging units, such as eyes, drops, and curtains; platforms and wagons; and set pieces, such as pillars, screens, and periaktoi.
•
The three basic types of properties are stage props, such as furniture, news desks, and chairs; set dressings, such as pictures, draperies, and lamps; and hand props—items such as dishes, telephones, and computers that are actually handled by the talent.
•
When a set must be struck and set up again for a subse quent taping session, take digital photos of all set details to ensure consistency of the setup.
•
A floor plan is drawn on a floor plan pattern and shows the exact location of the scenery and the set properties relative to the lighting grid. The floor plan is essential for the direc tor to prepare the preliminary blocking of talent, cameras, and microphone booms; for the floor crew to set up the scenery and place the major set properties; and for the lighting director to design the basic light plot.
•
Studio floors can be covered with rubber tiles, glue-on patterns, or paint without interfering with camera move ment. Rugs are useful only if cameras do not have to move on and off of them while on the air. Virtual floors that can be digitally inserted in the scene require skilled and timeconsuming postproduction.
c a m e r a travel does n o t m o v e t h e m . Because f o o t p r i n t s t e n d t o show, clean t h e tiles w i t h soapy w a t e r before t h e c a m e r a rehearsal a n d t h e final t a p i n g . A n o t h e r excellent floor t r e a t m e n t is g l u e - o n strips, w h i c h c o m e in different p a t t e r n s a n d have a r e m o v a b l e b a c k i n g like shelf paper. You c a n a d h e r e t h e m side by side o n t h e s t u d i o floor a n d r e m o v e t h e m j u s t as easily. C a m e r a s a n d b o o m s have n o t r a v e l r e s t r i c t i o n s . T h e s e g l u e - o n p a t t e r n s are quite expensive, however, a n d are u s e d o n l y for e l a b o r a t e p r o d u c t i o n s . S o m e set d e s i g n e r s prefer t o treat t h e s t u d i o floor w i t h w a t e r - s o l u b l e p a i n t . M o s t p a i n t s t h a t persist t h r o u g h rehearsals a n d v i d e o t a p i n g , however, are h a r d to r e m o v e a n d usually leave s o m e r e s i d u e o n t h e s t u d i o floor. C h e c k with the studio supervisor before you start wielding a paintbrush. »rs
S o m e t i m e s c o m p l e x floor p a t t e r n s are
c o m p u t e r - g e n e r a t e d a n d digitally i n s e r t e d i n t h e scene. As y o u can i m a g i n e , such p r o c e d u r e s n e e d skilled p o s t p r o d u c t i o n p e o p l e a n d are so t i m e - c o n s u m i n g t h a t t h e y are of little use i n r o u t i n e p r o d u c t i o n s .
Production People Television production is t e a m w o r k — y o u ' v e heard this many times. But w h y does it take a w h o l e t e a m w h e n y o u can d o a reasonably g o o d j o b with your camcorder all by your self? W o u l d n ' t total control of the production process a n d no o n e interfering with your creativity b e better? Aren't t h e other t e a m m e m b e r s more of a liability than an asset? As y o u probably suspected, the answer to t h e last t w o questions is a simple no.
In professional television production, you must rely o n a great n u m b e r of people, each of w h o m performs a highly specific function. For example, y o u may be all by yourself w h e n chasing a n e w s story with an E N G camcorder, but w h e n you bring the v i d e o t a p e back to t h e station, it is the rest of t h e n e w s d e p a r t m e n t that gets your story o n t h e air. S o m e o n e decides just w h e r e in the newscast your story should be placed; others edit your videotape, write a sensible n e w s story from your cursory notes, put it on t h e v i d e o t a p e recorder or video server for playback at a specific time, and ensure that the final v i d e o and audio signals reach the transmitter. A multicamera E F P or studio production obviously requires more t h a n o n e person to get the project d o n e .
366
Section 16.1, W h a t Production People Do, will help y o u recognize the various t e a m m e m b e r s involved in television production a n d precisely w h a t it is t h a t t h e y do. This section also discusses the specific on-camera techniques of television performers and actors. It also explains t h e major floor manager's cues. Section 16.2, H o w to Do M a k e u p a n d W h a t to Wear, briefly describes the m a k e u p performers a n d actors use a n d w h a t t y p e of clothing looks g o o d on-camera.
above-the-line personnel A budgetary division referring to nontechnical personnel. actor A person (male or female) who appears on-camera in dra matic roles. Actors always portray someone else. below-the-line personnel A budgetary division referring to technical personnel. blocking Carefully worked-out movement and actions by the talent and for all mobile television equipment. cue card A large, hand-lettered card that contains copy, usually held next to the camera lens by floor personnel. foundation A makeup base over which further makeup such as rouge and eye shadow is applied. makeup Cosmetics used to enhance, correct, or change ap pearance. news production personnel People assigned exclusively to the production of news, documentaries, and special events.
nontechnical production personnel People concerned pri marily with nontechnical production matters that lead from the basic idea to the final screen image. Also called abovethe-line personnel. pancake A makeup base, or foundation makeup, usually watersoluble and applied with a small sponge. pan stick A foundation makeup with a grease base. Used to cover a beard shadow or prominent skin blemish. performer A person who appears on-camera in nondramatic shows. Performers play themselves and do not assume someone else's character. talent Collective name for all performers and actors who ap pear regularly on television. technical production personnel People who operate the pro duction equipment. Also called below-the-line personnel. teleprompter A prompting device that projects the moving (usually computer-generated) copy over the lens so that the talent can read it without losing eye contact with the viewer. Also called auto cue.
367
16.1 What Production People Do
^
TELEVISION TALENT Television performers and actors
^
PERFORMANCE TECHNIQUES Camera, audio, timing, postproduction continuity, the floor manager's cues, and prompting devices
^
ACTING TECHNIQUES Audience, blocking, memorizing lines, timing, postproduction, and the director/actor relationship
^
AUDITIONS Preparation, appearance, and creativity
NONTECHNICAL PRODUCTION PERSONNEL T h e nontechnical
production
personnel
are generally
involved in t r a n s l a t i n g a script or a n event i n t o effective television images. SEE16.1 T h e y are also called line personnel
above-the-
because t h e y fall u n d e r a different b u d g e t
category f r o m t h e technical crew, w h o are called the-line
personnel.
below-
The nontechnical production people
n o r m a l l y i n c l u d e the executive p r o d u c e r , the p r o d u c e r , t h e Even t h e m o s t sophisticated television p r o d u c t i o n e q u i p m e n t a n d c o m p u t e r interfaces will n o t replace you in t h e television system. You a n d t h o s e w o r k i n g w i t h y o u still reign s u p r e m e in t h e p r o d u c t i o n process. T h e e q u i p m e n t c a n n o t m a k e ethical a n d aesthetic j u d g m e n t s for you; it c a n n o t tell y o u exactly w h i c h p a r t of t h e event to select a n d h o w to p r e s e n t it for o p t i m a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n . You m a k e s u c h decisions w i t h i n t h e c o n t e x t of t h e general communication intent and through interaction with other m e m b e r s of t h e p r o d u c t i o n t e a m — t h e p e o p l e in front of the c a m e r a (talent) a n d t h o s e b e h i n d it ( p r o d u c t i o n staff, technical crews, engineers, a n d o t h e r station p e r s o n n e l ) . You m a y s o o n discover that t h e m a j o r task of television p r o d u c t i o n is w o r k i n g n o t so m u c h w i t h e q u i p m e n t as with p e o p l e .
director, a n d t h e art d i r e c t o r a n d assistants, as well as t h e writers a n d t h e talent. As w i t h all such classifications, t h e a b o v e - a n d b e l o w t h e - l i n e division is a n y t h i n g b u t absolute or even u n i f o r m . For e x a m p l e , in s o m e p r o d u c t i o n s t h e PA assistant)
(production
or t h e floor manager are classified in t h e below-
t h e - l i n e category; in o t h e r s t h e y b e l o n g a m o n g t h e abovet h e - l i n e p e r s o n n e l . SEE 16.2 A l t h o u g h t h e DP (director
of photography)
is t e c h n i
cally a b e l o w - t h e - l i n e p r o d u c t i o n p e r s o n , t h e p o s i t i o n is frequently r e g a r d e d a n d b u d g e t e d as a n a b o v e - t h e - l i n e item. T h e t e r m , b o r r o w e d from film p r o d u c t i o n , h a s f o u n d its way i n t o television p r o d u c t i o n . In s t a n d a r d theatrical film p r o d u c t i o n , the D P is m a i n l y responsible for lighting a n d t h e p r o p e r e x p o s u r e of t h e film r a t h e r t h a n for r u n n i n g t h e c a m e r a . In smaller film p r o d u c t i o n s a n d EFP,
NONTECHNICAL PRODUCTION PERSONNEL
however, t h e D P actually o p e r a t e s t h e c a m e r a as well as
Those concerned primarily with the production, from idea to final screen image
does t h e lighting. So w h e n y o u h e a r a n i n d e p e n d e n t televi sion p r o d u c e r / d i r e c t o r l o o k i n g for a reliable a n d creative DP, h e or she is p r i m a r i l y referring to a n experienced E F P
^
^
TECHNICAL PERSONNEL AND CREW
c a m e r a operator. W h a t y o u n e e d to realize a n d r e m e m b e r
Those concerned with the operation of the production equipment
i m p o r t a n t , regardless of w h e t h e r t h e y are classified as
NEWS PRODUCTION PERSONNEL Those concerned specifically with the production of news and special events
368
is t h a t all m e m b e r s of t h e p r o d u c t i o n t e a m are equally above-the-line or below-the-line, or w h e t h e r t h e y sit in t h e director's chair or help c a r r y s o m e lights to a field location.
Q35J-PROCESS-*
People-* nontechnical
Section
16.1
16.1
What
Production
People
Do
369
NONTECHNICAL PRODUCTION PERSONNEL
PERSONNEL NONTECHNICAL Executive producer
FUNCTION PRODUCTION
PERSONNEL
In charge of one or several large productions or program series. M a n a g e s budget a n d coordinates w i t h client, station m a n a g e m e n t , advertising agencies, financial supporters, and talent and writers' agents.
Producer
In charge of an individual production. Is responsible for all personnel working on the production and for coor dinating technical and nontechnical production elements. Often serves as writer a n d occasionally as director.
Associate producer (AP)
Assists producer in all production matters. Often does the actual coordinating jobs, such as telephoning talent and confirming schedules.
Line producer
Supervises daily production activities on the set.
Field producer
Assists producer by taking charge of remote operations ( a w a y from the studio). At small stations may be part of producer's responsibilities.
Production manager
Schedules equipment and personnel for all studio and field productions.
Production assistant (PA)
Assists producer a n d director during actual production. During rehearsal takes notes of producer's and/or director's suggestions for show improvement.
Director
In charge of directing talent and technical operations. Is ultimately responsible for transforming a script into effective video and audio messages. At small stations may often be the producer as well.
Associate director (AD)
Assists director during the actual production. In studio productions does timing for director. In complicated productions helps "ready"various operations (such as presetting specific camera shots or calling for a VTR to start). Also called assistant
director.
Talent
Refers to all performers and actors w h o regularly appear on television.
Actor
S o m e o n e w h o portrays someone else on-camera.
Performer
S o m e o n e w h o appears on-camera in nondramatic activities. Performers portray themselves.
Announcer
Reads narration but does not appear on-camera. If on-camera, the announcer moves up into t h e talent category. In charge of all activities on the studio floor. Coordinates talent, relays director's cues to talent, and super
Floor manager
vises floor personnel. Except for large operations, responsible for setting up scenery and dressing the set. Also called floor director
or stage
manager.
Set up and dress sets. Operate cue cards or other prompting devices, easel cards, and on-camera graphics. Floor persons
Sometimes help set up and work portable field lighting instruments or microphone booms. Assist camera operators in moving camera dollies a n d pulling camera cables. At small stations also act as wardrobe and makeup people. Also called grips, stagehands,
or utilities
personnel.
370
16.1
Chapter
16
PRODUCTION
NONTECHNICAL PRODUCTION PERSONNEL
PERSONNEL
(continued)
FUNCTION
ADDITIONAL In small operations
PEOPLE
PRODUCTION these production
people
PERSONNEL are not always
part of the permanent
staff, or their functions
are fulfilled
by other
personnel.
Writer
At smaller stations or in corporate television, the scripts are often written by the director or producer. Usually hired on a freelance basis.
Art director
In charge of creative design aspects of show (set design, location, and/or graphics).
Graphic artist
Prepares computer graphics, titles, charts, and electronic backgrounds.
Makeup artist
Does the makeup for all talent. Usually hired on a freelance basis.
Costume designer
Designs and sometimes even constructs various costumes for dramas, dance numbers, and children's shows. Usually hired on a freelance basis.
Wardrobe person
Handles all wardrobe matters during production.
Property manager
Maintains and manages use of various set and hand properties. Found in large operations only. Otherwise, props are managed by the floor manager.
Sound designer
Constructs the complete sound track (dialogue and sound effects) in postproduction. Usually hired on a freelance basis for large productions.
TECHNICAL PERSONNEL AND CREW
change, d e p e n d i n g o n the size, location, a n d relative c o m plexity of t h e p r o d u c t i o n . For e x a m p l e , y o u m a y initially
T h e technical production
personnel
consist of p e o p l e w h o
are p r i m a r i l y c o n c e r n e d w i t h o p e r a t i n g e q u i p m e n t . T h e y are usually p a r t of t h e crew. T h e technical p e r s o n n e l include c a m e r a o p e r a t o r s , a u d i o a n d lighting p e o p l e , v i d e o t a p e o p e r a t o r s , v i d e o e d i t o r s , a n d C.G. o p e r a t o r s . T h e t e r m technical d o e s n o t refer to electronic expertise b u t r a t h e r t o o p e r a t i n g t h e e q u i p m e n t w i t h skill a n d c o n f i d e n c e . T h e t r u e engineers, w h o u n d e r s t a n d electronics a n d k n o w w h e r e to l o o k w h e n s o m e t h i n g goes w r o n g w i t h a piece of e q u i p m e n t , usually d o n o t o p e r a t e e q u i p m e n t ; rather, t h e y e n s u r e t h a t t h e w h o l e system o p e r a t e s smoothly, supervise
have acted as a p r o d u c e r w h e n setting u p t h e v i d e o t a p i n g of t h e s e m i a n n u a l address of a c o r p o r a t i o n president; t h e n , o n t h e day of t h e p r o d u c t i o n , y o u m a y find yourself b u s y w i t h such technical p r o d u c t i o n m a t t e r s as lighting a n d r u n n i n g t h e c a m e r a . In larger p r o d u c t i o n s , such as s o a p operas, y o u r job responsibility is m u c h m o r e limited. W h e n acting as a p r o d u c e r , y o u have n o t h i n g to d o with lighting or camera operation. And, when working the camera, you m a y have to wait patiently for t h e lighting crew to finish, even if t h e p r o d u c t i o n is b e h i n d schedule a n d you have n o t h i n g else to d o at the t i m e .
its installation, a n d m a i n t a i n it. You m a y find t h a t in larger professional o p e r a t i o n s , however, t h e technical p r o d u c t i o n p e o p l e are still called engineers, m a i n l y to satisfy t h e tra
NEWS PRODUCTION PERSONNEL
ditional j o b classification established by t h e l a b o r u n i o n s .
A l m o s t all television b r o a d c a s t stations p r o d u c e at least
SEE 16.3 EQ1>PR0CESS^ Peopled technical
o n e daily newscast; in fact, t h e newscasts are often t h e
Keep in m i n d t h a t m a n y of the functions of technical
m a j o r p r o d u c t i o n activity at these stations. Because n e w s
and nontechnical p r o d u c t i o n people overlap and even
d e p a r t m e n t s m u s t be able t o r e s p o n d quickly to a variety
Section
16.2
16.1
What
Production
People
371
Do
ABOVE-THE-LINE AND BELOW-THE-LINE PERSONNEL
The division between above-the-line and below-the-line personnel is not always clear-cut. Generally, above-the-line personnel include the nontechnical personnel, and below-the-line personnel include the technical (production crew and engineering) personnel. ABOVE-THE-LINE
•
Executive producer
Production manager
Sound designer
Producer
Director
Talent
Associate producer (AP)
•
Production assistant (PA)
r
•
Associate director (AD)
Writer
" Art director
BELOW-THE-LINE •
Videotape editor
•
Makeup artist
Audio technician
•
Wardrobe people
Lighting director (LD)
C G . operator
•
Scenery and property personnel
Floor manager
Videotape operator
•
Maintenance engineer
•
Studio supervisor
•
Technical director (TD) Camera operators
Floor persons ' Video operator (VO) *
of p r o d u c t i o n tasks, s u c h as covering a d o w n t o w n fire or
h a p p e n i n g a r o u n d t h e w o r l d , or w h a t t h e w e a t h e r is going
a protest at city hall, t h e r e is generally little t i m e t o p r e
to be like—you m a y feel t h a t t h e j o b is n o t t o o difficult a n d
p a r e for such events. N e w s d e p a r t m e n t s therefore have
t h a t y o u could easily d o it yourself. After all, m o s t of t h e m
their o w n news production
are s i m p l y r e a d i n g c o p y t h a t a p p e a r s o n a
personnel.
T h e s e p e o p l e are
teleprompter.
d e d i c a t e d exclusively to t h e p r o d u c t i o n of n e w s , d o c u
But w h e n y o u actually s t a n d in front of t h e c a m e r a , y o u
m e n t a r i e s , a n d special events a n d p e r f o r m highly specific
quickly learn t h a t the j o b is n o t as easy as it looks. A p p e a r
functions.
SEE16.4
ing relaxed o n - c a m e r a , a n d p r e t e n d i n g t h a t t h e c a m e r a
Of c o u r s e , as in a n y o t h e r o r g a n i z a t i o n , television
lens or t h e t e l e p r o m p t e r is a real p e r s o n to w h o m y o u are
a n d c o r p o r a t e v i d e o involve m a n y m o r e p e o p l e t h a n w h a t
talking, takes h a r d w o r k a n d a g o o d a m o u n t of talent a n d
y o u see listed in t h e figures in this section, such as clerical
skill. T h i s is w h y we call all p e o p l e a p p e a r i n g regularly
p e r s o n n e l a n d t h e p e o p l e w h o answer p h o n e s , schedule
o n television talent. A l t h o u g h television talent m a y have
v a r i o u s events, sell c o m m e r c i a l t i m e , negotiate c o n t r a c t s ,
varied c o m m u n i c a t i o n objectives—some seek to entertain,
actually b u i l d a n d p a i n t t h e sets, a n d clean t h e b u i l d i n g .
educate, or i n f o r m ; o t h e r s seek t o p e r s u a d e , convince, or
Because these s u p p o r t p e r s o n n e l o p e r a t e o u t s i d e t h e basic
sell—all strive to c o m m u n i c a t e with the television audience
p r o d u c t i o n system, their f u n c t i o n s aren't discussed here.
as effectively as possible. You can divide television talent into t w o categories:
TELEVISION TALENT
p e r f o r m e r s a n d actors. T h e difference b e t w e e n t h e m is fairly clear-cut. Television performers
are engaged basi
W h e n y o u look at t h e p e o p l e a p p e a r i n g regularly o n televi
cally in n o n d r a m a t i c activities: t h e y play themselves a n d
sion a n d talking to y o u — t e l l i n g y o u w h a t to buy, w h a t is
d o n o t a s s u m e roles of o t h e r c h a r a c t e r s ; t h e y sell their
372
PRODUCTION
Chapter 16
16.3
PEOPLE
TECHNICAL PERSONNEL AND CREW FUNCTION
PERSONNEL ENGINEERING These people
STAFF
are actual
and maintenance
engineers
who are responsible
of all technical
for the purchase,
installation,
proper
functioning,
equipment. In charge of all technical personnel, budgets, and equipment. Designs system, including transmis
Chief engineer
sion facilities, and oversees installations and day-to-day operations. Assistant chief engineer
Assists chief engineer in all technical matters and operations. Also called engineering
Studio or remote
Oversees all technical operations. Usually called EIC.
supervisor.
engineer-in-charge Maintenance engineer
Maintains all technical equipment and troubleshoots during productions.
NONENGINEERING Although but usually
skilled
in technical
TECHNICAL aspects,
consist of technically
the following
trained
production
PERSONNEL technical
personnel
do not have to be
engineers
people.
Technical director (TD)
Does t h e switching and usually acts as technical crew chief.
Camera operators
Operate the cameras; often do the lighting for simple shows. W h e n working primarily in field productions ( E N G / E F P ) , they are sometimes called videographers
or
Director of photography (DP)
In film productions, in charge of lighting. In EFP, operates EFP camera.
Lighting director (LD)
In charge of lighting; normally found mostly in large productions.
Video operator (VO)
shooters.
Adjusts camera controls for optimal camera pictures (shading). Sometimes takes on additional technical duties, especially during field productions and remotes. Also called
Audio technician
shader.
In charge of all audio operations. Works audio console during t h e show. Also called audio
engineer.
Videotape operator
Runs the videotape machine and/or disk-based recording devices.
Character generator
Types and/or recalls from the computer t h e names and other graphic material to be
(C.G.) operator
integrated with the video image.
Videotape editor
Operates postproduction editing equipment. Often makes or assists in creative editing decisions.
Digital graphic artist
Renders digital graphics for on-air use. Can be nontechnical personnel.
Section
16.1
What
Production
People
Do
373
n u a n c e s of a u d i o , m o v e m e n t , a n d t i m i n g . A n d all talent
16.4 NEWS PRODUCTION PERSONNEL
interact with o t h e r television p e r s o n n e l — t h e producer, t h e PERSONNEL
FUNCTION
News director
In charge of all news operations. Bears ultimate responsibility for all newscasts.
director, t h e floor m a n a g e r , t h e c a m e r a o p e r a t o r , a n d t h e audio technician.
PERFORMANCE TECHNIQUES T h e television p e r f o r m e r speaks directly t o t h e c a m e r a ,
Directly responsible for the selection and placement of the stories in a newscast so that they form a unified, balanced w h o l e .
Producer
Assignment editor
Assigns reporters and videographers to specific events to be covered.
Reporter
Gathers the stories. Often reports o n camera from t h e field.
plays h o s t t o v a r i o u s guests, or c o m m u n i c a t e s with o t h e r p e r f o r m e r s o r t h e s t u d i o a u d i e n c e ; h e o r s h e is also fully aware of t h e presence of t h e television a u d i e n c e at h o m e . This latter audience, however, is n o t t h e large, a n o n y m o u s , a n d h e t e r o g e n e o u s television a u d i e n c e t h a t m o d e r n soci ologists study. For t h e television performer, t h e a u d i e n c e is
Videographer
Writer
a n i n d i v i d u a l or a small, i n t i m a t e g r o u p w h o has g a t h e r e d in front of a television set. If y o u are a p e r f o r m e r , t r y i m a g i n i n g y o u r a u d i e n c e
Camcorder operator. In t h e absence of a reporter, decides on w h a t part of the event to cover. Also called news photographer or shooter.
as a family of t h r e e , seated in their favorite r o o m , a b o u t 10 feet away from y o u . W i t h this p i c t u r e in m i n d , y o u have n o r e a s o n t o s c r e a m at t h e "millions of viewers o u t there in v i d e o l a n d " ; a m o r e successful a p p r o a c h is to talk quietly
Writes on-the-air copy for the anchors. The copy is based on the reporter's notes and the available videotape.
a n d i n t i m a t e l y t o t h e family w h o were k i n d e n o u g h t o let y o u i n t o their h o m e . W h e n y o u a s s u m e t h e role of a television p e r f o r m e r ,
Videotape editor
Anchor
Edits videotape according to reporter's notes, writer's script, or producer's instructions.
t h e c a m e r a b e c o m e s y o u r a u d i e n c e . You m u s t a d a p t y o u r
Principal presenter of newscast, normally from a studio set.
t i o n w e discuss (1) t h e p e r f o r m e r a n d t h e c a m e r a , (2) t h e
p e r f o r m a n c e t e c h n i q u e s t o its characteristics a n d t o o t h e r p r o d u c t i o n aspects such as a u d i o a n d t i m i n g . In this sec p e r f o r m e r a n d a u d i o , (3) t h e p e r f o r m e r a n d timing, (4) t h e p e r f o r m e r a n d p o s t p r o d u c t i o n , (5) t h e floor m a n a g e r ' s
Weathercaster
On-camera talent, reporting the weather.
Traffic reporter
On-camera talent, reporting local traf fic conditions.
T h e c a m e r a is n o t simply a n i n a n i m a t e piece of m a c h i n e r y ;
On-camera talent, giving sports n e w s and commentary.
m o v e , sit, a n d s t a n d — i n s h o r t , h o w y o u behave in a variety
Sportscaster
cues, a n d (6) p r o m p t i n g devices.
PERFORMER AND CAMERA it sees e v e r y t h i n g y o u d o o r d o n ' t d o . It sees h o w y o u look, of situations. At times it looks at y o u m u c h m o r e closely a n d w i t h greater scrutiny t h a n a polite p e r s o n w o u l d ever d a r e t o d o . It reveals t h e n e r v o u s twitch of y o u r m o u t h w h e n y o u are ill at ease a n d t h e expression of m i l d p a n i c on
w h e n y o u have f o r g o t t e n a n a m e . T h e c a m e r a d o e s n o t
t h e o t h e r h a n d , always p o r t r a y s o m e o n e else: they project
look away w h e n y o u scratch y o u r n o s e or ear. It faithfully
o w n personalities t o t h e a u d i e n c e . Television actors,
a character's p e r s o n a l i t y r a t h e r t h a n their o w n , even if t h e
reflects y o u r behavior in all pleasant a n d unpleasant details.
c h a r a c t e r is m o d e l e d after t h e i r o w n e x p e r i e n c e . T h e i r
As a television p e r f o r m e r , y o u m u s t carefully c o n t r o l y o u r
stories are always
actions w i t h o u t letting t h e a u d i e n c e k n o w t h a t y o u are
fictional.
A l t h o u g h t h e r e are distinct differences b e t w e e n televi
conscious of d o i n g so.
sion p e r f o r m e r s a n d television actors, t h e g r o u p s d o share several functions. All talent c o m m u n i c a t e w i t h t h e viewers
Camera lens
t h r o u g h t h e television c a m e r a a n d m u s t keep in m i n d t h e
ence, y o u m u s t look directly into t h e lens (or t h e p r o m p t i n g
Because t h e c a m e r a represents y o u r a u d i
374
Chapter
16
PRODUCTION
PEOPLE
device in front of it) whenever you i n t e n d to establish eye c o n t a c t w i t h t h e viewer. As a m a t t e r of fact, y o u s h o u l d t r y to look through
t h e lens, r a t h e r t h a n at it, a n d keep
eye c o n t a c t m u c h m o r e t h a n y o u w o u l d w i t h a n actual p e r s o n . If you m e r e l y l o o k at t h e lens instead of l o o k i n g t h r o u g h it, or if y o u p r e t e n d t h a t t h e c a m e r a o p e r a t o r is y o u r audience a n d therefore glance away from t h e lens ever so slightly, y o u b r e a k t h e c o n t i n u i t y a n d i n t e n s i t y of t h e c o m m u n i c a t i o n b e t w e e n y o u a n d t h e viewer; y o u break, however temporarily, television's m a g i c . Camera switching
If two o r m o r e c a m e r a s are used,
y o u m u s t k n o w w h i c h o n e is o n t h e air so t h a t y o u can r e m a i n in direct contact with the audience. W h e n t h e direc t o r switches c a m e r a s , y o u m u s t follow t h e floor m a n a g e r ' s cue (or the c h a n g e of tally lights) quickly b u t s m o o t h l y . D o n o t jerk y o u r h e a d from o n e c a m e r a to t h e other. If y o u s u d d e n l y discover t h a t y o u have b e e n talking to t h e w r o n g o n e , l o o k d o w n as if to collect y o u r t h o u g h t s a n d t h e n casually l o o k u p a n d glance i n t o t h e " h o t " c a m e r a . C o n t i n u e talking in t h a t direction until y o u are again c u e d to the o t h e r c a m e r a . This m e t h o d w o r k s especially well
1 6 . 5 PERFORMER CAMERA When one camera (camera 1) is on a close-up of the product (the book), and the other (camera 2) is on a medium shot of the host, the host should continue looking into camera 2 during the close-up.
if y o u w o r k f r o m notes or a script, as in a newscast or a n interview. You can always p r e t e n d to b e l o o k i n g at y o u r notes w h e n , in reality, y o u are c h a n g i n g y o u r view from
t h a n a p e r f o r m e r w h o snatches t h e p r o d u c t off t h e table
the w r o n g c a m e r a to t h e right o n e .
just w h e n t h e c a m e r a has a g o o d c l o s e - u p of it. A q u i c k
If the director has o n e c a m e r a o n y o u in a medium
shot
look at t h e s t u d i o m o n i t o r usually tells y o u h o w t o hold t h e
(MS) a n d the o t h e r c a m e r a in a close-up (CU) of t h e object
object for m a x i m u m visibility o n - s c r e e n . If t w o c a m e r a s
y o u are d e m o n s t r a t i n g , such as t h e guest's b o o k d u r i n g an
are used, "cheat" ( o r i e n t ) t h e object s o m e w h a t t o w a r d t h e
interview, it is best to k e e p l o o k i n g at t h e m e d i u m - s h o t
c l o s e - u p c a m e r a , b u t d o n o t t u r n it so m u c h t h a t it looks
c a m e r a d u r i n g the w h o l e d e m o n s t r a t i o n , even w h e n t h e
unnaturally distorted on the m e d i u m - s h o t camera.
director switches to t h e close-up c a m e r a . You will n o t b e c a u g h t l o o k i n g t h e w r o n g way b e c a u s e o n l y t h e m e d i u m -
Warning cues
shot c a m e r a is focused o n y o u . SEE 16.5 You will also find
d e m o n s t r a t i o n s , interviews, a n d t h e l i k e — t h e r e is g e n
that it is easier to read t h e copy off a single t e l e p r o m p t e r ,
erally n o t e n o u g h t i m e to w o r k o u t a detailed
r a t h e r t h a n switch f r o m o n e to a n o t h e r in m i d s e n t e n c e .
s c h e m e . T h e d i r e c t o r usually j u s t walks t h e p e r f o r m e r s
In m o s t n o n d r a m a t i c s h o w s — l e c t u r e s , blocking
t h r o u g h s o m e of t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t crossovers from o n e T h e tighter t h e shot, t h e h a r d e r
p e r f o r m a n c e area to t h e o t h e r a n d t h r o u g h a few m a j o r
it is for the c a m e r a to follow m o v e m e n t . If a c a m e r a is o n a
actions, such as c o m p l i c a t e d d e m o n s t r a t i o n s . D u r i n g t h e
Close-up techniques
close-up, you m u s t restrict your m o t i o n s severely a n d move
o n - t h e - a i r p e r f o r m a n c e , y o u as a p e r f o r m e r m u s t therefore
with great care. D u r i n g a song, for example, t h e director
give t h e director a n d t h e s t u d i o crew visual a n d a u d i b l e
m a y w a n t to s h o o t very closely to intensify a n especially
w a r n i n g s of y o u r u n r e h e a r s e d actions. Before y o u s t a n d
e m o t i o n a l passage. Try to s t a n d as still as possible; d o n o t
u p , for instance, first shift y o u r weight a n d p o s i t i o n y o u r
wiggle y o u r h e a d . T h e c l o s e - u p itself is i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n
a r m s a n d legs; this signals the c a m e r a o p e r a t o r as well as
e n o u g h . All y o u have to d o is sing well.
t h e m i c r o p h o n e b o o m o p e r a t o r to p r e p a r e for y o u r m o v e .
W h e n d e m o n s t r a t i n g s m a l l objects o n a c l o s e - u p ,
If y o u p o p u p unexpectedly, t h e c a m e r a m a y stay in o n e
h o l d t h e m steady. If t h e y are a r r a n g e d o n a table, d o not
p o s i t i o n , focusing o n t h e m i d d l e p a r t of y o u r body, w h i c h
pick t h e m u p . You can either p o i n t to t h e m or tilt t h e m
w o n ' t m a k e for t h e m o s t interesting s h o t to say the least.
a little to give t h e c a m e r a a b e t t e r view. T h e r e is n o t h i n g
If y o u i n t e n d to m o v e f r o m o n e set area to a n o t h e r ,
m o r e frustrating to the c a m e r a o p e r a t o r a n d t h e director
y o u m a y use a u d i o cues. For instance, y o u can w a r n t h e
Section
16.1
What
p r o d u c t i o n crew b y saying: "Let's go over t o t h e children a n d ask t h e m . . . " o r "If y o u will follow m e over t o t h e lab area, y o u c a n s e e . . . " S u c h cues s o u n d n a t u r a l t o t h e viewer, w h o is generally u n a w a r e of t h e fast reactions these seemingly i n n o c u o u s r e m a r k s actually trigger. You m u s t b e specific w h e n y o u cue u n r e h e a r s e d visual material. For example, y o u can alert t h e director t o t h e u p c o m i n g visuals b y saying: " T h e first p i c t u r e s h o w s . . . " This cueing device s h o u l d n o t b e u s e d t o o often, however. If y o u can alert t h e director m o r e subtly yet equally directly, d o so. D o n o t t r y t o convey t h e o b v i o u s . T h e director, n o t t h e talent, r u n s t h e show. D o n ' t tell t h e director to b r i n g t h e c a m e r a s a little closer t o get a better view of a small object, especially if the director has already o b t a i n e d a good close-up t h r o u g h a z o o m - i n . Also, avoid walking t o w a r d t h e c a m e r a t o d e m o n s t r a t e an object. You m a y walk so close to t h e c a m e r a t h a t it has t o tilt u p i n t o t h e lights t o keep y o u r face in t h e s h o t o r so close that t h e z o o m lens can n o longer focus. T h e z o o m lens allows t h e c a m e r a t o get t o y o u m u c h faster t h a n y o u c a n get t o t h e c a m e r a .
PERFORMER A N D AUDIO As a television p e r f o r m e r , besides l o o k i n g n a t u r a l a n d relaxed, y o u m u s t speak clearly a n d effectively; it rarely c o m e s naturally. D o n ' t be misled i n t o believing that a reso n a n t voice a n d affected p r o n u n c i a t i o n are t h e t w o p r i m e requisites for a g o o d a n n o u n c e r o r o t h e r performer. O n t h e c o n t r a r y : first, y o u n e e d to have s o m e t h i n g i m p o r t a n t t o say; s e c o n d , y o u n e e d t o say it w i t h c o n v i c t i o n a n d sincerity; third, y o u m u s t speak clearly so t h a t everyone can u n d e r s t a n d y o u . T h o r o u g h t r a i n i n g i n television a n n o u n c i n g is an i m p o r t a n t prerequisite for a n y performer. M o s t novices speak m u c h t o o fast, as t h o u g h t h e y w a n t e d t o get t h r o u g h t h e o n - c a m e r a t o r t u r e as quickly as possible. D o n ' t speed u p w h e n y o u c o m e t o t h e e n d of a sentence o r p a r a g r a p h . Take a deep b r e a t h a n d slow down. You will be a m a z e d h o w m u c h m o r e relaxed y o u will b e . Microphone technique T h e following s u m m a r i z e s t h e m a i n p o i n t s a b o u t h a n d l i n g m i c r o p h o n e s a n d assisting t h e a u d i o technician. (See chapter 9 for an i n - d e p t h discussion of t h e basic m i c r o p h o n e techniques.) M o s t often y o u will w o r k w i t h a lavaliere m i c r o p h o n e . O n c e it is p r o p e r l y fastened, y o u d o n o t have t o w o r r y a b o u t it, especially if y o u are relatively s t a t i o n a r y d u r i n g t h e p e r f o r m a n c e . If y o u have t o m o v e from o n e set area t o a n o t h e r o n - c a m e r a , w a t c h t h a t t h e m i c cord does n o t get tangled u p w i t h t h e set o r p r o p s . Gently pull t h e cable b e h i n d y o u t o keep t h e t e n s i o n off t h e m i c itself. A wireless
Production
People
Do
375
lavaliere will enable y o u t o m o v e w i t h i n t h e p e r f o r m a n c e area w i t h o u t having to w o r r y a b o u t a cable. W h e n using a h a n d m i c , check t h a t y o u have e n o u g h cable for y o u r p l a n n e d actions. Speak across it, n o t into it. If y o u are interviewing s o m e o n e in noisy s u r r o u n d i n g s , such as a d o w n t o w n street, hold t h e m i c r o p h o n e close t o y o u r m o u t h w h e n y o u are talking, t h e n p o i n t it t o w a r d t h e p e r s o n as h e o r s h e r e s p o n d s t o y o u r q u e s t i o n s . W h e n w o r k i n g w i t h a b o o m m i c (including a h a n d held s h o t g u n o r o n e t h a t is m o u n t e d o n a fishpole), b e aware of the b o o m m o v e m e n t s w i t h o u t letting the audience know. Give t h e b o o m o p e r a t o r e n o u g h w a r n i n g so t h a t he o r she can anticipate y o u r m o v e m e n t s . M o v e slowly so that t h e b o o m can follow. I n particular, d o n o t m a k e fast t u r n s because t h e y involve a great a m o u n t of b o o m m o v e m e n t . If y o u have t o t u r n fast, t r y n o t t o speak until t h e b o o m has b e e n repositioned. D o n o t m o v e a desk m i c o n c e it h a s been placed by t h e a u d i o technician. Even if t h e m i c r o p h o n e is p o i n t i n g away from y o u t o w a r d a n o t h e r performer, it was p r o b a b l y d o n e p u r p o s e l y t o achieve better a u d i o balance. In all cases, treat m i c r o p h o n e s gently. Mies are n o t i n t e n d e d t o b e h a n d p r o p s , t o b e tossed a b o u t o r twirled by their cords like a lasso, even if y o u see such m i s u s e o c casionally in a n especially energetic rock p e r f o r m a n c e . Audio level! A g o o d a u d i o technician will ask y o u for an audio level before y o u go o n t h e air. M a n y p e r f o r m e r s have t h e b a d h a b i t of rapidly c o u n t i n g t o ten o r m u m b l i n g a n d speaking softly while t h e level is b e i n g taken, t h e n , w h e n t h e y go o n t h e air, blasting their o p e n i n g r e m a r k s . If a level is taken, speak as loudly as y o u will i n y o u r o p e n i n g r e m a r k s a n d as l o n g as required for t h e a u d i o technician to adjust t h e v o l u m e t o a n o p t i m a l level. Opening cue At the b e g i n n i n g of a show, all m i c r o p h o n e s are dead until t h e director gives t h e cue for a u d i o . You m u s t therefore wait until y o u receive t h e o p e n i n g cue from t h e floor m a n a g e r o r t h r o u g h t h e I.F.B. (interruptible foldback, o r feedback) system. If y o u speak beforehand, y o u will n o t b e h e a r d . D o n o t take y o u r o p e n i n g cue from t h e red tally lights o n t h e c a m e r a s unless y o u are so instructed. W h e n w a i t i n g for t h e o p e n i n g c u e , look i n t o t h e c a m e r a that is c o m i n g u p o n y o u a n d n o t at t h e floor m a n a g e r .
PERFORMER A N D TIMING Live a n d live-on-tape television o p e r a t e o n split-second t i m i n g . A l t h o u g h it is ultimately t h e director's responsibil-
376
Chapter
16
PRODUCTION
PEOPLE
ity to get the s h o w o n a n d off t h e air o n t i m e , y o u as t h e
crew, ask the floor manager to review t h e cues before y o u
p e r f o r m e r have a great deal to d o with successful t i m i n g .
go o n t h e air. SEE 16.6
Aside from careful p a c i n g t h r o u g h o u t t h e show, y o u
React to each cue i m m e d i a t e l y , even if y o u t h i n k it is
m u s t learn h o w m u c h p r o g r a m material y o u can cover after
n o t a p p r o p r i a t e at that p a r t i c u l a r time. T h e director w o u l d
y o u have received a 3 - m i n u t e , a 2 - m i n u t e , a 1-minute, a
n o t give the cue if it were n o t necessary. A truly professional
30-second, a n d a 15-second c u e . You m u s t , for e x a m p l e ,
p e r f o r m e r is n o t o n e w h o never n e e d s cues b u t r a t h e r o n e
still l o o k c o m f o r t a b l e a n d relaxed a l t h o u g h y o u m a y have
w h o c a n react to all signals quickly a n d s m o o t h l y .
to c r a m a lot of p r o g r a m material into the last m i n u t e while
D o n o t l o o k n e r v o u s l y for the floor m a n a g e r if y o u
at t h e s a m e t i m e listen t o t h e director's or p r o d u c e r ' s I.F.B.
t h i n k y o u s h o u l d have received a cue; h e or she will find you
O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , y o u m u s t b e p r e p a r e d to fill a n extra
a n d d r a w y o u r a t t e n t i o n to t h e signal. W h e n y o u receive a
t h i r t y seconds w i t h o u t a p p e a r i n g to grasp for w o r d s a n d
cue, d o n o t a c k n o w l e d g e it in any way; t h e floor m a n a g e r
things to do. This presence of m i n d , of course, is achieved
will k n o w w h e t h e r y o u n o t i c e d it.
t h r o u g h practical experience a n d c a n n o t b e l e a r n e d solely from a t e x t b o o k .
You will find t h a t r e c e i v i n g a n d r e a c t i n g to I.F.B. i n f o r m a t i o n d u r i n g a p e r f o r m a n c e is n o easy task. W e all k n o w h o w difficult it can b e to c o n t i n u e a t e l e p h o n e
PERFORMER AND POSTPRODUCTION
c o n v e r s a t i o n w h e n s o m e o n e close b y is t r y i n g to tell u s
W h e n y o u w o r k o n a brief c o m m e r c i a l o r a n n o u n c e m e n t
w h a t else to c o m m u n i c a t e to t h e o t h e r party. B u t w h e n
that p r e s e n t s a c o n t i n u o u s event b u t t h a t is shot
r e p o r t i n g n e w s in t h e s t u d i o o r in t h e field, such s i m u l
film-style
over a p e r i o d of several days or even weeks for p o s t p r o d u c
t a n e o u s c o m m u n i c a t i o n is c o m m o n . You m u s t learn t o
tion, y o u m u s t l o o k t h e s a m e in all the videotaping sessions.
listen carefully to t h e I.F.B. i n s t r u c t i o n s of t h e d i r e c t o r o r
O b v i o u s l y , y o u m u s t w e a r t h e s a m e c l o t h e s . You m u s t
p r o d u c e r w i t h o u t letting t h e a u d i e n c e k n o w t h a t y o u are
also w e a r t h e s a m e jewelry, scarf, a n d tie from o n e t a p i n g
listening to s o m e o n e else while talking to t h e m . D o n o t
session to t h e next. You c a n n o t have y o u r coat b u t t o n e d
i n t e r r u p t y o u r c o m m u n i c a t i o n with t h e a u d i e n c e w h e n
o n e t i m e a n d u n b u t t o n e d t h e next. M a k e u p a n d hairstyle
getting I.F.B. i n s t r u c t i o n s , even if t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n is less
t o o m u s t be identical for all sessions. Have digital p h o t o s
t h a n perfect. If d u r i n g a live r e m o t e y o u can't u n d e r s t a n d
taken of yourself from t h e front, sides, a n d back i m m e d i
w h a t is b e i n g said o n t h e I.F.B. c h a n n e l , however, y o u m a y
ately after the first t a p i n g session for an easy a n d readily
have t o stop y o u r n a r r a t i o n to tell the a u d i e n c e that you are
available reference.
getting s o m e i m p o r t a n t i n f o r m a t i o n f r o m y o u r director.
M o s t i m p o r t a n t , y o u m u s t m a i n t a i n t h e s a m e level of
Listen carefully to t h e I.F.B. i n s t r u c t i o n s , t h e n go o n w i t h
e n e r g y t h r o u g h o u t t h e t a p i n g sessions. For e x a m p l e , y o u
w h a t y o u were saying. Try n o t to adjust y o u r earpiece while
c a n n o t e n d o n e session full of energy a n d t h e n b e very lowkey t h e next day w h e n t h e v i d e o t a p i n g r e s u m e s , especially
o n t h e air. If at all possible, wait until t h e c a m e r a cuts away from y o u t o d o a n a d j u s t m e n t .
w h e n t h e e d i t e d version does n o t suggest a n y passage of t i m e between takes. O n repeat takes, t r y to m a i n t a i n identi
PROMPTING
cal e n e r g y levels.
P r o m p t i n g devices have b e c o m e a n essential p r o d u c t i o n
DEVICES
tool, especially for n e w s or speeches. T h e a u d i e n c e h a s
FLOOR M A N A G E R ' S CUES
c o m e to e x p e c t t h e n e w s c a s t e r to talk directly to t h e m
Unless y o u are c o n n e c t e d with t h e p r o d u c e r a n d t h e direc
r a t h e r t h a n r e a d t h e n e w s f r o m a script, a l t h o u g h we all
t o r via I.F.B., it is t h e floor m a n a g e r w h o p r o v i d e s t h e link
k n o w t h a t t h e newscaster c a n n o t possibly r e m e m b e r t h e
b e t w e e n t h e director a n d you, t h e p e r f o r m e r . T h e floor
entire news copy. We expect speakers to deliver copious a n d
m a n a g e r can tell y o u w h e t h e r y o u r delivery is t o o slow or
c o m p l i c a t e d i n f o r m a t i o n w i t h o u t h a v i n g to t h i n k a b o u t
t o o fast, h o w m u c h t i m e y o u have left, a n d w h e t h e r y o u
w h a t t o say next. P r o m p t i n g devices are also helpful to
are speaking l o u d l y e n o u g h or h o l d i n g a n object correctly
p e r f o r m e r s w h o fear t h e y m a y s u d d e n l y forget their lines
for a close-up s h o t .
or w h o have n o t i m e t o m e m o r i z e a script.
Although various stations and p r o d u c t i o n houses
P r o m p t i n g devices m u s t b e totally reliable, a n d t h e
use slightly different c u e i n g signals a n d p r o c e d u r e s , t h e y
p e r f o r m e r m u s t b e able to read t h e copy w i t h o u t a p p e a r i n g
n o r m a l l y consist of t i m e cues, d i r e c t i o n a l cues, a n d a u d i o
to lose eye contact with t h e viewer. Two devices have proved
cues. If y o u are w o r k i n g with a n u n f a m i l i a r p r o d u c t i o n
especially successful: c u e cards a n d t h e t e l e p r o m p t e r .
Section
16.6
What
16.1
Production
People
Do
FLOOR MANAGER'S CUES
The floor manager uses a set of standard hand signals to relay the director's commands to the on-the-air talent.
MEANING
S I G N A L DESCRIPTION
Standby
S h o w about to start.
Extends hand above head.
Cue
S h o w goes on the air.
Points to performer or live camera.
On time
Go ahead as planned (on the nose).
Touches nose w i t h forefinger.
Speed up
Accelerate w h a t you are doing. You are going too slowly.
Rotates hand clockwise with extended forefinger. Urgency of speed-up is indicated by fast or slow rotation.
Stretch
Slow d o w n . Too much time left. Fill until emergency is over.
Stretches imaginary rubber band between hands.
CUE TIME
SIGNAL CUES
377
378
Chapter
16.6
FLOOR MANAGER'S CUES SIGNAL
77A?f
PRODUCTION
16
PEOPLE
(continued)
MEANING
SIGNAL DESCRIPTION
Finish up w h a t you are doing.
Similar motion to speed-up, but usually w i t h arm extended above head. Sometimes expressed w i t h raised fist, good-bye w a v e , or hands rolling over each other as if wrapping a package.
CUES
Wind up
Come to an end.
Cut
Stop speech or action
Pulls index finger in knifelike motion
immediately.
across throat.
5(4,3,2,1) minute(s)
5 ( 4 , 3 , 2 , 1 ) m i n u t e ( s ) left until
Holds up five (four, three, two, one)
end of show.
finger(s) or small card w i t h number on it.
Half minute
30 seconds left in show.
Forms a cross w i t h t w o index fingers or arms. Or holds card with number.
15 seconds
15 seconds left in show.
S h o w s fist (which can also mean w i n d up). Or holds card w i t h number.
Roll VTR (and countdown) 2,1, take VTR
VTR is rolling. Tape is coming up.
Holds extended left hand in front of face, moves right hand in cranking motion. Extends two, one finger(s); clenches fist or gives cut signal.
Section
16.6
What
16.1
FLOOR MANAGER'S CUES
CUE
People
Do
379
(continued)
MEANING
SIGNAL DESCRIPTION
Performer must come closer or bring object closer to camera.
Moves both hands toward self, palms in.
Back
Performer must step back or move object away from camera.
Uses both hands in pushing motion, palms out.
Walk
Performer must move to next performance area.
Makes a walking motion w i t h index and middle fingers in direction of movement.
Stop
Stop right here. Do not move any more.
Extends both hands in front of body, palms out.
OK
Very well done. Stay right there. Do w h a t you are doing.
Forms an 0 w i t h thumb and forefinger, other fingers extended, motioning toward talent.
DIRECTIONAL Closer
SIGNAL
Production
CUES
380
16.6
Chapter
FLOOR MANAGER'S CUES
AUDIO
PRODUCTION
16
PEOPLE
(continued)
CUES
Speak up
Performer is talking too softly for present conditions.
Cups both hands behind ears or moves hand upward, palm up.
Tone down
Performer is too loud or too enthusiastic for the occasion.
Moves both hands toward studio floor, palms d o w n , or puts extended forefinger over mouth in shhh-\ke motion.
Closer to mic
Performer is too far away from mic for good audio pickup.
Moves hand toward face.
Keep talking
Keep on talking until further cues.
Extends t h u m b and forefinger horizon tally, moving t h e m like a bird's beak.
Cue cards
U s e d for relatively s h o r t p i e c e s of copy,
possible, t h e h a n d s d o n o t cover any of t h e copy, a n d h e o r
t h e r e are m a n y types of cue cards, a n d t h e choice d e p e n d s
she follows t h e p e r f o r m e r ' s lines so t h a t t h e c h a n g e s from
largely o n w h a t the p e r f o r m e r is used to a n d w h a t h e or
o n e c a r d to t h e next are s m o o t h , SEE 16.7
she prefers. Usually, t h e y are fairly large p o s t e r b o a r d s o n
As a p e r f o r m e r y o u m u s t learn to r e a d by p e r i p h e r a l
w h i c h t h e copy is h a n d - l e t t e r e d w i t h a felt-tipped marker.
vision so t h a t y o u will n o t lose eye c o n t a c t w i t h t h e lens.
T h e size of t h e cards a n d t h e lettering d e p e n d s o n h o w
Get t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e floor p e r s o n h a n d l i n g t h e cards t o
well t h e p e r f o r m e r can see a n d h o w far away t h e c a m e r a
d o u b l e - c h e c k their correct order. If the floor p e r s o n forgets
is. Even t h e h a n d l i n g of cue cards is easier said t h a n d o n e .
to c h a n g e the card at t h e a p p r o p r i a t e m o m e n t , s n a p y o u r
A g o o d floor p e r s o n h o l d s t h e cards as close to t h e lens as
fingers to attract his or h e r a t t e n t i o n ; in a n e m e r g e n c y y o u
Section
16.7
16.1
What
Production
People
381
Do
HANDLING CUE CARDS
A This is the wrong way to hold a cue card: the card is too far away from the lens, and the hands cover part of the copy. The floor person cannot see the copy and does not know when to change the card.
m a y have t o ad-lib u n t i l t h e system is f u n c t i o n i n g again.
B This is the correct way to hold a cue card: the floor person does not cover the copy, holds the card close to the lens, and reads along with the talent.
Glass plate reflecting image from monitor
You s h o u l d s t u d y t h e t o p i c long before t h e s h o w begins, e n a b l i n g y o u t o ad-lib sensibly at least for a s h o r t t i m e . If y o u r p e r f o r m a n c e is s h o t for p o s t p r o d u c t i o n , ask t h e
\
Flat panel or monitor displaying copy \
/
Copy as it appears to talent
d i r e c t o r t o stop t h e t a p e so t h a t t h e cards c a n be p u t in t h e correct order. Studio teleprompter
T h e m o s t effective p r o m p t i n g
device is t h e teleprompter,
o r auto cue, w h i c h uses a small
m o n i t o r o r flat-panel v i d e o display u p o n w h i c h t h e copy scrolls. T h e m o n i t o r screen is t h e n reflected o n t o a glass angled over t h e c a m e r a lens. You c a n read t h e copy, w h i c h n o w a p p e a r s in front of t h e lens b u t w h i c h r e m a i n s invis ible t o t h e c a m e r a . This w a y y o u d o n o t have t o glance t o t h e side b u t c a n m a i n t a i n eye c o n t a c t w i t h t h e viewer at all t i m e s , SEE T6.8 M o s t often t h e copy is t y p e d i n t o a c o m p u t e r t h a t acts as a c o m b i n a t i o n w o r d p r o c e s s o r a n d c h a r a c t e r generator. It can p r o d u c e t h e text in several font sizes a n d scroll (often referred t o as crawl) t h e c o p y u p a n d d o w n t h e screen at v a r i o u s speeds. T h e copy is t h e n s e n t t o t h e t e l e p r o m p t e r m o n i t o r m o u n t e d o n t h e c a m e r a . All c a m e r a s used i n t h e p r o d u c t i o n display t h e s a m e copy. In newscasts t h e a n c h o r p e r s o n s h o u l d have t h e text as it a p p e a r s o n t h e t e l e p r o m p t e r also p r i n t e d o u t as hard copy. This script serves as b a c k u p in case t h e p r o m p t i n g device fails. S u c h c o p y also gives t h e a n c h o r a r e a s o n t o glance d o w n t o indicate a s t o r y t r a n s i t i o n , t o c h a n g e
1 6 . 8 TELEPROMPTER DISPLAY OF COPY The monitor or flat-panel display reflects the copy onto a glass plate directly over the lens. The lettering remains invisible to the camera, but the talent can read the copy while keeping eye contact with the audience.
382
16.9
Chapter
16
PRODUCTION
PEOPLE
FIELD PROMPTER
A lightweight prompter with a flat-panel video display can be mounted on any type of field camera. Like a studio prompter, it projects the text directly over the lens.
c a m e r a s , or to see d u r i n g a c o m m e r c i a l b r e a k w h a t is c o m
the lens. A small electric m o t o r rolls the h a n d - l e t t e r e d copy from t h e b o t t o m to t h e t o p . In m o r e - e l a b o r a t e m o d e l s , t h e
ing u p next. W h e n u s i n g a t e l e p r o m p t e r , t h e distance b e t w e e n y o u
copy is b a c k - l i g h t e d a n d projected o n t o a piece of clear
a n d t h e c a m e r a is n o longer arbitrary. T h e c a m e r a m u s t b e
plastic m o u n t e d in front of t h e lens, similar to a s t u d i o
close e n o u g h for y o u t o read t h e copy w i t h o u t s q u i n t i n g
teleprompter.
b u t n o t so close t h a t t h e h o m e viewer c a n see y o u r eyes
Similar u n i t s can b e used i n d e p e n d e n t of t h e c a m e r a
m o v i n g back a n d forth. If t h e m i n i m u m c a m e r a distance
a n d h e l d b y a floor p e r s o n o r m o u n t e d o n a t r i p o d directly
is t o o far to see t h e t e l e p r o m p t e r c o p y comfortably, have
above o r b e l o w t h e c a m e r a lens. Regardless of t h e quality
t h e font size m a d e bigger.
of t h e t e l e p r o m p t e r , y o u s h o u l d always b e familiar e n o u g h w i t h t h e subject m a t t e r to b e able to talk a b o u t it intel
E N Q w rield p r o m p t e r E XV
H a v e y o u ever w o n d e r e d h o w
ligently if t h e p r o m p t i n g device fails. •
s o m e c o r r e s p o n d e n t s can s t a n d o n a b u s y city street
a n d r e p o r t a w e l l - w r i t t e n s t o r y w i t h o u t ever s t u m b l i n g or searching for words? A l t h o u g h s o m e certainly have t h a t
ACTING TECHNIQUES
skill, o t h e r s use s o m e k i n d of p r o m p t i n g device. If t h e
In c o n t r a s t to t h e television p e r f o r m e r , t h e television actor
copy is brief, h a n d h e l d cue cards o r even s o m e n o t e s will
a s s u m e s s o m e o n e else's character a n d personality. (In this
do. L o n g e r c o p y calls for a field prompter.
discussion t h e t e r m actor refers to b o t h m a l e a n d female
T h e r e are several m o d e l s of field p r o m p t e r s , i n c l u d
talent.) To b e c o m e a g o o d television actor, y o u o b v i o u s l y
ing a m i n i a t u r e version of t h e s t u d i o t e l e p r o m p t e r . T h e
m u s t first m a s t e r t h e a r t of acting, a subject b e y o n d t h e
flat-panel v i d e o displays are so lightweight that t h e y can
scope of this chapter. T h i s discussion focuses o n h o w t o
b e a t t a c h e d to a t r i p o d . M o s t h i g h - e n d field p r o m p t e r s
a d a p t y o u r acting to t h e peculiarities of t h e television m e
can b e h o o k e d u p to a l a p t o p c o m p u t e r with p r o m p t i n g
d i u m . M a n y excellent actors c o n s i d e r television t h e m o s t
software. SEE16.9 You c a n adjust t h e size of t h e font a n d
difficult m e d i u m in w h i c h to w o r k . T h e y m u s t function
scroll t h e copy at v a r i o u s speeds. L o w - e n d p r o m p t e r s use
effectively w i t h i n a n e n v i r o n m e n t c r o w d e d w i t h confus
a p a p e r roll m o u n t e d i m m e d i a t e l y b e l o w or to o n e side of
ing a n d i m p e r s o n a l technical gear, a n d t h e y often get less
Section
16.1
What
a t t e n t i o n from t h e director t h a n d o the c a m e r a o p e r a t o r a n d t h e s o u n d technician.
AUDIENCE T h e biggest difference between stage acting a n d screen act ing is t h a t you are n o t playing for a s t a t i o n a r y live audience b u t for a constantly m o v i n g c a m e r a that never blinks or offers feedback o n y o u r p e r f o r m a n c e . W o r s e , y o u r perfor m a n c e is c h o p p e d u p i n t o s h o r t takes t h a t rarely, if ever, allow y o u t o w o r k u p to a m e m o r a b l e p e r f o r m a n c e pitch. Each of t h e little p e r f o r m a n c e s e g m e n t s m u s t b e o n t h e m a r k . In m o s t takes the c a m e r a moves a r o u n d you, looking at you at close r a n g e a n d from a distance as well as from above a n d below. It m a y l o o k at y o u r eyes, y o u r feet, y o u r h a n d s , y o u r b a c k — w h a t e v e r t h e director selects for t h e a u d i e n c e to see. A n d at all t i m e s you m u s t l o o k completely c o n v i n c i n g a n d n a t u r a l ; t h e character you are p o r t r a y i n g m u s t a p p e a r o n - s c r e e n as a believable h u m a n being. Keep in m i n d t h a t y o u are playing to a v i r t u a l a u d i e n c e t h a t is a l m o s t always s t a n d i n g right next to you, l o o k i n g at you from very close u p a n d from all angles. You n e e d n o t ( a n d s h o u l d n o t ) project y o u r m o t i o n s a n d e m o t i o n s as y o u w o u l d w h e n acting on-stage. T h e television c a m e r a does t h e p r o j e c t i n g — t h e c o m m u n i c a t i n g — f o r y o u . Be aware of t h e c a m e r a or c a m e r a s , b u t d o n ' t ever a c k n o w l e d g e their presence. Internalization of y o u r role, as o p p o s e d to externalization, is a key factor in y o u r p e r f o r m a n c e . You m u s t a t t e m p t t o b e c o m e as m u c h as possible t h e p e r s o n y o u are p o r t r a y ing, r a t h e r t h a n act o u t t h e character. Because of t h e close scrutiny of t h e c a m e r a a n d t h e i n t i m a c y of t h e close-up, y o u r reactions b e c o m e as i m p o r t a n t as y o u r actions. You can often c o m m u n i c a t e feelings m o r e readily b y reacting to a situation t h a n b y c o n t r i b u t i n g to it t h r o u g h action.
Production
People
Do
383
c a m e r a has a limited field of view; if you w a n t to be seen, y o u m u s t stay w i t h i n it. S o m e directors have t h e floor m a n a g e r m a r k t h e exact spots for y o u to s t a n d or t h e p a t h s of m o v e m e n t . This is called spiking y o u r position. Look for these tape o r chalk m a r k s a n d follow t h e m w i t h o u t b e i n g t o o o b v i o u s . If such spike m a r k s are n o t used, establish a blocking map by re m e m b e r i n g w h e r e you stand for specific shots in relation to t h e set a n d t h e p r o p s . For example, for y o u r scene w i t h the office m a n a g e r y o u stand to t h e left of t h e file cabinet; for t h e scene in t h e d o c t o r ' s office, you walk counterclockwise a r o u n d t h e desk a n d stop at t h e c a m e r a - r i g h t c o r n e r of the desk. In o v e r - t h e - s h o u l d e r a n d cross-shots, y o u n e e d to see t h e c a m e r a lens if y o u are to be seen by t h e camera. If y o u c a n n o t see t h e lens, t h e c a m e r a c a n n o t see you. Even the lighting i n s t r u m e n t s can help y o u w i t h blocking. For ex ample, to be sure you're in the light w h e n c o m i n g t h r o u g h a door, m o v e forward until y o u feel t h e w a r m t h of t h e lights o n y o u r forehead. S o m e t i m e s t h e d i r e c t o r will p o s i t i o n you in a way that seems entirely w r o n g to you, especially in relation to the o t h e r actors. D o n ' t t r y to correct this o n y o u r o w n by arbitrarily m o v i n g away from the designated spot. A certain c a m e r a angle a n d z o o m - l e n s p o s i t i o n m a y very well war r a n t u n u s u a l b l o c k i n g to achieve a certain effect. D o n o t second-guess t h e director. W h e n y o u are h a n d l i n g p r o p s , t h e c a m e r a is often o n a close-up. This m e a n s t h a t you m u s t r e m e m b e r all t h e rehearsed actions a n d execute t h e m in exactly the same way a n d w i t h t h e s a m e speed as they were initially rehearsed. D o n ' t a p p e a r n e r v o u s w h e n using p r o p s (unless t h e direc t o r calls for it), b u t h a n d l e t h e m r o u t i n e l y as extensions of y o u r gestures. T h e way y o u h a n d l e p r o p s , such as taking off y o u r glasses, cleaning t h e m , a n d p u t t i n g t h e m o n again, can often s h a r p e n y o u r character.
BLOCKING You m u s t b e m e t i c u l o u s in following r e h e a r s e d block ing—where you should move and what you should do in relation to t h e set, t h e o t h e r actors, a n d t h e television e q u i p m e n t . S o m e t i m e s inches are significant, especially if t h e s h o w is shot p r i m a r i l y in close-ups. Precise television lighting a n d t h e limited m i c r o p h o n e r a d i u s w h e n b o o m s are used also force y o u to a d h e r e strictly to t h e established blocking. O n c e t h e s h o w is o n t h e air, y o u have an obligation to follow t h e rehearsed action. This is n o t the t i m e to innovate just because y o u have a s u d d e n i n s p i r a t i o n . If the director has n o t b e e n w a r n e d of y o u r change, the n e w blocking will always be worse t h a n t h e previously rehearsed o n e . T h e
M E M O R I Z I N G LINES As a television actor, you m u s t be able to learn y o u r lines quickly a n d accurately. If, as is t h e case in soap o p e r a s , you have only o n e evening to learn a great a m o u n t of lines for t h e n e x t day, you m u s t i n d e e d be a quick study. You c a n n o t ad-lib d u r i n g such p e r f o r m a n c e s simply because y o u have played t h e role for so long. M o s t of y o u r lines are i m p o r t a n t n o t o n l y f r o m a d r a m a t i c p o i n t of view b u t also because they serve as v i d e o a n d a u d i o cues for t h e w h o l e p r o d u c t i o n t e a m . Your last line of a speech is often a trigger for several key actions in t h e control r o o m : t o switch t o a n o t h e r c a m e r a , to roll a v i d e o t a p e insert, o r t o call u p a special effect.
384
Chapter
16
PRODUCTION
PEOPLE
For a s i n g l e - c a m e r a EFP o r film-style s t u d i o p r o d u c
psych yourself u p for a single s h o w - s t o p p i n g p e r f o r m a n c e .
t i o n , each s h o t is set u p a n d r e c o r d e d separately. Such
Rather, y o u n e e d to m a i n t a i n y o u r e n e r g y a n d m o t i v a t i o n
a p r o d u c t i o n a p p r o a c h often gives y o u a c h a n c e to read
for each take. Television unfailingly detects subtle n u a n c e s
over y o u r lines for each take. A l t h o u g h this a p p r o a c h m a y
a n d levels of energy a n d t h e a c c o m p a n y i n g acting c o n t i n u
m a k e it easier to r e m e m b e r lines, it is h a r d e r t o m a i n t a i n
i t y — o r lack thereof.
c o n t i n u i t y of action a n d e m o t i o n . G o o d television actors
O n e of the m o s t i m p o r t a n t qualities to watch for w h e n
d o n o t rely o n p r o m p t i n g devices; after all, you should live,
c o n t i n u i n g a scene that was started s o m e days before is
n o t read, y o u r role. Nevertheless, m a n y g o o d actors like
t h e tempo of y o u r p e r f o r m a n c e . If y o u m o v e d slowly in
to have all their lines backed u p by cue cards, just in case.
t h e first p a r t of t h e scene, d o n o t race t h r o u g h t h e second
M o s t of t h e t i m e , t h e y never look at t h e m . But even if the
p a r t unless t h e director w a n t s such a change. It usually
cue cards function o n l y as a safety net, their c o n t r i b u t i o n
helps to w a t c h a v i d e o t a p e of y o u r p r e v i o u s p e r f o r m a n c e
to a g o o d p e r f o r m a n c e m o r e t h a n justifies their use.
so that y o u can c o n t i n u e t h e scene w i t h the s a m e e n e r g y level a n d t e m p o .
TIMING Like the television performer, as an actor y o u m u s t have an acute sense of t i m i n g . T i m i n g m a t t e r s for pacing y o u r per f o r m a n c e , for b u i l d i n g to a climax, for delivering a p u n c h line, a n d for staying w i t h i n a tightly p r e s c r i b e d clock t i m e . Even if a play is videotaped scene-by-scene, you still n e e d to observe carefully t h e stipulated r u n n i n g times for each take. You m a y have to stretch a scene w i t h o u t m a k i n g it appear to d r a g , or y o u m a y n e e d to gain ten seconds by speeding u p a scene w i t h o u t destroying its s o l e m n character. You m u s t b e flexible w i t h o u t s t e p p i n g o u t of character. Always r e s p o n d i m m e d i a t e l y t o t h e floor m a n a g e r ' s cues. D o n o t stop in t h e m i d d l e of a scene s i m p l y because y o u disagree w i t h a specific cue; you're n o t privy to all t h e g o i n g s - o n in t h e c o n t r o l r o o m . Play t h e scene to t h e e n d a n d t h e n speak u p . M i n o r t i m i n g errors can often be cor rected in p o s t p r o d u c t i o n .
ACTOR A N D P O S T P R O D U C T I O N As y o u k n o w , m o s t television plays are v i d e o t a p e d piece m e a l , w h i c h m e a n s t h a t y o u are n o t able to p e r f o r m a play from b e g i n n i n g t o e n d as in a t h e a t e r p r o d u c t i o n . You c a n n o t be u p b e a t d u r i n g t h e first p a r t of t h e v i d e o t a p i n g a n d t h e n , a week later w h e n the scene is c o n t i n u e d , project a low-energy m o o d . Often scenes are shot o u t of sequence for p r o d u c t i o n efficiency a n d , ultimately, to save m o n e y , so it is n o t possible to have a c o n t i n u o u s a n d logical d e v e l o p m e n t of e m o t i o n s , as is t h e case in a c o n t i n u o u s live o r live-on-tape p i c k u p . Scenes are inevitably repeated to m a k e t h e m better or to achieve v a r i o u s fields of view a n d c a m e r a angles. This m e a n s that, as an actor, y o u c a n n o t
DIRECTOR/ACTOR RELATIONSHIP As a television actor, you c a n n o t afford to be t e m p e r a m e n tal; t o o m a n y p e o p l e have t o be c o o r d i n a t e d by t h e direc tor. A l t h o u g h y o u as an actor are an extremely significant e l e m e n t i n t h e p r o d u c t i o n , o t h e r p r o d u c t i o n people are t o o — t h e c a m e r a o p e r a t o r s , t h e T D , t h e a u d i o technician, a n d t h e LD, to n a m e b u t a few. Even if you have n o i n t e n t i o n of b e c o m i n g a television actor, you s h o u l d m a k e an effort t o learn as m u c h a b o u t acting as possible. A n able actor is generally an effective television p e r f o r m e r ; a television director w i t h t r a i n i n g in acting is generally b e t t e r e q u i p p e d t o deal w i t h talent t h a n o n e w h o has n o k n o w l e d g e of t h e art.
AUDITIONS All a u d i t i o n s are equally i m p o r t a n t , w h e t h e r y o u are try ing o u t for a one-line off-camera u t t e r a n c e or a principal role in a d r a m a t i c series. W h e n e v e r y o u a u d i t i o n give y o u r best. You can p r e p a r e yourself even if y o u d o n ' t k n o w b e f o r e h a n d w h a t y o u will be r e a d i n g . W e a r s o m e t h i n g a p p r o p r i a t e t h a t looks g o o d o n - c a m e r a a n d be p r o p e r l y g r o o m e d . Keep y o u r energy u p even if you have to wait half a day before you are called to deliver y o u r line. W h e n you get t h e script beforehand, s t u d y it carefully. For example, if you are d o i n g a commercial for a soft drink, b e c o m e as familiar as possible w i t h the p r o d u c t , t h e c o m p a n y t h a t m a k e s it, a n d t h e advertising agency p r o d u c i n g t h e c o m m e r c i a l . K n o w i n g a b o u t t h e p r o d u c t gives y o u a certain confidence t h a t inevitably shows u p in y o u r deliv-
Section
16.1
What
Production
People
Do
385
ery. Listen carefully to t h e i n s t r u c t i o n s given to y o u before a n d d u r i n g t h e a u d i t i o n . R e m e m b e r t h a t television is a n intimate medium.
•
Nontechnical production personnel are concerned primar ily with the nontechnical production elements, such as scriptwriting and directing. They are normally classified as above-the-line personnel.
•
Technical production personnel are primarily concerned with the operation and the maintenance of the equipment. They are normally among the below-the-line personnel.
•
News production personnel are assigned exclusively to the production of news, documentaries, and special events.
•
Regardless of the specific job functions of the technical and nontechnical personnel, they all have to interact as a team.
•
Television talent refers to all persons who perform regularly in front of the camera. They are classified into two large groups: performers and actors.
•
Television performers are basically engaged in nondramatic shows, such as newscasts, interviews, and game shows. They portray themselves. Television actors portray someone else.
•
The television performer must adapt his or her techniques to the characteristics of the camera and the other produc tion elements, including audio, timing, postproduction, the floor manager's cues, and prompting devices.
•
Because the camera lens represents the audience, perform ers must look through the lens to establish and maintain eye contact with the viewer. If cameras are switched, performers must transfer their gaze to the hot camera smoothly and naturally.
•
Timing is an important performance requirement. A good performer must respond quickly yet smoothly to the floor manager's time, directional, and audio cues.
•
Prompting devices have become essential in television production. The two most frequently used devices are cue cards and the teleprompter.
•
Television acting requires that the actor overcome the lack of an actual audience and internalize the role, restrict ges tures and movements because of close-ups, follow exactly the rehearsed blocking, memorize lines quickly, have a good sense of timing, maintain continuity in physical ap pearance and energy level over a series of takes, and keep a positive attitude despite occasional neglect by the director.
•
Performers and actors should prepare as much as possible for auditions, dress properly for the occasion (role), and sharpen the character through some prop or mannerism.
W h e n i n s t r u c t e d to d e m o n s t r a t e a p r o d u c t , practice before y o u are o n - c a m e r a t o m a k e s u r e you k n o w h o w , for e x a m p l e , t o o p e n t h e e a s y - t o - o p e n package. Ask t h e floor c r e w to h e l p y o u p r e p a r e a p r o d u c t for easy h a n d l i n g . Also find o u t h o w close t h e m a j o r i t y of s h o t s will b e so t h a t y o u can keep y o u r actions w i t h i n c a m e r a r a n g e . As a n a c t o r b e s u r e t o u n d e r s t a n d t h o r o u g h l y t h e c h a r a c t e r y o u are to p o r t r a y . If t h e script d o e s n o t tell y o u m u c h a b o u t t h e character, ask t h e d i r e c t o r o r p r o d u c e r to explain h o w h e o r she perceives it. You s h o u l d b e able to sense t h e specifics of the c h a r a c t e r even w h e n given o n l y m i n i m a l cues. D e c i d e o n a b e h a v i o r p a t t e r n a n d follow it, even if y o u r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n m a y b e s o m e w h a t off base. If the director's p e r c e p t i o n s r u n c o u n t e r t o y o u r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , d o n o t argue. M o s t i m p o r t a n t , d o n o t ask t h e casting direc t o r to p r o v i d e y o u w i t h the " p r o p e r m o t i v a t i o n " as y o u m a y have l e a r n e d in a c t i n g s c h o o l . At this p o i n t it is a s s u m e d t h a t y o u can analyze t h e script a n d m o t i v a t e yourself for t h e r e a d i n g . Realize t h a t y o u are a u d i t i o n e d p r i m a r i l y o n h o w well a n d h o w quickly y o u perceive t h e script's i m a g e of t h e character a n d h o w close y o u c a n c o m e to it in speech a n d s o m e t i m e s also in a c t i o n s . Be creative w i t h o u t o v e r d o i n g it. W h e n a u d i t i o n s were h e l d for t h e m a l e lead in a television play a b o u t a lonely w o m a n and a rather crude and unscrupulous m a n who w a n t e d t o take a d v a n t a g e of her, o n e of t h e actors a d d e d a little of his o w n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e c h a r a c t e r t h a t even tually got h i m t h e p a r t . W h i l e r e a d i n g a n i n t i m a t e scene i n w h i c h h e was s u p p o s e d to p e r s u a d e t h e leading lady to m a k e love to h i m , h e m a n i c u r e d his fingernails with slightly r u s t y fingernail clippers. I n fact, this aggravating
fingernail
clipping was later w r i t t e n i n t o the scene. Finally, w h e n a u d i t i o n i n g — a s w h e n p a r t i c i p a t i n g in athletics or any competitive activity—be aware, b u t n o t afraid, of t h e c o m p e t i t i o n . I n n a t e acting t a l e n t is n o t always t h e d e c i d i n g factor i n casting a p a r t . S o m e t i m e s t h e d i r e c t o r m a y have a p a r t i c u l a r image i n m i n d of t h e physical a p p e a r a n c e a n d t h e b e h a v i o r of t h e a c t o r — h e a v y a n d a w k w a r d , light a n d agile, or l e a n a n d m u s c u l a r — t h a t overrides acting skill. S o m e t i m e s a w e l l - k n o w n a c t o r w h o can g u a r a n t e e a large a u d i e n c e m a y w i n o u t . As a n actor y o u n e e d to b e p r e p a r e d t o take it r e p e a t e d l y o n t h e chin.
Minor skin blemishes are covered u p , and the eyes a n d
16.2
lips are e m p h a s i z e d . M a k e u p c a n also be used t o correct closely or widely spaced eyes, sagging flesh u n d e r t h e chin, a s h o r t o r l o n g nose, a slightly t o o p r o m i n e n t forehead, a n d m a n y similar m i n o r "flaws." If a p e r s o n is t o p o r t r a y a specific character in a play, a c o m p l e t e c h a n g e of a p p e a r ance m a y b e necessary. D r a m a t i c changes of age, e t h n i c
How to Do Makeup and What to Wear
ity, a n d character can be a c c o m p l i s h e d t h r o u g h creative m a k e u p t e c h n i q u e s . M a k e - u p artists w o r k i n g for c r i m e s h o w series have a field day. T h e i r grisly r e n d e r i n g s of all sorts of b o d i l y h a r m are often so realistic t h a t t h e y b o r d e r o n t h e repulsive; b u t t h e y are, nevertheless, t e s t i m o n y t o the h i g h artistic skills of t h e m a k e u p artists. T h e v a r i o u s p u r p o s e s for a p p l y i n g cosmetics r e q u i r e different t e c h n i q u e s , of c o u r s e . E n h a n c i n g s o m e o n e ' s a p p e a r a n c e calls for t h e least c o m p l i c a t e d p r o c e d u r e ; cor recting s o m e o n e ' s a p p e a r a n c e is slightly m o r e complicated; a n d c h a n g i n g a n actor's a p p e a r a n c e m a y r e q u i r e involved a n d c o m p l e x m a k e u p t e c h n i q u e s . M a k i n g a y o u n g actor look eighty years old is best left t o t h e professional m a k e u p artist. You n e e d n o t learn all a b o u t corrective a n d character m a k e u p m e t h o d s , b u t y o u s h o u l d have s o m e idea of t h e
W h e n y o u h e a r of makeup,
y o u m a y t h i n k of m o v i e s i n
w h i c h actors are t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o m o n s t e r s or o d d - l o o k
basic materials, t e c h n i q u e s , a n d technical r e q u i r e m e n t s of television m a k e u p .
ing aliens or of h o w t o fake a variety of w o u n d s . You m a y even a r g u e t h a t t h e way p e r f o r m e r s or actors l o o k is less
MATERIALS
i m p o r t a n t t h a n t h e s u b s t a n c e of w h a t t h e y say o r d o . B u t
A great variety of excellent television m a k e u p m a t e r i a l is
m o s t television m a k e u p is d o n e n o t so m u c h t o t r a n s f o r m
available. M o s t m a k e u p artists in t h e t h e a t e r arts d e p a r t
a p p e a r a n c e as t o m a k e s o m e o n e look as g o o d as possible
m e n t of a college or university have u p - t o - d a t e p r o d u c t
o n - c a m e r a . T h e s a m e goes for clothing. Unless y o u act i n
lists. I n fact, m o s t large d r u g s t o r e s can s u p p l y y o u w i t h t h e
a p e r i o d play, m o s t actors wear clothes t h a t fit t h e role, a n d
basic materials for e n h a n c i n g a p e r f o r m e r ' s a p p e a r a n c e .
p e r f o r m e r s c h o o s e clothes t h a t m a k e t h e m look attractive
W o m e n p e r f o r m e r s a r e generally experienced i n c o s m e t i c
on-camera.
materials a n d t e c h n i q u e s ; m e n may, at least initially, n e e d
T h e a i m of section 16.2 is t o help y o u choose m a k e u p , clothing, or c o s t u m e s t h a t n o t o n l y fit b u t also a d d t o t h e overall p r o d u c t i o n values a n d c o m m u n i c a t i o n i n t e n t .
s o m e advice. T h e m o s t basic m a k e u p i t e m is a foundation
that
covers m i n o r b l e m i s h e s a n d cuts d o w n light reflections o n oily skin. Water-based cake m a k e u p f o u n d a t i o n s , generally
^
MAKEUP Materials, application, and technical
referred t o as pancake, requirements
CLOTHING AND COSTUMING Line, texture and detail, and color
are preferred over t h e m o r e c u m
b e r s o m e grease-based f o u n d a t i o n s , called pan stick. T h e K r y l o n A q u a C o l o r Base o r Maybelline EverFresh p a n c a k e series is p r o b a b l y all y o u n e e d for m o s t m a k e u p jobs. T h e colors r a n g e from a w a r m , light ivory t o d a r k shades for
MAKEUP
dark-skinned performers. W o m e n c a n use their o w n lipsticks, so long as t h e reds
All makeup is used for t h r e e basic reasons: (1) t o e n h a n c e
d o n o t c o n t a i n t o o m u c h b l u e . For d a r k - s k i n n e d talent,
a p p e a r a n c e , (2) t o correct a p p e a r a n c e , a n d (3) t o c h a n g e
a w a r m red, s u c h as coral, is often m o r e effective t h a n a
appearance.
d a r k e r red t h a t c o n t a i n s a great a m o u n t of blue. O t h e r m a
S t a n d a r d o v e r - t h e - c o u n t e r m a k e u p is used daily b y
terials, such as eyebrow pencil, m a s c a r a , a n d eye s h a d o w ,
m a n y w o m e n t o accentuate a n d i m p r o v e their features.
are generally p a r t of every w o m a n p e r f o r m e r ' s m a k e u p kit.
386
Section
16.2
How
to Do Makeup
and
What
to
Wear
387
Materials s u c h as hairpieces o r even latex m a s k s are p a r t
Because y o u r face is t h e m o s t expressive c o m m u n i c a
of t h e professional m a k e u p artist's inventory. T h e y are of
t i o n agent, t r y t o keep y o u r hair o u t of y o u r face as m u c h
little use i n m o s t n o n d r a m a t i c p r o d u c t i o n s .
as possible.
APPLICATION
TECHNICAL
It is n o t always easy t o p e r s u a d e n o n p r o f e s s i o n a l p e r f o r m
Like so m a n y o t h e r p r o d u c t i o n e l e m e n t s , m a k e u p m u s t
ers, especially m e n , t o p u t o n necessary m a k e u p . You m a y
y i e l d t o t h e d e m a n d s of t h e t e l e v i s i o n c a m e r a . T h e s e
d o well t o look at t h e guests o n - c a m e r a before deciding
l i m i t a t i o n s i n c l u d e color d i s t o r t i o n , color b a l a n c e , a n d
w h e t h e r t h e y n e e d any. If t h e y d o , y o u m u s t b e tactful
close-ups.
REQUIREMENTS
in s u g g e s t i n g its a p p l i c a t i o n . Try t o a p p e a l n o t t o t h e p e r f o r m e r ' s vanity b u t t o his o r h e r desire to c o n t r i b u t e to
Color distortion
a g o o d p e r f o r m a n c e . Explain t h e necessity for m a k e u p in
real color references t h e viewer h a s for color a d j u s t m e n t
technical t e r m s , s u c h as color a n d light balance.
o n a h o m e receiver. T h e i r accurate r e n d e r i n g is therefore
As m e n t i o n e d , skin tones are t h e only
All m a k e u p r o o m s have large m i r r o r s so t h a t talent
of t h e u t m o s t i m p o r t a n c e . Because cool colors ( h u e s with
c a n w a t c h t h e entire m a k e u p p r o c e d u r e . A d e q u a t e , even
a blue t i n t ) have a t e n d e n c y t o o v e r e m p h a s i z e bluishness,
i l l u m i n a t i o n is critical. T h e color t e m p e r a t u r e of t h e light
especially in h i g h - c o l o r - t e m p e r a t u r e lighting, w a r m colors
in w h i c h t h e m a k e u p is a p p l i e d m u s t m a t c h , or at least
( w a r m reds, o r a n g e s , b r o w n s , a n d tans) are preferred for
closely a p p r o x i m a t e , t h a t of t h e p r o d u c t i o n i l l u m i n a t i o n .
television m a k e u p . T h e y u s u a l l y p r o v i d e m o r e sparkle,
M o s t m a k e u p r o o m s have t w o i l l u m i n a t i o n systems t h a t
especially w h e n used o n a d a r k - s k i n n e d face.
c a n b e switched f r o m t h e i n d o o r (3,200K) s t a n d a r d t o t h e o u t d o o r (5,600K) s t a n d a r d .
T h e color of t h e f o u n d a t i o n m a k e u p s h o u l d m a t c h t h e n a t u r a l skin t o n e s as closely as possible, regardless of
W h e n m a k e u p is a p p l i e d in t h e studio, have a small
w h e t h e r t h e face is n a t u r a l l y light o r n a t u r a l l y dark. Again,
m i r r o r o n h a n d . M o s t w o m e n p e r f o r m e r s are glad to apply
to avoid bluish shadows, w a r m r a t h e r t h a n cool f o u n d a t i o n
t h e m o r e c o m p l i c a t e d m a k e u p themselves—lipstick a n d
colors are preferred. Be careful, however, t h a t light-colored
m a s c a r a , for instance. In fact, m o s t professional television
skin d o e s n o t t u r n p i n k . As m u c h as y o u s h o u l d g u a r d
talent prefer to apply their m a k e u p themselves; they usually
against t o o m u c h blue in a d a r k face, y o u m u s t w a t c h for
k n o w w h a t k i n d t h e y n e e d for a specific television show.
t o o m u c h p i n k in a light face.
W h e n using a w a t e r - b a s e d p a n c a k e m a k e u p , apply it
T h e skin reflectance of a d a r k face c a n p r o d u c e unflat
evenly with a wet s p o n g e over the face a n d adjacent exposed
t e r i n g highlights. T h e s e s h o u l d be t o n e d d o w n b y a p r o p e r
skin areas. Get t h e base right u p into t h e hairline, a n d have
pancake f o u n d a t i o n o r a translucent powder. Otherwise the
a towel ready t o w i p e off t h e excess. If close-ups of h a n d s
v i d e o o p e r a t o r will have t o c o m p e n s a t e for t h e highlights
are s h o w n , apply p a n c a k e base t o t h e m a n d t h e a r m s . This
t h r o u g h s h a d i n g , m a k i n g t h e d a r k p i c t u r e areas u n n a t u
is especially i m p o r t a n t for p e r f o r m e r s w h o d e m o n s t r a t e
rally d e n s e .
small objects o n - c a m e r a . If an u n e v e n s u n t a n is e x p o s e d (especially w h e n w o m e n p e r f o r m e r s wear backless dresses
Color balance
o r different k i n d s of b a t h i n g suits), all bare skin areas m u s t
signer, m a k e u p artist, a n d c o s t u m e designer c o o r d i n a t e
Generally, t h e a r t director, scene d e
b e covered with base m a k e u p . Bald m e n n e e d a g e n e r o u s
all t h e colors i n p r o d u c t i o n m e e t i n g s . In n o n b r o a d c a s t
a m o u n t of p a n c a k e f o u n d a t i o n t o t o n e d o w n inevitable
p r o d u c t i o n s , w h e r e freelance p e o p l e are usually h i r e d for
light reflections a n d t o cover u p p e r s p i r a t i o n .
scene design a n d m a k e u p , s u c h c o o r d i n a t i o n is n o t always
Be careful n o t to give m a l e p e r f o r m e r s a baby-face
easy. I n a n y case t r y t o c o m m u n i c a t e t h e v a r i o u s color
c o m p l e x i o n t h r o u g h t o o m u c h m a k e u p . It is s o m e t i m e s
r e q u i r e m e n t s t o all these p e o p l e as best y o u can. S o m e at
desirable t o have a little b e a r d area show. Frequently, a
t e n t i o n b e f o r e h a n d t o t h e c o o r d i n a t i o n of t h e colors used
slight covering u p of t h e b e a r d w i t h a p a n stick is all t h a t
i n t h e scenery, c o s t u m e s , a n d m a k e u p certainly facilitates
is n e e d e d . If a d d i t i o n a l f o u n d a t i o n is necessary, a p a n -
t h e p r o d u c t i o n process.
stick a r o u n d t h e b e a r d area s h o u l d b e applied first a n d
S o m e t i m e s t h e s u r r o u n d i n g c o l o r s reflect o n t h e
t h e n set w i t h p o w d e r . A very light a p p l i c a t i o n of a yellow
p e r f o r m e r ' s clothing o r face, w h i c h t h e c a m e r a shows as
or o r a n g e greasepaint satisfactorily c o u n t e r a c t s t h e b l u e of
n o t i c e a b l e color d i s t o r t i o n s . O n e way of a v o i d i n g such
a heavy five-o'clock shadow. T h e r e are professional b e a r d
reflections is t o have t h e talent step far e n o u g h away from
covers available.
t h e reflecting surfaces. W h e n such a m o v e is n o t possible,
388
Chapter
PRODUCTION
16
PEOPLE
apply a n a d e q u a t e a m o u n t of p a n c a k e m a k e u p a n d a d d i
distance a n d at close r a n g e , t h e lines, t e x t u r e , a n d details
t i o n a l p o w d e r t o t h e discolored skin areas. T h e viewer will
are as i m p o r t a n t as t h e overall color s c h e m e .
tolerate t o s o m e extent t h e color d i s t o r t i o n o n clothing b u t n o t o n skin areas.
Line
Television has a t e n d e n c y to a d d a few extra p o u n d s
to t h e p e r f o r m e r , even if t h e y are n o t digitally stretched t o Close-ups
Television m a k e u p m u s t b e s m o o t h a n d
m a k e a 3 x 4 p i c t u r e fit t h e 1 6 x 9 screen. C l o t h i n g c u t t o
s u b t l e e n o u g h t h a t t h e talent's face l o o k s n a t u r a l e v e n
a slim silhouette helps c o m b a t this p r o b l e m . Slim dresses
in a n e x t r e m e close-up. T h e skin s h o u l d have a n o r m a l
a n d closely t a i l o r e d suits l o o k m o r e a t t r a c t i v e t h a n d o
sheen, n e i t h e r t o o oily (high reflectance) n o r t o o dull ( l o w
heavy, h o r i z o n t a l l y s t r i p e d fabrics a n d baggy styles. T h e
reflectance b u t n o b r i l l i a n c e — t h e skin looks lifeless). T h e
overall s i l h o u e t t e of t h e c l o t h i n g s h o u l d l o o k p l e a s i n g
subtlety of television m a k e u p goes directly against t h e a t e r m a k e u p techniques, in which features a n d colors are greatly
f r o m a variety of angles a n d s h o u l d a p p e a r slim-fitting yet c o m f o r t a b l e .
exaggerated for t h e benefit of t h e spectators in t h e b a c k rows. G o o d television m a k e u p r e m a i n s largely invisible, so a close-up of a person's face u n d e r actual p r o d u c t i o n light ing c o n d i t i o n s is t h e best criterion f o r j u d g i n g t h e necessity for a n d quality of m a k e u p . If t h e p e r f o r m e r o r actor looks g o o d o n - c a m e r a w i t h o u t m a k e u p , n o n e is n e e d e d . If t h e p e r f o r m e r n e e d s m a k e u p a n d t h e close-up of h i s o r h e r finished face looks n o r m a l , t h e m a k e u p is acceptable. If it s h o w s , t h e m a k e u p m u s t be t o n e d d o w n .
Texture and detail
W h e r e a s line is especially i m p o r t a n t
in l o n g shots, t h e texture a n d t h e detail of clothing b e c o m e i m p o r t a n t at close r a n g e . Textured m a t e r i a l often looks b e t t e r t h a n plain, b u t avoid p a t t e r n s t h a t have t o o m u c h c o n t r a s t or are t o o busy. Closely spaced g e o m e t r i c p a t t e r n s such as h e r r i n g b o n e weaves a n d checks cause a moire effect, w h i c h looks like s u p e r i m p o s e d v i b r a t i n g r a i n b o w colors (see figure 3.20). Stripes m a y e x t e n d b e y o n d t h e g a r m e n t
All m a k e u p m u s t b e applied u n d e r t h e lighting c o n d i
a n d bleed t h r o u g h s u r r o u n d i n g sets a n d objects. Extremely
tions in which t h e p r o d u c t i o n is taped. This is because each
fine detail i n a p a t t e r n will either look t o o b u s y o r a p p e a r
lighting setup has its o w n color t e m p e r a t u r e . Reddish light
smudgy. Note that most high-quality studio monitors
(low color t e m p e r a t u r e ) m a y require cooler, m o r e b l u i s h
have m o i r e - s u p p r e s s i o n circuits b u i l t - i n , b u t m o s t h o m e
m a k e u p t h a n w o u l d h i g h e r - c o l o r - t e m p e r a t u r e lighting. I n
receivers d o n o t . You m a y n o t always b e aware of t h e m o i r e
h i g h e r - c o l o r - t e m p e r a t u r e lighting ( m o r e bluish light), y o u
p r o b l e m a h e r r i n g b o n e jacket o r checked tie m a y cause
n e e d t o use w a r m e r ( m o r e r e d d i s h ) m a k e u p . (For a review
w h e n w a t c h i n g yourself in t h e m i r r o r . If y o u suspect p o s
of color t e m p e r a t u r e , see c h a p t e r 7.) K4m=>LIGHTS-> Color
sible m o i r e p r o b l e m s , view t h e talent's attire o n a television
temperature-^ light sources
set t h a t does n o t c o n t a i n s u c h preventive circuits.
CLOTHING AND COSTUMING
c h o o s i n g a detailed cloth texture, b u t b y a d d i n g decorative
In small-station o p e r a t i o n s a n d m o s t n o n b r o a d c a s t p r o
accessories, s u c h as scarves a n d jewelry. A l t h o u g h jewelry
M a k e y o u r clothing m o r e interesting o n - c a m e r a n o t b y
d u c t i o n s , y o u are m a i n l y c o n c e r n e d w i t h c l o t h i n g t h e per f o r m e r r a t h e r t h a n c o s t u m i n g t h e actor. T h e p e r f o r m e r ' s clothes s h o u l d b e attractive a n d stylish b u t n o t t o o c o n spicuous o r showy. Television viewers expect a p e r f o r m e r t o be well dressed b u t n o t overdressed. After all, h e o r she is a guest in t h e viewer's h o m e , n o t a n i g h t c l u b performer.
style d e p e n d s , of course, o n the performer's taste, in general h e o r she s h o u l d limit it t o o n e o r t w o distinctive pieces. T h e sparkle o f r h i n e s t o n e s c a n b e c o m e a n exciting visual accent w h e n dressing for a special occasion, s u c h as t h e televised f u n d - r a i s i n g d i n n e r o r a c o n c e r t b y t h e c o m m u n i t y s y m p h o n y , b u t t h e y are o b v i o u s l y o u t of place w h e n interviewing a crime victim.
CLOTHING T h e t y p e of c l o t h i n g y o u w e a r as a p e r f o r m e r d e p e n d s
T h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t c o n s i d e r a t i o n for c h o o s i n g
largely o n y o u r p e r s o n a l taste. It also d e p e n d s o n t h e t y p e
colors is that t h e y h a r m o n i z e w i t h t h e set. If the set is l e m o n
of p r o g r a m o r t h e o c c a s i o n a n d t h e p a r t i c u l a r setting.
yellow, d o n o t wear a l e m o n yellow dress. As m e n t i o n e d b e
Obviously, y o u dress differently w h e n r e p o r t i n g live in t h e
fore, avoid saturated red, unless y o u are w o r k i n g with h i g h -
field d u r i n g a s n o w s t o r m t h a n w h e n taking p a r t i n a p a n e l
e n d s t u d i o c a m e r a s . If y o u are t a k i n g p a r t in b l u e c h r o m a
discussion o n t h e homeless in y o u r city. W h a t e v e r t h e occa
keying ( s u c h as in w e a t h e r c a s t i n g ) , avoid w e a r i n g b l u e
sion, s o m e types of c l o t h i n g l o o k better o n television t h a n
unless y o u w a n t to b e c o m e t r a n s p a r e n t d u r i n g t h e c h r o m a
o t h e r s . Because t h e c a m e r a m a y look a t y o u b o t h from a
key. Even a b l u e scarf o r tie m a y give y o u t r o u b l e .
Section
16.2
How
to Do Makeup
and
What
to
389
Wear
You c a n wear black o r a very d a r k color, or w h i t e or
T h e color a n d p a t t e r n restrictions for c l o t h i n g also
a very light color, so l o n g as t h e m a t e r i a l is n o t glossy a n d
apply for costumes. T h e total color d e s i g n — t h e overall bal
highly reflective. B u t avoid w e a r i n g a c o m b i n a t i o n of t h e
ance of colors a m o n g scenery, c o s t u m e s , a n d m a k e u p — i s
two. If t h e set is very dark, avoid a s t a r c h e d w h i t e shirt. If
i m p o r t a n t in s o m e television plays, particularly in musicals
t h e set colors are extremely light, d o n o t w e a r black. As
a n d variety shows, w h e r e l o n g s h o t s often reveal t h e total
desirable as a d r a m a t i c color c o n t r a s t is, e x t r e m e b r i g h t
scene, i n c l u d i n g actors, d a n c e r s , scenery, a n d p r o p s . As
ness v a r i a t i o n s cause difficulties for even t h e best c a m e r a s .
p o i n t e d o u t before, r a t h e r t h a n t r y to b a l a n c e all t h e h u e s ,
Stark white, glossy clothes c a n t u r n exposed skin areas dark
it is easier to b a l a n c e t h e colors b y their relative aesthetic
o n t h e television screen or distort t h e m o r e subtle colors,
energy. You can a c c o m p l i s h this balance b y k e e p i n g the
especially w h e n t h e c a m e r a s are o n a u t o m a t i c iris. D a r k -
set relatively l o w - e n e r g y ( c o l o r s w i t h l o w s a t u r a t i o n )
s k i n n e d p e r f o r m e r s s h o u l d avoid highly reflecting w h i t e
a n d t h e set accessories a n d c o s t u m e s h i g h - e n e r g y ( h i g h -
o r light-yellow clothes. If y o u w e a r a d a r k suit, r e d u c e t h e
s a t u r a t i o n colors).
b r i g h t n e s s c o n t r a s t by w e a r i n g a pastel shirt. Light b l u e , p i n k , light green, t a n , or gray—all s h o w u p well o n televi sion. As always, w h e n in d o u b t as to h o w well a certain color c o m b i n a t i o n p h o t o g r a p h s , p r e v i e w it o n - c a m e r a o n t h e set a n d u n d e r t h e actual lighting c o n d i t i o n s .
I i'j mwkwm mm i wmm
•
Warm colors generally look better than cool colors because the camera tends to emphasize the bluishness of cool colors; but avoid wearing red.
•
Makeup must be smooth and subtle to appear natural in the actual production lighting and on extreme close-ups. The most basic makeup item is a foundation that covers minor blemishes. Water-based pancake foundations, which come in a variety of skin tones, are generally used for televi sion makeup.
•
The techniques of television makeup do not differ dras tically from applying ordinary makeup, especially if the purpose is to enhance or correct appearance.
•
These factors are important when choosing clothing: line, whereby a slim cut is preferred; texture and detail, which must not make the clothing appear too busy; and color, which should harmonize yet contrast with the dominant color of the set. Tightly striped or checkered patterns and herringbone weaves, as well as highly saturated reds and a combination of black-and-white fabrics, should be avoided.
w e a r i n g a n y t h i n g b l u e (or green, if t h e c h r o m a - k e y b a c k b a c k g r o u n d so t h e y can avoid w e a r i n g t h e s a m e h u e . T h e w o m a n m i g h t w e a r a slim suit or dress of plain, simple colors. Avoid b l a c k - a n d - w h i t e c o m b i n a t i o n s , s u c h as a b l a c k j a c k e t over a h i g h l y reflecting w h i t e b l o u s e . She s h o u l d avoid highly c o n t r a s t i n g n a r r o w stripes or checks a n d wear as little jewelry as possible, unless she w a n t s to a p p e a r flashy. T h e m a n m i g h t w e a r a slim suit or slacks a n d a p l a i n coat, w i t h a p l a i n tie o r o n e w i t h a b o l d b u t subtle p a t t e r n . H e s h o u l d avoid wearing a white shirt u n d e r a black o r d a r k b l u e suit, as well as clothes o r accessories w i t h checkered or h e r r i n g b o n e p a t t e r n s .
COSTUMING For m o s t n o r m a l p r o d u c t i o n s in n o n b r o a d c a s t , or n o n -
immmmm
Makeup is used for three basic reasons: to enhance, to cor rect, and to change appearance.
n o t l o o k w i d e or baggy. Because of c h r o m a keying, avoid d r o p is g r e e n ) . If possible, tell t h e m t h e color of t h e set
mm
•
w h a t w o u l d y o u tell t h e m ? Both s h o u l d w e a r s o m e t h i n g c o m f o r t a b l e t h a t does
«
Makeup and clothing are important aspects of the talent's preparation for on-camera work.
If t w o p r o s p e c t i v e w e a t h e r c a s t e r s — a m a n a n d a w o m a n — w e r e n o w to ask y o u for advice o n w h a t to wear,
*Mm°mm •
•
n e t w o r k , o p e r a t i o n s , y o u d o n o t n e e d c o s t u m e s . If y o u d o a play or a c o m m e r c i a l t h a t involves c o s t u m e d actors, y o u can always r e n t t h e necessary articles from a c o s t u m e c o m p a n y or b o r r o w t h e m from the theater arts d e p a r t m e n t of a local h i g h s c h o o l or college. T h e a t e r arts d e p a r t m e n t s usually have a well-stocked c o s t u m e r o o m from w h i c h y o u can d r a w m o s t s t a n d a r d u n i f o r m s a n d p e r i o d c o s t u m e s . If y o u use stock c o s t u m e s o n television, they m u s t l o o k c o n v i n c i n g even in a tight close-up. T h e general c o n s t r u c t i o n a n d , especially, t h e detail of t h e a t e r accessories are often t o o coarse for the television c a m e r a .
For your reference, or to track your work, each VideoLab program cue in this chapter is listed here with its corresponding page number. PROCESSS Peoples nontechnical PROCESS-* Peoples technical
368 370
LIGHTSS Color temperatures light sources
388
Producing As a producer y o u have to w e a r m a n y hats, sometimes all at once. You may h a v e to act as a psychologist a n d a businessperson to persuade m a n a g e m e n t to buy your idea, argue as a technical expert for a certain piece of equipment, or search as a sociologist to identify the needs and t h e desires of a particular social group. After some s w e e p i n g creative excursions, y o u may have to b e c o m e pedantic a n d d o u b l e - a n d triple-check details, such as w h e t h e r there is e n o u g h coffee for t h e guests w h o appear on your show.
Section 17.1, W h a t Producing Is All About, examines the techniques involved in the vari ous stages of producing a television show. Section 17.2, Dealing W i t h Schedules, Legal Matters, a n d Ratings, looks at s o m e production activities that lie outside the area of production techniques but are nevertheless important tasks for a producer.
390
demographics Audience research factors concerned with such data as age, gender, marital status, and income.
psychographics Audience research factors concerned with such data as consumer buying habits, values, and lifestyles.
effect-to-cause model Moving from idea to desired effect on the viewer, then backing up to the specific medium requirements to produce such an effect.
rating Percentage of television households tuned to a
facilities request A list that contains all technical facilities needed for a specific production.
share Percentage of television households tuned to a specific station in relation to all households using television (HUT); that is, all households with their sets turned on.
medium requirements All content elements, production ele ments, and people needed to generate the defined process message. process message The message actually received by the viewer in the process of watching a television program. production schedule The calendar that shows the preproduction, production, and postproduction dates and who is doing what, when, and where.
specific station in relation to the total number of television households.
target audience The audience selected or desired to receive a specific message. time line A breakdown of time blocks for various activities on the actual production day, such as crew call, setup, and camera rehearsal. treatment Brief narrative description of a television program.
program proposal Written document that outlines the process message and the major aspects of a television presentation.
391
^
17.1
POSTPRODUCTION ACTIVITIES Postproduction editing, evaluation and feedback, and recordkeeping
PREPRODUCTION PLANNING: FROM IDEA TO SCRIPT
What Producing
As a producer
y o u are p r i m a r i l y c o n c e r n e d w i t h p r e p r o -
d u c t i o n p l a n n i n g a n d c o o r d i n a t i o n . It is u p to y o u to take
Is All About
care of all t h e p r o d u c t i o n details necessary to m o v e w i t h precision a n d efficiency from t h e initial idea to the actual p r o d u c t i o n activities. M o s t p r o d u c e r s c o m p l a i n a b o u t t h e lack of t i m e a n d m o n e y available for their p r o d u c t i o n s . A l t h o u g h you could always use m o r e t i m e a n d a bigger b u d g e t , y o u m u s t learn to deliver high-quality television p r o g r a m m i n g even w i t h i n such restrictions. O n c e y o u have a c q u i r e d a certain p r o d u c t i o n r o u t i n e , y o u will find t h a t m o r e t i m e a n d m o n e y d o n o t necessarily m a k e for a b e t t e r show, especially if t h e initial idea is weak. To help you b e c o m e m a x i m a l l y efficient a n d effective in y o u r p r e p r o d u c t i o n activities, we focus h e r e o n (1) p r o g r a m ideas, (2) p r o d u c t i o n m o d e l s , (3) t h e p r o g r a m p r o p o s a l , (4) t h e b u d g e t , a n d (5) t h e script.
Producing m e a n s seeing to it t h a t a w o r t h w h i l e idea gets t o be a w o r t h w h i l e television p r e s e n t a t i o n . As a p r o d u c e r y o u are in charge of this i d e a - t o - p r e s e n t a t i o n process a n d for c o m p l e t i n g t h e v a r i o u s tasks o n t i m e a n d w i t h i n b u d g e t . You are responsible for t h e concept, financing, h i r i n g , a n d overall c o o r d i n a t i o n of p r o d u c t i o n a c t i v i t i e s — n o t a n easy
E v e r y t h i n g y o u see a n d h e a r o n television started w i t h a n idea. As s i m p l e as this m a y s o u n d , d e v e l o p i n g g o o d a n d especially w o r k a b l e s h o w ideas o n a regular basis is n o t easy. As a television p r o d u c e r , y o u c a n n o t wait for t h e o c
j o b b y any m e a n s ! A l t h o u g h e a c h p r o d u c t i o n h a s its o w n
GENERATING PROGRAM IDEAS
creative
a n d o r g a n i z a t i o n a l r e q u i r e m e n t s , t h e r e are nevertheless t e c h n i q u e s , o r at least a p p r o a c h e s , t h a t y o u c a n apply to television p r o d u c t i o n in general. These m e t h o d s can h e l p guide you from the early stages of g e n e r a t i n g ideas to final p o s t p r o d u c t i o n activities. Section 17.1 walks y o u t h r o u g h these m a j o r p r o d u c t i o n steps.
casional divine i n s p i r a t i o n b u t m u s t generate w o r t h w h i l e ideas o n d e m a n d . Generating ideas
Despite t h e v o l u m e s of studies w r i t
ten o n t h e creative process, exactly h o w ideas are g e n e r a t e d r e m a i n s a mystery. S o m e t i m e s you will find that y o u have o n e great idea after a n o t h e r ; at o t h e r times y o u c a n n o t t h i n k of a n y t h i n g exciting, regardless of h o w h a r d y o u try. You c a n b r e a k t h r o u g h this idea d r o u g h t by engaging sev eral people to d o brainstorming:
^
PREPRODUCTION PLANNING: FROM IDEA TO SCRIPT Program ideas, production models, program proposal, budget, and script
^
PREPRODUCTION PLANNING: COORDINATION People, facilities request, schedules, permits and clearances, and publicity and promotion
Have everybody sit a r o u n d
in a circle a n d p u t a small a u d i o t a p e recorder in t h e m i d d l e . Start t h e b r a i n s t o r m i n g session w i t h s o m e t h i n g as n e u t r a l a n d w i d e o p e n as, for example: " K n o c k , k n o c k ! " T h e n e x t p e r s o n in line will p r o b a b l y say: " W h o ' s there?" a n d you're o n y o u r way. D o n o t criticize a n y t h i n g a n y o n e says, even if it seems totally u n r e l a t e d to t h e p r e v i o u s c o m m e n t s . T h e a i m of b r a i n s t o r m i n g is to b r e a k t h r o u g h t h e c o n c e p t u a l
^
LINE PRODUCER: HOST AND WATCHDOG Playing host, watching the production flow, and evaluating the production
392
blocks, a n d n o t yield t o o r reinforce t h e m . W h e n y o u have finished the b r a i n s t o r m i n g session, y o u c a n play b a c k t h e c o m m e n t s a n d pick s o m e that s e e m
Section
17.1
What
Producing
Is All
393
About
As y o u can see, clustering is a m o r e organized m e a n s of b r a i n s t o r m i n g , b u t it is also m o r e restrictive. But because clustering shows patterns better t h a n b r a i n s t o r m i n g does, it serves well as a s t r u c t u r i n g t e c h n i q u e . A l t h o u g h clustering is usually d o n e b y individuals, y o u can easily have a g r o u p of p e o p l e engage in clustering a n d t h e n collect t h e results for closer scrutiny. Organizing ideas
O n c e y o u have decided o n t h e gen
eral p r o g r a m idea a n d t h e angle—the
general c o n t e x t or
focus of t h e s h o w — y o u c a n ask o t h e r p r o d u c t i o n people to help w i t h fleshing o u t t h e details. A s s u m e for a m o m e n t that the general idea is to d o a p r o g r a m series o n fine arts in t h e p u b l i c schools w i t h t h e angle of "Are t h e arts necessary t o a w e l l - r o u n d e d e d u c a t i o n ? " In t h e o r g a n i z i n g stage, you m a y have o n e p e r s o n m a k e a list of possible celebrity guests w h o a d v o c a t e a r t s - b a s e d e d u c a t i o n a n d can talk a b o u t t h e advantages t h a t it gives s t u d e n t s in o t h e r areas of life. A n o t h e r colleague could list t h e financial ramifications of i n c l u d i n g t h e a r t s a n d c o u l d weigh t h e costs against t h e benefits. A third p e r s o n c o u l d research t h e available arts-
17.1
PARTIAL CLUSTER
based p r o g r a m s available to kids t h r o u g h n o n p r o f i t s a n d
Clustering is a form of written brainstorming. You start with a central idea and branch out to whatever associations come to mind.
c o m m u n i t y g r o u p s . S o m e o n e else c o u l d c o n t a c t y o u n g actors a n d m u s i c i a n s to p a r t i c i p a t e in t h e p r o g r a m a n d discuss h o w t h e arts e n r i c h their lives a n d help t h e m d o b e t t e r in school.
relevant to the task at h a n d . You m a y find t h a t the so-called
T h e r e is n o single o r correct f o r m u l a for organizing
off-the-wall c o m m e n t s c a n trigger w o r k a b l e ideas m o r e
ideas a n d t r a n s l a t i n g t h e m i n t o a n effective t e l e v i s i o n
readily than the ones that seemed m o r e appropriate. For ex
p r o g r a m . Because p r o d u c t i o n involves a great n u m b e r of
a m p l e , a b r a i n s t o r m i n g session for a n e w cell p h o n e m o d e l
diverse yet c o n n e c t e d p u r s u i t s , y o u learn its function m o s t
m a y p r o d u c e t h e following string of c o m m e n t s : " a n y t i m e , "
profitably by c o n s i d e r i n g it a web of interlinking activities.
"friend in y o u r h a n d b a g , " "prison," "cloister," "ice hockey,"
In the p r o d u c t i o n process, as in any other, various elements
"fist fight," a n d so forth. A l t h o u g h prison a n d cloister m a y
a n d tasks i n t e r a c t with o n e a n o t h e r to achieve the desired
c o n j u r e u p u s a b l e i m a g e s t h a t s h o w p e o p l e u s i n g cell
p r o d u c t — a p r o g r a m t h a t affects t h e viewer in a certain
p h o n e s in their cells, we are p r o b a b l y inclined to dismiss
way. T h e process helps y o u d e t e r m i n e w h i c h p e o p l e y o u
ice hockey as a n a p p a r e n t l y disinterested joker's c o m m e n t .
require, w h a t t h e y should do, a n d w h a t e q u i p m e n t is neces
A later review, however, m a y well trigger a shift f r o m t h e
sary to p r o d u c e a specific p r o g r a m . EJH^ PROCESS-* Ideas
idea of using t h e tiny p h o n e s in cells to a n ice-hockey g a m e . D u r i n g a p o w e r play, the star center races t o w a r d the e m p t y
USING PRODUCTION
goal, ready to p u t t h e p u c k i n t o the net, b u t t h e n h e stops,
P r o d u c t i o n m o d e l s describe t h e flow of activities necessary
MODELS
pulls o u t his cell p h o n e , a n d says, "Hello?" You c a n take
to m o v e from t h e idea to t h e televised message. T h e y help
it from t h e r e . W h a t e v e r t h e o u t c o m e , we have, to use t h e
y o u organize the p r o d u c t i o n process a n d facilitate y o u r co
lingo of t h e p r o d u c t i o n w o r l d , a n e w angle.
o r d i n a t i o n efforts. T h e effect-to-cause m o d e l , for example,
A m o r e s t r u c t u r e d way of g e n e r a t i n g ideas is called clustering, a kind of b r a i n s t o r m i n g whereby y o u write d o w n
streamlines preproduction and makes your production activities m o r e efficient a n d goal-directed.
y o u r ideas r a t h e r t h a n say t h e m a l o u d . To b e g i n y o u w r i t e a single keyword, s u c h as cellphone,
a n d circle it. You t h e n
Effect-to-cause model
As d o m o s t o t h e r p r o d u c t i o n
s p i n off idea clusters t h a t s o m e h o w relate t o t h e initial
m o d e l s , t h e effect-to-cause
model starts w i t h a basic idea;
keyword, SEE 17.1
b u t instead of m o v i n g from t h e basic idea directly to the
394
Chapter
7 7
PRODUCING
Let's apply the m o d e l to the interview with t h e f a m o u s defense lawyer m e n t i o n e d in c h a p t e r 15 a n d see h o w it can influence t h e entire p r o d u c t i o n process. W h e n a p p r o a c h i n g the p r o d u c t i o n in t h e usual w a y — m o v i n g directly f r o m t h e basic idea to t h e p r o d u c t i o n p r o c e s s — y o u w o u l d p r o b a b l y t h i n k of g e t t i n g a n i n t e r v i e w e r w h o is very skilled in law, p e r h a p s even a n ex-lawyer w h o has b e c o m e a television personality. T h e n y o u w o u l d p r o b a b l y talk to t h e art d i r e c t o r to design a n a p p r o p r i a t e e n v i r o n m e n t for t h e i n t e r v i e w — a w e l l - t o - d o lawyer's office w i t h an elegant desk, leather chairs, a n d lots of law b o o k s i n t h e b a c k g r o u n d . You w o u l d t h e n have t o a r r a n g e for t h e t a p i n g date, s t u d i o t i m e , t r a n s p o r t a t i o n for t h e guest, t a l e n t fees, a n d m a n y m o r e s u c h details. You w o u l d also n e e d t o get t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e h o s t (the exlawyer) to agree o n a few q u e s t i o n s : " W h a t were y o u r m o s t f a m o u s cases?" " H o w m a n y did y o u w i n ? " " H a v e y o u ever refused i m p o r t a n t cases?" a n d so forth. W h e n u s i n g the effect-to-cause m o d e l , o n t h e o t h e r
17.2
EFFECT-TO-CAUSE PRODUCTION MODEL
h a n d , y o u w o u l d c o m e u p w i t h several process messages.
The effect-to-cause production model jumps from the initial idea directly to the desired effect—the process message. Then it backs up to the medium requirements that suggest the production elements and processes necessary to produce the defined process message.
H e r e are t w o of t h e m o r e o b v i o u s ones: Process message
I: The viewer should gain insight
into
some of the major defense strategies used by the guest. In this case t h e q u e s t i o n s w o u l d revolve a r o u n d s o m e of t h e lawyer's f o r m e r cases a n d t h e reasons for their s u c
p r o d u c t i o n process, it j u m p s to t h e desired c o m m u n i c a t i o n
cess o r failure. W o u l d y o u n e e d a n interviewer w h o u n
effect o n t h e target a u d i e n c e . Because this c o m m u n i c a t i o n
d e r s t a n d s t h e law? Yes. T h e interviewer c o u l d i n t e r p r e t t h e
effect is g e n e r a t e d by t h e process of the viewer's w a t c h i n g
legal l a n g u a g e for t h e a u d i e n c e or i m m e d i a t e l y challenge
a n d listening t o television messages, we call this effect t h e
t h e lawyer's ethics w i t h i n t h e f r a m e w o r k of t h e law. T h e
process message. After all, it is t h e desired c o m m u n i c a t i o n
elaborate s t u d i o set r e s e m b l i n g t h e lawyer's office w o u l d
effect—the defined process message—that
s h o u l d drive t h e
p r o d u c t i o n process, r a t h e r t h a n t h e initial idea. This m e a n s t h a t as a p r o d u c e r y o u s h o u l d k n o w exactly w h a t y o u w a n t to a c h i e v e — w h a t y o u w a n t t h e target a u d i e n c e to l e a r n , do,
a n d feel—before deciding o n t h e specific medium
quirements
also b e a p p r o p r i a t e . You m a y even c o n s i d e r c o n d u c t i n g this i n t e r v i e w o n l o c a t i o n in t h e lawyer's actual office. Process message
re
handling
that w o u l d lead to s u c h a n effect. T h e m o r e t h e
t h e m o r e successful t h e c o m m u n i c a t i o n , SEE
defense
17.2
insight when
an especially difficult case, as well as how
he deals with personal
actual process message (viewer effect) m a t c h e s t h e defined one,
2: The viewer should gain deeper
into the conscience and feelings of the lawyer ethics when applying
specific
strategies.
D o y o u n o w n e e d a h o s t w h o is a legal expert? N o t at
T h e a d v a n t a g e of this m o d e l is that t h e precise defini t i o n of t h e process message will help c o n t e n t a n d p r o d u c
all.
In fact, a psychologist w o u l d p r o b a b l y be b e t t e r suited
tion p e o p l e w o r k as a t e a m a n d will facilitate selecting t h e
to c o n d u c t this interview. You w o u l d p r o b a b l y w a n t to use
necessary p r o d u c t i o n p e r s o n n e l a n d e q u i p m e n t . By first
close-ups of t h e guest t h r o u g h o u t m o s t of the show. You
carefully defining t h e desired effect o n t h e a u d i e n c e , y o u
m a y even stay o n a c l o s e - u p of t h e guest w h e n t h e h o s t
can t h e n decide quite easily o n t h e specific people y o u n e e d
asks q u e s t i o n s . Reaction shots ( t h e guest listening to q u e s
to d o t h e j o b ( c o n t e n t expert, writer, director, a n d crew),
t i o n s ) are often m o r e telling t h a n a c t i o n shots (the guest
o n w h e r e to d o t h e p r o d u c t i o n m o s t effectively ( s t u d i o
a n s w e r i n g ) . D o e s this i n t e r v i e w r e q u i r e a n elaborate set?
or field), a n d o n t h e necessary e q u i p m e n t ( s t u d i o or field
No.
c a m e r a s , types of m i c s , a n d so f o r t h ) .
as a p e r s o n r a t h e r t h a n t h e p e r s o n as a lawyer, y o u c a n
Because t h e i n t e r v i e w deals p r i m a r i l y with t h e lawyer
Section
17.1
What
Producing
Is All
395
About
c o n d u c t it in any e n v i r o n m e n t . Two c o m f o r t a b l e chairs o n
t h e p r o g r a m ' s objective is " t o w a r n teenage drivers n o t t o
a n i n t e r v i e w set are all y o u w o u l d n e e d .
r u n s t o p signs."
T h e r e has b e e n a great reluctance in television p r o d u c t i o n t o s h o w "talking h e a d s " — p e o p l e talking o n close-ups
T h e target
audience
is w h o m you
w i t h o u t a n y s u p p o r t i n g visual m a t e r i a l . D o n o t b l i n d l y
w o u l d p r i m a r i l y like to have w a t c h t h e s h o w — t h e elderly,
a d o p t this prejudice. So l o n g as t h e h e a d s talk well, t h e r e
preschoolers, teenagers, h o m e m a k e r s , o r p e o p l e interested
is n o n e e d for a d d i t i o n a l visual material. EEQE^PROCESS^
in traveling. A p r o p e r l y f o r m u l a t e d process message will
Effect-to-cause-* basic idea | desired effect | cause
give a b i g clue as t o t h e target a u d i e n c e . Even w h e n y o u w a n t t o reach as large a n a u d i e n c e as possible a n d t h e a u d i
W R I T I N G THE P R O G R A M P R O P O S A L
ence is n o t defined, b e specific in d e s c r i b i n g t h e potential
O n c e y o u have a clear idea of t h e process message a n d
a u d i e n c e . Instead of s i m p l y saying "general a u d i e n c e " for
h o w y o u w a n t t o c o m m u n i c a t e it, y o u are ready t o w r i t e
a p r o p o s e d c o m e d y series, d e s c r i b e t h e p r i m a r y target
t h e p r o g r a m p r o p o s a l . D o n ' t take t h i s p r o p o s a l lightly—it
a u d i e n c e as " t h e e i g h t e e n - t o - t h i r t y g e n e r a t i o n " o r t h e
is a key factor in getting y o u r p r o g r a m o n t h e air as o p
"over-sixty c r o w d in n e e d of a g o o d laugh."
p o s e d t o s i m p l y e n d i n g u p in a " g o o d idea" file o n y o u r h a r d drive.
O n c e y o u a r e i n t h e actual p r e p r o d u c t i o n stage, y o u c a n define t h e target a u d i e n c e further in t e r m s of
A program
proposal
is a w r i t t e n d o c u m e n t t h a t stipu
graphics—such
demo
as gender, ethnicity, e d u c a t i o n , i n c o m e
lates w h a t y o u i n t e n d t o d o . It briefly explains t h e process
level, h o u s e h o l d size, religious preference, o r geographical
m e s s a g e a n d t h e m a j o r aspects of t h e p r e s e n t a t i o n . Al
location ( u r b a n o r r u r a l ) — a s well as of
t h o u g h t h e r e is n o s t a n d a r d f o r m a t for a p r o g r a m o r series
s u c h as c o n s u m e r b u y i n g h a b i t s , values, a n d lifestyles.
p r o p o s a l , it s h o u l d at a m i n i m u m i n c l u d e t h e following
A d v e r t i s e r s a n d o t h e r v i d e o c o m m u n i c a t o r s m a k e ex
information:
t e n s i v e u s e of s u c h d e m o g r a p h i c a n d p s y c h o g r a p h i c
psychographics,
d e s c r i p t o r s , b u t y o u n e e d n ' t be t h a t specific in y o u r initial i P r o g r a m o r series title
program proposal.
® Objective (process message) Show format
Target a u d i e n c e
D o y o u p r o p o s e a single show, a n e w se
ries, o r p a r t of an existing series? H o w long is t h e i n t e n d e d show? A n example w o u l d b e a t w o - p a r t o n e - h o u r p r o g r a m
Show format
dealing w i t h t h e v a r i o u s uses of helicopters a r o u n d t h e
S h o w t r e a t m e n t (usually i n c l u d e s t h e angle)
w o r l d . T h i s i n f o r m a t i o n is vital for p l a n n i n g a b u d g e t or, for a station o r n e t w o r k , t o see w h e t h e r it fits i n t o t h e
) Production method
p r o g r a m schedule.
Tentative b u d g e t If y o u p r o p o s e a series, attach a s a m p l e script for o n e
Show treatment
A brief n a r r a t i v e d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e
of t h e s h o w s a n d a list of t h e titles of t h e o t h e r shows in
p r o g r a m is called a treatment.
t h e series.
t r e a t m e n t s have storyboardlike illustrations. T h e t r e a t m e n t
S o m e of t h e m o r e elaborate
s h o u l d n o t only say w h a t t h e p r o p o s e d show is all a b o u t b u t Keep I he title s h o r t b u t m e m o r a b l e .
also explain its angle. It s h o u l d also reflect i n its w r i t i n g t h e
P e r h a p s it is t h e lack of screen space t h a t forces television
style of t h e show. T h e style of a t r e a t m e n t for an i n s t r u c
p r o d u c e r s to w o r k w i t h s h o r t e r titles t h a n d o filmmakers.
tional series o n c o m p u t e r - g e n e r a t e d graphics, for example,
Instead o f n a m i n g y o u r s h o w The Trials and Tribulations
s h o u l d differ considerably from that of a situation comedy.
a University
Student,
s i m p l y say Student
of
Pressures.
D o n o t i n c l u d e specific p r o d u c t i o n i n f o r m a t i o n s u c h as types of lighting o r c a m e r a angles; save this i n f o r m a t i o n for
Process message or program objective
T h i s is a
t h e script. Keep t h e t r e a t m e n t brief a n d concise. It s h o u l d
brief e x p l a n a t i o n of w h a t t h e p r o d u c t i o n is t o accomplish.
s i m p l y give a b u s y executive s o m e idea of w h a t y o u i n t e n d
You c a n revise t h e process message so that it is less formal.
t o d o . SEE 17.3 M'J*»PROCESS-> Proposals^ treatment
For e x a m p l e , r a t h e r t h a n say, " T h e process message is t o have h i g h - s c h o o l s t u d e n t s e x p o s e d t o at least five m a j o r
Production me'.:
c o n s e q u e n c e s of r u n n i n g a stop sign," y o u m a y w r i t e t h a t
indicate w h e r e t h e p r o d u c t i o n s h o u l d take place a n d h o w
A well-stated process message will
396
Chapter
17
PRODUCING
TREATMENT FOR THE FOURTH PROGRAM OF THE SIGHT SOUND MOTION INSTRUCTIONAL VIDEO SERIES The fourth program of the instructional
video series
Sight Sound Motion is intended to explain the advantages of z-axis blocking (toward and away from the camera) over x-axis blocking (along the width of the screen). We open with dancers moving into view from close to the camera, unfurling a yellow nylon ribbon away from the camera along the z-axis. More dancers join in and dance toward and away from the camera, always close to the z-axis ribbon. A second camera, positioned perpendicular to the f i r s t , sees the dance progressing sideways, with the dancers moving in and out of the frame along the x-axis. An off-camera narrator explains the differences between z-axis and x-axis blocking over especially t e l l i n g freeze-frames. We unfreeze the action, with the narrator pointing out how z-axis blocking f i t s the small STV screen better than x-axis blocking. The same scene is then played for the 16 x 9 HDTV format. The advantage of the extended x-axis i s then explained. We switch to a brief dramatic scene in which two people are f i r s t blocked along the x-axis and then along the z-axis. Again the narrator explains the advantages of z-axis blocking for the 4 x 3
STV screen. The same scene is reblocked for the
extended x-axis of the HDTV screen. These explanations are followed by a selection of brief scenes from up-to-date television shows that exhibit especially prominent z-axis and x-axis blocking. We end the program by having the dancers move into view again, rolling up the yellow z-axis ribbon toward the camera.
1 7 . 3 TREATMENT The treatment tells the reader in narrative form what a program is all about.
Section
17.1
What
Producing
Is All
397
About
y o u can d o it m o s t efficiently. S h o u l d y o u d o a m u l t i p l e - or
t h o s e w h o are m o r e c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e c o n c e p t u a l i z a
s i n g l e - c a m e r a s t u d i o p r o d u c t i o n o r a s i n g l e - c a m e r a EFP?
t i o n of ideas a n d p r o d u c t i o n processes r a t h e r t h a n t h e
Is t h e s h o w m o r e effectively s h o t l i v e - o n - t a p e in larger
o p e r a t i o n of e q u i p m e n t t h a t will t r a n s f o r m t h e ideas i n t o
s e g m e n t s with t h r e e or four c a m e r a s in iso p o s i t i o n s , or
a show. Below-the-line
shot single-camera
b e l o w - t h e - l i n e p e r s o n n e l , such as t h e p r o d u c t i o n crew, as
film-style
for p o s t p r o d u c t i o n ? W h a t
a d d i t i o n a l m a t e r i a l s ( c o s t u m e s , p r o p s , a n d scenery) d o you need? What p e r f o r m e r s o r actors? r A ' i ^ P R O C E S S - * Methods-* location | studio | single-camera | multi-camera
budgets
i n c l u d e t h e expenses for
well as e q u i p m e n t a n d s t u d i o space. Dividing a budget into preproduction, production, a n d p o s t p r o d u c t i o n categories will give y o u a m o r e w o r k able b r e a k d o w n of e x p e n d i t u r e s t h a n t h e above- a n d b e
Before p r e p a r i n g the tentative b u d
l o w - t h e - l i n e division, especially w h e n y o u have to b i d o n a
get, y o u m u s t have u p - t o - d a t e figures for all p r o d u c t i o n
specific p r o d u c t i o n j o b . Because m o s t p r o d u c t i o n c o m p a
services, rental costs, a n d wages in y o u r area. I n d e p e n d e n t
nies s h o w their overall charges in this t r i p a r t division, the
p r o d u c t i o n a n d p o s t p r o d u c t i o n h o u s e s periodically issue
client can m o r e easily c o m p a r e y o u r charges against t h o s e
rate cards that list costs for services a n d t h e rental of m a j o r
of the o t h e r b i d d e r s .
p r o d u c t i o n items. Stay away from h i g h - e n d services unless quality b e c o m e s y o u r m a j o r c o n c e r n .
W h e n y o u first p r e s e n t y o u r p r o p o s a l , t h e client m a y b e interested n o t so m u c h in h o w y o u b r o k e d o w n t h e expenses b u t m o r e in t h e b o t t o m - l i n e figure. It is therefore
PREPARING A BUDGET
critical t h a t y o u t h i n k of all the p r o b a b l e expenses, regard
W h e n w o r k i n g for a client, y o u n e e d to p r e p a r e a b u d g e t
less of w h e t h e r t h e y occur in p r e p r o d u c t i o n , p r o d u c t i o n , or
for all p r e p r o d u c t i o n , p r o d u c t i o n , a n d p o s t p r o d u c t i o n
p o s t p r o d u c t i o n . In this u n d e r t a k i n g t h e c o m p u t e r c a n b e
costs, regardless of w h e t h e r t h e cost is, at least partially,
of great assistance. Software p r o g r a m s can help y o u detail
a b s o r b e d by t h e salaries of regularly e m p l o y e d p e r s o n n e l
t h e v a r i o u s p r o d u c t i o n costs a n d c a n recalculate t h e m ef
o r the n o r m a l o p e r a t i n g b u d g e t . You n e e d to figure t h e
fortlessly if y o u n e e d to c u t expenses or if t h e p r o d u c t i o n
costs n o t only for o b v i o u s i t e m s — s c r i p t , talent, p r o d u c
requirements change.
t i o n p e r s o n n e l , s t u d i o a n d e q u i p m e n t rental, a n d p o s t -
A n e x a m p l e of a detailed tripart budget of a n i n d e p e n
p r o d u c t i o n e d i t i n g — b u t also for items t h a t m a y n o t b e so
d e n t p r o d u c t i o n c o m p a n y is s h o w n in the a c c o m p a n y i n g
a p p a r e n t , such as v i d e o t a p e , certain p r o p s , food, lodging,
figure. It is s t r u c t u r e d according to p r e p r o d u c t i o n , p r o d u c
e n t e r t a i n m e n t , t r a n s p o r t a t i o n of talent a n d p r o d u c t i o n
t i o n , a n d p o s t p r o d u c t i o n costs, SEE 17.4
p e r s o n n e l , p a r k i n g , i n s u r a n c e , a n d clearances or user fees for l o c a t i o n s h o o t i n g .
Obviously, even as a n i n d e p e n d e n t p r o d u c e r y o u m a y n o t have to p r e p a r e s u c h a detailed b u d g e t for all of y o u r
W h e n p r o d u c i n g a s h o w for a local s t a t i o n or a small
p r o d u c t i o n s . S o m e s i m p l e p r o d u c t i o n s m a y r e q u i r e only
i n d e p e n d e n t c o m p a n y , t h e basic p e r s o n n e l a n d e q u i p m e n t
t h a t y o u fill o u t t h e s u m m a r y of costs. You can always
costs are usually i n c l u d e d in the overall p r o d u c t i o n b u d g e t .
a d a p t t h e b u d g e t s h o w n in figure 17.4 to suit y o u r specific
In such cases y o u n e e d o n l y list a d d i t i o n a l costs, s u c h as
production needs.
o v e r t i m e , e x p e n d a b l e supplies, a n d script a n d talent fees, w h i c h , b y the way, can b e u n e x p e c t e d l y high. T h e r e are m a n y ways t o p r e s e n t a b u d g e t , such as by
W h e n e v e r y o u p r e p a r e a b u d g e t , b e realistic. D o n o t u n d e r e s t i m a t e costs just t o w i n t h e b i d — y o u w o u l d p r o b ably regret it. It is psychologically, as well as
financially,
s e p a r a t i n g p r e p r o d u c t i o n (for e x a m p l e , script, travel to
easier to agree to a b u d g e t cut t h a n to ask for m o r e m o n e y
locations a n d meetings, location scouting, a n d storyboard),
later o n . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , d o n o t inflate the b u d g e t to
p r o d u c t i o n (talent, p r o d u c t i o n p e r s o n n e l , a n d e q u i p m e n t
e n s u r e e n o u g h to get by, even after severe cuts. Be realistic
o r s t u d i o r e n t a l ) , a n d p o s t p r o d u c t i o n (editing a n d s o u n d
a b o u t t h e expenses, b u t d o n o t forget to a d d at least a 15
design), o r by dividing it i n t o a b o v e - t h e - l i n e a n d below-
t o 20 p e r c e n t contingency. In general, a s h o w always takes a little l o n g e r a n d costs m o r e t h a n anticipated. t l U U P R O -
t h e - l i n e expenses. Above-the-line
budgets include expenses for above-the-
CESS-* Proposals^ budget | try it
line p e r s o n n e l , s u c h as writers, directors, art directors, a n d talent, usually called "creative personnel." T h i s d o e s n o t
sal
i m p l y t h a t o t h e r p r o d u c t i o n p e r s o n n e l , s u c h as c a m e r a
p r e s e n t y o u r p r o p o s a l . As a n i n d e p e n d e n t p r o d u c e r , y o u
o p e r a t o r s or editors, are n o t creative; it s i m p l y refers to
m u s t p r e p a r e a p r o p o s a l t h a t satisfies the client. If y o u are
N o w you are ready to
398
Chapter
17
PRODUCING
PRODUCTION BUDGET
CLIENT: PROJECT TITLE: DATE OF THIS BUDGET: SPECIFICATIONS: NOTE: This estimate is subject to the producer's review of the final shooting script.
SUMMARY OF COSTS
ESTIMATE
ACTUAL
PREPRODUCTION Personnel Equipment and facilities Script PRODUCTION Personnel Equipment and facilities Talent Art (set and graphics) Makeup Music Miscellaneous (transportation, fees) POSTPRODUCTION Personnel Facilities Tape stock INSURANCE and MISCELLANEOUS CONTINGENCY (20%) TAX GRAND TOTAL
17.4
BUDGET CATEGORIES
These detailed budget categories are structured according to preproduction, production, and postproduction costs.
Section
1 7. 1
What
ESTIMATE
BUDGET DETAIL
P R E P R O D U C T I O N Personnel Writer (script) Director (day) Art director (day) PA (day) SUBTOTAL
P R O D U C T I O
N
Personnel Di rector Associate director PA Floor (unit) manager Camera (DP) Sound Li ghti ng VTR C.G. Grips (assistants) Technical supervisor Prompter Makeup and wardrobe Talent Equipment and facilities Studio/location Camera Sound Li ghti ng Sets C.G./graphics VTR Prompti ng Remote van Intercom Transportation, meals, and housing Copyrights SUBTOTAL
17.4
BUDGET CATEGORIES
Producing
(continued)
Is All
ACTUAL
About
399
400
Chapter
7 7
PRODUCING
P O S T P R O D U C T I O N Personnel Di rector Editor Sound editor Faci 1 ities Dubbing Window dubs Off-line linear Off-line nonlinear On-line linear On-1i ne nonli near DVE Audio sweetening ADR/Foley Tape stock SUBTOTAL
M I S C E L L A N E O U S Insurance Public transportation Parki ng Shipping/courier Wrap expenses Securi ty Catering SUBTOTAL
GRAND TOTAL
1 7 . 4 BUDGET CATEGORIES
(continued)
ESTIMATE
ACTUAL
Section
17.1
What
working in a station, you give your proposal to the executive p r o d u c e r o r directly to the p r o g r a m manager. For p r o g r a m p r o p o s a l s t h a t c o n c e r n e d u c a t i o n a l o r p u b l i c service issues, y o u s h o u l d contact the p u b l i c service director of t h e station. D o c u m e n t a r i e s are usually the p u r v i e w of the news d e p a r t m e n t . If you deal w i t h a n e t w o r k , y o u n e e d to go t h r o u g h an agent. W h e n approaching a station, y o u m a y have m o r e chance of success if you already have a s p o n s o r to back y o u r project. See t o it t h a t y o u r p r o p o s a l is free of spelling errors a n d p r e s e n t e d attractively a n d professionally.
W R I T I N G THE SCRIPT Unless y o u write t h e script yourself, you'll n e e d to hire a writer. T h e writer will translate the process message i n t o a television p r e s e n t a t i o n — a t least o n paper. It is t h e n u p to t h e director to translate the script i n t o the actual video a n d a u d i o images t h a t m a k e u p the television show. It is i m p o r t a n t that the writer u n d e r s t a n d the p r o g r a m objective a n d , especially, t h e defined process message. If a writer disagrees w i t h t h e process message a n d d o e s n o t develop a better o n e , find a n o t h e r writer. Agree o n a fee in a d v a n c e — s o m e writers charge e n o u g h to swallow u p your whole budget. Once the writer understands your objectives, y o u m u s t indicate the script f o r m a t you need. (See c h a p t e r 18 for examples of script formats.) O n e of the greatest challenges for a writer is to write g o o d dialogue. Dialogue s h o u l d s o u n d natural, b u t it m u s t b e a cut above w h a t you w o u l d hear if you were to record a real conversation in a living r o o m , restaurant, supermarket, o r school b o a r d m e e t i n g . W h e n reading dialogue t r y to " h e a r " p e o p l e — n o t just w h a t they say b u t h o w t h e y say it. G o o d dialogue s h o u l d m a k e you envious t h a t you d i d n t speak that eloquently w h e n you were in a similar situation. B S ^ P R O C E S S - } Ideas-* scripts 1
PREPRODUCTION PLANNING: COORDINATION
Producing
Is All
About
401
m e t h o d ( m e d i u m t r a n s l a t i o n of defined process message) is i n d e e d the m o s t efficient. For e x a m p l e , if you are d o i n g a d o c u m e n t a r y o n the c o n d i t i o n s of the various residence hotels in y o u r city, it is certainly easier a n d m o r e cost-effective t o go t h e r e a n d v i d e o t a p e an actual hotel r o o m t h a n to re-create o n e in the studio. O n the o t h e r h a n d , if y o u are d o i n g a m a g a z i n e style s h o w o n t h e history of y o u r h i g h school, you could stage the major p a r t of t h e p r o d u c t i o n in t h e s t u d i o a n d s h o o t o n l y a m i n i m u m p o r t i o n o n location. For a d r a m a a specific scene m i g h t b e shot m o r e advantageously in a friend's kitchen t h a n in a complicated studio kitchen setup. Keep in m i n d t h a t the studio affords o p t i m a l c o n t r o l b u t t h a t EFP offers a limitless variety of scenery a n d locations at little a d d i t i o n a l cost. Bear in m i n d , however, t h a t m o s t field p r o d u c t i o n s lack the p r o d u c t i o n c o n t r o l y o u enjoy in t h e s t u d i o , a n d t h e y require extensive use of p o s t p r o d u c t i o n t i m e a n d facilities. O n c e you've m a d e a firm decision a b o u t t h e m o s t effective p r o d u c t i o n a p p r o a c h , y o u have t o deliver w h a t y o u p r o m i s e d to do in t h e p r o p o s a l . You begin this coor d i n a t i o n phase by (1) establishing clear c o m m u n i c a t i o n c h a n n e l s a m o n g all the people involved in t h e p r o d u c t i o n ; y o u can t h e n p r o c e e d w i t h c o o r d i n a t i n g t h e o t h e r major p r o d u c t i o n elements: (2) the facilities request, (3) sched ules, (4) p e r m i t s a n d clearances, a n d (5) publicity a n d p r o m o t i o n . Realize t h a t it is n o t y o u r occasional flashes of inspiration t h a t m a k e y o u a g o o d p r o d u c e r b u t y o u r m e t i c u l o u s a t t e n t i o n to detail.
PEOPLE W h o m t o involve in the p o s t - s c r i p t p l a n n i n g stages d e p e n d s , again, o n y o u r basic objective, the process message, a n d w h e t h e r you are an i n d e p e n d e n t p r o d u c e r w h o has to hire a d d i t i o n a l above-the-line a n d below-the-line p e r s o n nel or w h e t h e r y o u are w o r k i n g for a station or large p r o d u c t i o n c o m p a n y that has m o s t essential creative a n d crew people already o n its payroll a n d available at all times.
Before y o u begin c o o r d i n a t i n g the various p r o d u c t i o n ele m e n t s — a s s e m b l i n g a p r o d u c t i o n t e a m , p r o c u r i n g studios, o r deciding o n location sites a n d e q u i p m e n t — a s k yourself o n c e again w h e t h e r t h e p l a n n e d p r o d u c t i o n is possible w i t h i n t h e given t i m e a n d b u d g e t and, if so, w h e t h e r the
As p r o d u c e r you are t h e chief c o o r d i n a t o r a m o n g the various p r o d u c t i o n p e o p l e . You m u s t be able to contact every single t e a m m e m b e r quickly a n d reliably. Your m o s t i m p o r t a n t job, therefore, is to establish a database w i t h such essential i n f o r m a t i o n as n a m e s , positions, h o m e ad dresses, business addresses, e-mail addresses, a n d v a r i o u s p h o n e , beeper, a n d fax n u m b e r s , SEE 17.5
1. See Robert L. Hilliard, Writing for Television, Radio, and New Media, 8th ed. (Belmont, Calif.: Wadsworth, 2004). Also see Herbert Zettl, Sight, Sound, Motion, 4th ed. (Belmont, Calif.: Thomson Wadsworth, 2005), pp. 334-36.
D o n ' t forget to let everyone k n o w h o w you can be contacted, as well. D o n ' t rely o n s e c o n d h a n d i n f o r m a t i o n . Your c o m m u n i c a t i o n is n o t c o m p l e t e until you h e a r back
402
Chapter
PRODUCING
17
Production Personnel Contact Information Sight Sound Motion Instructional Video Program 4
17.5
Name E-mail
Position
Home address Work address
Home phone Work phone
Home fax Work fax
Cell phone Pager
Herbert Zettl hzettl0best.com
Producer
873 Carmenita, Forest Knolls SFSU, 1600 Holloway, SF
(415) 555-3874 (415) 555-8837
(415) 555-8743 (415) 555-1199
(415) 555-1141
Gary Palmatier Director
[email protected]
5343 Sunnybrook, Windsor 5256 Aero #3, Santa Rosa
(707) 555-4242 (707) 555-8743
(707) 555-2341 (707) 764-7777
Robaire Ream
[email protected]
783 Ginny, Healdsburg Lightsaber, 44 Tesconi, Novato
(707) 555-8372 (415) 555-8000
(415) 555-8080
Sherry Holstead PA 723643.37220compuserve.com
88 Seacrest, Marin SH Assoc, 505 Main, Sausalito
(415) 555-9211 (415) 555-0932
(415) 555-9873 (415) 555-8383
(415) 555-0033
Renee Wong TD rn_wong2(aearthlink.com
9992 Treeview, San Rafael P.O. Box 3764, San Rafael
(415) 555-9374 (800) 555-7834
(415) 555-8273 (800) 555-8734
(415) 555-3498 (415) 555-8988
Steve Store Talent tjinlet23taol.com
253 Robertson, Canoga Park Le Dome, 32 Surset, LA
AD
(707) 555-9873 (800) 555-8888
_a^)MnfHi
Vi
"' >
555 7832
"
«734
DATABASE: PRODUCTION PERSONNEL
To be able to quickly contact each production team member, the producer needs reliable contact information.
from t h e p a r t y y o u were trying to contact. A g o o d p r o d u c e r
yourself a n d t h e crew a n d t h e exact o n - s i t e l o c a t i o n . If t h e
triple-checks e v e r y t h i n g .
p r o d u c t i o n involves a n o v e r n i g h t stay, c o m m u n i c a t e t h e
FACILITIES REQUEST
t h e c u s t o m a r y detail, s u c h as p h o n e n u m b e r s , w h e n a n d
T h e facilities
w h e r e to assemble t h e n e x t m o r n i n g , a n d so forth.
n a m e a n d t h e location of t h e a c c o m m o d a t i o n s , i n c l u d i n g request lists all pieces of p r o d u c t i o n e q u i p
m e n t a n d often all p r o p e r t i e s a n d c o s t u m e s n e e d e d for a
T h e facilities request, like t h e script, is a n essential
p r o d u c t i o n . T h e p e r s o n responsible for filling o u t such a
c o m m u n i c a t i o n device. Be as a c c u r a t e as possible w h e n
request varies. In small-station o p e r a t i o n s or i n d e p e n d e n t
p r e p a r i n g it. Late changes will o n l y invite costly errors. If
p r o d u c t i o n c o m p a n i e s , it is often the p r o d u c e r or director;
y o u have a fairly accurate floor p l a n a n d light plot, a t t a c h
in larger o p e r a t i o n s it is t h e p r o d u c t i o n m a n a g e r .
t h e m to t h e facilities request. Such a t t a c h m e n t s will give
T h e facilities r e q u e s t u s u a l l y c o n t a i n s i n f o r m a t i o n c o n c e r n i n g d a t e a n d t i m e of rehearsal, t a p i n g sessions,
t h e c r e w a fairly g o o d idea of w h a t p r o d u c t i o n p r o b l e m s t h e y m a y have to face.
a n d o n - t h e - a i r t r a n s m i s s i o n ; title of p r o d u c t i o n ; n a m e s
Facilities requests are usually distributed as "soft copy"
of p r o d u c e r a n d director ( a n d s o m e t i m e s t a l e n t ) ; a n d all
via t h e i n t e r n a l c o m p u t e r s y s t e m as well as h a r d copy.
technical e l e m e n t s , s u c h as c a m e r a s , m i c r o p h o n e s , lights,
SEE 17.6
sets, graphics, c o s t u m e s , m a k e u p , VTRs, p o s t p r o d u c t i o n
t h a t y o u can m a k e changes easily w i t h o u t h a v i n g to recall,
facilities, a n d o t h e r specific p r o d u c t i o n n e e d s . It also
correct, a n d reissue t h e p r i n t e d copies.
T h e a d v a n t a g e of u s i n g a c o m p u t e r n e t w o r k is
lists t h e s t u d i o a n d c o n t r o l r o o m n e e d e d . If y o u d o EFP,
Regardless of w h i c h type of p r o d u c t i o n y o u do, al
y o u n e e d to a d d t h e desired m o d e of t r a n s p o r t a t i o n for
ways t r y to get b y w i t h as little e q u i p m e n t as possible. T h e
Section
What
17.1
Producing
Is All
About
403
1 7 . 6 COMPUTER-BASED FACILITIES REQUEST This computer-based facilities request lists all equipment needed for a specific production. Usually, the equipment permanently installed in a studio does not have to be listed again, but it must be scheduled.
m o r e y o u use, the m o r e p e o p l e y o u n e e d to o p e r a t e it a n d
tivity will n o t necessarily i m p r o v e t h e p r o d u c t i o n . Besides
t h e m o r e t h a t c a n go w r o n g . D o n o t use e q u i p m e n t just
b e i n g costly, w a s t i n g t i m e can m a k e p e o p l e a p a t h e t i c a n d ,
because it is available. Review y o u r original process m e s
surprisingly e n o u g h , fail t o m e e t deadlines.
sage a n d verify t h a t t h e c h o s e n e q u i p m e n t is i n d e e d t h e
O n e of y o u r m o s t i m p o r t a n t responsibilities as p r o
m o s t efficient a n d t h a t t h e necessary e q u i p m e n t is actually
ducer is to check constantly o n the progress of each activity
available a n d w i t h i n t h e scope of t h e b u d g e t . C o n s u l t y o u r
a n d see w h e r e e v e r y b o d y s t a n d s relative to t h e stipulated
technical staff, w h i c h m a y i n c l u d e y o u r favorite D P o r T D ,
deadlines. If y o u d o n ' t care w h e t h e r deadlines are m e t , you
o n specific use of e q u i p m e n t a n d o t h e r p r o d u c t i o n tasks.
m i g h t as well d o away w i t h t h e m . If schedules aren't m e t ,
T h e i r expertise extends way b e y o n d t h e use of television
find o u t why. Again, d o n o t rely o n s e c o n d h a n d i n f o r m a
e q u i p m e n t , a n d t h e y are usually q u i t e willing to h e l p solve
t i o n . Call t h e p e o p l e w h o are b e h i n d schedule a n d
especially difficult p r o d u c t i o n p r o b l e m s .
o u t w h a t t h e p r o b l e m is. It is y o u r j o b to help solve these
find
p r o b l e m s a n d get everybody back o n track, o r to change the
SCHEDULES
schedule if necessary. (See figure 17.7 for an actual shooting schedule s h o u l d tell e v e r y b o d y involved in
schedule.) Always i n f o r m all t h e p r o d u c t i o n p e o p l e of all
t h e p r o d u c t i o n w h o is d o i n g w h a t , w h e n , a n d w h e r e over
t h e c h a n g e s y o u m a k e — e v e n if t h e y seem r a t h e r insignifi
t h e course of the p r o d u c t i o n . Create a realistic schedule a n d
c a n t at t h e t i m e .
T h e production
stick to it. Assigning too little t i m e will result n o t in a higher level of activity b u t usually in a h i g h e r level of anxiety a n d
PERMITS AND CLEARANCES
f r u s t r a t i o n . It is a l m o s t always c o u n t e r p r o d u c t i v e . O n t h e
M o s t p r o d u c t i o n s involve p e o p l e a n d facilities t h a t o r d i
o t h e r h a n d , allowing t o o m u c h t i m e for a p r o d u c t i o n ac
narily have n o c o n n e c t i o n with y o u r station or p r o d u c t i o n
404
Chapter
17
company. These p r o d u c t i o n elements need extra attention. Get t h e necessary p e r m i t s for y o u r crew t o gain a d m i s s i o n to a m e e t i n g o r s p o r t i n g event, as well as a p a r k i n g p e r m i t close t o t h e event. You m a y also n e e d a p e r m i t from city hall (the mayor's m e d i a c o o r d i n a t o r a n d t h e police d e p a r t m e n t ) o r a specific i n s u r a n c e policy t o s h o o t d o w n t o w n . D o n o t ignore such r e q u i r e m e n t s ! "Better safe t h a n s o r r y " applies t o all field p r o d u c t i o n s — n o t just t o actual p r o d u c t i o n activities but also t o p r o t e c t i n g yourself from legal action if a p r o d u c t i o n assistant s t u m b l e s over a cable or if a b y s t a n d e r slips o n a b a n a n a peel while w a t c h i n g y o u r taping. ( C o p y r i g h t a n d u n i o n clearances are discussed in section 17.2.)
PUBLICITY A N D PROMOTION T h e best s h o w is worthless if n o o n e k n o w s a b o u t it. Meet w i t h t h e publicity a n d p r o m o t i o n s d e p a r t m e n t s (usually c o m b i n e d i n o n e office o r even a single p e r s o n ) d u r i n g preproduction and inform them about the upcoming p r o d u c t i o n . Even if t h e target a u d i e n c e is highly specific, you still m u s t a i m to reach as m a n y viewers as possible. T h e j o b of t h e publicity people is t o n a r r o w t h e gap b e t w e e n t h e potential a n d t h e actual a u d i e n c e .
PRODUCING
enabling guests t o relax as m u c h as possible before going into t h e studio.
W A T C H I N G THE P R O D U C T I O N FLOW A l t h o u g h y o u s h o u l d stay o u t of t h e d i r e c t o r ' s w a y as m u c h as p o s s i b l e , y o u s h o u l d still k e e p a n eye o n t h e general p r o d u c t i o n flow. Even if y o u d i d n o t d r a w u p t h e time line—the t i m e b l o c k s for t h e v a r i o u s p r o d u c t i o n activities—yourself, y o u are r e s p o n s i b l e for seeing t h a t p e o p l e stick to it. (We discuss t h e i m p o r t a n c e of t h e t i m e line i n section 17.2.) S o m e t i m e s a director gets h u n g u p o n a m i n o r detail a n d does retake after retake o n l y t o find t h a t t h e r e is practically n o t i m e left t o t a p e t h e rest of t h e p r o g r a m . In this case y o u s h o u l d r e m i n d t h e director t o m o v e o n a n d t o stay o n schedule. If y o u n o t i c e t h a t t h e lighting o r a u d i o p e o p l e are t a k i n g a n i n o r d i n a t e a m o u n t of setup t i m e , y o u m a y talk to t h e T D o r t h e A D a b o u t it. W h e n t h e director n e e d s a d d i t i o n a l e q u i p m e n t o r p r o p s t o i m p r o v e o n a scene, y o u can a p p r o v e t h e extra expense o n t h e s p o t a n d call t h e a p p r o p r i a t e p e o p l e t o get t h e requested items.
EVALUATING THE P R O D U C T I O N
LINE PRODUCER: HOST AND WATCHDOG If you have d o n e y o u r j o b right, y o u can n o w let t h e direc tor a n d , if you have o n e , the line p r o d u c e r , take over. T h e line producer is usually o n the set for each p r o d u c t i o n of a p r o g r a m series a n d deals w i t h d a y - t o - d a y p r o d u c t i o n d e tails. If you are also acting as line p r o d u c e r once y o u have d o n e all the p r e p r o d u c t i o n , y o u are still responsible for t h e actual p r o d u c t i o n a n d s h o u l d therefore stay involved until it has b e e n c o m p l e t e d . M o s t often y o u r i m m e d i a t e duties as a line p r o d u c e r are t o take care of t h e guests a n d t o act as a second pair of eyes for t h e director.
O n e of t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t functions of t h e p r o d u c e r d u r ing t h e p r o d u c t i o n is to look over t h e director's s h o u l d e r at t h e v a r i o u s takes. It is n o t u n u s u a l for a director t o get so involved i n c o o r d i n a t i n g all t h e p r o d u c t i o n details t h a t h e or she loses t r a c k of t h e overall l o o k a n d flow of a scene. As a g o o d p r o d u c e r , you can watch t h e scene from a different p e r s p e c t i v e — m o r e as a critical viewer t h a n as a m e m b e r of the p r o d u c t i o n t e a m . This is n o t unlike w a t c h i n g a chess g a m e a n d seeing all t h e mistakes a n d missed possibilities of t h e o t h e r players. If y o u have suggestions c o n c e r n i n g t h e show, take notes o r dictate y o u r c o m m e n t s t o the p r o d u c t i o n assistant d u r i n g t h e rehearsal a n d t h e n convey t h e m t o t h e director ( a n d t h e talent a n d crew if necessary) at v a r i o u s rehearsal or s h o r t t a p i n g breaks, called notes, d u r i n g w h i c h p r o d u c
PLAYING HOST
tion p r o b l e m s are discussed a n d fixed. Unless y o u see a big
If you've b o o k e d guests, y o u n e e d t o get t h e m i n t o t h e studio. H o w d o they get t o t h e s t u d i o a n d b a c k t o their hotel? Be sure t o have s o m e o n e (preferably you) greet t h e m w h e n t h e y arrive. T h e r e is n o t h i n g m o r e e m b a r r a s s i n g t h a n h a v i n g guests w a n d e r i n g t h r o u g h t h e station, try ing t o find y o u o r t h e studio. Have a reception r o o m ( a n actual o r makeshift green r o o m ) ready w i t h coffee a n d tea,
mistake t h a t obviously escaped t h e director's a t t e n t i o n o r if s o m e t h i n g totally u n e x p e c t e d h a p p e n s t h a t n e e d s y o u r i m m e d i a t e attention, d o n o t interfere d u r i n g the actual per formance. Keep in m i n d that a l t h o u g h y o u as the p r o d u c e r c o o r d i n a t e d all p r o d u c t i o n elements u p t o this m o m e n t , t h e director is n o w in charge of translating y o u r idea i n t o t h e finished p r o d u c t — t h e television p r o g r a m .
Section
17.1
What
POSTPRODUCTION ACTIVITIES
Producing
Is All
About
405
b a c k facilities are in place. Viewers can get very a n n o y e d if they find t h a t their w e l l - i n t e n t i o n e d efforts to c o m m u
If y o u r p r o d u c t i o n was d o n e live o r l i v e - o n - t a p e , y o u are just a b o u t d o n e . You still n e e d to w r i t e t h a n k - y o u n o t e s t o t h e p e o p l e w h o have m a d e special c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o t h e p r o g r a m a n d c o m p l e t e all r e q u i r e d r e p o r t s (such as
nicate w i t h t h e station are i g n o r e d . Have c o m p e t e n t a n d friendly p h o n e o p e r a t o r s s t a n d i n g by to take t h e viewers' calls a n d b e sure t h e Web site is f u n c t i o n i n g . If y o u solicit w r i t t e n feedback ("Please d r o p us a p o s t c a r d , or fax or
m u s i c clearances a n d talent releases), unless t h e d i r e c t o r
e-mail y o u r c o m m e n t s " ) , assign s o m e o n e to h a n d l e a n d
takes care of s u c h m a t t e r s . M o r e often, however, y o u n o w
r e s p o n d quickly t o the c o r r e s p o n d e n c e . Keep a record of all
n e e d to begin c o o r d i n a t i n g t h e p o s t p r o d u c t i o n activities,
unsolicited calls (positive a n d negative) a n d file all w r i t t e n
a m o n g t h e m : (1) p o s t p r o d u c t i o n editing, (2) evaluation
c o m m u n i c a t i o n (letters, p o s t c a r d s , faxes, a n d e-mail).
a n d feedback, a n d (3) r e c o r d k e e p i n g .
POSTPRODUCTION EDITING Your activities in t h e p o s t p r o d u c t i o n p h a s e m a y involve a simple check t h a t t h e p e o p l e a n d t h e facilities for t h e off-line a n d o n - l i n e e d i t i n g are still available a n d t h a t p o s t p r o d u c t i o n progresses a c c o r d i n g to schedule. In case of emergency, b e p r e p a r e d to reschedule t h e w h o l e p o s t p r o d u c t i o n process. S o m e p r o d u c e r s feel t h a t t h e y n e e d to closely supervise all t h e v i d e o - e d i t i n g a n d a u d i o - s w e e t e n
Finally, sit b a c k a n d objectively v i e w t h e finished p r o d u c t i o n . D o e s it, at least in y o u r j u d g m e n t , m e e t t h e objectives of the defined process message? D e t e r m i n i n g the real i m p a c t — t h e actual process m e s s a g e — o f the p r o g r a m is difficult. Nevertheless, t r y to g a t h e r as m u c h feedback as possible (from reviewers a n d colleagues as well as view ers) to d e t e r m i n e h o w close t h e defined process message c a m e to t h e actual o n e . T h e closer t h e m a t c h , t h e m o r e successful t h e p r o d u c t i o n .
___TJ_>PROCESS->
Effect-to-cause^
actual effect
ing activities, w h e r e a s o t h e r s leave s u c h responsibilities to t h e director. Nevertheless, y o u s h o u l d always b e available in case t h e e d i t o r or d i r e c t o r w a n t s y o u r advice a b o u t a
RECORDKEEPING
p a r t i c u l a r l y sensitive editing decision.
Each t i m e y o u finish a p r o d u c t i o n , file a cassette c o p y or
EVALUATION A N D FEEDBACK
s u c h archives as a " m o r g u e " — a r e s o u r c e a b o u t p e o p l e
If t h e p r o d u c t i o n is for a c o r p o r a t i o n or o t h e r n o n b r o a d -
a n d places t h a t m i g h t b e c o m e n e w s w o r t h y again. Such a
cast o r g a n i z a t i o n , a r r a n g e a viewing date for t h e client.
copy will also p r o t e c t y o u from u n r e a s o n a b l e claims by
In fact, y o u s h o u l d always s h o w t h e client t h e c o m p l e t e d
a n irate client.
D V D for archival p u r p o s e s . T h e news d e p a r t m e n t uses
off-line version of t h e p r o d u c t i o n before d o i n g a n y final
Besides t h e v i d e o t a p e copy of y o u r o n - l i n e p r o d u c
o n - l i n e editing. If y o u have t a k e n t h e effect-to-cause a p
tion, p u t t o g e t h e r a file t h a t c o n t a i n s t h e p e r t i n e n t p r e -
p r o a c h , t h e client w o u l d have b e e n c o n t i n u o u s l y involved
p r o d u c t i o n , p r o d u c t i o n , a n d p o s t p r o d u c t i o n records. At
in the p r o d u c t i o n a n d m o s t changes w o u l d have been m a d e
a m i n i m u m s u c h a file s h o u l d c o n t a i n : t h e final p r o g r a m
b y now. D o n ' t s h o w a half-finished editing version that,
p r o p o s a l , t h e b u d g e t , t h e t i m e line ( i n c l u d i n g rehearsals,
for e x a m p l e , lacks t h e b a c k g r o u n d m u s i c . M o s t clients
crew calls, a n d so forth), facilities requests, the list of p r o
are n o t sufficiently sophisticated in p r o d u c t i o n to b e able
d u c t i o n p e r s o n n e l , t h e list of talent, talent c o n t r a c t s a n d
t o m e n t a l l y fill in t h e m i s s i n g p a r t s . Your off-line editing
releases, v a r i o u s p e r m i t s , a n d t h e s h o o t i n g script. File a n d
s h o u l d b e as c o m p l e t e as possible. Still, the s h o w i n g of t h e
cross-reference it w i t h t h e v i d e o t a p e copy o r D V D so that
finished o n - l i n e version is n o t t h e t i m e to discover m a j o r
y o u have access t o b o t h w h e n n e e d e d .
p r o d u c t i o n mistakes. Regardless of w h a t y o u show, keep
As y o u r e m e m b e r f r o m the b e g i n n i n g of this chapter,
a n o p e n m i n d d u r i n g t h e " s c r e e n i n g " of y o u r off-line
p r o d u c i n g m e a n s m a n a g i n g ideas a n d coordinating people,
p r o d u c t i o n a n d listen carefully to t h e client's r e c o m m e n
e q u i p m e n t , activities, a n d d e t a i l s . A g a i n , t r i p l e - c h e c k
d a t i o n s for changes. D o n o t haggle w i t h t h e client a b o u t
everything. D o n ' t leave a n y t h i n g to c h a n c e . Finally, never
y o u r p r o d u c t i o n decisions. Have t h e director explain w h y a
breach t h e prevailing ethical s t a n d a r d s of society a n d the
scene was shot in a certain way or w h y s o m e of the original
t r u s t t h e a u d i e n c e h a s — a n d inevitably m u s t — p u t in you.
script h a d to b e c h a n g e d .
W h a t e v e r y o u d o , use as y o u r guideline a basic respect a n d
If t h e s h o w solicits viewer feedback ("Please call t h e 8 0 0 - n u m b e r or visit o u r W e b site"), see to it t h a t t h e feed
c o m p a s s i o n for y o u r a u d i e n c e a n d t h e p e o p l e w h o a p p e a r in y o u r show.
406
Chapter
PRODUCING
17
major and minor expenses, unless they are absorbed by the overall operating budget. •
•
•
•
Producing means seeing to it that a worthwhile idea becomes a worthwhile television show. The producer man ages a great number of people and coordinates an even greater number of activities and production details. The effect-to-cause model starts with the basic idea, then defines the desired audience effect—the process message. The definition will determine the medium requirements: content elements, production elements, and people. The closer the actual process message (actual effect) matches the defined one, the more successful the communication. The program proposal normally contains the following minimum information: program or series title, objective, target audience, show treatment, production method, and tentative budget. The tripart budget is generally divided into preproduction, production, and postproduction costs. It must include all
•
The script is the most important preproduction element. It determines the entire production process.
•
Preproduction coordination involves selecting and contacting the production people, deciding on facilities and production locations, scheduling all production activities, and taking care of permits, clearances, publicity, and promotion.
•
During the production the producer acts as host, watches the production flow, and oversees the general quality of the show.
•
Postproduction activities include scheduling postproduc tion facilities and people, supervising the editing, a final evaluation of the program, handling solicited and unsolic ited feedback, and recordkeeping.
17.2
to p u t t i n g b a c k t h e e q u i p m e n t a n d filing t h e crew's l u n c h receipts. In s m a l l e r o p e r a t i o n s , h o w e v e r , t h e p r o d u c e r functions n o t only as the p r e p r o d u c t i o n organizer b u t also as t h e p r o d u c t i o n m a n a g e r of t h e v a r i o u s activities d u r i n g t h e p r o d u c t i o n day. In this case y o u n e e d to k n o w h o w to design a m a x i m a l l y efficient t i m e line, w h i c h will save n o t only t i m e a n d m o n e y b u t a l s o — a n d especially—energy.
Dealing with Schedules,
Even if y o u are n o t directly responsible for t h e d a y - t o - d a y
Legal Matters, and Ratings
m a x i m a l l y efficient.
t i m e line, y o u s h o u l d keep an eye o n it a n d see t h a t it is
T h e efficiency of t h e p r o d u c t i o n s c h e d u l e d e p e n d s to a large extent o n p r o p e r event sequencing.
For e x a m p l e , d o
n o t o r d e r a complicated o p e n i n g title sequence from the art d e p a r t m e n t if t h e writer is still struggling w i t h t h e script. N o r s h o u l d y o u a r g u e w i t h the director over t h e lighting r e q u i r e m e n t s or n u m b e r of cameras before y o u have visited t h e r e m o t e location or seen a floor plan. E N Q K In EFP especially, t h e event s e q u e n c e s h o u l d b e d e E F P t e r m i n e d by p r o d u c t i o n requirements (location, w e a t h e r , sets, a n d t h e like) a n d n o t necessarily b y t h e scripted sequence. See w h i c h events can b e s c h e d u l e d t o gether, s u c h as t h e o p e n i n g or closing of a show, o r o t h e r As a p r o d u c e r y o u n e e d s u c h specific p r o d u c t i o n skills as
widely s p r e a d scenes t h a t nevertheless play in t h e s a m e
d e s i g n i n g an efficient t i m e line a n d quickly accessing ac
location. A l t h o u g h m o v i n g from set to set in a s t u d i o p r o
c u r a t e i n f o r m a t i o n . A l t h o u g h y o u m a y have t h e services
d u c t i o n as scripted m a y n o t cause t o o m a n y logistical p r o b
of a legal d e p a r t m e n t , y o u will inevitably have to deal w i t h
lems, unnecessarily c h a n g i n g locations in t h e field does.
b r o a d c a s t guilds a n d u n i o n s as well as copyrights a n d other
Establish a tentative schedule of events a n d t r y to fit
legal m a t t e r s . Finally, you m u s t b e c o n v e r s a n t in t h e r u d i
t h e m i n t o the p r o d u c t i o n schedule. Such a n event schedule
m e n t s of ratings.
will s h o w y o u n o t only h o w a single p r o d u c t i o n day s h o u l d progress b u t also t h e flow of a n entire p r o d u c t i o n series.
^
^
^
TIMELINE
For e x a m p l e , y o u m a y find that w i t h only a few c h a n g e s of
The daily time line, event sequencing, and the produc tion schedule
set p r o p e r t i e s y o u can use a single set for t h e w h o l e series,
INFORMATION RESOURCES
a l t h o u g h t h e v a r i o u s shows m a y ultimately b e s h o w n in a
Local resources, computer databases, and basic reference books and directories
different sequence, SEE 17.7 <
or that y o u can s h o o t several sequences at the same location
UNIONS AND LEGAL MATTERS
INFORMATION RESOURCES
Nontechnical and technical unions, copyrights and clearances, and other legal considerations
As a p r o d u c e r y o u m u s t b e a researcher as well as s o m e w h a t
AUDIENCE AND RATINGS
to get a c c u r a t e i n f o r m a t i o n , for e x a m p l e , a b o u t a f o r m e r
Target audience, and ratings and share
m a y o r w h o is celebrating h e r n i n e t i e t h birthday. O r y o u
of a scrounger. O n occasion y o u m a y have o n l y a half h o u r
m a y have to p r o c u r e a skeleton for y o u r m e d i c a l show, a
TIME LINE T h e daily time line is n o r m a l l y w o r k e d o u t b y t h e director,
m o d e l of a c o m m u n i c a t i o n s satellite for y o u r d o c u m e n t a r y o n t e l e c o m m u n i c a t i o n s , o r an e i g h t e e n t h - c e n t u r y w e d d i n g dress for y o u r h i s t o r y series.
t h e line p r o d u c e r , a n d / o r t h e p r o d u c t i o n o r u n i t m a n a g e r .
Fortunately, t h e vast resources o n t h e I n t e r n e t p u t the
This p e r s o n is in charge of t h e day's p r o d u c t i o n — f r o m
world's i n f o r m a t i o n at y o u r fingertips. A n d if y o u k n o w
l o a d i n g t h e EFP vehicles o r u n l o c k i n g t h e s t u d i o d o o r s
t h e site address, it is practically i n s t a n t a n e o u s . You m a y
407
408
Chapter
77
PRODUCING
1 7 . 7 EVENT SEQUENCING Event sequencing results in a production schedule that shows all scenes shot in a specific location.
find, however, that t h e sheer v o l u m e of o n l i n e i n f o r m a
airlines. Have a reliable c o n t a c t p e r s o n at t h e local a i r p o r t
t i o n makes it difficult to find a specific item quickly. It m a y
a n d at a n established travel agency.
s o m e t i m e s b e faster a n d m o r e c o n v e n i e n t t o use readily available p r i n t e d sources or to call t h e local library. For e x a m p l e , a call to t h e local h o s p i t a l o r h i g h - s c h o o l science d e p a r t m e n t m a y p r o c u r e t h e skeleton m o r e quickly t h a n i n i t i a t i n g a W e b s e a r c h . You c o u l d ask t h e c o m m u n i t y college science d e p a r t m e n t o r p e r h a p s even t h e local cable c o m p a n y for t h e satellite m o d e l , a n d c o n t a c t t h e h i s t o r i cal society o r t h e college t h e a t e r a r t s d e p a r t m e n t for t h e w e d d i n g dress. Besides I n t e r n e t sources, t h e following are s o m e ad ditional references a n d services y o u s h o u l d have o n h a n d . Telephone directories. T h e r e is a great deal of i n f o r m a t i o n in a t e l e p h o n e b o o k . Get the directories of y o u r city a n d t h e outlying areas. Also t r y to get t h e t e l e p h o n e directo ries of the larger i n s t i t u t i o n s w i t h w h i c h y o u have frequent contact, s u c h as city hall, t h e police a n d fire d e p a r t m e n t s , o t h e r city o r c o u n t y agencies, major federal offices, city a n d c o u n t y school offices, n e w s p a p e r s a n d r a d i o stations, col leges a n d universities, a n d m u s e u m s . O n t h e I n t e r n e t y o u c a n o b t a i n in seconds t h e t e l e p h o n e n u m b e r of practically a n y p h o n e u s e r in t h e w o r l d .
Transportation
and delivery. Have t h e n u m b e r s of o n e
o r t w o taxi c o m p a n i e s as well as b u s a n d t r a i n schedules. Keep in m i n d t h a t taxis c a n t r a n s p o r t t h i n g s (such as t h e skeleton for y o u r m e d i c a l p r o g r a m ) as well as p e o p l e . Es tablish c o n t a c t w i t h at least t w o reliable inter- a n d intracity delivery services. Reference
books and CD-ROMs.
Your o w n reference
l i b r a r y s h o u l d h a v e a n u p - t o - d a t e d i c t i o n a r y ; a set of Who's Who in America
a n d t h e regional v o l u m e s ; a recent
i n t e r n a t i o n a l b i o g r a p h i c a l dictionary; an u p - t o - d a t e ency clopedia t h a t p r e s e n t s subjects clearly a n d concisely (you m a y find t h e simple yet concise World Book encyclopedia m o r e helpful t h a n t h e detailed Encyclopaedia
Britannica);
a n d a c o m p r e h e n s i v e , u p - t o - d a t e atlas. M o s t c u r r e n t refer ence b o o k s are also available o n C D - R O M . Also have o n h a n d t h e p h o n e n u m b e r of t h e reference desk at the local library. A n efficient reference l i b r a r i a n can, a n d is usually h a p p y to, dig u p all sorts of i n f o r m a t i o n w i t h a m a z i n g speed. T h e y can also d o q u i c k I n t e r n e t research in libraries worldwide. If y o u w o r k for a cable c o m p a n y or television station,
Airline schedules. Even if y o u have easy o n l i n e access to
collect s o m e basic references. Besides professional j o u r n a l s
airline schedules, k e e p u p - t o - d a t e directories of t h e m a j o r
a n d y e a r b o o k s , p u t s o m e of t h e latest editions of b r o a d c a s t
Section
17.2
Dealing
with
Schedules,
Legal
t e x t b o o k s o n y o u r shelf. T h e s e v o l u m e s will give y o u q u i c k
Matters,
17.8
and
Ratings
409
NONTECHNICAL UNIONS
a n d a c c u r a t e i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t a variety of issues. Other
resources.
T h e local c h a m b e r of c o m m e r c e
AFTRA
American Federation of Television and Radio Artists. This is the major union for television talent. Directors sometimes belong to AFTRA, especially when they double as announcers and on-the-air talent. AFTRA prescribes basic minimum fees, called scale, which differ from area to area. Most well-known talent (such as prominent actors and local news anchors) are paid well above scale.
DGA
Directors Guild of America. A union fortelevision and motion picture directors and associate directors. Floor managers and production assistants of large stations and networks sometimes belong to "the Guild."
WGA
Writers Guild of America. A union for writers of television and film scripts.
usually m a i n t a i n s a list of c o m m u n i t y o r g a n i z a t i o n s a n d businesses. A list of t h e major foundations a n d their criteria for grants m a y also c o m e in handy. If y o u are d o i n g a series o n a specific subject, s u c h as m e d i c a l p r a c t i c e s , e n e r g y c o n s e r v a t i o n , or h o u s i n g d e v e l o p m e n t s , y o u will have t o get s o m e m a j o r reference w o r k s in t h a t area.
UNIONS AND LEGAL MATTERS M o s t directors, w r i t e r s , a n d talent b e l o n g t o a guild o r u n i o n , as d o a l m o s t all b e l o w - t h e - l i n e p e r s o n n e l . As a p r o d u c e r y o u m u s t b e alert t o t h e v a r i o u s u n i o n regula t i o n s in y o u r p r o d u c t i o n area. M o s t u n i o n s stipulate n o t only salaries a n d m i n i m u m fees b u t also specific w o r k i n g c o n d i t i o n s , such as o v e r t i m e , t u r n a r o u n d t i m e (stipulated
SAG
h o u r s of rest b e t w e e n w o r k d a y s ) , rest p e r i o d s , w h o c a n
Screen Actors Guild. Important organization, especially when film is involved in television production. Also includes some actors for videotaped commercials and larger video productions.
legally r u n a s t u d i o c a m e r a a n d w h o c a n n o t , a n d so forth. If y o u use n o n u n i o n p e r s o n n e l in a u n i o n station, or if y o u plan t o air a s h o w t h a t h a s b e e n p r e p a r e d o u t s i d e t h e station w i t h n o n u n i o n talent, check w i t h t h e respective
SEG
Screen Extras Guild. A union for extras participating in major film or video productions.
AFM
American Federation of Musicians of the United States and Canada. Important only if live orchestras are used in the production.
u n i o n s for p r o p e r clearance.
UNIONS T h e r e are t w o basic types of u n i o n s : those for n o n t e c h n i c a l p e r s o n n e l a n d t h o s e for technical p e r s o n n e l . N o n t e c h n i c a l u n i o n s are m a i n l y t h o s e for p e r f o r m e r s , writers, a n d direc tors, SEE 17.8 Technical u n i o n s include all television t e c h n i cians, engineers, a n d occasionally a variety of p r o d u c t i o n p e r s o n n e l , such as m i c r o p h o n e b o o m operators, E N G / E F P
COPYRIGHTS A N D CLEARANCES
c a m e r a o p e r a t o r s , a n d floor p e r s o n n e l , SEE 17.9
If y o u u s e c o p y r i g h t e d m a t e r i a l o n y o u r show, y o u m u s t
Be especially careful a b o u t asking s t u d i o guests t o d o
p r o c u r e p r o p e r clearances. Usually, t h e year of t h e copy
a n y t h i n g o t h e r t h a n answer q u e s t i o n s d u r i n g an interview.
right a n d t h e n a m e of t h e c o p y r i g h t h o l d e r are p r i n t e d
If they give a s h o r t d e m o n s t r a t i o n of their talents, t h e y
r i g h t after t h e © c o p y r i g h t s y m b o l . S o m e p h o t o g r a p h s ,
m a y be classified as p e r f o r m e r s a n d a u t o m a t i c a l l y b e c o m e
r e p r o d u c t i o n s of f a m o u s p a i n t i n g s , a n d p r i n t s are often
subject t o A F T R A fees (see figure 17.8). Likewise, d o n o t
c o p y r i g h t e d as are, of c o u r s e , b o o k s , periodicals, s h o r t
request t h e floor crew t o d o a n y t h i n g t h a t is n o t directly
stories, plays, a n d m u s i c r e c o r d i n g s . Shows or m u s i c t h a t
c o n n e c t e d with t h e i r regular line of duty, o r they t o o m a y
y o u m a y r e c o r d off t h e air o r d o w n l o a d f r o m t h e I n t e r n e t
collect talent fees. C a m e r a o p e r a t o r s usually have a contract
as well as m a n y C D - R O M s a n d D V D s are also subject t o
clause t h a t ensures t h e m a substantial p e n a l t y s u m if they
c o p y r i g h t laws. W h e n y o u as an artist are t r y i n g to p r o t e c t
are willfully s h o w n by a n o t h e r c a m e r a o n t h e television
y o u r rights, y o u m a y find that t h e copyrights are r a t h e r
screen. A c t i n g s t u d e n t s w h o a p p e a r i n television plays
vague; b u t w h e n y o u as a p r o d u c e r use c o p y r i g h t e d m a t e
p r o d u c e d at a high school or college m a y b e c o m e subject
rial, y o u usually r u n i n t o s t r i n g e n t laws a n d regulations.
t o AFTRA fees if t h e play is s h o w n o n t h e air by a b r o a d c a s t
W h e n in d o u b t , check w i t h a n a t t o r n e y a b o u t c o p y r i g h t
station, unless y o u clear t h e i r o n - t h e - a i r a p p e a r a n c e w i t h
clauses a n d p u b l i c d o m a i n before u s i n g o t h e r p e o p l e ' s
t h e station a n d / o r t h e local AFTRA office.
material in your production.
410
Chapter
PRODUCING
17
1 7 . 9 TECHNICAL UNIONS
p e r t a i n to t h e general lifestyle, such as c o n s u m e r b u y i n g h a b i t s a n d even p e r s o n a l i t y a n d persuasiveness variables. W h e n y o u fill o u t t h e registration card t h a t c o m e s w i t h a
IB E W
N A B ET
International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers. This union includes studio, master control, and maintenance engineers and technicians. It may also include ENG/EFP camera operators and floor personnel.
n e w electronic p r o d u c t , y o u are actually s u p p l y i n g highly valuable p s y c h o g r a p h i c i n f o r m a t i o n . D e s p i t e s o p h i s t i c a t e d t e c h n i q u e s of classifying a u d i e n c e m e m b e r s a n d d e t e r m i n i n g t h e i r lifestyles a n d p o t e n t i a l acceptance of a specific p r o g r a m or series, s o m e
National Association of Broadcast Employees and Technicians. This engineering union may also include floor personnel and nonengineering production people (such as boom operators and dolly operators).
p r o d u c e r s s i m p l y use a n e i g h b o r as a m o d e l a n d gear their c o m m u n i c a t i o n to t h a t p a r t i c u l a r p e r s o n a n d his or h e r h a b i t s . D o n ' t b e s u r p r i s e d if a n executive p r o d u c e r t u r n s d o w n y o u r brilliant p r o g r a m p r o p o s a l w i t h a c o m m e n t
IATSE
International Alliance of Theatrical Stage Employees, Moving Picture Technicians, Artists and Allied Crafts of the United States, Its Territories and Canada. This union includes primarily stage hands, grips (lighting technicians), and stage carpenters. Floor managers and even film camera and lighting personnel can also belong.
such as, "I d o n ' t t h i n k m y n e i g h b o r C a t h y w o u l d like it." For m a n y e n t e r t a i n m e n t p r o g r a m s , such a subjective a p p r o a c h to p r e j u d g i n g t h e w o r t h of a p r o g r a m m i g h t b e accept able. If y o u are asked t o d o a goal-directed p r o g r a m s u c h as driver e d u c a t i o n o r a c o m m e r c i a l o n t h e i m p o r t a n c e of w a t e r c o n s e r v a t i o n , however, y o u n e e d to identify a n d analyze the target a u d i e n c e m o r e specifically. T h e m o r e y o u k n o w a b o u t the target a u d i e n c e , t h e m o r e precise y o u r defined process message and, ultimately, the m o r e effective t h a t m e s s a g e will b e .
OTHER LEGAL
CONSIDERATIONS
C h e c k w i t h legal counsel a b o u t u p - t o - d a t e rulings o n libel
RATINGS AND
( w r i t t e n a n d b r o a d c a s t d e f a m a t i o n ) , slander
(lesser oral
An a u d i e n c e rating is t h e p e r c e n t a g e r e p r e s e n t i n g a n es
(passing off as one's o w n t h e ideas
t i m a t e of television h o u s e h o l d s w i t h their sets t u n e d to a
or w r i t i n g s of a n o t h e r ) , t h e right to privacy ( n o t t h e s a m e
s t a t i o n in a given p o p u l a t i o n (total n u m b e r of television
d e f a m a t i o n ) , plagiarism
SHARE
in all states), o b s c e n i t y laws, a n d similar m a t t e r s . In t h e
h o u s e h o l d s ) . You get this p e r c e n t a g e b y dividing t h e p r o
absence of legal counsel, t h e n e w s d e p a r t m e n t s of m a j o r
jected n u m b e r of h o u s e h o l d s t u n e d to y o u r station by t h e
broadcast stations or university broadcast departments
total n u m b e r of television h o u s e h o l d s :
generally have u p - t o - d a t e legal i n f o r m a t i o n available. number
of TV households
total number
AUDIENCE AND RATINGS
of TV
tuned in r ~ ~ n — households
=
. . rating figure
For e x a m p l e , if 75 h o u s e h o l d s of y o u r r a t i n g s a m p l e As a p r o d u c e r in a television station, y o u will p r o b a b l y h e a r m o r e t h a n y o u c a r e t o a b o u t t h e v a r i o u s aspects of specific television a u d i e n c e s a n d ratings. Ratings are
of 500 h o u s e h o l d s are t u n e d to y o u r show, y o u r s h o w will have a rating of 15 (the decimal p o i n t is d r o p p e d w h e n t h e r a t i n g figure is given):
especially i m p o r t a n t for c o m m e r c i a l stations because t h e cost for c o m m e r c i a l t i m e sold b y t h e station is d e t e r m i n e d p r i m a r i l y by t h e estimated size of the target audience. Even
75 =
0 . 1 5 = 15 rating
points
w h e n w o r k i n g in c o r p o r a t e television, y o u will find t h a t a u d i e n c e " r a t i n g s " are used to gauge t h e relative success
A share is t h e p e r c e n t a g e of television h o u s e h o l d s t u n e d to y o u r station in relation to all h o u s e h o l d s u s i n g
of a p r o g r a m .
television ( H U T ) . T h e HUT TARGET
AUDIENCE
B r o a d c a s t a u d i e n c e s , like t h o s e for all m a s s m e d i a , are u s u a l l y classified by d e m o g r a p h i c a n d p s y c h o g r a p h i c characteristics. T h e s t a n d a r d demographic
figure r e p r e s e n t s t h e t o t a l
p i e — o r 100 p e r c e n t . H e r e is h o w a share is
descriptors
in
clude gender, age, m a r i t a l status, e d u c a t i o n , ethnicity, a n d i n c o m e or e c o n o m i c status. T h e psychographic
descriptors
TV households all households
tuned to your using television
station (HUT)
figured:
—
share
For e x a m p l e , if only 200 of t h e s a m p l e h o u s e h o l d s have t h e i r sets actually in use ( H U T = 200 = 100 p e r c e n t ) ,
Section
17.2
Dealing
with
Schedules,
Legal
Matters,
and
411
Ratings
t h e 75 h o u s e h o l d s t u n e d i n t o y o u r p r o g r a m c o n s t i t u t e a s h a r e of 38: 75 200
= 0.375
= share of 38
Various r a t i n g services, s u c h as A. C. Nielsen, care fully select r e p r e s e n t a t i v e a u d i e n c e s a m p l e s a n d q u e r y these s a m p l e s t h r o u g h diaries, t e l e p h o n e calls, a n d m e t e r s a t t a c h e d t o their television sets.
For your reference, or to track your work, each VideoLab program cue in this chapter is listed here with its corresponding page number. PROCESS-* Ideas
393
PROCESS-} Effect-to-cause-} basic idea | desired effect | cause 395 PROCESS-* Proposals^ treatment
395
T h e p r o b l e m w i t h t h e r a t i n g figures is n o t so m u c h t h e p o t e n t i a l for e r r o r in p r o j e c t i n g the s a m p l e to a larger p o p u l a t i o n b u t r a t h e r t h a t t h e figures d o n o t i n d i c a t e w h e t h e r t h e h o u s e h o l d w h o s e set is t u r n e d o n h a s any
PROCESS-} Methods-} location | studio | single-camera | multi-camera 397 PROCESSS Proposals-} budget | try it
397
p e o p l e w a t c h i n g or, if so, h o w m a n y . T h e figures also d o n o t indicate t h e i m p a c t of a p r o g r a m o n t h e viewers (the actual process m e s s a g e ) . C o n s e q u e n t l y , y o u will find t h a t y o u r s h o w is often j u d g e d n o t b y t h e significance of y o u r message, t h e i m p a c t it h a s o n t h e a u d i e n c e , or h o w close t h e actual effect of t h e process message c a m e to the defined effect, b u t s i m p l y b y t h e r a t i n g a n d share figures. As frus t r a t i n g as t h e r a t i n g system in b r o a d c a s t television is, y o u m u s t realize t h a t y o u are w o r k i n g w i t h a m a s s m e d i u m that b y definition bases its existence o n large a u d i e n c e s .
•
Careful event sequencing greatly facilitates production scheduling and activities. This approach is especially help ful for a production series.
•
A producer needs quick and ready access to a great variety of resources and information. The Internet is an almost instantaneous and total information resource. Telephone directories, airline and other transportation schedules, and basic reference books and CD-ROMs are also important resources.
•
Most nontechnical and technical production personnel belong to guilds or unions, such as the Directors Guild of America (DGA) or the National Association of Broadcast Employees and Technicians (NABET).
•
The usual copyright laws apply when copyrighted material (such as video and audio material, printed information, and CD-ROMs) is used in a television production.
•
An audience rating is the percentage of television house holds with their sets tuned to a station in a given sample population owning TV sets. A share is the percentage of households tuned to a specific station in relation to all other households using television (HUT).
PROCESSS IdeasS scripts
401
PROCESSS Effect-to-causeS actual effect
405
The Director in Preproduction As a director y o u tell talent a n d the entire production t e a m w h a t to do before, during, a n d after t h e actual production. But before y o u can tell them w h a t to do, you obviously n e e d a clear idea of w h a t you n e e d to do: think about w h a t the program should look like and h o w to get from the idea to the television image.
M o r e specifically, as a director y o u must be able to translate an idea, a script, or a n actual e v e n t (such as an interview, a parade, or a tennis match) into effective television pictures and sound. You translate t h e defined process message (the expected o u t c o m e of the program) into the various m e d i u m requirements and t h e n c o m b i n e t h e m through the production process into a specific television program. You must decide on the people (talent a n d crew) a n d the technical production elements (cameras, mics, sets, lighting, and so forth) that will produce t h e intended effect—the process m e s s a g e — a n d coordi nate all these elements with maximum efficiency and effectiveness. A n d y o u must d o so with Style. EJ2H>PROCESS^ Process introduction
412
Section 18.1, H o w a Director Prepares, looks at the director's roles a n d specific prepro duction activities. Section 18.2, M o v i n g from Script to Screen, offers s o m e guidelines on i m a g e visualization and s e q u e n c i n g and h o w to analyze a script. The director's activities in the production and postproduction phases are t h e focus of chapter 19.
fact sheet Lists the items to be shown on-camera and their main features. May contain suggestions of what to say about the product. Also called rundown sheet. fully scripted format A complete script that contains all dia logue or narration and major visualization cues. locking-in An especially vivid mental image—visual or au ral—during script analysis that determines the subsequent visualizations and sequencing. script Written document that tells what the program is about, who says what, what is supposed to happen, and what and how the audience should see and hear the event.
sequencing The control and structuring of a shot series during editing. show format Lists the show segments in order of appearance. Used in routine shows, such as daily game or interview shows. storyboard A series of sketches of the key visualization points of an event, with the corresponding audio information. visualization Mentally converting a scene into a number of key television images, not necessarily in sequence. The mental image of a shot.
semiscripted format Partial script that indicates major video cues in the left (video) column and partial dialogue and major audio cues in the right (audio) column. Used to describe a show for which the dialogue is indicated but not completely written out.
413
18.1
THE DIRECTOR'S ROLES T h e v a r i o u s roles y o u m u s t a s s u m e as a d i r e c t o r are n o t as clear-cut as y o u will see t h e m d e s c r i b e d in this section. T h e y frequently overlap, a n d y o u m a y have to switch from o n e t o a n o t h e r several t i m e s just in t h e first five m i n u t e s of rehearsal. Even w h e n pressed for t i m e a n d p r e s s u r e d b y
How a Director Prepares
people with a variety of p r o b l e m s , always pay full a t t e n t i o n t o t h e task at h a n d before m o v i n g o n to t h e next o n e .
DIRECTOR AS ARTIST In t h e role of a n artist, a director is expected to p r o d u c e pictures a n d s o u n d t h a t n o t only convey t h e i n t e n d e d m e s sage clearly a n d effectively b u t w h i c h d o so w i t h flair. You n e e d t o k n o w h o w to l o o k at a n event o r a script, quickly recognize its essential quality, a n d select a n d o r d e r t h o s e e l e m e n t s t h a t h e l p i n t e r p r e t it for a specific a u d i e n c e . Flair a n d style enter w h e n y o u d o all these things with a personal t o u c h — w h e n , for e x a m p l e , y o u s h o o t a certain scene very tightly to h e i g h t e n its e n e r g y o r w h e n y o u select u n u s u a l b a c k g r o u n d m u s i c t h a t h e l p s c o n v e y a specific m o o d . But u n l i k e t h e painter, w h o can wait for i n s p i r a t i o n a n d
As a television director, y o u are expected to b e a n artist
can r e t o u c h t h e p a i n t i n g over a n d over u n t i l it is finally
w h o c a n translate ideas i n t o effective p i c t u r e s a n d s o u n d s ,
right, t h e television d i r e c t o r is expected to b e creative b y
a p s y c h o l o g i s t w h o c a n e n c o u r a g e p e o p l e to give t h e i r
a specific clock t i m e a n d to m a k e the r i g h t decisions t h e
best, a technical adviser w h o can solve p r o b l e m s t h e crew
first t i m e a r o u n d .
w o u l d rather give u p o n , a n d a c o o r d i n a t o r a n d stickler for detail w h o leaves n o t h i n g u n c h e c k e d . N o t a n easy j o b by a n y m e a n s ! A l t h o u g h s o m e d i r e c t o r s t h i n k t h a t t h e i r profession requires a divine gift, m o s t g o o d directors ac q u i r e d a n d h o n e d t h e i r skills t h r o u g h p a i n s t a k i n g s t u d y a n d practice. ^
DIRECTOR AS PSYCHOLOGIST Because y o u m u s t deal w i t h a variety of p e o p l e w h o a p p r o a c h television p r o d u c t i o n f r o m different perspectives, y o u n e e d to also a s s u m e t h e role of p s y c h o l o g i s t . For e x a m p l e , in a single p r o d u c t i o n y o u m a y have to c o m
THE DIRECTOR'S ROLES
municate with a producer w h o worries about the budget,
Artist, psychologist, technical adviser, and coordinator
technicians w h o are p r i m a r i l y c o n c e r n e d with t h e t e c h n i cal quality of pictures a n d s o u n d , t e m p e r a m e n t a l talent, a
^
^
PREPRODUCTION ACTIVITIES
designer w h o h a s strong ideas a b o u t the set, a n d the m o t h e r
Process message, production method, production team and communication, scheduling, script formats, script marking, floor plan and location sketch, and facilities request
of a child actor, w h o t h i n k s y o u r close-ups of her d a u g h t e r are n o t tight e n o u g h . N o t o n l y m u s t y o u get e v e r y o n e t o p e r f o r m at a
SUPPORT STAFF
consistently h i g h level, y o u also have to get t h e m to w o r k
Floor manager, associate (or assistant) director, and production assistant
t e a m of s u c h diverse individuals, the following are s o m e
as a t e a m . A l t h o u g h t h e r e is n o f o r m u l a for directing a basic guidelines t h a t will help y o u exercise t h e necessary leadership. Be well p r e p a r e d a n d k n o w w h a t y o u w a n t t o a c c o m plish. You c a n n o t possibly get people to w o r k for a c o m m o n goal if y o u d o n o t k n o w w h a t it is.
414
Section
18.1
Know the specific functions of each team member. Explain to all the individuals what you want them to do before holding them accountable for their work. Be precise about what you want the talent to do. Do not be vague with your instructions or intimidated by a celebrity. The more professional the talent, the more readily they will follow your direction. Project a secure attitude. Be firm but not harsh when giving instructions. Listen to recommendations from other production staff but do not yield your decision making to them. Do not ridicule someone for making a mistake. Point out the problems and suggest solutions. Keep the overall goal in mind. Treat the talent and all members of the production team with respect and compassion. DIRECTOR AS TECHNICAL ADVISER Although you do not have to be an expert in operating the technical equipment, as a director you should still be able to give the crew helpful instructions on how to use it to achieve your communication goal. In the role of technical adviser, you are acting much like a conductor of a sym phony orchestra. The conductor may not be able to play all the instruments in the orchestra, but he or she certainly knows the sounds the various instruments can generate and how they ought to be played to produce good music. The preceding chapters were designed to give you a satisfactory background in technical production.
DIRECTOR AS COORDINATOR In addition to your artistic, psychological, and technical skills, you must be able to coordinate a great many pro duction details and processes. The role of coordinator goes beyond directing in the traditional sense, which generally means blocking the talent and helping them give peak per formances. Especially when directing nondramatic shows, you must expend most of your effort on cueing members of the production team (both technical and nontechnical) to initiate certain video and audio functions, such as getting appropriate camera shots, rolling VTRs, riding audio levels, switching among cameras and special effects, retrieving electronically generated graphics, and switching to remote feeds. You still need to pay attention to the talent, who sometimes (and rightly so) feel that they play second fiddle
How
a Director
Prepares
415
to the television machine. You also need to coordinate pro ductions within a rigid time frame in which every second has a hefty price tag attached. Such coordinating requires practice, and you should not expect to be a competent director immediately after reading this chapter.
PREPRODUCTION ACTIVITIES As with producing, the more effort you expend on prepro duction planning, the easier, more efficient, and especially more reliable your directing will be in the actual produc tion phase. Specifically, you need to focus on the following major preproduction points and activities: (1) process message, (2) production method, (3) production team and communication, (4) scheduling, (5) script formats, (6) script marking, (7) floor plan and location sketch, and (8) facilities request.
PROCESS MESSAGE Before you do anything, revisit the process message—the purpose of the show and its intended effect on a specific audience (see chapter 17). If you are not quite sure what the show is to accomplish, check with the producer. Only then can you make all other personnel understand what the show is about and the expected outcome of the production. An early agreement between producer and director about specific communication goals and production type and scope can prevent many frustrating arguments and costly mistakes. Keep the producer apprised of your plans, even if you have been given responsibility for all creative deci sions. Keep a record of telephone calls, save your e-mail, and follow up on major verbal decisions with memoranda.
PRODUCTION METHOD If you thoroughly understand the process message, the most appropriate production method becomes clear—that is, whether the show is best done in the studio or in the field, live or on videotape, single-camera or multicamera, and in sequential or nonsequential event order. If, for example, the process message is to help the viewer participate in the excitement of watching a Thanksgiving Day parade, you need to do a live, multicamera remote in the field. A traffic safety segment on observing stop signs may require a single-camera approach and plenty of postproduction time. To help the audience gain a deeper insight into the thinking and the work habits of a famous painter, you might observe the painter in her studio over
416
Chapter 18
THE DIRECTOR IN PREPRODUCTION
several days w i t h a small, single c a m c o r d e r a n d t h e n edit
a n d w h e n an a s s i g n m e n t s h o u l d be d o n e . Using s c h e d u l
the v i d e o t a p e d m a t e r i a l in p o s t p r o d u c t i o n . If t h e viewer is
ing software c a n m a k e it relatively easy to cross-check t h e
to s h a r e the e x c i t e m e n t of t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s in a n e w g a m e
activities of t h e v a r i o u s t e a m m e m b e r s . E H E ^ P R O C E S S ^
s h o w a n d is e n c o u r a g e d to call in while t h e g a m e is in
Phases-* preproduction | production
progress, t h e s h o w m u s t obviously be a live, m u l t i c a m e r a studio production.
PRODUCTION TEAM AND COMMUNICATION T h e p r o d u c e r is generally responsible for identifying a n d organizing the nontechnical a n d technical p r o d u c t i o n t e a m s . If y o u are a staff director in a station o r large p r o d u c t i o n c o m p a n y , t h e p r o d u c t i o n t e a m s are assigned to y o u a c c o r d i n g to s c h e d u l i n g c o n v e n i e n c e r a t h e r t h a n t h e individual skills of the t e a m m e m b e r s . If, however, y o u c a n select y o u r t e a m , y o u obviously pick t h o s e people w h o c a n d o t h e best j o b for t h e specific p r o d u c t i o n at h a n d . N o t e that o n e floor m a n a g e r m a y b e excellent in t h e s t u d i o b u t
SCRIPT FORMATS Your m o s t i m p o r t a n t p r e p r o d u c t i o n e l e m e n t is t h e script. A g o o d script tells y o u w h a t t h e p r o g r a m is a b o u t , w h o is in it, w h a t each p e r s o n says, w h a t is s u p p o s e d t o h a p p e n , a n d h o w t h e a u d i e n c e s h o u l d see a n d h e a r t h e event. It also gives y o u specific clues as t o t h e necessary p r e p r o d u c t i o n , p r o d u c t i o n , a n d p o s t p r o d u c t i o n activities. Even if y o u are n o t a writer, y o u n e e d to b e t h o r o u g h l y familiar w i t h t h e v a r i o u s s c r i p t f o r m a t s : (1) t h e fully s c r i p t e d f o r m a t , or c o m p l e t e script; (2) t h e s e m i s c r i p t e d f o r m a t , or p a r t i a l script; (3) t h e s h o w format; a n d (4) t h e fact, o r r u n d o w n , sheet.
n o t in the field, or that a s u p e r b E N G / E F P c a m e r a o p e r a t o r m a y p e r f o r m q u i t e p o o r l y w h e n asked t o h a n d l e a heavier
Fully scripted f o r m a t — t h e c o m p l e t e script
s t u d i o c a m e r a . C h e c k w i t h the p r o d u c e r o n all y o u r deci
fully scripted formatis
sions a n d get his or h e r a p p r o v a l for y o u r choices. D o n ' t
w o r d t h a t is to b e s p o k e n d u r i n g a s h o w as well as basic
The
a complete script that includes every
leave a n y t h i n g to c h a n c e a n d d o n ' t a s s u m e that s o m e o n e
audio and video instructions. Dramatic shows, comedy
else will take care of a p r o d u c t i o n detail. T h e p r o d u c e r
skits, s o a p o p e r a s , n e w s s h o w s , a n d m o s t m a j o r c o m m e r
s h o u l d b e in c o n s t a n t c o n t a c t w i t h y o u d u r i n g t h e entire
cials use t h e fully scripted f o r m a t , SEE is.i
p r e p r o d u c t i o n p h a s e . If y o u t h i n k t h e p r o d u c e r s h o u l d
T h e r e are advantages a n d disadvantages to directing a
have c o n t a c t e d you, d o n ' t just sit back a n d c o m p l a i n — p i c k
fully scripted show. You have t h e a d v a n t a g e of visualizing
u p t h e p h o n e a n d call h i m or her.
the individual shots a n d sequencing t h e m before going into
O n c e y o u k n o w y o u r t e a m , establish p r o c e d u r e s to
rehearsal. You also have definite cue lines a n d i n s t r u c t i o n s
facilitate y o u r s u p e r v i s i o n of t h e p r e p r o d u c t i o n activities.
for w h a t shots the c a m e r a s are to get. But these cue lines are
For e x a m p l e , have t h e a r t d i r e c t o r call o r e-mail y o u w h e n
also a p o t e n t i a l liability. If t h e actor or p e r f o r m e r forgets
t h e tentative floor p l a n is ready; r e q u e s t t h a t t h e t a l e n t
t h e exact text a n d begins to ad-lib, y o u r s h o o t i n g p r o c e d u r e
notify y o u w h e n t h e y receive t h e script. Brief p r o d u c t i o n
m a y b e seriously affected. As y o u will see w h e n directing a
m e e t i n g s p r o m o t e efficient c o m m u n i c a t i o n a m o n g key
m u l t i c a m e r a show, t h e last few w o r d s of a n actor's speech
t e a m m e m b e r s , a s s u m i n g you have invited t h e m a n d t h e y
m a y trigger a n u m b e r of technical o p e r a t i o n s ; a n d if these
are all in a t t e n d a n c e .
i m p o r t a n t w o r d s aren't u t t e r e d , y o u m u s t stop down
(in
W h e n working w i t h freelancers, y o u n e e d to k n o w h o w
t e r r u p t t h e v i d e o t a p i n g ) a n d retake t h e scene. Also, a fully
to reach t h e m a n d t h e y n e e d to k n o w h o w best t o c o n t a c t
scripted s h o w has little flexibility in adjusting its overall
you. Give all t e a m m e m b e r s a p r i n t o u t of y o u r p r o d u c t i o n
running time.
p e r s o n n e l d a t a b a s e (see figure 17.5) a n d keep all c o n t a c t
N e w s c a s t s are always fully s c r i p t e d ,
SEE 18.2
They
i n f o r m a t i o n close at h a n d . It is often quicker t o locate a
i n c l u d e every w o r d t h e news a n c h o r s speak a n d i n s t r u c
t e l e p h o n e n u m b e r in a regular card file t h a n to fire u p a
t i o n s for w h a t visuals or events t h e d i r e c t o r m u s t call u p
c o m p u t e r . E J J J ^ P R O C E S S - * People-* nontechnical
at a p a r t i c u l a r t i m e . As a d i r e c t o r y o u have little r o o m for creativity; y o u follow t h e script a n d call u p t h e v a r i o u s
SCHEDULING
v i d e o a n d a u d i o s e g m e n t s in t h e right o r d e r at t h e right
P r e p a r e a detailed s c h e d u l e for p r e p r o d u c t i o n activities
t i m e . As y o u recall, t h e c o m p u t e r c o n n e c t e d to t h e r o b o t i c
t h a t is based o n t h e p r o d u c e r ' s p r o d u c t i o n schedule. T h i s
c a m e r a pedestals, m o u n t i n g h e a d s , a n d z o o m lenses se
will h e l p y o u k e e p t r a c k of w h o is s u p p o s e d to d o w h a t ,
lects a n d executes c a m e r a shots. T h e c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m
Section
78.7
How
a Director
Prepares
SCENE 6 A FEW DAYS LATER. INTERIOR. CITY HOSPITAL EMERGENCY WAITING ROOM. LATE EVENING. YOLANDA i s anxiously PACING back and forth in the
hospital
hallway in front of the emergency room. She has come straight from her job to the h o s p i t a l . We see the t y p i c a l
hospital
t r a f f i c in an emergency room. A DOCTOR (friend of CHUCK'S) PUSHES CARRIE in a wheelchair down the hall toward YOLANDA.
CARRIE (in wheelchair, but rather Hi,
cheerful)
Mom! YOLANDA (anxious and worried)
C a r r i e - a r e you a l l
right? What happened? CARRIE
I'm OK. I j u s t
siipped. DOCTOR (simultaneously)
She
has a sprained right w r i s t .
Nothing serious . . .
CARRIE Why
i s everybody making such a big deal out of
it?
YOLANDA ( c u t t i n g into both CARRIE'S and DOCTOR'S l i n e s ) Does i t
18.1
hurt? Did you break your arm?
DRAMA SCRIPT
The fully scripted format, or complete script, contains every word of the dialogue and descriptions of primary character action. It gives minimal visualization and sequencing instructions.
417
Chapter
18
THE DIRECTOR
PREPRODUCTION
Noon News 04/15
Hunter's Point Package Studio: KRISTI
IN
((Kristi)) A LANDLORD IN HUNTER'S POINT IS UNDER FIRE FOR DANGEROUS LIVING CONDITIONS IN HIS BUILDINGS. RESIDENTS COMPLAIN OF RASHES . . . HEADACHES AND NOSEBLEEDS. MARTY GONZALES ASKED SEVERAL TENANTS WHO SAY THAT ALL OF THIS IS DUE TO TOXIC MOLD
Package 1
((In-cue: "There is no o f f i c i a l
Video and Audio
that these buildings are infested with toxic
Server 03
mold, but i t sure looks like i t
File 023
PACKAGE ((Out-cue:
confirmation . . . ))
0:42 ". . . I wish somebody would
do something about i t . " ) ) Studio: KRISTI
((Kristi)) THE
LANDLORD DENIES THESE CHARGES AND SAYS
IT MUST BE THE FOGGY WEATHER. WE'LL TALK TO THE
LANDLORD AND HEALTH OFFICIALS RIGHT
AFTER THESE MESSAGES.
Server 03 File 112
BUMPER
F i l e 005
COMMERCIAL (California Cheese)
F i l e 007
COMMERCIAL (Winston Enterprises)
J 18.2
NEWS SCRIPT
The news script contains every word spoken by the anchorperson (Kristi), except for the occasional chitchat, and instructions for all major video sources used. A "package" is a previously shot and edited story that contains an on-location reporter and the people interviewed.
Section
18.1
How
could just as easily take over t h e news d i r e c t i n g — o r r a t h e r c o o r d i n a t i n g — f u n c t i o n by following and executing the v a r i o u s cues of a fully scripted n e w s r o u t i n e . Indeed, there are highly effective c o m p u t e r i z e d news systems in w h i c h t h e director does n o t direct from a control r o o m b u t merely calls u p a c o m p l e x c o m p u t e r display a n d m a n i p u l a t e s t h e various video a n d a u d i o segments via the keyboard a n d the m o u s e . But t h e c o m p u t e r c a n n o t react creatively w h e n a script m u s t be changed because of a breaking story or w h e n s o m e t h i n g goes w r o n g , s u c h as t h e p r o m p t i n g system's breaking d o w n o r t h e a n c h o r ' s forgetting an i m p o r t a n t cue line. D o c u m e n t a r i e s or d o c u m e n t a r y - t y p e shows are often fully scripted. Because a d o c u m e n t a r y is intended to record a n event rather t h a n reconstruct o n e , scripts are frequently w r i t t e n after t h e field p r o d u c t i o n . D o c u m e n t a r y scripts therefore guide t h e p o s t p r o d u c t i o n p h a s e r a t h e r t h a n t h e actual p r o d u c t i o n . T h e script will t h e n i n d i c a t e w h i c h v i d e o or s o u n d bites to use, or it will dictate t h e voice-over segments by the off-camera narrator. T h e m a j o r v i d e o a n d a c t i o n cues are usually listed in t h e video c o l u m n , a n d all s p o k e n w o r d s a n d s o u n d effects are listed in t h e a u d i o col u m n , SEE 18.3 Writing a detailed script before gathering the source tapes m a k e s n o sense. Instead of d o c u m e n t i n g an event, y o u w o u l d merely be looking for o n e o r creating o n e t h a t fits y o u r prejudices. »-A ig»PRC)CESSH> Ideas-* scripts
a Director
Prepares
419
Fact, o r r u n d o w n , s h e e t A factsheet, or rundown sheet, lists the items t h a t are to b e s h o w n o n - c a m e r a and indicates r o u g h l y w h a t s h o u l d be said, SEE 18.6 N O specific video o r a u d i o i n s t r u c t i o n s are given. T h e fact sheet is usually supplied by a m a n u f a c t u r e r or an advertiser w h o w a n t s a p a r t i c u l a r p e r f o r m e r to ad-lib a b o u t a p a r t i c u l a r item. If t h e d e m o n s t r a t i o n of t h e i t e m is s o m e w h a t c o m p l i cated, t h e director m a y rewrite t h e fact sheet and indicate key c a m e r a shots to help c o o r d i n a t e t h e talent's a n d t h e director's actions. Unless t h e d e m o n s t r a t i o n is extremely simple, such as h o l d i n g u p a b o o k by a f a m o u s novelist, d i r e c t i n g solely from a fact sheet is n o t r e c o m m e n d e d . A d - l i b b i n g by b o t h director and talent rarely w o r k s o u t satisfactorily, even if t h e v i d e o t a p i n g is i n t e n d e d for postp r o d u c t i o n editing. T h e r e is software t h a t will h e l p you f o r m a t a script o r c h a n g e quickly a n d effortlessly from o n e format to an other. S o m e of t h e m o r e sophisticated p r o g r a m s can also r e f o r m a t a script t h a t was originally created by a s t a n d a r d word-processing program.
In a semiscripted format, it is i m p o r t a n t to indicate specific cue lines t h a t tell t h e director w h e n to roll a v i d e o tape, key a C.G. title, o r b r e a k t h e c a m e r a s to a n o t h e r set area, SEE 18.4
SCRIPT MARKING P r o p e r m a r k i n g of a script will aid you greatly in m u l t i c a m e r a directing from t h e c o n t r o l r o o m o r o n location. In control r o o m directing, you n e e d to c o o r d i n a t e m a n y people a n d m a c h i n e s w i t h i n a c o n t i n u o u s t i m e frame. T h e m a r k e d script becomes a road m a p that guides you t h r o u g h t h e intricacies of a p r o d u c t i o n . A l t h o u g h there is no single correct way of m a r k i n g a script, certain c o n v e n t i o n s a n d s t a n d a r d s have b e e n developed. Obviously, a fully scripted s h o w requires m o r e a n d m o r e - p r e c i s e cueing t h a n does an interview t h a t is directed from a s h o w f o r m a t . Live or live-on-tape p r o d u c t i o n s directed from t h e control r o o m in a c o n t i n u o u s t i m e frame n e e d m o r e - e l a b o r a t e script m a r k i n g s t h a n d o scripts used in d i s c o n t i n u o u s s t u d i o o r field p r o d u c t i o n s , w h e r e you stop and reset b e t w e e n takes o r small series of takes. But even in d i s c o n t i n u o u s singlec a m e r a p r o d u c t i o n s , a w e l l - m a r k e d script will help you r e m e m b e r v a r i o u s c a m e r a a n d talent positions a n d m a k e y o u r directing m o r e exacting.
T h e show format lists only the o r d e r of p a r t i c u l a r s h o w s e g m e n t s , such as "interview from W a s h ington," " c o m m e r c i a l 2," o r " b o o k review." It also lists t h e m a j o r set areas in which t h e action takes place, or o t h e r p o i n t s of origination, as well as m a j o r clock a n d r u n n i n g t i m e s for t h e s e g m e n t s . A s h o w f o r m a t is frequently used in s t u d i o p r o d u c t i o n s t h a t have established p e r f o r m a n c e routines, such as a daily m o r n i n g show, a p a n e l show, or a quiz show, SEE I 8.5
Script m a r k i n g for i n s t a n t a n e o u s e d i t i n g (switch' W h a t e v e r script m a r k i n g y o u m a y choose o r d e velop, it m u s t be clear, readable, a n d , above all, consistent. O n c e y o u arrive at a w o r k i n g system, stick w i t h it. As in musical n o t a t i o n , w h e r e y o u can perceive w h o l e passages w i t h o u t reading each individual n o t e , t h e s c r i p t - m a r k i n g system p e r m i t s y o u to i n t e r p r e t a n d react t o t h e written cues w i t h o u t h a v i n g to consciously read each o n e . T h e following three figures p r o v i d e examples of v a r i o u s kinds
T
T h e semiscripted format indicates only a partial dialogue. In general t h e o p e n i n g a n d closing r e m a r k s are fully scripted, b u t t h e bulk of w h a t people say is only alluded t o , s u c h as: "Dr. H y d e talks a b o u t n e w e d u c a t i o n a l ideas. Dr. Seel replies." This k i n d of script is a l m o s t always used for in terviews, p r o d u c t d e m o n s t r a t i o n s , e d u c a t i o n a l p r o g r a m series, variety shows, a n d o t h e r p r o g r a m types that feature a great a m o u n t of ad-lib c o m m e n t a r y o r discussion.
420
Chapter
18
THE DIRECTOR
IN
PREPRODUCTION
VALLEY PAINTERS Air date: 7/15 4:00 P.M. VIDEO
18.3
AUDIO
VTR montage SOT 00:25
AUDIO-IN: "WHEN YOU DRIVE THROUGH THIS VALLEY JUST NORTH OF SAN FRANCISCO . . . " OUT: " . . . GROUP FIVE-A REMARKABLE OF FIVE WORLD-RENOWNED ARTISTS.
Julia in Woodacre studio
JULIA:
VTR 02 (Valley shots) 00:15 VO Julia
They moved there to get away from city life . . . to trade the city's nervousness for the calm of rolling h i l l s , ancient oaks, and redwoods. An artists' guild was farthest from their minds . . .
CU Tali a Aiona in her studio SOT 02:31
IN: "No, no! No obligation to agents, galleries, groups . . . anybody . . . " OUT: . . . "until I met Phil in the Forest Knolls Post Office . . . sort of 'painter meets Mr. Video.'"
Julia in Woodacre studio
JULIA:
VTR 03 (Footage from Arnone's "city lines" VO Julia 00:08
His world consists not of spectacular vistas but, much like Talia's paintings, of high-energy, close-up details.
VTR 04 Arnone in editing room SOT 03:26
IN: "Yes, I am a child when it comes to looking at things, at events happening around me . . ." OUT: . . . "Talia and I are definitely soul brother and sister."
The founding members of Group 5 . . . a painter, a singer, a potter, a documentary video maker, and a poet . . . all celebrated artists, did not really know each other . . . and certainly not that they all lived in the San Geronimo Valley.
The Mr. Video was Phil Arnone, an award-winning video artist who sees the world with a child's curiosity and intensity.
FULLY SCRIPTED DOCUMENTARY
In this script the video information and the audio information are in two columns. The video is usually page-left, and the audio is page-right.
Section
18.1
How
VIDEO
a Director
Prepares
421
AUDIO KATY:
CU of Katy
Cut to CU of Dr. Hough
Cut to two-shot
But the debate about forest fires is s t i l l going on. If we let the f i r e burn itself out, we lose valuable timber and kill countless animals, not to speak of the danger to property and the people who live there. Where do you stand, Dr. Hough? DR. HOUGH: (SAYS THAT THIS IS QUITE TRUE BUT THAT THE ANIMALS USUALLY GET OUT UNHARMED AND THAT THE BURNED UNDERBRUSH STIMULATES NEW GROWTH.) KATY: Couldn't this be done through controlled burning? DR. HOUGH: (SAYS YES BUT THAT IT WOULD COST TOO MUCH AND THAT THERE WOULD STILL BE FOREST FIRES TO CONTEND WITH.)
18.4
SEMISCRIPTED FORMAT, OR PARTIAL SCRIPT
This script shows the video information in the left (video) column but only partial dialogue in the right (audio) column. The host's questions are usually fully scripted, but the answers are only briefly described.
Take a look at the m a r k i n g s
is little w r i t i n g . You are able to grasp all t h e cues quickly
i n figure 18.7 a n d c o m p a r e t h e m w i t h t h o s e in figures 18.8
of script m a r k i n g ,
w i t h o u t actually r e a d i n g each w o r d . As y o u can see, t h e
SEE I 8 . 7 - 1 8 . 9
a n d 18.9. W h i c h script s e e m s cleaner a n d m o r e readable
cues in figure 18.8 p r o v i d e t h e s a m e i n f o r m a t i o n as those
t o you?
in figure 18.7, b u t t h e y allow y o u t o keep track of t h e n a r
T h e script in figure 18.7 shows i n f o r m a t i o n t h a t is
r a t i o n , l o o k a h e a d at u p c o m i n g cues, a n d especially w a t c h
m o r e confusing t h a n helpful. By the t i m e you've read all the
t h e a c t i o n o n t h e preview m o n i t o r s . Let us n o w highlight
cue i n s t r u c t i o n s , y o u will certainly have m i s s e d p a r t o r all
s o m e of qualities of a w e l l - m a r k e d script f r o m a director's
of the action a n d p e r h a p s even half of the talent's lines. You
p o i n t of view (refer to figure 18.8).
d o n o t have to m a r k all s t a n d - b y cues or any o t h e r o b v i o u s
All a c t i o n cues are placed before the desired action.
cues t h a t are already i m p l i e d . For e x a m p l e , "ready" cues are always given before a c u e , so t h e y n e e d n o t b e p a r t of
I
y o u r script m a r k i n g s .
t h e video c o l u m n (page-left), or t h e audio cues in the audio
If t h e s h o t s o r c a m e r a actions are clearly d e s c r i b e d in
In contrast, t h e m a r k i n g s in figures 18.8 a n d 18.9 are
c o l u m n (page-right), simply u n d e r l i n e or circle the p r i n t e d
clean a n d simple. T h e y are kept to a m i n i m u m , a n d t h e r e
i n s t r u c t i o n s . This keeps t h e script clean a n d u n c l u t t e r e d .
422
Chapter
18
THE DIRECTOR
PEOPLE, PLACES, POLITICS SHOW FORMAT VTR DATE: 2/3 AIR DATE: 2/17 DIRECTOR: Whitney
IN
PREPRODUCTION
(Script attached)
FACILITIES REQUEST: BECA 415 RUNNING TIME: 25:30 HOST: Kipper OPEN
VIDEO
AUDIO
STANDARD OPENING/VTR SOT EFFECTS #117 ANNOUNCER: The Television Center of the Broadcast and Electronic Communication Arts Department, San Francisco State University, presents "People, Places, Politics" --a new perspective on global events. KEY C.G. TOPIC TITLE Today's topic i s : VTR #:
PSAs 1
OPENING STUDIO SHOT
PHIL INTRODUCES GUESTS
KEY C.G.
NAMES OF GUESTS
CUs OF GUESTS
GUESTS DISCUSS TOPICS
CU OF Phil
CLOSES SHOW
VTR #:
PSAs 3 & 4 CLOSE
KEY C.G. ADDRESS
KEY C.G. NEXT WEEK
ANNOUNCER: To obtain a copy of today's program, write to "People, Places, P o l i t i c s , BECA Dept., San Francisco State University, San Francisco, CA 94132 E-mail:
[email protected]
1
Tune in next week when we present: "Television and Democracy." THEME MUSIC UP AND OUT
1 8 . 5 SHOW FORMAT The show format contains only essential video information in the left (video) column and the standard opening and closing announcements in the right (audio) column.
Section
18.1
How
a Director
Prepares
423
VIDEO PRO CD-ROM COMMERCIAL SHOW: DATE: PROPS: Desktop computer running Zettl's VideoLab 3.0. Triple-I Web page. Video Pro poster and multimedia awards in background. Video Pro package with disc as hand props.
18.6
1.
New multimedia product by Image, Imagination, Incorporated.
2.
Sensational success. Best Triple-I product yet.
3.
Based on ZVL 2 . 1 , which won several awards for excellence, including the prestigious Invision Gold Medal.
4.
Designed for the production novice and the video professional.
5.
Truly interactive. Provides you with a video studio in your home. Easy to use.
6.
You can proceed at your own speed and test your progress after each exercise.
7.
Will operate on Windows or Macintosh platform.
8.
Special introductory offer. Expires Oct. 20. Hurry. Available in all major software stores. For more information or the dealer nearest you, visit Triple-I's Web page at http://www.iii.tv.
FACT, OR RUNDOWN, SHEET
The fact sheet, or rundown sheet, lists the major points of the product to be demonstrated. No specific video or audio information is given. The talent ad-libs the demonstration, and the director follows the talent's action with the camera.
But if t h e p r i n t e d i n s t r u c t i o n s are h a r d to read, d o n o t
t h e dress rehearsal, however, y o u s h o u l d have m a r k e d t h e
hesitate t o repeat t h e m w i t h y o u r o w n s y m b o l s .
script in b o l d letters. Have t h e A D (assistant, o r associate,
If t h e script d o e s n o t indicate a p a r t i c u l a r t r a n s i t i o n f r o m o n e video s o u r c e to a n o t h e r , it is always a cut. A large
director) a n d t h e floor m a n a g e r c o p y y o u r m a r k i n g s o n t h e i r o w n scripts.
h a n d w r i t t e n 2 n e x t to a cue line m e a n s t h a t t h e u p c o m i n g
M a r k t h e c a m e r a s b y circled n u m b e r s all in o n e row.
t r a n s i t i o n is a cut to c a m e r a 2. It also implies a "ready 2 "
This allows y o u t o see quickly w h i c h c a m e r a n e e d s to be
before t h e "take 2 " call.
readied for t h e n e x t shot.
If t h e s h o w requires rehearsals, d o p r e l i m i n a r y script
In a d d i t i o n to t h e c a m e r a m a r k i n g , n u m b e r e a c h
m a r k i n g in pencil so y o u c a n m a k e q u i c k changes w i t h o u t
s h o t in consecutive order, starting w i t h 1, regardless of t h e
creating a messy o r illegible script. O n c e y o u are ready for
c a m e r a y o u use for t h e shot, S E E I S . I O T h e s e n u m b e r s will
424
Chapter
VIDEO
18
THE DIRECTOR
AUDIO
Effects Wipe to: VTR (SOT) (showing a series of paintings from real ism to expressionism)
AUDIO IN-CUE: "ALL THE PAINTINGS WERE DONE BY ONE ARTIST . . . PICASSO"
OUT-CUE: . . . PHENOMENAL CREATIVE FORCE" 11
MS Barbara by the easel
CU of painting Key effects
IN-CUE: "DISTORTION MEANS POWER. THIS COULD HAVE BEEN PICASSO'S FORMULA . . . " OUT-CUE: " . . . EXPRESSIVE POWER THROUGH DISTORTION IN HIS LATER PAINTINGS." But the formula "distortion means power" does not always apply. Here again it seems to weaken the event. Take a look at . . .
1 8 . 7 BAD SCRIPT MARKING This script is marked with too much unnecessary information that makes it hard to read.
IN
PREPRODUCTION
Section
18.1
How
a Director
AUDIO
VIDEO
WW Wipe to: VTR (SOT)
AUDIO IN-CUE: "ALL THE PAINTINGS
(showing a series
WERE DONE BY ONE ARTIST . . .
of paintings from
PICASSO"
reali sm
to
expressionism) OUT-CUE: " . . .
PHENOMENAL
j CREATIVE FORCE" MS Barbara by
But
the easel
bad days and painted some bad pictures.
even Picasso must have had some
Take a look. The woman's hands are obviously not right. Did Picasso deliberately
distort the hands to make
a point? I don't think/so. CU of
Look at the outline. He obviously
pai nti ng
struggled.
The line is unsure, and
he painted this section over at least Key
effects
three times. Because the rest of the painting is so r e a l i s t i c a l l y done, the distorted hands seem out of place. This i s quite different from his
later
period, when he distorted images to intensify/the event. VTR SOT
IN-CUE: "DISTORTION MEANS POWER. THIS COULD HAVE BEEN PICASSO'S FORMULA
. . . "
OUT-CUE: " . . .
EXPRESSIVE POWER
THROUGH DISTORTION IN HIS LATER / PAINTINGS." CU Barbara
But
the formula "distortion means
power" does not always apply. Here again i t
seems to weaken the event.
Take a look at . . .
18.8
GOOD SCRIPT MARKING
This script is clearly marked and can be easily read by the director.
Prepares
425
426
Chapter
THE
18
DIRECTOR
IN
PREPRODUCTION
SCENE 6 A FEW DAYS L A T E R .
INTERIOR. CITY HOSPITAL
EMERGENCY WAITING ROOM. L A T E
EVENING.
t (YOLANDA)is anxiouslyQPACING^back and f o r t h in the hospital
h a l l w a y i n f r o n t of the emergency room. She has
come s t r a i g h t typical
from her j o b t o the h o s p i t a l . We see the
hospital
traffi
an emergency room. ACJOCTOR^)
( f r i e n d of C H U C K ' S ) ( p U S H E J X C A R R I p i n a w h e e l c h a i r down the h a l l
toward YOLANDA. CARRIE ( i n w h e e l c h a i r , but r a t h e r
cheerful)
H i , /Mom!
YOLANDA
(anxious and w o r r i e d ) C a r r i e - a r e you a l l
r i g h t ? What /happened?
CARRIE I'm O K .
I just
siipped. DOCTOR ( s i m u l t a n e o u s l y )
She
has a s p r a i n e d r i g h t w r i s t .
Nothing/serious
. . .
CARRIE Why
i s everybody making such a big deal o u t / o f i t ?
YOLANDA (cutting Does i t
18.9
i n t o both CARRIE'S and DOCTOR'S l i n e s )
h u r t ? Did you break your/arm?
DRAMA SCRIPT MARKING
This multicamera dramatic script marking shows the cameras used, the shot number, the type of shot, and the major actions. Note the blocking sketch at the beginning of this scene.
Section
18.1
How
a Director
427
Prepares
visualizations ( c a m e r a p o i n t of view, field of view). You t h e n n u m b e r t h e scenes in t h e p r o p o s e d p r o d u c t i o n se q u e n c e , e n d i n g u p w i t h a list of scenes t h a t refers to the original script by page n u m b e r . H e r e is an e x a m p l e : LOCATION
Restaurant
SCENE
SCRIPT PAGES
2
28-32
3
37-49
Restaurant
6
61-72
entrance
14
102-110
In t h e script itself, y o u are free to use w h a t e v e r m a r k ings y o u prefer. W h e n v i d e o t a p i n g d i s c o n t i n u o u s takes for p o s t p r o d u c t i o n , y o u o b v i o u s l y have m o r e t i m e to consult t h e script t h a n d u r i n g a live or l i v e - o n - t a p e m u l t i c a m e r a p r o d u c t i o n . For d i s c o n t i n u o u s t a p i n g it m a y help t o m a r k t h e talent m o v e m e n t s o n t h e script as well as d r a w next to t h e dialogue small s t o r y b o a r d sketches t h a t s h o w u n u s u a l s h o t framings. Such sketches assist in recalling w h a t y o u h a d in m i n d w h e n p r e p a r i n g t h e script. M a n y film direc t o r s s t o r y b o a r d every s h o t of t h e entire m o v i e before ever s h o o t i n g a single frame of film. O n c e again, a variety of software packages will assist y o u in p r o d u c i n g storyboards. S o m e of these p r o g r a m s c o n t a i n s t a n d a r d s h o t s of streets, interiors, a n d so forth in w h i c h you can paste the characters
1 8 . 1 0 SHOT SHEET Each camera has its own shot sheet, indicating the location of the scene, the shot number, the type of shot, and the subject or person(s) to be in it.
a n d t h e n m o v e t h e m a r o u n d until they are in t h e desired positions.
FLOOR PLAN A N D LOCATION SKETCH Unless y o u direct a r o u t i n e s t u d i o p r o d u c t i o n t h a t o c c u r s n o t only help y o u ready t h e v a r i o u s shots for each c a m e r a
o n t h e s a m e set, s u c h as a news, interview, or g a m e show,
b u t also m a k e it easy to delete a s h o t d u r i n g rehearsal. All
y o u n e e d a floor p l a n for p r e p r o d u c t i o n . As explained in
y o u n e e d to d o is say, "delete s h o t 89," a n d c a m e r a 2 will
c h a p t e r 15, the floor plan shows t h e location of the scenery
skip t h e s h o t t h a t shows Yolanda p a c i n g b a c k a n d forth
a n d t h e set p r o p e r t i e s relative to a grid p a t t e r n a n d t h e available action areas. Like t h e script, t h e floor p l a n helps
(see figure 18.9). You m a y w a n t to devise a s y m b o l that signifies action, s u c h as s o m e o n e c o m i n g t h r o u g h t h e d o o r , walking over t o t h e m a p , sitting d o w n , o r getting u p . In figure 18.9 this cue is a h a n d w r i t t e n a r r o w (<»).
y o u visualize v a r i o u s shots a n d translate t h e m into m a j o r c a m e r a p o s i t i o n s a n d c a m e r a traffic p a t t e r n s . It also influ ences, a n d s o m e t i m e s dictates, h o w y o u block the talent. W i t h s o m e practice y o u can d o a l m o s t all t h e talent b l o c k i n g a n d c a m e r a p o s i t i o n i n g s i m p l y by l o o k i n g at the
If there are several moves b y the talent, d r a w little m a p s
floor p l a n . You will also b e able to s p o t potential blocking,
of these m o v e s (see figure 18.9). Such b l o c k i n g sketches
lighting, a u d i o , a n d c a m e r a p r o b l e m s . For e x a m p l e , if "ac
are usually m o r e helpful t o recall talent m o v e s , c a m e r a
tive" f u r n i t u r e (that w h i c h is used by talent) is t o o close
p o s i t i o n s , a n d traffic t h a n are s t o r y b o a r d sketches of shot
t o t h e scenery, y o u will have p r o b l e m s with back lighting. O r if t h e r e is a r u g o n t h e floor, a c a m e r a m a y n o t b e able
compositions.
t o dolly all t h e way i n t o t h e set. ( I n t e r p r e t i n g a floor p l a n
Script marking for postproduction editing
The
t o visualize shots a n d s p o t potential p r o b l e m s is discussed
m a r k i n g of t h e script for d i s c o n t i n u o u s takes consists of
in section 18.2.)
a careful b r e a k d o w n a n d i n d i c a t i o n of t h e v a r i o u s scenes,
ENG
W h e n the p r o d u c t i o n takes place in the field, you
t h e i r locations ( r e s t a u r a n t , front e n t r a n c e ) , a n d p r i n c i p a l
EFP
n e e d a n a c c u r a t e location sketch, w h i c h represents a
428
"field
Chapter
floor
THE DIRECTOR
18
p l a n " s h o w i n g the m a j o r e l e m e n t s of t h e
pro
IN
PREPRODUCTION
FACILITIES REQUEST
d u c t i o n e n v i r o n m e n t . For e x a m p l e , if t h e s i n g l e - c a m e r a
The facilities
p r o d u c t i o n takes place inside a p a i n t e r ' s studio, y o u n e e d
b u t b y s o m e o t h e r m e m b e r of t h e p r o d u c t i o n t e a m ( p r o
to k n o w t h e location of t h e d o o r , tables, easels, cabinets,
ducer, AD, or technical director). If s o m e o n e else originates
a n d , especially, the w i n d o w s , SEE 1 8 . I I If t h e event h a p
the facilities request, y o u n e e d t o e x a m i n e it carefully to see
p e n s o u t d o o r s , t h e l o c a t i o n sketch s h o u l d s h o w t h e street,
t h a t t h e e q u i p m e n t r e q u e s t e d is sufficient a n d a p p r o p r i a t e
major buildings, driveways, a n d so forth (see figure 18.19).
for t h e p l a n n e d p r o d u c t i o n . For e x a m p l e , a single b o u n d
request is usually n o t p r e p a r e d by t h e director
Even if a field p r o d u c t i o n h a p p e n s in an actual field, m a k e
ary m i c r o p h o n e or t h r e e table m i c s m a y give y o u a m u c h
a sketch so t h a t the crew k n o w s w h i c h field it is a n d h o w
b e t t e r a u d i o p i c k u p d u r i n g a s i x - p e r s o n p a n e l discussion
best t o get t h e r e . 4
t h a n w o u l d six lavalieres. O r y o u m a y prefer two i n d e p e n -
1 8 . 1 1 LOCATION SKETCH: ARTIST'S STUDIO This location sketch of an art ist's studio shows the major dimensions, doors, windows, and furnishings.
Section
18.1
How
a Director
Prepares
429
d e n t c a m c o r d e r s for y o u r EFP p i c k u p rather t h a n a r e m o t e
r u n t h e specific series of c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m s a few times
t r u c k . List all special requests as well, such as a w o r k i n g
t o see h o w it w o r k s . H a r d - t o - o p e n jars o r bottles are a
television receiver in t h e living r o o m set or w o r k i n g p h o n e s
constant challenge to t h e performer. Twist t h e lid of a jar
for actors w h o are talking to each o t h e r in a m u l t i c a m e r a
slightly o r loosen t h e bottle cap so that t h e talent can re
scene. Check beforehand t h a t the requested e q u i p m e n t will
m o v e it w i t h o u t struggling. This small courtesy can prevent
actually be available at t h e scheduled t i m e .
m a n y retakes a n d frayed nerves a n d is usually a quick way
Generally, t h e m o r e t i m e a n d effort y o u d e v o t e to p r e p r o d u c t i o n , t h e less t i m e a n d effort y o u will have to s p e n d d u r i n g t h e p r o d u c t i o n . P r o d u c t i o n efficiency does n o t m e a n to h u r r y t h r o u g h a p r o d u c t i o n regardless of quality; it m e a n s extensive p r e p r o d u c t i o n .
SUPPORT STAFF Your i m m e d i a t e s u p p o r t staff consists of the floor manager, t h e PA ( p r o d u c t i o n assistant), a n d , in larger o p e r a t i o n s , t h e AD.
FLOOR M A N A G E R T h e floor manager is also called t h e floor director, stage m a n a g e r , o r u n i t m a n a g e r , even t h o u g h t h e u n i t m a n a g e r functions m o r e like a p r o d u c t i o n m a n a g e r or line p r o d u c e r w h o takes care of the daily p r o d u c t i o n a n d b u d g e t a r y de tails. As a floor m a n a g e r , y o u r p r i m a r y functions are t o co o r d i n a t e all activities o n t h e "floor" (studio o r o n - l o c a t i o n site) a n d relay t h e cues from t h e director to t h e talent. Before t h e p r o d u c t i o n , as t h e floor m a n a g e r y o u n e e d t o oversee a n d h e l p t h e floor crew set u p scenery, place set a n d h a n d p r o p s , dress t h e set, a n d p u t u p displays. D u r ing rehearsals a n d t h e p r o d u c t i o n , you m u s t c o o r d i n a t e t h e floor crew a n d t h e talent a n d relay the director's talent cues. After t h e p r o d u c t i o n you are responsible for striking t h e set a n d t h e p r o p s or restoring t h e r e m o t e p r o d u c t i o n site to its original c o n d i t i o n . T h e following are s o m e p o i n t s to keep in m i n d w h e n m a n a g i n g t h e floor. Unless you are d o i n g a r o u t i n e s h o w t h a t is p r o d u c e d o n a " p e r m a n e n t " set ( o n e t h a t is n o t s t r u c k after each s h o w ) , y o u n e e d to o b t a i n a detailed floor p l a n a n d p r o p list. C h e c k w i t h t h e art director a n d t h e director a b o u t any specific features or changes. Get a m a r k e d script from t h e director so t h a t you can anticipate talent a n d c a m e r a traffic. Have the director l o o k at t h e set before f i n e - t u n i n g t h e lighting. O n c e t h e lighting is c o m p l e t e , even m i n o r set changes can require major lighting a d j u s t m e n t s . W h e n t h e set is p u t u p a n d dressed, take a digital p h o t o of it. Such a record is m u c h m o r e readily accessible t h a n a v i d e o t a p e . You are responsible for h a v i n g all h a n d p r o p s o n t h e set a n d in o p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n . For example, if t h e s h o w involves a studio d e m o n s t r a t i o n of a n e w laptop c o m p u t e r ,
of establishing t r u s t b e t w e e n you a n d t h e talent. Check that t h e teleprompter works a n d that the correct copy is displayed. If y o u use an o n - c a m e r a slate in t h e field, have it ready a n d filled o u t w i t h t h e essential i n f o r m a t i o n . Have several p e n s available as well as a rag to erase t h e w r i t i n g . For c o m p l e x p r o d u c t i o n s s t u d y t h e m a r k e d script before t h e rehearsal a n d a d d y o u r o w n cues, such as talent e n t r a n c e s a n d exits a n d p r o p , c o s t u m e , or set changes. In case of d o u b t , ask t h e director for clarification. I n t r o d u c e yourself t o t h e talent a n d the guests a n d have a designated place for t h e m t o sit while waiting in t h e studio. Because m o s t p r o d u c t i o n people are quite busy (in cluding t h e director a n d t h e p r o d u c e r ) , you are the o n e w h o m u s t establish a n d m a i n t a i n a r a p p o r t w i t h t h e talent a n d the guests t h r o u g h o u t the p r o d u c t i o n . Verify that they have signed the p r o p e r release forms a n d other necessary papers. Ask t h e m periodically w h e t h e r t h e y w o u l d like s o m e water or coffee, w h e t h e r t h e y are comfortable, a n d w h e t h e r y o u can be of assistance. W h e n w o r k i n g w i t h o u t s i d e talent, review y o u r m a j o r cues w i t h t h e m (see c h a p t e r 19). W h e n using a t e l e p r o m p t e r , ask t h e p e r f o r m e r s w h e t h e r t h e font size is big e n o u g h a n d w h e t h e r its distance from the camera is tolerable. D u r i n g t h e rehearsal of a fully scripted show, follow t h e script as m u c h as possible a n d anticipate t h e director's cues. If h a n d p r o p s are used, r e t u r n t h e m t o their original p o s i t i o n s after each take. Keep notes o n especially difficult c a m e r a travels o r talent actions. If t h e p r o d u c t i o n is shot in s e g m e n t s for p o s t p r o d u c t i o n editing, pay p a r t i c u l a r at t e n t i o n to c o n t i n u i t y of t h e talent's a p p e a r a n c e , positions, and major moves. Always c a r r y a p e n o r pencil, a b r o a d m a r k i n g pen, a roll of m a s k i n g a n d gaffer's tape, a n d a piece of chalk (for taping d o w n p r o p s a n d e q u i p m e n t a n d for spiking—mark i n g — t a l e n t a n d c a m e r a p o s i t i o n s ) . Also have a large p a d ready so you can write o u t messages for t h e talent in case t h e I.F.B. system breaks d o w n or is n o t used. D u r i n g rehearsal deliver all cues as t h o u g h you were o n t h e air, even if t h e director stands right next to you. You d o n o t always have t o r e m a i n next to t h e c a m e r a w h e n cueing. As m u c h as possible, p o s i t i o n yourself so t h a t you can see
430
Chapter
THE DIRECTOR
18
t h e talent's eyes. T h i s is o n e of t h e r e a s o n s w h y y o u s h o u l d
PRODUCTION ASSISTANT
n o t b e tied t o a s t u d i o camera's i n t e r c o m outlet.
As a production
D u r i n g t h e s h o w d o n o t cue o n y o u r o w n , even if y o u t h i n k t h e director h a s missed a cue. Rather, ask t h e director o n t h e i n t e r c o m w h e t h e r you s h o u l d give the cue as m a r k e d a n d rehearsed. If t h e r e are i n t e r r u p t i o n s in the v i d e o t a p i n g because s o m e technical p r o b l e m s are being discussed in t h e control r o o m , i n f o r m the talent a b o u t w h a t is going on. Tell the performers that they did a g o o d j o b b u t that the director h a s to w o r k o u t s o m e technical details. D u r i n g e x t e n d e d p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g i n t e r r u p t i o n s , invite t h e talent to get o u t from u n d e r the lights a n d relax in the small s t u d i o area y o u have set u p for t h e m — b u t d o n ' t let t h e m w a n d e r off.
assistant
IN
PREPRODUCTION
(PA), y o u m u s t be p r e p a r e d to
d o a variety of j o b s — f r o m d u p l i c a t i n g a n d d i s t r i b u t i n g t h e script, l o o k i n g for a specific p r o p , a n d w e l c o m i n g t h e talent, to calling a cab, getting coffee, a n d t a k i n g n o t e s for t h e p r o d u c e r a n d t h e d i r e c t o r (unless t h e A D is t a k i n g n o t e s ) . Usually, n o t e taking is t h e PA's m o s t i m p o r t a n t as s i g n m e n t . You s i m p l y follow t h e p r o d u c e r a n d / o r d i r e c t o r w i t h a p a d a n d p e n a n d r e c o r d e v e r y t h i n g t h e y m u m b l e to themselves or tell y o u to w r i t e d o w n . D u r i n g t h e " n o t e s " b r e a k s , y o u s i m p l y r e a d b a c k y o u r n o t e s i t e m by i t e m . W h e n in t h e field, y o u m a y also have to keep a field log of all t h e p r o d u c t i o n takes, w h i c h helps t h e p o s t p r o d u c t i o n e d i t o r locate shots o n t h e s o u r c e tapes. EEE^EDITING-*
After t h e s h o w t h a n k t h e talent o r guests a n d s h o w
Production guidelines-^ field log
t h e m o u t of t h e s t u d i o . You t h e n n e e d t o supervise t h e strike of t h e set in t h e s t u d i o or of t h e items set u p o n l o cation. Be careful n o t to d r a g scenery or p r o p carts across cables that m i g h t still be o n t h e s t u d i o floor. Locate objects t h a t were b r o u g h t in b y a guest, s u c h as a p r e c i o u s statue, a b o o k , or t h e latest d e s k t o p c o m p u t e r , a n d see to it t h a t
•
A television director must be an artist who can translate a script or an event into effective television pictures and sound, a psychologist who can work with people of dif ferent temperaments and skills, a technical adviser who knows the potentials and the limitations of the equip ment, and a coordinator who can initiate and keep track of myriad production processes.
•
A clear understanding of the process message (desired ef fect) will help the director decide on the most appropriate type of production (single-camera or multicamera, studio or field, live or live-on-tape, or continuous or discontinuous takes for postproduction).
•
There needs to be effective and frequent communication among the director, the talent, and all the members of the production team.
•
The detailed schedule for preproduction activities should be realistic and fit into the overall production schedule of the station or production company.
•
The various script formats are the fully scripted format, or complete script; the semiscripted format, or partial script; the show format; and the fact sheet or rundown sheet.
•
Precise and easy-to-read script markings help the director and other key production personnel anticipate and execute a great variety of cues.
•
The floor plan or location sketch enables the director to plan major camera and talent positions and traffic.
•
The facilities request is an essential communications device for procuring the necessary equipment and properties.
•
The director's immediate support staff are tt^ floor man ager, the AD (associate, or assistant, director), and the PA (production assistant).
t h e y are r e t u r n e d . If y o u s h o t i n d o o r s o n l o c a t i o n , p u t t h i n g s b a c k as y o u f o u n d t h e m . A small l o c a t i o n sketch o r p h o t o will b e of great help w h e n t r y i n g to r e t u r n t h i n g s to t h e way t h e y were. W h e n s h o o t i n g o n l o c a t i o n , r e m e m b e r t h a t y o u are a guest o p e r a t i n g in s o m e o n e else's space.
A S S O C I A T E , OR ASSISTANT, DIRECTOR As a n associate, or assistant, director (AD), y o u m a i n l y assist t h e d i r e c t o r in t h e p r o d u c t i o n p h a s e — t h e rehearsals a n d t h e o n - t h e - a i r p e r f o r m a n c e or t a p i n g sessions. In c o m p l e x s t u d i o shows, a director m a y have y o u give all s t a n d b y cues (for example: " R e a d y t o cue Mary, ready 2 C U of J o h n " ) a n d preset t h e c a m e r a s by telling t h e c a m e r a o p e r a t o r s o n t h e i n t e r c o m t h e u p c o m i n g shots o r c a m e r a m o v e s . This frees u p t h e director s o m e w h a t to c o n c e n t r a t e m o r e o n t h e preview m o n i t o r s o r t h e talent's p e r f o r m a n c e . O n c e preset b y you, t h e d i r e c t o r t h e n initiates t h e action b y t h e v a r i o u s a c t i o n cues: "Ready 2, take 2," or, in fast dialogue, s i m p l y by snapping
fingers.
In elaborate field p r o d u c t i o n s , y o u m a y have to direct t h e run-throughs
(rehearsals) for each take, w h i c h enables
t h e director to s t a n d back a n d observe t h e a c t i o n o n t h e field (line) m o n i t o r . As an A D y o u are also responsible for t h e t i m i n g of t h e s h o w s e g m e n t s a n d t h e overall s h o w d u r i n g rehearsals as well as d u r i n g t h e actual p r o d u c t i o n . Even in s t u d i o p r o d u c t i o n s , b e p r e p a r e d to take over a n d direct t h e s h o w o r p o r t i o n s of it d u r i n g rehearsal. T h i s gives t h e d i r e c t o r a c h a n c e to see h o w t h e s h o t s l o o k a n d , especially, h o w the s e g m e n t o r s h o w flows.
VISUALIZATION AND SEQUENCING
18.2 Moving from Script to Screen
SCRIPT ANALYSIS
As mentioned, a carefully defined process message facilitates the visualization process and, especially, makes it more precise. After deciding on what the target audience is to see, hear, feel, or do, you can follow the effect-to-cause model and determine just how the key shots should look and how to accomplish them. Here is an example: You are to direct three segments of a program series on teenage driving safety. The first assign ment is an interview, consisting of a female interviewer who regularly hosts the weekly half-hour community service show, a male police officer who heads the municipal traffic safety program, and a female student representative of the local high school. The second assignment is an interview with a male high-school student who has been confined to a wheelchair since a serious car accident. The third is a demonstration of some potential dangers of running a stop sign. The scripts available to you at this point are very sketchy and more resemble brief rundown sheets than partial script formats, SEE I 8 . 1 2 - i 8 . 1 4 Because the producer has an unusually tight deadline for the completion of the series, she asks that you get started with the preproduction planning despite the lack of more-detailed scripts. She can give you only a rough idea of what each show is supposed to accomplish: Segment 1 should inform the target audience (high-school and college students) of the ongoing efforts by the police department to cooperate with schools to teach traffic safety to young drivers; segment 2 should shock the viewers into an aware ness of the consequences of careless driving; and segment 3 should make the audience aware of the potential dangers of running a stop sign. Let's apply the effect-to-cause model and see how these scripts can be translated into video programs. EEHj^PRO-
Locking-in point and translation, and the storyboard
CESS-> Effect-to-cause-* basic idea | desired effect | cause
Now that you know the basics of directing, including script formats and how to mark them, you need to learn how to translate the words of the script into effective pictures and sound. This translation process is called visualiza tion—seeing the script in pictures and hearing the ac companying sounds. Yes, visualization refers not only to the mental imaging of pictures but also of sound. There is no sure-fire formula for this translation process; it requires a certain amount of imagination and artistic sensitivity and lots of practice. The best way to practice is to carefully observe the events around you—how people behave in a classroom or a restaurant or on a bus or an airplane—and mentally note what makes one event so different from the others. When you read a description of some happening in a newspaper, magazine, or novel, try to visualize it as screen images and sound. This section will help you with these visualization processes—the translation of the various script formats into picture and sound images and sequences. ^
Directing starts with the visualization of the key images. Because we see only what the camera sees, you need to carry the initial visualization further and translate it into such directing details as where people and things should be placed relative to the camera and where the camera should be positioned relative to the event (people and things). You must then consider the sequencing of the portions of this visualized event through postproduction editing or switching. Concurrently, you must hear the individual shots and the sequence. In television, "hearing" a particular picture or picture sequence can be as important as seeing it in your mind.
VISUALIZATION AND SEQUENCING Formulating the process message, medium requirements, and interpreting the floor plan and the location sketch
431
432
Chapter
18
THE
DIRECTOR
IN
PREPRODUCTION
TRAFFIC SAFETY SERIES Program No: 2 Interview (Length: 26:30) VTR Date: Saturday, March 16, 4:00-5:00 P.M. STUDIO 2 Air Date: Tuesday, March 19 Host: Guests:
Y v e t t e Sharp Lt.
John
City
Hewitt,
Police
Rebecca C h i l d , Central
traffic
safety
program,
Department senior
and s t u d e n t
representative,
High School
Vi deo STANDARD OPENING CU of Hostess faces camera
INTRODUCES SHOW
2-shot of guests
INTRODUCES GUESTS
CU of host
FIRST QUESTION
INTERVIEW: Lieutenant John Hewitt is the officer in charge of the t r a f f i c safety program. Is a twenty-year veteran of the City Police Department. Has been in t r a f f i c safety for the past eight years. NOTE: HE WILL REFER TO A TEN-POINT PROGRAM (DISPLAY VIA C . G . ) . Rebecca Child is the student representative of Central High. She is an A student, on the debate team, and on the championship volleyball team. She is very much in favor of an effective
traffic
safety program but believes that the c i t y police are especially tough on high-school students and are out to get them. STANDARD CLOSE CU of host
CLOSING REMARKS
LS of host and guests
THEME
CG credits
18.12
TRAFFIC SAFETY STUDIO INTERVIEW
This script for a studio interview on traffic safety is written in the semiscripted format. Note that this script gives some information on the guests appearing on the show.
Section
18.2
Moving
from
Script
to
Screen
TRAFFIC SAFETY SERIES Program No: 5 Location Interview (Length: 26:30) EFP
Date: Friday, March 29, 9:00 A.M.-all day
Postproduction to be scheduled Air Date: Tuesday, April 9 Interviewer: Interviewee: Address:
Yvette Sharp Jack Armstrong 49 Baranca Road, South City Tel.: 990 555-9990
OPENING AND CLOSING ARE TO BE DONE ON LOCATION
Jack is a high-school senior. He has been confined to a wheelchair since he was hit by a car running a stop sign. The other driver was from his high school. Jack was an outstanding tennis player and is proud of the several trophies he won in regional tournaments. He is a good student and coping very well. He is eager to participate in the t r a f f i c safety program.
NOTE: EMPHASIS SHOULD BE ON JACK. GET GOOD CUs.
mmmmmmm
18.13
TRAFFIC SAFETY FIELD INTERVIEW
This location interview is written in the semiscripted format and gives information about the guest to be interviewed.
433
434
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TRAFFIC SAFETY SERIES Program No: 6 Running Stop Signs (Length: 26:30) EFP
Date: Sunday, April 7, 7:00 A . M . - a l l day
VTR
Date: Tuesday, April 9, 4:00 P.M.-4:30 P.M.
Postproduction to be scheduled Air Date: Saturday, April 16 EFP
Location:
Contact:
Intersection of West Spring Street and Taraval Court Lt. John Hewitt, t r a f f i c safety program, City Police Department Tel.: 990 555-8888
OPENING AND CLOSING (YVETTE) ARE TO BE DONE ON LOCATION EFP:
Program should show car running a stop sign at
intersection and the consequences: almost hitting a pedestrian, jogger, bicycler; running into another car, etc.
Detailed script will follow.
STUDIO: Lt. Hewitt w i l l briefly demonstrate some typical accidents, using toy cars on a magnetic board. NOTE: L T . HEWITT WILL PROVIDE ALL VEHICLES AND DRIVERS AS WELL AS TALENT. HE WILL TAKE CARE OF ALL TRAFFIC CONTROL, VEHICLE PARKING, AND COMMUNICATIONS. CONFIRM EFP APRIL 5. ALTERNATE POLICE CONTACT: Sgt. Fenton McKenna (same telephone)
18.14
TRAFFIC SAFETY STOP SIGN EPISODE
This semiscripted format for a field production contains information about the major events the program is to show.
Section
18.2
Moving
F O R M U L A T I N G THE P R O C E S S
from
Script
to
435
Screen
MESSAGE
Despite t h e sketchy scripts a n d process messages, m a n y images have p r o b a b l y e n t e r e d your h e a d already: the police officer in his b l u e u n i f o r m sitting next to t h e h i g h - s c h o o l s t u d e n t ; a y o u n g m a n s t r a i n i n g to m o v e his w h e e l c h a i r u p a r a m p t o his front d o o r ; a car a l m o s t hit in a n intersec t i o n by a n o t h e r car r u n n i n g a stop sign. Before g o i n g any further, however, y o u m a y w a n t t o define m o r e precise process messages. Process message
I: The interview
officer and the student strate to high-school
with the traffic
representative
and college students
traffic safety program
safety
should
demon
a
ten-point
to help teenagers become
responsible drivers. It should also demonstrate police and students
could cooperate in this
Process message 2: The interview
with the student
should make viewers (of the desired
audience)
gain a deeper insight into his feelings since his accident and empathize
Process message 3: The program
with
in the
how to avoid
TRAFFIC SAFETY INTERVIEW: ROUGH SKETCH
This rough sketch for a studio interview set shows the approxi mate locations of the chairs and the cameras.
target and him.
should show viewers at
least four different accidents caused by running sign and demonstrate
18.15
effort.
wheelchair attitudes
morehow
a stop
them.
T h e s e q u e n c i n g will p r o b a b l y s h o w t h e t h r e e people in t h r e e - s h o t s ( h o s t a n d t w o guests), t w o - s h o t s ( h o s t a n d guest, t w o guests talking), a n d i n d i v i d u a l close-ups. These shots can best b e a c c o m p l i s h e d b y h a v i n g t h e guests sit t o g e t h e r across from t h e interviewer, S E E I S . I S
According
A careful r e a d i n g of these process messages s h o u l d
to t h e sketchy script, t h e officer's t e n - p o i n t p r o g r a m o n
m a k e y o u r visualization a little m o r e precise. For e x a m p l e ,
traffic safety a n d o t h e r i t e m s s h o u l d be s h o w n o n - s c r e e n
just h o w d o y o u see the t h r e e p e o p l e (host, officer, a n d
as C.G. g r a p h i c s , unless h e b r i n g s an easel card.
s t u d e n t representative) i n t e r a c t i n g in t h e interview? W h a t
T h e s h o w is obviously best d o n e l i v e - o n - t a p e in t h e
s h o t s a n d s h o t s e q u e n c e s d o y o u feel w o u l d best c o m
studio. T h e r e y o u can p u t the guests in a neutral e n v i r o n
m u n i c a t e t h e i n t e r v i e w t o t h e audience? D o y o u visualize
m e n t , have g o o d c o n t r o l over t h e lighting a n d the a u d i o ,
a different a p p r o a c h to t h e interview w i t h t h e s t u d e n t in
switch a m o n g m u l t i p l e c a m e r a s , a n d use t h e C.G.
t h e wheelchair? T h e d e m o n s t r a t i o n of r u n n i n g a s t o p sign
N o w y o u can b e c o m e m o r e specific a b o u t the m e d i u m
p r o b a b l y triggers s o m e stereotypical H o l l y w o o d video a n d
r e q u i r e m e n t s : set, cameras, m i c r o p h o n e s , lighting, a n d ad
a u d i o images, s u c h as glass s h a t t e r i n g , tires squealing, a n d
ditional e q u i p m e n t . Because t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s d o n o t m o v e
cars s p i n n i n g a n d c r a s h i n g i n t o each other.
a r o u n d , the h o s t a n d t h e guests can w e a r lavaliere mics
MEDIUM REQUIREMENTS
is, fairly high-key, slow-falloff lighting so t h e viewer can
W i t h o u t t r y i n g t o b e t o o specific, y o u can n o w p r o c e e d
see everyone well. T h e r e is n o n e e d for d r a m a t i c s h a d o w s .
for t h e a u d i o p i c k u p . T h e lighting s h o u l d be n o r m a l , that
from s o m e general visualizations to the m e d i u m re
P e r h a p s y o u c a n p e r s u a d e t h e police officer to take off his
q u i r e m e n t s : c e r t a i n key v i s u a l i z a t i o n s a n d s e q u e n c i n g ,
cap to avoid a n n o y i n g s h a d o w s o n his face. H o w a b o u t
p r o d u c t i o n m e t h o d ( m u l t i c a m e r a s t u d i o s h o w or single-
cameras? T h r e e o r two? Even a lively exchange of ideas
c a m e r a EFP), necessary e q u i p m e n t , a n d specific p r o d u c
b e t w e e n t h e officer a n d t h e s t u d e n t will n o t require terribly
tion procedures.
fast cutting. A s s u m i n g t h a t the h o s t a n d t h e guests sit across
H e r e is h o w y o u m i g h t arrive at specific m e d i u m r e q u i r e m e n t s for each s e g m e n t (process message).
from o n e a n o t h e r , y o u really n e e d only t w o c a m e r a s (see figure 18.15). C a m e r a 2 c a n get t h e o p e n i n g a n d closing shots b u t is
T h e interview is strictly informational. W h a t
otherwise assigned to t h e host. C a m e r a 1 c a n get t w o - s h o t s
t h e p e o p l e say is m o r e i m p o r t a n t t h a n getting t o k n o w
a n d C U s of t h e guests, as well as o v e r - t h e - s h o u l d e r (of t h e
t h e m . T h e s t u d e n t m a y n o t always agree w i t h t h e officer's
host) t h r e e - s h o t s . In a d d i t i o n to t h e n o r m a l c o n t r o l r o o m
views, so t h e t w o m a y n o t only a n s w e r the interviewer b u t
a n d s t u d i o facilities, y o u will n e e d to request a V T R a n d
also talk to each other.
tape (don't forget to request the a p p r o p r i a t e tape), t h e C.G.,
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THE DIRECTOR
IN
PREPRODUCTION
a n d a limited a m o u n t of p o s t p r o d u c t i o n t i m e , in case y o u
give y o u a sense of t h e atmosphere, enable you t o plan t h e
n e e d t o stop d o w n for s o m e r e a s o n d u r i n g t h e interview.
shots m o r e specifically, a n d m o r e accurately d e t e r m i n e t h e
Unless you have t e l e p r o m p t e r s to show t h e t e n - p o i n t traffic
m e d i u m requirements.
p r o g r a m (displayed by t h e C.G.), y o u n e e d a line m o n i t o r that all talent c a n see.
Segment 3
This p r o d u c t i o n is b y far t h e m o s t d e m a n d
ing of y o u as a director. It requires t h e c o o r d i n a t i o n of In c o n t r a s t to s e g m e n t 1, the s e g m e n t 2
different p e o p l e , locations, a n d actions. Start w i t h s o m e
i n t e r v i e w is m u c h m o r e private. Its p r i m a r y p u r p o s e is
key visualizations. R u n n i n g a s t o p sign is o b v i o u s l y best
n o t to c o m m u n i c a t e specific i n f o r m a t i o n b u t to have a n
s h o w n by h a v i n g a car actually d o it. To d e m o n s t r a t e t h e
e m o t i o n a l i m p a c t o n t h e a u d i e n c e . T h e c o m m u n i c a t i o n is
consequences of such a n offense, you m a y n e e d to show t h e
i n t i m a t e a n d personal; viewers s h o u l d s t r o n g l y e m p a t h i z e
car going t h r o u g h t h e stop sign, barely missing a pedestrian
with t h e y o u n g m a n in t h e wheelchair. T h e s e aspects of t h e
or bicyclist w h o h a p p e n s to be in t h e intersection, or even
process message suggest q u i t e readily t h a t we visit h i m in
crashing i n t o a n o t h e r car.
his o w n e n v i r o n m e n t — h i s h o m e — a n d that, except for t h e
N o w is t h e t i m e to c o n t a c t t h e p r o d u c e r again a n d
o p e n i n g shots, we s h o u l d see h i m p r i m a r i l y in close-ups
ask h e r s o m e i m p o r t a n t q u e s t i o n s : W h o will p r o v i d e t h e
a n d e x t r e m e close-ups r a t h e r t h a n in less intense m e d i u m
vehicles for this d e m o n s t r a t i o n ? W h o drives t h e m ? W h a t
a n d l o n g shots. Again, y o u will inevitably visualize certain
a b o u t insurance? You m a y n o t n e e d H o l l y w o o d s t u n t driv
key shots that y o u have called u p from y o u r p e r s o n a l visual
ers for these d e m o n s t r a t i o n s , b u t in n o way s h o u l d y o u
reservoir. Your task n o w is to i n t e r p r e t t h o s e images a n d all
have s t u d e n t s p e r f o r m these feats. P e r h a p s the police c a n
o t h e r aspects of the process message into a specific p r o d u c
assist y o u a n d the p r o d u c e r by furnishing b o t h cars a n d
tion approach and m e d i u m requirements. C o n s i d e r i n g t h e m a j o r aspects of t h e process message
experienced drivers. W h o will b e the harassed bicyclist a n d t h e p e d e s t r i a n ? Is t h e r e a d e q u a t e i n s u r a n c e for all actors
(revealing t h e s t u d e n t ' s feelings a n d t h o u g h t s a n d having
a n d extras involved? Will the police close p o r t i o n s of t h e
the audience develop e m p a t h y with h i m ) , the general
street a n d t h e intersection for t h e shoot? For h o w long?
p r o d u c t i o n t y p e a n d t h e specific m e d i u m r e q u i r e m e n t s
If t h e s e g m e n t involves c h o r e o g r a p h i n g actual s t u n t s ,
b e c o m e fairly a p p a r e n t . It is best d o n e s i n g l e - c a m e r a style
y o u w o u l d n e e d a fire e n g i n e a n d a m b u l a n c e s t a n d i n g by,
in t h e s t u d e n t ' s h o m e . First, t h e single c a m e r a a n d t h e
just in case t h e s t u n t d o e s n o t go exactly as p l a n n e d . You
associated e q u i p m e n t (lights a n d mics) cause a m i n i m u m
h a d b e t t e r a b a n d o n t h e project at this p o i n t a n d ask t h e
i n t r u s i o n into t h e e n v i r o n m e n t . Second, t h e interview itself
p r o d u c e r to pass it o n to a m o r e experienced director, o r
can b e u n h u r r i e d a n d stretch over a considerable p e r i o d of
to redesign this s e g m e n t .
t i m e . T h i r d , t h e i n t e r v i e w does n o t have t o b e c o n t i n u o u s ;
You could, however, suggest simulating these close-call
it can slow d o w n , b e briefly i n t e r r u p t e d , o r be s t o p p e d a n d
actions t h r o u g h extensive video a n d a u d i o p o s t p r o d u c t i o n .
t h e n picked u p at a n y t i m e . T h e p r o d u c t i o n c a n b e o u t
A s s u m i n g that the p r o d u c e r likes y o u r alternate a p p r o a c h
of sequence. You m a y w a n t t o start w i t h v i d e o t a p i n g t h e
a n d t h a t the police d e p a r t m e n t will furnish cars, drivers,
actual i n t e r v i e w a n d t h e n t a p e t h e o p e n i n g s h o t s of t h e
extras, a n d all necessary traffic c o n t r o l d u r i n g t h e s h o o t ,
s t u d e n t m o v i n g u p the r a m p in his wheelchair a n d the reac
h o w w o u l d y o u carry o u t this directing a s s i g n m e n t ?
tion shots of t h e interviewer. If t h e s t u d e n t h a p p e n s to refer to his athletic t r o p h i e s , y o u can v i d e o t a p e t h e m ( a n d o t h e r
T h e key w o r d in t h e process message is
demonstrate.
You n e e d to s h o w w h a t is h a p p e n i n g r a t h e r t h a n m e r e l y
significant items in t h e h o u s e ) after the i n t e r v i e w a n d t h e n
talk a b o u t it. T h e d e m o n s t r a t i o n obviously takes y o u o n
assemble all t h e s e g m e n t s in p o s t p r o d u c t i o n editing.
l o c a t i o n — a n actual street corner. T h e officer's later use
H e r e are s o m e of t h e specific ( a n d m o d e s t ) m e d i u m
of toy cars a n d a m a g n e t i c b o a r d to d e m o n s t r a t e a typical
requirements: camcorder, videotapes, batteries, tripod,
intersection accident a n d h o w t o avoid it can best b e d o n e
playback m o n i t o r , two lavaliere mics, p o r t a b l e lighting kit,
in t h e s t u d i o a n d i n t e g r a t e d i n t o t h e s h o w in p o s t p r o d u c
s h o t g u n mic, small a u d i o mixer, miscellaneous p r o d u c t i o n
t i o n editing (see figure 18.14).
items (extension cords, p o r t a b l e slate, a n d so f o r t h ) , a n d
C o n s i d e r i n g t h e c o m p l e x i t y of t h e a c t i o n a n d t h e
g o o d p o s t p r o d u c t i o n facilities. C o m p a r e d w i t h s e g m e n t
l i m i t e d p r o d u c t i o n t i m e available ( t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n c a n
1, this p r o d u c t i o n n e e d s c o n s i d e r a b l y m o r e editing t i m e .
b e b l o c k e d for only brief p e r i o d s ) , y o u s h o u l d use several
To facilitate y o u r visualization a n d s e q u e n c i n g , t r y to visit
c a m c o r d e r s t h a t cover t h e a c t i o n s i m u l t a n e o u s l y from
the s t u d e n t in his h o m e p r i o r t o the v i d e o t a p i n g . M e e t
different angles a n d fields of view. You c a n t h e n have
ing the s t u d e n t a n d getting to k n o w h i m in his h o m e will
t h e c a m c o r d e r s s y n c h r o n i z e t h e start of t h e t i m e codes
Section
18.2
Moving
from
Script
to
437
Screen
( r e m e m b e r t h e flash-frame?) to e x p e d i t e t h e extensive
in t h e r i g h t bins (files), w i n d o w - d u b t h e field tapes d o w n
(AB-roll) p o s t p r o d u c t i o n editing. You can d o t h e s t u d i o
t o V H S , a n d start w i t h t h e p a p e r - a n d - p e n c i l editing.
p o r t i o n l i v e - o n - t a p e with a simple t w o - c a m e r a s e t u p ( o n e for a cover s h o t a n d t h e o t h e r for c l o s e - u p s ) . To e n s u r e m a x i m u m safety of all concerned, first s h o o t
INTERPRETING AND
THE FLOOR
THE LOCATION
PLAN
SKETCH
t h o s e scenes that involve the car r u n n i n g the stop sign, t h e n
Let's go back to t h e first s e g m e n t — t h e s t u d i o interview
m o v e to t h e scenes of t h e frightened p e d e s t r i a n j u m p i n g
w i t h t h e police officer a n d t h e h i g h - s c h o o l r e p r e s e n t a
back o n t o t h e c u r b a n d t h e bicyclist trying to get o u t of the
t i v e — a n d a s s u m e t h a t t h e novice art d i r e c t o r t o o k y o u r
way (of t h e i m a g i n e d o n c o m i n g c a r ) . To simulate t h e sight
r o u g h sketch of t h e i n t e r v i e w s e t u p (figure 18.15) a n d
a n d t h e s o u n d of c r a s h i n g i n t o a n o t h e r car, s i m p l y s h o w
w o r k e d u p t h e floor plan a n d the p r o p list as s h o w n in t h e
t h e pedestrian's frightened face; t h e n , later, go to a j u n k
next figure, S E E I S . 1 6 W h a t d o y o u t h i n k of t h e floor plan?
y a r d for a s h o t of a badly d a m a g e d car. By e d i t i n g t h e t w o
W o u l d y o u give y o u r g o - a h e a d to have t h e scenery set u p
s h o t s t o g e t h e r a n d a d d i n g familiar c r a s h i n g s o u n d s , y o u
accordingly?
c a n simulate t h e i m p a c t convincingly w i t h o u t e n d a n g e r i n g
Take a n o t h e r look at t h e floor plan a n d t r y to visualize
a n y o n e o r w r e c k i n g any cars. You m i g h t t h i n k of u s i n g a
s o m e of the key shots, s u c h as o p e n i n g a n d closing t h r e e -
subjective camera that shows going t h r o u g h t h e intersection
shots, two-shots of the guests talking to the host a n d t o each
1
f r o m t h e driver's p o i n t of view. T h e c a m e r a o p e r a t o r can
other, a n d individual CUs of t h e t h r e e people. Visualize the
s i m p l y sit in t h e backseat a n d have t h e c a m e r a l o o k past
f o r e g r o u n d as well as t h e b a c k g r o u n d because t h e c a m e r a
t h e driver t h r o u g h the windshield. For additional subjective
sees b o t h . T h e r e are s o m e definite c a m e r a p r o b l e m s with
c a m e r a shots, m o u n t the c a m c o r d e r o n the h o o d of t h e car
this floor plan.
w i t h a b e a n b a g (see c h a p t e r 5). A fast z o o m - i n o n t h e car while it is m o v i n g t o w a r d t h e c a m e r a will definitely lead to a n intensification of t h e s h o t a n d a n exciting sequence w h e n i n t e r c u t w i t h p r o g r e s sively closer s h o t s of t h e pedestrian's frightened face. Be s u r e to get e n o u g h cutaways so t h a t you c a n m a i n t a i n t h e c o n t i n u i t y of m o t i o n vectors d u r i n g editing.
Given t h e way t h e chairs are placed, an o p e n i n g t h r e e s h o t w o u l d b e difficult to achieve. If c a m e r a 2 s h o o t s from straight o n , the chairs are probably t o o far apart. At best the h o s t a n d t h e guests w o u l d seem glued to t h e screen edges, placing u n d u e e m p h a s i s o n t h e p a i n t i n g in t h e m i d d l e . Also, y o u w o u l d p r o b a b l y o v e r s h o o t t h e set o n b o t h e n d s . T h e guests w o u l d certainly block each o t h e r in this shot.
Whatever key visualizations a n d sequencing you c h o o s e , t h e y will p r o b a b l y r e q u i r e t h e s a m e basic field e q u i p m e n t : two o r three c a m c o r d e r s , m o u n t i n g e q u i p m e n t ( b e a n b a g s , clothesline, t a p e , c a m e r a b r a c e s ) , a b a t t e r y p o w e r e d m o n i t o r for replay, t w o o r t h r e e s h o t g u n mics a n d fishpoles, an a u d i o mixer, t w o or t h r e e reflectors (for C U s of t a l e n t ) , a n d o t h e r s t a n d a r d p r o d u c t i o n items such as a slate, v i d e o t a p e s , h e a d s e t s for t h e a u d i o o p e r a t o r , a n d walkie-talkies for the field i n t e r c o m . T h e m a j o r p a r t of this p r o d u c t i o n will b e t h e off- a n d o n - l i n e editing, as t h e s i m u l a t i o n of n e a r misses requires extensive v i d e o a n d a u d i o p o s t p r o d u c t i o n . T h e a u d i o p o r t i o n is therefore especially i m p o r t a n t b e c a u s e s o u n d s intensify scenes a n d help elicit m e n t a l images of u n s e e n a c t i o n . S u c h s t a n d a r d s o u n d effects as s q u e a l i n g tires,
Prop list:
crash s o u n d s , a n d a police siren will intensify t h e scene a n d
3 upholstered chairs
m a k e t h e s i m u l a t e d crash believable. You m a y also w a n t to
2 rubber plants
i n c l u d e voice-over n a r r a t i o n b y t h e series h o s t .
1 Brigit Riley painting
D o n ' t forget to copy a n d carefully log t h e field footage. If you have a n o n l i n e a r system, c a p t u r e t h e takes, p u t t h e m
1 8 . 1 6 INTERVIEW SET: FLOOR PLAN AND PROP LIST 1. See Herbert Zettl, Sight Sound Motion, 4th ed. (Belmont, Calif.: Thomson Wadsworth, 2005), pp. 210-13.
This floor plan and prop list, based on the rough sketch of an interview set, reveal serious production problems.
438
Chapter
THE DIRECTOR
18
IN
PREPRODUCTION
g r o u n d t o o , a d d i n g to t h e silhouette effect. T h e back lights w o u l d also function as front (key) lights, causing fast falloff (dense a t t a c h e d s h a d o w s ) t o w a r d t h e c a m e r a side. If y o u were n o w to lighten u p the s h a d o w s o n the faces with ad ditional fill light c o m i n g from t h e front of t h e set ( r o u g h l y from c a m e r a 2's p o s i t i o n ) , it w o u l d inevitably hit the w h i t e flats, aggravating the silhouette effect. T h e acoustics m a y also prove to be less t h a n desirable b e c a u s e t h e m i c r o p h o n e s are v e r y close t o t h e s o u n d reflecting hardwall flats. T h e p r o p list signals yet m o r e p r o b l e m s . T h e large u p h o l s t e r e d chairs are definitely n o t a p p r o p r i a t e for a n interview. T h e y look t o o p o m p o u s a n d w o u l d practically engulf their o c c u p a n t s . Because m o s t of t h e s e t u p r e q u i r e s c r o s s - s h o o t i n g from e x t r e m e angles, t h e p a i n t i n g is useless. If y o u w a n t to b r e a k u p t h e plain b a c k g r o u n d w i t h a p i c t u r e , h a n g it so t h a t it serves as a b a c k g r o u n d in m o s t of t h e shots. If y o u h a p p e n to k n o w s o m e t h i n g a b o u t a r t history, y o u m a y suspect that t h e tight, c o n t r a s t i n g p a t t e r n s of Brigit Riley's
1 8 . 1 7 INTERVIEW SET: CAMERA POSITIONS The camera positions reveal some of the production problems caused by this setup.
p a i n t i n g s w o u l d p r o b a b l y cause a m o i r e effect. Finally, w i t h t h e chairs directly o n t h e s t u d i o
floor,
either t h e c a m e r a s w o u l d have to look d o w n o n t h e p e r formers, or t h e c a m e r a o p e r a t o r s w o u l d have to pedestal all
If you s h o o t from t h e e x t r e m e left ( c a m e r a 1) to get an o v e r - t h e - s h o u l d e r s h o t from t h e h o s t t o t h e guests, y o u will o v e r s h o o t t h e set. O n a c l o s e - u p y o u w o u l d r u n t h e risk of t h e r u b b e r plant's seeming to grow o u t of t h e guest's head, SEE is. 17 If y o u c r o s s - s h o o t w i t h c a m e r a 2, y o u will a g a i n o v e r s h o o t t h e set, a n d t h e s e c o n d r u b b e r p l a n t w o u l d m o s t likely a p p e a r to g r o w o u t of t h e h o s t ' s h e a d (see figure 18.17). If you pulled the c a m e r a s m o r e t o w a r d the center to avoid o v e r s h o o t i n g , y o u w o u l d get n o t h i n g b u t profiles.
t h e way d o w n a n d s t o o p for t h e entire interview. As you c a n see, even this simple floor plan a n d p r o p list reveal i m p o r t a n t clues t o a variety of p r o d u c t i o n p r o b l e m s . You s h o u l d n o w talk to t h e novice art director, p o i n t o u t t h e p o t e n t i a l p r o b l e m s , a n d suggest s o m e ways the floor p l a n could b e revised, SEE i s . i s H e r e are s o m e possibilities: Enlarge t h e b a c k g r o u n d so t h a t it p r o v i d e s cover even for e x t r e m e c r o s s - s h o o t i n g angles. Use flats of a different color a n d t e x t u r e (such as a m e d i u m - d a r k w o o d p a n e l p a t t e r n ) . P e r h a p s b r e a k u p the b a c k g r o u n d with a w i n d o w flat o r a few n a r r o w flats to give it a m o r e t h r e e - d i m e n sional feel.
Aside from p r o b l e m s w i t h c a m e r a shots, t h e r e are additional production problems: W h i t e hardwall panels h a r d l y create t h e m o s t interest ing b a c k g r o u n d . T h e surface is t o o plain, a n d its color is
Place pictures o r b o o k c a s e s w h e r e t h e y will b e seen in t h e m o s t frequent c a m e r a s h o t s . D o n o t let a c o r n e r of a p i c t u r e a p p e a r to grow o u t of t h e talent's head.
t o o b r i g h t for t h e f o r e g r o u n d scene, r e n d e r i n g skin tones
Use s i m p l e chairs t h a t are c o m f o r t a b l e yet will n o t
u n u s u a l l y dark. Because the h o s t is an African A m e r i c a n
swallow t h e o c c u p a n t s ; p u t t h e chairs o n a riser a n d posi
w o m a n , the contrast p r o b l e m with the white b a c k g r o u n d is
t i o n t h e m at least 6 feet from t h e b a c k g r o u n d ( w h i c h will
even m o r e e x t r e m e — a n d y o u c a n n o t correct t h e p r o b l e m
improve back lighting).
by p u t t i n g m o r e light o n her. T u r n t h e chairs o u t w a r d s o m e w h a t (swivel t h e m to See h o w close t h e chairs are to t h e b a c k g r o u n d flats? A n y key light a n d fill light will inevitably strike t h e b a c k
face t h e center c a m e r a p o s i t i o n ) so that t h e c a m e r a s will n o t h a v e to c r o s s - s h o o t from s u c h e x t r e m e angles.
Section
18.2
Moving
from
Script
to
439
Screen
Get r i d of t h e r u b b e r p l a n t s o n t h e set. A l t h o u g h t h e y l o o k great to t h e n a k e d eye, t h e y b e c o m e c o m p o s i t i o n a l hazards on-camera. This is m u c h better, b u t t h e r e is n o t i m e for resting o n y o u r laurels. T h e A D has j u s t c o m e b a c k f r o m a l o c a t i o n survey for the s e g m e n t o n r u n n i n g t h e stop sign a n d shows you her location sketch. SEEI8.19 She feels that there m a y b e several p o t e n t i a l p r o d u c t i o n p r o b l e m s . L o o k at t h e sketch a n d see if y o u agree with her. Yes,
t h e r e certainly are a few serious p r o b l e m s t h a t beg
for i m m e d i a t e a t t e n t i o n . T h e i n t e r s e c t i o n is o b v i o u s l y d o w n t o w n . You c a n therefore expect a great deal of traffic to pass t h r o u g h , a n d t h e police w o u l d n o t close this i n t e r s e c t i o n for a n y t h i n g b u t a real accident. Even if t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n w e r e n o t in t h e m i d d l e of d o w n t o w n , the p r o x i m i t y of t h e b a n k a n d t h e s u p e r m a r k e t w o u l d m a k e closing the intersection, even for a little while, unfeasible. A s c h o o l y a r d is very n o i s y d u r i n g recess. Unless y o u d o n o t m i n d t h e l a u g h i n g a n d yelling of children d u r i n g
18.18
t h e p r o d u c t i o n , every school recess m e a n s a forced recess
The revised floor plan for the interview provides for adequate background cover and interesting shots.
for the p r o d u c t i o n crew.
INTERVIEW SET: REVISED
1 8 . 1 9 LOCATION SKETCH FOR STOP SIGN SEGMENT This location sketch points to several major problems that make the field production unfeasible.
440
Chapter 18
THE
DIRECTOR
IN
PREPR0DUCTI0N
T h e four-way s t o p signs m a k e t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n less
Analyzing a d r a m a t i c script is, of course, quite a bit
h a z a r d o u s , even if s o m e o n e r u n s o n e of t h e m . T h e d e m
m o r e c o m p l i c a t e d t h a n t r a n s l a t i n g the v i d e o a n d a u d i o
o n s t r a t i o n is m u c h m o r e effective if o n e of t h e streets h a s
i n s t r u c t i o n s of a n o n d r a m a t i c script i n t o t h e director's
t h r o u g h traffic.
p r o d u c t i o n r e q u i r e m e n t s . A good d r a m a t i c script operates o n m a n y c o n s c i o u s a n d u n c o n s c i o u s levels, all of w h i c h
T h e s o l u t i o n t o these p r o b l e m s is relatively simple: have t h e p r o d u c e r c o n t a c t t h e police d e p a r t m e n t a n d find
n e e d to be i n t e r p r e t e d a n d m a d e explicit. Above all, y o u s h o u l d b e able to define t h e t h e m e of t h e play (the basic
a t w o - w a y - s t o p intersection in a q u i e t n e i g h b o r h o o d t h a t
i d e a — w h a t t h e s t o r y is all a b o u t ) , t h e p l o t ( h o w t h e s t o r y
h a s very little traffic. T h e r e s h o u l d b e sufficient alternate
moves forward and develops), the characters (how one
r o u t e s so t h a t a t e m p o r a r y closure of t h e intersection will
p e r s o n differs f r o m t h e o t h e r s a n d h o w each reacts t o t h e
n o t cause traffic delays or p r e v e n t n e i g h b o r s from getting
s i t u a t i o n at h a n d ) , a n d the e n v i r o n m e n t (where the action
to a n d from their h o m e s .
takes place). In general, television d r a m a emphasizes t h e m e a n d character rather t h a n plot, a n d inner, rather t h a n outer,
SCRIPT ANALYSIS Explaining all the intricacies of analyzing a n d i n t e r p r e t i n g n o n d r a m a t i c a n d d r a m a t i c scripts is far b e y o n d t h e scope of this b o o k . T h e i m p o r t a n c e of t r a n s l a t i n g a process m e s sage i n t o m e d i u m r e q u i r e m e n t s has already b e e n n o t e d . Translating a script i n t o v a r i o u s d i r e c t i n g r e q u i r e m e n t s calls for a similar p r o c e d u r e . T h e following list offers s o m e basic guidelines o n r e a d i n g a script as a director.
LOCKING-IN POINT A N D TRANSLATION Locking-in
m e a n s t h a t y o u conjure u p a vivid visual or
a u r a l i m a g e while r e a d i n g t h e script. This locking-in m a y well occur at t h e very o p e n i n g scene, at t h e closing scene, or at any p a r t i c u l a r l y striking scene in b e t w e e n . D o n o t t r y to force this locking-in process. It m a y well o c c u r as a n a u d i o r a t h e r t h a n a v i d e o image. If t h e script is g o o d , t h e locking-in is a l m o s t inevitable. Nevertheless, t h e r e are a few steps t h a t will expedite t h e process. Read t h e script carefully—don't just glance at it. T h e
e n v i r o n m e n t . Isolate all p o i n t s of conflict. After t h e locking-in, f u r t h e r analysis d e p e n d s greatly o n what p r o d u c t i o n m e t h o d you choose: whether you s h o o t t h e play in s e q u e n c e w i t h m u l t i p l e c a m e r a s a n d a switcher o r w i t h a single c a m e r a in d i s c o n t i n u o u s , out-ofs e q u e n c e takes.
STORYBOARD O n c e y o u have successfully l o c k e d - i n a n d b e g u n to visu alize t h e v a r i o u s takes a n d scenes, y o u m a y w a n t to m a k e r o u g h sketches of o r o t h e r w i s e r e c o r d these visualizations so y o u w o n ' t forget t h e m . A s e q u e n c e of visualized shots is called a storyboard;
it c o n t a i n s key visualization p o i n t s
a n d a u d i o i n f o r m a t i o n , SEE 18.20 A s t o r y b o a r d is usually d r a w n o n p r e p r i n t e d storyb o a r d paper, w h i c h has areas t h a t represent t h e television screen. A n o t h e r area, usually below t h e screens, is dedicated t o a u d i o a n d o t h e r i n f o r m a t i o n . A s t o r y b o a r d can also b e d r a w n o n p l a i n p a p e r or created by c o m p u t e r . S t o r y b o a r d software p r o g r a m s offer a great m a n y stock images (houses,
video a n d a u d i o i n f o r m a t i o n p r o v i d e an overview of t h e
streets, highways, cars, living r o o m s , a n d offices, for ex
s h o w a n d h o w c o m p l e x t h e p r o d u c t i o n will b e . T r y t o
a m p l e ) i n t o w h i c h y o u c a n place figures a n d m o v e t h e m
isolate t h e basic idea b e h i n d t h e show. Better yet, t r y to
i n t o v a r i o u s p o s i t i o n s in t h e s t o r y b o a r d frame, SEE 18.21
formulate a n a p p r o p r i a t e process message, if it isn't already stated in t h e original p r o p o s a l . Try t o lock-in o n a key shot, a key a c t i o n , or s o m e k e y t e c h n i c a l m a n e u v e r . For e x a m p l e , y o u m a y l o c k - i n o n t h e p a r t of t h e r u n n i n g - a - s t o p - s i g n s c r i p t w h e r e a p e d e s t r i a n has to j u m p b a c k o n t h e c u r b because of t h e o n c o m i n g car.
M o s t c o m m e r c i a l s are carefully s t o r y b o a r d e d shot-bys h o t before they ever go i n t o p r o d u c t i o n . S t o r y b o a r d s help p e o p l e w h o m a k e decisions a b o u t t h e c o m m e r c i a l see the i n d i v i d u a l shots a n d i m a g i n e t h e m in sequence. S t o r y b o a r d s are also u s e d for o t h e r types of singlec a m e r a p r o d u c t i o n s t h a t c o n t a i n a great n u m b e r of espe cially c o m p l i c a t e d d i s c o n t i n u o u s shots or s h o t sequences. A g o o d s t o r y b o a r d offers i m m e d i a t e clues t o certain p r o
You c a n n o w begin to translate t h e images i n t o c o n
d u c t i o n r e q u i r e m e n t s , s u c h as general l o c a t i o n , c a m e r a
crete p r o d u c t i o n r e q u i r e m e n t s , s u c h as c a m e r a p o s i t i o n s ,
p o s i t i o n , a p p r o x i m a t e focal length of the lens, m e t h o d of
specific lighting a n d a u d i o setups, v i d e o t a p e r e c o r d i n g ,
a u d i o p i c k u p , cutaways, a m o u n t a n d type of p o s t p r o d u c
a n d p o s t p r o d u c t i o n activities.
t i o n , talent actions, set design, a n d h a n d p r o p s .
Section
18.2
Moving
THE
RETURN DETONATION
Shot: 327
from
Script
OF AGENT
AGENT 12 Jetpack! Maximum burn!
441
Screen
IB
Page 132
FILMS Shot: 329
Shot: 328
C U - A g e n t 12
to
FAST C U - J E T P A C K rises As the thruster IGNITES! Audio: ROAR of jets.
DRAMATIC DOWNSHOT ON AGENT 12 As he ROCKETS into the air, the ground dropping away below as he streaks UP and PAST CAM, trailing flame. Audio: ROAR of jets, pitch drops in Doppler effect.
Shot: 330
TRACKING LS - Agent 12 continues ascent. This shot appears on screen in following shot.
Shot: 331
Shot: 332
ON DR. VENGEANCE Reacting to what he's seeing on screen. He can't believe it.
CU SCOTT about to speak u p . . .
DR.VENGEANCE Awww, MAN! Who gave him a jetpack?
Shot: 333
. . . b u t thinks better of it.
Shot: 334
Shot: 335
MLS TIGHTEN and CANT to CU Dr.Vengeance shouts into radio handset. Audio: KLAXON horn sounds. DR.VENGEANCE Tiger! Gameboy! Scramble!
18.20
ANGLE ON THE ROOF - Showing TIGER and GAMEBOY sprinting for the howitzer controls. The massive cannons overshadow the entire roof. DR. VENGEANCE (CONT RADIO) Ready the roofguns!
HAND-DRAWN STORYBOARD
The hand-drawn storyboard shows the major visualization points and sometimes lists the key audio sections or the shot sequence.
442
Chapter
78
THE
Careful R o a d w a y s 1
18.21 The and
IN
PREPRODUCTION
PSA
00:00:05:00
2
00:00:13:00
00:00:10:00
VO: The human vision system processes information faster than a Cray supercomputer.
VO: The amazing function between the eyes and brain is called the "sense of vision."
3
DIRECTOR
4
00:00:20:00
VO: The human eye outperforms our best video.
VO: Human vision updates images, including the details of motion and color, on a time scale so rapid
VO: That a "break in the action" is almost never perceived.
VO: The Cray supercomputer can process more than a hundred million arithmetic operations per second.
COMPUTER-GENERATED STORYBOARD
computer-generated storyboard uses 3-D graphics that can be used to create a variety of exterior interior environments in which images of people can be placed and moved about.
Section
•
•
•
•
18.2
Moving
from
Script
to
443
Screen
For the director preproduction starts with visualizing the key images, which means interpreting the individual shots as television video and audio images. These visualized images must then be perceived in a certain order, a process called sequencing.
For your reference, or to track your work, each VideoLab program cue in this chapter is listed here with its corresponding page number.
A properly stated process message will yield important clues to visualization and sequencing and, consequently, to the production method and medium requirements.
P R O C E S S ^ People-* nontechnical
Visualizing and sequencing give the director a sense of camera and talent positions and traffic. A careful study of the floor plan or location sketch and the prop list helps in planning equipment and talent traffic and reveals potential production problems.
•
Script analysis should lead to a locking-in point—an es pecially vivid visual or audio image—that determines the subsequent visualizations and sequencing.
•
The storyboard shows key visualization points of an event with accompanying audio information as well as the proper sequencing of the shots.
P R O C E S S ^ Process introduction
412 416
PROCESS-* Phases-* preproduction | production 416 PROCESSS IdeasS scripts
419
EDITINGS Production guidelinesS field log PROCESSS Effect-to-causeS basic idea | desired effect I cause 431
430
The Director in Production and Postproduction N o w that y o u have prepared yourself so well in preproduction, it's time to step into the television control room, or g o on location, a n d direct. In fact, all the meticulous prepa ration m e a n s little if y o u cannot direct or coordinate t h e various elements during the production phase. Section 19.1, Multicamera Control R o o m Directing, gives an o v e r v i e w of w h a t is required of you w h e n directing various multicamera studio a n d remote pro ductions. In section 19.2, Single-camera Directing, Postproduction, a n d Timing, you will learn a b o u t so-called film-style directing and general postproduction duties.
444
camera rehearsal Full rehearsal with cameras and other pieces of production equipment. Often identical to the dress rehearsal.
multicamera directing Simultaneous coordination of two or more cameras for instantaneous editing (switching). Also called control room directing.
clock time The time the clock shows. Specifically, the time at which a program starts and ends. Also called schedule time.
single-camera directing Directing a single camera (usually a camcorder) in the studio or field for takes that are sepa rately recorded for postproduction. Also called film-style directing.
dress rehearsal Full rehearsal with all equipment operating and with talent in full dress. The dress rehearsal is often videotaped. Often called camera rehearsal except that the camera rehearsal does not require full dress for talent. dry run Rehearsal without equipment, during which the basic actions of the talent are worked out. Also called blocking rehearsal. film-style shooting Directing method for single-camera pro duction wherein you move from an establishing long shot to medium shots, then to close-ups of the same action. Also used to mean single-camera production.
subjective time The duration we feel. time line A breakdown of time blocks for various activities on the actual production day, such as crew call, setup, and camera rehearsal. walk-through Orientation session with the production crew (technical walk-through) and the talent (talent walk-through) wherein the director walks through the set and explains the key actions.
intercom Short for intercommunication system. Used by all production and technical personnel. The most widely used system has telephone headsets to facilitate voice com munication on several wired or wireless channels. Includes other systems, such as I.F.B. and cell phones.
445
THE DIRECTOR'S TERMINOLOGY
19.1
As does any o t h e r h u m a n activity in w h i c h m a n y p e o p l e w o r k t o g e t h e r at a c o m m o n task, television directing d e m a n d s a precise a n d specific language. This j a r g o n , w h i c h m u s t be u n d e r s t o o d b y all m e m b e r s of t h e t e a m , is gener ally called t h e director's language or, m o r e specifically, t h e director's terminology.
Multicamera Control
It is essential for efficient, error-free
c o m m u n i c a t i o n a m o n g t h e director a n d t h e o t h e r m e m bers of t h e p r o d u c t i o n t e a m .
Room Directing
By t h e t i m e y o u l e a r n television directing, y o u will p r o b a b l y have m a s t e r e d m o s t p r o d u c t i o n jargon in general a n d p e r h a p s even t h e greater p a r t of t h e director's specific lingo. Like any language t h e director's t e r m i n o l o g y is s u b ject t o habit a n d c h a n g e . A l t h o u g h t h e basic v o c a b u l a r y is fairly s t a n d a r d , y o u will h e a r s o m e v a r i a t i o n s a m o n g directors. A n d as n e w t e c h n o l o g y develops, t h e director's language changes accordingly. T h e t e r m i n o l o g y listed h e r e reflects p r i m a r i l y m u l t i c a m e r a directing from t h e s t u d i o o r r e m o t e t r u c k c o n t r o l r o o m — t h e t y p e of directing t h a t requires t h e m o s t precise t e r m i n o l o g y . A single i n a c c u r a t e call c a n cause a n u m b e r
As in p r e p r o d u c t i o n , y o u r role in b o t h t h e p r o d u c t i o n a n d t h e p o s t p r o d u c t i o n phases is m a r k e d b y m e t i c u l o u s p l a n ning, c o o r d i n a t i o n , a n d t e a m b u i l d i n g . Like so m a n y o t h e r p r o d u c t i o n activities, directing has its o w n language. Your first task in b e c o m i n g a director is, of course, to learn to speak this lingo with clarity a n d confidence. O n l y t h e n can y o u fulfill y o u r difficult task as m a s t e r juggler of schedules, e q u i p m e n t , p e o p l e , a n d artistic vision. Section 19.1 takes y o u t h r o u g h t h e m a j o r steps of m u l t i c a m e r a , o r c o n t r o l
of serious mistakes. You can also use m o s t of these t e r m s in s i n g l e - c a m e r a directing, regardless of w h e t h e r t h e p r o d u c t i o n h a p p e n s in t h e studio o r in t h e field. W h a t e v e r t e r m i n o l o g y you use, it m u s t be consistently precise a n d clear a n d it m u s t b e u n d e r s t o o d by everyone o n t h e p r o d u c t i o n t e a m ; there is little t i m e d u r i n g a s h o w to explain. T h e s h o r t e r a n d less a m b i g u o u s t h e signals, t h e b e t t e r t h e c o m m u n i c a t i o n . T h e following tables list t h e director's t e r m i n o l o g y for visualization, s e q u e n c i n g , special effects, a u d i o , VTR, a n d cues to t h e floor m a n a g e r .
r o o m , directing.
SEE 19.1-19.6
^
THE DIRECTOR'S TERMINOLOGY Terms and cues for visualization, sequencing, special effects, audio, VTR, and the floor manager
$•
W h e n multicamera
MULTICAMERA DIRECTING PROCEDURES
directing,
y o u direct a n d c o o r d i n a t e
v a r i o u s p r o d u c t i o n elements s i m u l t a n e o u s l y from a televi
Directing from the control room, and intercom systems
•
MULTICAMERA DIRECTING PROCEDURES
sion c o n t r o l r o o m in t h e s t u d i o or t h e r e m o t e t r u c k (see chapter 20). You generally try to create as finished a p r o d u c t
DIRECTING REHEARSALS Script reading; dry run, or blocking rehearsal;
walk-through;
camera and dress rehearsals; walk-through/camera combination; and preparing a time line
rehearsal
as possible, w h i c h m a y or m a y n o t need s o m e p o s t p r o d u c tion editing. W h e n d o i n g a live telecast, y o u have n o chance to fix a n y t h i n g in p o s t p r o d u c t i o n ; y o u r directing is t h e final cut. M u l t i c a m e r a directing involves t h e c o o r d i n a t i o n
DIRECTING THE SHOW Standby procedures and on-the-air
of m a n y technical o p e r a t i o n s as well as t h e actions of t h e procedures
talent. You will find that, at first, m a n a g i n g t h e c o m p l e x m a c h i n e r y — c a m e r a s , a u d i o , graphics, v i d e o t a p e , r e m o t e feeds, a n d t h e c l o c k — p r o v i d e s t h e greatest challenge. But once y o u have m a s t e r e d t h e m a c h i n e s t o s o m e extent, t h e
446
Section
19.1
Multicamera
m o s t difficult j o b will be dealing w i t h p e o p l e — t h o s e in front of t h e c a m e r a (talent) as well as those b e h i n d it ( p r o d u c t i o n p e o p l e ) . M ' i * EPROCESS-* Methods-* multi-camera
DIRECTING FROM THE CONTROL R O O M In m u l t i c a m e r a directing y o u n e e d t o be c o n c e r n e d w i t h n o t only the visualization of each shot b u t also the i m m e d i ate sequencing of the various shots. It includes the directing of live shows, live-on-tape p r o d u c t i o n s , a n d longer s h o w segments that are later assembled b u t n o t otherwise altered in relatively simple p o s t p r o d u c t i o n . M u l t i c a m e r a directing always involves t h e use of a c o n t r o l r o o m , regardless of w h e t h e r it is a t t a c h e d to t h e studio, inside a r e m o t e truck, o r t e m p o r a r i l y assembled in the field. Because the c o n t r o l r o o m is designed specifically for m u l t i c a m e r a p r o d u c t i o n
19.1
Control
Room
447
Directing
a n d for the s m o o t h c o o r d i n a t i o n of all o t h e r video, a u d i o , a n d recording facilities a n d people, m u l t i c a m e r a directing is often called control room directing. Because the c a m e r a rehearsals a n d the directing activi ties h a p p e n in t h e relative isolation of the control r o o m , y o u r lifeline is a reliable a n d flawlessly w o r k i n g i n t e r c o m m u n i c a t i o n system t h a t c o n n e c t s y o u with the rest of t h e control r o o m p e r s o n n e l , the studio crew, a n d , if necessary, t h e talent.
CONTROL ROOM INTERCOM SYSTEMS T h e c o n t r o l r o o m intercom systems p r o v i d e i m m e d i a t e voice c o m m u n i c a t i o n a m o n g all p r o d u c t i o n a n d techni cal p e r s o n n e l . T h e m o s t c o m m o n systems are the P.L., the I.F.B., a n d the S.A. systems.
DIRECTOR'S VISUALIZATION CUES
The visualization cues are directions for the camera to achieve optimal shots. Some of these visualizations can be achieved in postproduction (such as an electronic zoom through digital magnification), but they are much more easily done with proper camera handling. FROM
D I R E C T O R ' S CUE
TO
448
Chapter
1 9 . 1 DIRECTOR'S VISUALIZATION CUES FROM
19
THE DIRECTOR
IN PRODUCTION
AND
(continued) DIRECTOR'S CUE
TO
POSTPRODUCTION
Section
19.1
19.1
Multicamera
DIRECTOR'S VISUALIZATION CUES FROM
Control
Room
449
Directing
(continued)
D I R E C T O R ' S CUE
TO
450
Chapter
19
THE DIRECTOR
IN PRODUCTION
AND
POSTPRODUCTION
1 9 . 2 DIRECTOR'S SEQUENCING CUES The sequencing cues help get from one shot to the next. They include the major transitions. 1
ACTION
DIRECTOR'S CUE
Cut from camera 1 to camera 2.
Ready t w o — t a k e two.
Dissolve from camera 3 to camera 1.
Ready one for dissolve—dissolve.
Horizontal wipe from camera 1 to camera 3.
Ready three for horizontal wipe [over 1] — w i p e . or: R e a d y effects n u m b e r * [the number being specified by the switcher program] — effects.
Fade in camera 1 from black.
R e a d y f a d e in o n e — f a d e in o n e . or: R e a d y up on o n e — u p o n o n e .
Fade out camera 2 to black.
R e a d y b l a c k — g o t o black.
Short fade to black between cameras 1 and 2.
R e a d y cross-fade to t w o — cross-fade.
Cut between camera 1 and VTR 2 (assuming that VTR 2 is already rolling and "locked"or in a "parked"position).
R e a d y V T R t w o [assuming the videotape is coming from VTR 2] — t a k e V T R t w o . [Sometimes you simply call the VTR number as it appears on the switcher. If, for example, the VTR is labeled 6, you say: R e a d y s i x — t a k e six.]
Cut between VTR and C.G.
R e a d y C . G . — t a k e C.G. or: R e a d y effects on C . G . — t a k e effects.
Cut between C.G. titles.
Ready change p a g e — c h a n g e page.
M o s t small stations and i n d e p e n d e n t
best, however, to have t h e floor crew c o n n e c t their headsets
p r o d u c t i o n studios use t h e t e l e p h o n e i n t e r c o m m u n i c a t i o n ,
to t h e wall outlets r a t h e r t h a n t h e extra c a m e r a outlet. A
or P.L. (private
tie to t h e c a m e r a n o t only limits their o p e r a t i o n r a d i u s b u t
line or phone line), system. All p r o d u c t i o n
a n d technical p e r s o n n e l w h o n e e d to b e in voice c o n t a c t
also interferes w i t h t h e camera's flexibility. T h e r e is always
with o n e a n o t h e r w e a r s t a n d a r d t e l e p h o n e h e a d s e t s w i t h
the d a n g e r of t h e floor m a n a g e r ' s y a n k i n g the c a m e r a while
a n e a r p h o n e a n d a small m i c r o p h o n e for talkback. Every
t r y i n g to catch t h e talent's a t t e n t i o n .
p r o d u c t i o n s t u d i o h a s t h r e e o r m o r e i n t e r c o m outlets for
Larger s t u d i o s e m p l o y a wireless i n t e r c o m s y s t e m
p l u g g i n g in t h e headsets for t h e floor m a n a g e r , t h e floor
for t h e floor p e r s o n n e l . T h e s e systems furnish a regular
crew, a n d t h e m i c r o p h o n e b o o m o p e r a t o r . In a d d i t i o n ,
t a l k b a c k h e a d s e t for t h e floor m a n a g e r b u t s o m e t i m e s
each c a m e r a h a s t w o i n t e r c o m outlets: o n e for t h e c a m e r a
only a n e a r p l u g a n d a small p o c k e t receiver for t h e rest of
o p e r a t o r a n d t h e o t h e r for a m e m b e r of t h e floor crew. It is
the crew.
1
Section
19.3
79.1
Multicamera
Control
Room
Directing
451
DIRECTOR'S SPECIAL-EFFECTS CUES
Special-effects cues are not always uniform, and, depending on the complexity of the effect, directors may invent their own verbal "shorthand." Whatever cues are used, they need to be standardized among the production team. ACTION
DIRECTOR'S CUE
To super camera 1 over 2.
Ready super one over two — super.
To return to camera 2.
Ready to lose super— lose super. or: Ready to take out one — take out one.
To go to camera 1 from the super.
Ready to go through to one—through to one.
To key the C.G. over the base picture on camera 1.
Ready key C.G. [over 1]—key.
To key the studio card title on camera 1 over the base picture on camera 2 .
Ready key one over two—key.
To fill the keyed-out title from the studio card on camera 1 w i t h a yellow hue over the base picture on camera 2 .
Ready matte key one, yellow, over two—matte key.
To have the title from the C.G. appear in dropshadow outline over the base picture on camera 1.
Ready C.G. drop shadow over one—key C.G. [Sometimes the director may use the n a m e of the C.G. manufacturer, such as Chyron. Thus, you would say: Ready Chyron over one—key Chyron. Because the C.G. information is almost always keyed, the " k e y " i s usually omitted in the ready cue.] or: Ready effects, drop shadow—take effects. [Some directors simply call for an "insert," which refers to the downstream keyer. Usually the lettering m o d e [drop shadow or outline] is already programmed into the C.G. So you just say: Ready insert seven—take insert.]
To have a w i p e pattern appear over a picture, such as a scene on camera 2, and replace a scene on camera 1 through a circle w i p e .
Ready circle wipe two over one—wipe. [Any other wipe is called for in the same w a y except that the specific w i p e pattern is substituted for "circle w i p e . " If you need a soft w i p e , simply call for "Ready soft w i p e " instead of "Ready w i pe."]
To have an insert (video B) grow in size in a zoomlike motion, replacing the base picture (video A ) .
Ready squeeze out—squeeze. or: Ready effect sixteen — squeeze out.
To achieve the reverse squeeze (video B getting smaller).
Ready squeeze in — squeeze.
To achieve a great many transitions through wipes.
Ready wipe effect twenty-one—wipe.
Many of the more-complicated effects are preset and stored in the computer program. The retrieval goes by numbers. All you do to activate a whole effects sequence is call for the number: Ready effects eighty-seven—take effects.
1
452
Chapter
19.4
19
THE DIRECTOR
IN PRODUCTION
AND
POSTPRODUCTION
DIRECTOR'S AUDIO CUES
Audio cues involve cues for microphones, starting and stopping various audio sources, such as CD players, and integrating or mixing these sources.
ACTION To activate a microphone in the studio.
DIRECTOR'S CUE Ready to cue talent. [Or something more specific, like Mary—cue her. The audio engineer will automatically open her m i c ]
or: Ready to cue Mary—open mic, cue her.
To start music.
Ready music—music.
To bring the music under for an announcer.
Ready to fade music under—music under, cue announcer.
To take the music out.
Ready music out—music out.
or: Fade music out.
To close the microphone in the studio (announcer's mic) and switch over to the sound on videotape.
Ready SOT [sound on tape]—close mic, track up.
or: Ready SOT —SOT.
To roll audio recording.
Ready audiotape—roll audiotape. [Do not just say, "Roll tape," because the TD may start the VTR.]
or: Ready Zip*—play.
To fade one sound source under and out while simultaneously fading another in (similar to a dissolve).
Ready cross-fade from [source] to [othersource]—cross-fade.
To go from one sound source to another without
Ready segue from [source] to [othersource]—segue.
interruption (usually t w o pieces of music). To increase program speaker volume for the director.
Monitor up, please.
To play a sound effect from a CD.
Ready CD cut x— play.
or: Ready sound effect*—play.
To put slate information on videotape (either open floor manager's mic or talkback patched to VTR).
Ready to read slate— read slate.
Section
19.1
Multicamera
Control
Room
Directing
453
1 9 . 5 DIRECTOR'S VTR CUES The VTR cues are used to start and stop the videotape recorder, to slate a video recording, and to switch to the VTR output. 1
ACTION
DIRECTOR'S CUE
1
To start videotape for recording a program.
Ready to roll VTR one—roll VTR one. [Now you have to wait for the "in-record"or "speed"confirmation from the VTR operator.]
To "slate"the program after the VTR is in the record mode. The slate is on camera 2 or on the C.G.; the opening scene is on camera 1. ( W e are assuming that the color bars and the reference level audio tone are already on the tape.)
Ready two [or C.G.], ready to read slate—take two [or C.G.], read slate.
To put t h e opening 10-second beeper on the audio track and fade in on camera 1 . (Do not forget to start your stopwatch as soon as camera 1 fades in.)
Ready black, ready beeper — black, beeper. Ten — nine — eight — seven — six — five — four—three—two—cue Mary—up on one. [Start your stopwatch.]
To stop the videotape on a freeze-frame.
Ready freeze—freeze.
To roll t h e videotape out of a freeze-frame.
Ready to roll VTR three—roll VTR three.
To roll the videotape for a slow-motion effect.
Ready VTR four slo-mo—roll VTR four.
or: Ready VTR four slo-mo — slo-mo four. To roll a VTR as a program insert while you are on camera 2; sound is on tape. Assuming a 2-second roll.
Ready to roll VTR three, SOT— roll VTR three. Two—one, take VTR three, SOT.
To return from VTR to camera and Mary on camera 1 . (Stop your watch and reset it for the next insert.)
Ten seconds to one, five seconds to one. Ready one, ready cue Mary— cue Mary, take one.
If you do not use a countdown because of instant start, simply say: Ready VTR three, roll and take VTR three. [Start your stopwatch for timing the VTR insert.]
S o m e shows r e q u i r e a s i m u l t a n e o u s feed of p r o g r a m
y o u m a y n e e d a d o u b l e - m u f f h e a d s e t , w h i c h filters o u t the
s o u n d a n d c o n t r o l r o o m signals t o o t h e r p r o d u c t i o n per
h i g h - v o l u m e s o u n d s at least to s o m e degree. T h e m i c in
s o n n e l , s u c h as t h e m i c r o p h o n e b o o m o p e r a t o r or s t u d i o
s u c h h e a d s e t s d o e s n o t t r a n s m i t t h e a m b i e n t s o u n d a n d is
m u s i c i a n s (usually t h e b a n d or o r c h e s t r a leader), w h o have
activated o n l y w h e n y o u speak i n t o it.
to coordinate their actions with b o t h the p r o g r a m s o u n d
In m o s t television o p e r a t i o n s , p r o d u c t i o n a n d tech
a n d t h e director's cues. In s u c h cases y o u c a n use a d o u b l e
nical crews use t h e s a m e i n t e r c o m c h a n n e l , w h i c h m e a n s
h e a d s e t w h e r e i n o n e of t h e e a r p h o n e s carries t h e i n t e r c o m
t h a t everyone can b e h e a r d by e v e r y o n e else. M o s t of these
signals a n d t h e o t h e r carries t h e p r o g r a m s o u n d .
systems also have provisions for separating t h e lines for dif
S o m e t i m e s w h e n y o u w o r k in noisy s u r r o u n d i n g s or
ferent functions. For e x a m p l e , while t h e technical d i r e c t o r
n e a r a h i g h - v o l u m e s o u n d s o u r c e , s u c h as a r o c k b a n d ,
( T D ) confers w i t h t h e v i d e o o p e r a t o r o n o n e c h a n n e l , the
454
Chapter
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THE DIRECTOR
IN PRODUCTION
AND
POSTPRODUCTION
1 9 . 6 DIRECTOR'S CUES TO THE FLOOR MANAGER The directional cues are always given from the camera's point of view, not the talent's. "Left" means camera-left; "right" means camera-right. FROM
DIRECTOR'S CUE
TO
Section
19.1
Multicamera
Control
Room
Directing
455
director may, at t h e s a m e t i m e , give i n s t r u c t i o n s to t h e floor
cover faulty headsets or a n imperfect i n t e r c o m line, r e p o r t
crew. Larger s t u d i o s a n d r e m o t e t r u c k s p r o v i d e a d o z e n or
it to the m a i n t e n a n c e crew a n d have it fixed right away. A faulty i n t e r c o m c a n b e m o r e d e t r i m e n t a l to a m u l t i c a m e r a
m o r e separate i n t e r c o m c h a n n e l s .
p r o d u c t i o n t h a n a defective c a m e r a . T h e I.F.B. s y s t e m foldback
You u s e a n I.F.B.
o r interruptible
feedback)
(interruptible
system in shows w i t h
highly flexible formats or w h e n p r o g r a m changes are likely
DIRECTING REHEARSALS
t o o c c u r while o n t h e air. T h e I.F.B. system c o n n e c t s t h e
Unless y o u are d o i n g a live r e m o t e p i c k u p of a special event,
c o n t r o l r o o m (director a n d p r o d u c e r ) directly w i t h t h e
y o u n e e d to rehearse as m u c h as possible. Rehearsals n o t
p e r f o r m e r s , b y p a s s i n g t h e floor m a n a g e r . T h e p e r f o r m e r
only give y o u a n d the rest of the p r o d u c t i o n t e a m practice
wears a small earpiece that carries t h e total p r o g r a m s o u n d
in w h a t t o d o d u r i n g t h e t a p i n g session b u t they also read
( i n c l u d i n g his or h e r o w n voice) unless t h e director, t h e
ily reveal a n y m a j o r a n d m i n o r flaws o r o m i s s i o n s in y o u r
p r o d u c e r , or any o t h e r m e m b e r of t h e c o n t r o l r o o m t e a m
preproduction preparation.
c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e system i n t e r r u p t s the p r o g r a m s o u n d w i t h specific i n s t r u c t i o n s . For example, a n o n - c a m e r a field r e p o r t e r in W a s h i n g
Ideally, y o u s h o u l d b e able to rehearse e v e r y t h i n g that goes o n v i d e o t a p e or o n t h e air. U n f o r t u n a t e l y , in practice this is h a r d l y t h e case. Because t h e a m o u n t of s c h e d u l e d
t o n w h o is describing t h e arrival of foreign dignitaries c a n
rehearsal t i m e always seems insufficient, t h e prerehearsal
h e a r herself until t h e d i r e c t o r cuts in a n d says, " T h r o w it
p r e p a r a t i o n s (discussed in c h a p t e r 18) b e c o m e extremely
b a c k to N e w Y o r k " — t h a t is, for t h e talent to tell the viewers
i m p o r t a n t . To m a k e o p t i m a l use of t h e available t i m e
t h a t t h e p r o g r a m is r e t u r n i n g to t h e o r i g i n a t i o n center in
d u r i n g s c h e d u l e d rehearsals, y o u m i g h t t r y t h e following
N e w York. But while t h e d i r e c t o r is giving these i n s t r u c
m e t h o d s : (1) script r e a d i n g , (2) d r y r u n , o r b l o c k i n g re
t i o n s , t h e viewer still h e a r s t h e field r e p o r t e r ' s c o n t i n u o u s
hearsal, (3) w a l k - t h r o u g h , (4) c a m e r a a n d dress rehearsals,
d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e event. Relaying s u c h messages t h r o u g h
a n d (5) w a l k - t h r o u g h / c a m e r a rehearsal c o m b i n a t i o n . Note,
a n off-camera floor m a n a g e r w o u l d b e m u c h t o o slow a n d
however, that y o u rarely go t h r o u g h all of these steps. M a n y
i n a c c u r a t e in as tight a s h o w as a newscast o r a live telecast
n o n d r a m a t i c shows are r e h e a r s e d simply b y walking the
of a special event. T h e p r o d u c e r uses I.F.B. to s u p p l y t h e
talent t h r o u g h certain actions, s u c h as m o v i n g to a display
h o s t w i t h follow-up q u e s t i o n s while i n t e r v i e w i n g a guest.
table a n d h o l d i n g items p r o p e r l y for close-ups, or walking
Needless to say, such a system w o r k s only with a highly
to t h e p e r f o r m a n c e area t o greet t h e guest. R o u t i n e shows,
e x p e r i e n c e d a n n o u n c e r a n d p r o d u c e r or director. T h e r e
such as daily news shows with interviews by the same talent,
are countless occasions w h e n t h e i n t e r r u p t i b l e foldback
are n o t r e h e a r s e d at all.
system u n f o r t u n a t e l y acts as a p e r f o r m e r i n t e r r u p t device because t h e i n e x p e r i e n c e d p e r f o r m e r c a n n o t m a i n t a i n ef
SCRIPT READING
fective c o m m e n t a r y while listening s i m u l t a n e o u s l y t o t h e
U n d e r ideal c o n d i t i o n s every m a j o r p r o d u c t i o n s h o u l d
producer's instructions.
begin w i t h a s c r i p t - r e a d i n g session. Even for a relatively simple show, you s h o u l d m e e t at least o n c e w i t h the talent,
T h e S . A .s y s t e m
T h e S.A. (studio address) system is used
t h e p r o d u c e r , t h e PA ( p r o d u c t i o n assistant), a n d t h e key
b y t h e c o n t r o l r o o m p e r s o n n e l , p r i m a r i l y t h e director, to
p r o d u c t i o n p e r s o n n e l — A D (assistant d i r e c t o r ) , T D , a n d
give i n s t r u c t i o n s t o p e o p l e in t h e s t u d i o n o t c o n n e c t e d b y
floor m a n a g e r — t o discuss a n d r e a d t h e script. Bring the
t h e RL. system. Also called studio talkback, t h e S.A. system
floor p l a n along; it will h e l p everyone visualize just w h e r e
uses a speaker similar to a p u b l i c a d d r e s s system, h e l p i n g
t h e action takes place a n d p o i n t o u t s o m e potential p r o d u c
c o m m u n i c a t e directly w i t h e v e r y o n e in t h e s t u d i o . For
t i o n p r o b l e m s . In this session, w h i c h n o r m a l l y d o u b l e s as a
e x a m p l e , y o u m a y use it t o give s o m e general i n s t r u c t i o n s
p r o d u c t i o n m e e t i n g , y o u s h o u l d address these p o i n t s :
t o everybody, especially at t h e b e g i n n i n g of a rehearsal, or t o i n f o r m talent a n d p r o d u c t i o n p e r s o n n e l of a t e m p o r a r y delay. Also, if m o s t p e r s o n n e l h a p p e n to b e off t h e RL.
» Explain t h e process message, i n c l u d i n g t h e p u r p o s e of t h e s h o w a n d its i n t e n d e d a u d i e n c e .
headsets, as is frequently t h e case d u r i n g a s h o r t break, y o u
O u t l i n e the m a j o r a c t i o n s of t h e p e r f o r m e r s , t h e
c a n use t h e talkback system to call t h e m b a c k to w o r k .
n u m b e r a n d the use of h a n d p r o p s , a n d t h e m a j o r
C o n s i d e r i n g the i m p o r t a n c e of t h e i n t e r c o m system, y o u s h o u l d include it in r o u t i n e facilities checks. If y o u dis
crossovers (walking from o n e p e r f o r m a n c e area to a n o t h e r while o n - c a m e r a ) .
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THE DIRECTOR
• Discuss the performer's relationship to the guests, if
IN PRODUCTION
Adjust their blocking a n d
AND
POSTPRODUCTION
your i m a g i n e d c a m e r a positions
any. In an interview, for example, discuss w i t h t h e
so t h a t you are reasonably assured that you will achieve t h e
h o s t t h e key q u e s t i o n s a n d w h a t he o r she s h o u l d
visualized screen image in t h e actual c a m e r a rehearsal. D o
k n o w a b o u t the guest. Normally, s u c h talent p r e p a
n o t fuss a b o u t specially framed shots at this t i m e ; you can
r a t i o n is d o n e by t h e p r o d u c e r .
always m a k e such adjustments d u r i n g t h e camera rehearsal.
T h e script-reading sessions are, of course, particularly
w h a t to d o next. R a t h e r t h a n always k n o w i n g w h a t to d o
i m p o r t a n t if y o u are rehearsing T V specials or a television
w i t h o u t the director's help, a g o o d actor asks w h a t to d o
d r a m a . You will find t h a t t h e t i m e y o u invest in t h o r
a n d t h e n does it convincingly a n d with precision.
Be ready to give precise directions to the actor w h o is asking
o u g h script i n t e r p r e t a t i o n is regained d u r i n g s u b s e q u e n t rehearsals. In t h e s c r i p t - r e a d i n g sessions for o n e t i m e plays, you should discuss t h e process message objective, t h e s t r u c t u r e of t h e play ( t h e m e , plot, a n d e n v i r o n m e n t ) , a n d t h e s u b stance of each character. An extremely detailed analysis of t h e characters is p r o b a b l y t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t aspect of t h e d r a m a t i c s c r i p t - r e a d i n g session. T h e actor w h o really u n d e r s t a n d s his or h e r character, role, a n d relationship to t h e event has m a s t e r e d t h e p r i n c i p a l p a r t of his o r h e r p e r f o r m a n c e . After this analysis t h e actors t e n d to block themselves ( u n d e r y o u r careful guidance, of course) a n d m o v e a n d "act" naturally. You n o longer need t o explain t h e m o t i v a t i o n for each m o v e . M o r e t h a n any other, t h e television actor m u s t u n d e r s t a n d a character so well t h a t he or she is n o longer acting o u t , b u t r a t h e r is living, t h e role. T h e i n t e r n a l i z a t i o n of t h e character, w h i c h can b e q u i t e readily achieved t h r o u g h extensive s c r i p t - r e a d i n g sessions, will almost always e n h a n c e the actor's television performance. W h e n y o u direct a daily d a y t i m e serial or a weekly situation c o m e d y with an e n s e m b l e cast, such intense a n d repeated character explorations are obviously superfluous. By t h e second o r t h i r d episode, t h e actors will have a firm grip o n their roles a n d h o w to relate to t h e o t h e r m e m b e r s of t h e cast.
DRY R U N , OR B L O C K I N G R E H E A R S A L In the dry run, also called blocking rehearsal, t h e basic ac tions of t h e talent are w o r k e d o u t . By t h a t t i m e y o u m u s t have a very g o o d idea of w h e r e t h e c a m e r a s s h o u l d b e in relation to the set a n d w h e r e t h e actors s h o u l d be in rela tion t o t h e c a m e r a s a n d to o n e another. T h e d r y r u n p r e s u p p o s e s a detailed floor p l a n a n d t h o r o u g h p r e p a r a t i o n b y t h e director. It also p r e s u p p o s e s that t h e actors have p r e t t y m u c h internalized their c h a r a c ters a n d roles. Tell t h e m w h e r e t h e action should take place (the a p p r o x i m a t e location in t h e i m a g i n e d set a r e a — t h e actual set is rarely available at this point) a n d let t h e m block as n a t u r a l l y as possible. Watch their actions as screen i m ages, n o t from the p o i n t of view (POV) of a live a u d i e n c e .
Generally, t r y to observe t h e following in a d r y r u n : H o l d the d r y r u n in the studio or a rehearsal hall. In a n e m e r g e n c y any r o o m will d o . Use tables, chairs, a n d chalk m a r k s o n t h e floor for sets a n d furniture. W o r k o u t t h e b l o c k i n g p r o b l e m s . Use a d i r e c t o r ' s viewfinder o r a small c o n s u m e r c a m c o r d e r , b e a r i n g in m i n d that a s t u d i o c a m e r a is n o t as flexible; y o u c a n n o t tilt a s t u d i o c a m e r a sideways o r lower it close to t h e floor for a from-below-eye-level shot. Have t h e PA take notes of the major blocking m a n e u v e r s . Allow t i m e later for reading back these notes so y o u can correct the blocking. Try to b l o c k a c c o r d i n g t o t h e a c t o r s ' m o s t n a t u r a l m o v e m e n t s , b u t keep in m i n d t h e c a m e r a a n d m i c r o p h o n e positions a n d moves. S o m e directors walk right to the spot w h e r e t h e active c a m e r a will be a n d w a t c h t h e p r o c e e d i n g s from t h e camera's POV. If you b l o c k n o n d r a m a t i c action, observe first w h a t t h e p e r f o r m e r s w o u l d d o w i t h o u t t h e presence of a camera. As m u c h as possible, t r y to place t h e c a m e r a s to suit t h e action rather t h a n t h e o t h e r way around. If it will help, call o u t all m a j o r cues, such as "cue Lisa," "ready two, take two," a n d so forth. R u n t h r o u g h t h e scenes in t h e o r d e r in w h i c h they are t o b e taped. If y o u d o t h e s h o w live or live-on-tape, try to go t h r o u g h t h e w h o l e script at least o n c e . If y o u c a n n o t rehearse the w h o l e script, pick t h e m o s t complicated p a r t s for rehearsal. In a n o n d r a m a t i c show, rehearse t h e o p e n i n g as m u c h as t i m e allows. Inexperienced talent often s t u m b l e over t h e o p e n i n g lines, w i t h t h e s h o w g o i n g d o w n h i l l from there. T i m e each s e g m e n t a n d t h e overall show. Allow t i m e for long c a m e r a m o v e m e n t s , m u s i c bridges, a n n o u n c e r ' s intro and closing, opening and closing credits, and so forth. Reconfirm t h e t i m e s a n d / o r dates for t h e u p c o m i n g rehearsals.
Section
19.1
Multicamera
WALK-THROUGH T h e walk-through is a n o r i e n t a t i o n session t h a t helps t h e p r o d u c t i o n crew a n d talent u n d e r s t a n d t h e necessary m e d i u m a n d p e r f o r m a n c e r e q u i r e m e n t s quickly a n d easily. You can have b o t h a technical w a l k - t h r o u g h a n d a talent w a l k - t h r o u g h . W h e n pressed for t i m e , or w h e n d o i n g a smaller p r o d u c t i o n , c o m b i n e t h e t w o . T h e w a l k - t h r o u g h s as well as t h e c a m e r a rehearsals o c c u r s h o r t l y before t h e actual o n - t h e - a i r p e r f o r m a n c e o r t a p i n g session. W a l k - t h r o u g h s are especially i m p o r t a n t w h e n y o u are s h o o t i n g o n location. T h e talent will get a feel for t h e n e w e n v i r o n m e n t , a n d t h e crew will discover possible obstacles to c a m e r a a n d m i c r o p h o n e m o v e s . This is especially i m p o r t a n t w h e n c a m e r a a n d fishpole operators have to walk b a c k w a r d d u r i n g a scene. O n c e t h e set is i n place, gather t h e p r o d u c t i o n c r e w — A D , floor m a n a g e r , floor p e r s o n nel, T D , L D (lighting d i r e c t o r ) , c a m e r a o p e r a t o r s , a u d i o engineer, a n d b o o m or fishpole o p e r a t o r — f o r the technical walk-through. Explain t h e process message objective a n d y o u r basic c o n c e p t of t h e show. T h e n walk t h e m t h r o u g h t h e set a n d explain these key factors: basic blocking a n d actions of talent, camera locations a n d traffic, specific shots a n d framings, m i c locations a n d moves, basic cueing, scene a n d p r o p changes, if any, a n d m a j o r lighting effects. E N G w T h e technical w a l k - t h r o u g h is especially i m p o r t a n t
EFP for EFP a n d big r e m o t e s , w h e r e t h e crew i n t h e per f o r m a n c e area m u s t often w o r k d u r i n g t h e setup u n d e r t h e g u i d a n c e of t h e floor m a n a g e r r a t h e r t h a n t h e director, w h o is isolated in t h e r e m o t e t r u c k (see c h a p t e r 20). Have t h e A D o r PA take notes of all y o u r major decisions; t h e n have the notes read back a n d discussed so t h a t t h e technical crew can take care of t h e v a r i o u s p r o b l e m s . < Talent walk-through W h i l e t h e p r o d u c t i o n p e o p l e go a b o u t their tasks, take t h e p e r f o r m e r s o n a talent walk through—a s h o r t excursion t h r o u g h t h e set or location; e x p l a i n o n c e again t h e i r m a j o r a c t i o n s , p o s i t i o n s , a n d crossovers. Tell t h e m w h e r e t h e c a m e r a s will b e in relation t o their actions a n d w h e t h e r they are to address the c a m e r a directly. H e r e are s o m e of t h e m o r e i m p o r t a n t aspects of t h e talent w a l k - t h r o u g h : Point o u t to each p e r f o r m e r his or h e r m a j o r positions a n d walks. If t h e p e r f o r m e r is to look directly i n t o t h e c a m e r a , indicate w h i c h c a m e r a it is a n d / o r w h e r e it will be positioned. Explain briefly w h e r e a n d h o w they s h o u l d w o r k w i t h specific p r o p s . For example, tell t h e actor t h a t the coffeepot
Control
Room
Directing
457
will b e here a n d h o w h e s h o u l d walk with t h e coffee c u p t o t h e c o u c h — i n front of t h e table, n o t b e h i n d it. Explain y o u r blocking to t h e talent from t h e P O V of the c a m e r a . Urge t h e p e r f o r m e r n o t t o pick u p t h e display objects b u t to leave t h e m o n t h e table so that t h e c a m e r a can get a good close-up. Have t h e p e r f o r m e r go t h r o u g h p a r t of t h e d e m o n s t r a t i o n , a n d watch this s i m u l a t i o n from t h e camera's POV. W a t c h t h a t t h e p e r f o r m e r d o e s n o t block i m p o r t a n t close-ups. Have all the talent go t h r o u g h their o p e n i n g lines, t h e n have t h e m skip t o t h e individual c u e lines (often at t h e e n d of their dialogue). If the script calls for ad-lib c o m m e n t a r y , ask t h e talent to ad-lib so t h a t everyone will get an idea of w h a t it s o u n d s like. Allow e n o u g h t i m e for m a k e u p a n d dressing before t h e c a m e r a rehearsal. D u r i n g t h e talent w a l k - t h r o u g h , t r y t o stay o u t of t h e crew's w a y as m u c h as possible. Again, have t h e A D o r PA take notes. Finish t h e w a l k - t h r o u g h early e n o u g h so t h a t everyone can take a b r e a k before t h e c a m e r a rehearsal.
CAMERA AND DRESS REHEARSALS T h e following discussion of c a m e r a rehearsals is p r i m a r i l y for s t u d i o p r o d u c t i o n s a n d big m u l t i c a m e r a r e m o t e s that are directed from a c o n t r o l r o o m . ( C a m e r a rehearsals for EFPs are discussed in section 19.2.) Essentially, t h e camera rehearsal is a full rehearsal that includes all c a m e r a s a n d o t h e r p r o d u c t i o n e q u i p m e n t . I n m i n o r p r o d u c t i o n s t h e c a m e r a rehearsal a n d final dress rehearsal, or dress, are a l m o s t always t h e same, t h e only difference being t h a t t h e talent is already p r o p e r l y dressed a n d m a d e - u p for the final taping. Frequently, t h e c a m e r a rehearsal t i m e is cut s h o r t by technical p r o b l e m s , such as lighting o r m i c a d j u s t m e n t s . D o n o t get n e r v o u s w h e n y o u see m o s t of t h e technical crew w o r k i n g frantically o n t h e i n t e r c o m system o r a u d i o console five m i n u t e s before airtime. Be patient a n d t r y to stay calm. Realize that you are w o r k i n g w i t h a highly skilled g r o u p w h o k n o w just as well as y o u d o h o w m u c h d e p e n d s o n a successful performance. Like all o t h e r systems, t h e television system s o m e t i m e s breaks d o w n . Be ready t o suggest alternatives s h o u l d t h e p r o b l e m prevail. T h e t w o b a s i c m e t h o d s of c o n d u c t i n g a c a m e r a rehearsal for a live o r l i v e - o n - t a p e p r o d u c t i o n a r e t h e stop-start m e t h o d a n d t h e u n i n t e r r u p t e d r u n - t h r o u g h . A stop-start rehearsal is usually c o n d u c t e d from t h e c o n t r o l r o o m , b u t it can also b e d o n e , at least partially, from t h e s t u d i o floor. A n uninterrupted run-through rehearsal is always c o n d u c t e d from t h e c o n t r o l r o o m .
458
Chapter
19
THE DIRECTOR
IN PRODUCTION
AND
POSTPRODUCTION
With the stop-start method, the camera rehearsal is mance or taping. In these situations you have to resort to i n t e r r u p t e d w h e n y o u e n c o u n t e r a p r o b l e m so t h a t y o u
a w a l k - t h r o u g h / c a m e r a rehearsal c o m b i n a t i o n .
can discuss it w i t h t h e crew or talent; t h e n y o u r e s u m e at
Because y o u c a n n o t r e h e a r s e t h e entire show, y o u
a logical spot in t h e script, h o p i n g t h a t t h e p r o b l e m is n o t
s i m p l y rehearse as well as possible t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t
repeated. It is a t h o r o u g h albeit t i m e - c o n s u m i n g m e t h o d .
parts. Usually, these are the transitions rather t h a n the parts
But even t h e u n i n t e r r u p t e d r u n - t h r o u g h rarely r e m a i n s
b e t w e e n t h e m . Always direct this rehearsal from the
u n i n t e r r u p t e d . Nevertheless, y o u should call for a cut (stop
floor. If y o u t r y to c o n d u c t it from t h e c o n t r o l r o o m , y o u
all action) o n l y w h e n a grave mistake has b e e n m a d e — o n e
will waste valuable t i m e explaining shots a n d blocking over
t h a t c a n n o t b e c o r r e c t e d later. All m i n o r m i s t a k e s a n d
t h e i n t e r c o m system.
fumbles are corrected after t h e r u n - t h r o u g h . Dictate n o t e s of all m i n o r p r o b l e m s t o t h e PA or A D a n d have t h e m read back at scheduled rehearsal breaks (called notes); p r o v i d e e n o u g h t i m e for following u p o n t h e i t e m s listed
(reset).
Because m a n y s t u d i o shows are v i d e o t a p e d in seg m e n t s , an u n i n t e r r u p t e d r u n - t h r o u g h will b e i n t e r r u p t e d anyway at each scene o r s e g m e n t as m a r k e d in t h e script. If y o u p l a n to d o the entire s h o w live, o r to v i d e o t a p e t h e
studio
H e r e are s o m e of t h e m a j o r p o i n t s for c o n d u c t i n g a w a l k - t h r o u g h / c a m e r a rehearsal c o m b i n a t i o n : Get all p r o d u c t i o n people into their respective p o s i t i o n s — a l l c a m e r a o p e r a t o r s at their c a m e r a s (with t h e c a m e r a s u n c a p p e d a n d ready t o go); t h e fishpole m i c ready to follow the s o u n d source; t h e floor m a n a g e r ready for cueing; a n d t h e TD, t h e a u d i o console operator, a n d , if a p p r o p r i a t e , t h e LD r e a d y for action in the c o n t r o l r o o m .
s h o w in o n e u n i n t e r r u p t e d take, go t h r o u g h as l o n g a s e g m e n t as possible in t h e u n i n t e r r u p t e d r u n - t h r o u g h . A
Have t h e T D feed t h e s t u d i o m o n i t o r w i t h a t r i p a r t
long stretch w i t h o u t any i n t e r r u p t i o n s n o t only gives y o u
or q u a d split, w i t h each of t h e three or four m i n i - s c r e e n s
an overview of the general d e v e l o p m e n t a n d b u i l d of t h e
s h o w i n g a respective c a m e r a feed. This split-screen display
show, b u t also helps t h e p e r f o r m e r s or actors e n o r m o u s l y
will serve as y o u r preview m o n i t o r s . Have a simple s t a n d
in their p a c i n g . T h e u n i n t e r r u p t e d r u n - t h r o u g h is o n e of
m i c set u p in t h e s t u d i o for you to relay y o u r directing calls
y o u r few o p p o r t u n i t i e s to get a feel for t h e overall r h y t h m
from the studio floor t o the control r o o m . If you c a n n o t d o
of t h e show.
such a split-screen display for y o u r studio m o n i t o r , have t h e
In larger p r o d u c t i o n s c a m e r a rehearsals a n d t h e dress
T D execute all of y o u r switching calls a n d feed t h e l i n e - o u t
rehearsal are c o n d u c t e d separately. W h e r e a s i n c a m e r a
pictures to t h e studio m o n i t o r . This way everybody can see
rehearsals t h e actors are n o t yet dressed a n d y o u m a y s t o p
t h e shots a n d t h e sequence y o u selected.
occasionally to correct s o m e blocking or technical p r o b l e m , dress rehearsals are n o r m a l l y d o n e in full c o s t u m e a n d are r u n straight t h r o u g h . You stop o n l y w h e n major p r o d u c t i o n p r o b l e m s arise. M a n y t i m e s , as i n t h e v i d e o t a p i n g
W a l k t h e talent t h r o u g h all t h e m a j o r p a r t s of t h e show. Rehearse only t h e critical transitions, crossovers, a n d specific shots. Watch t h e a c t i o n o n t h e s t u d i o m o n i t o r .
of a situation c o m e d y before a live a u d i e n c e , t h e v i d e o
Give all cues for m u s i c , s o u n d effects, lighting, v i d e o
recording of t h e dress rehearsal is c o m b i n e d w i t h t h a t of
tape rolls, slating procedures, a n d so forth to the T D via t h e
the " o n - t h e - a i r " p e r f o r m a n c e to m a k e t h e final edit m a s t e r
o p e n studio m i c , b u t d o n o t have t h e m executed (except
tape t h a t is t h e n broadcast.
for t h e m u s i c , w h i c h can be easily reset).
WALK-THROUGH/CAMERA REHEARSAL COMBINATION
m a n a g e r cue t h e talent a n d m a r k t h e crucial spots o n t h e
As necessary as t h e p r e c e d i n g rehearsal p r o c e d u r e s seem, they are rarely possible in smaller o p e r a t i o n s . First, m o s t directing chores in n o n b r o a d c a s t or n o n n e t w o r k p r o d u c tions are of a n o n d r a m a t i c n a t u r e , d e m a n d i n g less rehearsal effort t h a n d r a m a t i c shows. Second, because of t i m e a n d space limitations, y o u are lucky to get rehearsal t i m e equal to or slightly m o r e t h a n t h e r u n n i n g t i m e of t h e entire show. Forty-five or even t h i r t y m i n u t e s of rehearsal t i m e for a h a l f - h o u r s h o w is n o t u n c o m m o n . I n s o m e cases y o u have t o j u m p from a c u r s o r y script r e a d i n g to a c a m e r a rehearsal i m m e d i a t e l y p r e c e d i n g t h e o n - t h e - a i r perfor
Even if y o u are o n t h e floor yourself, have t h e floor s t u d i o floor w i t h chalk or m a s k i n g tape. If everything goes fairly well, you are ready t o go to t h e control r o o m . D o n o t allow yourself or t h e crew t o get h u n g u p o n s o m e insignificant detail. Always view t h e p r o b l e m s in t h e context of t h e overall s h o w a n d t h e t i m e available. For example, d o n o t fret over a picture t h a t seems to h a n g slightly high o n t h e set wall while neglecting to rehearse t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t crossovers w i t h t h e talent. F r o m t h e c o n t r o l r o o m , c o n t a c t t h e c a m e r a s by n u m b e r a n d verify t h a t t h e o p e r a t o r s can c o m m u n i c a t e w i t h you. T h e n briefly rehearse o n c e m o r e from t h e c o n t r o l
Section
19.1
Multicamera
r o o m the m o s t i m p o r t a n t p a r t s of t h e s h o w — t h e o p e n i n g , closing, m a j o r talent actions, a n d c a m e r a m o v e m e n t s . Try t o rehearse by yourself t h e o p e n i n g a n d closing of a s h o w p r i o r t o c a m e r a rehearsal. Sit in a quiet c o r n e r w i t h t h e script a n d , using a stopwatch (for practice), start calling o u t the o p e n i n g shots: "Roll VTR. Ready slate—take slate. Ready black, ready beeper. Black, beeper. Ready to cue Lynne. Ready to fade u p o n two. C u e Lynne, u p o n two," a n d so o n . By the t i m e you enter the control r o o m , y o u will practically have m e m o r i z e d the o p e n i n g a n d closing of t h e s h o w a n d will be able to p a y full a t t e n t i o n t o t h e c o n t r o l r o o m monitors and the audio. O n c e you are in t h e c o n t r o l r o o m , t h e only way y o u can see t h e floor action is via t h e p r e v i e w m o n i t o r s . You should therefore develop a m e n t a l m a p of t h e m a j o r tal e n t a n d c a m e r a m o v e m e n t s a n d of w h e r e t h e c a m e r a s are in relation to t h e p r i m a r y p e r f o r m a n c e areas. To help y o u c o n s t r u c t a n d m a i n t a i n this m e n t a l m a p , always t r y to position t h e c a m e r a s counterclockwise, w i t h c a m e r a 1 o n t h e left a n d the last c a m e r a o n t h e far right. As pressed for t i m e as you m a y be, t r y t o r e m a i n cool a n d c o u r t e o u s to everyone. Also, this is n o t t h e t i m e to m a k e drastic changes; t h e r e will always be o t h e r ways in w h i c h t h e s h o w m i g h t be directed a n d even i m p r o v e d , b u t the c a m e r a rehearsal is n o t t h e t i m e to t r y t h e m out. Reserve s u d d e n creative i n s p i r a t i o n s for y o u r next show. Stick as closely as possible to t h e time line. D o n o t rehearse right u p to v i d e o t a p i n g or airtime. Give the talent a n d crew a brief break before t h e actual taping. D o n ' t just tell t h e m "Take five" (take a five-minute b r e a k ) ; tell t h e m the exact t i m e to b e back in t h e studio.
P R E P A R I N G A T I M E LINE As w i t h every o t h e r aspect of television p r o d u c t i o n , m o v i n g a s h o w from t h e r e h e a r s a l p h a s e t o t h e o n - t h e - a i r p e r f o r m a n c e is governed by strict t i m e limits. In larger o p e r a t i o n s the time line is w o r k e d o u t by t h e p r o d u c t i o n m a n a g e r . In smaller p r o d u c t i o n c o m p a n i e s , t h e director o r t h e p r o d u c e r will establish the t i m e line for a specific p r o d u c t i o n day. Time line: interview T h e following e x a m p l e s h o w s a t i m e line for a h a l f - h o u r i n t e r v i e w (actual length: 23 m i n u t e s ) , f e a t u r i n g t w o folk s i n g e r s w h o h a v e g a i n e d w o r l d fame because of their socially conscious songs. T h e singers, w h o a c c o m p a n y themselves o n acoustic guitars, are scheduled to give a c o n c e r t t h e following day o n t h e university c o m m o n s . T h e i r c o n t r a c t does n o t allow t h e presence of television c a m e r a s d u r i n g t h e actual concert, b u t they, their m a n a g e r , a n d A F T R A (the talent u n i o n )
Control
Room
Directing
459
agreed t h a t the singers could c o m e to t h e s t u d i o for a brief i n t e r v i e w a n d to play a few s h o r t selections. T h e process message is relatively simple: To give viewers an opportunity to meet the two singers, learn more about them as artists and concerned human beings, and watch them perform. To save m o n e y a n d t i m e , t h e s h o w is scheduled for live-on-tape p r o d u c t i o n . This m e a n s t h a t t h e director will direct t h e s h o w as t h o u g h it were going o n t h e air live, o r at least with as few stop-downs ( i n t e r r u p t i o n s w h e r e b y t h e v i d e o t a p e is s t o p p e d ) as possible. T I M E LINE:
INTERVIEW
11:00 a.m. 11:10-11:30 a.m.
Crew call Tech meeting
11:30 a.m.-l:00 p.m. 1:00-1:30 p.m.
Setup and lighting Lunch
1:30-1:45 p.m.
Production meeting: host and singers Run-through and camera rehearsal Notes and reset Break
1:45-2:30 p.m. 2:30-2:40 p.m. 2:40-2:45 p.m. 2:45-3:30 p.m. 3:30-3:45 p.m. 3:45-4:00 p.m.
Tape Spill Strike
As y o u can see from this t i m e line, a p r o d u c t i o n day is divided i n t o blocks of t i m e d u r i n g which certain activities take place. 11:00 a.m.
C r e w call
T h i s is t h e t i m e t h e crew m u s t ar
rive at t h e s t u d i o . 11:10-11:30 a.m. Tech m e e t i n g You start t h e day with a technical m e e t i n g d u r i n g which you discuss with t h e crew t h e process message a n d t h e major technical r e q u i r e m e n t s . O n e of these r e q u i r e m e n t s is the a u d i o setup because t h e singers are obviously interested in good s o u n d . A l t h o u g h t h e eventual telecast of this interview is m o n o p h o n i c , t h e v i d e o t a p i n g s h o u l d nevertheless be d o n e in stereo. You should also explain w h a t c a m e r a shots you want. T h e sin cerity of t h e artists a n d their guitar-playing skills are best conveyed by CUs a n d ECUs, a n d y o u m a y w a n t t o shift the a t t e n t i o n from o n e singer to t h e o t h e r t h r o u g h a rack focus effect. T h e a u d i o technician m a y w a n t to discuss t h e specific m i c setup w i t h you, such as stand mics for t h e per f o r m a n c e a n d wireless lavalieres for t h e singers' crossover. T h e T D (acting as studio crew chief) m a y ask a b o u t t h e de sired lighting a n d confirm t h e use of two additional digital VTRs. These V T R s can p r o d u c e digital mini-cassettes for the guests s i m u l t a n e o u s l y with t h e m a s t e r recording. You
460
Chapter
19
THE
DIRECTOR
IN PRODUCTION
AND
POSTPRODUCTION
o r t h e p r o d u c e r can t h e n h a n d t h e guests t h e tapes right
2:30-2:40
after t h e s h o w as a small t h a n k - y o u gesture. You will find
p r o d u c t i o n p e o p l e — p r o d u c e r , AD, T D , a u d i o technician,
p. m. N o t e s and reset
You n o w gather t h e key
t h a t discussing s u c h details in a d v a n c e will s h o r t e n t h e
LD, floor m a n a g e r , a n d h o s t — t o discuss any p r o d u c t i o n
setup t i m e considerably.
p r o b l e m s t h a t m a y have surfaced d u r i n g t h e rehearsal. Ask t h e PA to r e a d t h e notes in t h e o r d e r w r i t t e n d o w n .
11:30 a.m.—1:00 p.m.
Setup and lighting
Thisshouldbe
sufficient t i m e to set u p the s t a n d a r d interview set a n d light t h e i n t e r v i e w a n d p e r f o r m a n c e areas. A l t h o u g h as direc t o r y o u are n o t i m m e d i a t e l y involved in this p r o d u c t i o n p h a s e , you m i g h t w a n t to keep an eye o n t h e setup so t h a t y o u can m a k e m i n o r changes before t h e lighting is d o n e . For example, t h e t w o stools for t h e singers m a y b e placed
Direct t h e p r o d u c t i o n t e a m to take care of t h e v a r i o u s p r o b l e m s . At t h e s a m e t i m e , the rest of t h e crew s h o u l d get t h e c a m e r a s i n t o t h e o p e n i n g positions, reset the pages of t h e character generator, load t h e DAT a n d VTRs with tape (the record V T R as well as t h e two a d d i t i o n a l V T R s for t h e singers' m i n i - c a s s e t t e copies), a n d m a k e m i n o r lighting a d j u s t m e n t s .
t o o far a p a r t a n d t o o close t o t h e eye, or you m a y w a n t t h e a u d i o technician to use smaller a n d lighter m i c s t a n d s so
2:40-2:45p.m.
t h a t you can get better shots of the singers.
a chance t o get ready for t h e taping.
1:00-1:30 p.m. Lunch Tell everyone to be back by 1:30 s h a r p — n o t 1:32 or 1:35—which m e a n s t h a t everyone has to be able to leave t h e s t u d i o at exactly 1:00, even if there are still s o m e technical details left u n d o n e . M i n o r t e c h n i cal p r o b l e m s can b e solved d u r i n g t h e p r o d u c t i o n m e e t i n g w i t h t h e h o s t a n d t h e singers.
2:45-3:30p.m. Tape You s h o u l d b e in the control r o o m a n d roll t h e tape at exactly 2:45 p . m . — n o t 2:50 or 3:00. If all goes well, the h a l f - h o u r s h o w s h o u l d be in the can, or finished, b y 3:30, i n c l u d i n g t h e s t o p - d o w n t i m e for t h e first crossover.
1:30-1:45 p.m. P r o d u c t i o n m e e t i n g : h o s t a n d s i n g e r s W h e n t h e singers a n d their m a n a g e r arrive at this m e e t ing, they have already b e e n i n t r o d u c e d to t h e host b y t h e producer. In this m e e t i n g confirm their m u s i c a l selections a n d the r u n n i n g t i m e for each. Discuss the o p e n i n g , t h e closing, a n d t h e crossover to t h e p e r f o r m a n c e area. For example, you m i g h t explain that you will stop d o w n briefly before their first n u m b e r b u t n o t w h e n t h e y r e t u r n t o t h e i n t e r v i e w set. Ask t h e m a b o u t t h e t r a n s i t i o n s b e t w e e n songs. Will t h e y address t h e c a m e r a or s i m p l y segue from o n e s o n g t o t h e next? Tell t h e m s o m e of y o u r visualization ideas, such as shooting very tightly d u r i n g especially intense m o m e n t s in their songs a n d for intricate guitar sections. 1:45-2:30p.m. R u n - t h r o u g h and camera rehearsal Al t h o u g h t h e setup is relatively simple a n d t h e r e will be little c a m e r a m o v e m e n t d u r i n g t h e songs, y o u n e e d to rehearse t h e crossovers from t h e interview set to t h e p e r f o r m a n c e area a n d back. You m a y also w a n t t o rehearse s o m e of t h e u n u s u a l l y tight shots o r t h e rack focus shots from o n e singer to t h e other. T h e n go t h r o u g h t h e o p e n i n g a n d the closing w i t h all facilities ( t h e m e m u s i c , credits, a n d n a m e keys). Dictate to t h e PA any p r o d u c t i o n p r o b l e m s you m a y discover d u r i n g this rehearsal for the notes segment. D o n o t get upset w h e n t h e a u d i o technician repositions mics d u r ing t h e c a m e r a rehearsal; after all, g o o d a u d i o is i m p o r t a n t in this p r o d u c t i o n . You m a y be d o n e before 2:30 p . m .
Break
This short break will give everyone
3:30-3:45p.m. Spill This is a grace period because we all k n o w t h a t television is a complex, t e m p e r a m e n t a l m a c h i n e t h a t involves m a n y people. For example, y o u m a y have to r e d o t h e o p e n i n g o r t h e closing because t h e C.G. did n o t deliver t h e correct page for t h e o p e n i n g credits or because t h e host gave t h e w r o n g t i m e for t h e u p c o m i n g concert. 3:45-4:00 p.m. Strike D u r i n g t h e strike t i m e , y o u can t h a n k t h e singers a n d their m a n a g e r , t h e host, a n d t h e crew. A r r a n g e for a playback in case they w a n t to see a n d especially listen to t h e videotape recording right away. Play b a c k t h e a u d i o t r a c k t h r o u g h the best system you have. All t h e while keep at least o n e eye o n the strike, b u t d o n o t interfere w i t h it. Trust t h e floor m a n a g e r a n d t h e crew to take d o w n the set a n d clean the studio for t h e next p r o d u c t i o n in t h e r e m a i n i n g fifteen m i n u t e s . O n e of t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t aspects of a t i m e line is sticking to t h e t i m e allotted for each segment. You m u s t learn to get things d o n e w i t h i n t h e scheduled t i m e block a n d , m o r e i m p o r t a n t , to j u m p to t h e next activity at t h e precise t i m e s h o w n o n t h e schedule, regardless of w h e t h e r y o u have finished y o u r p r e v i o u s chores. D o n o t use u p t h e t i m e of a scheduled s e g m e n t with t h e preceding activity. A g o o d director t e r m i n a t e s an especially difficult blocking rehearsal at m i d p o i n t to m e e t the scheduled notes a n d reset period. Inexperienced directors often spend a great a m o u n t of t i m e o n t h e first p a r t of t h e show o r o n a relatively m i n o r detail, t h e n go o n t h e air w i t h o u t having rehearsed t h e
Section
19.1
Multicamera
Control
Room
461
Directing
rest of t h e show. T h e t i m e line is designed t o p r e v e n t such
o p e r a t o r s , m i c o p e r a t o r , floor m a n a g e r a n d o t h e r floor
m i s u s e o f valuable p r o d u c t i o n t i m e .
personnel, videotape operator, LD or lighting techni
Time line: soap opera
t h e y are ready.
cian, a u d i o t e c h n i c i a n , a n d C.G. o p e r a t o r . Ask t h e m if H e r e is a n e x a m p l e of a t i m e
line for a m o r e c o m p l i c a t e d o n e - h o u r soap o p e r a . A s s u m e t h a t t h e setup a n d t h e lighting were accomplished t h e n i g h t before (from 3 t o 6 a.m.) a n d that m a n y set c h a n g e s will h a p p e n after 6 p . m .
C h e c k with t h e floor m a n a g e r t o m a k e sure t h a t ev e r y o n e is in t h e s t u d i o a n d ready for action. Tell t h e floor m a n a g e r w h o gets t h e o p e n i n g c u e a n d w h i c h c a m e r a will b e o n first. F r o m this p o i n t o n , t h e floor m a n a g e r is an
P R O D U C T I O N S C H E D U L E : SOAP O P E R A
essential link b e t w e e n y o u a n d t h e studio.
6:00-8:00 a.m.
Dry run—rehearsal hall
7:30 a.m.
Crew call
t a p i n g . If y o u are d i r e c t i n g a v i d e o t a p e d s h o w o r s h o w
8:00-8:30 a.m.
Tech meeting
s e g m e n t s , have t h e T D , C.G. o p e r a t o r , a n d a u d i o engineer
8:30-11:00 a.m.
Camera blocking
r e a d y for t h e o p e n i n g slate identification. You c a n save
11:00-11:30 a.m.
Notes and reset
t i m e b y h a v i n g t h e A D o r T D direct t h e r e c o r d i n g of t h e
11:30 a.m.-12:30 p.m.
Lunch
v i d e o t a p e leader (bars a n d tone) before airtime. Check that
A n n o u n c e t h e t i m e r e m a i n i n g u n t i l t h e telecast o r
12:30-2:30 p.m.
Dress rehearsal
t h e slate shows t h e correct i n f o r m a t i o n . Verify t h e spelling
2:30-3:00 p.m.
Notes and reset
of n a m e s t h a t y o u will use as key inserts.
3:00-5:30 p.m.
Tape
5:30-6:00 p.m.
Spill
Again, alert everyone to t h e first cues. C h e c k t h a t t h e v i d e o t a p e o p e r a t o r is r e a d y t o roll
As y o u can see, this t i m e line leaves n o t i m e for y o u to t h i n k a b o u t w h a t t o d o next. You n e e d to b e t h o r o u g h l y p r e p a r e d t o c o o r d i n a t e t h e e q u i p m e n t , technical p e o p l e , a n d talent w i t h i n t h e tightly prescribed t i m e frame. T h e r e is n o t i m e allotted for striking t h e set b e c a u s e t h e set stays
t h e t a p e , a n d check w i t h t h e c a m e r a o p e r a t o r s a n d a u d i o e n g i n e e r a b o u t t h e i r o p e n i n g actions. Ready t h e o p e n i n g C.G. titles a n d m u s i c a n d have t h e floor m a n a g e r get t h e talent i n t o p o s i t i o n .
u p for t h e next day's p r o d u c t i o n .
ON-THE-AIR
DIRECTING THE SHOW
PROCEDURES
A s s u m i n g y o u d i r e c t a l i v e - o n - t a p e s h o w , s u c h as t h e i n t e r v i e w w i t h t h e singers just described, y o u m u s t first
D i r e c t i n g t h e o n - t h e - a i r p e r f o r m a n c e o r t h e final t a p i n g
go t h r o u g h t h e u s u a l v i d e o t a p e rolling p r o c e d u r e s (see
session is, of course, t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t p a r t of y o u r j o b
figure 19.5).
as a director. After all, t h e viewers d o n o t sit in o n t h e rehearsals—all t h e y see a n d h e a r is w h a t y o u finally p u t
Directing from the control room
o n t h e air. This section gives s o m e p o i n t e r s a b o u t s t a n d b y
is p r o p e r l y rolling a n d slated, y o u c a n begin t h e actual
p r o c e d u r e s a n d o n - t h e - a i r directing. Again, w e a s s u m e that
r e c o r d i n g . You are n o w o n t h e air. I m a g i n e t h e following
y o u are d o i n g a live o r live-on-tape m u l t i c a m e r a s h o w o r at
o p e n i n g sequence:
least t h e v i d e o t a p e r e c o r d i n g of fairly long, u n i n t e r r u p t e d s h o w s e g m e n t s t h a t require a m i n i m u m of p o s t p r o d u c t i o n editing. You will n o t i c e t h a t y o u c a n transfer m u l t i c a m e r a directing skills m u c h m o r e readily t o s i n g l e - c a m e r a direc tion than the other way around.
STANDBY
PROCEDURES
H e r e are s o m e of t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t s t a n d b y p r o c e d u r e s to observe i m m e d i a t e l y p r e c e d i n g a n o n - t h e - a i r telecast. Call o n t h e i n t e r c o m every m e m b e r o f t h e p r o d u c t i o n t e a m w h o n e e d s t o react t o y o u r c u e s — T D , c a m e r a
Once the videotape
Ready to come up on three [CU of Lynne, the interview host]. Ready to cue Lynne. Open mic, cue Lynne, up on [or "fade in"] three [Lynne addresses camera 3 with open ing sentence]. Ready C.G. opening titles—take C.G. Cue announcer. Change page. Change page. Ready three [which is still on Lynne]. Cue Lynne—take three [introduces guests]. One, two-shot of singers. Two, cover [wide shot of all three]. Ready one—take one. Ready two, open mics [guest mics in the interview set]—take two. Ready three—take three [Lynne is asking her first question]. One, on Ron [CU of one of the singers]. Ready one—take one. Two, on Marissa [the other singer]. Ready two—take two.
462
Chapter 19
THE DIRECTOR IN PRODUCTION
By now you are well into the show. Listen carefully to
AND
POSTPRODUCTION
Do not ready one camera and then call for a take to
w h a t is being said so t h a t you can anticipate t h e p r o p e r
another. In other words, d o n o t say, "Ready o n e — t a k e two."
shots. H a v e t h e floor m a n a g e r s t a n d b y to give Lynne
If y o u change y o u r m i n d , nullify t h e ready c u e — " N o " o r
t i m e cues to t h e crossover. W h e n you s t o p d o w n for t h e
" C h a n g e t h a t " — t h e n give another.
crossover, wait until t h e singers leave t h e f r a m e before s t o p p i n g d o w n . This way you can logically cut from a C U
Talk to t h e c a m e r a s b y n u m b e r , n o t by t h e n a m e of
of Lynne i n t r o d u c i n g t h e singers to an establishing shot of
t h e operator. W h a t if b o t h o p e r a t o r s were n a m e d Pat?
the p e r f o r m a n c e area. After the singers have r e t u r n e d to the
Call t h e c a m e r a first before y o u give i n s t r u c t i o n s . For e x a m p l e : " O n e , stay o n t h e guitar. Two, give m e a close-up of R o n . T h r e e , C U of Marissa. O n e , z o o m in o n t h e guitar."
interview set, watch t h e t i m e carefully a n d give closing t i m e cues t o Lynne. After t h e o n e - m i n u t e cue, y o u m u s t prepare for the closing. Are the closing credits ready? Again, watch the time. Thirty seconds. Wind her up. Wind her up [or "give her a wrap-up"]. Fifteen [seconds]. C.G. closing credits. Two, zoom in on Ron's guitar. Ready two, ready C.G. Cut Lynne. Take two. Cut mics. Cue announcer. Two, hold it. Roll credits. Ready to key C.G. [over camera 2], key C.G. Lose key. Ready black—fade to black. Hold. Stop VTR. OK, all clear. Good job, everyone.
After you have p u t o n e c a m e r a o n t h e air, immediately tell t h e o t h e r c a m e r a w h a t to d o next. D o n o t wait until t h e last second; for e x a m p l e , say, "Take t w o . O n e , stay o n this m e d i u m shot. T h r e e , tight o n Ron's guitar." If y o u r e p o s i t i o n a c a m e r a , give t h e o p e r a t o r t i m e to recalibrate t h e z o o m lens; otherwise, t h e c a m e r a will n o t stay in focus during subsequent zooms.
U n f o r t u n a t e l y , n o t every s h o w goes this s m o o t h l y .
If you m a k e a mistake, correct it as well as y o u can a n d
You can c o n t r i b u t e to a s m o o t h p e r f o r m a n c e , however,
go o n w i t h t h e show. D o n o t m e d i t a t e o n h o w y o u could
by paying a t t e n t i o n to t h e following o n - t h e - a i r directing
have avoided it while neglecting t h e rest of t h e show. Pay
procedures. Give all signals clearly a n d precisely. Be relaxed b u t alert. If you are t o o relaxed, everyone will b e c o m e s o m e what lethargic, t h i n k i n g that you d o n ' t really take t h e s h o w t o o seriously. C u e talent before y o u c o m e u p o n h i m o r h e r w i t h t h e c a m e r a . By t h e t i m e he or she speaks, t h e T D will have faded in t h e picture.
full attention to what is going o n . If recording live-on-tape, stop t h e t a p e o n l y w h e n absolutely necessary: t o o m a n y false starts can sap the energy o u t of even t h e most seasoned p e r f o r m e r s a n d crew. S p o t - c h e c k t h e v i d e o t a p e after each take to m a k e sure t h a t t h e take is actually o n tape a n d technically ac ceptable. C h e c k the a u d i o . T h e n go o n t o t h e next one. It is always easier to repeat a take o n e right after t h e o t h e r t h a n t o go b a c k at t h e e n d of a s t r e n u o u s t a p i n g session
Indicate talent by n a m e . D o n o t tell t h e floor m a n a g e r to cue just " h i m " o r "her," especially if t h e talent consists of several " h i m s " o r " h e r s " a n t i c i p a t i n g a c u e s o o n e r o r later.
a n d t r y to r e c a p t u r e t h e m o o d a n d t h e e n e r g y level of t h e original take. If y o u use t h e s t o p - s t a r t m e t h o d in a single-camera p r o d u c t i o n w h e r e you t a p e o n e shot at a t i m e , y o u s h o u l d
D o n o t give a ready cue t o o far in advance o r t h e T D
play b a c k each take at least partially before going o n to
o r c a m e r a o p e r a t o r m a y have forgotten it by t h e t i m e y o u r
the n e x t one. This will confirm that t h e take is actually
take cue finally arrives. R e p e a t i n g t h e s a m e ready cue m a y
recorded. Pick u p the next s e g m e n t at a logical place before
trigger a take b y t h e T D .
y o u r s t o p - d o w n of t h e present o n e .
D o n o t p a u s e b e t w e e n t h e take a n d t h e n u m b e r of t h e c a m e r a . D o n o t say, "Take [pause] two." S o m e T D s m a y p u n c h u p the c a m e r a before y o u say t h e n u m b e r . Keep in m i n d t h e n u m b e r of t h e c a m e r a already o n t h e air, a n d d o n o t call for a take o r dissolve to that camera. Watch the preview m o n i t o r s as m u c h as possible. D o n o t b u r y y o u r h e a d in y o u r script o r fact sheet.
If there is a technical p r o b l e m that y o u m u s t solve from the c o n t r o l r o o m , tell t h e floor m a n a g e r a b o u t it o n t h e i n t e r c o m o r use the S.A. system to i n f o r m t h e whole studio a b o u t t h e slight delay. T h e talent t h e n k n o w t h a t there is a technical delay a n d t h a t it was n o t caused by t h e m . T h e people o n the floor can use this t i m e to relax, however b u s y it m a y be for y o u in t h e control r o o m .
Section
19.1
Multicamera
Control
Room
Directing
463
D u r i n g t h e s h o w speak only w h e n necessary. If y o u
c o n d u c t t h e i n s t a n t a n e o u s editing a n d call for t h e v a r i o u s
talk t o o m u c h , p e o p l e will stop listening a n d m a y m i s s
takes a c c o r d i n g t o y o u r m a r k e d script. O r y o u yourself
i m p o r t a n t i n s t r u c t i o n s . W o r s e , t h e crew will follow y o u r
c a n quietly call for t h e takes via headset, a s s u m i n g that
e x a m p l e a n d start chatting o n t h e i n t e r c o m .
y o u are n o t o v e r h e a r d b y t h e m i c t h a t picks u p t h e ac t o r s ' lines. In either case y o u e n d u p with a director's c u t
P r e p a r e for t h e closing cues. Give t h e necessary t i m e cues to t h e floor m a n a g e r slightly a h e a d of t h e actual t i m e t o c o m p e n s a t e for t h e delay b e t w e e n y o u r cue a n d t h e
t h r o u g h i n s t a n t a n e o u s editing a n d t h r e e o r four source tapes for s u b s e q u e n t p o s t p r o d u c t i o n editing ( p r o d u c e r ' s o r client's c u t ) .
talents' r e c e p t i o n of it. W h e n y o u have the line in black ( y o u r final fade to black), call for a V T R s t o p a n d give t h e all-clear signal. T h a n k t h e crew a n d the talent for their efforts. If s o m e t h i n g w e n t w r o n g , d o n o t s t o r m i n t o t h e s t u d i o to c o m p l a i n .
•
The two principal methods of television directing are multicamera and single-camera.
•
Both directing methods use a precise terminology that facilitates talent and crew activities.
•
Multicamera directing involves the simultaneous use of two or more cameras and instantaneous editing with a switcher. It is done from the control room.
•
The various rehearsals include script reading; dry run, or blocking rehearsal; walk-through; camera and dress re hearsals; and walk-through/camera rehearsal combination.
•
Directing from the control room requires adhering to a precise time line for the rehearsals and the on-theair performance as well as following clear standby and on-the-air procedures.
Take a few m i n u t e s to catch y o u r b r e a t h , t h e n talk calmly to t h e p e o p l e responsible for t h e p r o b l e m . Be constructive in y o u r criticism a n d help t h e m avoid the m i s t a k e in t h e future. Just telling t h e m t h a t t h e y m a d e a mistake helps little at this p o i n t . A s s u m i n g t h a t y o u have a c o m p e t e n t associate director, y o u c a n also direct s o m e fully-scripted scenes of sitcoms o r soaps from t h e floor, very m u c h like d o i n g a w a l k - t h r o u g h / c a m e r a rehearsal. In this s e t u p each of t h e t h r e e o r four c a m e r a s feeds, in i s o - c a m e r a fashion, its o w n VTR; t h e c a m e r a s also feed t h e switcher a n d t h e l i n e - o u t V T R . You can t h e n have t h e A D
SINGLE-CAMERA DIRECTING PROCEDURES
19.2
T h i s s e c t i o n focuses o n t h e following m a j o r aspects of s i n g l e - c a m e r a s t u d i o directing: (1) visualization (2) script b r e a k d o w n , (3) rehearsals, a n d (4) videotaping. M ' i REPRO CESS-* Methods-* single-camera
VISUALIZATION
Single-camera Directing,
Even if y o u a r e v i d e o t a p i n g a p r o d u c t i o n d i s c o n t i n u o u s l y — s h o t - b y - s h o t — y o u r basic visualization is n o t m u c h
Postproduction,
different from w h a t it w o u l d b e w h e n c o n t i n u o u s - s h o o t
and Timing
d e s c r i b e d in c h a p t e r 18, t h e first r e a d i n g of a script m a y
ing w i t h m u l t i p l e c a m e r a s a n d i n s t a n t a n e o u s editing. As c o n j u r e u p s o m e locking-in
points—key visualizations
t h a t set t h e style for t h e entire p r o d u c t i o n . This process is intuitive a n d d e p e n d s a great deal o n y o u r o w n p e r c e p t i o n of t h e e n v i r o n m e n t a n d t h e s i t u a t i o n . It also d e p e n d s o n h o w y o u perceive t h e p e o p l e in a d o c u m e n t a r y or t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of characters in a scripted d r a m a . T h e script m a y g u i d e y o u t o w a r d m e n t a l pictures of i n d i v i d u a l shots b u t s h o u l d n o t dictate y o u r visualization. T h e l o c k i n g - i n p o i n t h a p p e n s m o r e o r less intuitively. It is triggered by a visual o r aural d e s c r i p t i o n t h a t resonates s o m e h o w w i t h In single-camera
directing
y o u are c o n c e r n e d p r i m a r i l y
y o u r o w n experience.
with directing v a r i o u s takes for later assembly in p o s t p r o d u c t i o n . T h e big difference b e t w e e n directing m u l t i c a m e r a a n d s i n g l e - c a m e r a p r o d u c t i o n s is that m u l t i c a m e r a p r o d u c t i o n s are c o n t i n u o u s a n d s i n g l e - c a m e r a p r o d u c t i o n s are d i s c o n t i n u o u s . Continuous
in this c o n t e x t m e a n s t h a t
you d o n o t stop after each shot b u t r a t h e r sequence a series of shots t h r o u g h i n s t a n t a n e o u s editing (switching) w i t h a m i n i m u m of i n t e r r u p t i o n or n o n e at all. In s i n g l e - c a m e r a s t u d i o p r o d u c t i o n s , the v i d e o t a p i n g is discontinuous:
you
n o longer i n t e n d to record o n t a p e a finished p r o d u c t that needs little o r n o p o s t p r o d u c t i o n for b r o a d c a s t b u t r a t h e r to p r o d u c e effective source t a p e s t h a t c a n be s h a p e d i n t o a c o n t i n u o u s p r o g r a m t h r o u g h extensive p o s t p r o d u c t i o n .
O n c e y o u have established locking-in p o i n t s t h a t d e t e r m i n e y o u r general s h o o t i n g style, y o u m u s t go b a c k to t h e script a n d b r e a k it d o w n for d i s c o n t i n u o u s v i d e o t a p i n g . N o w t h e o r d e r in w h i c h you v i d e o t a p e t h e s h o t s is n o l o n g e r g u i d e d by t h e script context, t h e narrative, o r even aesthetic c o n t i n u i t y b u t strictly b y convenience a n d efficiency. For e x a m p l e , y o u m a y w a n t t o v i d e o t a p e all t h e scenes in t h e h o s p i t a l c o r r i d o r , t h e n t h e w a i t i n g - r o o m scenes, t h e n all t h e o p e r a t i n g - r o o m scenes, t h e n all t h e scenes in t h e patient's r o o m , a n d so forth, irrespective of w h e n they actually o c c u r in t h e story. To give y o u a n i d e a of h o w s c r i p t p r e p a r a t i o n for m u l t i c a m e r a s h o o t i n g differs f r o m t h e s i n g l e - c a m e r a
^
SINGLE-CAMERA DIRECTING PROCEDURES Visualization, script breakdown, rehearsals, and videotaping
a p p r o a c h , take a n o t h e r l o o k at figure 18.9, s h o w i n g t h e director's m a r k i n g s of a brief m u l t i c a m e r a d r a m a script. H o w w o u l d y o u b r e a k d o w n t h e very s a m e script s e g m e n t
^
POSTPRODUCTION ACTIVITIES
for a single-camera shoot? Write d o w n a series of shots that
Protection copies, VTR log, and sequencing
s h o w Yolanda m e e t i n g C a r r i e in t h e h o s p i t a l hallway, t h e n c o m p a r e it w i t h t h e b r e a k d o w n in figure 19.7. SEE 19.7
CONTROLLING CLOCK TIME Schedule time and running time, clock back-timing and fronttiming, and converting frames into clock time
SCRIPT B R E A K D O W N As y o u can see, t h e b r e a k d o w n is m o r e detailed a n d n o t
^
464
CONTROLLING SUBJECTIVE TIME
necessarily in t h e o r d e r of t h e a c t i o n . N o t e t h a t this script
Pace and rhythm
b r e a k d o w n is j u s t o n e of m a n y possibilities.
Section
19.2
Single-camera
Directing,
Postproduction,
and
465
Timing
RECEPTION ROOM AND HALLWAY 1.
Yolanda in the reception room
2.
Hallway: Yolanda pacing up and down the hallway in the v i c i n i t y of the emergency room
3.
Hallway: Typical hospital traffic--nurses,
a gurney, a wheelchair,
visitors with flowers, a doctor and a nurse, a physical therapist protecting a person on crutches 4.
Hallway: Doctor pushes Carrie in wheelchair
5.
POV Carrie: Yolanda
6.
CU Yolanda
7.
POV Yolanda: Doctor and Carrie
YOLANDA RUSHING TOWARD DOCTOR AND CARRIE 1.
Hallway: Yolanda rushes toward Doctor and Carrie
2.
Reverse-angle shot (POV Carrie): Yolanda
3.
Same shots with gurney t r a f f i c interfering with Yolanda's approach (Steadicam)
CARRIE AND YOLANDA 1.
CU Carrie: " H i , Mom!"
2.
CU Yolanda: "Carrie--are you all right? What happened?"
3.
CU swish pan from Carrie to Yolanda: "Carrie--are you all What happened?"
4.
CUs and ECUs of Carrie
5.
CUs and ECUs of Yolanda
6.
CUs and ECUs of doctor
1 9 . 7 SINGLE-CAMERA SCRIPT BREAKDOWN Videotape takes are grouped for convenience and efficiency, not for narrative order.
right?
466
Chapter
19
THE DIRECTOR
If m o r e convenient, y o u could have t a p e d t h e t h i r d
IN PRODUCTION
AND
POSTPRODUCTION
ing or performance problems, Pay close attention to every
scene (Carrie a n d Yolanda) before t h e scene of Yolanda
detail so t h a t t h e action is i n d e e d identical w h e n repeated.
r u s h i n g u p t o t h e d o c t o r a n d Carrie. S h o o t i n g a scene in
T h e A D a n d y o u r i n f o r m e d a n d alert c r e w m e m b e r s will
such bits a n d pieces requires t h a t t h e actors repeat their
often help y o u avoid costly c o n t i n u i t y mistakes: t h e c a m e r a
lines a n d actions several t i m e s identically; y o u m u s t watch
o p e r a t o r m i g h t catch t h e kiss p r o b l e m , for example, o r
carefully t h a t t h e individual shots will eventually c u t t o
m a y p o i n t o u t t h a t t h e talent h a s h e r coat b u t t o n e d for this
gether into a seamless scene. This m e a n s t h a t y o u m u s t
shot b u t w o r e it u n b u t t o n e d in t h e p r e v i o u s shots. In film
also c o n n e c t t h e v a r i o u s visualization p o i n t s so t h a t t h e
a n d elaborate v i d e o p r o d u c t i o n s , a designated c o n t i n u i t y
scene a n d t h e sequences have b o t h narrative (story) a n d
p e r s o n watches o u t for such mistakes.
c o n t i n u i t y of aesthetic energy.
REHEARSALS Continuity Continuity m e a n s t h a t all t h e s h o t s i n a sequence c o n n e c t seamlessly so t h a t t h e y are n o longer recognized by t h e a u d i e n c e as i n d i v i d u a l shots b u t as a single scene. As explained in c h a p t e r 18, a detailed story b o a r d will aid y o u greatly in seeing individual shots as a sequence. Even if you d o n ' t have t h e t i m e or t h e resources to design s t o r y b o a r d s for each sequence, y o u m u s t t r y t o visualize h o w well t h e shots c u t together a n d w a t c h for c o n t i n u i t y errors d u r i n g t h e v i d e o t a p i n g . If, for example, Yolanda kisses h e r d a u g h t e r o n t h e left cheek in t h e m e d i u m shot, d o n o t let h e r switch t o t h e r i g h t cheek d u r i n g t h e close-ups of t h e s a m e scene. Such gross c o n t i n u i t y mistakes usually m e a n r e s h o o t i n g or d r o p p i n g t h e scene. You could use DVE (digital video effects) e q u i p m e n t to flop t h e shot in p o s t p r o d u c t i o n , b u t t h e n y o u flop everything else too, including t h e b a c k g r o u n d . Such "fixing-it-in-post" t e c h n i q u e s are t i m e - c o n s u m i n g a n d s h o u l d n o t b e used as a safety n e t for careless directing.
Close-ups and cutaways W h a t e v e r b r e a k d o w n y o u have, b e sure t o get s o m e CUs a n d ECUs of all t h e people in t h e scene for intensification a n d possible c u t a w a y s . H o w y o u start a n d finish a specific take c a n m a k e t h e p o s t p r o d u c t i o n editor's j o b a delight or a n i g h t m a r e . As a director y o u are responsible for p r o v i d i n g t h e editor w i t h shots t h a t can eventually b e assembled i n t o a c o n t i n u o u s a n d sensible sequence. Film-style shooting Your a t t e n t i o n t o c o n t i n u i t y is especially i m p o r t a n t w h e n y o u s h o o t "film-style." In t h e classic sense of film-style shooting, you m o v e from a n estab lishing long shot to m e d i u m shots a n d t h e n to close-ups of the s a m e action. Or, if m o r e convenient, y o u can videotape s o m e of t h e close-ups first a n d t h e n d o all t h e l o n g shots. As in filmmaking y o u m a y find yourself r e p e a t i n g an ac t i o n several t i m e s to get v a r i o u s fields of view (long shots, m e d i u m shots, a n d close-ups) or angles t o correct block
In single-camera directing, you rehearse each take i m m e d i ately before v i d e o t a p i n g it. Walk t h e talent a n d t h e c a m e r a a n d m i c r o p h o n e o p e r a t o r s t h r o u g h each take, explaining w h a t t h e y s h o u l d a n d s h o u l d n o t d o . H a v e t h e single c a m e r a c o n n e c t e d t o a m o n i t o r so t h a t y o u can w a t c h t h e action o n - s c r e e n a n d , if necessary, m a k e necessary correc tions before t h e v i d e o t a p i n g . If y o u s h o o t s i m u l t a n e o u s l y w i t h t w o E N G / E F P c a m e r a s , feed t h e i r v i d e o i n t o t w o p r e v i e w m o n i t o r s . You can set u p small, b a t t e r y - p o w e r e d m o n i t o r s o n a simple card table a n d relay y o u r directions to t h e c a m e r a o p e r a t o r s via a P L . system.
VIDEOTAPING Slate each take. W h e n i n t h e field, use a simple h a n d h e l d slate. If you're in a h u r r y , y o u can audio-slate t h e takes (have t h e floor m a n a g e r read t h e next take n u m b e r a n d title i n t o t h e h o t m i c ) . Have t h e V T R o p e r a t o r o r t h e PA keep a n accurate field log. Always w a t c h for c o n t i n u i t y mistakes, b u t b e careful n o t t o w e a r o u t talent a n d crew w i t h t o o m a n y r e t a k e s ; t h e r e is a p o i n t w h e r e retakes b e c o m e c o u n t e r p r o d u c t i v e b e c a u s e of t a l e n t a n d c r e w fatigue. Finally, have t h e V T R o p e r a t o r o r t h e PA label all videotapes a n d boxes a n d verify t h a t t h e labels c o r r e s p o n d w i t h t h e field log. O n c e again, follow y o u r t i m e line. As with t a p i n g m u l t i c a m e r a shows, there is a t e n d e n c y t o d o needless retakes simply because y o u have t h e better p a r t of t h e day a h e a d of y o u — b u t t h e n y o u s u d d e n l y find yourself r u n n i n g o u t of t i m e a n d are forced t o speed t h r o u g h t h e r e m a i n i n g takes.
POSTPRODUCTION ACTIVITIES Your p o s t p r o d u c t i o n activities as director d e p e n d o n h o w c o m p l e x t h e p o s t p r o d u c t i o n e d i t i n g p r o m i s e s t o be. If extensive p o s t p r o d u c t i o n is r e q u i r e d , y o u are generally still responsible for t h e m a j o r editing a n d s o u n d - m i x i n g
Section
19.2
Single-camera
Directing,
Postproduction,
and
Timing
467
d e c i s i o n s — b u t leave the editing tasks to t h e video editor.
p o s t p r o d u c t i o n . W h e n t h e editing p h a s e is finished, check
O n c e you have c o m m u n i c a t e d the process message, a g o o d
t h e entire off-line edit for serious technical a n d aesthetic
editor n e e d s only m i n i m a l s u p e r v i s i o n (or, as editors like
discrepancies. W h e n everything looks right, y o u can have
to call it, "interference") by t h e director. Nevertheless, it is
a n edit m a s t e r t a p e p r o d u c e d o n - l i n e .
a g o o d idea to w o r k with t h e editor until t h e c o m p l e t i o n of p o s t p r o d u c t i o n . If you have a specific sequence in m i n d , share it w i t h t h e editor b u t t h e n leave it u p t o h i m o r h e r to find t h e m o s t effective shots. Protection copies Before t h e a c t u a l e d i t i n g b e g i n s , m a k e protection copies of all source tapes. You can d o this w h i l e t h e t a p e s are b e i n g w i n d o w - d u b b e d for off-line e d i t i n g (keying t h e t i m e c o d e over t h e p i c t u r e s of t h e off-line d u b — s e e c h a p t e r 13). If y o u use a n o n l i n e a r edit ing system, y o u c a n c a p t u r e all v i d e o t a p e footage from a single VTR, t h e n create a V T R log a n d v a r i o u s files for t h e footage. W h e n creating such files, n a m e t h e m logically so t h a t you c a n easily locate t h e m again. Before engaging in t h e actual editing, back u p all v i d e o a n d a u d i o files o n a n external h a r d drive o r disc. T h e videotape editor or the AD must n o w go t h r o u g h all t h e tapes a n d log each o n e o n t h e V T R log. S o m e editors like t o have all t a k e s — g o o d or b a d — l o g g e d , because occasionally the " b a d " takes t u r n o u t to be m o r e usable t h a n t h e " g o o d " o n e s . Tell t h e p e r s o n w h o is d o i n g t h e logging to i n c l u d e t h e v a r i o u s vectors in t h e vector c o l u m n (see c h a p t e r 13). Finally, all s p o k e n w o r d s m u s t be transcribed. T h e r e is actually little difference from a di recting p o i n t of view w h e t h e r y o u tell t h e T D to "take t w o " o r tell t h e editor to edit this shot to t h a t o n e . In a n y case, t r y to w o r k w i t h — n o t a g a i n s t — t h e editor. A n experienced editor c a n help y o u greatly in t h e s e q u e n c i n g process, b u t d o n o t hesitate to assert yourself if y o u feel strongly a b o u t a certain editing decision. Even a seasoned editor m i g h t balk at y o u r request for a h i g h - e n e r g y inductive shot t h a t shows an event as a series of CUs a n d E C U s . In this case it m i g h t h e l p to d o either a paper-and-pencil edit or an actual digital off-line r o u g h - c u t a n d h a n d it over to the editor (see chapter 13). Your major c o n c e r n w h e n editing is n o longer t h e visualization b u t t h e s e q u e n c i n g of t h e various shots. In the p o s t p r o d u c t i o n process, you will quickly u n d e r s t a n d t h e value of y o u r cutaway shots a n d b e thankful for y o u r awareness of c o n t i n u i t y d u r i n g t h e v i d e o t a p i n g . You s h o u l d also keep an eye—or, rather, a n e a r — o n t h e a u d i o sweetening, especially w i t h e x t e n s i v e a u d i o
CONTROLLING CLOCK TIME I n c o m m e r c i a l television, t i m e is i n d e e d m o n e y : each s e c o n d of b r o a d c a s t t i m e has a m o n e t a r y value. Sales p e o p l e sell t i m e t o their clients as t h o u g h it were a tangible c o m m o d i t y . O n e second of a i r t i m e m a y cost m u c h m o r e t h a n another, depending on the potential audience an event m a y c o m m a n d . Clock time, also k n o w n as schedule time, is defined as t h e t i m e at w h i c h a p r o g r a m starts a n d e n d s . Because television o p e r a t i o n s are s c h e d u l e d secondb y - s e c o n d , clock t i m e is a critical e l e m e n t in television production.
SCHEDULE TIME A N D RUNNING TIME W h e n v i d e o t a p i n g a show, y o u d o n ' t have to w o r r y a b o u t its schedule time—the start t i m e of t h e p r o g r a m w h e n it's aired. B u t y o u are responsible for t h e accurate running time—the length of a p r o g r a m o r p r o g r a m s e g m e n t — s o t h a t it c a n fit t h e p r e s c r i b e d t i m e slot in t h e day's p r o g r a m m i n g . W h e n directing a live s h o w such as a newscast, y o u use t h e c o n t r o l r o o m clock for m e e t i n g the schedule t i m e s ( t h e switch to n e t w o r k news) a n d t h e stopwatch for m e a s u r i n g t h e r u n n i n g t i m e s of t h e p r o g r a m inserts (the individual v i d e o t a p e d stories).
CLOCK B A C K - T I M I N G A N D FRONT-TIMING A l t h o u g h t h e m a s t e r c o n t r o l c o m p u t e r calculates almost all t h e start a n d e n d t i m e s of p r o g r a m s a n d p r o g r a m i n serts, a n d a variety of pocket calculators h e l p y o u a d d a n d subtract clock t i m e s , y o u s h o u l d nevertheless k n o w h o w to d o t i m e calculations even in t h e absence of electronic devices. For example, a p e r f o r m e r m a y request at t h e last m i n u t e specific t i m e cues, which y o u t h e n have to figure by h a n d . Back-timing O n e of t h e m o s t c o m m o n t i m e controls involves cues to t h e talent so t h a t h e o r s h e can e n d t h e p r o g r a m as indicated by t h e schedule t i m e . In a 3 0 - m i n u t e p r o g r a m , t h e talent n o r m a l l y expects a 5 - m i n u t e c u e a n d s u b s e q u e n t cues w i t h 3 m i n u t e s , 2 m i n u t e s , 1 m i n u t e , 30 seconds, a n d 15 seconds r e m a i n i n g in t h e show. To figure o u t such t i m e cues quickly, y o u simply b a c k - t i m e from t h e s c h e d u l e d e n d t i m e or t h e start t i m e of t h e n e w p r o g r a m
468
Chapter
19
THE DIRECTOR
IN PRODUCTION
hours individually,
s e g m e n t (which is t h e s a m e t h i n g ) . For e x a m p l e , if t h e log
m i n u t e s , and
shows that y o u r live What's Your Opinion? s h o w is followed
a n d seconds t o t h e 60 scale.
by a Salvation A r m y public
service announcement
(PSA)
at 4:29:30, at w h a t clock times d o y o u give t h e talent t h e s t a n d a r d t i m e cues, a s s u m i n g t h a t t h e s t a n d a r d v i d e o t a p e d
POSTPRODUCTION
then
convert t h e minutes
6:33: 42 + 0: 58 6:33:100
close takes 30 seconds?
AND
^6:34:40
You s h o u l d start with t h e e n d t i m e of t h e p a n e l discus sion, which is 4:29:00, a n d s u b t r a c t t h e v a r i o u s t i m e seg
C O N V E R T I N G
m e n t s . (You d o n o t b a c k - t i m e from t h e e n d of t h e p r o g r a m
Because in t h e N T S C system w e figure t h a t 30 frames m a k e
F R A M E S
I N T O
C L O C K
T I M E
at 4:29:30 because t h e s t a n d a r d v i d e o t a p e d close will take
u p 1 second, t h e frames roll over after 2 9 , with t h e t h i r t i e t h
u p 30 seconds.) W h e n , for e x a m p l e , s h o u l d t h e m o d e r a t o r
frame s t a r t i n g t h e n e w second. But seconds a n d m i n u t e s
get h e r 3 - m i n u t e cue o r t h e 15-second w i n d - u p cue?
roll over after 59. You m u s t therefore convert frames i n t o
Let's p r o c e e d w i t h b a c k - t i m i n g this p a r t i c u l a r
seconds, or seconds i n t o frames, w h e n front- o r b a c k - t i m ing t i m e code n u m b e r s . Again, y o u n e e d to c o m p u t e t h e
program:
frames, s e c o n d s , m i n u t e s , a n d h o u r s individually, t h e n 4:24:00
5 minutes to VTR
Back-time to here
4:26:00
3 minutes
4:27:00
2 minutes
4:28:00
1 minute
4:28:30
30 s e c o n d s
00:01:58:29
4:28:45
15 s e c o n d s
+ 00:00:03:17
4:29:00
C u t m o d e r a t o r for V T R close
4:29:30
PSA (Salvation A r m y )
'
c o n v e r t t h e frames o n t h e 30 scale a n d t h e seconds a n d t h e
k
m i n u t e s o n t h e 60 scale. For e x a m p l e :
Start here
W h e n s u b t r a c t i n g t i m e , y o u m a y find it c o n v e n i e n t t o
00:01:61:46
>-00:01:62:16
• 00:02:02:16
N o t e t h a t y o u s i m p l y a d d e d t h e frames, t h e n s u b t r a c t e d 30 for t h e a d d i t i o n a l second.
take a m i n u t e from t h e m i n u t e c o l u m n a n d convert it i n t o
Fortunately, t h e t i m e c o d e will d o this for y o u a u t o
seconds, especially if y o u have t o s u b t r a c t a large n u m b e r
matically. T h e r e are also c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m s a n d h a n d h e l d
of seconds from a small n u m b e r . Similarly, y o u c a n take an
calculators available t h a t take care of t h e rollovers of clock
h o u r from t h e h o u r c o l u m n a n d convert it i n t o m i n u t e s .
t i m e as well as frame t i m e .
5:15:22
5:14:82
- 14:27
- 14:27
CONTROLLING SUBJECTIVE TIME
5:00:55
T h e c o n t r o l of subjective
time—the
d u r a t i o n y o u feel—is
m u c h m o r e subtle a n d difficult t h a n t h e c o n t r o l of objec
or:
tive t i m e . Even t h e m o s t sophisticated c o m p u t e r c a n n o t tell 5:02:43 - 55:30
4:62:43
y o u w h e t h e r a newscaster races t h r o u g h h e r copy t o o fast o r
-55:30
w h e t h e r a d r a m a t i c scene is p a c e d t o o slowly a n d drags for
4:07:13
t h e viewer. In d e t e r m i n i n g subjective t i m e , y o u m u s t rely o n y o u r o w n j u d g m e n t a n d sensitivity t o t h e relation of o n e
'ont-timing
To k e e p a s h o w — s u c h as a live newscast
m o v e m e n t or r h y t h m t o a n o t h e r . A l t h o u g h t w o p e r s o n s
with m a n y r e c o r d e d i n s e r t s — o n t i m e , y o u n e e d t o k n o w
m o v e w i t h t h e s a m e speed, o n e m a y s e e m t o m o v e m u c h
m o r e t h a n t h e start a n d e n d t i m e s of t h e p r o g r a m a n d t h e
m o r e slowly t h a n t h e other. W h a t m a k e s t h e m o v e m e n t s
r u n n i n g times of the various inserts. You also n e e d t o k n o w
of t h e o n e p e r s o n a p p e a r faster or slower?
1
w h e n (using clock time) t h e inserts are to b e r u n ; otherwise
W a t c h h o w r u s h - h o u r traffic reflects n e r v o u s e n e r g y
y o u c a n n o t figure w h e t h e r y o u are a h e a d or b e h i n d with
a n d i m p a t i e n c e while actually t h e vehicles m o v e m o r e
t h e total show.
slowly t h a n w h e n t r a v e l i n g o n a n o p e n freeway. G o o d
To figure o u t t h e a d d i t i o n a l clock times for each b r e a k
c o m e d i a n s a n d m u s i c i a n s are said to have "a g o o d sense
or insert, s i m p l y a d d t h e r u n n i n g times t o t h e initial clock t i m e as s h o w n o n t h e log or t h e s h o w format. As w i t h backt i m i n g , y o u n e e d t o c o n v e r t t h e seconds a n d t h e m i n u t e s o n a scale of 60 r a t h e r t h a n 100. C o m p u t e t h e seconds,
1. See the discussion of subjective time in Herbert Zettl, Sight Sound Motion, 4th ed. (Belmont, Calif.: T h o m s o n Wadsworth, 2005),
pp. 2 2 6 - 2 8 .
Section
19.2
Single-camera
Directing,
Postproduction,
of subjective t i m e — t h e pace a n d t h e r h y t h m of t h e per •
When shooting film-style, the action is always repeated for various points of view, fields of view, and camera angles.
•
Each take is normally rehearsed immediately before its videotaping.
•
When videotaping always slate each take with a field slate or verbally, label all videotapes, and stick to the time line.
•
Always make protection copies of the source tapes or the imported video and audio files before beginning the postproduction editing.
•
Log all takes—good and bad—on the VTR log and note the various vectors.
•
As a director, guide, but do not interfere with, the postpro duction editing and audio sweetening.
•
The two important clock times are schedule time (start and end of a program) and running time (program length).
•
Back-timing means figuring specific clock times (usually for cues) by subtracting running time from the schedule time at which the program ends. Front-timing means starting at the clock time that marks the beginning of a program and then adding specific running times.
•
When converting frames into clock time, you must have the frames roll over to the next second after 29, but seconds and minutes after 59.
•
Subjective time refers to the time duration we feel. It in cludes the concepts of pace and rhythm. Pace is how slow or fast a scene feels; rhythm supplies the beat.
T h e r e are m a n y t e r m s to express t h e relative d u r a t i o n of subjective t i m e . You h e a r of speed, tempo, hurrying,
dragging,
pace,
a n d o t h e r s i m i l a r e x p r e s s i o n s . To
simplify t h e subjective-time c o n t r o l , y o u m a y w a n t t o use o n l y t w o basic c o n c e p t s : p a c e a n d r h y t h m . T h e pace of a s h o w or s h o w s e g m e n t is h o w fast o r slow it feels.
469
Timing
such production factors as location or getting various points of view or close-ups of the same action.
of t i m i n g , " w h i c h m e a n s t h a t t h e y have excellent c o n t r o l f o r m a n c e t h e a u d i e n c e perceives.
and
Rhythm
supplies t h e beat. T h e r e are m a n y ways t o increase or decrease t h e pace of a scene, a s e g m e n t , or a n overall show. O n e is t o s p e e d u p t h e action or t h e delivery of t h e dialogue, very m u c h like p i c k i n g u p t h e t e m p o of a m u s i c a l n u m b e r . A n o t h e r is to increase t h e intensity—the
relative e x c i t e m e n t — o f a
scene. Usually, this is d o n e b y i n t r o d u c i n g or s h a r p e n i n g s o m e conflict, such as raising t h e voices of p e o p l e a r g u i n g , h a v i n g o n e car briefly lose c o n t r o l while b e i n g p u r s u e d b y a n o t h e r , or s h o o t i n g t h e scene in tighter close-ups. A t h i r d possibility is to increase t h e density
of t h e event b y
h a v i n g m o r e t h i n g s h a p p e n w i t h i n a specific b l o c k of r u n n i n g t i m e . If y o u w a n t to slow d o w n a scene, y o u d o just the opposite. W h a t e v e r y o u c h a n g e , y o u m u s t always perceive t h e p a c e in relation t o the o t h e r p a r t s of t h e s h o w a n d t o t h e s h o w as a w h o l e . Fast, after all, is fast o n l y if we can relate t h e m o v e m e n t to s o m e t h i n g slower. Finally, as y o u m a y have guessed, a precise process message s h o u l d suggest the overall p a c e a n d r h y t h m of a show.
Single-camera production starts, as does multicamera production, with the visualization of key shots. The script breakdown in single-camera production is guided more by production convenience and efficiency than by visualization and sequencing. The production sequence is dictated not by the event sequence but by
For your reference, or to track your work, each VideoLab program cue in this chapter is listed here with its corresponding page number. PROCESS-* Methods-* multi-camera PROCESS^ Methods^ single-camera
447 464
Field Production and Big Remotes W h e n y o u s e e o n e o f t h o s e b i g t e l e v i s i o n trailer rigs pull u p a n d p r o d u c t i o n c r e w s start u n l o a d i n g c a m e r a s , m i c r o w a v e a n d satellite uplink dishes, miles of cable,a n d o t h e r p i e c e s o f t e l e v i s i o n e q u i p m e n t , y o u k n o w t h a t a b i g r e m o t e is i n t h e o f f i n g . W h y u n d e r g o s u c h a n effort w h e n y o u c o u l d simply g r a b a f e w small c a m c o r d e r s t o s h o o t t h e s a m e field e v e n t ? This c h a p t e r p r o v i d e s s o m e a n s w e r s .
S e c t i o n 20.1, E N G , EFP, a n d B i g R e m o t e s , t a k e s a closer look a t e a c h o f t h e s e t h r e e field p r o d u c t i o n m e t h o d s . S e c t i o n 20.2, C o v e r i n g M a j o r E v e n t s , o f f e r s f u r t h e r
information
a b o u t s t a n d a r d television s e t u p s of sports r e m o t e s a n d o t h e r field e v e n t s ; h o w t o interpret location sketches; m a j o r field c o m m u n i c a t i o n s y s t e m s ; signal transport; a n d cable
470
distribution.
big remote A production outside the studio to televise live and/or record live-on-tape a large scheduled event that has not been staged specifically for television. Examples include sporting events, parades, political gatherings, and studio shows that are taken on the road. Also called, simply, remote.
location sketch A rough map of the locale of a remote telecast. For an indoor remote, the sketch shows the room dimen sions and the furniture and window locations. For an out door remote, the sketch indicates the location of buildings, the remote truck, power sources, and the sun during the time of the telecast.
broadband A high-bandwidth standard for sending informa tion (voice, data, video, and audio) simultaneously over fiber-optic cables.
microwave relay A transmission method from the remote loca tion to the station and/or transmitter involving the use of several microwave units.
direct broadcast satellite (DBS) Satellite with a relatively highpowered transponder (transmitter/receiver) that broad casts from the satellite to small, individual downlink dishes; operates on the Ku-band.
mini-link Several microwave setups that are linked together to transport the video and audio signals past obstacles to their destination (usually the television station and/or transmitter).
downlink The antenna (dish) and equipment that receive the signals coming from a satellite.
remote survey A preproduction investigation of the location premises and event circumstances. Also called site survey.
field production All productions that happen outside the stu dio; generally refers to electronic field production (EFP).
remote truck The vehicle that carries the program control, the audio control, the video-recording and instant-replay con trol, the technical control, and the transmission equipment.
instant replay Repeating for the viewer, by playing back video tape or disk-stored video, a key play or an important event immediately after its live occurrence. isolated (iso) camera Feeds into the switcher and into its own separate video recorder.
uplink Earth station transmitter used to send video and audio signals to a satellite. uplink truck A small truck that sends video and audio signals to a satellite.
Ku-band A high-frequency band used by certain satellites for signal transport and distribution. The Ku-band signals can be influenced by heavy rain or snow.
471
There arc disadvantages as well:
20.1
You d o n o t have t h e p r o d u c t i o n c o n t r o l t h e s t u d i o affords. G o o d lighting is often difficult t o achieve in t h e field, b o t h in i n d o o r a n d o u t d o o r l o c a t i o n s , as is high-quality audio. O n o u t d o o r s h o o t s t h e w e a t h e r always p r e s e n t s a
ENG, EFP, and
h a z a r d . For e x a m p l e , rain o r s n o w can cause seri o u s delays simply because it is t o o w e t or t o o cold t o
Big Remotes
s h o o t o u t s i d e . A few c l o u d s m a y give y o u consider able c o n t i n u i t y p r o b l e m s w h e n t h e p r e c e d i n g takes s h o w e d clear skies. You are always l o c a t i o n d e p e n d e n t , w h i c h m e a n s t h a t s o m e locations r e q u i r e the close c o o p e r a t i o n of n o n p r o d u c t i o n p e o p l e . For e x a m p l e , if y o u s h o o t o n a b u s y d o w n t o w n street, y o u will n e e d the help of t h e police to c o n t r o l traffic a n d o n l o o k e r s . W h e n s h o o t i n g o n city, count}', or federal property, y o u m a y n e e d a p e r m i t from these agencies plus a d d i t i o n a l i n s u r a n c e stipulated b y t h e m .
W h e n a television p r o d u c t i o n h a p p e n s o u t s i d e t h e stu
Field p r o d u c t i o n s also n o r m a l l y r e q u i r e crew travel
dio, w e call it a. field production.
We n o r m a l l y distinguish
a n d l o d g i n g as well as e q u i p m e n t t r a n s p o r t a t i o n .
a m o n g electronic
(ENG)
news gathering
news events, electronic field production
t h a t covers daily (EFP) t h a t deals
w i t h smaller s c h e d u l e d events, a n d big remotes t h a t are d o n e for m a j o r events, s u c h as s p o r t s , p a r a d e s , a n d politi cal c o n v e n t i o n s . T h e r e are advantages to taking a p r o d u c t i o n o u t of t h e s t u d i o a n d i n t o t h e field: You can place or observe a n event in its real setting
As a television professional, y o u n e e d to c o p e w i t h these disadvantages. After all, y o u can't squeeze a football field i n t o a studio. W i t h E N G a n d relatively simple EFP, t h e p r o d u c t i o n efficiency of s h o o t i n g in t h e field usually o u t weighs t h e lack of p r o d u c t i o n c o n t r o l . A l t h o u g h E N G a n d EFP have b e e n discussed t h r o u g h o u t this b o o k , t h e focus here is o n t h e i r specific field p r o d u c t i o n r e q u i r e m e n t s . ^
o r select a specific setting for a fictional event. You have a n u n l i m i t e d n u m b e r a n d a variety of
^
ELECTRONIC FIELD PRODUCTION EFP preproduction; production with equipment check, setup, rehearsals, videotaping, and strike/equipment check; and postproduction
highly realistic settings to c h o o s e from. You can use available light a n d b a c k g r o u n d s o u n d s so long as t h e y a c c o m p l i s h y o u r technical a n d aes
ELECTRONIC NEWS GATHERING ENG production features
^
thetic p r o d u c t i o n r e q u i r e m e n t s .
BIG REMOTES Preproduction remote survey, and production procedures by director, floor manager, and talent
You can save o n p r o d u c t i o n p e o p l e a n d e q u i p m e n t because m a n y EFP p r o d u c t i o n s r e q u i r e less e q u i p m e n t a n d crew t h a n similar s t u d i o p r o d u c t i o n s
ELECTRONIC NEWS GATHERING
(unless y o u d o a c o m p l e x EFP o r a big r e m o t e ) .
E N G K Electronic news gathering is t h e m o s t flexible r e m o t e EFP
You avoid considerable rental costs for s t u d i o use
o p e r a t i o n . As p o i n t e d o u t in p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r s , o n e
p e r s o n w i t h a c a m c o r d e r can h a n d l e a c o m p l e t e E N G as
a n d , if y o u w o r k for a station, s t u d i o scheduling
s i g n m e n t . Even if t h e signal m u s t b e relayed b a c k to t h e
problems.
s t a t i o n or t r a n s m i t t e r , E N G requires o n l y a fraction of t h e
472
Section
20.7
ENG, EFP, and
Big
Remotes
473
e q u i p m e n t a n d t h e p e o p l e of a big r e m o t e . S o m e t i m e s t h e shooter, or videographer
(news c a m e r a o p e r a t o r ) , will
also take care of t h e signal feed from the n e w s vehicle to t h e station. E N G
P R O D U C T I O N
F E A T U R E S
T h e m a j o r p r o d u c t i o n features of E N G are t h e readiness w i t h w h i c h y o u c a n r e s p o n d t o a n event, t h e m o b i l i t y possible in t h e coverage of an event, a n d t h e flexibility of E N G e q u i p m e n t a n d p e o p l e . Because E N G e q u i p m e n t is c o m p a c t a n d self-contained, y o u c a n get to an event a n d v i d e o t a p e or b r o a d c a s t it faster t h a n with any o t h e r t y p e of television e q u i p m e n t . An i m p o r t a n t o p e r a t i o n a l difference b e t w e e n E N G a n d EFP or big r e m o t e s is t h a t E N G requires n o p r e p r o d u c t i o n . E N G systems are specifically d e s i g n e d for i m m e d i a t e r e s p o n s e to a b r e a k i n g story. In E N G y o u exercise n o c o n t r o l over t h e event b u t m e r e l y observe it w i t h y o u r c a m c o r d e r a n d m i c r o p h o n e as best y o u can. Even w h e n w o r k i n g u n d e r e x t r e m e c o n d i t i o n s a n d t i m e restrictions, experienced s h o o t e r s can quickly analyze a n event, pick t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t p a r t s of it, a n d v i d e o t a p e pictures t h a t edit t o g e t h e r well. For i m p o r t a n t events t h e E N G t e a m n o r m a l l y consists of t w o p e o p l e — t h e vid e o g r a p h e r a n d t h e field r e p o r t e r . M a n y E N G stories are covered b y a single s h o o t e r a n d n a r r a t e d later by an a n c h o r d u r i n g t h e newscast. E N G e q u i p m e n t c a n go w h e r e v e r y o u go. It can o p e r a t e in a car, a n elevator, a helicopter, o r a small k i t c h e n . Your s h o u l d e r often substitutes for a heavy tripod. W i t h E N G e q u i p m e n t y o u c a n either v i d e o t a p e a n event or t r a n s m i t it live. N o t e t h a t " v i d e o t a p i n g " i n c l u d e s o t h e r c a m c o r d e r r e c o r d i n g m e t h o d s , such as the video a n d a u d i o c a p t u r e o n h a r d drives, optical discs, o r flash m e m o r y devices (flash drives). T h e t r a n s m i s s i o n e q u i p m e n t h a s b e c o m e so c o m p a c t a n d flexible t h a t a single c a m e r a
20.1 ENG VAN This regular-sized van houses the extendible microwave transmission device and a variety of intercommunications equipment.
o p e r a t o r can a c c o m p l i s h even a live t r a n s m i s s i o n . M o s t E N G vehicles (usually vans) are e q u i p p e d w i t h a m i c r o wave t r a n s m i t t e r , w h i c h , w h e n e x t e n d e d , c a n establish a
used for news, o n e o r t w o V T R s as well as cuts-only editing
t r a n s m i s s i o n link from t h e r e m o t e location to t h e station.
e q u i p m e n t . T h e V T R s c a n record t h e c a m e r a o u t p u t a n d
SEE 20.1 W h e n d o i n g a live t r a n s m i s s i o n , y o u c o n n e c t t h e
play b a c k a r o u g h - c u t or even u n e d i t e d n e w s v i d e o t a p e s
c a m e r a cable to t h e m i c r o w a v e t r a n s m i t t e r . You c a n also
for i m m e d i a t e u p l i n k i n g . SEE 20.2
use such a microwave link t o quickly t r a n s m i t to the station
N e w s p e o p l e prefer u p l i n k i n g " h o t " v i d e o recordings
t h e u n c u t v i d e o t a p e directly from t h e c a m c o r d e r v i d e o
( v i d e o t a p e d o r d i s k - c a p t u r e d m o m e n t s before t h e t r a n s
r e c o r d e r or t h e r e c o r d e r in t h e E N G van.
m i s s i o n ) to live t r a n s m i s s i o n because it p e r m i t s repeated t r a n s m i s s i o n in case t h e satellite feed is t e m p o r a r i l y inter
S A T E L L I T E
U P L I N K
r u p t e d o r lost a l t o g e t h e r . To f u r t h e r safeguard against
If y o u c a n n o t establish a signal c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n y o u r
signal loss, t w o V T R s or disk recorders are s o m e t i m e s used
E N G location a n d the station, y o u n e e d to request a satellite
for t h e r e c o r d i n g a n d playback of the s a m e news story. If
uplink van. This v a n looks like a small r e m o t e t r u c k a n d
s o m e t h i n g goes w r o n g w i t h o n e m a c h i n e , y o u can quickly
contains computer-assisted uplink equipment and, when
switch over to t h e next for t h e s a m e m a t e r i a l .
474
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FIELD PRODUCTION
20
AND BIG
REMOTES
doors, single- or multicamera, in the normal sequence of events o r s h o t - b y - s h o t . T h e s e c o n d step is t o translate t h e c h o s e n p r o d u c t i o n m e t h o d i n t o specific m e d i u m r e q u i r e m e n t s — e q u i p m e n t a n d p e o p l e . A s s u m i n g t h a t y o u have p r a c t i c e d this t r a n s l a t i o n of process message i n t o p r o d u c t i o n r e q u i r e m e n t s (see c h a p t e r 17), w e j u m p t o t h e actual p r e p r o d u c t i o n activities: (1) l o c a t i o n survey, (2) initial p r o d u c t i o n m e e t i n g , a n d (3) field p r o d u c t i o n t i m e line. Location survey
To get t o k n o w t h e e n v i r o n m e n t i n
w h i c h t h e p r o d u c t i o n will take place, m a k e an a c c u r a t e location
sketch—a
m a p of t h e locale of a r e m o t e telecast.
For a n i n d o o r r e m o t e , t h e sketch shows t h e r o o m d i m e n sions a n d the furniture a n d w i n d o w locations. For an o u t d o o r r e m o t e , it indicates t h e l o c a t i o n of b u i l d i n g s , t h e EFP vehicle, p o w e r sources, a n d t h e s u n d u r i n g t h e t i m e of t h e telecast.
20.2
To refresh y o u r m e m o r y , take a n o t h e r look at t h e loca
SATELLITE UPLINK VAN
The satellite news vehicle is a portable earth station. It sends television signals to the Ku-band satellites.
t i o n sketch of t h e artist's s t u d i o i n figure 18.11. This sketch gives i m p o r t a n t i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t lighting a n d a u d i o r e q u i r e m e n t s , c a m e r a positions, a n d s h o o t i n g sequences. Al t h o u g h technical p r e p a r a t i o n s m a y n o t b e y o u r i m m e d i a t e
Such u p l i n k s are pressed i n t o service w h e n e v e r b i g
c o n c e r n , check o n t h e availability of p o w e r (wall o u t l e t s ) ,
a n d especially n e w s w o r t h y events are scheduled, s u c h as a
the acoustics (small r o o m , reflective walls, a n d traffic noise
presidential election, a s u m m i t m e e t i n g of h e a d s of state,
f r o m n e a r b y freeway), a n d p o t e n t i a l l i g h t i n g p r o b l e m s
a high-profile c r i m i n a l trial, o r t h e w o r l d soccer finals. But
(large w i n d o w s ) . (Location surveys are discussed further
t h e u p l i n k t r u c k is also u s e d locally for t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of
in t h e context of big r e m o t e s later in this c h a p t e r ) .
news stories, n a t i o n a l a n d i n t e r n a t i o n a l teleconferencing,
Ask t h e p r o d u c e r w h e t h e r h e o r she h a s secured a c
or w h e n e v e r a signal c a n n o t b e sent readily by m i c r o w a v e
c o m m o d a t i o n s , s h o o t i n g p e r m i t s , p a r k i n g , a n d food for
or cable.
talent a n d crew. If t h e p r o d u c t i o n is literally in a field, are t h e m o s t basic conveniences available?
ELECTRONIC FIELD PRODUCTION
Initial production meeting
ENfiw As y o u already k n o w , EFP uses b o t h E N G a n d s t u d i o
m e e t i n g involves all k e y p e r s o n n e l , i n c l u d i n g t h e PA ( p r o
EFP'
d u c t i o n assistant), t h e floor m a n a g e r , a n d t h e crew chief o r
t e c h n i q u e s . F r o m E N G it b o r r o w s its m o b i l i t y a n d
T h e initial p r o d u c t i o n
flexibility; from t h e s t u d i o it b o r r o w s its p r o d u c t i o n care
c a m e r a operator. For m o r e - c o m p l e x field p r o d u c t i o n s t h a t
a n d quality control. T h e following discussion of s o m e fun
involve several i n d o o r l o c a t i o n s , y o u m a y w a n t t o i n c l u d e
d a m e n t a l steps of p r e p r o d u c t i o n , p r o d u c t i o n , a n d p o s t p r o
t h e LD (lighting director). At a m i n i m u m y o u s h o u l d m e e t
d u c t i o n in t h e field a s s u m e s t h a t y o u are still f u n c t i o n i n g
w i t h t h e PA ( w h o m a y d o u b l e as t h e a u d i o / V T R o p e r a t o r )
as t h e director. This w a y y o u have to deal w i t h p r o d u c t i o n
and the camera operator. Explain the process message
detail t h a t is i m p o r t a n t for each m e m b e r of t h e EFP t e a m ,
a n d w h a t y o u h o p e to a c c o m p l i s h . D i s t r i b u t e t h e location
regardless of t h e specific jobs assigned.
EJ3$i
PROCESS^
Methods-* location | studio
sketch a n d discuss t h e m a j o r p r o d u c t i o n steps. It is critical t h a t everyone k n o w s t h e exact location of t h e p r o d u c t i o n a n d h o w t o get there. C a n everyone fit
PREPRODUCTION
i n t o t h e EFP van? W h o is r i d i n g w i t h w h o m ? W h o n e e d s
C o m p a r e d with ENG, in which y o u simply respond to
to c o m e first t o t h e s t a t i o n for e q u i p m e n t c h e c k - o u t , a n d
a s i t u a t i o n , E F P r e q u i r e s careful p l a n n i n g . Recall t h a t
w h o will go directly t o t h e location? W h o will drive t h e
t h e first step in a n y p r e p r o d u c t i o n activity is to translate
van? H a n d o u t t h e t i m e line a n d ask t h e PA to d i s t r i b u t e
t h e process message i n t o t h e m o s t effective a n d efficient
it (via fax a n d / o r e-mail) t o all o t h e r c r e w m e m b e r s w h o
p r o d u c t i o n m e t h o d — w h e t h e r t o s h o o t it i n d o o r s o r o u t
m a y n o t b e at t h e m e e t i n g . As y o u can see, t r a n s p o r t a t i o n
Section
ENG, EFP, and
20.7
Big
Remotes
475
t o a n d from t h e location is a n essential scheduling issue.
c o m p l e x i t y of t h e EFP, y o u m a y n e e d considerably less o r
If t h e field p r o d u c t i o n is o u t d o o r s , w h a t d o y o u d o in case
m o r e t h a n t h e items listed.
of rain o r snow? Always have an alternate t i m e line ready. Cameras. Field c a m e r a or camcorders? Have they been Field production time line
A s h o o t i n g schedule for a
fairly elaborate field p r o d u c t i o n m a y look like this:
checked out? D o y o u have t h e a p p r o p r i a t e lenses a n d lens a t t a c h m e n t s (usually filters), if any? W h a t c a m e r a m o u n t s d o y o u need: t r i p o d s , t r i p o d dollies, p o r t a b l e pedestals,
TIME LINE: FIELD
PRODUCTION
clamps, Steadicam m o u n t , high hats, b e a n b a g s , o r p o r
7:30-8:15 a.m.
Equipment check-out
table jib arms? D o y o u have e n o u g h batteries? Are they
8:15 a.m.
Departure
fully charged? D o they fit t h e specific c a m c o r d e r s y o u use
9:15 a.m.
Estimated arrival time
9:30-10:00 a.m.
Production meeting with talent and crew
10:00-11:00 a.m.
Technical setup
11:00-11:30 a.m.
Lunch
11:30 a.m.-12:00 p.m. Technical and talent walk-through 12:00-12:20 p.m.
Notes and reset
12:20-12:30 p.m.
Break
12:30-1:00 p.m.
Segment 1 tape
1:00-l: 15 p.m.
Notes and reset for segment 2
1:15-1:45 p.m.
Segment 2 tape
1:45-1:55 p.m.
Break
1:55-2:10 p.m.
Notes and reset for segment 3
2:10-2:40 p.m.
Segment 3 tape
2:40-3:00 p.m.
Spill
3:00-3:30 p.m.
Strike
3:30 p.m.
Departure
4:30 p.m.
Estimated arrival time at station
4:30-4:45 p.m.
Equipment check-in
PRODUCTION: EQUIPMENT CHECK Again, a p p r i s e t h e crew of t h e schedule a n d t h e a i m of t h e p r o d u c t i o n . G o over t h e t i m e line a n d t h e r u n d o w n sheet of t h e m a j o r locations a n d t a p i n g sessions. Be extra careful w h e n l o a d i n g t h e e q u i p m e n t . Unlike studio p r o d u c t i o n s , w h e r e all t h e e q u i p m e n t is close at h a n d , in field p r o d u c t i o n s y o u n e e d to b r i n g e v e r y t h i n g t o t h e location. Even if y o u have d o n e t h e same EFP a d o z e n times, always use an e q u i p m e n t checklist. A w r o n g cable o r a d a p t e r c a n cause u n d u e delays or even t h e cancellation of t h e entire production. Before loading e q u i p m e n t o n t o a vehicle, check each i t e m t o see t h a t it w o r k s properly. At a m i n i m u m d o a test r e c o r d i n g of picture a n d s o u n d before leaving for t h e loca tion shoot. Equipment checklist T h e following e q u i p m e n t check list is i n t e n d e d as a general guide a n d m a y n o t i n c l u d e all t h e items y o u n e e d to take along. D e p e n d i n g o n t h e relative
in t h e EFP? Video recorders and recording media. If you u s e field c a m e r a s instead of c a m c o r d e r s , y o u n e e d t o take o n e o r m o r e V T R s or disk r e c o r d e r s . D o y o u have t h e p r o p e r videocassettes for t h e VTRs? Take plenty of cassettes along. C h e c k t h a t t h e actual tape length m a t c h e s t h e label o n t h e box. W h e n y o u t h i n k y o u have e n o u g h tape, a d d t w o m o r e cassettes for good m e a s u r e . D o t h e cables fit t h e jacks o n t h e recorder a n d t h e E N G / E F P camera? Monitor, RCU, and scopes. You n e e d a m o n i t o r for playback or checking t h e camera's shots. If t h e m o n i t o r is b a t t e r y - p o w e r e d , d o y o u have e n o u g h batteries? If y o u d o a m u l t i c a m e r a EFP w i t h a switcher, each c a m e r a i n p u t needs a separate preview m o n i t o r . If y o u have a n a r r a t o r d e s c r i b i n g t h e action, y o u n e e d a separate m o n i t o r for h i m o r her. In critical (film-style) field p r o d u c t i o n s for w h i c h y o u use a single h i g h - q u a l i t y c a m e r a , y o u n e e d ad ditional e q u i p m e n t : a n RCU (remote control unit) a n d test e q u i p m e n t t o enable y o u t o adjust t h e c a m e r a for o p t i m a l p e r f o r m a n c e ; a waveform monitor (oscilloscope) to help you adjust t h e b r i g h t n e s s (keeping t h e white a n d black levels w i t h i n tolerable limits); a n d a vector scope (color control) t o help adjust t h e c a m e r a so t h a t it p r o d u c e s t r u e colors. Audio. If you have n o t checked o u t t h e acoustics of t h e location, take several types of mics. C h e c k y o u r wireless lavalieres. D o y o u have e n o u g h batteries for t h e wireless m i c t r a n s m i t t e r s ? D o t h e p o r t a b l e mics fit t h e c h a n n e l frequency of t h e receiver? All r e m o t e mics, i n c l u d i n g t h e lavalieres, s h o u l d have w i n d s c r e e n s . S h o t g u n mics n e e d additional wind jammers. Choose the most appropriate m o u n t i n g e q u i p m e n t , such as clamps, stands, a n d fishpoles. D o y o u n e e d a small field mixer? D o e s it w o r k properly? If y o u use a separate audio recorder, check it o u t before taking it o n location. D o y o u have e n o u g h videocassettes for t h e w h o l e p r o d u c t i o n ? D o n ' t forget headsets for t h e fishpole o p e r a t o r a n d t h e a u d i o - r e c o r d i n g technician. Power supply.
D o y o u have t h e r i g h t b a t t e r i e s for
t h e m o n i t o r s , c a m c o r d e r s or field c a m e r a s , a n d a u d i o
476
Chapter
20
e q u i p m e n t ? Arc they fully charged? If using A C , do you have t h e right A C / D C adapters? D o y o u have e n o u g h A C extension cords to reach t h e A C outlet? Unless b a t t e r y driven, you also need AC p o w e r a n d extension cords for the m o n i t o r s . Take a few power strips along, b u t b e careful n o t t o overload t h e circuits. Cables and connectors. D o y o u have e n o u g h c a m e r a cables, especially if t h e r e is a l o n g r u n b e t w e e n t h e c a m e r a a n d t h e RCU? Are t h e r e e n o u g h coax a n d AC cables for m o n i t o r feeds? Always take a sufficient a m o u n t of m i c cables along, even if y o u plan to use wireless m i c s . T h e mic cables m a y save a whole p r o d u c t i o n day if t h e wireless system breaks d o w n o r is u n u s a b l e o n location. D o y o u have t h e right connectors for t h e mic cables a n d jacks (usu ally XLR c o n n e c t o r s , b u t s o m e t i m e s R C A p h o n o ) ? Bring s o m e adapters for video a n d a u d i o cables ( B N C to RCA p h o n o a n d XLR to RCA p h o n o a n d vice versa). A l t h o u g h you s h o u l d avoid a d a p t e r s as m u c h as possible (they are always a potential t r o u b l e s p o t ) , b r i n g s o m e along t h a t fit the cables a n d a variety of i n p u t jacks, just to b e safe. Lighting. You can light m o s t interiors with p o r t a b l e lighting i n s t r u m e n t s . Bring several lighting kits. C h e c k that t h e kits actually c o n t a i n t h e n o r m a l c o m p l e m e n t s of lights, stands, a n d accessories. D o t h e lights work? Always pack a few spare lamps. D o t h e l a m p s actually fit t h e light ing i n s t r u m e n t s used? D o they b u r n w i t h the desired color t e m p e r a t u r e (3,200K o r 5,600K)? D o y o u have e n o u g h reflectors (white foam core), u m b r e l l a reflectors, diffusion material (scrims a n d screens), a n d color gels for regulat ing color t e m p e r a t u r e ? T h e color gels m o s t often n e e d e d are t h e a m b e r o r light-orange o n e s for lowering t h e color t e m p e r a t u r e a n d the light-blue o n e s for raising it. If there are w i n d o w s to c o n t e n d w i t h , y o u m a y need large sheets of n e u t r a l density ( N D ) filters (that cut d o w n the light w i t h o u t c h a n g i n g t h e color t e m p e r a t u r e ) or a m ber color m e d i a to cover t h e w i n d o w s a n d t h u s lower t h e color t e m p e r a t u r e . Just to b e safe, take s o m e m u s l i n along to block u n w a n t e d light that m a y enter t h r o u g h a n offc a m e r a w i n d o w , a n d a black cloth to c u t d o w n u n w a n t e d reflections. O t h e r i m p o r t a n t items to take along are: a light meter, light s t a n d s a n d clamps, sandbags to secure t h e p o r t a b l e light stands, s o m e pieces of 1 x 3 l u m b e r to construct a light bridge for b a c k lights, a roll of a l u m i n u m foil for heat shields, extra b a r n d o o r s , flags, a n d a d o z e n o r so w o o d clothespins to attach scrims o r color gels to b a r n doors. Intercom. If the single-camera EFP is taking place in a confined area, y o u d o n ' t n e e d elaborate i n t e r c o m systems;
FIELD PRODUCTION
AND BIG
REMOTES
you can call your shots right from the production area. But if t h e event covers a large o u t d o o r area, y o u n e e d a small p o w e r m e g a p h o n e a n d walkie-talkies a n d cellular p h o n e s to c o m m u n i c a t e with the widely dispersed crew a n d the sta tion, if necessary. If y o u use t h e m u l t i c a m e r a a n d switcher system for a live or live-on-tape p i c k u p , such as for t h e high-school state c h a m p i o n s h i p basketball g a m e , y o u n e e d headsets a n d i n t e r c o m (often regular a u d i o ) cables. Miscellaneous. T h e r e are a few m o r e items t h a t a r e often needed for a field p r o d u c t i o n : extra scripts a n d t i m e lines; field log sheets; slate a n d dry-erase m a r k e r s ; regular rain umbrellas a n d "raincoats" (plastic covers) for cameras; star filters a n d fog filters, if any; w h i t e cards for w h i t e balancing; a t e l e p r o m p t e r , if applicable; blank cue cards or large n e w s p r i n t p a d a n d m a r k e r ; a n easel; a n d several rolls of gaffer's tape a n d m a s k i n g tape. You also n e e d white chalk, m o r e sandbags, w o o d clothespins, rope, m a k e u p kit a n d b o t t l e d water, towels, flashlights, a n d a first-aid kit.
PRODUCTION: SETUP O n c e everyone k n o w s w h a t is s u p p o s e d to h a p p e n , t h e s e t u p will b e relatively s m o o t h a n d free of c o n f u s i o n . A l t h o u g h as director y o u m a y n o t b e responsible for t h e technical setup, y o u s h o u l d watch carefully that t h e e q u i p m e n t is p u t in t h e right places. For example, w h e n s h o o t i n g i n d o o r s , will t h e lights be o u t of c a m e r a range? Are t h e y far e n o u g h away from c o m b u s t i b l e material (especially curtains) a n d p r o p e r l y insulated (with a l u m i n u m foil, for example)? Are t h e b a c k lights high e n o u g h so that t h e y will b e o u t of t h e shot? Is there a w i n d o w in the b a c k g r o u n d that m i g h t cause lighting problems? ( T h e w i n d o w in t h e artist's studio in figure 18.11 w o u l d certainly present a p r o b l e m if y o u h a d to s h o o t t h e large sculpture.) Does t h e r o o m look t o o cluttered? T o o clean? Are t h e r e a n y p a r t i c u l a r a u d i o p r o b l e m s y o u c a n foresee? If t h e talent wears a wired lavaliere m i c , does t h e mic cord restrict talent mobility? If you use a s h o t g u n m i c , can t h e fishpole o p e r a t o r get close e n o u g h to t h e talent and, especially, m o v e w i t h the talent w i t h o u t s t u m b l i n g over furniture? Are pictures h u n g w h e r e t h e c a m e r a c a n see t h e m ? L o o k b e h i n d the talent to see w h e t h e r t h e back g r o u n d will cause any p r o b l e m s (such as l a m p s or plants s e e m i n g to extend from t h e talent's h e a d ) . W h e n o u t d o o r s c h e c k for o b v i o u s o b s t a c l e s t h a t m a y b e in t h e way of t h e c a m e r a , fishpole o p e r a t o r s , a n d talent. Look past the s h o o t i n g location to see w h e t h e r the b a c k g r o u n d fits t h e scene. A r e t h e r e b u s h e s , trees, o r t e l e p h o n e poles that may, again, appear to extend from t h e talent's head? Large billboards a r e a c o n s t a n t b a c k g r o u n d
Section
20.1
ENG, EFP, and
hazard. W h a t are t h e p o t e n t i a l a u d i o hazards? A l t h o u g h t h e c o u n t r y r o a d m a y b e quiet now, will t h e r e b e traffic at certain times? Are there a n y factory whistles t h a t m a y go off in t h e m i d d l e of y o u r scene?
PRODUCTION: REHEARSALS M o s t often y o u r rehearsals are limited to a quick walk t h r o u g h . B u t y o u m a y n e e d m o r e rehearsals if t h e EFP requires t h e interaction of m o r e t h a n o n e o r two p e r s o n s . Walk-through Before y o u start w i t h the actual rehearsal a n d taping, y o u s h o u l d have a brief w a l k - t h r o u g h first with t h e crew a n d t h e n w i t h t h e talent to explain t h e m a j o r p r o d u c t i o n points, such as c a m e r a positions, specific shots, a n d principal actions. In relatively simple p r o d u c t i o n s , y o u can c o m b i n e t h e technical a n d talent w a l k - t h r o u g h s . T h e m o r e t h o r o u g h y o u are in explaining the action d u r i n g the w a l k - t h r o u g h s , t h e m o r e efficient t h e actual v i d e o t a p i n g will be. Have t h e PA follow y o u a n d write d o w n all m a j o r a n d m i n o r p r o d u c t i o n p r o b l e m s t h a t n e e d to b e solved. Always follow the w a l k - t h r o u g h with the notes session, t h e n have t h e crew take care of t h e r e m a i n i n g p r o b l e m s . D o n ' t forget to give the talent a n d crew a s h o r t break before starting w i t h t h e rehearsal a n d t a p i n g sessions. Rehearsal As p o i n t e d o u t earlier, single-camera field directing has its o w n rehearsal t e c h n i q u e . Basically, y o u rehearse each take i m m e d i a t e l y before v i d e o t a p i n g it. You walk t h e t a l e n t a n d t h e c a m e r a a n d fishpole o p e r a t o r s t h r o u g h t h e take, explaining w h a t t h e y s h o u l d a n d s h o u l d n o t do. Videotape s o m e of t h e critical scenes a n d watch a n d listen to t h e playback. You m a y w a n t to change t h e m i c or t h e m i c p o s i t i o n for a better, less n o i s y p i c k u p .
PRODUCTION:
VIDEOTAPING
Just before the actual taping, ask the director of photography {DP) a n d / o r t h e c a m e r a o p e r a t o r w h e t h e r t h e c a m e r a is p r o p e r l y white-balanced for the scene location. S o m e t i m e s clouds or fog m o v e in b e t w e e n t h e rehearsal a n d t h e t a p ing, c h a n g i n g t h e color t e m p e r a t u r e of the light. Slate all takes a n d have t h e PA or t h e V T R o p e r a t o r record t h e m o n the field log. W a t c h t h e b a c k g r o u n d a c t i o n as well as t h e m a i n f o r e g r o u n d action. For example, c u r i o u s o n l o o k e r s m a y s u d d e n l y appear o u t of n o w h e r e a n d get i n y o u r shot, or t h e talent m a y s t o p h e r action exactly in line w i t h a d i s t a n t fountain t h a t t h e n appears to spring o u t of h e r head. Listen carefully t o the various foreground a n d b a c k g r o u n d s o u n d s d u r i n g t h e take. D o n o t i n t e r r u p t t h e t a p i n g because there was a faint airplane noise. M o s t likely, such noise will get
Big
Remotes
477
b u r i e d b y t h e m a i n d i a l o g u e or t h e a d d i t i o n a l s o u n d s a d d e d i n p o s t p r o d u c t i o n (such as m u s i c ) . But t h e noise of a n e a r b y helicopter t h a t i n t e r r u p t s a Civil W a r scene definitely calls for a retake. At t h e e n d of each take, have t h e talent stand quietly a n d let t h e c a m e r a r e c o r d a few s e c o n d s of a d d i t i o n a l material. This c u s h i o n will b e of great h e l p to t h e editor in p o s t p r o d u c t i o n . V i d e o t a p e s o m e usable cutaways a n d r e c o r d location s o u n d s a n d r o o m a m b i e n c e for each loca tion. T h e recorded "silence" will help bridge possible audio d r o p s at edit p o i n t s in p o s t p r o d u c t i o n . W h e n y o u feel t h a t y o u have a series of good takes, play t h e m back o n the field m o n i t o r to see w h e t h e r they are i n d e e d acceptable for p o s t p r o d u c t i o n . If y o u detect gross p r o b l e m s , y o u c a n still d o s o m e retakes before m o v i n g o n t o t h e n e x t scene o r location.
PRODUCTION: STRIKE AND EQUIPMENT CHECK H a v e the location reset (furniture, c u r t a i n s , a n d t h e like) t h e w a y y o u f o u n d it a n d t h e place cleaned before y o u leave. Pick u p all scripts, shot sheets, a n d log sheets. D o n o t leave pieces of gaffer's tape stuck o n floors, d o o r s , o r walls, a n d take away y o u r trash. W h e n l o a d i n g t h e EFP vehicle, t h e floor m a n a g e r , crew chief, or PA s h o u l d r u n d o w n t h e e q u i p m e n t checklist to see that everything is back in t h e vehicle before leaving or c h a n g i n g locations. C h e c k t h a t t h e source tapes are all p r o p e r l y labeled a n d — m o s t i m p o r t a n t — l o a d e d o n t o t h e vehicle. S o m e directors insist o n c a r r y i n g t h e source tapes personally.
POSTPRODUCTION EFP p o s t p r o d u c t i o n activities are, for all practical purposes, identical to t h o s e of s i n g l e - c a m e r a s t u d i o p r o d u c t i o n s : m a k i n g p r o t e c t i o n copies a n d w i n d o w d u b s , logging all takes o n t h e source tapes, c a p t u r i n g t h e v a r i o u s takes o n t h e h a r d drive of y o u r editing computer, d o i n g a rough-cut, a n d finally d o i n g an o n - l i n e edit t h a t is transferred to t h e edit m a s t e r tape. <
BIG REMOTES ENGw
A big remote, o r s i m p l y remote, is d o n e to televise E F P live o r to record live-on-tape large, scheduled events t h a t have n o t b e e n staged specifically for television, such as s p o r t i n g events, p a r a d e s , o r political gatherings. All big r e m o t e s use h i g h - q u a l i t y field c a m e r a s (studio c a m e r a s w i t h h i g h z o o m ratio lenses) in key positions, a n u m b e r of E N G / E F P c a m e r a s , a n d a n extensive a u d i o setup. T h e cameras a n d t h e various a u d i o elements are c o o r d i n a t e d
478
20.3
Chapter
20
FIELD PRODUCTION
AND
BIG
REMOTES
REMOTE TRUCK
The remote truck is a com plete control center on wheels. It contains program, audio, video, and technical control centers as well as C.G. and recording facilities.
Remote
Because t h e telecast h a p p e n s away from t h e s t u d i o ,
t r u c k s are usually p o w e r e d by a p o r t a b l e generator, w i t h a
s o m e p r o d u c t i o n p r o c e d u r e s are quite different from those
s e c o n d o n e s t a n d i n g b y in case t h e first o n e fails. If t h e r e
for s t u d i o p r o d u c t i o n s . We therefore e x a m i n e t h e following
is e n o u g h p o w e r available at t h e r e m o t e site, t h e t r u c k is
p r o d u c t i o n aspects: (1) p r e p r o d u c t i o n — t h e r e m o t e survey,
from a m o b i l e c o n t r o l c e n t e r — t h e remote
truck.
c o n n e c t e d to t h e available power, w i t h a single g e n e r a t o r
a n d (2) p r o d u c t i o n — e q u i p m e n t s e t u p a n d o p e r a t i o n , as
serving as b a c k u p .
well as floor m a n a g e r a n d talent p r o c e d u r e s .
T h e r e m o t e t r u c k represents a c o m p a c t s t u d i o c o n t r o l r o o m a n d e q u i p m e n t r o o m . It c o n t a i n s t h e following c o n
P R E P R O D U C T I O N : THE REMOTE SURVEY
trol centers:
Like any o t h e r scheduled p r o d u c t i o n , a big r e m o t e requires t h o r o u g h p r e p a r a t i o n — o n l y m o r e so. O n e p r o b l e m w i t h
Program control center, also called production,
with
p r e p a r i n g for big r e m o t e s is t h a t t h e event y o u cover is
preview a n d line m o n i t o r s , a switcher with special
n o r m a l l y a o n e t i m e h a p p e n i n g that y o u c a n n o t rehearse.
effects, a character generator, a n d v a r i o u s i n t e r c o m
It w o u l d be r i d i c u l o u s to ask t w o n a t i o n a l h o c k e y t e a m s t o
systems (RL., P.A., a n d elaborate I.RB. systems) Audio control center w i t h a fairly large a u d i o c o n sole, ATRs a n d DATs, o t h e r digital r e c o r d i n g m e d i a , m o n i t o r speakers, a n d i n t e r c o m systems Video-recording
center w i t h several h i g h - q u a l i t y
r e p e a t t h e w h o l e g a m e for y o u , or to ask political leaders to restate their lively d e b a t e v e r b a t i m just so y o u can have y o u r rehearsal. A r e m o t e of a n award c e r e m o n y , however, allows s o m e l i m i t e d r e h e a r s a l s ; y o u c a n r e h e a r s e w i t h s t a n d - i n s filling in for t h e m a s t e r of c e r e m o n i e s a n d t h e possible w i n n e r s . Still, y o u have n o c o n t r o l over t h e event
V T R s a n d / o r digital r e c o r d i n g devices t h a t c a n h a n
itself b u t m u s t follow it as best y o u can. Your p r o d u c t i o n
dle regular recordings, d o i n s t a n t replays, a n d play
p r e p a r a t i o n s m u s t take these, a n d several o t h e r such c o n
in s l o w - m o t i o n a n d freeze-frame m o d e s
siderations, i n t o a c c o u n t . Yet a n o t h e r p r o b l e m is t h a t y o u
Technical centerwith
to t h e s i t e — n o t the s t u d i o itself. C a m e r a s , m i c r o p h o n e s ,
can t r u c k only t h e c o n t r o l r o o m a n d t h e technical facilities CCUs (camera control units),
line m o n i t o r s , p a t c h b o a r d s , a generator, a n d signal
a n d often lighting n e e d to b e b r o u g h t t o t h e r e m o t e loca
t r a n s m i s s i o n e q u i p m e n t SEE 20.3 A N D 20.4
tion a n d m a d e operational.
I n very big r e m o t e s , o n e o r m o r e a d d i t i o n a l trailers
O n e of t h e key p r e p a r a t i o n s is t h e r e m o t e survey.
m a y b e used for s u p p l e m e n t a l p r o d u c t i o n a n d c o n t r o l
M a n y of t h e survey i t e m s for big r e m o t e s are equally a p
equipment.
plicable for v a r i o u s electronic field p r o d u c t i o n s , s u c h as a
Section
20.4
20.7
ENG,
EFP, and
Big
Remotes
CONTROL CENTERS IN REMOTE TRUCK
The remote truck carries the program control, the audio control, the video-recording and instant-replay center, the technical center, and the transmission equipment.
479
480
Chapter
20
FIELD PRODUCTION
AND
BIG
REMOTES
visit to a car m a n u f a c t u r i n g p l a n t or an M T V segment. As
a n d technical survey questions overlap, for better clarifica
t h e n a m e implies, a remote survey, or site survey, is a p r e -
tion we consider t h e m separately here.
p r o d u c t i o n investigation of t h e location premises a n d t h e event circumstances. It s h o u l d provide y o u w i t h answers to s o m e key q u e s t i o n s a b o u t t h e n a t u r e of t h e event a n d t h e technical facilities necessary to televise it. Contact p e r s o r
Your first c o n c e r n is t o talk to s o m e o n e
Production survey T h e following table lists the key q u e s t i o n s y o u s h o u l d ask d u r i n g t h e production survey. S E E 20.5 A g o o d location sketch can h e l p you p r e p a r e for the p r o d u c t i o n a n d anticipate m a j o r p r o b l e m s (see figures 20.14 t h r o u g h 20.17).
w h o k n o w s a b o u t the event. This p e r s o n , called t h e contact person, or simply contact, m a y b e the public relations officer
Technical s u r v e y
of an institution or s o m e o n e in a supervisory capacity. Call
only t h o s e i t e m s t h a t directly influence t h e p r o d u c t i o n
t h e c o n t a c t t o find o u t w h a t h e or she k n o w s a b o u t t h e
p r o c e d u r e s a n d , ultimately, y o u r p o r t i o n of t h e r e m o t e
event a n d w h e t h e r he or she can refer y o u to o t h e r s w h o
survey, S E E 20.6 Technical p o i n t s t h a t have already b e e n
m i g h t answer y o u r questions. In any case, get t h e contact's
m e n t i o n e d in the p r o d u c t i o n survey, such as c a m e r a s a n d
full n a m e a n d position, business a n d e-mail addresses, a n d
m i c r o p h o n e s , are n o t listed again.
T h e technical survey s h o w n here lists
business, h o m e , fax, cell, a n d pager n u m b e r s . T h e n m a k e an a p p o i n t m e n t for t h e actual r e m o t e survey. Ideally, t h e t i m e of day of t h e survey s h o u l d be t h e same as t h a t of t h e s c h e d u l e d r e m o t e telecast because t h e location of t h e s u n is extremely i m p o r t a n t for o u t d o o r r e m o t e s as well as for i n d o o r r e m o t e s w h e r e w i n d o w s will be in t h e shots. A r r a n g e to have t h e c o n t a c t p e r s o n w i t h y o u d u r i n g t h e p r o d u c t i o n . Establish an alternate c o n t a c t a n d copy h i m or h e r o n i n f o r m a t i o n y o u s e n d to t h e p r i m a r y contact. S o m e t i m e s t h e c o n t a c t p e r s o n c o m e s d o w n w i t h a cold o n y o u r p r o d u c t i o n day. S u r v e y p a r t y T h e survey itself is c o n c e r n e d w i t h p r o d u c t i o n a n d technical considerations. T h e r e m o t e survey party therefore includes people from p r o d u c t i o n and engineering. T h e m i n i m u m p a r t y usually consists of t h e p r o d u c e r , the director, a n d t h e technical director ( T D ) o r technical supervisor of t h e r e m o t e . A d d i t i o n a l p r o d u c t i o n a n d technical s u p e r v i s o r y p e r s o n n e l , s u c h as t h e p r o d u c t i o n m a n a g e r a n d t h e chief engineer, m a y join t h e survey party, especially if the r e m o t e covers an i m p o r t a n t event a n d i n c l u d e s s u c h e l e m e n t s as c o m p l e x m i c r o w a v e o r satellite links. In general, the p r o d u c t i o n r e q u i r e m e n t s are first deter m i n e d , t h e n t h e technical p e o p l e t r y to m a k e t h e p l a n n e d p r o d u c t i o n p r o c e d u r e s technically possible. D e p e n d i n g o n t h e complexity of t h e telecast, extensive c o m p r o m i s e s m u s t often b e m a d e b y p r o d u c t i o n p e o p l e as well as b y technical p e r s o n n e l . As director y o u can m a k e such c o m p r o m i s e s only if you k n o w w h a t t h e p a r t i c u l a r technical setup a n d p i c k u p p r o b l e m s are a n d w h a t changes in p r o c e d u r e s will help o v e r c o m e t h e m . You s h o u l d therefore familiarize yourself w i t h t h e p r o d u c t i o n as well as t h e e n g i n e e r i n g r e q u i r e m e n t s of television r e m o t e s . A l t h o u g h m a n y p r o d u c t i o n
PRODUCTION: EQUIPMENT SETUP A N D OPERATION T h e r e is n o clear-cut f o r m u l a for setting u p e q u i p m e n t for a r e m o t e telecast. As w i t h a s t u d i o p r o d u c t i o n , t h e n u m b e r of c a m e r a s , t h e t y p e a n d t h e n u m b e r of m i c r o p h o n e s , the lighting, a n d so forth d e p e n d entirely o n t h e event or, m o r e precisely, o n t h e process message as defined in t h e p r e p r o d u c t i o n m e e t i n g s . E m p l o y i n g a great n u m b e r of cameras, m i c r o p h o n e s , a n d o t h e r types of technical e q u i p m e n t does n o t necessarily g u a r a n t e e a better telecast t h a n w h e n using less e q u i p m e n t . In fact, o n e or two c a m c o r d e r s are often m o r e flexible a n d effective t h a n a c u m b e r s o m e r e m o t e t r u c k w i t h t h e fanciest video, a u d i o , recording, a n d switching gear. For such s t a n d a r d b i g - r e m o t e o p e r a t i o n s as t h e live coverage of major s p o r t i n g events, however, t h e r e m o t e t r u c k provides essential e q u i p m e n t a n d p r o d u c t i o n control. O n c e set u p , m a n y of the p r o d u c t i o n routines of big re m o t e s d o n o t differ significantly from s t u d i o p r o d u c t i o n s . T h e r e are n e v e r t h e l e s s s o m e p r o c e d u r e s in b i g - r e m o t e o p e r a t i o n s , such as instant replays, t h a t y o u will n o t find in n o r m a l s t u d i o p r o d u c t i o n s . For t h e following discussion, let's a s s u m e t h a t y o u are functioning first as a director of a big r e m o t e , t h e n as a floor m a n a g e r , a n d finally as talent. Directing t h e setup
Because the actual on-the-air
telecast of big r e m o t e s is usually live, t h e directing p r o c e d u r e s bear little r e s e m b l a n c e t o t h e o t h e r field p r o d u c t i o n m e t h o d s ; t h e y m o r e closely resemble live or l i v e - o n - t a p e studio productions. As s o o n as t h e r e m o t e t r u c k is in p o s i t i o n , c o n d u c t a t h o r o u g h technical w a l k - t h r o u g h . Tell the technical staff w h e r e y o u w a n t t h e s t a t i o n a r y c a m e r a s located a n d w h a t
Section
20.5
20.1
ENG,
EFP, and
Big
Remotes
481
REMOTE SURVEY: PRODUCTION
These are the key questions you should ask during the production survey.
SURVEY ITEM Contact
KEY QUESTIONS W h o are your principal and alternate contacts? Title; business and e-mail addresses; business, home, and cell phone numbers; and fax and pager numbers.
Place
Time
W h e r e is the exact location of the telecast? Street address, telephone number.
W h e n is the remote telecast? Date, time. W h a t is the arrival time of the truck? W h o is meeting you at the site for positioning the truck?
Nature of event
W h a t is the exact nature of the event? W h e r e does t h e action take place? W h a t type of action do you expect? The contact person should be able to supply the necessary information.
Cameras (stationary)
How many cameras do you need? Use as few as possible. W h e r e do you need the cameras? Do not place cameras on opposite sides of the action. In general, the closer together they are, t h e easier and less confusing the cutting will be. Shoot with t h e sun, not against it. Try to keep it behind or to the side of the cameras for the entire telecast. The press boxes of larger stadiums are generally located on the shadow side. If possible, survey the remote location during the exact time of the scheduled telecast. If it is not a sunny day, determine the position of the sun as closely as possible. Are there any large objects blocking the camera view, such as trees, telephone poles, or billboards? Will you have the same field of v i e w during the actual telecast? A stadium crowd, for instance, may block the camera's field of view, although the v i e w is unobstructed during the survey. Can you avoid large billboards in the background of shots, especially if t h e advertising competes with your sponsor's product? Do you need camera platforms? W h e r e ? How high? Can the platforms be erected at a particular point? Can you use the remote truck as a platform? If competing stations are also covering t h e event, have you obtained exclusive rights for your camera positions? W h e r e do you w a n t iso cameras positioned?
Cameras (mobile)
Do you need to move certain cameras? W h a t kind of floor is there? Can the camera be moved on a field dolly, or do you need remote dollies (usually with large, inflatable rubber tires)? Will the dolly w i t h the camera fit through narrow hallways and doors? Can you use ENG/EFP cameras instead of large studio/field cameras? W h a t is their action radius? Can you connect t h e m to a remote truck by cable (less chance of signal interference or signal loss), or do you have to send the signal back to the remote truck via microwave?
Lighting
Do you need additional lighting? W h e r e and w h a t kind? Can the instruments be hung conveniently, or do you need light stands? Do you need to make arrangements for back lights? Will the lights be high enough so that they are out of camera range? Do you have to shoot against w i n d o w s ? If so, can they be covered or filtered to block out undesirable daylight? Can you use reflectors?
482
20.5
Chapter
REMOTE SURVEY: PRODUCTION
FIELD
20
PRODUCTION
AND
BIG
REMOTES
(continued)
SURVEY ITEM
KEY QUESTIONS
Audio
W h a t type of audio pickup do you need? W h e r e do you need to place the mics? W h a t is the exact action radius so far as audio is concerned? How long must the mic cables be? W h i c h are stationary mics and w h i c h are handled by the talent? Do you need long-distance mics, such as shotgun or parabolic mics? Do you need wireless mics? Can their signals reach the wireless receivers? Do you need such audio arrangements as audio foldback or a speaker system that carries the program audio to the location? Can you tie into the "house" public address system? Do you need long-distance mics for sound pickups over a long range?
Intercommunications
W h a t type of intercom system do you need? Do you have to string intercom lines? How many I.F.B. channels and/or stations do you need and w h e r e do they go? Is there a need for a P.A. talkback system? Are there enough telephone lines available?
Miscellaneous production items
If a C.G. is unavailable, easels are needed for title cards. Do you need a clock? W h e r e ? Do you need line monitors, especially for the announcer? How m a n y ? W h e r e should they be located? Will the announcer need a preview monitor to follow iso playbacks? Do you have a camera slate in case the C.G. cannot be used?
Permits and clearances
Have you (or the producer, if you do not act as producer-director) secured clearances for the telecast from police and fire departments? Do you have written clearances from the originators of the event? Do you have parking permits for the remote truck and other production vehicles? Do you have passes and parking for all technical and production personnel, especially w h e n the event requires entrance fees or has some kind of admission restrictions?
Other production aids
Does everyone have a rundown sheet of the approximate order of events? These sheets are essential for the director, floor manager, and announcer and are extremely helpful to the camera operators, audio engineer, and additional floor personnel. Does the director have a spotter w h o can identify the major action and the people involved? In sports remotes, spotters are essential.
field of view y o u r e q u i r e ( h o w close o r w i d e a shot y o u
t e c h n i c a l supervisor. H a v e t h e c o n t a c t describe t h e antici
need to get w i t h each c a m e r a ) . Get t h e c a m e r a s as close t o
p a t e d event. Explain h o w y o u i n t e n d to cover it. A l t h o u g h
the a c t i o n as possible to avoid overly n a r r o w - a n g l e z o o m
it is t h e p r o d u c e r ' s j o b to alert t h e t a l e n t to t h e p r o m i n e n t
lens p o s i t i o n s . Apprise t h e crew of t h e a p p r o x i m a t e m o v e s
features of t h e event, s u c h as a p r i z e - w i n n i n g float in t h e
a n d ranges of m o b i l e c a m e r a s a n d w h a t a u d i o n e e d s y o u
p a r a d e , b e p r e p a r e d to take over in case t h e p r o d u c e r is
have. Unless i n a b o o t h , specify w h e r e t h e a n n o u n c e r s are
sidetracked b y s o m e o t h e r p r o b l e m . Delegate t h e s e t u p
going to b e so t h a t t h e m o n i t o r s , mics, a n d i n t e r c o m can
s u p e r v i s i o n t o t h e A D , floor m a n a g e r , a n d T D . D o n o t t r y
be p r o p e r l y r o u t e d .
to d o e v e r y t h i n g yourself.
W h i l e t h e t e c h n i c a l crew is setting u p , h o l d a p r o d u c
Pay a t t e n t i o n to all c o m m u n i c a t i o n systems, especially
tion m e e t i n g w i t h t h e c o n t a c t p e r s o n , t h e p r o d u c e r , t h e
t h e i n t e r c o m . D u r i n g t h e telecast y o u will have n o c h a n c e
A D (assistant d i r e c t o r ) , t h e floor m a n a g e r , t h e PA, t h e
to r u n in a n d o u t of t h e r e m o t e t r u c k to t h e a c t u a l site;
talent, a n d , if n o t directly involved in t h e setup, t h e T D o r
all y o u r i n s t r u c t i o n s will c o m e via voice c o m m u n i c a t i o n
Section
20.6
20.1
ENG,
EFP, and Big
Remotes
REMOTE SURVEY: TECHNICAL
The technical survey lists only those items that directly influence the production procedures.
SURVEY ITEM
KEY QUESTIONS
Power
Assuming you do not work from a battery pack or your o w n generator, is enough electricity available on-site? W h e r e ? You will need at least 200 amps for the average remote operation, depending on the equipment used. Does the contact person have access to the power outlets? If not, w h o does? Make sure the contact is available during the remote setup and the actual production. Do you need extensions for the power cables? If you use a generator, do you have a second one for backup?
Location of remote truck and equipment
W h e r e should t h e remote truck be located? Its proximity to the available power is critical if you do not have a power generator. Are you then close enough to the event location? Keep in mind that there is a maximum length for camera cables beyond which you will experience video loss. W a t c h for possible sources of video and audio signal interference, such as nearby X-ray machines, radar, or any other highfrequency electronic equipment. Does t h e remote truck block normal traffic? Does it interfere w i t h the event itself? Reserve parking for the truck. Have you asked the police for assistance? Do you need RCUs for portable cameras?
Recording devices
If the program is recorded, do you have t h e necessary VTRs in the truck? Do you need additional VTRs or digital hard drives for instant replays? If you have to feed the audio and video signals back to the station separately, are the necessary phone lines cleared for the audio feed? Do you have enough tape to cover the full event? Have you m a d e provisions for switching reels without losing part of the event? Are the iso cameras properly patched into the switcher and into separate recording devices?
Signal transmission
If the event is fed back to the station for videotape recording or directly to the transmitter for live broadcasting, do you have a good microwave or satellite uplink location? Do you need microwave minilinks? Double-check on the requirements for feeding the satellite uplink.
Cable routing
How m a n y camera cables do you need? W h e r e do they have to go? How m a n y audio cables do you need? W h e r e do they have to go? H o w many intercom lines do you need? W h e r e do they have to go? How many AC (power) lines do you need? W h e r e do they go? Route the cables in the shortest possible distance from remote truck to pickup point, but do not block heavily traveled hallways, doors, w a l k w a y s , and so on. Do the cables have to cover a great span? If so, string a rope and tie the cable to it to relieve the tension.
Lighting
Are there enough AC outlets for all lighting instruments? Are the outlets fused for t h e lamps? Do not overload ordinary household circuits (usually 15 amps). Do you have enough extension cords and power strips (or simple multiple wall plugs) to accommodate all lighting instruments and the power supply for monitors and electric clocks?
Communication systems
W h a t are the specific communication requirements? P.L.s? I.F.B. channels? Telephone lines? Cell phones? P.A. systems? Long-range walkie-talkies? Two-way radios?
483
484
Chapter
20
FIELD PRODUCTION
AND
BIG
REMOTES
from t h e truck. Discuss the coverage of t h e event in detail
one person who is conducting in the back row, as colorful
with t h e floor m a n a g e r , w h o h o l d s o n e of t h e m o s t critical
a s h o t as this m a y be.
p r o d u c t i o n positions d u r i n g a r e m o t e . Usually, y o u as director have n o control over t h e event itself; you m e r e l y try t o observe it as faithfully as possible. O n c e again, check w i t h t h e c o n t a c t p e r s o n a n d t h e a n n o u n c e r o n t h e accuracy of t h e r u n d o w n sheet a n d t h e specific information concerning the event. Ask t h e talent t o d o u b l e - c h e c k o n the p r o n u n c i a t i o n of t h e n a m e s of m a j o r participants.
Listen to t h e a u d i o . A g o o d a n n o u n c e r will give y o u clues as to t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of the event a n d s o m e t i m e s direct y o u r a t t e n t i o n t o a significant event detail. If t h i n g s go w r o n g , k e e p c a l m . F o r e x a m p l e , if a spectator blocks t h e key c a m e r a or if t h e c a m e r a o p e r a t o r s w i s h - p a n s t o a n o t h e r scene because h e t h i n k s his c a m e r a is off t h e air, d o n ' t scream at t h e c a m e r a o p e r a t o r that h e is still " h o t " o r at t h e floor m a n a g e r to "get this j e r k o u t of
Walk t h r o u g h t h e site again a n d visualize t h e event
t h e way." Simply cut t o a n o t h e r c a m e r a .
from the c a m e r a s ' perspectives. Are t h e y in t h e o p t i m a l shooting positions? Are they all o n o n e side of the principal vector line so t h a t you will n o t reverse t h e action o n - s c r e e n w h e n cutting from o n e to another? If s h o o t i n g o u t d o o r s , will any of t h e c a m e r a s be b l i n d e d b y t h e sun? Will the s u n be directly b e h i n d the c a m e r a s (which, in effect, will w a s h o u t t h e viewfinder images)? Experienced c a m e r a o p e r a
Exercise p r o p r i e t y a n d g o o d taste in w h a t y o u s h o w t h e a u d i e n c e . Avoid capitalizing o n accidents (especially d u r i n g sporting events) or situations that are p o t e n tially e m b a r r a s s i n g to t h e p e r s o n o n - c a m e r a , even if such situations m i g h t a p p e a r hilarious to y o u a n d t h e crew at the m o m e n t .
tors will use an u m b r e l l a or flags a t t a c h e d to t h e c a m e r a to p r e v e n t the sun from w a s h i n g o u t their viewfinders.
In an instant
replay, a key play or event
s e g m e n t is r e p e a t e d for t h e viewer. Instant-replay o p e r a Keep in m i n d t h a t y o u are a guest while covering a
tions usually use iso cameras (which feed into t h e switcher
r e m o t e event. Unless television is an integral p a r t of t h e
a n d have their o w n separate video recorders) a n d recording
event, such as in m o s t s p o r t s , t r y to w o r k as quickly a n d as
devices (VTRs, h a r d disks, or r e a d / w r i t e optical discs) t h a t
unobtrusively as possible. D o n o t m a k e a big spectacle of
have unusually fast search-and-retrieval speeds. S o m e large
y o u r p r o d u c t i o n . Realize that you are basically i n t r u d i n g
s p o r t s r e m o t e s e m p l o y a second, separate switcher that is
o n an event a n d t h a t t h e people involved are usually u n d e r
dedicated exclusively t o inserting instant replays. In very big
s o m e stress.
r e m o t e s , t h e instant-replay a n d special-effects o p e r a t i o n s (including t h e C.G.) are h a n d l e d in a separate trailer.
Directing the on-the-air telecast
Once y o u are o n
t h e air, t r y to keep o n t o p of t h e event as well as possible. If y o u have a g o o d spotter (the contact p e r s o n a n d / o r t h e A D ) , y o u will b e able to anticipate certain h a p p e n i n g s a n d be ready for t h e m with the c a m e r a s . H e r e are s o m e general p o i n t s to r e m e m b e r : Speak loudly a n d clearly. Usually, t h e site is n o i s y a n d t h e c a m e r a o p e r a t o r s a n d t h e floor crew m a y n o t h e a r y o u very well. P u t y o u r headset m i c close to y o u r m o u t h . Yell if you have to, b u t d o n o t get frantic. Tell t h e c r e w m e m b e r s to switch off their headset talkbacks to prevent t h e a m b i e n t s o u n d from e n t e r i n g t h e i n t e r c o m system. Listen to t h e floor m a n a g e r a n d t h e c a m e r a o p e r a t o r s . T h e y m a y h e l p spot event details a n d r e p o r t t h e m to y o u as t h e y occur. W a t c h t h e m o n i t o r s carefully. Often t h e off-air c a m eras will get especially i n t e r e s t i n g s h o t s , b u t d o n o t b e t e m p t e d by cute yet m e a n i n g l e s s or even e v e n t - d i s t o r t i n g shots. If, for example, t h e great m a j o r i t y of an a u d i e n c e listens attentively to t h e orchestra, d o n o t single o u t t h e
D u r i n g t h e r e p l a y D V E (digital v i d e o effects) a r e often used to explain a particular play. T h e screen m a y b e divided into several squeezed boxes or c o r n e r wipes, each displaying a different aspect of t h e play; o r it m a y function as an electronic blackboard that shows simple line drawings over t h e freeze-frame of an i n s t a n t replay, very m u c h like the sketches o n a t r a d i t i o n a l b l a c k b o a r d . G a m e a n d player statistics are displayed using t h e C.G. S o m e of t h e informa t i o n is p r e p r o g r a m m e d a n d stored o n t h e c o m p u t e r disk, b u t u p - t o - d a t e statistics are c o n t i n u o u s l y entered by a C.G. operator. T h e w h o l e i n s t a n t - r e p l a y a n d C.G. o p e r a t i o n is usually g u i d e d by t h e p r o d u c e r o r t h e A D . T h e director is generally m u c h t o o o c c u p i e d w i t h t h e real-time coverage to w o r r y a b o u t t h e v a r i o u s replays a n d special effects. W h e n w a t c h i n g an i n s t a n t replay of a key action, y o u m a y n o t i c e t h a t t h e replay either duplicates exactly t h e sequence you have just seen or, m o r e frequently, shows t h e action from a slightly different perspective. In t h e first case, t h e p i c t u r e sequence of t h e regular g a m e c o v e r a g e — t h a t is, t h e line o u t p u t — h a s b e e n r e c o r d e d a n d played back; in t h e s e c o n d case, it is t h e p i c k u p of an iso c a m e r a t h a t
Section
20.1
ENG, EFP, and
has been recorded a n d played back. I n sports the principal function of the iso c a m e r a s is to follow key plays or players for i n s t a n t replay. Iso c a m e r a s are also used i n a variety of r e m o t e p r o d u c t i o n s , such as a n o r c h e s t r a p e r f o r m a n c e w i t h a m u l t i c a m e r a setup. In this case y o u m a y have a n iso c a m e r a o n t h e c o n d u c t o r at all t i m e s , w h i c h provides a convenient cutaway in p o s t p r o d u c t i o n .
Big
Remotes
485
r e m o t e truck. T h e following p o i n t s will help you m a k e t h e b i g - r e m o t e p r o d u c t i o n a successful o n e . Familiarize yourself w i t h the event ahead of t i m e . Find o u t w h e r e it is t a k i n g place, h o w it will develop, a n d w h e r e t h e c a m e r a s a n d t h e m i c r o p h o n e s are p o s i t i o n e d relative t o t h e r e m o t e t r u c k . M a k e a sketch of t h e m a j o r event d e v e l o p m e n t s a n d t h e e q u i p m e n t s e t u p (see section 20.2).
W h e n a r e m o t e p r o d u c t i o n is d o n e for p o s t p r o d u c t i o n r a t h e r t h a n live, all c a m e r a s m a y b e u s e d in iso posi t i o n s , w i t h each camera's o u t p u t r e c o r d e d b y a separate V T R or digital r e c o r d i n g device. T h e o u t p u t of all iso c a m e r a s is t h e n u s e d as source m a t e r i a l for extensive p o s t p r o d u c t i o n editing. T h e r e m o t e us n o t finished until all t h e e q u i p m e n t is struck a n d t h e site is restored t o its original c o n d i t i o n . As a director of big re m o t e s , y o u should pay particular attention to the following postshow procedures. If s o m e t h i n g w e n t w r o n g , d o n o t s t o r m o u t of t h e r e m o t e t r u c k , accusing everyone, except yourself, of m a k ing mistakes. C o o l off first. T h a n k t h e crew a n d t h e talent for their efforts. N o b o d y ever w a n t s a r e m o t e to l o o k b a d . T h a n k especially t h e c o n t a c t p e r s o n a n d o t h e r s responsible for m a k i n g t h e event a n d t h e r e m o t e telecast possible. Leave as g o o d a n i m p r e s s i o n of y o u a n d y o u r t e a m as possible with t h e per s o n s responsible. R e m e m b e r that w h e n y o u a r e o n r e m o t e location, y o u are representing y o u r c o m p a n y and, in a way, t h e w h o l e of " t h e media." T h a n k t h e police for their c o o p e r a t i o n i n reserving p a r k i n g spaces for t h e r e m o t e vehicles, c o n t r o l l i n g t h e s p e c t a t o r s , a n d so forth. R e m e m b e r t h a t y o u will n e e d t h e m again for y o u r next r e m o t e telecast.
Triple-check all i n t e r c o m systems. Find o u t w h e t h e r y o u can hear t h e i n s t r u c t i o n s from t h e r e m o t e t r u c k a n d if y o u can b e h e a r d there. Check that t h e intercom is w o r k i n g p r o p e r l y for t h e o t h e r floor p e r s o n n e l . C h e c k all wireless headsets, I.F.B. channels, walkie-talkies, a n d any o t h e r field c o m m u n i c a t i o n devices. Be aware of t h e traffic in t h e p r o d u c t i o n area. Try to keep o n l o o k e r s away from the e q u i p m e n t a n d the action areas. Be polite b u t firm. W o r k a r o u n d the crews from other stations. Be especially aware of reporters from other media. It w o u l d n o t b e t h e first t i m e t h a t a news p h o t o g r a p h e r s n a p p i n g pictures just h a p p e n s to stand right in front of y o u r key camera. Appeal to t h e p h o t o g r a p h e r ' s sense of responsibility: say t h a t y o u t o o have a j o b t o d o in t r y i n g t o i n f o r m t h e public. If t h e telecast is to b e v i d e o t a p e d , have t h e slate ready, unless t h e C.G. is used for slating. C h e c k that all cables are p r o p e r l y secured to m i n i m i z e p o t e n t i a l hazards to t h e people in t h e p r o d u c t i o n area. If n o t d o n e b y t h e technical crew, t a p e cables to the floor or sidewalk a n d p u t a m a t over the cables at major p e d e s t r i a n traffic areas.
See t o it that t h e floor m a n a g e r r e t u r n s all t h e p r o d u c t i o n e q u i p m e n t to t h e station.
I n t r o d u c e yourself to t h e police officers assigned to t h e r e m o t e a n d fill t h e m in o n t h e m a j o r event details. I n t r o d u c e t h e m t o the talent. T h e police are generally m o r e cooperative a n d helpful w h e n t h e y get to m e e t o n - t h e - a i r p e r s o n a l i t i e s a n d feel t h a t t h e y a r e p a r t of t h e r e m o t e operation.
P R O D U C T I O N : FLOOR M A N A G E R A N D TALENT P R O C E D U R E S
H e l p t h e c a m e r a o p e r a t o r s w i t h s p o t t i n g key event details. Discuss w i t h t h e cable pullers (floor p e r s o n n e l ) t h e action r a d i u s of t h e p o r t a b l e c a m e r a s .
As t h e floor m a n a g e r , y o u play a key role i n big r e m o t e s . T h e "floor" activities y o u have to m a n a g e have increased considerably in size a n d complexity. Floor manager's procedures As a floor m a n a g e r (also called stage m a n a g e r or u n i t m a n a g e r o n big r e m o t e s ) , y o u have, n e x t to t h e director a n d t h e T D , t h e m a j o r r e s p o n sibility for t h e success of t h e r e m o t e telecast. Because y o u are close to the scene, y o u often have a better overview of t h e event t h a n does the director, w h o is isolated i n t h e
Relay all director's cues i m m e d i a t e l y a n d precisely. Position yourself so t h a t t h e talent sees t h e cues w i t h o u t having t o l o o k for you. ( M o s t of t h e t i m e , a n n o u n c e r s are h o o k e d u p to t h e I.F.B. via small e a r p h o n e s , so t h e direc t o r can cue t h e m directly w i t h o u t t h e floor m a n a g e r as a n intermediary.) H a v e several 3 x 5 cards h a n d y so y o u c a n w r i t e cues a n d pass t h e m to t h e talent, just in case y o u lose the I.F.B. c h a n n e l .
486
When
Chapter
talent is
FIELD PRODUCTION
20
AND
BIG
REMOTES
Do not get so involved in the event that you lose your
t e m p o r a r i l y off t h e air, k e e p t h e m
i n f o r m e d a b o u t w h a t is going o n . H e l p keep t h e i r a p p e a r
objectivity. O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , d o n o t r e m a i n so d e t a c h e d
ance intact for t h e next o n - t h e - a i r p e r f o r m a n c e a n d offer
t h a t y o u a p p e a r to have n o feelings whatsoever.
e n c o u r a g e m e n t a n d positive suggestions. After the telecast pick u p all the p r o d u c t i o n e q u i p m e n t
If y o u m a k e a m i s t a k e i n i d e n t i f y i n g s o m e o n e o r s o m e t h i n g , a d m i t it a n d correct it as s o o n as possible.
for w h i c h y o u are directly responsible—easels, p l a t f o r m s ,
D o n o t identify event details solely by color, as colors
s a n d b a g s , slates, a n d headsets. D o u b l e - c h e c k w h e t h e r y o u
are often d i s t o r t e d o n h o m e receivers. For instance, refer
have forgotten a n y t h i n g before y o u leave the r e m o t e site.
to t h e r u n n e r n o t only as t h e o n e in t h e red t r u n k s b u t also
M a k e use of t h e director's or T D ' s e q u i p m e n t checklist.
as t h e o n e o n t h e left side of t h e screen.
T h e general talent p r o c e d u r e s (as discussed in c h a p t e r 16) also apply to r e m o t e o p e r a t i o n s , b u t t h e r e are s o m e p o i n t s t h a t are especially p e r t i n e n t for y o u as talent.
As m u c h as possible, let t h e event itself d o t h e talking. Keep quiet d u r i n g extremely tense m o m e n t s . For example, d o n o t talk d u r i n g t h e incredibly tense p a u s e b e t w e e n t h e starter's "Get set" c o m m a n d a n d the firing of t h e starter's 1
pistol in t h e 1 0 0 - m e t e r track finals. 4
Familiarize yourself t h o r o u g h l y w i t h t h e event a n d your specific assignment. K n o w t h e process message a n d d o y o u r p a r t to effect it. Review t h e event w i t h t h e p r o d u c e r , t h e director, a n d t h e c o n t a c t p e r s o n . Test y o u r m i c r o p h o n e a n d y o u r i n t e r c o m m u n i c a t i o n system. If y o u w o r k w i t h an I.F.B. system, check it o u t w i t h t h e director or T D .
l. For a more detailed description of announcing a remote, see Stuart W. Hyde, Television and Radio Announcing, 10th ed. (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2004).
rniinnvisni •
The three types of remotes are ENG (electronic news gath ering), EFP (electronic field production), and big remotes.
•
ENG is the most flexible remote operation. It offers speed in responding to an event, maximum mobility while on location, and flexibility in transmitting the event live or in recording it with camcorders for immediate transmission by the station or for postproduction editing.
•
Unlike ENG, which has little or no preparation time for covering a breaking story, EFP must be carefully planned. In this respect it is similar to big remotes. EFP is normally done with an event that can be interrupted and restaged for repeated videotaping. It is most often done with a single camera or sometimes with iso cameras that shoot an event simultaneously.
•
A big remote televises live, or records live-on-tape, a large scheduled event that has not been staged specifically for television, such as a sporting event, parade, political gath ering, or congressional hearing.
•
All big remotes use high-quality cameras in key positions and ENG/EFP cameras for more-mobile coverage. Big remotes usually require extensive audio setups.
•
Big remotes are coordinated from the remote truck, which contains a program control center, an audio control center, a video-recording center, and a technical center with CCUs and transmission equipment.
•
Big remotes require extensive production and technical surveys as part of the preproduction activities.
•
In sports remotes instant replay is one of the more compli cated production procedures. It is normally handled by an instant-replay producer or an AD.
Verify t h a t y o u r m o n i t o r is w o r k i n g . Ask t h e floor m a n a g e r to have t h e T D p u n c h u p t h e l i n e - o u t p i c t u r e as s o o n as t h e c a m e r a s are u n c a p p e d . Ask for at least color bars to b e p u t o n - l i n e . If y o u have t h e h e l p of a c o n t a c t p e r s o n or a spotter, discuss again t h e m a j o r aspects of t h e event a n d t h e c o m m u n i c a t i o n system b e t w e e n the t w o of y o u o n c e you're o n the air. For e x a m p l e , h o w is t h e spotter going t o tell y o u w h a t is going o n while t h e m i c r o p h o n e is hot? Verify the key p a r t i c i p a n t s a n d t h e p r o n u n c i a t i o n of their n a m e s . Little is m o r e e m b a r r a s s i n g for all involved t h a n w h e n n a m e s of locally w e l l - k n o w n p e o p l e are m i s p r o n o u n c e d b y t h e television c o m m e n t a t o r s . W h e n you're o n t h e air, tell t h e a u d i e n c e w h a t t h e y c a n n o t see for themselves. D o n o t r e p o r t t h e o b v i o u s . For e x a m p l e , if y o u see t h e celebrity s t e p p i n g o u t of t h e air plane a n d shaking h a n d s with t h e people o n the t a r m a c , d o n o t say, " T h e celebrity is shaking h a n d s w i t h s o m e people"; tell w h o is s h a k i n g h a n d s w i t h w h o m . If a football player lies o n t h e field a n d c a n n o t get u p , d o n o t tell t h e a u d i e n c e that t h e player a p p a r e n t l y got h u r t — t h e y can see t h a t for themselves; tell t h e m w h o t h e player is a n d w h a t m i g h t have caused t h e injury. Also, follow u p this a n n o u n c e m e n t periodically w i t h m o r e - d e t a i l e d i n f o r m a t i o n o n t h e injury a n d h o w t h e player is d o i n g .
w o r k s u s e a great a m o u n t of e q u i p m e n t a n d p e r s o n n e l
20.2
for t h e average s p o r t s r e m o t e . For especially i m p o r t a n t g a m e s , s u c h as t h e S u p e r Bowl o r W o r l d C u p soccer, a crew of a h u n d r e d o r so p e o p l e set u p a n d o p e r a t e t w e n t y o r m o r e c a m e r a s , countless mics, m o n i t o r s , a n d i n t e r c o m a n d s i g n a l - d i s t r i b u t i o n systems. T h e r e are several large trailers t h a t h o u s e t h e c o n t r o l r o o m a n d t h e p r o d u c t i o n
Covering Major Events
e q u i p m e n t . For t h e coverage of a local h i g h - s c h o o l g a m e , however, y o u m u s t get by with far less e q u i p m e n t . You m a y have only t w o c a m e r a s a n d three m i c s t o d o t h e p i c k u p . Local s t a t i o n s o r smaller p r o d u c t i o n c o m p a n i e s usually s u p p l y only t h e key p r o d u c t i o n a n d technical p e r s o n n e l ( p r o d u c e r , director, A D , PA, floor m a n a g e r , T D , engineer i n g supervisor, a n d a u d i o t e c h n i c i a n ) a n d hire a r e m o t e service t h a t includes a r e m o t e truck, all e q u i p m e n t , a n d extra technical p e r s o n n e l . T h e following figures illustrate t h e m i n i m u m v i d e o a n d a u d i o p i c k u p r e q u i r e m e n t s for baseball, football, soc cer, basketball, tennis, b o x i n g or wrestling, a n d s w i m m i n g . SEE 2 0 . 7 - 2 0 . 1 3
S o m e t i m e s small E N G / E F P c a m e r a s are used
in place of t h e larger h i g h - q u a l i t y studio/field c a m e r a s o r are a d d e d t o t h e m i n i m a l setups d e s c r i b e d h e r e . As y o u k n o w b y n o w , EFP a n d especially b i g r e m o t e s r e q u i r e m e t i c u l o u s p r e p r o d u c t i o n w o r k a n d p l a n n i n g . Such
2
LOCATION SKETCH AND REMOTE SETUPS
careful p r e p a r a t i o n is particularly i m p o r t a n t for o n e t i m e
To simplify p r e p r o d u c t i o n y o u as t h e director, o r y o u r
h a p p e n i n g s , such as s p o r t i n g events. N o t w o r e m o t e s are
AD, s h o u l d p r e p a r e a location sketch. Like t h e s t u d i o floor
exactly t h e s a m e , a n d t h e r e are always u n i q u e c i r c u m
plan, t h e location sketch shows t h e principal features of the
stances t h a t r e q u i r e a d j u s t m e n t s a n d c o m p r o m i s e s . This
e n v i r o n m e n t in w h i c h t h e event takes place ( s t a d i u m a n d
section includes s o m e typical s e t u p s for s p o r t s r e m o t e s ,
playing field, street a n d m a j o r b u i l d i n g s , o r hallways a n d
h o w t o r e a d l o c a t i o n sketches, a n d s o m e examples of t y p i
r o o m s ) . This l o c a t i o n sketch will help y o u decide o n t h e
cal i n d o o r a n d o u t d o o r r e m o t e setups.
p l a c e m e n t of c a m e r a s a n d m i c r o p h o n e s , it will help t h e T D decide o n t h e l o c a t i o n of t h e r e m o t e t r u c k a n d t h e cable
^
SPORTS REMOTES
r u n s , a n d , if i n d o o r s , it will help t h e LD d e t e r m i n e t h e type
Pickup requirements for baseball, football, soccer, basketball,
a n d t h e p l a c e m e n t of lighting i n s t r u m e n t s .
tennis, boxing or wrestling, and swimming
^
LOCATION SKETCH AND REMOTE SETUPS Reading location sketches, indoor remotes, and outdoor
READING LOCATION SKETCHES As y o u recall f r o m section 20.1, t h e l o c a t i o n sketch for
remotes
i n d o o r events should indicate the general dimensions
COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
a n d furniture; a n d t h e p r i n c i p a l a c t i o n ( w h e r e p e o p l e are
of t h e r o o m o r hallway; t h e location of w i n d o w s , d o o r s , ^
ENG, EFP, and big-remote communication
systems
also c o n t a i n s s u c h details as p o w e r outlets; actual w i d t h of
SIGNAL TRANSPORT Microwave transmission; communication
seated o r w h e r e t h e y will b e w a l k i n g ) . It helps if t h e sketch
satellites—
frequencies, uplinks, and downlinks; and cable distribution
especially n a r r o w hallways, d o o r s , a n d stairs; direction t h e doors open; a n d p r o m i n e n t thresholds, rugs, a n d other i t e m s t h a t m a y p r e s e n t p r o b l e m s for t h e m o v e m e n t of
SPORTS REMOTES M a n y big r e m o t e s are d e v o t e d t o t h e coverage of s p o r t i n g events. T h e n u m b e r of c a m e r a s u s e d a n d t h e i r f u n c t i o n s d e p e n d a l m o s t entirely o n w h o is d o i n g t h e r e m o t e . N e t
c a m e r a s m o u n t e d o n t r i p o d dollies.
2.
For more-elaborate miking of various sporting events, see Stanley R. Alten, Audio in Media, 7th ed. (Belmont, Calif.: Thomson Wadsworth, 2005), pp. 263-78.
487
488
20.7
Chapter
20
FIELD PRODUCTION
AND
BIG
REMOTES
BASEBALL SETUP
Number of cameras: 3 or 4 CI: Near third base; low, optional C2: Behind home plate; high C3: Near first base; low; watch for action reversal when intercutting with CI C4: opposite C2 in center field; high; watch for action reversal
Number of mics: 6 or 7 2 omnidirectional mics high in stands for audience 2 shotgun mics or a parabolic (mobile) mic behind home plate for game sounds 2 or 3 parabolic mics for field and audience sounds
Section
20.8
20.2
Covering
Major
Events
FOOTBALL SETUP
Number of cameras: 4 or 5 C1, C2, C3: High in the stands, near the 35-, 50-, and 35-yard lines (press box, shadow side) C4: Portable or on dolly in field C5: Optional iso camera behind goal (portable ENG/EFP or big camera)
Number of mics: 8 2 omnidirectional mics in stands for audience 2 shotgun or parabolic mics on field 2 parabolic reflector mics in stands and 2 on opposite side of field
489
490
20.9
Chapter
20
FIELD PRODUCTION
AND
SOCCER SETUP
Number of cameras: 3 or 4 CI: Left of centerline (high) C2: Right of centerline (high) C3: Mobile on field C4: Optional, left corner; may be used as iso camera and mobile camera on field All four cameras are on shadow side of field.
Number of mics: 7 1 omnidirectional mic in stands for audience 4 shotgun mics on field 2 parabolic mics on opposite side of field
BIG
REMOTES
Section
20.10
20.2
Covering
Major
Events
BASKETBALL SETUP
Number of cameras: 4 CI: High in stands, left of centerline—follows game C2: Lower (2 rows down) in stands, right of centerline (fairly close to CI)—gets close-ups C3: In left corner (mobile) C4: In right corner (mobile)
Number of mics: 6 1 omnidirectional mic in stands for audience 2 PZM or parabolic mics in stands for audience 2 shotgun mics behind each basket for game sounds 1 shotgun mic at center court
491
492
Chapter
20
FIELD
PRODUCTION
AND
BIG
REMOTES
20.11 TENNIS SETUP Number
C1: C2: C3: C4:
of cameras: 3 or 4
At end of court, high enough so that it can cover total court, shooting with the sun Next to C I , but lower At side of court, opposite officials or where players rest between sets (mobile); also shoots CUs of players If four cameras are used, C3 shoots CUs of left player, C4 of right player
Number
of mics: 5
1 omnidirectional mic in stands for audience 1 omnidirectional mic for referee's calls 3 shotgun mics at center court and on each end of court for game sounds, or 2 parabolic mics on each end of court and 1 shotgun mic at center court
Section
20.12
20.2
Covering
Major
Events
BOXING OR WRESTLING SETUP
Number of cameras: 3 or 4 C I : High enough to overlook the entire ring C2: About 10' feet to the side of C1; high, slightly above ropes; used for replays C3: ENG/EFP mobile camera carried on floor, looking through the ropes C4: ENG/EFP mobile camera carried on floor, looking through the ropes All mobile cameras have their own camera shotgun mics.
Number of mics: 5 1 omnidirectional mic for audience 2 shotgun mics for boxing sounds and referee 1 lavaliere for bell 1 desk mic for announcer
4 9 3
494
Chapter
FIELD PRODUCTION
20
AND BIG REMOTES
2 0 . 1 3 SWIMMING SETUP Number of cameras: 2 or 3
Number of mics: 3
C I : High in stands, about at center of pool—follows swimmer C2: Next to CI —gets close-ups C3: Optional ENG/EFP mobile camera on side and ends of pool
1 omnidirectional mic in stands for audience 1 shotgun mic at pool level for swimmers 1 omnidirectional mic on stand
T h e sketch of an o u t d o o r r e m o t e s h o u l d indicate t h e
Public hearing
T h e occasion is a n e w s w o r t h y p u b l i c
locations of b u i l d i n g s , t h e r e m o t e t r u c k , t h e m a j o r p o w e r
h e a r i n g at city hall, S E E 20.14 A s s u m i n g t h a t y o u are t h e
s o u r c e (if a n y ) , steps, steep inclines, fences, a n d t h e s u n
d i r e c t o r of t h e r e m o t e , w h a t can y o u tell from this sketch?
travel d u r i n g t h e t i m e of t h e r e m o t e .
H o w m u c h p r e p a r a t i o n c a n y o u do? W h a t key q u e s t i o n s
Before c o n t i n u i n g , t r y to read t h e following i n d o o r
does t h e sketch generate? L i m i t i n g t h e q u e s t i o n s t o t h e
l o c a t i o n sketch (figure 20.14) a n d t h e o u t d o o r l o c a t i o n
setup w i t h i n this h e a r i n g r o o m , w h a t are t h e c a m e r a , light
sketch (figure 20.15); list as m a n y p r o d u c t i o n r e q u i r e m e n t s
ing, a u d i o , a n d i n t e r c o m r e q u i r e m e n t s ?
as y o u can d e t e r m i n e from t h e sketches, t h e n p e n c i l i n the t y p e a n d t h e p l a c e m e n t of c a m e r a s a n d m i c r o p h o n e s .
Parade
C o m p a r e y o u r lists a n d e q u i p m e n t p l a c e m e n t with figures
a f t e r n o o n live m u l t i c a m e r a telecast. T h e e s t i m a t e d t i m e of
20.16 a n d 20.17 a n d t h e following p r o d u c t i o n r e q u i r e
t h e telecast is from 3:30 t o 5:30 p . m . T h e l o c a t i o n sketch
m e n t s sections.
in figure 20.15 shows t h e a c t i o n area as wei' as t h e m a j o r
T h e o u t d o o r r e m o t e is i n t e n d e d for a S u n d a y
Section
20.14
20.2
Covering
Major
Events
495
LOCATION SKETCH O F CITY H A L L H E A R I N G R O O M
facilities. W h a t setup a n d p r o d u c t i o n clues can you devise from this location sketch? SEE 20.1s N o w c o m p a r e your list a n d sketch for the city hall h e a r i n g r o o m w i t h t h e s e t u p s h o w n in t h e next figure. SEE 20.16
P R O D U C T I O N R E Q U I R E M E N T S FOR PUBLIC HEARING (INDOOR REMOTE) • Cameras. T h i s setup requires two E N G / E F P cameras o n t r i p o d dollies c o n n e c t e d by cable to the r e m o t e truck. C I will cover the supervisors; C2 will cover the attorneys, witnesses, a n d spectators. Lighting. T h e hearing is scheduled for 3 p . m . T h e large w i n d o w presents a definite lighting p r o b l e m . There are two
solutions: (1) cover it w i t h drapes a n d a d d floodlights or (2) have c a m e r a 2 t r u c k closer t o the supervisor's table a n d try t o avoid s h o o t i n g the w i n d o w w h e n covering the attorneys o n the w i n d o w - s i d e table. N o w the w i n d o w can act as a large key light. In this case all additional floodlight ing m u s t have blue gels t o raise t h e color t e m p e r a t u r e to the o u t d o o r (5,600K) n o r m . If t h e r o o m is h i g h e n o u g h , place s o m e back lights. Are there e n o u g h AC outlets for the lights? Are t h e y o n different circuits? T h e r e m a y b e s o m e access p r o b l e m s if the m i c a n d lighting cables are s t r u n g across t h e d o o r w a y s . Audio. Because the h e a r i n g r o o m is already e q u i p p e d w i t h a P.A. system, tie i n t o the existing mics. If the system is n o t o p e r a t i o n a l , desk mics are the m o s t logical solution.
496
20.15
Chapter
LOCATION SKETCH OF PARADE
20
FIELD PRODUCTION
AND
BIG
REMOTES
Section
Covering
20.2
- O r use window as key light
20.16
Major
Events
497
Backlights
HEARING ROOM WITH FACILITIES
O n e a d d i t i o n a l m i c s h o u l d be placed o n each of t h e t h r e e tables ( s u p e r v i s o r a n d t w o witness tables) just in case t h e
N o w c o m p a r e y o u r list a n d sketch for t h e p a r a d e w i t h t h e s e t u p s h o w n in t h e next figure, SEE 20.17
existing a u d i o system stops w o r k i n g . Intercommunications.
Because t h e r e is little or n o cue
ing involved (usually for t h e start a n d t h e e n d of t h e t a p i n g o n l y ) , t h e floor m a n a g e r c a n p l u g t h e headsets i n t o o n e of t h e c a m e r a s . If E N G / E F P c a m e r a s are used, separate in t e r c o m cables m a y have to b e s t r u n g for t h e floor m a n a g e r a n d each c a m e r a o p e r a t o r . Other
considerations.
PRODUCTION REQUIREMENTS FOR P A R A D E ( O U T D O O R R E M O T E ) Location
t h e c a m e r a p o s i t i o n s , m i n i m i z i n g cable r u n s . Cameras.
C a m e r a cables c a n b e r o u t e d
t h r o u g h t h e side d o o r . If t h e r o o m h a s a h a r d w o o d floor, t h e c a m e r a s c o u l d dolly i n t o v a r i o u s p o s i t i o n s for o p t i m a l shots. Because t h e r e is m u c h traffic in t h e r o o m , all cables
of remote truck. T h e t r u c k is in a g o o d loca
t i o n . It's fairly close to a p o w e r s o u r c e ( p u m p h o u s e ) a n d
You'll n e e d a m i n i m u m of four c a m e r a s :
C I a n d C 2 (studio/field c a m e r a s ) o n t o p of the bleach ers, a n d C 3 a n d C 4 ( E N G / E F P ) o n the street. C2 c a n also cover talent. C4 could also b e m o u n t e d o n a field jib at street level.
m u s t b e t a p e d to t h e floor a n d covered b y r u b b e r m a t s .
Lighting. Because the v i d e o t a p i n g is scheduled for 3:30
C a m e r a 1 will b e in heavy traffic b e c a u s e of t h e p u b l i c
to 5:30 p.m., there is sufficient light t h r o u g h o u t the telecast.
access d o o r s .
T h e s u n is m o s t l y in b a c k of t h e c a m e r a s t h r o u g h o u t t h e
498
20.17
Chapter
LOCATION SETUP FOR PARADE
20
FIELD PRODUCTION
AND
BIG
REMOTES
Section
20.2
telecast, so you m a y n e e d a device t o p r e v e n t t h e s u n from washing o u t the viewfinders of c a m e r a s 1 a n d 2. Audio. T h e r e are t h r e e types of a u d i o p i c k u p : (1) t h e voice p i c k u p of t h e two a n n o u n c e r s , (2) t h e b a n d s in t h e p a r a d e , a n d (3) t h e s o u n d s of t h e spectators. Use lavaliere m i c s w i t h w i n d s c r e e n s or desk m i c s for t h e talent. Use t w o s h o t g u n or parabolic mics ( o n e high in the s t a n d s , t h e o t h e r just above g r o u n d level) for t h e b a n d s . Use o n e o m n i d i r e c t i o n a l m i c n e a r t h e a n n o u n c e r p l a t f o r m for t h e
Covering
Major
Events
499
We have c o m e to expect t h e relatively flawless t r a n s p o r t i n g of television p i c t u r e s a n d s o u n d , regardless of w h e t h e r they originate from the mayor's d o w n t o w n office o r the orbiting space station. A l t h o u g h c o m m u n i c a t i o n systems a n d signal d i s t r i b u t i o n are t h e p r o v i n c e of t h e technical crew, y o u s h o u l d still be familiar with t h e m so t h a t y o u will k n o w w h a t is available to you. This section p r o v i d e s a brief overview of E N G , EFP, a n d b i g - r e m o t e c o m m u n i c a t i o n systems.
c r o w d noise. All mics n e e d w i n d s c r e e n s , a n d t h e s h o t g u n
ENG
mics n e e d w i n d j a m m e r s .
Electronic news g a t h e r i n g has such a high degree of readi ness n o t only because of the m o b i l e a n d self-contained c a m e r a / r e c o r d e r / a u d i o u n i t b u t also because of elaborate c o m m u n i c a t i o n devices. M o s t E N G vehicles are e q u i p p e d with cell p h o n e s , scanners that c o n t i n u o u s l y m o n i t o r the frequencies used by police a n d fire d e p a r t m e n t s , a paging system, a n d t w o - w a y radios. Scanners lock in o n a certain frequency as s o o n as t h e y detect a signal a n d let y o u hear t h e conversation o n that frequency.
Intercommunications. T h e c a m e r a o p e r a t o r s are con nected to t h e n o r m a l P.L. lines of t h e c a m e r a cables. You'll n e e d a separate i n t e r c o m line for t h e floor m a n a g e r ' s h e a d set. Use I.F.B. for the talent. At least two t e l e p h o n e lines for i n t e r c o m m u n i c a t i o n c o m e from t h e truck: a direct line t o t h e station a n d t h e t r a n s m i t t e r a n d a n o t h e r line for general voice c o m m u n i c a t i o n . Signal transmission. You'll u s e a direct m i c r o w a v e link to t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n tower ( a n d from there to t h e sta t i o n ) . Audio is sent via t e l e p h o n e lines ( i n d e p e n d e n t of m i c r o w a v e ) . This s e p a r a t i o n ensures a u d i o c o n t i n u i t y if t h e microwave link fails. Other considerations. C a m e r a s 1 a n d 2 need a field lens t o catch close-ups of t h e action a r o u n d t h e b e n d ( 4 0 x ) . C a n c a m e r a 2 be pedestaled high e n o u g h so t h a t it will n o t be blocked by people s t a n d i n g u p in t h e bleachers? You'll need a large m o n i t o r for t h e talent a n d a s e c o n d m o n i t o r for b a c k u p . Shade t h e m o n i t o r s from the s u n . R o u t e t h e cables u n d e r n e a t h the platform to reduce the potential trip p i n g h a z a r d . T h e E N G / E F P c a m e r a s (3 a n d 4) n e e d cable pullers in a d d i t i o n to the c a m e r a operators. Toilet facilities are fairly close to t h e p u m p house. Raincoats and umbrellas may be n e e d e d for crew, talent, a n d c a m e r a s just in case the w e a t h e r r e p o r t predicting a beautiful day is w r o n g .
COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS ENGw W e l l - f u n c t i o n i n g c o m m u n i c a t i o n systems are EF especially i m p o r t a n t for p r o d u c t i o n people in the field, regardless of w h e t h e r t h e "field" is t h e street c o r n e r across from t h e station o r o n e in L o n d o n . These systems m u s t be highly reliable a n d m u s t enable the people at h o m e base to talk with t h e field personnel, a n d t h e field personnel to talk w i t h o n e another. W h e n d o i n g E N G y o u m u s t be able to receive messages from the n e w s r o o m as well as t h e police a n d fire d e p a r t m e n t s . As a p r o d u c e r or director, you need to reach t h e talent directly w i t h specific i n f o r m a t i o n , even while t h e talent is o n t h e air.
COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
T h e s e c o m m u n i c a t i o n systems also m a k e it possible for y o u r station's news r o o m to contact you while y o u are o n t h e r o a d a n d give you a chance to r e s p o n d i m m e d i a t e l y to police a n d fire calls. S o m e t i m e s news d e p a r t m e n t s use codes t o c o m m u n i c a t e w i t h their "cruising" field r e p o r t ers to p r e v e n t t h e c o m p e t i t i o n from g e t t i n g w i n d of a b r e a k i n g story.
EFP C O M M U N I C A T I O N S Y S T E M S A single-camera EFP n e e d s t h e least sophisticated c o m m u n i c a t i o n system. Because t h e director is in direct con tact w i t h t h e crew a n d t h e talent at t h e s h o o t location, n o i n t e r c o m system is n e e d e d . Generally, widely dispersed c r e w m e m b e r s keep in t o u c h with o n e a n o t h e r via walkietalkies o r cell p h o n e s . As p o i n t e d o u t earlier, a small power m e g a p h o n e m i g h t save y o u r voice w h e n giving directions collectively to talent a n d crew. T h e EFP v a n is n o r m a l l y e q u i p p e d w i t h p h o n e jacks for regular p h o n e c o n n e c t i o n s , b u t cell p h o n e s will usually suffice. If t h e EFP uses m u l t i p l e c a m e r a s that are c o o r d i nated from a central location, a headset i n t e r c o m system m u s t b e set u p for t h e com n u n i c a t i o n a m o n g director, TD, a n d crew. W h e n d o i n g a live telecast from t h e field, an I.F.B. system is a d d e d .
BIG-REMOTE COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS Big r e m o t e s n e e d c o m m u n i c a t i o n systems b e t w e e n t h e r e m o t e t r u c k ( o r any o t h e r r e m o t e c o n t r o l r o o m ) a n d t h e p r o d u c t i o n people a n d crew, between t h e t r u c k a n d the station, a n d between the t r u c k a n d the talent. T h e t r u c k a n d t h e p r o d u c t i o n crew c o m m u n i c a t e t h r o u g h a regular
500
Chapter
RL. (private line or p h o n e
20
FIELD PRODUCTION
AND BIG
REMOTES
line) system, which uses t h e RL.
c h a n n e l s in t h e c a m e r a cable, separately wired RL. lines, or wireless RL.s. D u r i n g a c o m p l i c a t e d s e t u p in w h i c h t h e crew is widely scattered (such as w h e n covering a d o w n h i l l ski race), walkie-talkies are also used. If necessary, t h e RL. c o m m u n i c a t i o n c a n b e carried by t e l e p h o n e lines from t r u c k t o station. T h e I.EB. ( i n t e r r u p t i b l e foldback or feedback) system is o n e of t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t lines of c o m m u n i c a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e p r o d u c e r or director a n d t h e talent d u r i n g a big r e m o t e . If several r e p o r t e r s o r c o m m e n t a t o r s are involved in t h e s a m e event, y o u c a n switch a m o n g several I.F.B. c h a n n e l s so that, if necessary, y o u can address t h e field r e p o r t e r s a n d c o m m e n t a t o r s individually. If n e e d e d , y o u r I.F.B. i n s t r u c t i o n s t o t h e talent can b e t r a n s m i t t e d via satellite over great distances. Realize, however, t h a t t h e r e is inevitably a slight delay before t h e talent receives y o u r instructions. In sports remotes, t h e talent occasionally wear h e a d s e t s t h r o u g h w h i c h t h e y receive i n s t r u c t i o n s f r o m the truck. T h e r e m o t e t r u c k is, of course, e q u i p p e d w i t h several wired t e l e p h o n e lines, t w o - w a y radios, cell p h o n e s , p a g i n g systems, a n d walkie-talkies. <
SIGNAL TRANSPORT
20.18
Signal transport refers to t h e systems available to y o u w h e n t r a n s m i t t i n g t h e video a n d a u d i o signals from their origin
TRIPOD-MOUNTED MICROWAVE TRANSMITTER
This small tripod-mounted microwave transmitter can relay camera signals over a considerable distance.
( m i c r o p h o n e a n d c a m e r a ) to t h e recording device or t r a n s mitter, a n d from t h e p o i n t of origin t o v a r i o u s r e c e p t i o n p o i n t s . Signal t r a n s p o r t includes (1) m i c r o w a v e t r a n s m i s
to t h e c a m e r a a c t i o n r a d i u s . T h a t way y o u can w o r k at a
sion, (2) c o m m u n i c a t i o n satellites, a n d (3) cable systems.
considerable distance from t h e r e m o t e t r u c k while u s i n g only a relatively s h o r t cable r u n from c a m e r a to microwave
MICROWAVE TRANSMISSION
t r a n s m i t t e r . T h i s type of link is especially useful if a cable
If y o u n e e d t o m a i n t a i n o p t i m a l c a m e r a m o b i l i t y d u r i n g
r u n w o u l d create p o t e n t i a l h a z a r d s , s u c h as w h e n s t r u n g
a live p i c k u p , s u c h as w h e n s h o o t i n g interviews from a
from a b u i l d i n g across h i g h - t e n s i o n wires or across b u s y
c o n v e n t i o n floor, y o u c a n n o t use a c a m e r a cable b u t m u s t
streets. SEE20.18
send t h e signal b a c k t o t h e r e m o t e t r u c k via m i c r o w a v e .
The main problem with camera-to-truck microwave links is interference, especially if several television crews
From c a m e r a t o r e m o t e truck
T h e r e are small, p o r
are covering t h e s a m e event. Even if y o u u s e a system w i t h
table, b a t t e r y - p o w e r e d t r a n s m i t t e r s t h a t can b e m o u n t e d
relatively great frequency agility, y o u r c o m p e t i t i o n m a y be
o n t h e c a m e r a . If t h e distance from c a m e r a t o receiving
similarly agile a n d o v e r p o w e r y o u w i t h a s t r o n g e r signal.
station is n o t t o o great, y o u can u s e this system t o relay t h e camera video a n d audio signals to t h e r e m o t e truck w i t h o u t
From r e m o t e v a n t o s t a t i o n or t r a n s m i t t e r
too m u c h difficulty. To m i n i m i z e interference by o t h e r sta
longer, a n d usually m u c h m o r e c o m p l e x , signal link is
The
t i o n s covering t h e s a m e event, y o u can t r a n s m i t o n several
from t h e r e m o t e v a n to t h e television station. ( A l t h o u g h
frequencies, a practice called frequency
s o m e t i m e s t h e signal is sent directly t o t h e t r a n s m i t t e r ,
agility.
If y o u n e e d a m o r e powerful m i c r o w a v e t r a n s m i t t e r ,
we will call t h e e n d p o i n t of this last link before t h e actual
you can m o u n t t h e small dish o n a t r i p o d a n d place it close
b r o a d c a s t t h e "station.") You can send t h e signals from t h e
Section
20.19
Covering
20.2
Major
501
Events
DIRECT MICROWAVE LINK
You can transmit the signal via microwave from the remote van back to the station only if there is a clear, unobstructed line of sight.
r e m o t e v a n directly to t h e station o n l y if y o u have a clear,
a n d t h e h i g h e r - f r e q u e n c y Ku-band
u n o b s t r u c t e d line of sight, SEE 20.19
S o m e satellites have t r a n s p o n d e r s for C - b a n d as well as Ku-
Because t h e m i c r o w a v e signal travels in a straight line,
("kay-you-band").
b a n d t r a n s m i s s i o n a n d can convert internally from o n e to
tall b u i l d i n g s , bridges, or m o u n t a i n s t h a t are in t h e line of
the other. A direct broadcast satellite
sight b e t w e e n t h e r e m o t e v a n a n d t h e station m a y block
high-powered transponder (transmitter/receiver) that
t h e signal t r a n s m i s s i o n . In s u c h cases several m i c r o w a v e
b r o a d c a s t s from t h e satellite to small individual d o w n l i n k
links, called mini-links,
dishes (which y o u can b u y in larger electronic stores a n d
have to be established to c a r r y t h e
signal a r o u n d these obstacles,
(DBS) has a relatively
install yourself). A DBS o p e r a t e s o n the K u - b a n d .
SEE 2 0 . 2 0
In m e t r o p o l i t a n areas t h e v a r i o u s television stations
T h e C - b a n d is a highly reliable system that is rela
relays installed in s t r a t e g i c
tively i m m u n e to weather interference. Because the C - b a n d
l o c a t i o n s so t h a t r e m o t e v a n s c a n s e n d t h e i r signals back
w o r k s w i t h m i c r o w a v e frequencies, it m a y interfere w i t h
from practically a n y p o i n t in t h e i r coverage area. If these
g r o u n d - b a s e d m i c r o w a v e t r a n s m i s s i o n . To avoid s u c h in
p e r m a n e n t installations d o n o t suffice, helicopters are used
terference, t h e C - b a n d o p e r a t e s w i t h relatively low p o w e r ;
as m i c r o w a v e relay stations. P e r m a n e n t m i c r o w a v e relays
because of the low power, t h e g r o u n d stations n e e d large
have p e r m a n e n t microwave
are also used for t r a n s m i t t i n g t h e video of p e r m a n e n t l y
dishes, w h i c h r a n g e a n y w h e r e from 15 to 30 feet. Such
installed c a m e r a s t h a t m o n i t o r t h e w e a t h e r a n d / o r traffic.
large dishes are obviously n o t suitable for m o b i l e u p l i n k trucks. To use t h e C - b a n d , t h e television signals m u s t b e
COMMUNICATION SATELLITES: FREQUENCIES, UPLINKS, A N D DOWNLINKS
t r a n s p o r t e d to a n d from p e r m a n e n t g r o u n d stations.
T h e c o m m u n i c a t i o n satellites u s e d for b r o a d c a s t a r e
c r o w d e d w i t h regular t r a n s m i s s i o n s , such as daily n e t w o r k
p o s i t i o n e d in a g e o s y n c h r o n o u s o r b i t 22,300 miles above
or cable p r o g r a m m i n g . T h e o t h e r p r o b l e m is t h a t even if
T h e C - b a n d requires careful scheduling. It is usually
t h e e a r t h . In this o r b i t t h e satellite m o v e s s y n c h r o n o u s l y
s o m e C - b a n d t r a n s p o n d e r s (in t h e satellite) are available,
w i t h t h e e a r t h , t h e r e b y r e m a i n i n g in the s a m e p o s i t i o n
t h e u p l i n k s a n d t h e d o w n l i n k s m a y b e b u s y w i t h signal
relative to it.
t r a n s m i s s i o n , so y o u c a n n o t access t h e t r a n s p o n d e r s . T h e Ku-band,
Satellite frequencies
C o m m u n i c a t i o n satellites oper
ate o n t w o frequency b a n d s — t h e lower-frequency
C-band
on the other hand, operates with
m o r e p o w e r a n d smaller dishes (3 feet o r less) t h a t can b e m o u n t e d a n d readily o p e r a t e d o n m o b i l e t r u c k s or o n
502
Chapter
20
FIELD PRODUCTION
AND
BIG
REMOTES
2 0 . 2 0 MINI-LINK FROM REMOTE VAN TO STATION If there is no clear line of sight between the remote location and the station, the microwave signal must be transported via transmission mini-links.
y o u r rooftop. T h e K u - b a n d is also less c r o w d e d t h a n t h e
a n d responder (receiver). M a n y satellites used for i n t e r n a
C - b a n d a n d allows i m m e d i a t e , virtually u n s c h e d u l e d ac
tional television t r a n s m i s s i o n have b u i l t - i n translators t h a t
cess to v a r i o u s uplinks. O n e of t h e m a j o r p r o b l e m s w i t h
a u t o m a t i c a l l y convert o n e electronic signal s t a n d a r d , s u c h
t h e K u - b a n d is that it is susceptible to w e a t h e r ; r a i n a n d
as t h e N T S C system, i n t o a n o t h e r , s u c h as t h e E u r o p e a n
s n o w can seriously interfere w i t h t r a n s m i s s i o n .
PAL system. Because t h e satellite t r a n s m i s s i o n covers a large area,
a satellite t h r o u g h an uplink
Television signals are sent to
s i m p l e receiving s t a t i o n s ( d o w n l i n k s ) c a n b e set u p in
( e a r t h station t r a n s m i t t e r ) ,
m a n y widely dispersed p a r t s of t h e world, SEE 20.21 In fact,
received, amplified by t h e satellite, a n d b e a m e d b a c k at a
these strategically placed satellites can spread their
different frequency (actually r e b r o a d c a s t ) by t h e satellite's
(coverage area) over t h e w h o l e e a r t h .
o w n t r a n s m i t t e r to o n e o r several receiving e a r t h stations, called downlinks.
T h e r e c e i v e r - t r a n s m i t t e r u n i t in t h e sat
ellite is called a transponder,
a c o m b i n a t i o n of
transmitter
footprint
Specialized vans c a n p r o v i d e m o b i l e u p l i n k s for t h e t r a n s p o r t of television signals. T h e s e uplink
trucks o p e r a t e
o n t h e very s a m e p r i n c i p l e as a m i c r o w a v e v a n except t h a t
Section
20.21
20.2
Covering
Major
503
Events
SATELLITE UPLINK AND DOWNLINKS
The uplink sends television signals to the satellite. The downlinks receive television signals from the satellite.
t h e y send t h e television signals t o a satellite r a t h e r t h a n to a
a t r a n s m i s s i o n device w i t h a n ultimately h i g h e r t r a n s m i s
receiving microwave dish. As n o t e d in section 2 0 . 1 , satellite
sion capacity. F i b e r - o p t i c cables are n o r m a l l y u s e d for
u p l i n k v a n s usually c o n t a i n a d d i t i o n a l e q u i p m e n t , such as
broadband
several video recorders a n d editing e q u i p m e n t .
c o n d u i t for t h e s i m u l t a n e o u s t r a n s p o r t of all sorts of data,
transmission, w h i c h provides a h i g h - b a n d w i d t h
voice, a n d video signals. Besides their o b v i o u s advantages of light w e i g h t a n d high i n f o r m a t i o n capacity,
CABLE DISTRIBUTION
fiber-optic
cables a r e relatively i m m u n e t o m o i s t u r e a n d electrical
As y o u k n o w , television a u d i o a n d video signals are also
interference a n d can t r a n s p o r t t h e signal over several miles
d i s t r i b u t e d via c o a x (coaxial) o r
w i t h o u t reamplification.
fiber-optic
cable. T h e
coax cable t r a n s p o r t s t h e video a n d a u d i o i n f o r m a t i o n o n
B o t h types of cable are used extensively for t h e t r a n s
a n e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c carrier wave at a relatively low r a d i o
p o r t of television signals t o television stations a n d remotes.
frequency.
They are also used as a n o n b r o a d c a s t home-delivery system
A fiber-optic cable consists of a great n u m b e r of fiber
of television signals by cable a n d t e l e p h o n e c o m p a n i e s . T h e
o p t i c s t r a n d s , each of w h i c h is t h i n n e r t h a n a h u m a n h a i r
typical signal t r a n s p o r t a n d d i s t r i b u t i o n system b y cable
a n d capable of c a r r y i n g a great a m o u n t of i n f o r m a t i o n .
c o m p a n i e s consists of a head end ( o r i g i n a t i o n p o i n t ) that
cables for signal t r a n s p o r t , t h e
receives t h e signal from satellites o r television t r a n s m i t
electronic (video a n d a u d i o ) signals are e n c o d e d at t h e
ters. F r o m t h e r e t h e signals are amplified a n d d i s t r i b u t e d
W h e n using
fiber-optic
p o i n t of o r i g i n i n t o b u r s t s of light, w h i c h are d e c o d e d
along a trunk
i n t o electrical signals at t h e d e s t i n a t i o n . W h e n y o u b u n d l e
b r i n g t h e signals to v a r i o u s locations, such as city streets o r
line t o m a n y feeder lines. T h e feeder
lines
m a n y of these s t r a n d s t o g e t h e r i n t o a fiber-optic cable of
blocks. Finally, drop lines b r i n g t h e signals i n t o individual
only half t h e thickness of a n o r m a l coax cable, y o u have
h o m e s , SEE 20.22
504
Chapter
20
FIELD PRODUCTION
AND BIG
REMOTES
2 0 . 2 2 CABLE TELEVISION SYSTEM The cable distribution system consists of: (1) the head end, where the signals are collected or originated; (2) the trunk, through which the signals are sent to the feeders; (3) the feeders, which bring the signals to various localities (city streets and blocks); and (4) the drop lines, which connect the feeders to individual homes.
•
Many big remotes are devoted to the coverage of sporting events. Networks typically use a great amount of equip ment and personnel for sports remotes, but good coverage is also possible with less equipment.
•
There are standard setups for most sporting events, which can be augmented with more cameras and audio equipment.
•
Location sketches are a valuable preproduction aid for big remotes. For an indoor remote, they may show the general dimensions of a room or hallway; the locations of win dows, doors, and furniture; and the principal action areas. Outdoor location sketches may show buildings, remote truck location, power source, steep inclines or steps, the path of the sun, and the location and/or direction of the main event.
•
A good location sketch can aid the director and the techni cal supervisor in deciding on major camera locations, focal lengths of zoom lenses, lighting and audio setups, and intercommunication systems.
•
Remote operations depend heavily on reliable inter communication systems, including the RL. system, walkie-talkies, pagers, cell phones, and multichannel I.F.B. systems. The I.F.B. information can be transmitted via tele phone lines and/or satellite to widely scattered talent in remote locations.
•
Remote signals are usually transported via microwave, satellite, or cable.
•
Communication satellites used for broadcast operate in the lower-frequency C-band and the higher-frequency Ku-band.
For your reference, or to track your work, the VideoLab program cue in this chapter is listed here with its cor responding page number. P R O C E S S ^ Methods-^ location | studio
474
Epilogue You are n o w in c o m m a n d of o n e of t h e most powerful m e a n s of c o m m u n i c a t i o n and persuasion. Use it wisely a n d responsibly. Treat your a u d i e n c e with respect a n d c o m p a s sion. W h a t e v e r role you play in the production process—pulling cables or directing a network s h o w — y o u influence m a n y people. Because they c a n n o t c o m m u n i c a t e back to y o u very readily, they m u s t — a n d do—trust your professional skills and j u d g m e n t . Do not betray that trust.
Glossary
480p The lowest-resolution scanning system of DTV (digital television). The p stands for progressive, which means that each complete television frame consists of 480 visible, or active, lines that are scanned o n e after the other (out of 525 total scanning lines). It is sometimes considered t h e low end of HDTV. 720p A p r o g r e s s i v e s c a n n i n g system of H D T V ( h i g h definition television). Each frame consists of 720 visible, or active, lines (out of 750 total scanning lines). 1080i An i n t e r l a c e d s c a n n i n g system of H D T V ( h i g h definition television). The / stands for interlaced, which means that a complete frame is formed from two inter laced scanning fields. Each field consists of 539.5 visible, or active, lines ( o u t of 1,125 total scanning lines). As with the traditional NTSC analog television system, the 1080i system produces 60 fields or 30 complete frames per second. above-the-line personnel A budgetary division referring to nontechnical personnel. See nontechnical production personnel. above-the-line A budgetary division including expenses for nontechnical personnel, such as producers, directors, and talent. AB-roll editing Creating an edit master tape from two source VTRs, o n e containing the A-roll, the other t h e B-roll. The editing is initiated by the edit controller rather than through switching. A B rolling The simultaneous a n d synchronized feed from two source VTRs ( o n e supplying the A-roll, the other the B-roll) to the switcher for instantaneous editing as though they were live sources. AC Stands for alternating current. Electric energy as supplied by normal wall outlets. actor A person (male or female) w h o appears on-camera in dramatic roles. Actors always portray someone else.
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AD Stands for associate or assistant director. Assists the direc tor in all production phases. a d d i t i v e p r i m a r y colors Red, green, a n d blue. O r d i n a r y white light (sunlight) can be separated into the three p r i m a r y light colors. W h e n these three colored lights are c o m b i n e d in various proportions, all other colors can be reproduced. The process is called additive color mixing. address code An electronic signal that marks each frame with a specific address. See S M P T E / E B U time code. ad-lib Speech or action that has n o t been scripted or specially rehearsed. A D R See automatic dialogue replacement a d v a n c e d television See digital television ( D T V ) AFTRA Stands for American Federation of Television and Radio Artists. A broadcasting talent union. AGC See automatic gain control aliasing T h e steplike appearance of a computer-generated diagonal or curved line. Also called jaggies or stairsteps. ambience Background sounds. a n a l o g A signal that fluctuates exactly like t h e original stimulus. analog recording systems Record the continually fluctuating video and audio signals generated by the video and/or audio source. aperture Iris opening of a lens, usually measured in / - s t o p s . arc To move the camera in a slightly curved dolly or truck. a r c h i t e c t u r e Refers t o t h e e l e c t r o n i c logic design of a switcher. aspect ratio The width-to-height proportions of the standard television screen a n d therefore of all analog television pictures: 4 units wide by 3 units high. For D T V a n d HDTV, t h e aspect ratio is 16 x 9.
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Glossary
assemble editing Adding shots in linear editing on videotape in consecutive order w i t h o u t first recording a control track on the edit master tape. ATR See audiotape recorder ATV Stands for advanced
television.
See digital television
(DTV). audio T h e sound portion of television and its production. Technically, t h e electronic r e p r o d u c t i o n of a u d i b l e sound. audio control b o o t h Houses the audio, or mixing, console; a n a l o g a n d digital playback m a c h i n e s ; a p a t c h b a y ; computer(s); speakers; intercom systems; a clock; and a line monitor. audio-fol low-video A switcher that automatically changes the accompanying audio along with the video source. audio monitor See program speaker audio postproduction r o o m For postproduction activities such as sweetening; c o m p o s i n g music tracks; adding music, s o u n d effects, or laugh tracks; and assembling music bridges and a n n o u n c e m e n t s . a u d i o t a p e r e c o r d e r (ATR) A r e e l - t o - r e e l a u d i o t a p e r e corder. audio track The area of the videotape used for recording the sound information. auto cue See teleprompter auto-focus Automated feature whereby the camera focuses on what it senses to be your target object. auto-iris Automatic control of the lens diaphragm. automatic dialogue replacement (ADR) The synchroniza tion of speech with the lip movements of the speaker in postproduction. Not really automatic. automatic gain control (AGC) Regulates the volume of the audio or video level automatically, without using manual controls. auto transition An electronic device that functions like a fader bar. b a c k g r o u n d light Illumination of the set, set pieces, and backdrops. Also called set light. back light Illumination from behind the subject and opposite the camera. back-timing The process of figuring additional clock times by subtracting r u n n i n g times from the schedule time at which the program ends.
b a l a n c e (1) Audio: a p r o p e r m i x i n g of various s o u n d s . (2) Video: relative structural stability of picture elements (objects or events). Balance refers to the interrelation ship between stability and tension in a picture and can therefore be stable (little pictorial tension), neutral (some tension), or unstable (high pictorial tension). balanced mic or line Professional audio wiring with three connectors o r wires: two that carry substantially the same audio signal out of phase and one that is a ground shield. Relatively i m m u n e to h u m and other electronic interference. barn doors Metal flaps m o u n t e d in front of a lighting instru m e n t that control the spread of the light beam. base See baselight baselight Even, nondirectional (diffused) light necessary for the camera to operate optimally. N o r m a l baselight levels are 150 to 200 foot-candles (1,500 to 2,000 lux) at j78 to / / 1 6 . Also called base. baselight level See operating light level batten A horizontal metal pipe that supports lighting instru ments in a studio. b e a m splitter C o m p a c t internal optical system of prisms and filters within a television camera that separates white light into the three primary colors: red, green, and blue (RGB). Also called prism block. b e e p e r A series of audio beeps (normally eight), exactly 1 second apart, at the beginning of each take for video tape cueing. below-the-line A budgetary division referring to equipment and technical services of a particular show and the cost of the below-the-line technical personnel. below-the-line personnel A budgetary division referring to technical personnel. See technical production per sonnel. big b o o m See perambulator b o o m big remote A production outside the studio to televise live and/or record live-on-tape a large scheduled event that has not been staged specifically for television. Examples include sporting events, parades, political gatherings, and studio shows that are taken on the road. Also called, simply, remote. binary A n u m b e r system with the base of 2. binary digit (bit) The smallest a m o u n t of information a computer can hold and process. A charge is either pres ent, represented by a J, or absent, represented by a 0. One
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Glossary
bit can describe two levels, such as on/off or black/white. Two bits can describe four levels (2 bits); three bits, eight levels ( 2 bits); four bits, sixteen ( 2 bits), and so on. A group of eight bits (2 ) is called a byte. See also byte. 2
3
4
cable television (1) Distribution device for broadcast signals via coaxial or fiber-optic cable. (2) Production facility for programs distributed via cable.
8
bit See binary digit black Darkest part of the grayscale, with a reflectance of ap proximately 3 percent; called TV black. "To black" means to fade the television picture to black. blocking Carefully worked-out movement and actions by the talent and for all mobile television equipment. blocking rehearsal See dry run BNC Standard coaxial cable connector for professional video equipment. book Two flats hinged together. Also called twofold. b o o m (1) Audio: m i c r o p h o n e support. (2) Video: p a r t of a camera crane. (3) To move the camera via the b o o m of the camera crane; also called crane. border Electronically generated edge that separates letters or picture areas from the background. b o u n d a r y microphone Microphone m o u n t e d or p u t on a reflecting surface to build u p a pressure zone in which all the sound waves reach the m i c r o p h o n e at the same time. Ideal for group discussions and audience reaction. Also called pressure zone microphone (PZM). brightness The color attribute that determines h o w dark or light a color appears on the m o n o c h r o m e television screen or how m u c h light the color reflects. Also called lightness and luminance. broad A floodlight with a broadside, panlike reflector. broadband A high-bandwidth standard for sending informa tion (voice, data, video, and audio) simultaneously over fiber-optic cables. b u m p - d o w n See dub-down b u m p - u p See dub-up burn-in A p e r m a n e n t trace of an image in a video display. bus (1) A row of buttons on the switcher. (2) A c o m m o n central circuit that receives electrical signals from several sources and that feeds t h e m to a c o m m o n or several separate destinations. bust shot Framing of a person from the upper torso to the top of the head. byte Eight bits. Can define 256 discrete levels ( 2 bits), such as shades of gray between black and white. See also binary digit (bit). 8
calibrate (1) Audio: to make all VU meters (usually of the audio console and the record VTR) respond in the same way to a specific audio signal. (2) Video: to preset a z o o m lens to remain in focus t h r o u g h o u t the zoom. camcorder A portable camera with the videotape recorder or some other recording device attached or built into it to form a single unit. c a m e o lighting Foreground figures are lighted with highly directional light, with the background remaining dark. camera The general name for the camera head, which consists of the lens (or lenses), the main camera with the imaging device and the internal optical system, electronic acces sories, a n d the viewfinder. camera chain The television camera (head) and associated electronic equipment, including the camera control unit, sync generator, and power supply. camera control unit (CCU) Equipment, separate from the camera head, that contains various video controls, in cluding color fidelity, color balance, contrast, and bright ness. The C C U enables the video operator to adjust the camera picture during a show. camera head The actual television camera, which is at the h e a d of a chain of essential electronic accessories. It comprises the imaging device, lens, and viewfinder. In ENG/EFP cameras, the camera head contains all the elements of the camera chain. camera-left a n d camera-right Directions given from the camera's p o i n t of view; opposite of "stage-left" a n d "stage-right," which are directions given from the actor's point of view (facing the audience or camera). camera light Small spotlight m o u n t e d on the front of the c a m e r a , used as a n a d d i t i o n a l fill light. (Frequently confused with tally light.) Also called eye light or inkydinky. camera pickup device See chip camera rehearsal Full rehearsal with cameras a n d other pieces of production equipment. Often identical to the dress rehearsal. cam h e a d A camera m o u n t i n g head for heavy cameras that permits extremely s m o o t h tilts and pans. cant Tilting t h e s h o u l d e r - m o u n t e d or h a n d h e l d camera sideways.
509
Glossary
canting effect Visual effect in which the scene is p u t on a slight tilt, causing a slanted horizon line. cap (1) Lens cap: a rubber or metal cap placed in front of the lens t o protect it from light, dust, or physical damage. (2) Electronic device that eliminates the picture from the camera pickup device. capacitor microphone See condenser microphone capture Transferring video and audio information to a com puter hard drive for nonlinear editing. cardioid Heart-shaped pickup pattern of a unidirectional microphone. cassette A video- or audiotape recording or playback device that uses tape cassettes. A cassette is a plastic case contain ing two reels—a supply reel and a takeup reel. C-band A frequency b a n d for certain satellites. It is relatively i m m u n e to weather interference. See also Ku-band. CCD Stands for charge-coupled device. See chip. C-clamp A metal clamp with which lighting instruments are attached to the lighting battens. C channel See chrominance channel CCU See camera control unit CD See compact disc C.G. See character generator character generator (C.G.) A dedicated c o m p u t e r system that electronically produces a series of letters, numbers, and simple graphic images for video display. Any desk top computer can become a C.G. with the appropriate software. c h a r g e - c o u p l e d d e v i c e (CCD) T h e imaging element in a television camera. See chip. cheat To angle the performer or object toward a particular camera; not directly noticeable to the audience. chip A c o m m o n n a m e for the camera's i m a g i n g device. Technically, it is k n o w n as t h e charge-coupled device (CCD). The chip consists of a great n u m b e r of imaging sensing elements, called pixels, that translate the optical (light) image into an electronic video signal. Also called camera pickup device. c h r o m a - k e y d r o p A well-saturated blue or green canvas backdrop that can be pulled down from the lighting grid to the studio floor as a background for chroma keying. chroma keying Effect that uses color (usually blue or green) for the backdrop, which is replaced by t h e background image during a key.
chrominance channel Consists of the three color (chroma) signals in a video system. The chrominance channel is responsible for each of the basic color signals: red, green, and blue (RGB). Also called C channel. clip (1) To compress the white and/or black picture informa tion or prevent the video signal from interfering with the sync signals. (2) A short series of video frames (shots) as captured o n the hard drive and identified by a file name or number. clip control See key-level control clip light Small internal reflector spotlight that is clipped to pieces of scenery or furniture with a gator clip. Also called PAR (parabolic aluminized reflector) lamp. clipper See key-level control clock t i m e The time the clock shows. Specifically, the time at which a p r o g r a m starts and ends. Also called schedule time. close-up (CU) Object or any part of it seen at close range and framed tightly. The close-up can be extreme (extreme or big close-up—ECU) or rather loose (medium closeu p — MCU). closure Short for psychological closure. Mentally filling in spaces of an incomplete picture. See also mental map. coding To change the quantized values into a binary code, represented by O's and l's, and the specific grouping of the coded bits. Also called encoding. color bars A color standard used by the television industry for the alignment of cameras and videotape recordings. Color bars can be generated by most professional por table cameras. color compatibility Color signals that can be perceived as black-and-white pictures on m o n o c h r o m e television sets. Generally used to mean that the color scheme has enough brightness contrast for m o n o c h r o m e reproduction with a good grayscale contrast. colorizing T h e creation of color p a t t e r n s or color areas through a computer. color media
See gel
color temperature The standard by which we measure the relative reddishness or bluishness of white light. It is measured on the Kelvin (K) scale. The standard color t e m p e r a t u r e for i n d o o r light is 3,200K, for o u t d o o r light, 5,600K. Technically, the n u m b e r s express Kelvin degrees. comet-tailing Occurs w h e n the camera pickup device is unable to process bright lights in a very dark scene or
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extremely bright highlights that are reflected off polished surfaces. The effect looks like red or blue flames trailing the bright object when the object or camera moves. compact disc (CD) A small, shiny disc that contains infor m a t i o n (usually s o u n d signals) in digital form. A C D player reads the encoded digital i n f o r m a t i o n using a laser beam. complexity editing The juxtaposition of shots that primarily, t h o u g h not exclusively, helps intensify the screen event. Editing conventions as advocated in continuity editing are often purposely violated. component system A process in which the luminance (Y, or black-and-white) signals and color (C) signals, or all three color signals (RGB), are kept separate t h r o u g h o u t the recording and storage process. Comprises the Y/C c o m p o n e n t , Y/color difference c o m p o n e n t , and RGB c o m p o n e n t systems. composite system A process in which the luminance (Y, or black-and-white) signal and the chrominance (C, or red, green, and blue) signal as well as sync information are encoded into a single video signal a n d transported via a single wire. Also called NTSC signal. compression (1) Electronics: reducing the a m o u n t of data to be stored or transmitted by using coding schemes that pack all original data into less space (lossless compres sion) or by throwing away some of the least i m p o r t a n t data (lossy compression). (2) Video: the crowding effect achieved by a narrow-angle (telephoto) lens wherein object proportions and relative distances seem shallower. computer-generated D V E Digital video effects created en tirely by computer hardware and software. computer-manipulated DVE Digital video effects created by a computer using an existing image (camera-generated video sequence, video frame, photo, or painting) and enhancing or changing it in some way. condenser m i c r o p h o n e A m i c r o p h o n e whose diaphragm consists of a condenser plate that vibrates with the sound pressure against another fixed condenser plate, called the backplate. Also called electret or capacitor microphone. contact A person, usually a public relations officer, w h o knows about an event and can assist the production team during a remote telecast. continuity editing The preservation of visual continuity from shot to shot. continuous-action lighting Overlapping triangle lighting for all major performance areas. Also called zone lighting.
Glossary
c o n t r a s t r a t i o The difference between the brightest a n d the darkest p o r t i o n s in the picture (often measured by reflected light in foot-candles). T h e contrast ratio for most cameras is n o r m a l l y 40:1 to 50:1, which means that the brightest spot in the picture should not be more than forty or fifty times brighter than the darkest portion without causing loss of detail in the dark or light areas. High-end digital cameras can exceed this ratio. control room A r o o m adjacent to the studio in which the director, the technical director, the audio engineer, a n d sometimes the lighting director perform their various p r o d u c t i o n functions. control room directing See multicamera directing control track The area of the videotape used for recording the synchronization information (sync pulse). Provides reference for the r u n n i n g speed of the VTR, for the plac ing and reading of the video tracks, and for counting the n u m b e r of frames. control track s y s t e m An editing system that c o u n t s t h e control track pulses and translates this count into elapsed time and frame n u m b e r s . It is not frame-accurate. Also called pulse-count system. convertible camera An ENG/EFP camera adapted for studio use. Equipped with a large viewfinder and controlled by the CCU. cookie A popularization of the original t e r m cucoloris or cucaloris. Any pattern cut o u t of thin metal that, when placed inside or in front of an ellipsoidal spotlight (pattern projector), produces a shadow pattern. Also called gobo. c o u n t e r w e i g h t battens Steel pipes that s u p p o r t lighting instruments and corresponding power outlets that can be raised and lowered to a specific height by a counterweight or motorized system. C P U Stands for central processing unit. Processes information in a c o m p u t e r according to the instructions it receives from the software. crab Sideways m o t i o n of the camera crane dolly base. crane (1) M o t i o n picture camera s u p p o r t that resembles an actual crane in b o t h appearance a n d operation. The crane can lift the camera from close to the studio floor to m o r e than 10 feet above it. (2) To move the b o o m of the camera crane up or down. Also called boom. crawl The horizontal m o v e m e n t of electronically generated copy (the vertical m o v e m e n t is called a roll). Can also refer to the program that activates such a movement.
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Glossary
cross-fade (1) Audio: transition m e t h o d whereby the pre ceding sound is faded out and the following sound is faded in simultaneously; the sounds overlap temporar ily. (2) Video: transition m e t h o d whereby the preceding picture is faded to black and the following picture is faded in from black. cross-keying The crossing of key lights for two people fac ing each other. cross-shot (X/S) Similar to the over-the-shoulder shot ex cept that the camera-near person is completely out of the shot. CU See close-up cucoioris See cookie cue (1) Signal for various production activities. (2) To select a certain spot in the videotape or film. cue card A large, hand-lettered card that contains copy, usu ally held next to the camera lens by floor personnel. cue-send See foldback cue track The area of the videotape used for such information as in-house identification or SMPTE address code. Can also be used for an additional audio track. cut (1) The instantaneous change from one shot (image) to another. (2) Director's signal to interrupt action. cutaway A shot of an object or event that is peripherally con nected with the overall event and that is often neutral as to its screen direction (such as a straight-on shot). Used to intercut between shots to facilitate continuity. cuts-only editing system See single-source editing system eye See cyclorama eye light See strip light cyclorama A U-shaped continuous piece of canvas for back ing of scenery and action. Also called eye. DAT See digital audiotape D B S See direct broadcast satellite DC Stands for direct current. DCT Stands for discrete cosine transform. A complex m e t h o d of dividing a digital image into 8 x 8 pixel blocks and translating the pixel positions into frequencies. The re d u n d a n t frequencies are eliminated. Most compression techniques are based o n DCT. decoding The reconstruction of a video or audio signal from a digital code.
How sharp an image appears. In television, the n u m b e r and size of pixels that make up the screen image. See also resolution. defocus Simple yet highly effective optical effect wherein the camera operator zooms in, racks out of focus, and, on cue, back into focus again. Used as a transitional device or to indicate strong psychological disturbances or physi ological imbalance. d e l e g a t i o n controls Controls on the switcher that assign specific functions to a bus. demographics
Audience research factors concerned with
such data as age, gender, marital status, and income. d e p t h of field T h e area in which all objects, located at differ ent distances from the camera, appear in focus. Depth of field depends on the focal length of the lens, its / - s t o p , and the distance between the object and the camera. d e p t h staging A r r a n g e m e n t of objects o n the television screen so that foreground, m i d d l e g r o u n d , and back g r o u n d are each clearly defined. d i a p h r a g m (1) Audio: the vibrating element inside a micro p h o n e that moves with the air pressure from the sound. (2) Video: See iris. dichroic filter A mirrorlike color filter that singles out from the white light the red light (red dichroic filter) and the blue light (blue dichroic filter), with the green light left over. Also called dichroic mirror. dichroic mirror See dichroic filter diffused light Light that illuminates a relatively large area with an indistinct light beam. Diffused light, created by floodlights, produces soft shadows. diffusion filter Filter that attaches to the front of the lens; gives a scene a soft, slightly out-of-focus look. digital Usually means the binary system—the representation of data in the form of binary digits (on/off pulses). digital audiotape (DAT) T h e s o u n d signals are encoded on audiotape in digital form. Includes digital recorders as well as digital recording processes. digital cart system A digital audio system that uses built-in hard drives, removable high-capacity disks, or read/write optical discs to store and access almost instantaneously a great a m o u n t of a u d i o information. It is normally used for the playback of brief a n n o u n c e m e n t s and music bridges. digital lens See digital z o o m lens
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digital recording systems Sample the analog video a n d au dio signals and convert them into discrete on/off pulses. These digits are recorded as O's and l's. digital still store s y s t e m See electronic still store (ESS) system digital television (DTV) Digital television systems that gener ally have a higher image resolution than STV (standard television). Also called advanced television (ATV). digital versatile disc (DVD) The standard DVD is a read-only, high-capacity (4.7 gigabytes or more) storage device of digital audio and video information. Also called digital videodisc.
Glossary
d i s k A computer storage device that can store data on con centric tracks. There are removable m e d i u m - c a p a c i t y floppy disks, and large-capacity hard disks normally built into the hard drive. disk-based v i d e o recorder All digital video recorders that record or store information on a hard disk or read/write optical disc. All disk-based systems are nonlinear. dissolve The gradual replacement of one image by another through a t e m p o r a r y double exposure. Also called lap dissolve. distortion Unnatural alteration or deterioration of sound.
digital video effects (DVE) Visual effects generated by com puter or digital effects e q u i p m e n t in the switcher.
diversity reception Setup for a single wireless m i c r o p h o n e wherein m o r e than one receiving station is established, so o n e can take over w h e n the signal from the other gets weak.
digital zooming Simulated zoom by cropping the center por tion of an image and electronically enlarging the cropped portion. Digital zooms lose picture resolution.
dolly (1) Camera support that enables the camera to move in all horizontal directions. (2) To move the camera toward (dolly in) or away from (dolly out or back) the object.
digital zoom lens A lens that can be p r o g r a m m e d t h r o u g h a small built-in c o m p u t e r to repeat z o o m positions a n d their corresponding focus settings.
double headset A telephone headset (earphones) that carries program sound in one earphone and the PL. information in the other. Also called split intercom.
digitize To convert analog signals into digital (binary) form or to transfer information in a digital code.
downlink The antenna (dish) and equipment that receive the signals coming from a satellite.
d i m m e r A device that controls the intensity of light by throt tling the electric current flowing to the lamp.
d o w n l o a d i n g T h e transfer of files t h a t are sent in data packets. Because these packets are often transferred out of order, the file cannot be seen or heard until the d o w n loading process is complete. See also streaming.
digital videodisc See digital versatile disc (DVD)
direct broadcast satellite ( D B S ) Satellite with a relatively high-powered t r a n s p o n d e r (transmitter/receiver) that broadcasts from the satellite to small, individual d o w n link dishes; operates on the Ku-band. direct bus See program bus
d o w n s t r e a m keyer (DSK) A control that allows a title to be keyed (cut in) over the picture (line-out signal) as it leaves the switcher.
direct input See direct insertion
DP See director of photography
direct insertion Recording technique wherein t h e s o u n d signals of electric instruments are fed directly to the mix ing console without the use of speaker and m i c r o p h o n e . Also called direct input.
drag Degree of friction needed in the camera m o u n t i n g head to allow s m o o t h p a n n i n g a n d tilting.
directional light Light that illuminates a relatively small area with a distinct light beam. Directional light, produced by spotlights, creates harsh, clearly defined shadows. director of p h o t o g r a p h y ( D P ) In major m o t i o n p i c t u r e production, the D P is responsible for the lighting (simi lar to the LD in television). In smaller m o t i o n picture productions and in EFP, the D P will operate the camera. In television, it refers to the camera operator, or shooter. disc An optical computer storage device that uses a laser beam for the read/write function.
dress ( 1 ) W h a t people wear on-camera. (2) Decorating a set with set properties. (3) Dress rehearsal. dress rehearsal Full rehearsal with all e q u i p m e n t operating a n d with talent in full dress. The dress rehearsal is often videotaped. Often called camera rehearsal except that the camera rehearsal does not require full dress for talent. d r o p Large, p a i n t e d piece of canvas u s e d for s c e n e r y backing. drop frame A video recording m o d e in which single frames are periodically overlooked (dropped) by the SMPTE time code to make it match the actual elapsed clock time.
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Glossary
drop lines Section of cable television distribution system that connects individual homes. dropout Loss of part of the video signal, which shows u p on-screen as white or colored glitches. Caused by u n even videotape iron-oxide coating (bad tape quality or overuse) or dirt. dry run Rehearsal w i t h o u t e q u i p m e n t , d u r i n g which the basic actions of the talent are worked out. Also called blocking rehearsal. DSK See downstream keyer DTV See digital television d u a l - r e d u n d a n c y The use of two identical m i c r o p h o n e s for the pickup of a sound source, whereby only one of t h e m is t u r n e d on at any given time. A safety device that permits switching over to the second microphone in case the active one becomes defective. d u b The duplication of an electronic recording. Dubs can be m a d e from tape to tape, or from record or disc to tape and vice versa. The dub is always one generation away from the recording used for dubbing. In analog systems each d u b shows increased deterioration. Digital dubbing produces copies almost identical in quality to the original. d u b - d o w n Dubbing (copying) picture and sound informa tion from a higher-quality VTR format to a lower-quality one. Also called bump-down.
echo effect Visual effect wherein the same video image is repeated as t h o u g h it were placed between two opposite mirrors. Also used to describe an effect in which a moving object trails its previous frames. E C U See extreme close-up e d i t c o n t r o l l e r M a c h i n e t h a t assists in v a r i o u s e d i t i n g functions, such as marking edit-in and edit-out points, rolling source and record VTRs, and activating effects equipment. Often a desktop computer with specialized software. Also called editing control unit. edit decision list (EDL) Consists of edit-in and e d i t - o u t points, expressed in time code numbers, and the nature of transitions between shots. editing T h e selection and assembly of shots in a logical sequence. editing control unit See edit controller edit m a s t e r t a p e T h e v i d e o t a p e on w h i c h t h e selected portions of the source tapes are edited. Used with the record VTR. edit VTR See record VTR EDL See edit decision list effects buses Program and preview buses o n the switcher, assigned to perform effects transitions. effect-to-cause model Moving from idea to desired effect o n the viewer, then backing u p to the specific m e d i u m requirements to produce such an effect.
d u b - u p D u b b i n g (copying) picture and s o u n d information from a lower-quality videotape format to a higher-quality one. Also called bump-up.
electret microphone See condenser microphone
D V C A M Digital videotape recording system developed by Sony.
electron g u n Produces the electron (scanning) beam in a television receiver.
D V C P R O Digital videotape recording system developed by
electronic cinema A high-definition television camera that has a frame rate of 24 frames per second, which is identi cal to the frame rate of a film camera. Most electronic cinema cameras use high-quality, state-of-the-art lenses and high-definition viewfinders.
Panasonic. DVD See digital versatile disc DVE See digital video effects dynamic microphone A m i c r o p h o n e whose sound pickup device consists of a diaphragm that is attached to a mov able coil. As the diaphragm vibrates with the air pressure from the sound, the coil moves within a magnetic field, generating an electric current. Also called moving-coil microphone. e c h o A s o u n d that is reflected from a single surface and perceived as consecutive, rapidly fading, and repetitious. See also reverberation.
E F P See electronic field production
electronic field p r o d u c t i o n ( E F P ) Television p r o d u c t i o n outside the studio that is normally shot for postproduc tion (not live). Usually called field production. electronic still store (ESS) system An electronic device that can grab a single frame from any video source and store it in digital form. It can retrieve the frame randomly in a fraction of a second. ellipsoidal spotlight Spotlight p r o d u c i n g a very defined beam, which can be shaped further by metal shutters.
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E L S See extreme long shot e l e c t r o n i c n e w s g a t h e r i n g ( E N G ) T h e use of p o r t a b l e camcorders or cameras with separate portable VTRs, lights, and sound equipment for the production of daily news stories. ENG is usually not planned in advance and is often transmitted live or immediately after postproduction. encoding See coding E N G See electronic news gathering E N G / E F P cameras a n d camcorders High-quality portable field production cameras. W h e n the camera is docked with a VTR or other recording device, or has the record ing device built into it, it is called a camcorder. environment General ambience of a setting. equalization Controlling the quality of sound by emphasiz ing certain frequencies while de-emphasizing others. essential area The section of the television picture, centered within the scanning area, that is seen by the h o m e viewer, regardless of masking or slight misalignment of the re ceiver. Also called safe title area or safe area.
Glossary
fader A sound-volume control that works by means of a but ton sliding horizontally along a specific scale. Identical in function to a pot. Also called slide fader. fader bar A lever on the switcher that activates preset t r a n sitions, such as dissolves, fades, and wipes, at different speeds. It is also used to create superimpositions. falloff (1) T h e speed with w h i c h light intensity decays. The speed (degree) with which a light picture p o r t i o n t u r n s into shadow area. Fast falloff 'means that the light areas t u r n abruptly into shadow areas and there is a great brightness difference between light and shadow areas. S/ow/aHo/findicates a very gradual change from light to dark and a minimal brightness difference between light and shadow areas. fast lens A lens that permits a relatively great a m o u n t of light to pass through at its m a x i m u m aperture {relatively low / - s t o p n u m b e r at its lowest setting). Can be used in low-light conditions. fc See foot-candle feed Signal transmission from one p r o g r a m source to an other, such as a network feed or a remote feed.
E S S system See electronic still store (ESS) system establishing shot See extreme l o n g shot (ELS) and long shot (LS) expanded system A television system consisting of equip m e n t and procedures that allows for selection, control, recording, playback, a n d t r a n s m i s s i o n of television pictures and sound.
feedback (1) Audio: piercing squeal from the loudspeaker, caused by the accidental reentry of the loudspeaker sound into the m i c r o p h o n e and subsequent overamplification of sound. (2) Communications: reaction of the receiver of a c o m m u n i c a t i o n back to the c o m m u n i c a t i o n source. (3) Video:wild streaks and flashes on the m o n i t o r screen caused by reentry of a video signal into the switcher and subsequent overamplification.
extender See range extender external key The cutout portion of the base picture is filled by the signal from an external source, such as a second camera. extreme close-up (ECU) Shows the object with very tight framing. extreme long shot (ELS) Shows the object from a great dis tance. Also called establishing shot. eye light See camera light facilities request A list that contains all technical facilities needed for a specific production. fact sheet Lists the items to be shown on-camera and their main features. May contain suggestions of what to say about the product. Also called rundown sheet. fade The gradual appearance of a picture from black (fade-in) or its disappearance to black (fade-out).
feeder lines Section of cable television distribution system that brings the signal to various parts of a city. fiber-optic cable Thin, transparent fibers of glass or plastic used to transfer light from one point to another. W h e n used in broadcast signal transmission, the electrical video and audio signals use optical frequencies (light) as the carrier wave to be modulated. field (1) A location away from the studio. (2) One-half of a complete scanning cycle, with two fields necessary for one television picture frame. There are 60 fields, or 30 frames, per second in standard NTSC television. field log A record of each take during the videotaping. See also VTR log. field of v i e w The p o r t i o n of a scene visible t h r o u g h a par ticular lens; its vista. Expressed in symbols, such as CU for close-up.
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Glossary
field production All productions that h a p p e n outside the studio; generally refers to electronic field p r o d u c t i o n (EFP). figure/ground (1) Audio: emphasizing the most i m p o r t a n t s o u n d source over t h e general b a c k g r o u n d s o u n d s . (2) Video: objects seen in front of a b a c k g r o u n d ; the ground is perceived to be m o r e stable than the figure. fill light Additional light on the opposite side of the camera from the key light to illuminate shadow areas and thereby reduce falloff. Usually d o n e with floodlights. film-style directing See single-camera directing film-style shooting Directing m e t h o d for single-camera pro duction wherein you move from an establishing long shot to m e d i u m shots, then to close-ups of the same action. Also used to m e a n single-camera production. fishpole A suspension device for a m i c r o p h o n e ; the mic is attached to a pole and held over the scene for brief periods. fixed-focal-length lens A lens whose focal length cannot be changed (contrary to a z o o m lens that has a variable focal length). Also called prime lens. flag A thin, rectangular sheet of metal, plastic, or cloth used to block light from falling on specific areas. Also called gobo. flare See halo flash drive See flash m e m o r y device flash m e m o r y card See flash m e m o r y device flash m e m o r y device A small read/write portable storage device that can download, store, and upload very fast (in a flash) a fairly large a m o u n t (1 gigabyte or more) of digital information. Also called flash drive, stick flash, flash stick, or flash memory card. flash stick See flash m e m o r y device flat (1) Lighting: even illumination with minimal shadows (slow falloff). (2) Scenery: apiece of standing scenery used as a background or to simulate the walls of a r o o m . flat response Measure of a m i c r o p h o n e ' s ability to hear equally well over its entire frequency range. Is also used as a measure for devices that record and play back a specific frequency range. flicker A periodic change in brightness; when pixels of one frame begin to fade, they are activated again by the next frame scan. floodlight Lighting instrument that produces diffused light with a relatively undefined beam edge.
floor plan A diagram of scenery and properties drawn on a grid pattern. See also floor plan pattern. floor plan pattern A plan of the studio floor, showing the walls, the m a i n doors, the location of the control r o o m , and the lighting grid or batten. See also floor plan. floor stand Heavy stand m o u n t e d on a three-caster dolly, designed specifically to support a variety of lighting in struments. An extension pipe lets you adjust the vertical position of the lighting instrument to a certain degree. fluid h e a d Most p o p u l a r m o u n t i n g head for lightweight E N G / E F P c a m e r a s . Balance is p r o v i d e d by s p r i n g s . Because its moving parts operate in a heavy fluid, it allows very smooth pans and tilts. fluorescent Lamps that generate light by activating a gasfilled tube to give off ultraviolet radiation, which lights up the p h o s p h o r o u s coating inside the tubes. focal l e n g t h T h e distance from the optical center of the lens to the front surface of the camera's imaging device at which the image appears in focus with the lens set at infinity. Focal lengths are measured in millimeters or inches. Short-focal-length lenses have a wide angle of view (wide vista); long-focal-length (telephoto) lenses have a n a r r o w angle of view (close-up). In a variablefocal-length (zoom) lens, the focal length can be changed continuously from wide-angle (zoomed out) to narrowangle (zoomed in) and vice versa. A fixed-focal-length (or prime) lens has a single designated focal length. focus A picture is in focus when it appears sharp and clear on-screen (technically, the p o i n t where the light rays refracted by the lens converge). focus control unit Control that activates the focus mecha nism in a z o o m lens. foldback The return of the total or partial audio mix to the talent t h r o u g h headsets or I.F.B. channels. Also called cue-send. Foley stage A variety of equipment set up in a recording stu dio to produce c o m m o n sound effects, such as footsteps, doors opening and closing, and glass breaking. follow focus Maintaining the focus of the lens in a shallow d e p t h of field so t h a t the image of an object is con tinuously kept sharp and clear even when the camera or object moves. follow spot Powerful special-effects spotlight used primar ily to simulate theater stage effects. It generally follows action, such as dancers, ice skaters, or single performers moving in front of a stage curtain.
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f o o t - c a n d l e ( f c ) The American unit of measurement of illu mination, or the a m o u n t of light that falls on an object. O n e foot-candle is the a m o u n t of light from a single candle that falls o n a 1-square-foot area located 1 foot away from the light source. See also lux.
Glossary
front-timing The process offiguringout clock times by add ing given r u n n i n g times to the clock time at which the p r o g r a m starts.
format Type of television script indicating the major p r o g r a m m i n g steps; generally contains a fully scripted show opening a n d closing.
/ - s t o p The calibration on the lens indicating the aperture, or iris opening (and therefore the a m o u n t of light transmit ted through the lens). The larger the / - s t o p number, the smaller the aperture; the smaller the / - s t o p number, the larger the aperture.
foundation A makeup base over which further m a k e u p such
full shot See long shot
as rouge and eye shadow is applied. fps Stands for frames per second. See frame rate. fractal C o m p u t e r p r o g r a m based on complex mathematical formulas that is used to create realistic and fantasy land scapes a n d a great variety of abstract patterns. frame (1) The smallest picture unit in film, a single picture. (2) A complete scan of all picture lines by the elec t r o n b e a m . See interlaced scanning a n d progressive scanning. frame rate The n u m b e r of complete video frames the video system is producing each second. Also expressed as fps. The NTSC standard of traditional American television is 30 fps. The 480p and 720p scanning systems normally have a frame rate of 60 fps. Some H D electronic cinema cameras have a frame rate of 24 fps and/or variable frame rates. The standard 1080i H D T V system has a frame rate of 30 fps. framestore synchronizer Image stabilization and synchro nization system that stores a n d reads out one complete video frame. Used to synchronize signals from a variety of video sources that are not genlocked. frame timing The front- or back-timing of time code n u m bers, which include hours, minutes, seconds, a n d frames. Frames roll over to the next second after twenty-nine, but seconds and minutes after fifty-nine. freeze-frame C o n t i n u o u s replaying of a single frame, which is perceived as a still shot. frequency Cycles per second, measured in hertz (Hz).
fully scripted format A complete script that contains all dialogue or narration and major visualization cues. g a i n (1) Audio: level of amplification for a u d i o signals. "Riding gain" m e a n s keeping the s o u n d v o l u m e at a proper level. (2) Video: electronic amplification of the video signal, boosting primarily picture brightness. gel Generic t e r m for color filters p u t in front of spotlights or floodlights to give the light b e a m a specific hue. Gel comes from gelatin, the filter material used before the invention of more-durable plastics. Also called color media. generating element The p r i m a r y part of a m i c r o p h o n e . It converts s o u n d waves into electric energy. g e n e r a t i o n T h e n u m b e r of d u b s away from the original recording. A first-generation d u b is struck directly from the source tape. A second-generation tape is a dub of the first-generation d u b (two steps away from the original tape), and so forth. In analog recordings, the greater the n u m b e r of nondigital generations, the greater the quality loss. Digital recordings remain virtually the same through m a n y generations. genlock (1) Locking the synchronization generators from two different origination sources, such as remote a n d studio. Allows switching from source to source without picture rolling. (2) Locking the house sync with the sync signal from another source (such as a videotape). gigabyte 1,073,741,824 bytes (230 bytes); usually figured as roughly 1 billion bytes. giraffe boom A medium-sized microphone b o o m that can be operated by one person. Also called tripod boom.
Fresnel spotlight O n e of the m o s t c o m m o n spotlights, n a m e d after the inventor of its lens. Its lens has steplike concentric rings.
g o b o In television, a scenic foreground piece through which the camera can shoot, thus integrating the decorative foreground with the background action. In film a gobo is an opaque shield used for partially blocking a light, or the metal cutout that projects a pattern on a flat surface. See also cookie a n d flag.
friction head Camera m o u n t i n g head that counterbalances the camera weight by a strong spring. Good only for relatively light cameras.
graphics generator Dedicated c o m p u t e r or software that allows a designer to draw, color, animate, store, and re trieve images electronically. Any desktop computer with a
frequency response Measure of the range of frequencies a m i c r o p h o n e can hear and reproduce.
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Glossary
high-capacity RAM and hard drive can become a graphics generator with the use of 2-D and 3-D software. graphic vector See vector grayscale A scale indicating intermediate steps from TV white to TV black. Usually measured with a nine- or seven-step scale. halo Dark or colored flare a r o u n d a very bright light source or a highly reflecting object. Also called flare. h a n d props Objects, called properties, that are handled by the performer.
progressively each Vio second. The 1080i standard uses 60 fields per second, each field consisting of 539.5 visible, or active, lines. A complete frame consists of two interlaced scanning fields of 539.5 visible lines. T h e refresh rate (complete scanning cycle) for H D T V systems can vary. high-definition television (HDTV) camera Video camera that delivers pictures of superior resolution, color fidel ity, and light-and-dark contrast; uses high-quality CCDs and zoom lens.
h a r d c o p y A c o m p u t e r p r i n t o u t of text or graphics. In c o m p u t e r editing, the hard copy prints out the EDL. (Soft-copy information appears only on the computer screen.)
high-definition v i d e o (HDV) A recording system that p r o duces images of the same resolution as H D T V (720p and 1080i) with equipment that is similar to standard digital video camcorders. The video signals are m u c h m o r e compressed t h a n those of HDTV, however, which results in lower overall video quality.
hard drive A high-capacity computer storage disk. Floppy disks have a lower storage capacity. Often called hard disk.
high hat Cylindrical camera m o u n t that can be bolted to a dolly or scenery to permit panning and tilting the camera w i t h o u t a tripod or pedestal.
HDV See high-definition video
high-key Light background and ample light on the scene. Has nothing to do with the vertical positioning of the key light.
H D T V See high-definition television head assembly (1) Audio: small electromagnets that erase the signal from the tape (erase head), p u t the signals o n the tape (record head), and read (induce) t h e m off the tape (playback head). (2) Video: small electromagnets that put electrical signals o n the videotape or read (induce) the signals off the tape. Video heads, as well as the tape, are in motion. h e a d e n d Section of cable television distribution system where signals are collected or originated. h e a d r o o m The space left between the top of the head and the upper screen edge. headset m i c r o p h o n e Small b u t good-quality o m n i - or uni directional mic attached to padded earphones; similar to a telephone headset b u t with a higher-quality mic. helical scan The diagonally slanted path of the video signal when recorded on the videotape. Also called helical VTR or slant-track. helical VTR
See helical scan
HID light Stands for halide iodide discharge. Uses a highintensity lamp that produces light by passing electricity through a specific type of gas. Has its ballast attached to the lamp. Similar to the H M I light. See metal halide discharge. high-definition television ( H D T V ) Has at least twice the picture detail of standard (NTSC) television. The 720p uses 720 visible, or active, lines that are normally scanned
high-Z High impedance. See also impedance. HMI light Stands for hydragyrum medium arc-length iodide. Uses a high-intensity lamp that produces light by pass ing electricity t h r o u g h a specific type of gas. Needs a separate ballast. Similar to t h e H I D light. See metal halide discharge. h o r i z o n t a l b l a n k i n g T h e t e m p o r a r y s t a r v a t i o n of t h e electron b e a m when it returns to write another scan ning line. hot (1) A current- or signal-carrying wire. (2) A piece of e q u i p m e n t that is t u r n e d on, such as a hot camera or a hot microphone. hot spot Undesirable concentration of light in one spot. house number The in-house system of identification for each piece of recorded p r o g r a m material. Called the house number because the code n u m b e r s differ from station to station (house to house). hue O n e of the three basic color attributes; hue is the color itself—red, green, yellow, and so on. hundredeighty See vector line HUT Stands for households using television. Used in calculat ing share, the H U T figure represents 100 percent of all households using television. See also share. Hz Hertz, which measures cycles per second.
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IATSE Stands for International Alliance of Theatrical Stage Employees, Moving Picture Technicians, Artists and Allied Crafts of the United States, Its Territories and Canada. Trade union. I B E W Stands for International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers. Trade u n i o n for s t u d i o a n d m a s t e r control engineers; may include floor personnel. I.F.B. See interruptible foldback or interruptible feedback l-F lens See internal focus (I-F) lens impedance Type of resistance to the signal flow. I m p o r t a n t especially in matching high- or low-impedance micro phones with high- or low-impedance recorders. impedance transformer Device allowing a high-impedance mic to feed a low-impedance recorder or vice versa. incandescent The light produced by the hot tungsten fila ment of ordinary glass-globe or quartz-iodine light bulbs (in contrast to fluorescent light). incident light Light that strikes the object directly from its source. An incident-light reading is the measure of light in foot-candles (or lux) from the object to the light source. The light meter is pointed directly into the light source or toward the camera. index vector See vector inky-dinky See camera light inner focus lens See internal focus (I-F) lens input o v e r l o a d distortion Distortion caused by a micro p h o n e when subjected to an exceptionally high-volume sound. Condenser microphones are especially prone to input overload distortion. insert editing Requires the prior laying of a control track on the edit master tape. The shots are edited in sequence or inserted into an already existing recording. Necessary m o d e for editing audio a n d video tracks separately. instant replay Repeating for the viewer, by playing back videotape or disk-stored video, a key play or an important event immediately after its live occurrence. instantaneous editing See switching intercom Short for intercommunication system. Used by all production and technical personnel. The m o s t widely used system has telephone headsets to facilitate voice c o m m u n i c a t i o n on several wired or wireless channels. Includes other systems, such as I.F.B. and cell phones. interframe compression A compression technique that b o r r o w s recurring pixels from previous frames, t h u s reducing the n u m b e r of pixels.
Glossary
i n t e r l a c e d s c a n n i n g In this system the b e a m skips every other line during its first scan, reading only the o d d n u m b e r e d lines. After the beam has scanned half of the last o d d - n u m b e r e d line, it j u m p s back to the top of the screen a n d finishes the unscanned half of the top line a n d continues to scan all the even-numbered lines. Each such even- or o d d - n u m b e r e d scan produces & field. Two fields produce a complete frame. Standard NTSC televi sion operates with 60 fields per second, which translates into 30 frames per second. internal focus (I-F) lens A mechanism of an ENG/EFP lens that allows focusing without having the front part of the lens barrel extend a n d t u r n . internal key The cutout p o r t i o n of the base picture is filled with the signal that is doing the cutting. interruptible f o l d b a c k or interruptible f e e d b a c k (I.F.B.) C o m m u n i c a t i o n system t h a t allows c o m m u n i c a t i o n with the talent while on the air. A small earpiece worn by on-the-air talent carries p r o g r a m s o u n d or instructions from the producer or director. in-the-can A t e r m borrowed from film, which referred to when the finished film was literally in the can. It now refers to a finished television recording; the show is pre served a n d can be broadcast at any time. intraframe compression A compression method that looks for and eliminates r e d u n d a n t pixels in each frame. inverse square l a w T h e intensity of light falls off as \/d from the source, where d is distance from the source. It means that light intensity decreases as distance from the source increases. Valid only for light sources that radiate light isotropically (uniformly in all directions) but not for light whose b e a m is partially collimated (focused), such as from a Fresnel or an ellipsoidal spot.
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ips S t a n d s for inches per second. An i n d i c a t i o n of t a p e speed. iris Adjustable lens-opening that controls the a m o u n t of light passing t h r o u g h the lens. Also called diaphragm or lens diaphragm. isolated (iso) camera Feeds into the switcher a n d into its own separate video recorder. jack (1) A socket or p h o n e - p l u g receptacle. (2) A brace for scenery. jib a r m Similar to a camera crane. Permits the jib a r m opera tor to raise, lower, and tongue (move sideways) the jib a r m while titling a n d p a n n i n g the camera. j o g g i n g Frame-by-frame advancement of videotape with a VTR. See also stop-motion.
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Glossary
J P E G A video compression m e t h o d mostly for still pictures, developed by the Joint Photographic Experts Group. j u m p cut (1) Cutting between shots that are identical in sub ject yet slightly different in screen location. The subject seems to j u m p from o n e screen location to another for no apparent reason. (2) Any abrupt transition between shots that violates the established continuity. Kelvin (K) Refers to the Kelvin temperature scale. In lighting it is the specific measure of color temperature—the relative reddishness or bluishness of white light. The higher the K number, the m o r e bluish the white light. The lower the K number, the m o r e reddish the white light. key An electronic effect. Keying means cutting with an elec tronic signal one image (usually lettering) into a different background image.
from 10 to 3 flash at 1 -second intervals and are sometimes synchronized with short audio beeps. leadroom The space left in front of a person or an object moving toward the edge of the screen. See also noseroom. lens Optical lens, essential for projecting an optical (light) image of a scene onto the film or the front surface of the camera pickup device. Lenses come in various fixed focal lengths or in a variable focal length (zoom lenses) and with various m a x i m u m apertures (iris openings). lens diaphragm See iris lens prism A prism that, when attached to the camera lens, produces special effects, such as the tilting of the horizon line or the creation of multiple images.
key bus A row of b u t t o n s o n the switcher, used to select the video source to be inserted into a background image.
level (1) Audio: s o u n d volume. (2) Video: signal strength (amplitude).
key-level control Switcher control that adjusts the key signal so that the title to be keyed appears sharp and clear. Also called clip control or clipper.
libel Written or televised defamation.
key light Principal source of illumination. kicker light Usually directional light that is positioned low and from the side and the back of the subject. kilobyte 1,024 bytes (210 bytes); usually figured as roughly 1,000 bytes. kilowatt ( k W ) 1,000 watts. k n e e shot F r a m i n g of a p e r s o n from a p p r o x i m a t e l y the knees up. Ku-band A high-frequency b a n d used by certain satellites for signal t r a n s p o r t a n d d i s t r i b u t i o n . T h e K u - b a n d signals can be influenced by heavy rain or snow. See also C-band. k W See kilowatt lag Smear that follows a m o v i n g object or m o t i o n of the camera across a stationary object under low light levels. lap dissolve See dissolve l a v a l i e r e m i c r o p h o n e A small m i c r o p h o n e that can be clipped onto clothing.
lighting The manipulation of light and shadows: to provide the camera with adequate illumination for technically acceptable pictures; to tell us what the objects on-screen actually look like; and to establish the general m o o d of the event. lighting triangle The triangular arrangement of key, back, and fill lights. Also called triangle lighting. See photo graphic lighting principle. light level Light intensity measured in lux or foot-candles. See also foot-candle (fc) and lux. lightness See brightness light plot A plan, similar to a floor plan, that shows the type, size (wattage), and location of the lighting instruments relative to the scene to be illuminated and the general direction of the beams. light ratio The relative intensities of key, back, and fill. A 1:1 ratio between key and back lights means that both light sources b u r n with equal intensities. A \ : h ratio between key and fill lights means that the fill light b u r n s with half the intensity of the key light. Because light ratios depend o n m a n y p r o d u c t i o n variables, they c a n n o t be fixed. A key:back:fill ratio of \:l:Vi is often used for normal triangle lighting. l
layering C o m b i n i n g two or m o r e key effects for a m o r e complex effect.
limbo Any set area that has a plain, light background.
LD Stands for lighting director.
line See vector line
leader numbers Numerals used for the accurate cueing of the videotape and film during playback. The n u m b e r s
linear editing Analog or digital editing that uses tape-based systems. Selection of shots is n o n r a n d o m .
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line monitor T h e m o n i t o r t h a t shows only t h e l i n e - o u t pictures that go o n the air or on videotape. Also called master monitor or program monitor. line of conversation a n d action See vector line
Glossary
low-Z Low impedance. See also i m p e d a n c e . LS See long shot lumen The light intensity power of one candle (light source radiating isotropically, i.e., in all directions).
line-out The line that carries the final video or audio o u t p u t for broadcast. line p r o d u c e r Supervises daily p r o d u c t i o n activities o n the set.
luminaire Technical t e r m for lighting instrument. luminance The measured brightness (black-and-white) in formation of a video signal (reproduces the grayscale). Also called Y signal.
lip-sync Synchronization of sound and lip movement. live-on-tape The uninterrupted videotape recording of a live show for later unedited playback. location sketch A rough m a p of the locale of a remote tele cast. For an indoor remote, the sketch shows the r o o m dimensions and the furniture and window locations. For an o u t d o o r remote, the sketch indicates the location of buildings, the remote truck, power sources, and the sun during the time of the telecast. location survey Written assessment, usually in the form of a checklist, of the production requirements for a remote. locking-in An especially vivid m e n t a l i m a g e — v i s u a l or aural—during script analysis that determines the sub sequent visualizations and sequencing. lockup time T h e time required by a videotape recorder for the picture and sound to stabilize once the tape has been started. log The major operational document: a second-by-second list of every p r o g r a m aired o n a particular day. It carries such information as p r o g r a m source or origin, sched uled program time, p r o g r a m duration, video and audio information, code identification (house n u m b e r , for example), program title, p r o g r a m type, and additional pertinent information. long-focal-length lens See narrow-angle lens long shot (LS) Object seen from far away or framed loosely. Also called establishing shot or full shot. lossless compression Rearranging but not eliminating pixels during storage and transport. See also compression. lossy compression Throwing away r e d u n d a n t pixels during compression. Most compression methods are of the lossy kind. See also compression.
luminance channel A separate channel within color cameras that deals with brightness variations and allows t h e m to p r o d u c e a signal receivable on a b l a c k - a n d - w h i t e television. The l u m i n a n c e signal is usually electroni cally derived from the chrominance signals. Also called Y channel. luminant L a m p that produces the light; the light source. lux European standard unit for measuring light intensity: 1 lux is the a m o u n t of 1 l u m e n (one candlepower of light) that falls o n a surface of 1 square meter located 1 meter away from the light source; 10.75 lux = 1 fc; usually roughly translated as 10 lux = 1 fc. See also footcandle (fc). macro position A lens setting that allows it to be focused at very close distances from an object. Used for close-ups of small objects. makeup Cosmetics used to enhance, correct, or change ap pearance. master control Nerve center for all telecasts. Controls the p r o g r a m i n p u t , storage, a n d retrieval for o n - t h e - a i r telecasts. Also oversees technical quality of all p r o g r a m material. master monitor See line monitor matte key Keyed (electronically cut in) title whose letters are filled with shades of gray or a specific color. M C U M e d i u m close-up. M D See mini disc M/E bus Short for mix/effects bus. A row of b u t t o n s on the switcher that can serve a mix or an effects function.
low-angle dolly Dolly used with high hat to make a camera m o u n t for particularly low shots.
m e d i u m requirements All content elements, p r o d u c t i o n elements, and people needed to generate the defined process message.
l o w - k e y D a r k b a c k g r o u n d a n d i l l u m i n a t i o n of selected areas. Has nothing to do with the vertical positioning of the key light.
m e d i u m shot (MS) Object seen from a m e d i u m distance. Covers any framing between a long shot and a close-up. Also called waist shot.
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Glossary
m e g a b y t e 1,048,576 bytes (220 b y t e s ) ; usually figured roughly as 1 million bytes. megapixel A CCD or digital image containing about 1 mil lion pixels. The higher the n u m b e r of pixels, the higher the picture resolution. Generally used to indicate the relative quality of digital still cameras. mental m a p Tells viewer where things are or are supposed to be in on- and off-screen space. See also closure. metal halide discharge Produces light by passing electric ity through a specific type of gas. Needs a ballast to start the light and keep it b u r n i n g evenly. Includes H I D and H M I lights. mic See microphone microphone A small, portable assembly for the pickup and conversion of s o u n d into electric energy. Also called mic. microwave relay A transmission m e t h o d from the remote location to the station and/or transmitter involving the use of several microwave units. M I D I See musical instrument digital interface mini-cassette A small (2Vi x l /s inch or 65 x 4 7 m m ) Vi-inch tape cassette used in digital c o n s u m e r or p r o s u m e r cameras. It allows one h o u r of recording with standard recording speed. 5
mini disc (MD) Optical 2 /2-inch-wide disc that can store one h o u r of CD-quality audio. 1
mini-link Several microwave setups that are linked together to transport the video and audio signals past obstacles to their destination (usually the television station and/or transmitter). m i n i m u m object distance ( M O D ) H o w close the camera can get to an object and still focus o n it. mix bus (1) Audio: a mixing channel for audio signals. The mix bus combines sounds from several sources to p r o duce a mixed sound signal. (2) Video: rows of buttons on the switcher that p e r m i t the mixing of video sources, as in a dissolve or a super. mixdown Final combination of s o u n d tracks on a single or stereo track of an a u d i o - or videotape.
mix-minus Type of multiple audio feed missing the part that is being recorded, such as an orchestra feed with the solo instrument being recorded. Also refers to program sound feed without the portion supplied by the source that is receiving the feed. m m Millimeter, o n e - t h o u s a n d t h of a meter: 2 5 . 4 m m = 1 inch. M O D See m i n i m u m object distance moire effect Color vibrations that occur when narrow, con trasting stripes of a design interfere with the scanning lines of the television system. monitor (1) Audio: speaker that carries the p r o g r a m sound i n d e p e n d e n t of the line-out. (2) Video: high-quality television set used in the television studio and control rooms. C a n n o t receive broadcast signals. m o n o c h r o m e O n e color. In television it refers to a camera or m o n i t o r that reads only various degrees of brightness and produces a black-and-white picture. m o n o p o d A single p o l e o n t o w h i c h y o u can m o u n t a camera. m o n t a g e The juxtaposition of two or more, often seemingly unrelated, shots to generate a third overall idea, which may not be contained in any one. mosaic C o m p u t e r - g e n e r a t e d visual effect t h a t looks as though the image is composed of mosaic tiles. motion vector See vector moving-coil microphone See dynamic microphone M P 3 A widely used compression system for digital audio. Most Internet-distributed audio is compressed in the M P 3 format. M P E G A compression technique for moving pictures, devel oped by the Moving Picture Experts Group. M P E G - 2 The compression standard for m o t i o n video. M P E G - 4 The compression standard for Internet streaming. M S See m e d i u m shot
mix/effects bus See M/E bus
multicamera directing Simultaneous coordination of two or m o r e cameras for instantaneous editing (switching). Also called control room directing.
mixing (1) Audio: combining two or more sounds in specific proportions (volume variations) as determined by the event (show) context. (2) Video: creating a dissolve or superimposition via the switcher.
multiple-microphone interference The canceling out of cer tain sound frequencies when two identical microphones close together are used to record the same s o u n d source on the same tape.
Glossary
522
multiplexing A m e t h o d of transmitting video and audio signals on the same carrier wave simultaneously or se quentially in time. multiple-source editing system Editing system having two
NTSC Stands for National Television System Committee. N o r m a l l y designates the composite television signal, consisting of the combined chroma information (red, green, and blue signals) and the luminance information (black-and-white signal). See composite system.
or m o r e source VTRs. NTSC signal See composite system musical instrument digital interface (MIDI) A standardized protocol that allows the connection and interaction of various digital audio equipment and computers. N A B Stands for National Association of Broadcasters.
off-line editing In linear editing it produces an edit deci sion list or a videotape not intended for broadcast. In nonlinear editing the selected shots are captured in low resolution to save computer storage space.
NABET Stands for National Association of Broadcast Employees and Technicians. Trade union for studio and master con trol engineers; may include floor personnel.
omnidirectional Pickup pattern in which the m i c r o p h o n e can pick u p sounds equally well from all directions.
narrow-angle lens Gives a close-up view of an event rela tively far away from the camera. Also called long-focallength or telephoto lens.
on-line editing In linear editing it produces the final highquality edit master tape for broadcast or program dupli cation. In nonlinear editing it requires recapturing the selected shots at a higher resolution.
ND filter See neutral density filter neutral density (ND) filter Filter that reduces the incoming light without distorting the color of the scene. n e w s p r o d u c t i o n p e r s o n n e l People assigned exclusively to the production of news, documentaries, and special events. noise (1) Audio: unwanted sounds that interfere with the i n t e n t i o n a l s o u n d s , or u n w a n t e d hisses or h u m s in evitably generated by the electronics of the audio equip ment. (2) Video: electronic interference that shows up as "snow." NLE See nonlinear editing
operating light level A m o u n t of light needed by the camera to produce a video signal. Most color cameras need from 100 to 250 foot-candles of illumination for optimal per formance at a particular / - s t o p , such as / / 8 . Also called baselight level. optical disc A digital storage device whose information is recorded and read by laser beam. O / S See over-the-shoulder shot oscilloscope See waveform monitor over-the-shoulder shot (O/S) Camera looks over a person's shoulder (shoulder and back of head included in shot) at another person.
n o n - d r o p frame m o d e A video-recording m o d e in which the slight discrepancy between actual frame count and elapsed clock time is ignored by the SMPTE time code.
PA Stands for production
n o n l i n e a r e d i t i n g ( N L E ) Allows i n s t a n t r a n d o m access to shots a n d sequences and easy rearrangement. The video and audio information is stored in digital form o n computer hard disks or read/write optical discs. Uses disk-based computer systems.
pace Perceived duration of the show or show segment. Part of subjective time.
nontechnical production personnel People concerned pri marily with nontechnical production matters that lead from the basic idea to the final screen image. Also called above-the-line personnel. normal lens A lens or z o o m lens position with a focal length that approximates the spatial relationships of n o r m a l vision. n o s e r o o m T h e space left in front of a p e r s o n l o o k i n g or p o i n t i n g t o w a r d t h e edge of t h e screen. See also leadroom.
assistant.
P.A. Stands for public address. Loudspeaker system. Also called studio talkback or S.A. (studio address) system.
pan To t u r n the camera horizontally. p a n c a k e A m a k e u p base, or f o u n d a t i o n m a k e u p , usually water-soluble and applied with a small sponge. pan stick A foundation makeup with a grease base. Used to cover a beard shadow or p r o m i n e n t skin blemish. pantograph Expandable hanging device for lighting instru ments. p a p e r - a n d - p e n c i l e d i t i n g T h e p r o c e s s of e x a m i n i n g w i n d o w - d u b b e d , low-quality (VHS) source tapes and creating a preliminary edit decision list by writing d o w n edit-in and edit-out n u m b e r s for each selected shot. Also called paper editing.
523
Glossary
PAR (parabolic aluminized reflector) lamp See clip light
picture element See pixel
p a r a b o l i c reflector m i c r o p h o n e A parabolic small dish whose focal center contains a m i c r o p h o n e . Used for pickup of faraway sounds.
pipe grid Heavy steel pipes m o u n t e d above the studio floor to support lighting instruments.
patchbay See patchboard p a t c h b o a r d A device that connects various i n p u t s with specific outputs, Also called patchbay. p a t t e r n projector An ellipsoidal spotlight with a cookie (cucoloris) insert, which projects the cookie's pattern as a cast shadow. p e a k p r o g r a m meter ( P P M ) Meter in audio console that measures loudness. Especially sensitive to volume peaks, it indicates overmodulation. pedestal ( 1 ) Heavy camera dolly that permits raising and lowering the camera while on the air. (2) To move the camera u p and down via a studio pedestal. (3) The black level of a television picture; can be adjusted against a standard on the waveform monitor. perambulator b o o m M o u n t for a studio m i c r o p h o n e . An extension device, or b o o m , is m o u n t e d on a dolly, called a perambulator, that permits rapid and quiet relocation anywhere in the studio. Also called big boom. performer A person who appears on-camera in nondramatic shows. Performers play themselves and d o not assume someone else's character. periaktos A triangular piece of scenery that can be t u r n e d on a swivel base. p h a n t o m power T h e power for preamplification in a con denser microphone, supplied by the audio console rather than a battery. p h o n e plug A W-inch plug most c o m m o n l y used at both ends of audio patch cords. These plugs are also used to route sound signals over relatively short distances from various musical instruments, such as electric guitars or keyboards. photographic lighting principle The triangular arrangement of key, back, a n d fill lights, with the back light opposite the camera and directly behind the object, and the key and fill lights on opposite sides of the camera and to the front and the side of the object. Also called triangle lighting. pickup (1) Sound reception by a microphone. (2) Reshooting parts of a scene for postproduction editing. pickup pattern The territory around the microphone within which the microphone can "hear equally well," that is, has optimal sound pickup.
pixel Short for picture element. (1) A single imaging element (like the single dot in a newspaper picture) that can be identified by a computer. The m o r e pixels per picture area, the higher the picture quality. (2) The light-sensitive elements on a CCD that contain a charge. P.L. Stands for private line or phone line. Major intercom munication system in television production. play VTR See source VTR plot H o w a story develops from one event to the next. point of v i e w ( P O V ) As seen from a specific character's perspective. Gives the director a clue to camera position. polar p a t t e r n T h e t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of a m i c r o p h o n e pickup pattern. polarity reversal The reversal of the grayscale; the white areas in the picture become black, and the black areas become white. Color polarity reversal in colors results in the complementary color. pop filter A bulblike attachment (either p e r m a n e n t or de tachable) on the front of a microphone, which filters out sudden air blasts, such as plosive consonants (p, t, and fc) delivered directly into the mic. ports (1) Slots in the microphone that help achieve a specific pickup pattern and frequency response. (2) Jacks on the computer for plugging in peripheral hardware. posterization Visual effect that reduces the various bright ness values to only a few (usually three or four) and gives the image a flat, posterlike look. postproduction Any production activity that occurs after the production. Usually refers to either videotape editing or audio sweetening (postscoring and mixing sound for later addition to the picture p o r t i o n ) . postproduction editing The assembly of recorded material after the actual production. pot Short for potentiometer.
A s o u n d - v o l u m e control.
P O V See point of v i e w P P M See peak program meter p r e a m p Short for preamplifier. Strengthens weak electrical signals produced by a m i c r o p h o n e or camera pickup de vice before they can be further processed (manipulated) and amplified to n o r m a l signal strength. preproduction Preparation of all production details.
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Glossary
preroll To start a videotape a n d let it roll for a few seconds before it is put in the playback or record m o d e so that the electronic system has time to stabilize. preset/background See preview/preset bus preset board A p r o g r a m device into which several lighting setups (scenes) can be stored and later retrieved. preset monitor (PST) Allows previewing of a shot or an effect before it is switched on the air. Its feed can be activated by the TAKE b u t t o n . Similar to preview monitor. pressure zone m i c r o p h o n e ( P Z M ) See b o u n d a r y micro phone preview/preset bus Rows of b u t t o n s on the switcher used to select the u p c o m i n g video (preset function) and route it to the preview m o n i t o r (preview function) i n d e p e n d e n t of the line-out video. Also called preset/background.
p r o g r a m m o n i t o r See line m o n i t o r p r o g r a m p r o p o s a l W r i t t e n d o c u m e n t t h a t outlines t h e process message a n d the major aspects of a television presentation. program speaker A loudspeaker in the control r o o m that carries the p r o g r a m sound. Its volume can be controlled without affecting the actual line-out p r o g r a m feed. Also called audio monitor. p r o g r e s s i v e s c a n n i n g In this system the electron b e a m starts with line 1, then scans line 2, then line 3, and so forth, until all lines are scanned, at which point the beam j u m p s back to its starting position to repeat the scan of all lines. props Short for properties. Furniture and other objects used for set decoration and by actors or performers. PSA Public service a n n o u n c e m e n t .
preview ( P / V ) monitor (1) Any m o n i t o r that shows a video source, except for the line (master) and off-the-air m o n i tors. (2) A color m o n i t o r that shows the director the pic ture to be used for the next shot. prime lens See fixed-focal-length lens prism block See beam splitter process message The message actually received by the viewer in the process of watching a television program.
PST See preset monitor psychographics Audience research factors concerned with such data as consumer buying habits, values, and life styles. psychological closure Seeclosure pulse-count system See control track system P/V
See preview monitor
producer Creator and organizer of television shows.
pylon Triangular set piece, similar to a pillar.
p r o d u c t i o n p e r s o n n e l ( n o n t e c h n i c a l ) See nontechnical production personnel
PZM
production personnel (technical) See technical production personnel
quad-split Switcher m e c h a n i s m that makes it possible to divide the screen into four variable-sized quadrants a n d fill each one with a different image.
production schedule The calendar that shows the p r e p r o duction, production, and postproduction dates and who is doing what, when, and where. production switcher Switcher located in the studio con trol r o o m or remote truck, designed for instantaneous editing. program (1) A specific television show. (2) A sequence of instructions, encoded in a specific computer language, to perform predetermined tasks. program/background
See program bus
program bus The bus o n a switcher whose inputs are directly switched to the line-out. Allows cuts-only switching. Also called direct bus or program/background. program length See running time
Stands for pressure zone microphone. microphone.
See b o u n d a r y
quantization See quantizing quantizing A step in the digitization of an analog signal. It changes the s a m p l i n g p o i n t s i n t o discrete values. Also called quantization. q u a r t z A h i g h - i n t e n s i t y i n c a n d e s c e n t light w h o s e l a m p consists of a quartz or silica housing (instead of the cus t o m a r y glass) that contains halogen gas and a tungsten filament. Produces a very bright light of stable color temperature (3,200K). Also called TH (tungsten-halogen). See also tungsten-halogen (TH). quick-release plate M o u n t i n g plate used to attach camcord ers and ENG/EFP cameras to the fluid head. rack focus To change focus from one object or person closer to the camera to one farther away or vice versa.
525
Glossary
radio frequency (RF) Broadcast frequency divided into vari ous channels. In an RF distribution, the video and audio signals are superimposed on the radio frequency carrier wave. Usually called RF.
resolution The m e a s u r e m e n t of picture detail. Resolution is influenced by the imaging device, the lens, and the television set that shows the camera picture. Often used synonymously with definition.
radio mic See wireless microphone
reverberation Reflections of a sound from multiple surfaces after the sound source has ceased vibrating. Generally used to liven sounds recorded in an acoustically "dead" studio. See also echo.
range extender An optical attachment to the z o o m lens that extends its focal length. Also called extender. rating Percentage of television households t u n e d to a spe cific station in relation to the total n u m b e r of television households. See also share. RCA p h o n o Video and a u d i o c o n n e c t o r s for c o n s u m e r equipment. RCU See remote control unit rear projection (R.P.) Translucent screen onto which images are projected from the rear and p h o t o g r a p h e d from the front. record VTR The videotape recorder that edits the p r o g r a m segments as supplied by the source VTR(s) into the final edit master tape. Also called edit VTR. reel-to-reel A tape recorder that transports the tape past the heads from o n e reel (the supply reel) to the other reel (the takeup reel). reference black T h e darkest element in a set, used as a reference for the black level (beam) adjustment of the camera picture. reference w h i t e T h e brightest element in a set, used as a reference for the white level (beam) adjustment of the camera picture. reflected light Light that is b o u n c e d off the illuminated ob ject. A reflected-light reading is d o n e with a light meter held close to the illuminated object.
RF See radio frequency RF mic See wireless microphone R G B Red, green, and blue—the basic colors of television. R G B c o m p o n e n t system Analog video-recording system wherein the red, green, and blue signals are kept separate t h r o u g h o u t the entire recording and storage process and are transported via three separate wires. ribbon m i c r o p h o n e A m i c r o p h o n e whose s o u n d pickup device consists of a ribbon that vibrates with the sound pressures within a magnetic field. Also called velocity mic. riser (1) Small platform. (2) The vertical frame that supports the horizontal top of the platform. robotic See robotic pedestal robotic pedestal Motor-driven studio pedestal and m o u n t ing head. It is guided by a computerized system that can store and execute a great n u m b e r of camera moves. Also called robotic. roll (1) Graphics (usually credit copy) that move slowly up the screen; see also crawl. (2) C o m m a n d to start the videotape recorder. rough-cut The first tentative arrangement of shots and shot sequences in the approximate order and length. Done in off-line editing.
refresh rate The n u m b e r of complete digital scanning cycles per second. See frame.
R.P. See rear projection
remote See big remote
r u n d o w n sheet See fact sheet
remote control unit (RCU) (1) The CCU control separate from the C C U itself. (2) A small, portable C C U that is taken into the field with the EFP camera. See also camera control unit (CCU).
running time The duration of a program or program seg ment. Also called program length.
remote survey A preproduction investigation of the loca tion premises and event circumstances. Also called site survey. remote truck The vehicle that carries the p r o g r a m control, the a u d i o c o n t r o l , t h e v i d e o - r e c o r d i n g and i n s t a n t replay control, the technical control, and the transmis sion equipment.
runout signal The recording of a few seconds of black at the end of each videotape recording to keep the screen in black for the video changeover or editing. run-through Rehearsal. S.A. Stands for studio address. Loudspeaker system. See studio talkback. safe area See essential area safe title area See essential area
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Glossary
sampling The process of reading (selecting and recording) from an analog electronic signal a great m a n y equally spaced, tiny p o r t i o n s (values) for conversion into a digital code. saturation The color attribute that describes a color's rich ness or strength. scale Basic m i n i m u m fees for television talent as prescribed by the talent union. scanning The m o v e m e n t of the electron beam from left to right and from top to b o t t o m on the television screen. scanning area Picture area that is scanned by the camera pickup device; in general, the picture area usually seen in the camera viewfinder and the preview monitor. scene Event details that form an organic unit, usually in a single place and time. A series of organically related shots that depict these event details. scenery Background flats and other pieces (windows, doors, pillars) that simulate a specific environment. schedule time See clock time scoop A scooplike television
floodlight.
scrim (1) Lighting: a spun-glass material that is p u t in front of a lighting instrument as an additional light diffuser or intensity reducer. (2) Scenery: loosely woven curtain hanging in front of a cyclorama to diffuse light, p r o d u c ing a soft, uniform background. script Written document that tells what the program is about, who says what, what is supposed to happen, and what and h o w the audience should see and hear the event. script marking
A director's written symbols on a script to
indicate major cues.
major audio
cues in the right (audio) column. Used to describe a show for which the dialogue is indicated b u t not completely written out. sequencing T h e control and s t r u c t u r i n g of a shot series during editing. servo stabilizer Mechanism in certain camera m o u n t s that absorbs wobbles and jitters. servo zoom control Z o o m control that activates m o t o r driven mechanisms. set Arrangement of scenery and properties to indicate the locale and/or m o o d of a show. set light See background light set module Series of flats and three-dimensional set pieces whose dimensions match, whether they are used verti cally, horizontally, or in various combinations. shader See video operator (VO) shading Adjusting picture contrast to the optimal contrast range; controlling the color and the white and black levels. share Percentage of television households t u n e d to a spe cific station in relation to all households using television ( H U T ) ; that is, all households with their sets t u r n e d on. See also rating. shooter An ENG/EFP camera operator. Sometimes called DP (director of photography) in EFP. shot box Box containing various controls for presetting zoom speed and field of view; usually m o u n t e d on the camera p a n n i n g handle. shot list See shot sheet shot sheet A list of every shot a particular camera has to get. It is attached to the camera to help the camera operator r e m e m b e r the shot sequence. Also called shot list.
search (1) In editing, the variable speed control that forwards o r reverses the videotape to the right address (shot). During the search the image remains visible on-screen. (2) T h e systematic e x a m i n a t i o n of i n f o r m a t i o n in a computer database.
shotgun microphone A highly directional m i c r o p h o n e for picking u p sounds from a relatively great distance.
secondary frame effect Visual effect in which the screen shows several images, each of which is clearly contained in its own frame.
show format Lists the show segments in order of appearance. Used in routine shows, such as daily game or interview shows.
S E G (1) Stands for Screen Extras Guild. Trade u n i o n . (2) See special-effects generator.
shrinking The reduction of the total frame to a smaller frame that contains the same picture content.
selective focus Emphasizing an object in a shallow depth of field through focus while keeping its foreground and/or background out of focus.
shuttle Fast-forward and fast-rewind movement of videotape to locate a particular address (shot) on the tape.
semiscripted format Partial script that indicates major video cues in the left (video) column and partial dialogue and
side light Usually directional light coming from the side of an object. Acts as additional fill light or a second key light and provides contour.
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Glossary
signal processing T h e various electronic adjustments or corrections of the video signal to ensure a stable and/ or color-enhanced picture. Usually d o n e with digital equipment. signal-to-noise (S/N) ratio The relation of the strength of the desired signal to the accompanying electronic inter ference (the noise). A high S/N ratio is desirable (strong video or audio signal relative to weak noise). silhouette lighting Unlighted objects or people in front of a brightly illuminated background. single-camera directing Directing a single camera (usu ally a camcorder) in the studio or field for takes that are separately recorded for postproduction. Also called film-style directing. single-source e d i t i n g s y s t e m Basic editing system t h a t has only one source VTR. Also called cuts-only editing system.
snow Electronic picture interference; looks like snow on the television screen. softlight Television floodlight that produces extremely dif fused light. soft w i p e Transition in which the demarcation line between two images is softened so the images blend into each other. solarization A special effect produced by a partial polarity reversal of an image. In a m o n o c h r o m e image, thin black lines are sometimes formed where the positive and nega tive image areas meet. In a color image, the reversal results in a combination of complementary hues. SOT Stands for sound on tape. The videotape is played back with pictures and sound. s o u n d bite Brief p o r t i o n of someone's o n - c a m e r a state ment.
site survey See remote survey
sound perspective Distant sound must go with a long shot, close sound with a close-up.
slander Oral defamation,
source t a p e T h e videotape with the original footage.
slant-track See helical scan
source VTR The videotape recorder that supplies the program segments to be assembled by the record VTR. Also called play VTR.
slate (1) Visual and/or verbal identification of each video taped segment. (2) A small blackboard or whiteboard u p o n which essential production information is written. It is recorded at the beginning of each take. slide fader See fader sliding rod Small steel pipe that supports a lighting instru m e n t and can be moved into various vertical positions. It is a t t a c h e d to t h e l i g h t i n g b a t t e n by a m o d i f i e d C-clamp. slow lens A lens that permits a relatively small a m o u n t of light to pass through at its m a x i m u m aperture (relatively high / - s t o p n u m b e r at its lowest setting). Can be used only in well-lighted areas. slow motion A scene in which the objects appear to be mov ing more slowly than normal. In film, slow m o t i o n is achieved through high-speed photography and n o r m a l playback. In television, slow m o t i o n is achieved by slow ing d o w n the playback speed of the tape, which results in multiple scanning of each television frame. S M P T E / E B U time code Electronic signal recorded on the cue or address track of a videotape or a track of a multitrack audiotape to give each frame a specific address. The time code reader translates this signal into a specific n u m b e r (hour, minutes, seconds, and frames) for each frame. S / N See signal-to-noise ratio
special-effects controls Buttons o n a switcher that regulate special effects. They include b u t t o n s for specific wipe patterns, the joystick positioner, DVE, color, and chromakey controls. special-effects generator (SEG) An image generator built into the switcher that produces special-effects wipe pat terns and key effects. spiking To m a r k on the studio floor with chalk or gaffer's tape critical positions of talent, cameras, or scenery. split intercom See double headset split screen Multi-image effect caused by stopping a direc tional wipe before its completion, each screen portion therefore s h o w i n g a different image w i t h i n its own frame. spotlight A lighting instrument that produces directional, relatively undiffused light with a relatively well-defined b e a m edge. spotlight effect Visual effect that looks like a super of a clearly defined circle of light over a base picture. Used to draw attention to a specific picture area. spreader A triangular base m o u n t that provides stability and locks the tripod tips in place to prevent the legs from spreading.
528
s q u e e z e - z o o m The
Glossary
continuous expansion or shrinking of a
screen image without cropping it. stand-by (1) A warning cue for any kind of action in televi sion production. (2) A b u t t o n on a videotape recorder that activates the rotation of the video heads or head d r u m i n d e p e n d e n t of the actual tape m o t i o n . In the stand-by position, the video heads can come up to speed before the videotape is started.
studio talkback A
public
address
loudspeaker system from
the control r o o m to the studio. Also called S.A. address) or P.A. (public address)
(studio
system.
subjective t i m e The duration we feel. s u b t r a c t i v e p r i m a r y colors M a g e n t a (bluish r e d ) , cyan (greenish blue), a n d yellow. W h e n mixed these colors act as filters, subtracting certain colors. W h e n all three are mixed, they filter out one another a n d produce black.
star filter Filter that attaches to the front of the lens; changes p r o m i n e n t light sources into starlike light beams. Steadicam Camera m o u n t whose built-in springs hold the
super Short for superimposition. A double exposure of two images, with the top one letting the b o t t o m one show through.
camera steady while the operator moves. supply reel Reel that holds film or tape, which it feeds to stick flash See flash m e m o r y device stock shot An image of a c o m m o n o c c u r r e n c e — c l o u d s , storm, traffic, crowds—that can be repeated in a variety of contexts because its qualities are typical. There are stock-shot libraries from which any n u m b e r of such shots can be obtained. stop-motion A slow-motion effect in which one frame j u m p s to the next, showing the object in a different position. See also jogging. storyboard A series of sketches of the key visualization points of an event, with the corresponding audio information. streaming A way of delivering a n d receiving digital audio a n d / o r video as a c o n t i n u o u s data flow t h a t can be listened to or watched while the delivery is in progress. See also downloading. strike To remove certain objects; to break d o w n scenery and remove equipment from the studio floor after the show. striped filter Extremely narrow, vertical stripes of red, green, a n d blue filters attached to the front surface of the single pickup device (single chip). They divide the incoming white light into the three light primaries w i t h o u t the aid of a b e a m splitter. More-efficient filters use a m o saic-like pattern instead of stripes to generate the light primaries. strip light Several self-contained lamps arranged in a strip; used mostly for illumination of the cyclorama or chromakey area. Also called eye light. studio camera High-quality camera and z o o m lens that can not be maneuvered properly without the aid of a pedestal or some other camera m o u n t . studio monitor A video monitor located in the studio, which carries assigned video sources, usually the video of the line-out.
the takeup reel. surround sound Sound that produces a soundfield in front of, to the sides of, a n d b e h i n d the listener by positioning loudspeakers either to the front and rear or to the front, sides, and rear of the listener. S-video See Y/C component system s w e e p (1) Electronic scanning. (2) Curved piece of scenery, similar to a large pillar cut in half. s w e e p reversal Electronic scanning reversal; results in a mirror image (horizontal sweep reversal) or in an upsided o w n image (vertical sweep reversal). sweetening Variety of quality adjustments of recorded sound in postproduction. switcher (1) Technical crew m e m b e r doing the video switch ing (usually the technical director). (2) A panel with rows of buttons that allows the selection a n d assembly of vari ous video sources through a variety of transition devices, a n d the creation of electronic special effects. switching A change from one video source to another during a show or show segment with the aid of a switcher. Also called instantaneous editing. sync generator Part of the camera chain; produces electronic synchronization signal. sync pulses Electronic pulses that synchronize the scanning in the various video origination sources (studio cameras a n d / o r remote cameras) and various recording, process ing, and reproduction sources (videotape, monitors, and television receivers). See also control track. sync roll Vertical rolling of a picture caused by switching a m o n g video sources whose scanning is out of step. Also noticeable o n a bad edit in which the control tracks of the edited shots do n o t match.
529
Glossary
system The interrelationship of various elements and p r o cesses whereby the proper functioning of each element is dependent o n all others. system microphone M i c r o p h o n e consisting of a base u p o n which several heads can be attached that change its sound pickup characteristic. systems design A plan that shows the interrelation of two or m o r e systems. In television p r o d u c t i o n it shows the interrelation of all major production elements as well as the flow (direction) of the production processes. take (1) Signal for a cut from one video source to another. (2) Any one of similar repeated shots taken during video taping and filming. Sometimes take is used synonymously with shot. A good take is the successful completion of a shot, a show segment, or the videotaping of the whole show. A bad take is an unsuccessful recording, requiring another take. take button Same as auto transition. A button on the switcher that activates automatically a specific transition. t a k e u p reel Reel that receives (takes up) film or tape from the supply reel. Must be the same size as the supply reel to maintain proper tension. talent Collective n a m e for all performers and actors who appear regularly on television. tally light Red light on the camera and/or inside the viewfinder, indicating when the camera is on the air. t a p e - b a s e d v i d e o recorder All video recorders (analog and digital) that record or store information o n videotape. All tape-based systems are linear. t a p e cassette See cassette tapeless system Refers to the recording, storage, and play back of audio and video information via c o m p u t e r stor age devices rather than videotape. target audience The audience selected or desired to receive a specific message. T B C See time base corrector TD Stands for technical director. technical p r o d u c t i o n personnel People w h o operate the p r o d u c t i o n e q u i p m e n t . Also called below-the-line personnel. telephoto lens See narrow-angle lens teleprompter A p r o m p t i n g device that projects the moving (usually computer-generated) copy over the lens so that the talent can read it without losing eye contact with the viewer. Also called auto cue.
television system Equipment and people who operate the equipment for the production of specific programs. The basic television system consists of a television camera and a m i c r o p h o n e that convert pictures and sound into electrical signals, and a television set and a loudspeaker that convert the signals back into pictures and sound. test tone A tone generated by the audio console to indicate a 0 V U volume level. The 0 VU test tone is recorded with the color bars to give a standard for the recording level. t h e m e (1) W h a t the story is all about; its essential idea. (2) The opening and closing music in a show. TH (tungsten-halogen) lamp See quartz threefold Three flats hinged together. three-shot Framing of three people. tilt To point the camera u p or down. t i m e base corrector (TBC) Electronic accessory to a video recorder that helps make playbacks or transfers electroni cally stable. t i m e c o d e Gives each television frame a specific address (number that shows hours, minutes, seconds, and frames of elapsed tape). It is frame-accurate. See also SMPTE/ EBU time code. t i m e compressor I n s t r u m e n t that allows a recorded video tape to be replayed faster or m o r e slowly without altering the original audio pitch. t i m e cues Cues to the talent about the time remaining in the show. t i m e l i n e (1) Production: a breakdown of time blocks for vari ous activities o n the actual production day, such as crew call, setup, and camera rehearsal. (2) Nonlinear editing: shows all video and audio tracks of a sequence and the clips they contain. Each track has individual controls for displaying a n d manipulating the clips. t o n g u e To move the b o o m or jib a r m with the camera from left to right or right to left. track Another n a m e for truck (lateral camera m o v e m e n t ) . tracking (1) An electronic adjustment of the video heads so that in the playback phase they match the recording phase of the tape. It prevents picture breakup and misalignment, especially in tapes that have been recorded on a machine other than the one used for playback. (2) Another name for truck (lateral camera m o v e m e n t ) . transponder A satellite's own receiver and transmitter. t r e a t m e n t Brief n a r r a t i v e d e s c r i p t i o n of a t e l e v i s i o n program.
530
Glossary
t r i a n g l e l i g h t i n g Sec photographic lighting principle
v e l o c i t y m i c Sec ribbon microphone
triaxial cable Thin camera cable in which one central wire
vertical blanking The return of the electron beam to the top of the screen after each cycle of the basic scanning process.
is s u r r o u n d e d by two concentric shields. trim ( 1 ) Audio: to adjust the signal strength of mic or line inputs. (2) Video: to lengthen or shorten a shot by a few frames d u r i n g editing; also to s h o r t e n a v i d e o taped story. tripod A three-legged camera m o u n t . Can be connected to a dolly for easy maneuverability.
vertical key light position The relative distance of the key light from the studio floor, specifically with respect to whether it is above or below the eye level of the per former. N o t to be confused with high- and low-key light ing, which refer to the relative brightness and contrast of the overall scene.
tripod b o o m See giraffe b o o m
VHS
truck To move the camera laterally by means of a mobile camera m o u n t . Also called track. trunk Central cable in a distribution device. Section of cable television distribution system through which signals are sent and to which the feeders are connected. t u n g s t e n - h a l o g e n (TH) The kind of l a m p filament used in quartz lights. T h e tungsten is the filament itself; the halogen is a gaslike substance surrounding the filament enclosed in a quartz housing. See also q u a r t z . t w o f o l d Two flats hinged together. Also called book. two-shot Framing of two people. unbalanced mic or line Nonprofessional microphones that have as output two wires: one that carries the audio signal and the other acting as ground. Susceptible to h u m a n d electronic interference. unidirectional Pickup pattern in which the m i c r o p h o n e can pick u p sounds better from the front than from the sides or back. uplink Earth station transmitter used to send video and audio signals to a satellite. uplink truck A small truck that sends video and audio signals to a satellite.
Stands for video home system. A c o n s u m e r - o r i e n t e d Vi-inch VTR system. Used extensively in all phases of television production for previewing and off-line editing.
v i d e o (1) P i c t u r e p o r t i o n of a t e l e v i s i o n (2) Nonbroadcast p r o d u c t i o n activities.
program.
v i d e o c a s s e t t e A plastic c o n t a i n e r in w h i c h a v i d e o t a p e moves from a supply reel to a takeup reel, recording a n d playing back p r o g r a m segments t h r o u g h a videotape recorder. v i d e o leader Visual material a n d a control tone recorded ahead of the p r o g r a m material. Serves as a technical guide for playback. video operator (VO) In charge of initial camera setup (whitebalancing the camera and keeping the brightness contrast within tolerable limits) and for picture control during the p r o d u c t i o n . Also called shader. v i d e o recorder (VR) Can be a videotape recorder or a digital disk-based recording device. v i d e o t a p e recorder (VTR) Electronic recording device that records video and audio signals on videotape for later playback or postproduction editing. v i d e o t a p e tracks Most videotape systems have a video track, two or m o r e audio tracks, a control track, and sometimes a separate time code track.
variable-focal-length lens See z o o m lens
v i d e o track The area of the videotape used for recording the picture information.
vector Refers to a force with a direction. Graphic vectors suggest a direction through lines or a series of objects that form a line. Index vectors point unquestionably in a specific direction, such as an arrow. Motion vectors are created by an object or a screen image in m o t i o n .
viewfinder Generally means electronic viewfinder (in con trast to the optical viewfinder in a film or still camera); a small television set that displays the picture as generated by the camera.
vector line A d o m i n a n t direction established by two people facing each other or through a prominent movement in a specific direction. Also called the line, the line of conversa tion and action, or the hundredeighty. vector scope A test instrument for adjusting color in televi sion cameras.
visualization Mentally converting a scene into a n u m b e r of key television images, not necessarily in sequence. T h e mental image of a shot. VO
See video o p e r a t o r
v o l u m e T h e relative i n t e n s i t y of the s o u n d ; its relative loudness.
531
Glossary
v o l u m e unit (VU) meter Measures volume units, the relative loudness of amplified sound. V R See video recorder VTR See videotape recorder VTR log A list of all takes o n the source videotapes compiled during the screening (logging) of the source material. It lists all takes—both good (acceptable) and no good (un acceptable)—in consecutive order by time code address. Often d o n e with c o m p u t e r i z e d logging p r o g r a m s . A vector column facilitates shot selection. See also field log. V U meter See volume unit meter W Watt. w a g o n A platform with casters, which can be moved about the studio. waist shot See m e d i u m shot w a l k - t h r o u g h O r i e n t a t i o n session with t h e p r o d u c t i o n crew (technical walkthrough) and the talent (talent walk through) wherein the director walks through the set and explains the key actions. w a v e f o r m monitor Electronic measuring device showing a graph of an electrical signal on a small CRT (cathode-ray tube) screen. Also called oscilloscope. w e d g e mount Wedge-shaped plate attached to the b o t t o m of a studio camera; used to attach the heavier cameras to the cam head. w h i t e balance The adjustments of the color circuits in the camera to produce a white color in lighting of various color temperatures (relative reddishness or bluishness of white light). w i d e - a n g l e lens A short-focal-length lens that provides a broad vista of a scene. w i n d o w dub A " b u m p e d - d o w n " copy of all source tapes that has the time code keyed over each frame. windscreen Material (usually foam rubber) that covers the m i c r o p h o n e head or the entire m i c r o p h o n e to reduce wind noise. w i p e Transition in which a second image, framed in some geometric shape, gradually replaces all or part of the first image.
wireless microphone A system that transmits audio signals over the air rather t h a n through m i c r o p h o n e cables. The mic is attached to a small transmitter, and the signals are received by a small receiver connected to the audio con sole or recording device. Also called RF (radio frequency) mic or radio mic. w o r k p r i n t (1) A d u b of the original videotape recording for viewing or off-line editing. (2) In film a d u b of the original footage for doing a rough-cut. w o w Sound distortions caused by a slow start or variations in speed of an audiotape. X L R c o n n e c t o r T h r e e - w i r e audio c o n n e c t o r used for all balanced audio cables. X / S See cross-shot Y channel See luminance channel Y / C c o m p o n e n t s y s t e m Analog v i d e o - r e c o r d i n g system wherein the luminance (Y) and chrominance (C) signals are kept separate during signal encoding and transport b u t are combined and occupy the same track when actu ally laid d o w n on videotape. The Y/C c o m p o n e n t signal is transported via two wires. Also called S-video. Y / c o l o r difference c o m p o n e n t s y s t e m V i d e o - r e c o r d i n g system in which three signals—the luminance (Y) signal, the red signal m i n u s its luminance (R-Y) signal, and the blue signal minus its luminance (B-Y)—are kept separate t h r o u g h o u t the recording and storage process. Y signal See luminance z-axis Line representing an extension of the lens from the camera to the h o r i z o n — t h e depth dimension. zone lighting See continuous-action lighting zoom To change the lens gradually to a narrow-angle position (zoom-in) or to a wide-angle position (zoom-out) while the camera remains stationary. z o o m lens A variable-focal-length lens. It can gradually change from a wide shot to a close-up and vice versa in o n e continuous move. zoom range T h e degree to which the focal length can be changed from a wide shot to a close-up during a zoom. The zoom range is often stated as a ratio; a 20:1 zoom ratio means that the zoom lens can increase its shortest focal length twenty times.
Selected Reading
Alten, Stanley R. Audio in Media, 7th ed. Belmont, Calif.: T h o m s o n Wadsworth, 2005. [Audio] Alton, John. Painting with Light. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995. [Classic on photographic lighting] Barr, Tony. Acting for the Camera, rev. ed. New York: Harper Collins, 1997. [Talent, directing] Begleiter, Marcie. From Word to Image. Studio City, Calif.: Michael Wiese Productions, 2001. [Visualizing and storyboarding shots] Burrows, T h o m a s D., Lynne S. Gross, James Foust, and Donald N . Wood. Video
Production:
Disciplines and Techniques, 8th ed. Boston: McGraw-Hill, 2001. [Production techniques, general] Button, Bryce. Nonlinear Editing. Lawrence, Kan.: CMP Books, 2002. [Emphasis on editing aesthetics; includes CD-ROM] Compesi, Ronald J. Video Field Production and Editing, 6th ed. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 2003. [ENG/EFP, editing] Donald, Ralph, and Thomas Spann. Fundamentals
of Television Production. Ames, Iowa:
Iowa State University Press, 2000. [General television production techniques] Gross, Lynne S., and Larry W. Ward. Digital Moviemaking.
Belmont, Calif.: T h o m s o n
Wadsworth, 2004. [EFP, editing] Hausman, Carl, Lewis B. O'Donnell, and Philip Benoit. Announcing: Communicating
Broadcast
Today, 5th ed. Belmont, Calif.: T h o m s o n Wadsworth, 2004. [Radio
and television announcing] Hickman, Harold R. Television Directing. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1991. [Still one of the better books on multicamera directing] Hyde, Stuart W. Idea to Script: Storytelling for Today's Media. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 2003. [Writing as a consequence of psychological needs and desires] . Television and Radio Announcing, [Talent, announcing]
532
10th ed. Boston: H o u g h t o n Mifflin, 2004.
Selected
Reading
Katz, Steven D. Film Directing Shot by Shot. Studio City, Calif.: Michael Wiese Productions, 1991. [Single-camera directing] Lowell, Ross. Matters of Light and Depth. Philadelphia: Broad Street Books, 1992. [All you need to know about lighting] Luther, Arch, and Andrew Inglis. Video Engineering, 3rd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1999. [Technical information on analog and digital video] Millerson, Gerald. The Technique of Television Production, 13th ed. Boston: Focal Press, 1999. [Production techniques, general] . Lighting for Television and Film, 3rd ed. Boston: Focal Press, 1999. [Lighting] Musburger, Robert. Single Camera Video Production, 3rd ed. Boston: Focal Press, 2002. [Single-camera production techniques] Olson, Robert. Art Direction for Film and Video, 2nd ed. Boston: Focal Press, 1999. [Scene design] Overbeck, Wayne G. Major Principles of Media Law. Belmont, Calif.: Wadsworth, 2005. [Media law] Pogue, David. iMovie4 and iDVD: The Missing Manual. Sebastopol, Calif.: Pogue Press/ O'Reilly, 2004. [Specific guide to Apple iMovie and iDVD b u t valid for all nonlinear editing] Rabiger, Michael. Directing: Film Techniques and Aesthetics, 3rd ed. Boston: Focal Press, 2003. [Directing] Simon, Mark. Storyboards: Motion in Art, 2nd ed. Boston: Focal Press, 2000. [Visualizing, drawing storyboards] T h o m p s o n , Roy. Grammar of the Edit. Boston: Focal Press, 1993. [Basic editing principles] Weise, Marcus, and Diana Waynand. How Video Works. Boston: Focal Press, 2004. [Explanation of how analog and digital video signals are recorded and manipulated] Weston, Judith. Directing Actors. Studio City, Calif.: Michael Wiese Productions, 1996. [Film and video acting and directing] . The Film Director's Intuition: Script Analysis and Rehearsal Techniques. Studio City, Calif.: Michael Wiese Productions, 2003. [How to get from script to screen creatively and effectively] Zettl, Herbert. Video Basics 4. Belmont, Calif.: T h o m s o n Wadsworth, 2004. [Production techniques, general] . Sight Sound Motion, 4th ed. Belmont, Calif.: T h o m s o n Wadsworth, 2005. [Lighting and color, 4 x 3 and 1 6 x 9 composition, time, editing and montage, and various sound structures] . Zefrf's Video Lab 3.0. Belmont, Calif.: T h o m s o n Wadsworth, 2004. Interactive multimedia D V D - R O M (Macintosh and Windows platforms). [Major video production techniques: camera, lights, audio, switching, editing, and process]
533
Index
480i system, 47 480p system, 38, 39, 47 720p system, 38-39, 47, 66 720p/30 system, 50 1080i system, 39,47, 50
AFTRA (American Federation of Television and Radio Artists), 409
Arc camera movement, 82, 96-97
AGC (automatic gain control), 111, 233
Artifacts, 33, 50, 56, 152
Air-conditioning, in studio, 19 AKG Dl 12 microphone, 213
AB-roll editing, 291, 295, 297
Aliasing, 352
AB rolling, 295-297
Ambience, 240
Above-the-line
Ambient sounds, 111, 208, 215-216, 239, 240, 301, 317
budget, 397 personnel, 368, 371 Acoustic guitar, microphone setups for, 214, 215 Acoustics, in studios, 19 Acting, techniques, 382-384 Action radius, 196 Active lines, on TV screen, 36 Actors, 369, 373
American Federation of Musicians of the United States and Canada (AFM), 409
Ampere, 186
Assignment editor, 373 Assistant chief engineer, 372
and director, 383, 384 and memorizing lines, 383-384
Analog editing system, 26
Adapters, 107, 186 Additive color mixing, 64-65, 154 Address code, 281 ADR (automatic dialogue re placement), 238-239, 294 Aesthetic compression, and narrow-angle lens, 85-86 AFM (American Federation of Musicians of the United States and Canada), 409
534
346-348 switching between, 51, 63-64
Analog, versus digital, 28, 30-35
Analog audio synchronizer, 238
AD (associate director), 20, 369, 371
Aspect ratios, 34-35 and framing shots, 116-119 for HDTV, 34-35, 82, 123-124, 344-345, 346-348 matching STV and HDTV, 346-348 out-of-aspect-ratio graphics, 346-347 and screen motion, 123-124 for STV, 34-35, 344-345,
Assemble editing, 294-295
Analog audio editing, 235-236
and rehearsals, 456 and timing, 384
Art director, 368, 370, 371
American Federation of Television and Radio Artists (AFTRA), 409
and audience, 383 and auditions, 384-385 and blocking, 383
and postproduction, 384 and props, 383
Apple iPod, 229
cameras, 46-47
Analog recording systems, 225-227, 262
traditional, 34-35, 123-124
pickup and microphones, 191-192,211-213 postproduction, 12, 234, 235-239 sweetening, 234, 305, 307 synchronizing, 238 transcribing, 236 volume control, 221, 231 See also Sound Audio connectors, 60 Audio console, 12, 220-224 computer-assisted, 223-224 in-line, 223 input, 220-221 mix, 12, 221 module, 220-221 monitor and cue, 223 output, 222-223 phantom power, 223 quality control, 221-222 volume control, 221
Associate or assistant director (AD), 20, 369,371,430
Audio control booth, 22, 229-230
Associate producer (AP), 369, 371
Audio cues, director's, 380, 452
ATR (audiotape recorder), 223
Audio dub control (VTR), 268
Attenuator, 221
Audio engineer, 22
Audience
Audio controls, 5, 268
Audio-follow-video switchers, 258
Analog video effects, 322-329
actor and, 383 feedback, 405 ratings and, 410-411 share, 410-411
Audio monitor, 5, 62
Analog video track, 266-267
target, 395,410
Audio patchboard, 22
Analog signal, 30, 31, 46 Analog switcher, 258
Analog videotape recording, 262, 269-270 and digitization, 30-32 Anchor, news, 373 Animation of titles, 349 Announcer, 369 Anti-aliasing, 30 AP (associate producer), 369, 371 Aperture, lens, 75, 78 depth of field and, 78
Audio, 10-12 balance, 201 calibration, 230-231 compression, 12 correcting problems with, 236 editing, 235-236 and environment, 239, 301 interference, 203 level, 375 mixing, 290 performer and, 375
Audio level control, 62, 111 Audio mixer, 5, 1 1, 233, 290
Audio pool, 206 Audio postproduction room, 237 Audio-recording systems, 225 Audio signal, 4 Audio slate, 227, 281 Audio system, 5 calibration of, 230-231 Audio technician, 371, 372 Audio tracks, 267 Audiocassette recorder, 226-227
Index
535
Audiotape recorder (ATR), 223
Bending the needle, 222
Broad, 132, 161, 167
Audio/video synchronizing, 238, 272, 294, 307
Betacam cameras, (Sony), 13, 14, 46
Broadband transmission, 33, 503
Auditions, 384-385 Auto cue, 381
Betacam SP recording system, 262, 269-270
Auto-focus, 48, 74, 80-81, 111
Betacam SX recording system,
Auto-iris, 48, 76, 77, 179 Auto key tracking, 327 Auto transition device, 250, 328 Automatic dialogue replacement (ADR), 238-239, 294 Automatic gain control (AGC), 111,233 Automatic moisture shutdown, VTR, 269
B-roll, 291 Backlight, 145, 161, 162, 163, 167, 174, 326 window as, 180-182 Back-timing, 467-468 Background bus, 246 Background color, 253 Background dressing, 363-364 Background light, 161, 163-164, 184 Backing up recordings, 307 Backplate, microphone, 209
271,272 Beyerdynamic M58 microphone, 212 Beyerdynamic M160 micro phone, 212, 214, 215 Beyerdynamic M500 micro phone, 212, 215 Big boom, 200-201 Big remotes, 7, 85, 477-486 and chroma keying, 327 communication systems for, 499-500 equipment setup and opera tion, 480-485 postshow activities, 485 preproduction, 478-480 production, 480-486 sporting events, 85, 487-495 technical walk-through for, 457 truck for, 478-479
Budget, production, 397-401 above- and below-the-line, 397 tentative, 397 tripart, 397-400 Bump down, bump up, 293, 301 Bumpers, 330 Buses, switcher, 244-248 background, 246 direct, 244 effects, 246 key, 246, 247 mix, 221, 245 mix/effects (M/E), 246-248 preset, 245, 249 preview, 245-246 preview/preset, 246, 247 program, 244-245,246,247,249 Bust shot, 115-116
C-band frequency, 501 C channel, 65 C-damp, 142, 176
lenses for, 8, 48, 50 operating techniques for, 90, 108-111 panning, 109 and prism block, 42, 44 professional, 49-50 prosumer, 50, 52, 59, 72, 79, 102,274 and sound recording, 11 as studio camera, 48, 49 tapeless, 48 tripod for, 9 and viewfinder, 108 and white-balancing, 52 working the, 106-112 zoom range on, 70, 72 Cameo lighting, 169-170 Camera, 8-9. See also Lens; Television camera batteries, 50-60 cables, 46, 57-58, 60 care of, 106-107 positions, and vector line, 315-316 robotic, 9, 22 subjective, 437
C signal, 45, 66
Camera/bars selection switch, 62
Bin, 307, 437
Cable distribution, 503-504
Camera chain, 45-46
Binary code, 28, 33
Cable guards for dolly, 92, 93, 113
Binary digit, 28-30
Cable puller, 111
Camera control unit (CCU), 4, 5, 6, 23,45-46, 49, 55, 76, 112
Bit, 28-30
Cable television system, 504
Camera head, 45
Balanced microphone or line, 210-214
Black, fade to, 251,252
Camera lights, 139-140
Ballast, for HMI lamp, 153
Black level, 173
Cables, 58, 60, 107, 113, 476 camera, 46, 57-58, 60 coax, 503 extension cords, 186 fiber-optic, 58, 503 microphone, 210, 214 multicore, 58 taping, 204 triaxial (triax), 58 Calibration
Bandwidth, 36
Blacking, 278
Barndoor, 132, 136, 144-145, 162, 164, 172, 176 attaching color gels to, 154 attaching scrim to, 138-139 Bars and tone, 279 Baseball remote setup, 488
Blackout, 147
Baselight level, 55, 130, 150, 152-153 Basic television system, 4, 5 Basketball remote setup, 491 Battens, counterweight, 176 Batteries for camcorders, 59-60, 106, 107, 112 for cameras, 50-60
Blanking, horizontal and verti cal, 36 Blocking, 167,374, 383,456 Blocking map, 383 Blocking rehearsal, 456 BNC connector, 60 Book (twofold), 355 Boom microphones, 170, 172, 194, 197-201,240 how to use, 201, 375 Boom movement, 96-97 Boom shadow, controlling, 172 Bounce effect, 333-334
Beam, light, 146-147
Boundary microphone, 203-204, 206,207
Beam splitter, RGB, 42-44, 74
Box wipe, 328
Beanbag mount, 98, 99
Boxing remote setup, 493
Below-the-line budget, 397 personnel, 368, 371, 409
Brainstorming, 392-393
for lighting, 186
Brightness, color, 64, 65, 66, 253, 263, 350
of audio system, 230-231 of zoom lens, 75, 111, 112, 113, 230 Cam head, 95 Camcorder, 4,48-50, 274 audio systems on, 50 and auto-iris, 48, 76, 77 batteries, 106 camera mounts for, 98-99 consumer, 42, 48-50, 52, 70, 71, 72, 76, 79, 81, 94 ENG/EFP, 8-9, 48, 76, 102 focus control on, 80 HDV, 50 holding, 108 and high-capacity hard drive, 14 and interpolation, 71
Camera mounting equipment, 8, 9, 90-102 beanbag, 98, 99 cam heads, 94-95 camera mounting heads, 94-95 fluid heads, 94 handheld camera, 90, 108-110 high hat, 98, 99 jibs, 100, 101 leveling ball and bowl, 92, 94 monopod, 90-91 portable pedestal, 94 quick-release plate, 95 rail system, 102 robotic pedestals, 100-102 shoulder-mounted camera, 90, 110 Steadicam, 98-99 studio crane, 100, 101 studio pedestal, 8, 92-94, 113 tripod, 91-92 wedge mount, 95 Camera movements, 95-96 Camera operator, 371, 372 Camera rehearsal, 456-458, 460 Camera switching, 374
536
Index
Camera-to-object distance, depth of field and, 78
Clipping, 173
Color bars, 279, 295
Clock, 21-22
Canting effect, 96-97
Clock time
Color gels (media), 153-154, 170, 181,326
Capacitor microphone, 209
controlling, 467-468
Capture, 279, 298-299
converting frames into, 468
Cardioid microphone, 191, 206, 211-213 Cart system, digital, 228 Cassette, analog and DAT, 227 Cathode ray tube (CRT), 38 CCD (charge-coupled device), 7, 42-43, 48, 50, 53, 55, 56, 57, 63-64, 72 CCD process, 63-64 CCU (camera control unit), 4, 5, 6,23,45-46, 49,55, 76, 112 CD (compact disc), 14, 223, 229, 274 CD-ROM (compact disc-read only memory), 14 CD-RW (compact disc-read/ write), 14 C.G. operator, 371, 372 Character-generated slate, 280 Character generator (C.G), 4, 16-17,22,244, 280, 290, 322, 345 Character generator (C.G.) operator, 371, 372 Charge-coupled device (CCD), 7, 42-43, 48, 50, 53, 55, 56, 57, 63-64, 72 Chief engineer, 372 Chinese lantern, 137-138 Chip (charge-coupled device), 7, 42-43, 63 Chroma-key backdrop, 358 Chroma keying, 133, 170-171, 324-327 and big remotes, 327 and set pieces, 359 and talent clothing, 324, 388 Chrominance, 45, 63, 64, 65 and analog composite system, 263 and Y/C component system, 264 Chrominance channel, 65 Circle wipe, 328 Circuits, determining require ments, 186 Clarification, through cut, 309 Clip, 299, 304 Clip control, 252, 323 Clip light, 136 Clipper, 252, 323
Close-up (CU) shot, 123
Color television, image forma tion for, 28 Communication satellites, 501-503
Continuity color, 316-317 editing for, 312-317 and mental map, 312-313 movement, 314-316 and script breakdown, 466 sound, 240, 317 visual, 240
and aspect ratio, 35, 118 and cutaways, 466 and depth of field, 78 extreme, 113 framing, 115-116, 117-118 lighting for, 180-182 makeup and, 388 performer and, 374 and sound, 239 and wide-angle lens, 92
Complexity editing, 317
Control room. See Studio control room
and zoom lens, 73-74
Component switcher, 258
Control room directing, 419
Component video-recording
Control tone, 230
Closure, 120-123 Clothing for auditions, 384 and chroma keying, 324, 388 and color, 173 and lavaliere mics, 195 performers', 388-389 Clustering, for generating ideas, 393 CMOS chip, 50, 63 CNN logo, 342-343 Coax cable, 503 Coding, in digitization, 30-32 Collimated light, 152 Color additive mixing of, 64-65, 154 aesthetics of, 351-352 attributes of, 64, 350 background, 253 bleeding, 352 brightness, 64, 65, 66, 253,
Communication systems, field, 499-500
Continuous-action lighting, 166-167
Compact disc (CD), 12, 14, 223, 229, 274
Contrast, 57, 65-66, 185
Compact disc-read-only memory (CD-ROM), 14
Contrast ratio, 57, 151, 169, 172-173 measuring, 173
Compact disc-read/write (CD-RW), 14
system, 264
Control track, 267, 278
Component video signal, 66
Control track editing, 291-293
Composite switcher, 256-258 Composite video-recording system, 263
Control track system, 291
Composite video signal, 66 Compression, aesthetic, and narrow-angle lens, 85-86 Compression, audio, 12 Compression of digital data, 34, 265-266 interframe and intraframe, 265-266, 299 JPEG and MPEG-2 standards for, 265-266, 273, 275, 299 lossless and lossy, 34, 265-266, 299 and nonlinear editing, 299
Control track pulse, 291
Cookie projection, 130, 163, 337,358 Copyright clearance, 409 Corner wipe, 328 Costume designer, 370 Costumes, 389 Counterweight battens, 141 Counterweight rail, 141-142 Crab steering position, 93, 96 Crane movement, 96-97 Crawl, 381 Crew, 370
Computer, as editing system, 290
Crew call, 459
Computer-assisted
Cross-fade, 310
263, 350 clothing and, 388-389 compatibility, 351 continuity editing and, 316-317 distortion, 168, 169 high- and low-energy, 351-352 hue, 64, 253, 350 image formation for, 28, 30 luminance, 45, 63, 64, 65, 253,
audio console, 223-224 edit controller, 287, 290 facilities request, 402-403 logging, 304, 305, 306 patching, 148, 225 scheduling, 416 storyboards, 440, 442 Computer disks, for audio recording, 14
Cross-keying, 167, 181
263, 350 makeup and, 387-388 mixing, 64-65 and RGB, 28, 30 saturation, 64, 253, 350,
Condenser microphones, 195, 209, 223
351-352 television graphics and, 350-352 temperature, 132, 158-160 and white balancing, 51-52
Computer-manipulated DVE, 330-336
Connectors, 58, 60, 107, 476 audio, 60 video, 60
Cross-shot (X/S), 115-116, 383 CRT (cathode ray tube), 38 Cube spin effect, 335 Cucoloris, 130, 337 Cue cards, 380-381, 384 Cues audio, 380, 452 directional, 379 director's, 446-454 floor manager's, 376-380 sequencing, 450 special-effects, 451 time, 377-378 visualization, 447-449 VTR, 453
Contact person, on remotes, 480, 485
Cue-send, 215
Context, editing for, 317-318
Curtains, scenery, 358
537
Index
Cut or take, 244, 248-249, 309 jump cut, 312, 317 soft cut, 309 Cut (stop action), 458
Diffusing spotlights, 138-139 Diffusion filter, 139, 184, 338-339 Diffusion tent, 10, 137, 139, 140 Diffusion umbrella, 139
Cutaway shots, 300-301, 312-313,316, 466
Digital audio console, 224
Cuts-only editing system, 288,290
Digital audio workstation (DAW), 237-238
Cyc light, 132-133, 163 Cyclorama (cyc), 130, 132, 357-358
DAT (digital audiotape recorder), 12, 227-228 Data transfer, 274-275 Database for news files, 26 of production personnel, 401-402,416 DAW (digital audio workstation), 237-238 dB (decibels), 55 DBS (direct broadcast satellite), 501
Digital audiotape recorder (DAT), 12, 227-228 Digital Betacam SX, 14, 272 Digital camcorder, 26, 48, 50-51, 56, 275, 278, 299 Digital cart system, 228 Digital computer disk, 12
writing, 401
Dolly in, out, 96-97
Downstream keyer (DSK),
Digital-S videotape recorder system, 14 Digital signal, versus analog, 28, 30-31
(DTRS), 227 Digital television (DTV), 26-38 480i system, 47 480p system, 38, 39, 47 720p system, 38-39, 47, 66 720p/30 system, 50 1080i system, 39, 47, 50 and aspect ratio, 34-35 benefits of, 32-35 and color, 28, 30 compared with analog, 28, 30-35 compression of signal, 34 and computers, 33, 34 image creation in, 28 and process of digitization, 30-32 quality of, 32—33 resolution, by format, 38-39 and signal transport, 33—34 and special effects, 33 systems for, 37-38 Digital versatile disc (DVD), 14, 223, 229, 274 for archiving, 276 Digital versatile disc-read-only memory (DVD-ROM), 14
Diaphragm, microphone, 209
Digital versatile disc-read/write
Diffused light, 9, 10, 158, 161, 170
Dolly, 82, 83, 86, 92, 113
Dip to black, 310
Direct input, 215
Diamond wipe, 328 Dichroic filter, 183
Dimmer control board, 20
scripts for, 419, 420
Digital rendering, 353
Digital tape recording system
Dialogue automatic replacement of, 238-239
Dolby surround sound, 241
Direct bus, 244
Digital switcher, 256, 258
DGA (Directors Guild of America), 409
Documentaries lighting for, 9
Dimmer, 147-148 and color temperature, 148 computer-assisted, 147
Digital recording systems, 262
Defocus effect, 339
Design of scenery and props, 355-365 of television graphics, 344-354 Desk microphone, 203-205, 211-213 how to use, 204-205, 232, 375
Digitization process, 30-32
Digital graphic artist, 372
Digital subscriber line (DSL), 33
wide-angle lens and, 84
Diversity reception, 202
Double-muff headset, 453
Decoding compressed data, 34
and focal length, 77-78 great, 77 narrow-angle lens and, 86-87 normal lens and, 84-85 shallow, 77
wide-angle lens and, 82-83
Digital zooming, 70-71, 80
Downlinks, satellite, 502-503
Digital storage devices, 274, 275
Demographics, audience, 395,410 Density of an event, 469 Depth of field, 55, 76-78, 123 and camera-to-object distance, 78
Digital videotape recording, 262
Dissolves, 245, 246, 249-251, 309 Distortion, distance narrow-angle lens and, 85 normal lens and, 84
Direct broadcast satellite (DBS), 501
Digital editing systems, 26
Decibels, 55
247-248
Digital videotape recorders, 267, 270-273
Disk-based video recorder, 263, 287, 307
Direct box, 210
Dead zones, 348
Delegation controls, 246,
Digital video effects (DVE), 33, 258,298,326,329-336 computer-manipulated, 330-336
(DVD-RW), 14 Digital video (DV) system, 49
Direct insertion, 215 Directing big remotes, 480-484 from control room, 461-463 from the floor, 463 multicamera, 446-455 on-the-air telecast, 484 rehearsals, 430, 455-461 show, 461-463 single-camera, 464—466
Downloading files, 33 252-253, 323 DP (director of photography), 368, 372, 477 Dramas microphones for, 194 script for, 416, 417 script marking for, 426 Drapes, scenery, 358 Dress rehearsals, 457-458 Dressing rooms, 25 Drop frame mode, 294
Directional controls for light, 144-149 Directional cues, 379
Drop lines, 503 Drop-shadow mode, 323-325
Directional light, 9,158
Drops, 358
Directional microphone, 196
Dry run rehearsal, 456
Director, 20, 368, 369, 371 and audio mixing, 232
DSK (downstream keyer), 252-253, 323
and controlling time, 467-469
DSL (digital subscriber line), 33
cues to floor manager, 454
DTRS (digital tape recording system), 227
cues to production team, 446-453 and editing, 467 and intercom system, 19, 483-484 and performers, 375, 383 postproduction activities of, 466-467 preproduction activities of, 413-442 relationship with actors, 384 roles of, 114,414-415 support staff for, 429-430 terminology, 446-450 timing devices for, 21—22 Director of photography (DP), 368, 372, 477 Directors Guild of America (DGA), 409
DTV. See Digital television Dual-redundancy microphone system, 195, 204 Dub down, 293 Dubbing audio, 12 of dialogue, 238-239 and DTV, 33 and quality loss, 345 sounds, 12 window, 301-302 DV VTR system, 271-272 DVCAM (Sony), 13, 14, 48, 267, 271, 272 DVCPRO (Panasonic), 13, 14, 48, 66, 267, 271, 272 DVD. See Digital versatile disc
538
DVD-ROM (digital versatile disc read-only memory), 14 DVD-RW (digital versatile disc-read/write), 14
Index
single-source system, 288-290 sound, 216, 235-236 split, 295 transition devices for, 309-310
DVE. See Digital video effects
transitions, adding, 305
Dynamic microphones, 195-196, 209
with switcher, 242-258 time code, 293-294 video to audio, 236
Earphones, 198 EBU (European Broadcasting Union), 293 Echo effect, 335-336 Edge mode, 323-325 Edit controller, 15, 235, 288-289, 290, 292, 293 Edit decision list (EDL), 15, 286-287, 297, 298, 304-305, 299 computer-generated, 299, 304, 305, 306 paper-and-pencil, 304-305 Edit master tape, 235, 278, 288, 295, 306 Edit points, 288 Edit VTR, 288 Editing, 304-307 AB-roll, 295, 297 AB rolling, 295-297 assemble, 294-295 audio, 235-236 complexity, 317 and context, 317-318 continuity, 312-317 control track, 291-293 and director, 467 ethics and, 318 functions, 308-309 insert, 235, 295, 307 instantaneous, 12, 242-258 laptop, 288-289 linear, 15, 279, 284, 286-287, 288-297 multiple-source systems for, 290-291 to music, 317 nonlinear, 15-16, 263, 273, 279, 284, 287-288, 297-304,312 off-line and on-line, 286-287 paper-and-pencil, 467 portable editor, 288-289 postproduction, 14-16, 154, 276,284-318,405, 427 pre-editing, 291, 300-304 principle, 287-288 pulse-count, 291-293 shot selection, 304 shot sequencing, 300, 305, 310-312
Editing control unit, 15 EDL. See Edit decision list Effect-to-cause model, 393-395, 431
audio production for, 232-234, 239 cameras for, 46, 48, 49 communication systems for, 499 and cutaways, 301 editing, 301, 304, 308 equipment checklist, 277-278 fieldpacks for, 274 lighting for, 9, 133-140 microphones for, 194, 195, 196, 197,201,202, 205, 215-216
shutter speed on, 62 sound and audio controls, 62 standby switch for, 62 Steadicam mount for, 98-99 in studio configurations, 48-49 viewfinder for, 60-62 VTR controls, 62 VTR switch on, 62 white balance in, 61, 62, 110 working the, 106-112 zoom lens on, 70-72, 78, 84, 86, 111
Effects buses, 246
prompter for, 382
Engineering staff, 370, 371, 372
EFP. See Electronic field production
sound recording in, 11, 239
Environment, sound recordings
van for, 473
and, 239, 301
Egg crate, 132
Electronic shutter, 56
Electret condenser microphone, 209
Electronic still store (ESS) sys tems, 246, 274, 287, 326
Equalization, 222 Equipment checklists, 277-278, 475-476
Electric power, calculating requirements for, 186
Electro-Voice 635N/D micro phone, 211
Erase head, 226
Electron beam, 28
Electro-Voice RE50 microphone,
Electron gun, 28
212
Electronic cinema, 66
Ellipsoidal spotlight, 129-130
Electronic field production (EFP), 7-12, 474-477 audio production for, 232-234, 475 camcorders for, 7, 8-9 cameras for, 7, 46, 48, 49 chroma keying for, 327 communication systems for, 476, 499 and depth of field, 85 editing, 477
Encoder, 66
equipment checklist, 277-278, 475-476, 477 and event sequencing, 407, 408 lighting for, 9-10, 133-140, 178-186 location sketch for, 427-429 location survey for, 184-185,
474 microphones for, 194-195, 201,202,215-216 mixing for, 233-234 postproduction, 477 power supply for, 475-476 preproduction for, 474-475 prompter for, 382 rehearsals, 477 and safety, 178 setup, 476-477 sound recording in, 11,475 strike, 477 technical walk-throughs for, 457 time line for, 475 videotaping, 477 Electronic news gathering (ENG), 7-12,472-474
Encoding, in digitization, 30-32 End-of-tape warning, 61 Energy, visual, 240 Energy, wasting, 176 ENG. See Electronic news gathering ENG/EFP cameras and camcord ers, 7, 46, 48, 49 audio level control, 62 batteries for, 59-60, 106, 107, 112 cable for, 60 camera/bars selection switch, 62 camera mounts for, 98-99 connectors for, 60 fieldpacks for, 274 filter wheel for, 60, 62 fluid heads for, 94 focus control on, 80 gain control, 61, 62 intercom system for, 59 jacks on, 62 lenses for, 8, 60, 337 operating techniques for, 109-111 operational controls for, 59-62 playback on, 61 pneumatic pedestals for, 93-94 power supply for, 59-60 power switch for, 62 range extender for, 72 servo zoom control for, 79 shoulder-mounted, 110
ESS (electronic still store) systems, 246, 274, 287 Essential area, 112, 345-346 Ethics, editing and, 318 European Broadcasting Union (EBU), 293 Event sequencing, 407, 408 Executive producer, 368, 369, 371 Expanded production systems, 4-7 Expanding images, 330 Explosion effects, 341 External key, 323-324 External sync, 46 Extreme close-up (ECU) shot, 113, 115-116, 117-118 and aspect ratio, 35, 118 Extreme long shot (ELS), 115-116 Eye shadows, controlling, 171-172 Facilities request, 402-403, 428-429 Fact sheet, 419, 423 Fade-out, fade-in, 310 Fader, 221 master, 252 Fader bar, 245,246, 250, 251, 252, special effects, 328 Fades, 245, 251, 310 Falloff, 130, 145, 158, 161, 162, 168 fast, 162, 167-168 slow, 179 Fast lens, 76 fc (foot-candle), 55, 150
Index
Federal Communications Commission (FCC), 23 Feed, 23 Feeder lines, 503 Fiber-optic cable, 58, 503 Field and image scanning, 28, 29 depth of, 55, 76-78 Field lens, 70-72 Field lighting, 133-140, 178-186 Field log, 281,282 Field of view framing shots and, 115-116 and narrow-angle lens, 85 and normal lens, 84 and wide-angle lens, 82 Field producer, 369 Field production, 4, 472-504 kit for, 107-108 lighting instruments for, 133-140 Field prompter, 382 Field zoom lens, 70, 72
539 Floodlights, 10, 130-133 broad, 132 Chinese lantern, 137-138 and color temperature, 183 eye light, 132-133 for flat lighting, 165-166 fluorescent, 132, 138 incandescent, 131 as key light, 130 LED light, 138 portable, 136-138 scoop, 131 softlight, 131, 137-138 strip light, 132-133 V-light, 136-137 Floor manager or floor director, 175, 368, 369, 371, 429-430 actor and, 384 big remotes and, 485-486 cues, 376-380 cues from director to, 74, 454 and talent, 384, 429, 430 Floor persons, 369, 371 Floor plan, 175, 361-363 interpreting, 437-440
Fonts, choosing, 349
Graphic artist, 370, 372
Football remote setup, 489
Graphic generators, 4, 17
Foot-candle (fc), 55, 150
Graphic vector, 303
Footprint, 502
Graphics. Sec Television graphics
Foundation makeup, 386-387
Graphics generator, 353
480i system, 47 480p system, 38, 39, 47
Grass Valley 100 switcher, 247, 248, 252, 323
Fractal images, 353-354
Grayscale, 64, 350-351
Frame, 28, 29, 292-293 converting into clock time, 294, 468
Ground row, 357-358
Frame rate, 28, 36-38, 50, 55, 66, 250, 273, 292, 294
Hand microphones, 195-197, 211-213
Grips, 369
Framestore synchronizer, 269
how to use, 196-197,375
Framing shots, 115-124 and aspect ratio, 116-119 close-up, 117-118 and closure, 120-123 creating depth, 123 and field of view, 115-116 and headroom, 118-119 horizontal view, 116-117 andleadroom, 119-120 and motion, 123-124 and noseroom, 119-120 and screen size, 115 vertical view, 116—117
Hand properties, 24, 360, 429 Handheld camcorder operating techniques, 90 Handheld shotgun mic, 198, 375 Hanging microphones, 206-207 Hanging units, for scenery, 357-358 Hard copy, 381 Hard disk VTR systems, 273-274
Fieldpacks, 274
Floor plan pattern, 361-362
Figure/ground principle, 162, 239
Floor stand, 142-144
File management, 298 Fill light, 161, 162, 163, 174
Floor treatments, on sets, 364-365
Frequency agility, 500
Film-style shooting, 66, 309, 466
Fluid head, 94
Frequency response, 209, 210
Hard drives, 14, 48, 228-229, 273-274 portable, 274 Hardwall eye, 357 Hardwall flats, 355-356
Filter wheel, 58, 60, 62
Fluorescent floodlight bank, 132, 165-166, 167 portable, 138 Fluorescent tubes, 153
Fresnel spotlight, 128-130, 139, 140, 162, 165
HDTV. See High-definition television
Filters audio, 193,222 color, in camera, 42-44, 60 dichroic, 183 diffusion, 338-339 fog, 339 gels as, 153-154 mosaic, 43-44 neutral density, 58, 76, 153, 179, 181,476 pop, 192, 195 star, 338-339 striped, 43-44 Fire effect, 340-341 FireWire (Apple) cables, 51, 58, 60, 229, 255, 272, 274, 275
Fluorescent lighting, shooting with, 9
small portable, 133-134 Front-timing, 468 Frosted gel, 138-139
Fly effect, 335
/-stop, 45, 55, 75-76, 152-153 and depth of field, 78
Focal length of lens, 73-74, 77-78
Fully scripted documentary, 420
Focus, 74-75, 82-87 auto, 48, 111 and defocus, 339 follow, 111 and HDTV, 33, 58, 81, 111, 113,339 internal, 337 rack, 86, 339 selective, 86
Fishpoleboom, 172,198-199,375
Focus assist, 113
Flag, 130, 145, 337
Focus control, 78, 80-81
Flash memory device (flash drive), 228, 274
Fog effect, 339, 340
Flat lighting, 131, 165-166
Fully scripted format (complete script), 416-419 Furniture on set, 162
Head assembly ATR, 226 DAT, 227 VTR, 266 Head end, cable system, 503 Headroom, 118-119 Headset microphone, 201, 450, 453 double-muff, 453
Gain, 55-56 riding the, 193 Gain control, 61, 62, 221, 222, 323 automatic, 111
Foil reflector, 146
Gels, color, 153-154, 181 and chroma keying, 170, 326 frosted, 138-139 mixing, 154 for white balancing, 160 Generation, videotape, 262
Flat-panel displays, 38
Foldback, 215, 232
Genlock, 46, 269
Flat response, 210
Foley stage, 238-239
Flats, 24, 162, 355-357
Follow focus, 111
Giraffe microphone boom, 199-200
Flip-flop switching, 249
Follow spot, 130
Gobo, 130, 145, 337-338
Focus ring, 74, 80, 110, 111
HDV. See High-definition video
Helical scan, 266 Hertz (Hz), 210 Hi8 camcorder (Sony), 46 Hi8 videotape recording system, 13, 14 Hidden microphone, 207 High-contrast lighting, 167-169 High-definition television (HDTV), 33 and aspect ratio, 34-35, 344-345, 346-348 cameras for, 47-48, 50, 66 and flat-panel displays, 38 focusing, 33, 58, 81, 111, 113, 339
540
High-definition television (HDTV) (continued) framing shots for, 116-117, 118 and grayscale, 351 receivers for, 38 recording system, 271, 273 and resolution, 38-39, 50, 52-55 and sound, 222, 240-241 and surround sound, 222-223, 236, 241
Index
Ikegami Editcam, 274 i-link (Sony) cable, 51, 272, 275 Illogical closure, 122-123 Illumination. See Lighting Image blur, 56
eye shadows and, 171-172
Image format, of lens, 72
window as, 180-182
Image manipulation, 330-336
Internal reflector spotlight, 136 International Alliance of Theatrical Stage Employees, Moving Picture Technicians, Artists and Allied Crafts of the United States, Its Territories and Canada (IATSE), 410
In the can, 460
High-key scene, lighting for, 164, 174
Incandescent floodlight, 131
tion), 54-55 Horizontal retrace, 36 Horizontal wipe, 327
Imaging device, on TV camera, 8, 42, 43-45,56 Impedance, in microphones, 210
Incandescent lamp, 153, 183
International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers (IBEW), 410
Incident light, 150-151, 176
Interpolation, 71
Index vector, 119-120, 303
Interruptible foldback (I.F.B.) intercom system, 21, 201, 375, 376, 455, 500 Interview set
Indoor light, shooting in, 180-183 Indoor remotes, production for, 495-497 Information density, in graphics, 348-349
camera positions for, 437-439 floor plan and prop list for, 437-439 lighting for, 175
Hot-patching, 176
In-line consoles, 223
Hot spot, 135, 170
Input modules, audio, 220-221
House number, 24
Input overload distortion, 209
Intraframe compression, 265, 299
House sync, 46, 269
Input/output (I/O) modules, 223
Inverse square law, 151-152
mics for, 194 Interviewing children, 197
Households using television (HUT), 410-411
Insert editing, 235, 295, 306
iPod (Apple), 229
Instant replays, 276, 484-485
Hue, 64, 253, 350
Instantaneous editing, 12, 242-258 script marking for, 419, 423-427
Iris, lens, 45, 75, 76 auto, 48, 76, 179 remote control of, 76
Hundredeighty, 314 HUT (households using televi sion), 410-411 Hydragyrum medium arc-length iodide, 153 Hypercardioid microphone, 192, 208, 211-213 IATSE (International Alliance of Theatrical Stage Employees, Moving Picture Technicians, Artists and Allied Crafts of the United States, Its Territories and Canada), 410 IBEW (International Brother hood of Electrical Workers), 410 IEEE 1394,272,275 I-F (internal focus) lens, 80, 337 I.F.B. (interruptible foldback or feedback), 21, 201, 375, 376, 455, 500
Key-level control, 252, 323
Internal key, 323
Impedance transformer, 210
Horizontal blanking, 36
Key bus, 246, 247
Image enhancers, 55
High hat mount, 98, 99
Horizontal detail (lines of resolu
265-266, 299
Kelvin degrees (K), 51, 159
Internal focus (I-F) lens, 80, 337
High-energy colors, 351-352
HMI light, 134-135
204, 206 Interffame compression,
Image creation, 28
Image stabilization device, 72, 86
HMI lamp, 134, 153, 176
JVC recording systems, 273
Interlaced scanning, 28-29, 36, 37
High-definition video (HDV) camcorders, 50 recording system, 271, 272-273
High-Z microphone, 210
wireless, 19, 450 Interference, microphone, 203,
Integrated services digital net work (ISDN), 33 Intensification, through cut, 309
ISDN (integrated services digital network), 33 Isolated (iso) camera, 59, 484-485 Isotropic radiation, 151
Intensity controls for lighting, 146-149 Interactive digital television, 33 Intercom system, 19, 21, 59 and big remotes, 476, 478, 482, 484, 485, 486, 499 in the control room, 430, 447, 450, 453,455, 461,462,463 for EFP, 476 interruptible foldback or feedback (I.F.B.), 21,455 for multicamera productions, 59 private line/phone line (P.L.), 19, 22, 450, 453, 455 studio address (S.A.), 455 studio talkback, 21
Jacks camera, 62 patch panel, 148, 224 RF, 269 VTR, 269 XLR, 60
Key light, 130, 161-162, 163, 167
Key-to-back-light ratio, 174 Key-to-fill-light ratio, 174 Keyboard, 238 Keying, 16, 252-253, 322-327 and auto key tracking, 327 chroma, 133, 170-171, 324-327, 359 and external key, 323-324 and internal key, 323 and matte key, 323-324, 325 titles, 322 and Ultimatte, 327 Kicker light, 161, 165 Knee shot, 115-116 Ku-band frequency, 501-502 kW (kilowatt), 129
Lag, image, 153 Lamp-reflector unit, 129 Lamps preserving, 176 types of, 153 Lap dissolve, 309 Laptop editing system, 288-289 Large-area lighting, 167, 168 Large-capacity hard disks, 273-274 Lavaliere microphones, 193-195, 202,209,213 disadvantages of, 194, 240 hanging, 206 hidden, 207 performer and, 375 productions used in, 194 wireless, 194, 195, 207 Layering special effects, 248 fn, 251 LCD (liquid crystal display), 38
Jacks for set support, 355
LD (lighting director), 22, 130, 175, 363,371,372
Jaggies, 352
Leader numbers, 280
Jib arm, 100, 101
Leadroom, 119-120
Jitter, avoiding, 268-269, 288
LED light, 138
Joint Photographic Experts Group (JPEG), 34
LEDs (light-emitting diodes), 222
JPEG compression, 34, 265 Jump cut, 312, 317
LED VU meter, 223 Legal considerations, for produc tion, 409, 410
Index
Lens, 8, 42,48, 70-87. See also /-stop; Zoom lens and aesthetic compression, 85-86 and aperture, 75, 78 auto-focus, 48, 74, 80, 111 auto-iris, 48, 76-77, 111, 140, 179, 180 calibrating, 75 camcorder, 8, 48, 50 and camera-to-object distance, 78 and depth of field, 76-78 diaphragm, 75 ENG/EFP, 8, 60, 337 fast, 76 field, 70-72 focal length of, 73-74 focus control in, 74-75 format, 72 /-stop, 45, 55, 75-76, 152-153 HDTV, 50 interchangeable, 60 internal focus (I-F), 80, 337 iris, 75-76, 77 macro position of, 74 and minimum object distance (MOD), 73-74 narrow-angle, 85-87 normal, 84-85 operational controls for, 78-81 optical characteristics of, 72-78 performer and, 373-374 presetting, 75 prime, 82 quality of, 53 range extender for, 72, 76 slow, 76 speed, 76 studio, 70-72 wide-angle, 82-84 zoom, 8, 48, 60, 70-72, 75, 84, 106, 111, 112, 113 zoom range, 70-72, 74, 79, 80, 112 Lens extenders, 59 Lens flare, 145 Letterbox format, 348 Leveling ball and bowl, 92, 94 Libel, 410 Light available, 9, 178-185 back, 161, 162, 163, 167, 174 background, 161, 163-164 balancing intensity of, 174-175 baselight, 55,130,150,152-153 beam, 146-147 contrast, 57, 65-66, 185
541
and depth of field, 78 diffused, 9, 10, 158, 161, 170 directional, 9, 158 fill, 161, 162, 163, 167, 174 fluorescent, 9 incident, 150-151 indoor, 180-183 intensity, 146-149, 150-152, 174-175 key, 161-162, 163, 167, 171-172, 181-182 kicker, 161 low, 72 operating levels, 55, 152 outdoor, 134, 179-180 reflected, 151, 172, 173 sensitivity of camera, 55, 146 set, 161, 163-164 side, 161 window as, 180-182 Light-emitting diodes (LEDs), 222 Light level, operating, 55 Light meter, 173 Light plot, 175-176 Light stand, portable, 144 Lighting, 9-10, 158-186. See also Lighting instruments baselight, 55,130,150,152-153 below eye level, 165 bouncing, 138 cameo, 169-170 camera lights, 139-140 chroma-key, 133, 170-171 and color distortion, 168, 169 and color temperature, 132, 158-160 continuous-action, 166—167 and contrast, 172-174 and controlling shadows, 171-172 cross-keying, 167 dimmer, 147-148 ENG/EFP, 9-10, 133-140, 178-186, 476 falloff, 130, 145, 158, 161, 162, 167-168, 179 field, 133-140, 178-186 flat, 131, 165-166 high-contrast, 167-169 high-key, 164, 174 indoor, 180-183 intensity, 146-149, 150-152 kicker, 165 large areas, 167, 168, 182-183 low-key, 163, 174 minimum, 55 for moonlight illusion, 165,174 multiple-triangle, 166 at night, 184
outdoor, 179-180 ratios, 174 silhouette, 133, 164, 170 studio, 9-10,128-133,158-177 techniques, 10 triangle, 162-163, 165-166, 180-183 trimming, 142 with windows, 180-182 Lighting control, 22-23 Lighting control equipment, 22-23, 140-149 Lighting director (LD), 22, 130, 175, 363, 371, 372 Lighting instruments, 10, 126-154. See also Lamps camera light, 139-140 clip light, 136 and color temperature, 132, 182-183 control equipment for, 140-149 diffusion tent, 10, 137, 139 dimmer control board, 20 directional controls for, 144-146 field, 133-140 floodlights, 10, 130-133, 136-138, 183 fluorescent banks, 132, 165-166, 167, 182-183 Fresnel spotlight, 128-129, 133-134, 161, 165 handheld, 139 HMI light, 134-135, 176, 182 incandescent lamps, 153, 183 intensity controls for, 146-149 internal reflector spot, 136 lamp types for, 153 lighting kits, 136, 140 mounting devices for, 140-144 portable, 9, 10, 133-140 positions of, 185 power for, 185-186 and safety, 176 soft box, 10 softlights, 131-132, 137-138, 161, 165-166 spotlights, 10, 128-130, 133-136, 138-139 studio, 10,128-133 umbrellas, light-reflecting, 182-183 V-light, 136-137, 182
Line monitor, 4, 5, 6, 21, 201, 245 Line of conversation and action, 314 Line-out, 4, 5, 6, 13, 222 Line-out tie-in, 216 Line producer, 369, 404 Linear editing, 15, 279, 284, 286-287, 288-297 assemble editing, 294-295 audio, 235 control track and time code editing, 291-294 expanded single-source system, 289-290 insert, 278, 295-296, 301, 307 multiple-source systems, 290-291 off- and on-line, 286-287 single-source system, 288-289 split, 295 Linear video recording, 263 Lip sync, 294 Liquid crystal display (LCD), 38,61 Live mixing, 231-232 Location sketches, 427-429 for big remotes and sports remotes, 487-495 for electronic field production, 474 interpreting, 437-440 for parade, 496 Location survey, 184-185, 474 Locking-in point, 440, 464 Lockup time, 281 Log, 21,24 computerized, 299, 304, 305, 306 field, 281,282 program, 24 VTR, 287, 302-304, 467 Logos, 342-343 Long-distance microphone, 208 Long shot (LS) and depth of field, 78, 115-116 and sound, 239 wide-angle, 83 Lossless and lossy compression, 34, 265-266, 299 Loudspeaker, 4 Low-energy colors, 351-352
Lighting kit, 136, 140
Lowel-Light Manufacturing, 136
Lighting patchboard, 20, 148-149
Low-impedance microphones, 210
Lighting pole, 129 Lightness, of color, 64 Lightning effect, 341
Low-key scene, lighting for, 163, 174
Line input, audio, 220
Low-Z microphone, 210
542
Lumen, 151-152 Luminaire, 128 Luminance, 45, 63, 64, 65, 253, 263, 350 and composite system, 263 and Y/C component system, 264 and Y/color difference compo nent system, 264 Luminance channel, 65-66 Luminant, 153 Lux, 55, 150
Macintosh platform, 34, 256, 298 Macro position of lens, 74 Maintenance engineer, 371, 372 Makeup, 386-388 Makeup and dressing rooms, 25,387 Makeup artist, 370,371 Manual zoom control, 79-80 Master control, 23-24 Master control switcher, 256, 257 Master control switching area, 23 Master fader, 252 Matte box, 66 Matte key, 323-325 MBps (megabytes per second), 60 MI) (mini disc), 228 MDM (modular digital multitrack) recorders, 227 M/E (mix/effects) bus, 246-248 Mechanical video effect, 339-341 Medium requirements, 394, 435-437 Medium shot (MS) and field of view, 115-116 and performer, 374 Megahertz (MHz), 30 Memorizing lines, 383-384 Memory sticks and cards, 14 Mental map, 312-314 Menu camera viewfinder, 48, 58, 60, 61, 62 of editing files, 299 portable mixer, 233 postproduction switchers, 255 professional CD and DVD players, 229 Metal halide lamp. See HMI lamp Microphones, 4, 5, 11, 192-216 and balanced output, 210-214 big boom, 200-201
Index
boom, 170,172,194, 197-201, 240, 375 boundary, 203-204, 206, 207, 215 brands of, 211-213 capacitor, 209 cardioid, 191,206 checking, 107 condenser, 195, 209, 223 desk, 203-205, 211-213, 232, 375 directional, 196 dual-redundancy, 195 dynamic, 195-196, 209 electret condenser, 209 electronic characteristics of, 190-193 fishpole, 172, 198-199,375 and flat response, 210 frequency response of, 210 generating element of, 190 giraffe boom, 199-200 hand, 195-197,211-213, 375 handheld, 195-197 handheld shotgun, 198, 375 hanging, 206-207 headset, 201 hidden, 207 hypercardioid, 192, 208 and impedance, 210 and interference, 204 lavaliere, 193-195,202, 206, 207,209,213,240,375 long-distance, 208 mobile, 193-203 moving-coil, 209 for music, 194, 195, 202, 205, 210,214-215,216 omnidirectional, 191, 196, 201, 203, 208 operational characteristics of, 193-208 for outdoor use, 195, 196, 198-199 parabolic reflector, 208 perambulator boom, 200-201 pickup patterns of, 191-192, 211-213 and polar pattern, 191 pop filter for, 192, 195 ports, 198 pressure zone, 203-204, 215 radio frequency (RF), 202 ribbon, 191, 195-196, 209 shotgun, 197-199,208,209,211 sound-generating elements of, 209-210 and sound quality, 210 stand, 205-206,211-213 stationary, 193, 203-208 supercardioid, 192
system, 193 techniques for using, 375 tripod boom, 199-200 ultracardioid, 192 unbalanced, 210 unidirectional, 191, 196, 201, 203 velocity, 209 and wind jammer, 193 and windsock, 192 and windscreen, 192-193, 195 wireless, 194, 195, 202-203
Mosaic effect, 332 Mosaic filter, 43-44 Motion-JPEG, 34 Motion vector, 120, 303 Motion vector line, crossing, 314-316 Mounting equipment, lighting, 140-144 Moving-coil microphones, 209 Moving Picture Experts Group (MPEG), 34, 265
Mic-level input, 220
MP3 audio format, 228
Microwave relays, 501
MPEG (Moving Picture Experts
Microwave transmission, 473, 500-501 MIDI (musical instrument digital interface), 237 Mini-cassettes, 262, 273
Group), 34, 265 MPEG compression formats, 34 MPEG-2, 265, 266, 273, 299 MPEG-4, 275
Mini disc (MD), 228
Multicamera directing, 446, 450, 453,455
Mini-links, microwave, 501, 502
Multicore cable, 58
Mini plug, 60,210,214
Multifunction switchers, 246-248
Minimum illumination, 55
Multi-image effects, 335
Minimum object distance (MOD), 73-74
Multiple-microphone interfer
Mix bus, 221,245
ence, 204
Mixdown, 236
Multiple-source editing system, 290-291
Mix/effects (M/E) bus, 246-248
Multiple-triangle lighting, 166
Mixer audio, 5, 11
Music editing, 317 microphones for, 194, 195, 202, 205,210,214-215,216
portable, 233 Mixing audio, 1 1, 12, 221,233-234 live, 231-232 postproduction, 234, 236 Mix-minus feed, 232 MOD (minimum object dis tance), 73-74 Modular digital multitrack (MDM) recorders, 227 Moire effect, 56-57, 358, 388 Moisture shutdown, automatic, 269 Monitors audio console, 220 control room, 21 line, 4, 5 , 6 , 2 1 , 2 0 1 , 2 4 5 preview (P/V), 4, 5, 6, 21, 245 studio, 19-20, 21, 176-177 video, 21 waveform, 45, 57,475
Musical instrument digital inter face (MIDI), 237
NABET (National Association of Broadcast Employees and Technicians), 410 Narrow-angle lens, 85-87 National Association of Broadcast Employees and Technicians (NABET), 410 National Television System Committee (NTSC), 28, 36, 47, 53, 66, 72, 263 ND. See Neutral density (ND) filter Negative closure, 112-123 Neumann KMR 81i microphone, 211
Monochrome viewfinders, 9, 58
Neutral density (ND) filter, 58, 76, 153, 179, 181,476
Monopod, 90-91
News director, 373
Moonlight, lighting effect, 165, 174
News production personnel, 370-371, 373
Morgue, news, 405
News script, 416, 418, 419
543
Index
News set in newsroom, 18-19
Optical discs, 14, 48, 274
Newscast mixing for, 232 script for, 416, 418, 419
Optical filters, 61
Nielsen rating service, 411 Nightshot mode, 55
Optical video effects, 337-339 Optical zooming, 70-71 Oscilloscope, 45, 475
NLE. See Nonlinear editing
Out-of-aspect-ratio graphics, 346-347
Noise artifacts, 33, 55, 152 signal-to-noise ratio, 56 video, 56
Outdoor light, shooting and, 179-180 HMI light for, 134 in overcast daylight, 180
N o n - d r o p frame mode, 294
Outdoor remotes, production for,
Nonlinear editing (NLE), 15-16, 263, 273, 279, 284, 287-288, 297-304 audio, 235-236 and capture, 279, 298-299 and compression, 299 and shot sequencing, 312 and storage, 299 and visual effects, 330 Nonlinear video recording, 15-16, 263 Nontechnical production personnel, 368-370 unions for, 409 Normal lens, 84-85 Normaled connections, 224 Noseroom, 119-120 Notes, 460 producer, 404, 458 production assistant, 430, 458 NTSC (National Television System Committee), 28, 36, 47, 53, 66, 72, 263 NTSC composite system, 28, 53, 265, 270
497-499 Outdoors, microphones for, 195, 196,198-199 Outline mode, 324-325 Output controls, audio, 222—223 Overexposing, 57 Over-the-shoulder shot (O/S), 115-116, 124,314, 383 PA (production assistant), 368, 369,371,430 P.A. (public address system), 21 Pace, 469 Packets, data, 33 Pads, 300 PAL composite system, 263
108-109
Obscenity laws, 410
Pancake makeup, 386, 387
OCP (operation control panel), 45
Panning, of sound, 240
Off-line editing, 286-287
Pantograph, 142, 143
On-the-air procedures, 461-463 Open-face spotlight, 135-136 Open-reel audio recorder, 225-226 Opening cue, 375 Operating light level, 55 Operation control panel (OCP), 45 Operator control panel for remote control, 102
Pause control, VTR, 268
Pixelized images, 44-45
PC platform. See Windows platform
Pixels, 28, 34, 38, 44-45, 53-55, 63-64, 330 and zooming, 71
PDP (plasma display panel), 38 Peak program meter (PPM), 222 Pedestal, studio, 8, 9, 47, 92-94 robotic, 100-102 Pedestal up, down, 92, 96-97, 113 Peel effect, 333 Perambulator boom, 200-201 Performance techniques, 373-382 Performers, 369, 371, 373-376 audio and, 375 camera and, 373-375 and close-ups, 374 and clothing, 173,195,324,376 floor manager's cues and, 376 postproduction and, 376 prompting devices and, 371, 376, 380-382 and switching cameras, 374 timing and, 375-376 and warning cues, 374-375 Periaktos, 359
Pan-and-tilt heads, 92, 94-95
Pan stick makeup, 386, 387 Panasonic AG-MX70 switcher, 256
personnel Perspective distorting, as special effect, 330-331 and narrow-angle lens, 85 sound, 194, 239-240 and wide-angle lens, 82, 83 Phantom power, 191, 223 Phone plug, 60, 210, 214 Photographic lighting principle, 162-163
Paper-and-pencil edit, 467
Photography, defined, 8
Paper-and-pencil EDL, 304-305
Piano, microphone setups for, 214-215
PAR lamp, 136 Parabolic reflector microphone, 208 Parades, production require ments for, 494-499 Patch cords, 224 Patchbay, 22, 148-149, 224-225, 230, 237 wired, 224-225 Patchboard, 22, 148-149 audio, 22 lighting, 20, 148-149
Pillars, 359 Pipe grid, 141 PixBox portable switching system, 254, 255
Permits and clearances, 403-404
Pan left, pan right, 94, 95, 97,
Pillarboxing, 348
Pattern selector, 252
Personnel. See Production
Panasonic DVCPRO system, 13, 14, 48,273
On-line editing, 286-287
Pattern projector, 129—130
Pan-and-scan process, 348
NTSC signal, 36, 66, 256, 263
Omnidirectional microphone, 191, 196, 201,203, 208, 211-213
Patching, 148, 176,224 computer-assisted, 148, 225 hot-, 176
Pickup device, on TV camera, 42 Pickup patterns, microphone, 191-192,211-213 cardioid, 191, 206, 211-213 hypercardioid, 192, 208, 211-213 omnidirectional, 191,196, 201, 203, 208, 211-213 polar, 191 supercardioid, 192, 211-213 unidirectional, 191, 201, 203, 211-213
PL. (private line) intercom system, 19, 22,450, 453, 455, 500 Plagiarism, 410 Plasma display panel (PDP), 38 Plate mount, 95 Platforms, scenery, 358-359, 363-365 Play VTR, 288 Playback, 61 Playback head, 226 Polar pickup patterns, 191 Polarity reversal, 333 Pop filter for microphone, 192, 195 Portable equipment camera pedestal, 94 DAT recorder, 227 editor, 288-289 floodlights, 136-138 hard drives, 274 lighting instruments, 9, 10, 133-140 mixer, 233 reflector, 146 spotlights, 133-136, 138-139 switching system, 254, 255 Ports, microphone, 198 Positive closure, 121 Postdubbing of dialogue, 238-239 Posterization, 332 Postproduction, 405 actor and, 384 audio, 12,234,235-239 director and, 466-467 editing, 14-16, 154, 276, 284-318, 405 EFP, 477 evaluation and feedback, 405 mixing, 234, 236 performer and, 376 recordkeeping, 405 room, audio, 237 switchers, 255-256 Postshow activities, 485 Pot (potentiometer), 221
544
Power supply calculating electric power requirements, 186 camera, 46 for ENG/EFP cameras, 59-60 for lighting, 185-186 for remote truck (generator), 478, 483 for studio cameras, 57 Power switch, 62 PPM (peak program meter), 222 Pre-editing, 291,300-304 preparation phase, 301-304 review phase, 301 shooting phase, 300-301 Preparation phase of pre-editing, 301-304 Preproduction, 277-279, 392-404,413-442 big remote and, 478-480 coordination, 401-404 edit preparation, 278-279 EFP and, 474-475 equipment checklist for, 277 generating program ideas, 392-393 planning, 392-404, 414-440, 478-480 scheduling during, 277, 416 Preread function, editing, 290 Preroll, 288 Presence, sound, 192, 239 Preset bus, 245, 249 Preset/background, 246 Presetting zoom lens, 75, 111, 112, 113 Pressure zone microphone (PZM), 203-204, 215 Preview bus, 245—246 Preview/preset bus, 246-247 Preview (P/V) monitor, 4, 5, 6, 21, 245
Index
and scheduling, 407-408
presenting, 397-401
RCA phono plug, 60,210,214, 269
Production, 13, 279-282, 392-411 big remote and, 480-486 budget, 397-401 checkpoints for, 280-281 EFP, 475-477 ENG, 473 evaluating, 404, 405 facilities, 402-403 field, 7-12, 474-477 method, 395-397,415-416 models, 393-397 on-air procedures for, 461-463 permits and clearances, 403-404 recordkeeping during, 281 schedule, 403, 407-409 standby procedures for, 461 systems for, 4-7
Property manager, 360, 370, 371
Record/playback heads, 266
Prosumer camcorder, 50, 52, 59, 72, 79, 102, 274
Redundancy, spatial and temporal, 265
Production assistant (PA), 368, 369,371,430
Protection copies of source tapes, 467
Reel numbers, 302
Production manager, 369, 371
PSA (public service announce ment), 23, 468
Production meeting, 460, 474-475 Production models, 393-395 Production personnel, 8, 368-389, 401-402 above-the-line, 368, 371 below-the-line, 368, 371 communicating with, 416 database of, 401-402, 416 news, 370-371,373 nontechnical, 368-370 support staff, 429-430 talent, 371-373 technical, 370 and unions, 409 Production survey, for remotes, 480,481-482
Program speakers, 20
RCU (remote control unit), 45,
Program storage and retrieval, 23-24
R-DAT recorders, 227
Program title, 395 Programming, 13 Progressive scanning systems, 36-37 Promotion, production process and, 404
Production system, basic and expanded, 4-7
Private line (P.L.) intercom system, 19, 22, 450, 453, 455, 500
Professional Sound PSC MilliMic microphone, 213
Process message, 394, 395, 431 director and, 415 formulating, 435
Program bus, 244-245, 246, 247, 249
50, 475 Readability, television graphics and,349-350 Read/write optical discs, 274 Real time, 295 Record head, 226 Record inhibitor, 278
Prompting devices, 376-382
Record protection, 278
Prop list, 360-361,437
Record VTR, 15,288
Properties (props), 24, 360-361
Recordkeeping, postproduction,
actor and, 383
405
Reel-to-reel audiotape recorder, 225 Reference black and white, 173
Psychographics, audience, 395, 410
Reference frame, 266
Psychological closure, 120-123
Reflection effects, 338
Public address system (P.A.), 21
Reflectors, 145-146
Public hearings, production requirements for, 494-497 Public service announcement (PSA), 23, 468 Publicity, production process and, 404 Pulse-count editing, 291-293 Pulse-count system, 291 Pylon, 359 PZM (pressure zone micro phone), 203-204, 215
Production switchers, 12-13, 254-255
Prism block, 42, 74
Producer, 368, 369, 370, 371, 373, 390-411 and evaluating production, 404 information resources for, 407-409 line, 369, 404 and postproduction, 405 and preproduction planning, 392-404
Program proposal, 395-401
Quality control, audio, 221-222 Quantizing, 30, 32 Quartz lamp, 153, 176, 182 Quick-release plate, 95
Program/background, 244
Reflected light, 151, 172, 173
shooting in outdoor light and, 179-180 shooting in indoor light and, 181 Refresh rate, 36, 37 Rehearsals blocking, 456 camera, 456-458, 460 directing, 430, 455-461 dress, 4 5 7 ^ 5 8 dry run, 456 for EFP, 477 script reading, 455-456 for single camera, 466 stop-start, 457-458 walk-through, 457 Remote control unit (RCU), 45, 50, 475 Remote engineer in charge, 372
Rack focus, 86, 112, 113,339
Program control, 21-22
Radio frequency (RF) micro phone, 202
Remote setups for big remotes, 7, 480-485 for sporting events, 487-494
Program duplication and distribution, 276
Radio frequency (RF) output, VTR, 269
Remote survey, 478-480, 481-483
Program feeds, 23
Rail system for camera mounting, 102
Remote truck, 478-479 and microwave transmission, 500 Remote van, and microwave
Program input, 23 Program log, 24, 256
Rain effect, 340
Program monitor, 6, 21
Range extender, 72, 76
Program objective, 395
Ratings, audience, 410-411
transmission, 473, 500-501 Reporter, 373
545
Index
Reset, 458, 460
Scanning lines, 53-55
Resolution DTV, 38-39, 50 HDTV, 52-55
Scanning systems, 36-38 interlaced, 28-29, 36, 37
Retrace, horizontal and vertical, 36
Scene design, 361-365
Sequencing cues, director's, 450
Scene numbers, 302
Servo focus, 80
Scenery, 24-25, 355-360
Servo zoom control, 79
Schedule time, 467
Screen Extras Guild (SEG), 409
Set backgrounds, 363-364 designing, 361-365 dressings, 24, 360 floor plans for, 361-363 flooring on, 364-365 furniture, 162, 360, 363 for interview, 175, 437-439 platforms, 358-359, 363-365 positioning, 363 properties, 24, 360-361 strike, 206, 360, 460, 477 studio, 24-25
Screen size, and framing, 115
Set designer, 175
Single-source system, editing, 288-290
Scrim, 130, 138-139,357
Set light, 161, 163-164
Site survey, 480
Script reading, rehearsals and, 455-456
Set modules, 356-357
Skin tones, and color tempera ture, 159,386-387
Scripts analysis of, 440-442 breakdown for single-camera, 464-466 documentary, 419, 420 drama, 416, 417, 440 formats, 416-419 marking, 419-427, 429 news, 416, 418, 419 partial, 419, 421 semiscripted, 419, 421, 432, 433,434 software for formatting, 419 visualization and sequencing of, 431-434, 464 writing, 401
Set units, 355
Reverb controls, 222 Reverse-angle shot, 314 Review phase, pre-editing, 301 RF jacks, 269 RF microphone, 202 RF output, VR, 269 RGB component system, 264, 267 RGB system, 28, 30 and beam splitter, 42-44 and color mixing, 64-65 component system, 264, 267 and white balancing, 51-52 Ribbon microphone, 191, 195-196, 209 Riding in the red, 222 Riding the gain, 193, 222, 231 Risers, 358 Robotic camera mounts, 100-102 Robotic cameras, 9, 22, 80 Robotic pedestal, 100-102 Rock groups, microphones for, 215,216 Room tone, 216, 301 Rotation effect, 333-334 Rough-cut, 305 Routing switchers, 256 Rundown sheet, 419, 423 Running time, 467 Run-out signal, 281 Run-throughs, 430, 460
progressive, 36-37
Schedules, production, 403, 407-409 and clock time, 467-468 and director, 416 and subjective time, 468-469 and time line, 404 Scoop floodlight, 131, 161, 167 Screen Actors Guild (SAG), 409 Screen-center mark, 112 Screen clutter, 349
Sensitivity, camera specifica tion, 55 Sequencing, of shots, 300, 305, 310-312,431-434, 467
Set pieces, 359-360
Setup big-remote production, 480-484 EFP production, 476-477 720p scanning system, 37-38, 47, 66
Shock mount, 198
Secondary frame effect, 335
Satellite downlink, 502-503 frequencies, 501-502 uplink, 473-474, 502-503 uplink van, 474-475 Saturation, color, 64, 253, 350, 351-352 Scanning area, 345-346
Sennheiser MKE 102 micro phone, 213 Sennheiser MKH 60 microphone, 211 Sennheiser MKH 70 microphone, 211
Signal transport, 33-34, 500-504 Silhouette lighting, 133, 164, 170 Singers, audio and mic setups for, 195-196, 202, 205, 210, 214-215, 232 Single-camera directing, 464-466
Slander, 410 Slant-track VTR systems, 266 Slate, 280, 281,301 audio, 227, 281 Slide effect, 333 Slide faders, 222 Sliding rod, 142-143
SMPTE (Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers), 293
Search control, VTR, 268
Semiscripted format (partial script), 419, 421,432,433, 434
Signal processing, 55
Share, audience, 410-411
Safe title area, 58, 345
Sampling, 30, 31, 265, 272
Signal-to-noise (S/N) ratio, 56
Smear, 56
Safety EFP shooting and, 178, 186
Selective focus, 86
Side bars, 348 Side light, 161, 164-165
Slow lens, 76
Shooting phase of production, 108-111 after, 111-112 before, 107-108
Sampler sound device, 238
control, 62 Shuttle control, VTR, 268
Shading, 57 Shadows, controlling, 171-172, 201
Scrub through, 305
SAG (Screen Actors Guild), 409
Shutter speed, 56
Slow falloff, 161, 162, 179
S.A. (studio address) intercom system, 455
SEG (special-effects generator), 251, 322
Shure SM81 microphone, 212,215
Shader, 45, 173
Shooter, 473
and studio lights, 176
Shure SM57 microphone, 212 Shure SM58 microphone, 212,215
720p/30 system, 50
Scroll, 381
SEG (Screen Extras Guild), 409
Shrinking images, 330-331
pre-editing, 300-301
Smoke effect, 340
SMPTE time code, 238, 267, 299, 307 SMPTE/EBU time code, 293 Snapshot effect, 333 Snow (video artifacts), 56
Shot list, 299
Snow effect, 340
Shot sequence, 300, 305, 310-312
SNV (satellite news vehicle), 474
Shot sheet, 112,113,114,423, 427
Soccer remote setup, 490
Shotgun microphones, 197-199, 208, 209 fishpole for, 198-199
Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers (SMPTE), 293
how to use, 198
Soft box, 10, 137, 139, 140
Shots. See specific type
Soft cut, 309
Shoulder-mounted camera, 90
Soft wipe, 327-328
Show format, 395, 419, 422
Softlight, 131-132, 161, 165-166
Show treatment, 395, 396
portable, 137-138
546
Softwall Hats, 355-356 Solarization, 332-333 Sony Betacam cameras, 13, 14, 46 Sony DVCAM system, 13, 14, 48 SonyECM 55 microphone, 213 Sony ECM 77 microphone, 213 Sony ECM 672 microphone, 211 SOT (sound on tape), 232 Sound. See also Microphones aesthetics, 239-240 ambient, 111, 208, 215-216, 239, 240, 301,317 continuity, 240, 317 and digital recording, 33 dubbed, 12 editing, 235-236, 302-303 energy, 190, 208, 209, 240 and environment, 239, 301 and figure/ground principle, 239 overmodulated, 231 perspective, 194, 239-240 pickup, 190-216 prerecorded, 12 presence, 192, 239 quality, controlling, 236-237 separating sounds, 233 stereo, 240 surround, 222-223, 236, 241 visual representation of, 236 Sound bite, 235, 304 Sound control equipment, 11-12, 220-234 audio console, 12, 220-224 audio control booth, 22, 229-230 audio mixer, 5, 11,233,290 ENG/EFP, 12, 232-234 patchbay, 22, 148-149, 224-225, 230, 237 recording and playback devices, 12, 225-229 studio, 12,229-232 Sound designer, 370, 371 Sound effects, 238-239 Sound-generating elements of microphone, 209
Index
Special effects, 13,16-17,33. Sec also Keying; Visual effects chroma-key, 170-171, 324-327 controls for, 251-253 layering, 248 fn, 251 wipes as, 309-310 Special-effects cues, director's, 451 Special-effects generator (SEG), 251,322 Spiking actor's position, 383, 429 Spill, 460 Spilling over, 222 Split edit, 295 Split screen, 13, 328-329 Sports remotes, 85, 487-495 Sportscaster, 373 Spotlight effect, 329 Spotlights, 10, 128-130 clip light, 136 diffusing portable, 138-139 ellipsoidal, 129-130 external reflector, 135 follow, 130 Fresnel, 128-130, 133-134, 139, 140, 161, 162, 165 HMI light, 134-135 internal reflector, 136 open-face, 135-136 portable, 133-136 Spreader, tripod, 91-92 Stabilizer, image, 72, 86 Stage manager, 369, 485 Stage props, 360 Stagehands, 369
Storage systems, 23-24,274, 275, 299. See also Videorecording systems
Subjective t i m e , controlling, 468-469
Storyboards, 304, 361, 440-442
Subtractive color mixing, 64-65, 154
Streaming, 33
Sunlight, shooting in, 179-180
Streaming video, 275
Supercardioid pickup pattern, 192,211-213
Stretching images, 330-331 Striking the set, 206, 360, 460,477 Strip light, 132-133 Striped filter, 43-44 Studio. See Television studio Studio address (S.A.) intercom system, 455 Studio camera, 8, 47-48 care of, 112, 114 checking the, 112-113 ENG/EFP camcorder as, 48, 49 intercom system on, 59 lens on, 70-72 operational items and controls for, 57-59 remote iris control on, 76 and servo zoom control, 79 tally light on, 59 and telephoto lens, 86 viewfinder on, 58-59 working the, 112-114 See also Lens; Zoom lens Studio control room, 20-23 audio control, 22, 220-225 directing from, 461-463 intercom system in, 21, 455 lighting control, 22 monitors, 21 program control, 21-22 switching in, 22 video control, 23
Stand microphone, 205-206, 211-213
Studio crane, 100, 101
Standard television (STV), aspect ratio for, 34-35, 344-345, 346-348
Studio flooring, 364-365
Standby mode, 268 Standby procedures, 461
Studio monitor, 19-20, 21, 176-177
Standby switch, 62
Studio pedestal, 8, 9, 47, 92-94
Star filter effect, 338-339
Studio set, 24-25
Studio engineer in charge, 372 Studio lighting instruments, 10, 128-133
Superimposition (super), 245, 246,251,309 Supply reel, 226 Surround sound, 222-223, 236, 241 S-VHS videotape recorder, 13, 14, 46, 264, 269, 270, 271 record protection on, 278 S-video system, 262, 264 connector for, 60 jack for, 269 Sweeps, 359 Sweet spot, 240 Sweetening, audio, 234, 240, 307,467 Swimming remote setup, 494 Switchers, 4, 5, 6, 12-13, 22, 290 analog, 258 architecture, 248 audio-follow-video, 258 buses, 244-248 component, 258 composite, 256-258 delegation controls, 246, 247-248 digital, 256, 258 functions of, 254-256 interface, 257 key-level control, 252, 323 layout of, 244-248 manual, 24 master control, 256, 257 multifunction, 246-248 operation of, 248-253 postproduction, 255-256 production, 12-13, 254-255 routing, 256 software, 255-256 Switching, 12-13, 22, 242-258, 284 flip-flop, 249 script marking for, 419, 423-427
Sound on tape (SOT), 232
Station breaks, 23
Studio supervisor, 371
Sound pickup. See Microphones
Stationary robotic camera mount, 102
Studio talkback, 21,455
Steadicam mount, 98-99
Studio zoom lens, 70
Stereo sound, 240-241
STV (standard television), aspect ratio for, 34-35, 344-345, 346-348
Sync track, 267
Stop-start rehearsal, 457-458
Style, television graphics and, 352-353
Synchronizer, audio/video, 238, 294, 307
Stopwatch, 22
Subjective camera, 437
Synthetic images, 353-354
Sound volume controls, 62 Source tape, 288, 310 protection copies of, 467 Source VTR, 15, 288 Spatial redundancy, 265 Speakers, in studio control room, 20,21
Stock shot, 318 Stop down, 416
Studio teleprompter, 381-382
Sync generator, 45, 46 Sync pulse, 46, 267, 278, 291 Sync roll, 295
547
Index
System, 4 System microphone, 193
Take numbers, 302 Takeup reel, 226 Taking a level, 231 Talent, 368, 369, 371-373. See also Actors; Performers and auditions, 384-385 and big remotes, 486 and clothing color, 173, 388-389 and floor manager, 429, 430 and makeup, 386-388 and performance techniques, 373-382 and prompting devices, 376-382 walk-through, 457 Talking heads, 395 Tally light, 48,59, 113,374 Tape numbers, 302 Tape-based digital recording systems, 227-228, 263, 273-275. See also Linear editing
electronic cinema, 66 electronic shutter on, 56 ENG/EFP, 48 filter, for color, 42-44 and focus-assist feature, 81 functions of, 42-43 and gain control, 55-56 HDV, 50 HDTV, 47-48, 66 imaging device on, 8,42, 43-45 isolated (iso), 59, 484-485 lens for, 8, 42, 48, 50, 69-87 mounting equipment for, 8, 9, 87-102 movements, 95-96 parts of, 42, 43 and performers, 373-375 pickup device on, 42 robotic, 9, 22, 80 studio, 8, 47-48 types of, 46-50 and video signal, 42-45 viewfinder, 9, 42, 48, 58-59 wedge mount for, 95 See also Camera mounting equipment; ENG/EFP cameras and camcorders
studio monitors in, 19-20 support areas, 24-25
Triangle lighting, 162-163, 165-166, 180-183
wall outlets in, 20
Triaxial (triax) cable, 58
Television system, 4
Tricycle steering position, 93
Temporal redundancy, 265
Trim control, audio, 221
1080i system, 38, 47, 50
Trim the lights, 142
Tennis remote setup, 492
Tripart budget, 397-400
Test tone, 279
Tripod, 9 , 9 1 - 9 2 , 9 3
Three-dimensional effects, 330, 353
Tripod boom, 199-200 Tripod dolly, 92
Threefold, 355
Truck left, right, 82, 86, 96-97
Three-shot, 115-116
Trunk line, 503
Thunder box, 241
TV black, TV white, 350-351
Tilt up, down, 96-97
Twofolds, 355
Time base corrector (TBC), 269
Two-shot, 115-116, 124
Time code, 281,291,292, 293, 302 and window dub, 301-302
Ultimatte, 327
Time code editing, 293-294
Ultracardioid microphone, 192
Time code generator, 293
Umbrella reflector, 183
Time code recording, 227, 293
Unbalanced microphone or line, 210
Time cues, 377-378 Time line, 404, 407, 460-461, 466 EFP, 475 preparing, 459-461
Unidirectional microphone, 191, 201,203,211-213 Uninterrupted run-through rehearsal, 457-458
Tape-based video recorders, 266-273
Television gobos, 130, 145, 337-338
Timing, performer and, 375-376, 384
Tapeless recording systems, 14,
Title key, 16
Unit manager, 485
Technical survey, for remotes, 480, 483
Television receiver, 4 - 5 , 13, 37, 38, 66, 117, 269, 345, 429
Title. See also Character generator (C.G.) animated, 349 and aspect ratio, 346 and busy background, 349-350 block layout for, 349-350 and color, 351 and downstream keyer, 252 fonts for, 349 keys, 246
Uplink trucks, 502-503
Technical personnel and crew, 370-372 unions for, 410
Television graphics, 344-354 and aspect ratio, 344-347 and color, 350-352 generated, 353-354 information density in, 348-350 out-of-aspect-ratio, 346-347 readability of, 349-350 scanning and essential areas, 345-346 style of, 352-353 synthetic, 353-354
Technical walk-through rehearsals, 57
Television studio, 4-7, 18-20 acoustic treatment in, 19 air-conditioning in, 19 audio equipment in, 220-232 ceiling height of, 18 doors in, 19 floor for, 18 intercom system in, 19 lighting in, 9-10, 128-133,
23, 228-229 Target audience, 395 TD (technical director), 20, 112, 254, 371, 372 Tech meeting, 459 Technical director (TD), 20, 112, 254,371,372
Telephoto lens, 85-87 Teleprompter, 371 field, 184, 382 studio, 112, 381-382 Telescope hanger, 142-143 Telescoping pedestal column, 93 Television camera, 8-9, 42-66 analog versus digital, 46-47 beam splitter on, 42-43, 44 and camera lights, 139-140 consumer, 8 and control unit (CCU), 4, 5, 6, 23,45-46, 49,55, 76, 112
158-177 makeup and dressing rooms in, 25 program speakers in, 20 scenery and properties in, 24-25 size of, 18
and readability, 349-350 and safe title area, 58, 345 superimposing, 322
Unions, 409, 410
Uplinks, satellite, 473-474, 502-503 Utilities personnel, 369 Variable-focal-length lens, 73 VCR (videocassette recorder), 13 Vector scope, 45 Vectors, 303, 314-316 crossing vector line, 314—316 graphic, 303 index, 119-120, 303 motion, 120, 303, 314-316
Tongue left, right, 96-97
Velocity microphone, 209
Track left, right, 96-97
Vertical blanking, 36
Tracking control, VTR, 268-269
Vertical detail (lines of resolu tion), 53-55
Traffic reporter, 373 Transcribing audio track, 236 Transducing light into electricity, 55 sound into electricity, 190 Transition devices, 305, 309-310 Transmitter, 5, 6, 473, 500-501
Vertical retrace, 36 Vertical wipe, 327 VHS cassette, record protection on, 278 VHS videotape recorder, 13, 14, 262, 269, 270
Transponder, 502
Video/audio synchronizing, 238, 272, 294, 307
Treatment, 395, 396
Video connector, 60
548
Video control, 23 Video effects analog, 322-329 digital, 33, 258, 298, 326, 329-336 Video leader, 279-280 Video monitors, 21 Video noise, 56 Video operator (VO), 5, 51, 57, 76, 112, 173, 177, 279, 371, 372 Video production switcher. See Switcher Video recording archiving, 276 duplication and distribution, 276 and time delay, 276 Video-recording systems, 261-282 analog, 262 composite and component, 263-264 and compression, 265 digital, 262 disk-based, 263, 287, 307 flash memory, 274 hard disk, 273-274 linear, 263 nonlinear, 264 read/write optical, 274 and sampling, 265 tape-based, 266-273 tapeless, 14, 23, 273-275 Y/C component, 264 Video servers, 273 Video signal, 4 Videocassette recorder (VCR), 13 Videographer, 373, 473 Videotape editor, 371, 372, 373 Videotape operator, 45, 371, 372 Videotape recorder (VTR), 4, 13-14, 223, 266-267 analog, 262, 266-267, 269-270 checking, 107 controls, 267-269 cues, 453 digital, 262, 267, 270-273 formats, 13-14 and framestore synchronizer, 269 jacks for, 269 log, 287, 302-304,467 and moisture shutdown, 269 preread function of, 290 source, 15, 288 and time base corrector, 269 Videotape recording, 266-267
Index
checkpoints for, 280-281 Videotape tracks, 266 Videotaping EFP, 477 Viewfinder, 9, 42, 48, 58-59, 60-62, 66 on camcorder, 108 indicators, 61 on studio camera, 113
Visualization cues, director's, 446-449 Visualization of script, 431-434, 464 V-light, 136-137, 182 VO (video operator), 5, 51, 57, 76, 112,173,177,279,371,372
Wipe patterns, 252, 328-329 Wipes, 246, 309-310, 327-329 horizontal, 327 positions and directions, 328 soft, 327-328 split screen, 13, 328-329 vertical, 327
Voice coil, 209
Wired patchbay, 224-225
Volts, 186
Wireless microphone, 194, 195,
Visible lines, on TV screens, 36
Volume control, 221, 231
Visual continuity, 240
Volume unit (VU) meter, 222
Visual effects, 16-17, 251-253, 322-341 analog, 322-329 bounce, 333-334 chroma keying, 324-327 computer-manipulated, 330 cube spin, 335 defocus, 339 diffusion filter, 338-339 digital, 33, 258, 298, 326, 329-336 distorted perspective, 330-331 echo,335-336 fire, 340-341 fly, 335 fog, 339, 340 and fractals, 353-354 gobos, television, 130, 145, 337-338 keying, 322-327 lightning, 341 mechanical, 339-341 mosaic, 16, 332 multi-image, 335-336 nonelectronic, 337—341 optical, 337-339 peel, 333 perspective, 330-331 positioning images, 330-331 posterization, 332 rain, 340 reflections, 338 rotation, 333-334 secondary frame, 335 shrinking and expanding, 330-331 slide, 333 smoke, 340 snapshot, 333 snow, 340 solarization, 332-333 split screen, 13,328-329 spotlight, 329 star filter, 338-339 stretching, 330-331 superimposition, 322 synthetic, 353-354 wind, 340 wipes, 246, 309-310, 327-329
VTR. See Videotape recorder
202-203 how to use, 203 Wire-mesh screen, 147
VTR controls, 62
Workprints, 293
VTR cues, director's, 453
Wrestling remote setup, 493
VTR log, 287, 302-304, 467
Writer, 368, 370, 371, 373, 401
VTR operator, 280-281
Writers Guild of America (WGA), 409
VTR switch, 62 VU (volume unit) meter, 222
XLR connector, 60, 210, 214 Wagons, 358-359
X/S (cross-shot), 115-116, 383
Walkie-talkies, 59 Walk-through rehearsals, 457, 458-459, 477
Y channel, 65-66 Y signal, 45, 65-66
Wall outlets, in television studio, 20
Y/C component system, 258, 264, 265, 267, 270
Wardrobe person, 370, 371
Y/color difference component system, 264, 265, 267, 269, 272
Watts, 186 Waveform monitor, 45, 57, 475 Weathercaster, 373 Weathercasting and chroma-key effect, 170-171, 324-325 clothing for, 324, 389 maps for, 17, 353 special effects for, 353 Wedge mount, 95 WGA (Writers Guild of America), 409 White-balance indicator, 62 White-balancing the camera, 45, 51-52,138 and color temperature, 159, 183,317 White level, 173 Wide-angle lens, 82-84 Wind effect, 340 Wind jammer, 193, 215 Window dub, 301-302, 304 Windows platform, 34, 256, 298 Windscreen, 192-193, 195, 208, 215 Windsock, 192-193 Wipe controls, 252 Wipe mode, 252
Z-axis, 123 Zebra pattern, 61 Zeppelin, 192 Zip disks, 228, 274, 278 Zoom control, 78-80 Zoom lens, 8, 48, 60, 70-72, 106 calibrating, 75, 111, 112, 113 checking the, 112 field, 70 focal length of, 73-74, 77-78 focusing, 74 and graphics, 84 and lens format, 72 maximum positions of, 70-71 and m i n i m u m object distance (MOD), 73-74 presetting, 75, 111, 112 range of, 70-72 range extender for, 72 stabilizers for, 72 studio, 70-72 types of, 70-72 Zoom range, 70-72 Zooming, 70-72, 84, 96-97 on camcorder, 50, 108 digital versus optical, 70-72, 80
