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Applying Dynamic Elements to the Modern Classroom Giovanni Vincenti Towson University, USA James Braman Towson University, USA
InformatIon scIence reference Hershey • New York
Director of Editorial Content: Director of Book Publications: Acquisitions Editor: Development Editor: Publishing Assistant: Production Editor: Cover Design:
Kristin Klinger Julia Mosemann Lindsay Johnston Christine Bufton Natalie Pronio Jamie Snavely Lisa Tosheff
Editorial Advisory Board Jan Baum, Towson University, USA Marco Coinu, Studio Associato Saperessere, Italy Alfreda Dudley, Towson University, USA La Tonya Dyer, Towson University, USA Stephany Filimon Wilkes, Consultant, USA Mary Hackley, Towson University, USA Andrew Jinman, Immersive Learning Consultancy Limited, UK Daniel Laughlin, University of Maryland Baltimore County, USA Gabriele Meiselwitz, Towson University, USA Bridget Sullivan, Towson University, USA Goran Trajkovski, Algoco eLearning Consulting, USA Denise Wood, University of South Australia, Australia
List of Reviewers Olga Alegre Jan Baum Emilio Camahort Juan Carda Marco Coinu Michelle Crosby-Nagy Michael DeMers Thomas DeVaney Alfreda Dudley Timothy Duruz La Tonya Dyer Stephany Fillimon Wilkes Mary Hackley Stephen Hilderbrand Andrew Jinman Regina Kaplan-Rakowski
Daniel Laughlin Gabriele Meiselwitz Grant Meredith Inma Núñez Manuela Núñez Arturo Quíntana Ricardo Quirós Zita Sampaio Antonio Santos Bridget Sullivan Goran Trajkovski Thrasyvoulos Tsiatsos Luis Villar Denise Wood
Table of Contents
Foreword ............................................................................................................................................ xix Preface ................................................................................................................................................ xxi Acknowledgment .............................................................................................................................. xxvi Section 1 Ideas, Perspectives, and Education Chapter 1 Overcoming Objections to MUVEs in Education .................................................................................. 1 Daniel Laughlin, University of Maryland Baltimore County, USA Chapter 2 The Recursive Knowledge Development Model for Virtual Environments ......................................... 15 Nan B. Adams, Southeastern Louisiana University, USA Thomas A. DeVaney, Southeastern Louisiana University, USA Chapter 3 The Techno-Pedagogical Context of Distance Learning: Conceptual Roots ........................................ 27 Timothy F. Duruz, Independent Higher Education Consultant, USA Chapter 4 ICT Applications in U.S. Higher Education ......................................................................................... 47 Michelle O. Crosby-Nagy, George Washington University, USA John M. Carfora, Loyola Marymount University and the Immersive Education Initiative, USA Chapter 5 Digital Intelligence: A New Way of Knowing ...................................................................................... 59 Nan B. Adams, Southeastern Louisiana University, USA
Chapter 6 Faculty Professional Learning: An Examination of Online Development and Assessment Environments .............................................................................................................. 66 Olga M. Alegre, University of La Laguna, Spain Luis M. Villar, University of Seville, Spain Section 2 Elements of Education in Virtual Environments Chapter 7 The Affordances of Second Life for Education .................................................................................... 94 Craig A. Cunningham, National-Louis University, USA Kimball Harrison, Virginia Beach City Public Schools, USA Chapter 8 Learning in Virtual Worlds: A Situated Perspective ........................................................................... 120 Antonio Santos, Universidad de las Américas Puebla, México Chapter 9 CSCL Techniques in Collaborative Virtual Environments: The Case of Second Life ....................... 139 Thrasyvoulos Tsiatsos, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece Andreas Konstantinidis, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece Theodouli Terzidou, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece Lazaros Ioannidis, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece Chrysanthi Tseloudi, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece Chapter 10 Designing Web-Based Educational Virtual Reality Environments ..................................................... 157 Kosmas Dimitropoulos, University of Macedonia, Greece Athanasios Manitsaris, University of Macedonia, Greece Chapter 11 Teaching in the Virtual Theatre Classroom ......................................................................................... 179 Stephen A. Schrum, University of Pittsburgh at Greensburg, USA Chapter 12 Case Study of ASCIT: Fostering Communication through Interactive Technologies for Long Term Sick Children .............................................................................................................. 195 Fabian Di Fiore, Hasselt University, Belgium Peter Quax, Hasselt University, Belgium Wim Lamotte, Hasselt University, Belgium Frank Van Reeth, Hasselt University, Belgium
Chapter 13 Staging Second Life in Real and Virtual Spaces ................................................................................. 217 Russell Fewster, University of South Australia, Australia Denise Wood, University of South Australia, Australia Joff Chafer, Coventry University, UK Chapter 14 The Benefits and Unanticipated Challenges in the Use of 3D Virtual Learning Environments in the Undergraduate Media Arts Curriculum ............................................................. 236 Denise Wood, University of South Australia, Australia Section 3 Perspectives of Language Learning Chapter 15 Task Design for Language Learning in an Embodied Environment................................................... 259 Paul Sweeney, Independent Consultant in E-Learning, UK Cristina Palomeque, University of Barcelona, Spain Dafne González, Universidad Simón Bolívar, Venezuela Chris Speck, Languagelab.com, UK Douglas W. Canfield, University of Tennessee, USA Suzanne Guerrero, Richmond Publishing, Mexico Pete MacKichan, Freelance Consultant in E-Learning, Greece Chapter 16 Multi-User Virtual Environments: User-Driven Design and Implementation for Language Learning ........................................................................................................................ 283 Julie M. Sykes, University of New Mexico, USA Chapter 17 Foreign Language Instruction in a Virtual Environment: An Examination of Potential Activities.......................................................................................................................... 306 Regina Kaplan-Rakowski, Southern Illinois University Carbondale, USA Chapter 18 Education-Oriented Research Activities Conducted in Second Life .................................................. 326 Jiuguang Feng, Towson University, USA Liyan Song, Towson University, USA
Section 4 Techniques, Applications, and Designs for Education Using Virtual Environments Chapter 19 Enhancing Tertiary Healthcare Education through 3D MUVE-Based Simulations ........................... 341 Charlynn Miller, University of Ballarat, Australia Mark J. W. Lee, University of Ballarat, Australia Luke Rogers, University of Ballarat, Australia Grant Meredith, University of Ballarat, Australia Blake Peck, University of Ballarat, Australia Chapter 20 New Augmented Reality Applications: Inorganic Chemistry Education............................................ 365 Manuela Núñez Redó, Universitat Jaume I de Castellón, Spain Arturo Quintana Torres, Universitat Jaume I de Castellón, Spain Ricardo Quirós, Universitat Jaume I de Castellón, Spain Inma Núñez Redó, Universitat Jaume I de Castellón, Spain Juan B. Carda Castelló, Universitat Jaume I de Castellón, Spain Emilio Camahort, Universidad Politécnica de Valencia, Spain Chapter 21 Interactive Models Based on Virtual Reality Technology Used in Civil Engineering Education ...... 387 Alcínia Zita Sampaio, University of Lisbon, Portugal Pedro Gameiro Henriques, University of Lisbon, Portugal Carlos Oliveira Cruz, University of Lisbon, Portugal Octávio Peres Martins, University of Lisbon, Portugal Chapter 22 Subject Matter Content Creation for Second Life Delivery: Teaching GIS in Second Life ............... 414 Michael DeMers, New Mexico State University, USA Chapter 23 New Life for Corporate Training ........................................................................................................ 433 David R. Dannenberg, Virginia Tech, USA Chapter 24 Self-Developing a MUVE for Research and Educational Innovations .............................................. 453 Nick V. Flor, University of New Mexico, USA
Chapter 25 Collaborative Learning through Flexible Web CVE: The Experience of WebTalk ............................ 471 Ugo Barchetti, University of Salento, Italy Alberto Bucciero, University of Salento, Italy Luca Mainetti, University of Salento, Italy Compilation of References .............................................................................................................. 491 About the Contributors ................................................................................................................... 535 Index ................................................................................................................................................... 548
Detailed Table of Contents
Foreword ............................................................................................................................................ xix Preface ................................................................................................................................................ xxi Acknowledgment .............................................................................................................................. xxvi Section 1 Ideas, Perspectives, and Education Chapter 1 Overcoming Objections to MUVEs in Education .................................................................................. 1 Daniel Laughlin, University of Maryland Baltimore County, USA This chapter addresses several common objections to the use of Multi User Virtual Environments (MUVEs) in education that proponents of this medium are likely to encounter. Many of the objections apply broadly to MUVEs of both game and non-game varieties. The goal of this chapter is to help the reader overcome the arguments raised by others in order to build support for the use of MUVEs. Some guidance is also given for an approach to overcome objections based on mental model theory. Chapter 2 The Recursive Knowledge Development Model for Virtual Environments ......................................... 15 Nan B. Adams, Southeastern Louisiana University, USA Thomas A. DeVaney, Southeastern Louisiana University, USA In this chapter the authors discuss the concept of leveraging strategic control of knowledge from teachers to students in virtual learning environments and serves as the basis for determining how to shift students through stages of knowledge acquisition to knowledge application. Instructional strategies for fostering student engagement in a virtual learning environment are identified as critical, and a number of relevant theories focusing on student learning affects, needs and adult concerns are presented. The authors discuss a model that combines the dimensions of a knowledge approach, knowledge authority and a teaching approach to demonstrate the recursive and scaffolded design for the creation of virtual learning environments.
Chapter 3 The Techno-Pedagogical Context of Distance Learning: Conceptual Roots ........................................ 27 Timothy F. Duruz, Independent Higher Education Consultant, USA Here the author discuses the vast array of collaborative communication tools that have been incorporated into modern day education that rely on the internet as a main delivery mechanism. With the employment of newer technologies geared towards instruction, we often ignore both the genesis and best practices for use of these innovations, which can be traced to collaborative scientific and educational efforts and experimentation in the latter half of the twentieth century. A brief discussion on the history of technology and information sharing follows the section on pedagogical issues. Chapter 4 ICT Applications in U.S. Higher Education ......................................................................................... 47 Michelle O. Crosby-Nagy, George Washington University, USA John M. Carfora, Loyola Marymount University and the Immersive Education Initiative, USA The applications of information and communications technologies (ICTs) for education, including multi-user virtual environments and their returns to teaching and learning in U.S. higher education are examined in this chapter. ICT applications are most valuable when used in the context of courses with a team-based approach to learning or collaboration opportunities. Driving forces of ICT integration are discussed here, including the internationalization of higher education and the millennial generation as the new customers of higher education. Recommendations for the fundamentals of positive ICT applications and integration are provided, as well as a discussion about the future of ICT applications such as MUVEs. Chapter 5 Digital Intelligence: A New Way of Knowing ...................................................................................... 59 Nan B. Adams, Southeastern Louisiana University, USA The multiple intelligences theoretical framework is discussed in this chapter and is used by the author to argue for the recognition of the emergence of a new, digital intelligence. Each of the dimensions of a discrete intelligence as described by this framework is satisfied along with a discussion of the nature of knowledge, ways of knowing and the nature of how society describes intelligence. These discussions are then used as further evidence that considerations for the ways digital communication technologies are changing the way we think and learn are imperative to effective educational practice. Chapter 6 Faculty Professional Learning: An Examination of Online Development and Assessment Environments .............................................................................................................. 66 Olga M. Alegre, University of La Laguna, Spain Luis M. Villar, University of Seville, Spain Alegre and Villar, in their chapter “Faculty Professional Learning: An Examination of Online Development and Assessment Environments” discuss the model Faculty Electronic Professional Learning and Portfolio (FEPLP). This computer-mediated model includes a range of multiple representations of
teaching competences that seek to provide for different professional development programs for faculty in higher education, increases e-mentoring interactions, and provides a more closely reflection on campus e-learning experiences. The authors also investigate future staff developments including further competence module and online course development inspired by this model. Section 2 Elements of Education in Virtual Environments Chapter 7 The Affordances of Second Life for Education .................................................................................... 94 Craig A. Cunningham, National-Louis University, USA Kimball Harrison, Virginia Beach City Public Schools, USA In this chapter, the authors discuss a general theory of meaningful learning using technology that can be applied to Second Life as well as other technologies. Followed, is discussions on particular aspects of Second Life that might support meaningful learning. Recommendations for educators who are interested in exploring the possibilities of Second Life are also discussed. While the chapter focuses its discussion on Second Life, the theoretical framework and even many of the examples apply to any virtual world that allows users to build persistent objects and utilize scripts. Chapter 8 Learning in Virtual Worlds: A Situated Perspective ........................................................................... 120 Antonio Santos, Universidad de las Américas Puebla, México Although MUVEs are powerful technologies with great possibilities for instructional purposes, we are still at the early phase of adoption and in need of a clearer understanding of how we learn within a virtual world. In this chapter the author explores different ways of employing MUVEs to take advantage of its educational potential. A set of instructional strategies framed within the situated learning paradigm to increase the quality of learning is presented along with recommendations of research questions that could be used to validate the proposed instructional strategies. Chapter 9 CSCL Techniques in Collaborative Virtual Environments: The Case of Second Life ....................... 139 Thrasyvoulos Tsiatsos, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece Andreas Konstantinidis, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece Theodouli Terzidou, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece Lazaros Ioannidis, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece Chrysanthi Tseloudi, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece This chapter reviews and compares the most promising collaborative virtual environment platforms, which have been used or proposed for supporting educational activities in terms of their potential to support collaborative e-learning. The most promising environment according to the results of this review is Second Life. The authors also present the features that were implemented within the Second
Life to facilitate both the jigsaw and fishbowl collaborative e-learning techniques followed by a case study. Chapter 10 Designing Web-Based Educational Virtual Reality Environments ..................................................... 157 Kosmas Dimitropoulos, University of Macedonia, Greece Athanasios Manitsaris, University of Macedonia, Greece A study of the benefits arising from the use of virtual reality technology and World Wide Web in the field of distance education are presented in this chapter, as well as an exploration of the role of instructors and learners in such a network-centric modes of education. Emphasis is given to the design and development of web-based virtual learning environments to successfully fulfil educational objectives. In particular, the chapter includes research on distance education on the Web and the role of virtual reality, as well as study on basic pedagogical methods focusing mainly on the efficient preparation, approach and presentation of the learning content. Finally, an innovative virtual reality environment for distance education in medicine is discussed, which reproduces conditions of the real learning process and enhances learning through a real-time interactive simulator. Chapter 11 Teaching in the Virtual Theatre Classroom ......................................................................................... 179 Stephen A. Schrum, University of Pittsburgh at Greensburg, USA The author of this chapter discusses how he uses his course “Theatre Technology” for the development of design concepts regarding how a MUVE might be useful in theatre education. The application of digital technology to the realms of theatrical performance and teaching has augmented the production of, and the methodology behind, the teaching of the theatrical art. Multi-User Virtual Environments (MUVEs), such as Second Life®, afford educators a rich interactive setting that both mirrors and enhances education and training in theatre, in the areas of ancient site reconstruction and student exploration of a virtual world. Chapter 12 Case Study of ASCIT: Fostering Communication through Interactive Technologies for Long Term Sick Children .............................................................................................................. 195 Fabian Di Fiore, Hasselt University, Belgium Peter Quax, Hasselt University, Belgium Wim Lamotte, Hasselt University, Belgium Frank Van Reeth, Hasselt University, Belgium This chapter describes how several elements of Multi-user Virtual Environments were integrated into a demonstrator enabling long term sick children to communicate efficiently with their regular school and classroom learning environment as part of the ASCIT project. The authors describe three interacting parts in the development cycle. An analysis of a user evaluation concludes the chapter as to what extent the system efficiently addressed the identified concerns in the analysis stage of the project.
Chapter 13 Staging Second Life in Real and Virtual Spaces ................................................................................. 217 Russell Fewster, University of South Australia, Australia Denise Wood, University of South Australia, Australia Joff Chafer, Coventry University, UK Fewster, Wood and Chafer present, The Staging Second Life project focusing on students enrolled in a second-year visual theatre course at the University of South Australia. Students attempted to stage the online virtual world Second Life in a conventional proscenium arch theatre. The students actively played between these two media in turn becoming intermedialists. Within the hypermedium of the theatre they were able to remediate the conventions of Second Life via their bodies and manipulation of objects. This chapter describes the practical aspects of the course as well as the emergent theory of intermediality behind the project. Chapter 14 The Benefits and Unanticipated Challenges in the Use of 3D Virtual Learning Environments in the Undergraduate Media Arts Curriculum ............................................................. 236 Denise Wood, University of South Australia, Australia Described in this chapter, are the benefits as well as the unanticipated challenges in engaging undergraduates in immersive experiences within the 3D virtual environments, in particular, Second Life. The chapter draws on trials of three undergraduate courses in which students attended virtual classes and undertook media-related activities in Second Life. Findings from student evaluations suggest both benefits and challenges in the use of 3D virtual environments in the undergraduate curriculum. In discussing these findings, the author challenges assumptions about the readiness of ‘Generation Y’ students to adapt easily to such learning environments. Section 3 Perspectives of Language Learning Chapter 15 Task Design for Language Learning in an Embodied Environment................................................... 259 Paul Sweeney, Independent Consultant in E-Learning, UK Cristina Palomeque, University of Barcelona, Spain Dafne González, Universidad Simón Bolívar, Venezuela Chris Speck, Languagelab.com, UK Douglas W. Canfield, University of Tennessee, USA Suzanne Guerrero, Richmond Publishing, Mexico Pete MacKichan, Freelance Consultant in E-Learning, Greece This chapter examines the affordances that MUVEs offer in this field of Language Learning, starting with a brief overview of the various theoretical frameworks underpinning successful teaching and learn-
ing of languages in general and how they apply to MUVEs. The authors also discuss a range of issues arising from a team’s extensive practical experience in material design in the embodied environment of Second Life. Concluding the chapter, the authors provide several examples related to task design. Chapter 16 Multi-User Virtual Environments: User-Driven Design and Implementation for Language Learning ........................................................................................................................ 283 Julie M. Sykes, University of New Mexico, USA Many features offered through MUVEs make them potentially transformational, contexts for the development of second language (L2) skills that are traditionally inaccessible in the foreign language classroom. This chapter offers a brief introduction to relevant research on MUVEs and language learning, followed by two primary sections. The first section describes one component of a larger empirical study of the first MUVE built specifically for learning Spanish pragmatics. The following section utilizes the empirical findings, combined with lessons learned from classroom implementation, to suggest design considerations for those wishing to implement MUVEs in the language classroom. Chapter 17 Foreign Language Instruction in a Virtual Environment: An Examination of Potential Activities.......................................................................................................................... 306 Regina Kaplan-Rakowski, Southern Illinois University Carbondale, USA This chapter conveys the experiences of the author using the virtual world Second Life to supplement classroom-based instruction of an introductory foreign language class. Selected activities, along with detailed practical plans and theoretical justifications for those activities are discussed followed by a discussion on the technological characteristics of SL (communication features, logging features, and features used to ease activity preparation). The importance of situated cognition, cultural relevance, self-pacing, students’ autonomy, and interactivity with diminished inhibition are examined as well. Chapter 18 Education-Oriented Research Activities Conducted in Second Life .................................................. 326 Jiuguang Feng, Towson University, USA Liyan Song, Towson University, USA Feng and Song in their chapter discuss how Second Life can be used to enhance student learning with respect to collaborative learning. They examine how Second Life has been used as a professional tool, a synchronous online system, a virtual environment simulating social influences of real life, and as a communication tool between teachers and students. A overview of education-oriented research activities and foreign language instruction are investigated along with its relation to various learning paradigms
Section 4 Techniques, Applications, and Designs for Education Using Virtual Environments Chapter 19 Enhancing Tertiary Healthcare Education through 3D MUVE-Based Simulations ........................... 341 Charlynn Miller, University of Ballarat, Australia Mark J. W. Lee, University of Ballarat, Australia Luke Rogers, University of Ballarat, Australia Grant Meredith, University of Ballarat, Australia Blake Peck, University of Ballarat, Australia This chapter focuses on the use of 3D Multi-User Virtual Environments for simulation-based teaching and learning in healthcare education. The authors describe their research conducted over the past three decades and combine it with newer developments and examples that have come about since the advent and proliferation of the “3D Web”. The chapter adopts a research-informed approach to surveying and examining current initiatives and future directions, backed by relevant literature in the areas of online learning, constructivism, and simulation learning. The chapter concludes with a discussion of future initiatives from a point of view of best practice in MUVE-based healthcare simulations. Chapter 20 New Augmented Reality Applications: Inorganic Chemistry Education............................................ 365 Manuela Núñez Redó, Universitat Jaume I de Castellón, Spain Arturo Quintana Torres, Universitat Jaume I de Castellón, Spain Ricardo Quirós, Universitat Jaume I de Castellón, Spain Inma Núñez Redó, Universitat Jaume I de Castellón, Spain Juan B. Carda Castelló, Universitat Jaume I de Castellón, Spain Emilio Camahort, Universidad Politécnica de Valencia, Spain Augmented Reality (AR) systems for teaching Inorganic Chemistry to university-level students is explained if this chapter.AR with 3D models can be used as an educational aid to help students gain spatial intuition. This is really important and useful in disciplines like Inorganic Chemistry, where solving problems related to 3D crystal structures, understanding these structures or facing symmetry related problems can be supported by computer generated 3D graphics. The authors discuss their system based on inexpensive webcams and open-source software followed by results from a survey. Chapter 21 Interactive Models Based on Virtual Reality Technology Used in Civil Engineering Education ...... 387 Alcínia Zita Sampaio, University of Lisbon, Portugal Pedro Gameiro Henriques, University of Lisbon, Portugal Carlos Oliveira Cruz, University of Lisbon, Portugal Octávio Peres Martins, University of Lisbon, Portugal Here, the authors discuss how virtual reality technology can be applied as a complement to threedimensional modeling, leading to a better communication. The chapter explains how techniques of
virtual reality were applied on the development of teaching models related to a construction activity. The involvement of virtual reality techniques in the development of educational applications brings new perspectives to the teaching on subjects related to the field of Civil Engineering education. Chapter 22 Subject Matter Content Creation for Second Life Delivery: Teaching GIS in Second Life ............... 414 Michael DeMers, New Mexico State University, USA This chapter provides a set of basic guidelines for preparing instructors for an incremental approach to content delivery. The author uses examples from the discipline of geography, and focuses on his subspecialty of geographic information systems (GIS), describing the use of basic tools contained within Second Life for creation of active course content through small learning objects. Concluding the chapter, real-world examples of in-world learning objects from a laboratory-based course are used to illustrate how traditional course content can be transformed to hands-on exercises in the virtual environment. Chapter 23 New Life for Corporate Training ........................................................................................................ 433 David R. Dannenberg, Virginia Tech, USA In the chapter “New Life for Corporate Training”, the author emphasizes the use of Second Life for corporate training and development programs. The author combines the use of ethnographic evaluation with a review of the existing literature surrounding the corporate use of Second Life. The affordances of Second Life, the communication channels, the immersive self-directed building opportunities, and rich, content driven environments, are a unique mix that makes Second Life an ideal medium for developing corporate learning programs. Chapter 24 Self-Developing a MUVE for Research and Educational Innovations .............................................. 453 Nick V. Flor, University of New Mexico, USA The technology and instructional materials for creating virtual worlds have advanced to the point where a single person, can develop a virtual world that is suitable for experimentation. With this chapter, the author aims to demystify the development of virtual worlds by describing the fundamental skill set one should acquire to self-develop a virtual world. The skills examined are: modeling, texturing, animation, and programming. By practicing and building on various techniques, one can create the interiors and characters for more complex MUVES. Chapter 25 Collaborative Learning through Flexible Web CVE: The Experience of WebTalk ............................ 471 Ugo Barchetti, University of Salento, Italy Alberto Bucciero, University of Salento, Italy Luca Mainetti, University of Salento, Italy
This chapter describes the technological platform of the authors’ learning experiences and its evolution over the years. Insights into the reasons leading to significant design choices are presented along with guidelines on how to deal with related technological issues. Emphasis is placed on the authors’ development of WebTalk as it relates to Collaborative Learning Environments. Compilation of References .............................................................................................................. 491 About the Contributors ................................................................................................................... 535 Index ................................................................................................................................................... 548
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Foreword
Education can be said to be one of the cornerstones of society as we pass information and new discoveries of human kind, from generation to generation. While the methods, mediums and technologies used for education have certainly changed over time, the concept and importance remains unchanged. With an increased emphasis and interest from the educational community over the past several years, I believe that technologies such as virtual environments will have a strong impact on our future as a learning environment. We no longer are bound to the physical classroom, or even by the text-based nature of the flat Internet. We have the computational resources to create multi-user spaces, experiences and representations, where we can participate in realistic settings and with realistic digital objects. The quality of education can be enhanced by improvements in technology overall. This book, Teaching through Multi-User Virtual Environments: Applying Dynamic Elements to the Modern Classroom, presents various possibilities provided by virtual environments. It hinges on the idea of using innovative technologies to enhance teaching and learning. The chapters in this book relay the message that education is truly a dynamic force, changing as society advances and new technologies are brought forth. As an educator myself, I value these evolutions, often embracing these new technologies as both a challenge and privilege to use. Innovation is necessary in order to convey important concepts to my students in these modern times. This book aims at presenting new and innovative ways of teaching through virtual representations. Some chapters lead us to question our way of thinking about teaching and learning and how we present material to students through these new mediums. These types of questions and reflections often lead to change and further innovation. Other chapters shed light on background, historical and technical details and knowledge in several areas related to IT and virtual representations. Readers of these chapters can gain insight on the “How’s” and “Why’s” of the progress and developments of these technologies. Section three is devoted to learning foreign language through immersion in virtual worlds. Many authors have written about their experiences and firsthand knowledge about using these types of technologies, providing indispensible advice and feedback. In the fourth Section, the authors provide their experiences and knowledge of how these technologies have been used through experimentation and best practices. The four sections: “Ideas, Perspectives and Education”, “Elements of Education in Virtual Environments”, “Perspectives of Language Learning” and “Techniques, Applications and Designs for Education using Virtual Environments” all unify into a unique and complete resource. The chapters presented here are a great resource to other educators, researchers and others that are interested in this area of study. Overall, this is an impressive collection of reports on not only theoretical discussion, but also on empiri-
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cal studies such as case studies, applications, tutorials, best-practices and many examples of what has been done. It is my hope that through this book more educators can see the potential benefit from using innovative technology like virtual environments and spark many new ideas and experiments. Yuanqiong Wang Towson University, January, 2010 Yuanqiong Wang is an Assistant Professor in the department of Computer and Information Sciences at Towson University. She teaches courses on the fundamentals of information systems and technology, database systems, data organization, and decision support systems. Her current research interests include Social Computing, Human Computer Interaction, Online Learning, Knowledge Management and Decision Support Systems.
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Preface
Teaching is perhaps one of the most ancient practices. Ever since we have had societies and social behaviors, we have felt the need of transmitting our experience to others. At the beginnings of intelligent societies, humans were able to transmit only procedural knowledge. Actions such as hunting, hiding or creating a safe place where to sleep were perhaps some of the first subjects transferred from a father to a son or between friends. As humanity evolved, so did our procedure for exchanging information. Communication soon took over in order to exchange not only procedural but also episodic and semantic types of notions. Such novelty allowed humans to tell stories to peers or their offspring. The fact that we were able to not only exchange the knowledge of motions but also of facts marked a decisive milestone in the history of the world and humankind. Of course progress did not stop as we started being able to transfer procedural and episodic memories. Writing such facts and algorithms on a physical medium that could be kept in time was yet another milestone in the development of humankind. The one person who knew so much now could change not only the lives of the people who followed her or him, but many others were able to gain their knowledge by reading what such person wrote. The facts and milestones of education are countless: typeset print, binding for books and colored inks are just small parts of a story that leads to these days. The way in which we attempt to transmit information to those who wish to learn are utilizing a record number of means. When we see someone walking down the street with headphones on, we generally assume they are listening to music; what if they are listening to a recorded lecture? When parents see their child having fun while playing colorful videogames they may start shaking their heads, wondering how they could limit the time spent in front of a computer or a television; what if that child was interacting with software created specifically for supplementing the material studied in class? Technology has helped us move forward in the way teachers deliver information to students by light years, considering what difference multiple colors of ink printed on paper made for anatomy students all around the world. We are now able to watch videos on music players that perhaps show us how the heart behaves as different pathologies exist. We could listen through our headphones at the different beats and simulate cardiac stress, if we wished. By no means is the state of technology as applied to teaching a point of arrival, it is merely a milestone that records yet another advancement. Years from now we will have solutions that today we cannot embrace even as science fiction. But today is where we live, and we are laying the foundations for the future. Some prefer working with audio files, others with static Internet-based technologies, and others more with advanced 3-dimensional interpretations of concepts that also use Internet-based technologies to exchange information. The idea of a multi-user virtual environment, or MUVE, has had a significant boost in importance and usage over the last several years. At first, such environments were built for recreational, social and perhaps business uses. Finding better ways to interact with chat partners or to
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share white boards with customers and business partners around the world were perhaps some of the goals that drove the development of these technologies. Shortly after, teaching found its way into a new niche, one that allows users to sense the real-time presence of others not only through fast text message responses but also by letting them “see” their peers’ virtual representation. The idea of Internet-based instruction of course is not a new concept. This form of transmission of knowledge has been thriving in the world of education for years through asynchronous methodologies. The idea of virtual worlds and MUVEs breaks the idea of asynchronicity and adds the interactive element to working with others through the Internet. When two people are interacting with a single object through their own virtual representations, or avatars, they are able to see each other. They are able to exchange information and notes directly, or if they wish they can just work on a problem individually. In either case, the technology is not limiting them, but it is enabling perhaps geographically dispersed students to interact. Of course physical distance is not the only reason why virtual worlds and MUVEs should be employed; factors such as limited schedules and an illness may also prevent two students from working in person. And yet, we have not even scratched the surface of how these many spaces can be used. Much can still be created and imagined. Imagine yourself teaching a young audience about Tsunamis. As a matter of fact, some of the survivors from the events that took place in Asia in 2006 have to thank a little girl who recognized the events that precede such catastrophic event, warning the people on the beach early enough. Some teachers are blessed with classrooms filled with students who have a rather active fantasy and are very receptive to auditory cues, thus making a vivid spoken lecture allowing them to understand what the Tsunami looks like. But what if all of our students preferred reading the material and processing it individually? What about the saying, “that a picture is worth a thousand words”? Can we utilize different mediums to teach? Can we use a virtual environment to simulate and show to all our students the warning signs of a Tsunami? Of course we can, and we should. Immersion can be a powerful tool in many contexts. Most of the retention by students comes from interacting directly with the subject matter, perhaps the least is associated with lectures, and yet we keep lecturing. And we lecture about subjects that may be heavily dependent on visual and conceptual cues that are better transferred through images and simulations. The technology is available, why not use it? Our fascination and curiosity with new technology has often led us into many interesting research areas and projects. This book is one such venture. Several years ago, we became fascinated with virtual environments and the sheer potential they could offer (in many domains, not just limited to an educational context). While there are many applications of the various flavors of virtual reality, our focus naturally started to gravitate to educational uses. When we brainstormed new teaching ideas and the construction of new spaces and learning objects, MUVEs seemed to fit perfectly with many of our ideas. While some ideas seemed useful and practical (even easy to implement), but upon use in the classroom, they fell flat. Just like teaching in a traditional classroom or through some type of online content delivery system, some things work perfectly while other approaches just fail miserably leaving a bitter taste of how these technologies could ever be useful. While we all can certainly experiment on our own to see what works, the expertise compiled in this volume is priceless. One of the driving factors for compiling this book was the lack of organized content and a one stop resource for current work on using these types of environments. One often has to search the web for articles, online journals, conference proceedings and individuals websites for answers and ideas. So we hope that this book can help serve as a useful resource with many new ideas, current research and trends with the combined expertise of all of the experts describing their projects and experiences. Many of the chapters also contain many references,
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pointing us in the right directions. It is also our hope that this book can serve as a window into a world of innovation brought forth by many new technologies and innovation to those completely new to these ideas, just starting, or to see from a different viewpoint. Teaching through Multi-User virtual environments: Applying Dynamic elements to the Modern Classroom is meant to highlight the work of educators daring enough to teach in these new frontiers of education. It is with great appreciation to all the contributors of this book, to be able to present their excellent ideas, work and various perspectives. The book is divided into four main parts, each with its own focus. Section one starts us on our journey by focusing on various educational constructs, foundations and literature related to virtual environments, general technology and teaching. Section two contains many chapters related to teaching and learning in virtual worlds from the perspective of many different disciplines. The chapters in this section range from the theoretical, to case studies and even to experimentation. The third section deals with using multi-user virtual environments for teaching foreign language. Many here see the benefits of these types of tools through immersion and interaction. It’s interesting to see how the chapters in section three share a similar theme and objective, but each set of authors have very different approaches, focuses and perspectives. Finally in the section four, we see many interesting applications of these technologies in diverse range of areas. Through these four sections, it is our hope that we can inspire more readers to explore new technology in creative and useful ways. Section 1: Ideas, Perspectives and Education, highlights main concepts just as the section heading implies. Here various ideas, perspectives and educational backgrounds are presented. In Overcoming Objections to MUVEs in Education, Dr. Laughlin points out common objections to the use of these technologies for education. It seemed like a perfect starting point, as readers can examine this chapter to gain insight on why these objections arise and what can be done to support the use of MUVEs. In The Recursive Knowledge Development Model for Virtual Environments, Adams and DeVanny discuss concepts and important instructional strategies for student engagement in virtual environments as well as their Recursive Knowledge Development model. Duruz presents The Techno-Pedagogical Context of Distance Learning: Conceptual Roots, where he discusses many of the technical and historical components of education based technology and tools providing readers with a throughout background while focusing on pedagogical issues. In ICT Applications in U.S. Higher Education by Crosby-Nagy and Carfora, we are given insights related to Information and communication technologies for education with an emphasis on MUVEs. In Adam’s chapter, Digital Intelligence: A New Way of Knowing, we see a theoretical framework for multiple intelligences and discussions on knowledge and how new technologies are changing our concepts and educational practices. In the final chapter in this section, Alegre and Villar present in their chapter, Faculty Professional Learning: An Examination of Online Development and Assessment Environments, the FEPLP Model (Faculty Electronic Professional Learning and Portfolio). They focus on faculty development, interaction, and provide reflections on campus e-learning experiences. Next we see how virtual environments can be utilized in various contexts. Several chapters in this section offer valuable resources, advice, case study methodologies and application on their related domain. Section 2: Elements of Education in Virtual Environments provides many avenues of exploration related to MUVEs. Starting this section, Cunningham and Harrison’s chapter The Affordances of Second Life for Education, explore how technologies like Second Life can be used and applied to learning. They discuss how Second Life can be used in meaningful ways, but also how these same ideas can be adapted to other technologies. Next in Learning in Virtual Worlds: A Situated Perspective, Santos examines the advantages of learning in these new mediums as it relates to the situated learning paradigm. The
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author also provides various recommendations and research questions as it relates to learning in virtual worlds. Authors Tsiatsos, Konstantinidis, Terzidou, Ioannidis and Tseloudi compare in their chapter, CSCL Techniques in Collaborative Virtual Environments: The Case of Second Life, several virtual environment platforms. Based on their findings, they discuss Second Life and their case study. Next, in Designing Web-Based Educational Virtual Reality Environments, Dimitropoulos and Manitsaris discuss the benefits of using virtual reality technologies for education, emphasizing the design and developments of online virtual learning environments. They also talk about a VR environment that can be used for distance education in the realm of medicine. Chapter eleven by Stephen Schrum, Teaching in the Virtual Theatre Classroom, presents his Theater Technology course and how MUVEs can be used in theater education. Authors Di Fiore, Quax, Lamotte and Van Reeth describe how long term sick children can participate in a regular school classroom as part of their ASCIT project in the chapter, Case Study of ASCIT: Fostering Communication through Interactive Technologies for Long Term Sick Children. The Staging Second Life project presented in the chapter, Staging Second Life in Real and Virtual Spaces by Fewster, Wood and Chafer present work by the authors related to a visual theater course as students experimented with the correlations of real life and Second Life using it as a hyper-medium. Concluding section two, Denise Wood’s chapter The Benefits and Unanticipated Challenges in the Use of 3D Virtual Learning Environments in the Undergraduate Media Arts Curriculum, describes the benefits and often unanticipated challenges engaging students in 3D environments. Dr. Wood describes her findings from trials from three undergraduate courses. Shifting our focus to learning foreign languages through MUVEs, in Section 3: Perspectives of Language Learning, the authors of the chapters contained in this section focus on Language Learning. Task Design for Language Learning in an Embodied Environment by Sweeny, Palomeque, Gonzalez, Speck, Canfield, Guerrero and MacKichan is one such chapter. Drawing from their expertise and experience in this area, they discuss the affordances of MUVEs and the theoretical frameworks needed to be successful, concluding with examples related to task design. Next is Sykes chapter, titled Multi-User Virtual Environments: User-Driven Design and Implementation for Language Learning. Here the author discusses the necessary skills for learning a second language through MUVEs as well as discussing a study on a MUVE built for learning Spanish pragmatics followed by empirical findings and lessons learned from classroom use. In Foreign Language Instruction in a Virtual Environment: An Examination of Potential Activities by Regina Kaplan-Rakowski describes the author’s experiences using Second Life as a supplement for classroom instruction in a foreign language course. Many activities and practicalities are outlined in this chapter. The last chapter of this section written by Feng and Song, Education–Oriented Research Activities Conducted in Second Life discuss how the platform can be used to enhance student collaboration and learning, while providing an overview of foreign language instruction related to various learning paradigms. In the fourth division of the text, Section 4: Techniques, Applications and Designs for Education Using Virtual Environments, contains many insightful chapters relating to various types of design issues, applications, cases and uses of virtual environments and digital representations. In the chapter by Miller, Lee, Rogers, Meredith and Peck titled Enhancing Tertiary Healthcare education through 3D MUVE-Based Simulations; readers are provided with the details of the authors’ current research and experiences in the area of educational healthcare simulations. They also provided a grounded theoretical background for online learning, constructivism and simulation based learning. Next we are presented with a chapter regarding learning Inorganic Chemistry via Augmented Reality. In the chapter New Augmented Reality Applications: Inorganic Chemistry Education by Manuela Núñez Redó, Arturo Torres, Ricardo
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Quirós, Inma Núñez Redó, Juan Carda Castelló and Emilio Camahort, we see how augmented reality and 3D models can be used as an educational tool to grasp complexity. The authors describe the details of their project the results of a survey. Sampaio, Henriques, Cruz and Martins in Interactive Models Based on Virtual Reality Technology Used in Civil Engineering Education discuss how this technology can be used as a complement to 3D modeling. The chapter includes a discussion of how Civil Engineering education can be enhanced through virtual spaces and 3D models. DeMers explains in Subject Matter Content Creation for Second Life Delivery: Teaching GIS in Second Life, how instructors can use such platforms for content delivery, especially with GIS via learning objects. The author discusses various examples of in-world learning objects and how traditional course content can me tailored for exercises in virtual environments. New Life for Corporate Training by David Dannenberg explains how environments like Second Life can be used for corporate training and development programs. After a discussion of realted ideas and research within this domain, we see how and why such a platform can be a powerful tool for corporate learning programs. Nick Flor in his chapter, Self-Developing a MUVE for Research and Educational Innovations, we get a look at how we can create our own virtual environments from the ground up. The author discusses important skills such as: modeling, texturing, animation and programming. Concluding section four, authors Barchetti, Bucciero and Mainetti describe the author’s experiences and development of WebTalk as it relates to Collaborative Learning Environments. In today’s information rich society where we are dependent on computers, mobile devices and of course the Internet, have become accustom to these elements as the norm. In other cases however, certain areas of society still see technology as “bad” or as a non beneficial element. And others see technological innovation as detrimental; promoting “quality” while preserving the essential methodologies of the past. Education is one area where technological and pedagogical innovation is key to the future success of the educational process. More importantly though, for the future of today’s students and for the educators teaching today’s digital natives we should embrace, not only new ideas and technologies, but useful ones. What is the next step in the evolution of Education? Many agree that the Internet and Web-based distance learning have changed the face of education forever. By simply looking at the chapters contained in this volume we can clearly see a shift in direction with the many fascination research directions by the contributors here. Unbridled by the physical constraints of both time and space of the typical classroom, virtual spaces transcend many limitations of presence and physicality. Without getting into the details of an agreed upon definition of “what is digital” or “virtual”, or how we precisely define these sometimes intangible or indescribable notions, I think many will agree of its application. Often when explaining or describing virtual worlds to our students, we strongly encourage them to experience these spaces for themselves. Despite all of the video clips, graphics and sensory rich text descriptions of these places, one needs to experience them to truly understand the potential. For anyone not accustom to virtual environments, we hope at least from reading this volume that your interest is peaked enough to experiment with these fascinating mediums. Again, it is with a sincere “Thank you!” to all the contributors willing to share their research and expertise to make this edited book possible and to those daring to explore new technologies. Giovanni Vincenti Towson University, USA James Braman Towson University, USA
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Acknowledgment
Our sincerest gratitude and appreciation go out to the many people who helped us make this book a success. These types of endeavors are truly the culmination of many people working towards a common goal. It has been a true pleasure working with such a talented and courteous group of individuals. We send our deepest thanks to all the contributors to this book. Without your hard work, insight and dedication, this project would not have been possible in its current form. We would also like to thank the members of the Editorial Advisory Board for their hard work and advice and for lending a helping hand in the review process. We would like to also convey our appreciation so all of the reviewers. Many colleagues, peer researchers and friends volunteered their time to assist and were a significant help, offering very detailed and constructive comments to strengthen the content of this book. For the many anonymous colleagues that helped us spread the word about this book and its initial call for chapters, we would also like to acknowledge your work and our appreciation for you help. The publishing team at IGI Global has been a tremendous help and we would like to thank them for all of their efforts, assistance and guidance throughout the entire process. Last but certainly not least, we would also like to also thank our families, friends and colleagues for their support and patience throughout this project. Thank you to everyone who made this book possible! Giovanni Vincenti Towson University, USA James Braman Towson University, USA January 2010
Section 1
Ideas, Perspectives, and Education
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Chapter 1
Overcoming Objections to MUVEs in Education Daniel Laughlin University of Maryland Baltimore County, USA
ABSTRACT This chapter addresses some of the objections to the use of multi user virtual environments (MUVEs) in education that proponents of that medium are likely to encounter. Selection of the objections on the MUVEs literature and the author’s experience championing MUVEs as education tools within a government agency. Many of the objections apply broadly to MUVEs of both game and non-game varieties. The goal of this chapter is to help the reader overcome the arguments raised by others to build support for the use of MUVEs. Some guidance is also given for an approach to overcome objections based on mental model theory.
INTRODUCTION It is human nature to be resistant to significant change. The brain has powerful tools that come into play to protect existing beliefs and practices both consciously and subconsciously. In their work on the persistence of beliefs, Lord, Ross and Lepper (1979) cataloged a number of common techniques that people use to protect exist beliefs against evidence that contradicts them. They label this process assimilation bias. Among the tools that enable assimilation bias are discounting information DOI: 10.4018/978-1-61692-822-3.ch001
as non-credible, rejecting research that contradicts existing beliefs and inaccurately interpreting evidence as supportive. Inevitably, when significant changes are proposed for education, they provoke these kinds of resistant responses from those with strong pre-existing beliefs about education. A multi user virtual environment (MUVE) by its very nature is an innovative and significant change, and thus likely to encounter resistance when being proposed for educational use. The contents of this chapter are based on the author’s experience working with a federal agency’s office of education for the better part of a decade. That NASA is currently working
in MUVEs and is sponsoring development of a massively multiplayer online game to foster science, technology, engineering and mathematics learning and career exploration is due in no small part to the arguments presented here. This chapter is intended to be an aid to the reader who has a desire to use a MUVE for education and who needs the support of others to achieve that goal. Whether the people who need to buy in to the plan are administrators, students, parents or colleagues, there are likely to be objections that need to be overcome. This book is full of good examples of uses of MUVEs for educational purposes. There are cases of best practices and reports on the application of MUVEs in other chapters. It is not the purpose of this chapter to convince the reader that a MUVE can be a useful tool for education. The goal of this chapter is to help prepare the reader to overcome external objections to using MUVEs in the classroom. It proceeds from the assumption that the reader already supports such use and is seeking the means to convince others of the value of that course.
BACkgROUND The rapid growth of personal computer ownership and access in the last two decades of the twentieth century led to many efforts to bring computers into schools and to innovated education with technology. Computer labs became a standard feature in almost every school and personal computers appeared in many classrooms and homes as teachers, administrators and parents in with schoolwork at home. While applications like word process, email and spreadsheets drove business and schools to buy computers, the purchase of many home computers included “and to play games” on the list of justifications. Demand for gaming on computers helped drive the development of greater processing power and better graphics capabilities. While schools tended to focus on business-type applications, a growing population of gamers
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was demanding and paying for greater power and speed and better visual experiences from their computers at home. Through the 1980s and 90s, graphics moved from monochrome to 16 (CGA) then 64 (EGA) then 256 (VGA) and eventually reach more than 16 million (Truecolor) colors. Game rendering technology advanced from 2D to 2.5D to 3D by the late 1990s. The first online, shared computer environment was a text-based, fantasy realm called MUD standing multi-user dungeon (Bartle, 1999). It was written at the University of Essex in 1978, and was run on the university mainframe until 1987. It was an adventure game of the swords and sorcery type. What made it different from other games at the time was that people could play together online, and that opened new possibilities for online social interaction and community building (Rheingold, 1993). Other text-based, multi-user environments followed using the term MUD and later MOO, and some are still available. Sometimes the term multi user virtual environment is used for these text-based programs, but often MUVE is reserved for the graphically-based virtual worlds that grew out of the merger of the MUD idea with the increased computer power previously noted. Today there are dozens of MUVEs available. Some of them are massively multiplayer online games (MMOG) like World of Warcraft. Others are not games at all, but shared environments like Second Life without scoring, missions, character classes or other structure features common to games. Often the distinction between games and non-games is hard to make even for those familiar with MUVEs. There is also a lack of consensus about both definitions and terms that further hinders discussion and research. Usually at this point in the background material a well defined body of literature can be identified as a solid starting point for the work presented. This chapter is about making a persuasive case for the use of MUVEs in education. There is not a convenient body of literature neatly pulling together the obstacles the proponent of MUVEs is likely to
Overcoming Objections to MUVEs in Education
face. Indeed, much of the resistance that may be encountered will be of a reflexive nature that does not lend itself well to self-examination, research or publishing by the resistors. An administrator who sees no use for MUVEs in their school is not the most likely candidate to publish an article about why they do not want that innovation. The teacher whose proposal to bring a MUVE into their classroom has been rejected by their administration is not likely to be inspired to write a scholarly paper on why they cannot use MUVEs. A Google search produces no results for terms like “why schools don’t use MUVEs”. Yet logic suggests that there must be obstacles to bringing MUVEs to classrooms. In Second Life more than 4000 people belong to the Second Life Education (SLED) group, but only about 200 educators are actually holding any classes in the environment and only twelve K-12 “virtual school houses” existed on the Teen Grid in 2008 (Perchar, 2008). The disparity in numbers between those interested and those implementing implies the existence of obstacles to implementation. A catalog of obstacles can be compiled by taking a broader approach than is common in a conventional literature review. Substituting terms like “virtual worlds” or “games” turns up literature that warns of the reputed dangers of the broad spectrum of immersive synthetic media (Anderson et al., 2003; Berger, 2002; Walsh et al., 2004). These accounts tend to focus on violence in video games (Anderson et al., 2003, Walsh et al., 2004) or against isolation of the individuals immersed in computer media (Johnson, 2005). That the authors are not specifically addressing MUVEs is not sufficient reason to dismiss their concerns. Many of those who will raise objections to MUVEs do not have enough knowledge of MUVEs to tell game from non-game MUVEs or even from non-MUVE games. Another way to add to the catalog of objections to MUVEs is to review articles critiquing specific MUVEs and, where possible, extend the negative criticism to the entire domain. With a reported ten million
accounts, Second Life has one of the largest user bases among MUVEs and has therefore received more media and research attention than most others. Fears for the safety of children (Perchar, 2008), commercial contamination (Boellstroff, 2008) and rampant sexual licentiousness (Wagner, 2007) may be extended by association to other MUVEs.
COmmON OBjeCTIONS TO mUVeS Since the average person without MUVEs experience cannot tell a non-game virtual environment from a computer or video game, some of the objections they are likely to raise will be inspired by preconceptions about games. This section identifies the most common charges leveled at computer and video games and presents an elaboration followed by a refutation or an explanation intended to overcome or at least soften those objections. Most of the negative opinions formed about games, and by extension MUVEs, are inspired by stories in the news media or through contact with third parties who play games or use MUVEs (Kutner and Olson, 2008). When experienced gamers or “MUVErs” have negative beliefs about MUVEs they are usually specific rather than blanket objections to the medium. One likely explanation is that their greater familiarity with the medium allows them to form more complex assessments. Or, in terms of Johnson-Laird’s (1983) mental model theory, exposure has allowed them to develop a more sophisticated mental model of the MUVEs. More sophisticated models tend to lead to more nuanced understanding of complex issues and undermine a tendency to broad generalities. The following objections are not listed in order of significance. All those objections that mention games should be understood to stem from seeing MUVEs and games as the same medium and should be read with the opening “MUVEs look like games and…”
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Overcoming Objections to MUVEs in Education
Objection: Video and Computer games are Inherently Frivolous
education, the objection that games are inherently non-educational cannot be true.
Stemming from a belief that entertainment and education are two entirely separate endeavors, this objection categorically rejects the premise that games or MUVEs have any place in formal education (Brugeja, 2004). In some ways this may be the hardest objection to overcome because it is an absolute statement on the nature of games. On the other hand, the black and white nature of the belief renders it vulnerable to attack on strictly factual grounds. If it can be demonstrated that any use of the medium is not frivolous, the entire belief may become open for reconsideration. A British study using commercial games in classrooms found that one major issue teachers participating in the study encountered was the belief that they were not doing serious teaching (BECTA, 2001). Administrators, colleagues, parents and even students may doubt the academic value of using games in the classroom. Cassell and Jenkins (2000) believe that early engagement with computers through games can help students develop strong computer literacy and prepare them for futures in technical careers. Computer games have been used successfully in schools to help students understand history experientially by immersing them in a historical context (Squire and Jenkins, 2003). Clarke et al. (2006) have used their River City MUVE to teach National Science Standard based content in biology and ecology through scientific inquiry. The World of Warcraft in School project is using that commercial MUVE game as the basis for teaching math skills and concepts (Gillespie, 2009). The motivation for students is to improve their playing ability by mastering the mathematics needed to make informed, complex decisions within the game. All three examples are cases of games or MUVEs used in school to improve student performance in core curricular areas. As the published research demonstrates that at least some games and MUVEs can enhance formal
Objection: Video and Computer games have Caused a Surge in Violence in the US
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Many people believe that the violent content of some video and computer games promotes violent behavior in players (Kutner & Olson, 2008). This belief appears to be caused by media reports and by exposure to scenes from games with violent play element. It is interesting to note that even players who believe they are not personally impacted, express concern that others, especially younger players, could be adversely affected by the games. Many of the reports linking games to violence come from two major sources: The National Institute on Media and the Family (NIMF) and the self-identified violence consultant David Grossman. NIMF is a media watchdog group founded and run by David Walsh, his students and family. Grossman is a former US Army colonel with a background in psychology. Walsh (1998) and Grossman and DeGaetano (1999) blame video games for increasing levels of violence in the United States. It is a difficult claim to sustain when the FBI statistics for the period from 1994 to 2005 show a 50% decrease in the amount of violent crime in the US (Bureau of Justice Statistics, 2006). The preliminary reports for 2008 indicate that the reduction in violence is nearly 60% from the 1994 high. Walsh and Grossman probably did not have access to the most recent data when they made their claims, so they could not have seen how large a decline was coming. But the “high point” in 1994 was less than a 5% increase over the average rate for the previous two decades. In contrast, there was a 10% decrease in violent crime between 1994 and 1996. It goes against common sense to seek to identify a cause for an increase in violence when the available evidence does not show a significant increase in violence. That people continue to make claims that
Overcoming Objections to MUVEs in Education
video games promote violence is a testament to the power of perception to trump reality. In 2005, Senators Clinton, Lieberman and Bayh introduced legislation to restrict access to video games on the grounds they encourage violent behavior (McCullagh & Broache, 2006). That same year violent crimes by both children and adults reached an all time low in US record keeping history (Bureau of Justice Statistics, 2006). Much of the research on computer games leading to increased aggression is based on observing study participants in a lab setting playing a video game. It is not based on actual cases of demonstrated aggression (Anderson & Bushman, 2001). Furthermore, the studies often equate aggression and violence with no support for that assumption. While this is a typical method of research, it does not demonstrate a causal link between computer games and violence. To date, there is no widely accepted study that shows that playing violent computer games, watching violent television shows, or listening to violent music leads to violent behavior. Belief in a linkage persists, but so far, the linkage is no more substantiated than any other urban legend. Like Big Foot and the notion that NASA faked the Apollo Moon landings, the myth that video games lead to violence remains persistent but unfounded.
Objection: games and mUVes are Inherently Anti-Social and Addictive The objection about the addictiveness of games and MUVEs and their promotion of anti-social behavior go hand in hand. Obviously, if a person is spending more time in virtual worlds, they cannot be spending the same amount of time they used to on all other pursuits (Fischoff, 2008). Stoll (1995) expressed the concern of many parents and teachers when he published the conviction that computer games displaced other, more worthwhile activities among children and students. He included in his charges that computer games are addictive. Creasy and Myers (1986) found
that in the initial intense interest of new games displaced other activities temporarily but time committed to games decreased quickly. Durkin (1995) found that the stereotypical obsession with playing games was episodic rather than constant as typically claimed (Stoll, 1995). As is often the case with stereotypes, it is likely that the model of gamers completely obsessed with video games to exclusion of all else including sunlight, exercise and social interaction is a caricature based on selective consideration of evidence. While there are many gamers who play obsessively periodically, there are few verified reports to match the stereotype. Microsoft released Halo 2 on November 9, 2004 with record-breaking sales of more than two million copies the first day (Surette & Thorsen, 2004). By November 11, reports of players beating the game began to appear on the Internet. Since the game can be expected to take at least 20 hours to play all the way through, some players were likely living up to their promises to skip work or school to master the game. Playing a game for more than twenty hours in two days is probably a bit obsessive; especially if the player is shirking standing commitments to do so. But it is reasonable to believe that the Halo 2 fanatics who did so went back to work or school after they beat the game. Otherwise there would have been a rash of news stories about Halo 2 causing serious problems for players. The reality is that even the most obsessive players only play obsessively when they have a new game that hooks their interest. It took three and half years to develop Halo 2. A chain of blockbuster releases did not follow it week after week after week. Most computer and video games lose their compelling sense of excitement over time. The more obsessed and committed the player, the sooner they are likely to beat the game. Even if a player wanted to stay in an obsessive state about games, there are simply not enough quality game releases to maintain it. MUVEs and games are subjected to a double standard under this objection. Kutner and Olson (2008) point out that a student who practices
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Overcoming Objections to MUVEs in Education
basketball or studies physics several hours each day, is praised for their dedication and hard work. But a student who plays an equal amount of video games is considered by most adults to be behaving inappropriately. Yet it is likely the athlete, scholar and gamer are acting on the same impulse toward obsessive interest that most of their peers share through adolescence and the teen years. When it comes to MUVEs, the assumption that time in the virtual environment equates to time cut off from social interaction is simply wrong. From the first MUD to the latest MMO, the appeal of multiplayer online interaction has been mainly about interacting with other people (Bartle, 1999). The swords and sorcery themes of MUDs and MMOs tie back directly to “pencil and paper” or “table top” role playing games, particularly Dungeons and Dragons. Those games were, and are, inherently social in nature. What outside observers either fail to perceive or simply do not value, is the fact that using a MUVE is a social behavior. It may be a different social behavior than the observer is used to, but, as one axiom puts it “virtual world, real people”. Despite dismissal by outsiders that virtual social interactions are shallow and essentially meaningless, many MUVE users consider them just as important and real as their other relationships. Even when not playing online, games form a core part of young people’s social interactions as they gather to play in groups and talk about strategies and experiences together (Kutner and Olson, 2008).
Objection: games and mUVes only Appeal to males Based on the traditional stereotype of gamers as teenage males who live in their parents’ basements and play games alone and obsessively, this objection expresses concern that MUVEs are not an educational medium that will be popular with female students (Kutner & Olson, 2008). According to the Entertainment Software Association (2009), the average gamer is 35. In fact,
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despite the stereotype, boys 17 and under make up only 17% of gamers while women over 18 represent 34% of the gaming population. According to a report by the Pew Internet and American Life Project (2008) 99% of boys and 97% of girls between the ages of 12 and 17 play computer or video games. ESA (2009) reports that 50% of all American’s play games or MUVEs regularly and 63% of parents believe the medium has potential benefits for their children. Sherman (2007) predicts that by 2011, 80% of American Internet users will have an avatar in a virtual world. Given those figures, it is a statistical inevitability that one day, the majority of teachers, administrators and students will be experienced gamers and regular MUVE users. Kutner and Olson (2008) surveyed 1,254 seventh and eighth grade students in two middle schools about their game playing habits. Only 17 of the students reported never having played a computer or video game. Sixty-three others had not played any games in the past six months. Of the remaining students, 92% of males and 68% of females reported playing games at least one hour each week. While the lists of favorite games for males and females differed in order, there was significant overlap in titles between them. This indicates that girls not only play games but have broader genre interests than is typically supposed.
The Stereotype of Gamers There may have been some good reasons for developing the stereotypes of computer gamers. Creating stereotypes is a normal function of the human brain in its continuous effort to organize its understanding of the world. Stereotypes are generalized sets of rules to help categorize and make predictions about particular things. All stereotypes are caricatures by nature, as they are based on gross generalizations about imperfectly understood classes of things based on limited observation and input. It is important to keep in mind that stereotypes are always about things that are
Overcoming Objections to MUVEs in Education
not intimately familiar or well understood. They are a shortcut to save time and brain power. Like all pre-existing beliefs, they tend to be stubbornly resistant to change once established. Consider the development of the first persistent computer game, Spacewar. In 1961, members of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology’s (MIT) Tech Model Railroad Club (TMRC) encouraged one of their own to develop an interactive computer game. The TMRC was made up entirely of male students. Because computers were a rare and costly resource at the time, the TMRC had to make use of “borrowed” computer time at night and on weekends when other users were not around. The cathode ray tube display they used could be more easily viewed in a darkened environment than in a bright one. The TMRC had their own jargon that they used when discussing their projects and interests. Both the topics and the language would have been hard to understand and of little interest to most outsiders. The first complete version took Steve Russell six months and 200 hours of otherwise free time to complete. Had he not had dedication and commitment to the project, it would likely never have been completed (Kent, 2001). In that story are all of the elements of the stereotype of computer gamers as well as programmers and most other classes of dedicated computer aficionado. It is likely that many readers anticipated a word like geek as the last word of the previous sentence. Even intelligent, reasonable, open-minded people are subject to the pervasive power of stereotypes. Each of the elements of the computer geek stereotype could be seen in a good light in the Spacewar story: each is not inherently negative. The actors speak common jargon like any other specialized field of interest. That language is inaccessible to outsiders by its very nature. What in the stereotype is called obsession can be clearly seen as commitment. The secretive, darkened environment is necessary because of the tenuous rights of the TMRC members to use the valuable computer resources and the limits of the screen technology. Most of these elements are no
longer factors in the modern world of computer and video games. Computers are no longer a rare and exclusive resource. The majority of households have computers and video game consoles so the technology is not inherently limited to dedicated enthusiasts willing to bend rules to get access (ESA, 2009). While some studies still find a difference in the level of interest in computers between males and females, more recent studies report a narrowing gap (Heeter, 2004). The jargon of computers and computer games persists, but much of it has filtered into mainstream usages and the size of the domain affinity group has ballooned to the point where it is no longer an exclusive club. Social interactions around and about computers and computer games have become mainstream rather than fringe. Indeed, with 92% of 2-17 year-olds playing computer games, the hobby can hardly be considered clandestine (Walsh et al., 2004). Advances in computer monitor technology means that most screens are as readable in direct light as they are in a darkened room. Portable technology for both computers and consoles means that games are quite literally moving out of basements and into the outdoors. Since it still takes time to beat the biggest, most challenging and rewarding games, however, the element of obsession still has a place in the description of many computer and video games.
Objection: mUVes are an Inefficient educational Tool This objection often stems from the perception that MUVEs are not a convenient fit into the schedule of classes in schools and do not deliver information at the same rate as traditional teaching methods. Implicit in the latter statement is the assumption that the rate or density of information transfer is a measure of good education and that the transfer should be rated at the transmission point rather than the reception point. The tacit assumption is that transmitting more information more quickly
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Overcoming Objections to MUVEs in Education
is better than transmitting less information less quickly. There are, after all, curricular standards that teachers must meet. With a limited amount of time in each school year, that requirement dictates that topics must be covered at a certain minimum rate in order to reach the target. The assumptions underlying this common approach to education were challenged in the National Mathematics Advisory Panel (2008) report Foundations for Success: The Final Report of the National Mathematics Advisory Panel. Among the recommendation of the panel is the streamlining of mathematics education to cover fewer topics in greater depth. The affordances of MUVEs support the goal of providing deeper understanding of concept by allowing manipulation and exploration of applications of principles in a virtual environment (Clarke et al., 2006). Students work in a structured space that allows them to test their understanding of mathematical concepts and enhance the sophistication of the mental models resulting in increased retention and recall of original concepts (Johnson-Laird, 1983). Of course, unless and until the recommendations of National Mathematics Advisory Panel are implemented by state, school districts and textbook publishers, teachers will still be held accountable for covering all of the current curricular material. Under those conditions, no matter what the subject area, it may be a productive approach to first explore the use of MUVEs as an enhancement to current practices rather than a replacement.
Objection: Being Online Puts Youth at Risk Concerns about the safety and privacy of students are bound closely together. There is a common fear that the Internet exposes young people to risks of victimization by predators and provides access to inappropriate or harmful content. The drive to protect students’ privacy is usually based on a sense that privacy will protect them from sexual
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predators. Reports of online sex crimes frequently appear in the media (Potter and Potter, 2001). While there are incidents of these kinds online, the perception of the frequency, likelihood and character of these events is out of line with reality. According to the Final Report of the Internet Safety Technical Taskforce (2008), the perception of online threats to children is both significantly exaggerated and generally misunderstood. Despite fears, young people are more likely to be the victim of sex crimes initiated through local contact with a family member or friend than by a stranger online (Wolak, Mitchell, & Finkelhor, 2003). Contrary to the impression given by media reports, the rate of sex crimes against young people, like other crime, decreased by more than 50% between 1992 and 2006 (Wolak, Mitchell, & Finkelhor, 2006). Rather than fueling an increase in sexual predation, the growth of the Internet has coincided with a dramatic decrease. Wolak, Mitchell, & Finkelhor (2003) calculate that online incidents account for only 7% of all sex crimes against minors. Of course, any exploitation of a minor is tragic, but the statistics do not support the level of worry commonly felt by concerned adults. The tendency of adults to believe that adolescents and teens are vulnerable to exploitation because they are naïve is itself naïve. Research shows that by age 12 or 13, young Internet users understand the social realities of the Internet at the same level as adults (Yan, 2006). Research indicates that almost all teens and adolescents who had sexual encounters with adults through the Internet did so after seeking such contact (Internet Safety Technical Taskforce, 2008). While that fact may not be any less disturbing to parents, it certainly should make them reconsider the nature of the danger they are on guard for. Despite a tendency to use the term children when referring to all sexual activities relating to minors, instances of online solicitation of pre-adolescent children are virtually non-existent (Wolak et al., 2008). It is unlikely that the information in this section of the chapter will keep concerned parents, teach-
Overcoming Objections to MUVEs in Education
ers and other adults from worrying about the safety of young people. It is part of the nature of being a responsible adult to be concerned for the safety of the next generation. Hopefully, this data can help put those fears in proper perspective. As in the real world, there are undoubtedly some risks involved in exploring and learning in virtual worlds. But seen in proper perspective, reasonable risks and reasonable precautions should be an acceptable part of life. Opportunities to learn and grow in virtual worlds, like those in the real world, should not be taken away from young people because of misplaced and disproportionate fears.
Objection: The Technology Requirements are too High This objection often addresses two different aspects of the technology. On the one hand it literally means that the required hardware and software is either not available or not accessible. On the other hand, it often means that the potential users lack sufficient command of the technology to comfortably or appropriately implement it. These are significant concerns. Even the best technology is useless if the intended users cannot access it. Warburton (2008) identified five technical barriers to implanting MUVEs in education: client side, server side, managing use of the MUVE, skill mastery and shared community skills. Client side issues include all the logistical factors that need to be overcome to bring a MUVE into a school. When computer games are used in schools, teachers can work around issues like not having a higher than 1-1 student to computer ratio. Students can take turns with some on the computers while others do different projects, or students can share a computer and work as a team (Pahl, 1991) Such group play can promote reflection and deeper learning during the activity. Some computer companies design games with educational applications with shared computer use specifically in mind (Muzzy Lane, 2009). However, the presumption with most MUVEs
is that each student user will have access to an individual computer to gain the full benefits of the shared virtual environment. Harvard’s River City Project (2007) lists a 1-1 computer ratio as a one of the hardware requirements to use that MUVE. Technical requirements can be a misleading barrier to MUVE implementation. Each MUVE, like each game, has particular requirements. If the available hardware, software or network cannot support a particular MUVE, it is possible to look for another one with different requirements. Often the objection will be presented before the requirements are known. Hardware and software requirements are seldom an insurmountable obstacle as long as an implementer is willing to consider different MUVEs. Another element of client side technical barriers can be the issue of accessing the Internet from schools. Usually this is not really a technical problem as much as it is a policy or practice problem. While once there was a significant question as to whether a given school had Internet access at all, nearly all schools now have broadband access to the Internet (Wells & Lewis, 2006). Many schools have firewall or Internet access policies in place that restrict use of the Internet. Which network ports are open through the school or district fire wall may be a matter of policy at the local, district or even state level. Different network applications, including MUVEs, have different port requirements. Since the default security setting for ports is to have them closed or blocked, it may take active technical support to open the appropriate ports for a MUVE to be implemented unless the MUVE uses ports that are already open for another application. If a MUVE has uncommon port requirements, they will usually be identified in the technical documentation along with other requirements. Firewalls and other software obstacles to Internet access are controlled by people and policy, so the solution to theses barriers is to convince the appropriate controlling authorities. That is something better handled in a direct discussion rather than submitting an
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Overcoming Objections to MUVEs in Education
impersonal request in writing. The gate keepers to the Internet can become strong allies in the use of MUVEs in education and should be cultivated directly like any other supporter for the project. Server side barriers to MUVE use are usually beyond the control of the local user. These issues include technical problems and maintenance issues on the host server. Unless the host server is housed and operated locally, these issues are external. There are two key approaches to dealing with them. If there is a routine maintenance plan, users should take it into account in their planning and avoid scheduling use of the MUVE during those times. The other strategy is simply to appropriately manage expectations. Every experienced MUVE user knows that sometimes technical problems happen. Setting realistic expectations that occasionally things will happen that prevent use of a MUVE and having an alternate plan ready, will help everyone involved cope. Another area where managing expectations is important is in regard MUVEs themselves. Technologies tend to go through a five phase hype cycle starting with first awareness and eventually reaching a settled level of productive use (Gartner, 2008). Phase two of the hype cycle involved unrealistic expectations of the technology fueled by excitement and novelty followed by a period of disappointment when those unrealistic expectations are not met. While enthusiasm for the use of MUVEs in education is both good and necessary for adoption of the technology, the more unrealistic the expectations for impact on education are, the more negative the reaction in the third phase of the cycle will be. It is incumbent upon the advocate of using MUVEs in education to help their audience develop realistic expectations while cultivating that audience’s support. The person who plans to use a MUVE for education needs to develop sufficient skill to use and manage the technology. Just as with any other educational technology, the user should have a clear plan for intended use as well as sufficient mastery to carry out the plan. It should go without
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saying that a novice to MUVEs who does not yet know how to function personally in a virtual environment is not ready to guide others in using that environment. A user does not have to be an expert in every aspect of MUVEs to use one educationally, but they do have to be sufficiently comfortable with their own skills to be able to provide the same kind of guidance to students in the virtual world that they would expect to provide in the physical world. Since the goal of this chapter is to help an innovator get support for using MUVEs in education, it presupposes that the reader will not be trying to make such a case until they feel qualified to do so. That being the case, the innovator is in the best position to assess their own readiness. The argument that teachers are not technically skilled enough to use MUVEs loses its power when it is the teacher making the case. When all of the other technical and personal objections and obstacles have been overcome, the educator introducing a MUVE into their teaching will have to introduce their students to the environment. Almost all students have experience playing computer and video games and MUVEs are based on the same underlying technology (ESA, 2008). Therefore the interface and concept of MUVEs should not be a significant obstacle to use. Students will need to have time to become comfortably functional in the MUVE, and the educator will need to establish ground rules for communications (White, 2009). Decisions need to be made about what is acceptable use and behavior. If the MUVE supports both voice and text chat, how will it be decided when and which to use? If avatars have different names than their users, will it be convention to use the avatar names or the users’ names? In a case where all the users are physically in the same room, the latter is an option. These and other issues of conduct and etiquette need to be explicitly addressed for the users. Documenting policies and practices in writing will encourage consistency and provide a convenient reference document to help make the case for using MUVEs.
Overcoming Objections to MUVEs in Education
Objection: mUVes Promote mental Laziness This objection may be more of a generalization based on an attitude about the deleterious effects of popular culture than a specific charge against MUVEs. There is a widely held belief that young people spend too much time online and using electronic devices that dull their minds (Stoll, 1995). Since MUVEs are an online medium, they are often viewed with the same general suspicion as other computer-based activities. The fundamental flaw in this charge against computers (as well as television before computers) is that young people’s minds are not being dulled. Rather IQ scores have been increasing an average of three points a decade (Flynn, 1998). There is no reason to seek a cause for decreasing intelligence, when mentally abilities are actually increasing. The assertion that digital entertainment is a waste land is hard to support. Johnson (2005) asserts that anyone holding the view that computer games and virtual environments are mindless entertainment pandering to a desire for instant gratification is unlikely to have any significant experience of these complex and demanding digital media. While reading is often held to be a more worthy intellectual pursuit, MUVEs require active engagement and should be expected to be more mentally stimulating. Complex virtual environments are inherently mentally challenging. It is counter intuitive to believe that things that are mentally challenging promote mental decline or laziness.
mAkINg THe CASe FOR mUVeS IN eDUCATION This chapter does not contain arguments for choosing to use MUVEs in education. Rather it offers counter arguments to the objections that are likely to be raised in opposition to using MUVEs in education. The assumption here is that the reader is preparing to undertake the challenge of winning support for the educational use of a
MUVE. The contents of the chapter are intended to help prepare the reader to succeed in that effort. It may be helpful to think about the effort to win support for the educational use of a MUVE as a game. One feature of computer and video games is the ability to repeatedly fail on the way to eventually succeeding. An obstacle that is particularly difficult may require numerous tries to overcome; it is the eventual success rather than the number of failed attempts that ultimately matters. When it comes to getting approval to try an innovative approach, the sales adage “ten nos and a yes is still a yes” is true. While the end point of making the case for implementing a MUVE in an education setting is ultimately implementation and unqualified support, it should be considered an acceptable outcome to garner enough support for a trial implementation. Careful selection of metrics, intelligent use of the MUVE and fostering reasonable expectations should result in a successful pilot. The trial implementation will also provide the chance to educate the target audience about MUVEs and, through exposure and expanded understanding, build greater support. Once a MUVE is in place, it will be easier to continue using than it was to initially implement. It will represent the new status quo with all of the resistance to change that comes with that position.
ReFeReNCeS Anderson, C. A., Berkowitz, L., Donnerstein, E., Huesmann, R. L., Johnson, J., & Linz, D. (2003). The influence of media violence on youth. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 4, 81–110. Anderson, C. A., & Bushman, B. J. (2001). Effects of violent video games on aggressive behavior, aggressive cognition, aggressive affect, physiological arousal, and prosocial behavior: A meta-analytic review of the scientific literature. Psychological Science, 12, 353–359. doi:10.1111/1467-9280.00366 11
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Bartle, R. (1999). Early MUD History. Retrieved October 5, 2006, from http://www.mud.co.uk/ richard/mudhist.htm BECTA. (2001). Computers for Teachers - An evaluation of Phase 1: Survey of recipients. Coventry: BECTA. Berger, A. (2002). Video games: A popular cultural phenomenon. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers. Boellstorff, T. (2008). Coming of Age in Second Life. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Bugeja, M. (2004). Interpersonal Divide: The Search for Community in a Technological Age. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Bureau of Justice Statistics. (2006). National Crime Victimization Survey Violent Crime Trends, 1973-2005. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice. Cassell, J., & Jenkins, H. (2000). From Barbie® to Mortal Kombat: Gender and Computer Games. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press. Clarke, J., Dede, C., Ketelhut, D. J., & Nelson, B. (2006). A design-based research strategy to promote scalability for educational innovations. Educational Technology, 46(3), 27–36. Creasy, G., & Myers, B. (1986). Video Games and Children: Effects on Leisure Activities, Schoolwork, and Peer Involvement. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 32, 251–262. Durkin, K. (1995). Computer Games: Their Effect on Young People: A Review. Sydney: Office of Film and Literature Classification. Entertainment Software Association (2009). 2009 Sales, Demographics and Usage Data: Essential Facts About the Computer and Video Game Industry.
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Fischoff, S. (June 28, 2008). Internet Addiction: Real or Really Techno-Hysteria – Part 1, Psychology Today. http://www.psychologytoday.com/ blog/the-media-zone/200806/internet-addictionreal-or-really-techno-hysteria-part-1 Flynn, J. R. (1998). IQ gains over time: Toward finding the causes. In Neisser, U. (Ed.), The rising curve: Long-term gains in IQ and related measures (pp. 25–66). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. doi:10.1037/10270-001 Gartner, Inc. (May 27, 2008). Understanding the Hype Cycle, When to Leap on the Hype Cycle. Retrieved from http://www.gartner.com/pages/ story.php.id.8795.s.8.jsp Gillespie, L. (2009) World of Warcraft in Schools. Retrieved from http://wowinschool.pbworks.com/ Grossman, D., & DeGaetano, G. (1999). Stop teaching our kids to kill: A call to action against TV, movie and video game violence. New York, NY: Crown Publishers. Heeter, C. (2004). Multimedia: From Wagner to Virtual Reality, edited by Randall Packer and Ken Jordan. New York: Norton, 2001. Internet Safety Technical Taskforce. (2008). Enhancing Child Safety and Online Technologies. Retrieved from http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/ pubrelease/isttf/ Johnson, S. (2005). Everything bad is good for you: how today’s popular culture is actually making us smarter. New York, NY: Riverhead. Johnson-Laird, P. (1983). Mental Models (Cognitive Science, No 6). Harvard University Press. Kent, S. L. (2001). The Ultimate History of Video Games: From Pong to Pokemon-The Story Behind the Craze That Touched Our Lives and Changed the World. Three Rivers Press.
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Kutner, L., & Olson, C. (2008). Grand Theft Childhood: The Surprising Truth about Violent Video Games. New York: Simon & Schuster.
Rheingold, H. (1993). The virtual community: Homesteading on the electronic frontier. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
Lord, C. G., Ross, L., & Lepper, M. R. (1979). Biased assimilation and attitude polarization: The effects of prior theories on subsequently considered evidence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37(11), 2098–2109. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.37.11.2098
River City Project. (October 25, 2007). River City Application Technical Checklist. Retrieved from http://muve.gse.harvard.edu/rivercityproject/pdf/ MUVEES_Tech_Checklist.pdf
McCullagh, D., & Broache, A. (March 9, 2006). Clinton, Lieberman propose CDC investigate games. GameSpot. Retrieved June 15, 2009 from http://www.gamespot.com/news/6145659.html Muzzy Lane. (January, 26, 2009).Muzzy Lane competitively selected for DARPA grant to create games to teach middle school science. Retrieved from http://www.muzzylane.com/ml/ news_story/142 National Mathematics Advisory Panel. (2008). Foundations for success: The final report of the national mathematics advisory panel. Washington, DC: U.S. Departments of Education. Office of Policy Analysis and Research (2008). Virtual Worlds and Education. Georgia Tech Research Institute: Emily Perchar. Pahl, R. H. (1991). Finally, a good way to teach government! – A review of the computer simulation game “SimCity”. Social Studies, 82(4). Perchar, E. (2008). Research Virtual Worlds and Education Report. Georgia Tech Research Institute, Office of Policy Analysis and Research. Pew Internet and American Life Project. (2008). Teens, Video Games, and Civics. New York, NY: Potter, R. H., & Potter, L. A. (2001). The Internet, Cyberporn, and Sexual Exploitation of Children: Media Moral Panics and Urban Myths for Middleclass Parents? Sexuality & Culture, 5(3), 31–48.
Sherman, C. (April 26, 2007). Gartner Suddenly an Expert on Virtual Worlds. Virtual World News. Retrieved from http://www.virtualworldsnews. com/2007/04/gartner_suddenl.html Squire, K. R., & Jenkins, H. (2003). Harnessing the power of games in education. Insight (American Society of Ophthalmic Registered Nurses), 3(1), 5–33. Stoll, C. (1995). Silicon snake oil: second thoughts on the information highway. New York, NY: Double Day. Surette, T., & Thorsen, T. (December 3, 2004). Halo 2 sales eclipse 5 million. GameSpot. Retrieved June 15, 2009 from http://www.gamespot. com/news/6114396.html?tag=result;title;3 Wagner, M. (May 26, 2007). Sex in Second Life. Information Week. Retrieved from http://www. informationweek.com/news/software/hosted/ showArticle.jhtml?articleID=199701944 Walsh, D. (1998). Eighth Annual MediaWise Video Game Report Card. Retrieved from http://www. mediafamily.org/research/report_vgrc_2003-2. shtml. Walsh, D., Gentile, D., Gieske, J., Walsh, M., & Chasco, E. (2004). Ninth Annual MediaWise Video Game Report Card. National Institute on Media and the Family. Retrieved from http://www.mediafamily.org/research/report_vgrc_2004.shtml. Warburton, S. (October 28, 2008). Six barriers to innovation in learning and teaching in MUVEs. Retrieved June 15, 2009, from Liquid Learning Web site: http://warburton.typepad.com/liquidlearning/2008/07/six-barriers-to.html 13
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Wells, J., & Lewis, L. (2006). Internet Access in U.S. Public Schools and Classrooms: 1994–2005 (NCES 2007-020). U.S. Department of Education. Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics. White, D. (March 31, 2009). Open Habitat Final Report. Open Habitat Magazine, Retrieved June 25, 2009, from http://magazine.openhabitat.org/ res/open-habitat-final-report Wolak, J., Finkelhor, D., Mitchell, K., & Ybarra, M. (2008). Online “Predators” and Their Victims. Myths, Realities, and Implications for Prevention and Treatment American Psychologist., 63(2), 111–128. Wolak, J., Mitchell, K. J., & Finkelhor, D. (2003). Internet sex crimes against minors: The response of law enforcement. Report prepared for the National Center for Missing & Exploited Children. Report # 10‐03‐022. Alexandria, VA. Wolak, J., Mitchell, K. J., & Finkelhor, D. (2006) Online victimization of youth: Five years later. National Center for Missing & Exploited Children. Report #07‐06‐025. Alexandria, VA.
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Yan, Z. (2006). What influences children’s and adolescents’ understanding of the complexity of the Internet? Developmental Psychology, 42, 1–11. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.42.3.418
keY TeRmS AND DeFINITIONS MUVE: This is a multi user virtual environment. Often synonymous with the term virtual world. MUVEr: Anyone who regularly uses a multi user virtual environment. This term is a parallel construction and counterpart to the word gamer commonly used self referentially by those who play games avidly. Games: This term refers to computer and video games. Some MUVEs are games. Virtual World: This is the increasingly popular name for persistent immersive synthetic environments. MUD: This is a multi user dungeon (sometimes dimension or domain is substituted for the D). MUDs are the original text-based ancestors of MUVEs. Assimilation Bias: This refers to the mental habit of undermining, filtering, reinterpreting or rejecting evidence that conflicts with existing beliefs.
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Chapter 2
The Recursive Knowledge Development Model for Virtual Environments Nan B. Adams Southeastern Louisiana University, USA Thomas A. DeVaney Southeastern Louisiana University, USA
ABSTRACT The concept of leveraging strategic control of the knowledge from teachers to students in virtual learning environments serves as the basis for determining how to move students through stages of knowledge acquisition to knowledge application and ultimately to knowledge generation in online settings. Instructional strategies for fostering student engagement in a virtual learning environment are identified as critical, and a number of relevant theories focusing on student learning, affect, needs and adult concerns are presented to provide a basis for transfer of knowledge from teacher to learner. A model is presented that combines the dimensions of knowledge approach, knowledge authority and teaching approach to demonstrate the recursive and scaffold design for the creation of virtual learning environments.
INTRODUCTION Virtual environments offer challenges and opportunities for innovative teaching and enhancement of student learning. Critical to this process are strategies to foster transfer of knowledge generation dispositions from teacher to learner. Implicit in this process is the facility for transitioning new knowledge to become internalized knowledge for learners so they may address specific problems they encounter, which is often the ultimate goal of DOI: 10.4018/978-1-61692-822-3.ch002
organized educational programs. In this facilitated learning paradigm, gradual release of responsibility for the learning shifts over time from the teacher or facilitator to the learner. During this process, the learner ultimately develops strategic control of the knowledge as may be evidenced through social interaction within the virtual environment. In traditional classrooms and educational activities, the teacher is central to the learning process. The teacher serves variously as guide, facilitator, motivator, and often as the authority for knowledge structure and student behavior when engaged in the learning process. This role
The Recursive Knowledge Development Model for Virtual Environments
changes in the virtual environment, where students often engage without observation or direct guidance from the teacher. The creator of a virtual learning environment must make certain assumptions. These assumptions are not small, but deal with the very nature of knowledge and knowing. These assumptions must be acknowledged and employed to guide the construction of virtual learning environments.
DIgITAL INTeLLIgeNCe: A ReSPONSe TO DIgITAL eNVIRONmeNTS In a previous discussion, Adams (2004) put forth the notion that a new intellectual style is emerging as a response to the interaction with digital technologies. Using the established Multiple Intelligences theoretical framework developed by Gardner (1993), it was argued that by recognizing a meta-intelligence termed Digital Intelligence, development of effective teaching and learning strategies to accommodate this new intellectual style would emerge. The model presented here seeks to serve this purpose and to further this argument.
THe CONFLICT The basic philosophical conflict in construction of virtual learning environments lies in the basic belief about what is considered knowledge, the structure of that knowledge, and what knowledge should be valued or championed. This may be illustrated by a brief discussion of the modern and postmodern views about reality and knowledge. Modernists believe that reality exists objectively and generally believe that knowledge has a definable structure. They believe it is the charge of the teacher to either lead or facilitate inquiry for students to discover this pre-existing structure and incorporate it into their own knowledge base
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to solve problems in a way that demonstrates their systematic understanding of a body of knowledge. In general, postmodernists believe that reality is a human creation that is socially constructed. The postmodern view that reality changes–and is constructed differently by each individual–necessitates less structured, more individually-oriented learning environments that provide student choice and serve to rely on the strategy of gradually allowing the learner to explore existing knowledge structures as they create their own knowledge structures. The focus is on the learner ultimately generating his or her personal knowledge from existing knowledge and information they encounter. Context often provides the social element for construction (Ozmon & Craver, 2007). Virtual environments exemplify postmodern belief. This highly changeable and infinitely responsive environment is wholly constructed by the mind of the author and then reconstructed by the mind of the visitor. The notion that rigid structure may be applied in this environment is only a computer virus away from changed reality. It is of great concern to the author that these virtual learning environments seek to develop whole, rather than partial constructions of reality, knowledge and knowing.
DIgITAL eNVIRONmeNTS DeSIgNeD FOR LeARNINg: SUPPORTINg THeORIeS The modern-postmodern conundrum is easily demonstrated by past and present approaches to the construction and use of online learning environments. Technological skill and educational expertise have not always been of equal measure in creating online learning environments. Those who could manipulate computer code were not necessarily versed on educational theory, and those who held reasoned philosophically grounded views on the nature of teaching and learning were rarely immersed in software design. Surely, with
The Recursive Knowledge Development Model for Virtual Environments
the shift from the use of the term ‘online learning’ to the notion of ‘virtual learning environments’, a sophistication of process and decidedly more responsive organization of resource may be considered. A brief and selected discussion of relevant theories and practices will be presented to guide the discussion of the development of the Recursive Knowledge Development Model for Virtual Environments. While no educational theory is rejected, each theory presented is considered for its current influence on educational practice and its relevance to virtual environments. Each theory has been summarized and a graphical representation of this summary has been developed to facilitate discussion of the agreement among theories for support of the derived Recursive Knowledge Development Model. The author must note that each existing theory is considerably more complex than presented here and suggests that interested parties access the references given for a broader understanding of each theory.
COgNITIVe THeORIeS Two major and somewhat opposing cognitive approaches to teaching guide current educational practice, both in classrooms and in virtual learning environments. The Behaviorist teaching paradigm may be seen as the modernist approach to knowledge conveyance, with an assumption that knowledge has a given structure and it is the task of the teacher to develop within the learner an understanding of this structure and an ability to utilize this knowledge to solve problems. The Constructivist teaching paradigm is more postmodern in its assumption that knowledge is constructed and therefore the student must develop his or her own knowledge structure based on personal experience and through discovery and experimentation with the information that exists that surrounds this area of knowledge. Behaviorism assumes a more linear learning process while constructiv-
ism assumes a recursive learning process. While at first glance, these approaches seem opposed, are they really? Could they possibly complement each other–especially in a virtual environment?
Behaviorism Behaviorism reflects a modern view of knowledge that assumes a learner is essentially passive, responding to environmental stimuli. The learner is assumed to start with a clean slate (i.e. tabula rasa) and learner behavior is shaped through positive reinforcement or negative reinforcement. Both positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement increase the probability that the antecedent behavior will be repeated. Conversely, punishment (both positive and negative) decreases the probability that the antecedent behavior will be repeated. Positive punishment indicates the application of a stimulus; Negative punishment indicates the withholding of a stimulus. A change in behavior is considered learning according to behavioral theories. Much of the underlying work that supports this theory was done with animals and then generalized to humans. Drill and Practice and Programmed Instruction are instructional strategies that embody the theory of behaviorism.
Drill and Practice As an instructional strategy, drill & practice is familiar to all educators. It promotes the acquisition of knowledge or skill through repetitive practice. It refers to small tasks such as the memorization of spelling or vocabulary words, or the practicing of arithmetic facts and may also be found in more sophisticated learning tasks. Drill-and-practice, like memorization, involves repetition of specific skills, such as addition and subtraction, or spelling. To be meaningful to learners, the skills built through drill-and-practice should are often used to serve as the basis for more meaningful learning. A significant amount of educational software,
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The Recursive Knowledge Development Model for Virtual Environments
especially at the elementary and secondary levels, utilizes drill and practice strategies.
Vygotsky’s Social Development Theory and Zone of Proximal Development
Programmed Instruction
Vygotsky (1978) proposed that social interaction profoundly influences cognitive development. His theory centers on the belief that biological and cultural development do not occur in isolation. He believed that the development process that begins at birth and continues until death is too complex to be defined by stages. His work describes a phenomenon he termed the Zone of Proximal Development which is defined as the distance between the actual knowledge level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving in collaboration with more capable peers. A central concept in Vygotsky’s theory is the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), which may be explained as zone of potential for cognitive development that limited to a certain time span. He defines the ZPD as having four learning stages. These stages range between the lower limit of what the student knows and the upper limits of what the student has the potential of accomplishing. The stages may be further divided as follows (p.35):
Programmed Instruction is a teaching method where new material (or knowledge) is presented to students in a graded sequence of controlled steps. Students progress through the programmed material by themselves at their own speed and after each step they then test their comprehension by answering an examination question or filling in a diagram. Immediately they are shown the correct answer or given additional information. The majority of computer software in use today utilizes programmed instruction principles. Many online learning environments employ operationalized behavioral teaching and learning assumptions through electronically delivered Programmed Instruction.
Constructivism Constructivism is generally considered to reflect a postmodern view of knowledge. It views knowledge as a product of reality. Constructivists consider learning to be an active process where knowledge is contextualized rather than acquired. Personal experiences guide the construction of knowledge. Learners continuously test their knowledge construction through social negotiation. The learner is not a blank slate (tabula rasa) but brings past experiences and cultural factors to a situation. Vygotsky and Bruner contribute unique constructivist approaches that are worthy of consideration when discussing construction of virtual learning environments; Vygostky for his belief in the social construction of knowledge and Bruner for his leadership in discovery learning for personal knowledge.
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• • • •
Stage 1: Assistance provided by more capable others (experts or teachers) Stage 2: Assistance by self, Stage 3: Internalization, Stage 4: Recursiveness through prior stages.
Vygotsky’s theory promotes contexts in which students play an active role in learning. Roles of the teacher and student are therefore shifted, as a teacher should collaborate with students in order to help facilitate meaning construction. Learning becomes a reciprocal experience for the student and teacher. The transfer of knowledge from facilitator to learner in knowledge development occurs through the gradual release of responsibility from the inter-psychological plane of teacher and student to ultimately the intra-psychological
The Recursive Knowledge Development Model for Virtual Environments
plane of self. Students ultimately become ‘owners’ of their knowledge because they are highly participant in its construction.
Bruner’s Discovery Learning Theory Bruner (1966) proposed Discovery Learning Theory as a constructivist learning theory based in personal inquiry. Bruner describes learning as an active process in which learners construct new ideas or concepts based upon their current/ past knowledge. Knowledge structures are used to provide meaning and organization to experiences and are intended to allow the learner to go beyond the information given. Bruner suggests the instructor should encourage students to construct hypotheses, makes decisions, and discover principles by themselves; in effect they should present information in such a way that students may build new knowledge on existing knowledge to facilitate a recursive learning process. It is assumed that students may be more likely to remember concepts and knowledge discovered on their own. This approach assumes that if learning activities foster student ownership of the knowledge, this knowledge will be meaningful to the learner. Bruner’s constructivist theory may be applied to instructional practice, as Kearsley (1994) surmises, by applying the following principles: 1.
2.
3.
Instruction must be concerned with the experiences and contexts that make the student willing and able to learn (readiness). Instruction must be structured such that it may be easily grasped by the student (spiral organization). Instruction should be designed to facilitate extrapolation and or fill in the gaps (going beyond the information given).
Affective Theories (Personal Likes and Needs) Bloom’s Taxonomy: the Affective Domain A committee of scholars led by Benjamin Bloom (1956) identified three domains of educational activities: the Cognitive domain which focuses on mental skills, the Affective domain which focuses on affect or likes and dislikes and the Psychomotor domain which focuses on the physical skills. Bloom and others (1956, 1973) developed taxonomies for the Cognitive and Affective domains; taxonomy for the Psychomotor domain was never developed. These taxonomies suggest a basically sequential model for dealing with tasks in each domain. Bloom’s taxonomy is widely accepted and universally employed when developing instructional materials. Because this inquiry seeks to describe strategies for internalizing knowledge through ownership, Bloom’s Affective Domain is considered for use within this model rather than the more commonly used Cognitive Domain Taxonomy. The Affective Domain Taxonomy is concerned with perception of value issues and ranges from mere awareness (receiving), through to being able to distinguish implicit values through analysis (Krathwohl, Bloom & Masia, 1973). The model includes the following levels of affect, from least engaged to most engaged: •
•
•
Receiving Phenomena: Learners are aware, willing to hear and receiving information. Responding to Phenomena: Learners are active participants with engaged responses that reflect personal motivation. Valuing: Learners begin to attach value or worth to a particular object, phenomenon, or behavior. This worth ranges from simple acceptance to the more complex state of commitment.
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The Recursive Knowledge Development Model for Virtual Environments
•
•
Organization: The learner contrasts different values, resolving conflicts between them, and creating a unique and organized value system. Internalizing values: The learner possesses a value system that controls his/her behavior. The behavior is pervasive, consistent, predictable and characteristic of the learner.
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Maslow (1954) sought to address the complexity of human behavior and presented the idea that human actions are directed toward goal attainment. He proposed that any given behavior could satisfy several functions at the same time; for instance, going to a bar could satisfy one’s needs for selfesteem and for social interaction. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs has often been represented in a hierarchical pyramid with five levels. The four levels (lower-order needs) are considered physiological needs, while the top level is considered growth needs. The lower level needs need to be satisfied before higher-order needs can influence behavior. The levels are as follows: • • • •
•
Self-actualization: morality, creativity, problem solving, etc. Esteem: includes confidence, self-esteem, achievement, respect, etc. Belongingness: includes love, friendship, intimacy, family, etc. Safety: includes security of environment, employment, resources, health, property, etc. Physiological: includes air, food, water, sex, sleep, other factors towards homeostasis, etc.
If we may assume that a virtual environment focused on learning takes on the same characteristics as the physical environments we currently inhabit, one might consider that the complexities
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of human behavior continue to exist in virtual classrooms and should be addressed.
Learning in Adulthood Kolb Adult Learning Process Model Kolb (1984) provides a descriptive model of the adult learning process. His model considers learning to be a recursive process that includes 4 progressive stages: Concrete Experience is followed by Reflection on that experience on a personal basis. This may then be followed by the derivation of general rules describing the experience, or the application of known theories to it (Abstract Conceptualization), and hence to the construction of ways of modifying the next occurrence of the experience (Active Experimentation), leading in turn to the next Concrete Experience. All this may happen instantaneously or over varied periods of time, depending on the topic. There may also be smaller recursion cycles of this process simultaneously.
Change in Adults: Acknowledging Personal Concerns Some may find this model a bit out of place when presented along with the previous models and theories. Allow the author to argue that adopting change may be considered a learning process. Suggesting that a group should adopt or ‘buy in’ to a new way of thinking is surely an educational process. This model for facilitating change is included in this discussion because it focuses directly on the concerns of the individual who is in the process of adopting a new way of thinking or doing things. These concerns may pose barriers to accepting new information and therefore should be addressed when developing virtual learning environments for adults. Fuller (1970) recognized the concerns of students in a teacher education program and created a model to facilitate student learning. This model
The Recursive Knowledge Development Model for Virtual Environments
linked the developmental concerns of student teachers to teaching strategies intended to foster the student’s own style and philosophy regarding the knowledge. Basically, the model was developed to foster ownership among students. The Fuller model was further refined by Hall, George & Rutherford (1979) to become the Stages of Concern model which identifies 4 general types of concerns that stretch across 7 stages of development that represent a cycle of student concerns about adopting new ideas or knowledge. These concepts are described in Table 1 below and have been modified to serve this discussion:
Combined model for Constructivist Teaching Figure 1 has been developed to visually represent the reviewed theories of learning. As the recursive nature of each theory demonstrates, learning theories, affective and need theories and adult learning theories are effectively attempting to accomplish the same task of fostering ownership for knowledge among learners. This graphical demonstration of shared purpose has been included to support those dimensions proposed in the Knowledge Development Model for virtual environments which include the learner’s developing knowledge approach, the teacher-student relationship with regards to knowledge authority,
and suggested teaching approaches for virtual learning environments.
Design of a Recursive Knowledge Development Model for Both Physical and Virtual Environments After the previous review of selected learning theories and their resultant models, the following derivative meta-model seeks to address the domains of affect and need employing discovery learning and scaffolding for recursive learning while recognizing the concerns of adult learners. This model deals with a description of three interrelated dimensions: the learner’s developing knowledge approach, the teacher-student relationship with regards to knowledge authority, and suggested teaching approaches. Much as Vygostky (1978) describes learning as a recursive process, it is assumed that each of these dimensions are cyclical and recursive and that this process may have several different instances occurring simultaneously.
Knowledge Approach The Knowledge Approach refers to the intended learning goals designed by the faculty member or instructor within the virtual classroom. These goals may range for initial understanding and skills development to application of acquired
Table 1. Stages of Concern. (Hall, George & Rutherford, 1979) Concern Impact
Stage
Learner concern
Refocusing
I have new ideas about how to use this knowledge
Collaboration
I am concerned about relating what I am learning with what others are doing with this knowledge
Consequence
How will knowing this affect other things I know?
Task
Management
How do I manage this new knowledge?
Self
Personal
How does this new knowledge affect me?
Informational
I would like to know more
Unrelated
Awareness
I am unaware of this body of knowledge
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The Recursive Knowledge Development Model for Virtual Environments
Figure 1. Recursive developmental learning models
knowledge to the ultimate goal of creating new, often locally developed knowledge to address complex real world problems. The description for the beginning, mid and ultimate goals on this recursive continuum are: (1) Knowledge Acquisition: Refers to the users initial student contact with the knowledge base. This often involves an interaction between the learner’s pre-existing framework of understanding and exposition to new knowledge structures. (2) Knowledge Application: Refers to the process of building and combining concepts through their use in the performance of meaningful tasks. (3) Knowledge Generation: Refers to the testing and tuning of conceptualizations
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through use in applied contexts. Through these applied contexts, new constructions may emerge or ‘holes’ in knowledge may emerge. The knowledge generation phase gives rise for a recursion of the process by exposing new areas of need for knowledge acquisition.
Knowledge Authority: The Changing Teacher-Student Relationship Vygotsky (1978) discusses the gradual release of knowledge from teacher or knowledgeable other to student or learner. Uniquely in the online environment, students are initially invested with the authority to move freely throughout the virtual environment. This may be controlled by timed offering of certain material and certain activities
The Recursive Knowledge Development Model for Virtual Environments
much as it is controlled by class meetings in the physical environment. It is suggested that much as students are provided the entire textbook in a face to face environment, virtual environments should be presented in their entirety (as a whole learning experience rather than disjointed parts) with the gradual release of knowledge authority from teacher to student demonstrated by the course organization. This provides a whole rather than partial view of the virtual reality construction of the knowledge to be explored. This also allows students to continually view the entire construction of the knowledge as they set about exploring the dimensions that make up this full construction.
Teaching Approach Teaching approaches range from the most behavioral strategy of drill and practice, through programmed instruction to constructivist strategies that include discovery learning and scaffolded learning activities. This model suggests that all of these techniques are useful in the virtual learning environment. A natural use of these strategies might begin with more behavioral strategies to convey basic terminology and other supporting skills and progress to constructivist teaching approaches to foster the Knowledge Application and Knowledge Generation goals of this model. Scaffolding of learning activities to continually expand the student Zone of Proximal Development (Vygotsky, 1978) should be a central focus for continued knowledge transfer and generation. For when new knowledge is being generated, student ownership of knowledge is central to this new construction of knowledge to solve new problems.
VIRTUAL eNVIRONmeNTS DeSIgNeD FOR LeARNINg: CONSIDeRATIONS FOR PRACTICe Most electronic learning environments seek to replicate existing traditional classroom teaching
and learning practice. In this environment you will find word intensive pages that are intended for students to read and be expected to ‘know’ for a later demonstration. While these learning sites may be easy to construct, they are hardly virtual environments that create a variety of learning opportunities to foster knowledge development. Their focus is Knowledge Acquisition and they imply that knowledge authority is possessed by the teacher or site creator and are not particularly open to student manipulation. As a virtual learning environment is developed the teacher or developer of the environment must consider the overall goals for student learning and within each of these goals determine the knowledge acquisition concerns, the knowledge application activities and determine how to foster knowledge generation through the discovery process. Using the Knowledge Development Model for Virtual Learning Environments, the following strategies are suggested for each of the proposed knowledge approaches: (1) Knowledge Acquisition: If the goal for a certain learning activity is to foster knowledge acquisition, drill and practice and programmed instruction (PI) segments that provide supporting terminology and initial concepts to be used as building blocks for more sophisticated learning activities should be considered. Discovery learning may also be employed as the context and various PI modules may be supplied to inform this discovery process. Tutorials, informational web pages and databases to support student knowledge acquisition are useful tools for this phase of student learning. (2) Knowledge Application: Discovery learning may also serve as the context for knowledge application. Traditionally, knowledge application tasks include laboratory work, writing, preparing presentations and other activities that require the student to construct acquired knowledge to solve existing
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The Recursive Knowledge Development Model for Virtual Environments
problems that have somewhat predictable outcomes. Collaboration among students often reinforces this process. The design of presentations or web pages that demonstrate a construction and application of the knowledge under investigation are appropriate virtual learning tools. These student products may be included for review as part of the virtual environment and serve to develop student ownership of course content, which is critical to fostering knowledge generation among students. The posted presentations demonstrate their knowledge and investment in the learning activities and ultimately their ownership of the knowledge. These constructions also allow the teacher to uncover common misconceptions about the knowledge base and facilitate discussion about these misconceptions to increase knowledge. Collaborative environments such as chat, threaded discussion boards, instant messaging and other collaborative tools are useful. (3) Knowledge Generation: A different level of discovery learning may be employed for fostering knowledge generation. Student ownership of this process is critical. Student brainstorming of problems to be solved creates the context for this ownership. Collaboration is critical among students and between students and faculty. Private discussion forums that foster risk taking may aid this process. As with knowledge application, collaborative environments such as chat, threaded discussion boards, instant messaging and other collaborative tools are useful. The design of presentations or web pages that demonstrate new construction and application of the knowledge under investigation are appropriate virtual learning tools. These student products should be provided space for private development either by singular students in collaboration with faculty or within student groups with faculty
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collaboration. The final projects should be included as part of the virtual environment and may be the capstone discussion activity of the learning cycle. These projects may easily reveal new areas of knowledge for exploration and may serve as the catalyst for another recursive learning cycle. Figure 2 combines the dimensions of Knowledge Approach, the teacher-student relationship with regards to Knowledge Authority and Teaching Approach to demonstrate the recursive and scaffolded design for creation of virtual learning environments. At this time, the author would like to offer a practical observation. In the context of course progression found in most learning institutions, these progressive knowledge approaches may occur repeatedly during one course or learning unit, or may stretch across two or more learning units or courses. The focus is to insure that all levels of knowledge engagement should be considered when creating complete knowledge transfer and foster ownership. To further investigate the model, over a period of 2 years, the Virtual Learning Environment Survey (VLES) was developed to collect student perceptions of virtual learning environments regarding these three assumed dimensions of teaching. The factor analysis results are consistent with the Recursive Model for Knowledge Development in Virtual Environments (Adams, DeVaney & Sawyer, 2009). Student perceptions substantiated concerns that aligned with the dimensions of Knowledge Authority, Teaching Approach, and Knowledge Approach. This ongoing research intends to investigate and describe teacher beliefs and intentions as they design virtual learning environments to discover whether their concerns align with these same dimensions. In summary, regardless of the modern or postmodern view held by the teacher and the learner and the assumptions about knowledge structure each reflects, student engagement is central to the learning process. The instructional
The Recursive Knowledge Development Model for Virtual Environments
Figure 2. Recursive model for knowledge development in virtual environments
strategies for fostering internalization in a virtual environment are critical to the learner’s strategic use of the knowledge. The ways in which the transfer of knowledge is gradually released to become internalized knowledge often occurs in the interactions between the facilitator of learning and the learner. The notion of scaffolding of instructional strategies that support the transfer of the knowledge is paramount to the goal of knowledge development and ultimately knowledge generation. Educational theory that has been accepted for traditional learning environments should provide guidance as we seek to construct rich virtual learning environments that create whole learning experiences. Thus, instructional strategies and fertile learning environments that address the entire range of student learning likes, needs and concerns must be considered.
Adams, N. B., DeVaney, T. A., & Sawyer, S. G. (2009). Measuring conditions conducive to knowledge development in virtual learning environments: Initial development of a model-based survey. The Journal of Technology, Learning, and Assessment, 8(1).
ReFeReNCeS
Hall, G. E. George, A., & Rutherford, W.L. (1979). Measuring stages of concern about the innovation: A manual for use of the SoC Questionnaire (Report No. 3032). Austin: University of Texas at Austin, Research and Development Center for Teacher Education. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 147 342)
Adams, N. B. (2004). Digital intelligence fostered by technology. The Journal of Technology Studies, 30(2).
Bloom, B. S. (1956). Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, Handbook 1: The Cognitive Domain. New York: David McKay Co., Inc. Bruner, J. (1966). Toward a Theory of Instruction. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Fuller, F. F. (1970). Personalized education for teachers: An introduction for teacher educators. The University of Texas at Austin, Research and Development Center for Teacher Education. Gardner, H. (1993). Multiple Intelligences: The theory in practice. New York: Basic Books.
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The Recursive Knowledge Development Model for Virtual Environments
Kearsley, G. (1994). Constructivist theory (J. Bruner). [Online]. Available: http://www.gwu. edu/~tip/bruner.html [May 30, 2007]. Kolb, D. A. (1984). Experiential Learning: experience as the source of learning and development. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. Krathwohl, D. R., Bloom, B. S., & Masia, B. B. (1973). Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, the Classification of Educational Goals. Handbook II: The Affective Domain. New York: David McKay Co., Inc.
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Maslow, A. (1954). Motivation and personality. New York: Harper. Ozmon, H. A., & Craver, S. M. (2007). Philosophical Foundations of Education (8th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind and society: The development of higher mental processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
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Chapter 3
The Techno-Pedagogical Context of Distance Learning: Conceptual Roots
Timothy F. Duruz Independent Higher Education Consultant, USA
ABSTRACT The incredible array of collaborative communication tools that have been incorporated into modern day education rely primarily on the internet as a delivery mechanism. Our zeal to employ the latest and greatest technologies towards instruction often ignores both the genesis and best practices for use of these innovations, which can be traced to collaborative scientific and educational efforts and experimentation in the latter half of the twentieth century. Knowledge of these advances and tools can help us to understand newer emerging technologies, which have profound potential for learning applications, such as Multi-User Virtual Environments. A brief discussion on the history of technology and information sharing follows the section on pedagogical issues.
INTRODUCTION The world of modern day education is decidedly different from that of 15 or 20 years ago, due in part to numerous technological innovations. We now regularly employ technology as a mediator, ostensibly to provide more ubiquitous access to learning materials. Of course, we have also uncovered new understandings of how our brains accept, process, store and use information. The new tools, many of which engender collaboration, DOI: 10.4018/978-1-61692-822-3.ch003
employ the internet as a primary delivery mechanism. The inextricable link between computers and the internet is undeniable. As teaching aids, computers never tire: they will repeat a lesson as often as possible, and present a safe avenue for exploration, allowing for multiple iterations and limitless opportunities for content or skill mastery assessment. Early computer mediated learning was at best, rudimentary by modern standards, but there were several aspects that became integrated into almost all of our current learning technology. For purposes of this chapter and this discussion, we can include many paradigms of communica-
The Techno-Pedagogical Context of Distance Learning
tions in modern technology, ranging from quite simple asynchronous, text-only, simplex channels to highly complex, virtually synchronous audio and video capable duplex channels. We can also incorporate the most elemental to the most technologically sophisticated multi user channels into any discussion of technologically mediated communication, and by extension, learning environments. As we seek to adopt the latest and greatest technology, it is important to understand some of the historical high points in technology development and some of the pedagogical issues and implications. It is not enough simply to use the tool; one should also understand how the tool developed, why it works, and where it fits into the larger structural whole: it is hard to know where one is going without knowing where one has been. The technologies referenced above have long and interesting histories, much of which is often ignored. Because new technologies provide more options for communication (and instruction), there is naturally a great deal of debate on how to use them to disseminate information to an increasingly sophisticated population of learners. With the rise of the ‘millennial’ generation, we tend to use online-accessible learning objects, discussion boards, and various other flashy and cool ‘toys’ to support learning environments, yet the focus seems to rest on proficiency with the technology, without a true understanding of the spirit behind their use. This chapter essentially serves two purposes. The first is to explore some of the theoretical underpinnings of technologymediated distance learning, and the second is to review the history of the technology and tools. Ultimately, readers should take away a background understanding sufficient to support their academic and intellectual forays into the applications and implications of multi user virtual environments for almost any learning environment or situation.
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THe CONCePTUAL ROOTS OF DISTANCe LeARNINg The educational tools we use today include interactive multimedia devices such as Shockwave, FLASH, presentation software such as Microsoft PowerPoint®, web pages and CD-ROM based textbook ancillaries, all of which were the results of the personal computer and internet revolutions. Numerous other technologies have found their way into our classrooms, often implemented by enthusiastic early adopters, and at other times, as a result of institutional mandates (Straubhaar & LaRose, 2006). Sometimes, the technology just happened to be available, and it was adapted to fit the needs of the learning environment, other times, technological possibilities prompted the development of new tools. In many cases, the implementation of any new tool or pedagogy served to generate a great deal of debate within the academic community. If one were to travel back in time to the early Renaissance, printers such as William Caxton, who between 1475 and 1490 produced virtually all English Language literature using the new ‘moveable type’ technology might have caused a stir. One might imagine the uproar among “professors” of the day as they decried the use of mass-produced books, seeing them as an anathema to the traditional learning process. Imagine the following hypothetical statement: Students that no longer have to copy their own books by hand? Unheard of! Blasphemy! How will they learn anything?! Of course, the European demand for books in general had increased, notwithstanding the rise of the modern university (Meggs & Purvis, 2006). The growth in university enrollments occurred independently as a result of many other factors and it might be difficult to determine if the use of ‘technologically mass-produced’ books drove further growth, or was driven by increased
The Techno-Pedagogical Context of Distance Learning
enrollments. Nevertheless, it would be foolish to believe that academia did not reap the benefits of technology and mass-produced books. Loomis and Cigler (1986) and later on Birnbaum (1988) noted that the politics within an institution, and especially those manifest in the informal relationships that lurk behind the formal organizational structures can influence institutional behaviors and help shape the environment. This is nothing new to professional educators. Over time, technology changed, as did education. Technology impacted virtually every aspect of the way we conceive of education, just as it did to every other aspect of our daily lives (Rosenberg, 1997). New issues emerged as various ‘distance learning’ opportunities arose, including the emergence of ‘correspondence courses’ and the use of film to deliver instruction of one sort or another (Jeffries, 2001). In the early 1960s, demographic shifts in population, evidenced by a new and growing segment of educational consumers presented new challenges, opportunities and issues. Larger universities, and later, smaller community colleges sought to accommodate their new students, and the problems presented by increased demand at that time are similar to those we face today. Some large institutions managed their population boom by establishing smaller autonomous units with their own faculty (Baskin, 1965). Mayhew (1965) indicated that the rapid growth experienced by the California state educational system may have driven the adoption of ‘new media’-based automated instructional methods, primarily as a means to enrich the learning environments, but also as a way to reign in spiraling infrastructure costs and yet retain some economy of scale. The research conducted by institutions in the 1960s on the use of new media such as television, video taped course archives and other audio-visual technology marked the beginning of many changes, both technological and pedagogical. Some of the media-based and computer mediated technology still in use today was pioneered over 40 years ago, including programs such as the asynchronous
PLATO (Programmed Logic for Automated Teaching Operation) system (Carpenter & Greenhill, 1965). Brabazon (2002) pointed out that courses dealing with more abstract intellectual constructs are not as well suited to online delivery as those in the sciences, and consequently, most of the early PLATO courses were in the sciences. Testing of students was also done via television, capitalizing on simultaneous visual and auditory stimuli and duplex communications channels (Carpenter & Greenhill, 1965). This in no way precludes the softer fields from participation. New media presents many possibilities as students may regulate their learning progress and demonstrate mastery before advancing to the next level however, the use of new distance-mediated instructional media is a dual-edged sword, and might “…reduce all higher education to a common level of mediocrity or will be used to enrich learning for all…” (Goldberg & Kurland, 1965, p. 124). Olcott & Schmidt (2000) noted that the answer to the paradox above depends on the attitude of faculty and the speed and degree to which they implement such devices, and how much choice is allowed in using new media. It is fairly obvious that whenever new technology is implemented that there is a need for some balance between voluntarily experimentation by interested and experienced faculty, and institutional business needs that are driven by senior institutional management (Duruz, 2006). Carpenter & Greenhill (1965) and Parnell (1990) pointed out that there are difficulties in selecting the right combination of ‘user-friendly’ media and traditional instructional models, even though technology enhances both learning opportunities for students and delivery and cost containment concerns for the institution. By extension, Parnell (1990) not only foresaw the rise of the large, online education providers, but also the issues of governance and politics that stem from the implementation of new technologies and pedagogies. Faculty and staff at Sinclair Community College (1999) suggested that a synergy
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The Techno-Pedagogical Context of Distance Learning
of technologies may be the most effective means of achieving expected learning and institutional outcomes. Another important concern is that there are sufficient library and other learning sources available, and that faculty members receive appropriate training and technical support (Middle States, 2002). The concept of distance education has existed for many decades. Early correspondence schools used technologies such as typewriters and the postal system (Hanna, 2000a). Some advertised for students on matchbook covers (Hanna, 2000b). The United States Distance Learning Association (n.d.) defines distance learning as “The acquisition of knowledge and skills through mediated information and instruction, encompassing all technologies and other forms of learning at a distance.” Internet-based modalities have attracted a great deal of attention, especially in recent years. The technologies include asynchronous discussion boards, interactive synchronous chats and television broadcasts, closed-circuit television, public television, video-conferencing, and e-mail or other correspondence delivery. Most of these were undreamed of only half a century ago, but as mass communication matured, educational providers could now provide their products and services to learners stretched around the globe (Hanna, 2001a). Dede (2000) likens the virtual learning environment to the real world in which cell phones, facsimile machines, e-mail, voicemail and the seemingly instantaneous availability of information afforded by the internet and broadband connections, supported by streaming audio and video, can be used to simulate the milieu of our everyday lives. Online learning has been defined as “A method of learning whereby some or most of the interaction take place via the Web or other electronic means.” (Central Queensland University, 2004), “Any learning experience or environment that relies upon the Internet/WWW as the primary delivery mode of communication and presentation.” (University of South Dakota, 2005), and
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“The process of learning new skills and acquiring knowledge via the internet, without needing to be physically present in the learning environment.” (Education Development Center, 2005). Online courses employ technology to deliver content, usually without the benefit of synchronicity. Some of the material may also be delivered in a physical classroom - “…students can work with course materials at their own convenience or they can work collaboratively on class projects using tools like chat and discussion groups (bulletin boards).” (Ohio State University, 2004). CoursePal (2003) notes that students in remote locations use web browsers with plug-in enhancements to connect to a portal containing links and other resources. These definitions summarize the salient points about online learning, and distance learning in general, especially when considered alongside the previously noted definitions, where the instructor and learners are separated by either time or place, and technology is employed to deliver content (Middle States CHE, 2002; Monroe Community College, n.d.; United States Distance Learning Association, n.d.). Although decidedly low-tech by our standards, for their time, the correspondence courses offered by several highly regarded universities represented the state-of-the-art. As mentioned earlier, the PLATO system was an early iteration of a mainframe-hosted, technology-enhanced learning support system that predates the World Wide Web by two decades (Wooley, 1994). PLATO was introduced in 1963 as the original educational software and featured online forums, message boards, chat rooms, private synchronous messaging, remote screen sharing and multiplayer gaming, all features of a modern online course management system (Plato, 2005). The infrastructure at the time did not support simultaneous video or audio feeds, and most interaction was via the command line interface. A majority of modern institutions of higher education have adopted and support some form of distance education or online learning to supple-
The Techno-Pedagogical Context of Distance Learning
ment and or enhance their institutional missions (National Center for Education Statistics, 1999 and 2003; Noble, 2001). While this may be an important new educational opportunity, it is also a potential revenue stream and helps maximize overall institutional cost effectiveness, despite increased faculty time in developing appropriate learning objects with the adopted technology (Levitch & Milheim, 2003; National Education Association, 2000). Some faculty may be unwilling to bear the extra workload without proper training in the use of the technology and online pedagogy, coursework planning, copyright administration, presentation and questioning skills, team-building and the ability to design and use visual learning aids in a team-building or collaborative environment (Cyrs, 1997). Training can add to the overall cost and time needed to incorporate distance education into a program (Meyer, 2005) yet is vital to the process (Institute for Higher Education Policy, 2000). A growing number of colleges, including open enrollment colleges, are examining “hybrid” or “blended” teaching models wherein some inperson meetings are replaced with virtual sessions (Bunker Hill Community College, n.d.; College of DuPage, 2004; Diablo Valley College, 2003; Duruz, 2006; Front Range Community College, n.d.; Garnham & Kaleta, 2002; Hallett, 2004). Typically, blended learning refers to a combination of classroom-based training with self-paced e-learning. Kruse (2004) pointed out that blended learning became a buzzword in 2001 or 2002, and it is estimated that 80- to 90-percent of classes could benefit from such mixed modalities (Young, 2002). In all cases of an online learning environment, the student remains the crucial member of the extended educational family (Lescht & Shaik, 2003; Simonson et al., 2003). Administrators can mandate the use of technology, faculty and professional instructional designers can create captivating learning objects, but if the students are not comfortable with the platform, or with
distance-mediated instruction, any investment could be viewed as a waste. There are a great many opportunities and potential benefits for technology-enhanced learning, and even a long history of debate behind the concept and value of distance-mediated instruction. Institutions may measure cost effectiveness by reviewing course completion rates and improved student performance, which was supported by findings in at least one instance (Twigg, 2003). Ritchie (1996) identified student commitment as an important factor and Kennedy (2001) developed a measure of ‘learner readiness’, further noting that technologically-savvy instructors may be more likely to adopt online modalities and achieve better learner outcomes. These two factors combined set the tone for needs analysis, an integral part of the implementation process (Baker, 2001; Barron & Lyskana, 2001). At the institutional level, better access may lead to higher persistence, which can then be linked to improved overall operational cost-effectiveness (Ruch, 2001). Some institutions have had greater success with online modalities than others. Given a propensity for our current culture to embrace ‘new’ things, and if one accepts the premise that ‘newer is better’, then our learning environments will continue to evolve and will incorporate technology with greater frequency. Pressure to adopt the latest and greatest new technology may come from institutional leadership in an effort to remain ahead of the rest, or to mitigate large capital expenditures by replacing physical facilities with one more virtual. Research faculty may wish to explore the potential for technology as they seek to uncover and evaluate new paradigms of teaching and learning. Learners may clamor for more flexible learning opportunities and increased use of generationally relevant technology. In essence, there are multiple constituencies pushing for better and more cutting edge ways to deliver information. The problems become evident as we discover gaps in what we deliver, and what is expected. As we move to incorporate technology,
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we should find ways to make our online classrooms learner-centered, engaging, relevant, and timely with well-planned activities and assessments (Duruz, 2006; Khan, 2001; Navarro, 2000). Proper use of visual and technological enhancements must be part of the structure, and may affect the selection of any particular technology (Palloff & Pratt, 1999; Simonson et al., 2000; University of Washington, 2003). This alone does not dictate the implementation of any particular level of technology, although some emerging anecdotal evidence suggests that higher interactivity may lead to richer learning experiences. Distance earning in and of itself does not specifically require any particular technology. We can use the mail, the phone, or other older and more established means of distributing information. Of late, the concept of distance learning is understood as featuring interactive and media-rich learning objects and simultaneous audio and visual communications, in other words, highly involved technology-enhanced channels. The latest technology has been dubbed “Web 2.0” and is of particular interest to educators in the new digital age. We must pay heed to the salient fact that all of the newer tools would not be available without a long and interesting history that strings together a series of events and discoveries. The following section describes the most notable developments in the hope that readers will appreciate the latest technology more profoundly.
THe CONCePTUAL ROOTS OF TeCHNOLOgY: THe INTeRNeT The very concept of the internet may be traced back to the work of J.C.R. Licklider of MIT, in various memos (collectively known as the Galactic Network) that addressed the issues surrounding the interactions between humans and computers. The memos begin in 1960, and culminate in a 1968 publication, co-authored with fellow researcher Robert Taylor, The Computer as a Communica-
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tion Device, which explored the idea of using the computer as a way to enhance human communication (Engst, 1994). The original impetus behind the entire concept held great promise for military applications however, there were some obvious commercial implications should the network prove viable (Engst, 1994). Ostensibly, the Galactic Network concept paved the way for others to seek ways to use computer technology to improve communication. A network of globally connected computers that allow everyone to quickly access data and programs from any location or site was seen not only as a boon to researchers, but also held implications for improving national defense. In the early years, the telephony issues presented some of the most formidable challenges to national defense since at that time, the US was in a ‘cold war’ and there was considerable concern about nuclear attack and resultant survival strategies (Engst, 1994). If part of the existing telephone network was knocked out, how would we mitigate damage and communicate? How could the remotely-located computers, typically connected via direct hard lines, still communicate? Questions such as these helped drive research into the network concept. Licklider became the head of the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) in late 1962 and soon recruited others including Ivan Sutherland, Bob Taylor, and fellow MIT Researcher Lawrence G. Roberts to work on developing the network concept. Others, such as Paul Baran of the RAND Corporation, began working on military applications of secure voice transmissions using ‘packet switching networks’ as early as 1964. Other early contributors included Donald Davies and Roger Scantlebury of NPL (National Physical Laboratory) in the UK. Roberts published his plan for “ARPAnet”, or Advanced Research Projects Agency Network (ARPA), in 1967. Licklider was appointed to head ARPA in 1969 (Engst, 1994). In 1977, the military segment of ARPAnet broke off and became MILNET. The ARPAnet charter formally expired in 1989, having
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completed its mission (Clark, 1996; Engst, 1994; Leiner, 1997).
THe BIRTH OF THe mODeRN DAY INTeRNeT The Internet as we now know it began with ARPAnet in 1969 under a United States Government contract. The two main purposes were to allow for shared research between universities and other institutes, and to provide support for the Department of Defense in the event of nuclear attack. In the early years, computers, whether connected locally within a building, or remotely via telephone line, remained in the domain of computer experts, engineers and scientists. There were no home or personal computers to speak of. In order to realize the promise of the Galactic Network, there was much work to be done. The first step was to design and construct a Wide Area Network (WAN). The WAN took close to two years to develop and when completed in December of 1969, connected the main computers at UCLA, the Stanford Research Institute, and the University of Utah via telephone lines, and represents the initial foray into networking. Of course, there was a need to establish common hardware and software protocols in order to facilitate effective inter-networked computer communications. Among the most important was the ability to identify the ‘address’ of a device, and then control the connection. ARPAnet used Network Control Protocol (NCP), which was eventually superseded by the far superior Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP), originally implemented in 1983 and still in use today. TCP/ IP is a multi-layer protocol that resolves various issues and allowed for connectivity between the original ARPAnet WAN and the other networks that had also emerged. This allowed for true global connectivity, and eventually evolved into what we call the internet (Clark, 1996; Engst, 1994; Leiner, 1997; Shelley et al., 1998).
The TCP/IP architecture proposed by Vinton Cerf of Stanford and Bob Kahn of BBN consists of two major components. IP provided for addressing and forwarding of individual packets of data, while TCP was used for flow control and to recover any lost data packets (Krol, 1994). TCP/IP sends information in small packets of information, which also contain routing information such as the destination. A packet may pass through 30 or more computers before it reaches its final destination. The software protocol was public domain software. The US Defense Department adopted it in 1980 and it was universally adopted in 1983. An alternate protocol known as User Datagram Protocol (UDP) was developed later on, specifically for those applications that did not use TCP/ IP (Krol, 1994). In order to connect one computer to another, they must first be able to locate each other. The initial computers on the WAN, also known as Interface Messaging Processors (IMFs) made use of a protocol known as Telecommunications Network, or TELNET, for short. The TELNET protocol was defined by RFC0015 in 1969. TELNET was one of the first internet standards, and is for the most part, text-only, and is accessible without the aid of a user interface. One of the earliest experiments in TELNET was conducted by Lawrence G. Roberts, with the help of Thomas Merrill, who connected a TX-2 computer in Massachusetts to a Q-32 in California using a low-speed dial up phone line (Clark, 1996; Engst, 1994; Leiner, 1997). This experiment helped prove that remotely located computers could work well together, receiving data and running programs. Various control devices such as routers soon developed, based in part on existing telephone company technology for ‘switching’ connections. Electronic Mail (email) was first used effectively on ARPAnet in 1971, and was developed by Ray Tomlinson. This allowed users to sent a digital ‘letter’ wrapped by an ‘envelope’ containing to and from addresses, and other information such as the size of the message (Shirky, 1994). The email
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could be sent to one or multiple users, each who had an assigned address. Online discussion groups soon emerged as users compiled and stored lists of addresses. These lists were usually comprised of users with common interests, or who were engaged in collaborative projects, some who were geographically dispersed. Due to the collaborative nature of research on networks and network communications, the Request For Comment (RFC) allowed interested parties to propose, discuss, and refine new ideas. The first RFC using ARPAnet rather than the old style typewritten, hard copy system of the past, RFC0001, was distributed on April 7, 1969. RFC0003 actually documented the RFC process. By 2003, there were well over 2000 RFCs which detail almost every aspect of how the internet works. By 2009, there have been well over 5000 RFCs published. Once issued, they are never changed, but are rendered obsolete, or deprecated. Newer RFCs therefore simply supersede older ones. As the 1970s progressed, the Internet grew and matured. In 1971, there were 15 nodes on ARPAnet, which expanded to 37 nodes in the following year. In 1976, Ethernet was developed by Dr. Robert Metcalf. This technology allowed higher speed data transmissions over coaxial cable. Other networks had been developed over time for specific purposes, such as SATNET, the Atlantic Packet Satellite network, which connected Europe to the US. BITNET, literally the “Because It’s There Network”, was a cooperative ‘mail service’ launched in 1981, and originally connected IBM mainframes in and amongst the educational community. Eventually, DEC-VAX/VMS machines joined the burgeoning network, and interactivity increased at a rapid pace. Originally founded in 1981 by Ira Fuchs at the City University of New York (CUNY) and Greydon Freeman at Yale University, access to the BITNET system was open to any college or university provided that they installed a dedicated line with modems on each end, and allowed other institutions to connect for
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no fee. Eventually, a new way of sharing a single message with multiple recipients, somewhat like photocopying a memo for distribution in an office, emerged. Known as Listserv software, this semiautomated technology would to send one piece of mail to multiple recipients. It was developed to connect BITNET to the internet and allowed a larger community to exchange email. In some way, this represents a seminal event in cooperative learning communities (Clark, 1996; Engst, 1994; Leiner, 1997). From a technical point of view, BITNET differed from the Internet in that it was a point-topoint “store and forward” network (Engst, 1994). That is, e-mail messages and files were transmitted in their entirety from one server to the next until reaching their destination. From this perspective, BITNET was more like USENET, also known as “User Network’ (Engst, 1994). Developed in 1979 by Steve Bellovin, a graduate student at the University of North Carolina, and programmers Tom Troscott and Jim Ellis, the USENET acted like an electronic bulletin board. Any user could upload a message, or read messages from others. Organized into categories, the USENET has served thousands of people daily and acts as a listserv for discussions on virtually any topic imaginable ranging from the arts and crafts, cars, recreational activities, computer discussions, sex, sociology, psychology and all possible human interests. Some areas have their own rules and there are often “flamewars” ignited by a “troll”. A Troll is an obviously inflammatory comment, or post, by a person, in an attempt to incite discussion or argument, which can escalate into a full-blown virtual argument, replete with insults and personal attacks, often the result of a nasty or derogatory remark or comment. This is the cognate equivalent of inciting riot in a large crowd. The term troll is derived from the way fishermen dangle a baited hook or lure behind a slow-moving boat in the hopes that something will “bite”. A truly effective troll is one that generates a great deal of activity.
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Discussion fora such as the blogs of today fill a similar function. Recollection: In high school, we had a computer lab, and a computer club. We had 4 old teletype terminals, a couple of 50 baud acoustic modems, and not a whole lot of supervision. Every afternoon, some of us would go into the lab, dial a number, and after the horrid squeaks of the modems connecting, we could log on to some government computer (or that of a vendor) and we had access to all kinds of cool things. My favorite two games were “Lunar Landing”, a simulator used to practice controlling the LEM as it hurtled towards the moon, and “Basketball” where we would use text commands to play against another live person. Today, with the near ubiquity of email, and the ease with which malicious persons can create viruses and exploit security leaks in home and business computer systems, internet virus hoaxes force otherwise well-meaning people to flood the internet with false warnings of the dire consequences of a new virus threat. In some cases, they hoaxes are so well thought out that they become urban legends. Some USENET ‘newsgroups’, as they are called, also support the use of anonymous mail servers, which protect an identity. Newsgroups still have many users, and it is estimated that there are over 50,000 different ones. Many former USENET denizens have switched to more modern means of group communications such as BLOGS, Forums and other social networking websites. In 1985, the National Science Foundation, NSF, created NSFNET or a series of networks for the exclusive use of the educational and research communities. Its services were free to qualifying institutions. NSF created the backbone, or hardware infrastructure, and ran it based on ARPAnet protocols. In 1995, SPRINT and MCI began to build their own backbones, which they linked into NSFNET, which also controlled the domain name services online. Domain names weren’t even used
until 1984; prior to that, computers just used a numbered addressing system. NSF ran InterNIC, which registered all the names and addresses on the internet so that data could be properly routed (Clark, 1996; Engst, 1994; Leiner, 1997; Shelley et al., 1998). Domain name registry and ‘ownership’ is now quite simple, with some services allowing a ‘lease’ on a domain name for as little as $2 a year.
eVOLUTION OF INFORmATION SHARINg The developments noted above did indeed promote a considerable amount of information sharing, but the internet as we know it was still a long way off. In the 1970s, few people outside research universities, the military and some large corporations had even the slightest inkling about the potential of the internet. As computers shrank in size and became more common ‘appliances’ that even a single person could own, things began to change as many people started to experiment with computer programming and hardware development.
Bulletin Board Services Some of the enthusiasm in this new field prompted many amateurs to explore computer connectivity. Some set up private, subscription-based services known as Electronic Bulletin Board Services (BBS). These small WANs stood alone, and only a few of the earliest ones were connected to the internet. Eventually, most of them simply shut down or were absorbed into larger services. Many of the earliest home-based BBSs could run on a machine such as a Commodore C64, were connected via 300 baud modems, and had no CD-ROM drives. Essentially, they served as places to swap files and sometimes connect in real time with other users. Larger networks allowed for better messaging, but still, slow connection speeds hampered growth. Many allowed for only a few concurrent users,
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depending on the number of phone lines (Kientzle, 1995; Wolfe, 1994). There were a few software ‘packages’ that allowed virtually anyone with a computer and a phone line or two to set up a BBS. GAP, PCBoard, Spitfire, Wildcat!, and Searchlight all contained some of the essential features, most did not fully support graphics, and most were compiled to support 2400 or 9600 baud communications (Kientzle, 1995). Host computers in the early 90s ranged from an old XT, up to the latest 386. Larger services such as Prodigy (discussed below) had better support for graphics, and with a larger subscriber base, better support, more powerful servers, and a plethora of open phone ports, these services soon took over and the age of the private BBS eventually ended.
Information Sharing Protocols Information transfer was not always an easy task. Prior to 1984, with the commercial introduction of the Graphical User Interface (GUI), all computers were primarily Command Line Interface (CLI), meaning that the user had to type in arcane commands in order to make something happen. There were few central repositories of stored information that were easily accessible, and persons outside academia, business or research facilities had little access to the fledgling internet. In order to find something, one had to know where to look. There were no real ‘search engines’ or indexes such as we have today. What information there was typically consisted of text-only data, and on a rare occasion, an image, but never embedded. Researchers needed a better way to share information, and out of this need sprang several ways to search for and obtain information. Among these, a protocol known as GOPHER was developed and it incorporated the ability to search through a considerable amount of information by using other existing tools. Although it has been supplanted by our World Wide Web, GOPHER represents a quantum leap in the way we access information,
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posted on a server in some unnamed location, so that others could access it freely. GOPHER essentially allowed someone to find information on any given topic simply by typing in some commands to a remote server (Krol, 1994). Developed at the University of Minnesota, home of the Golden Gophers, GOPHER was a very popular tool on the internet in the early 1990s. In essence, the moniker represented the function as the computer would essentially “go-for” some information. Some issues surrounding licensing may have hindered some implementations; however, the ease of use of the WWW after 1994 effectively supplanted GOPHER-space. Many, but not all modern day browsers offer legacy GOPHER support, and there is limited development for the protocol today. GOPHER requires some ancillary tools. The primary search engine, VERONICA (Very Easy Rodent Oriented Net-wide Index to Computerized Archives), was developed at the University of Nevada. The user enters key words and is presented with a series of hits. JUGHEAD (Jonzy’s Universal Gopher Hierarchy Excavation and Display) pretty much does the same thing as Veronica but usually allows you to limit the range of the search to specific machines (Engst, 1994). Recollection: My elementary-age daughter had to do a report on whales. She had been home for a few days with the flu, and could not get to the library. I logged on, found a GOPHER server, performed my search, and within seconds, was presented with over 100 ‘hits’, many of which were dead, but eventually, I found the motherload: SeaWorld! I entered the command to download the text, and in just a minute or so, I had over 25 pages of all kinds of really great scientific data. Since not all information is text-based, there was also a need for a way to locate and retrieve files, including images and applications. The File Transfer Protocol (FTP) was developed and implemented in order to permit the exchange of
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both binary and text files. FTP has remained the most common means of file transfer, and may in some cases, be faster than those developed later on. While most web browsers support file transfer via FTP, you can, if you know where to find a file, have it emailed back to you (Krol, 1994; Shirky, 1994). The prime search adjunct for FTP is ARCHIE, developed in 1990-1991 by Alan Emtage, Peter Deutsch and Bill Heelan from the McGill University Computing Center, Canada. Some commentators view ARCHIE as the very first search engine. Its’ name is drawn from the term ‘archive’, and not necessarily as a paean to the comic book character. Originally, there were separate ARCHIE servers in many locations however, few if any survive today. In 1989, the part of the internet most familiar to most of us came into being. The underlying principles had been around for quite some time, but it took the leadership of Tim Berners-Lee, a physicist at CERN, the European Particle Physics Lab in Switzerland, to create what we call the World Wide Web. Data and information is transferred via HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP), which made its debut on the internet in 1990. At first, it was intended as a way for scientists to transmit information in a less linear approach than offered by GOPHER. Berners-Lee now heads the W3C consortium, which controls and approves all RFCs for the web. In 1992 the Internet Society was chartered with Vinton Cerf as its head (Engst, 1994). An early, but not the first, iteration of hypertext was released with the Apple Computer operating system. This was an object-oriented, graphicalinterfaced, searchable database application that employed a simple programming language, and could ‘understand’ and execute ‘scripts’ or commands that were very much like the English Language. Apple provided minimal support for the application, and many users eventually shifted to other applications. One of the fundamental weaknesses of Hypercard was that it was limited in scope to access files and data only on the local hard
drive. Hypercard applications represented early attempts in an educational sense, used primarily to teach simple tasks. Since the web can be used to access information from any connected computer, it rapidly supplanted Hypercard application use. The concept behind Hypercard and other similar applications is that a user can click on a ‘link’ and be taken to another card, or screen, that is populated with different data based upon the programming. Technically, GOPHER was a hypertext application, but was somewhat rigid in terms of interconnected links. Hypertext was ideal for certain types of games and even instruction as well as certain forms of research. With the advent of LYNX, a full-duplex text-based hypertext application that ran primarily under UNIX, information became more widely available. One would type in an arcane ‘address’ to access a remote ‘site’, and the server would return a ‘page’, that might have certain words highlighted in bold. These indicated that upon selection, the user would be taken elsewhere. LYNX navigation was via exclusive use of the TAB and ‘backTAB’ keys, or by the four directional arrows on the keyboard, much like all other Command Line Interfaces (CLIs). During late 1992, the National Center for Supercomputing Applications (NCSA) located at the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign began developing what is generally considered to be the first Graphical User Interface (GUI) ‘browser’ for hypertext viewing (Barksdale, Rutter and Teeter, 2002). MOSAIC was released in 1993, and was able to display inline images, rather than relying on a separate window. MOSAIC paved the way for browsers with more familiar names such as Microsoft Internet Explorer, Netscape Navigator, and Mozilla Firefox. Although there are numerous internet browsers available for different platforms, they essentially deliver the same type of experience to the user. WAIS or Wide Area Information Servers were first conceived in big business, as opposed to the educational and scientific domains. In 1991, Apple Computer, Dow Jones & Co., Thinking
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Machines Corp., and KPMG Peat Marwick created a prototype system to address the problem of allowing busy corporate lay-persons to access the huge amounts of information stored on the internet without the need to learn a complex query language. In any database, there is often too much information, and WAIS provided feedback on the relevance of the hits and ranked them as well. Ranking places items that are closest to the words used in the query near the top while relevance feedback helps refine the search. Based upon the relevance (ranking) of the articles found, one could refine or expand the search by asking for similar articles. In many ways, WAIS represents yet another step in the ancestry of the search engines and indexes of today.
Search engines, Indexes, and Spiders Most of us are familiar with various search vehicles, all of which stem from the original ideas, and serve three essential functions: crawl, index, and search. Yahoo, Google, Ask.com, and others are popular sites for users of all ages and skill levels. Prior to the first real search engines, there was a database of all known web servers, however with rapid proliferation; it soon became too difficult to remain up to date. Some early search engines relied on web administrators to maintain and grow their databases. AltaVista, Excite, Magellan, and Infoseek are early notable examples but they represent only a few of general search engines. The first real search engine was ARCHIE, which was followed by Gopher, both discussed above. Archie did not create or retain an index of its searches. In 1993, the first web ‘robot’ ‘wandered’ the web and created an index of all servers. Developed by Matthew Gray of MIT, the Perl-based “World Wide Web Wanderer” began to literally measure the size of the web and store it in a master index known as ‘Wandex’. Wanderer was an effective tool for a short time however; by 1995 it had become part of history.
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WebCrawler, released in 1994, was one of the first to allow users to define search criteria, a feature common to all major browsers today. In many ways, it was like WAIS. LYCOS was also released in 1994, and represented one of the first commercial search applications. Others followed, and some spurred on the dot-com boom by selling space to advertisers who would pay to have their sites come up in the top ten, or as ‘sponsored links’. Today, there are hundreds if not thousands of search engines, many of which are dedicated to specialized subjects, or limit the scope of their search to specific sites or even geographic regions. Advanced searches can often be used to narrow down the number of returned hits. It is important to use BOOLEAN terms to limit searches to specific words or phrases. This improves the efficacy of the search, and saves time for the user.
OTHeR PROTOCOLS AND TOOLS The web and search engines, although probably the most familiar parts of the internet, were still static entry points. As more complex and sophisticated computer hardware and software were developed, there was still a certain lack of spontaneity, and although accessing information repositories proved to be a significant boon to computer users everywhere, synchronous and real-time communication–similar to that of the telephone–took some time to emerge and be implemented. Some of the technology discussed below is seen as de rigeur today, but the first steps certainly did pave the way for more modern interactivity.
Chat “Talk” and “FTalk” were early applications or protocols that allowed two online users to engage in synchronous text-based communication. While using these as a separate application, each user could see what their other was typing in real time. If the other person made a typo and then back-
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spaced to fix it, the other could see it. Of course, this type of communication had some advantages, but did not allow for more than two people to talk, as it was much like a private point-to-point telephone call. The concept of a virtual space where groups of people could join in synchronous discussions of mutual interest is quite complex. Probably the most important protocol was the Internet Relay Chat, or IRC. During its heyday, there were literally hundreds of servers running on a dozen or more networks. Originally developed by Jarkko Oikarinen of Finland in 19998, it is defined as a multi-user real-time chat system. Much of the functionality of IRC was replaced by other protocols and services. ICQ was introduced in 1996, and differed from IRC in that each user could be assigned a name and address when they registered. There were issues surrounding reliability and security, as ICQ did not guarantee that any message would arrive, and many users found that their unique ICQ IDs were targeted by SPAM. In 1998, America Online (AOL) purchased the original developer, Israeli company Mirabilis, and as of this date, has incorporated many of the features into their proprietary AOL Instant Messenger (AIM) system. The user interface has been continuously upgraded and in 2008, several changes were implemented including a forced upgrade to the newest version: older client versions would no longer activate on launch.
AOL and Other Services With more ubiquitous distribution of personal computers after 1984, many subscription-based services emerged. AOL, CompuServe, Prodigy, and GEnie were early content providers, along with numerous other smaller players (Shefski, 1994). A common misconception is that gatway service providers were primarily for social networking. Each service provided a gateway to the internet, and usually supported GOPHER, FTP and other search protocols that allowed a subscriber to
obtain information. While it is true that social networking and interpersonal communication rapidly achieved primacy, the services expanded our use of the internet for private, individualized, self-directed and self-paced learning. AOL, also known as America OnLine, was founded in 1983 as Quantum Computer Services. Touted as the largest international provider of online services, it had achieved an unprecedented level of popularity, and some notoriety as well in the late 1990s and into the 21st century. AOL regularly sends out snail mail packages containing a free diskette in the mail, offering internet connectivity. Eventually, the application ballooned in size so that a CD was needed. AOL users could select a screen name, and had access to permanent chat areas. Users could also set up ‘rooms’ (accommodating up to 23 people) with descriptive names. It is interesting to note that the room size of 23 is the same size that many proponents of online learning claim is the largest for an online class, allowing the maximum functionality. AOL chat rooms were by and large unmoderated, although there were roving moderators who could pop in to ensure that there were no problems. CompuServe, founded in 1979 as CompuServe Information Service, was strictly text-based at first, and was the first of the major commercial enterprises that offered online services. Subscriptions were billed by the hour. Eventually, AOL absorbed CompuServe. Prodigy, founded in 1984 as Prodigy Communications Corporation, was one of the largest online content providers, rivaling CompuServe in size. Prodigy offered access to news and games of all sorts, was an online shopping outlet, and featured bulletin boards and live chat on a large number of topics, all aimed at consumers rather than at businesses. It differed from CompuServe in that it featured a graphical interface, albeit rudimentary by today’s’ standards. By the early 90s, Prodigy supported access via cable in addition to local dialup. Prodigy was best known for its message boards and vibrant user base.
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GEnie (General Electric Network for Information Exchange), founded in 1985, seemed to be known best for its exclusively text-based online multi-player games. There were also several ‘hosted’ forums, especially those geared towards the game crowd. GEnie connected up to the larger internet in 1993, adding email to other services as well as USENET newsgroups. GEnie was never fully supported by GE, was plagued by potential Y2K issues, and eventually closed down in December 1999. There are many other services that grew up during the 1980s and 1990s, both large and small, and their contributions helped build our understanding of the online community.
least popular discussion. Older technologies may eventually fade from our sight, but forever remain part of the conceptual background and drive even further innovation. With the rapidity of change in the technological landscape, much of what is written might be seen as obsolete as soon as it is published. Therefore, there are no specific reading suggestions. Rather, it is important for educators to explore and research areas that seem most relevant to their own situations. The internet changes so rapidly, and true education requires that the learners identify their own sources, and then evaluate them on their merits.
CONCLUSION AND FUTURe ReSeARCH DIReCTIONS
ReFeReNCeS
The past two decades in particular have produced an incredible array of tools that enhance communication. New technological innovations will continue to emerge at a rapid pace, some of which will find their way into the educational community. Some new technologies will be examined in the context of changes in learning paradigms, be employed in an effort to mitigate other issues, or capitalize on new societal communicative trends. New communication technologies, and especially those with educational potential, will be adopted and tested by some instructors. In 2009, there is still a great deal of discussion on how best to incorporate technology into learning environments. Facebook, MySpace and Twitter seem to have attracted the attention of the younger generation as social networking tools, but college faculty are exploring how to use these to improve teaching. MUVEs are also being used in limited applications, and the interactive audio and video components can be used to promote learning through simulations. Technologies that add to the teaching-learning environment will likely gain popularity and become the subject of even further study, or at
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Baker, J. D. (2001). Web-based training administration. In Khan, B. (Ed.). (2001), Web-based training. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications. Barksdale, K., Rutter, M., & Teeter, R. (2002). Internet basics. Boston: Thomson Learning -Course Technology. Barron, A. E., & Lyskana, C. (2001). Software tools for online course management and delivery. In Khan, B. (Ed.), (2001). Web-based training. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications. Baskin, S. (1965). Summing up. In Baskin, S., ed (1965) Higher education: Some newer developments. New York; McGraw-Hill Book Company. Birnbaum, R. (1988). Dateline 2000: How colleges work: The cybernetics of academic organization and leadership. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Brabazon, T. (2002). Digital hemlock: Internet education and the poisoning of teaching. Sydney: University of New South Wales Press Ltd.
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Front Range Community College. (n.d.). How hybrid courses work. Retrieved October 12, 2004 from http://frcc.cc.co.us/pub_index. cfm?cid=9397. Garnham, C., & Kaleta, R. (2002). Introduction to hybrid courses. Teaching with technology today 8(6). Retrieved October 11, 2004 from http://www. uwsa.edu/ttt/articles/garnham.htm. Goldberg, M. H., & Kurland, N. D. (1965). The abler student. In Baskin, S. (Ed.), Higher education: Some newer developments. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company. Hallett, M. (2004). Monroe Community College educational technology services: Hybrid courses. Retrieved October 11, 2004 from http://www. monroecc.edu/depts/instech/csmain/hybridcourses.htm. Hanna, D. E. (2000a). The distance education/ technology-based universities. In Hanna, D. E. (Eds.), Higher education in an era of digital competition: Choices and challenges. Madison, WI: Atwood Publishing. Hanna, D. E.(200b). New players on the block: For-profit, corporate, and competency-based learning universities. In Hanna, D. E. (Eds.), Higher education in an era of digital competition: Choices and challenges. Madison, WI: Atwood Publishing. Institute for Higher Education Policy. (2000). Quality on the line: Benchmarks for success in internet-based distance education. Retrieved August 22, 2005 from http://www.ihep.com/Pubs/ PDF/Quality.pdf.
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Jeffries, M. (2001). Research in Distance Education. Retrieved June 18, 2009 from http://www. digitalschool.net/edu/DL_history_mJeffries.html. Kennedy, C. A. (2001). Using a model of learner readiness to study the effects of course design on classroom and online college student performance. Doctoral Dissertation, University of California, Berkeley. Khan, B. (Ed.). (2001). Web-based instruction. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications, Inc. Kientzle, T. (1995). Internet file formats. Scottsdale, AZ: Coriolis Group Books. Krol, E. (1994). The whole internet: User’s guide & catalog. (2ed). Canada: O’Reilly & Associates. Kruse, K. (2004). E-LearningGuru: Glossary. Retrieved February 26, 2004 from http://elearningguru.com/gloss.htm. Leiner, B. (1997). History of the internet 3.1. University of Regina Student Connection Program. Lescht, F., & Shaik, N. (2003). Best practices in helping students complete online learning programs. Whitewater, WI: The Board of regents of the University of Wisconsin System and the Annual Conference on Distance Teaching and Learning. Retrieved March 5, 2005 from http:// inpathways.net/online programs.pdf. Levitch, S., & Milheim, W. D. (2003). Transitioning instructor skills to the virtual classroom: Organizational developments. Creative Resource Developments, Inc. 15(3). Retrieved October 15, 2004 from http://www.team-doctor.com/newsletters/orgdevfall03.pdf. Loomis, B. A., & Cigler, A. J. (1986). Introduction: The changing nature of interest group politics. In Cigler, A. J., & Loomis, B. A. (Eds.), Interest group politics. Washington, D. C.: Congressional Quarterly Inc.
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Mayhew, L. B. (1965). The new colleges. In Baskin, S. (Ed.), Higher education: Some newer developments. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company. Meggs, P. B., & Purvis, A. W. (2006). Megg’s history of graphic design. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley $ Sons. Meyer, K. A. (2005). Planning for costefficiencies in online learning. Planning for Higher Education. 33(3), 19–30. Retrieved August 22, 2005 from http://207.75.158.208/ PHE/FMPro?-db=PubItems.fp5&-lay=ART&format=read_full.htm&-error=error.htm&ID_ pub=PUB-vZXRfGfI2Sb6hUjSni&t_Pub_ PgNum=19&-SortField=t_Pub_PgNum&-Find Middle States Commission on Higher Education. (2002). Characteristics of excellence in higher education: Eligibility requirements and standards for accreditation. (11 ed). Philadelphia; Middle States Commission on Higher Education. Monroe Community College. (n.d.). Online learning: Glossary of terms. Retrieved February 26, 2005 from www.monroecc.edu/depts/distlearn/ glossary.htm. National Center for Education Statistics. (1999). Distance Education at Postsecondary Institutions: 1997–98 (NCES 2000013). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education. Retrieved August 22, 2005 from http://nces.ed.gov/pubsearch/pubsinfo. asp?pubid=2000013. National Center for Education Statistics. (2003). Distance Education at Degree-Granting Postsecondary Institutions: 2000–2001 (NCES 2003017). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education. Retrieved August 22, 2005 from http://nces. ed.gov/pubsearch/pubsinfo.asp?pubid=2003017. National Education Association. (2000). Quality on the Line. Washington, DC: Institute for Higher Education Policy. Retrieved August 22, 2005 from http://www.ihep.com/Pubs/PDF/Quality.pdf
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Navarro, P. (2000). The promise - and potential pitfalls - of cyberlearning. In Cole, R. A. (Ed.), Issues in web-based pedagogy; A critical primer. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.
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Ohio State University. Office of Information Technology, (2004). Glossary. Retrieved February 26, 2005 from http://www.oit.ohio-state.edu/ glossary/gloss3.html. Olcott, D. Jr, & Schmidt, K. (2000). Redefining faculty policies and practices for the knowledge age. In Hanna, D. E. (Eds.), Higher education in an era of digital competition: Choices and challenges. Madison, WI: Atwood Publishing. Palloff, R. M., & Pratt, K. (1999). Building learning communities in cyberspace: Effective strategies for the online classroom. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Parnell, D. (1990). Dateline 2000: The new higher education agenda. Washington, D. C.: Community College Press. Plato. (2005). About us. Retrieved August 26, 2005 from http://www.plato.com/aboutus/index.html. Ritchie, C. D. (1996). Factors influencing student attrition at a proprietary technical college. Doctoral Dissertation, Colorado Technical University, Colorado Springs, Colorado. Rosenberg, R. S. (1997). The social impact of computers. San Diego: Academic Press. Ruch, R. S. (2001). Higher ed, Inc.: The rise of the for-profit university. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. Shefski, W. J. (1994). Free electronic networks. Rocklin, CA: Prima Computer Books.
Simonson, M., Smaldino, S., Albright, M., & Zvacek, S. (2000). Teaching and Learning at a distance: Foundations of distance education. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill Prentice Hall. Sinclair Community College. (1999). Does distance education make a difference? A matched pairs study of persistence and performance between students using traditional and non-traditional course delivery modes. Retrieved March 5, 2005 from http://www.sinclair.edu/departments/ ipr/Reports/AIRReportsPresentations/index.cfm. Straubhaar, J. M., & LaRose, R. (2006). Media now: Understanding media, culture, and technology. Fifth Edition. Belmont, CA: Thompson Wadsworth. Twigg, C. A. (2003). Improving Learning and Reducing Costs: New Models for Online Learning. EDUCAUSE Review, 38 (5), 28–38. Retrieved August 22, 2005, from http://www.educause.edu/ ir/library/pdf/erm0352.pdf. United States Distance Learning Association. (n.d.). USDLA definition of distance learning. Retrieved February 25, 2005 from http://www. usdla.org/. University of South Dakota. (2005). Library tutorials: Glossary of library and internet terms. Retrieved February 26, 2005 from http://www.usd. edu/library/instruction/glossary.shtml. University of Washington, Office of Educational Assessment, Program Evaluation Division. (2003). Evaluation planning guide. Retrieved July 24, 2004 from http://www.washington.edu/ oea/evaluatn.htm.
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Wolfe, D. (1994). The BBS construction kit. New York: John Wiley& Sons, Inc. Wooley, D. R. (1994). PLATO: The emergence of online community. Retrieved August 26, 2005 from http://thinkofit.com/plato/dwplato.htm Young, J. (2002). ‘Hybrid’ teaching seeks to end the divide between traditional and online instruction. The Chronicle of Higher Education [electronic version: From the issue dated March 22, 2002] Information technology. Retrieved October 10, 2004 from http://chronicle.com/free/ v48/i28/28a03301.htm.
keY TeRmS AND DeFINITIONS Advanced Research Projects Agency Network (ARPANET): ARPANET was born in the late 1960’s as a way to mitigate communications interruptions initiated by a nuclear war. Agent: As the name implies, an agent performs operations such as file extraction and preparation for an application. GOPHER and ARCHIE are considered to be examples of agents. Anonymous FTP: Logging on to a server anonymously allows you to access and download files in the public domain. If you are logging on to an FTP site from your web browser, chances are you will be logged on as “anonymous” automatically. Most FTP sites support anonymous access, but not all. Archie: Archie is a program that allows you to search the Internet for files located in archives. Once you’ve located them, you can use FTP to download them. Authentication: The process of entering your username and password is know as authentication. You prove, or “authenticate”, that you are who you say you are when you enter your password. Baud rate (also known as BPS): A term used to measure transfer speed over an analog circuit. A unit of measurement that describes how fast
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data is transmitted across a digital circuit. Usually, modem speed is described in bps. For example, a “28.8 modem” can transfer 28,800 bits per second. Bulletin Board System (BBS): A system that lets you post and read messages. You can read other messages, or wait a bit until someone responds to your “post”. The Discussion Forum at MacintoshOS.com is a type of bulletin board. Most software/hardware vendors maintain a BBS to provide technical support and allow registered users to download patches and updates. Discussion Group (or Forum): A Discussion Group is sort of the Web’s version of a Bulletin Board. Users post messages and respond to other users posts about specific topics and interests. Domain Name: Plain language identifier/address. The first part is who we are, the second part stands for the larger area. Other common suffixes are.edu,.gov,.biz,.mil, and.org. Others include.fn,. ca, or.it (etc). These endings show that the site is hosted overseas (France, Canada, Italy, etc.) Domain Names are unique, and are registered through a governing organization called InterNIC. Some domain names are registered but not “active”, that is, you can’t visit them with your Web browser. Some businesses register their Domain Names so they can have an Internet e-mail address, but don’t develop a real Web site. Other sites are just “under construction”. Domain Name System (DNS): The DNS allows you to access a site with its Domain Name instead of its numerical IP address. In other words, you can remember “www.MacintoshOS.com” instead of 204.250.196.100. Ethernet: The most common way of connecting computers in a LAN. This cable ties your offices computers: together, and allows you to transfer information to other clients in your network at up to 10,000,000 bps. File Transfer Protocol (FTP): The most common way to download and upload (get and put) files on the Internet. When you download something from our shareware page, you are con-
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nected to an FTP site, and your computer and the server use FTP to send you the file. Finger: This command lets you get information about someone on the net. It is a UNIX command, (but finger utilities exist for other OS’s) and will tell you if someone else is logged on, if they have unread mail, etc. Gateway: The old name for the middleman between networks that can’t communicate without them (i.e. a LAN and the Internet). The new name is router. Your ISP uses a router or routers to connect your dialup call to the Internet: Gopher: A pre-Yahoo and Lycos information search and tool. Search with Gopher (using Veronica or Jughead) and you are crawling “gopherspace”. Host: Usually refers to a server machine that allows client machines to visit, access, and share files. Hypertext: All those blue underlined words all over the Web are Hypertext. When you click on them they take you somewhere else (to a new document, somewhere else in the current document, etc..). HyperText Markup Language (HTML): The language of the World Wide Web. Web sites and pages are created or “marked up” using HTML. HyperText Transport Protocol (HTTP): HTTP is the protocol that the servers and the clients of the Internet use to transfer those great looking HyperText documents all over the Web. Internet Protocol (IP): The Internet Protocol is what allows the many computers on the Internet to communicate across the various networks and different operating systems. It is the common denominator in a very unstandardized and diverse world. IP Address: This is the equivalent of the telephone number of your favorite Internet destination. Fortunately, most sites and servers also have a domain name, which is usually easier to remember. For example, when you type http:// www.MacintoshOS.com you are using HyperText Transfer Protocol to “dial” the IP address
(204.250.196.100) of MacintoshOS.com by typing in its domain name. Every IP address is unique. Internet Service Provider (ISP): Subscription-based internet access providers. InterNIC: The Internet Information Center is divided into three groups, Information Services, Directory Services, and Registration Services. Originally, one would have to contact InterNIC Registration Services directly, however, now there are many services that can handle this for you, at very reasonable cost. Internet Relay Chat (IRC): IRC allows you to communicate in chat rooms with other users. Everything is in real time and only limited by your typing skills and the rules of the room. The room usually has an operator with administrative capabilities. LAN: Local Area Networks are common in most all businesses and universities. They allow users to easily send email, access large company databases, and share files and printers. Most LANs also have an Internet onramp so users can access resources outside the LAN. Listserv: A type of automated mail distribution system, Listservs allow you to automatically subscribe to a mailing list and receive email about specific topics. To subscribe to these groups, you typically send email to the Listserver and say something like “SUBSCRIBE....” in the body or subject of the message. A computer will interpret your email, and add you to the periodic mailing list. Mosaic: The original graphical Internet browser. The National Super Computer Association (NCSA) invented Mosaic, and it was the Web’s early standard. Netscape then came along and gave away its now famous browser, Navigator, in an effort to become the new standard. Newsgroup: The name for discussion groups on Usenet. Newsgroups are basically distributed bulletin boards about particular topics and interests. NIC: An acronym for Networked Information Center that applies to any office that handles info for a network. The big and famous one that
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handles the administrative needs of the Internet is the InterNIC, which is where new domain names are registered. Node: A node is any computer connected to the Internet. Packet: A chunk of data easily sent over network. Imagine some brown paper packages tied up with string, but instead of snail mail addresses, they have the IP address they came from and the one they’re going to digitally stamped with bits and bytes. Router: A computer who’s only mission in life is to act like a very speedy mailroom clerk, looking at IP addresses on packets, and speeding them along to the right destinations.
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Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP): This is the big set of “common denominator” protocols, or rules, used on the Internet to allow computers to communicate. TCP/IP exists for all operating systems. Telnet: A program that lets you access remote computers on the Net. When you telnet to another computer, you usually come to a “log in” prompt. Veronica: A search engine that is built into Gopher. It allows searches of all gopher sites for files, directories and other resources. Wide Area Information Service (WAIS): A search engine that lets you input keywords. It then searches its index and returns you the search results ranked and scored according to relevancy.
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Chapter 4
ICT Applications in U.S. Higher Education Michelle O. Crosby-Nagy George Washington University, USA John M. Carfora Loyola Marymount University and the Immersive Education Initiative, USA
ABSTRACT This chapter examines applications of information and communications technologies (ICTs) for education, including multi-user virtual environments (MUVEs) and their returns to teaching and learning in U.S. higher education. ICT applications are most valuable when used in the context of courses with a team-based approach to learning or collaboration opportunities. Some drivers of ICT integration are discussed including the internationalization of higher education and the Millennial generation as the new customers of higher education. Recommendations for the fundamentals of positive ICT applications and integration are provided, as well as a discussion about the future of ICT applications such as MUVEs.
INTRODUCTION Popular usage of terms like Globalization, knowledge-based society, and the Net Generation–along with the progressively aggressive marketing of concepts and products by educational technology firms–have made technology and its use in higher education a “hot topic” over the last decade. As a result, a number of governments, and most recently the U.S. government, have made support for the study of information and communications technology in education and for broad applications DOI: 10.4018/978-1-61692-822-3.ch004
of educational technology a high priority. As a result, researchers are being pressed to examine the core educational value of ICT applications, the status of ICT usage in a global context as well as the predictors of ICT integration at both the pedagogical and administrative levels. All sectors of government, academic and industry are watching for formulas for success. The authors approached this research effort by first verifying and substantiating claims that the use of information and communications technology (ICT) applications in higher education improves learning. While it is difficult to measure teaching and learning directly in almost any context, in
the case of ICTs we are able to draw upon well established ideas around the value of coursebased team-learning and collaborative learning (also known as module-specific collaboration), and use these grounded ideas as support for the idea that ICT applications are best used in these learning contexts. Later in the chapter we explore the current use of information and communications technology in the USA as well as an emerging application known as “virtual teaming” with the support of two surveys. In this section we identify how technologies are being used in higher education, in what kinds of courses and for what purposes, and also look at the drivers and barriers to integration. This discussion is then followed by a section examining information and communication technologies in the context of globalization, along with the value and utility of using information and communications technologies for selected course-based international collaborations.
BACkgROUND Information and communications technology (ICT) is defined as any medium used to transmit information, and is often used synonymously with the term “information technology” (IT); however, ICTs tend to be more inclusive as they quite often refer to any device used to transmit or record information including all computer application software. Examples include popular basics such as cellular phones, radio, video, and even paper. What we hear about most frequently today are innovative ICT applications such as wikis, blogs, virtual teaming and multi-user virtual environments (MUVEs). Wiki’s, blogs, Google Docs, MUVEs and other Web 2.0 applications all use ICTs to create environments that meet our changing social demands in all sectors. The distinction between ICTs and ICT applications is an important aspect of this chapter.
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Demands upon human capital by manufacturing and industry have played a large role in the emergence and application of ICTs and are characteristic of high income economies. That said, there has been a precipitous downward shift in the demand for skills in manufacturing over the past century. For example, in 1800, 90 percent of the labor force consisted of farmers, while by 1900 this percentage declined to 38 percent; today less than 2 percent of the workforce participates in farming occupations. Along with a downward shift in demand for manufacturing, over the last half-century there has been an upward shift in the demand for skills required of the services industry. Today, services account for over 85 percent of U.S. GDP and 60 percent of GDP for all advanced countries. This trend has lead to replacing physical capital with human capital. Indeed, it is predicted that by 2010 the U.S. will need over twice the number of computer software engineers, data communications analysts and computer support specialists than it had in 2000. As reported in an OECD-PISA Report (2000) and other studies, these trends signal that the knowledge worker era has arrived and we are seeing more and more people seeking access to higher education (Schleicher & Stewart, 2008). Due to these workforce trends and a host of fundamental socio-economic changes in both the USA and other forward-thinking economies it, is no mystery that e-learning has emerged as strongly as it has, and equally no surprise how the use of ICT applications has penetrated the university classroom. Students around the world are increasingly exploring ways to access higher education outside the traditional in-classroom, in-person, and teacher-student paradigm. Internet penetration in the classroom has also sufficiently enabled students to collaborate and experience learning in unprecedented ways. ICTs have been used in the developing world to help overcome teacher shortages as well as to develop and upgrade teaching skills (Crede, 1998). Likewise, use of information and communication
ICT Applications in U.S. Higher Education
technologies for development is something often seen in India and throughout Africa. Examples include computerized milk collection centers, the use of personal digital assistants such as blackberries for health data collection and recording keeping, internet kiosks, and micro finance “smart cards” (Cecchini & Scott, 2003; Conlon & Humphreys, 2007). ICTs are often used in these contexts because they are efficient at solving problems of asymmetrical information in a market; similarly, they are also proven boosters for educational purposes. In the higher education sector in the United States, growing pressure is put on institutions and professors to augment education or deliver educational content through ICT applications. This lends researchers to wonder what is in fact the educational value of using applications such as MUVEs? Do students learn better or faster? Is teaching improved? If the answer is yes, then we must again ask, why? What is characteristic of ICT applications that make them learning and teaching enhancers? Answers to these basic questions should result in building appropriate foundations for their use in university-based contexts.
Why Use ICT Applications? ICTs and their applications are intended to make the transmittance of information easier, faster and more effective. On a basic level this implies that learning is a two-way process. Given the nature of ICTs, we suggest that where ICT applications are the most useful are in those learning contexts where the effective, easy and fast transmittance of information is in highest need: working and learning in groups. We believe this assumption is justified on the grounds that the most far reaching ICT applications of our time, such as Facebook, developed out of a perceived and applied need for improved communication among humans and network externalities (Katz & Shapiro, 1994). Of course one can argue that there is always a need for faster, easier and effective transmittance of
information in all learning contexts—while we do not argue that this is incorrect, we instead claim that the highest need for ICT applications occurs when individuals work in collaborative and/or cooperative groups in a class environment. Accepting the premise that ICT applications are of most use when facilitating team-based learning, we can begin to explore why team-based learning is valuable in itself. There are actually several kinds of cooperative group contexts, some of which yield mixed returns to teaching and learning. According to a study by David W. Johnson and Rodger T. Johnson (1999), titled Making Cooperative Learning Work, not all types of groups established in the classroom yield high returns to learning. Those groups that work together to accomplish shared goals–as opposed to groups established outside an individual’s will–are often viewed as most beneficial. Johnson and Johnson argue for the cooperative learning approach over competitive and/or individualistic learning approaches because cooperative learning results in process gain, the greater transfer of knowledge across situational contexts, more time spent on task, development of higher level reasoning skills, usage of critical thinking skills, and the experience of psychological success, greater personal attraction, a desire to exert more effort, and the establishment of better relationships with peers (Johnson & Johnson, 1999, p. 72). In fact, team- and collaborative-based learning approaches are not new. While at one time there were fears about the replacement of good teachers by technology, there has been an evolution of thought about ICT applications and their ability to enhance pedagogy, collaboration, and participation in classroom-based dynamics. Other studies have investigated the returns to learning as the result of using a team-based learning approach. These include valuable information and research on the development of team and collaborative learning competences and the desire for lifelong learning, improvements in attendance,
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and encouragement of meaningful independent learning (Ottewill et. al. 2004). MUVEs have are being used by technology using professors with increasing frequency. MUVEs such as Second Life can be used for a wide range of courses from history to language acquisition. Methodologies used to measure the learning effectiveness of courses where MUVEs and ICT applications are applied tend to use a combination of both quantitative and qualitative methods, and in these studies empirically-based findings can be quite valuable. For example, a recent study by De Lucia et al. (2009) titled Development and evaluation of a virtual campus on Second Life, found that in the 3-D multi-user virtual environment learning is strongly correlated with the user’s perception that s/he belongs to a learning community. Another example is a recent study by Ras and Rech (2009) on the use of wikis to improve knowledge acquisition; indeed, Ras and Rech found a statistically significant improvement in knowledge acquisition of about 204 percent when used in capstone projects. Professors are constantly innovating to find the best method(s) for the evaluation of learning when MUVEs and other ICT applications are used to achieve course objectives. Studies that have successfully evaluated students show that learning in virtual environments requires socialization as well as the establishment of trust—just as it would be in any kind of collaborative learning environment. While ICT applications have proven to be effective facilitators of team-based learning, they require the same kind of thoughtful planning and preparation as team-based assignments. Given their conduciveness to team-based learning, if their use encourages a shift to a more constructivist teaching paradigm, we should expect to see more university students with the skills derived precisely from cooperative and collaborative learning models outlined above.
ICTS: APPLICATIONS, DRIVeRS AND BARRIeRS Now that we have discussed the “value-add” of ICT applications, we move to an exploration of the emergence of ICT applications in the American university setting. What kinds of ICT applications do we see from the seemingly dated “wiki” to the most advanced “MUVE,” and what might explain their presence? To support his section, we use the preliminary findings from a survey inprogress, which was distributed to 1,000 faculty members and associated experts in education technology and information technology, and to over 30 globally-based university administrators who use technology to support their courses and research (surveys can be found in the appendix to this chapter). The surveys were composed to obtain answers to the following questions: (1) What are the predictors of the integration of ICT applications by faculty? (2) What are the predictors of the integration of ICT policies by administrators? (3) Who is using ICT applications, why are they using them, and in what contexts? The preliminary results of our surveys show that professors in the United States are using the following information and communications technology applications to support their courses: • • • • • •
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Internet-Based Collaboration (i.e. wikis, blogs, and Google documents) Chat Tools (such as. Skype, and Google chat) Course Management Systems (such as Blackboard or Moodle) Social Networking (such as Facebook, and MySpace) Computer Software that Simulates a MultiUser Virtual Reality (such as SecondLife) New Media Web-Based Tools (such as Podcasts, Camtasia, Digg and Captivate)
ICT Applications in U.S. Higher Education
• •
Email Mashups (two or more online applications programmed into one)
All respondents of the surveys thus far have reported using some application of ICTs in their courses, and all reported having elements of their courses requiring collaboration. The most frequently used tools were Internet-based document collaboration, MUVEs and e-mail, with only half reporting the use of chat, course management systems, and new-media web-based tools. Professors also listed the use of web-based forums, bulletin boards, databases, and version control software (software that organizes or controls the different versions of software used). Professors are using these ICT applications for a variety of courses. For example, a professor teaching a course on creativity and innovation reported using Second Life. Virtual reality applications were also used by professors teaching robotics and architecture. In addition to these, other fields where the use of ICT applications might be appropriate are: aerodynamics, digital music, computer-aided drafting, telecommunications, health and fitness. Respondents also listed the use of: • • • • • • •
Desire2Learn: A tool for online learning and web-based learning management. Mind Mapping Software: Software to build conceptual frameworks. Ning: Software to build social networks. GoToMeeting: A tool for web conferencing and online meetings. Google Analytics: Provides analysis of website traffic and reporting. Twitter: Instant social messaging. YouTube: Video posting and sharing.
Given the educational value of using ICT applications for team-based learning approaches, we would like to add to this list what can perhaps be described as the ultimate ICT application for
team-based learning; this is an emerging multi-user virtual environment that incorporates many ICTs at once known as “virtual teaming.” Virtual teaming can be described as an activity where members of a geographically dispersed group work on a specific project with both synchronous and asynchronous computer-mediated interactions. ICT applications traditionally used to support virtual teaming have been telephone, videoconferences and e-mail, with more sophisticated versions using MUVEs and highly specialized mash-ups that incorporate video, chat, e-mail and document repository for course management. Virtual teaming is currently being used by cutting-edge faculty for the purposes of course-based international collaboration at the Pennsylvania State University’s Engineering Leadership Development Program in the College of Engineering, the School of Agriculture at Auburn University and the International Studies Department at the University of MassachusettsBoston. Recently a high school class in Paramus, New Jersey, was interviewed about their use of a wiki tool to carry-out joint projects with a class in the cities of Naharia and Gush Etzion in Israel (Yellin, 2009). Virtual teaming, Desire2Learn, Twitter and the rest of the ICT applications listed above clearly do not capture every kind of ICT application used by U.S. professors today, but they do give a sense of the kinds of tools that have made their way into higher education. That said, despite these exciting applications, not all professors choose to use the most cutting-edge applications for their courses. When professors in our survey were asked why MUVEs were chosen/not chosen, some professors stated: (1) “technology capability is limited;” (2) “all the data comes at once and is overwhelming;” and (3) “the technology was difficult to set-up and use.” These types of technology absorption problems are just one barrier that ICT applications face regarding their integration in the university classroom. Other barriers include the successful implementation of a team-based learning oppor-
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tunity that can be appropriately facilitated by an ICT application. Problems with virtual teaming for example are most frequently discussed in the management literature. Virtual teaming is highly analogous to online collaboration though is made distinct by its task-based character. Truly international companies such as IBM have been forced to find cost-effective and productive uses of information and communications technologies, and they have found these solutions through the use of virtual teaming using applications such as Second Life. Xerox Corporation has taken a “services and processes approach” to the use of multi-user virtual environments in order to study which products customers prefer to interact with (Karlsson, 2008). Other uses include content management and work flows in a 3D immersive environment. As a result, industry has analyzed problems and thought deeply about ways to troubleshoot virtual teaming, all of which are applicable to the use of ICT applications for team-based learning approaches in the classroom. Common problems with virtual teaming in the business world include lack of effective leadership, “low individual commitment, role overload, role ambiguity, absenteeism, lack of synergy amongst team members, conflicts due to dual or multiple reporting lines, different holidays and working hours, communications breakdowns due to unreliable technology and cultural variances” (Symons & Stenzel, 2007). The benefits of virtual teaming include the opportunity to share knowledge and analyze problems for cooperative decision and problem solving. When used in situations of international collaboration, (international) virtual teaming provides students with multinational knowledge sharing and problem solving, and though it poses great challenges, in return it provides great rewards. Despite these benefits, few studies argue that virtual teaming is a desirable permanent replacement to face-to-face interaction. In fact, it is recommended that there is a
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significant investment in relationship building through in-person meetings.
Drivers of ICT Applications Now that we have mentioned the different types and applications of ICTs in U.S. we move to some possible drivers of their presence and use in the university classroom. We believe that there are at least two very powerful drivers: the new customers of higher education, Millennials (born between 1980-1995) and globalization. Millenials bring a comfort level and reliance upon internet-based communication and ICT to the university as never before. (Chronicle of Higher Education, 2007) As a result, those universities that can effectively cater to the expectations and learning-styles of Millennials throughout the next two decades may gain a comparative advantage. To this end, universities have demonstrated their commitment to the changing technological demands of students. To appeal to the Millennial’s desire for ICT applications integration in the classroom, some universities have established offices dedicated to information technology management or academic technologies. Titles of individuals dealing with university technology include: Vice President for Information Technology, Chief Technology Officer, Chief Information Officer, etc. Another example is a new service often known as “University iTunes.” Some classrooms are enabled to capture and record lectures, which can then be downloaded as podcasts and stored on a secure site. While students have always historically found recording lectures to be a useful way to retain information and understand concepts, in the case of University iTunes, high-level student absorption of new technology has been a significant driver for the integration of cutting-edge technology in the university classroom. In addition to multi-tasking, Millennials can also be described as eager for new experiences with an interest in looking outwards (Clare, 2009).
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As a result, international experience and interaction is important to a Millennial, and therefore, to university administrators. In fact, globalizing (also known as internationalizing) higher education has become a priority for universities around the world. Universities seek to provide an education enabling students to comprehend global-reaching issues related to their particular fields of academic interest, and in preparation for study abroad experiences. Such policies are encouraged and supported by university associations such as the Association of Public and Land-Grant Universities (formally the National Association of State Universities and Land Grant Colleges) whose mission-statement encourages State Universities and Land-Grant colleges to provide international components to their university policy and their students’ overall education experience. Today however, the state of internationalization of American campuses is disappointing. A study done by the American Council on Education (Green, Luu & Burris, 2008) shows that campuses are far from embracing internationalization as evidenced by the lack of university administrators dedicated to international coordination and an emphasis on student-mobility over the other dimensions of internationalization such as organizational change, staff development and most importantly curriculum innovation (Rudzki, 1995). “Curriculum innovation” is perhaps most forward looking in those instances where multiuser virtual environments (such as virtual teaming) can play a role. Just as we saw the emergence of the availability of ICTs on campus in response to a demand from Millenials, we can also start to envision how ICTs can aid curriculum innovation in response to a demand for internationalization. Faculty members for example, have engaged in international research collaborations using virtual teaming for decades with the use of one primary internet-based ICT application: e-mail.
Solutions and Recommendations Despite the many challenges posed by ICTs for higher educational purposes, especially multi-user virtual environments, we can begin to look at a model that might enable success. Based on the evidence presented above, we believe that courses with the following design elements at minimum make the most sense for maximizing returns to learning with the use of ICT applications: (1) has a team-based approach or collaboration opportunities; and (2) has computer-mediated learning opportunities. The dimensions of complexity to teaching and learning in these environments are added in layers depending on the type and purpose of the course, which may include: acquiring and absorbing collaborative software, and addressing distance learning issues including international collaborative learning. As a result, it is important to look at suggested best practices from all of these aspects of teaching and learning. As discussed above, the value of the teambased approach to learning is widely accepted; this does not mean however that courses designed for team-based learning do not require guidance, especially in a higher education setting. Based on the results of a survey of 6,435 engineering students, teamwork in the classroom works best when there is significant guidance from the instructor on how students should organize in order to collaborate effectively (Oakley et al., 2007). We suggest professors may wish to first consult Johnson and Johnson for a baseline understanding of cooperative learning. Adding one logistical note, it is also perhaps best to focus on projects or activities that last throughout the entire semester, as opposed to activities that are only weeks long in duration. The next step would be to think about how to avoid the pitfalls of using a virtual interface for team-based learning such as: communication breakdowns and cultural variances. The recommendations we are about to make are taken from the context of the business world, but as mentioned
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above, this is justified given that the private sector has had to spend a great deal of time thinking and overcoming problems of virtual teaming. As a result, we suggest following these best practices taken from Chinowsky and Rojas (2003). These suggestions can be used for both international and domestic collaborative classroom activities involving a virtual interface. Depending on the kind of collaboration however, professors may wish to consult additional guidelines addressing distance learning and online collaboration. Even so, all can start with these fundamentals: • •
•
• • • • • • •
Plan for face-to-face time in the beginning of a course Team leaders should be assigned and should have a conversation with each individual on the team Project roles and responsibilities should be communicated and re-communicated throughout the project Establish conflict resolution procedures early Set guidelines for meetings and discussions Establish team-member expectations early Team leaders should be chosen based on interpersonal skills Training for all users in the virtual team is a must Establish communication protocols Establish interoperability of software
Along with these suggestions for “covering the bases” in order to maximize returns to learning with ICT applications, it is important to note that integrating ICT applications into a course will require the dedication of the professor in both time and enthusiasm. While students may be able to absorb new applications of ICTs in a learning context more rapidly today than three decades ago, this does not mean that they alone will be the drivers of positive integration. Positive integration must start with the strong will of a professor to provide new kinds of learning opportunities for
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students that involve ICTs, especially advanced applications such as MUVEs.
FUTURe ReSeARCH DIReCTIONS Clearly there are more research questions to be investigated when it comes to the use of ICT applications in higher education. Given the educational value of their integration, current trends to explore virtual laboratories, virtual space stations, and other immersive education initiatives are important to advance. The European Union treats ICTs as part of its supranational research framework, investigating topics such as: • • • •
Future emerging technologies; Digital libraries and content; Healthcare; and Service infrastructures
Virtual campuses are also frequently being established in a number of countries such as China, the United Kingdom and Australia. As a consequence, the United States may benefit from creating funding mechanisms for research in these high-priority areas. Education technologies are inevitably part of the fabric of the Obama Administration’s longterm plan for recovery and growth. This is evidenced by emphasis on education as well as several other “game-changing” approaches to policy that include the “Open Government Initiative,” “data. gov” and the creation of a Chief Technology Officer for the United States who reports directly to the President. Perhaps we can now watch and see how a President that appreciates innovation and the importance of things like broadband can translate such “innovation” into the integration of advanced applications of ICTs in university classrooms. In addition to the President’s focus on information and communication technology, he has also pushed hard for international collaborations, with
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special emphasis on Muslim-majority countries. As a result, we may perhaps see a new stream of funding for international academic collaborations and a demand for new approaches to how researchers and students can collaborate. If this trend grows, a desire to use multi-user virtual environments such as virtual teaming mash-ups may increase as well. A strong driver of this increase would be the Office of Science and Technology Policy’s ability to communicate effectively and be actively involved with university decision makers through mediums such as the Government-University-Industry Research Roundtable (National Academy of Sciences).
CONCLUSION This chapter began with an overall discussion of the value of using information and communication technologies applications in the classroom, with particular attention on more advanced applications such as multi user virtual environments. We found that there are high returns to leaning with ICT applications when they are used in the context of a team-based approach to learning. Classroom experiences that lend themselves to more student-centric and community-centric learning–as opposed to competitive or atomistic approaches–have proven to increase learning and provide real-world experience for students. When considering the kinds of applications of ICTs currently used by professors, we found that while they are still using devices, software and web-based applications are popular. Findings were supported by the preliminary returns of two surveys as a part of a larger study. Drivers and barriers to the integration of ICTs and their advanced applications were explored in the context of the globalization of higher education and the advance of Millennials. As universities seek ways to provide international experiences to their students that is meaningful and substantive, a new trend of course-based collaboration,
sometimes including international collaboration, called “virtual teaming” has emerged. Similarly, Millennials bring to the university reliance upon and comfort with information and communications technologies that provides fertile ground for new advances applications of ICTs such as MUVEs. Providing a one-size-fits-all model for successful integration of ICTs, and especially MUVEs, is difficult to say the least. Based on the ideal course design for their use, some baseline guidelines are provided, which include establishing a team leader and ensuring that basic training is provided. Many of these recommendations are taken from private-sector investigations of how to make virtual-teaming successful. We believe this is justified given that globalization has forced firms to figure out how to be very good at virtual teaming and collaboration. The horizon for ICTs and their advanced applications in higher education is far-reaching. The new U.S. administration has placed emphasis on technology-based growth, information technology and innovation; education is also high on the list for U.S. recovery and long-term growth. As a result, it is likely that U.S. higher education will show an increased interest in the variety of opportunities available for students to benefit from e-learning and virtual worlds.
ReFeReNCeS Cecchini, S., & Scott, C. (2003). Can information and communications technology applications contribute to poverty reduction? Lessons from rural India. Information Technology for Development, 10. Chinowsky, P. S., & Rojas, E. M. (2003). Virtual teams: Guide to successful implementation. Journal of Management Engineering, 19(3), 98. doi:10.1061/(ASCE)0742-597X(2003)19:3(98) Clare, C. (2009). Generations DIFFERENCES. Journal of Property Management, 74(5), 40–43.
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Conlon, J., & Humphreys, J. (2007). Universities, poverty and technology management: developing export markets for west African micro-enterprises. International Journal of Technology Management & Sustainable Development, 6(2), 123. doi:10.1386/ijtm.6.2.123_2 Crede, A. (1998). Knowledge societies--in a nutshell: information technology for sustainable development. Ottawa: The Centre. De Lucia, A., Francese, R., Passero, I., & Tortora, G. (2009). Development and evaluation of a virtual campus on second life: The case of SecondDMI. Computers & Education, 52(1), 220–233. doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2008.08.001 Gatlin-Watts, R., Carson, M., Horton, J., Maxwell, L., & Maltby, N. (2007). A guide to global virtual teaming. Team Performance Management, 13(1), 47–52. doi:10.1108/13527590710736725 Green, M., Luu, D. T., & Burris, B. (2008). Mapping Internationalization on U.S. Campuses: 2008 Edition. Washington, D.C.: American Council on Education. How the new generation of well-wired multitaskers is changing campus culture.(2007). Chronicle of Higher Education, 53(18), B10-B15. Jiang, X. (2008). Towards the internationalisation of higher education from a critical perspective. Journal of Further and Higher Education, 32(4), 347–358. doi:10.1080/03098770802395561 Johnson, D. W., & Johnson, R. T. (1999). Making cooperative learning work. Theory into Practice, 38(2, Building Community through Cooperative Learning), 67-73. Karlsson, J. (2008). Taking care of Xerox businessvirtually. Research Technology Management, 51(1), 15–18. Katz, M. L., & Shapiro, C. (1994). Systems competition and network effects. The Journal of Economic Perspectives, 8(2), 93–115.
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Knowledge and skills for life: First results from the OECD programme for international student assessment (PISA) 2000 (2002). Journal of Economic Literature, 40(3), 1018-1018. Oakley, B. A., Hanna, D. M., Kuzmyn, Z., & Felder, R. M. (2007). Best practices involving teamwork in the classroom: Results from a survey of 6435 engineering student respondents. IEEE Transactions on Education, 50(3), 266–272. doi:10.1109/TE.2007.901982 Ottewill, R. (Ed.). (2004). Educational innovation in economics and business VIII. Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers. Ottewill, R., Borredon, L., Falque, L., Macfarlane, B., & Wall, A. (Eds.). (2004). Educational innovation in economics and business VIII. Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers. Rappa, N. A., Yip, D. K. H., & Baey, S. C. (2009). The role of teacher, student and ICT in enhancing student engagement in multiuser virtual environments. British Journal of Educational Technology, 40(1), 61–69. doi:10.1111/j.14678535.2007.00798.x Ras, E., & Rech, J. (2009). Using wikis to support the net generation in improving knowledge acquisition in capstone projects. Journal of Systems and Software, 82(4), 553–562. doi:10.1016/j. jss.2008.12.039 Rudzki, R. E. J. (1995). The application of a strategic management model to the internationalization of higher education institutions. Higher Education, 29(4), 421–441. doi:10.1007/BF01383961 Salmon, G., & Hawkridge, D. (2009). Editorial: Out of this world. Blackwell Publishing Limited. Schleicher, A., & Stewart, V. (2008). Learning from world-class. Educational Leadership, 66(2), 44–51.
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Study shows many campuses have yet to embrace internationalization. (2008). Presidency, 11(3), 23-23. Symons, J., & Stenzel, C. (2007). Virtually borderless: An examination of culture in virtual teaming. Journal of General Management, 32(3), 1–17. Teaching in the knowledge society – edited by antonio cartelli.(2007). British Journal of Educational Technology, 38(4), 762-763. Thune, T., & Welle-Strand, A. (2005). ICT for and in internationalization processes: A business school case study. Higher Education, 50(4), 593–611. doi:10.1007/s10734-004-6368-7 Yellin, D. (2009). Students in Paramus, Israel talk to each other via ‘wiki’. Retrieved November 5, 2009 http://www.northjersey.com/news/ bergen/69043807.html
ADDITIONAL ReADINg Archibugi, D. L. Bengt-Åke (Ed.). (2001). The globalizing learning economy. New York: Oxford University Press. Chen, C. C., Wu, J., & Yang, S. C., & Hsin-Yi Tsou. (2008). Importance of diversified leadership roles in improving team effectiveness in a virtual collaboration learning environment. Journal of Educational Technology & Society, 11(1), 304–321. Day, J., Lou, H., & Van Slyke, C. (2004). Instructors’ experiences with using groupware to support collaborative project-based learning. International Journal of Distance Education Technologies, 2(3), 11–25. Higgitt, D., Donert, K., Healey, M., Klein, P., Solem, M., & Vajoczki, S. (2008). Developing and enhancing international collaborative learning. Journal of Geography in Higher Education, 32(1), 121–133. doi:10.1080/03098260701731629
Jiang, X. (2008). Towards the internationalisation of higher education from a critical perspective. Journal of Further and Higher Education, 32(4), 347–358. doi:10.1080/03098770802395561 Klein, P., & Solem, M. (2008). Evaluating the impact of international collaboration on geography learning. Journal of Geography in Higher Education, 32(2), 245–267. doi:10.1080/03098260701728500 Rappa, N. A., Yip, D. K. H., & Baey, S. C. (2009). The role of teacher, student and ICT in enhancing student engagement in multiuser virtual environments. British Journal of Educational Technology, 40(1), 61–69. doi:10.1111/j.14678535.2007.00798.x Taylor, J. (1997). The emerging geographies of virtual worlds. Geographical Review, 87(2, Cyberspace and Geographical Space), 172-192. Veermans, M., & Cesareni, D. (2005). The nature of the discourse in web-based collaborative learning environments: Case studies from four different countries. Computers & Education, 45(3), 316–336. doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2005.04.011 Young, J. R. (2008). Blackboard customers consider alternatives. (cover story). The Chronicle of Higher Education, 55(3), A1–A18.
keY TeRmS AND DeFINITIONS ICT: Any medium used to transmit information ICT Integration: The use of ICT. MUVE: Web-based or non-web-based computer software applications that allow more than one person to participate—may use an avatar and may simulate an environment where digital objects can be explored for educational purposes. Collaborative Learning: A general principle of classroom methodology without the specific objective of completing a task.
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Cooperative Learning: A method involving working together in groups with the objective of completing a task. Team-Based Approach: A method of teaching involving small groups.
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Virtual-Teaming: Working in a group that is geographically disbursed using informational and communications technologies and applications.
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Chapter 5
Digital Intelligence: A New Way of Knowing Nan B. Adams Southeastern Louisiana University, USA
ABSTRACT The multiple intelligences theoretical framework developed by Gardner (1983) is employed to argue for the recognition of the emergence of a new, digital intelligence. Each of the dimensions of a discrete intelligence as described by this framework is satisfied along with a discussion of the nature of knowledge, ways of knowing and the nature of how society describes intelligence. These discussions are then used as further evidence that considerations for the ways digital communication technologies are changing the way we think and learn are imperative to effective educational practice. The desired outcome is recognition of this emerging intellectual preference in the design of responsive educational programs and practices.
INTRODUCTION Through interaction with digital technologies for work, play and communication human patterns for intellectual development are being altered. Instantaneous communication among world communities is commonplace, where 20 years ago it was a dream. Learning and communication modes among world populations have changed drastically as a result of interaction with digital technologies. This change is occurring without much thought DOI: 10.4018/978-1-61692-822-3.ch005
for social implications or considerations for design for positive cultural outcomes. For educators who must prepare current and future generations for engagement in this rapidly evolving world environment, it is critical they be made aware of the emerging digitally-formed intellectual style. In our postmodern pluralistic global culture, Multiple Intelligence Theory has enjoyed success and an educational guide for teaching and learning and has impacted teaching practice. The Multiple Intelligences theoretical framework is easily employed to provide common understanding to acknowledge and accommodate the notion
that a new Digital Intelligence has emerged. By acknowledging the existence of a new digital intelligence and all of the implications that may be created for education and communication, we increase our ability to develop effective strategies to accommodate and guide the development of this new intellectual style. McLuhan (1964) told us “the medium is the message” (p.2), meaning our intellectual style is shaped by the communication media we employ. That was true with the television generation and is even more critical to recognize as our digital media take on more abilities to create virtual environments that mimic real environments but do not seek to understand the implications this has for society as a whole. Negroponte (1995) contends “the medium is not the message in a digital world… it is the embodiment of it” (p. 71). If this is true, then virtual environments are becoming our reality–and we must inquire what this means for our global society and work to insure this new reality is a complete reality rather than a partial reality. The observed but unclassified characteristics of changing intellectual style as a result of interaction with digital communication technologies are definite signs of an emerging digital intelligence. Healy (1990, 1999) speaks of similar concerns when she contends that changing lifestyles may be altering children’s brains in subtle but critical ways and spoke of the development of a new intellectual style. Her observations are outlined especially as they relate to the changing communication patterns developed with young children who interact with digital technologies (1999). Levinson (1999), in his discussion of McLuhan’s ideas observes “if multiplicity is the spirit of the digital age…as a vehicle for education not only formal but more importantly via living, the Web has obsolesced the seven liberal arts in favor of a curriculum with boundaries far less rigid, and populated by thousands of subjects constantly under revision” (p194). Palfrey and Gasser (2008) contend that “The educational establishment is utterly confused about what to do about the impact
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of technology on learning” (p. 238). The multiple intelligences theoretical framework developed by Gardner (1983, 1993) has been widely accepted as a guide for instructional consideration in classrooms around the world. Gardner (1999) acknowledges and identifies new evidence that did not fit easily into the original intelligences he described; this evidence, along with other considerations is used to argue that yet another of the multiple intelligences, digital intelligence, has emerged (Adams, 2004). Acknowledgement of this change in intellectual and communication style could be a beginning step for educators and educational practice. Gardner (2009), developer of the Multiple Intelligences framework, seems to call for this acknowledgement as he observes that “the world of the future–with its ubiquitous search engines, robots, and other computational devices–will demand capacities that until now have been mere options. To meet this new world on its own terms, we should begin to cultivate these capacities now” (p.2).
kNOWLeDge, WAYS OF kNOWINg AND INTeLLIgeNCe Information may be viewed as a fluid that often takes on no form until a pattern is discovered that appears to take into consideration that many possibilities for assemblage exist, but settles on the most accommodating. As with most strong models and theories, Multiple Intelligence Theory has defined rules for organization of information that will accommodate new evidence in such a way that will further extend the organization and therefore substantiate existing understanding and work to create new knowledge. To facilitate a discussion of intelligence one must posses an understanding of the relationship between knowledge, modes of knowing and intelligence. While each has a distinct definition, all exist in an interactive relationship as shown in Figure 1.
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Figure 1. Relationship among intelligence, knowledge, and ways of knowing
knowledge Knowledge can very broadly be defined as what we know or believe to exist. Many conceptions of the organization of knowledge exist. “The task of demarcating kinds of knowledge is not unlike that of demarcating different territories on a map. As there are different kinds of maps of territory, so there are different kinds of maps of knowledge” (Schrag, 1992, p. 268-301). Machlup, in the first volume of his proposed eight volume set entitled Knowledge: Its Creation, Distribution, and Economic Significance (1980), created a classification for the types of knowledge by grouping what we are able to know into discrete categories such as mundane knowledge, scientific knowledge, humanistic knowledge, social-science knowledge and artistic knowledge. A discussion of the many knowledge classification systems is beyond the scope of this article. Machlup’s classification is mentioned to illustrate one conception of knowledge as ‘what we know’.
Ways of knowing The modes of knowing or ‘ways of knowing’ endeavor to describe the human process of internalizing knowledge. Eisner, in his preface to Learning and Teaching the Ways of Knowing (1985), described his editing assumptions: “Since contexts change, the capacities of mind themselves alter. The roads to knowledge are many. Knowledge is not defined by any single system of thought, but is diverse. What people know is expressed in the cultural resources present in all cultures” (p. xi). Included as topics in this collection of modes of knowing are: aesthetic ways of knowing, scientific ways of knowing, interpersonal ways of knowing, narrative, formal, practical and spiritual ways of knowing. The question of what knowledge is most worthy of knowing and by which mode of knowing this knowledge is to be internalized is often cultural but is ultimately a personal decision. Knowledge and the ‘ways of knowing’ work together to create what we refer to as intelligence or intellectual style.
Intelligence Intelligence, as defined by Howard Gardner is “the ability to solve problems or fashion products that are of consequence in a particular cultural setting or community” (1993, p. 15). More simply put, it is the ability of an individual to use knowledge in a personal way to successfully interact with their environment. Gardner’s definition of intelligence differs somewhat from the widely held notion that intelligence is a direct measure of knowledge. Intelligence becomes a measure of enculturation, combining knowledge and the ways of knowing with the ability to interact effectively in a cultural or community setting.
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Digital Intelligence
mULTIPLe INTeLLIgeNCe THeORY In his original multiple intelligences classification system, Gardner defines the criteria for distinction of intelligence classes. He states: “each intelligence must have an identifiable core operation or set of operations. As a neurally-based computational system, each intelligence is activated or ‘triggered’ by certain kinds of internally or externally presented information” (1993, p. 16). An additional criterion is described that “an intelligence must also be susceptible to encoding in a symbol system--a culturally contrived systems of meaning, which captures and conveys important forms of information” (1993, p. 16). Gardner contends that intelligence takes on seven domains or modes of operation. He chooses to liken intelligence to talent and outlines the following seven domains in which talent or intelligence functions: musical, bodily-kinesthetic, verbal-linguistical, interpersonal, intrapersonal, spatial, logicalmathematical” (1993, p. 16). Gardner additionally contends that these seven intelligences reflect the way the nervous system has evolved over the millennia to yield certain discrete kinds of intelligence” (1993, p. 8). He claims that it is irrelevant whether intelligence is either inborn or learned. It is not supposed that any of the original seven intelligences nor the two additional intelligences of Gardner’s theoretical framework are invalid; it is merely observed that yet another intelligence has emerged. A different intelligence, resulting from human interaction with digital computers and communication technologies, has emerged.
Digital Intelligence: The Argument for a New Intelligence Classification systems are constructed around beliefs of what knowledge is worthy of transmission. Gardner may not have held digital knowledge in the same esteem as other knowledge structures when creating his framework. As with all strong
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models, he did allow for the development of other intelligences. In the epilogue of Multiple Intelligences: Theory in Practice (1993), Gardner foresaw “The mental landscape [of the future] might be reconfigured in light of accumulated knowledge. I have every reason to believe that the map would be drawn in a somewhat different way” (p. 260). Possibly the future is not as distant as the year 2013 that Gardner chose for prediction. In the year 1965, it is estimated that knowledge doubled every five years. By the year 2003, it was predicted that knowledge will doubled every two months. One can only wonder at the rate knowledge is growing today. Gardner may have figured time on the 1965 scale. Gardner’s own definition of intelligence as “the ability to solve problems or fashion products that are of consequence in a particular cultural setting or community” (1993, p. 15) sets criteria allowing for the emergence of a digital intelligence. Our society is increasingly becoming McLuhan’s and Powers’ “global village” (1989). Digital technologies have truly become an extension of man and the external neural network McLuhan and Zingrone describe is under construction (1995). This new digital intelligence is a response to the cultural change brought about by interaction with digital technologies which takes into account the skills and talents possessed by the ‘symbol analysts’ and ‘masters of change’ recently recognized in Gardner’s own revision of Multiple Intelligences Theory, Intelligence Reframed (1999). Artists often describe their ability to create art as if the information or knowledge about their particular art exists in a multi-dimensional state in their environment. Their talent lies in their ability to decode this information and transfer it into a medium that others can more easily appreciate. This is the artists’ own description of the talent or intelligence that Gardner terms Musical Intelligence. We have developed this type of phenomenon with information of all descriptions. We have moved it into multi-dimensional digital space. Information is no longer arranged in linear fashion but is now
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object oriented and often clustered. Because of the new functions provided through digital technologies, information/knowledge may be personally arranged and rearranged. It could be said that those with the ability to understand and interact with this digital information to arrange, manipulate and display it according to their perceptions posses yet another intelligence--an intelligence made up of components of the other intelligences, just as musical or spatial intelligence is described by Gardner to exist. As Gardner describes in his latest work, there exist ‘individual virtuosos’ with the characteristics of ‘symbol analyst’ and ‘master of change’ (1999). Those possessing this talent could be termed digitally intelligent. Continuing with Gardner’s criteria of universality and a unique symbol encoding system to define the existence of a discrete intelligence, there is little question of the universality of digital media across cultures. The development of computer icons used for communication within a digital environment satisfies the criterion of encoding in a symbol system. When using Gardner’s own criterion for intelligence classification, digital intelligence logically exists. A change in world culture caused by digital technology is occurring. Changes in communication style, life style, economic practice and in the way we think have been caused by digital technology. Our “ability to solve problems or fashion products that are of consequence in a particular cultural setting or community” (1993, p. 15). is directly related to our ability to interact with this emerging digital environment. Sherry Turkle, in her books The Second Self: Computers and the Human Spirit (1984, 2005) and Life on the Screen: Identity in the Age of the Internet (1997), writes “...the computer offers us both new model of mind and a new medium on which to project our ideas and fantasies...a nascent culture of simulation is affecting our ideas about mind, body, self and machine” (1997, p. 9-10). “The lessons of computing today have little to do with calculation and rules; instead they concern
simulation, navigation, and interaction...The computer culture’s center of gravity has shifted decisively to people who do not think of themselves as programmers” (1997, p. 19). “We are moving from a modernist culture of calculation toward a postmodernist culture of simulation... Mainstream computer researchers no longer aspire to program intelligence into computers but expect intelligence to emerge from the interactions of small subprograms. If these emergent simulations are ‘opaque’, this is not necessarily a problem... our brains are opaque to us, but this has never prevented them from functioning perfectly well as minds” (1997, p. 19-20). Jane Healy (1990, 1999) contends changing lifestyles may be altering children’s brains in subtle but critical ways and speaks of the development of a new intellectual style. When discussing digital technology, she writes “subtle shifts in what the human brain is required to do will eventually cause it to modify itself for new uses... ” (1999, p. 332). Her concern with this topic caused her to inquire of Dr. Jerome Bruner his opinion of changing brains in a technological age. His reply: “The only thing I can say with some degree of certainty is that the evolution of human brain function has changed principally in response to the linkage between human beings and different tool systems. It would seem as if technology and its development leads to a new basis of selection...surely there must be a variety of changes in progress that resulted from writing systems, even though writing systems were introduced only a short time ago as far as we reckon evolutionary time. And now, of course, we have computers and video systems, and how long before the selection pattern changes as a result of these?” (1999, p. 334). Marshall McLuhan told us “the medium is the message” (1964, p. 23), meaning our intelligences are shaped by the communication media we employ. Nicholas Negroponte, in his book Being Digital (1995), tells us our digital acumen has evolved to a point where “The medium is not the message in a digital world. It is an embodiment
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of it. A message might have several embodiments automatically derivable from the same data” (p. 71). His writing contends our accessibility to knowledge in the form of information is becoming seemingly limitless, and with this accessibility comes the ability for us to interpret that knowledge in whichever way our intelligences need it to be interpreted. An emerging issue is the quality of the information. In this emerging digital free society, the ability to post information for international access is not filtered for accuracy of content or bias. As Palfrey and Gasser (2008) observe, “the majority of the population born digital doesn’t perceive quality of information as an important issue” (p.161).
CONCLUSION As communication technologies are constantly emerging, each must be explored for their impact upon and potential benefit to society. MySpace, Facebook and Twitter, just to name a few social communication tools, provide those with less computer expertise the ability to employ instantaneous communication with chosen friends and interested unknowns. Virtual worlds, such as Second Life, that create a common virtual landscape through which user-created life-like avatars that meander and mingle are becoming commonplace. These online digital meeting spaces are offering the ability to socialize virtually but they usually initiate from a user who is physically isolated from the group. The MUVE creation of digital partial realities that seek to imitate a whole reality has significant implications for the social aspect of the development of intelligence. There is little doubt that a digital intelligence is emerging. It has rooted itself in our conceptions of knowledge and has become integrated into our ways of knowing. Intellectual skills have begun to depend upon our ability to interact in a digital environment. It is true that technology is a tool, but these digital tools have changed world
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culture. “An artifact pushed far enough tends to reincorporate the user” (McLuhan and Powers, 1989, p. 3). Through interaction with digital technologies for work, play and communication, our pattern for intellectual development is being altered (Adams, 2004; Healy, 1999). Considerable uncertainty surrounds the impact that possession of this emerging digital intelligence will have on the future structure of our society. Such things as individual self-concept, teaching and learning practices, accuracy of available information and organizational authority are but a few of the areas that have begun to feel the impact. It is the opinion of this author that one of the most concerning alterations is the construction of partial rather than whole realities (personal communication – Wilma S. Longstreet, 2005) among generations infused with myriad digital media. Educators uniquely have the ability to influence knowledge construction to insure whole realities continue to be developed among our children; but they must first be made aware of the need. The recognition and incorporation of this new intelligence as a category in the Multiple Intelligences Theory would serve to widen the inquiry into responsive teaching and learning.
ReFeReNCeS Adams, N. (2004). Digital Intelligence Fostered by Technology. Journal of Technology Studies, 30(2), 93–97. Bruner, J. Personal communication to Jane Healy as printed in Healy, J. (1990). Endangered Minds, Why children don’t think and what we can do about it. (p. 334) New York, NY: Touchstone. Eisner, E. (Ed.). (1985). Learning and Teaching the Ways of Knowing. Chicago, IL: University of Chigaco Press. Gardner, H. (1983). Frames of Mind, The Theory of Multiple Intelligences. New York: Basic Books.
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Gardner, H. (1993). Multiple Intelligences: The Theory in Practice. New York: Basic Books.
McLuhan, E., & Zingrone, F. (Eds.). (1995). Essential McLuhan. New York: Basic Books.
Gardner, H. (1999). Intelligence Reframed: Multiple Intelligences for the 21st Century. New York: Basic Books.
McLuhan, M. (1964). Understanding Media: The Extensions of Man. New York: McGraw Hill.
Gardner, H. (2009). 5 Minds for the Future. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press. Healy, J. (1990). Endangered Minds, Why children don’t think and what we can do about it (p. 332). New York: Touchstone.
McLuhan, M., & Powers, B. R. (1989). The Global Village, Transformations in World Life and Media in the 21st Century (p. 3). New York: Oxford University Press. Negroponte, N. (1995). Being Digital. New York: Vintage Press.
Healy, J. (1999). Failure to Connect: How Computers Affect Children’s Minds—and What We Can Do About It. New York: Touchstone.
Palfrey, J., & Gasser, U. (2008). Born Digital: Understanding the first generation of digital natives. New York: Basic Books.
Levinson, P. (1999). Digital McLuhan: A Guide to the Information Millennium. New York: Routledge.
Schrag, F. (1992). Conceptions of Knowledge. In Jackson, P. W. (Ed.), Handbook of Research on Curriculum (pp. 268–301). New York: MacMillan Publishing Company.
Longstreet, W. S. (2005,May). Personal communication to Nan Adams. Machlup, F. (1980). Knowledge: Its Creation, Distribution, and Economic Significance: Vol. I. Types of Knowledge. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Turkle, S. (1997). Life on the Screen, Identity in the Age of the Internet. New York: Simon and Schuster. Turkle, S. (1984, 2005). The Second Self: Computers and the Human Spirit. New York: Simon and Schuster.
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Chapter 6
Faculty Professional Learning: An Examination of Online Development and Assessment Environments Olga M. Alegre University of La Laguna, Spain Luis M. Villar University of Seville, Spain
ABSTRACT The model Faculty Electronic Professional Learning and Portfolio (FEPLP) is viewed as cyclic with six basic entry points: quality management of academic development, professional development programmes, e-mentoring for new faculty teachers, development teaching and assessment competences in a blended environment, web-supported faculty assessment strategies, and review of an e-portfolio. This computer-mediated model includes a range of multiple representations of teaching competences that seek to provide for different professional development programmes for faculty in higher education, increases e-mentoring interactions, and provides a more closely reflection on campus e-learning experiences. The authors also investigated future staff developments including further competence module and online course development inspired by this model.
INTRODUCTION We describe a Faculty Electronic Professional Learning and Portfolio model (FEPLP) (see Figure 1). We state that significant changes in quality professional development are likely to take place only after changes in faculty professional learning (FPL) outcomes are evident, that is, once faculty have experienced professional change in academic learning competences. The model is viewed as
cyclic with six basic entry points: quality management of academic development, professional development programs, e-mentoring for new faculty teachers, development teaching and assessment competences in a blended environment, web-supported faculty assessment strategies, and review of an e-portfolio. All these elements ensure quality as the foundation of everything a faculty teacher does. Quality assurance becomes the core of monitoring new faculty personnel, assessing and improving teaching responsibilities. We deal
with the basic elements of quality assurance in this chapter, by focusing on the following: a. b. c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
The university as a learning organization. The university staff and students as the most essential part of higher education institutions. The facilities and equipment as a critical component in planning for online teaching and learning. Policies and procedures as the set of documents providing guidance for fair and consistent staff learning and development. Process control that deals with mechanisms for controlling learning outcomes of specific teaching processes. Documents and records, specifically professional electronic records, or digital portfolios, and Audits and process improvement, or how to enhance the continuous faculty improvement cycle.
FACULTY DeVeLOPmeNT Quality management of Academic Development According to the report Standards and Guidelines for Quality Assurance in the European Higher
Education Area, released by the European Association for Quality Assurance in Higher Education in Helsinki (2005), faculty are “the single most important learning resource available to most students. It is important that those who teach have a full knowledge and understanding of the subject they are teaching, have the necessary skills and experience to transmit their knowledge and understanding effectively to students in a range of teaching contexts, and can access feedback on their own performance”. University government bodies planning and organizing more flexible learning delivery systems focus their attention, efforts and investments on allocating resources to maintain quality requirements and defining the scope of authority and responsibility of faculty at the university level. Moreover, policy makers are concerned with developing faculty job descriptions (duties and responsibilities), providing technological training and continuing education programs and assessing teaching competence on each procedure and teaching activity staff teachers perform. Within universities and departments, experienced scholars are increasingly looking to providers of faculty professional learning and development for evidence that activities, specifically workshops about web course designs, contribute to improvements in the performance of students. More particularly, higher education institutions, national ministries,
Figure 1. Faculty e-development and portfolio model
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international public organizations, quality assurance agencies, professional organizations and researchers are concerned with promoting adequate and safe work environments. Significant efforts to develop high-quality and convergent university curricula aligned with evaluation standards are under way in most European countries. Additionally, research efforts are focusing on improving the perceived usefulness, ease of use, and compatibility (with current practices) of online systems and software applications, as well as improving the self-efficacy of faculty with emerging technological tools. Hence, in striving for the professionalization of academics, higher education institutions embrace different types of excellence models (Sandbrook, 2001). While general value systems show pedagogical promise, at least four quality values need to facilitate the adoption of a quality agenda for improving teaching and learning in higher education. The key quality values selected by Van Kemenade, Pupius and Hardjono (2008, p. 178) are the bases for a change strategy, which we have adopted for staff learning success: (1) Process control. Currently, accreditation systems are the means of examining professional portfolios for promotion purposes (i.e., tenure status). On the contrary, reflective dossier processes develop the capacity of staff for improvement, which is required by a university excellence model. Practitioners, colleagues, university executive management and the academic development community should have a voice in recruiting, maintaining and improving the staff’s learning to assure university quality (Gray & Radloff, 2006). (2) Continuous improvement. We refer to this value system with staff teachers to provide a reflective cycle to ensure continuous improvement of teaching and learning processes, which relate to strategic direction, that is, the improvement of students’ learn-
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ing outcomes. It represents a long process composed of the following: a. Principles or its basic epistemology (i.e., cultures of discipline-based inquiry); b. Standards or the ontology (i.e., faculty work against explicit norms, teaching competences, assessment criteria or course guidelines); c. Performance management or the methodology (i.e., communication and interaction with mentors in an environment of work and support); and d. External review of the impact or the teleology (i.e., the mission of the university is teaching versus research) (Gray & Radloff, 2006, p. 83). (3) Commitment. It is fundamental to success that the university authorities, including deans and all types of academic scholars, fully understand the philosophy behind the university’s mission. Faculty commitment is both a cognitive and an emotional process, and it is achieved through both intrinsic motivation and external rewards and incentives. (4) Breakthrough. It consists of a radical change in the teaching routines, a deep innovation, in other words, teaching strategies that are based on problem-based teaching to achieve breakthrough performance initiatives (i.e., effecting radical classroom learning redesign for improving teaching processes in a given time period). Our analysis of the literature has yielded the following broad quality characteristics of faculty development programs: (1) Increasing the number of faculty members (junior and experienced teachers) participating in the programs. As Romano et al. (2004, p. 26) note, ‘the Mid-Career Teaching Program (MCTP) attracted a group of experienced faculty who are quite diverse in age,
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in the number of years they have worked in higher education, and in the length of time remaining before retirement’. Nevertheless, faculty participation in development courses depends upon such variables as the age, status and rank of academic staff. (2) Understanding and improving faculty professional learning (FPL), following any of the following types: a. Instructional (i.e., the program emphasizes the development of faculty technological literacy), b. Professional (i.e., the program underlines the development of faculty professional roles and functions), c. Organizational (i.e., the program highlights the mission of the university as a learning organization), d. Career (i.e., the program stresses faculty gains from training courses), and e. Personal (i.e., the program maximizes managing communication skills, and advocates values clarification, and interpersonal skills training) (Camblin & Steger, 2000, p. 3). Many universities are establishing FPL programs in order to strengthen pedagogical content knowledge. In this respect, the research of Major and Palmer (2006) is grounded in Shulman’s (1986, 1987) discourse, when they say: “… teacher knowledge is comprised of several layers of knowledge, including both subject knowledge and pedagogical knowledge” (p. 620). In sum, they recognize that practical knowledge is not limited to grounds that derive only from practical experience and teaching action. Also, practical faculty knowledge is stuffed with hypothetical, evocative, essential and normative assertions. (3) Self-evaluating teaching approaches. According to Aleamoni (1997, p. 35), “such self-evaluation could deal with course content, method of instruction, ability to keep
student interest and attention high, ability to promote student learning, overall effectiveness of the course, course and instructional objectives, and course and instructional organization”. One form of faculty empowering is typically concerned with the advancement of subject matter competence and the mastery of one’s own discipline as it relates to teaching, thereby building criteria and models to enable them to become masters of their own learning. (4) Increasing control by faculty members over their professional learning. As Caffarella and Zinn (1999) have pointed out, an enabling factor that enhances professional development is the following personal characteristic: “Strong personal beliefs and values about the value of continuous professional development; a sense of obligation to be active teachers, scholars, and learners throughout the career” (p. 248). Thus, by mapping their own road to professional proficiency, novice faculty teachers sustain desired learning over time. (5) Expanding faculty members’ critical abilities. Scholarly teaching requires a systematic process of inquiry into one’s own teaching practices and into students’ learning. Implications of research conducted by Goldstein and Benassi (2006, p. 706) concluded: “Our results suggest that it would be constructive to assess the extent to which individual students believe that a teacher’s organization, clarity, etc. are important to good teaching and to examine these assessments in relation to the teacher’s assessment of the same dimensions”. On this point, Koch et al. (2002) grouped the various sources used in evaluating one’s effectiveness into four discrete, but interrelated, approaches to quality assessment: ‘reflective critique, student feedback, analysis of student work, and classroom observations’ (p. 84). Thus, the infusion of these reflective activities into
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online faculty development courses should be thoughtfully considered and carefully buttressed by a strong research base. (6) Disseminating the idea of effective and valuable FPL program assessments. Another form of program empowering is to guarantee minimum course standards for recognizing the work of faculty members. Many researchers and university leaders have become increasingly concerned with evaluating the quality of FPL programs. Thus, Pittas (2000) relied on different ways of approaching this issue: “While the traditional student evaluations and outside experts have merit for program assessment, other measures are also useful. Perhaps a more important measure of a program’s success is to be found in the climate it creates for faculty development”. (p. 108). Many scholars from different countries seem to coincide on the subject of satisfying and unsatisfying faculty work factors. For instance, Kzltepe (2008, p. 519) concluded: “Results indicated that the greatest predictors of job satisfaction were related to the environment in which academics work, including university atmosphere, morale, sense of community and relationships with colleagues”. The focus now is to ensure that FPL has the effect of adapting teaching styles to meet the demands and expectations of today’s students, providing enlarged opportunities for collegial networking and promoting institutional aims. University reform oriented towards FPL tends to be more effective than traditional development courses. The former approach assumes faculty members being mentored or coached, participating in a curriculum study group or engaging in departmental or context units that nurture, support and trust them. The conclusions of an Australian study point to some characteristics of staff development programs that we will consider in this chapter. For instance, Dixon and Scott (2003) recommended
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the following facts and influences: “An increased use of case-study approaches, access to video and CD-Rom, more opportunity to witness and discuss best practice in teaching and learning, and possible formal certification for attendance and achievement of program outcomes by offshore participants” (pp. 293–4). Helping faculty to succeed academically, providing new strategies, and particularly structuring e-learning activities within a community are common aims of university units and other professional places (i.e., online forums) where those involved discuss ideas and views on particular issues of common concern. For example, Middendorf (2004) described the Faculty Development Community (FDC) as a process of improvement composed of seven principles for articulating the program: select faculty who are likely to be emulated, take advantage of cross-disciplinary exchanges, provide appropriate information when inviting faculty to join an IUFDC, structure activities, provide models and practice, provide ongoing support after the seminar, and track effectiveness in multiple ways. In some other universities and countries, public university personnel are scarce even for teaching and doing basic research. For instance, undertaking research acts as a disadvantage or hindrance for academic staff in Turkey public universities: “What the academicians lack in Turkey is that they are conducting their research alone; very few of them have a one-to-one personal research assistant to help them with their work; usually two or three academicians share one assistant. Therefore, most of the time they are alone with their personal research studies” (Kzltepe, 2008, pp. 526-7). Also, we emphasize the creation of digital portfolios, which show novice faculty members’ best teaching productions. In an insightful piece of research, the Australian researchers Woodward and Nanlohy (2004) stated: “This research demonstrates that while digital portfolios can be introduced at a variety of levels unless substantial processes are developed there is a danger that
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they will become a temporary fashion instead of a maintained fact” (p. 237). Consequently, digital portfolios should be carefully designed and thoroughly measured. Finally, for the purpose of this chapter, we will describe below the analytical online activities that were available for monitoring and measuring FPL in our e-development courses (Alegre & Villar, 2006).
Professional Development Programs In framing this consideration of success in faculty professional development, one needs to consider how to define a faculty programs. Any teacher development program should examine conceptual and empirical data in order to establish a policy action. Consequently, the study of models of FPL is a priority in order to provide guidance in planning comprehensive and systemic staff professional development. Besides, FPL programs should demonstrate success in a multitude of ways including change of faculty beliefs, enaction and reflection (Clarke & Hollingsworth, 2002, p. 954) in field-based evaluation, classroom practice and other outcomes (i.e., student learning and satisfaction). This is consistent with evidence in support of faculty professional development that is closely aligned with improving students’ outcomes. We agree with researchers Penuel et al. (2007, p. 953) when they conclude: “We agree with policy makers who argue that such studies are needed, and we also believe that the ultimate measure of success for any educational reform or professional development program is whether it leads to improvements in students’ learning”. Consistent with these findings, we draw on multiple sources of data (e.g., students’ perceptions of the classroom learning climate) for the contribution of hybrid courses for FPL programs (Villar & Alegre, 2008). However, Pittas (2000, p. 97) adopted a different viewpoint, assuming other links between formative variables: “The ultimate test of assessment is whether it advances faculty and institutional
development”, although the meaning of advance here is a little vague and diffuse. In this paragraph, we report on frameworks of FPL concepts, conditions and practices. Especially important are staff professional development models that allow scholars to conduct research and evaluations. We consider the prior work of Pill (2005, pp. 176–81) who classified FPL models as: (a) reflective practitioner, (b) action research, (c) novice to expert, and (d) metacognitive approach. There are several broad teacher development research frameworks (e.g., Effective Learning Models and Frameworks to Design Professional Development) which provide insights for FPL: (a) the five phases of staff development, developed by the North Central Regional Educational Laboratory, (b) the five models of professional development, developed by Sparks and Loucks-Horsley (1989), (c) the learning cycle by Loucks-Horsley (1995), (d) the systemic planning process: initiation and readiness, implementation, and institutionalization, (e) the framework for designing effective professional development, developed by Cook and Rasmussen (1994), and (f) the Concerns-Based Adoption Model (Hall & Loucks, 1979) (to view the models, see North Central Regional Educational Laboratory. Effective Learning Models and Frameworks to Design Professional Development. http://www.ncrel.org/sdrs/areas/ issues/educatrs/profdevl/pd2effec.htm). Within FPL programs, we identify the following elements: (1) Design of accurate, current, and substantial content. It is especially important to conduct a survey of academic staff needs that allows researchers to know their curriculum and instructional weaknesses. For instance, the aim of the faculty program undertaken by Bennett and Bennett (2003) was to increase the usage of the course management system, Blackboard 5.0, in classroom-based courses. The researchers concluded their study: “In order to achieve this level of penetration,
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the program was designed to improve participants’ general attitudes toward computers, increase their level of competence in using computers as instructional tools, and raise their awareness of the usefulness of computers in enhancing teaching and learning” (Bennett & Bennett, 2003, pp. 57–58). Currently, instructional design applied to Web-based learning environments is guided by the principles of instructional systems design (Kandlbinder, 2003; Oliver & Herrington, 2003). In this respect, we argue that faculty course designs need to be guided by a theoretical perspective that gives central importance to both theoretical learning processes and practical knowledge among staff members. Also, this body of research is interpreted by “Instructional design theorists [who] often follow a time-honoured formula of: (a) absorbing original research in a related discipline, (b) developing a heuristic model of practice based on that original research, and (c) offering that simplified model of practice to instructional design practitioners” (Wilson, 2004, p. 81). Therefore, FPL that incorporates the following four-stage design process, which is customized to the needs of participant instructors, is an efficient strategy for conducting any research study: a. The design of sequenced, structured and comprehensive lessons following an outcomes-based approach. Therefore, FPL design incorporates an array of structural features: “Research has itemized aspects of design from an instructional perspective, such as the use of the technology, instructional objectives, testing, multimedia materials and the learning activities that arise through combinations of these aspects” (Ellis, Ginns & Piggott, 2009, p. 306). We emphasize in particular the requirement of learning activities to engage and direct the participating faculty
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members in the process of acquisition of teaching knowledge, and also, the development of teaching and learning capacities that are applied or transferred to classroom settings. b. The design and condition of communication supports for the online participants to scaffold the teachinglearning process. Furthermore, to provide meaningful forms of feedback, and to share ideas and problems with colleagues. c. The design and arrangement of the learning resources needed by the participant instructors to complete the set activities successfully and to facilitate guidance. d. The design and specification of courses to give the universities and institutions feedback on matters related to participant instructors’ learning. (2) Dialogue among course participants about their teaching beliefs and intentions. A faculty member’s teaching belief is a personal judgment about his or her competence at engaging students in the learning process to attain learning results. There is a large body of theory and research supporting the notion that such beliefs are a consideration for FPL. Thus, evidence from one study suggests that “Teachers with high self-efficacy beliefs are likely to engage in a wide range of more productive teaching practices than teachers with low self-efficacy” (Postareff, Lindblom-Ylänne & Nevgi, 2008, p. 31). (3) Connecting theory and practice. Teaching capabilities are abilities on the part of the individual faculty member to work actively, persistently and carefully to bring the worlds of theory and practice together. As expressed by Gibbs and Coffey (2004, p. 89): “Much training is explicitly oriented towards developing teachers’ teaching skills, especially their classroom practice”. This is
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precisely the issue Schön (1983) discussed in depth when formulating his ‘epistemology of practice’. In describing a theory of practice-oriented professional development, reflecting the opinion of other scholars, Clegg (2009, p. 411) remarked: “While academic developers’ knowledge about the capacities of learners and of the social context is informed by abstract science, notably sociology and psychology, it is not reducible to them”. Therefore, designers of FPL programs should be concerned with how to engage faculty members in building a knowledge base for teaching, and reflecting on and changing their practice. These concepts overlap, repeat, and often occur simultaneously. (4) Reform versus traditional FPL. In this context, it is critical that models of FPL take into consideration measures of the following criteria: duration and time span, role of colleagues, focus of professional development, active learning, and coherence (Penuel et al., 2007, pp. 928–32). In addition, it involves a thorough analysis of the development in the faculty member of a strong sense of self-as-learner and technological literacy to work with domain-specific knowledge (e.g., discipline and didactic knowledge), as the two approaches are fundamental to support metacognition (Lin, 2001). (5) Challenging FPL delivered in blended learning environments. Most faculty today utilize technology in their instruction as a mechanism for course content delivery, grade delivery, and basic communication. However, an effective learning environment fosters collaboration among students and faculty, and allows the student to create and share new knowledge as well as supporting the connection of different pieces of information. Most faculty feel that integrating web technologies into the classroom learning environment can be effective at increas-
ing students’ satisfaction with the course, improve their learning and their writing ability, and increase student interaction with other students and faculty; thus changing the students’ role from passive to active learners, allowing them to create and retain knowledge better. Particularly, time, technology, and developing new teaching skills, and selecting the participants are factors and interventions that scholars regulate in FPL frameworks (Fitzgibbon & Jones, 2004, pp. 29-33). (6) Constructivist learning communities. An approach to FPL including targeting improvements is that of learning communities. It is based on participant-centred methodologies in which teaching knowledge is built through dynamic commitment (sense making) with ideas and experience. It emphasizes the interdependence of the participants and the communal environment of the development as teaching knowledge is negotiated and constructed through forum debates, problem-solving and authentic teaching innovations and experiences (Comeaux & McKenna-Byington, 2003). Most students between the ages of 12 and 17 use online social network sites and check their accounts two or more times a day. Thus, Ajjan and Hartshorne (2008) emphasize the positive pedagogical implications of those sites for higher education. Supporting the notion that social networking would be an effective strategy for FPL is the opinion of scholars who find many positive training results connected with the sense of community among participants (e.g., commitment to group goals, cooperation and collaboration among members, flow of information, and so on). These studies provide a strong basis for developing hypotheses about what makes online learning environments efficient social spaces. As Barker (2002, p. 5) remarked about online environments: [they] “must therefore provide a mechanism to enable
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people to “talk” about whatever interests them within a variety of different topic areas”. The idea that faculty developers should create training tasks at the beginning of a FPL program to check that participants are able to access resources and to begin online socialisation is agreed upon by scholars and researchers (Nicol, Minty & Sinclair, 2003). Currently, faculty members utilize these online sites for social support, to stay in touch with their colleagues, to make research plans, and for interchange of opinions and teaching beliefs with instructors online. “However, educators who perceive the value of social bonds in the learning process must reconceptualize how sense of community can be stimulated in virtual classrooms, particularly in computer-mediated learning environments where many of the verbal and nonverbal cues needed to support strong interpersonal ties are missing” (Rovai, 2000, p. 286). (7) Hybrid structures or mixed delivery professional development approach. The introduction of Learning Management Systems (LMS), such as Blackboard, eCollege, and Web CT, allows developers and trainers to combine the advantages of online class training with the benefits of face-to-face interaction. It allows program flexibility, especially for lengthy courses, enhances acquisition of information abilities, and allows faculty members scattered across a campus engage in learning according to their needs. As it happens with hybrid environments for classroom instruction, “a mix of faceto-face and online instruction (somewhere between 90% and 10% and 10% and 90%) will be superior to either 100% face-to-face or 100% online courses” (Woods, Baker & Hopper, 2004, p. 282). In conjunction with this approach, managers must design the interface for the environment and consider the appropriate integration of communica-
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tion tools to support high-level user activity. In addition, researchers have taken up as a significant study problem the need to challenge and compare online learning spaces. Thus, the online environment dimensions for a detailed examination might consist of three relevant metrics: ‘functionality, usability, and validity’ (Scigliano & Dringus, 2000, p. 101), which would hypothetically guarantee learnability, efficiency and predictability of interface goodness.
eLeCTRONIC PROFeSSIONAL LeARNINg eNVIRONmeNT E-Mentoring for New Faculty Teachers. Mentoring is a concept that has become widespread; firstly, in education (http://www.edc.org; http:// www.telementor.org/) and higher education (see the specific sites: http://www.mentors.net and http://emissary.wm.edu/index.php?content=pub_ presen.html&menu=What), and secondly, in business and enterprises (http://www.onlinewbc. org/). Traditionally, the mentoring relationship is represented as a process in which a more experienced faculty member provides control, support, and opportunities for socialization to a novice faculty teacher. At the level of university quality control (e.g., movement of faculty accreditation), the recruitment and maintenance of novice faculty for achieving promotion and tenure is important to all university sectors. New faculty teachers demand assistance for career support, knowledge acquisition (e.g., uncovering the assumptions of a discipline), collegiality (e.g., shared responsibility for research and publications) and emotional help and respect in communications. Indeed, research indicates that some important issues have to be considered when helping faculty instructors increase their teaching and research involvement, because “inexperienced researchers may feel very inadequate about their own research skills and their ability to understand and succeed in the research
Faculty Professional Learning
process of grant application and publication” (Johnston & McCormack, 1997, p. 262). Therefore, it is important to organize the set of ideas that form the basis for mentoring. The underpinning of mentoring is succinctly described by Ponce, Williams and Allen (2005): “Mentoring models derive from a collectivistic philosophy that emphasizes wider arrays of interpersonal contact between more- and less-expert individuals, greater sharing of resources, heightened advocacy, and more frequent use of formative feedback that generally centers on both instrumental goal-oriented career support and psychosocial nurturance” (p. 1160). Below, we describe a theoretical framework that integrates some viewpoints concerning faculty with mentoring program models and resources: (1) Telementoring relationships. In defining e-mentoring as a professional development strategy based on the internet, Bierema and Merriam (2002) stated its scope as ‘computer mediated, mutually beneficial relationship between a mentor and a protégé which provides learning, advising, encouraging, promoting, and modelling, that is often boundary-less, egalitarian, and qualitatively different than traditional face-to-face mentoring’ (p. 214). This definition has two elements that distinguish e-mentoring from traditional mentoring; the boundaryless configuration of e-mentoring (e.g., no time, geography and culture limits) and the egalitarian quality of staff induction (e.g., protégés deserve equal rights and opportunities as mentors). We established the character of e-mentoring as occurring in a virtual and formalized program environment where training and coaching is made available for mentors and protégés and outcomes are evaluated. Findings from Calkins and Kelley’s (2005, pp. 261–2) analysis of personality characteristics for a mentor also contributed to a catalogue of the qualities and
core attributes of this new formative role to be developed at university level: a. “Being supportive, intelligent, knowledgeable, and ethical”. b. “Teaching, sponsoring, encouraging, counselling and befriending”. (2) Mentoring processes. Assigning a veteran faculty mentor does little to remedy the situation of distress of first-year academic staff if the mentoring approach is to give handouts, transparency masters or videotapes as a means of inducting novice instructors about how to teach. By contrast, authors have concluded that the ‘mentoring practice has shifted from a product-oriented model, characterized by transfer of knowledge, to a process-oriented relationship involving knowledge acquisition, application, and critical reflection. The hierarchical transfer of knowledge and information from an older, more experienced person to a younger, less experienced person is no longer the prevailing mentoring paradigm.’ (Zachary, 2002, p. 28). Mentors are expected to be models who develop and show unwritten principles and practicalities of the university culture to novice faculty members who have taken on the challenge of helping students learn. For example, Haynes and Petrosko’s (2009) social learning theory provides a framework for mentoring, because the strategy involves “modeling, vicarious reinforcement and observation” (p. 42). Mentoring carried out by an experienced faculty mentor might support a group of faculty members doing a reflective and critical thinking and developing their teaching practice not only for emotional but also professional development. Mentoring consists in the provision of guidance and nurturing; as such, it is a process of socialization into the profession coming from peers as well as senior organizational members: “Mentoring circles typically involve one mentor working with a group of mentees
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Faculty Professional Learning
or groups of people mentoring each other… The group shares experiences, challenges and opportunities for the purpose of creating solutions” (Darwin & Palmer, 2009, p. 126). The experience of such circles at the universities of South of Australia and Adelaide took on a topic-based learning approach. Also, eleven key themes emerged from the content analysis of focus group responses and reflective statements from a study at the University of Sydney: “Pairing process, entry participation barriers–recognition and time, ongoing participation barrier–time, participation incentives–rewards, cultural compatibility, gender, goals, outcomes–intended and unintended, nature of relationships, structure of program, and mentoring agreement” (Ewing et al., 2008, p. 299). Mentoring circles worked for those who felt comfortable in a collaborative group environment. Supporting the notion that mentorship is an effective strategy for FPL, a large body of theory and research focused on the importance of faculty members’ professional communities, characterized by shared norms of collegiality and support values. As an example, we choose as most suitable the following statement: “Developing a learning community for tenured faculty intending to assist untenured faculty” (Greene et al., 2008, p. 439). A mentor framework operates in most cases as a development course. Therefore, the recruitment and selection of mentors and mentees would occur over several training sessions comprising: a. An information session introducing the aims, objectives and concept of a faculty mentoring project. b. A half-day professional development workshop to establish a shared understanding of mentoring and to facilitate some relationship-building between potential mentors and mentees.
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c.
A process for developing menteementor dyads (Ewing et al., 2008). (3) Mentor training for senior faculty members. A desirable function of the head of the department is to initiate the mentoring relationship in his or her department: “Chairs need to create awareness of interdisciplinary teaching, research, and service opportunities” (Bower, 2007, p. 82). Also, department heads are in charge of sharing information with colleagues who have different personalities, values and motives from themselves. Thus, FPL under a mentoring framework should consider cultural supports from higher education institutions. As researchers, we have been involved in a faculty mentoring project for improving teaching staff. In particular, given that our study was grounded within the context of implementing an e-mentoring programme, we applied a three-phase process: (a) planning, (b) organization and (c) assessment with faculty members of two universities from the Canary Islands: La Laguna (ULL) and Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (LPGC), who acted as mentors and reciprocally as protégés. In that study, participants were located in two different islands and their personal testimonials were evidences of successful mentoring (Villar & Alegre, 2006a). (4) Mentorship of women and minorities in academia. In formal mentoring programs, the two Canary Islands universities involved are committed to the value of computer conferencing systems when meeting faceto-face (f2f) is impractical. Unfortunately, junior faculty, such as women and minorities, are more likely to view online mentoring programs as unsafe, rather than supportive, to career development. Through the development of a peer mentoring paradigm, some academic members are changing their beliefs. Thus, ‘graduate teaching assistants (GTAs) rate mentoring as the most
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effective form of training when compared to campus-wide seminars or departmental training programs (Jones, 1993)’ (Boyle, & Boice, 1998, p. 158). Also, considerate it is evident that collaboration is more effective than having each faculty member go off to do her teaching duties in isolation. Accordingly, Driscoll et al. (2009, p. 7) found that “Group mentoring programs to support women and minority faculty in their career goals include strategic collaboration”. Anyway, it is also difficult to find either a head of department or experienced faculty members from the same department to represent the functions of educator, sponsor, coach, counselor and confronter. This is why some authors claim or imply that participating in the varying characteristics of different types of mentoring relationships promotes significant knowledge gains for junior faculty members and women: “Cross-institution mentoring programs for women could be enhanced as a means to avoid some of the political constraints of being mentored in one’s academic department” (Gibson, 2004, pp. 184–5).
DeVeLOPINg TeACHINg AND ASSeSSmeNT COmPeTeNCeS IN A BLeNDeD eNVIRONmeNT University administrations often advocate becoming a ‘blended’ university, one that enables students to take online courses, traditional courses and courses that are partly online either off or on campus. However, many academic faculty members do not see a need for blending courses, or being part of the blended university which the administration now apparently wants. The earlier perception of online learning as distance learning (i.e., courses delivered off-campus), or as part of a distance learning program where all courses must occur in virtual space, has contributed to their reluctance. Of course, integrating web-enhanced
or online courses across disciplines is not a simple matter. Below we give some justifications. (1) Faculty members are somehow skeptical about some technological proposals. Some instructors who have never used interactive technologies, but who rely heavily on constructivist learning methodologies (e.g., interpersonal collaboration that leads to knowledge building) in traditional classes are often skeptical of online interaction. These instructors have an entrenched perception that online courses deprive students of meaningful interaction with their peers. Such courses do, in fact, limit students’ oral interaction with their peers, but online courses can provide them with multiple opportunities, as discussed above, for written interaction and discussion about readings, assignments, and their writing and reading processes, perhaps more so than in traditional courses. As King (2002, p. 236) has remarked: “Specifically, it was found that these hybrid online classroom discussions had the potential of prompting critical thinking, dynamic interactive dialogue, and substantial peer-to-peer interaction”. (2) Recent research explores the complex links between the design of online professional development and FPL competences. We have selected many of the features of professional development in our online FPL. Thus, our e-development programs include planning, organizing, structuring, tracking, reporting, communicating assessments, and many other principles, that take time and require orderliness on the part of the online program advisers, which are critical issues in its design. Therefore, as others before us (see, for example, Nijhuis & Collis, 2003), we have designed faculty e-development programs considering the following elements:
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Faculty Professional Learning
a.
Plan courses (e.g., checked with university administration and evaluation agencies with regard to prerequisites); b. Prepare courses (e.g., needs assessment, write teaching and assessment materials, arrange technological facilities); c. Search for resources (e.g., arrange copyrights); d. Structure lessons (e.g., design PowerPoint presentations, add references to external resources, questioning skills, intuitive lessons); e. Review assignments (e.g., writing effective test items, download and open assignments submitted via the moodle platform, read the submitted assignments, formulate feedback); f. Monitor (e.g., deadlines, planning problems); g. Course communication (e.g., latest news, giving feedback on participant questions); h. Social interactions with participants (e.g., small-group forum debates); i. Professional interactions with mentors (e.g., communication about pedagogical issues, subject matter issues, best practices, how to handle special problems, co-ordination of curriculum and timetable); j. Assign marks (e.g., participant assessment, inform participants of results and consequences); k. Administer (e.g., keep records of participants’ progress, marks, special arrangements, practice groups, follow up absentee or apparently dropped-out students), and l. Portfolio (e.g., document all problems that occurred and that an instructor can be held accountable for). (3) Online development program topics for FPL or agency staff. As noted by different authors
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(Rosenbaum, Lenoch & Ferguson, 2005) in a review of the state of FDL, we think it is very convenient to develop academic staff who will be competent to change and adapt university teaching programs, act as university mentors, and design and deliver innovative faculty development programs. Most FPL that has been summarized in the research literature has focused on developing participants’ skills for their own teaching. Below (Table 1), we relate the topics that underlie our model of FPL, basic FPL capacities are the core of our e-development program. Also, we have delivered specific short-time duration minicourses based on computer-based learning environments. All FPL courses are based on ‘moodle’, which is a course management system (CMS) (http://moodle.org/). As occurs with other course management systems, faculty members’ participation in the learning process with moodle is associated with the perception of their technological capabilities related to specific CMS skills and knowledge. There is no doubt that in general the faculty members’ perceptions of their computer self-efficacy at the beginning of our courses are low. Their perceptions change as the courses progress and they practise certain routine applications. (4) The value of curriculum and teaching capacities (CTC). Supporting the notion that CTC would be an effective approach for FPL is a large body of theory and research focused on the importance of academic staff’s professional change. Table 2 shows the most highly prioritized content for our model of online FPL (Villar & Alegre, 2006a). The columns in the table are labeled according to a constructivist approach. It presents the challenge of synthesizing a large spectrum of somewhat diverse questions, organization modules, reflective thinking and capacities. Hence, university teaching
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(a prism) is seen as having many capacities (facets). We summarize our online FPL design in Figure 2, which illustrates principles of CTC knowledge construction. The FPL program focuses on realistic approaches to solving real-life university teaching problems. It creates real classroom environments that employ the context in which student learning is relevant; embeds four-phase capacity learning in an authentic problem-solving teaching scenery; presents authentic tasks, practices and strategies (contextualizing rather than abstracting instruction); fosters reflective practice; and finally, it pays attention to metacognition and strategic self-regulation by participants. (5) Assessment CTC building. The second type of faculty e-development program focused on a revised version of the “EFQM Excellence Model” (Sandbrook, 2001). Figure 3 is intended to illustrate the key criteria or assessment capacities of the FPL formative program evaluation as we see them. The FPL program content consisted of six connected criteria to understand the change and improvement of any formative program (Alegre & Villar, 2006). The analysis of each criterion included a number of competences to describe its meaning in detail. Each competence was written as a four-phase online lesson structure: a. Criterion 1. Formative Program. This criterion analyses how the formative
b.
c.
program promotes and facilitates the fulfilment of the mission of the university by developing and supporting the curriculum objectives and flexibility necessary for university success through a culture of quality. We propose two subcriteria or competences, which we project as a problem-solving situation. Competence 1: how are the objectives of a formative program designed? and Competence 2: how is the curriculum flexibility adjusted to the objectives of the formative program? Criterion 2. Teaching Organization. This criterion examines how to manage improvement phenomena that promote organizational changes and how to coordinate and establish a beneficial relationship between the organization and its environment. We propose two subcriteria or competences, which we project as a problem-solving situation. Competence 3: how is the continuous improvement planned? and Competence 4: how is an effective communication established? Criterion 3. Human Resources. This criterion reveals the development of the policies and strategies (e.g., research and assessment) of the organization applied to the field of human resources. We propose two subcriteria or competences, which we project as a problemsolving situation. Competence 5: how
Table 1. Topics used in authors’ faculty e-development program courses Basic course capacities
Minicourse professional competences
Program Design
Twenty curriculum and teaching capacities Twelve assessment capacities
Teaching portfolios Self-assessment Mentoring Educational innovation Teaching program Program evaluation Assessment capacity building
1. Personal Identity. Think carefully about faculty members and students.
C1. Capacity to perform quality agent or reflective professional roles. C2. Knowledge of student motivation and ability to promote students’ positive attitudes. C3. Awareness of students’ diversity in all its forms. C4. Knowledge of counselor development and ability to set appropriate boundaries.
How are getting along with faculty members and students in the teaching and learning process of a subject?
2. Social relations. Weigh in the mind the social relations in the classroom environment.
C5. Capacity to solve students’ problems. C6. Capacity to assess classroom climate. C7. Capacity to build classroom communication and negotiate learning contracts.
What is taught and what students learn through their academic program?
3. Curriculum. Think carefully about the scientific theory of the subject matter and its teaching and learning.
C8. Capacity to develop metacognitive skills in the trainee. C9. Knowledge of goals and value of ethical principles. C10. Capacity to encourage and use cooperative learning among students.
How is the educational program organized?
4. Methodology. Recognize methodological issues.
C11. Capacity to provide effective and free curriculum time. C12. Capacity to hand out study guides that have coherence, progression and differentiation.
How to manage and develop your teaching program?
5. Decision Making. Formulate decision-making and problem solving abilities into an organized flexible structure.
C13. Knowledge of area being supervised (learning tasks, research, assessment, etc.).
C14. Teaching and didactic skills for large groups. C15. Knowledge of conversation and discussion methods. C16. Knowledge of questioning skills.
What are you getting?
7. Evaluation. Relate the learning process and revise the university impact.
C17. Knowledge of formative and summative evaluation. C18. Capacity to provide effective feedback and to encourage and use evaluative feedback from the student. C19. Knowledge of learning tasks measurement. C20. Capacity to conduct own self-assessment process.
d.
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are the academic personnel involved in investigation, development and innovation activities? and Competence 6: how is the academic personnel’s teaching assessed? Criterion 4. Material Resources. This criterion looks at the tangible assets of the formative program, in particular, its library and media resources. We propose two subcriteria or competences, which we project as a problem-solving situation. Competence 7: how are the library and documental archives made
e.
more convenient and accessible for the formative process? and Competence 8: how are media and resources adapted to the formative program? Criterion 5. Formative Process. This criterion indicates what student learning is, particularly that related to the coordination of different methodologies and the integration of multiple teaching approaches. We propose three subcriteria or competences, which we project as a problem-solving situation. Competence 9: how are student
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Figure 2. Concept-map learning approach for a FPL program
f.
competences fomented in the teachinglearning process? Competence 10: what is the teaching-learning methodology? and Competence 11: how is the student guided and motivated in a tutorship within the formative process? Criterion 6. Results. This criterion becomes aware of student perception, as well as the evaluation indicators used by the formative program to assess its impact. We propose one subcriterion or competence, which we project as a problem-solving situation. Competence 12. How is the student’s satisfaction measured in a formative process?
Overall, participants from the ULL and LPGC perceived a greater need for assessment competences (Alegre & Villar, 2006). Also, they perceived one main factor that was influencing the quality of formative programs (e.g., lack of staff development opportunities). We emphasized the importance of needs assessments to ensure that content competences were relevant to the needs of participants and were realistically attainable through course activities. Needs assessments took the form of online questionnaires. Additionally, we assessed participants’ learning according to their level of involvement in improvement activities. Which activities constitute our ‘key delivery’ processes for a specific competence? We illustrate
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activities developed in competence 3: how is the continuous improvement planned? We proposed five activities and a strategy (plan of action designed to achieve a particular goal) with respect to competence 3: Activity 1. Hierarchy of results of an improvement program for a formative program. Specific tasks: first, read the hierarchy of results of Owen (1998, p. 319), which is quoted below: 5. Enhancement of career. 4. Self-confidence in terms of professional work. 3. Empowerment to undertake professional work tasks. 2. Acquisition of techniques and skills. 1. Increases in knowledge of facts and concepts. Second, indicate the number of times each of the above results is cited in a selected proposal of an improvement program (see references in the Resource Directory of this FPL course about formative program evaluation). •
•
Activity 2. Logical model of an improvement program for a formative program
Figure 3. Criteria to evaluate a formative program
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•
•
evaluation. Specific tasks: first, select the study by Millar, Simeone & Carnevale (2001, p. 76). Second, write down what matters (factors, activities, plans for improvement, and gaps) of a logical model as shown in a selected proposal of an improvement program (see references in the Resource Directory of the above course). Activity 3. Design a teaching guide. Specific tasks: first, select an improvement program evidencing an action research project in a subject matter of a formative program evaluation (see references in the Resource Directory of the above course). Second, show its characteristics. Third, complete the evaluation of the similarities and differences between the selected program improvement and the projects reported by Koch et al. (2002, p. 86). Activity 4. Model of continuous improvement process. Specific tasks: first, select an improvement program (see references in the Resource Directory of the above course). Second, review the steps of Macy, Neal and Waner’s (1998, pp. 31–2) Continuous Process Improvement (CPI) model: step 1: outcomes & criteria; step 2:
Faculty Professional Learning
•
•
curricular & co-curricular; step 3: instruction; step 4: student performance; step 5: assessment. Third, evaluate and summarize which CPI steps have been taken in the selected program improvement. Activity 5. Model of reflection. Specific tasks: first, select the improvement plan of History Teaching (see reference in the Resource Directory of the above course). Second, rearrange the improvements table reclassifying it according to the concepts of the model of reflection by McAlpine et al. (1999, p. 106): goals, knowledge, action, monitoring and decision making, and gallery of tolerance. Strategy. Improvement plans. Specific tasks: first, select an improvement program (see references in the Resource Directory of the above course). Second, suggest a strategy that can (a) specify whether the action improves organizational management, personnel, or out of the center responsibility; (b) sort the field of action for improvement as teaching, research or management; (c) suggest an action for each improvement item in the organization of the selected formative program; (d) refer the name of the office or staff to be responsible for actions; (e) write a monitoring indicator for each action (specify or document results that serve to check the status of development of the action), and (f) weigh the importance of actions setting a timetable for implementation of each improvement action.
It is clear that the realization of scholarly online FPL results from diverse practices, and field-specific activities. We have mapped a FPL formative program evaluation course based on 1654 realized activities by participants (e.g., professional reflections, development and implementation strategies to meet established goals, and so on). Also, faculty and agency staff answered 120 objective test questions for the overall twelve-lesson FPL formative
program evaluation course. Problems encountered during the mentioned course created an additional burden for mentors running the course: pedagogic concepts used for designing lessons, activities and tests, participants’ understandings coming from scientific areas; and a number of discrete internal technology infrastructures (e.g., connection with the server, software support, and so on) (Alegre & Villar, 2006).
FACULTY’S eLeCTRONIC PORTFOLIO Web-Supported Assessment Strategies We structured online FPL programs around five milestone tasks which were related to fundamental program factors: (a) curriculum design (e.g., presentation of accurate, current and research-based substantial content); (b) model of learning and of supporting learning (e.g., dialogue among course participants about the content meaning and activities); (c) participant inquiry and assessment (e.g., the ability of participants to ask questions and share responses in a chat environment that can be personalized to support responsiveness and trust, and the development of assignments that can apply to the improvement of classroom teaching); (d) operating system platforms (e.g., the facility of the computer-based learning environment not to detract from faculty members’ learning), and (e) evaluation (e.g., changes in participants’ beliefs concerning course effectiveness). In describing online FPL, other scholars have also substantiated analogous factors (King, 2002; Owston et al., 2008). However, current evaluation of FPL models pays relatively little attention to the assumptions about the situated experience of faculty learning. Nevertheless, it seems that an analogous limitation reinforces the discourse of professional development of teachers: ‘Evaluative research often compares methods of delivery
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of PD through evaluating learning outcomes, focusing on evaluating solutions to the problem of learning rather than questioning assumptions about learning’ (Webster-Wright, 2009, p. 711). We estimate that one of the most challenging tasks of trainers, developers and researchers is the cultural competence in evaluation of online FPL programs (e.g., understanding the cultural context in which evaluation takes place, that frames the ‘what’ and ‘how’ of any evaluation; and that uses faculty members as the means to arrive at results and implications). Besides, other issues emerge regarding online course evaluation: ‘Response rates; anonymity, confidentiality, and authentication’ (Ballantyne, 2003, p. 106). We would add inter-rater reliability, which acknowledges cultural differences, worldviews and the admission of the evaluator’s own biases and assumptions. However, when considering this challenge, we recommend the use of online self-assessment questionnaires which are relatively easy to design. There are three facets that we consider important for designing competent portfolio evaluation. First, we acknowledge that faculty self-assessments are entities for the purposes of formative online courses; therefore, they are under constant construction and revision. Second, we construct test items and record scores online for cultural and discipline heterogeneity of the faculty group (i.e., faculty members belong to departments of pharmacy, management, law, mathematics, drawing, computer science, and so on). Third, faculty group culture and discipline structure are intertwined, and each reinforces the other. Our studies are based on aggregated self-assessments of participants in the group; therefore, we analyse change within the faculty group (Villar & Alegre, 2006b; 2007a, 2007b), in agreement with other authors’ thoughts: “Grouped self-assessments might legitimately be used to evaluate workshop effectiveness” (D’Eon et al., 2008, p. 93). (1) Evaluation of online course delivery systems. In recent times, scholars have emphasized
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the importance of literacy in online program assessment. Program evaluation answers the question of “how good is FPL?” This is an important question for university and evaluation agency stakeholders. It requires universities to perform annual assessments of their students to ensure accountability. Therefore, it is important to validate a good online assessment system. Most web assessment systems have a number of features which have already been used for teacher assessment: “Able to be connected through common Internet Explorer software, able to identify users by secret codes, able to grade automatically, and able to collect and record the information related to student scores” (Wang, Wang & Huang, 2008, p. 451). Some research reports tend to focus on the comparison of features and course operating systems needed to run the applications, hence to take decisions concerning technical information (Hayes, 2000). We assume that an increase in the amount of time faculty spend on online assessments techniques will increase their attention to CTC learning or assessment criteria learning, because we expect that academic staff address complex intellectual capabilities that are important for teachable processes. Also, we measure satisfaction or dissatisfaction by general Likert-type scales. Villar and Alegre (2006b, p. 606) also compared two junior online FPL programs given at the University of Jaén with ten CTC program factors (Table 3). The results by participants’ gender, age range and scientific area were significant in a number of factors concerning course quality. This result underlines the importance of individual attributes (gender and age). For instance, Davidovitch and Soen (2006, p. 370) have found “A significant inverse correlation between all age groups and assessment measures in course structure and organization and clarity of lectures”. Thus participants’ age is a demographic independent variable that must
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be considered when describing and evaluating FPL programs. (2) Assessments to improve quality of faculty members’teaching. To offer a broader online FPL program evaluation approach, blended FPL programs may answer evaluation questions such as course design and implementation, changes in teaching beliefs and practice, and impact on students. With regard to the impact on students, Owston et al. (2008) collected data from student perspectives, speculating that the “Extent to which teachers changed their practice is related to the degree of impact on students” (Owston et al., 2008, p. 209). Other authors also found that “Student feedback can be a vital component of a balanced evaluation process utilizing instructor perceptions, student performance (grades) and other criteria to form a complete view of a blended learning course” (Brew, 2008, p. 105). Finally, we analysed students’ perception of the classroom climate to reveal directly the impact of a blended FPL on participants and, indirectly, their measurable quality (Villar & Alegre, 2008).
Review an e-Portfolio What is clear is that Web-based portfolio assessment has the potential to create many performances, such as monitoring the learning process, self-inspecting the advantages and disadvantages and improving development, and implicit responsibility of professionals, thereby facilitating overall benefits in FPL. The electronic portfolio has been increasingly used as an alternative professional assessment tool, an evidence-based practice that delivers improved outcomes. Compared with more traditional professional or learning assessment of faculty members, the new mode of assessment such as e-portfolio enhances the adoption of deep approaches to learning. These approaches require faculty members to relate, analyze, solve and evaluate when creation of the e-portfolio is part of their ongoing learning experiences. Throughout this process, the e-portfolio is an important tool with which to engage and motivate staff learning to maintain high-quality practice. However, when considering reasons for choosing and adopting electronic portfolios as an approach for FPL, some malleable factors should be taken into consideration: “Personal factors, characteristics of the innovation, and influences of the individual’s context will all shape the ultimate
Table 3. Means and standard deviations for quality scale items Course I (N = 33) M
SD
Course II (N = 32) M
SD
Total (N = 65) M
SD
Relevance
1.60
1,36
1.21
1.15
1.31
0.95
Usefulness
1.71
0.90
1.71
0.90
1.48
1.04
Appropriateness
2.11
1.33
1.1
1.21
1.86
1.29
Adaptation
2.26
1.40
1.74
1.27
2.00
1.35
Tips
1.90
1.70
1.31
1.42
1.72
1.26
Structure
2.42
1.67
1.68
1.53
2.00
1.40
Pertinence
2.27
1.67
1.81
1.53
2.14
1.45
Reading
2.12
1.61
1.90
1.61
2.27
1.48
Impact
2.45
1.67
1.78
1.49
2.16
1.45
Time-Consumption
1.74
1.30
1.74
1.30
1.73
1.24
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decision and persistence with a technology” (Straub, 2009, p. 641). The power of the reflection is that it helps students and faculty members move beyond seeing the e-portfolio as a mere alternative assessment tool to appreciating its value as a learning strategy. Digital portfolios assisted student learning by increasing student motivation and allowing the students to publish their work in ways that result in greater self-confidence and more reflections (Villar & Alegre, 2008). Analysis of portfolios by Smith and Tillema (2003) allowed them to differentiate the portfolios clearly into at least four distinguishable types; dossier, training, reflective and personal development portfolios. In our course, entitled “Digital portfolios for a quality culture in university teaching” (http://gid. us.es:8083), we have introduced faculty instructors to constructing a reflective portfolio, that is, one which compiles evidence revealing best teaching practices or key teaching competences chosen to meet certain university quality criteria for professional growth. Electronic portfolios for FPL are grounded in the rich history of research examining portfolios in learning assessment environments. We drive this review by three themes: (a) portfolio as a scaffold for reflective inquiry (e.g., Lyons, 2006), (b) peer review of a teaching portfolio (e.g., Quinlan, 2002), and (c) the analysis of digital portfolios (e.g., Woodward, & Nanlohy, 2004). We also use these three themes to develop the three guiding research questions for the review: (1) What types of electronic portfolio architectures and reflective practices are most conducive for faculty members to enhance their learning? (2) What kinds of portfolio-embedded tasks enhance reflection about teaching practice and contribute to colleague coaching? (3) What is the value-added of analysing a portfolio in an electronic format? Below, we examine each of the three questions: (1) What types of electronic portfolio architectures and reflective practices are most conducive for faculty members to enhance
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their learning? A portfolio is more or less a novel in hypertext format: typically it begins with a preface, which summarizes a faculty member’s philosophy or theoretical constructs, and linked chapters which underpin, give detailed evidence of teaching processes and products (e.g., artefacts or tools, reflections, and references), and simplifies the process of navigating (Hill, 2008). The plot answers the happenings in the learning process; the character includes the persons involved in teaching; the setting contains the context where teaching actions take place; the theme alludes to the discipline content, and point of view which mentions how teaching episodes are told. A portfolio should be like a symphony in that its closing movement echoes and resounds with all the teaching episodes that have been represented before, linked with the formative and summative purposes of assessment. As Lyons (2006, p. 156) stated: “It concludes with a final reflection on the portfolio as a whole and often suggests further actions”. Hence, it fosters high-level self-assessment, which allows the re-writing of teaching scenes or learning passages. (2) What kinds of portfolio-embedded tasks enhance reflection about teaching practice and contribute to colleague coaching? Although, there is little research on colleague review to determine whether and how criteria come into play during the portfolio review process (Quinlan, 2002), peers usually applied their personal knowledge constructions when appraising a colleagues’ portfolio. Also, a protégé’s portfolio review by another faculty member can be an opportunity to develop a mentoring process where the protégé explores thoughts and feelings, and develops independence of mind (Harland, 2005). (3) What is the value-added of analysing a portfolio in an electronic format? Digital portfolio criteria are descriptors for assessing
Faculty Professional Learning
a project including the selection of file structures and navigation systems (Woodward, & Nanlohy, 2004). Other authors underline other features for e-portfolio assessment, such as decision-making skills, the power of the subject’s decision making and selection of evidences (Chang, & Tseng, 2008). Contrary to Abrami and Barrett (2005), judgments about faculty e-portfolios should not initiate debates about the normalization of faculty professional effectiveness through quantitative measures. In our FPL program, we believe that the content and activities we offer in carrying out this course not only will raise staff knowledge, but also support faculty members in their drive to achieve university excellence. This chapter urges the university community to be continually mindful of, and to address critically, the relationship of the FEPLP model to the larger staff professions. The question is: Are we doing our task of successfully providing guidance to other faculty members?
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Camblin, L. D. Jr, & Steger, J. A. (2000). Rethinking faculty development. Higher Education, 39, 1–18. doi:10.1023/A:1003827925543 Chang, C. C., & Tseng, K. H. (2008). Use and performances of Web-based portfolio assessment. British Journal of Educational Technology, 40(2), 358–370. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8535.2008.00885.x Clarke, D., & Hollingsworth, H. (2002). Elaborating a model of teacher development. Teaching and Teacher Education, 18, 947–967. doi:10.1016/ S0742-051X(02)00053-7 Clegg, S. (2009). Forms of knowing and academic development practice. Studies in Higher Education, 34(4), 403–416. doi:10.1080/03075070902771937 Comeaux, P., & McKenna-Byington, E. (2003). Computer-mediated communication in online and conventional classrooms: Some implications for instructional design and professional development programs. Innovations in Education and Teaching International, 40(4), 348–355. doi:10.1080/1470329032000128387 D’Eon, M., Sadownik, L., Harrison, A., & Nation, J. (2008). Using self-assessments to detect workshop success. Do they work? The American Journal of Evaluation, 29(1), 92–98. doi:10.1177/1098214007312630 Darwin, A., & Palmer, E. (2009). Mentoring circles in higher education. Higher Education Research & Development, 28(2), 125–136. doi:10.1080/07294360902725017 Davidovitch, N., & Soen, D. (2006). Using students’ assessments to improve instructors’ quality of teaching. Journal of Further and Higher Education, 30(4), 351–376. doi:10.1080/03098770600965375 Dixon, K., & Scott, S. (2003). The Evaluation of an Offshore Professional-Development Program as Part of a University’s Strategic Plan: A case study approach. Quality in Higher Education, 9(3), 287–294. doi:10.1080/1353832032000151148
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Driscoll, L. G., Parkes, K. A., Tilley-Lubbs, G. A., Brill, J. M., & Pitts Bannister, V. R. (2009). Navigating the lonely sea: Peer mentoring and collaboration among aspiring women scholars. Mentoring & Tutoring: Partnership in Learning, 17(1), 5–21. doi:10.1080/13611260802699532 Ellis, R. A., Ginns, P., & Piggott, L. (2009). Elearning in higher education: Some key aspects and their relationship to approaches to study. Higher Education Research & Development, 28(3), 303–318. doi:10.1080/07294360902839909 European Association for Quality Assurance in Higher Education. (2005). Standards and Guidelines for Quality Assurance in the European Higher Education Area, 3rd edition. Helsinki. Retrieved May 10, 2009, from http://www.enqa. eu/pubs.lasso. Ewing, R., Freeman, M., Barrie, S., Bell, A., O’Connor, D., Waugh, F., & Sykes, C. (2008). Building community in academic settings: The importance of flexibility in a structured mentoring program. Mentoring & Tutoring: Partnership in Learning, 16(3), 294–310. doi:10.1080/13611260802231690 Fitzgibbon, K. M., & Jones, N. (2004). Jumping the hurdles: Challenges of staff development delivered in a blended learning environment. Journal of Educational Media, 29(1), 25–35. doi:10.1080/1358165042000186253 Gibbs, G., & Coffey, M. (2004). The impact of training of university teachers on their teaching skills, their approach to teaching and the approach to learning of their students. Active Learning in Higher Education, 5(1), 87–100. doi:10.1177/1469787404040463 Gibson, S. K. (2004). Being mentored: the experience of women faculty. Journal of Career Development, 30(3), 173–188. doi:10.1023/ B:JOCD.0000015538.41144.2b
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Goldstein, G. S., & Benassi, V. A. (2006). Students’ and instructors’ beliefs about excellent lecturers and discussion leaders. Research in Higher Education, 47(6), 685–707. doi:10.1007/ s11162-006-9011-x Gray, K., & Radloff, A. (2006). Quality management of academic development work: implementation issues and challenges. The International Journal for Academic Development, 11(2), 79–90. doi:10.1080/13601440600924397 Greene, H. C., O’Connor, K. A., Good, A. J., Ledford, C. C., Peel, B. B., & Zhang, G. (2008). Building a support system toward tenure: Challenges and needs of tenure-track faculty in colleges of education. Mentoring & Tutoring: Partnership in Learning, 16(4), 429–447. doi:10.1080/13611260802433791 Hall, G. E., & Loucks, S. F. (1978). Teacher concerns as a basis for facilitating and personalizing staff development. Teachers College Record, 80, 36–53. Harland, T. (2005). Developing a portfolio to promote authentic enquiry in teacher education. Teaching in Higher Education, 10(3), 327–337. doi:10.1080/13562510500122180 Hayes, R. (2000). Exploring discount usability methods to assess the suitability of online course delivery products. The Internet and Higher Education, 2(2-3), 119–134. doi:10.1016/S10967516(99)00012-3 Haynes, R. K., & Petrosko, J. M. (2009). An investigation of mentoring and socialization among law faculty. Mentoring & Tutoring: Partnership in Learning, 17(1), 41–52. doi:10.1080/13611260802658520 Hill, C. F. (2008). A portfolio model for music educators. Music Educators Journal, 95, 61–72. doi:10.1177/0027432108318481
Johnston, S., & McCormack, C. (1997). Developing research potential through a structured mentoring program: Issues arising. Higher Education, 33(3), 251–264. doi:10.1023/A:1002943629129 Kandlbinder, P. (2003). Peeking under the covers: Online academic staff development in Australia and the United Kingdom. The International Journal for Academic Development, 8(1/2), 135–143. doi:10.1080/1360144042000278008 King, K. P. (2002). Identifying success in online teacher education and professional development. The Internet and Higher Education, 5, 231–246. doi:10.1016/S1096-7516(02)00104-5 Koch, L. C., Holland, L. A., Price, D., Gonzalez, G. L., Lieske, P., & Butler, A. (2002). Engaging new faculty in the scholarship of teaching. Innovative Higher Education, 27(2), 83–94. doi:10.1023/A:1021153225914 Kzltepe, Z. (2008). Motivation and demotivation of university teachers. Teachers and Teaching, 14(5), 515–530. doi:10.1080/13540600802571361 Lin, X. (2001). Designing metacognitive activities. Educational Technology Research and Development, 49(2), 23–40. doi:10.1007/BF02504926 Loucks-Horsley, S. (1995). What the professional developer/designer does. Paper presented at the Education Development Center’s Conference for Professional Development Teams for the 25 Statewide Systemic Initiatives, Baltimore, MD. Lyons, N. (2006). Reflective engagement as professional development in the lives of university teachers. Teachers and Teaching, 12(2), 151–168. doi:10.1080/13450600500467324 Macy, G., Neal, J., & Waner, K. K. (1998). Harder than I thought: a qualitative study of the implementation of a Total Quality Management approach in Business education. Innovative Higher Education, 23(1), 27–46. doi:10.1023/A:1022968429270
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Major, C. H., & Palmer, B. (2006). Reshaping teaching and learning: The transformation of faculty pedagogical content knowledge. Higher Education, 51(4), 619–647. doi:10.1007/s10734004-1391-2 McAlpine, L., Weston, C., Beauchamp, J., Wiseman, C., & Beauchamp, C. (1999). Building a metacognitive model of reflection. Higher Education, 37, 105–131. doi:10.1023/A:1003548425626 Middendorf, J. (2004). Facilitating a faculty learning community using the decoding the disciplines model. New Directions for Teaching and Learning, 98, 95–107. doi:10.1002/tl.151 Millar, A., Simeone, R. S., & Carnevale, J. T. (2001). Logic models: A systems tool for performance management. Evaluation and Program Planning, 24, 73–81. doi:10.1016/S01497189(00)00048-3 Nicol, D. J., Minty, I., & Sinclair, C. (2003). The social dimensions of online learning. Innovations in Education and Teaching International, 40(3), 270–280. doi:10.1080/1470329032000103807 Nijhuis, G. G., & Collis, B. (2003). Using a webbased course-management system: An evaluation of management tasks and time implications for the instructor. Evaluation and Program Planning, 26, 193–201. doi:10.1016/S0149-7189(03)00005-3 Oliver, R., & Herrington, J. (2003). Exploring technology-mediated learning from a pedagogical perspective. Interactive Learning Environments, 11(2), 111–126. doi:10.1076/ilee.11.2.111.14136 Owen, J. M. (1998). Toward an outcomes hierarchy for professional university programs. Evaluation and Program Planning, 21, 315–321. doi:10.1016/ S0149-7189(98)00020-2 Owston, R., Wideman, H., Murphy, J., & Lupshenyuk, D. (2008). Blended teacher professional development: A synthesis of three program evaluations. The Internet and Higher Education, 11(34), 201–210. doi:10.1016/j.iheduc.2008.07.003
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Scigliano, J. A., & Dringus, L. P. (2000). A lifecycle model for online learning management: 21 critical metrics for the 21st century. The Internet and Higher Education, 3, 99–115. doi:10.1016/ S1096-7516(00)00035-X Shulman, L. (1986). Those who understand: Knowledge growth in teaching. Educational Researcher, 15(2), 4–14. Shulman, L. (1987). Knowledge and teaching: Foundations of the new reform. Harvard Educational Review, 57(1), 1–22. Smith, K., & Tillema, H. (2003). Clarifying different types of portfolio use. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 28(6), 625–648. doi:10.1080/0260293032000130252 Sparks, D., & Loucks-Horsley, S. (1989). Five models of staff development for teachers. Journal of Staff Development, 10(4), 40–57.
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Section 2
Elements of Education in Virtual Environments
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Chapter 7
The Affordances of Second Life for Education Craig A. Cunningham National-Louis University, USA Kimball Harrison Virginia Beach City Public Schools, USA
ABSTRACT In this chapter, the authors discuss some of the possibilities of Second Life for education from both theoretical and practical standpoints. First, they outline a general theory of meaningful learning using technology that can be applied to Second Life as well as other technologies. Then, the authors discuss some of the particular aspects of Second Life that might support meaningful learning. Next, the authors outline some of the practical realities, or obstacles, that exist to using it in the environment. Finally, they make some recommendations about how educators who are interested in exploring the possibilities of Second Life might proceed. While the chapter focuses its discussion on Second Life, the theoretical framework and even many of the examples apply to any virtual world that allows users to build persistent objects and utilize scripts.
A THeORY OF meANINgFUL LeARNINg USINg TeCHNOLOgY For school and district administrators to support the increased use of technology in schools, they must be convinced that the costs of these technologies are offset by the benefit of increased student learning. However, the standardized tests typically used by schools to measure student learning do not often measure the kinds of learning that are DOI: 10.4018/978-1-61692-822-3.ch007
fostered by the best uses of technology. Rather, such tests usually measure basic skills such as decoding, vocabulary, grammar, arithmetic, reading comprehension, reading simple data off of a graph, and knowing the essentials of cultural literacy. While technology can be used to reinforce these basic skills—through the use of drill and practice software and arcade-like educational games—the real benefits of using technology are found in increased higher-order thinking skills, complex situated understandings, and sociallydesirable dispositions. These outcomes are harder
to achieve and harder to teach, and although they are highly valued in contemporary economies and by subject-matter experts, and they seem essential for citizens to participate fully in democratic society, they rarely show up on standardized tests (Grabinger & Dunlap, 2002). Indeed, studies have shown that the introduction of new technologies into schools may result in short-term decreases in standardized test scores, as teachers become familiar with new pedagogies and time is diverted from basic skills (Dusick, 1998; Kleiman, 2000). The profound and potentially positive long-term effects of increased integration of technology into teaching and learning may not show up until a few years have passed. The inability of standardized tests to capture the long-term higher-order learning outcomes presents a conundrum to teachers and administrators who seek to transform education so that it more effectively produces the kinds of graduates that our society seeks. It may be difficult to justify the costs—in terms of both money and time—of introducing new technologies and new teaching methods when the public is focused so narrowly on test scores. This is especially true in school districts, for example in the United States, that are not currently making adequate yearly progress on state achievement measures. Wealthier school districts, which easily meet state norms, are freer to experiment with new ways of teaching and learning that offer the possibility of producing new kinds of student learning. Schools in lower socioeconomic status communities are often forced to stick to the “tried and the true” focus on low-order outcomes in the effort to meet standards. Because of this dilemma—and because it disproportionately handicaps students in lower socioeconomic communities—it is important to find new ways to report school effectiveness that show the true benefits of technology integration into teaching and learning. In short, what are needed are new forms of assessments that capture higher-order learning outcomes (Haertel & Means, 2003; Johnston and Cooley, 2001).
The pathway to new forms of assessment is a long one, but many steps have already been taken. First, the higher-order outcomes that are considered valuable in the contemporary economy, by subject-matter experts, and to strengthen our democracy needed to be identified. The 1990s was a period of considerable activity in this area, with the production of a series of reports by blue-ribbon panels on what the new outcomes of schooling should be. One of the most influential was the US Department of Labor Secretary’s Commission on Achieving Necessary Skills (SCANS), which identified the skills, knowledge, and dispositions needed by workers in the new global economy (US Department of Labor, 1990; 1991). The SCANS reports focused on such outcomes as the ability to work in teams, learning how to learn, problemsolving and sense-making, and meta-cognitive skills such as paying attention to the consequences of what one is doing. The report concluded that schools need to develop skills in resource management, information management, social interaction, systems behavior and performance, human and technology interaction, and affective skills (such as attitudes, motivation, and values). The kinds of skills that are emphasized in the SCANS list are very different from the traditional notion of “basic skills”. What’s more, the SCANS commission referred to new theories of learning emerging from cognitive science to argue that it is not necessary to teach basic skills before students can learn higher-level skills. Rather, basic skills are best learned in the context of participation in authentic tasks requiring active inquiry and problem-solving. The best learning occurs not when students act as passive recipients of skills and knowledge that are presented to them wholly formed, but when they are given opportunities to construct their own knowledge, invent possibilities, and solve complex problems. Further, students learn best when they work in teams or groups. Basic skills are learned as needed as they are applied in the processes of seeking information, discussing
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alternative theories, and in presenting findings to others (US Department of Labor, 1990). The conclusions of the SCANS report were reinforced by additional commissions that issued reports in the 1990s, especially the National Goals 2000 panels devoted to preparing standards in various subject areas (Thompson & Henley, 2000). Most of the subject-matter standards that emerged—led by those issued by the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM, 1989)—outlined high-level conceptual understandings that need to be learned in order for students to be able to continue serious study of the disciplines beyond high schools, and most reports urged that these conceptual understandings—rather than basic skills per se—receive greater emphasis in elementary schools. A number of attempts have been made to weave these various standards documents and reports into a unified conception of the kinds of learning that are most valuable to contemporary society and upon which schools should focus (Thompson & Henley, 2000; Grabinger and Dunlap, 2002). One particularly helpful approach has been the emergence of the concept of “meaningful learning,” particularly out of the work of David Jonassen and his colleagues (Jonassen et al., 1999). Ashburn (2006) summarizes this conception as learning that results from “systematic and intentionallycreated opportunities to achieve (a) deep and enduring understanding of complex ideas, and (b) skill in working with complex problems and content that are both central to the discipline and relevant to students’ lives” (p. 8). In meaningful learning situations, students actively construct their own knowledge as they frame, examine, and attempt to answer questions that relate to their own interests, resulting in “understanding that includes the capacity and dispositions to develop and apply knowledge creatively, flexibly, and appropriately in a range of situations” (p. 27). Ashburn (2006) provides more specific description of six essential qualities of meaningful learning:
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•
•
•
•
•
•
Intentionality: Using clearly articulated learning goals to guide the design of learning tasks and assessment of learning progress. Content centrality: Aligning learning goals and tasks with the big ideas, essential questions, and methods of inquiry that are central to the discipline. Authentic work: Constructing multifaceted learning tasks that represent the challenges, problems, and thinking skills required outside the classroom. Active inquiry: Using a disciplined inquiry process for learning that builds on students’ own questions and develops habits of mind that foster high levels of thinking. Construction of mental models: Embedding the articulation of cognitive models of content within the learning tasks. Collaborative work: Designing learning tasks so that students work together to achieve learning outcomes. (p. 9)
Ashburn’s list of qualities can be supplemented by one created by Lebow (1993) that emphasizes learning that is democratic and humanistic. Lebow’s list includes “collaboration, personal autonomy, generativity, reflectivity, active engagement, personal relevance, and pluralism” (p. 5). Generativity refers to activities and materials that generate new activities and concepts rather than closing off avenues of inquiry or thought. Reflectivity is the disposition of learners to consider not only their current ideas but ways in which those ideas could be modified in the light of ongoing experience (Grabinger & Dunlap, 2002). Pluralism, in this context, refers to activities and materials that expose the learner to a wide variety of experiences as well as perspectives, reinforcing the notion that no one person or group has exclusive access to the “truth”, but that truth is best approached by incorporating multiple perspectives. The other items on the list are fairly self-explanatory.
The Affordances of Second Life for Education
Like the SCANS report, meaningful learning incorporates new understandings about learning that are emerging from cognitive science. These understandings are well described in How People Learn, a volume edited by Bransford et al. (1999), and can be summarized as: • • • •
Learning occurs in context. Learning is active. Learning is social. Learning is reflective (Driscoll, 2002).
These principles of learning suggest that students learn best in situations that are authentic and participatory and involve an interactive (or iterative) cycle of action and reflection that challenges the students’ mental models of the world appropriately. By “appropriately”, we mean that challenges are carefully designed to push the students’ thinking beyond their comfort zone, but not so much as to lead to frustration or repeated failure. Vygotsky’s (1978) concept of “zone of proximal development” is helpful here, offering the advice that appropriate challenges are those that a student could not necessarily meet on his or her own, but can meet with the support of others. Such supports can come from the teacher, in the form of scaffolding (such as instructions, hints, resources, tools) or from mixed-ability groups of students that can fill in the gaps in any one students’ understanding and support each other in meeting challenges that any one student might find too difficult (Daniels, 1994). The capacity of a collaborative group to support the individual learners that make up the group in meeting challenging problems—through a process known as “reciprocal teaching” (Palincsar & Klenk, 1992; Collins, Brown, & Holum, 1991)—is a key principle of new understandings of how students learn, and of the concept of meaningful learning. So how can technology help create meaningful learning? A central principle is that all learning takes place within a context known as a learning environment, and that teachers can only affect stu-
dent learning by making changes in that learning environment. The learning environment includes not only the physical attributes of a classroom, such as desks, chairs, bulletin boards, chalkboards (and even heating and air conditioning systems), but also less tangible aspects of the environment such as how students are grouped, what the teacher says or gives to, and even the goals that the teacher or students have in mind. To the extent that technology makes a difference in the learning environment that matters, it makes a difference in student learning. A learning environment conducive to meaningful learning would be one that encourages students to take responsibility for their own learning by situating them in collaborative groups engaged in generative learning activities taking place in authentic and realistic contexts and involving a variety of assessment techniques that focus on higher-order thinking (Grabinger & Dunlap, 2002; Grabinger et al., 1997). Thus, technologies that help to support such pedagogical strategies would therefore have an impact on meaningful learning. In addition to the concept of “learning environment”, it is helpful to think about technologies as offering certain general “affordances” for teaching and learning. An affordance is a possibility for action that is supplied by a given feature or element in the learning environment. Technologies can increase the possibilities for action in a learning environment by providing or enhancing the following: •
•
Communication and Collaboration: technologies can connect students to each other, to the teacher, and to the larger world, giving them access to real-world data as well as subject-matter experts, and enabling them to work together efficiently and synergistically. Representations and Simulations: technologies can offer multiple modes of conveying information and ideas, either to students to help them to understand or by
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The Affordances of Second Life for Education
•
the students as a way of making their ideas visible and demonstrating understanding, and can often help students “see” information in new ways, and also can provide access to authentic simulations of complex or dangerous situations that would be otherwise impossible to experience. Scaffolds: technologies can be used to support complex student activities by providing tools that can reduce the cognitive load of certain aspects of a task so students can concentrate on those aspects that are most important for learning.
To fully appreciate the affordances of technologies for education, however, we need to go back to Ashburn’s (2006) summary of meaningful learning and notice that in addition to the five attributes described by Jonassen, Ashburn added “content centrality” as a critical feature, drawing attention to the importance of the big ideas, essential questions, and methods of inquiry that are important in each subject area and that “enable students to relate classroom learning to their lives outside of school, to connect what they are learning to what they already know, and to apply their learning in other contexts” (p. 13). To use technology to make significant differences in the learning environment, it is necessary not only to know how to use technology in general, but also to understand the subject matter at a deep level and, even beyond that, to understand how technology can be used in specific ways to support the learning of a given subject matter (Wiske, 2006). For example, spreadsheet programs might be useful in teaching the relationship between equations, data, and graphs, but knowledge of those mathematical concepts and how they can be modeled is required to use the technology effectively in teaching. Teachers need, therefore, not only understanding of subject-matter, and of how to use technologies, but also what has been called “Technological, Pedagogical, and Content Knowledge” (TPACK), which lies at the intersec-
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tion of the understandings of technology, effective teaching, and subject matter content (Mishra & Koehler, 2006). TPACK understandings are not easy to gain, requiring considerable attention to the professional development of teachers, who need “opportunities for cycles of learning about new approaches; developing strategies they can apply in their own classrooms; trying out new practices, preferably with coaching and feedback; assessing results; and revising their practices in light of these analyses” (Wiske, 2006; p. 37). Fortunately, technology offers support for these critical needs, and so we can add a fourth central affordance of technology for teaching and learning: •
Professional Development: In addition to these three general affordances for learning environments, technology also affords considerable possibilities for helping teachers in any given subject area to learn what they need to know in order to embed technologies effectively into the learning environment.
To summarize our discussion thus far, to justify the costs of educational technology, we need new understandings of what kind of learning are most important, and new conceptions of the kinds of learning experiences and environments that can produce these outcomes. Meaningful learning provides a general framework for thinking about the connection between pedagogy and outcomes. Technology can help create suitable learning environments by affording possibilities in four main areas: (1) communications and collaboration; (2) representations and simulations; (3) scaffolding, and (4) professional development. Now, let’s look at the specific ways that Second Life and other virtual environments offer these affordances and some of the ways that they might be used to support meaningful learning.
The Affordances of Second Life for Education
What Does Second Life Offer? Second Life (SL) is a multi-user virtual environment (or MUVE) that allows users (known as “Residents”) to create and customize their own avatars, shape the landscape and environment, build almost any object or structure imaginable, and script those objects using a proprietary language. SL is different from other virtual educational environments like Quest Atlantis (Barab et al, 2005) or River City (Galas & Ketelhut, 2006) in that the Second Life environment itself does not offer any specific educational content, activities or situations. Rather, it presents an open, adaptable, extensible virtual space that offers infinite possibilities for creating almost any situation that can be imagined. Indeed, the most exciting possibilities for using Second Life for education are those that stretch our traditional conceptions of learning and effective learning environments beyond what is generally done or considered acceptable in what may be called “First Life” (Cross et al., 2007). To get a sense of the possibilities, look at the SLEducation web site at http://sleducation.wikispaces.com/, which offers a database of different ways that Second Life has been used for education. Here are some of the categories: • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
Distance and Flexible Education Presentations, Panels and Discussions Training and Skills Development Self-paced Tutorials Displays and Exhibits Immersive Exhibits Role-plays and Simulations Data Visualizations and Simulations Libraries, Art Galleries and Museums Historical Re-creations and Re-enactments Living and Immersive Archeology Computer Programming Artificial Intelligence Projects Artificial Life Projects Multimedia and Games Design
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
Art and Music Projects Literature, Composition and Creative Writing Theatre and Performance Art Photo stories and Photo Scenarios Machinima (videos of events in Second Life) Treasure Hunts and Quests Virtual Tourism, Cultural Immersion and Cultural Exchange Language Teaching and Practice, and Language Immersion Social Science and Anthropological Research Awareness/Consciousness Raising and Fund Raising Support and Opportunities for People with Disabilities Politics, Governance, Civics and Legal Practice Business, Commerce, Financial Practice and Modeling Real Estate Practice Product Design, Prototyping, User-testing and Market Research Interior Design Architectural Design and Modeling Urban Planning and Design
This incredible range of possibilities presents many opportunities for imaginative, technicallyskilled educators or those with the resources to hire technical specialists, but it also presents huge challenges, especially for educators who work in relatively under-resourced schools. Some of these opportunities and challenges—and possible strategies for meeting them—are described below. We will now describe some of the opportunities that we believe Second Life offers education, by discussing each of the four major affordances that we outlined in the previous section.
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Communication and Collaboration Second Life offers myriad exciting possibilities for fostering communication and collaboration among both teachers and students. Communication and collaboration appear to have been built into the environment from the very beginning, and these affordances are highly developed in the user interface. However, it may be necessary to teach participants to use some of these forms of communication and to adjust their Preferences (on the Edit menu) to maximize their utility. The most obvious form of communication in Second Life is “chat,” wherein avatars that are in close proximity with each other (20 meters) can “talk” to each other using text. Chat easily enables one avatar to present information to a group, or a group to have a discussion, although as with other types of chat systems, groups larger than 10 or so may need a moderator or special rules to prevent the chat from becoming chaotic or too fast to follow. Other tools are available to support discussion in chat. The ELVEN Institute has developed a set of classroom chairs that allow individuals to “raise their hands” using a menu built into the chair and moderators to then “call on” each in turn by clicking the chair. There are also special devices available that help to “queue” participants in a discussion, by calling on them one by one. Note that it is not always necessary for avatars to “take their turn,” or to wait for others to finish before they begin typing their own comments; indeed, one useful technique to move a discussion along is to type one’s own response and wait to hit the “enter” key until the appropriate moment in the conversation. Chat appears in the lower left corner of the SL user interface, identified by avatar name. The History panel allows anyone to go back and look at the chat that has occurred previously during a session (that is, since the user logged into SL). Preferences allow the user to decide how long each chat “message” stays on the screen before it fades, how big a font is used and what color, and
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how many lines of chat appear before the messages scroll off the top. Chat can also be captured into a log file for later use. It is also possible to “shout” so that a chat message can be heard up to 100 meters away, although—as in First Life— shouting is considered rude in many situations. The biggest problem with chat is that everyone in the immediate vicinity can “hear” it. This makes it unsuitable for small group discussions within a larger classroom. One option is to separate the small groups from each other by more than 20 meters (this can be a vertical as well as horizontal distance, which invites interesting classroom arrangements). Another is to utilize a “friends conference” via instant messaging, discussed below. A teacher can use chat to deliver information or instructions to students. A “lecture” or presentation can be prepared in advance and put onto a notecard (see below) and delivered line by line simply by clicking the mouse, through something called a “notecard reader.” An example is the SpeakEasy HUD (Heads-Up Display). Presentations can be illustrated with various objects or with images, using a slide viewer, also described below. Instant messages, or IMs, are the second most obvious way to communicate. Private one-on-one conversations are easily initiated by right-clicking on an avatar in the immediate vicinity and choosing “Send IM” from the circular menu that appears. One can also use the Search People function to load a person’s Profile, where a “Send IM” button appears, no matter whether the person is nearby or even logged into SL. To understand the real value of the IM function, you need to understand the concept of a “Friend.” When you meet an avatar that you wish to have further interactions with, you can right-click that avatar and “Add as Friend.” (You can also find avatars by searching for them, and click the “Add as Friend” button on their profile.) If accepted by the other user, each avatar name appears on the other’s “Friends” list (which can be seen on the Communicate panel or via the View menu). Friends who are online are indicated through bold letters and are alphabetized
The Affordances of Second Life for Education
by first name at the top of the Friends list; offline Friends are alphabetized below. Any avatar that has been added to your “Friends” list will appear on the Friends tab on the Communicate panel, and can be IM’d by clicking their name and the IM/Call button. This works even if the Friend’s avatar is in an entirely different part of the world. (Indeed, the whole concept of “distance” sort of melts away in virtual worlds such as SL.) If you send an IM to a Friend who is offline, it will be stored until next time they log in. (There is a limit on how many offline IMs will be stored, so it is necessary to log in periodically to “clear” IMs to avoid reaching the “cap.”) A setting in Preferences allows “offline IMs” to be sent to the user’s email address, allowing communication even with people who are not logged into SL. Interestingly, if a person “replies” to an offline IM email message, it will go back into the world to the person who sent the message, although this two-way communication link expires in a day or so. You can also send an IM to multiple friends at once, which creates a temporary “Friends Conference,” that allows for a private small group discussion. This is particularly effective for small groups in a classroom situation. This is done by selecting multiple users at once from the Friends list (holding down the Control key while clicking), and then pressing the IM/Call button. You can also initiate a conference IM by creating a folder of Calling Cards—which are added to your Inventory when a Friendship offer is accepted—and then right-clicking the folder and choosing Instant Message All Users or Instant Message Online Users. Anything that is typed by anyone in the Friends conference is seen by all of the others in the conference. One difficulty with the Friends conference is that if anyone accidentally “leaves” the conference by closing the IM window, it may be necessary to start the whole conference over again in order to add them back in. If you wish to have a more robust, ongoing conversation among a group of users, the best way
to do that is to form a group. Groups can be formed by any user for any purpose, and can either be public (anyone can join) or private (joining by invitation of the “owner” only). Groups must include at least two members; any group that dwindles to only one member will be automatically deleted by the system. Public groups can optionally be listed in the SL Search function (so that anyone can find them). It might make sense for a class of students to form at least one large group for class announcements and whole-group discussion and a number of smaller groups for small-group discussions and collaboration. Groups can even be created at a moment’s notice (if desired). There is a limit of 25 groups per avatar, so it does not make sense to create groups willy-nilly, and it also makes sense for any user to leave any group in which he or she no longer has an interest. To communicate with a Group via IM, you click the group name on the Groups tab of the Communicate panel, and then click the IM/Call button. After a few seconds, an IM window opens, and any member of the Group who is online is added to that IM conversation. Note that group IMs are not stored for members who are offline. (Group Announcements are stored, however; these are sent from the Group Info panel by those with permission to do so.) A relatively newer form of communication in Second Life is Voice. Voice can be used in any situation that text can be used, that is, in open chat, IMs, or Group conversations. To use Voice, you will need a headset with a microphone. The SL implementation of Voice is amazing, because in a chat situation, information about the relative location of each speaker is communicated through volume and “placement” of a given voice in the auditory field, using technology that is similar to “surround sound” technologies used in movies. In addition, when chatting in Voice, a graphic appears above the head of the person speaking, showing how loudly they are speaking (the “wave” graphic pulses with the spoken word, and turns red when their voice overpowers their microphone or sys-
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tem). Voice can also be used for one-on-one IMs, Friends conferences, and group IMs, although the auditory information about relative location and the wave graphic are missing in these situations. Increasingly, Voice is being used for formal presentations in SL. It is much easier to communicate large amounts of information, or for long periods of time, in voice rather than in text, and easier to process for the audience. However, during large group presentations, audience members need to be warned to “mute” their microphones, to avoid too many distracting background noises. It is common practice during Voice presentations for participants to ask questions and remark using text chat. The speaker can review the chat when appropriate and respond as needed. (A “back channel” discussion among audience members in text chat allows for many people to participate at once, something that is much harder to achieve in a First Life classroom.) Using voice in Friends conferences is a great way for small-group work in SL, and, since it works no matter where the members of the conference are located in SL, this allows for groups to keep in touch with each other even as they explore different parts of the world, perhaps in search of diverse information for a group project. Note, however, that if someone is in a Voice IM conversation or Friends conference, they do not hear the Voices of avatars who are immediately nearby. Text IM conversations, on the other hand, do not interfere with text or voice chat, and so might be preferable in some situations. It should be noted that some people are uncomfortable with using Voice in SL, especially when they are first learning about the environment or new to a particular location. It is considered polite in some circumstances to offer a text IM or make a text chat greeting before using voice with a stranger. Also, while Voice is usually a faster method of communicating than text, the two produce somewhat different styles of thinking, and it is much more difficult to create a log of what happens when using voice. Teachers would do well to experiment with Voice and text
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to determine which work best in which situations and for which students. Another very interesting capability for communication and collaboration in SL is the use of Notecards. A Notecard is simply an inventory item that contains text, as well as links to landmarks, textures (images), sounds, scripts, objects (including clothing) or other Notecards. Notecards are used for all sorts of purposes, including providing, for announcements of events, and simply to communicate asynchronously at length about any topic. They can be used more or less as email messages or attachments and are sent to any number of users by dropping them onto avatars or onto a special section of their profiles. Teachers can create “worksheets” or visual organizers via Notecards, or give instructions that include landmarks to relevant locations in SL. Students can use Notecards as a way to “turn in” assignments, or for sharing ideas or drafts with each other. Notecards can also be embedded in objects so that when an avatar touches the object the text is delivered to only that avatar via Instant Message. To create a Notecard, open your Inventory (lower right of the screen), and choose “New Note” from the Create menu. Or, right-click anywhere in the Inventory and choose “New Note” from the pop-up menu. The New Note will open, and it will be listed under its default name “New Note” under the Notecards folder in your Inventory. Now is the time to change the name (since it is highlighted; you can also later rename any Notecard by right-clicking it in the Inventory and choosing Rename). Then, start typing text (or pasting text). To add other items, simply drag them from your Inventory onto the Notecard. (The other items must be transferable.) Notecards can hold up to 64000 characters, or about 8000 words. Images are another important avenue for communication in Second Life. SL is built with an enormous capacity to handle images, snapshots, and textures (which are more or less equivalent). The Second Life “camera” allows a user to pan, zoom, or rotate around any object or event, and
The Affordances of Second Life for Education
take multiple snapshots, which can be saved to a hard drive or “uploaded” into Inventory using the “Upload Texture” option on the File menu at a cost of L$10, or less than 5 cents per uploaded image. Indeed, any bmp, jpg, png, or tiff image can be uploaded, and then used as “textures” on the surface of any object (including clothing, buildings, plants, animals, furniture) or displayed easily on a wall either by using the image as a texture on a flat object or via a simple, free, easy to use image viewer such as the Freeview or SLGuide Player. Multiple images can be played in a loop or one by one in a slide show. One very powerful approach is to export PowerPoint or Keynote slides as jpgs and then upload them into SL to be used in a slide show. Audio and video are also powerfully available in Second Life. Given appropriate permissions, an audio or video stream can be played in Second Life by adding the URL to the Media tab in the “About Land” option of the World menu. Any Quicktime-compatible video on a web server can be shown in SL, again using the Freeview or SLGuide Player, simply by putting the URL of the video into the menu of the player. (Be sure to enable streaming audio or video in the Preferences). While any Quicktime video file can be played in SL, videos with “Fast Start” checked when they are created will download more quickly. (These are known as “progressive download” files.) However, unless the files are streamed (and not simply hosted on a web server), each person viewing the movie will see it start at a different time, depending on when they click the “play” button and their own bandwidth. So, if you wish to have a group of people view a video simultaneously, you will have to use a streaming server. This is a nice way to share the experience of viewing an educational video, especially text chat allows for ongoing discussion of a video without interfering with the sound. You can also create a video (called a “machinima”) of anything you see in SL. This offers many opportunities for creating SL tutorials and
tours, but also, by including role-playing, scripting, sets, costumes, and the other techniques of moviemaking, SL offers the possibility of creating videos about anything at all, without many of the costs of real-world filmmaking or traditional animation techniques. As they say on SL’s official machinima page, “Movies made in Second Life use the world’s building, scripting, and avatar customization tools, working in realtime collaboration with people around the globe. You can use Second Life as your own virtual back lot, soundstage, choreography studio, costume and prop repository, and special effects house” (http:// secondlife.com/showcase/machinima.php). The general machinima site http://machinima.com offers tutorials on making machinima as well as access to more than 100,000 Second Life machinima. You can also see more than 150,000 videos on http://youtube.com using the tag “Second Life”. There are several good options for creating the machinima. There are free tools, including Taksi, and http://WeGame.com for the PC and Capture Me for the Mac. FRAPS and Camtasia are two other easy-to-use programs available at a low cost. Some people have recently experimented with using Jing (http://www.jingproject. com/). Many Mac users use iShowU with Stomp, http://www.shinywhitebox.com for capturing screen video and compressing it for sharing. In addition to screen capture software, you’ll also need a video editing program such as iMovie or Windows Movie Maker, or higher-end products such as Apple’s Final Cut Pro or Adobe Premier to create the final video. Another medium for communicating in Second Life is not immediately obvious to newcomers, and that is “body” language. Avatars have default animations that they perform when speaking in text chat, listening to another avatar (the avatars automatically turn their head to the latest speaker!), walking, running, jumping, sitting, and flying. There are also many built in “gestures,” which combine animations with sounds, including pointing at something, pointing at oneself, yee-hawing,
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laughing, coughing, yawning, etc. Anyone can create their own avatar animations using a tool such as Poser, Avimator, or Qavimator, and combine those animations with sounds, which can also be uploaded into SL. SL uses animation files in the “BVH” format, which can be exported from other programs as well Avatars can also use a form of “body language” to indicate their agreement with particular points of view or answers to a complex question. GlobalKids has an activity they call the “human barometer.” Basically the leader makes a statement, and then creates a number of separate “platforms” that are labeled “agree,” “disagree,” and “not sure,” where avatars move to indicate their preference or choice. This allows the whole group to “see” the group’s diversity of opinion, and also provides an interesting opportunity for like-minded participants to have their own conversation and/ or create a useful discussion with those with other viewpoints. A similar tool, the “Opinionator,” presents an avatar-counting example of a Likert scale (strongly agree, agree, neutral, disagree, and strongly disagree). As avatars make their selection
by moving into labeled areas, a pie graph in the center changes to display the percentage of each response. By applying this system to the phrase, “I am comfortable enough in Second Life to help someone else with basic skills,” Virginia Society for Technology in Education (VSTE) members, for example, were able to identify the novices and pair each of them with a mentor. (See Figure 1)
Representations and Simulations Representation has two aspects that need to be considered. First, teachers (or curriculum developers) provide representations of information or ideas that they want students to understand, such as textual descriptions, the illustrations on a chalkboard or in a textbook, various video and audio including lecture and narration, animations, and models (such as when a chemistry professor displays a model of a molecule). The insight that different people have different preferred styles of learning (McLoughlin, 1999; Rayner & Riding, 1997) leads to the realization that information ought to be presented flexibly and with a diversity
Figure 1. The “Opinionator” http”//slurl.com/secondlife/Tupi/147/149/303
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of approaches in order to support all learners. It is critically important to pay attention to the different responses that learners have to aural, textual, visual, and kinesthetic information, and to find ways to accommodate all learning styles in any learning environment. It is especially helpful to provide summaries of information in multiple formats at the beginning and end of any presentation, and to always provide alternative formats of any information presented. The second important aspect of representation is that learners in the process of acquiring skills or concepts can represent their understanding for the purposes of formative and summative assessment. Many students respond positively to the opportunity to represent what they know or are learning in a creative or artistic manner. Teachers need to pay attention to these representations to gain critical insight into student understanding, and to provide necessary supports and scaffolding in the process of developing mastery. Second Life affords many opportunities for artistic expression, and has a
thriving community of artists who design, produce, display, and sell their creations in- world. A good place to get a sense of what is possible is the Second Louvre, where paintings and sculpture are on display. Another showcase of SL artistry is the Sistine Chapel at Vassar Island (see Figure 2). (In SL, areas of land are often referred to as “islands,” “estates” or “sims”.) One inspirational activity is to take a tour of art galleries in SL; a special “Heads-Up Display” or HUD (see below) is available to guide you. Making machinima offers a powerful way for students to represent their ideas. Students who have trouble with traditional school assignments often come alive when given the opportunity to write a script or short a video. Because creating a well-done machinima is a lot of work with multiple functions, it also provides a good activity for groups. Possibilities for content include demonstrating a new science concept, filming a reenactment of an historical event, or creating an
Figure 2. The Sistine Chapel Re-creation: http://slurl.com/secondlife/Vassar/111/113/27
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instructional video to teach their parents a new technical skill. Data visualization is another aspect of representation that has value for education. One SL example is a dynamic 3D graph that represents the market value of stock in the Standard & Poor’s 500; the display includes a field of columns, each representing a different stock. The columns grow or shrink according to the market value, and color changes indicate whether the price is rising, falling, or staying the same (see Figure 3). Another example we have seen is a 3D pie chart, showing the relative proportion of topics searched in a library database over time. The cool thing about that chart was that you could climb it, like a staircase, giving a uniquely kinesthetic encounter with the data that would be nearly impossible in another setting. On Biome I you can see a 3D model of the Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy for Learning, Teaching, and Assessing (see Figure 4).
Simulations are representations or imitations of real-life objects, processes, or events. Models are a form of simulation that shows a real-life object or process in miniature or in a way that simplifies reality. Simulations offer a way for students to experience things that they would not otherwise have access to, either because the events took place in the past or at a remote location, or because the events are too small, too big, too slow, too fast, or too dangerous to be experienced directly. Often, a simulation or model will also simplify a complex situation, so that its major elements can be more easily understood, or will highlight the ways in which certain aspects of the situation change over time, for example by showing a simulated meter or graph that shows the value of key variables. Simulations certainly can take place in the real world (for example, when a group of Civil War re-enactors put on a simulation of the Battle of Gettysburg), but computerized environments— including SL—afford unique opportunities for
Figure 3. The S&P 500 market value, visualized in a 3D graph in SL
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The Affordances of Second Life for Education
Figure 4. Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy of Teaching Objectives at Biome I; http://slurl.com/secondlife/ Clemson%20Teaching%20Learning/92/141/29
simulations. SL itself can be thought of as a simulation of First Life because it is designed to mimic the real world in various ways, including the behavior of humans (as avatars), the appearance of buildings, landscapes, and plants, and the “physical” behavior of objects (for example the effects of gravity or collisions). Because of the features and adaptability of the environment, SL also offers a unique environment for the creation of simulations and models. The cycle of day and night, the behavior of water, and the realistic possibilities of texturing and shaping objects mean that almost any First Life situation can be modeled. Also, everything in SL is built on a “wireframe,” which is the basic structure for 3D modeling in a variety of fields, including medicine, chemistry, architecture, engineering, and geography. The Cartesian grid system of SL (x,y,z) also encourages users to think of ways to model data in three dimensions. Some examples of simulations in SL include the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)’s island called Meteora, with several interesting simulations, including a submarine ride, two tsunami simulations, an airplane ride into the eye of a hurricane, and a demonstration of a melting glacier. Clear Ink has created a model
of the US Capitol to encourage discussions of politics and government. Renaissance Island is a simulation of a 16th century village complete with a copy of Shakespeare’s Globe Theater. More complex simulations of systems involving multiple human actors are also possible. Australia’s Central Gippsland Institute of TAFE established a virtual resort in Second Life, Paluma Resort, in which students learned how to manage and run a business. On an educational island owned by a Finnish school (Salpaus Further Education) two student groups tried economic enterprises during the 2008-09 school year. One modeled the Finnish winter by creating a park with snowboarding, skating, hiking, and sledding. They charged 20 Lindens to enter the park. Once inside, everything was free and the students provided customer service and managed the accounting involved in business. The other student group created a hotel and earned pennies from a real Finnish business when they advertised the business in-world. While the former was considered a success, the latter was not. During the 2009-2010 school year, the students at the school will have similar opportunities to try their own economic ventures. Simulations of biological environments are also possible. Perhaps the most was the island
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of Svarga, which simulated an entire ecosystem, with self-replicating plants, bees, birds, rain, and a sun that produces energy for the system. Created by Laukosargas Svarog, it served as an archetype of the ways that Second Life can be used to simulate complex systems such as those found in nature. Another simulation (now dismantled) demonstrated the processes of evolution by showing that intelligent clown fish are more likely to survive than non-intelligent ones. A third, Biome II, is based on the natural ecosystem of the Upper Peninsula of Michigan, and provides a place to study biodiversity and ecology. To the north, is Biome I, full of larger-than-life simulations of topics relevant to elementary school science, such as a soda bottle habitat, a butterfly pavilion, and a microscope. VITAL Lab at the University of Ohio has created several simulations in Second Life, including a Nutrition Game, which emphasizes the impact that fast food has on health. VITAL has also produced the Interactive Science Lab, which allows middle school students to participate in simulated science experiments and learn the scientific method. One of the experiments duplicates an experiment done by Francesco Redi in which he showed that maggots do not grow in closed containers and thus must have grown from eggs laid by flies rather than spontaneously generating. This particular experiment is not likely to be one reproduced in most middle schools due to the possible smell and/or fly infestation it would cause. An excellent example of use of simulations by school students is when eighth grade students at Suffern middle school re-enacted the courtroom scene from Of Mice and Men on Ramapo Island on the Teen Grid, as well as an alternative ending to the book in which Lenny gets tried for the murder of Curley’s wife. According to a report from the teacher, “There aren’t adequate words to describe just how amazing our students were today when they began their mock trials in Second Life!” Another English teacher at Suffern added, “My English classes had more academic and social
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success using this program than I have ever seen in a literature circle unit. Their final reflections show that the students agree, and that they would LOVE to spend more time learning in Second Life. Other educators may disagree, but given my own experience as a graduate of an online university, I could see easily converting all of my existing units and conducting my entire year’s worth of English classes online now” (http://rampoislands. blogspot.com/search?q=of+mice+and+men).
Scaffolds Scaffolds help students to complete challenging learning activities by supporting some aspect of the activity while allowing students to concentrate on more important tasks. Otherwise known as “instructional supports,” scaffolds can take many forms. In traditional classrooms, teachers often provide leading questions that focus student attention on key facts or issues, or students might use dictionaries or calculators, charts such as timelines, maps, or periodic tables, or graphic organizers that help them to understand the kinds of information necessary to solve a problem. Any of these forms of scaffolds can also be made available in Second Life. In addition, Second Life offers some scaffolding techniques and tools that either mimic those that might occur in First Life or offer something completely different. Perhaps the most important scaffold that Second Life can offer communication and collaboration tools that can be used for building learning communities that support individual learners. Most of these tools were discussed, above. Other possibilities include the use of SL to overcome the barriers that may limit disabled populations’ access to learning in traditional educational environments. As people with disabilities get acclimated to Second Life, they can interact with each other and with other Residents to learn more about Second Life but also to learn other topics and participate in a wide variety of virtual experiences. One location to find out about
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available services for the disabled is HealthInfo Island. Another location catering to users with disabilities is Virtual Ability Island, where you can find a carefully constructed pathway for users to learn basic SL skills. Text on signs is large and key information is highlighted in yellow. An enclosed pathway prevents users with disabilities from losing control of their avatars while learning to fly. There are visual and auditory reinforcements for skills learned all along the way. Deaf people can use the text-based communication tools of SL. People who are homebound or otherwise limited in their movement can use SL to participate in events that take place at remote First Life locations. Some people with disabilities are even using SL to earn a living. Support groups of various kinds are developing, as well as centers within SL for helping people with disabilities to find people with similar disabilities or with an interest in helping them. Interfaces are being created that even allow thoughts to control the movement of an avatar in SL, which will be particularly useful for people with quadriplegic paralysis. One remaining issue is that the SL interface is not currently usable by people with visual disabilities. However, since the SL client software is now in open source, it should be possible to build a version that follows the guidelines set forth by the W3C Web Accessibility Initiative. An interesting technique that is being used more often is the provision of specialized HUDs that attach to the Second Life user interface and contain information about a given topic or task and that respond appropriately to user actions or movements. HUDs are used, for example, to display information about velocity, bearing, and distance traveled while flying an airplane in SL. Another example, mentioned above, is a HUD that offers a tour of various art galleries in Second Life. A third is a HUD given on the island run by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration that guides users through the various exhibits and resources on the island. A good educational HUD example is S.L.E.U.T.H., which offers help
to newcomers to Second Life on navigation and communication. Another is Treasure HUD, which allows an instructor to create quizzes or treasure hunts in which students who answer questions correctly get a landmark that takes them to the next question. HUDs can be developed to deliver almost any information that can be imagined, and to give the user more precise control over any activity (for example, facial expressions). They can contain helpful information, tutorials, images, customized maps; interfaces to web sites or blogs; interfaces to in-world games such as poker and swordfights or recreational activities such as swimming and sailing; notifications about new products; or the location and/or availability of other users. Many online courses utilize what is known as a learning management system (LMS) such as BlackBoard or Moodle, which provide such tools as calendars, chat rooms, discussion boards, quizzes, and other means for tracking information about student participation and learning. While Second Life itself does not offer these tools, Sloodle—a “flavor” of Moodle designed for Second Life—has been developed to facilitate use of SL for online courses. Sloodle is open-source, and free to users (who must supply their own servers). Sloodle includes a HUD to support blogging to the Sloodle web site, as well as some classroom gestures such as raising the hand, several in-world tools that link to the course database to facilitate enrollment and access, and a Chat Logger to synchronize chat discussions between the Moodle web site and SL itself. This has been used to allow teens to participate with adults in a discussion in which the teens are in the Teen section of SL and the adults are on the web. Simbiotic Translator V2 is a tool that allows users in SL to communicate via text with speakers of more than twenty languages. Volunteer docents on the International Society for Technology in Education (ISTE) island find the translator helpful when working with international educators. Worn as a HUD that works with local chat, Simbiotic
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Translator is available without charge. Our guess is that many different types of HUDs for educational use—including traditional instructional tools as well as applications that we cannot imagine today—will be developed over time. Various other specialized educational scaffolds are being developed. A variety of whiteboards that can display text (and be edited by participants) are available, as are pre-built science-fair-type display boards. Eloise Pasteur has developed the Spidergram Planner, which allows the creation of 3D bubble-charts or concept maps in SL, and an Assessment Tool that delivers multiple-choice quizzes to students. A complete classroom for up to 20 students is available as the EduBox, complete with a slide presentation screen, chairs, a filing cabinet that gives Notecards to students when it is touched, a tool for collecting comments, and a display table. Suffern Middle School in New York State has developed a set of classroom chairs, called Poinkey’s Pods, that facilitate quick 5-minute one-on-one conversations among a group of students. The Salamander Project seeks to create a webbased database of all educational materials—socalled “Learning Objects” (Wiley, 2000)—in Second Life. The Salamander Project uses a cataloging system similar to that of the MERLOT project, which catalogs learning objects on the Web (see http://www.merlot.org/). Interested participants can wear the Salamander HUD to mark locations and tools of interest to educators. The HUD automatically records the location in Second Life as the user chooses categories and tags to describe the object. See http://www.eduisland. net/salamanderwiki. To summarize, Second Life offers numerous scaffolds, or supports for learning, provided that instructors spend some time poking around, talking to other educators, and experimenting with the tools and resources that they find.
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Professional Development As we mentioned above, teacher learning is especially important in the arena of technology in education; since new tools and resources are developed at an increasingly rapid rate, no teacher can afford to stop learning about technology. SL offers numerous opportunities for such professional development. One extremely effective approach is to use Second Life to provide follow-up support and ongoing discussion for First Life events such as conferences or training sessions, or providing ongoing mentoring for new educators. SL can be used to provide access to experts, study groups, discussion groups, ongoing seminars, periodic presentations of lesson plans or best practices, examinations of student work, and shared viewing of streamed video. Of course, using SL or other technologies to support professional development does not remove the obligation to pay attention to best practices that have been developed for face-to-face activities (NSDC, 2001). As with other e-learning tools, SL will work best with educators who are “self-directed, motivated, and independent learners with some competence and comfort in computer literacy and navigation” (NSDC, 2001; p. 13). However, it can also be used to foster computer literacy, partly because it represents a fun and engaging environment that helps participants to get past their fear of computers. While most so-called professional development for teachers are one-shot workshops or institute days, the most effective professional development is ongoing and intensive, and linked explicitly to the teachers’ grade level and subject area. Just as in a face-to-face environment, effective professional development in Second Life will create many opportunities for learners to be active participants in authentic activities such as “teamwork, discussions, product and project development, research, reflection, demonstrations, and modeling” (NSDC, 2001; p. 5). Learning
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outcomes will not only include technology skills and subject-matter content but attitudes, aspirations, and behaviors as well (Ibid.; p. 6). New ways of thinking about professional development and the use of virtual worlds may be required to adequately affect some desired outcomes. Second Life educational groups could seek certification to offer continuing education units (CEUs) to educators in particular states, which might increase involvement. It is important at this point to acknowledge that learning does not take place only in environments that are formally created as learning environments such as classrooms or schools. Most learning occurs informally, in human conversation, imitation, collaboration, work, play, and social interaction. This is true even in formal educational institutions, where conversations in the hallways, offices, libraries, and between classes—conversations that have little if anything to do with the formal curriculum—result in learning many things that are important for the participants, including developing their sense of self, their use of language and idioms, manners, how to dress, and what others expect from you. Informal learning is usually learner-driven, problem-based, or motivated by interest, meaning that it shares many of the same attributes as meaningful learning (Ashburn, 2006), although it may not be as well-connected to academic content areas. Much informal learning takes place in the activity of “lurking” or “hanging out” in an environment. watching and listening, while not necessarily engaged in overt activity. Often, overt activities come later. Virtual environments such as Second Life encourage all types of informal learning; these opportunities should not be ignored when trying to decide how and whether to bring students into these environments (Cross et al, 2007). With appropriate planning, it is possible to design environments that are particularly conducive to informal learning. One example implemented by numerous organizations in Second Life is to create a space such as a café, bar, pool, or dance
club for participants to relax. Some examples are the pool on the roof of the Michigan Library Consortium (see Figure 5), the Jazz Cats dance club on Infotainment Island, and the fireplace and couches on VSTE Island. ISTE island includes a variety of informal environments—including campfires, tree houses, and dance floors for the weekly “Social Nights” on ISTE Island. Not only do these environments foster informal conversations, meeting new people, and sharing ideas and resources, they also provide an opportunity to practice navigation and communication skills in a low-stress situation. One central affordance of Second Life is support for the creation of teacher learning communities that give teachers access to other teachers’ expertise and provide “Ample opportunities for information interaction around technology issues” (Zhao et al., 2006; p. 175). While it may be best if learning communities are fostered within the local environment of each school, some schools will lack the depth of experience or expertise in their teaching staff to support teacher learning effectively. Second Life offers an excellent opportunity to build learning communities of teachers, whether these teachers are local to a particular educational institution or scattered all over the globe. Time for face-to-face or group interactions during the school day is limited; Second Life offers the possibility of coming together for collaboration and meetings in the evenings or at Figure 5. The pool on the roof of the Michigan Library Consortium
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other times that are convenient to the participants. For teachers who may be the only teacher of a particular subject at their local school—for example, the art teacher in an elementary school or a physics teacher at a small high school, Second Life offers the opportunity to come together with teachers with similar interests from a larger geographical area—even across continents or oceans. Some organizations providing access to SL learning communities for teachers include the Teacher Networking Center (TNC), the Discovery Education Network, and the Virtual Pioneers which tour builds or sims together that have historical or cultural significance. Be sure to check out the Curriculum Tower on International Schools Island, which includes three towers devoted to information, curriculum, and technology. On the bottom floor of the curriculum tower, for example, there is a basket of free “assessment goodies” including surveys and a pie chart maker. On the seventh floor, Shamblesguru Voom has assembled a wealth of information about SL sports. By clicking on these boards, you can receive folders with landmarks, Notecards, and
sometimes equipment, for activities like giant snail racing, hang gliding, bowling and soccer (see Figure 6). This island also conducts language classes involving an international clientele. As with other organizations mentioned in this section, International Schools Island has numerous other resources available; it’s best to find the island and look around. Don’t be afraid to ask questions!
What about the Practical Realities? The previous section outlined the many possibilities for meaningful learning afforded by Second Life, perhaps leading the reader to conclude that it is, in some sense, an educational nirvana. While we certainly intent to convey our enthusiasm for the many possibilities, it is important to recognize that there are many obstacles to the effective use of Second Life for education. This section outlines some of those obstacles. The first obstacle to the wider use of Second Life for education is the time commitment necessary to become comfortable in the environment. For more technologically experienced users or
Figure 6. International Schools http://slurl.com/secondlife/International%20Schools/68/18/84
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those familiar with gaming, this time commitment may be fairly short. The SL interface is similar in some ways to first-person video games such as Myst or Halo and to other online environments such as World of Warcraft. However, for people who have had little or no exposure to such programs, SL presents a somewhat steep learning curve, with a bewildering array of menus, panels, messages, objects, animations, and sounds; many users simply do not feel comfortable enough in their first exposure to the environment to ever return. Even instructional technology professors have found the use of SL for professional collaborations and discussion to be daunting! A second obstacle is the technological (hardware and software) requirements for successful use of SL. Many schools do not have up-to-date computers, with sufficient memory or graphics capabilities to run SL efficiently. Laptops, especially, if they date from 2005 or before, will most likely not be able to run SL. Also, if a whole class of students is using laptops and a wireless network, bandwidth may become a problem, resulting in significant lag (slowness with downloading changes in the environment), which can be either annoying or debilitating, depending on what the user is trying to do. To see if your computers meet the system requirements of SL, see http:// secondlife.com/corporate/sysreqs.php. The third major obstacle, and it is enormous, is age segregation. Second Life is currently available only for adults (through what is called the “Main Grid”) and teenagers (age 13-17, in an area known as the “Teen Grid” or “TSL”). TSL participants are automatically transported to the main grid on their 18th birthday. Students under the age of 13 are not allowed in Second Life, and are unlikely to be any time soon due to Linden Labs’ concerns about liability for what might happen to younger children. However, indications are that soon educational institutions will be able to set up their own Second Life servers, on their own networks, and so schools might choose to bring students of any age into the environment. If this
happens, many of the obstacles that we discuss in this section may be moot. The Teen Grid was created primarily as an entertainment venue for teenagers, and some of its features make it very difficult to use it effectively for educational purposes. Most of TSL is off-limits to adults, other than employees of Linden Labs. Adults may visit a few islands that are managed by educational organizations. However, adults who enter TSL—after a process that involves creating a new avatar and going through a criminal background check that can take many weeks—are limited to the island or islands of the particular educational project that has sponsored them, and they are prevented from communicating with adults or teens who are on other islands in TSL. This means that adult collaboration across educational projects must take place either on the Main Grid or via various listservs. Also, once an avatar has entered TSL, it becomes very difficult to obtain or get access to objects or tools that are available on the Main Grid. A process of collecting such requests and having them delivered from the main grid by new avatars that enter the teen grid is necessary. The creation of SL user accounts can currently be a bit of a chore for a number of reasons. We’ve mentioned the process that teachers who wish to enter TSL must go through. Also, while individual students can create their own accounts for TSL, when they do so, they have free range of the entire grid, which is not necessarily what schools will want for their students. Educational institutions can apply for multiple student accounts that are created all at once and are restricted to a particular island or group of islands, making them more suitable for purposes. In addition, some third-party vendors can set up bulk student accounts through a process known as “Registration API” because of the technology that makes it possible. Even when bringing a new group of teachers into the Main Grid, there may be issues. If a user tries to create new accounts on the same day from a given IP address range (as, for example,
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if they are gathered in a computer lab together for the purpose of getting introduced to SL), after 10 accounts are created, Linden Labs will automatically shut off any new account creation from that IP range. This means that accounts will need to be created in advance by the trainers or the participants. (This particular issue has been discovered by many a trainer only once he or she is in a lab with the people to be trained!) Many educational institutions employ filters and firewalls specifically designed to keep social networking sites such as blogs, Facebook, and Second Life out. The primary reason for these filters is federal legislation that requires schools to use filters. However, no legislation specifically requires that Second Life be filtered out of schools. In many school districts, however, the filter is taken as an absolute determiner of what is allowed and what is not. Even in those schools with procedures in place for adding sites to the “safe” list, it may not be simple technologically to allow Second Life to be used in the school. Without support from the director of technology and the technical support staff, teachers are going to find it very hard to use Second Life with their students, even in a limited way. Another factor that makes it difficult to sustain an institutional commitment to Second Life is that Linden Labs releases updates to the program periodically. While some of these updates are optional, a few are not; and the new version must be downloaded and installed before anyone can enter Second Life. This makes it impossible to put Second Life as part of an “image” that gets restored to lab computers each day (as many schools do, using programs such as Deep Freeze). Also, some updates introduce new features and/or changed menus or screens that can confuse users, and it certainly happens that new updates actually introduce new bugs into the system. Yet another aspect of Second Life that might get in the way of educators and librarians who wish to use it with students or for professional development is what has been called the “snicker
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factor” (Cunningham, 2007). Because Second Life is used primarily as an entertainment venue, and because much of the activity that takes place in Second Life is organized around dating, relationships, and sex, people who are not familiar with Second Life’s educational aspects often “snicker” when an educator tries to describe its educational value. It takes perseverance for an early adopter of SL to convince his or her colleagues to come into the world even once, let alone to make an institutional commitment to SL. Our guess is that this will continue to be the case until a critical mass of educators (beyond the early adopters of technologies) have experienced Second Life for themselves, or until enough anecdotal evidence of Second Life’s educational value is accumulated such that major public organizations (such as state-run virtual high schools or major school systems) make big investments.
Some Recommendations for Using Second Life effectively Perhaps the most important recommendation that we can make is that you introduce new users (students and teachers) to Second Life in a face-to-face computer lab situation where you can better assist them with getting acclimated to the world, demonstrate various techniques while talking about what you are doing, and immediately respond to any unexpected or unwelcomed eventuality. New users are often bewildered by the interface, and easily get disoriented or confused by other avatars in the world, by the expectations of Orientation Island, or by the different ways (keyboard, menus, mouse) to interact through the interface. Also, many users will be bothered by the delays in seeing things “rez,” or resolve on the screen (this delay is known as “lag”); you can reassure them that everything is working normally, and show them that lag varies by location. We also suggest that you have new users enter through ISTE. Beginners will “rez” meters away from ISTE Island Headquarters, where docents are on duty to
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assist. As new users walk up the pathway toward the HQ, they encounter bulletin boards with text, graphics, and video teaching them fundamental skills and providing encouragement. Once inside the HQ building, a resource room provides free items that educators will find useful in Second Life. This, coupled with the personal attention from friendly guides, makes ISTE Island a portal preferable to typical welcome centers. Many other outside organizations are developing their own orientation experiences that differ from the official Orientation Island. New users can pick these different experiences by selecting a “community” from the SL web site while they are setting up their avatar, or by registering for SL through the outside organization’s web site. Above, we mentioned the “snicker factor” as an obstacle to wider use of Second Life, particularly for educator professional development on the main grid. Even if early adopters are able to overcome the snicker factor and convince their colleagues to participate in Second Life, there are certain protective measures that must be adopted, especially if one is bringing educators into the main grid for teacher education or professional development. Among these are warning new users that if they stray beyond the particular islands or estates where educational activities take place (and even on some of those islands, on occasion), the users will see things such as scantily-clad or even naked avatars, provocative art, erotic dancing, and more, including activities that normally would only take place in very private First Life settings. Many first-time users of Second Life will find themselves appalled even at the “naked” avatars they see on Orientation Island, where new users are encouraged to experiment with their appearance and clothing and may be fumbling with the process of changing or putting on clothes. Also, when an avatar teleports into a new environment, he or she often sees avatars as gray “naked” forms, until their clothing “rezzes” or comes into view. A good practice is to provide every new user with a written disclaimer form that
emphasizes that the person advocating the use of Second Life cannot be held responsible for such events or for people’s reactions to them. (Believe us, we speak here from personal experience while bring my graduate students and various teacher groups into SL!) Keep in mind that while SL offers the possibility of building whatever you, your students, or a team together can imagine, in order to build something, you need to have a place to put it, which means renting or purchasing land. One alternative is to use one of the many Sandboxes in Second Life, which allow users to build things, and have them persist temporarily (usually everything is erased daily or weekly; see Figure 7). Sandboxes are a great way to encourage experimentation in building, and many Sandboxes also become social settings where builders encourage and assist each other in their work. Be warned! All sorts of things can happen in Sandboxes, including use of weapons and various other activities that may not be suitable for all audiences. Schools, districts, and other educational organizations that are ready to use SL to its fullest extent on an ongoing basis with teens will want to purchase their own estate, or island on the Teen Grid. Educational organizations interested in having an ongoing presence on TSL but not able or willing to make the financial and other commitments necessary to maintain an entire island have several options. They can partner with groups such as Global Kids and the Eye4You Alliance, bringing resources into the partnership and using those groups’ existing islands. Or, they can create a presence by buying a parcel on a new group of islands that has been developed specifically for educational groups called the Virtual World Campus, developed by FireSabre Consulting in partnership with Global Kids. The Virtual World Campus offers the possibility of true collaboration among various educational projects, because adult avatars will be able to communicate with adults from other projects on the islands, and teens will
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Figure 7. A popular sandbox for practicing building
be able to move between and participate in activities on different parcels. A final recommendation is that when designing activities for student learning, emphasize those activities that include interactivity, where students do something and then must assess and respond to the consequences of their actions. Such activities include watching and commenting, searching, linking, annotating, constructing, creating, and elaborating (Grabinger & Dunlap, 2002). Such “interactivity” and the reflectivity and self-awareness that is generated by it are a key affordances of learning environments that support meaningful learning, and building learning activities that facilitate interactivity is a key educational affordance of Second Life.
CONCLUSION Second Life offers educators a platform for creating dynamic learning environments that support meaningful learning in many different subjects. It will never replace First Life as the primary venue for education; after all, we humans spend most of
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our time in First Life, and the necessity of using our own bodies to move around, experiment, and interact will never be removed, no matter how advanced available technology becomes. However, as a venue for engaging, active participation in authentic, social, intellectually-challenging learning activities, Second Life offers enormous potential. We look forward to seeing how it’s used, and to hearing from you either in the second world, or the first.
TO LeARN mORe By far the best resource for obtaining specific information about the use of SL and other virtual worlds for education is the SimTeach wiki, available at http://www.simteach.com. The specific page for use of SL with teens is http://www.simteach.com/ wiki/index.php?title=Second_Life:_Educators_ Working_with_Teens. Linden Labs also offers an official information page for educators, at http:// secondlifegrid.net/programs/education. See also http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teen_Second_Life.
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Many groups offer classes in how to use SL. Some of these are free, while others will charge you a nominal fee. To find classes happening on any given day, do a search of “Events” and choose the category “Education.” It is useful to sit in on a few classes even if you already know the information or don’t really want to know it, because it allows you to see some of the ways that people are using SL for education. In other words, participate but also observe the teaching and learning that is going on, and think about how you might do it differently. If you need to find a tool or product such as a viewer for your classroom, a notecard reader, a translation device, or almost anything else, you can probably find it at https://www.xstreetsl.com/, a website that lets you shop on the web and deliver the items to your avatar in the world. Search for “education” or look in “Audio and Video” or Gadgets categories. Many educational technology groups have help for newcomers to Second Life. One of our favorites is Jokaydia’s Newbie Garden (http:// slurl.com/secondlife/jokaydia/153/161/22). Here Jokay Wollongong has gathered resources and help for new users. The Ivory Tower Library of Primitives helps teach SL users how to build using “prims,” or primitive objects, at http://slurl.com/secondlife/ Natoma/208/165/28. The building also provides an excellent example of how to use SL’s visuallyrich environment to teach hands-on skills. LSL, the scripting language used in SL, is well-explained in an introductory video available at http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aCwFeV_ Z88U. A great reference source on LSL syntax, including links to sample scripts, can be found at http://wiki.secondlife.com/wiki/LSL_Portal. A useful book on SL scripting has been written by Jeff Heaton; see http://www.heatonresearch. com/book/scripting-second-life.html. In-world examples are available here: http://slurl.com/secondlife/Encogia/201/201/26. You can find more
information about the Opinionator here: http:// slurl.com/secondlife/Tupi/147/149/303. Some ideas for using SL with teens have been collected by Kathy Schrock. They are available at http://nausetschools.org/lighthouselearning/2007/08/teen-grid-ideas-for-content-areas. html. Another list by Gxeremio can be found here: http://globalvirtual.blogspot.com/2007/06/ followup-from-presentation.html. To find a specific location in SL such as an island mentioned in this chapter, use the Search function under “Places.” If you cannot locate a place immediately, try using fewer words in the search, or a shortened form of the name. Alternatively, you can visit http://craigcunningham.com/ sl-affordances.htm for a list of SLURLs (links to specific locations in SL) relevant to this chapter. Also on that page, you can contact us with questions or suggestions.
ACkNOWLeDgmeNT The authors would like to thank the following people who made comments and suggestions on earlier drafts of this paper: Briana Allen, Cynthia Calogne, Ef Deal, Desdemona Enfield, Barbara Galik, Penny Lundquist, and Miriam Sweeney.
ReFeReNCeS Ashburn, E. A. (2006). Attributes of Meaningful Learning Using Technology (MLT). In Ashburn, E. A., & Floden, R. E. (Eds.), Meaningful Learning Using Technology: What Educators Need to Know and Do (pp. 8–25). New York: Teachers College Press. Barab, S., Thomas, M., Dodge, T., Carteaux, R., & Tazun, H. (2005). Making Learning Fun: Quest Atlantis, A Game Without Guns. Educational Technology Research and Development, 53(1), 86–107. doi:10.1007/BF02504859
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Bransford, J. D., Brown, A. L., & Cocking, R. R. (Eds.). (1999). How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School. Committee on Developments in the Science of Learning, Commission on Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education of the National Research Council. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. Collins, A., Brown, J. S., & Holum, A. (1991). Cognitive apprenticeship: Making thinking visible. American Educator (Winter),(pp. 6-11 and 38-46). Cross, J., O’Driscoll, T., & Trondsen, E. (2007). Another Life: Virtual Worlds as Tools for Learning. eLearn 44: March 22. Retrieved from http:// informl.com/2007/05/08/another-life-unexpurgated/ on July 1, 2009. Cunningham, C. A. (2007). The ELVEN Institute: Building the Educational Community in Second Life. Presented at the Second Life Community Conference in Chicago IL, August. Retrieved from http://craigcunningham.com/talks/Building k-12 Community.ppt on July 1, 2009 Daniels, H. (1994). Literature Circles: Voice and choice in the student-centered classroom. Markham: Pembroke Publishers Ltd. Driscoll, M. P. (2002). How People Learn (and What Technology Might Have To Do with It). ERIC Digest. Syracuse NY: ERIC Clearinghouse on Information and Technology. Retrieved from http://www.ericdigests.org/2003-3/learn.htm on December 8, 2007. Dusick, D. M. (1998). The Learning Effectiveness of Educational Technology: What Does That Really Mean? Educational Technology Review, 10, 10–12. Galas, C., & Ketelhut, D. J. (2006). River City, the MUVE. Learning and Leading with Technology, 33(7), 31–32.
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Grabinger, R. S., & Dunlap, J. C. (2002). Applying the REAL model to Web-based Instruction: An Overview. In ED-MEDIA 2002 World Conference on Educational Multimedia, Hypermedia, and Telecommunications Proceedings, Denver CO, June 24-29. Retrieved from http://www. eric.ed.gov/ERICDocs/data/ericdocs2sql/content_storage_01/0000019b/80/1b/17/e9.pdf on December 10, 2007. Grabinger, R.S., Dunlap, J.C., & Duffield, J. A. (1997). Rich environments for active learning in action. Problem-based learning in ALT-J, 5(2), 3-17. Haertel, G. D., & Means, B. (2003). Evaluating Educational Technology: Effective Research Designs for Improving Learning. New York: Teachers College Press. Johnston, M., & Cooley, N. (2001). What We Know About: Supporting New Models of Teaching and Learning Through Technology. Arlington, Va.: Educational Research Service. Jonassen, D. H., Peck, K. L., & Wilson, B. G. (1999). Learning with technology: A constructivist perspective. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Kleiman, G.M. (2000). Myths and realities about technology in K–12 schools. LNT Perspectives, 14. Lebow, D. (1993). Constructivist values for instructional systems design: Five principles toward a new mindset. Educational Technology Research and Development, 41(3), 4–16. doi:10.1007/ BF02297354 McLoughlin, C. (1999). Implications of the research literature on learning styles for the design of instructional material. Australian Journal of Educational Technology, 15(3), 222-241. Retrieved from http://www.ascilite.org.au/ajet/ ajet15/mcloughlin.html on December 15, 2007.
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Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind and society: The development of higher psychological processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
NSDC. (2001). E-Learning for Educators: Implementing the Standards for Staff Development. National Staff Development Council. Oxford, OH: Author. Palincsar, A. S., & Klenk, L. (1992). Fostering literacy learning in supportive contexts. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 25(4), 211–225. doi:10.1177/002221949202500402 Rayner, S., & Riding, R. (1997). Towards a categorisation of cognitive styles and learning styles. Educational Psychology, 17(1), 5–27. doi:10.1080/0144341970170101 Thompson, H. M., & Henley, S. A. (2000). Fostering Information Literacy: Connecting National Standards, Goals 2000, and the SCANS Report. Englewood, CO: Libraries Unlimited. US Department of Labor. (1990). Identifying and Describing the Skills Required by Work. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Labor. Retrieved from http://wdr.doleta.gov/SCANS/idsrw/ on December 10, 2007.
Wiley, D. A. (2000). Connecting learning objects to instructional design theory: A definition, a metaphor, and a taxonomy. In D. A. Wiley (Ed.), The Instructional Use of Learning Objects: Online Version. Retrieved from http://reusability.org/ read/chapters/wiley.doc on December 16, 2007. Wiske, M. S. (2006). Teaching for Meaningful Learning with New Technologies. In Ashburn, E. A., & Floden, R. E. (Eds.), Meaningful Learning Using Technology: What Educators Need to Know and Do (pp. 26–44). New York: Teachers College Press. Zhao, Y., Frank, K., & Ellefson, N. C. (2006). Fostering Meaningful Teaching and Learning with Technology: Characteristics of Effective Professional Development. In Ashburn, E. A., & Floden, R. E. (Eds.), Meaningful Learning Using Technology: What Educators Need to Know and Do (pp. 161–179). New York: Teachers College Press.
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Chapter 8
Learning in Virtual Worlds: A Situated Perspective Antonio Santos Universidad de las Américas Puebla, México
ABSTRACT Due to the availability of platforms like Second Life, the use of Multi-User Virtual Environments (MUVEs) for learning purposes is gaining in its adeptness around the educational realm. However, although it is a powerful technology with great possibilities for instructional purposes, we are still at the early phase of adoption and in need of a clearer understanding of how we learn within a virtual world. Particularly, we need to explore new and different ways of employing this technology to take advantage of its educational potential. Along these lines, this chapter’s main objective is to outline a set of instructional strategies framed within the situated learning paradigm to increase the quality of learning in a MUVE; and to recommend some research questions that could be used to validate the proposed instructional strategies. To accomplish this objective, first the situated learning paradigm and some of its more relevant influences will be reviewed; i.e. constructivism, Vygotsky’s theory, communities of practice, practice fields, learning communities and cognitive apprenticeship. Secondly, based on all these ideas, the instructional strategies and the recommended research questions will be presented; and finally, a conclusion and some future trends will be discussed.
INTRODUCTION At present, due to the availability of platforms like Second Life, the use of Multi-User Virtual Environments (MUVEs) for learning purposes is gaining in its adeptness around the educational DOI: 10.4018/978-1-61692-822-3.ch008
realm. However, Romiszowski (2008) warns us about forgetting the already learned lessons when designing learning experiences with these newly emerging technologies. He is referring to previous experiences with instructional software and multimedia, where expensive technologies were developed for learning low-level educational objectives like rote-memory or drill and practice;
objectives that can be accomplished through more cost-effective means. Frequently, innovations end up being used to do the same things that we have been doing with older technology. It appears that, except for some very interesting examples, this is still the case with open access virtual technologies; for instance, Dieterle and Clarke (2005) stated that, although multi-user virtual environments have been used for games, they are seldom used for significant teaching and learning experiences. Also, Berge (2008) found few innovative instructional uses for the virtual world Second Life and stated that it has been mostly used to replicate real life experiences. I agree with Richardson and MolkaDanielsen (2009) when they wrote that, although used extensively by educational institutions, we are still in an early phase of adaptation regarding technologies like Second Life. We are at a stage where we still need to better understand how we learn within a virtual world and to explore new and different ways to take advantage of the educational potential that these technological platforms have. Of similar opinion, Gunawardena et al. (2009) recently stated that we need new theoretical frameworks to explain learning and the type of social interactions made possible by the new technologies. Considering the previous arguments, this manuscript’s main objective is to outline a set of instructional strategies framed within the situated learning paradigm to increase the quality of learning in a MUVE; and to recommend some research questions that could be used to validate the proposed instructional strategies. The field of situated cognition is complex and uses different terminology; thus, an effort will be made in this paper to structure and clarify what we mean by situated learning. First, the Background will introduce the situated learning paradigm and some of its more relevant influences will be reviewed; i.e. constructivism, Vygotsky’s theory, communities of practice, practice fields, learning communities and cognitive apprenticeship. Secondly, based on
all these ideas, a group of instructional strategies and research questions will be presented; and finally, a conclusion and some future trends will be discussed.
BACkgROUND The Situated Learning Paradigm As can be inferred from its title, this manuscript considers that the situated perspective of human cognition is a valuable framework in which to analyze how students build knowledge interacting psychologically and physically within virtual worlds. This is so because the situated learning paradigm takes into consideration the social, cognitive, and contextual aspects of a learning situation. This theoretical frame of reference has been developed by a group of investigators over several decades and proposes a different perspective on the nature of human learning. To begin the discussion about this different perspective on the nature of human learning it is important to first bear in mind what Maturana and Varela (1987) assert regarding human cognition, a statement that I believe captures the essence of the situated learning paradigm and also enlightens why this paradigm is useful for studying virtual worlds that intend to simulate real life; they propose to see cognition “As an ongoing bringing forth of a world through the process of living itself.” (p. 11). This idea, clearly in line with constructivist propositions, is basically integrating knowing and doing, or, as the same authors eloquently put it with the aphorism: “All doing is knowing and all knowing is doing” (p.27). By depolarizing knowing and doing we are in fact focusing on the person and his or her context as a whole. Unfortunately, most of the educational processes happening around the world, be it in a regular classroom, a teacher’s training program or a corporate training unit, believe that these two can in fact be separated; just visualize for a
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moment a group of students passively receiving information in a classroom. In this traditional lecturing model of teaching, students are involved in activities and, of course, learning; however, the problem is that they end up building mostly inert and unused knowledge because the instructional methodology by which they are learning basically worries about what is learned, believes that content is context-independent, and therefore pays almost no attention to the situation in which the learning is taking place (Brown, Collins, & Duguid, 1989). For the situated learning perspective, learning that occurs in this way cannot be generalized to everyday situations outside the classroom (Hendricks, 2001). Resnick (1987) compares the learning practices in schools to how we use knowledge in context outside of schools and explains the existence of a big gap between the two, since outside of schools learning is contextualized and collaborative, while in schools it is characterized by students individually acquiring rather abstract information. This reflection is also relevant to educational virtual worlds and for this reason it is usually recommended that they are not built to merely replicate traditional unidirectional information transmission learning processes. As will be explained later in detail, they should be built, according to the situated learning paradigm, as online virtual worlds where communities of practice can flourish or as very carefully designed learning environments where learners engage in authentic learning practices; authentic in the sense that they simulate the problem solving activities of a community of practitioners. From a cognitive perspective, the situated learning paradigm basically claims that learning is intricately related to the practices and contexts where it happens given that all human thoughts are considered to be adapted to the context in which they happen (Clansey, 1997, as cited in Driscoll, 2000). In the same sense, Brown et al., (1989) explain, in their now seminal article, that knowledge is modified by the culture, the context and the activity in which it is built and used. Brown
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et al. see learning as a process of enculturation because one not only learns the content topics, but also the cultural aspects of the community of practitioners, as mathematicians or engineers, that created that content as their values, signs and symbols, or their tools and how they use them. On the other hand, from a more anthropological approach, situated learning is an “Attempt to rethink learning in social, cultural, and historical terms…” (Lave, 1991, p. 64). Specifically, in this view, learning is understood as active and sustained participation in a community of practice (Lave and Wenger, 1991; Wenger, 1998). Discussing these two perspectives in situated cognition studies, i.e., anthropological and cognitive, Wilson and Meyers (2000), echoing the traditional division between anthropology and psychology (Shore, 1996), make a distinction between the work done by anthropologists like Jean Lave who have a more cultural view and consider that “Knowing, learning, and cognition are social constructions, expressed in the actions of people interacting within communities [italics added].” (p. 59); and the work done by cognitive researchers as Allan Collins and John Seeley Brown who study situated cognition at the individual and social levels. Also, Barab and Duffy (2000) make a distinction between the anthropological approaches of learning as participation in a community of practice, and a more psychological and educational approach, which is more concerned about learning in school contexts and, thus, speak of practice fields and learning communities. In spite of the different points of view, these perspectives have contributed to fundamental concepts for the situated perspective of learning. Therefore, to better understand the situated learning paradigm and how its theoretical underpinnings can be used to develop MUVEs, in the following sections both the anthropological concept of community of practice and the more psychological concepts of practice fields, learning communities and cognitive apprenticeship will be reviewed. However, before entering into the analysis of these con-
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cepts, two fundamental influences of the present situated learning paradigm will be reviewed; constructivism and Vygotsky’s theory. The aim is to structure a theoretical frame of reference to better understand some of the fundamental tenets of the situated learning paradigm. In this way, the instructional strategies for the development of a learning MUVE, proposed later, will be more clearly grounded in theory.
Three Types of Constructivism Although numerous perspectives of constructivism do exist; in general, research categorizes them into individual and social constructivism. Individual constructivism, referred to also as cognitive constructivism (Woo & Reeves, 2007), was influenced by the studies of Jean Piaget and strives to understand the cognitive process of individuals when building knowledge. While social constructivism linked to the works of the Russian psychologist Vygotsky, focuses on the social construction of knowledge (Sharma et al, 2005), McGregor (2007) identifies a third theory of learning closely related to constructivism, which she considers to be more sociocultural and emerged from extending the ideas of the mentioned Russian researcher. This sociocultural view basically considers learning as increasing participation in cultural practices. The situated learning paradigm and theme of this chapter is considered to be related to both the social and the more sociocultural perspectives, although it has been more developed under the latter. In an effort to structure this rather complex area of research, this paper will group the sociocultural perspective as a third type of constructivism because, as Driscoll (2000) states, some situated cognition works have been classified as constructivist. Besides, while there are differences between the constructivist and the situated fields of study, they do share many similar conceptualizations as will become clear in this background section; for instance, both propose that “knowledge is situated
through experience.” (Barab & Duffy, 2000, p. 25). Although this categorization of three types of constructivism is, no doubt, debatable, I find it valuable in structuring the background section of this manuscript. The situated learning paradigm has profound roots in socio-constructivism and flourished under the sociocultural approach. Accordingly, this paper will first review some of the basic ideas of Vygotsky regarding the social aspects of knowledge, and thereafter some more sociocultural concepts, like communities of practice and apprenticeship, will be analyzed.
Vygotsky’s Theory To understand the situated learning paradigm it is essential to review one of its main influences, the scientific work done by the Russian psychologist Lev S. Vygotsky and his colleagues during the first quarter of the 20th century. For Vygotsky, our higher psychological abilities originate in our social processes (Wertsch, 1985); thus, for him, learning was first social and then individual. He believed that it is very important “To consider social and human factors as they mediate the development of human intellectual capabilities.” (Driscoll, 2000, p. 242). Vygotsky did not envision humans as mere receptors of data, but as permanent builders, through social interaction, of both their social milieu and its inner representations. This is why, in accordance with the socialist ideas of his time, Vygotsky thought that it was better to use social activity as the basic unit of analysis to understand the development of human mental abilities. Hence, most of the research based on the Vygotskian assumptions about cognition uses the dynamic relationship between the group and its context as its unity of analysis. This is also why instructional designers, working with this perspective, mainly focus on creating learning situations within rich contexts where participants can engage in collaborative activities.
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Vygotsky also gave special emphasis to the role of language and its influence on thinking. For him, “language is perceived as an instrument or tool of thought, not just providing a “code” or system for representing the world (as Piaget perceived), but a way of transforming how children learn, think and understand.” (McGregor, 2007, p. 55). Therefore, socio-constructivist learning activities very often employ teaching strategies where students are asked to verbalize their inner thoughts. The assumption is that during verbalization learning is being created. For instance, students are constantly encouraged to converse with others to express their ideas so that they have the opportunity to share, negotiate and modify their personal comprehensions. A key factor to understand Vygotsky’s assumptions about learning is the concept of zone of proximal development (ZPD). This concept emerged from his belief that assessing someone’s actual level of mental development was not as important as identifying his or her potential for future development. He was interested in how children would increase their already achieved level of cognitive development by engaging in activities with other children within a certain situation. For this, he built the concept of zone of proximal development to propose that “what children can do with the assistance of others might in some sense be even more indicative of their mental development than what they can do alone.” (Vygotsky, 1978, p. 85). Accordingly, learning experiences, based on the ZPD concept, stress the importance of students engaging in collaborative activities (usually problem solving activities) where students have the opportunity to interact with more knowledgeable others; thus, peer-to-peer and teacher-to-peer mentoring are promoted. In particular, from the ZPD perspective, the mediation of the teacher, as a more skilled member, is believed to be essential; what is looked for is not to have a teacher as a mere transmitter of information, but rather as a provider of a scaffolding structure to support students’ learning. This scaffolding structure can be
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supplied by the teacher using strategic questions and constant coaching. Jones and Bronack (2007, p. 93) present and discuss a list of what they call principles of social constructivist learning, which I think concretize rather aptly the Vygotskian theory (although they also include some more sociocultural concepts): 1. 2. 3.
4.
5.
Knowledge is created and maintained through social interactions; Learning is participatory where students take an active role; Development proceeds through stages and among more-and less-experienced peers within a community of practice [this concept of “community of practice” is central in sociocultural constructivism]; A specific and general knowledge base emerges from learning through meaningful activity with others; Learners develop dispositions relative to the community of practice. (p. 93)
Nowadays, some of the socio-constructivist concepts discussed so far sound common to us; however, in his day, Vygotsky’s ideas were highly original. In fact, he was trying to propose an alternative to the reductionist posture of the behaviorist theories that prevailed in the psychological world of his time like Pavlov’s classical conditioning. Through most of his work, Vygotsky’s interest was in the mediation of social interaction in psychological development; however, near the end of his rather short life, he was starting to expand his views to include cultural aspects as well (Minick, 1997). Many lines of thought have developed from his ideas focusing more on the social, cultural and historical aspects and how they influence learning, like situated learning, communities of practice and apprenticeship. In the next sections of this paper it will become clearer how Vygotsky’s concepts have influenced the development of the situated learning paradigm.
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Communities of Practice For the anthropological approach to the situated cognition theory, “Knowing is not merely an individual experience, but one of exchanging and contributing to the knowledge of a community” (Wenger, 2004, p. 1). Lave and Wenger (1991), studying the sociocultural practices of communities, proposed the process of legitimate peripheral participation to describe how learners become members of a community of practitioners. The process characterized by newcomers: 1) moving spirally from peripheral to full participation; 2) developing an identity as a member of the community while learning; and 3) interacting with older community members in an interdependent way, i.e. newcomers wishing to learn and old-timers looking to sustain the community of practice (Lave, 1991). The concept community of practice is a key idea in a social theory of learning, as proposed by Wenger (1998), who regards learning as social participation and assumes four premises: 1. 2.
3.
4.
We are social beings. Far from being trivially true, this fact is a central aspect of learning. Knowledge is a matter of competence with respect to valued enterprises [italics added], such as singing in tune, discovering facts, fixing machines, writing poetry, being convivial, growing up as a boy or a girl, and so forth. Knowing is a matter of participating in a pursuit of such enterprises, that is, of active engagement in the world [italics added]. Meaning- our ability to experience the world and our engagement with it as meaningful- is ultimately what learning is to produce. (p. 4)
The posture is that learning is not just what happens inside the four walls of a classroom, but something that happens during our involvement in our day to day living. Throughout this daily process, we naturally tend to become part of those
groups of people that are solving the problems that, in one way or another, are also of importance to us. Thus, we become interested in participating in their activities to learn with and from them and as a result we engage in all sorts of collaborative situations and practices. This practice is what “Gives structure and meaning to what we do.” (Wenger, 1998, p. 47) and serves as the mediator to give coherence to the community. Wenger (with Snyder, 2000, p. 139) defines communities of practice as “Groups of people informally bound together by shared expertise and passion for a joint enterprise.” For him (1998), practice is the source of coherence in a community in three dimensions: 1) mutual engagement of participants in collaborative actions, whose meanings are negotiated and that define the community; 2) a joint enterprise that gives coherence to actions and keeps the community together. The enterprise is mutually negotiated, forms during practice and is used for mutual accountability; and 3) a shared repertoire of activities, symbols, tools, ways of doing things, etc. that the community has created and owns to pursue their negotiated enterprise. Considering these dimensions, according to Wenger (et al., 2002; 2004) a community of practice must have three characteristics: 1) domain, members share a common domain of interest, which define their basic identity as a community, and strive to become more and more competent in it, valuing, as a group, their achieved level of competence; 2) community, members engage in mutual activities and discussions that allow them to share information and learn from each other; and 3) practice, members are active practitioners that, after time and through sustained joint practice, develop a shared information base formed with common stories, the way they solve their problems, what tools and how they use them, symbols they favor, etc. This community of practice theoretical framework has been extensively used in research. In particular, due to the important development and proliferation that information and communication technologies (ICT) have had, there has been
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a particular interest in using the community of practice related concepts as the theoretical base for studying or developing virtual communities of practice. For example, Rogers (2000) investigated if the interactions among the participants in an online workshop showed the characteristics that Wenger (1998) had stated as essential for a community of practice; that is, mutual engagement, shared repertoire, and joint enterprise. He proved that the three characteristics were present and, as a conclusion, proposed some principles for educators to develop communities: 1) considering the mutual engagement dimension, he suggests to structure activities to take advantage of the learners’ previous knowledge and experience and to foster learners to assume a central and active role; 2) considering the joint enterprise dimension, he suggests activities where students negotiate ways to achieve a certain goal like how to solve a problem, also activities where different viewpoints and reflection are encouraged and different forms of participation are allowed, and 3) considering the shared repertoire dimension, he suggests that more knowledgeable members of the community help students to understand the ways that things are done in the community in addition to its values, identities and roles. More recently, Koch and Fusco (2008) parting from the premise that a virtual community of practice cannot be designed per se, proposed a three phase approach (Getting Started, Modeling and Scaffolding, and Maturing) to help existing communities of practice become virtual communities of practice. The aim is to let a virtual community of practice evolve naturally by allowing a dynamic exchange between its social and technological aspects; although, they recommend considering the social aspects first. They also propose a group of ten elements that must be present in an online community of practice, which I found very relevant to the objective of the present chapter. Paraphrasing Koch and Fusco (2008), their guiding principles are: 1) members have ways to share their understanding and level of commitment to a
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specific practice; 2) members’ identities remain constant so that all know with whom are they dealing and feel safe to do it; 3) members have forms to share information and ideas; 4) members can form smaller groups within a community of practice; 5) members interact using tools and artifacts in an environment that is appropriate for their goals; 6) members know who belongs to the community of practice and who does not; 7) members have forms to exchange and negotiate knowledge, support, goods, services and ideas; 8) members identify with the community, they know what other members are doing and can express their preferences and opinions; 9) new and old members can develop, reproduce, and review the community’s cultural artifacts, norms, and values; and 10) members, through their practices, can help the community of practice to evolve. In another study, reviewing the theoretical underpinnings of 3D online social environments, Jones and Bronack (2007) state that discourse and interaction are basic elements in this type of learning environment and propose three roles that some members must have to foster it: 1) the question-asking person: members can ask questions to open communication from simple greetings to more content centered questions to focus learners attention; 2) the information person: teachers and facilitators can provide expert advice and consultations, but also peers can share more general information first and, after some time, become the experts themselves; and 3) the support person: some members are always ready to handle other members’ problems, especially regarding those administering the technical aspects that affect the functionality of the environment.
Practice Fields Considering a more psychological, educational and instructional view of the situated cognition theory, Barab and Duffy (2000) state that, in this approach, the unit of analysis is the situated activities of learners and, as opposed to didactic
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teaching, “The goal shifts from the teaching of concepts to engaging the learner in authentic tasks that are likely to require the use of those concepts or skills.” (p. 30). This approach has been trying to find ways to teach traditional school content using situated pedagogies like the use of learning environments where students solve real world problems. The authors use the concept of practice fields (as proposed by Sange, 1994, cited by Barab & Duffy, 2000) and define it as learning environments where students “Can practice the kind of activities they will encounter outside of schools.” (p. 30). They propose a series of eight principles for the design of practice fields: 1) doing domain-related practices, learners should be actively engaged in authentic domain-related practices, such as finding a cure for a real life disease; 2) ownership of the inquiry, learners should be motivated by feeling the problem as their own and by allowing them to create their own solutions; 3) coaching and modeling of thinking skills, the role of the teacher must be to coach and model the problem solving process; 4) opportunity for reflection, learners should have ample opportunities to think on why and what they are doing in the field of practice; 5) dilemmas are ill-structured, learners should engage in ill-defined problems so that they can build their own problem frames and, in this way, own the problem and the solutions; 6) support the learner rather than simplify the dilemma, learners should face complex, challenging real work problems, and be given the necessary support to solve them; 7) work is collaborative and social, learners should discuss and negotiate ideas with others to modify their own understanding; and 8) the learning context is motivating, because learners solve the diverse problems of many communities, their context should be described in a way that engages students.
Learning Communities Concurrent to this concept of practice fields, other authors like the Cognition and Technology Group
at Vanderbilt (1990) and Bielaczyc and Collins (1999) talk of learning communities in classrooms, which is also a more grounded idea linked to the type of learning practices that happen in a school. A learning community is defined by Bielaczyc and Collins (1999) as a “culture of learning in which everyone is involved in a collective effort of understanding.” (p. 271). The authors state that a learning community must have four characteristics: “(a) diversity of expertise among its members, who are valued for their contributions and given support to develop, (b) a shared objective of community advancing the collective knowledge and skills, (c) an emphasis on learning how to learn, and (d) mechanisms for sharing what is learned.” (p. 272). They also propose that the activities that the members of a community of learning perform together should be a way for: “(a) both individual development and collaborative construction of knowledge, (b) sharing knowledge and skills among members of the community, and (c) making learning processes visible and articulated.” (p. 274). Although Bielaczyc and Collins (1999) are more interested in school learning, in these ideas presented by them it is possible to see the influence of the anthropological approach of communities of practice discussed previously. They are adding two relevant ideas that facilitate the application of situated learning ideas in a learning situation; i.e., the importance of having communities formed by learners with different levels of expertise (remember Vygotsky’s concept of ZPD) and the emphasis on the development of the metacognitive ability of learning how to learn.
Cognitive Apprenticeship A common criticism of the situated learning paradigm has been that there is not an accepted teaching model based on this paradigm (Hendricks, 2001); however, it is important to highlight that many of the efforts made to develop and test a situated learning pedagogy which can be applied to regular learning experiences have started from
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making an analogy between the master-apprentice relationship with the teacher-student relationship (Jarvela, 1994). Actually, the concept of apprenticeship appears in both the anthropological and cognitive approaches of situated cognition. On the one hand, Lave and Wenger (1991) speak of learners as apprentices when discussing their dynamic process of communities of practices and express that “Learning through apprenticeship was a matter of legitimate peripheral participation.” (p. 30). On the other, Brown, Collins, and Duguid (1989) emphasize the concept of cognitive apprenticeship and instructional methods inspired in the type of learning happening in craft workshops. In these workshops, as traditional sword making or mason workers in Mexico, apprentices model ways of thinking and solving problems by observing advanced experts perform and by engaging in coached authentic practices so that they can also become experts one day. Thus, using this process of apprenticeship in a craft organization as a metaphor, the main purpose behind the apprenticeship instructional strategies is to allow students to embed themselves in real world scenarios in which they perform authentic activities and social interactions that emulate those done by real life practitioners. In this way students can have some of the benefits of how knowledge is built in the workplace, i.e., solving authentic problems and receiving constant guidance and reinforcement (Kerka, 1997, as cited by Brill, Kim, & Galloway, 2001). Coming from the cognitive approach, Collins, Brown and Newman (1989), in their extensively cited article, describe a more organized framework around the cognitive apprenticeship concepts. This cognitive apprenticeship framework has been developed and tested and is considered to be a prescriptive methodology for teaching (Casey, 1996). Their methodology uses Lave and Wenger´s concepts of apprenticeship and legitimate peripheral participation; although, they are not proposing to build communities of practice, as such, at schools, they are more inter-
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ested in using apprenticeship methods to develop specific cognitive skills in students. Collins et al. (1989) affirms that schools ignore, when designing their programs and teaching methodologies, how experts think when they carry out complex tasks outside the schools; a situation that causes students to end up learning mostly inert knowledge with poor transfer possibilities outside the classroom. For example, during history courses students memorize long lists of dates, events, names and places, but very seldom engage in the type of activities that historians do, like inquiring and debating the claims of traditional historical interpretations (Wiley and Ash, 2005). To solve this problem, the authors propose the cognitive apprenticeship methodology to foster students’ learning of expert practices. Particularly, they were interested in supporting the teaching and learning at schools of higher order cognitive and metacognitive abilities because these are the mental resources more commonly employed by experts to solve problems in domains as reading, writing and mathematics. The central instructional strategy employed by the cognitive apprenticeship methodology is based on allowing students to engage in realistic problem solving and task performing, i.e., in situating learning. The cognitive apprenticeship model proposed by Collins, Brown and Newman (1989) represents a very well organized effort to ground situated learning ideas, thus, it is useful for the objectives of the present chapter to analyze it closely. The model is organized around four main groups of strategies and 18 sub-strategies to build a learning environment (See Table 1). Over several years, a number of studies have been using and evaluating the cognitive apprenticeship model; for example, Jarvela (1994) applied the model to develop a technologically rich learning environment to promote problem solving skills in 7th grade students. Her research interest was to analyze the student-teacher and studentstudent interactions. She found that the models’ basic strategies, modeling, scaffolding and fading
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Table 1. The cognitive apprenticeship model I) Content Strategies for fostering not only the learning of conceptual, factual and procedural content, but also the learning of how experts use that knowledge to solve authentic problems. The model identifies four categories of expert knowledge that should be present in a learning environment. 1. Domain Knowledge: 2. Problem-solving and heuristic strategies:
Conceptual, factual and procedural subject matter content. Techniques and know-how developed by experts through the practice of solving problems and carrying out tasks.
3. Control strategies:
Knowing how to select the appropriate problem solving strategy depending on the problem at hand.
4. Learning strategies:
Learning how to learn.
II) Method Strategies to promote students first observing experts performing in context and then allowing them to practice so that they can discover the strategies used by those experts. 1. Modeling:
Expert performs a task or solves a problem that students observe so that they can build a conceptual model of that process.
2. Coaching:
Giving hints, feedback or scaffolding when observing students performing a task or solving a problem so that they can get closer and closer to becoming experts.
3. Scaffolding:
Support that the teacher provides during the students’ learning process, like questions, suggestions, showing how to do it, etc. Should be faded (gradually removed) as students progress.
4. Articulation:
Students demonstrate what they have learned of the different types of expert knowledge.
5. Reflection:
Students compare their performance against other peers and the expert.
6. Exploration:
Students are encouraged and assisted to pursue new problems that could be of interest to them.
III) Sequencing Strategies to design an appropriate sequencing of activities to accommodate the students’ different stages of skills learning. 1. Increasing complexity:
Students learn a complex skill by learning simpler skills first and then gradually increasing their complexity.
2. Increasing diversity:
Students apply the learned skills to diverse tasks, problems, and contexts.
3. Global before local skills:
Students solve, carefully scaffolding their performance, global problems that require the application of skills not fully learned yet. In this way students first build a conceptual model of the overall activity.
IV) Sociology Strategies to build a social organization within the environment so that students can solve problems embedded in an experts’ simulated culture. 1. Situated Learning:
Within the learning environment, students apply their acquired knowledge in contexts similar to the ones where they would be applying it in the future.
2. Culture of expert practice:
Students participate in a culture of expert practice created by the learning environment. The aim is that they end up thinking as the experts do.
3. Intrinsic motivation:
Students solve realistic problems within the culture of expert practice, which fosters their intrinsic motivation as opposed to being extrinsically motivated with grades.
4. Exploiting cooperation:
Students solve problems collaboratively, which helps foster the social construction of knowledge.
5. Exploiting competition:
Student groups compare how they solve a certain problem with other groups.
increased the quality of the cognitive and metacognitive abilities of the task-oriented students; however the non-task oriented students were not capable of becoming independent of the social support during the fading stage. In another study done by Hendricks (2001) he compared the use
of the model of cognitive apprenticeship with a more traditional lecture type instructional design to teach the topic of causality to 7th grade students. His results showed that students using the situated instruction method learned significantly more than the students using the lecture method. He
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was not, however, able to show that the newly learned knowledge could transfer to other learning contexts. More recently, Seo, Byk, and Collins (2009) wrote a paper on how to apply the apprenticeship methodology to design 3D online educative simulations; they were interested in finding more user-centered, interactive and flexible ways to build online learning environments. They acknowledged that the dynamics of new technologies call for a different conceptualization of cognitive apprenticeship, mainly because the virtual world allows students to take into their own hands much of what used to be part of the teacher’s responsibility. For instance, in a learning environment built in a virtual world, like Second Life, learners are more producers than consumers of information. The authors present a series of tables where they list specific instructional recommendations according to all of the strategies proposed by the Collins et al. (1989) model of cognitive apprenticeship (for the complete list see Seo, Byk, & Collins, 2009).
community. Examples of this type of MUVE that could be developed in a school would be: a virtual learning environment where teachers learn how to integrate technology in their teaching practices; a community to learn about global warming; or a MUVE where students exchange ideas about current national and local politics. A type 1 MUVE can be built considering the following strategies: •
INSTRUCTIONAL STRATegIeS Three Types of mUVes According to the theoretical discussion presented in the Background, this paper identifies three types of MUVEs, based on the situated learning paradigm, that can be built and used as teaching tools: 1) MUVEs based on the community of practice concepts; 2) MUVEs based on the cognitive approach; and 3) MUVEs that combine both approaches. Type 1. Taking into consideration the anthropological ideas around the concept of community of practice, a MUVE can be built to create an online community of practice and sustain its existence over time. Its main objective would be to promote mostly social learning experiences embedded in a constant dynamic exchanging of ideas so as to contribute to the knowledge of the
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•
•
The MUVE should declare explicitly the common domain of interest around which the community of practice will be started and that will give coherence to the practices and actions performed by its members. This common domain of interest would be expected to naturally change along with the practices that the community members engage in. For example, first a community of practice for teachers could be declared as having the common interest of learning how to integrate technology into their teaching practices; however, after a while, teachers, through their mutual activities and interests, might modify it to learning how to apply a constructivist view to the integration of technology. During their learning experiences within the MUVE, members engage in collaborative activities, which include negotiations, discussions, processes of reflectionin-action, and the sharing of relevant and pertinent information. During this process, members should feel free to propose different viewpoints and ways to perform activities and solve problems. The MUVE should have members that act as question-asking persons, members that provide guidance and consultation, and members that give administrative and technical support (Jones and Bronack, 2007). At the start of the community of practice these services can be provided by experts, teachers, and assistants. Over time other members could and should assume these
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•
•
•
roles. For example, the teacher that is promoting the creation of a certain community can hold a general meeting at an auditorium in a virtual world like Second Life where she proposes some relevant questions regarding the communities domain of interest and explains where pertinent information can be found. Her assistants can be available for guidance and consultations and also act as administrators. The MUVE should include the necessary resources so that members can build and maintain their new community of practice. Particularly, the virtual environment should provide different communication technologies so that members can engage in collaborative practices, share information and ideas, and know and trust all members’ identities. In a virtual world like Second Life the in-world avatars can communicate synchronously via chat or voice, but also asynchronously vie e-mail, discussion forums, etc. The MUVE must offer carefully designed virtual areas where members can interact. The MUVE should include technological resources so that members can document their practices and, in this way, be able to build a common information base that can be consulted by other members and other communities. In Second Life there are several ways that this can be accomplished, for example members can store a set of note cards in their inventory library, they can also store those note cards in objects specially developed for that purpose, or they can create Blogs and Wikis where they can store and share their produced information. The MUVE should respect and value the different types of social roles that members naturally assume within a community of practice. Newcomers should be allowed to participate in the process of legitimate peripheral participation interacting with old-
•
•
timers so as to learn with and from them. These roles can change over time. The MUVE should encourage members to set their own goals and identify a possible course of action to achieve them. The formation of smaller groups should be allowed, hence, it should provide the appropriated virtual environments, tools and technologies for these subgroups so that these smaller groups can meet and engage in their own activities. The MUVE should encourage members to remain as active participants of the community of practice for as long as they feel necessary to achieve their personal learning goals. Thus, administrators of the MUVE should plan in advance how they would support the community, technically and economically, over time.
Type 2. Taking into consideration the ideas related to the cognitive approach of the situated learning paradigm, like the cognitive apprenticeship model, a MUVE can be built with the main objective of promoting the development of higher order cognitive skills in students by collaboratively interacting within a simulated environment where students acquire information, values and behaviors of the culture of a certain professional community. Examples of this type of MUVE that could be developed in a school would be: a MUVE that simulates a publishing company, where students enter to develop critical thinking abilities through reading and writing; a virtual environment simulating a chemical plant where engineering students solve problems through designing virtual industrial robots; or a MUVE where students form part of a team of geographers and have to solve ecological problems through doing urban analyses. A type 2 MUVE can be built considering the following strategies: •
The MUVE should be developed to simulate the culture and context where a certain
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•
•
•
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professional community of practitioners performs their everyday problem solving activities. For example, a construction company is designed and built in a virtual world where engineers build and test prototypes of bridges. The main objective for a student within a MUVE must be to solve problems collaboratively and not to just learn content. In this sense, information is considered to be another resource, without doubt necessary to solve a problem, but it is regarded as a means to an end and not the end in itself. From the beginning, students are informed of their problem solving mission within the MUVE and that pertinent information resources are available. For instance, the environment can have a local library with text materials and also offer links to outside resources. As part of the instructional practices within the MUVE, teachers and assistants should model the professional practices that the apprentices are expected to learn. For example, in a nurses training MUVE, the teacher can form a team of nurse apprentices to visit a patient in a virtual hospital and during the whole process of analysis of symptoms and diagnosis she explains in detail her thought process (thinking aloud). These practices can be filmed, using the so called machinimia techniques for making movies in a virtual world, and stored so that students can review them when necessary. The MUVE should allow students to practice realistic problem solving tasks that characterize the system of activities of the professional community of practitioners being simulated. During the students’ first attempts, teacher and assistants constantly supervise the apprentices’ different performances giving the necessary coaching and feedback; but, as students become more
•
•
expert, they should gradually retire these supervisory actions. For example, in the nursing example, during patient visits in an in-world virtual hospital, apprentices are asked to orally articulate their thought process (thinking aloud) and their reasons behind a possible diagnosis and treatment. In this way the teacher and assistants can coach and scaffold the students’ performance in real time. Students can also receive differed feedback submitting their solutions and their explanations in written form by uploading them to a certain Blog. Also, as part of the scaffolding structure, the in-world environment can have tools and objects with relevant content attached to them that could support the students’ learning process. The MUVE should allow apprentices the freedom to perform differently in the virtual learning environment according to their place in an apprentice-expert continuum (A ------- E) at any point in time. Their position depending on: 1) their previous knowledge at the moment of starting the learning process; 2) the type of problem at hand; and 3) the experience/knowledge accumulated during the actual learning in the MUVE. It is expected for the students to gradually move towards the expert side of the continuum. The virtual learning environment should promote reflection-in-action activities during the whole learning experience. During the different learning experiences students should be: 1) asked questions regarding their own learning processes, for example they can be directly asked: How are you learning? In this way they learn about learning; 2) encouraged to compare their own performance with their teacher’s and peers’ performances. In this way they can
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•
•
clearly see where they are in their own learning process. The MUVE should offer the necessary technological resources so that teams and individual students can store their co-generated information to share with the rest of the students. These information storages should be open for everybody in the MUVE so that co-construction of knowledge can be continued. The MUVE can have formal evaluation processes where information is given to the working teams or the individual students explaining how they are performing within the MUVE. Evaluation should be done during the whole process of learning. Evaluation reports can be given without leaving the simulation’s theme, for example the chief scientist can send evaluation reports to his employees in a research facility; or a sort of in-world fair can be organized where students can display posters, snapshots and products so that they can receive evaluation comments from teachers and assistants as well as from their peers.
Type 3. A MUVE can be developed using a combination of both approaches to the situated learning paradigm. In this case, the task for the instructional designers becomes how to better combine the instructional strategies stated previously for MUVES type 1 and 2. For example, a MUVE can be developed having a rather general objective of offering teacher training, but be organized in such a way that it can, on the one hand, offer teachers the possibility of learning certain teaching skills and, on the other, offer the necessary resources so that groups of teachers can develop different communities of practice, that can continue over time, to learn more about some special interest and refine their teaching practices.
ReSeARCH QUeSTIONS Although the previous instructional strategies were abstracted from literature, we still need to further investigate how they can be applied, combined and improved. In this sense, in the present section, some relevant research questions will be presented and discussed that could contribute to the validation of the proposed instructional strategies and also to answer the general question: how does learning occur when learning in an educational virtual world? Even though many research designs can be employed to investigate these questions, the use of the Design-Based Research approach is useful because it is important that we not only evaluate and refine the MUVE itself, but also improve the theoretical background in which it is supported. This research approach is appropriate to understand how learning occurs in a MUVE because it has been developed from the premise that context affects learning. Using quantitative and qualitative methods, its objective is to understand how a design works in practice (Dede et al., 2004). The Design-Based Research approach strives “To lay open and problematize the completed design and resultant implementation in a way that provides insight into the local dynamics.” (Barab & Squire, 2004, p. 8). van den Akker et al. (2006) state that design-based research is characterized as: • •
•
•
Interventionist: the research aims at designing an intervention in the real world; Iterative: the research incorporates a cyclic approach of design, evaluation, and revision; Process oriented: a black box model of input-output measurement is avoided, the focus is on understanding and improving interventions; Utility oriented: the merit of a design is measured, in part, by its practicality for users in real contexts; and
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•
Theory oriented: the design is (at least partly) based upon theoretical propositions, and field testing of the design contributes to theory building. (p. 5)
Using the design-based research approach, a process for the development of an educational MUVE can be created where the iteration characteristic is underscored (See Figure 1). Reflecting on the previously proposed instructional strategies, some relevant research questions can be suggested. Although the design-based research approach can make use of quantitative and qualitative methods to recollect data, a more systemic and qualitative approach is recommended bearing in mind the social aspects of the situated learning paradigm and that learning in a MUVE is a rather complex process. Thus, the
following research questions are stated in a way that could be more appropriate for a qualitative study, for instance, they avoid conjecturing about possible cause and effect relationships.
For the Communities of Practice Approach •
•
•
Figure 1. Development process for an educational MUVE
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How does the declared domain of interest vary during the learning process in a community of practice? In terms of negotiation, discussion, reflection, and information co-creating and sharing, how well does the collaborative participation among members function? What is the quality of the interactions avatars-avatars and avatars-resources within the virtual environment?
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•
• •
•
How is the social process during task performing and problem solving affected by the community members? How do the different social roles that members take vary during the learning process? Over time, how is the process of legitimate peripheral participation created for newcomers? How is the students’ motivation during the learning experience?
For the Cognitive Approach •
• •
• • • • • •
How do students acquire information, values and behaviors of the culture of the professional community of practice being simulated? How do students solve the problems presented to them in the virtual environment? How do the resources available in the virtual learning environment scaffold the students’ building of the new community of practice? How do students use the resources available in the virtual learning environment? How do the teachers/assistants supervision and feedback increase learning? How do the reflection-in-action activities affect learning? How do students move from apprentices to experts? How do evaluation activities affect learning? How is the students’ motivation during the learning experience?
CONCLUSION The present paper stems from the premise that, in education, sometimes a new technology is used to solve the wrong problem, that is, it is employed to teach objectives that could be more efficiently and effectively taught by other means.
An example of this is using the complexities of a virtual world like Second Life to build an object that, when touched, poses a multiple option type of question to a student avatar. In this very common example, students are indeed learning, however, it is like killing an ant with a canon ball. It is natural and valid that when a new technology comes along we tend to use it according to our old beliefs and needs; nevertheless, we must make an effort to think outside the box and find new ways to understand the technology itself in terms of its affordances and how to employ it. In this sense, I believe that using the situated learning paradigm as the theoretical base for developing educational MUVEs is the right path to become creative. For that reason, through the present manuscript, two relevant issues were addressed; on the one hand, the application of the situated learning paradigm for teaching and learning practices was discussed, and, on the other, the combination of these educational ideas with the production of a MUVE. Both are complex fields, thus the main interest of the present paper was to clarify the area somehow for instructional designers and teachers. The path that was chosen was first to review some of the main theoretical roots that the situated learning paradigm has, as the ideas of the brilliant Russian psychologist Vygotsky, which give a solid base to much of what the discussion of human learning as a context situated concept involves. Also, relevant bodies of theory were reviewed that have been very successful in the grounding of Vygotsky’s ideas like the works done around the concept of community of practice and cognitive apprenticeship. With those elements in hand a series of instructional strategies were proposed and some research questions were also abstracted that can be used to validate them. For the not so distant future, the production of MUVEs using the situated learning paradigm still yields very promising results. In fact, it is already an active field of development for instructional designers and teachers. Evidence of this is that there are already many interesting examples of
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these products in the educational realm; however, they are still costly and difficult to design and produce, especially for educational organizations in the developing nations. I believe that, in order to better employ educational MUVEs, there is still an important need for research to be done to 1) better understand the social implications on learning that characterize a MUVE, especially considering cultural differences between students; 2) create instructional design models for developing MUVEs that, still being theoretically well based, are less complex and costly to develop.
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Brown, J., Collins, A., & Duguid, P. (1989). Situated cognition and the culture of learning. Educational Researcher, 18(1), 32–42. Casey, C. (1996). Incorporating cognitive apprenticeship in multi-media. Educational Technology Research and Development, 44(1), 71–84. doi:10.1007/BF02300327 Cognition and Technology Group at Vanderbilt. (1990). Anchored instruction and its relation to situated cognition. Educational Researcher, 19, 2–10. Collins, A., Brown, J. S., & Newman, S. (1989). Cognitive apprenticeship: Teaching the crafts of reading, writing, and mathematics. In Resnick, L. (Ed.), Knowing, learning, and instruction (pp. 453–494). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Dede, C., Nelson, B., Ketelhut, D., Clarke, J., & Bowman, C. (2004). Design-based research strategies for studying situated learning in a multi-user virtual environment. Paper presented at the 2004 International Conference on Learning Sciences, Mahweh, NJ. Dieterle, E., & Clarke, J. (2005). Multi-user virtual environments for teaching and learning. In Pagani, M. (Ed.), Encyclopedia of multimedia technology and networking (2nd ed.). Hershey, PA: Idea Group, Inc. Driscoll, M. P. (2000). Psychology of learning for instruction. Needham Heights, Massachusetts: Allyn & Bacon. Gunawardena, C. N., Hermans, M. B., Sanchez, D., Richmond, C., Bohley, M., & Tuttle, R. (2009). A theretical framework for building online communities of practice with social networking tools. Educational Media International, 46(1), 3–16. doi:10.1080/09523980802588626
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Hendricks, C. (2001). Teaching causal reasoning through cognitive apprenticeship: What are results from situated learning? The Journal of Educational Research, 94(5), 302–311. doi:10.1080/00220670109598766 Jarvela, S. (1994). Cognitive apprenticeship model in a technologically rich learning environment: Socioemotional processes in learning interaction. ERIC document ED 374 145. Jones, G. J., & Bronack, S. C. (2007). Rethinking cognition, representations, and processes in 3D online social learning environments. In Gibson, D., Aldrick, C., & Prensky, M. (Eds.), Games and simulations in online learning (pp. 89–114). Hersey, PA: Information Science Publishing. Koch, M., & Fusco, J. (2008). Designing for growth: Enabling communities of practice to develop and extend their work online. In C. Kimble, P. Hildreth, & I. Bourdon (Eds.), Communities of practice: Creating learning environments for educators, Vol 1 & 2. Information Age Publishing Lave, J. (1991). Situating learning in communities of practice. In L. B. Resnick, J. M. Levine & Teasley (Eds.), Socially shared cognition (pp. 63 - 82). Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association. Lave, J., & Wenger, E. (1991). Situated learning: Legitimate peripheral participation. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Maturana, H., & Varela, F. (1987). The tree of knowledge. Boston, MA: Shambhala Publications. McGregor, D. (2007). Developing thinking developing learning. Maidenhead Berkshire, UK: Open University Press. Minick, N. (1997). The early history of the Vygotskian school: The relationship between mind and activity. In Cole, M., Engestrom, Y., & Vasquez, O. (Eds.), Mind, culture, and activity. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
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Chapter 9
CSCL Techniques in Collaborative Virtual Environments: The Case of Second Life Thrasyvoulos Tsiatsos Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece Andreas Konstantinidis Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece Theodouli Terzidou Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece Lazaros Ioannidis Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece Chrysanthi Tseloudi Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece
ABSTRACT This chapter reviews and compares the most promising collaborative virtual environment platforms, which have been used or proposed for supporting educational activities in terms of their potential to support collaborative e-learning. The most promising environment according to the results of this review is Second Life. Second Life is further examined by validating the platform’s features, philosophy and policies against some basic design principles for collaborative virtual learning environments in order to better assess its design adequacy for online learning. Furthermore, the chapter will present the features that the authors have implemented within the Second Life platform, in order to facilitate both the jigsaw and fishbowl collaborative e-learning techniques. Finally, the authors will present a case study concerning the evaluation of Second Life by undergraduate students in order to assess its potential to support these collaborative e-learning techniques. DOI: 10.4018/978-1-61692-822-3.ch009
CSCL Techniques in Collaborative Virtual Environments
INTRODUCTION Researchers have proven that collaborative learning activities generally lead to better learning and socialization results for the learners, which are further augmented when the learners’ learning styles vary considerably (Heilig, 1992). In effective collaborative activities, less proficient learners can be helped by high-achievers, who learn better by teaching. Also, often the result of group work reaches a deeper level than the sum of what each individual member might obtain; group members support and motivate each other, take responsibilities for the outcome and also for the organization of the work. More specifically, collaborative learning is the instructional use of small groups so that learners work together to maximize their and each other’s learning. Benefits of this approach include the help, assistance and support learners provide to each other, the exchange of information and resources and the sharing of opinions or points of view. In addition, learners give and receive immediate feedback and help on their work, while engaging and challenging one another’s reasoning as material is discussed, giving rise to critical thinking. Finally, learners influence one another to improve their methods and thought processes, they take part in the activities and develop the skills necessary for effective teamwork. In his research, Taylor (1980) divided computer-based educational technology into three genres: (a) Computer as a tutor, (b) Computer as a tool, and (c) Computer as a tutee. With the advent of the Internet, we must add a fourth genre: ComputerSupported Collaborative Learning (CSCL).
BACkgROUND The term MUVE (Multi-User Virtual Environment) is currently used to describe a persistent three dimensional graphical environment, accessed over the Internet, which allows a large number
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of concurrent users, represented by their ‘avatars’ to interact synchronously (Salt et al., 2008). In general, all MUVEs enable multiple simultaneous participants to access virtual contexts, interact with digital artefacts and represent themselves through “avatars” (in some cases graphical and in others, text-based). Furthermore, through MUVEs users are able to communicate with other participants (which in some cases are computer-based agents), and take part in experiences incorporating modelling and mentoring about problems similar to those in real world contexts (Dede et al., 2004). A Collaborative Virtual Environment (CVE) is a form of MUVE. More specifically, it is a computer-based, distributed, virtual space or set of places. In such places, people can meet and interact with others, with agents, or with virtual objects. CVEs might vary in their representational richness from 3D graphical spaces, 2.5D and 2D environments, to text-based environments (Churchill et al., 2001). Access to CVEs is by no means limited to desktop devices, but might well include mobile or wearable devices, public kiosks, etc. It is interesting to note that CVEs have been around way before the World Wide Web was invented; but have not been adopted on anywhere near the same scale. This is possibly because of their complexity and base requirements being much more demanding, or possibly the content being much harder to create. The CSCL field moved the focus of attention from individual cognitive approaches towards a socio-cultural paradigm, emphasising knowledge building in learning communities. Therefore, in CSCL learners use the Internet to learn from and communicate with knowledgeable members of the adult community. They can also become involved in educational online communities with individuals from different geographical regions. As is elaborated upon in the following paragraphs, this approach is grounded in social constructivism. According to Dillenbourg (1999), any virtual environment that integrates the following features
CSCL Techniques in Collaborative Virtual Environments
can be characterised as a collaborative e-learning environment: • •
•
•
•
Users have different roles and rights, The educational interactions in the environment should change the simple virtual space to a communication space. In other words, users should be provided with multiple communication channels, which enable them to interact with each other, inside the virtual space. The environment should be represented by various representation forms, which can range from simple text to 3D worlds. The learners in the environment should not be passive, but should be able to interact with it and with one another. The environment should be able to integrate various technologies, support various e-learning scenarios and have common features with a physical space.
Growing research shows the educational effectiveness of constructivist and collaborative learning in virtual learning environments (Resta & Laferrière, 2007). The virtual learning environment features are considered a support for knowledge construction, self direction, immersion, interactivity, and education. Depending on the instructional methods employed, CVEs can support constructivistic learning, in terms of distributed and situated learning (Dieterle & Clarke, 2007). According to Perkins (1992), a virtual learning environment can distribute knowledge and cognition among various artefacts (such as tools and virtual objects), among students (for example when they collaborate to solve a problem, or to perform an experiment), and among symbols, as it introduces new possibilities for scientific thinking and representational methods through the avatar’s existence in the virtual space. In other words, students learn while they associate with more
or less experienced participants of the learning community (Barab & Duffy, 2000). CVEs have many advantages compared to tools supporting traditional teaching methods. Education program designers should have these advantages in mind, when designing courses, in order to meet students’ needs, as well as the educational objectives. The advantages may vary from student motivation and entertainment to the simplification of the development of cognitive models from complicated or abstract material. However, educational institutions tend to take traditional classroom ideas and pedagogy and integrate them into non-contiguous collaborative learning environments (Strijbos et al., 2004). The assumption is that, since these environments have features that allow the interaction that we see in the classroom (e.g., messaging, real-time meetings, and shared applications), traditional pedagogy can be used. The proximate result is often disgruntled or disappointed students and instructors, motivation that is quickly extinguished, poorly used environments, wasted time and money, and showcase environments that are often not much more than computer assisted page-turning. This result is certainly partly due to the novelty of the CSCL ideas in schools but it also indicates that the theoretical and practical principles of CSCL are still too immature to be widely applied in practical educational reforms. Studies presented by Prasolova-Førland (2008), show that even in virtual places humans follow the conventions adopted in the real world, such as keeping social distances, grouping when talking or moving, preferring ‘‘natural’’ navigation modes and adjusting their behaviour according to the context. Therefore, when designing a virtual place it is important to find a balance between recreating a naturally looking and recognizable environment on one side, and introducing additional functionality for better efficiency, not possible in the physical world, on the other. According to Prinsen et al. (2009), more research is needed to reveal conditions of CSCL
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that may lead to participation and learning for all students. Research should be aimed at examining the effectiveness of online learning compared with face-to-face instruction, designing capable online learning practices and documenting beneficial online learning conditions. Furthermore, according to Means et al. (2009), an evaluation of whether supplementing face-to-face instruction with online instruction leads to enhanced learning is considered valuable. To this end, we review and compare the most promising collaborative virtual environment platforms, select the most promising solution and examine the applicability of collaborative learning techniques in its 3D virtual environment. We have chosen to evaluate the Jigsaw and Fishbowl collaborative learning techniques, which have been characterized as having moderate online transferability (Barkley et al., 2004) when implemented through a 2D CVE approach (e.g., forums, chat rooms).
The platforms we present are Wonderland Project (https://wonderland.dev.java.net/), Croquet (http://www.opencroquet.org/), Worlds (http://www.worlds.net/), Tixeo (www.tixeo. com/), I-maginer (www.i-maginer.fr), Active Worlds (http://www.activeworlds.com/), There (http://www.there.com/), Dive (http://www.sics. se/dive/), Moove (http://www.moove.com/) and Second Life (http://secondlife.com/). In order for a platform to be used in education, there are several elementary functions that have to be supported. The functions presented below were used to review the aforementioned platforms and can be grouped into categories:
COmPARATIVe STUDY OF CVe PLATFORmS
•
In this section we present the state of the art in 3D CVEs. The presented platforms were chosen based on their popularity, proven educational and collaborative value as presented by Bedford et al. (2006), and Bransford (1990), respective user testimonials and support of the generic features of such systems. Τhere are many 3D multi-user collaborative environments offering tools and services that can be categorized with regard to their functionality into communication tools, teacher and student support tools, tools for coordinating the collaborative learning process, shared applications and photorealistic humanoids (Tsiatsos & Konstantinidis, 2007). The platforms that tend to integrate these features seamlessly seem to be more appropriate for use in education.
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•
•
•
Awareness of space and individual collaborators through avatar representation. These determine the level of the user’s immersion in the environment, based on the realism of the user’s representation and the ability to modify it, their orientation within the environment and the interface usability (comparison presented in Table 1). User groups and access control. These determine whether groups can be created within the community, what different roles can be assigned to users of the same group and if the access to objects or communication can be controlled (comparison presented in Table 2). Concurrent, collaborative creation and manipulation of shared resources. This determines the level of collaboration that can be achieved, based on the users’ ability to create shared objects within the virtual environment and to share applications such as a text editor and web browser (comparison presented in Table 3). Communication means and media, these are invaluable to the educational process and include text and voice chat, and videoconference (comparison presented in Table 4).
CSCL Techniques in Collaborative Virtual Environments
Table 1. Space and collaborators awareness / avatars Realistic Avatar
User Interface& Installation Usability
Immersion Quality
Avatar Customization
Maps Orientation
Collaborators Awareness
Croquet
slightly
moderate
good
hard
none
moderate
Wonderland
enough
moderate
good
easy
none
good
Worlds
slightly
moderate
moderate
easy but limited
none
good
Tixeo
much
good
good
N/A
N/A
very good
I-maginer
enough
good
good
N/A
N/A
very good
Active Worlds
enough
good
very good
easy but limited
provided
very good
There
enough
good
good
easy
N/A
very good
Dive
enough
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
very good
Moove
very much
good
good
easy
provided
very good
Second Life
very much
good
very good
very easy
provided
almost excellent
The functions described above are a useful set of requirements to check against, when choosing a virtual learning platform. Please note that in the following tables “N/A” means that either there was no information about the specific feature or the feature was not available at all. The functions described above are a useful set of requirements to check against, when choosing a virtual learning platform. Among the other platforms, SL seems to be one of the most prom-
ising ones, concerning online education. This is because it implements the researched functionality in a more efficient and accessible way. Although Second Life has a rich feature set, it should be noted that that does not instantly constitute it ideal for educational use. Several other factors, as the next section illustrates, must also be taken into consideration.
Table 2. Access Control and user groups Custom User groups
Roles assignment
Floor control
Croquet
no
no
no
Wonderland
no
no
no
Worlds
N/A
N/A
basic
Tixeo
yes
yes
basic
I-maginer
yes
N/A
basic
Active Worlds
yes
yes
basic
There
yes
N/A
basic
Dive
N/A
N/A
N/A
Moove
N/A
N/A
basic
Second Life
yes
yes
basic
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Table 3. Sharing and manipulating resources Manipulation of space and objects
Concurrent objects manipulation
Results exporting
Instructional tools availability
Croquet
yes
yes
yes
moderate
Wonderland
no
no
no
slight
Worlds
yes
N/A
N/A
no
Tixeo
yes
yes
yes
yes
I-maginer
yes
yes
N/A
yes
Active Worlds
yes
no
N/A
very good (AWEDU)
There
yes
N/A
N/A
N/A
Dive
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
Moove
yes
N/A
yes
N/A
Second Life
yes
yes
yes
very good
Table 4. Communication Chat
Audio Conference
Video Conference
Streaming Audio
Streaming Video
Gestures
Croquet
yes
yes
no
no
no
yes
Wonderland
yes
yes
no
yes
no
yes
Worlds
yes
yes
no
yes
yes
yes
Tixeo
yes
yes
yes
N/A
N/A
yes
I-maginer
public, private
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
Active Worlds
yes
no
no
yes
no
yes
There
public, private
yes
no
yes
no
yes
Dive
public
yes
no
N/A
no
yes
Moove
public, private
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
Second Life
public, private, conference
public, private, conference
no
yes
yes
yes, fully customizable
THeOReTICAL VALIDATION OF SeCOND LIFe POTeNTIAL TO SUPPORT COLLABORATIVe e-LeARNINg SCeNARIOS Since the early uses of virtual environments in learning, researchers have tried to establish a schema that incorporates some well known aspects, issues, elements and principles which should be taken into account during the design process of educational virtual worlds. The rationale behind
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the designers’ decisions can have a significant effect on the appropriateness of the platform for education. Regarding the design adequacy of SL for online learning purposes, we validated the platform’s features, philosophy and policies against the design principles presented by Bouras et al. (2008). The principles are the following: •
Principle 1: Design to support multiple collaborative learning scenarios: a useful tool for collaboration would support
CSCL Techniques in Collaborative Virtual Environments
•
•
the execution of many e-learning scenarios. E-learning scenarios can combine one or more instructional methods like role-playing, case studies, team projects, brainstorming and many more, as long as the environment supports their functional requirements. Many collaborative learning scenarios can be supported in SL through its support for multiple communication channels such as text chat (private and public instant messaging), voice chat, streaming video and audio, interaction with objects and group formation. Also, a variety of tools has been or can be developed. However, the lack of application sharing is a definite drawback which needs to be addressed in future work as a research objective. Principle 2: Design to maximize the flexibility within a virtual space: space parameters like size, architecture, facilities and the physical environment affect the way learners socialize. In order to foster educational value, virtual environments must fulfil the teacher’s expectations for spatial and temporal flexibility. Therefore, due to the need for multiple functions within a collaborative online synchronous session, it should be possible to quickly reorganize the virtual place for a particular activity or scenario. In SL, objects in the virtual space can be organized into countless combinations. The instructor can customize and create 3D objects, and by authoring scripts can allocate and organize the objects in a space instantly and automatically, effectively satisfying learners’ needs. Principle 3: Augmenting user’s representation and awareness: combining gestures, mimics, user representation, voice and text chat communication, users can share their views and clarify their opinion to others. SL’s avatars are heavily customizable. This permits each user to display a unique
•
•
style, enhancing user representation and immersion. State of the art graphics, realistic walking and sitting animations, customizable gestures, typing animations and sounds, as well as head and eye movement, increase situation awareness. Situation awareness in scientific research collaboration requires several types of information, including contextual, task and process, and socio-emotional information. Principle 4: Design to reduce the amount of extraneous load of the users: the main objective of an e-learning environment is to support the learning process. In other words, the users should be able to understand the operation of the learning environment and easily participate in the learning process. The major commands of the interface should be available in a graphical user interface fashion. SL is designed in a way that prevents the extraneous load of the users. The flexible preferences menu that allows the user to select the graphics quality and performance and the obvious distinction between shared and non-shared objects not only prevent extraneous load, but also make it possible for users with older computers to participate in the environment efficiently. In addition, many of the necessary 3D interface aspects presented by Shneiderman (2003), such as readable text, simplified user movement and teleportation, have been incorporated into the design. Principle 5: Design a media-learning centric virtual space: the virtual space should be enhanced by multiple communication and media layers. Each media type (e.g., text, graphics, sound etc.) has its advantages. The virtual space should integrate many communication channels (e.g., gestures, voice and text chat etc.) in order to enhance awareness and communication among the users. SL is by design a media-centric
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CSCL Techniques in Collaborative Virtual Environments
•
•
146
platform. Users can communicate through means such as text and voice. In addition, users can upload textures, or stream audio and video into the world. Support for collaborative viewing and manipulating of documents will enhance the educational and pedagogical performance of the platform, as will application sharing. Principle 6: Ergonomic design of a virtual place accessible by a large audience: the designers of a virtual place should take into account that a virtual place for e-learning could be used by various individuals with different backgrounds and level of expertise in information and communication technologies. SL is accessible since the provided in-world tutorials guide the user during his/her first actions. Moreover, a simple Internet search yields huge amounts of information on 3D object modelling, scripting, avatar editing, building, etc. Principle 7: Design an inclusive, open and user-centred virtual place: SL membership is free, anyone above 18 years old can join (there is also a separate world for teenagers) and the virtual content of the world is created by its users. However, the platform is not open source. A significant drawback is the fact that organizations must pay monthly fees in order to own and administrate land parcels in the virtual world. While this may be reasonable, since the SL developers takes care of the maintenance and expansion of the virtual world, some organizations would rather invest these resources in customizing the world for their own needs. Relatively recently, OpenSim, a platform for operating virtual worlds, supporting multiple independent regions connecting to a single centralized grid has been developed. OpenSim can be considered the open source counterpart of SL, and much future research work will be focused on it.
•
Principle 8: Design a place for many people with different roles: An e-learning system should support a variety of roles, each with different access rights. For example, in a collaborative learning scenario the participants could be moderators, tutors, or learners. The virtual space should be designed accordingly in order to differentiate these roles. One very important in-world function included in SL is the creation of groups. This function permits the group creator (owner) to assign different roles to group members and to set access rights to each role. However, this process is still not as straightforward as it should be. For example, although users can be assigned to groups, it is difficult to distinguish groups, group members and group roles when users intermingle. Issues such as this have been addressed in our case study, presented in the following sections.
Second Life has been identified by many educational institutions internationally as having significant potential for teaching and learning and there is a current plethora of projects looking at educational possibilities. Almost all reports of educational activity in multi-user virtual environments (MUVEs) are about Second Life (Salt et al., 2008).
FeATUReS ImPLemeNTeD INTO SeCOND LIFe As mentioned above, SL seems to be one of the most promising CVEs concerning online education, offering, among others, full customization of an avatar’s appearance and its gestures. Collaborative educational techniques depend greatly on users’ interaction with each other and with the environment. Thalmann (2001), describes a direct relation between the quality of a user’s
CSCL Techniques in Collaborative Virtual Environments
representation and his ability to interact with the environment and with other users. Therefore, in order to support, facilitate and improve collaborative interactions and student awareness, for the online scenario in SL, we designed and implemented several features concerning the enrichment of the avatars’ non verbal communication (NVC), their virtual appearance and virtual tools to enhance the collaborative processes between them; These features consist of: (a) gestures, (b) animations, (c) visual metaphors on how avatars are virtually represented (i.e., what they look like), (d) visual metaphors of the educational space, and (e) virtually tools. Detailed descriptions of these implementations are presented in the sections that follow.
educational Spaces The construction of the educational space followed the specification outlines revealed in the analysis of the collaborative scenario’s needs and the re-
view of the results of similar evaluation studies. The educational space (presented in Figure 1) was divided into two basic areas: • •
Rooms for the support of educational activities and Rooms for socializing and meeting informally; surveys have revealed that students desire to have such places in order to satisfy their need for privacy (Büscher et al., 2001).
The Virtual educational space is described below. •
Main educational building: This building was realized with two stories. The first floor consisted of five Jigsaw rooms (one for each Jigsaw group) and a wide common meeting hall containing bulletin boards (which are described in a following section). Each Jigsaw room was separate from the rest, maintaining thus, group
Figure 1. The main implemented educational building
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CSCL Techniques in Collaborative Virtual Environments
privacy and collaboration. Rooms also included boxes containing avatar clothing for the group. The entire second floor was dedicated to the Fish Bowl scenario, where students and teacher debated and groups presented their collaborative work on a wide presentation board. Decoration in the educational places was kept at a minimum, reducing the students’ unnecessary cognitive load.
Avatar Attire The implementations that concern the avatars’ appearance are mainly related to the clothes that they wear during the online meetings. Many of the eligible requirements about an avatar’s appearance (e.g., show the avatar’s name) don’t need to be implemented because they are already covered by SL’s built-in functions. Our research team implemented the following objects, regarding avatar attire: •
•
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Jigsaw Shirts: Five coloured shirts were designed, one for each Jigsaw group. Group members were differentiated based on shirt colour. Shirts had indicators for Group name and number. Our aim was to design shirts that become obvious from far and from as many viewpoints as possible. Therefore, we placed group indicators on four different points of the shirt: front, back, left and right arm. Expert Group Jackets: Were implemented as “transparent” Jackets containing only the expert group indicator label, intended to be worn over the Jigsaw Shirt. Expert group indicator labels were placed again on three different points of the jacket: front, back, left and right arm. For example, the avatar’s clothes in Figure 2 reveal that this user belongs to Jigsaw Group 3 and Expert Group 1.
•
Moderator Hats: Five coloured hats were designed; one for each Jigsaw group, in order to be worn by the avatar of the user assigned the role of moderator in the group collaboration activities and discussions.
Animations and gestures Non-verbal communication seems to be highly beneficial to user interactions in CVEs. The term “Non-verbal communication” is commonly used to describe all human communication events which transcend the spoken or written word (Knapp, 1978). Second Life already offers a set of basic gestures for world residents. Collaborative scenario interaction analysis revealed some basic gestures, animations or poses needed to support users in collaborative activities; gestures that were not built-in in SL were designed with Poser 6.0. Table 5 below shows the built-in avatar metaphors in SL.
Figure 2. Example of implemented avatar attire
CSCL Techniques in Collaborative Virtual Environments
To complement the set of gestures-animations presented above, our team created some further gestures-animations which could be used in order to facilitate communication. These are presented in Table 6. The trigger column refers to the way the gesture/animation is activated through the text chat window.
A.
Virtual Tools and metaphors Visual metaphors are an essential part of virtual worlds such as SL. In Heilig (1992), research revealed that 70% of information uses the optical channel. We assume that visual metaphors in e-learning can boost collaboration in collaborative virtual environments and produce effective learning; in order to evaluate this assumption we designed virtual tools implementing useful visual metaphors. In the following sections, five implemented tools are described:
Student Voice: One of the major problems in online meetings is to distinguish the person who speaks. Thus, we designed the Student Voice Tool, which enables the differentiation of the speaking user through a ring with the denotation “Speaker”, over his/her avatar’s head and a microphone near the mouth (Figure 3). The metaphor was implemented with the HUD technique and students have to wear the HUD in order to use its functions. More specifically, if a student wishes to speak then the following actions take place: ◦ The student declares his/her request to speak by raising his/her hand (use of Raise hand gesture) ◦ The Discussion coordinator (who uses the “Now Speaking tool” presented below) assigns him/her the “Speaker role”
Table 5. Second Life’s built in metaphors Activity
Avatar Appearance
Away
The avatar is shown to be sleeping when the user is inactive for a specific time.
Typing: Chat
The Avatar is shown moving its hands like typing.
Talking: Voice Chat
An animated symbol blinks over the talking avatar’s head while a default animation shows the avatar’s lips moving
Interaction with objects
An avatar can carry objects using the attach function. Also, interaction with objects includes a touch function, which is depicted as a laser.
Table 6. List of implemented gestures-animations for the users Action-Statement
Description
Trigger
Raise Hand
Avatar raises hand, requesting permission to speak
/hand
Encouragement
Avatar hand animation for encouragement
/encourage
Show avatar
The avatar points at someone else
/you
Show self
The avatar points at itself
/me
Clap
The avatar claps
/clap
Doubt
The avatar’s facial expression shows doubt
/hmm
Agreement
The avatar shakes its head up and down
/yes
Disagreement
The avatar shakes its head left to right
/no
Ignorance
The avatar shakes its head left to right and frowns
/dontknow
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CSCL Techniques in Collaborative Virtual Environments
Figure 3. An avatar using voice chat
◦
C.
D. ◦
B.
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Speaking avatar obtains the Speaker Label and a virtual microphone object Now Speaking: The “Now Speaking” tool is used in combination with the “Student Voice” tool in order to achieve better coordination for the online group meetings in SL. The tool was implemented with the HUD technique and is intended to be worn by the person(s) who has/have been assigned the discussion coordinator role. What exactly happens from the coordinator’s side when a student asks to speak is presented below: ◦ The user’s name is highlighted in yellow, on the HUD table that includes all participating students (with their real and SL names)
E.
In Local Chat, the phrase, “[AvatarName] wants to speak” appears ◦ When the coordinator determines that the previous speaker has completed his/her argument, he/she assigns the “Speaker role” (see above section) by clicking on the student’s name ◦ The speakers name is highlighted in green ◦ In Local Chat the phrase, “Now speaking [AvatarName]” appears “Query” Visualization Tool: This tool visualizes users wanting to make a question, in a discreet manner, without disturbing group or class meetings, by using a metaphor on the avatar’s appearance (Figure 4). So, when a user wishes to visualize his/her request, he/she just types three question marks in local chat (i.e., ???); from that moment and for 60 seconds, discreet, yet distinguishable, question marks will emerge from the avatar’s head. This tool was embedded in the Student Voice HUD and is implemented using the LSL (Linden Scripting Language). “Idea Blink” Visualization Tool: The “Idea Blink” Visualization Tool functions in a similar way to the “Query” visualization tool, when a student has an idea he/she can easy express it by typing three exclamation marks in Local Chat (i.e., !!!). Light bulbs with the word “idea” emerge from the avatar’s head for 60 seconds. This tool was also embedded in the Student Voice HUD and is implemented using the LSL (Linden Scripting Language). Armchairs: These armchairs were placed in the Fish Bowl classroom. These chairs automatically adjust their colour to the colour of the user’s Jigsaw group, when user sits in them.
CSCL Techniques in Collaborative Virtual Environments
Figure 4. The “Query” Visualization Tool
B.
C.
placed in the group’s virtual collaborative working space (Jigsaw Rooms). The boxes contained: a) Jigsaw shirts, b) Additional clothes for students, and c) Note cards with instructions on “How do we dress our avatar?” Gestures and Animations Stand: The stand was placed in the exterior space of the plot, in a point that would be obvious upon a student’s entry in the basic education building. The stand contained: a) gestures, b) animations, c) poses, and d) note cards with instructions. Bulletin Help Boards: Two Bulletin boards were placed at two different points in the first floor of the main building. These boards contained note cards with instructions for basic SL operations.
CASe STUDY: ImPLemeNTINg jIgSAW / FISHBOWL COLLABORATIVe e-LeARNINg TeCHNIQUeS IN SeCOND LIFe Apart from the theoretical validation of SL’s capabilities to support collaborative learning scenarios presented in a previous section, we have implemented and evaluated the Jigsaw and Fishbowl collaborative learning techniques in SL. The aim of the case study was to: •
Other Objects In order to organize and offer all the above created tools, animations, gestures, clothes and the necessary help instructions for using them correctly, we created some auxiliary objects. The objects are the following: A.
Jigsaw Boxes: Five different boxes were created (one for each group). Boxes were
Uncover usability problems regarding both the SL platform, and the designed educational environment. Students as a group are the major target audience of the educational 3D worlds (Prasolova-Førland, 2008). Still, such worlds are often created and administered by teachers, not always in full compliance with the current actual needs of the students. Therefore, their feedback and discussions of the usefulness and adequacy of various design features in dif-
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CSCL Techniques in Collaborative Virtual Environments
•
•
ferent contexts provide a background for deriving an initial set of design guidelines. Collect further requirements for additional functionality in order to better support collaborative learning techniques in general. More specifically, determine the online transferability of the Jigsaw and Fishbowl collaborative learning techniques. An innovative educational environment (e.g., a 3D CVE) should only be used when it truly provides improvements over traditional learning and didactic methods, and when practical difficulties arise, like in the case of distance learning.
In addition, research questions such as those posed in Mason (2007) were considered: a) “Can we utilize the unique features of the SL environment to provide more powerful assessment tools than are available in the real world?”, b) “Can experiential learning in SL be compatible with traditional outcomes assessment processes?”, c) “Do skills learned in SL necessarily transfer to the real world?”, d) “How can we use the affordances of SL to construct authentic learning experiences to maximize learning?”. According to (Bruckman & Bandlow, 2002), CSCL research can be divided into three categories: •
•
•
Distance education: Attempts to move something like a traditional classroom online. Information retrieval: Research projects in which learners use the Internet to find information. Information sharing: Learners debate issues with one another.
The case study presented in this section, incorporates all three of the aforementioned categories. First of all, we are examining the online transferability of specific collaborative learning techniques. In other words, the platform’s suitability for distance education is being analyzed
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and evaluated. Furthermore, as will become more evident in the following paragraphs, the research project assigned to the students necessitated the retrieval of information through the World Wide Web. Finally, by utilizing the Jigsaw and Fishbowl collaborative learning techniques, students had to debate with regard to the information they had retrieved. The case study was performed in three successive phases. In the first phase, before participating in the process, the students participated in a pre-test questionnaire. The pre-test inquired about facts such as previous experience with 3D MUVEs in general and CEVEs specifically. Based on these results, the students can then be organized into groups of novices and advanced users if necessary. In this way, during the evaluation process the participants will be able to relate to each other more easily and thus facilitate collaboration. Also, being of the same level, users will be able to proceed in a more uniform manner. Following this, the 19 students were organized into five Jigsaw groups. The Jigsaw technique is a cooperative learning method with a three-decade track record (Aronson & Bridgeman, 1979) of successfully reducing racial conflict and increasing positive educational outcomes. In this technique, students develop knowledge about a given topic (expert groups) and then teach it to others (initial Jigsaw groups). Just as in a Jigsaw puzzle, each piece, in essence each student’s part is essential for the completion and full understanding of the final product. If each student’s part is essential, then each student is essential; and that is what makes this strategy effective. Several pedagogical advantages have been attributed to the Jigsaw process (Aronson & Patnoe, 1997). These educational benefits include listening encouragement, engagement, and empathy by giving each member of the group an essential part to play in the academic activity. Group members must work together as a team to accomplish a common goal; each student depends on everyone else. No student can succeed completely unless
CSCL Techniques in Collaborative Virtual Environments
everyone works together. Also, the Jigsaw technique is a typical method for researching certain collaborative interactions in a virtual environment. This “cooperation by design” facilitates interaction among all students in the class, leading them to value each other as contributors to their common task. A certain study topic was assigned to each Jigsaw group. The study topics included: •
• • • •
Design and implement a VLE, in order to support learning through communities of practice Study 3D virtual environments supporting CSCL, in general Study adaptive collaborative learning environments Develop a 2.5D adventure game as a VLE Design and implement a VLE, in order to support problem-based learning
Next, each group member selected a specific theme to specialize in. This theme is what next defined the expert groups that formed in the second phase. The students could choose from these tasks to complete: 1) Review technologies supporting VLEs, 2) Collect VLE operational and usability requirements, 3) Record presentation and design methods of VLE scenarios (e.g., UML, use cases, etc.), or 4) Record VLE evaluation frameworks. After studying for a week, in the second phase, the students were reorganized into four expert groups as dictated by the Jigsaw collaborative learning technique, and their choice of specialization theme. The deliverable of this second phase necessitated a presentation by each team from within the SL environment, in the form of the Fishbowl collaborative learning technique (as presented in Figure 5). In this technique, students form concentric circles with the smaller, inside group of students discussing and the larger, outside group listening and observing.
Figure 5. Discussion during the Fishbowl collaborative learning technique
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Finally, in the third phase, students returned to form their initial Jigsaw groups. Again, after studying for a week, each team had to present their work from within the SL environment, in the form of the Fishbowl collaborative learning technique. At the end of this phase, each group had to hand in its final deliverable, and each student had to answer a questionnaire recording his/her experience and suggestions.
CONCLUSION In general, and based on the evaluation results, we can surmise a positive reaction regarding the overall experience of the collaborative learning techniques by the majority of the participating students. With regard to distance computer supported collaborative learning, we can conclude that SL improves upon previous approaches in the context of facilitating collaboration and communication. The evaluation results reveal an increase in student interest, participation and amusement. However, the students are divided regarding the benefits of the SL approach in contrast with the traditional face to face method. Furthermore, based on the evaluation of the features we implemented with respect to avatar representation, we can surmise a beneficial impact to the communication, interactivity and usability capabilities of the SL platform. Also, avatar gestures were highly commended by the majority of the students for their usefulness. Finally, regarding the potential educational use of the SL platform by our department, most of the students: a) would like to see more collaborative learning techniques being implemented, and b) would be interested in participating in online lectures. We can conclude that the SL platform combines a rich feature set, improving upon performance levels as set by previous distance learning methods. In other words, SL can effectively be incorporated as the on-line part of a blended learning approach. However, in order for SL collaboration to be competitive in comparison to traditional 154
approaches (i.e., face to face), existing features must be augmented, and absent ones developed. Case studies, such as the one presented in this chapter, can aid researchers in identifying the weak spots of collaborative learning platforms and enhancing their pedagogical applicability based on user suggestions, comments and requirements.
ReFeReNCeS Aronson, E., & Bridgeman, D. (1979). Jigsaw groups and the desegregated classroom: In pursuit of common goals. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 5, 438–446. doi:10.1177/014616727900500405 Aronson, E., & Patnoe, S. (1997). The Jigsaw Classroom: Building Cooperation in the Classroom (2nd ed.). Longman. Barab, S., & Duffy, T. (2000). From practice fields to communities of practice. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Barkley, E., Cross, P., & Howell, C. (2004). Collaborative Learning Techniques: A Handbook for College Faculty. New York: Jossey-Bass. Bedford, C., Birkedal, R., Erhard, J., Graff, J., & Hempel, C. (2006). Second Life As An Educational Environment: A Student Perspective. In Proceedings of the First Second Life Education Workshop (pp. 25-27) Fort Mason Centre, San Francisco, Ca., August 20th, 25-27. Bouras, C., Giannaka, E., & Tsiatsos, T. (2008). Exploiting Virtual Environments to Support Collaborative E-Learning Communities. International Journal of Web-Based Learning and Teaching Technologies, 3(2), 1–22. Bransford, J. D. (1990). Anchored instruction: Why we need it and how technology can help. In Nix, D., & Sprio, R. (Eds.), Cognition, education and multimedia. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum Associates.
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Bruckman, A., & Bandlow, A. (2002). HCI for Kids. In Jacko, J., & Sears, A. (Eds.), The Human-Computer Interaction Handbook: Fundamentals, Evolving Technologies, and Emerging Applications.Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum and Associates. Büscher, M., O’Brien, J., Rodden, T., & Trevor, J. (2001). He’s Behind You: The Experience of Presence in Shared Virtual Environments. Collaborative Virtual Environments: Digital Places and Spaces for Interaction (pp. 77–98). London: Springer-Verlag. Churchill, E., Snowdon, D., & Munro, A. (2001). Collaborative Virtual Environments: Digital Places and Spaces for Interaction. London: Springer-Verlag. Dede, C., Nelson, B., Ketelhut, D., Clarke, J., & Bowman, C. (2004). Design-based research strategies for studying situated learning in a multi-user virtual environment. Paper presented at the 2004 International Conference on Learning Sciences, Mahweh, NJ. Dieterle, E., & Clarke, J. (2007). Multi-User Virtual Environments for Teaching and Learning [Buchverf.] M. Pagani. Encyclopedia of Multimedia technology and networking (2nd Ed.). Hershey, PA: Idea Group, Inc. Dillenbourg, P. (1999). What do you mean by collaborative learning? In Dillenbourg, P. (Ed.), Collaborative-learning: cognitive and computational approaches (pp. 1–19). Oxford, UK: Elsevier. Heilig, M. (1992). The Cinema of the Future. Presence (Cambridge, Mass.), 1(3), 279–294. Knapp, M. (1978). Nonverbal communication in human interaction. New York: Holt Rinehart Winston.
Mason, H. (2007). Experiential Education in Second Life.In Proceedings of the Second Life Education Workshop 2007, Part of the Second Life Community Convention, Chicago Hilton, 24th-26th August. Means, B., Toyama, Y., Murphy, R., Bakia, M., & Jones, K. (2009). Evaluation of Evidence-Based Practices in Online Learning: A Meta-Analysis and Review of Online Learning Studies. U.S. Department of Education, Office of Planning, Evaluation, and Policy Development, Policy and Program Studies Service. Perkins, D. (1992). Smart Schools: Better Thinking and Learning for every child. New York: Free Press. Prasolova-Førland, E. (2008). Analyzing place metaphors in 3D Educational Collaborative Virtual Environments. Computers in Human Behavior, 24(2), 185–204. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2007.01.009 Prinsen, F. R., Volman, M. L. L., Terwel, J., & Eeden, P. (2009). Effects on participation of an experimental CSCL-program to support elaboration: Do all students benefit? Computers & Education, 52, 113–125. doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2008.07.001 Resta, P., & Laferrière, T. (2007) Technology in Support of Collaborative Learning, Educational Psychology Review, 19, 65–83. DOI 10.1007/ s10648-007-9042-7. Published online: 31 January 2007, Springer Science + Business Media, LLC 2007. Salt, B., Atkins, C., & Blackall, L. (2008). Engaging with Second Life: Real Education in a Virtual World - Literature Review, http://slenz.wordpress. com/slenz-project/slenz-literature-review Shneiderman, B. (2003). Why Not Make Interfaces Better than 3D Reality?, IEEE Computer Graphics and Applications archive, 23(6), 12 – 15.Los Almos, CA: IEEE Computer Society Press.
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Strijbos, J. W., Kirschner, P. A., & Martens, R. L. (Eds.). (2004). What We Know About CSCL: and Implementing it in Higher Education, 2004. Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers. doi:10.1007/14020-7921-4 Taylor, R. P. (Ed.). (1980). The Computer in the School, Tutor, Tool, Tutee: Teachers College Press. Thalmann, D. (2001). The role of virtual humans in virtual environment technology and interfaces. In Earnshaw, R., Guedj, R., & Vince, J. (Eds.), Frontiers of human-centred computing, online communities and virtual environments. New York: Springer. Berlin, Heidelberg.
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Tsiatsos, T., & Konstantinidis, A. (2007). Exploitation of Croquet CVE Platform for supporting Collaborative e-Learning Environments, 10th International Conference on Interactive Computer aided Learning (ICL 2007), Villach, Austria, 26 - 28 September 2007 (ICL2007), Villach, Austria,September 26 – 28.f
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Chapter 10
Designing Web-Based Educational Virtual Reality Environments Kosmas Dimitropoulos University of Macedonia, Greece Athanasios Manitsaris University of Macedonia, Greece
ABSTRACT This chapter aims to study the benefits that arise from the use of virtual reality technology and the World Wide Web in the field of distance education, as well as to further explore the role of instructors and learners in such a network-centric mode of education. Within this framework, special emphasis is given on the design and development of web-based virtual learning environments so as to successfully fulfil their educational objectives. In particular, the chapter includes research on distance education on the Web and the role of virtual reality, as well as study on basic pedagogical methods focusing mainly on the efficient preparation, approach and presentation of the learning content. Moreover, specific designing rules are presented considering the hypermedia, virtual and educational nature of this kind of applications. Finally, an innovative virtual reality environment for distance education in medicine, which reproduces conditions of the real learning process and enhances learning through a real-time interactive simulator, is demonstrated.
INTRODUCTION Virtual reality has been widely recognized as a significant technological breakthrough, which can be used in the field of education in order to enhance learning. In contrast with the conventional two-dimensional presentation of educational material, virtual reality technology allows the DOI: 10.4018/978-1-61692-822-3.ch010
visualization of data in three dimensions and provides interactive functionalities that reinforce the feeling of immersion into a computer-generated virtual world. According to many researchers and educational practitioners this alternative form of education facilitates learning due to the ability of human brain to perceive better and assimilate easier a 3D computer-graphics representation than a simple text. It is also widely recognized that VR technology engages students’ attention and
turns education into an entertaining procedure contributing thereby to the active participation of students in learning process. One of the most beneficial uses of VR technology is the development of virtual reality environments on the Web. This capability provides a novel framework for distance learning and life-long education shifting the centre of education from physical classroom to network. Hence, students can approach knowledge from any place, even from their own home, having as much time as they really need to study the educational material adapting so the learning process to their personal needs. However, in order to support and enhance learning through Web-based virtual environments, specific pedagogical methods should be applied and welldefined rules should be followed. Web-based virtual learning environments play a multilateral educational role providing not only a platform for the presentation of educational material, but also a communication means among the members of a learning community. These capabilities allow the creation of a virtual classroom, i.e. a virtual learning environment in which educators and learners are able to perform classroom-like tasks (Grigoriadou & Papanikolaou, 2000). To ensure the educational effectiveness of the learning environment, appropriate pedagogical methods should be considered, especially in the designing phase of the system. Basic pedagogical methods such as behaviourism, cognitivism, constructivism and collaborative learning are studied focusing mainly on the efficient preparation, approach and presentation of learning content to fulfil its educational objectives. A web-based virtual learning environment (the term hypermedia virtual learning environment can be alternatively used) is not just a conventional website used for disseminating educational content or a web page containing 3D graphics. It is a combination of virtual reality and web technologies centralized on the fulfilment of specific educational objectives. For the effectiveness of the final application, specific designing rules
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should be followed to ensure its usability, i.e. an efficient, understandable and pleasant communication between user and system. The designing rules presented in this chapter are classified in three categories according to the triple nature of these applications: hypermedia, virtual and educational nature. Each of these categories contains a number of requirements that should be taken into account by a designer to ensure the usability and effectiveness of the final application. In the next section a study on various virtual reality educational environments on the web is presented. This chapter is organized into five distinct parts. First of all, a historical overview is provided, which cover some of the most significant milestones in the area of web-based virtual reality environments. This is followed by a designing analysis, in which the basic designing rules for web-based educational virtual reality environments are described. Thereafter, a prototype environment is presented for the distance education of medical students. Finally, future research directions as well as the conclusions of this study are presented.
BACkgROUND The vast majority of these applications involve predeveloped virtual environments in which students can interact to learn some basic concepts. A case of a virtual reality distance learning system was VRLAB (VRLAB, 2005). Within the VRLAB system, students are able, via the Internet, to conduct experiments, which are located in a remote laboratory. This guarantees safety and does not include any financial or time restrictions. Special emphasis is given to the students’ interaction with the experiment (i.e. control of the experiment, camera control etc.), which is realized via a userfriendly interface based on virtual reality and 3-D visualization techniques using 3D graphics so as to stimulate the students’ interest. Virtual reality equipment, such as a Head Mounted Display could also be used, if available, in order to im-
merse the user into the experiment. The students will be able to observe the execution of the real experiment through the camera as well through the 3-D visualization. Besides the possibility of conducting the real experiment, the user will be additionally able to perform a simulation of the experiment in order to compare the theoretical results with the corresponding real results. A similar application for the execution of experiments through internet is Virtual Control Lab (VCLab, 2002). VCLab has been originally developed as a tool to support students in control system design using professional simulations of automation processes. Because of its generic character, there are no restrictions to make use of it also in other scientific domains. VCLab uses a 3D virtual user environment to recreate and to visualize experimenting plants. One can interact with a displayed scene in a similar fashion like with real devices. The dynamical behavior of the plant is generated by a simulator driven by simulation models. Another application for distance education is VirLab system (VirLab, 1999) which developed at Hagen University in Germany. The application concerns the navigation of a vehicle. The user inserts the data of movement and then he can watch the experiment through a video or a 3D simulation, while he is also able to communicate with the other connected users. On the other hand, an educational application was developed within DEVRL (DEVRL, 1995) research project. Specifically, virtual places were developed such as a virtual classroom, where students can participate in a number of collaborative procedures using the potentials of virtual reality technology. Within this virtual environment, users can experiment with numerous simulations dealing with physical phenomena, such as gravity, or execute experiments, which are difficult to be contacted in a real laboratory. Furthermore, a large number of virtual reality applications supporting collaborative learning have been developed. To mention a few: EVE (Bouras et al, 2003), INVITE (Bouras et al, 2001)
and CLEV-R (McArdle et al, 2004). These systems provide multi-user virtual environments, which enhance learning, collaboration and dissemination of knowledge using multimedia content for the distance education of university students. Another, huge category of virtual reality educational environments concerns applications focusing on the teaching of mathematics (Pasqualotti et al, 2002), physics (Esparrachiari, 2005), computer graphics (Buraga et al, 2002) etc, while there is a keen research interest for the development of chemical experiments simulations. Especially in the case of chemistry, the potentials of virtual reality technology can facilitate learning process surpassing major restrictions characterizing traditional educational methods. Its primary objective is to provide highly realistic and believable simulations of chemical procedures within a fullyimmersive, interactive and three-dimensional virtual world. The educational benefit of these applications is the active participation of students in learning process, since researches have shown that humans remember only 10% of what they read, 20% of what they hear, but retain up to 90% of what they learn through active participation (Dale, 1969). Moreover, students can observe or carry out virtual chemical experiments, which are either difficult or even impossible to be performed in a physical laboratory e.g. high-speed chemical activities that do not allow observation and reliable measurement of results (explosions, issues of chemical kinetics etc), extremely slow or complex chemical processes, experiments involving health risks for students and teachers (e.g. radiations), processes requiring expensive consumables or devices not available in a conventional laboratory etc (Kalogeropoulos & Karatzas, 2002). Recently a lot of research efforts have been made aiming to take advantage of the potentials that virtual reality and Web technologies offer at chemistry instruction, such as Lab 3D (Lab 3D, 2002), which deal with hygiene, safety and biochemistry issues respectively. Furthermore, in (Schofield et al, 2004) a virtual reality application
is presented aiming to familiarize post-graduate students with the facilities of a large-scale chemical plant, which are not otherwise easily accessible to students, and provide them the opportunity to conduct a series of virtual experiments. Specifically, three modules are presented: i) Vicher I dealing with industrial methods of handling the decay of catalysts and heterogeneous catalytic mechanisms, ii) Vicher II, dealing with nonisothermal effects in catalytic reactions and iii) Safety, which allows students to walk through a chemical pilot plant to evaluate the hazards and safety systems. Moreover, many applications have been recently developed using simple 3D models for the efficient teaching of chemistry in secondary education, such as VR-Assisted Chemistry Education (VRAssisted Chemistry Education, 2003) and High School Chemistry Educational and Virtual Reality (High School Chemistry Educational and Virtual Reality, 1996). However, it should be pointed out that the term “virtual” is also used by a large number of applications without exclusively implying the use of virtual reality technology. In most of these cases, the term is used to indicate that experiments are not executed in a real laboratory, but in a computer. Many applications belong to this category, such as the Oxford Virtual Chemistry (Oxford Virtual Chemistry, 1996), the Model Science Software (Model Science Software, 1997), the IrYdium project (IrYdium, 2000), the Crocodile Chemistry Crocodile Chemistry (Crocodile Chemistry, 2006) etc. Nevertheless, the drawbacks of this category in comparison with virtual reality systems are: lack of immersion feeling, limitations in interaction and navigation, not realistic representations of models in three dimensions etc. Another application is presented in (Georgiou et al, 2008), the proposed system takes advantage of virtual reality potentials and recent advances in Web technologies to provide both a complementary educational tool and a distance learning application for students of chemical engineering. The fundamental goal of the application is to transfer
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via internet each student into an interactive virtual world, which simulates a real educational process. Initially, students can navigate in the virtual lab (Figure 1) and interact with its equipment to acquire the required experience and familiarity with a chemical laboratory. Subsequently, the second step of the application involves the simulation of volumetric analysis experiments with the active participation of students in the experimental process. Specifically, the virtual experiments supported by the proposed system concern: i) volumetric analysis of acid from base and vice versa, ii) volumetric reduction-oxidation and iii) complexometric neutralization and hardness estimation. The interactive features of the application allow students to conduct virtual experiments considering all the parameters that may affect the final experimental results. The main advantage of this educational approach is that students can repeat the same procedure without any limitation, study and compare the results in order to perceive easier each one of the experimental processes. Finally, the application contains relative educational material such as theory, exercises, tests etc constituting so an integrated educational tool for distance learning in chemistry. Another field, in which virtual reality is used for educational purposes, is medicine. Recent advances in computer and virtual reality technologies offer great potential to the development of advanced medical simulations, which provide a visually realistic modeling of organs’ anatomy and behavior as well as means of interaction with the user in real time. One of their beneficial uses is the training of new doctors allowing practice without danger to patient and without limits on the number of times that each student can practice. Medical simulations provide also a training environment for study and practice on a variety of pathologies even on rare or unusual cases without the need of a patient with a specific disease. Furthermore, they allow actions that are not possible in real life e.g. navigation through the anatomy or use of unreal tools etc and they can be used as
Figure 1. a) The virtual laboratory, b) A virtual experiment. Specifically, the pH is presented on the screen of the pH-meter. The process completes when the pH value remains almost constant at the equivalent point.
effective and reliable tools for the evaluation of students’ performance. To this end, medical simulations are considered nowadays as an integral part of the education and training of medical students. Especially in the training of new surgeons, a large number of simulations are used as valuable educational tools. The existing surgical simulations can be broadly classified in three categories (Liu et al., 2003): needle-based simulations, minimally invasive surgery simulations and open surgery simulations. The first category concerns the manipulation of small medical instruments such as needles, guidewires and catheters e.g. the Immersion CathSim Vascular Access Simulator (Ursino et al, 1999). The second category, Minimally Invasive Surgeries (MIS), involves the insertion of instruments into the human body from small incisions as in cases of laparoscopic and endoscopic operations e.g. the LASSO project (Szekely et al, 2000). Finally, the third category comprises of open surgery simulations (O’ Toole et al, 1999), in which large incisions in the human body are required.
Nevertheless, the development of a medical simulation is a challenging task involving realistic modeling of human organs, interaction in real time and modeling of the physical behaviour of medical models e.g. deformable modeling. Therefore, the majority of medical simulations used for the training of medical students require dedicated, powerful and sometimesexpensive graphical workstations. Thus, the knowledge extracted by the use of medical simulations constitutes a privilege of a limited number of universities, research institutes and hospitals. This fact, however, raises questions about the dissemination of this knowledge, especially to universities that are not equipped with medical simulations, as well as the possibility of an educational institution to obtain an adequate number of simulators in order to cover its educational needs. The advent of the World Wide Web and its broad use opens new possibilities to the training of medical students providing a solution to the aforementioned problems. Its combination with virtual reality technology allows the development
of Web-based medical simulations, which are cost-effective and provide free accessibility to all students. This means that medical students are able to use the simulations from any place, even from their own home, needing just a conventional PC. These virtual learning environments are considered suitable for distance learning in medicine providing significant advantages (Brodlie et al., 1999): • • •
• •
•
Free accessibility and low-cost A large number of users can use the simulator at the same time. Limited software requirements (only a simple VRML browser is required without any other special software) Web-based simulations can run from any place in the world. Students can safely practice many times on specific procedures before performing them on a real patient. In case of powerful computations, users can share the power of a remote server
However, there is still a question whether the development of web-based simulations with sufficient realism and speed to enable real time interactions is possible. Within WebSET (Web-based Standard Educational Tools) project (El-Khalili et al., 2000), medical simulations were developed for neurosurgery, lumbar puncture and laparoscopy procedures showing that World Wide Web can provide an effective virtual environment within which training can be enhanced by 3D simulation and interaction. Specifically, the neurosurgery procedure developed within WebSET project concerned the simulation of ventricular catheterization, where students acquire an appreciation of the ventricular system in the brain and learn how to cannulate it in an emergency. The lumbar puncture simulation involved the insertion of a needle between vertebrae in the lower back directly into the spinal cord to take a sample of spinal fluid for various tests. In the laparoscopic operation
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a verres needle inserts into the abdominal cavity to inflate the cavity by pumping carbon dioxide into it. Another application of web-based medical simulation is the one used by the Department of Neurosurgery in the Leeds General Infirmary to train surgeons in the treatment of trigeminal neuralgia (Li et al., 2000). A well-recognized treatment for trigeminal neuralgia is percutaneous rhizotomy procedure. This procedure involves the insertion of a needle into the patient’s face and guiding it towards the foramen ovale, which is punctured to allow access to the nerve causing the pain. The simulation provides an alternative exercise for trainees in which they practice before performing the operation on real patients.
DeSIgNINg ANALYSIS This section aims to present some specific designing rules for web-based educational virtual reality environments considering the hypermedia, virtual and educational nature of these applications. However, before this analysis, a research on the role of Web and virtual reality technologies in distance education as well as on some basic pedagogical methods to ensure the educational effectiveness of the learning environment is considered necessary.
Distance education on the Web The term “distance education” is mainly used to imply the physical distance among teachers and learners. Traditional distance education practices aim at the substitution of face-to-face instruction using various communication means, such as mail, video or audio tapes, educational programs on TV, teleconferences etc. and rarely, in some special cases, a limited number of meetings. The advent of the World Wide Web has changed radically the field of distance education providing a new form of learning, widely known as online education (Harasim, 2000) (or alternatively e-learning). The main advantage of Web is that it provides a suitable
platform for the development of distance learning tools, which directly connect learners with teachers and relative educational sources (Papanikolaou et al, 2005). This form of communication involves the use of simple text as well as the transmission of voice, image and video. Specifically, the main advantages of Web-based distance education are: •
•
•
•
•
Space independency: Learners are able to participate in the learning process from any place, even from their own home simply using their personal computers. Time independency: The simultaneous participation of teachers and learners is not a prerequisite in online education. Learners choose when they are ready to study the educational material and determine the time needed to assimilate the learning content. That is, students can repeat processes and revise the content of an online application without any time limitations, adapting so the learning process to their personal needs. Low cost: The total cost required for the training of a large number of learners at universities, schools, enterprises and so on is significantly reduced by the use of Webbased learning applications. On the other hand, the cost corresponding to userslearners is usually limited to the price of a conventional PC. Easy access: The main advantage of online learning is free and easy accessibility via Web. Furthermore, in most cases the connection with other external educational sources (e.g. libraries) is also possible. Simultaneous participation of a large number of learners: Web allows the participation of a large number of trainees in the learning process, something that is hardly achieved with traditional distance learning methods. Considering also that Web constitutes the largest and the most powerful global network, in which mil-
•
•
•
•
lions of computers are connected to, one can easily understand its enormous potentials in distance education and the dissemination of knowledge as well. Non-isolated learners: Traditionally in distance education, learners are considered isolated from the other members of the learning community studying the learning material on their own. On the contrary, in online education, Web promotes the cooperation between learners and teachers as well as the creation of learners’ groups with common educational objectives. This capability is possible due to the synchronous or asynchronous communication (Steiner, 1996) supported by Web technologies. Equal opportunities to all participants: As it has already been mentioned the learning process is adapted to the personal abilities of each learner. Hence, while in a real learning process it is a common phenomenon some students not to be able to follow the learning rhythm, in online education Web provides equal opportunities to all participants regardless of their abilities, as they have as much time as they really need to study the learning material. Simulation of a real learning process: Web allows the creation of learning conditions that are usually developed in a real classroom. For this purpose various pedagogical methods such as behaviorism, cognitivism, constructivism, collaborative learning etc can be applied. Attractive environment: The use of multimedia technology (video, sounds, 3D graphics etc) engages student’s attention and creates a pleasant learning environment (Kokkos et al, 1999).
In general, the potentials of Web shift the centre of learning process from teachers to learners. This simply means that learners acquire an active role and determine the development of the learn-
ing process. These features are further enhanced by the use of virtual reality technology in online education as described later in this chapter.
Asynchronous Communication Web is not only a source of knowledge, but also a perfect means for communication, which supports time and space independency. One of the most popular ways of communication in case of web-based learning environments is asynchronous communication between learners and instructors. In asynchronous communication, the simultaneous participation of all the involved parties (learners and instructors) is not a prerequisite. That is, learners choose when they will read the teachers’ instructions or communicate with the other members of the learning process. Asynchronous communication is based on technologies, most of the Web users are familiar with. The main tools used for this purpose are the following: •
•
•
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E-mail: This is the most popular application of asynchronous communication adopted by the majority of web-based learning environments. Reliability, low cost and flexibility are some of its features, which make it the basic means of communication on the Web. One of its main advantages is that the receiver can read his/her e-mails at any time and from any place. Moreover, it enables the communication between learners and instructors as well as the creation of groups through the use of mailing-lists. Bulletin Board Systems–BBS: Bulletin boards are systems using asynchronous communication, where users can send or read announcements. Each user can choose a topic according to his/her interests or read messages in a chronological order. The approach of a BBS is usually restricted to the members of a learning process. Newsgroups: Typically, a newsgroup is focused on a particular topic of interest. The
connection with a discussion group can be bidirectional, i.e. users actively participate in a discussion or one way i.e. a user can only watch a discussion. Asynchronous communication systems are widely used by e-learning applications, mainly because of their low cost and their flexibility in terms of time and place i.e. students can approach the learning material without any time or place restriction. This feature enhances learning and allows students to determine when they will participate in the learning process and how much time they really need to assimilate the new information. The main drawback of using asynchronous communication in education is that it turns learning into an impersonal process.
Synchronous Communication Synchronous communication refers to the ability of two or more remote users to interact in almost real-time either exchanging text messages or transmitting sound or video. A wide range of technologies can be used to provide synchronous communication between learners and instructors. The final decision heavily depends on the network capacity and the total cost of the application. The main synchronous communication technologies used by web-based learning environments are outlined below: •
•
Online Chat: This technology is primarily meant to refer to direct exchange of text messages between two or more users. The communication through text messages is usually adopted by virtual classroom (term virtual classroom is described in detailed later) applications, where students’ groups can take advantage of the learning tool provided in order to discuss in real time. Audio Conference: These systems enable the communication of multiple users in real-time through the transmission of audio
messages over IP. Peripheral devices such as microphones, speakers and audio cards are needed, however, this requirements is counter balanced by the fact that users do not need to use their keyboard for writing messages. Video Conference: The simultaneous transmission of audio and video information enhances learning and approaches significantly the learning condition of a real classroom. Therefore, this technology has drawn the attention of the scientific community and it is now considered as one of the most valuable tools in distance education. The participants of a video conference can watch teacher’s motions or even his/her expressions. Of course, the network requirements should ensure an adequate bandwidth for the transmission of video data.
The main advantage of an application supporting synchronous communication is the real-time interaction between all the members of the learning process. This feature facilitates the creation of virtual classroom’s conditions; however, it requires the simultaneous presence of learners and instructors as opposed to the asynchronous communication.
Virtual Reality in Distance education Virtual reality has introduced a new form of education allowing students to experience situations, instead of simply reading or hearing about them (Rudin, 1995). Its use in online distance education set the base for the implementation of interactive systems offering to students the ability to broad their knowledge without any help from their teachers (Manitsaris et al, 2001). The interactive functionalities supporting virtual reality environments reinforce the active participation of students and therefore they are not any more regarded as simple passive observers, but as active members
of the learning process, in which they can either discover or even produce new knowledge. An educational virtual environment can be defined as one or more virtual worlds that offer multiple educational functionalities to each userstudent (Bouras & Tsiatsos, 2002). Within these virtual worlds, students can navigate, interact with virtual objects and study the educational material, which can be a 3D model or text, image, sound and video. Besides, it is widely recognized that virtual reality technology engages students’ attention and turns learning into pleasant and entertaining process. In short, three are considered to be the main features of these applications: immersion, interactivity and representation in three dimensions. Generally, the use of virtual reality technology in Web provides a new framework for distance education, since it can be regarded as the extension of internet in third dimension. This capability allows the development of Web-based virtual learning environments, which are approachable by all internet users. The most practical use of virtual reality is in training and simulations. However, there are many applications aiming to reproduce a learning process of a real classroom. These applications allow students to interact with information in a physical sense beyond the conventional interaction supported by typical two-dimensional Web sites.
Pedagogical Approach Web-based virtual learning environments play a multilateral educational role providing not only a platform for the presentation of educational material, but also a communication means among the members of a learning community. These capabilities allow the creation of a virtual learning environment in which educators and learners are able to perform classroom-like tasks. To ensure the educational effectiveness of the learning environment, appropriate pedagogical methods should be considered, especially in the designing phase
of the system. The mostly applied pedagogical methods used for this purpose are outlined below.
Behaviorism Behaviorism theory considers human mind as a black box and regards that a response to a stimulus can be quantitatively observed, ignoring totally the impact of thinking occurring in mind (Modritscher, 2006). In essence, the behaviourism school focuses on measurable and observable facts excluding ideas, emotions and processes performed in mind. In (Dietinger, 2003), Dietinger presents a graphical representation (Figure 2) in order to describe a learning model based on behaviorism theory. According to this model Sin(t) is the input signal, F(t) is the external feedback, Sout(t) is the external signal, while the variable z(t) stands for the observed events. Atkins (Atkins, 1993) has studied the effect of behaviourism theory on web-based distance education defining basic rules regarding the structure of educational content. Specifically, course designer should: i) divide learning content into small conceptual units and instructional steps, ii) define sequences of instructions using either conditional or unconditional branches to other instructional units and pre-determining choices within the course, iii) To maximize learning efficiency, learners may be routed to miss or repeat certain sections based on the performance on
diagnostic tests, or on tests within the sequence of learning activities and iv) demonstrate the required operation, procedure or skill, and break it down into its parts with appropriate explanation before learners are expected to copy the desired behavior. Learners are supposed to build proficiency from frequent review or revision with check tests at strategic points or repeat practice with feedback (Modritscher, 2006). In general, a designing approach with respect to behaviourism theory considers a student as a passive recipient and thus a well-structured learning material is required to facilitate the acquisition of a new behaviour through rehearsal and correction (Tuckey, 1992).
Cognitivism In contrast with behaviorism, cognitivism theory focuses on human’s mind processes, such as thinking, memory etc. The primary objective of cognitivism is to discover, identify and model the mental process performed into student’s mind during the learning process (Conlan, 2002). Hence, in a cognitive approach, student’s mind is not considered as a passive black box (Figure 3 presents the learning model of cognitivism according to Dietinger), but as a complex device, which receives information from the environment, processes this information and stores the outcome to a short-term or a long-term memory. A perma-
Figure 2. The learning model of behaviorism according to Dietinger
nent storage requires careful organization of data and correlation of new information with existing knowledge so that information to be shifted from short-term to long-term memory. The designer of an online learning environment should focus on the stimulation of students’ senses, focusing the learner’s attention by highlighting important and critical information, reasoning each instruction, and matching the cognitive level of the learner (Modritscher, 2006). This can be achieved by following a designing approach, which engage students’ attention on important information and encourage searching of knowledge. Designers should also organize information in such a way that students are able to connect new information with existing conceptual models in some meaningful way (Ertmer & Newby, 1993). Hence, information should be connected with experiences from real life so that students can easily understand and assimilate the provided knowledge. Strategies requiring the learner to apply, analyze, synthesize, and evaluate should also be used to promote deep processing of information and higher-level learning. Moreover, according to (Meyer, 1998), the teaching strategy should enforce learners to use their meta-cognitive skills by reflecting on what they learn, collaborating with other learners or checking their progress. In any case, however, overload of information should be avoided, since it inevi-
tably leads to a conceptual saturation, which means that information is not stored into the long-term memory. The effectiveness of cognitivism theory in online learning process is widely recognized. A cognitive design of a web-based virtual learning environment should be based on the previous knowledge of learner, while the acquisition of new knowledge requires an active mental process from the learner’s side.
Constructivism Constructivism theory moves one step further than cognitivism considering that knowledge is constructed by learners themselves based on their personal experiences. Thus, learners acquire an active role within the learning process, since they not only absorb information, but also connect it with previously assimilated knowledge, constructing so their own interpretation (Cheek, 1992). Therefore, in constructivism learners are not just passive recipients of external stimulus, but they are also able to search, choose, adapt and finally interpret information according to their conceptual background. Figure 4 depicts the graphical representation of Constructivism model (Dietinger, 2003). Hence, learning can be seen as an active process, and knowledge cannot be received from outside or from someone else.
To this end, the designing of an online learning environment according to constructivist school focuses on the active participation of students in learning process i.e. the system should keep learners active doing high-level activities. Prerequisite for the fulfillment of this objective is the interaction of learners with the educational material in order to discover or create new knowledge. Webbased simulations constitute a typical case of such interactive learning applications, in which each action of learner within virtual environment is interpreted in new knowledge. On the other hand, the communication among members of a learning process is of great importance in constructivism, since it allows the exchange of experiences and ideas resulting in a better interpretation of the available information. As stated e.g. in (Hooper & Hannafin, 1991), collaborative and cooperative learning should be encouraged to facilitate constructivist learning. Working with other learners gives students real-life experience and allows them to use and improve their meta-cognitive skills. Finally, learners should have the control of the educational procedure, as the main goal of constructivism is to give stimulus to students to discover or create the knowledge. However, the application should support a form of guided discovery, i.e. students can make their-own decisions
Figure 4. The learning model of constructivism
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but they can also use some guidance from the instructor. One of the main benefits of constructivism theory is that it considers learners as the centre of learning process. Consequently, the constructivist approach implies that learners will learn more with a teacher than from a teacher (Newby, 1996) and that they will learn more with a virtual learning environment than from a virtual learning environment.
Collaborative Learning Collaboration between learners and teachers is a common request of various pedagogical methods (e.g. constructivism). In online education, the concept of collaborative learning is considered essential for the performance of classroom-like tasks and a prerequisite for the creation of a virtual classroom. The term collaborative learning refers to an instruction method, in which students at various performance levels work together in small groups towards a common educational goal (Gokhale, 1995). In contrast with previous pedagogical approaches, in which learners are considered to be isolated, collaborative learning introduces the concept of ‘group’. In groups, learners are able to cooperate, exchange ideas and share experiences in order to acquire knowledge on specific thematic areas. Current Web technologies are considered suitable for the development of collaborative learning environments due to their interactive functionalities. Collaboration can be achieved in two ways, either synchronously or asynchronously. Synchronous communication involves the participation of both students and teacher at the same time e.g. teleconference, while in asynchronous communication, which is more common, there is complete time flexibility. That is, teachers and students do not need to participate in learning process at the same time (e-mail is the most common type of asynchronous communication).
The key benefit of collaborative learning is that increases interest among learners and promotes critical thinking. Its role in distance education on the Web is essential allowing students to work together in groups searching for solutions in common problems. Its application in web-based virtual environments opens up new possibilities in distance education, creating conditions, which approach these of learning process in a real classroom.
Designing Requirements A web-based virtual learning environment (the term hypermedia virtual learning environment can be alternatively used) is not just a conventional website used for disseminating educational content or a web page containing 3D graphics. It is a combination of virtual reality and web technologies centralized on the fulfillment of specific educational objectives. For the effectiveness of the final application, specific designing rules should be followed to ensure its usability, i.e. an efficient, understandable and pleasant communication between user and system (Nielsen, 1994). In this paper the designing rules presented are classified in three categories according to the triple nature
of these applications: hypermedia, virtual and educational nature (Figure 5).
Hypermedia Requirements Web constitutes both a presentation platform for a learning content and a communication means among the members of a virtual classroom. Therefore, the hypermedia nature of a learning environment should be considered, first and foremost, by the designer of the application. In (Avouris, 2000) a comprehensive study is presented regarding the designing of a hypermedia application. Based on this study, the usability of a hypermedia learning application can be achieved by applying the following requirements: •
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Figure. 5 The triple nature of Web-based virtual learning environments
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Webpage loading speed: The loading speed is considered as one of the most critical usability factors of a web application and it heavily depends on the network and the total size of a webpage. Local search engines: Search engines are considered necessary in websites containing a large number of web pages. Navigation support: A web application should be designed in such a way, so that users have a complete view of the overall structure of the application i.e. users should always know their accurate location in the site as well as their possible transition options. This kind of problems can be effectively addressed by the use of site maps, which provide the required navigation information to the users of a web application. Simple User Interface: The user interface should be simple emphasizing on the educational material rather than containing features aiming to impress users. Small size of pages: All significant information and possible options are preferable to be visible in just one screen. Simple address and title: The website address and title should be simple, brief,
comprehensive and fully represents the educational content. Uniform designing: A uniform design should be followed in all pages of a hypermedia application. Content update: The maintenance of a hypermedia application is of great importance for the fulfillment of its educational objectives. Thus, the educational content should be periodically updated by the administrator of the application according to the requirements of the educational process. Appropriate terminology: The instructional designer should use appropriate terminology, which is familiar and fully understandable by the learners.
five steps: i) requirements specification, ii) gathering of reference material from real world objects, iii) structuring the graphical model and dividing it between designers, iv) building objects and positioning them in the virtual environment, v) enhancing the environment with texture, lighting, sound and interaction and optimizing the environment. Extensive researches on the usability of a virtual reality environment have shown that the efficiency of the final application heavily depends on three main features: •
Finally, apart from the aforementioned requirements, a virtual learning environment with regards to its hypermedia nature is a designed information space, which integrates heterogeneous technologies and provides interactive functionalities allowing the communication (synchronous or asynchronous) among the learners and teachers of a learning community (Dillenbourg, 2000).
Virtual Reality Requirements Virtual reality technology has been recently introduced in the field of education and thus there are no explicit rules for the designing of a learning environment containing 3D computer graphics. Nevertheless, the designing of these applications should fulfill some basic usability criteria characterizing common virtual reality environments. In a simplified methodology the designing of a virtual world can be divided in four basic steps (Masso & Lopez, 2003): the geometry and appearance of virtual models, their import to the virtual reality toolkit, the modeling of their behavior and finally the virtual environment visualization in a virtual reality facility. Another approach is presented by Kaur (1998), which proposes a methodology of
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Navigation: Navigation is one of the most important usability factors of a virtual environment. This feature allows users to move within the virtual world and explore it in order to find out new knowledge. In the designing phase of an application, special care is needed to the elimination of users’ disorientation problems. To this end, the use of signs, marks or maps is required for the correct guidance of users within the virtual world, ensuring so an easy approach to the educational material. Moreover, the designing of the navigation system should be user-friendly so that non-familiar users to be able to manipulate it easily. Interaction: Beyond a simple observation of the visualized learning content, virtual reality technology, due to its interactive functionalities, moves one step further allowing the manipulation of the educational data. Therefore, a virtual learning environment should support a natural way of interaction, which mimics as close as possible the real world, contributing so to the easy and fast familiarization and adaptation of users to the virtual environment. Finally, the interactive points should be clear and supported by suitable signs inciting users to interact with the virtual environment. Presence: The third factor, concerning the concept of presence in a virtual world, deals in essence with the realism level. The
realism can be enhanced by the use of textures, sounds, lights and complex models providing users with a feeling of presence in a virtual world.
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In any case, however, the main objective of a virtual learning environment is the active participation of students in the learning process. The interactive features supported by a virtual environment allow the modification of the virtual world and thus the creation of new knowledge. This principle is also applied to simulation applications, whose contribution in medical education is studied in section IV.
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Educational Requirements Educational software is not an electronic book aiming to substitute the teaching in a real classroom, but a complementary educational tool whose goal is to help and enrich the real learning process. Coordinated actions have been recently performed by institution and organizations aiming to set designing specifications for educational software. Approaching web-based virtual learning environments as educational software for distance education, a series of specifications should be considered by the designer of the application (Computer Technology Institute, 1998): •
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The educational application should be usable both as a complementary tool in a school/university classroom and as a stand-alone distance learning application. It should also encourage the active participation of students in the learning process. Emphasis should be given to the exploratory nature of the proposed educational activities. The learning environment should engage student’s attention and promote a deep study of the learning content. The educational material should be as diachronic as possible.
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The application should focus on issues relating to learning disabilities. Apart from the acquisition of knowledge, the learning environment should allow the development of specific skills. Processing, modeling and simulation are major features of an educational system. The application should combine instructive goals from different disciplines. Taking advantage of the recent advances in computer technologies, the system should promote the communication among learners. The designer should ensure the extendibility and reusability of the application. This will facilitate the update of the application and reduce the cost of a future extension.
As it is clear from the above, the designing of a web-based virtual learning environment is a challenging task, which requires the use of various technologies (web, virtual reality, multimedia etc) centralized on the fulfillment of high educational requirements. The aforementioned specifications aim to facilitate the designer to ensure the usability and efficiency of the final application. However, an efficient designing requires also a comprehensive analysis of both the user requirements and the technological possibilities with regards to the available network bandwidth and the required computational power. In the following sections, an innovative web-based virtual learning environment for medical students is presented.
A PROTOTYPe eNVIRONmeNT The use of virtual reality in medicine is mainly focused on the development of medical simulations aiming to help students to perceive physiological principals or anatomical structures, acquire skills and study specific pathological conditions. However, medical education constitutes a multilateral process, which requires, apart from the use of
simulations, the communication among students and professors, the use of appropriate notes and medical images as well as the attendance at lectures or even at surgical operations performed by experienced surgeons. Therefore, distance education in medicine needs complex learning applications ensuring the fulfillment of the aforementioned requirements. In this chapter, we propose an integrated virtual learning environment for distance education in medicine through web, which reproduces conditions of a real learning process and enhances learning through a real-time interactive simulator. Specifically, the objectives of the proposed learning environment are the following: •
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Provision of learning content: Medical education requires medical images of high resolution as well as the use of microscopes from the learners themselves. To fulfill this requirement the system provides a wide range of medical images taken with a microscope. Furthermore, it contains relative educational content from the real learning process at the university. Attendance at virtual lectures: The role of a professor in a real learning process as well as the teaching of courses through lectures at the university can not be substituted by notes. Advices or experiences transferred from professors to students are considered a critical part of a learning process. Virtual reality and multimedia technologies can reproduce a real lecture transferring students to a virtual classroom, where videos are projected on virtual screens. This technology can also be used for the reproduction of documentaries, conference talks, lectures from other universities and so on. Cooperation among the members of the application: The communication among the members of a learning process is a prerequisite for the creation of conditions de-
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veloped in a real classroom. Collaborative learning is achieved through asynchronous communication (e-mails), which provide a complete space and time independence among professors and students. Support of simulations: One of the main objectives of the application is to provide a support platform for web-based medical simulations accompanied by relative educational content. The medical simulation that is currently supported by the application is the simulation of Hepatic Cells. Connection to external data sources: A critical issue in education is the easy access of students to a wide range of scientific sources. The proposed application takes advantage of the benefits arising from the use of web to connect students to external e-libraries allowing so the searching of further information related with the educational content of the application.
The designing of a web-based virtual learning environment requires a combination of heterogeneous technologies considering various pedagogical methods and designing requirements as presented in previous sections. The proposed system is essentially a hypermedia application and thus it is a collection of HTML pages, which constitute the base of the application. Due to its hypermedia nature, the application is approachable via web and allows asynchronous communication and connections to external e-libraries. A common prototype was followed for the designing of all HTML pages, as shown in Figure 6, while the VRML worlds are embedded and presented always at the centre of the HTML pages. The virtual environment consists of a set of virtual worlds, each of which performs a different educational role. The use of 3D graphics in the learning application aims to create an attractive environment, in which students can perceive and assimilate easier the educational material. Hence, the fundamental goal is to engage students’ atten-
Figure 6. (a) The virtual classroom and (b) the virtual library
tion to critical information, which is transferred from the short term to the long term memory according to the cognitivism theory. Moreover, all virtual worlds have been designed and developed in such a way in order to encourage searching of knowledge and incorporate constructivist features, which contribute to the active participation of students and the acquisition of knowledge through their interaction with the virtual worlds. The architectural structure of the virtual environment is divided in two parts: the physical learning environment and the simulation of the application. The physical learning environment consists of a number of virtual worlds that reproduce conditions of the real learning process in a physical educational environment, while the primary goal of the medical simulation is to enhance learning. Students visit each virtual world searching for knowledge and they participate in different learning processes. The designing of the virtual worlds is focused on three main features: navigation, interaction and presence. In particular, special care was given to the development of a user friendly navigation system, which allows even non-familiar users to easily navigate within the
virtual worlds (the navigation system is always visible at the bottom of each virtual world). On the other hand, for the easy access of students to the educational material and the avoidance of users’ disorientation problems, special signs, voice messages, navigation maps, as well as functions allowing the direct transition of users to predefined positions were used. Furthermore, multiple interactive functionalities are supported both by the physical learning environment (e.g. interactive boards) and the simulation of the application (e.g. deformation of hepatic cells, change of the cell’s transparency etc). Finally, the feeling of presence in the virtual worlds was supported by the use of textures, lights, sounds and detailed 3D modeling in order to enhance the realism of the virtual environment. Specifically, the virtual environment consists of the following virtual worlds: •
Entrance: The role of the entrance is mainly to enhance the feeling of presence within the virtual environment and transfer students to a familiar place, which is a part of previous knowledge and makes them
able to perceive easier the interface of the system. The entrance is the first virtual world of the application and it leads students to the three other educational rooms: classroom, lab and library. Classroom: The virtual classroom plays a significant role in the learning process reproducing conditions developed in a real university classroom. Students participate in the learning process, in which they have direct access to the educational material (images and text) through their interaction with a virtual board. Specifically, as shown in Figure 6a, the virtual board is divided in five parts. The bottom of the board allows students to choose the course (e.g. Histology-Embryology I) and its left part contains the chapters of each course. The educational material is presented at the centre (images) and the right part (text) of the board, while special buttons on the upper part allows the browsing of the educational content. Laboratory: The lab of the application plays a dual role. Primarily, its role is to allow students to attend virtual lectures. This can be achieved through a virtual
Figure 7. The simulation of hepatic cells
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screen, which reproduces videos from real lectures. The video is assigned as a texture on the virtual screen, while students can handle it (start, stop) using buttons located on the upper part of the screen. The second role of the virtual lab is to connect the physical learning environment with the simulation of the application. Specifically, students interact with the virtual microscopes, which are active objects of the virtual world and transfer students to the simulation of hepatic cells. Library: The virtual library provides connections with external data sources. Specifically, students are able to navigate within the virtual world of the library searching for knowledge and interact with virtual objects (books, signs etc), which connects to external information sources (e.g. e-libraries) containing relative educational content (Figure 6b). Simulation: The simulator is a real-time interactive application, which allows the study of a specific pathological condition and the cellular structure of human liver (Figure 7). The simulation represents in 3D space a characteristic portion of the cellu-
lar structure of liver and the deformation of hepatic cells resulting in the flow of bile in the blood. The modeling of all models was performed under the guidance and supervision of expert doctors. The simulation provides multiple interactive functionalities, such as navigation in 3D space, deformation of cells or change of their transparency. Thus, students actively participate in the learning process acquiring knowledge through their interaction with the virtual models. The proposed application has been designed and developed for the distance education of medical students; however, it can be also used as a valuable complementary tool in a real university classroom. Especially, the use of the Webbased simulation in a real learning process can assist students to perceive easier the cellular structure of human liver as well as to study the development of a pathological condition resulting in jaundice.
FUTURe ReSeARCH DIReCTION Nowadays, a virtual world is defined as being a computer-based virtual environment, where users can interact with each other and the environment. The use of 3D reconstruction techniques for creating 3D models from dynamic scenes is expected to give rise to tele-immersed worlds, where users will be represented by their own reconstructed models. The user will have full capabilities of walking around the virtual or augmented environment and interact with it or with the rest of the tele-immersed users. This new technology will offer to the user the possibility to interact with remote people like being there and doing things together in a complete collaborative and immersive environment. However, this technology still faces some limitation in terms of computational
and network requirements. Furthermore, special equipment (e.g. a large number of cameras) is required for the reconstruction of user’s model, reducing so the number of potential users i.e. special equipped studios are required for the participation of a user in the tele-immersed world.
CONCLUSION In this chapter we presented a study on the designing and building of virtual reality environments for distance education on the Web. The mostly applied pedagogical methods such as behaviorism, cognitivism, constructivism and collaborative learning were studied and specific designing requirements were analyzed based on the triple nature of web-base virtual learning environments. The chapter also includes research on the role of virtual reality and Web technologies in distance education and presents a prototype system for the distance education of medical students. The proposed application takes advantage of the recent advances on Web and virtual reality technologies in order to reproduce conditions of a real learning process and enhance learning through a real-time interactive simulator providing significant advantages to the distance education of medical students. In the future, the application can be extended to support a wide range of medical simulations and relative educational material providing so a more integrated educational role.
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Chapter 11
Teaching in the Virtual Theatre Classroom Stephen A. Schrum University of Pittsburgh at Greensburg, USA
ABSTRACT Theatre as a discipline has long been thought of as traditional, organic, and non-technological. In performance, at least one actor performs in a space inhabited by at least one spectator, and their interaction defines the theatrical event. In the teaching of theatre, students apprentice themselves to and are taught directly by masters in the field. However, in the 21st Century, the application of digital technology to the realms of theatrical performance and teaching has augmented the production of, and the methodology behind, the teaching of the theatrical art. Multi-User Virtual Environments (MUVEs), such as Second Life®, afford educators a rich interactive setting that both mirrors and enhances education and training in theatre, in the areas of ancient site reconstruction and student exploration of a virtual world. My teaching of a course titled Theatre Technology resulted in the development of some concepts regarding how a MUVE might be useful in theatre education.
INTRODUCTION Theatre technology has evolved drastically (one might even say dramatically) since the first formal productions by the ancient Greeks in the 5th Century B.C.E. For example, the Greeks selected daytime for the presentation of their plays, since they relied on sunlight for visibility before a collective live audience. Now, in a multi-user virtual DOI: 10.4018/978-1-61692-822-3.ch011
environment (MUVE), such as Second Life®, we may perform at any time of day and, with the use of a preferences slider, select the brightness of the sun or moon, a view to be shared by an audience that is at once present in the environment and dispersed across the globe. The same MUVE technology can also be applied effectively to teaching. As Berge (2008) states: “The characteristics of virtual worlds, as a medium, promote learning that is informal and collaborative, with content and context that is
user-created. Along with being highly social, the media-rich environment often promotes quite intense engagement” (p. 408). A MUVE can provide a learning environment to support “active, sensing, global learners” (Junglas et al., 2007, p. 93). Students may interact with their virtual environment, experiencing “discovery, investigation, and creation” (Coffman & Klinger, 2007, p. 29), while working on collaborative projects within the world. Ohio University’s VITAL Lab website, Second Life Development (2009), lists a variety of possible class projects and games that others can utilize. By finding themselves immersed in defined projects, students have a prescribed goal toward which to work, and working actively toward that goal has as its consequence the learning and enhanced retention of the intended subject matter. While we assume that the instructor for a course is a content specialist, the virtual world also allows for an availability of other experts in a given area. Of course, a campus could employ a virtual environment for distance learning, bringing students from various locations together within the virtual world. Students may also visit or be visited by guest speakers, who may be local to their campus, or hail from across the planet. The interconnectivity, through a MUVE, holds the promise of education occurring in a Marshall McLuhan-esque global village, where instantaneous communication happens via digital technology. Because of my experiences with producing theatre in Second Life (SL), this particular MUVE seemed an ideal setting for a new course entitled “Theatre Technology.” Following are my experiences with this course (taught in Spring 2008), with an explanation of the course rationale, the in-class assignments that dealt with SL, and a discussion of how the use of SL in this particular course might be applied to teaching other courses in a multi-user virtual environment.
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TeACHINg IN mUVeS The incorporation of digital technology into teaching has lead to a paradigm shift in the way some academics interact with students. Beginning with the assumption that students absorb and retain material better through active learning techniques, such as “physical activity or discussion” (Junglas, 2007, p. 90), we find that digital technology in general, and multi-user virtual environments in particular, can be utilized to promote active learning. Within virtual worlds, students are not passive observers or receivers of information, but rather interact with content, or may even create it themselves. Hence, virtual worlds, when used as a platform for teaching, place the student into an active learning environment. Within the virtual world, the instructor may utilize a variety of active projects; as students move through the world, they interact with their environment, with objects, and with others. The others may be classmates or complete strangers they happen to encounter along the way. Such encounters, which allow for improvisational communication, can be as fruitful as the structured experiences an instructor has planned and created for the students. While a virtual world classroom experience exhibits some obvious differences from the real world (RL, or real life) classroom, both instructors and students may discover that similarities occur as well, as teaching and learning techniques are translated from the real to the virtual world. For example, peer teaching, a vital tool that urges students to help each other, can happen quite effectively when the students buy into the virtual world in regard to telepresence—the perception that they are indeed in the other world—and copresence—the perception that others are with them in that world (Peterson, 2006, pp. 98-99). The virtual world can thus replicate “the social, fun aspects of getting to know fellow students, commiserating with them about difficult assign-
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ments and feeling the camaraderie of the class” (Nesson & Nesson, 2009, p. 278). At the same time, the instructor must continue to provide a guiding hand as students become acclimated to the virtual world. However, it is likely that the instructor will find a changing role, “From expert and perhaps the sole or major information source, to facilitator, coach, or mentor—in other words, to one who, first and foremost, provides leadership and wisdom in guiding student learning” (Berge, 2008, pp. 408-409). Nevertheless, the instructor’s role continues to be an important one in this brave new virtual world. She cannot sit back and let the students explore on their own, but must also take an active role. In the same way we find direct contact between the instructor and the students important in the real classroom, the same relationship exists in the virtual. As Nesson suggests, “Without a personal connection to the instructor, students may not feel comfortable asking for the help… they need” (p 278). Instructors must find ways to adapt to this new environment, and new methods of not only presenting themselves to the students but also new ways of interacting with the students in the cyberspace classroom (Berge, 2008, pp. 411-412). At the same time, instructors need to find methods of incorporating the “points of difference” between teaching in the real and virtual worlds (Nesson & Nesson, 2009, p. 274). Further specific discussion of the benefits of bringing students to a MUVE will be discussed below, within the specifics of my Theatre Technology course.
THeATRe INSTRUCTION IN SeCOND LIFe One of the goals I have endeavored to reach with all of my RL theatre courses is that of “teaching theatre with theatre”—that is, using the basic conventions of theatre and performance in the presentation of the material and the development
of projects relating to theatre. While this methodology provides students with a strong example of what theatre is, there are also limitations to this approach. For example, we can discuss the structure of an ancient Greek theatre, and I can point out similarities with the theatre space in which I am teaching. However, without a direct one-to-one correspondence, students who are less visually oriented may not be able to understand fully the details of the ancient structure. The usual method of theatre instruction has long been a traditional one, exemplified by the master/apprentice model. The instructor in the discipline, whether of acting, design, or other area, presents material to the student while they share the same space. The student then practices the material, attaining more experience, and working toward attaining the same master status as the mentor. Theatre production has shared this non-technological approach; theatre has long been defined as the interaction between an actor and a spectator in a shared physical space. Often, when confronted by the uses technology can have in teaching and producing theatre, practitioners and teachers balk; for them, the application of digital technology violates the organic nature of the discipline in which they have been working. For them, theatre is an art that flourishes in a personal, hands-on environment. Yet, these same practitioners may feel lost without modern makeup, machine-sewn costumes, or computer boards that allow lighting designers a wealth of freedom and possibilities. Somehow, the addition of the digital computer tool is anathema at present, even when other advances in technology have now been embraced. My own incorporation of digital technology in teaching Introduction to Theatre has shown (anecdotally) a rise in student retention of some course material (Schrum, 2000). While I do not advocate moving all of my theatre instruction into a MUVE, the extension of some aspects of theatrical education into a virtual classroom can be useful for a wide range of theatrical topics. In a virtual world, students
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can easily build a variety of objects, including completely designed and realized sets, without wasting lumber and hardware, yet while maintaining the ideas of proper design and usability. One campus has used this idea for a Film and Television Production class, with students reconstructing the setting and camera set-ups for the “Odessa Steps” sequence from the film Battleship Potemkin (Foss, 2009, p. 558). A virtual environment also offers an excellent method of teaching theatre history. Students may tour an ancient Hellenistic theatre, built to scale, and then teleport to a reproduction of the Globe Theatre, with minimal impact on time or the environment. (So far, no one has spoken much about the carbon footprint of maintaining a virtual world, but there are environmental advantages to MUVE teaching.) Theatre educators could take this even further. Imagine bringing students to a virtual reconstruction of the Elizabethan Globe, and introducing the architecture of the period. Suddenly, an actor, in period costume, appears and addresses the audience, and acts the role of Shakespeare, providing a first-person presentation of the playwright. (Some of these issues, as well as immersion in the virtual environment, are covered in Erik Champion’s excellent article, “Astral Travel in Virtual Realms: Evaluating Conceptual Understanding in Digital Reconstructions of Past Cultures,” 2005.) As suggested above, the virtual world offers a dynamic and interactive environment in which to teach theatre topics—an area only now being explored for the first time. Yet, while MUVEs offer a rich non-corporeal environment, the students need not be left behind, and can in fact become quite engaged intellectually—and so some of the normal dynamics of a classroom remain in effect. As educators we must still be aware that many of the same rules of teaching still apply; this is especially true in the areas of classroom etiquette, peer teaching, and in-class, as well as outside of class, communication.
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THe COURSe: THeATRe TeCHNOLOgY Prior to teaching the Theatre Technology course, I had used Second Life (SL) in only one instance of my teaching: projecting a virtual Greek Theatre and having my avatar, Phorkyad Acropolis, provide a tour of the structure, built to scale, that had been based on ruins of Hellenistic theatres. Previously in class, I had used groundplan drawings and photos of ruins to illustrate what we think we know about the ancient Greek performance space. Now, with this three-dimensional walkthrough, I could literally show the students what it would be like to be a spectator, or an actor, within the space. From my experience directing a play within Second Life (The Perm—Schrum, 2007), and from my time spent in the world both as a resident and as a performer, I decided to include the exploration of SL in a new course I created entitled “Theatre Technology.” The syllabus promised a “’theoretical’ study of current technology used in the theatre (lights, sound, video projections, virtual reality and virtual worlds).” The course rationale explained the reason for offering this course: In the past, theatre technology meant lights and sound, and later on the computer-aided drafting of scenery and perhaps lighting plots. With the explosion of the Internet and the World Wide Web in the 1990s, some theatre practitioners have embraced digital technology as both a tool and a medium for performance (and instruction). At the same time, the availability of computer technology has enabled anyone with a desktop or laptop computer to create digital content, and to share that content with others. Students use Facebook and Myspace to present their personas to the world, digital cameras and camera phones capture various moments of their lives and, with increased bandwidth and storage, the frequency of people sending self-created audio and video clips will increase.
Teaching in the Virtual Theatre Classroom
Students taking this course will develop useful skills that people may be called on to use in the workplace, and the skills will also be useful for those of us on the Pitt Greensburg campus, training digital photographers and digital audio and video editors who can use their new expertise in theatre productions, or across campus…. With the course I also intended to address a conundrum I had observed with the current student population. Recently, current traditionalage college students have been dubbed “digital natives,” a trendy term indicating a generation that has grown up with cable TV, the Internet/ WWW, iPods and ubiquitous cell phones. They have been described as being: Fluent in multimedia environments and have been exposed to visual, written and auditory input all their lives. Their visual stimuli have been trained by television and large screen movies; their written stimulus has been informed by e-mail and instant messaging; and their auditory stimulus has been instructed by iPods, cellular phones, and surround-sound systems. (Junglas, 2007, p. 93) This generation is in fact eminently capable of sending text messages without looking at their phones, and can take photos and movies and rapidly upload them to social networking sites (such as Facebook). However, this facility leads us to the above-mentioned conundrum: while adept at these basic tasks, they are not as skilled at manipulating digital graphic or video files, nor are they necessarily aware of how they are being manipulated by others’ uses of Photoshop and video editing. While they can interact superficially with digital media, many do not cultivate the skills needed to go beyond being an “end-user.” The Facebook photo upload page even says, “Got a camera phone? Upload photos straight from your phone.” This state of affairs does not bode well for an educational system in which we also hope to inculcate critical thinking in our students; while
inhabiting the digital realm, they often defer to the pre-digital adage of “to see it is to believe it.” My course, then, would include creating and editing digital audio and video and exploring the virtual world of Second Life. While the digital media portion resulted in many successful audio and video projects, that discussion is not germane to this writing. What is relevant are the methods I used to introduce the students to SL, the guest speakers visiting the course, and the assignments they completed while in the virtual world.
eNTeRINg THe VIRTUAL WORLD Before discussing the arrival of the students inworld (or in the virtual environment), I would like to address the idea of classroom setting. There are many college and university campuses with a presence in SL, and many of them have spent time and (real) funds creating either a simulacrum of their geographical and architectural setting, or some other utilitarian structures that resemble the traditional, i.e. real, classroom. This is not without merit; as SL resident Foster Cosmos has stated, “If we are doing something for purposes of convention, we should use something conventional” (personal communication, June 24, 2008). For example, there is one sim, or simulator, “a square, named region that makes up part of the Second Life world” (Rymaszewski et al., 2007, p. 330), which is dedicated to role-playing the Star Trek universe. In the required training sessions, uniformed Starfleet cadets sit in chairs at tables and read a text-based lecture provided by a Starfleet officer. They then click on the desk-like console in front of them and take a quiz to test what they have just learned. This convention of schooling is provided to give newcomers the training they need for role-playing in future activities within the sim; the familiar surroundings also clearly signify that this is school and the cadets should act and interact within prescribed societal roles. I have discussed the acceptance of societal role-
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playing within theatrical contexts and SL weddings elsewhere (Schrum, 2009). However, there is actually no need in SL for real classrooms, or even for spaces that resemble traditional learning environments. In a world where flying and teleportation are possible, ground-based walled classrooms, desks and chairs are unnecessary. While some residents of SL do report a feeling of discomfort while standing around (because it does not mimic what they are familiar with in RL), chairs and benches are not a requirement. For my purposes, I utilized two environments for class meetings. The first was land I owned (at the time) for my in-world shop and performance space. On the small parcel of land, dubbed Faust’s Study, I had placed a Victorian building to house vendors (similar to RL vending machines) for the poetry anthologies I had created in SL, and a small outdoor stage, with piano, drumkit and microphone, and a DJ booth off to the side. This small area was sufficient for meeting the class briefly before going off on other explorations, and for providing a vendor to give the students things they needed (landmarks to locations around SL, or other free objects). The second space was the Greek Theatre, then located on Cookie Island as a result of the generosity of Thinkerer Studios. Built by an in-SL company known as PrimeMovers (operated by Jenene Lemaire and Talliver Hartnell), the structure reproduced in scale an ancient Greek theatre. The much larger space allowed the class to sit on benches for speakers or performances, or to move about and create objects. In addition to providing ample space for hands-on activities, the location also imparted a sense of fun to the students and instructor alike, to be holding a theatre class in a traditional Greek theatre. Because only a portion of the class dealt with virtual worlds, the SL-oriented visits and assignments were spread through the semester, so we worked in SL between the digital media projects. This allowed the students to have time to work on the various media assignments and to develop
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their SL skills on a rotating basis, thus laying the groundwork for later activities. In this I followed the advice of Carter (2006) who suggests that, “People tend to learn best in ‘small pieces,’ so focus only on a few skills at a time” (p.1). Their first SL activity was to register with Linden Lab and create their avatars, or the representations of themselves in the virtual world. This is an obvious first step, since they could not otherwise enter the world. Avatar creation also forced them to confront the idea of their virtual identities. What first name would they create for themselves, and what last name would they choose from the provided list? Would they select their RL biological gender and ethnic appearance for their avatars? This immediate investment into the identity of their avatars marked a moment of conscious and selective rebirth in the new world. The course had twenty students enrolled. Regardless of sexual preferences, everyone chose their RL genders for their avatars. In the same way, all selected the appearance of their avatars to reflect their RL ethnic appearance; the sixteen Caucasian students chose Caucasian-looking avatars, and the three African-Americans chose African-American-looking avatars. The remaining student displayed his Japanese heritage with his first and last names, as well as his avatar appearance. After this initial selection, only two students tinkered much with their appearance; one, familiar with virtual worlds from playing World of Warcraft, found tattoos to decorate his skin. The other, originally creating an avatar much larger than his true (overweight) body type, often appeared for class as the Kool-Aid Man (which, of course, is also a rotund figure). Clearly SL can be a fertile ground for sociological and psychological research on the comparatively simple act of choosing one’s avatar. Following the creation of their avatars, and after allowing them to become familiar with SL on Orientation Island, I teleported them to Faust’s Study for some further information about navigation and communication, such as in-world
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instant messaging, or IM, and how to emote—that is, to use text to represent an action rather than dialogue (such as “Phorkyad waves hello!”). I then provided them with some landmarks (such as repositories of freebies, or free items) and sent them off to learn the basics of finding their ways in this new world. While kicking them out of the nest and requiring them (literally) to fly, I also kept in constant contact with them, both verbally within the classroom and through chat and IM, so they always had a touchstone to return to for help or advice. This was a constant within all of our SL-centered sessions. In order to familiarize the students with many of the features of (and possibilities within) Second Life, I created a goal-oriented exploration assignment—namely, a scavenger hunt. I created my own list, and later found the same assignment suggested by Conklin (2007, p. 11). For my version, I provided the students with a list of places to visit, objects to examine, and actions to perform. They had 75 minutes (one class session) to do tasks that would provide them practice time with maps, navigating and camera controls. Some of the tasks seemed innocuous (find a dance club, dance, and take a photo of yourself), but the completion of that series of actions familiarized the students with a variety of SL activities: how to use the inworld search function, to teleport within the search window, to interact with an animating object (a dance ball, that would cause their avatar to perform dance moves), to take photos of oneself in SL, and to send those photos as “postcards” from SL by email to the instructor in RL. (I created a webpage to display their in-world dance photos; see the References for the URL). I urged the students to work together, if they wished. In general, the assignment followed Villano’s advice to “make it fun (2008, p. 43), and Carter’s specific advice to: Have…students work in groups of 2 or 3 [as] it will help them to practice their basic skills such as walking and chatting. It will also encourage
them to collaborate and share their knowledge, as each student brings a different skill set to the environment. (2006, p. 2) Peer teaching often resurfaced within the course. Some of the students found their way quickly with the technology while others took longer, whether from inexperience with computers or with the virtual environment, or perhaps from not listening to directions. Also, there are often times in almost any classroom when students prefer not to appear lacking in knowledge or ability in front of an instructor, and feel more comfortable asking for the help of a peer. Since they could easily (physically) turn to each other in the computer classroom, or—as they added each other as friends, could easily IM each other in-world—they often sought out each other’s advice, unbidden by me. During this time, many of them found themselves interacting with other SL residents. Perhaps not surprisingly, they did not ask for help or directions from other residents when encountering them, uncertain as to whom the people might be behind the avatar mask. Early on (in the syllabus), I had alerted them to the fact that there are no “non-player characters” in Second Life (unlike the generic monsters found in World of Warcraft), and that “Second Life is a community of people; the avatars you will encounter are operated by thinking and feeling humans, as you yourself are a thinking/feeling person…. Therefore, you are expected to behave in a polite manner to those you will encounter in-world.” I did this in order to insure that the students would remain civil to those they would encounter, although the warning may also have distanced them from communicating with other, unknown avatars in-world. While they also did not engage in much roleplaying, and usually announced that they were there as part of a class, they quickly discovered the social nature of SL and the role-playing inherent in the world. Two students traveling together met a female avatar who invited them to her singles
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club and also to her virtual wedding, to be held in SL. With these invitations, the students quickly learned that there was more to the virtual world than just aimless wandering and exploration. As for the scavenger hunt, almost all of the students completed it successfully, achieving all of the points for the assignment. While I did have to walk around the classroom and render assistance to some, the students generally found the navigation in SL easy enough. My walking around the RL classroom lessened through the semester, as students became more self-reliant in-world.
gUeST SPeAkeRS AND ROLe-PLAYINg One very useful element of Second Life is its connectivity. We can easily bring experts and guest speakers to our classes without worrying about travel expenses. For the Theatre Technology course, I had two guests visit during the semester, as well as having employed the aid of Meghamora Woodward (aka Meghan Moran, a Master’s student in Communication Studies at San Jose State University) as a teaching assistant during some of the more chaotic class meetings. One such chaotic class took place in the Greek Theatre. Zayante Hegel of Santa Cruz, CA, met with the students to teach them the basics of building. The assignment was relatively simple: create three basic prim (or primitive) shapes: a cube, a sphere and a cone. Once created, they would choose a color for the objects in the editing window, stack them, and link them by selecting all three and choosing “Link” from the Tools menu. This is easily checked by selecting the unit, and moving it back and forth; if all the steps have been accomplished, the entire piece moves together. While the final step, attaching a graphic (texture) to the objects, was not required, some students did attempt this option, and Zayante alerted me to each student’s completion of the assignment to her satisfaction. Because not all of the in-world
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assignments translated into course points toward their grade, I then rewarded each student with 100 Lindens (or L$100), the currency of SL, to spend in-world as they wished. (A URL for the webpage that documents the building class can be found in the reference list.) It may be worth noting that, as with many active learning projects, some of the students “got it” before others had finished, and were left standing around, waiting for the end of class. One particular student, Justinn, decided to play with some of the free Star Wars objects that he had collected in his travels. In order to keep everyone focused in the space, I pulled out my Jedi light saber and Justinn and I mock dueled. While of course teaching and learning is a very serious business, the momentary distraction of the ponytailed professor avatar Jedi-fencing with a student put things in a different perspective—that perhaps the process of learning, and the environment of SL, could be fun. The other guest speaker, Fairylights Ewing (aka Katie Haegele), is a journalist in Philadelphia, PA, who had interviewed me for an article on SL poetry. Because of her interest in SL, I suggested via email that she be a guest in my class. Her response email indicated her hesitation, concerned with the cost in time and money of RL travel, but I suggested she be a virtual guest instead. She agreed, and visited with my class in the Greek Theater. The students’ next task was to be a search for in-world events they would find interesting. As a prelude, Fairylights spoke (that is, she typed in the text box, since voice chat was not yet reliable at the time) about some of the activities in SL she had witnessed, including some with interactive objects that she found quite imaginative. As virtual environments are inherently theatrical spaces, and users role-play with their avatars to interact with others, my students found themselves “acting” the traditional roles of students when relating to these guests, especially Fairylights. As she addressed them, they sat quietly and absorbed what she had to say. (I glanced around the classroom, to
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see that their RL behavior was mirroring their SL behavior, and that they were not instead checking Facebook and cell phones.) When she asked for questions, she received some very polite inquiries, echoing the observations of Peterson (2006) on the similarities between face-to-face and avatar communication. He suggests that, with the lack of “intonation and most paralinguistic features,” the resulting virtual communication transfers RL communication practices, “such as politeness,” into the virtual world (p. 97). This, in addition to the students “playing” the role of responsible students in SL, led to a very civil conversation and follow-up question and answer session. Our visits to SL were unfortunately interrupted by frequent crashes of the software in the computer classroom where we met, resulting in the air being punctuated by utterances of frustration. In order to hear more constructive comments about their virtual experiences, I required that the students record their experiences—about all of their assignments, but most notably about their SL visits—in a blog. This required some reflection, and not simply a terse set of complaints about their perceived aggravations. Again, taking a cue from Carter (2006), this integration of another kind of “RL resource” seemed a good idea for the reasons Carter cites: “Students can share their knowledge and experiences with one another as well as access other online information” (p. 3). By reading how the other students were interacting with SL, they could see they were not alone in their frustration with the software, and received informal peer-teaching tips and suggestions by this method. The postings also allowed me to check on their progress and offer any guidance needed for assignments or general navigation (or frankly, an attitude check, to explain the pedagogical reasons behind the inclusion of SL into the course to the sometimes technology-resistant students).
CONVeNTIONAL THINkINg An additional assignment I had given the students was The Bacchae Assignment. In the summer of 2007 I had applied to the Foundation for Rich Content (FFRC) within Second Life to fund a large-scale theatre project. The first phase was building the Greek Theater, and the second phase would be to familiarize my students with SL within this class. The final phase, occurring in the summer of 2008, was to mount a production of Euripides’ The Bacchae, an ancient Greek tragedy. The FFRC awarded me in Lindens, the SL currency, L$25,000.00 (approximately $93.00USD) for the project. In preparation for this, I asked the students in my class to read The Bacchae and participate in an in-class discussion of the play. Their assignment was then to suggest ways of making the virtual theatre production truly a part of SL. While many theatre productions in SL tend to simply bring RL theatre conventions in-world, I wanted to use the conventions of SL in the production. For example, when I staged The Perm, the avatar playing the hairdresser moved from one poseball to the next, each imparting a stance or animation to the avatar. These poseballs were in full view of the audience, and I did not hide them, as such poseballs can be found everywhere within SL. In order to prompt the students’ imaginations (in the assignment I urged them to think in terms of “creativity, originality and do-ability”), I suggested two possible examples for them to consider. 1.
2.
Gender bending can easily happen in SL, as members of either gender “present” as the opposite. This happens in the play with Pentheus, at the suggestion of Dionysus. Attachments can be used to “do” various things. For example, there are attachments that show the wearer giving off sparkles. Dionysus, in his usual godly form, may well give off particles.
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Students then posted their suggestions in the blog. Most disappointing was the post by a student who suggested several venues he had found for the production. Since I thought I had made it clear that the Greek Theatre (the one used for class meetings) had been built for that express purpose, I was a bit dismayed by that response. Also, one student went on at length about special effects for the opening, which of course is narrated by Dionysus but doesn’t actually take place, so there is no need for a lightning bolt to kill Semele, for example. More useful was the student suggestion that, “The avatar playing Pentheus might be able to change his opacity (some script should be able to do this) so he can be a little transparent when the character dies, and just have him wander around as a ghost.” Although we did not implement this, it was an intriguing idea. More useful was the suggestion that, “Tiresias should have his eyes whited out because he is blind”; the avatar used for Tiresias did in fact have all-white eyes. In general, however, the students were not successful with this assignment. Only six of the twenty posted a suggestion, and the results were quite mixed. In addition to the examples mentioned above, one reiterated the idea of sparkles, but offered nothing new. From this, I would surmise that most of them never really absorbed the conventions of SL in order to properly fulfill the assignment.
THe FINAL STeP For the final assignment in Theatre Technology, students could choose from a variety of projects, from audio only to short videos to a live SL performance. SL could be integrated into many of these projects, through performance and video capture, creating what are called Machinima (or machine cinema, films created within a virtual world). Many of the students opted out of the virtual world for their final projects, again due to the limitations of the hardware within the classroom or on their
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personal laptops. However, two students based their final projects around Second Life. One student wrote a short cinematic piece in which he was searching for a friend in SL. He visited several locations, and captured video from each place. Because one location displayed scripted weather (lightning and rain), he added sound effects behind the dialogue. Utilizing the conventions of SL, his avatar sat in an animated chair, waiting, and then teleported to other locations. Dubbing in a voiceover for his mental process (Where is the friend? Where should he look for him?), the audience could easily follow the action. The climax of the piece occurred when his friend appeared, clearly falling from a great height and splatting to the ground next to him. Of course, there was no damage done to the post-human, non-corporeal avatar, and so the new arrival stood up, looked at his friend, and they flew off to drink together at a club, to end a well put-together piece. A second student chose to do a “live” performance. First, the student loaded songs she had composed into her iTunes. Then, from her residence hall room, she played the songs via Simplecast, a software application that encodes audio in real time for streaming over the Internet. (There are a variety of such programs, including IceCast, and Nicecast on the Macintosh platform.) While connected to both SL and to the audio stream I had rented and provided for the purpose, she was able to play the role of DJ for her music. The songs she played were of two different types: techno-style instrumentals and other, vocal, works. For the former, she stood behind the DJ booth, and the booth animated her gestures to hold the headset to her ear and touch the spinning turntables; for the latter, she mounted the stage and stood behind the microphone, while that object animated her to hold the mic on the stand and move as if singing. The audience consisted of myself, the other students in the class, my TA Meghamora, Persephone Phoenix (a longtime supporter of the arts in SL and a member of the FFRC Board), and
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other random people who had responded to the event listing in-world. We danced in accompaniment to the songs, and applauded the composer/ performer as part of our expected role as listeners.
BRIeF ReFLeCTION In the end, my experience teaching in the MUVE of Second Life could have been better. Overall, we were hampered by aging computers that tended to crash the software on a frequent basis (though students who migrated to the more updated public lab had fewer problems, and of course were still “in class”). For my first time teaching within SL, I am not sure I was as prepared as I needed to be to create the most ideal assignments, and did not deal as well as I should have with the students’ resistance, and at times utter recalcitrance, to try something new. While most of the students grasped the basics of navigation, object creation and in-world interaction, only a few showed enough interest to visit Second Life much beyond the time spent there for class and the completion of assignments. Given my assertion about the so-called digital natives, I can only speculate that perhaps an immersive virtual world is an alien environment for those who merely graze on technology.
Some Recommendations for Virtual Teaching However, I think the advantages outweighed the problems and, having this first offering of the course to reflect upon, a second iteration of the course should go more smoothly. This first time through has suggested some general guidelines that I will follow the next time I teach in a virtual world and, as I think these guidelines are universal, I offer them here for others’ use. First, I strongly recommend that in-world activities and assignments be active, directed and fun. I have observed that a primary ingredient of
virtual worlds is activity. Whether one is exploring an unknown area or interacting with unfamiliar objects, a virtual world is best enjoyed in an active mode. My general observation of Second Life has been that it is event-driven; one must have a task to perform or an event to attend, rather than be simply “hanging out” at a location. Even if one’s avatar is listening to a live music performance, the default setting is usually to dance, rather than stand around or sit still. If one is investing time in a virtual world, one tends not to expect “sitting around” as an activity (unless there is an active discussion occurring). The assignments should also be explicit, directing the students through the required steps. While these can be distributed on paper, through a course management system (such as Blackboard) or via a course web page, the more detailed they are, the less confusion students will experience, and thus they will have more time to focus on the assignment itself. While this may seem obvious, sometimes we take it for granted that students will easily understand our instructions, or will have the same enthusiasm for exploring a virtual world as we do, as they simultaneously experience an uncomfortable learning curve. As for the fun aspect, again, as instructors using a virtual world, we are likely to find the virtual world an enjoyable place to visit, as well as a pedagogically sound environment, or else we would not choose to use it for our courses. While the fun can be infectious (with the assignment constructed correctly), we need to always keep in mind that our audience/students do not necessarily share our definition of fun; yet, by engaging them actively and explicitly, they may be able to play and have the “required fun.” One of the students (the Kool Aid Man, mentioned earlier) spent much of his free time in online multi-player war games, which he clearly found to be an enjoyable pastime. Familiar with movement, avatar transformation and verbal communication (which included both discussions of strategy and tactics as well as humorous and sarcastic commentary),
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he adapted quickly to Second Life, and produced the best final project, an action-packed and humorous Machinima created within the Electronic Arts game Battlefield 2. If an instructor can infuse that sort of active and fun aesthetic to assignments, it is likely that students would acclimate more quickly and invest more time and interest in the virtual world. A second recommendation is always to keep in mind that the virtual world is not real. This may also seem obvious. However, too often, content creators in virtual worlds follow the conventions of the real world too closely, and unnecessarily. Would those shopping in a virtual store need to look at racks of clothing, as American Apparel used for display in its SL store (Nesson & Nesson, 2008, p. 275)? The closeness of the racks interfered with the SL convention of scanning inventory, usually with photos of objects lined up on a flat vertical surface. For class meetings, then, do students need to sit in desks or chairs inside a rectangular classroom? Corporate businesspeople using a virtual world such as SL for videoconferencing and virtual meetings may create a board room with a meeting table and chairs for the sake of familiarity and to impose order, but are these necessary when we are trying to stimulate the imagination of the students in order for them to interact appropriately with the virtual environment? The third recommendation is the opposite of the second: to keep in mind that teaching in the virtual world still has many similarities to teaching in the real world. As we would not take students on a field trip, and then go off and have a beer as the students wander aimlessly under our assumption that they will naturally appreciate their surroundings, the same is true of taking students into a virtual world. We need to be present—physically in the classroom and virtually in the MUVE—in order to render assistance and guidance as needed. This may take some practice, as being present both in the real and the virtual worlds at the same time requires a high order of multitasking—though theatre people experienced with tech rehearsal
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weekends, merging actors and all the production elements, will feel right at home. Still, even an experienced multi-tasker may be overtaxed; at times, while answering desperate cries for help over IM in SL, I failed to notice a student sitting inert in RL, with his hand raised for aid. Of course, this is where peer teaching, another real world application, can be most helpful. Additionally, incorporating the above recommendations can minimize the desperation of the students and add to the success of the use of MUVEs.
FUTURe ReSeARCH DIReCTIONS We, as instructors, have entered the virtual world willingly, whatever our motivations, and have decided that multi-user virtual environments are potentially a promising pedagogical tool in our arsenal. Likely, we have also become quite familiar with the environment, prior to bringing students into it. However, with the digital natives’ lack of a more than superficial knowledge of technology, they sometimes find it harder to adapt. Yet: when I began using email in my courses (in 1993), I found I had to meet with the students outside of class and train them how to use the email system and the software they would be using for their assignments. Now, the students of the 21st Century use email with ease. For my first Playwrighting course session, I ask the students to write a five-minute play and email it to me by the end of the class meeting. My current students, without fail, turn to their monitors and keyboards, and begin working immediately without further instruction, submitting the final product to my email address by the end of the class meeting. There is no reason to believe that progress won’t continue on this front. Students raised on online multiplayer games and the Wii (with their identification with their on-screen avatar or “Mii”) are already being trained to think in terms of avatars and online communication, making the experiences of telepresence and co-presence (if
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not the terms) more ubiquitous. My only concern is that the technology (such as cell phones, text messaging and constant connectivity) may prove to be too great a distraction against an appreciation of higher education and culture. If the current crop of students referred to as digital natives are indeed a people indigenous to a New World, they may need an infusion of an older culture to widen their understanding of technology’s possibilities. I am not suggesting that we, as academics, “colonize” and “civilize” them (since that went awry so often in the 19th Century and beyond), but offer them cultural aid so they may themselves develop and evolve. Arts education in general, and theatre education in particular, is in an ideal position to maintain and impart this culture. As theatre is at the center of all the arts, using elements of painting, sculpture, movement, dance and music, all combined into a single art form, theatre education can provide simultaneously a breadth and a depth of training and experience. At the same time, technology continues to advance, allowing us to present topics and mentor students in virtual worlds that are, while still distinguishable from traditional methods, closer than ever to accepted and effective methods of teaching—including that of teaching theatre. Using the basic experiences as described above, future uses of virtual worlds in theatre education can include acting and role-playing (with voice), and the building/creation of more detailed sets and scenery. As we advance, there will be more potential and actual residents of virtual worlds familiar with performing in those worlds. As students become more comfortable with the basics of navigation and object creation, and as the technology becomes faster and easier to use, they can further develop other skills of the theatre practitioner. I foresee students not being shown a Greek or Elizabethan theatre on a projected screen but rather joining me there, creating virtual sets for theatre productions (whether a model for an RL production, or for an in-world production),
and more students performing music and theatre within the virtual environment. We may soon gather around our laptops and participate in online and virtual theatre, having no doubt that we are fulfilling the basic definition of theatre: the true interaction between audience and performer.
CONCLUSION Speaking at the Second Life Community Convention in August 2009, Philip Rosedale (2009a, 2009b), founder of Linden Lab, reiterated his desire to “digitize reality,” having called for digitizing everything in a speech to the Long Now Foundation in 2006. Expanding on the role of MUVEs, Rosedale suggested that we have been in a period of evolution that will soon reach a point of critical mass with virtual residents, and change into a revolution. His comments suggested that an increase in the offerings in virtual worlds (things to do and see) will lead to increased traffic by first tourists, and then more residents. Most interesting to me is this idea of evolution becoming revolution, because this change describes the history of theatre. The art of performance has evolved since its beginnings in Greece; gradually we have added technology—first fire, then gas lighting and finally electric lighting, along with computer-aided drafting and computer-driven lighting instruments. More recently, we have begun to interact with technology in performances (with projected three-dimensional scenery or by using video conferencing or other multimedia in productions), or to move performances entirely into the virtual world. This incursion of digital theatre has caused consternation among theatre purists, who fear a revolution, that we will lose the organic nature of theatre, of one-to-one, or face-to-face, communication between actor and spectator. It is likely that there is no turning back, and that the digital genie, once released from the bottle, cannot be contained; it seems inevitable
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that the use of virtual worlds will increase as the use of the internet increased with the World Wide Web’s introduction before the turn of the century. As virtual worlds become more commonplace, they will become more likely sites for education and teaching. As the expansion—the revolution—happens, there will be resistance, but with the proper preparation, educators moving into the virtual world will be ready to meet the challenges, having learned from our last stage of evolution. In the 1990’s, as technology became more frequently utilized as a teaching tool, educators attempted to sound clever and insightful by repeating the mantra of, “Change from being the sage on the stage to the guide on the side!” While this is a useful attitude to have when incorporating active learning techniques into the classroom, it fails to take into account that perhaps not all courses can be taught solely through active learning projects. As for teaching in a multi-user virtual environment, the instructor should attempt to be something slightly different than this mantra suggests: the guide on the virtual stage, not always visible, yet omnipresent in the real and virtual worlds simultaneously, and ever ready to aid students who may become lost in a potentially confusing brave new digital world.
Carter, C. (2006). Second Life Projects: Introducing Your RL Students To Second Life. Retrieved on October 17, 2006 from http://www.cxknowledge. com/Intro_SL.html.
ACkNOWLeDgmeNT
Nesson, R., & Nesson, C. (2008). The Case for Education in Virtual Worlds. Space and Culture, 11, 273–285. .doi:10.1177/1206331208319149
The author would like to thank Megan Moran of San Jose State University for her help in researching some of the background for this chapter.
ReFeReNCeS Berge, Z. L. (2008). Changing Instructor’s Roles in Virtual Worlds. The Quarterly Review of Distance Education, 9(4), 407–414.
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Champion, E.M. (2005). Astral Travel In Virtual Realms: Evaluating Conceptual Understanding in Digital Reconstructions of Past Cultures. Leonardo Electronic Almanac. 13(6/7). Retrieved May 10, 2009 from Academic Search Premier. Coffman, T., & Klinger, M. B. (2007). Utilizing Virtual Worlds in Education: The Implications for Practice. International Journal of Social Sciences, 2(1), 29–33. Conklin, S. (2007). 101 Uses for Second Life in the College Classroom. Retrieved on May 10, 2009 from http://facstaff.elon.edu/mconklin/pubs/ glshandout.pdf. Foss, J. (2009). Lessons from Learning in Virtual Environments. British Journal of Educational Technology, 40(3), 556–560. .doi:10.1111/j.14678535.2009.00955.x Junglas, I. A., Johnson, N. A., Steel, D. J., Abraham, D. C., & Laughlin, P. M. (2007). Identity Formation, Learning Styles and Trust in Virtual Worlds. The Data Base for Advances in Information Systems, 38(4), 90–96.
Peterson, M. (2006). Learner Interaction Management in an Avatar and Chat-based Virtual World. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 19(1), 79–103. doi:10.1080/09588220600804087 Rosedale, P. (2009a). Keynote Speech. Second Life Community Convention, August 15, 2009.
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Rosedale, P. (2009b). ’Second Life:’ What Do We Learn If We Digitize EVERYTHING? Retrieved on October 17, 2009 from http://www.longnow. org/seminars/02006/nov/30/second-life-what-dowe-learn-if-we-digitize-everything/.
ADDITIONAL ReADINg
Rymaszewski, M., Au, W.J., Wallace, M., Winters, C., Ondrejka, C., Batstone-Cunningham, B., & SL residents around the world (2007). Second Life: The Official Guide. Indianapolis, Indiana: Wiley Publishing.
Bronack, S., Riedl, R. & Tashner, J. (2006). Learning in the Zone: A Social Constructivist Framework for Distance Education in a 3-Dimensional Virtual World, 14(3), 219-232.
Schrum, S. (2007). Poetry and Theatre Performance in SL. Retrieved May 24, 2009, from http:// www.musofyr.com/Phorkyad/SLPerformance/ TheatreinSL.html Schrum, S. (2008a). SL Scavenger Hunt. Retrieved May 25, 2009, from http://musofyr.com/Phorkyad/ SLScavHunt/SLScavengerHunt.html Schrum, S. (2008b). The Bacchae webpage. Retrieved May 24, 2009, from http://musofyr.com/ bacchae.html. Schrum, S. (2008c). Theatre Technology Students Building in SL. Retrieved May 25, 2009, from http://musofyr.com/Phorkyad/SLBuildingClass2-7/TTSLBuilding.html Schrum, S. (2009a). Theatretechnology community blog. Retrieved June 4, 2009, from http:// community.livejournal.com/theatechnology/ Schrum, S. (2009b). Theatre in Second Life Holds the VR Mirror Up to Nature . In Braman, J. (Eds.), Handbook of Research on Computational Arts and Creative Informatics (pp. 376–395). Hershey, PA: IGI Global. Villano, M. (2008). 13 Tips for Virtual World Teaching. Campus Technology (January), 41-46. VitalWiki. (2009). Second Life Development Service from the VITAL Lab @ Ohio University Second Life Development. Retrieved May 10, 2009, from http://vital.cs.ohiou.edu/vitalwiki/ index.php/Second_Life_Development.
Baym, N., et al. (2009). Journal of Virtual Worlds. Retrieved on May 30 from http://www. jvwresearch.org/
Fischler, R. (2007). SimTeacher.com: an online simulation tool for teacher education. TechTrends: Linking Research and Practice to Improve Learning, 51(1), 44–47. Ingram, A. L., Hathorn, L. G., & Evans, A. (2000). Beyond Chat on the Internet. Computers & Education, 35(1), 21–35. doi:10.1016/S03601315(00)00015-4 Jennings, N., & Collins, C. (2007). Virtual or virtually U: Educational Institutions in Second Life. International Journal of Social Sciences, 2(3), 180–187. Kemp, J. (2008). Second Life Education Wiki. Retrieved May 30, 2009 from http://www.simteach. com/wiki/index.php?title=Second_Life_Education_Wiki. Lamb, G. (2006). Real Learning in a Virtual World. The Christian Science Monitor, October 05, 2006. Retrieved on May 30, 2009 from http://www. csmonitor.com/2006/1005/p13s02-legn.html#. Ligorio, M. B., & Van Veen, K. (2006). Constructing a Successful Cross-National Virtual Learning Environment in Primary and Secondary Education. AACE Journal, 14(2), 103–128. News, B. B. C. (2008). Moving to the Second Classroom. 25 November 2008, Retrieved on May 30, 2009 from http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/ technology/7747951.stm.
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Schrum, S. A. (2000). Begin with a Single Step: Adding Technology to a Course . In Schrum, S. (Ed.), Theatre in Cyberspace: Issues of Teaching, Acting and Directing (pp. 53–63). New York: Peter Lang Publishing. William, W. (n.d.). Learning in Virtual Environments: A Theoretical Framework and Consideration for Design. EMI 36:4 The Taiwan Conference—Instructional Technology an Lifelong Learning. 271-279. Yatz, Y. J. (1999). Kindergarten Teacher Training Through Virtual Reality: ThreeDimensional Simulation Methodology. Educational Media International, 36(2), 151–156. doi:10.1080/0952398990360211 Yildiz, P. (2008). The Multimedia Interactive Theatre by Virtual Means Regarding Computational Intelligence in Space Design as HCI and Samples from Turkey. International Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences, 2(1), 1–6. Zhang, J. (2007). Second Life: Hype or Reality? Higher Education in the Virtual World. Retrieved May 30, 2009 from http://deoracle.org/onlinepedagogy/emerging-technologies/Second-life. html.
the material is thought to lead to greater retention of the material. Avatar: Originally, the incarnation of a Hindu god. In computing, a representation of a human figure in a computer game, simulation or virtual world. Co-presence: The perception of a user of a virtual world that other users are present with them in that world. Emote: Presenting text as an action rather than as dialogue. In Second Life, typing “/me waves!” shows up on the screen as “Phorkyad Acropolis waves!” In-world: Shorthand for the location inside a virtual world. Machinima: “Machine Cinema or digital films created within a virtual world or video game system. Multi-User Virtual World (MUVE): A computer-based simulated environment in which users from across the globe interact as avatars. Telepresence: The perception of a user of a virtual world that they are within that other world. Theatre: A form of live performance that relies on the interaction between an actor and a spectator, and that involves a story and dramatic conflict.
eNDNOTe keY TeRmS AND DeFINITIONS Active Learning: Classroom teaching methods in which students do not sit passively receiving information or merely taking notes, but participate in full class discussions, discuss ideas with one or two others, or write short papers in response to the class material. This active interaction with
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“Second Life ®” and Linden Lab are trademarks of Linden Research, Inc. The author of this chapter is not affiliated with or sponsored by Linden Research.
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Chapter 12
Case Study of ASCIT:
Fostering Communication through Interactive Technologies for Long Term Sick Children Fabian Di Fiore Hasselt University, Belgium Peter Quax Hasselt University, Belgium Wim Lamotte Hasselt University, Belgium Frank Van Reeth Hasselt University, Belgium
ABSTRACT In the ASCIT project, several elements of Multi‐user Virtual Environments were integrated into a demonstrator enabling long term sick children to communicate efficiently with their regular school and classroom learning environment. By presenting them with an attractive and game‐like interface, combined with state‐of‐the-art audio and video communication means, the children were encouraged to spend time using the system and to keep up with the day‐to‐day classroom activities. The authors will describe in detail the three interacting parts in the development cycle. Starting off with the analysis section, the authors describe how the requirements for the system were gathered. In the section on the technical development, they present an overview of the various technical challenges posed by the usage scenario, including real‐time transmission of several high quality audio/video streams. Finally, user evaluation was performed on the demonstrator to determine to what extent the system efficiently addressed the identified concerns in the analysis stage. DOI: 10.4018/978-1-61692-822-3.ch012
INTRODUCTION During the last decades, health-care has moved from a hospital-based to a rather ambulant treatment because hospitalization periods are shortened and treatments are often carried out at home. If children are involved, this evolution also affects their education. The responsibility for education shifts from the hospital to the school which the child attended before school absence. Empirical exploration, however, reveals that regular schools in Flanders (the Dutch speaking part of Belgium) are hardly able to set up high quality instruction for these home-based pupils. The assumption of the present paper is that information and communication technologies (ICT) may contribute to a high quality school experience of children that are absent from school due to medical reasons. Although earlier attempts to use ICT for that purpose (e.g., PEBBLES (Pebbles)) exist, they often fail to illustrate the entire process design, implementation and evaluation of the technologies used. This initiative is intended to fill this gap by exploring the systematic design of an ICT-tool in Flanders.
Conceptualization of Children with a Long-Term or Chronic Illness To date, several terms are used to define the population of children with health conditions. Unfortunately, no consensus has been reached with regard to the definition of children with chronic diseases (Thies, 1999). Earlier definitions not only focus on duration or type of illness: Ramler & Rice (1997), for example, describe which impact an illness has to have on a child’s life to be categorized as a ‘chronic medical condition’. In line with the definition of Ramler & Rice (1997), in the present study the impact of the medical condition was conceptualized as the impact on the child’s school attendance, which affects both social contacts with peers and academic achievement. We define children with a chronic or long-term illness as children being absent from school for at
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least 21 continuous days or missing at least half of the class-based instruction due to their medical condition. In the present study children aged six to fifteen years old were taken into account.
Systemic Approach of Children with a Long-Term or Chronic Illness In this study domain, there has only recently been a shift from a single-actor approach involving proxy-measures towards a child-centered approach involving the sick children themselves (Borgers et al., 2000; Mukherjee et al., 2000). In the present study, a child-centered approach is chosen by adopting an ecological conceptualization of children suffering a long-term or chronic disease. In line with Shields & Heron (1995), a systemic approach based on the notion of ‘shared membership’ is used to identify the key actors within the environment of a sick child. At school, the first ecosystem, each child is a ‘pupil’ and so are the other children, while the same child is a ‘family member’ at home. School and family are predominant ecosystems in each child’s life, whether they are healthy or sick. However, a third ecosystem is added to the life of children with a long-term or chronic health condition: the hospital or the health-care environment in which the child becomes a ‘patient’. As Shields & Heron (1995) argue that all ecosystems influence each other, it is assumed that the central actors of these three ecosystems, which are teachers and classmates, parents and health-care personnel, influence a sick child’s experiences. Hence, this study adopts a multiple actor approach by taking into account the viewpoints of the different actors and those of sick children themselves, to fill the gap in earlier research.
The Importance of the Classroom experience The positive attitude towards school of most children with a long-term or chronic illness is related
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to the feeling of ‘normality’ that is created by going to school and taking courses. Furthermore, research on the classroom experiences of healthy children by Nuthall and colleagues (Collins & O’Toole, 2006) suggests that the classroom is perceived as a place to learn. Moreover, their results suggest that learning in a social context is more motivating than learning alone and that emotions influence learning. These findings support the experience of Bessel (2001) and Searle et al. (2003) that homebound instruction is not the most favorable option for these children, as compared to instruction in a classroom setting. In line with these findings, recent research suggests a negative relation between childhood illness and academic achievement (Koomen et al., 2003; Lähteenmäki et al., 2002; Wray & Sensky, 2001). Furthermore, the socialization opportunities of these children decline over time during periods of school absence (Lightfoot et al., 1999; Mukherjee et al., 2000). This is a rather alarming finding as La Greca et al. (2002) argued that social support of peers is essential for the recovery of children suffering a long-term or chronic illness.
Strengths and Weaknesses of existing ICT-Tools To date, a variety of solutions, based on the integrated use of information and communication technologies (ICT), has been developed and implemented in several settings. Unfortunately, a systematic evaluation of these attempts is often lacking. The most well-known example is provided by PEBBLES (Providing Education By Bringing Learning Environments to Students), an advanced prototype solution developed in the USA and Canada (Pebbles). It was launched as the world’s first fully functional ‘telepresence’ application: a social and technological solution that virtually places a child within the classroom by putting a robot in the regular classroom. According to Fels et al. (2001) the playful form of PEBBLES
creates a social dynamic between the children in the classroom and the remote student that is very different from that which would be achieved with an impersonal video monitor. In addition to these self-stated advantages, some weaknesses were discovered with regard to the PEBBLESsolution. For example, no information was found in the available literature on the opportunities of asynchronous learning. Furthermore, moving back and forth from hospital or home or moving from one classroom to another is assumed to cause interruptions or even an impossibility to continue the instructional experience. Another critical issue evidenced by empirical exploration in the field, is the high cost of developing and maintaining the PEBBLES-provision. A second remarkable ICT-tool to support children with health impairments is STARBRIGHT World, an online community where these children can connect to each other. Children on STARBRIGHT World can chat, read and post to bulletin boards, send email, search for friends with similar illnesses, participate in fun events and contests, surf pre-screened Web sites and play games (Starlight). Further analysis of the available papers on the use of SBW, however, pointed out that the communicative possibilities were seldom used by the children: only 3% to 15% of the time was spent on communication (Battles & Wiener, 2002). In the Dutch speaking part of Belgium (Flanders) in which our study is carried out, a type of video phone is already in use to support long term sick children to stay in touch with their family and peers at school (Jonge kamera). However, an introductory empirical exploration revealed that hospital staff members experience some problems with these tools: for example, there is an asynchronous delivery of sound and images, they offer basic video connection capabilities of rather low quality and if it is often used, it is a rather expensive solution due to the payment per minute of talking. Besides the use of this video phone device, the use of electronic learning environments (ELE),
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through which the school, parents and pupils get in touch more regularly, are increasingly promoted. However, these tools build heavily on text-based input. Therefore they are assumed to be less suited for pupils of elementary school age. Furthermore, we believe that traditional electronic learning environments fail to support active interaction between the end-users. We will focus on the quality of both educational and social processes in which these children are involved during periods of school absence. Departing from the positive experiences with the use of a video-conferencing tool for this population, such as by the PEBBLES-project (Pebbles), it is assumed that ICT might contribute to the quality of these processes.
Design and Implementation of an ICT-Tool: Design model and Theories Most of these earlier attempts to develop ICT-tools for this particular population of children suffering chronic and long-term diseases fail to clarify the steps taken during the design process. Moreover, systematic evaluation of prototypes is often missing and the underlying design theories are hardly ever made explicit. Therefore, we will explicate both the design theory and the design model used. During the last two decades, different design theories have been adopted for ICT-design with children (Nesset & Large, 2004). Early designers simply added some animations and attractive colors to interfaces developed for adults. More recently, designers have recognized the differences between both user groups and have given children the opportunity to participate in the design process (Chiasson & Gutwin, 2005). The present study adopts a participatory design, which is the most suitable theory for design projects involving children according to Nesset & Large (2004). Children suffering from a chronic or long-term illness are participating in our study as informants in all design phases (Markopoulos & Bekker, 2003). Two major characteristics of participatory design
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are prominent in the present design research: (i) the extended use of prototyping, and (ii) the use of modeling techniques such as criticisms, fantasies and what-if scenarios. The design model of Passerini & Granger (2000) offers a guiding framework for the design process, consistent with participatory design principles. The framework of Passerini & Granger (2000) focuses exclusively on the design of distance education courses. The aim of ICT-use in such a design is to teach the pupils specific contents, previously defined by the designer. However, the aim of ICT-use in our design is to deliver instruction and social contacts to pupils with special needs. The learning contexts, didactical strategies and learning materials are defined by the sick child’s classroom teacher, not by the designer. Therefore, the model of Passerini & Granger (2000) was extended by guidelines from the more general IDI-model of instructional design (National Special Media Institute, 1971) as a second framework. Although research on PEBBLES provides a first exploration of the field, no studies were found to describe the complete design process. A systemic evaluation of the ICT-tools involved is missing. The adoption of a consisting design model prevented the presented design research from this kind of gaps in the design process, such as the lack of systematic evaluation of the developed ICT-tool.
Research Questions and methods Through an iterative process, four interacting steps based on the design models of Passerini & Granger (2000) and the IDI-model of instructional design (National Special Media Institute, 1971) were undertaken: (i) an analysis of user needs, user characteristics and preconditions, (ii) the design of a prototype (according to a functional analysis), (iii) the development of the prototype, and (iv) the evaluation of the prototype. The research questions and methodologies used for
Case Study of ASCIT
each design phase are discussed in the remainder of this section.
DeSIgN PHASe I: NeeDS AND TASk ANALYSIS A participatory design model requires that children’s opinions are taken into account right from the start of the design process.
Research Questions and methods The research questions for the needs analysis were formulated as follows: •
How are the processes of instruction and socialization currently filled in for elementary school children, which suffer from a chronic or long-term illness? What needs and shortcomings with regard to both instructional and socialization processes are experienced by the participating children, their teachers, and parents?
•
To analyze the needs with regard to the instructional process, a conceptual framework describing the interrelations between key components of learning and instructional settings developed by Valcke (2005) is used. Within this model, instructional activities are defined as the interplay of five instructional components: (1) the
selection of learning objectives, (2) the selection of learning material or subject matter, (3) the use of instructional media, (4) the adoption of didactical strategies, and (5) the way pupils are being assessed. To counter the criticism of hardly involving sick pupils themselves in data collection processes (Balen, 2000; Lightfoot et al., 1999), structured interviews were set up with children. Each interview was conducted at the child’s home or at the hospital, took approximately one hour and covered the following themes: maintaining contacts with classmates and teachers; schoolrelated deprivations experienced during periods of school absence, and perceptions of instruction received during these periods. Table 1 shows some important characteristics of the participating children. Pictures taken by the researchers in regular classrooms and drawings made by the participating children were used to make the interview questions more concrete in line with suggestions of Borgers et al. (2000). The seven participating children complied with two criteria: (i) they were at home or in the hospital due to illness or revalidation at the time of the study, and (ii) they missed at least 21 continuous days of school or they missed at least 50% of the regular lesson time during the school year 2005–2006. All interviews were transcribed and systematically analyzed by two independent coders using the constant comparative method (Robson, 2002; Strauss & Corbin, 1998).
Table 1. Variety in participant characteristics Child
♂♀
Age
Type of illness
Type of school absence
1
♂
12
Chronic metabolic disease
Frequent, short periods
2
♀
8
Chronic skin disease
Frequent, short periods
3
♀
11
Cancer
Continuous period
4
♀
9
Leukemia
Continuous period
5
♀
11
Cancer
Continuous period
6
♀
12
Cystic fibrosis
Frequent, short periods
7
♂
8
Brain tumor
Continuous period
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Furthermore, home-instruction sessions of four of these children were observed and two other children were observed during a school re-entry activity such as a museum trip. Each observation was video-taped and completed with field notes. The data were qualitatively analyzed by listing all relevant observations per child and subsequently grouping the results into categories. Finally, a survey was administered by 24 parents and 25 teachers. The survey questions were based on findings of an earlier empirical exploration (Lombaert, 2006). From parents data were gathered on topics such as the perceived extent of involvement of their child with school during a period of school absence, the way their child keeps in touch with classmates and teachers, and the appreciation of the home-based or hospitalbased instruction which is received by their child. The classroom teachers completed a questionnaire similar to the parents’ survey. The survey data was analyzed using SPSS 12.0 for Windows.
to all instructional components distinguished by Valcke (2005), except for the learning objectives pursued. However, the needs of these children with regard to instruction seem to be predominantly related to the subject matter they are being taught at home and the didactical strategies used to do that. With regard to subject matter most attention in home-based and hospital-based instruction of long-term sick children is paid to the instruction of main subjects (mathematics and language acquisition). The needs of long-term sick children seem to be related to the courses which they are no longer able to attend due to health-related problems, such as gymnastics and craftwork. Only the girl who was not instructed at all (Table 2, child 6), missed the main courses. Most of them expressed a need for class-based instruction regarding at least one of the main subjects (see also Table 2). This indicates that instruction is very important for children in one way or another, even if they are not able to attend school. In addition, an excessive use of individual didactical strategies in a hospital or home-bound instructional setting was found in this study. With regard to the needs of long-term sick children concerning didactical strategies our results are consistent with Maheady et al. (2001) who found in several studies that students consistently prefer peer-teaching practices over traditional instruc-
Results The results are subdivided into needs with regard to instruction on the one hand and needs with regard to socialization activities on the other hand. With regard to instruction, we found that homebound instruction of long-term sick children is unlike regular class-based instruction with respect
Table 2. The official Flemish curriculum subjects and which of them are being taught during the child’s school absence. The asterisks (*) in the table represent the subjects the same children reported as the three (or less) subjects they miss most. Course/Child
1
Dutch
X
French (from 10 years)
X
Mathematics
X
2
3
4
5
6
7
X
X
X
X
*
X
X
*
X
*
X X
X
Religion
X *
X X
Social Studies
X
X
X
*
*
X
Handicraft & Music
X
*
X
X
*
X
*
*
*
*
*
Gym
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tional arrangements. A 9-year old girl describes how it feels to miss informal classroom contacts: “I would like to have mathematics in the classroom because I would be able to work together with my classmates. When I followed mathematics in class before I became ill, we often made exercises by ourselves and corrected them with the whole group. Or we could work together on an exercise. And here, at home, I have to do all the thinking by myself.” More detailed information on the needs analysis with regard to instructional aspects can be read in Lombaert & Valcke (2007). With regard to socialization opportunities of the participating children we found that they lack ‘normal’ social activities provided by school. We also found that social activities such as playing and cycling together to school and back were the things they missed most during periods of school absence. However, earlier alarming results related to loss of social contacts with peers and social isolation (D’Auria et al., 2000; Lightfoot et al., 1999) were not completely supported by our results as we found most children receive a lot of cards, pictures and e-mails sent by the teacher and classmates during the whole period of school absence. Unfortunately, most children are hardly visited and social contacts are often restricted to asynchronous forms of communication, for instance via letters. An 11-years old girl is rather reluctant with regard to visits in the hospital for a very specific reason: “I would like to be more frequently visited by friends when I am home. I am not very fond of visits in the hospital because I want to join them when they go home.” Norris & Closs (1999) found that a sick child’s class teacher is the key communication link to maintain these indirect contacts during periods of school absence. In contrast, we found that parents
are the main gate keepers to the outside world. For example, two participating children indicated to not have any contact at all with their teachers.
DeSIgN PHASe II: FUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS To pursue the design of a prototype, a functional analysis was conducted. The aim was to translate the needs determined in the former design phase into technology requirements.
Research Questions and methods Seven children and nine teachers were interviewed for that purpose. The children were asked to clarify their preferences with regard to different possible functionalities of an ICT-tool such as synchronous interaction through video-conferencing, asynchronous communication through a secure learning environment, remote control opportunities, etc. Teachers were asked to keep in mind an activity they did in their classroom the week before the interview and they would have wanted the sick child to participate in, if an ICT-tool had been available at that moment. The five components of instruction as defined by Valcke (2005) were explored and for each component the needed functionalities were identified by the teachers. These interviews were again analyzed by two independent coders using the constant comparative method, as no conceptual framework with regard to technical requirements already exists (Robson, 2002; Strauss et al., 1998). Secondly, the available literature on PEBBLES (Pebbles) and STARBRIGHT World (Starlight) was explored to identify weaknesses and strengths.
Results The functional analysis revealed some interesting data related to the end-users of our tool. Teachers were asked to identify an instructional activity
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which they lead in the week before the interview and in which they would have wanted the absent child to participate, if an ICT-tool was already at their disposal at that moment. Most of them chose a project-based activity. One teacher said for example: “We are going on sea classes next month. The next lessons of geography and biology will aim at giving the pupils background information about the sea. Normally X misses all geography and biology lessons, but if she wants to join us on this trip, I think it is important she has had the preparation. Moreover, I think it is important to give her the feeling of ‘knowing what’s going on’ or the feeling of being prepared. It is a kind of creating an atmosphere.” Within these projects, they would use ICT-tools for practical, hands-on activities, such as creating an exhibition and performing energy experiments because this kind of activities are actually missed by the remote children. “Within the ‘energy-project’ they are going to create and test things. For example, they fill two boxes of which one is painted black. Both boxes are placed in the sunshine and they calculate the differences in temperature.” “During the music project, I supervised a ‘voice chorus’. We were sitting around a table with six children and we only used our vocal cords as instruments.” Furthermore, a general characteristic of these practical project activities is the use of group-based didactical strategies. This finding confirms the importance of a variety of didactical strategies, which was already found in design phase I. The functional analysis permitted us to formulate technical requirements for activities for which teachers would like to use an ICT-tool. The most important findings and related requirements were:
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(i)
A need for qualitative video and audio streams allowing the sick children to see and hear what is going on in the classroom; (ii) A need for active participation through the use of remote control functions such as moving the webcam at the class-end, zoom in on the blackboard, request the teacher’s attention by pushing a button, etc. Furthermore, an easy way to pass on notes, worksheets, etc. is needed to keep the remote children involved. For the transmission of documents, a printer and scanner are necessary because a lot of participating teachers indicated that the use of digital documents is still scarce in education. Paper-based text materials should be easily and quickly transferable to the sick child. (iii) A need for asynchronous functionalities such as a storage place to post all kinds of messages and content, an online lesson schedule and an online school diary. Because all the formulated requirements seem related to the instructional process, children and teachers were explicitly asked what requirements they have with regard to their needs concerning social interaction with peers. Both, teachers and children claimed that the requirements formulated with regard to instruction are sufficient to meet social needs as well.
DeSIgN PHASe III: TeCHNICAL DeVeLOPmeNT In this section we elaborate on the development and implementation of the prototype.
Development of the Prototype Based on the findings of the first two design phases a non-working Flash-based mock-up version of the prototype was developed, divided into a studentmodule and a teacher-module.
Case Study of ASCIT
Research Questions and Methods
Results
A first set of usability tests was conducted with this mock-up in various settings. No virtual link was actually available at that time. These preliminary tests tried to examine the global user experience, as well as the way of interacting with the system and the already implemented functionalities, for the sick children as well as for the teachers. Five sick children and three teachers participated in the study. Most of the tests were conducted at the UZ Leuven (University Hospital) School and at the UZ Leuven itself. Before each test, the mock-up was installed on a laptop computer. This computer was connected to the portable usability laboratory of the IBBT – Centre for Usability Research (K.U. Leuven). This laboratory, consisting of a specific hardware and software setup, allowed video recording of the test user’s behavior as well as capturing what was on the computer screen. In addition, the researcher logged all test user behavior using the Observer software package. During the tests, users were encouraged to ‘think aloud’. In that way, the researcher got an accurate overview of what the test user thinks and feels. When finished, the test user was interviewed in a non-structured way. He was asked a number of questions concerning the user experience or specific observations that were not clear for the researcher during observation. After each test, the combined video tapes, log files and interview notes were examined in a qualitative way. Specific attention was paid to inter-observational findings or returning observations concerning the user interface, functionalities or overall user experience. Finally, the test results were translated into concrete recommendations, to be followed during the development cycle of the (working) prototype. During the test itself and subsequent qualitative analysis, the guidelines of Hadj-karim-kharrazi et al. (2005) for usability testing with children were taken into account.
As stated before, the mock-up consisted of a child module and a teacher module. Both modules were treated separately. The results of the child module tests can be divided into three parts: overall experience, function buttons and navigation. First of all, all test users (i.e. children) were quite enthusiastic about the application in general. They loved walking around in the virtual school, although some children found the navigation not consistent (see below). Compared with the results of the teachers, the children were much faster in learning how to walk around using the computer mouse. However, as one child had specific physical constraints, it is quite important to develop an application to which different kinds of hardware or controllers can be connected. In that way, the sick child can choose which controller to use– mouse, keyboard or other–depending on his/her own limitations. In contrast with the expected, function buttons throughout the mock up were experienced as quite clear (see Figure 1). Function examples were: scan a document, and ask teacher’s attention. After the tests, the researcher asked the child what it thought was the function of each button. Each button was equipped with a tooltip, showing up when hovering over the button with the mouse. However, no feedback was given after a button click, so the recommendation was formulated that during the development of the final prototype, enough attention should be paid to feedback mechanisms when pressing a button. For instance, when pressing the ‘take picture’ button, the child should know the system status, in order not to press the same button five times in a row, not realizing the command had already been captured by the system. Finally, the usability tests showed the navigation was not always straightforward. While–as said–the children reported the purpose of the function buttons was quite clear, this definitely was not the case for the navigation buttons at the
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Figure 1. Mock up showing function buttons
side of the screen. There were for example five possible ‘views’ or navigation statuses of the system: classroom-view, webcam-view, blackboard-view, desk-view and cupboard-view. The virtual desk served as a storage space for agenda and class schedule, whereas in the cupboard, a number of virtual books containing different kinds of documents (e.g., photographs taken in the classroom) had a place. During the tests, it became clear that different users had different strategies navigating from one view to another. This can become problematic, as it makes navigation nonstraightforward: different statuses could be reached pressing different buttons. As a consequence, enough attention for navigation and the corresponding actions was necessary during subsequent development phases. As far as the mock up teacher module concerns, the results are twofold. As said, teachers in general experienced more problems when walking around in the virtual world than had children. Results of the usability tests mainly concerned navigation and document management. Teachers experienced several problems when interpreting the navigation buttons. Even when asked literally what they thought was the purpose of each button, they could not always give a correct answer. Button design should thus be ameliorated. However, it should be stated that it is not evident to design buttons that are suitable for children (8 – 12 years old) as well as for adults. In addition, the different view modes of the application should be reachable from one central ‘home view’, which partly is the case in the child module but not in the teacher module. In the latter module, for example, the teacher can
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navigate straight from home view to desk view and blackboard view, but not to cupboard view. The cupboard from its turn can be reached from desk view as well as from blackboard view. Finally, all teachers more or less experienced problems with the built-in document management system. The purpose of this management system is to provide a shared workplace in which (scanned) photographs, assignments, exam forms… can be stored. However, test results showed that the document management navigation was not accurate. For example, there is no document overview (‘Which documents are currently stored in the place?’). Furthermore, navigation from one document to another is too limited. It is not possible to go to the last photograph, for example, and the user does not know how many items are stored. As a consequence, the user had to click multiple times before reaching that specific photograph (for example) he was looking for. As said, all test results were reformulated and taken into account as recommendations for the final prototype to be developed.
Implementation of the Prototype Firstly, a description of the virtual interactive community that was developed based on the findings of design phase I and II is given. Secondly, the network architecture is briefly discussed.
The Virtual Interactive Community Virtual Communities (VC) are defined as communities of people which share the same interests
Case Study of ASCIT
Figure 2. Views of the school environment, a) The virtual playground, b) The school building, c) Pupils represented by video avatars
or ideas and who are remotely present through the internet (Singhal & Zyda, 1999). The virtual learning environment developed in design phase III is a virtual community in which pupils that are absent from school due to health-related problems are still ‘telepresent’ in their regular classroom. Children of elementary school age are assumed to prefer non-abstract environments with a limited amount of textual cues (Chen et al., 2004). Therefore, a 3D visualization of the child’s classroom was chosen (Figure 2). It creates a more explorative, pleasant atmosphere. To initiate intuitive and natural interactions, it is assumed that a learning environment has to support communication, authentication, personalization and presence (Quax et al., 2004). In the prototype these four components are integrated as follows: •
•
• •
Communication through instant messaging, file transfer and audio/video communication Authentication through identification by a login-name and password, rights management and a secure environment which assures privacy Personalization through a virtual profile and a visual representation Presence through contact buddies and online status
When starting the application, the users (sick children as well as their classroom teachers) automatically end up in the 3D virtual environment. Navigating in this virtual world happens by means of a graphical personification of the user, which is called an avatar. By navigating through the virtual world, pupils can enter the virtual classroom. Unlike the rest of the world, the classroom is represented by a fixed and static 3D view containing the most important elements of a real classroom, such as a blackboard, a desk and a bookshelf. The virtual classroom, which is depicted in Figure 3(a), is the only place in the virtual world where the child with a chronic or long-term illness can join classroom teaching synchronously and asynchronously. The 3Denvironment outside the virtual classroom is intended to offer a space for social contacts with classmates, which is discussed later on. To follow classroom instruction synchronously, the sick child on the one hand and its classmates and teacher on the other communicate through video-chat, similar to using a teleconferencing system. Consequently, the sick child is equipped with a webcam and a headset. The classroom-end of the tool is equipped with a microphone and one or more controllable webcams which are permanently mounted. The pupil can watch the general instruction offered by its own teacher as shown in Figure 4. Furthermore, a printer and a scanner are available at both ends
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Figure 3. a) Example view of the classroom as seen by the pupil, b) View of the pupil as seen by the teacher
of the tool to facilitate document exchange between the two settings. By clicking only one virtual button, homework and corrections can be printed, scanned or transmitted automatically at both ends (Figure 5). In the same way as for the sick child, the teacher enters the virtual classroom by navigating through the virtual environment. In contrast to the sick child’s interface, the classroom interface needs fewer input from the teacher (see Figure 3(b)). As a result the teacher is not distracted from the regular teaching process by using the tool.
Furthermore, the following remote control functions are integrated based on the findings of design phase II: •
• •
The sick child can attract its teacher’s attention by pressing a virtual button. Subsequently, at the classroom end of the tool a light flashes and a sound can be heard. The sick child can move the classroom camera to the left and the right if necessary. The sick child (and its teacher) can regulate the audio stream sent to the classroom.
Figure 4. a) Classroom setup, b) Live view of the class as captured by the webcam present in the classroom
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Figure 5. Automatic scan, transfer and print-out/publishing
•
For example, if he or she is not talking, the child presses a button to prevent audio passing through from the home or hospital environment to the classroom. In the classroom a photo camera is added to permit the sick child (and its teacher) to take a snapshot of the blackboard or something else whenever more detail is needed than offered by the webcam.
For asynchronous use, some other functions are integrated. First, an online school diary and a lesson schedule are provided. Teachers indicated in design phase II the importance of keeping the remote child informed concerning the exact mo-
ment each lesson is scheduled. In our system, the teacher can automatically transmit/publish diary pages of classmates or a lesson schedule through the scan function. For the second asynchronous function integrated in the tool, the metaphor of a virtual book shelf, where information can be stored or retrieved, is used. On the one hand, there are public books which can be created or read by any user, for example to share pictures of the latest field trip. On the other hand, there are personal books which can only be created or read by the sick child and the teacher, for example a book to pass through homework (see Figure 6). The needs analysis (design phase I) and functional analysis (design phase II) did not only reveal
Figure 6. a) Pupil’s personal desk containing personal books like diary and homework, b) Class library used to store public virtual books
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needs with regard to formal instruction. In fact, children suffering chronic or long-term illnesses often lack even more the socialization opportunities offered at school. All functionalities mentioned earlier are assumed to contribute to their socialization too. Most teachers and children interviewed in design phase II indicated that the synchronous functions of audio and video chat are enough to fulfill the social needs. On top of this, a classroompresent device was built (Figure 4(a)), in order to foster social inclusion in the classroom as much as possible. The main design philosophy of this hardware device was to give the remote child a general feeling of presence in line with the suggestion of some participating children “to place the tool at their personal desk in the classroom”. Using a simple game controller, the sick child can rotate the device in order to look around. Finally, our system tries to fulfill the need expressed by some children to play during school breaks by offering the opportunity to join lifelike party games and by integrating links to online games, all set in a playful environment.
Network Architecture The network architecture of the developed tool is made up of several tasks and the corresponding servers used to complete these tasks. Both tasks and servers will be briefly discussed (see also Figure 7). When starting up the software, Session Management starts to run. It is mainly responsible for logging on/off users and taking care of authentication. After logging on, the user can navigate through the virtual world by means of an avatar. At any moment, all users are being informed of each other’s presence (i.e. position, mood, activity, etc.) but also of any obstacles in the world. This is managed by VIC Interaction Management. Communication Management is responsible for distributing multimedia content in synchronous
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mode (e.g., video-chat, attending classes). Given the real-time nature of these data streams, it is obvious to choose the Real-Time Transmission Protocol or RTP as underlying protocol because it handles issues such as synchronization and packet ordering internally (Schulzrinne et al., 2003). Finally, Data Transfer Management takes care of transporting data in asynchronous mode such as file transfer and audio/video mails. Each of these tasks is handled by dedicated servers. The session server takes care of logging on/off and authenticating users. In addition, it is also being used to initialize audio/video communication sessions and to set up file transfers. In order to manage all sessions, the ‘Session Initiation Protocol’ (SIP) is used (Rosenberg et al., 2002). Whenever synchronous communication is needed between two parties, audio and video can be exchanged peer-to-peer. When multiple parties are involved one single stream is sent to the communication server which relays it to the different parties. The VIC server takes care of the entire 3D virtual environment. This involves transmitting the world itself, synchronization between the clients and always storing a persistent world. The data server is used for two categories of asynchronous data. On the one hand, it stores configuration files of the users containing personal information such as audio/video parameters and address lists of the community. On the other hand, the server makes it possible to transmit and store (shared) media and files in asynchronous mode. To this end we employed Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) and File Transfer Protocol (FTP).
DeSIgN PHASe IV: eVALUATION OF THe PROTOTYPe In order to evaluate our system, field trials have been set up with the future target audience within authentic settings.
Case Study of ASCIT
Figure 7. Overview of the network architecture and the necessary client hardware
Research Questions and methods Six field trials were set up and case studies were conducted to answer the following research questions: (i)
In what way was the prototype used for socialization and which social outcomes were reported by the participants? (ii) Did the use of the prototype provide a larger amount of variation with regard to (a) subjects and (b) didactical strategies as compared to the learning contents of their home of hospital based instruction? In Table 3 some demographic characteristics of the participating children, their teachers and their classmates are summarized.
Each child had the prototype at its disposal for at least one month. The participating children, parents and teachers were asked to use the prototype in the way they perceived it as useful. Both instruction and social activities through ICT-use were instructed. At home or at the hospital and at school the people involved were instructed by the developers on the use of the prototype. Furthermore, contact information for technical as well as didactical problems was provided. We kept a research diary of all contacts with the participants during the trial period. This diary was consulted during the process of data analysis. In addition, for each case the following data were collected: •
Semi-structured interviews with the child, the parents, the teachers and the classmates
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Table 3. Demographic characteristics of the participating children, their teachers and their classmates Child 1
Child 2
Child 3
Child 4
Child 5
Child 6
Child characteristics ♂♀
♀
♂
♂
♀
♂
♂
Age
9 yrs
13 yrs
15 yrs
12 yrs
10 yrs
10 yrs
Chronic Skin Disease
Chronic Metabolic Disease
Traumatic Brain Injury
Hip Fracture
Leukaemia
Leukaemia
Residence at the time of the study
Home
Home
Rehabilitation Centre
Home
Home
Home
Ability to attend school
Yes, but less than 50%
Yes, but less than 50%
No
Yes, but less than 25%
No
No
♀
♀ (4)
♀ (2) ♂ (1)
♀
♀
♀ (2)
> 25 children
> 20 children
> 20 children
> 25 children
> 20 children
> 20 children
Illness
Teacher characteristics ♂♀ Classroom characteristics Amount of children
• • •
•
at the beginning and the end of the trial period A weekly follow-up interview by phone with the parents and the child (if possible) A diary kept by the teachers At least one, but most of the time two observations at the child’s end of the tool and at the classroom end of the tool A stimulated recall interview of the child
The data from interviews, the teachers’ diaries and the observations were used to answer the research questions. The data were coded by two independent coders into categories derived from the conceptual framework developed for the Second Information Technology in Education Study 2-study (Kozma, 2003). This model summarizes the factors that may influence the use of technology in the classroom and its impact on educational outcomes. However, the model was refined with categories typically for the context of children with a chronic or long-term illness, which were deduced from the data using the constant comparative method by two independent researchers. Thirty-three percent of the units of
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meaning were coded by those two researchers. The average percent agreement between the codes assigned to the units of meaning was: 0.78. To answer the first research question, a methodology similar to Nuthall’s methodology as described in Collins & O’Toole (2006) was adopted. The video data were divided in sequences of 15 seconds. Each sequence was assigned at least one code. The coding scheme originated from the data by comparing the categories found by two independent researchers and was completed with the codes used by Collins & O’Toole (2006). Furthermore, the data from the stimulated recall interviews with children were transcribed and entered in the SPSS-file as well to link emotions reported by the children during specific time intervals to certain activities observed during these sequences.
Results In this section we elaborate on the result of the field trials, separated into an evaluation of the prototype and recommendations for the employed hardware.
Case Study of ASCIT
Evaluation of the Prototype Despite some obstacles (i.e. connectivity and technical problems), the application was used at least three times (case 5) and in the other cases it was used daily. In all cases, the tool was used for socialization purposes. Only the oldest kids used it many times and initiated these contacts once in a while. Furthermore, in most cases the available synchronous functionalities of the tool were used to do so (except for case 4). In cases 2, 3 and 5 an increase in social contacts was reported. As the girls in trial 1 and 4 were able to attend school on a daily basis (e.g., in the morning) during the trial, the tool might be more important with regard to socialization opportunities for children being absent at school for longer periods in time. The ability of the tool to offer more variety in curriculum subjects seems to be related to the availability of main subjects in home or hospital education. The tool was predominantly used for main subjects in all cases, however, in the case with primary school children courses are added to the core curriculum of homebound instruction by using the tool. In most cases, the use of the tool offered the participating child an increase in didactical strategies used as compared to the amount of strategies used in home or hospital education (case 1, 2, 3 and 5). In case 4 not the features of the tool, but the ignorance of the teacher led to a narrow use of the tool in terms of didactical strategies. However, in cases 2 and 3 the teachers did not positively evaluate group-based strategies using the tool. This was due to problems with class management (case 2) and technical problems such as the limited quality of the audio stream to follow a class discussion (case 3).
Hardware Recommendations In the classroom, a digital camera is employed in order to take snapshots of the blackboard. The
results clearly indicate (i) to use a resolution of 1600 x 1200 pixels (i.e. 2.1 Mpixel), (ii) to avoid using the flash, (iii) that colors look better on a blackboard than on a whiteboard, and (iv) to use a camera that can be controlled by software. Regarding the webcam, a resolution of 320 x 240 suffices to have a decent view and frame rate (25fps). Tests also pointed out that it is even possible to capture a film that is shown on the classroom television. Concerning audio, the pupil easily can make use of a headset or the microphone integrated into the webcam. The teacher is advised to use a wireless microphone together with fixed speakers. This requires the need for acoustic echo cancellation (AEC), either incorporated in the microphone or in the software. The personal computer itself only needs to have a 3D accelerator graphics card in order to fluently visualize the 3D environment. Regarding bandwidth, the real bottleneck is streaming live audio and video. Our tests pointed out that when using the H.263+ codec (Bormann et al., 1998) for compressing video (comprised of 320 x 240 pixels at 25Hz), 128kb bandwidth is needed. This is quite acceptable as most people and schools in the Flemish setting own an xDSL or cable connection (download speed: 4.4–6Mb upload speed: 192–256kb).
DISCUSSION Both the IDI-model for instructional design and the design model of Passerini & Granger (2000) are iterative models. This means that findings of the evaluation phase could lead to revisions at all other phases at any moment during the design process. Although we presented the design of our prototype as a linear design process in the present article, revisions - initiated by evaluation findings - were made to the prototype. For example, during the first field trials (design phase IV) it became clear that the sound in the classroom when the sick child wanted to attract
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the teacher’s attention was disturbing the teaching process going on in that classroom. Therefore, we returned to the development phase (design phase III) to create the opportunity for the teacher to turn off the sound, only allowing the child to remotely control a flashing light to draw the teacher’s attention. This was evaluated more positively (again design phase IV). Another example was the complaint of all participating children that the opportunity of taking a snapshot of the blackboard was not enough to assure continuous attention for the ongoing instruction (design phase IV). During the time between the click on the button and the incoming picture (on average 20 seconds), the children hardly paid attention to the teacher’s or classmate’s talk and were mainly “waiting for the picture”. Afterwards, the child paid attention to the picture and by doing so it focused on content that had been discussed a few minutes before in the classroom. Therefore, a revision of the technologies in use was needed. The researchers returned to phase II by asking the participating children how they would improve the prototype with regard to this problem. In general the children answered: “The best solution would be to work with a webcam that can zoom three times: the first time to see classmates in more detail, the second time to see the whole blackboard. This zoom position would allow reading writings in a big font size. The third zoom position should provide a very clear view on the blackboard, even when the font size is smaller”. Based on these findings, possibilities to provide a webcam with zoom function were tested again in phase III, but the broadband capacities of most schools and families did not allow us to perform actual field trials with the new prototype yet. Furthermore, the teachers and children also pointed out the significance of audio quality, for example to follow a group discussion. Despite the illustrative strength of this case description, some suggestions for future research should be explained. First, due to time constraints– due to their sickness and the involved treatment
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the children seldom are able to participate on a regularly basis–no data was gathered and compared across different educational settings in the first design phase. The data resulting from this study did not allow us to conclude on the relative quality of instruction and social contacts between respectively the classroom and the home or hospital as educational setting. Further comparative research might refine the needs found in the first design phase and might necessitate another iteration through the different design phases to develop a tool that fulfils these refined needs more adequately. In line with this suggestion, it might be interesting to compare the school experiences of participating children as studied in the evaluation phase across different settings, e.g., the child being home-instructed, the child being instructed in its regular classroom and the child following classroom instruction by using the developed tool. Such a research design would lead to a more founded evaluation of the tool. Finally, longitudinal follow-up research is needed to illustrate the long-term effects of long-term or chronic childhood illness and the possibilities of ICT to affect these effects in a positive way.
CONCLUSION In this chapter, we described the IBBT ASCIT project in which several elements of Multi‐user Virtual Environments were combined into an integrated demonstrator that enabled long term sick children to communicate efficiently with their regular school and classroom learning environment. By presenting them with an attractive and a game‐like interface, combined with state‐of‐theart audio and video communication means, the children were encouraged to spend time using the system and to keep up with the day‐to‐day activities in the classroom environment. The overall concept of the system is based on an attractive 3D world, in which the individual children are represented by an avatar. The school
Case Study of ASCIT
environment is represented by a cartoon‐style rendering. This includes a personalized classroom environment, featuring an individual desk containing all relevant study- and other material. Children can remain in contact either completely in the virtual world, by communicating and interacting through their avatars, or in a mixed scenario, by using real-life captured audio/ video streams. For the first case, the traditional avatars (which normally consist of animated 3D models) are extended with video capabilities, transforming them into so-called video avatars. For the mixed scenario, IP-enabled cameras are deployed in the classroom environment to capture the day-to-day activities. These cameras are mainly pointed towards the blackboard, as this enables the students to follow the explanations of the teacher in an efficient way. This feature is combined with traditional webcam streams to enable one-on-one communication for personalized assignments. To distribute new assignments and tests, the system features an integrated interface for handling scanner and printer devices. A (paper) assignment can be placed on the scanner and sent to the pupil to be complete–and vice-versa for the communication between pupil and teacher. We described in detail the three interacting parts in the development cycle of the ASCIT project. Starting off with the analysis sections, we described how the requirements for the system (user needs, user characteristics and preconditions) were gathered. In the section on the technical development, we presented an overview of the various technical challenges posed by the usage scenario, including real-time transmission of several high quality audio/video streams (in presence of various sorts of NAT devices/firewalls). Finally, user evaluation was performed on the demonstrator to determine whether or not the system efficiently addressed the identified concerns in the analysis stage.
User Needs, Task Analysis and Functional Analysis Needs were analyzed with regard to two major processes in children’s lives offered by schools: socialization opportunities and instruction. In sum, we can state the most preliminary needs found were (i) to improve the socialization opportunities which children usually experience at school by offering them the opportunity to communicate synchronously and without go-between such as teachers or parents, and (ii) to supplement the current instruction these children have at home or at the hospital, in particular with regard to curriculum subjects and didactical strategies. The functional analysis examined the translation of these needs into technology design requirements. Teachers were asked to identify an activity they did recently and in which they would have liked the sick child to participate by means of an ICT-device. Most of them would use the tool for project-based classroom activities for practical, hands-on activities, such as creating an exhibition and performing energy experiments. These practical activities are most of the time group-based. Some of them would use an ICTdevice for non-practical group activities, such as a group conversation and a meeting in order to accomplish a project. Less, but still a few teachers would also use an ICT-device for individual tasks and instruction. These results are in line with the needs for more group-based didactical strategies reported by the participating children. With both groups of end-users (children and teachers) we searched for technical requirements the ICT-device has to meet, to fulfill these needs.
Technical Development The network architecture that supports our virtual community consists of several servers, each with their own tasks and responsibilities. In order to be compatible with existing standards and the dependency on communication services a substan-
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tial part of the architecture is inspired on the IP Multimedia Subsystem. With the Session Initiation Protocol (SIP) being the key technology behind the IMS, the client application incorporates the Intellivic SDK, a toolkit for integration SIP-based video telephony into an application. Due to the real-time nature of the A/V streams the Real-Time Transport Protocol (RTP) is being used. In order to not exceed the 128 kbps (or 256 kbps) upload bandwidth limitation the A/V streams are compressed using mpeg4 80kbit QCIF compression for video and speex narrowband 15kbit compression for the audio. Furthermore, HTTP, FTP and ENet are being used for transmitting media, messages etc. Besides a PC and a 3D accelerator graphics card both sides need A/V hardware including a webcam/camera and a headset with echo cancellation (AEC).
User evaluation In order to evaluate the system, field trials had been set up with the future target audience within authentic settings. The participants were said to make use of the prototype in the way they believed it to be relevant and applicable. Two major research questions were as follows: (i) In what way was the prototype used for socialization and which social outcomes were reported by the participants? (ii) Did the use of the prototype provide a larger amount of variation with regard to (a) subjects and (b) didactical strategies as compared to the learning contents of their home of hospital based instruction? In sum, we can state in all cases the tool was used for socialization purposes leading to an increase in social contacts, especially for children being absent at school for longer periods in time. In most cases, the use of the tool offered the participating child an increase in didactical strategies used as compared to the amount of strategies used in home or hospital education. The ability of the
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tool to offer more variety in curriculum subjects seems to be related to the availability of main subjects in home or hospital education.
ACkNOWLeDgmeNT This study was conducted in view of the ASCITproject financed by the Flemish Interdisciplinary institute for Broadband Technology (IBBT) and following partners: Androme, Alcatel-Lucent, Artec-Electronics, Televic, Vlaams Patiëntenplatform, Hospital School Gasthuisberg, Bednet vzw, and Vlaamse Liga tegen Kanker. We also gratefully express our gratitude to the European Fund for Regional Development (ERDF) and the Flemish Government which are kindly funding part of the research at the Expertise Centre for Digital Media.
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Bormann, C., Cline, L., Deisher, G., Gardos, T., Maciocco, C., Dewell, D., Ott, J., Sullivan, G., Wenger, S., & Zhu, C. (1998). RTP Payload Format for the 1998 Version of ITU-T Rec. H.263 Video (H.263+), RFC 2429. Technical report. Chen, C. H., Wu, F. G., Rau, P. L. P., & Hung, Y. H. (2004). Preferences of young children regarding interface layouts in child community web sites. Interacting with Computers, 16, 311–330. doi:10.1016/j.intcom.2003.11.009 Chiasson, S., & Gutwin, C. (2005). Design Principles for Children’s Technology. Technical Report HCI-TR-05-02, Computer Science Department, University of Saskatchewan. Collins, S., & O’Toole, V. (2006). The use of Nuthall’s unique methodology to better understand the realities of children’s classroom experience. Teaching and Teacher Education, 22, 592–611. doi:10.1016/j.tate.2006.01.003 D’Auria, J. P., Christian, B. J., Henderson, Z. G., & Haynes, B. (2000). The Company They Keep: The Influence of Peer Relationships on Adjustment to Cystic Fibrosis During Adolescence. Journal of Pediatric Nursing, 15, 175–182. Fels, D. I., Waalen, J. K., Zhai, S., & Weiss, P. T. (2001). Telepresence under exceptional circumstances: enriching the connection to school for sick children. In Proceedings of Interact (pp. 617–624). Hadj-karim-kharrazi. H., Id, B., & Blustei, J. (2005). Usability guidelines for usability testing with children. Unpublished research report, Dalhousie University, Canada. Jonge kamera. http://www.jongekamera.be. Koomen, I., Grobbee, D. E., Jennekens-Schinkel, A., Roord, J. J., & van Furth, A. M. (2003). Parental perception of educational, behavioural and general health problems in school-age survivors of bacterial meningitis. Acta Paediatrica (Oslo, Norway), 92, 177–185. doi:10.1111/j.1651-2227.2003. tb00523.x
Kozma, R. B. (2003). Technology, innovation and educational change: A global perspective. Eugene, OR: Information Society for Technology in Education. La Greca, A. M., Bearman, K. J., & Moore, H. (2002). Peer Relations of Youth with Pediatric Conditions and Health Risks: Promoting Social Support and Healthy Lifestyles. Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 23, 271–280. Lähteenmäki, P. M., Huostila, J., Hinkka, S., & Salmi, T. T. (2002). Childhood cancer patients at school. European Journal of Cancer, 38, 1227– 1240. doi:10.1016/S0959-8049(02)00066-7 Lightfoot, J., Wright, S., & Sloper, P. (1999). Supporting pupils in mainstream school with an illness or disability: young people’s views. Child: Care, Health and Development, 25, 267–283. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2214.1999.00112.x Lombaert, E. (2006). De behoefte van langdurig zieke kinderen aan ICT-gebaseerde hulpmiddelen voor onderwijs en betrokkenheid [The needs of long-term sick children for ICT-based tools to support education and involvement]. Paper presented at the Onderwijs Research Dagen, Amsterdam, The Netherlands. Lombaert, E., & Valcke, M. (2007). Instruction of Long-Term Sick Children in Flanders: a Multimethod, Multi-actor Study. Paper presented at the American Educational Research Association Annual Meeting, Chicago, Illinois. Maheady, L., Harper, G. F., & Mallette, B. (2001). Peer-Mediated Instruction and Interventions and Students with Mild Disabilities. Remedial and Special Education, 22, 4–14. doi:10.1177/074193250102200102 Markopoulos, P., & Bekker, M. (2003). Interaction design and children. Interacting with Computers, 15, 141–149. doi:10.1016/S0953-5438(03)000043
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Chapter 13
Staging Second Life in Real and Virtual Spaces Russell Fewster University of South Australia, Australia Denise Wood University of South Australia, Australia Joff Chafer Coventry University, UK
ABSTRACT Over a four-week period students enrolled in a second-year visual theatre course at the University of South Australia attempted to stage the online virtual world Second Life in a conventional proscenium arch theatre. The Staging Second Life project played upon the liminal space between ‘real’ and digital, and gave the students the opportunity to transpose a virtual world into a theatrical setting. The students actively played between these two media in turn becoming intermedialists. Within the hypermedium of the theatre they were able to remediate the conventions of Second Life via their bodies and manipulation of objects. The project reflects a growing trend in performance pedagogy where technology and new ways of thinking about its applications are increasingly integrated into the curriculum. This chapter describes the practical aspects of the course as well as the emergent theory of intermediality underpinning the Staging Second Life project.
INTRODUCTION Theatre studies as a discipline is said to be undergoing a significant paradigm shift in response to media changes and technological innovation, which as Chapple and Kattenbelt argue, have led to ‘, new principles of structuring and staging words, images and sounds [and] new ways of DOI: 10.4018/978-1-61692-822-3.ch013
positioning bodies in time and space (Chapple and Kattenbelt, 2006, p. 11). This chapter describes the Staging of Second Life which reflects such a paradigm change in a second-year visual theatre course conducted at the University of South Australia. Students enrolled in the visual theatre course attempted to stage the online virtual world Second Life in a conventional proscenium arch theatre, playing on the liminal space between ‘real’ and digital.
Through this experience students were introduced to the interplay of the arts and technology and given the opportunity to both practice and research the co-relations between different media. The Staging of Second Life reflects a growing trend in performance pedagogy where technology and new ways of thinking about its applications are increasingly integrated into the curriculum. This chapter describes the practical aspects of the course as well as the emergent theory of intermediality underpinning the Staging of Second Life.
BACkgROUND Virtual reality, according to Giannachi (2004), is in a paradoxical relationship with the real since it is both part of the real and separate from it. A viewer is therefore at the one time immersed within the virtual as well as interacting with it. It is through this juxtaposition of the real and the virtual that the viewer is exposed to the paradoxes evident in our everyday life experiences. For this reason Giannachi (2004) asserts that the virtual is both a space for aesthetic and technological innovation as well as the site of politics and ethics. Traditional conceptualisations of space and place are challenged by the virtual. As Wyeld, Prasolova-Førland and Viller (2007) suggest, cyberspace—the term coined by Gibson (1984) in his sci-fi novel Neuromancer, has no volume yet provides a sense of presence for individuals in the virtual places within which they meet and interact. They suggest further that presence, the feeling that we are really ‘there’, and immersion, the feeling that transports us to another place, are preconditions of place in 3D virtual environments. Virtual theatre parallels traditional theatre in that it provides a place for the staging of performances by actors in the presence of audience. However, as Wyeld, Prasolova-Førland and Viller (2007) assert, while theatre in a 3D virtual environment can be experienced as a passive representation of a particular conception of space, it also allows
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participants to enter a space beyond representation and immersion. Actors and audience are both ‘present’ in the embodiment of their avatar in the virtual environment as well as located in a ‘real’ space in which they subjectively view their avatar projected on the screen. In this sense, virtual theatre can be described as ‘liminal’ (from the Latin word ‘limen’, meaning threshold), a term Victor Turner adapted from the work of Anthropologist Arnold van Gennep to explain the ‘in-between state of mind, in between fact and fiction…and in between statuses’ (Bigger, 2009). Once of Turner’s great legacies was his recognition of the potential for liminoid performance to be transformative. Virtual theatre, as the space for aesthetic and technological innovation and a site of politics and ethics (Giannachi, 2004), can exploit this potential in contesting the hyperreality of mediatised culture (Auslander, 1999). Thus far we have focused our attention on performance within a 3D virtual environment, whereby actors and audience represented by their avatars controlled via a computer perform in real-time within a shared place in a 3D virtual world such as Second Life. Examples of virtual theatre in Second Life include performances that are played out in recreations of physical theatre spaces constructed in Second Life1 and more contemporary performances such as the choreographed aerial acrobatics and dance performed by the ZeroG SkyDancers2, which aim to break with conventions in exploring the native potential of the virtual Joff Chafer, the third author of this chapter, was one of the performers in the 2008 production of Hamlet in Second Life (Figure 1). As he explains, in virtual worlds such as Second Life the audience are free to move their camera around at will thus watching a performance can be more akin to doing a live edit of a film. Such freedom contrasts with traditional theatre in which the Director seeks to direct the audience’s attention and can result in the audience missing important parts of the performance. Various performing companies in
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Second Life have experimented with techniques to overcome these kinds of limitations. For example, the Ballet Pixelle company employs seating with set viewing angles that can be scrolled through via a menu in the Second Life Shakespeare Company’s more recent production of One’s a Pawn of Time, a camera HUD operated remotely was employed to change the viewer’s camera angles in line with the direction of the performance. Yet another, potentially even more powerful transformative form of liminoid performance involves simultaneous live performance in the physical space of a theatre and 3D virtual environment. This kind of performance is associated with the ‘blurring of generic boundaries, crossover and hybrid performances’ and can best be described as ‘intermedial’ in that it ‘inhabits a space in between the different realities of performance’ and (Chapple and Kattenbelt, 2006, p. 11-12). The theatre as a stage of intermediality can be regarded as a ‘hypermedium’ which incorporates a mix of media into its performance space (Chapple and Kattenbelt, 2006 p. 19-24). What distin-
guishes intermediality from other forms of mixedmedia is the transformative properties of intermedia; through a process of remediation media are refashioned at the level of both content and form (Bolter and Grusin, 1999, p. 45). Such hybrid performances are potentially transformative because they involve the corporeality and materiality of the live performance with media to intensify experience and ‘reflexivity of thought’ (Kattenbelt, 2006, p. 37). Paul Sermon’s (2007)Liberate your Avatar3 project staged in Second Life and All Saints Gardens in Manchester is an example of such an intermedial performance. As Sermon (2007) explained, the merged realities of Oxford Saints Garden and its Second Life counterpart enabled ‘first life’ visitors and ‘second life’ avatars to co-exist through a live interactive installation. Inspired by Sermon’s work, Joff Chafer adapted the techniques employed by Sermon to stage the Summer Dancing project in Second Life. In this performance, live film was mixed with a live blue screen image from Second Life through a vision
Figure 1. Joff Chafer performing in Hamlet with the Second Life Shakespeare Company
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mixer which was in turn projected onto a screen visible to the audience and actors (Figure 2). The Summer Dancing performance was based on an improvisation game used by Stan’s Café Theatre Company in the UK, Simple Math4, in which in which five people changed the order in which they sat on six chairs facing the audience. The improvisation piece had no conscious narrative, text or mime; the aim being to reveal the fractal quality of theatre leaving the audience to develop their own viewing strategies from the juxtaposition of details presented in the performance. In the Summer Dancing rendition of this piece, three dancers performed in ‘real space’ and two performed as avatars in Second Life. The dancers introduced elements of the animations of the avatars in Second Life into their live performance and through improvisation copied the movements from each other. The avatars in turn joined in with the movement sequence until they were are doing the full movement sequence in unison or in canon. This conformity was then interrupted with dancers and avatars deliberately getting out of sync with each other and then, one by one, leaving the stage. The Staging Second Life project undertaken at the University of South Australia (UniSA) was designed to expose students to this form of intermedial performance. As performers working with new technologies, students undertook first-hand research into the relations between the media of theatre and the virtual. Thus, students, tutors and researchers as well as technical staff were drawn together as a research community. Such an approach is entirely consistent with Boyer’s (1990) notion of ‘learning community’ in which students engage in critical reflection in the company of scholars. In the context of theatre studies, the stage became a laboratory as students, teachers, performers and technicians undertook research through the practice of performance and reflecting on the experience. The Staging of Second Life reflects this trend in performance pedagogy where technology and
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new ways of thinking about its applications are increasingly integrated into the curriculum. The staging played upon the liminal space between real and digital. There was a genuine interplay between performer and avatar resulting in a ‘mutual affect’ between these different media. When such mutual influence is achieved Kattenbelt (2007) notes ‘specific medium conventions are broken through and new dimensions of perception and experience are explored’ (2007, p. 6). And as Chapple and Kattenbelt (2006) suggest, it is within this liminal locus that a process of ‘transformation’ is taking place that gives rise to ‘new dramaturgical strategies’ in contemporary performance (2006, pp. 11-12). In the following sections we describe the Staging of Second Life within a visual theatre course at UniSA. First, the aims and objectives of the course, the topics covered and assessment approach are described. In the next section, the Staging of Second Life activity undertaken within the course is discussed and the details of the implementation of the real and virtual performance outlined. The third section presents the outcomes from an evaluation undertaken at the conclusion of the course. In the final section of this chapter, the implications of the staging for theatre studies within the undergraduate curriculum are explored.
eLeCTRONIC ARTS: VISUAL THeATRe Electronic Arts: Visual Theatre is a second-year course conducted on a weekly 3-hour basis over a 12 week period. The course offers students the opportunity to create performance work that integrates visual technologies. Compositional principles are conveyed through the body and technology and developed via improvisation and team work. Reference to historical and new emerging technologies offer interesting and exciting vantage points from which to explore the creation
Staging Second Life in Real and Virtual Spaces
Figure 2. Blue screen technique applied in the Summer Dancing improvisation
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of highly visual stage work. On completion of this course, students should be able to:
•
•
The drama program at UniSA focuses on performance making and the Electronic Arts: Visual Theatre course encourage students to think of themselves as creators or devisors in a variety of roles including performer, technician, stage manager, technical operator and director. The course also gives strong prominence to experiential learning and provides students with the opportunity to engage in a process of trial and error as they negotiate the generation of ideas and the challenges of implementing these ideas in the theatre. Students completing the course are required to demonstrate their understanding and mastery of visual theatre concepts based on the following criteria:
The course is practice based with each session set aside for students to develop work for assessment. Assessment is divided between three group-devised pieces that the students create over the duration of the course. In turn this practical work is complemented by an essay where students draw on the weekly readings set aside. The course primarily focuses on the integration of media with live action and this is reflected in the readings5, practical and written work. In the second semester 2008 offering of the course three practical assessments were divided up between three tasks involving the creation of the following pieces: The Second Life exercise (assessment 1b) required students to demonstrate their developing understanding and use of the body and the voice, body language, theatrical space and physical performance, and the performer’s relationship with an audience in a dual setting of live and virtual performance. The criteria for assessment were similar for all three practical projects and reflected the focus on exploring the play between live and digital or virtual presence.
•
Learning Activities
Make judgements about the use of scenographic projection and parallel technologies; Develop projects employing visual theatre elements; Understand and engage with audience reception of multiple visual communications
• •
Integration of the live performer with the projected image Live body extension, posture and balance Live and virtual bodies, voices and characters Rhythm of live and projected action Relating to the audience
• • • •
Geography of a virtual world such as Second Life
Over a four-week period twenty-one students (13 male and 8 female) enrolled in the second semester 2008 offering of the Electronic Arts: Visual Theatre course undertook the Staging of Second Life in a conventional proscenium arch theatre. Following a session in a computer laboratory exploring the
Table 1. Assessment structure of the Electronic Arts: Visual Theatre course Form of assessment
Length
Weighting
Due date
Assessment 1a: Mediatised Performance
One minute
15%
Week 3
Assessment 1b: Staging Virtual Worlds
Three minutes
25%
Week 7
Assessment 2: Essay
1200 words
35%
Week 10
Assessment 3: Composition
Five minutes
25%
Week 12
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Second Life environment, the students rehearsed short scenes that were shown as a workshop-inprogress to an audience of University staff and students. The students were directed by their course coordinator, Russell Fewster and visiting director, Joff Chafer from Coventry University, assisted by lighting designer, Nic Mollison and computer programmer, Kyal Tripodi. Students spent their first class in a computer laboratory creating their own avatars. For most this was their first experience with Second Life. The subsequent sight of twenty student-created avatars of varying shapes, sizes, colours and genders hanging suspended in the sky together over the University Island was like witnessing the spawning of a tribe. Attempts were made to co-ordinate the group to do a series of actions together with varying success; first positioning the group together as a starting point and secondly simple gestures such as bowing, clapping, blowing a kiss became realisable. More complicated movements like flying together were problematic as it was too difficult to keep the group together. The notion of how Second Life gestures might translate theatrically offered a way to transpose the
virtual into real life; indeed feedback from students and the programmer highlighted the ‘clunkiness’ of Second Life i.e., the time lag between typing and responses, and the robot like stiffness of the gestures. In turn, the coordinator encouraged the students to consider how they might stage this ‘clunkiness’ and to play with and enjoy transposing such Second Life clichés theatrically.
Set-Up of the Theatre The set-up of the theatre (Figure 3) was designed to create the illusion that avatar actors and live performers were interacting in the same shared space. To achieve this illusion the Second Life world was projected onto a large scrim positioned at the front of the stage and the student performers located behind the scrim on the stage were lit appropriately to appear as if they were in the same space as Second Life. The stage lighting was set low to avoid washing out the projected image and to balance the illumination of the live actor with the projected image. Two computers located in the auditorium were used to control the camera and projection unit,
Figure 3. Set-up of the theatre showing scrim in front of actors on stage and lighting stage design and image by Nic Mollison
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and to act as the controller for the actors. The second computer allowed technical support staff to move avatar actors around the 3D environment and to set-up props that did not appear on camera but were visible on the avatar actor screen. The overall goal was to ensure avatar, 3D props and the virtual landscape could merge with the live performer so that the virtual and real had a sense of shared time/space continuum. This required the use of two main techniques designed to match the two spaces by overlaying the 3D space in the real theatre space: 1) positioning the avatar in the 3D space to match the size of the live performer and 2) lighting the physical stage floor while projecting the avatar into this space to create an illusion that the avatar was standing on a physical floor plane. Since this floor plane was the same floor the live actor was standing on it helped to convince the audience that the interactions were occurring between the live and virtual actors in the same shared space.
Working with the Live Performers: Rehearsal to Performance The first rehearsal in the theatre involved students mimicking gestures in real time. Following the rehearsal, the students formed groups of between five and six students and improvised short scenes, which were then be worked up for staging. Students played out Second Life clichés of time lag and stilted gestures creating comical routines designed to emphasise the “clunkiness” of virtual worlds. The varying gestures of Second Life avatars are fixed and restricted to certain types of movements that are embodied in a mechanical manner. For the performer to interact in a meaningful way with the avatars they had to similarly embody Second Life gestures and movements. As one student remarked: The live performer based their performance around what the avatar was doing because it is a lot easier and quicker for a live performer to
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change what they are doing than someone controlling an avatar (Anonymous, 2008). Through trial and error it became evident that simple interactions between performer and avatar were the most effective. Thus narratives proposed by students were simplified to limit the programming and live manipulation of the avatar to a set number of movements and gestures. Following are descriptions of the scenes constructed by students: The first scene involved improvisation of the game ‘rock, paper scissors’. This group of students developed a scene that began with one student playing against an avatar projected onto the scrim, that was then extended by two more students entering and another avatar entering as well. A mock fight then occurred between the two groups of live performers and avatars, after which avatars and live actors exited. Live actors would replicate the ‘muscle flex’ gesture of the avatar symbolising victory when they ‘won’ the game, while the avatar’s gesture would be to cry; when the live actors ‘lost’ they would replicate the crying gesture while the avatar would embody the victory gesture and so on. The second scene drew on two techniques: the first was based on the early silent films of Georges Méliès which focused on magic and sleight of hand; the second technique drew on traditional Japanese Bunraku style puppet and object manipulation techniques. The piece began with an avatar creating a box in Second Life that was projected onto the scrim; the box was moved through space before disappearing or rather dissolving into an identical real box that was suddenly revealed on stage. Out of this real box emerged an actor holding a stick with ping pong balls to replicate the building signals of Second Life who then created a ball. The ball appeared to the audience to be a virtual ball, but was in effect a large white balloon illuminated by a torch and fixed to a boom attached to the balloon, which a hidden puppeteer operated. This piece therefore mixed live actors with avatars and real objects with a
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virtual object to blur the boundaries between the real and the virtual worlds. The third scene played heavily on the time lag and ‘clunkiness’ of Second Life gestures. Live actors mimed throwing the ‘virtual’ ball to each other with significant delays between the ball arriving in their vicinity and their attempts to catch it (Figure 4). Th0e piece began with live actors and the puppeteer-operated balloon after which an avatar joined in with the game. This scene, as with the first scene, progressed to a mock fight in which the avatar and live performers took turns knocking each other over with the balloon ball. The fourth scene was one of the more effective scenes for its simplicity and economy of staging. The ball was transformed into a virtual mirror ball accompanied by a musical piece and an avatar entered and began to dance with the music, employing ‘bump and grind’ gyrating movements (Figure 5). A live actor was then revealed upstage and danced with the avatar, emulating the avatar’s movements. The connections between the two were most obvious when both avatar and live performer were simultaneously dancing the same
movement. This scene also reflected the importance of physically separating the performer and the avatar to better distinguish between them. As a student commented: The live performer and the avatar needed to be standing a reasonable distance away from each other […] so the audience could differentiate between them (Anonymous, 2008). The fifth scene integrated the Second Life landscape with the live performer. The performer mimed lifting off to fly with the Second Life landscape falling simultaneously around them; a technique borrowed from Méliès and known in cinematic terms as the ‘matte’ effect. The performer who lifted off was then replaced by a performer lying flat on a hidden bench who mimed flying through the Second Life landscape twisting their torso sideways and up and down as they seemingly passed between the projected buildings and mountains. A kinetic integration was achieved between live performer and the projected Second Life landscape.
Figure 4. Live student actors play ‘ball’ with the virtual avatar actor
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Figure 5. The live and avatar actor virtual dance routine
The final piece involved a giant avatar of a T-Rex, which dramatically filled the stage. A live performer entered and called out ‘Rex’ much like calling to a pet dog. The projected T-Rex subsequently appeared and approached the actor (Figure 6). After some verbal coaching from the performer, the T-Rex sat as a dog would follow instructions from its owner. The T-Rex then began to become overtly excited, jumping up and down bringing down a virtual lighting rig (created to mimic the actual rig in the theatre) resulting in the actor rapidly exiting. One of the key ways of integrating the T-Rex with the actor was to program the T-Rex to swing its tail around in a 360 degree sweep and have the actor duck at the opportune time. This gave the illusion of the two being connected by the same action creating a sense of cause and effect between avatar and actor. The twenty-one students enrolled in the course were invited to complete an anonymous online questionnaire at the conclusion of the semester. This questionnaire included questions aimed at identifying students’ familiarity with and use of
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Web 2.0 and 3D virtual world technologies, and to assess the extent to which the Second Life platform of delivery was perceived by students to support the objectives of the course and enhance their learning. The questionnaire included a mix of Likert-scale (5 point scale ranging from 1 strongly disagree to 5 strongly agree) and openended text field questions. The results from this evaluation are reported in the next section.
Results Fourteen students (66.7%) responded to the evaluation; of those 7 (50%) were male and 7 (50%) female. The ages of the fourteen students ranged between 19 and 24 years. All respondents had computers and broadband access at home and stated they use the computer at home frequently or often. Yet despite fitting the profile of Prensky’s (2001) ‘digital native’ population (those born after 1982), 9 (64.3%) students stated they never use online multi-user games with the remaining 5 students (26.7%) stating they rarely use these
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Figure 6. Live student actor interacting with the T-Rex avatar on stage
technologies. Similarly, of the 14 respondents, 13 (92.8%) stated they never use 3D virtual worlds such as Second Life, with only one student (7.2%) claiming to sometimes access 3D virtual world. This was particularly surprising to us given 10 (71.4%) of the students are enrolled in media arts related programs and therefore pursuing careers in which they may well be designing for such platforms. Table 2 shows student responses to the three questions relating to the effectiveness of social interactions in Second Life. The average rating overall for these questions (based on a scale of 1 representing strong disagreement, 3 representing
a neutral agreement and 5 representing strong agreement) was 3.25. The criterion with the highest rating ‘The learning offered opportunities for interaction and communication in Second Life’ received a rating of 3.62. The lowest rating was given to the criterion ‘I felt as if I was communicating with a real person in Second Life’ (2.92). Student ratings of the nine criteria relating to the effectiveness of learning activities in Second Life are shown in Table 3. The overall rating of these criteria was higher than for the criteria relating to social interactions (3.47 compared to 3.25 for social interactions). The criteria that received the highest rating ‘I was willing to put in the effort
Table 2. Effectiveness of social interactions in Second Life Statement (1=strongly disagree to 5=strongly agree)
Mean
I felt as if I was communicating with a real person in Second Life
2.92
I was able to be expressive in Second Life
3.21
The learning offered opportunities for interaction and communication in Second Life
3.62
Average for all criteria
3.25
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Table 3. Effectiveness of learning activities in Second Life Statement (1=strongly disagree to 5=strongly agree)
Mean
The learning activities in Second Life required me to think critically
3.23
I was engaged in the learning experience in Second Life
3.71
Second Life was an enriching experience
3.23
The learning experiences were active and collaborative in Second Life
3.64
Using Second Life was fun and exciting
3.43
I was willing to put in the effort needed to complete the learning activities
4.29
I would take another course that used Second Life
2.79
I would recommend that the instructor continue using Second Life
3.43
I liked using Second Life as part of my course
3.50
Average for all criteria
3.47
needed to complete the learning activities’ (4.29); ‘I was engaged in the learning experience in Second Life’ (3.71) and ‘The learning experiences were active and collaborative in Second Life’ (3.64) suggest the environment can provide engaging collaborative experiences for students. The next highest rating ‘I liked using Second Life as part of my course” (3.50) was interesting given the students’ rating of the criterion ‘I would take another course that used Second Life’ was much lower (2.79). This rating would appear to be an active reflection of respondents’ views, since reverse ratings were obtained in response to an alternative question included in the survey, which was worded negatively ‘I would avoid using classes using Second Life in the future’. Students rated this criterion as 3.21, with only 3 (21.4%) media arts students disagreeing (1 strongly disagree and 2 disagree), and all but one of the remaining students strongly agreeing (21.4%) or agreeing 6 (42.9%) that they would avoid taking courses that use Second Life in the future. The one remaining student responded to this question with a neutral rating. This finding indicates that even though students in the main agreed that using Second Life in this course was worthwhile, they would not want to continue using Second Life as part of their studies in the future.
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Students were also asked a series of questions relating to the adequacy of the preparation they were given and the supports available to them in Second Life. As shown in Table 4, the overall student rating for these criteria was 3.47, with the highest rating for the criterion relating to the clarity of the introductory explanations (3.57) and the lowest rating relating to how well the activity was organised in Second Life (2.50). Student responses to a series of open-ended questions about their experience in Second Life suggest that some of the technical limitations of the communication tools in Second Life impacted on the effectiveness of the medium for interaction in-world. Several students commented that since they were already communicating in ‘actual life’ the limitations of the chat tools made communication more difficult. One student noted that ‘it was exactly like using a chat room only more complex and complicated, just because it has more options doesn’t mean it’s better’. Conversely, another student suggested that ‘We didn’t actually use Second Life much ourselves, but we did all enjoy it in the class when we all used Second Life together and generated some good interaction both in-program and in real life’ indicating that a blended learning approach has merit and is worthy of exploration.
Staging Second Life in Real and Virtual Spaces
Several students commented on the need for more time to become acquainted with the environment as well as the technical demands in integrating the virtual with live theatre. As one student pointed out ‘We could have done with a lot more time learning about how Second Life worked, because there were a lot of problems to work out technically, as well as problems staging’. This is not a surprising response given, contrary to our expectations most students were not familiar with 3D virtual worlds or games prior to taking this course.
Discussion The course coordinator used mediatised performance environment as a research laboratory in which students were encouraged to engage with new technologies and consider how to stage them in relationship to the performer. As the coordinator explained, ‘Digital presence is taken as a given as the current dominant cultural presence in the arts and students are challenged to consider how live presence may negotiate digital presence within a theatrical environment’. Within this educational framework the stage is considered to be a ‘hypermedium’ because of the unique capacity of theatre is able to absorb other art forms and technologies while asserting its own authority. The staging of Second Life within the Electronic Arts: Visual Theatre course played upon the liminal space between real and digital. The coordinator commented that part of this frisson between real and virtual worlds the performers embodied the stiffly programmed and somewhat uncoordinated gestures and movements of Second Life in order to appear as much as possible like an avatar. Similarly, as the coordinator explained, an object that could be replicated in both real and digital worlds such as the box served to cross over effectively between the two. The real balloon/ ball gained its efficacy much like the performers for appearing to be digital. This was achieved by imitating the glow of a digital ball and for the ball’s
puppeteer being hidden. In turn the performers’ gestures or actions that directly related to the virtual world aided this effect of integration; the flying action of the live performer not only embodied a Second Life gesture, but when performed within a moving Second Life landscape enabled the connection between the two. Finally, gestures that the avatars were programmed to enact and which the actors could physically react to also enhanced the sense of interaction. The cause and effect of the swinging tail of the T-Rex and subsequent ducking of the live performer and the games of rock paper scissors and passing the ball between performer and avatar all served to bring the real and digital together in a shared time/space continuum. There was a genuine interplay between performer and avatar resulting in a ‘mutual affect’ between these different media. The trial of Second Life in the Electronic Arts: Visual Theatre course demonstrated the potential of 3D worlds to engage students in collaborative performance activities that combine the live and the virtual. While it is likely that the technical issues did frustrate many students, the problem solving that arose from addressing the challenges clearly engaged some of the students who were then able to see the potential of mediatised performance despite the technical constraints of the Second Life platform. The observation that most students regarded the learning experience as worthwhile indicates that the learning objectives were achieved even though most students stated they would not like to undertake another course using Second Life. Given some of those students did suggest alternative platforms that might be used in future offerings, it would seem that the limitations of Second Life as an environment should not be regarded as a reflection of the possibilities afforded by 3D virtual world platforms in general. Notwithstanding the specific limitations of the platform identified by staff and students, the trial of the use of Second Life in this course did highlight several issues that can be addressed in
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Table 4. Adequacy of preparation and supports available in Second Life Statement (1=strongly disagree to 5=strongly agree)
Mean
Technical support was available when I needed it in Second Life
3.27
The introductory explanations on how to use Second Life were clear
3.57
The activity in Second Life was well-organized
2.50
The instructions for Second Life were clear
3.14
The goals in Second Life were clearly defined
3.08
I understood what was expected of me in Second Life
3.33
Average for all criteria
3.15
future offerings of the course. It was apparent that students need more time to become familiarised with the 3D virtual world environment; one should not assume that students have any prior experience using such environments. Students also need more time to rehearse their performances and as one student noted, to also watch recordings of their rehearsals to be able to better reflect on changes they need to make in the final live performance. Many of the technical problems staff and students experienced in combining the virtual with live performance have been identified and strategies for addressing these limitations identified through a process of trial-and-error undertaken during the course. While this trial-and-error process reflects the nature of a research laboratory, not all students were resilient enough to cope with the technical frustrations they experienced. A better balance between engaging students in problem-solving and collaborative activities, and the challenges that arise in such an experimental laboratory can be achieved in future offerings now that many of the unexpected technical difficulties have been identified and addressed.
CONCLUSION The staging of Second Life gave the students an opportunity to transpose a virtual world into a theatrical setting. The students actively played
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between these two media in turn becoming intermedialists. Within the hypermedium of the theatre they were able to remediate the conventions of Second Life via their bodies and manipulation of objects. This experience reflects a growing trend in performance pedagogy where technology and new ways of thinking about its applications are increasingly integrated into the curriculum. The next offering of this course will occur as a combined workshop with UniSA and Coventry University in 2009. The issues identified from this first trial of the course incorporating intermedial performance are being addressed in this next offering. This planned learning opportunity will enable students to experience another important dimension of mediatised performance, which as Giannachi (2004) suggests, ‘challenges notions of locality and regionality as well as globality, and even renders the idea of art being in and about a location somewhat redundant’ (p. 11). There is little doubt that the added technical demands associated with staging Second Life in two physical locations as well as the virtual will also expose new challenges for staff and students. However, such challenges also provide students with the opportunity to engage in problem solving and critical reflection as they undertake research through the practice of performance. As Henk Havens a colleague of Kattenbelt notes in a recent collaboration between the University of Utrecht and the Theatre Academy of Masstricht in Holland:
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Research and teaching go hand-in hand and we find it an exciting way of working for tutors, technicians and students alike (cited in Kattenbelt, 2007, p. 10).
ReFeReNCeS
Sermon, P. (2007). Liberate Your Avatar. Retrieved June 08, 2009, from http://creativetechnology. salford.ac.uk/paulsermon/liberate/ Wyeld, T. G., Prasolova-Førland, E., & Viller, S. (2007, 4-9 March). Theatrical place in a 3D CVE. Paper presented at the Computing in the Global Information Technology conference, 2007. ICCGI 2007, Brisbane, QLD.
Auslander, P. (1999). Liveness: Performance in a mediatized culture. London: Routledge. Bigger, S. (2009). Learn, live, thrive: Victor Turner, social process and performance. Retrieved January 13, 2010, from http://learnlivethrive. blogspot.com/2009/03/victor-turner-socialprocess-and.html Bolter, J. D., & Grusin, R. (1999). Remediation: Understanding new media. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press. Boyer, E. (1990). Scholarship reconsidered: Priorities of the professoriate. Princeton, N.J Chapple, F., & Kattenbelt, C. (2006). Key issues in intermediality in theatre and performance . In Chapple, F., & Kattenbelt, C. (Eds.), Intermediality in Theatre and Performance (pp. 11–25). Amsterdam: Rodopi. Giannachi, G. (2004). Virtual theatres: an introduction. London, New York: Routledge. Gibson, W. (1984). Neuromancer. New York: Ace Books, Berkley Publishing Group. Kattenbelt, C. (2006). Theatre as the art of the performer and the stage of intermediality . In Chapple, F., & Kattenbelt, C. (Eds.), Intermediality in Theatre and Performance (pp. 29–39). Amsterdam: Rodopi. Kattenbelt, C. (2007). Intermediality: a redefinition of media and a resensibilization of perception. Paper presented at the Intermediality: Performance and Pedagogy conference, Sheffield University, UK.
eNDNOTeS 1
2
3
4
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The Hamlet production was performed by the Second Life Shakespeare Company (SLSC) in 2008 within a virtual reconstruction of Shakespeare’s Globe Theatre. See also http:// slshakespeare.com/pages/current ZeroG SkyDancers are created, produced and directed by DC Spensley (AKA DanCoyote in Second Life). See also http://www.dancoyote.com/?page_id=85 http://creativetechnology.salford.ac.uk/ paulsermon/liberate/ http://creativetechnology.salford.ac.uk/ paulsermon/liberate/ The readings begin with the early integration of film into theatre by Georges Méliès, move to the current liveness debate and whether theatrical presence has become absorbed by digital presence and develops to newer forms of thinking on this issue in the theories of post-dramatic theatre and intermediality. The readings also refer to industry approaches to staging new technologies. The readings include the following texts: Giesekam, Greg 2007, ‘Magic to Realism: European Pioneers’, in Staging the Screen, Chapter 1 pages 27-50; Auslander, Philip 1999 Liveness: Performance in a Mediatized culture, Routledge, London; Carlson, Marvin 2003, ‘Video and Stage Space: Some European Perspectives’, in Joanne Tompkins (editor) Modern Drama (Special Issue: Space and
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Geographies of the theatre), volume XLVI Number 4, Winter 2003; Dixon, Steve 2007, ‘Digital Theater and Scenic Spectacle’ in Digital Performance, Chapter 14 pages 335-361; Fewster, Russell 2008, Live Media and the ‘Alive’ Actor see http://ses. library.usyd.edu.au/bitstream/2123/2549/1/ ADSA2006_Fewster.pdf ; Lavender Andy 2006, ‘Mise En Scene, Hypermediacy and the Sensorium’ in Intermediality in Theatre
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and Performance, pages 55-65; Lehmann, Hans-Thies 2006, ‘Media’ in Postdramatic Theatre, pages 167-174; White, Gail Scott 2006, ‘New Media Scenography’ in Live Movies, pages 125-133 and Hoffman Kira 2006, ‘Stage Management for Multimedia Performance’ Scenography’ in Live Movies, pages 149-155.; Live Design a Trade Journal available at; http://www.LiveDesignOnline.com
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APPeNDIx 1: eVALUATION INSTRUmeNT Example of the online questionnaire students completed at the end of the course. Experiences using 3D virtual worlds such as Second Life in courses at UniSA Top of Form Thank you for agreeing to participate in this survey. Data collected through this survey will be used to improve the quality of teaching and learning at UniSA and could also be used in external publications and presentations. Individual responses will remain confidential and no individuals will be identified. Demographic 1. What is your Program at UniSA? 2. Age Range 3. Gender Computer Use 4. How often do you use a computer at home? 5. How often do you use a computer at University? 6. How often do you use chat software / instant messenger (e.g. AOL, MSN, ICQ, etc)? 7. How often do you use social networking sites (e.g. Facebook, MySpace, Flickr.)? 8. How often do you use online multi-user computer games (e.g. World of Warcraft, Everquest, etc)? 9. How often do you use 3D online virtual worlds such as Second Life? 10. How often do you use social bookmarking sites? 11. How often do you use the computer to access podcasts / webcasts? Internet Access 12. Do you use a high speed connection to the Internet from home or dial-up? Second Life Student Survey 13. What communication tools did you use? ▪ None ▪ Second Life chat tool ▪ Second Life audio tool (Voice Over IP - VOIP) ▪ Tools outside of Second Life (discussion boards, chat, blog, etc) ▪ Other (explain in final comments) 14. How would you classify your performance in this course (i.e. grades)? ▪ Excellent ▪ Above Average ▪ Average ▪ Below Average ▪ Poor ▪ Other (explain in final comments)
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Social Presence (immediacy and intimacy) 15. I felt as if I was communicating with a real person in Second Life. 16. I was able to be expressive in Second Life. 17. I was comfortable interacting with other participants in Second Life. Engagement 18. I was engaged in the learning experience in Second Life. 19. Second Life was an enriching experience. 20. The learning experiences were active and collaborative in Second Life. 21. Using Second Life was fun and exciting. 22. I was willing to put in the effort needed to complete the learning activities in Second Life. 23. Second Life was a waste of time. Online Learning Community 24. The learning activity encouraged contact between myself and my classmates in Second Life. Satisfaction 25. I would take another course that used Second Life. 26. I would recommend that the instructor continue using Second Life. 27. I liked using Second Life as part of my course. 28. Participating in Second Life was a useful experience. 29. It was difficult to access Second Life. 30. Getting into Second Life was easy. 31. Technical support was available when I needed it in Second Life. 32. I would avoid classes using Second Life in the future. 33. I would not recommend this course to a friend. Learning 34. Second Life allowed me to better understand concepts. 35. Using Second Life helped me think more deeply about course material. 36. Second Life did not help my learning in the class. Online learning design (support, design, delivery, assessment) 37. The introductory explanations on how to use Second Life were clear. 38. The activity in Second Life was well-organized. 39. I understood all components of the activity in Second Life. 40. The instructions for Second Life were clear. 41. The activity offered opportunities for interaction and communication in Second Life. 42. The goals in Second Life were clearly defined. 43. I understood what was expected of me in Second Life. Open-Ended Questions 44. How did Second Life impact your communication and interaction with others in this course? 45. How was using Second Life different than using tools in a Course Management System, like discussions or chat tools? 46. What was one thing that you would change about your experience in Second Life? 47. What was one thing that you liked about your experience in Second Life? 48. How did Second Life impact your learning for this course?
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49. 50. 51. 52.
What were the challenges in staging Second Life in a theatrical context? How did you integrate the live performer with the avatar from Second Life? As a live performer what was it like interacting with an avatar from Second Life? Is there anything else you would like to share with us about your experience?
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Chapter 14
The Benefits and Unanticipated Challenges in the Use of 3D Virtual Learning Environments in the Undergraduate Media Arts Curriculum Denise Wood University of South Australia, Australia
ABSTRACT This chapter describes the benefits as well as the unanticipated challenges in engaging undergraduates in immersive experiences within the 3D virtual environment, Second Life. The chapter draws on trials of three undergraduate courses in which students attended virtual classes and undertook media-related activities in Second Life. International experts conducted synchronous virtual guest presentations in all three courses. Media arts students designed immersive games using Second Life tools and the finalyear students created virtual portfolios. The findings from student evaluations suggest both benefits and challenges in the use of 3D virtual environments in the undergraduate curriculum. In discussing these findings, the author challenges assumptions about the readiness of ‘Generation Y’ students to adapt easily to such learning environments. The final section of thechapter outlines proposed strategies for addressing the identified challenges.
INTRODUCTION The increasing academic interest in the use of Web 2.0 and 3D virtual learning environments in higher education can be attributed to several significant drivers. These drivers include the need to re-engage ‘net generation’ students (Tapscott, DOI: 10.4018/978-1-61692-822-3.ch014
Lowry & Ticoll, 1998) in light of increasing rates of first-year attrition (Krause et al, 2005; Kift, 2008), the pedagogical affordances of constructivist environments that foster collaboration through situated learning activities (De Freitas & Neumann, 2009; Armstrong & Franklin, 2008; Thomas & Brown, 2008; Mason, 2007), and the changing literacies required of graduates entering new economy workplaces (Bruns, 2008).
The Benefits and Unanticipated Challenges in the Use of 3D Virtual Learning Environments
This chapter begins with a critical analysis of each of these drivers drawing on evidence from the literature. The potential affordances offered by Web 2.0 applications and 3D virtual learning environments in particular are outlined, as well as the challenges facing institutions and academics seeking to apply these technologies within the curriculum. Case studies based on trials of three media arts courses in the 3D virtual environment known as Second Life are presented in the next section of the chapter. The case studies describe in detail the learning objectives of the courses, the nature of the learning activities undertaken in Second Life and the outcomes of student evaluations conducted at the end of the course offerings. The benefits of the 3D virtual learning experiences are described and the unexpected challenges reported by teachers and the students are discussed. These case studies provide the foundation for the more fine grained analysis of the affordances and limitations of 3D virtual learning environments in teaching and learning discussed in the next section of the chapter. The chapter concludes with suggested strategies for mitigating the potential challenges identified in the preceding sections as well as recommendations for further research.
BACkgROUND Students entering universities from 2005 onwards are said to represent a new generation of technoliterate ‘Y-ers’ (Krause et al, 2005). This generation, also referred to as ‘Generation Y’, ‘Net Generation’ (Tapscott, Lowry & Ticoll, 1998); ‘Millenials’ (Oblinger & Oblinger, 2005); ‘Digital Natives’ (Prensky, 2001) and ‘Homo Zappiens’ (Veen, 2004), have grown up with digital technologies and are said to display particular characteristics including the ability to multi-task, a desire for immediacy, preference for multi-modal learning (pictures, sound and video in addition to text), a need to be socially connected through networked
activities, respond best to experiential activities and are interested in social issues (Oblinger, 2008). It is also argued that our digital natives are entering university already equipped with skill in the use of a wide range of Web 2.0 applications such as wikis, social networking, folksonomy sites, blogging, pod- and vidcasting and 3D gaming. Not surprisingly, many educators are now turning to these technologies to re-engage their students in the face of growing concerns about student disengagement and high levels of attrition (Krause et al, 2005). 3D virtual environments such as Second Life have also attracted growing interest from educators who are keen to engage their students in a game-like environment that offers the potential for increased flexibility, enhanced collaborative opportunities and a safe environment for experiential learning activities. These environments are increasingly being used for a range of activities including presentations, discussions, role plays and simulations, historical re-enactments, games design, dramatic performances, creative arts and business modelling. While the use of traditional virtual learning environments has been shown to enhance learning through the provision of flexible, just-in-time information and the exchange of knowledge (Wichert, 2002), it is evident that mere access to teaching materials is unlikely to engage our ‘digital native’ learners who respond best to multi-modal forms of delivery (Oblinger & Oblinger, 2005; Prensky, 2001). Furthermore, these environments are not sufficient to facilitate the development of students’ deeper knowledge of and skills (Rouvrais & Gilliot, 2004) and are limited in their ability to capture the social dimension that characterises learning in the real world (Lombardi & McCahill, 2004). On the other hand, 3D virtual environments such as Second Life enable learners to interact with information from a first-person perspective (Dickey, 2005) and offer unique opportunities for students to engage in the kinds of simulated learning experiences in fields as varied as health science
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The Benefits and Unanticipated Challenges in the Use of 3D Virtual Learning Environments
(Mili et al, 2008; Cooper, 2007), fashion design (Polvinen, 2007), hospitality and tourism (Penfold, 2008), collaborative story telling (Bakioğlu, 2007), business (Bloomfield, 2007) and experiential learning activities (Mason, 2007). Such activities can prepare students for future employment without the constraints of ‘real world’ industry placements (Chen, 2005). Moreover, as several authors note, 3D virtual worlds such as Second Life can facilitate communication skills (Robbins, 2007), collaboration and constructivism (Clark & Maher, 2003), and can also increase students’ understanding of cultural differences and other aspects of diversity (Lee & Christopher, 2006). Despite these reported benefits (Carter, 2006; Kemp, 2006; Liu, 2006), however, environments such as Second Life were not designed specifically for this purpose as learning environments. They have become ‘all things to all people’ (Bloomfield, 2008), attempting with difficulty to serve many purposes for many different participants. Very few studies have documented the challenges of adapting these technologies to the teaching and learning curriculum and as Hayes (2006) reminds us, leveraging the benefits of these technologies involves more than providing students with access to the tools. Hayes goes on to caution that participation in learning activities hosted on public servers such as Second Life presents ‘unforeseen challenges’ (p. 159) and depends on ‘a complex set of social, economic and legal conditions’ (p. 158) that users can only partially control. Such ‘unforeseen challenges’ identified from review of the literature include: •
•
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A lack of empirical evidence documenting the pedagogical benefits of teaching and learning within a 3D virtual learning environment compared with traditional online delivery; The accessibility problems associated with the Second Life platform (Brewer cited in Qi, 2007; Kawamura cited in Fruchterman,
•
• •
•
2007; Peters & Bell, 2007; Abrahams, 2007; Hansen, 2008; Wood, 2009); Legal and Intellectual Property (IP) issues (Mistral, 2007a, 2007b; Bragg vs Linden Lab and Rosedale, 2006; Grimes, 2006; De Zwart, 2007; Coates, Suzor & Fitzgerald, 2007); Ethical considerations; Technology related factors including server stability, technology demands and security concerns (Lee and Warren, 2007) and The costs associated with purchase of virtual land, monthly maintenance and the cost associated with operating within a commercial virtual economy.
Recognising the potential of 3D virtual learning environments and also mindful of these possible ‘unforeseen challenges’, a research team at the University of South Australia purchased a virtual island in Second Life in November 2007 to undertake preliminary trials and document the pedagogical benefits as well as the issues in the use of 3D virtual environments for learning. The findings from our preliminary research were then used to support a competitive grant application to the Australian Learning and Teaching Council (ALTC), for a project that aims to develop guidelines for the use of 3D virtual learning environments in the undergraduate and graduate curriculum, and to design and develop an open source, accessible 3D virtual learning environment. The findings from these trials are reported in the following section followed by details of project, which received funding from the ALTC in the second half of 2008 and will be completed at the end of July 2010.
CASe STUDIeS The three courses trialled in Second Life are all undergraduate courses offered in the Media Arts program at the University of South Australia:
The Benefits and Unanticipated Challenges in the Use of 3D Virtual Learning Environments
Digital Media Techniques, Design for Interactive Media and Electronic Publishing on the Internet. A description of the supports in place for students in all three courses, as well as an overview of the aims of each course and the way in which Second Life was incorporated into the curriculum of each course follows.
Supports for Students Several supports were put in place both within Second Life and on campus to aid students in the transition to undertaking study in the 3D virtual environment. These supports included: a) customised login and orientation for students joining Second Life for the first time; b) in-world mentoring by former students skilled in the use of Second Life; c) scheduled help sessions both on-campus and in world and d) comprehensive written tutorial guides on the basics of Second Life as well as more specific guidelines relevant to the tasks students were taking in Second Life. A custom PHP script (beta version) supplied by Linden Labs (the company that owns and manages Second Life) was installed on a University server enabling students to sign-up to Second Life via a University Website and to then be teleported directly to the UniSA island orientation area (Figure 1). The orientation section of the UniSA island includes several customised orientation tutorials introducing students to basic skills in Second Life such as moving, chatting, using IM and customising appearance. Click-on posters in the orientation area provided students with free items for their inventories including clothing, scripts and landmarks of interest. Students could experiment with their building skills in a public sandbox located in the orientation area of the island (Figure 2). Graduate students who were experienced in Second Life were contracted to provide individualized mentoring on-campus and in-world at scheduled times. Mentors were clearly identified with blue UniSA mentor t-shirts and roamed the
island with signs inviting students to call on them if they needed help. A mentor shack was created for one-on-one sessions to support students who wanted more personal assistance (Figure 3). These mentoring sessions were complemented with scheduled tutorials and a range of comprehensive tutorial materials available to students from the course website. Students participating in all three courses were introduced to Second Life using this same orientation and training approach. The activities undertaken by students in Second Life following their orientation are described in the following sections.
Digital media Techniques Digital Media Techniques is a first year course introducing students to all forms of digital media through a combination of theory, practice and research based project. At the completion of the course students are expected to: •
• •
•
•
Demonstrate an understanding of the role and function of design in a range of digital media formats Competently create media pieces using a range of software Understand and undertake all the stages of the design process from conceptualisation to creation Demonstrate the design knowledge and media techniques required to construct and use a variety of media forms and elements; Demonstrate a practical understanding of the World Wide Web
There were 148 students enrolled in the first semester offering of the course. Students were introduced to Second Life in a practical session and encouraged to explore the environment; they also attended a formal presentation conducted in Second Life by Starr Sonic, the Executive Producer of SLCN-TV Broadcast (Figure 4), who
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Figure 1. Landing place and customized orientation for UniSA students in Second Life
Figure 2. Sandbox enabling students to experiment with their building skills in Second Life
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Figure 3. Sign outside mentor shack listing scheduled times for help in Second Life
discussed the convergence of media and the difference between broadcasting in a virtual world such as Second Life and broadcasting in ‘real life’. Students were not required to use Second Life formally in the course, however they were encouraged to explore the environment and to consider undertaking their research project in Second Life if they were interested in 3D virtual environments. The aim was to use Second Life as a means for introducing students to the meaning of convergence of media, and to provide students with a flexible environment where they could meet with each other and the academic staff during formal help sessions, if they wanted to attend sessions off-campus. Students undertook three assignments over the course of the thirteen week semester. The first assignment required them to develop a research
proposal based on a topic of their choice focusing on a particular media format. In the second assignment students undertook a simple research study based on their chosen topic and in the final assignment students published their findings to the Web. Of the 148 students enrolled in the course, only one student chose to investigate a topic focusing on 3D virtual worlds. The majority of students chose topics investigating film, print or Web design.
Design for Interactive media Students who are majoring in either animation or interactive media are introduced to games design in the second year of their program thorough the course Design for Interactive Media (DIM). There is an emphasis on problem solving, creativity,
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Figure 4. Starr Sonic presenting to Digital Media Techniques in Second Life
teamwork and communication skills in the course. The specific aims of the course are for students to: • • • •
Understand the basic terminology, concepts and principles of games design Convey information effectively and concisely Create different information structures to control interactions in the interface Apply the above knowledge and skills in a variety of design situations
The ninety students enrolled in the course during the first semester worked collaboratively as teams to create an immersive 3D game in Second Life using a mix of skills including script writing, storyboarding, interface design and scripting. Over the thirteen week semester, students were introduced to the following topics: • • •
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Introduction to games design Pre-production documentation Introduction to building in Second Life
• • • • • •
Animating in Second Life Sculpted prims Structuring the game Introduction to scripting More advanced scripting Final production
There were three assessment points in the course: • • •
Written Design Specifications Design of the basic game Interface Integration of Game Components and Media
Students were free to choose the theme of their adventure games and created the storyboard, script and characters for their chosen game. To reduce the cognitive load on students, the basic building components and scripts were provided so that students could focus more on the narrative of their games and working collaboratively as teams to bring the games to reality. To accommodate the
The Benefits and Unanticipated Challenges in the Use of 3D Virtual Learning Environments
Figure 5. Twenty teams of approximately five students per team were provided sky platforms
large class size students were broken into teams of approximately five students per team and twenty sky platforms were created (Figure 5) on which shell ‘holodecks’; hollowed out cylinder shaped rooms of 35 metres in diameter (Figure 6) which they textured to create a 360 degree simulated environment (Figure 7). All the required scripts were supplied and students were required to customize the scripts and interface to fit their chosen theme for the game. An example game based on a dragon theme was created (Figure 8). Students were able to view and play the game, and items within the game such as the heads up display (HUD) were made available for them to experiment with in preparation for the design of their own games. Students were given the option of completing the course entirely off-campus or attending practicals and lectures on-campus. All lectures oncampus were simultaneously conducted in Second Life enabling students who were unable to attend classes, the opportunity to still participate in the
course. Twelve students chose to attend lectures externally via Second Life and of those, four also attended practicals virtually as well. Peer review of the games was undertaken during the final lecture time during class. While most teams created working games, various technical hitches experienced during the semester with Second Life such as server outages and lag issues when too many students were working on their games at the same time meant that none of the teams could complete their games to the level they had planned. The various teams showed creativity and originality in their game concepts with themes including a haunted castle, Tarzan game set in jungle, space odyssey and desert island. Most students also chose to create custom avatar skins and costumes to be in character with the theme of their game, even though this was not a requirement of the assignment. Student assessment incorporated a grade for the project overall (group score) as well as a percentage assigned to each individual team member based
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Figure 6. Interior of a Second Life holodeck provided to students for their games design
Figure 7. Aerial view of a completed holodeck game created by one group of students
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Figure 8. Example holodeck dragon game created for students
on their contribution to the production. All student teams achieved a passing grade for their games and it was evident from the assessment process that students had worked effectively as teams, demonstrated advanced problem solving skills as well as basic mastery of interactive games design. At the completion of the course an anonymous online evaluation was conducted aimed at determining student satisfaction with the course. The findings from the evaluation appear in the outcomes section of this chapter.
electronic Publishing on the Internet A final year course for students undertaking a major in either interactive media or web design, Electronic Publishing on the Internet (EPI) provides the foundations for understanding the principles of electronic publishing on the Internet. The course places emphasis on applying the principles and elements of design to the creation of Web pages, communication skills, team work, and designing
a portfolio for online delivery. The aims of the course are as follows: •
• • •
Understand the nature and formats of electronic publishing via the Web and in 3D virtual worlds Understand the factors affecting the electronic publishing industry Critically analyze and create effective online publications Understand and discuss critical issues such as accessibility, copyright and security.
The topics covered combined theoretical information presented through a series of readings and reflections on theory, with the applied skills required to design and develop a portfolio presence in a 3D virtual world. Guest presenters from businesses presented many of the sessions on-campus and in Second Life. Students were given the option to attend face-to-face sessions on-campus or attend classes virtually via Second Life.
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Over the thirteen week semester students completed the following topics: •
Introduction to business use of Web 2.0 and 3D virtual worlds Social & ethical responsibility of designers Design concepts for Web and in 3D virtual worlds: Coding in XHTML Introduction to CSS Interactivity in Web design Search engine optimisation Choosing your domain and virtual spaces in 3D virtual worlds: Marketing your business on the Web and in 3D worlds
• • • • • • • •
Students undertook 3 assignments: 1.
A design proposal outlining target audience and design specifications
2. 3.
A prototype of the final website design created in Photoshop A portfolio shop front in Second Life (Figure 9) which linked to their online portfolio (Figure 10).
Students undertook peer review of each other’s Second Life portfolio shop fronts as well as the online portfolios. As with the Design for Interactive Media course, an anonymous online evaluation was also conducted at the conclusion of the course to determine the level of student satisfaction with both the course and the 3D virtual learning experience. The findings of this evaluation are reported below.
Outcomes of the Trials An anonymous online questionnaire was conducted at the conclusion of the semester for students enrolled in Design for Interactive Media and Electronic Publishing on the Internet courses,
Figure 9. A shop front virtual world portfolio created by one of the EPI students
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which included questions aimed at identifying students’ familiarity and use of Web 2.0 and 3D virtual world technologies, and to assess the extent to which the Second Life platform of delivery was perceived by students to support the objectives of the course and enhance their learning. The questionnaire included a mix of Likert-scale and open-ended text field questions. 30% of the students enrolled in the two courses completed the online questionnaire. Only three students agreed to a follow-up interview but did not respond to subsequent emails inviting them to meet with an independent evaluator. Since students only had minimal exposure to Second Life in Digital Media Techniques, the feedback gathered was based on their comments in tutorial sessions and anonymous responses in the end of semester course evaluation. Students enrolled in Design for Interactive Media and Electronic Publishing on the Internet courses were asked to complete an anonymous online questionnaire at the conclusion of the semester. This questionnaire included questions
aimed at identifying students’ familiarity with and use of Web 2.0 and 3D virtual world technologies, and to assess the extent to which the Second Life platform of delivery was perceived by students to support the objectives of the course and enhance their learning. The questionnaire included a mix of Likert-scale and open-ended text field questions. Fifty-two (33%) of the students enrolled in the two courses completed the online questionnaire. Of those students, 32 were enrolled in DIM and 20 in EPI. Ten of the students who were enrolled in DIM were also enrolled in EPI, even though DIM is a second-year prerequisite for EPI, the online enrolment system has no mechanism for preventing students who have not completed prerequisites from enrolling in courses. This may have influenced the student attitudes given half of their course load in the first semester would have involved activities in Second Life. Only three students agreed to a follow-up interview but did not respond to subsequent emails inviting them to meet with an independent evaluator. Since students
Figure 10. A student’s website portfolio linked to Second Life shop front
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only had minimal exposure to Second Life in the Digital Media Techniques course, the feedback gathered from those students was based on their comments in tutorial sessions and anonymous responses in the end of semester course evaluation. 86.5% of participating students were in the age group described as representative of the ‘digital native’ population (Table 1). Most of the students responding to the questionnaire were male (65.4%) and 86.5% of respondents have access to high speed broadband Internet at home. We were surprised to find so few of our students are regular users of 3D multi-user environments, with only 17.3% of students describing themselves as regular users of online multi-user games such as World of Warcraft and only 1.9% being regular users of 3D virtual worlds such as Second Life. Forty-two percent of students stated that they never access 3D online multi-user games, and 40% of the students stated that they never access 3D virtual worlds. The most popular application of those listed is chat (such as instant messages, MSN or ICQ) with 61.5% of students stating they are regular or frequent users of these services. Social networking sites such as Facebook or MySpace were the next most popular with 50% of the students stating they are regular or frequent users (Figure 11). Student responses to questions relating to the effectiveness of social interactions in Second Life based on the mean rating of all scores for each criterion (on a scale of one to five). The findings
Table 1. Age distribution of students responding to questionnaire Age Range
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Percent
Cumulative Percent
18 or under
5.8
5.8
19 to 24
80.8
86.5
25-34
9.6
96.2
45 to 54
1.9
98.1
reported in Table 2 show that DIM student ratings for criteria relating to social interactions were higher for most criteria than EPI student ratings; with the highest rating by DIM students (3.53) applying to the criterion ‘My classmates and I cooperated in completing assignments in Second Life’ and an EPI rating of just 2.28 for this criterion. This finding is not surprising given students worked in groups in constructing their multi-user games in the DIM course, contrasting with the individualised assignment undertaken by students in the EPI course in which they constructed their own 3D virtual world portfolios. Observations also confirmed this, with EPI students tending to spend most of their time working alone on the portfolios with little interaction, in contrast to the teams of students who were almost always observed working collaboratively in teams on their projects. Overall student ratings for criteria relating to the effectiveness of learning activities in Second Life were also higher for DIM students than EPI students (Table 3). As shown in Table 3, both cohorts of students gave the highest ratings to the criterion ‘The learning activities in Second Life required me to think critically in Second Life’ (3.23 and 3.0 respectively) and ‘I was willing to put in the effort needed to complete the learning activities in Second Life’ (3.38 and 2.70 respectively). The higher rating given overall to criteria relating to learning activities by DIM students suggests (as expected) that collaborative learning activities are more effective in engaging students in these kinds of environments than activities focusing on individual assignments. Both DIM and EPI students rated criteria relating to the materials provided and the supports available to them in Second Life higher than criteria relating to social interactions or learning activities (Table 4). The overall rating for supports being 3.32 (DIM) and 3.16 (EPI) compared with 2.52 (DIM) and 2.27 (EPI) for learning activities, and 2.96 (DIM) and 2.74 (EPI) for social interactions. The average rating given to the criterion ‘I
The Benefits and Unanticipated Challenges in the Use of 3D Virtual Learning Environments
Figure 11. Student use of Web 2.0 and 3D virtual world environments
Table 2. Effectiveness of social interactions in Second Life DIM
EPI
Mean
Mean
I was able to receive feedback from others right away in Second Life
3.00
2.88
I was able to tailor messages to my own personal circumstances in Second Life
3.32
2.88
I was able to convey multiple types of information in Second Life
3.00
2.89
I was able to transmit varied symbols (words, gestures, images) in Second Life
3.24
3.24
Statement (1=strongly disagree to 5=strongly agree) Effectiveness of social interaction in Second Life
I was able to design messages to meet my own requirements in Second Life
3.00
2.89
I felt as if I was communicating with a real person in Second Life
2.87
2.74
I was able to be expressive in Second Life
2.87
3.06
I was able to develop a closeness with others in Second Life
2.14
2.24
I created social networks in Second Life
2.23
1.94
I had immediate responses to my comments and questions in Second Life
3.23
3.13
The chat tool in Second Life was useful to my learning
3.19
3.00
The learning activity encouraged contact between myself and my classmates
2.88
2.42
My classmates and I cooperated in completing assignments in Second Life
3.53
2.28
Average for all criteria
2.96
2.74
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Table 3. Effectiveness of learning activities in Second Life DIM
EPI
Mean
Mean
The learning activities in Second Life required me to think critically
3.23
3.00
I was engaged in the learning experience in Second Life
2.74
2.35
I was absorbed in the experience in Second Life
2.03
1.70
I was attracted to the learning activities in Second Life
2.16
1.95
Second Life was an enriching experience
2.26
2.10
The learning experiences were active and collaborative in Second Life
2.94
2.30
Using Second Life was fun and exciting
2.44
2.55
I was willing to put in the effort to complete the learning activities
3.38
2.70
I would take another course that used Second Life
2.00
2.00
I would recommend that the instructor continue using Second Life
2.28
2.05
I liked using Second Life as part of my course
2.22
2.30
Average for all criteria
2.52
2.27
Mean
Mean
Technical support was available when I needed it in Second Life
3.31
2.82
I had adequate support in completing my activity in Second Life
3.47
3.39
Statement (1=strongly disagree to 5=strongly agree) Effectiveness of learning activities in Second Life
Table 4. Adequacy of preparation and supports available in Second Life Statement (1=strongly disagree to 5=strongly agree) Preparation provided and adequacy of supports available in Second Life
I received support materials prior to starting my Second Life activity
3.34
3.11
I had information for whom to contact if I needed support in Second Life
3.53
3.61
The introductory explanations on how to use Second Life were clear
3.50
3.53
The activity in Second Life was well-organized
3.06
3.32
I understood all components of the activity in Second Life
2.94
2.89
The instructions for Second Life were clear
3.28
3.06
The goals in Second Life were clearly defined
3.16
3.00
The method of grading my performance in Second Life was clear
3.56
2.89
I understood what was expected of me in Second Life
3.34
3.16
Average for all criteria
3.32
3.16
would take another course that used Second Life’ by both DIM and EPI students was 2.0 (meaning ‘disagree’). While there were some positive responses to the open-ended text questions about the environment, the majority of student comments were negative; the main issues reported by students
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being the ‘inappropriateness of the platform’, ‘the lack of stability of the server’, ‘frustration that the activities distracted them from being able to spend more time on tasks they felt were more likely to enhance their employability’ (some students suggested other platforms for game design, such as Flash, would have been more useful).
The Benefits and Unanticipated Challenges in the Use of 3D Virtual Learning Environments
Several students remarked on the impersonal nature of the mediated communication in 3D environments, preferring ‘real’ face-to-face communication than mediated through an avatar representation. One student commented that ‘It made interaction with others a little less personal and sometimes hard to follow if you were chatting with multiple people from your group at one time’. While some students enjoyed the flexibility of studying off-campus, several were critical of the interface and functionality to support this kind of learning as reflected in a comment that ‘I enjoyed the remote lectures... but the user interface is appalling. The controlling is sluggish and terrible... that I didn’t enjoy’. Students who were more positive about the experience commented ‘It made it easier to communicate to those who I normally wouldn’t have’; ‘Gave me an extra outlet with which to communicate with others in the course–other students and also to gain help from the instructors’; ‘This is a new ball game and the learning process was tremendous’. What was most surprising to us were the number of students who were not convinced by predictions that 3D virtual environments will become as pervasive as the 2D Web as we now know it. Despite visiting lecturers and content provided to students indicating the growth in uptake by businesses, it was apparent from student ratings in the evaluation and their comments, that many felt the activities were a waste of time as they could not see the relevance to their future careers in the industry. The following comment by one student reflects the student resistance and lack of acceptance we observed throughout the course: No matter how you look at it is still a game. It is just a fad and I don’t believe the statistics about its uptake. Too hard to access. I would not use Second Life because I think it’s quite pointless when relating to the web. Sure some people use it as a business medium but you don’t see the
biggest law firm doing business on there do we now? (anonymous, 2008).
Discussion of the Findings 3D virtual learning environments such as Second Life offer enormous possibilities for engaging students in ways that maximise flexible learning and foster collaborative learning, communication and problem solving. Despite the limited population participating in the trials reported in the preceding section, it was evident from our observations of students throughout the trials that their resistance to the platform impacted significantly on their capacity to immerse themselves in the learning environment. Some students appeared to be resistant because they had preconceived notions of what sorts of activities are valid for teaching and learning. While playful and informal learning should have been an effective means of engaging the students, several students remarked that Second Life was an inappropriate platform for teaching and learning. Some students regarded the activities as a waste of time, even though the skills they gained are directly transferrable to other platforms, because they were focused on wanting to learn a particular application (for example Flash) rather than on the skills (for example team work, collaboration, problem solving) required to create online games. Similarly, many students in EPI wanted to spend all their time working on their Website designs, because they regarded a 3D virtual world development platform as of little value to their future career plans to work as Web design professionals. Several students were uncomfortable with the mediated form of communication, which again surprised us given the large number of students who fit the ‘digital native’ profile, especially since all of the students enrolled in the courses were students with an interest in digital media. It was evident that technical glitches with the platform contributed to student dissatisfaction with the learning experience and interviews with
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their teachers confirmed that these issues were of irritation to most students. However, the teachers also noted, ‘Sure, some students complained about Second Life being buggy, but that is just an excuse. Most of the students in my class were unhappy the minute we told them they would be creating their interactive games in Second Life because they had their minds set on creating their games in Flash’. Nevertheless, the following issues were identified throughout our trials, which may have also contributed to the negative attitudes expressed by some students in relation to their 3D virtual learning experience: •
•
•
•
•
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The lack of server stability throughout the project, which impacted on the ability for students to complete their in-world assignments on time, and in the case of students designing the interactive game in Second Life, the technological problems resulted in the loss of their work on several occasions when they were unable to save (take copies) of completed objects and scripts back into their inventories. The complexity of the interface and required learning curve, which several students reported was a hindrance to their learning experience. The views of at least a few students, that the commercial 3D virtual learning platform was inappropriate. The cost associated with uploading work generated by students outside the 3D virtual environment. While students were provided with a bank of virtual (Linden) dollars, several felt it inappropriate that they should be expected to pay to upload work to complete their assignments. Our inability to show content in-world that is permissible on campus because we could not guarantee the security of material displayed or hosted on a public server.
•
The lack of appropriate on-campus facilities and the limitations of the Second Life platform, which meant that we were unable to effectively deliver content shown in lecture theatres to our students attending virtual classes on our University island (for example we were unable to share applications running on computers in lecture theatres with students attending externally via Second Life).
The ALTC funded project aims to address some of these limitations through the design and development of an open source 3D virtual learning platform and associated teaching and learning tools that enable academic staff to develop learning materials designed to facilitate learner engagement and experiential learning. However, it remains to be seen whether the technical, legal and IP issues as well as the costs associated with operating within the Second Life platform are the only factors impacting on student reactions. It is also conceivable that our so called ‘digital natives’ are not as ready for these brave new worlds of learning as we have previously believed. Indeed it was our experience that the more mature students, those Prensky (2001) refers to as ‘digital immigrants’, were the ones who seemed most at home in Second Life. Several authors are also more critical of the simplistic distinction made between different generations of learners. Carlson (2005), for example, argues that ‘millenials’ are not so different from previous generations of learners and questions whether ‘educational techniques should change accordingly’. Kennedy et al (2007) also caution against making significant changes to the curriculum to accommodate new generations of learners. On the basis of the findings of their survey of first-year undergraduates’ use of new technologies, Kennedy et al assert that ‘there is greater diversity in frequency of use of technology than many commentators have suggested’ and further, that the use of Web 2.0 technologies is much lower than we might expect of the so-called
The Benefits and Unanticipated Challenges in the Use of 3D Virtual Learning Environments
‘digital native’ population. This is consistent with our own findings from the student evaluations, which indicate relatively low up-take of Web 2.0 and 3D virtual world applications by students who fit the ‘digital native’ profile. Oblinger (2008) cautions that while ‘digital native’ learners show no fear of technology we should not assume that they are technologically proficient. She further suggests that while problem-based learning approaches are effective, students may be resistant because they are impatient and more focused on achievement ‘so they can get a good job’. This was certainly consistent with our findings in DIM and might explain the reasons that so many students saw the problem-based tasks associated with creating their online multi-user games a waste of time, suggesting skills in Flash would be more valuable for future employment. Similarly, students in EPI showed little interest in the tasks associated with building a portfolio in Second Life, because they did not believe the projections about business uptake in 3D virtual environments. Student comments about the inappropriateness of the platform are perhaps also consistent with Mulholland’s (2008) suggestion there are two categories of technology; those that are ‘assumed’ and those that are ‘student driven’. According to Mulholland, ‘assumed’ technologies include the Internet, mobile devices, digital television and traditional virtual learning environments, whereas ‘student-driven’ technologies are those that students ‘discover’ for themselves. Web 2.0 applications such as social networking and social bookmarking sites, blogs and virtual worlds like Second Life, in Mulholland’s terms, are not yet ‘assumed’ learning technologies. Mulholland further argues that the challenge facing educators is to know when a ‘student-driven’ technology becomes ‘assumed’ and when it is therefore appropriate to make the transition.
CONCLUSION 3D virtual learning environments have the potential to engage students in enriching, collaborative, constructivist learning experiences. These environments also provide flexibility to enable students unable to attend classes on-campus the opportunity to participate with their peers through a networked virtual learning community. It was clear from our trials in Second Life that activities which support problem solving and collaboration can be particularly effective in developing students’ skills in teamwork and communication. However, a range of technical issues experienced by students in the courses reported in this chapter clearly impacted on the extent to which the learning objectives were able to be realised. Moreover, it is clear that at least for some students, the mediated communication and complexity of the interface and interactions created a level of cognitive load that detracted from what might have otherwise been rich and engaging learning experiences. Finally, while we had assumed that our ‘Generation Y’ students would have come into the course with prior experience using Web 2.0 and 3D virtual worlds, our evaluation findings suggest that not all students are as connected to these technologies as popular rhetoric suggests. If we accept Mulholland’s (2008) assertion that virtual worlds such as Second Life are not yet ‘assumed’ learning technologies in our students’ eyes, then the challenge for us as educators is to know what strategies we should adopt to smooth the transition for our students. The findings from our trials suggest the following strategies may assist in this transition: •
Recognise the so called ‘Generation Y’ population is not a homogeneous group. While ‘Gen Y’ students might display similar characteristics in some areas, do not assume they are all comfortable with new technologies.
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•
•
•
•
•
•
Maximise the use of technologies for enhancing not constraining flexible and student centred learning. Provide adequate training prior to implementing formal topics with 3D virtual learning environments. Allow students choice in which technologies they will utilise in assignments (aim to support a personalized learning environment). Be conservative in the use of these within courses (a module within a course undertaken in a 3D virtual learning environment may work better than the whole course). Ensure mentors are available in-world for help and during formal presentations to avoid disruptions to class if an individual student is experiencing technical difficulties. Evaluate student experiences at the conclusion of each course offering.
While the trials reported in this paper were limited to three courses offered within one University context and so it is impossible to generalise the findings, the outcomes clearly indicate that as Kennedy et al (2007) have advised, further research is needed to better understand how we can assist our students to make the transition from so called ‘assumed’ to ‘student-driven’ learning technologies in the future.
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Armstrong,J., &Franklin,T.(2008). A review of current and developing international practice in the use of social networking (Web 2.0) in higher education: Committee of Inquiry into the Changing Learner Experience. Bakioğlu, B. S. (2007). Collaborative Storytelling: Performing the Narrative of the Griefer. In D. Livingstone & J. Kemp (Eds.), Proceedings of the Second Life Education Workshop Community Convention, 41-46. Bloomfield, R. (2008). Reactions to the Rosedale announcement [blog posting on March 14, 2008]. Thomas Reuters Second Life News Center. Retrieved 22 March 2009, from http://secondlife. reuters.com/stories/2008/03/14/instant-viewreactions-to-the-rosedale-announcement/ Bloomfield, R. J. (2007). Worlds for study: Invitation-virtual worlds for studying real-world business (and law, and politics, and sociology, and....). Retrieved 1st September, 2008, from http://papers. ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=988984 Bragg v. Linden Research, Inc. No. CIV.A.06 4925 (2007) Bruns, A. (2008). Blogs, Wikipedia, Second Life, and Beyond: From production to produsage. New York: Peter Lang. Carlson, S. (2005). The net generation goes to college. The Chronicle of Higher Education, 52. Retrieved 22 March 2009, from http://chronicle. com/free/v52/i07/07a03401.htm Carter, B. (2006). Imagine the real in the virtual: Experience your Second Life. Retrieved 22 March 2009, from http://www.uwex.edu/disted/conference/Resource_library/proceedings/06_4202.pdf Chen, S. (2005). Serious games: Games that educate, train, and inform. Retrieved 22 March 2009, from Gamesutra, October 31, http://www.gamasutra.com/features/20051031/chen_01.shtml.
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Clark, S., & Maher, M. L. (2003). The effects of a sense of place on the learning experience in a 3D virtual world. In Communities of Practice. Research Proceedings of the 10th Association for Learning Technologies Conference (ALTC2003) (pp. 82-101). Sheffield, UK: University of Sheffield. Coates, J., Suzor, N., & Fitzgerald, A. (2007). Legal aspects of Web 2.0 activities: Management of legal risk associated with use of YouTube, MySpace and Second Life. Brisbane, Australia: ARC Centre for Excellence for Creative Industries Innovation, QUT. Cooper, T. (2007). Nutrition Game. In D. Livingstone & J. Kemp (Eds.), Proceedings of the Second Life Education Workshop Community Convention, 47-50. Chicago Hilton: The University of Paisley. De Freitas, S., & Neumann, T. (2009). The use of ‘exploratory learning’ for supporting immersive learning in virtual environments. Computers & Education, 52(2), 343–352. doi:10.1016/j. compedu.2008.09.010 De Zwart, M. (2007). Second Life spawns new world of law. Monash Magazine: Opinion, 19. Dickey, M. D. (2005). Brave new (interactive) worlds: A review of the design affordances and constraints of two 3D virtual worlds as interactive learning environments. Interactive Learning Environments, 13(1-2), 121–137. doi:10.1080/10494820500173714 Fruchterman, J. (2007). Beneblog: technology meets society: Brighton Beach brainstorm. Retrieved February 15, 2008, from http://benetech. blogspot.com/2007/11/brighton-beach-brainstorm.html Grimes, S. M. (2006). Online multiplayer games: a virtual space for intellectual property debates? New Media & Society, 8(6), 969–990. doi:10.1177/1461444806069651
Hansen, S. (2008). Virtual worlds: Synopsis of user interfaces and accessibility initiatives. Paper presented at the AusWeb08: The Fourteenth Australasian World Wide Web Conference, Ballina, NSW. Hayes, E. R. (2006). Situated learning in virtual worlds: The learning ecology of Second Life. AERC Conference Proceedings. http://www. adulterc.org/Proceedings/2006/Proceedings/ Hayes.pdf. Kemp, J. (2006). Putting a Second Life “Metaverse” skin on Learning Management Systems. San Francisco: The University of Paisley. Kennedy, G., Dalgarno, B., Gray, K., Judd, T., Waycott, J., Bennett, S., et al. (2007). The net generation are not big users of Web 2.0 technologies: Preliminary findings. Providing choices for learners and learning. Proceedings ASCILITE, Singapore 2007. Kift, S. (2008, 30 June - 2 July). The next, great first year challenge: Sustaining, coordinating and embedding coherent institution–wide approaches to enact the FYE as “everybody’s business”. Paper presented at the 11th Pacific Rim First Year in Higher Education Conference, Hobart, Tasmania. Krause, K.-L., Hartley, R., James, R., & McInnis, C. (2005). The first year experience in Australian Universities: Findings from a decade of national studies. Retrieved 22 March 2009, from http:// www.cshe.unimelb.edu.au/pdfs/FYEReport05KLK.pdf Lee, C. Y., & Warren, M. (2007). Security issues within virtual worlds such as Second Life. In C. Valli & A. Woodward (Eds.), Proceedings of the 5th Australian Information Security Management, 142-151. Perth: Edith Cowan Univeristy.
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Lee, J. J., & Christopher, M. H. (2006). Ugly in a world where you can choose to be beautiful: teaching and learning about diversity via virtual worlds. In Proceedings of the 7th international conference on Learning sciences. Bloomington, Indiana: International Society of the Learning Sciences. Liu, C. (2006). Second Life learning community: A peer-based approach to involving more faculty members in Second Life. San Francisco: The University of Paisley. Lombardi, J., & McCahill, M. P. (2004). Enabling social dimensions of learning through a persistent, unified, massively multi-user, and self-organizing virtual environment. In Proceedings Creating, Connecting and Collaborating through Computing, 166-172. Mason, H. (2007). Experiential education in Second Life. In D. Livingstone & J. Kemp (Eds.), Proceedings of the Second Life Education Workshop Community Convention, 14-18. Chicago Hilton: The University of Paisley. Mili, F., Barr, J., Harris, M., & Pittiglio, L. (2008). Nursing training: 3D game with learning objectives. Paper presented at the Advances in Computer-Human Interaction, 2008 First International Conference. Mistral, P. (2007a). Second Life Herald: Interview with Woodbury University’s Edward Clift. Mistral, P. (2007b). Second Life Herald: Woodbury University Island Destroyed. Mulholland, C. (2008) cited in We must get to grips with the world of our ‘digital native’ students. (p.26). Western Mail. Oblinger, D. (2008). Growing up with Google– What it means to education. Emerging technologies for learning, 4.
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Oblinger, D., & Oblinger, J. (2005). Educating the Net Generation. Retrieved 22 March 2009, from http://www.educause.edu/books/educatingthenetgen/5989 Penfold, P. (2008). SL Hotel and tourism student feedback. Retrieved 22 March 2009, from http:// www.scribd.com/doc/4612817/SL-Hotel-andTourism-Student-Feedback?autodown=pdf Peters, T., & Bell, L. (2007). Reading in the dark - Accessibility and democracy in Second Life. Retrieved 22 March 2009, from http://kestrell. livejournal.com/343509.html Polvinen, E. (2007). Educational simulations in Second Life for fashion technology students. In D. Livingstone & J. Kemp (Eds.), Proceedings of the Second Life Education Workshop Community Convention, 61-64. Chicago Hilton: The University of Paisley. Prensky, M. (2001). Digital natives, digital immigrants. Horizon, 9(5), 1–6. doi:10.1108/10748120110424816 Qi, S. (2007, June 17, 2007). Experts debate how accessible virtual worlds are to the disabled. 2008. Retreived from http://www.slnn.com/ index.php?SCREEN=article&about=accessibili ty-in-a-3d-world Robbins, S. (2007). A futurist’s view of Second Life education: A developing taxonomy of digital spaces. In D. Livingstone & J. Kemp (Eds.), Proceedings of the Second Life Education Workshop Community Convention, 27-33. Chicago Hilton: The University of Paisley. Rouvrais, S., & Gilliot, J. (2004). A pedagogical canvas for on-line simulation-based lessons. In Proceedings of the World Conference on Educational Multimedia, Hypermedia and Telecommunications (EDMEDIA) 2004, Lugano, Switzerland.
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Tapscott, D., Lowy, A., & Ticoll, D. (1998). Blueprint to the digital economy: Creating wealth in the era of e-business. New York: McGraw-Hill Professional. Thomas, D., & Brown, J. S. (2008). Why virtual worlds can matter. Retrieved from http://ssrn. com/paper=1300470. Veen, W. (2005). Net generation learning: Teaching Homo Zappiens. Retrieved from http://www. etwinning.de/aktuelles/veranstaltungen/dokus/ Vortrag_Veen_19_09_2005.pdf
Wichert, R. (2002). A mobile augmented reality environment for collaborative learning and Training. In Proceedings of the World Conference on E-Learning in Corporate, Government, Healthcare, and Higher Education (ELEARN) 2002. Montreal, Canada Wood, D. (2009). Real life access to Second Life worlds: The potential, the problems and the possibilities for a barrier-free future. The International Journal of Diversity In Organisations. Communities and Nations, 8(6), 139–148.
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Section 3
Perspectives of Language Learning
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Chapter 15
Task Design for Language Learning in an Embodied Environment Paul Sweeney Independent Consultant in E-Learning, UK Cristina Palomeque University of Barcelona, Spain Dafne González Universidad Simón Bolívar, Venezuela Chris Speck Languagelab.com, UK Douglas W. Canfield University of Tennessee, USA Suzanne Guerrero Richmond Publishing, Mexico Pete MacKichan Freelance Consultant in E-Learning, Greece
ABSTRACT 3D voice-enabled MUVEs are increasingly being used in education and in the area of language learning, and teaching is no exception. In this chapter, the authors will examine the affordances that MUVEs offer in this field, starting with a brief overview of the various theoretical frameworks underpinning successful teaching and learning of languages in general and how they apply to MUVEs. The authors then highlight a range of issues arising from a team’s extensive practical experience in material design in the embodied environment of Second Life. These considerations include many possible avenues for follow up by researchers. Finally, they provide some examples of task design to bring these issues into focus. DOI: 10.4018/978-1-61692-822-3.ch015
Task Design for Language Learning in an Embodied Environment
INTRODUCTION: CONTexTUALISATION, OBjeCTIVeS AND OVeRVIeW Achieving a degree of proficiency in at least one of English, Mandarin or Spanish as a second language is a prerequisite for most educational policy systems in the 21st century. Indeed, competence in English is considered by many governments around the world to rank alongside ICT proficiency as a universal life skill at the heart of primary and secondary education (Graddol, 2006). It is equally widely accepted that the most advantageous way of learning a language is immersion–to do so living and practicing with native speakers in the target language community. Clearly, this option is only open to a minority of people who find themselves at a suitable life stage and with the means to do so. Virtual worlds however, especially if voice enabled, are particularly suited to language learning and offer the potential for second language study without the need for world travel. MUVEs provide a radically new context for the language classroom, creating opportunities to adapt and customize the educational environment as never before–and creating a number of methodological questions as well. The pedagogy of second language acquisition in formal education depends heavily on the role of the participants, the flexibility of the environment and the overall resources available. Task-based learning, in combination with competency guidelines, has proven to be an effective approach for teaching in virtual worlds, particularly in Second Life (www.secondlife.com). Practice, though, indicates a need for re-evaluation of existing assumptions of classroom management, skills development, participation and the use of materials, to name a few. In this chapter, we will discuss these concerns as impacted by embodiment on task design and contrast this to real life learning situations. Languagelab.com, a private company operating within Second Life, built a virtual city to support language learning in 2005 and, over several years,
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a community of educators worked on a variety of projects exploring the potential of teaching English and Spanish formally and informally in a MUVE. The teaching and learning experiences which form the basis of this chapter can thus be considered a reflection on praxis, referring to a series of ongoing case studies within the Languagelab.com environment. The objectives set in this chapter are two-fold: •
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To provide an overview of the various theoretical frameworks underpinning successful teaching and learning of languages in a MUVE highlighting avenues for possible follow up by researchers To provide the basis of good practice in the field of language learning for practitioners to implement and build on.
BACkgROUND: BRIeF OVeRVIeW OF SeCOND LANgUAge ACQUISITION AND ITS ReLATION TO PeDAgOgY Second Language Acquisition (SLA) refers to the study of how second and foreign languages are acquired. SLA is closely related to language pedagogy and its findings are relevant to the field of foreign language teaching. In order to better understand the relevance of SLA to the field of foreign language education, an overview of the main concerns of SLA is provided.
What Constitutes knowledge of Language? The aim of language study is to achieve communicative competence (Canale & Swaine, 1980), which refers to the ability to use language appropriately for the communication context. According to Canale & Swaine (1980), in order for a speaker to be communicatively competent they have to master four components: grammatical,
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sociolinguistic, strategic and discourse competence–across receptive and productive skill areas. The concept of communicative competence has led to communicative approaches in language teaching whose primary focus is not on language structures but on language functions, that is, how to communicate in specific, real communicative situations.
How is knowledge of Language Acquired? From the socio-cognitive perspective, the focus on language learning is on having students engage in authentic social discourse and on knowing how to interact appropriately in specific discourse situations. Thus, interaction appears to have an important role for language learning. Many researchers have demonstrated that oral interaction with authentic audiences, which generates negotiation of meaning, is beneficial for language learning and language acquisition (Vygotsky, 1978; Cazden, 1988; Long, 1983). Negotiation of meaning, in combination with a series of purposeful activities scaffolding the learner from basic communicative utterances to understanding and active use of linguistically and pragmatically complex language (Long, 1985) will lead the learner to achieving communicative competence. This process occurs first at a social level through social interaction and co-construction of knowledge and then takes place at an individual level (Vygotsky, 1978).
co-construction of knowledge and which call for the student to take an active role. One of the problems in language learning is the separation that many people make between learning and using a foreign language (our italics) (Little, 1996). The communicative approach, however, is based on the assumption that successful language learning depends in part on language use and not only on knowledge of linguistic structures. Thus, language use should be integrated with language learning. Language is most commonly put to use for social, informative and transactional purposes, where the user is able to recognize, produce and innovate structures in appropriate situations to achieve the desired result. Therefore, for a successful language learning experience, students should be exposed to varied input from their interaction with real audiences while engaging in authentic tasks which will promote negotiation of meaning. The essence of these beliefs is captured the following frameworks: •
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How is knowledge of Language Put to Use? How language is acquired affects how it should be taught or learned. MUVEs have to be seen as social spaces which foster interaction and the most effective MUVEs for learning are those which support different kinds of communication. This social interaction should take place within the context of meaningful activities which foster the
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The Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment -CEFR–which sets clear standards to be attained at successive stages of learning and for evaluating outcomes in an internationally comparable manner. The Standards for Foreign Language Learning in the 21st Century (1999)–“The Five Cs.”–which describe the “what” (content) of world languages learning and form the core of standards-based instruction in the world languages classroom. The Canadian Language Benchmarks (2009)
mUVeS AND LeARNINg This section discusses how MUVEs have developed in their application to language learning
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and how their latest stage of development–highly flexible, interactive, voice-enabled immersive spaces–provides enormous potential for this field. It considers the affordances of MUVEs relating this to how the learner is embodied in a MUVE and specific benefits of this for language learning.
From CALL to mUVes CALL to MOOs and MUDs Within the field of Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL), first coined in the 1960’s, the most relevant precedent for MUVEs are the uses of asynchronous, text-based computer-mediated communications (CMC) within what Warschauer (1996) called Integrative CALL (Multimedia and Internet). There are many studies on the successful use of this type of technology for language learning from mid 90’s onwards. Shield, Weininger, and Davies (1999) report examples of email tandem exchanges, bulletin boards and discussion lists as tools to promote reflective aspects of language learning.
Text MOOs & MUDS From mid 90’s onwards teachers began to make use of Multiple-User Domain, Object Oriented (MOO). MOOs were text-based virtual reality environment where users interacted in real time using only text. They offered advantages over other text-based synchronous chat programs as they allowed participants to describe themselves. This, as Donaldson and Kötter (1999) point out, formed the basis of the personality which participants assume in any discussion and, therefore, enabled relationships. Interactions could take place within personal spaces created by users. ‘Entering’ a text-based room could nonetheless have a visual impact through the available description of the room. CALL research acknowledges the strengths of the medium: pair work, focus on
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form, negotiation of meaning, task-based learning (Beauvois, 1992; Blake, 2005). Chun (1994) found that language learners who used synchronous text-chat between scheduled face-to-face sessions became more confident about speaking the target language. They further outlined the learning benefits under three headings–metacognitive, cognitive and socialisation / empowerment, which are still relevant today within the synchronous text chat capabilities of MUVEs. Metacognitive Learning Strategies • • •
•
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Activity may be recorded or “logged” to be accessed later and encouraging reflection Users can finish a comment/post without being interrupted. Scrolling back through text on the screen allows learners are able to consider their responses, even in a synchronous environment. Engaging in multi-threaded discussions also lends itself to using metacognitive strategies in real-time: this would be impossible in a face-to-face encounter. Learners can use research tools to find information pertinent to a discussion without interrupting the discourse.
Cognitive Strategies Text-based discussions tend to be slower than in face-to-face but can be more reflective even though they require responses in real time. Real time exchanges provide learners with immediate feedback on their performance in L2: if the effect of the communication is not what was intended, then the communication was unsuccessful, and the learner will have the opportunity to rephrase that communication. Further, keeping a log of the exchange allows the learner to return to that exchange later and to reflect on why it was/was not a successful communicative event.
Task Design for Language Learning in an Embodied Environment
Socialisation and Empowerment Warschauer, Turbee & Roberts (1996) found that much of the appeal of MOO lies in its social nature and the “endless variety of human response”. Among important factors are: • •
•
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Its relative anonymity. Learners with disabilities are empowered by virtue of the anonymous environment including visually impaired learners (using screen readers), aurally impaired learners. Pronunciation issues and reluctance to speak are greatly eased in a text-based environment. The environment is persistent so ‘always on’ and users have a reasonable chance of happening on other users to interact with depending on the popularity of the environment. Socialisation and empowerment of learners
Graphic Based Virtual Worlds Active Worlds, first made available to the public in 1996, is an internet-based desktop 3D virtual reality platform designed for synchronous communication (Wikipedia, 2009). Users are ‘present’ represented by an ‘avatar’. Communication is via various forms of synchronous text-based chat and some visual gestures. Users can walk, run, fly and teleport and are able to create content. Active Worlds can link to virtual learning environments such as Blackboard. Campbell (2003) described a course for Japanese learners of English using Active Worlds. The differentiation between the text-based environments outlined in the previous section and the potential of virtual worlds can be seen in some of the course objectives: •
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Foster collaboration through positive interdependence and cooperative goal structures Encourage co-construction of knowledge through an interactive virtual environment
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Raise cultural awareness by working with foreign partners
There is a much greater sense of presence through increased socialisation, increased personalisation of appearance and immediately visible co-creation.
Graphic Based Virtual Worlds with Voice From a language learning perspective, the virtual world of Second Life added two key elements to what has already been said about Active Worlds: a much more sophisticated and flexible design capability and synchronous voice. The ability to design and build accurately and to scale makes it possible to construct an environment similar in scope to a real small town and, therefore, allows for the recreation of realistic real life language usage scenarios. However, it should be very clear that this is not a case of digital ciphers i.e. avatars, exploring a virtual landscape in a neutral and frictionless manner. Even in the MOOs and MUDs there was a sense of identity which increased with the first major virtual world, Active Worlds. In fact Yee et al. (2007) conducted a study in Second Life that confirmed that social norms of gender, interpersonal distance (IPD), and eye gaze all transfer into virtual environments even though the modality of movement is entirely different from Real Life. Friedman, Steed and Slater (2007) studied spatial social behaviour in SL and found that SL users display distinct spatial behaviour when interacting with other users and, when approached by an automated avatar, tended to respond by moving their avatar, further indicating the significance of proxemics in SL. Cassell et al. (2001) describe the concept of embodiment and avatars as embodied agents. Embodiment is a key feature in MUVEs from the point of view of supporting educational objectives. The addition of voice brings two important
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benefits. It further strengthens the investment of self in a digital representation but, crucially, also provides the key element missing from ‘e-learning’ for language learning. In contrast to traditional e-learning and VoIP (Voice over IP) interactions, where the user is generally focused on documents or text, or is limited to audio, MUVE users see their avatar talking with their own voice to other avatars within a particular setting. The input received by users is inextricably connected to their own projected identity, the interpretation of others’ identities, the manipulation of relationships through paralanguage, described by Pennycook (1985) as proxemics–the role of spatial arrangements and variations in distances, kinesics–body movements, gestures, and facial expression, chronemics–the use of time in nonverbal communication, and paraverbal features–stress, intonation and purposeful silence. Embodiment is especially useful in the context of language-teaching as communication is strongly social in nature (Gee, 2001; Atkinson, 2002). Interactions using an avatar offer a way of parsing incoming information, assigning different messages to the participants present. The mind attempts this with or without visual support. However, without avatars, the aural load is high, requiring the user to distinguish voices of potentially unknown participants in addition to attaining basic comprehension in their second language. The use of an easily customizable avatar also provides an outlet for students who may not feel that their language skills adequately represent their social identity: a problem not commonly addressed in the real life classroom. Summarising, we now have highly customisable and, potentially, very realistic virtual environment. Users engage with this environment through constructing a projected and personalised identity and many existing social norms apply in how they interact with others. This article does not attempt to define what is and is not included in Cassel’s
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‘embodiment’. However, as practitioners, we note there is both a virtual platform and interpersonal voice-enabled space of sufficient tangibility to transfer many of our real life skills in facilitating teaching and learning. What is missing is a framework which maps language related competencies onto the real life situations which can be recreated in a virtual world. That framework for us is the Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR). – See previous section Background: How is knowledge of language put to use?
Competencies and Their Relationship to Spaces / Situations The CEFR can be brought to life in the Second Life environment. A careful analysis of the competencies which the CEFR outlines for the different skills- speaking, listening, writing, reading, and grammar- lends itself to the development of taskready themes. For lower levels, themes revolve around basic transactional language such as making a purchase or making travel arrangements, or successfully navigating a restaurant order. By considering the linguistic skills and cultural knowledge required for these interactions, tasks can be staged to culminate in confidence-building simulations. For more advanced levels, planning in is less straightforward but nonetheless offers great potential. CEF competencies at this level, in particular, describe a more academically-prepared and/or business savvy learner, with significant emphasis on social language use. The CEFR is not the only option for a competency-based framework. The Canadian Language Benchmarks also have potential to be mapped against a 3D environment. We would not, however, recommend the American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages (ACTFL, 2009) as an adequate guideline for producing SL tasks, due to the limited nature of its descriptors.
Task Design for Language Learning in an Embodied Environment
mAIN FOCUS OF THe CHAPTeR Language Learning and Teaching in mUVes Egbert, Chao & Hanson-Smith (1999) point out that educators do not need a punctual theory on CALL to understand the role of technology in the classroom; a clear theory on the acquisition of second languages and its implications for the learning atmosphere would complete this objective. In this way, the conditions that seem to optimize the learning of a language (Egbert, Chao & HansonSmith, 1999) according to the investigations carried out in the area of SLA and specifically those related with the social-cognitive perspective, are also adequate to create a framework for teaching languages in MUVEs. In this section, concept of the language classroom from a face-to-face and a MUVE point of view will be looked at. Also, the features that MUVEs bring to the language classroom that maximize language learning will be presented. Finally, the advantages and disadvantages in remaining within a real world The Communicative Classroom in face-to-face and MUVE contexts The ‘classroom’ is an important locus for standard language learning. In the context of a MUVE, there is a strong case for the classroom to lose its walls and, some would question any effort to recreate a classroom setting virtually. We acknowledge there is a very broad debate here regarding formal and informal learning and the potential for a completely learner-centred experience. Beetham & Sharpe acknowledge that “pedagogy needs to be re-done as well as rethought” (2007) and, while learning takes precedence over teaching, they also revindicate the importance of guiding others to learn. This section will look at some of the skill and creativity involved in harnessing the learning potential of a MUVE within the paradigm of a classroom.
Interaction with others in the target language is important for successful language acquisition (Vygotsky, 1978; Long, 1983) and, therefore, it should have a fundamental place in the language classroom. In modern language teaching, group work and pair work are the cornerstones of communicative activities. Often coming after a period of explanation or exploration of a language element (or as part of these), activities encourage students to practise what they have learned in an approach referred as Situational Language. Students might be asked to use what they learned in a role-play or discussion. Hopefully, this experience will be more meaningful and this will allow them to learn more language as learning occurs during interaction through negotiation of meaning (Long, 1983). In MUVEs these activities are equally and in fact more easily possible. Students, who are represented by their avatars, can work as groups or pairs very simply and only need to move their avatars and not themselves, saving time as if they were in a video game. More importantly, however, is that in a MUVE, activities that use communication and interaction can be more believable and more interactive because of the MUVE’s immersiveness. In the language programmes examined in this chapter, most classes take place outside the classroom. However, they usually have a ‘classroom element’ because the concept of ‘classroom’ is still there: a group of students gather in the same place with a teacher. The participants have a common aim: to learn the target language. Additionally the teacher can pull out of their inventory a whiteboard or any other classroom resource to aid explanation and contextualisation. There is a shared concept of classroom in MUVEs and face-to-face contexts. MUVEs, however, offer something else: the teacher can take their students anywhere and take advantage of the immersive environment; the classroom is not confined to the four walls of a real life classroom.
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Use of environment / Setting The environment plays an important role in the language learning context. In the first place, the ability to move around and explore the space is very useful. A high level of correspondence between a virtual setting and a known real life reality will often remain superficial in our experience unless students participate actively according to rules of the setting. In other words, the setting itself must become embodied. This is very apparent in the activities of shopping for clothes at the clothes store, followed by a fashion show activity, for example, in the Spanish course. Likewise, the ability to enter into the car rental agency in the English task and perhaps test drive some vehicles reinforces the degree of engagement with the environment. An extension of the previous point is the ability to leave, circumnavigate and return to the space. Students reported that the relevance of hotel based learning task was reinforced by ‘leaving’ the hotel and then reentering through the reception and greeting the ‘receptionist’. In the first sample lesson, students “going back” to the clothes shop to return an item was another example of reinforcing activity. Not only can students interact with the environment through exploration, some MUVEs are dynamic environments, which means that they can be altered by their participants. This alteration of the virtual world, is not necessarily carried out by the teacher, students can be given the power to create and modify the world. When looking at the impact of an environment on task design there are several aspects we need to examine: the role of the environment as input, persistent vs. temporary environment, and customisable environment.
The Role of the Environment as Input From the outset it should be clear that the design possibilities inherent in a MUVE do not guarantee that the MUVE will support the task efficiently even if imaginative and thematically linked to the
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task in question. In order for a MUVE setting to have task validity the following factors need to be kept in mind (Sweeney, 2009): •
•
•
•
•
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The setting must have apparent relevance to task: i.e. have some face validity corresponding with the apparent activity to be undertaken. The setting must have persistent relevance to the task. It is not enough to situate an activity in a particular context as a backdrop and then make no further use of the surroundings: treating it, in effect, as a themed classroom. The task design must be clear and relevant so the rationale for situating the activity is this context remains consistent as the activity develops. The setting should either map on to general conceptual / cultural / social frameworks of the learners: e.g. a business context should resemble a meeting room they can relate to in order for them to approach the task with a mindset which will allow the real life empathy required to get benefit from an activity OR By agreement there is an element of fantasy and the unexpected–not deliberately disorientating–to stimulate creativity and free up students to react in ways they would not ordinarily. Persistent vs. temporary environment
All of the environments described above and for the purposes of this project were persistent. The programme activities took place within a virtual urban geography which remained there irrespective of whether it was being actively used. The alternative is use of a Holodeck1 where a specific pre-built location is available on demand to support a task. The use of holodecks is relatively common with language educators in Second Life due to very real cost of land and therefore limited space available to them.
Task Design for Language Learning in an Embodied Environment
The projects described in this chapter were not subject to this constraint, taking place in a persistent virtual city (English) or small town (Spanish). (Figure 1) This has several affordances. The immediate context for any task was itself contextualised (i.e. the hotel reception desk is located within an actual hotel, which, in turn, is on landscaped grounds with external facilities. Although Second Life’s teleport facility is available for group and individual navigation between locations, the potential of travelling from point A to point B is useful in tasks such as walking tours and bus rides which require an environment to be described or interpreted. At lower levels, as is the case with the Spanish course, it underpins course elements such as giving directions and learning the names of town features. Additionally, students have the possibility of re-visiting the scenario where the last task took place and revising the lesson content. However,
temporary environments i.e. Holodecks have other advantages such as the potential to have a greater variety of immersive situations on tap.
Customisable Whether persistent or temporary, environments are nonetheless customisable. Any stage of day / night, seasons, weather conditions can all be varied to provide atmospheric and functional variants. A townscape may be decorated to reflect a national or cultural celebration such as St. Patrick’s Day2 or Halloween.
Communication and Interaction The traditional classroom is subject to forced communication where a textbook or teacher provides structure and guidance. Interaction is also limited by the shared experiences of the participants in the classroom, who in many cases
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come from the same country. There is currently no obvious correspondence between textbook approaches to programme design and the affordances of a virtual environment. In MUVEs, the input generally comes from the environment itself, the educational objects, the teacher and the other participants. In a MUVE context there is a lot more room for sharing experiences in an international, multicultural and multilingual classroom. Furthermore, the language experience is not confined to the teacher and classmates; the learner has the possibility of interacting with other users of the MUVE. Also, communication in MUVEs is multimodal: there is a wide range of communication tools with varying suitability for different types of tasks or communications needs (local chat, IMs- Instant Messages, voice call, both for pair and group activities), hypertext, visuals, audio. Students can interact with other avatars, with objects in the virtual environment and with the virtual environment itself. When setting pair and group activities we need to choose the tool that best suits our purposes from the range available. Monitoring students when working in groups or pairs is in fact easier in SL than in real life because it is possible to individually adjust the volume of other participants. If the activity involves a written product, students can use private IM among their group (and the teacher) or notecards.
Varied Input MUVEs, more so than the traditional classroom, can provide different sources of input: teachers, peers, native and non native speakers who are not learners, the environment itself, interactive educational objects and even web-based resources (videos, podcasts, etc.). This variety of input allows the students to be exposed to different kinds of accents and register which should stimulate them to use the language in creative ways in order to convey their meanings. That is, students will need
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to engage in negotiation of meaning, one of the crucial elements for language acquisition.
Language Learning as a Social event Any interaction where language is used to convey meaning can be considered a social event. Classroom language, however, is not always natural and, arguably, does not lead to real interaction. Classroom language may be restricted to predictable questions and answers (teacher-student), thus, there is no negotiation of meaning. MUVEs are especially suited to put into practice the concept that learning occurs through social interaction. In a MUVE, social events are continuously being created and they are only limited by the creator’s imagination. Thus, students can take part in real events such as quiz shows, treasure hunts, concerts, etc. These social events do not only occur in informal learning contexts as students can attend a language class at a restaurant to learn how to order food, or go shopping to learn how to buy clothes, etc. Students are learning through interacting with others in situations similar to the ones they will encounter in real life when visiting a country where the target language is spoken.
Decentralized Role of Teachers MUVEs are good arenas for task-based learning and other student-centred approaches because of what the environment has to offer (it is immersive and dynamic). Saying that the teacher has a decentralised role does not mean that the teacher has a passive role. However, it does mean that the students gain a central role in the learning process and the teacher is there to monitor the process. Students could be asked to write newspaper articles interviewing native speakers inside the MUVE or discuss the virtual environment. They could be asked to decorate and style a restaurant as a group or even take part in a soap opera. The teacher as a facilitator may steer learners in different directions
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but the content would be generated by the students. However, the teacher will sometimes need to take on the role of technical helper and make sound checks with their students at the beginning of the class to ensure that nobody has sound problems. Some other issues related to teachers and their role in the learning/teaching contexts concern the concepts of team teaching and teacher training.
Team Teaching Team-teaching (teacher plus helper) is a feature deployed uniquely for the beginner courses to aid the main teacher who can only speak in the target language. Team teaching is used to model pronunciation, and how activities are done, as well as to provide help - including technical help - to individual students. It is not strange for students to experience technical issues when coming to class and it is important that they find a supportive environment as well as some assistance.
Teacher Training Teachers have two learning curves to overcome. The first curve consists in becoming familiar with the MUVE environment and learning how to move around it. The second curve relates to MUVE pedagogy. The latter largely consists of a process of realisation that much real life best practice has transfer value into the new context. A ‘good teacher’ in a MUVE is first and foremost a ‘good teacher’ in real life who adapts to the constraints and affordances of a MUVE. The adjustment time that instructors need to feel confident does need to be borne in mind. The learning curve is considerably easier through teacher training courses as, during the training course, trainees will be trained in those MUVE skills of benefit to teaching (such as learning how to build 3D-objects) as well as exploring insights on how to teach in this environment.
Classroom management In this environment, classroom management plays a vital role as it is a new environment both for teachers and for learners. Thus, the teacher should scaffold student work, giving them the overall purpose for each activity, with detailed instructions and examples and making sure that they have understood. Making comprehension checks can be challenge because of the lack of or limited range of facial gestures, haptics and body language so the teacher has to look for new techniques to check comprehension. Another important issue that teachers have to deal with are disruptions in class which can be of different nature. The first disruptive element is related to sound if students don’t have their volume well adjusted or if they don’t use the right headset. Sound problems may generate echoes (not only for the person who has the problem but also for the rest of the participants), background noises (barking dogs, crying babies, ringing telephones), or electronic static. Another disruptive element can be that of avatars using uncommon shapes or costumes (demon or monster avatars - use of weapons or inappropriate clothes). Finally, because of the anonymity of a MUVE, students may come in late, disappear in the middle of the class, or have ‘phantom avatars’ in class (the teacher may physically see the avatar but in fact the student is away from the keyboard). It is important that the teacher establishes criteria for dealing with these problems before they occur and sets rules for adequate behaviour to avoid class disruption.
Simulations and Role Play for Language Learning Long held as a critical activity which gives students sociocultural practice in the target language that they may need to access in the real world, its (i.e. roleplays) drawback has always been the “unnatural situation of the classroom” (Livingstone 1983). The enormous amount of suspended
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disbelief required by students to engage in and benefit from role play, combined with the inordinate amount of time and preparation it takes to run a successful role play in the traditional classroom (time which is becoming more and more precious as contact hours dwindle), have heretofore hindered its effectiveness as a tool. MUVEs, however, provide an adequate environment to have students perform and experience the sociocultural roles and simulations outside of the traditional classroom context while allowing for proper assessment and guidance. Key in simulations is that students experience something within a MUVE using the target language. Exploring virtual environments (or simulations such as the travel agency), sharing these experiences through “show and tell” (think fashion show); participating in events, etc. MUVEs offer an infinite variety of potential scenarios and contexts which work to the benefit of both creativity and realism. Devising scenarios which engage learners through their realism and relevance may, ironically, be more possible in a virtual world than in real life. In fact, by entering a MUVE, students are already taking on a role. This affords the possibility of setting tasks which are more adventurous. For example, within a virtual hotel, students are not restricted to simulating the most likely scenarios. They could also be set the task of dealing with large infestation of rodents or a collapsing roof! Learners can change their appearance, their clothes or even their form and which can lead to greater levels of meaningful language transaction through role-play. Against this it should be noted we found a tension between some of the affordances of SL and designing tasks grounded in reality. Firstly, in the hotel scenario, to maximise interaction opportunities it may seem very useful to have some students adopt the role of someone working in the hotel. Whatever proportion of students would actually require English as a hotel guest however it is far less likely that any of them would ever exercise a role in hotel management. Nonetheless we felt
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this was an acceptable role trade-off for a minority within an overall probable scenario for guests. Secondly, the potential for creating exaggerated or fantastical situations - very feasible in SL - needed to be offset against the difficulty in setting these up or the degree of removal from reality. Though on one level less imaginative, students often appreciated very straightforward situations such as checking into a hotel. Many reported feeling that in this type of scenario, they were having a genuine, life-like ‘experience’ which made them nervous and raised a real prospect of failure - an important characteristic of real life immersive learning. Real immersion is rarely comfortable after all. Finally, however well constructed the situation in terms of environment and task, it could be too far removed from either students’ real life experience or their expectations. An example of this was a carefully constructed “business meeting” lesson (set in a conference room) which didn’t work well initially as students failed to adopt the “roles” and hence didn’t use language typical of a RL business meeting. They still saw themselves as students and treated one another thus accordingly. This enabled us to see that surroundings, physical or virtual, don’t make “reality” without the right development, including social identity. Overall though, the way that this multi-user virtual environment (MUVE) can deliver an authentic environment in which a role-play can take place at a distance is nothing short of transformative. Only being immersed directly in the target culture could surpass this virtual immersion into an environment in which a student actually performs the sociolinguistic functions they would be required to perform in the target culture / destination.
Assessment Our approach to assessment and evaluation bears a strong correlation with our approach to teaching; just as we consider what is possible within a MUVE to have more in common with good prac-
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tice face-to-face teaching than a traditional concept of either computer assisted language learning (CALL) or mainly asynchronous online-learning using a Virtual Learning Environment, so the type of student assessment is also derived from good face to face practice. It consisted of regular teacher monitoring of performance in-class, recording of work set for outside class with individual student interviews where necessary. It is perfectly feasible to set written tasks for completion within a time limit although we did not use this instrument. As products in development, clearly there was also systematically collated feedback from students (individual interview, focus group and web questionnaire) about their overall satisfaction which very often brought up valuable learning issues. Thus, assessment here differs from what is normally referred to as computer based testing. Though some of the tools associated with this area such as web based multiple choice questionnaires were available, they were generally used in survey mode for gathering course evaluation information rather than student performance information in a testing mode. The MUVE aspect of assessment was more apparent in devising metrics to capture performance within the type of autonomous, simulation tasks made possible by the MUVE. Thus an assessment form would consist of: • •
•
Key language skills & competencies displayed in a task Task specific information (marked on a scale of 1-4): task completion; grammar; vocabulary; fluency; appropriateness; pronunciation Open comments
In Second Life the camera can be detached from the avatar and thus observe activity the equivalent of several hundred metres away. This facility is very useful for classroom quality control as well as student observation. Note students are never ‘spied on’ anyone overhearing is visible in the ‘active speakers’ panel even if not proximate.
Independent of the programme any student was attending, they also had the opportunity to meet up with an advisor to assess their progress. It is certainly true that this was influenced by the amount of time they were spending in Second Life overall and, within this, the degree to which they were seeking out informal practice and learning opportunities. Through regular social as well as lesson attendance some intermediate students achieved the type of linguistic progress within 8 weeks or so which is normally associated with 140-170 hours of instruction (from CEFR level B1–CEFR level B2).
Disadvantages of a mUVe as Opposed to the Real Life Classroom However engaging they may be, MUVEs are still pictures on a screen and therefore facial understanding, haptics, and much body language are not present, something which avatar movement or animation cannot compensate for. It’s therefore difficult to know if students are engaged or understand the task set by the teacher. Students need to be encouraged to ask questions. Learners must learn to use the virtual environment before/or at the same time they learn any language (although the MUVE could be totally in the target language). The struggle of ‘newbies’ (SL slang for new users) with the learning environment can lead to high anxiety levels which are counterproductive for language learning. However, tutorials and a few insights during lesson preparation can minimize this). There may be technical issues, days when the central servers run slowly which may make the class more difficult to deliver, learners may have problems with their voice or very bad sound which makes it difficult to understand them or which causes disruption in the classroom. However, technical issues can also happen in the real life classroom just as easily. Extended texts like pieces of student writing or reading are more challenging to work with in SL, so a multifaceted approach may be required
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by combining virtual world interaction with online documents, for example.
TASk exPeRIeNCeS AND TASk DeSIgN This section looks at specific samples of lesson as a focus to bring together the issues raised in previous sections of the chapter. A contextualised overview of two sets of sample materials, specifically designed for delivery within a MUVE, is provided within a framework which highlights their context, aims, components, sequencing and outcomes. They are intended to be illustrative of the issues raised earlier in the chapter. The rationale behind this material selection is they act as a prism for two quite different students: beginner / false beginners learning Spanish and intermediate (B1 in CEFR) students of English. Having two different languages is of no significance in terms of the materials design issues that we raise–the points would apply generally to any modern foreign language teaching. It should be noted that the sample materials have been chosen to represent types of situations which we think readers may find most useful rather than necessarily being ideal models. This is especially the case with the English sample material which should be seen as a snapshot of a development stage in a long iterative process. It is not necessarily representative of how we would approach such a task in retrospect nor how Languagelab.com plans or executes its current activities.
Spanish: Beginners & False Beginners The Spanish course was designed to provide total beginners with some basic notions of Spanish they could use when travelling to a Spanish-speaking country. The course is devised as a trip to a Spanish city: from a first encounter with the students at the
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train station of the Spanish City and hotel check in, to all the different situations that a tourist is likely to encounter in a Spanish speaking country. Figure 2 is a brief overview of the general learning goals phrased in “can do statements” that were adapted from the CEF to this course:
Sample Lesson 1 • • • •
Level: beginners Goal: Learn how to buy clothes and complain about a purchase Setting: Clothes store Objectives: By the end of this lesson, students will be able to ◦ Identify vocabulary related to clothes items (clothes, colours, sizes, price) ◦ Describe what they and others are wearing ◦ Ask for the clothes they want to buy in a clothes store ◦ Answer questions regarding the kind of clothes they want to buy (type of item, colour, size, price) ◦ Complain about problems with items bought
When creating a lesson in SL there are some basic elements that need to be taken into account. The environment in SL plays a very important role as it helps the student understand the context and the nature of the topic of the class. It is also important to prepare activities in different locations to achieve a rhythm to the class. If not, classes may become static and tedious. Apart from the locations, it is important to design varied activities that cater for different learning styles and that add an element of surprise or play to the lesson. Bearing all this in mind, a number of activities were designed to fulfil the objectives of the lesson (Figure 3, Figure 4).
Task Design for Language Learning in an Embodied Environment
english: Intermediate (B1) The English courses had different programs with different objectives according to the students’ needs and interests. The approach adopted for the English programme above foresaw two types of lesson within the programme, some with a strong situational-functional orientation and others related to discussion and cross-cultural exchange.
Both types had language input. The programme comprised 18 hours of class divided over 12 separate sessions. (Figure 5, Figure 6).
Sample Lesson 2 • • •
Level: Intermediate (CEF B1) Setting: travel agent Goal: book a holiday at a travel agent
Objectives: By the end of this lesson sequence, students will be able to ◦ Give reasons and explanations for opinions related to holidays ◦ Book a holiday at a travel agency
Syllabus Design and TaskBased Learning In planning the English programme a “framework” on which to build a lesson curriculum CEF competencies (‘can-do) statements and descriptors were used to develop themes and task areas and then interlinked using a narrative structure going on holiday. The outcome was then matched against a standard lexical-grammatical syllabus. The descriptors (e.g. Can exploit a wide range of simple language to deal with most situations likely to arise whilst travelling) were considered from different perspectives (language input,
social knowledge, variation in experience) and then matched with the standard syllabus. Each lesson or task had a number of descriptors as a main focus but these were recycled and reviewed across the programme. The approach to the Spanish beginners course was slightly different. It was also thought that the most appropriate approach for this course would be a functional-situational approach (based on CEF descriptors and can do statements) where the students would learn Spanish experimenting using authentic situations they would be likely to face when visiting a Spanish speaking location as tourists. Because of the goals mentioned in the sample lesson as well as the immersive nature of the course, a wide range of competencies (some of them complex for an A1 level) were worked on. However, both programmes were very much influenced by a task based approach to design as
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the nature of 3D MUVEs is especially suited to implementing task-based instruction. Task-based instruction refers to an approach where tasks constitute the fundamental unit of planning and instruction. Some of its proposers (Nunan, 1989; Willis, 1996), present it as the logical development of the communicative language teaching movement since it is based on some of the principles that were part of this movement in the 1980´s. Some of these principles involve the use of activities that promote real communication, activities in which the language is used to carry out significant tasks since the language that is significant for the learner impels the learning process. Nunan (1989) considers that a task can be constituted by a group of activities, and that a unit can be composed of a group of tasks. He defines a task as: “As a piece of classroom work which involves learners in comprehending, manipulating, producing or interacting in the target language while their attention is principally focused on meaning rather than form. “The task should also have a sense of completeness, being able to stand alone as a communicative act in its own right” (p.10). In sum, we can say that tasks are justified if they help the student to develop the skills needed to carry out real-world communicative interactions. Above we have illustrated the breakdown of different tasks that we have used in our language programs. Nunan (1989) suggests several components of a task which can be identified in our analyses: •
•
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A goal: the goals of the tasks are authentic as they are goals that can be carried out in real life such as buying some clothes or booking a holiday Some form of input which can be verbal or non-verbal: The input in the lessons is provided through different resources: boards with images and text, notecards, interactive quizzes and boards, sound-en-
•
•
•
hanced objects, the avatars (teachers and students). The diversity of resources used caters to the students´ different learning styles. Set of activities derived from the input which sets out what the students will do in relation to the input: in many lessons there is an element of play and creativity which is specific to this gaming environment (e.g. when the students get dressed up and participate in a fashion show.) Roles for students and teachers: Students have an active role during the whole class; so, there is a lot of interaction carried out among the teachers and the students through the different groupings which provides plenty of opportunities for negotiation of meaning and output adjustments. A setting: The environment also played a crucial role in this lesson, especially at the last stages of the lesson when students had to role play shopping or returning clothes or booking a holiday at a travel agent.
Our MUVE-based praxis builds on these foundations and task design replicates good practice where appropriate from traditional learning while playing to MUVE affordances such as simulation, role play, functional and situational aspects.
CONCLUSION Voice-enabled 3D MUVEs clearly have enormous potential to support foreign language learning– the ability to manipulate the environment and become an embodied part of that environment, as an avatar, enables language learners to invest their emotions and themselves into tasks where they can ‘exchange meaning’ and where language learning can really take place. In addition to e-learning’s more standard affordances of flexibility of time and place, MUVEs allow for the creation of immersive practice
Task Design for Language Learning in an Embodied Environment
environments which are genuinely engaging and involving. It is also clear that these are still early days in the exploitation of MUVEs for education in general. In fact, it is possibly not even accurate to suggest that their usage is the early adopter stage. Zemsky and Massy (2004), in their analysis of ‘stages of technology adoption’, point out that for a technology to move from ‘innovator’ to ‘early adopter’ status, a ‘dominant paradigm’ must emerge. This has arguably not yet occurred for the exploitation of MUVEs in the areas of overall implementation model and teacher training. If this is the case then, materials design, which depends on these, is still also in a state of flux. What we can say though is that, just as many face-to-face teaching methodologies can be transferred and or adapted to MUVEs, so many of the elements of successful task design as it is currently understood, also apply to MUVEs. The extent to which we take advantage of the range of what MUVEs have to offer will depend on a range of factors: • • • •
• •
The fit between the MUVE element and an existing face to face or online component The expectations and skill levels of the teachers and students The course objectives The extent to which teachers and students are willing and prepared to learn autonomously Cultural appropriateness Monolingual vs. multilingual groups
There is an important proviso: not only does task design have to take account of language learning theory, it also has to accommodate issues involved in using MUVE technology. If this stringent set of conditions can be met, we are confident that MUVEs can meet the needs of real life learners in a real life learning environment in meaningful ways which we are only beginning to discover.
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Kitade, K. (2000). L2 Learners’ Discourse and SLA Theories in CMC: Collaborative Interaction in Internet Chat. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 13(2), 143–166. doi:10.1076/09588221(200004)13:2;1-D;FT143 Koenraad, T. (2008). How Can 3D Virtual Worlds Contribute to Language Education? Paper presented at WorldCALL 2008. Available online: http://www.callinpractice.net/koenraad/publications/worldcallpdf-2.pdf/at_download/file Lazaraton, A. (2004). Gesture and Speech in the Vocabulary Explanations of One ESL Teacher: A Microanalytic Inquiry. Language Learning, 54(1), 79–117. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9922.2004.00249.x Legenhausen, L., & Kötter, M. (2000). Virtual classrooms in foreign language learning - MOOs as rich learning environments. HLT Magazine, 7 (1), January 2005. Livingstone, D., Kemp, J., & Edgar, E. (2008). ‘From Multi-User Virtual Environment to 3D Virtual Learning Environment’. ALT-J, 16(3), 139–150. doi:10.1080/09687760802526707 Minocha, S., & Roberts, D. (2008). Laying the groundwork for socialisation and knowledge construction within 3D virtual worlds. ALT-J, 16(3), 181–196. doi:10.1080/09687760802526699 Molka-Danielsen, J., & Destchmann, M. (Eds.). (2009). Learning and Teaching in the Virtual World of Second Lif. Norway: Tapir Academic Press. Nelson, B., & Erlandson, B. (2008). Managing cognitive load in educational multi-user virtual environments: reflection on design practice. Educational Technology Research and Development, 56, 619–641. doi:10.1007/s11423-007-9082-1 Prensky, M. (2001). Digital Game-Based Learning. New York: McGraw Hill Education.
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Rice, R., & Love, G. (1987). Electronic Emotion: Socioemotional Content in a Computer-Mediated Communication Network. Communication Research, 14(1), 85. doi:10.1177/009365087014001005 Rieber, L. (2005). Multimedia Learning in Games, Simulations, and Microworlds. In Mayer, R. (Ed.), The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning (pp. 549–567). Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press. Rieber, L. P. (2001). Designing learning environments that excite serious play. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Australasian Society for Computers in Learning in Tertiary Education, Melbourne, Australia, December 2001.
Stanley, G., & Mawer, K. (2008). ‘Language Learners & Computer Invaders to Second Life’. TESL-EJ 11, (44). Bradshaw, D. (2006). Virtual Worlds – Real Learning! Pedagogical reflections. Brisbane: Australian Flexible Learning Framework. de Freitas, S. (2008). ‘Serious Virtual Worlds: A scoping study’. JISC e-Learning Programme. Available on-line: http://www.jisc. ac.uk/media/documents/publications/seriousvirtualworldsv1.pdf Stevens, V. (2006).Second Life in Education and Language Learning. TESL-EJ, 10, (3). Stevens, V. (2007) ‘Unarticle: Unleashing the Transformative Power of the Unorganized Internet’. TESL-EJ, 10, (4).
Rutter, D., Stephenson, G., & Dewey, M. (1981). Visual communication and the content and style of onversation. The British Journal of Social Psychology, 20(Pt 1), 41–52.
Stevens, V. (2007). Second life and online collaboration through peer to peer distributed learning networks. Paper submitted to the Proceedings of the METSMaC, Abu Dhabi March 17-19, 2007.
Savin-Baden, M. (2008). From cognitive capability to social reform? Shifting perceptions of learning in immersive virtual worlds. ALT-J, 16(3), 151–161. doi:10.1080/09687760802526731
Sykes, J. (2005). Synchronous CMC and Pragmatic Development: Effects of Oral and Written Chat. CALICO Journal, 22(3), 399.
Schwienhorst, K. (1998). The ‘third place’- virtual reality applications for second language learning. ReCALL, 10(1), 118–126. doi:10.1017/ S095834400000433X Squire, K. (2006). From Content to Context: Videogames as Designed Experience. Educational Researcher, 35(8), 19–29. doi:10.3102/0013189X035008019 Squire, K. (2007). ‘Games, learning, and society: Building a field’. Educational Technology, 4(5), 51–54. Squire, K., & Jenkins, H. (2003). ‘Harnessing the power of games in education’. Insight (American Society of Ophthalmic Registered Nurses), 6, 5–33.
Tanis, M., & Postmes, T. (2003). Social Cues and Impression Formation in CMC. The Journal of Communication, 53(4), 676–693. doi:10.1111/j.1460-2466.2003.tb02917.x von der Emde, S., Schneider, J., & Kötter, M. (2001). Technically Speaking: Transforming Language Learning through Virtual Learning Environments (MOOs). Modern Language Journal, 85, 210–225. doi:10.1111/0026-7902.00105 Walther, J. (1992). Interpersonal Effects in Computer-Mediated Interaction: A Relational Perspective. Communication Research, 19(1), 52. doi:10.1177/009365092019001003 Walther, J., Loh, T., & Granka, L. (2005). Let Me Count the Ways: The Interchange of Verbal and Nonverbal Cues in ComputerMediated and Face-to-Face Affinity. Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 24(1), 36. doi:10.1177/0261927X04273036 281
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Winn, W. (2002). Current Trends in Educational Technology Research: The Study of Learning Environments. Educational Psychology Review, 14(3), 331–351. doi:10.1023/A:1016068530070 Yee, N., Bailenson, J. N., Urbanek, M., Chang, F., & Merget, D. (2007). The Unbearable Likeness of Being Digital: The Persistence of Nonverbal Social Norms in Online Virtual Environments. Cyberpsychology & Behavior, 10(1), 115–121. doi:10.1089/cpb.2006.9984
keY TeRmS AND DeFINITIONS MUVEs: three-dimensional environments simulating the real world. Embodiment: strong relationship between self and the digital representation of self in the form of avatar. Task-based Learning: teaching-learning approach based on the use of real-life tasks to teach/ learn a second/foreign language.
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CALL: Computer Assisted Language Learning–Using computer technologies to learn a language. CMC: Computer Mediated Communication– Using computer applications to communicate online. SLA: Second Language Acquisition. Avatar: Graphic representation of the participant’s virtual persona. Second Life: 3D Multi-User Virtual Environment freely downloadable from www.secondlife. com. Classroom: any space where teachers and students get together with the purpose of teaching & learning.
eNDNOTeS 1 2
http://wiki.secondlife.com/wiki/Holodeck St. Patrick’s Day: national day of the Republic of Ireland which is also celebrated by the Irish diaspora worldwide.
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Chapter 16
Multi-User Virtual Environments:
User-Driven Design and Implementation for Language Learning Julie M. Sykes University of New Mexico, USA
ABSTRACT Various features of multiuser virtual environments (MUVEs) make them promising and, potentially transformational, contexts for the development of second language (L2) skills. While there has been a surge of interest in the use of MUVEs for language learning, there is still a relatively small body of empirical evidence that supports our understanding of how these immersive spaces can best be utilized for second language education. After a brief introduction to relevant research on MUVEs and language learning, this chapter is divided into two primary sections. The first section describes one component of a larger empirical study of the first MUVE built specifically for learning Spanish pragmatics. The following section utilizes the empirical findings, combined with lessons learned from classroom implementation, to suggest design considerations for those wishing to implement MUVEs in the language classroom. While the specific focus of the chapter is language learning, the findings are intended to be generally applicable in other disciplines as well.
INTRODUCTION The design, implementation, and evaluation of any new learning innovation require thoughtful, context-based inquiry to inform both theory and practice. This is especially true in the case of emergent technological tools, which often have a profound impact on social and professional DOI: 10.4018/978-1-61692-822-3.ch016
practices (Brown & Adler, 2008; Thorne, 2000; Thorne & Payne, 2005). Witness, for example, the explosion of Twitter as a critically important social networking site1 or the rapid increase of people who regularly interact with, and within, multi-user virtual environments (MUVEs). Concurrent with transitions in social and professional contexts, we have witnessed a notable increased interest in the use of MUVEs for educational purposes (de Freitas, 2006; Prensky, 2001; Sawyer & Smith, 2008).
Various features of multiuser virtual environments (MUVEs) make them promising and, potentially transformational, contexts for the development of second language (L2) skills (Sykes, Oskoz, & Thorne, 2008; Sykes, 2009; Thorne, Black, & Sykes, 2009). This includes, for example, metapragmatic and pragmatic strategies as well as opportunities for meaningful intercultural communication. While there has been a surge in interest in the use of MUVEs for language learning (Sykes, 2009; Thorne, Black, & Sykes, 2008; Zheng et al, 2009), there is still a relatively small body of empirical evidence that supports our understanding of how these immersive spaces can best be utilized for second language education. Even less data exist to map real-time learner behavior during participation in MUVEs to learning outcomes. However, as with any educational tool, data are critical to informing design and implementation practices. In the spirit of design-based research, this chapter aims to “create and extend knowledge about developing, enacting, and sustaining innovative learning environments [MUVEs]” (The Design-Based Research Collective, 2003, pp. 5) for L2 learning. This chapter begins by briefly highlighting background information relevant to understanding MUVEs and second language learning. The remainder of the chapter is then divided into two primary sections. The first describes one component of a larger empirical study of a synthetic immersive environment (a specific type of MUVE to be described shortly), built specifically for learning Spanish pragmatics (i.e., making requests and apologizing). Using a triangulation of data from various data collection points – (1) 120 hours of in-game play, (2) one-on-one interviews, (3) pre and post assessments and surveys, and (4) learning outcome projects – this section defines patterns of user behavior related to the learning outcomes. The next section of this chapter utilizes the findings from the study combined with lessons learned from implementation to suggest design considerations for those wishing to implement MUVEs in the language classroom, either through
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task design for existing MUVEs or the creation of their own virtual space. While the specific focus of the chapter is language learning, the findings are intended to be generally applicable in other disciplines as well.
BACkgROUND Participation in MUVEs is no longer considered merely a hobby or extracurricular activity. Rather, it is a significant, international cultural practice that contributes to an overall shift in the perception and construction of reality, including the political, economic, and social choices people make outside of virtual contexts (Castronova, 2005, 2007; Thorne, 2008). When considering the role of MUVEs in language learning, we must conceptualize them as more than merely practice spaces. Instead, the perspective taken here advocates a move towards transformational educational practice; this makes use of the emerging digital spaces in culturally relevant ways while allowing for learner construction of knowledge.2 Prior to our primary discussion of the empirical study and design considerations presented in this chapter, this section briefly presents relevant background information to frame our discussion of MUVEs in language learning. This includes a review of L2 research relevant to the current project as well as a description of three prominent types of MUVEs. Ten general, potentially beneficial, characteristics of MUVEs for second language learning are also discussed.
mUVes and Second Language Learning As is the case with any emerging field, early studies often present more questions than answers. This is true of empirical research that examines MUVEs and language learning. In general, the results indicate a positive value of MUVEs for language learning, especially in the areas of task-
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based learning, negotiation for meaning/action, the development of intercultural competence and pragmatic abilities, and the advancement of metalinguistic skills and strategies; yet, overall, very little information is available. This section summarizes the current research in this area relevant to the chapter. Specifically, it focuses on research examining synthetic immersive environments (SIEs) in which tasks and activities are designed for the purposes of language learning.3 In terms of task-based learning and negotiation of meaning, both Zheng, Li, and Zhao (2008) and Sadler and Nurmukhamedov (2008) offer preliminary pilot findings to aid our initial understanding the role of Second Life in language learning. Zheng, Li, and Zhao (2008) examined the role Second Life could play in teaching Chinese language and culture. Their study employed ethnographic observation, participant mapping, and interview data to analyze how Second Life can help learners participate in embodied experiences through meaningful engagement with the virtual space. Results suggested that Second Life was an engaging space in which meaningful interaction took place. Negotiation for meaning was a central component of learners’ interaction in the virtual space and resulted in a successful learning experience for the learners. In a study examining how the methodology of task-based language learning could be applied to the virtual context of Second Life, Sadler and Nurmukhamedov (2008) presented the results of a semester project using Second Life in an ESL classroom (n=10 ESL undergraduates; 23 MA TESOL students). Results from pre and post questionnaires, participant journals, participant interviews, and task observations (task outcomes and process videos) confirmed that task-based learning could be applied in virtual environments, albeit in different ways. Based on their results, Sadler and Nurmukhamedov concluded that the type of task-based learning activities used in the study were effective in maintaining motivation and the learners were generally successful at the
tasks themselves, indicating successful interaction in the L2. These results are congruent with findings from previous studies in other computer-mediated communicative environments such as synchronous written chat spaces (Abrams, 2006; Blake, 2000, 2005; Smith, 2003a, 2003b, 2004); still, they do not significantly differ from previous work or make use of the potentially transformative potential of MUVEs. Additional research examining task-design and interaction will be critical in order to fully realize the potential of MUVEs for language learning. Moving a step in this direction, Zheng et al’s (2009) study of the SIE Quest Atlantis examined Negotiation for Action and the contribution of NSNNS collaboration and interaction within the SIE for English language acquisition of two adolescent native Mandarin Chinese speakers. Data from quest logs, interviews, and participant observation indicated that intercultural collaboration for quest completion resulted in emergent identity formation as well as the acquisition of pragmatics, syntax, semantics, and discourse practices in ways that are typically not possible outside of this virtual context. This included the co-construction of culture and meaning at the discourse level in which the learners themselves were able to modify one another’s cultural perspectives through tasks centered on a common goal. These results confirm many of the findings from Belz’s (2003) and Belz and Vyatkinas’ (2005) work on telecollaboration and the value of intercultural communication for pragmatic development. In addition, Zheng, et al (2009) highlighted the added benefit of collaboration around a task inherent to the SIE itself. The learners had a reason to complete the quests, in addition to being assigned work for their classes. This highlights negotiation for action as the “main acquisitional interaction” present in the space. As a result, the importance of the task-based learning combined with unstructured conversation in this study is central. Zheng et al’s (2009) study is unique in that it targets the language acquisition occurring
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through the participation in goal-directed activity built-in to the virtual space. While language was not the primary focus of instruction, the combination of content and language in this project afforded the learners a higher-level of meaningful acquisition. In addition to highlighting the benefits of SIEs themselves, the researchers also suggest similar types of acquisition could occur in other types of MUVEs with similar goal-directed activity (e.g., MMOGs not specifically built for educational purposes). Peterson (2006) further investigated task type, negotiation of meaning, and avatar presence in a study of 24 learners of English participating in Active Worlds. Data from chat logs and pre and post questionnaires were used to determine the types of interactional management strategies and negotiation of meaning strategies used by the learners, as well as to gain a better understanding of how participants made use of their avatars in interaction. This study is unique in that it moves beyond the findings of the previously mentioned studies to investigate one of the chief affordances of MUVEs – avatar embodiment. SIEs have also been built with the specific educational goal of L2 acquisition. With this focus, it is expected that users gain language skills through collaboration (as in the case of Second Life and Quest Atlantis) as well as in-game participation and quest completion (i.e., specific linguistic knowledge is needed to complete a quest). Sykes (2008) investigated the role of SIEs in enhancing advanced language learners’ pragmatic performance (i.e., their ability to perform requests and apologies in Spanish) through the investigation of an SIE designed specifically for L2 pragmatic acquisition, Croquelandia. Utilizing a synthesis of 120 hours of in-game behavior observation data, survey data, pre- and posttests, and one-on-one participant interviews, data were triangulated to gain a comprehensive picture of the impact of the SIE on pragmatic acquisition. This is a noteworthy study in that, in addition to examining in-game behavior and user perceptions
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of their experience, Sykes (2008) also investigated the learning outcomes related to in-game participation. This chapter presents one component of this larger study. Finally, in a study of learners’ strategic development in pragmatics through the use of online environments (i.e., a website and an SIE), Cohen and Sykes (2008), confirm that SIEs are beneficial for developing learners’ metapragmatic strategies for addressing pragmatics. That is, through participation in an SIE, learners reported they were more conscious of the necessity for pre-planning prior to performing language functions, were more likely to select a focus (e.g., comprehension or production) when engaging in interaction, and more aware of the need to monitor their discourse in terms of level of formality, terms of address, and timing. While self-report data should always be interpreted with caution, the results of this study confirm the qualitative data in Sykes (2008), which suggested that SIEs are especially suited to the development of metapragmatic skills. Aside from this handful of studies, research specifically examining the use of MUVEs in language learning is scarce. This chapter adds to this body of research by connecting empirical data to design considerations, a principle of designbased research. While many questions remain unanswered, the intended goal is to understand how, based on current information, we can best move forward in designing and implementing MUVEs for language learning.
Types of mUVes As Sykes, Oskoz, and Thorne (2008) point out “each type of visually rendered virtual space presents distinct possibilities for language development based on the affordances, constraints, and unique interactional opportunities of the space itself” (pp. 534). Therefore, prior to further discussion of why MUVEs may be especially useful for language learning, it is valuable to briefly explore the various types of MUVEs currently
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in existence. Due to the nature of this volume, in which many types of MUVEs are described in detail, this discussion will be limited to the information necessary to classify the particular type MUVE discussed here. In general, we can categorize our understanding of MUVEs into three types: (1) social virtualities, (2) massively multiplayer online games, and (3) synthetic immersive environments (Sykes, Oskoz, & Thorne, 2008; Thorne, Black, & Sykes, 2009). It is important to note that these are not meant to be rigid divisions, but rather prototypical descriptions of the behaviors present in each. Since it is the users themselves who co-construct any digitally mediated space (Thorne, forthcoming), classifications are dynamic and evolving. Nevertheless, general distinctions are helpful in clarifying the overall structure and general patterns. Social Virtualities (e.g., Second Life, Lively, Active Worlds, There) are open-ended, immersive, virtual spaces, in which users have complete control over their activities and collaboration with others. Users themselves determine every aspect of their play experience (e.g., the gender and look of their avatar and the contexts in which they interact). The objectives and goals of play are also entirely determined by the users themselves (or, in the case of education, often the instructor or instructional designer). The most prominent social virtuality, for both entertainment and educational purposes, is Second Life, boasting over 670,000 users and 1.5 billion square meters of virtual space in the most current quarterly report (Linden Lab, 2008).4 In the educational arena, universities around the world own Second Life real estate and are working to extend their campuses and develop educationally oriented activities in Second Life. The SL educators’ blog at http://www.sl-educationblog.org/ offers more information about the active group of educators using Second Life. The second type of MUVE to be described here is Massively Multiplayer Online Games (MMOGs) (e.g., World of Warcraft, Everquest,
Final Fantasy, Tabula Rasa). These environments are commercially designed and avatar-based multiplayer virtual worlds within which thousands of people simultaneously interact, compete, and collaborate with one another (Steinkuehler, 2008). They are designed around specific, goal-oriented activities involving the completion of specific tasks (i.e., quests), leveling a character (i.e., improving one’s skills or abilities), and collecting items useful for play. A unique aspect of MMOGs, as compared to social virtualities, is the necessity for collaboration at higher levels of play. In other words, as users become more advanced, they must interact with other players to be successful in reaching their goals. This necessity has lead to the creation of organized groups (i.e., guilds) specifically dedicated to efficient, meaningful, and collaborative game play (Ducheneaut et al, 2007; Steinkuehler, 2008). While both social virtualities and MMOGs are valuable for language learning,5 the focus of this chapter is a type of MUVE that combines patterns and practices from each. Synthetic Immersive Environments (SIEs) represent a unique variety of MUVE. SIEs are carefully designed to function as a realistic social space (e.g., Second Life, There, Active Worlds) while, at the same time, incorporating the beneficial collaborative attributes of Massively-Multiplayer Online Game (MMOG) models (e.g., World of Warcraft, Everquest). In other words, SIEs are engineered MUVEs which integrate the many benefits of realistic interaction and online gaming to produce explicitly, educationally-related outcomes in simulated, relevant, interactional contexts (Sykes, 2008). At present, three SIEs have been developed specifically for language learning: Zon (for learning Chinese), Tactical Iraqi/French/ Pashto (specifically for military purposes), and Croquelandia (for learning how to make requests and apologize in Spanish). In addition, it could be argued that some designed activities in Second Life function as SIE-like activities (Zheng, Li, & Zhao, 2008). The specific focus of this chapter
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will be Croquelandia (described in detail in the section that follows).
Characteristics of MUVEs Drawing on research from various disciplines, including computer assisted language learning (CALL), second language acquisition, instructional technology, anthropology, and education, Sykes (2008) presents ten characteristics of MUVEs that are especially relevant for L2 development with accompanying resources. While the list presented in Table 1 is not exhaustive, it presents a general overview of the potential benefits of MUVEs that are specifically relevant to language learning. It is important to note that since it is more than just the environment that creates the virtual culture, all MUVEs do not contain the same characteristics. While the characteristics listed in Table 1 are inherently part of the participation mechanism and structure of the majority of virtual spaces, it is the users themselves who determine
the participatory culture and collaborative norms. Although facilitated by the digital architecture, it is not the technical platforms that distinguish one from another, but rather the ways in which the users co-construct their own experiences. Understanding this dynamic nature is critical to our discussion of language learning in MUVEs. The ways in which these characteristics are realized and co-constructed by users can (and should) vary even within the same MUVE. Debates surrounding styles of play and appropriate in-world actions are prevalent (Taylor, 2006; Squires & Steinkuehler, 2006) and play a large role in the way users interact with the virtual space. Participation in these debates can be just as valuable as the time spent in-world. Research addressing the ten characteristics in Table 1 should take into account the ways in which this variance actually contributes to the value of knowledge construction within various types of MUVEs, in addition to the game play itself.
Table 1. Characteristics of MUVEs relevant to L2 learning (Adapted from Sykes, 2008) Characteristic
Sample Resources
(1) Varied task type and occurrence of negotiation of meaning/action
Blake (2000); Fernández-García & Martín-Arbelaiz (2002); Smith (2003a, 2003b 2004); Vick et al. (2000); Zheng et al (2009)
de Freitas (2006); Gee (2003, 2005); Mistral (2007); Noëlle Lamy & Goodfellow (1999); Prensky (2001); Wilcox et al. (2006); Zheng et al. (2009)
(8) Collaborative and social
Ducheneaut et al. (2007); García-Carbonnell et al. (2001); Noëlle Lamy and Goodfellow (1999); Prensky (2001); Steinkuehler (2008); Sykes (2008)
(10) Archiving of interaction for future analysis, feedback, and assessment
Belz (2003, 2007); Belz and Vyatkina (2005); Noëlle Lamy and Goodfellow (1999); Sykes (2008)
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It is beyond the scope of this chapter to review each of these characteristics; however, a detailed look at the most relevant characteristics is warranted and helpful in our understanding of the current work being done related to MUVEs and language learning. The first major trend found in the MUVE research focused on language learning is a heavy emphasis placed on the value of different task types and task-based learning. One of the chief affordances of MUVEs is the potential for a variety of complex task types and the inherent need for negotiation within the virtual space. Task-based learning and goal-oriented activity are commonly praised as productive activities for language learning (Ellis 2003). Learners focus on meaning to arrive at an end goal through a series of microtasks. Purushotma, Thorne, and Wheatley (2008) highlight the ways in which tasks in video games are especially suited for language learning within a task-based model. They suggest that gaming environments emphasize goal-directed activity and establish language as a resource critical to successful gameplay. Sykes, Reinhardt, and Thorne (in press) further emphasize the importance that must be placed on task type and task development in online virtual spaces.6 In MUVEs, designers and instructors have the capability to shape and scaffold tasks in ways relevant to their students’ learning context. Furthermore, learners themselves have the capability to modify and adapt the way they interact with various tasks, and, as a result, are involved in co-constructing their learning experience. For example, in an analysis of the establishment of the cybercultures related to Star Wars Galaxies, Squires and Steinkuehler (2006) examine the developmental stages of how communities of practice related to the MMOG emerged. They conclude: “because MMOGs [MUVEs] are living, breathing, cultures, player practices do not always align with the intentions of designers as one might anticipate” (p.195). As researchers and educators, we can make informed predictions about how learners will interact with
various spaces based on existing cultural practices; however, we should not be surprised if the learners themselves deviate from the intended activities. This deviation and experimentation is what moves learners beyond schooling and practice to meaningful learning and engagement. Surpassing the reproduction of traditional task types and taking advantage of the unique aspects of MUVEs is a critical step in realizing the potential of these virtual environments. Another especially notable characteristic of MUVEs for language learning is the potential for effective, multilevel, feedback built-in to the digital space. Feedback and assessment of outcomes is critical for language learning. At the same time, it is often difficult to assess and give feedback on metalinguisitc and pragmatic features of language (Roever, 2004; Salaberry & Cohen, 2006). As noted by Gee (2003): The secret of a videogame as a teaching machine isn’t its immersive 3-D graphics, but its underlying architecture. Each level dances around the outer limits of the player’s abilities, seeking at every point to be hard enough to be just doable (p. 1) In doing so, the feedback given and the expectations are suited to the level of the learner. Content can be manipulated to add or subtract additional features and, as a result, allows for feedback on complex language features such as pragmatics. For example, in lower-level learners, dialect differences might be mentioned on a global level, where for advanced learners, recognition of dialect differences in requests can become a required piece of knowledge needed to succeed. Furthermore, through simulated worlds and games, learners can create and test their own hypotheses without fear of real-life repercussions (Squire and Jenkins, 2003). Additional reflection tools, such as discussion boards or blogs, can also be incorporated into the culture of the game to encourage peer feedback and social interaction (de Freitas, 2006). Finally, all interactions can be archived for future review
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and reflective practice. Each of these products and practices can also be used for assessment of language learning activities in these spaces. As will be discussed in the sections that follow, it is critical to measure not only learning outcomes of participation in MUVEs, but also the process and behaviors of the interactions themselves.7 The final noteworthy characteristic of many commercial MUVEs (e.g., Second Life, Active Worlds) is the potential for meaningful intercultural communication and collaboration. As has been seen in previous research on telecollaboration for language learning (Belz, 2003; Belz & Thorne, 2005; Belz & Vyatkina, 2005) intercultural communication via digitally mediated spaces can play an important role in the acquisition of various areas of language competence. Multiuser online spaces are no exception. In a study of L2 intercultural communication in the MMOG World of Warcraft, Thorne (2008) describes a trilingual interaction in which the two players engage in a variety of strategies encouraged in L2 learning environments (e.g., negotiation of meaning, explicit feedback, drawing on external resources, translation, and reciprocal interaction between expert and novice). While intercultural communication is not the focus of this chapter, it is a potentially powerful benefit of interaction in many types of MUVEs.
DeSIgN, ImPLemeNTATION, & eVALUATION OF mUVeS IN LANgUAge LeARNINg An empirical Case: Croquelandia In order to better understand how MUVEs, and more specifically SIEs, can be designed and implemented effectively in foreign language education contexts, a research team designed, built, implemented, and re-designed the first SIE for learning how to make requests and apologize in Spanish: Croquelandia. This section first describes
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Croquelandia in detail. It then briefly reports an additional component of the larger study (Sykes, 2008) discussed in the previous section. It specifically adds insight into our understanding of learner behavior in MUVEs as related to their learning experience.8
Croquelandia Croquelandia (www.croquelandia.net) is the first SIE designed specifically for the learning of Spanish pragmatics. It includes three primary interactive areas–a house, a plaza and market, and a university–in which players complete a series of quests to either make different requests or apologize in a number of scenarios. See Figure 1 for an image of the host family’s home. The players interact with non-player characters (NPCs) using a simulated interactive system based on a variety of discourse maps (see Figure 2) and can interact with one another or other native speakers via voice or written chat. In addition, players can leave one another asynchronous messages on a bulletin board in the university, teleport from area to area, and check their quest log at any time throughout play. The graphical interface for Croquelandia was developed based on photographs of the Spanishspeaking world and the home university where the first group of users attended Spanish courses. In addition, sounds and conversations were recorded in a variety of places to ensure the most viable immersive space possible.
Participants The participant group for this study was comprised of 13 males and 40 females with an average age of 20.2834 years (R=18-29) who were students of Spanish enrolled in four sections of an Advanced Conversation and Composition course at a university in the United States. While the group was not balanced in terms of gender, it did represent the typical composition of students in upper-division
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Figure 1. Host family’s home
Figure 2. NPC interaction in Croquelandia
courses in the Department of Spanish and Portuguese at the institution where these students were enrolled. In addition, all participants were native speakers of American English and reported English as their native language. In terms of experience with technology, the participants reported general technology experiences that were fairly similar to technology use on the entire campus. Overall, participants were “experienced but not sophisticated” (Walker & Jorn, 2007, p. 5).
That is, students demonstrated a high level of experience and use of computers and online communication tools (e.g., laptops, social networking sites, instant messenger), but demonstrated very little experience with, or use of, authoring, gaming, or Web 2.0 technologies (e.g., programming tools, MMOGs, handheld games, wikis, blogs, and photo sharing platforms).
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Data Collection & Analysis All students played Croquelandia for six weeks as part of their language course. During that time, they completed two modules focused on different communicative acts (i.e., requests and apologies). At the end of the six weeks, the students presented what they had learned in an oral class presentation. In addition, a sub-group (N=25) participated in pre- and posttests as well as a midpoint and exit interview. All in-game behavior was recorded and then made available to the researcher for real time playback in the game space itself. This essentially allowed the researcher to follow each learner throughout his or her game play experience with no outside interference on the player’s behavior. Figure 3 presents a sample screen of the video playback and written transcript used for analysis. In order to ascertain user-behavior patterns three specific data points were analyzed. First, the total in-game time was calculated for each
Figure 3. Data analysis sample screen
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participant to gain a better understanding of how much time learners actually spent in the SIE. In addition to calculating in-game time, the patterns of quest completion were coded and complied. There were a total of nine quests (5 apologies and 4 requests) with a series of 1 to 3 different steps for completing each quest. The ways in which these quests were completed is critical to understanding future integration of different task types. In addition to the analysis of the in-game activity, interview and survey data were then analyzed to gain additional insight into participant awareness of their individual experiences in the SIE as well as learner explanations of how they used the space. This triangulated approach was critical to gaining a comprehensive understanding of user behavior patterns in Croquelandia. While preand posttest data were collected, the focus here is more comprehensive. This is congruent with design-based research aimed at understanding the complete picture of the effectiveness of an instructional intervention. As the Design-Based
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Research Collective (2003) explains, “we view educational interventions as holistic–we see interventions as enacted through the interactions between materials, teachers, and learners. Because the intervention as enacted is a product of the context in which it is implemented, the intervention is the outcome (or at least an outcome) in an important sense” (p. 5). What happens throughout the learning process is just as important as what happens as a result of participation. This mixed method approach is designed to include the overall perspective in order to inform future implementation and design projects in MUVEs.
Results Based on the analysis of the time spent in the SIE by each learner, as well as the patterns related to quest completion, a better understanding of how the participants utilized the SIE to enhance their own second language system emerged. Overall, the group of participants spent 6757 minutes (112 hours, 41 minutes) in the SIE over the course of six weeks. A total of 669 quests were started and 522 were completed (either successfully or unsuc-
cessfully). An exploratory, qualitative analysis of this data revealed four distinct patterns of in-game activity: (1) as an Explorer, (2) as a Student, (3) as a Presenter, and (4) as a Non-Player. Table 2 presents a summary of the most salient behavior patterns for each group. It is followed by a detailed discussion of each. The first type of experience found in the data was that of Explorer. The participants in this group (N=12, 23%) spent the most amount of time in the game, ranging from 183 minutes to 601 minutes (M=278; SD=130.51). In addition, these learners tended to login to the system more often than those in the other three groups. The Explorer group logged in an average of 11.5 times (SD=3.68, R= 4-17 times) during the entire sixweek instructional period. In terms of in-game behavior, quest completion, and interaction with NPCs, all members of this group completed either 8 or 9 of the quests and tended to repeat quests about 50% of the time. They also spent the most time walking around the space, searching for additional content, and attempting to interact with NPCs via written chat methods (see Example 1).
Table 2. Individual experience learner behavior patterns Type of Experience
N
Time in SIE
Typical In-Game Behavior
Explorer
12
183-601 minutes M =278 minutes SD =130.51
• Log-Ins: Multiple log-ins throughout the instructional period (4-17) • Quest Completion: 8-9 quests completed • In-Game Behavior: Searching, exploration, and interaction viewed as an important part of game play; some quest resets and experimentation with in-game content
• Log-Ins: 2 or 3 primary log-ins • Quest Completion: 6-9 quests completed successfully • In-Game Behavior: Linear completion of quests; in-game time equivalent to the time needed to complete all (or most) quests successfully
Presenter
7
20-44 minutes M =33.5 minutes SD= 9.76
• Log-Ins: Few log-ins (1-3) • Quest Completion: Minimal quest resets or quest completion (2-3 quests) • In-Game Behavior: Consists of enough time to get what is needed for in-class presentation
Example (1) Participant 16: I guess it was kind of fun to just like go around and explore and find people...my favorite part [so far]...I really, really, really, like all the pictures, the scenery, and the professor looks very funny. (Interview 1) For Participant 16, as well as the other learners who experienced the space as Explorers, the aesthetic, virtual, interactive aspect of the space was an important component of their experience in the SIE for L2 pragmatic development. Furthermore, as can be seen in Example 2, while quest completion appeared to be an important part of their in-game learning experience, it was not necessarily the most enjoyable aspect. Example (2) Participant 13: Anyway, that would be a lot more enjoyable I think if more people were interacting because...really I guess I felt like this was more of a chore to do. I didn’t enjoy like having to do a specific mission and then I could only talk to the people that were part of the mission...but I think it would be cool if you could actually interact with people [NPCs] even if they are not part of your mission you are trying to do. (Interview 1) A laundry list of tasks to complete (e.g., the quest log) was not considered a central piece of the learning experience for these learners. As a result, the learning patterns of this group of participants, demonstrates an analytical approach to the content being taught with a higher tolerance for ambiguity and risk-taking than the other three groups. In their presentations, this group of learners tied their in-game experiences to other language learning processes and gave in-depth explanations for their assertions. In the case of the second type of experience (i.e., as a Student), a different picture emerged. This group represented the experience of the majority of participants (N=30, 57%). While this group
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shared some common behaviors of the Explorer group, overall, the experience of these learners was linear and tended to follow a set pattern of behavior based on the order of quest placement in the quest log. The amount of time spent in the SIE was also less than that of the Explorer group. The majority of the participants in the Student group (N=23) spent between 85-158 minutes (M=112; SD=32.46) in the space (and a smaller subgroup (N=7) spent between 62-77 minutes (M=69; SD=5.73) in the SIE during the treatment period. In addition, this group logged into the space for two or three primary sessions and typically completed the majority of one module (i.e., apologies or requests) at each sitting. As opposed to the exploration and experimentation behavior found in the Explorer group, the experience of the Student group was primarily categorized by their quest completion behavior. As can be seen from the interview excerpt in Example (3), quest completion was an important part of the experience for this group of participants. Example (3) Participant 31: Another best aspect [of the project], I guess, is when you complete the quest, it feels like you completed something. The people’s expressions or like what they say kind of gives you that gratification of like completing something. (Interview 2) For each participant in the Student group, enough time was spent in the space to complete the necessary quests successfully. Once a green checkmark (i.e., indicating successful quest completion) was given, the learners in this group tended to move on to the next task. The quests that were reset by members of this group were typically those that had been failed and needed to be repeated in order to finish the tasks. Learning for this group consisted of successfully completing quests and “getting the right answer.” In their presentations and learning discussions, this group
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tended to have a well-developed understanding of the concepts, yet was less tolerant of ambiguity or multiple acceptable responses than the Explorer group. The third group (N=7, 13%) is categorized as the Presenter group because the participants spent just enough time in the space to get the information they needed to present with their group. The time the members of this group spent in the SIE ranged from 20-44 minutes (M=33.5; SD=9.76) over the course of the instructional period and the participants logged-in between 1-4 times (M=2.4; SD=1.2), with only one or two of those log-ins being longer than 1-2 minutes. Participants in this group demonstrated a pattern of accessing a summary of information that could be transferred to their in-class presentation. The game play for these students does not appear in the data as a meaningful component of the learning unit on requests and apologies. Rather, in this case, the learning focus was primarily the presentation and the attainment of a successful grade. The Non-Player category is used to describe the group of participants (N=4, 8%9) who did not spend any time in the SIE and did not complete any of the quests or in-game activities. Nevertheless, they were still able to present something during Class Session 3 for the group presentations. This suggests that they likely relied on information given to them by their group members. Although not intentional, it is not necessarily surprising that these participants did not volunteer to be part of the subset of twenty-five participants. Since participation in the interviews was entirely voluntary, there was no interview data available to explain the behavior of the non-player group. To summarize, the behavior patterns of the individualized experiences of the learners were classified into four major groups (i.e., Explorer, Student, Presenter, Non-Player) based on the time spent in the game, in-game behavior, and quest completion patterns. Ultimately, in taking advantages of the affordances offered by MUVEs, the goal is to enable learners to become explorers who are willing
to experiment with, and analyze language, from a variety of perspectives. Ways in which this can be facilitated are yet to be determined. The four user patterns found in the data can be attributed to a variety of factors including, but not limited to, previous experience with similar digital spaces, task type and construction of the SIE, structure of the classroom experience, and possible influence of technological difficulties. Based on these factors, as well as other considerations relevant to individual participant perceptions of the unit, preliminary conclusions suggest that the perception of the SIE, as either a practice arena or a task to complete, had an important influence on the individualized experience of the participants.
Applying the Findings: Design Considerations for mUVes in Language Learning The results presented above do not give the whole picture, or even a definitive picture of how to create and implement SIEs for specifically language learning purposes. Nevertheless, they offer empirical support for design considerations and highlight areas that might be especially fruitful for those wishing to implement MUVEs in the near future, as well as further, large-scale investigation. The intention of presenting them here is to help avoid repeating similar practices and, instead, move forward with the re-design of similar spaces and activities based on what we already know a fundamental consideration of design-based research. Consideration #1: Carefully considering the effect of learners’ previous experience with virtual worlds and immersive games is important; however, caution should be taken in making assumptions about user in-game activity and perception based on this experience alone. The cultural-historical framework for understanding how internet-based tools mediate communication (Thorne, 2003; Lantolf & Thorne, 2006) suggests that those learners with previous experience in MMOGs and other gaming envi-
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ronments would approach the SIE as Explorers because it is the in-game behavior pattern that most closely emulates typical game play. That is, they would opt for activities such as searching, exploring, experimenting, and interacting with the SIE much like a video game because that is what their previous experiences leads them to do. This is congruent with the “cultures-of-use” framework, in which Thorne argues that practices within digitally mediated spaces emerge based on “the historically sedimented characteristics that accrue to a [computer-mediated-communication] tool from its everyday use” (Thorne, 2003, p. 40). Interestingly, in the study presented above, the three participants who reported themselves as gamers in multi-user spaces (MMOGs) fell into three distinct groups – one was classified in the Explorer group, one in the Student group, and one in the Presenter group. While this may appear to be surprising, it can actually be explained by the cultures-of-use model in that one participant viewed the space as representative of the gaming experiences with which he has been previously involved. For this particular participant, language was a part of his typical game play experience in that he often utilized his collaborative activities in Xbox Live to speak Spanish.10 This scenario is very comparable to the participants in previous research, which indicate gaming spaces as viable contexts for meaningful interaction in a second language (Nardi, Ly, & Harris, 2007; Thorne, 2008). It is not necessarily surprising that the SIE was also used by this participant as a space for exploration and meaningful language activity, since it coincided with other elements of his typical game play. However, in the case of the other two participants who reported MMOG experiences as a regular part of their daily activities, a different picture emerges. It could be that they approached the SIE as a separate collaborative/learning genre that was part of their educational frame, and not the personal/gaming frame, a common caveat associated with educational gaming spaces (Michael
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& Chen, 2006; Prensky, 2001). Based on this frame of reference, their activities more closely resembled that of traditional classroom activities (i.e., activity completion and sufficient work to complete the task) rather than game play (i.e., exploration and experimentation). In the case of the participants who did not report previous experience with MMOGs, there are also participants in each of the four groups. This suggests that, while the background of the learners (i.e., culture-of-use) may play an important role in individual behavior, there are other factors which influence these patterns. Exploration of these factors is especially important since the majority (N=50) of the participants were not avid users of immersive spaces or MMOGs. The design of SIEs and tasks should carefully consider how the complexity of learners’ previous experiences affects their participation in MUVEs. This includes their technological abilities, but, more importantly, the ways in which the learners themselves construct, and are constructed by, participation in digitally mediated spaces as a whole. Consideration #2: Task design should include a large number of tasks for participants to choose from, making it challenging to complete all of the tasks. These tasks should be complex (e.g., contain multiple stages), varied (e.g., include different types of objectives and approaches), and flexible (e.g., allow learners to successfully complete the task in a variety of ways). It will not be surprising to those who work in this area that a central consideration for understanding the individualized behavior patterns of the participants concerns task construction and learning objectives of the activity. This is true of any learning activity constructed for use in MUVEs. It has been well documented that task design plays an important role in the L2 learning in face-toface (Ellis, 2003; Collentine, 2006) and digitally mediated spaces (Blake, 2000; Hung and Chen, 2003; Smith, 2003, 2004; Sotillo, 2000; Vick et al., 2000).11 While learners in Croquelandia were encouraged throughout the unit to experiment,
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collaborate, and try new types of interactions, the ultimate outcome was still objective-oriented in that there was a checklist of quests to be completed. In fact, while not the intention, it is not necessarily a surprise that the majority of the learners fall into the Student category. At the onset of this project, it was predicted that, by allowing learners to utilize the SIE environment for practice and learning in an individualized manner, the learners would become even better informed about the consequences of the pragmatic choices they make. Moreover, it was hypothesized that they would become more adept at experimenting with different levels of adherence and establishing a pragmatic system with which they are comfortable. However, upon examination of individualized learner behavior patterns and experimentation within the SIE, it was found that the majority of the participants did not approach the SIE with this perspective. Instead, as can be seen in the Student and Presenter groups, they focused their energies on task completion and getting the “right” answer. While the digital context was innovative and offered the opportunity for experimentation, the ultimate task was linear and fairly traditional, possibly having an impact on learners’ behavior. Once the tasks had been completed, the majority of the participants chose to move on to the presentation, the second part of the assignment. These data confirm the necessity for complex, varied tasks that encourage more of the type of exploratory behavior evident in the Explorer group in this study. Future activities in any SIE should require experimentation and exploration as part of the in-game experience as advocated by a number of prominent serious game design researchers (Aldrich, 2005; Gee, 2003; Michael & Chen, 2006; Prensky, 2001). An attempt to include and require experimentation was made when creating the SIE used in this study; however, the behavior patterns of the learners indicate that even more complexity and integration of game play is needed, especially in the case of L2 pragmatic development.
Due to financial and time constraints, it is extremely difficult to create immersive experiences in educational contexts (Bergeron, 2006; Michael & Chen, 2006; Prensky, 2001) comparable to experiences that can be produced with the available commercial products. While it is important to leverage these commercial resources when possible, it is also critical to be aware of the influence that the lack of complexity (as compared to commercial spaces) may have on the in-game behavior of the learners. These differences can be minimized through clever design and implementation; however, it is an issue that must be considered. A full discussion of game design principles (Aldrich, 2005; Salen & Zimmerman, 2005) is beyond the scope of this chapter; however, it is important to be aware that collaboration between game design and second language acquisition experts could prove to be highly useful, resulting in the type of task design most likely beneficial in MUVEs. In creating MUVE tasks for language learning, drawing on game design principles, as well as personal gameplay experience, will aid in adding both complexity and structure to the virtual learning experience. Consideration #3: Strategic implementation of MUVE participation in the classroom should consider the activity as an integrated part of the curriculum as evidenced through grade distribution, integration in the curriculum, and teacher buy-in. In Croquelandia, grade distribution, classroom integration, and teacher buy-in played a critical role in the varied participation patterns. Although it may not be the ideal scenario, the way in which grades are assigned play an important role in how learners perceive any classroom activity, and as a result, how they participate in it. Grade distribution in the Croquelandia unit focused heavily on the in-class presentation based on what participants had learned in the SIE. The primary objective of the unit was to use what was utilized in the SIE to prepare an in-class presentation addressing what had been learned about requests and apologies. The primary grade for this unit was also based
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on the in-class presentation (95%), as opposed to activities in the SIE (5%). This potentially explains why the Presenter group from this data set may have spent less time in the SIE that the designed intent. Once they felt they had enough information for their part of the presentation, they chose to focus their energy on the presentation component of the unit. With a higher percentage of the grade based on activities in the MUVE, it is likely there would have been more interaction and experimentation within the space. Rather than purely being “experimental,” advocating participation in and MUVE as important (as evidenced though grade distribution) has the potential to impact behavior and pedagogy in transformational ways. Integration in the curriculum should also be consistent and relevant to other course material. As with any pedagogical intervention, the individual instructor and his or her perception of the activity also have a notable impact on learner behavior in the space. The importance of instructor buy-in is notable in the Croquelandia data discussed here. In the Explorer, Student, and Presenter groups, there were participants from all instructors. However, three of the four (75%) participants in the Non-Player group were from the same class, indicting this particular instructor did not place a high value level of importance on the SIE experience. This is a preliminary indication that the instructor played an important role in either promoting the unit within the class or placing less emphasis on use of the SIE. Of the instructors teaching the sections where the SIE unit was included, only one instructor actually logged in to the SIE during the unit. Instructor buy-in is essential to the success of any new unit; therefore, it must be considered in future implementation and research projects. Consideration #4: A complex system of feedback should play an inherent role in the gameplay experience. This might include implicit feedback in the form of NPC and shifts within the in-game experiences, as well as explicit feedback specifi-
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cally targeted to the individual learner (e.g., asset building and emotion monitoring). A successful completion of a quest in Croquelandia was indicated by a green check mark in the quest log. For the learners, this symbolized completion, and did not carry a connotation of needing to re-do the activity, despite consistent encouragement to do so on the part of the instructors and the researcher. Thus, quest completion was either based on pass or failure, a prevalent pattern in the Student group. The problem with this perception of right/wrong for L2 pragmatic development is the immense level of variability in what is considered right or wrong (Bardovi-Harlig, 2001; Félix-Brasdefer, 2002; Kasper, 1997).12 In fact, the binary choice of right or wrong is exactly the type of approach that use of SIEs for language learning is meant to avoid. Much of the previous difficulty in designing pragmatics assessments has been with the attempt to find right or wrong answers (Hudson et al., 1995), which may simply not be feasible in the area of pragmatics (Roever, 2004; Rose, 2005; Salaberry and Cohen, 2006). SIEs help to alleviate some of these issues by allowing for multiple “right” or “wrong” answers. The lack of experimentation in the user data indicates that future uses of SIEs might include a more complex system of feedback, which encourages practice and experimentation on a variety of levels. It is essential to create an immersive experience that encourages failure as part of the experience.13 As noted by Prensky (2001): “The art of providing feedback in a game is extremely important and complex because either too little or too much can lead quickly to frustration for the player. This leads to another important characteristic of computer games – they are adaptive. This means the level of difficulty goes up or down automatically depending on what you do” (p.122). For the language learner, this might include indicators of quest success or failure, based on
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a number of different dimensions, measured by various in-game assets. For example, a participant in the SIE may have various meters that measure homesickness, wealth, social status, and professional status. Each time they engage in an interaction these meters are affected, either in a positive or negative direction, based on the outcome of the interaction. It is predicted that a more complex feedback and progress tracking mechanism would help eliminate the perception of success or failure as part of quest completion and, as a result, lead towards further use of the SIE as a learning space (Aldrich, 2005; Gee, 2003, 2005; Prensky, 2001). Future research on the use of SIEs for providing feedback and encouraging experimentation is critical to fully utilizing the potential of immersive spaces for L2 pragmatic acquisition. Despite the lack of experimentation present in the learner behavior, when asked what they would have done differently in the SIE were they required to repeat the unit, the participants in Croquelandia indicated that they would take more time to experiment with different responses and personalities because they think they would have learned more. This suggests a desire on the part of the learners to utilize the SIE in a different way than what is actually found in the data. Future research is critical in understanding how to make this happen at the beginning of the experience instead of upon completion of all of the activities. As is the case with many commercial MMOGs, learning how to play the game should also be a critical component to the in-game experience (Gee, 2003; Nardi et al., 2007; Prensky, 2001). This principle should also be incorporated into SIE environments whenever possible.
CONCLUSION The results and design considerations presented here are an initial step towards better understanding how MUVEs can best be utilized in language learning contexts. This chapter is by no means meant to
paint the complete picture. As noted consistently above, future research is critical to furthering our knowledge in this area. Various characteristics of MUVEs (e.g., complex, individualized tasks, feedback mechanisms, and the potential for intercultural communication) make them noteworthy contexts for language acquisition. While not the only relevant approach, design-based research projects, such as Croquelandia, promise to yield important insights for both researchers and practitioners.
ACkNOWLeDgmeNT I would like to thank the editors of this volume and the anonymous reviewers for their valuable feedback on this chapter.
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Gee, J. P. (2003). What video games have to teach us about learning and literacy?New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Gee, J. P. (2005). Why video games are good for your soul. Sydney, Australia: Common Ground. Hudson, T., Detmer, E., & Brown, J. D. (1995). Developing prototypic measures of cross-cultural pragmatics (Technical Report #7). Honolulu, HI: Second Language Teaching and Curriculum Center. Honolulu, HI: University of Hawaii at Manoa. Hung, D., & Chen, C. (2003). A proposed framework for the design of a CMC learning environment: Facilitating the emergence of authenticity. Educational Media International, 40, 7–13. doi:10.1080/0952398032000092080 Kasper, G. (1997). Can pragmatic competence be taught? Second Language Teaching Curriculum Center,www.lll.hawaii.edu/nflrc/NetWorks/ NW6. Lantolf, J., & Thorne, S. L. (2006). Sociocultural theory and the genesis of second language development. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. Lee, J., & Hoadley, C. (2007). Leveraging identity to make learning fun: Possible selves and experiential learning in massively multiplayer online games (MMOGs). Innovate, 3, 6. Retrieved from http://innovateonline.info/index. php?view=article%id=348. Linden Lab. (2008). Retrieved October 14, 2008, from http://lindenlab.com Michael, D., & Chen, S. (2006). Serious Games: Games that Educate, Train, and Inform. Boston, MA: Thomson Course Technology. Mistral, P. (2007). Second Life ballet fills the SIM-Linden suggests selling tickets. Second Life Herald.www.secondlifeherald.com.
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Nardi, B., Ly, S., & Harris, J. (2007). Learning conversations in World of Warcraft. The proceedings of the 2007 Hawaii International Conference on Systems Science (pp. 1-10). New York: IEEE Press. Noëlle Lamy, M., & Goodfellow, R. (1999). Reflective conversation in the virtual language classroom. Language Learning & Technology, 2, 43–61.
Rose, K. (2005). On the effects of instruction in second language pragmatics. System, 33, 385–399. doi:10.1016/j.system.2005.06.003 Sadler, R., & Nurmukhamedov, U. (2008). Second Life and task-based learning. Presentation at Computer Assisted Language Instruction Consortium (CALICO) Annual Conference, March 2008, San Francisco, CA.
Payne, J. S., & Ross, B. (2005). Working memory, synchronous CMC, and L2 oral proficiency development. Language Learning & Technology, 9, 35–54.
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Payne, S., & Whitney, P. J. (2002). Developing L2 oral proficiency through synchronous CMC: Output, working memory, and interlanguage development. CALICO Journal, 20, 7–32.
Salen, K., & Zimmerman, E. (2005). Game Design and Meaningful Play. In Raessens, J., & Goldstein, J. (Eds.), Handbook of computer game studies (pp. 59–80). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Peterson, M. (2006, February). Learner interaction management in an avatar and chat-based virtual world. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 19(1), 79–103. doi:10.1080/09588220600804087
Sawyer, B., & Smith, P. (2008). Serious games taxonomy. Serious Games Initiative. Retrieved March 15, 2008 from http://www.dmill.com/ presentations/serious-games-taxonomy-2008.pdf
Prensky, M. (2001). Digital game-based learning. St. Paul, MN: Paragon House.
Smith, B. (2003a). Computer-mediated negotiated interaction: An expanded model. Modern Language Journal, 87, 38–57. doi:10.1111/15404781.00177
Prensky, M. (2005). Computer games and learning: Digital game-based learning. In Raessens, J., & Goldstein, J. (Eds.), Handbook of computer game studies (pp. 97–122). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Purushotma, R., Thorne, S. L., & Wheatley, J. (2008). Language Learning and Video Games. Paper produced for the Open Language & Learning Games Project, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, funded by the William and Flora Hewlett Foundation. Roever, C. (2004). Difficulty and practicality in tests of interlanguage pragmatics. In Boxer, D., & Cohen, A. D. (Eds.), Studying speaking to inform second language learning (pp. 283–301). Clevedon, England: Multilingual Matters.
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Squires, K. D., & Steinkuehler, C. A. (2006). Generating CyberCulture/s: The case of Star Wars Galaxies. In Gibbs, D., & Krause, K. L. (Eds.), Cyberlines 2.0 Languages and cultures of the Internet (pp. 177–198). Albert Park, Australia: James Nicholas Publishers. Steinkuehler, C. (2008). Massively multiplayer online games as an educational technology: An outline for research. Educational Technology, 48(1), 10–21. Steinkuehler, C. A. (2006). Massively multiplayer online videogaming as participation in a Discourse. Mind, Culture, and Activity, 13(1), 38–52. doi:10.1207/s15327884mca1301_4
Thorne, S., & Payne, J. S. (2005). Evolutionary trajectories, internet-mediated expression, and language education. CALICO Journal, 22, 371–397. Thorne, S. L. (2000). Beyond bounded activity systems: Heterogeneous cultures in instructional uses of persistent conversation. Proceedings of the thirty-third annual Hawaii international conference on system sciences (pp. 1-10). IEEE Computer Society, Los Alamitos, CA, 1–10. Thorne, S. L. (2003). Artifacts and cultures-ofuse in intercultural communication. Language Learning & Technology, 7(2), 38–67.
Sykes, J. (2005). Synchronous CMC and pragmatic development: Effects of oral and written chat. CALICO Journal, 22, 399–432.
Thorne, S. L. (2008). Transcultural communication in open Internet environments and massively multiplayer online games. In Magnan, S. (Ed.), Mediating discourse online (pp. 305–327). Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Sykes, J. (2008). A dynamic approach to social interaction: synthetic immersive environments and Spanish pragmatics. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. University of Minnesota, Minneapolis.
Thorne, S. L., Black, R. W., & Sykes, J. (2009). Second language use, socialization, and learning in internet communities and online games. Modern Language Journal, 93.
Sykes, J. (2009). Learner Requests in Spanish: Examining the Potential of Multiuser Virtual Environments for L2 Pragmatic Acquisition. In Lomika, L., & Lord, G. (Eds.), The Second Generation: Online collaboration and social networking in CALL, 2009 CALICO Monograph.
Vandergriff, I. (2006). Negotiating common ground in computer-mediated versus face-to-face discussions. Language Learning & Technology, 10, 110–138.
Sykes, J., Oskoz, A., & Thorne, S. (2008). Web 2.0, synthetic immersive environments, and mobile resources for language education. CALICO Journal, 25, 528–546. Sykes, J., Reinhardt, J., & Thorne, S. (in press). Multiplayer Digital Games as Sites for Research and Practice. In Hult, F. (Ed.), Emerging Trends in Educational Linguistics. Taylor, T. (2006). Play between worlds: Exploring online game culture. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.
Vick, R. M., Crosby, M. E., & Ashworth, D. E. (2000). Japanese and American students meet on the web: Collaborative language learning through everyday dialogue with peers. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 13, 199–219. doi:10.1076/0958-8221(200007)13:3;1-3;FT199 Walker, J. D., & Jorn, L. (2007). Net generation students at the University of Minnesota, Twin Cities. Minneapolis, MN: Digital Media Center, Office of Information Technology, University of Minnesota. Warschauer, M. (1996). Comparing face-to-face and electronic discussion in the second language classroom. CALICO Journal, 13, 7–26.
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Wilcox, L., Allison, R., Elfassy, S., & Grelik, C. (2006). Personal space in virtual reality. ACM Transactions on Applied Perception, 3, 412–428. doi:10.1145/1190036.1190041 Wildner-Basset, M. E. (2005). CMC as written conversation: a critical social-constructivist view of multiple identities and cultural positioning in the L2/C2 classroom. CALICO Journal, 22, 635–656. Zheng, D., Li, N., & Zhao, Y. (2008). Learning Chinese in Second Life Chinese language school. Presentation at Computer Assisted Language Instruction Consortium (CALICO) Annual Conference, March 2008, San Francisco, CA. Zheng, D., Young, M., & Wagner, M. (forthcoming. (2009). Negotiation for action: English language learning in game-based virtual worlds. Modern Language Journal, 93.
ADDITIONAL ReADINg Aldrich, C. (2005). Learning by doing. San Francisco: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Boellstorff, T. (2008). Coming of age in second life: an anthropologist explores the virtually human. Newark, NJ: Princeton University Press. Brown, S., & Adler, R. P. (2008). Minds on fire. Open education, the long trail, and learning 2.0. Educause, 43, 17-32. Retrieved January 25, 2008, from http://connect.educause.edu/Library/ EDUCAUSE+Review/MindsonFireOpenEducationt/45823 Design-Based Research Collective. (2003). Design-based research: An emerging paradigm for educational inquiry. Educational Researcher, 32(1), 5–8. doi:10.3102/0013189X032001005 Gee, J. P. (2003). What video games have to teach us about learning and literacy. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
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Michael, D., & Chen, S. (2006). Serious Games: Games that Educate, Train, and Inform. Boston: Thomson Course Technology. Prensky, M. (2001). Digital game-based learning. St. Paul, MN: Paragon House. Steinkuehler, C. (2008). Massively multiplayer online games as an educational technology: An outline for research. Educational Technology, 48(1), 10–21. Sykes, J. (2009). Learner Requests in Spanish: Examining the Potential of Multiuser Virtual Environments for L2 Pragmatic Acquisition. In Lomika, L., & Lord, G. (Eds.), The Second Generation: Online collaboration and social networking in CALL, 2009 CALICO Monograph. Thorne, S. L. (2008). Transcultural communication in open Internet environments and massively multiplayer online games. In Magnan, S. (Ed.), Mediating discourse online (pp. 305–327). Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Thorne, S.L., Black, R.W., & Sykes, J. (accepted, forthcoming in 2009). Second Language Use, Socialization, and Learning in Internet Internet Communities and Online Games. Modern Language Journal, 93. Zheng, D., Young, M., & Wagner, M. (forthcoming. (2009). Negotiation for action: English language learning in game-based virtual worlds. Modern Language Journal, 93.
keY TeRmS AND DeFINITIONS Avatar: the virtual representation of a human player. Massively Multiplayer Online Game (MMOG): commercially created, multiplayer immersive spaces that are often characterized by goal-oriented activity, collaboration, and leveling (i.e., advancing) one’s in-game character.
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Non-Player Character (NPC): a simulated character that is controlled by the computer and not another player. Pragmatics: the way in which meaning is expressed and interpreted in language. Social Virtuality: an open-ended, multiplayer virtual world in which activity is entirely userdriven. Synthetic Immersive Environment (SIE): engineered multiplayer virtual spaces that integrate the many benefits of realistic interaction and online gaming to produce explicitly, educationally-related outcomes in simulated, relevant, interactional contexts.
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For a compilation of the, sometimes conflicting, usage data see: http://www.nickburcher. com/2009/03/twitter-demographics-andusage.html. While the specifics are not clear, it is evident that the use of Twitter from January 2008 to January of 2009 has increased dramatically. At the time of writing, no official statistics from Twitter had been published. See Thorne and Payne (2005) for further explanation of the “cultures of use” model relevant to the use of mediated collaboration tools in computer assisted language learning (CALL). Thorne (2008) describes the first case study related to MMOGs and language learning. It is not included here since there was no design or educational intervention.
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http://blog.secondlife.com/2008/07/08/ second-life-virtual-world-expands-35-inq2/ See Thorne, Black, and Sykes (forthcoming) for a detailed description of each type of MUVE as related to language learning. Sykes, Reinhardt, and Thorne (in press) focus primarily on digital games. See Sykes, Reinhardt, and Thorne (in press), for a detailed explanation of how failure states also play a key role in feedback given via MMOGs. For additional details related to the larger study or other components see Sykes (2008, 2009). One will note that the percentages presented in this section total to 101% percent. This is due to the rounding of the percentages to the nearest whole number. When one decimal place is included, the total returns to 100%. In his interview explanations, this user reported playing Halo (a console-based MMOG) on a server with native speakers of Spanish. The studies referenced here refer to CMC contexts. Nevertheless, the principles are relevant to SIE contexts as well. See Brown (2001), Cohen (2004), Hudson et al (1995), Roever (2004), and Salaberry & Cohen (2006) for further discussion on assessment in L2 pragmatics. See Purushotma, Thorne, and Wheatley (2008) for a complete discussion of the importance of failure states in gaming spaces.
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Chapter 17
Foreign Language Instruction in a Virtual Environment: An Examination of Potential Activities Regina Kaplan-Rakowski Southern Illinois University Carbondale, USA
ABSTRACT The chapter conveys the experiences of using the virtual world Second Life (SL) to supplement classroombased instruction of an introductory foreign language class. With attention given to the needs of educators and instructional designers, as well as students, the author presents selected activities, along with detailed practical plans and theoretical justifications for those activities. She follows by discussing the technological characteristics of SL (communication features, logging features, and features used to ease activity preparation) that the author found to be of particular pedagogical value in her instruction. The importance of situated cognition, cultural relevance, self-pacing, students’ autonomy, and interactivity with diminished inhibition is examined as well.
INTRODUCTION Virtual worlds increasingly provide instructional tools that allow students and teachers to create a dynamic learning environment. These threedimensional virtual spaces, entirely created by their residents, form highly collaborative and authentic contexts that can allow for more meaningful learning than traditional classrooms. One of the most popular virtual worlds, Second Life (SL), provides tools which make it possible to DOI: 10.4018/978-1-61692-822-3.ch017
create innovative, dynamic and pedagogicallysound activities. The option of building or, in virtual lingo, “rezzing,” allows instructors to tailor material to specific pedagogical needs (KaplanRakowski & Loh, 2010). The existing literature displays the growing interest of educators in employing multi-user virtual environments to supplement, or even replace, the classroom (Roussou, 2004; Foreman & Borkman, 2007; Lim, Nonis, & Hedberg, 2006; Dickey, 2005; Dieterle & Clarke, 2008). Seeing SL as a paradise for dynamic instruction, teachers of many fields have been using this virtual world. Those fields
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include art, business, health education, interior design, writing, urban planning and design, theatre, military science, and many more. Both instructors and researchers have been exploring the potential of this virtual world in order to better define how these environments could facilitate and promote learning (Coffman & Klinger, 2007; KaplanRakowski & Loh, 2010; Dickey, 2005; Salmon, 2009; Schwienhorst, 2002). For foreign language instruction, virtual environments display certain particularly useful characteristics; these include unique communication tools and immersive settings facilitating situated learning. In the past, foreign language students were limited to a classroom space filled with artificiality, where only pictures of Shanghai were to remind them that they needed to speak Chinese. Now, thanks to the existence of virtual worlds, students can easily and instantaneously teleport to a virtual China. Once there, thousands of native speakers (or more precisely, their avatars) are available for students to converse with and practice their Chinese. This venue makes learning potentially more meaningful and sets it in a relevant context. Therefore, much of the artificiality of the traditional classroom has been removed. Due to the particular advantages of virtual worlds for learning foreign languages, it comes as no surprise that “language learning is the most common education-based activity in Second Life” - as Joe Miller, Linden Lab Vice President of Platform and Technology Development claims (http://www.virtualworldsnews.com/2009/05/ out-of-stealth-8d-taps-language-learners-botsmicrotransactions.html). Indeed, the affordances of Second Life for foreign language instruction have been leading to increased focus from educators (Molka-Danielsen & Deutschmann, 2009; Cooke-Plagwitz, 2008; Wang, Song, Xia, & Yan, 2009; Canfield, KaplanRakowski, Sadler, Volle & Thibeault, 2009;
Molka-Danielsen, Richardson, Deutchmann & Carter, 2007). For example, CALICO (The Computer-Assisted Language Instruction Consortium), a leading foreign language education association that focuses on teaching languages with technology, devotes an increasing amount of conference slots for presentations on virtual world language learning. Another sign of growing attention is revealed by the numerous projects conducted within SL that involve language learning. Hundsberger (2009) lists several of those projects. They include the NIFLAR project (Networked Interaction in Foreign Language Acquisition and Research), The Kamimo project, the AVALON project (Access to Virtual and Access Learning live ONline), and the Talk with Me project. Those projects explore the possibilities that foreign language students can have for education in virtual settings. Another potential endeavor in SL is called Teach You Teach Me - Second Life Language Buddy Network. Thanks to this network, language learners can find SL conversation partners speaking their target language. The rapid growth of foreign language instruction within SL suggests that there exists an increasing need for a reference which instructors can use as a starting point in learning how to incorporate virtual worlds such as SL into their classes. This chapter provides such a reference by guiding the reader through activities which illustrate the useful features of SL that facilitate innovative and effective instruction. The following sections of the chapter showcase selected activities conducted in SL. The author describes the activities, and provides annotations referring readers to the theoretical underpinnings that follow, explaining the rationale behind the activity design. Following the showcase, the author concludes with a discussion of the most valuable technological and pedagogical aspects of instruction in a virtual world.
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PRACTICAL AND THeOReTICAL exPLORATION OF FOReIgN LANgUAge INSTRUCTION IN A VIRTUAL WORLD This portion of the chapter presents a case study of the activities implemented in a German class in which instruction included a virtual component utilizing Second Life. The author begins with a brief description of the class, followed by an exploration of the activities making up the virtual environment component of the course. This exploration examines both the practical considerations involved in teaching within a virtual environment, as well as the theoretical underpinnings of virtual instruction. Finally, the author concludes with a discussion of the aspects of these activities that can be generalized to educational material other than foreign languages.
Description of the Course The course was an introductory class of German that extended over the span of two semesters. While the first semester was mostly experimental, with several pilot activities in SL, the second semester implemented SL activities on a regular basis. Instruction in SL ranged from one hour to two hours per week (out of four hours of total class time per week). This blended-learning class was composed of 18 American college students (mostly Caucasian males). Each semester consisted of 15 weeks of classes, while each week students met four times for 50-minute-sessions of class. Roughly two units per week were devoted to instruction in SL, which made 60 units in each of the two semesters spent in a virtual world. The class took place in a dedicated language computer lab where each student had access to a personal computer with a high-speed internet connection. Each computer had SL installed and regularly updated. Due to the issue of undesirable and inappropriate content in SL, the instructors
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opted for investing in a private virtual island. All students in the class had access to the island at any time during the semesters.
Activities The following section showcases seven selected activities that took place during the virtual world component of our class. Each showcase begins with a brief statement of what material the activity was intended to practice. After the statement, the author provides a description of the activity, followed by examination of potential advantages and limitations of the particular activity. Last, the author presents an annotated section describing the theoretical underpinnings that explain the rationale for the pedagogical approaches of the activity. These “Theory” explanations are referenced by [Th i], and refer to the corresponding explanations given at the end of the showcase in the “Theoretical Underpinnings” sub-section.
Activity #1: Fashion Show Material practiced: Vocabulary for clothing, colors, accusative case, grammatical gender. Description Students were asked to explore three different color-coded Hugo Boss [Th1] fashion rooms: a blue one, a pink one, and a green one [Th2]. Displays were placed in those fashion rooms, textured with items of clothing according to their grammatical gender. The displays were labeled in German. During the exploration, the students were directed to concentrate on the names of the clothing in German as well as to try to associate particular clothes and their gender with the colors of the rooms. After the exploration, students were asked to prepare for a fashion show by choosing and wearing their favorite clothes [Th3] [Th4]. For the students’ convenience and to avoid issues of nudity, changing rooms were provided.
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Once the students’ avatars were dressed up, they were invited to take part in the fashion show. They were called one-by-one to a catwalk where each avatar could walk, gesture and show what s/he was wearing. Meanwhile, the other avatars played the roles of fashion judges [Th3]. Through instant messaging (IM) they reported in German to the main judge (in this case, the instructor) about what items of clothing each model was wearing and how many points were to be given to the models for their presentations. All this took place with German techno music in the background [Th5]. After the class finished, the students were able to access the logged IM for self-monitoring purposes [Th6]. The instructor was also able to access the logged IM transcripts of students’ descriptions of the fashion show. Further, the instructor underlined problematic areas from these transcripts and returned the printouts of them to the students so that they would follow-up with self-correction.
was beneficial. The main walls of the fashion rooms had textures with Hugo Boss logos and advertisements. Making students aware of the cultural aspects of the language they are learning helps them relate to the culture in a more relevant way (Gardner, 2007). [Th2]Color-coding. The rationale for color-coding is that, according to dual coding theory (Paivio, 1986), different types of information are stored in different locations in the brain. For example, sounds and words are stored in the left hemisphere, while images are stored in the right hemisphere. Therefore, a combination of both words and pictures will be stored in multiple locations, resulting in a greater chance that content in at least one of the locations will be available for retrieval should the need arise.
Theoretical Underpinnings: Activity #1
English learners, of German in particular, are likely to find that remembering grammatical gender is unusually difficult and non-intuitive. Therefore, it is important to find a way to facilitate retention of the gender of nouns. We suggest that color-coding is a potentially helpful method to associate the gender with the nouns. German has three grammatical genders: feminine, masculine, and neuter. Due to the fact that in American and German cultures the feminine gender is commonly associated with pink while the masculine gender is associated with blue, we took advantage of these cultural associations while designing the activity. Even though it may be technically possible to paint the wall of a traditional classroom in different colors and place items of clothing there in order to perform a similar activity, Second Life made such a setting far more feasible due to the speed, low cost, and flexibility available in a virtual world.
[Th1]Cultural Connection. Hugo Boss is a fashion designer who originated in Germany. Because the students were learning German, making a connection with German culture
[Th3]Role Playing. Role playing is a type of modeling, which is a core constituent of social cognitive theory. Providing students with opportunities for role-playing allows
Advantages While in a real classroom this activity could work, some students might be too inhibited to perform, particularly if the wearing of different clothes were involved. Having this activity in a virtual world, however, removed the potential issue of inhibition. Limitations Some students, especially male ones, might not be enthusiastic about participating in a fashion show. Most students in our class were male, so we thought of the fashion show as a potentially risky activity. We were nicely surprised to find that all the students eagerly participated and engaged in this activity.
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them to model situations that are not otherwise available. According to Schunk (2008), role play beneficially stimulates students’ motivation as well as their attention. As a result, students are more actively engaged emotionally, which increases their learning. Further, role playing is considered to be helpful for learners in understanding “the interplay of personalities and situations” (Oblinger, 2004). [Th4]Receptive Skills vs. Productive Skills. As habitual residents of SL know, in order to find an item in the inventory, it is necessary to find the item by typing its name in the inventory browser. Since the items were named in German, the students needed to type in the name of the item in the target language. Because the exploration of the fashion rooms was the first time that students were exposed to the words, the new vocabulary was still stored only in their short-term memory. Making the students type the words in the inventory browser in German was intended to force the students to retrieve the words from their short-time memory and actively “use” them and therefore enhance the chances for the construction of mental connections. Consequently, this practice should have increased the chances of moving the new vocabulary from shortterm memory to long-term memory.
Therefore, our playing of music was aimed at enhancing the atmosphere. Moreover, since the music we played came from German culture (soundtrack from Run Lola Run), it provided additional connections with cultural aspects. [Th6]Self-monitoring. Keeping a record of one’s performance can have a beneficial impact on the learners’ perseverance in achieving goals (Schunk, 2008).
Activity #2: Aldi Store Shopping Material practiced: vocabulary related to food and drinks, grammatical gender, giving advice, negotiation.
Further, it is important to note that in language learning, receptive language skills (recognizing and understanding the words) develop before productive skills (typing the words) as described by Spolsky (1989). The way the inventory works in SL serves as a useful way to help those productive skills develop.
Description Students were asked to teleport to an Aldi Store [Th1] (see Figure 1). Next, they were asked to explore the store, in which multiple displays of food items were placed. Those food items were correspondingly labeled in German as well as color-coded according to their grammatical gender [Th2]. After having explored the food items in the store, the students were involved in a role-playing [Th3] activity. Students were paired and given roles. Student A was a salesperson, while student B was a customer who was asking the salesperson for assistance in choosing what food and drinks to buy for a party that s/he was throwing. Based on this scenario, the students were asked to create conversations via IM using the new vocabulary presented in the Aldi store [Th4]. During the creation of the conversations, the students were encouraged to walk around the store and interact with the items placed in it, as well as to interact with their interlocutor [Th5][Th6].
[Th5]Ambiance. Creating a desirable ambiance in the classroom, for example, by playing music, may increase the chances for more effective learning (Leung & Fung, 2005).
Advantages The justification for the role-playing was to encourage students to use the new vocabulary explored in the Aldi store in a relevant context.
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Figure 1. Screenshot of the Aldi Store
The context was meaningful because mastering food vocabulary and knowing how to effectively select and purchase food is one of the basic necessities in using language. Limitations First, some students may be less interested in shopping. Second, the store may feel too cramped. Even though it was meant to be small (see Theoretical underpinnings [Th1Cultural Connections #2]), it was still unwieldy for avatars to move in it and explore it. This limitation goes with the fact that Second Life limits the size of a prim (i.e. a building element) to 10 units and therefore makes it difficult to build spacious enclosed structures. Third, according to Miller (1956), people are able to store between five and nine new chunks of information in short-term memory. An alternative theory suggests that short-term memory is limited to only three items (Peterson & Peterson, 1959). The activity described here had as many as 20
items, which these two theories would suggest to be too many. However, we felt that the similarity of German to English made it likely that many of our vocabulary items were not actually completely new to the students.
Theoretical Underpinnings: Activity #2 [Th1]Cultural connection#1: Aldi is a chain of supermarkets that originated in Germany; therefore it set the activity in a culturally appropriate context. Further, the textures (that is, the images) of the food items resembled the original German products, with the rationale being that the students would become more acquainted with those German products, connecting them to the vocabulary they were learning. Learning a language and learning the associated culture of that language are inseparable. Therefore,
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the achievement in learning a language is strongly influenced by, and dependent on, the cultural contexts in which people learn it (Gardner, 2007). Cultural connection #2: The Aldi store was designed to be small in order to demonstrate the fact that European stores are relatively smaller and more crowded than a typical American store. The crowdedness of the store was intended to give a more accurate “feel” of being in a European-style of building. Situated Cognition. According to the educational theory of constructivism, physical and social contexts assist with better learning and thinking (Anderson, Reder, & Simon, 1996; Cobb & Bowers, 1999; Schunk, 2008). Situated cognition, which is closely related to this theory, emphasizes the importance of physical, as well as social and cultural, contexts in effective learning. Our situating of students in an Aldi (cultural) store (physical) with interlocutors (social) is an example of an activity that fosters learning that agrees with situated cognition (Lave & Wenger, 1991; Schunk, 2008).
students were made to create a conversation using those new words. [Th5]Interaction. Being able to actively participate in activities by interacting with the other learners, as well as with objects, creates a more involving, interesting and important setting for learners (Swan, 2002; Sherry, 1996). Social processes, engagement and active participation provide opportunities in contextualized settings that allow both for constructing learners’ self-learning and peer-teaching (Lave, 1999). [Th6]Physical freedom. According to constructivism, restraining learners to a physical artifact (e.g. a chair, a classroom, etc.) might have a negative effect on his/her learning. Physical freedom, on the other hand, provides a loweranxiety environment, which fosters learning.
[Th2]Color-coding. (see Color-coding; Activity #1, Theoretical Underpinnings [Th2]) [Th3]Role Playing. In role playing, students model various roles and, consequently, they practice being someone else. Such experience in a virtual world may be of particular value, especially when in real-life role play could be too dangerous, too costly, or too complex. Further, role play invigorates learners’ attention and motivation, which leads to higher emotional engagement (Schunk, 2008). [Th4]Memory. According to cognitive theory, it is necessary to make mental connections in order for new information to be moved from short-term memory to long-term memory. In our case, the new vocabulary that the students were exposed to in the Aldi store was potentially first placed only in short-term memory. To enhance the chances of moving that vocabulary to long-term memory,
Description The teacher asked the students to stand in front of a massive TV screen placed on a part of the island far away from the usual activities. She then informed them that on the TV screen a slideshow of pictures would appear, representing vocabulary items that were introduced in previous classes [Th1]. The slideshow would display a different picture every 10 seconds, during which the students would need to type an IM to the teacher with the name of the displayed thing, in German, represented by each picture (see Figure 2). A set of 20 pictures was presented in the slideshow. After the slideshow was over, students were encouraged to return to the part of the island where the vocabulary from the slideshow was originally displayed. The students had five minutes to review the vocabulary on their own, and thereby also form their own personal feedback [Th2].
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Activity #3: SLIDeSHOW QUIZ Material practiced: any previously introduced vocabulary or grammatical concepts.
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Figure 2. Screenshot of slideshow quiz
Next, the teacher asked the students to return to the TV screen and informed them that they would see an identical set of pictures as was displayed previously. However, this time the slideshow would be faster-paced [Th3] [Th4], allowing only five seconds for viewing and typing the words. Then, as in the first slideshow quiz, the students were to IM the teacher with the German name of the word represented by each picture. One may note that teachers can vary the number of reviewed items and the speed with which they display the pictures. It is most pedagogically sound to start with fewer, easier items and with more time allowed for answering the questions as a warm up. Later, the difficulty and quantity of items can increase with reduced time allowed for answering. As an alternative, instructors may want to instruct students how to make their own slideshows where they could choose which words they want to practice and with what speed they want them to appear. In this way students can practice on their own with individualized content, difficulty, and speed. A beneficial aspect of this individualized
variation is that students can access their slideshows any time, beyond the classroom. Advantages First, this activity allows all students to participate simultaneously, making more effective use of limited class time. Second, this activity can be generalized to any discipline. It is most useful for practicing declarative knowledge. Third, it takes very little class time and relatively little preparation. It is an excellent way to review material. Limitations First, some students might not like fast-paced activities because their level of anxiety rises too much during such an activity. If the timing is too fast then students may end up frustrated and demotivated. It may be more appropriate to give a choice to students whether they want to participate in such an activity, or not. Or, better, we should emphasize that nobody besides the teacher has the answers to their questions. Second, some students may complain that they are slow typists and sometimes they do not necessarily lack answers
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for the questions, but they do not have enough time to type the answers. However, we suggest that fast typing is a skill that everybody should have and practice in the 21st century. Therefore, this activity has the added benefit of providing practice in rapid typing skills.
Theoretical Underpinnings: Activity #3 [Th1]Revision of old material. Revision of old material is necessary for improving mental connections. The more connections established, the better the chance for a quicker and more accurate retrieval of the word from long-term memory in the future (Lesgold, 1984). [Th2]Self-Regulation. In addition to the cognitivist procedures of learning, learners monitor and direct themselves through self-regulation (metacognitive awareness) in order to attain their goals (Paris & Paris, 2001). Such an approach increases the chances for effective learning (Schunk, 2008). In this activity, students were to return to the previouslytested vocabulary and evaluate the correct answers on their own. They were thereby given a sense of responsibility for their own learning. [Th3]Automaticity. In language mastery, it is often insufficient only to remember words. It is often necessary to be able to recall vocabulary instantly. Imagine wanting to talk on the phone with somebody in India. Your slow and broken Hindi might lead to impatience from your listener and frustration for yourself because you cannot quickly remember the word you need. Not only will your phone bill be exorbitant, your conversation partner may hang up on you in disappointment and impatience. This slideshow quiz activity allows for practice of automaticity, which is important when striving for fluency in a foreign language (Spolsky, 1989).
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[Th4]Fast pacing. This activity was fast-paced, which made students thoroughly focus on the activity. Research reports that learning under pressure might make learning more productive (Joëls et al., 2006). For language learners alike, a certain amount of anxiety is reported to have a beneficial effect on focusing and on learning (Lightbrown & Spada, 2006).
Activity #4: Vacation in the Alps and at the Seaside Material practiced: vocabulary related to weather, the seasons, vacation activities, the Present Simple Tense, grammatical gender. Description At this stage of learning German, students were introduced to vocabulary related to the weather. The activity was designed with two portions: (1) weather vocabulary exploration and practice; (2) teleporting to the virtual Alps and then to the German seaside [Th1] and writing postcards from the two locations using vocabulary and phrases related to weather. Part 1: Weather Vocabulary Exploration and Practice The teacher asked the students to go to specially designed blocks. These blocks were color-coded (blue for masculine, pink for feminine and green for neuter) [Th2]. The color-coded blocks had textures representing weather vocabulary. The pictures had labels with German words corresponding to the pictures. The students’ task was to walk around the blocks, explore them, to try to learn words related to the pictures, and to associate those words with color-coded blocks denoting the corresponding grammatical gender. Next, students were asked to teleport to the TV screen for vocabulary practice [Th3] [Th4] (for a detailed description of the way this activity was
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conducted, please refer to Activity #3: Slideshow quiz). Note that the difference between the treatment of this activity and the activity “Slideshow quiz” was that the students were not reviewing vocabulary stored in their long-term memory but rather practicing vocabulary stored in their short-term memory. Part 2: Writing postcards from the virtual Alps and virtual German seaside using vocabulary and phrases related to weather. Having practiced the vocabulary, the students were asked to proceed to a large map of Germany [Th5] from which the next part of the activity was to follow. Standing in front of the map, the students were asked to teleport either to the virtual German Alps (see Figure 3), or the virtual German seaside. In order to go to the German Alps, students had to click on the mountains in the south-eastern part of the map of Germany. That action teleported the students to a specially designed sim (portion of virtual space) of a winter resort. The resort had a ski cabin, sets of skis, a snowman, a snow machine, and other items related to winter.
In addition, virtual snow was falling [Th6]. While at this location, the students were to write a postcard to a friend describing their vacation in the Alps. In their postcards they were directed to use weather vocabulary practiced in the first part of the class, weather expressions provided by the teacher, as well as anything else they wished to write about their vacation. These postcards were sent via IM to the instructor. After having “spent” a vacation in the Alps, the students were to teleport to the German seaside. The rest of the activity took place in a similar manner as in virtual Alps. Limitations The students had only two locations to choose from. It would have been more interesting to have a greater variety of places to teleport to.
Theoretical Underpinnings: Activity #4 [Th1]Cultural connections: In learning a language, culturally relevant settings are essential (Gardner, 2007). Setting this activity
Figure 3. Screenshot of a winter resort
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in the German Alps, instead of just any “mountains” has the rationale of situating students in a “realistic” environment where a conversation in German could happen. [Th2]Color-coding. (see Color Coding.Activity#1, Theoretical Underpinnings [Th2]) [Th3]Revision of new material. New material is stored in short-term memory until it receives enough stimulus to be moved to long-term memory. Providing more stimulus by reviewing the new vocabulary helps establish more connections and consequently more accurate retrieval of the words from longterm memory (Lesgold, 1984). [Th4]Drilling. This type of instruction was based on the rationale that the drill would establish stronger connections and, in consequence, it would help move the vocabulary from short-term memory to long-term memory. A large amount of practice provided by drilling is often a prerequisite for reaching automaticity (Spolsky, 1989). [Th5]Cultural connections: The map of Germany was created with the rationale of making connections with culture – a necessary component of a language class (Gardner, 2007). By looking at the map, or better, by interacting with the map, the students have higher chances of making associations with the existence of German mountains and the part of Germany in which they are located. Similar aspects are covered with the summer location, the German seaside. [Th6] Situated Cognition. This scenery was intended to give the students an impression of “being in the Alps” and “feeling” the weather there. Such a setting was a pertinent context for writing a postcard in German using weather-related vocabulary.
Activity #5: Das Königreich Hotel Material practiced: vocabulary related to checking-in at a hotel, making requests, formal forms of expression. 316
Description First, students received a notecard with instructions for this activity, as well as a notecard with a vocabulary list that was to be covered in this activity. Since the topic was “Checking in at a hotel”, the setting of the activity took place in a virtual medieval German castle turned into a hotel [Th1]. First, the students were encouraged to concentrate on the vocabulary items that were listed on the notecard. In the meantime, the students were encouraged to explore the hotel, which was furnished and labeled in German with vocabulary from the list [Th2]. In this way students were able to not only see the words but also the items (for example, a dressing-table, a bed) and places (for example, a dining room, a reception) represented in the hotel. While some students chose to hang out in the lobby, others scattered around the hotel [Th3]. After several minutes of familiarization with hotel vocabulary, the teacher asked the students to participate in a role-playing exercise [Th4]. Student A was a receptionist, while student B was a guest at the hotel. In order to have control over the flow of the conversations, the students were encouraged to base their dialogues on an example conversation in English provided by the instructor, which was populated with vocabulary practiced in the unit. Consequently, the students’ task was based more on translation from English to German, rather than a free-flowing activity [Th5]. As an alternative, instead of having students create conversations based on English translation, instructors could ask them to create spontaneous dialogues. This could be more interesting and more involving. Depending on the focus and the instructor’s choice of the approach, either variation can be used. Advantages The advantage of more controlled, less spontaneous conversations is that they ensure that certain vocabulary items (important for the unit) or grammatical phrases are practiced and that the students refrain from simpler forms of expression.
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It is not unusual for learners to take shortcuts and say things in an easier manner, rather than trying harder and experimenting with newly learned words or phrases that have not been mastered yet. Limitations In contrast to the claims of Kirschner, Sweller & Clark (2006), a lack of freedom can be a disadvantage to some of the students. Less controlled, more spontaneous conversations, where the students have a choice to say what they want, might make them feel more motivated and more engaged. We chose our activity to be more structured because we wanted to make sure that the students used the new phrases introduced at the hotel. Moreover, students become tired more easily when forced to use externally provided phrases to translate. They then require increased effort (which, as all educators know, very few students are likely to appreciate).
Theoretical Underpinnings: Activity #5 [Th1]Cultural Connection. For a better connection with a German cultural setting, a medieval castle was chosen as a site for the hotel. This setting was intended to enhance the awareness of the historical context of where the specific language is spoken (Gardner, 2007). [Th2]Self-pacing. The students were able to explore the vocabulary at their own pace. Allowing students’ self-pacing may increase the chances of better learning (Paris & Paris, 2001). [Th3]Physical Freedom. According to constructivism, letting students have physical freedom creates better learning. Here the students had freedom to move around and explore, which is also related to the learner’s autonomy and, consequently, to self-pacing. [Th4]Role Playing. This modeling allows students to practice playing roles in situations that would be otherwise unavailable. Through
role play learners’ motivation is stimulated and their attention is increased (Schunk, 2008). Consequently, their engagement is augmented. [Th5]Controlled–guided activity. According to Kirschner, Sweller & Clark (2006), guided activities are more effective because they do not overload short-term memory. As a result, they provide more effective learning.
Activity #6: Apartments: Find a Difference Material practiced: furniture vocabulary, comparisons, adjectives, accusative case, giving advice. Description Students were divided into pairs. Student A was asked to teleport to Apartment A, while student B was asked to teleport to Apartment B. The designer of the activity had to make sure that the two apartments were far away from each other so that students located in one apartment would not be able to see the apartment where the other student was [Th1]. The two apartments were filled with furniture items labeled in German that students could interact with, for example, by sitting on a sofa, lying on a bed, switching on the light, or playing a TV set [Th2]. After several minutes of exploration, the students, through negotiation of meaning, were to find as many differences and similarities as possible between the two apartments. The partners who found the most differences were awarded with Linden Dollars [Th3]. The negotiation of meaning took place through the feature of Instant Messaging. Alternative: An even better way to conduct this activity would be to use the voice feature of SL. Also, rewards other than Linden Dollars could be chosen by the instructor.
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Advantage At this stage of learning German, the Accusative Case was introduced. As this is a concept difficult to grasp for English native speakers, its explanation and practice in German are challenging. For the purpose of the activity, the students were asked to use the verb “sehen” (to see), which requires the use of the accusative case in the sentence. The labels, however, were in the Nominative form, so students needed to transform the Nominative form to the Accusative form each time they produced a question or an answer for their partners. Limitations Even though the locations of the two apartments were distant, in Second Life it is not that difficult to move or teleport from one place to another. For students that were impatient to see the other location, it could be tempting to do so, although this would defeat the purpose of the exercise.
Theoretical Underpinnings: Activity #6 [Th1]Information Gap. The motivation behind this activity was to take advantage of students being placed in an “information gap” setting. An information gap activity is an exercise where one learner has information that the other learner does not have. Therefore, the “negotiation of meaning” is the learners’ task to find out from the other student the information that they did not have prior to the exercise. This kind of activity was intended to increase interest and motivation in the search for the unknown. [Th2]Interaction. The possibilities of interaction between avatars (not only with other avatars, but also with the objects in the virtual world) cause them to experience emotional involvement, and increase interest and engagement in the activity (Sherry, 1996; Swan, 2002). [Th3]Reinforcement. According to behavioral theory, a system of given rewards (reinforcers) increases the possibility of reoccurrence
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of an action (Skinner, 1953). In this case, students were rewarded with Linden Dollars for finding the most differences. The more negotiation of meaning took place in their conversation, the better chance there was for them to find more differences. Receiving the reward made the students feel appreciated for their efforts and made it more likely that in the future they would put similar or greater effort into the activity.
Activity #7: Word Race Material practiced: any previously introduced vocabulary or grammatical concepts. Description The activity started with the teacher asking students to teleport to a relevant location. For example, for a word race covering sports vocabulary, students were asked to teleport to a soccer field. Then, for a word race covering vocabulary about animals, the students were asked to teleport to a virtual zoo, etc. [Th1] Next, the teacher asked the students to open their IM boxes. Then in an IM to all students the teacher would type a question in German, for example, “Wie geht’s” (“How are you?”). This question would be seen by all students. Students would answer the question by typing an IM back to the teacher. After the students would type their answers, the teacher would either provide immediate feedback by saying what possible answers there could be for this question, or she would follow with the next question and save feedback for later.[Th2] [Th3] After the word race was over, the teacher could access the logged answers sent by the students [Th4]. Further, she could proceed by underlining the errors to indicate their occurrence so that students could have a chance to correct themselves. As an alternative, the same activity can be done in Local Chat [Th5] or through voice chat. Also, if the teacher was present in the same room
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as the students, the teacher could just say the question out loud. Advantages First, all students have a chance to review or practice their knowledge at the same time. No one is left out. Second, it is a fast-paced activity so it does not require a lot of time. Further, it keeps students alert and on their toes. Third, this type of activity allows for revision or/and practice of factual as well as procedural knowledge, as both of them are important prerequisites of higher level learning (Bloom,1956). Limitations It is a fast-paced activity and not all the students like speed. Some prefer a longer time for reflection or self-confirmation of the answer before they type the answers.
Theoretical Underpinnings: Activity #7 [Th1]Situated Cognition. It can be claimed that the same activity can be done in other types of chats, for example in Skype Chat. However, we suggest that using the chat feature in Second Life can be more advantageous for learning. This is because, prior to the quizzes, the teacher can establish a relevant setting for a more highly contextualized environment for the quizzes. For example, if the quizzes cover the topic of food, students can be invited to a (in this case, German-style) tavern, and while seated at the Tisch and while “eating” Wurst and “drinking” Bier they can answer the teacher’s questions on food vocabulary. “Being present” at a tavern makes more effective context for the conversation about food than sitting in a classroom and simply imagining being there. [Th2]Automaticity. Thanks to this task, learners can practice automatic responses to stimuli. Such exercise provides ways to speed up the transition of material from short-term
memory to the long-term memory. In consequence, the material is strengthened and learners gain more fluency (Spolsky, 1989). [Th3]“Virtual Clickers”. The use of the IM feature to quickly elicit student responses could be referred to as “virtual clickers”. Thanks to this kind of activity, instructors have an instant way of knowing whether the material has been covered sufficiently and if the students are ready to proceed to the next step. This is essential for language learning because with certain material (grammar, in particular), not being proficient with basic concepts makes it impossible to continue with more complex concepts. This activity lets teachers immediately see whether remedial steps are required. If teachers do not receive sufficiently correct responses from their students, it is a sign that the material needs further attention. Then it would be necessary to review it, recognize the “missing link” and take remedial steps before diving into deeper waters. [Th4]Self-monitoring. Even though it appears as a simple question-answer activity, the logging features of SL make this exercise much more useful than a regular chat. SL allows for logging both conversations and chats, which can be helpful for both students and teachers to keep track of all utterances produced. Consequently, this logging feature helps a student to self-monitor oneself. Since self-monitoring allows for “higher efficacy, skill, and persistence, compared with no monitoring” (Schunk, 2008, p.62), we view this logging feature of SL as a particularly convenient, easy, feasible, and inexpensive tool to use. As a follow-up, after students write their answers, teachers may choose to provide immediate feedback by either typing the correct answer in Local Chat, typing it in IM, stating it via Voice Chat, or just (if present in the classroom) by say-
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ing it out loud. The most pedagogically sound method (i.e. in the case of immediate feedback) is to provide feedback in both an oral and a written form. In this way students who learn better visually, as well as students who learn better through listening, both profit from the feedback.
and relatively less expensive than traditional classroom environments. We primarily consider: (1) SL communication features; (2) SL logging features; (3) Features used to ease activity preparation.
[Th5]Potential inhibition. Conversations held in Local Chat are public. This means that if teachers opt for Local Chat, they must be aware that revealing students’ answers to the rest of the class can be intimidating to some students, especially those whose answers are likely to be incorrect. Even though students have avatars and use alternate names, it is not unusual that at a point classmates would know their peers’ SL names as well.
Second Life allows for several modes of communication: Local Chat, Instant Messaging, virtual Gestures (non-verbal communication), and Voice Chat. Each of the channels of communication in SL can be valuable, depending on the type of instruction intended. In a language class, where communication is a core objective, the existence of multiple methods of communication is of particular benefit. Local Chat can be used when general, public communication is intended. Instant Messaging can be used for private communication between the instructor and a single student, which is especially convenient for learners with high levels of anxiety or inhibition. A major benefit in using a virtual world is the possibility of one-on-one personal communication between the instructor and the student, without physically removing the student from the classroom, as would be required in a traditional setting. Gestures can be used for non-verbal communication, important in understanding cultural aspects of a foreign language. Finally, Voice Chat can be used to practice speaking, pronunciation, and listening comprehension. However, it is not only a foreign language class that would benefit from the communication features that Second Life offers. In fact, any field that demands high verbal skills would find those features beneficial. For example, lawyers, salesmen, negotiators, politicians, and teachers in other subjects can practice expressing themselves and “to be heard and be listened to” using virtual worlds, with less inhibition than through traditional public speaking. In addition, the communication features can be a useful way to practice automaticity–an important step for striving to proficiency (Spolsky, 1989).
DISCUSSION Having read the descriptions of the activities, a representative reader might claim that many of the sampled activities could be conducted in a traditional classroom and that there is nothing fundamentally different about these activities when done in SL. Nevertheless, if that same reader attempted to follow these (or similar) activities in a traditional classroom, it is the author’s experience that the task would be exceedingly difficult, often impossible, and, most of all, less effective. Subsequently, let us consider the characteristics that allowed virtual environments to be so useful and effective for us. More specifically, we would like to present aspects that we found particularly beneficial in our instruction. These aspects can be grouped into two interrelated categories: technological tools and sound-pedagogy facilitators.
Technological Tools Several technology features of Second Life, which are common to some other online virtual environments, made our instruction considerably easier
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(1) Communication features of SL
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Further, Local Chat and IM in SL can function as what we could call “virtual clickers.” The implementation of these “virtual clickers” can greatly facilitate revision of material. We also found this feature useful because it allowed the teacher to know instantly the standing of students’ knowledge. (2) Logging features of SL We found the logging features of SL remarkably useful for both teachers and students. Teachers can keep track of conversations, making sure that students not only stay on task but also that their language production is at the appropriate level. We took advantage of the logging features mainly for the facilitation of feedback. When the learners talked to us directly through Instant Messaging, we were able to store the conversations on our computer. If, however, we needed to further evaluate conversations between students, we asked students to send the stored messages to us via Email. Through these methods, the output was easily stored. Because it was already conveniently digitized, we could collect data on students’ performance, analyze their language development and, most importantly, form feedback that we then sent back to them. Such data also provides a wealth of material for more advanced data-mining, textmining, and other statistical analysis of educational progress and students’ psychology. For students, keeping track of their performance assisted them with self-monitoring. As mentioned previously, due to self-monitoring, learners increase their persistence and effectiveness in learning (Schunk, 2008). They can expediently record their messages and chats, which can serve as either developmental logs, portfolios, or as potential future reference material. Learners of other subjects can also benefit from these logging features. For example, this could benefit journalists, linguists collecting linguistic corpora, or simply students who wish to maintain a journal or notes of their activities.
(3) Features used to ease activity preparation Building in SL is said to have a high learning curve. We do not disagree with this statement; however, based on our experience we claim that it is still relatively easier than having to build similar activities in the real world. For example, imagine trying to simulate a winter resort (as we did in Activity #4) in a classroom. Even though it is possible to make paper snowflakes, to switch off heating, to bring several bags of ice and a pair of skis to the classroom, it is impossible to bring the associated mountain resort scenery! Seeing how difficult the creation of an appropriate environment is in real life, we suggest that using imbedded tools for creating items and settings in virtual worlds is relatively easy. Being able to duplicate created or obtained items, incorporating textures and colors, and making objects of any shape, are only a few examples of the flexibility available in virtual worlds. Moreover, there are many residents of SL that gladly share their artifacts. Therefore, one can obtain various objects for free (so called “freebies”) and use them in our lessons.
Pedagogical Facilitators The flexible nature of virtual worlds can facilitate instruction, incorporating a variety of pedagogically sound approaches. We found the following aspects to be of particular value: (1) situated cognition and cultural relevance; (2) self-pacing and students’ autonomy; (3) interactivity with diminished inhibition. (1) Situated cognition and cultural relevance While normally it would cost thousands of dollars to take a class for a trip to a German castle, virtual worlds help diminish the cost by providing tools to create virtual places that are culturally relevant due to their appearance and ambiance. For foreign language instruction, which is tightly
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integrated with the cultural aspects of language, the possibility of creating those appearances and ambiance are of great value. Virtual worlds allow learning to be placed within the appropriate social, historical, and geographic context. While the cultural aspect is important for foreign language instruction, these features could be even more valuable in other subjects. For example, a history class could take place within a virtual ancient Rome, and an engineering class within a nuclear reactor, a zoology class in the Brazilian rainforest, and a finance class on the trading floor of the New York Stock Exchange. Even more, students could be transported to locations that are not even physically possible in the real world. A chemistry class could take place within a virtual molecule, a biology class within the interior of a bacterium, and an astronomy class could take place on the surface of the sun. In addition, the versatility and flexibility of virtual worlds provide possibilities for designing spaces for exercising situated cognition. Role playing, being one of the forms through which situated cognition can be practiced, is said to augment motivation and attention, consequently promoting learning (Schunk, 2008). (2) Self-pacing and students’ autonomy. Virtual worlds can place students within a strictly defined area, where they are free to explore at their own pace, but with the material present being chosen by the instructor. While physical classrooms can, and are, populated with objects chosen by the instructor, the virtual setting provides unlimited control over the amount, type, and extent of objects available. Students can be left free to decide on the speed and intensity with which they learn the material in ways that are not feasible in a traditional classroom. For example, they are able to return to the class’s island any time of day or night, should they wish to review material on their own. This student autonomy allows for less stressful and unrushed
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instruction. Furthermore, the non-physical nature of avatars can allow multiple students to explore the same object without interfering with each other, as they would in the real world. (3) Interactivity with diminished inhibition The representation of students through avatars allows for the combination of several characteristics that are difficult to replicate in a traditional classroom. First, avatars are able to interact to a greater extent than would be appropriate in the physical world. Therefore, students are able to capture the increased emotional involvement and motivation that comes through social contact with one’s classmates and environment. However, because avatars are also distinct from the student’s physical identity, one can simultaneously suppress undesirable emotional or physical contact. It has been our experience that students who are normally too shy or reserved to interact in the traditional classroom, will be more willing to engage in social activities when represented through their avatars. Students can therefore be given the opportunity to interact with each other and the environment in order to take advantage of the positive aspects of a lesson’s setting, while avoiding the inhibition and possibly negative consequences of full physical and emotional interactions.
SUmmARY The possibilities of using virtual worlds to augment, enhance, and even replace traditional classroom instruction are constantly growing. This chapter provides the presentation of selected activities conducted in Second Life, followed by practical considerations and theoretical underpinnings involved with those activities. Our unique experience helped us illustrate the strengths of virtual worlds in a specific context (language education) as well as the limitations, and to
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analyze the features that could be generalized to other subjects. The primary features of SL that aid instruction are the relatively easy and limitless flexibility in the virtual setting, the technological tools available, and the pedagogical facilitators provided by the virtual environment. Once overcoming the learning curve associated with becoming comfortable in a new environment, there are many advantages to instruction in a virtual world such as SL. Modification of the virtual setting allows material to be placed in an appropriate context more rapidly and with less effort than in a traditional classroom by easily allowing activities in new virtual settings and through interaction with virtual items. The integration of multi-media material (such as textured backgrounds, ambient music, and embedded video) further enhances the experience for learners with less effort on the instructor’s part than would be necessary in a traditional classroom. The technological tools, such as IM, chat, and virtual gestures, in SL allow for multiple modes of communication and interaction that would sometimes be more difficult to implement in a traditional classroom. The flow of information in a virtual world is inherently structured in such a way that all students can communicate at once, yet without drowning each other out. The possibility of logging and further analysis of this material provides an additional strength of the virtual setting. The social context in which instruction takes place allows for useful modifications to the inter-personal interactions that necessarily accompany learning. In a virtual setting the instructor has the ability to shield students from negative emotional aspects, such as inhibition, due to the distance introduced by representation through an avatar, while encouraging positive emotional connections, such as interpersonal contact and interaction with the environment. We have provided several examples of activities that have been designed explicitly to take full advantage of the unique technological
and pedagogical features of SL, along with the theoretical underpinnings of why these methods should be effective for learning. Simply trying to transpose an activity or lesson from a traditional classroom to a virtual world often would be difficult and would ignore the many advantages offered by the virtual environment. The activities and discussions provided here can provide educators with a useful reference and starting point in the design of educational activities that are both feasible and theoretically justified, while also taking full advantage of the innovative features that are available in a virtual environment.
ACkNOWLeDgmeNT I would like to thank David Rakowski and Susan Berg for proofreading and their precious feedback in creating this chapter. Further, I would like to express my thankfulness to Dr. Thomas Thibeault for his special gift in disseminating knowledge. Danke!
ReFeReNCeS Anderson, J. R., Reder, L. M., & Simon, H. A. (1996). Situated learning and education. Educational Researcher, 25(4), 5–11. Bloom, B. S. (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives, Handbook I: The cognitive domain. New York, NY: McKay. Canfield, D. W., Kaplan-Rakowski, R., Sadler, R., Volle, L., & Thibeault, T. (2009). CALL in Second Life: Instructional strategies and activities for language learning in a virtual world. Tempe, AZ: Presentation at CALICO. Cobb, P., & Bowers, J. (1999). Cognitive and situated learning perspectives in theory and practice. Educational Researcher, 28(2), 4–15.
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Coffman, T., & Klinger, M. B. (2007). Utilizing virtual worlds in education: The implications for practice. International Journal of Social Sciences, 2(1), 29–33. Cooke-Plagwitz, J. (2008). New directions in CALL: An objective introduction to Second Life. CALICO Journal, 25(3). Dickey, M. D. (2005). Three-dimensional virtual worlds and distance learning: Two case studies of Active Worlds as a medium for distance education. British Journal of Educational Technology, 36(3). doi:10.1111/j.1467-8535.2005.00477.x Dieterle, E., & Clarke, J. (2008). Multi-user virtual environments for teaching and learning . In Pagani, M. (Ed.), Encyclopedia of multimedia technology and networking (2nd ed.). Hershey, PA: Idea Group, Inc. Foreman, J., & Borkman, T. (2007). Learning sociology in a massively multistudent online learning environment . In Gibson, D., Aldrich, C., & Prensky, M. (Eds.), Games and simulations in online learning. Research and development frameworks. Hershey, PA: Information Science Reference. Gardner, R. C. (2007). Motivation and second language acquisition. Porta Linguarum, 8(6), 9–20. Hundsberger, S. (2009). Foreign language learning in Second Life and the implications for the resource provision in academic libraries. Retrieved November 1, 2009, from http://arcadiaproject. lib.cam.ac.uk Joëls, M., Pu, Z., Wiegert, O., Oitzl, M. S., & Krugers, H. J. (2006). Learning under stress: How does it work? Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 10(4). doi:10.1016/j.tics.2006.02.002
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Kaplan-Rakowski, R., & Loh, C. S. (2010). Modding and rezzing in games and virtual environments for education . In Baek, Y. K. (Ed.), Gaming for classroom-based learning: Digital role playing as a motivator of study. Hershey, PA: Information Science Reference. doi:10.4018/9781-61520-713-8.ch012 Kirschner, P. A., Sweller, J., & Clark, R. E. (2006). Why minimal guidance during instruction does not work: An analysis of the failure of constructivist, discovery, problem-based, experimental, and enquiry-based teaching. Educational Psychologist, 41(2), 75–86. doi:10.1207/s15326985ep4102_1 Lave, J. (1999). Situated learning and communities of practice . In Resnick, L., Levine, J., & Teasley, S. (Eds.), Perspectives on socially shared cognition (pp. 66–82). Pittsburgh, PA: Learning Research and Development Centre. Lave, J., & Wenger, E. (1991). Situated learning: Legitimate peripheral participation. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Lesgold, A. M. (1984). Acquiring expertise . In Anderson, J. R., & Kosslyn, S. M. (Eds.), Tutorials in learning and memory: Essays in honor of Gordon Bower (pp. 31–60). San Francisco: Freeman. Leung, M. Y., & Fung, I. W. H. (2005). Enhancement of classroom facilities of primary schools and its impact on learning behaviours of students. Facilities, 23(13/14), 585–594. doi:10.1108/02632770510627561 Lightbrown, P. M., & Spada, N. (2006). How languages are learned. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. Lim, C. P., Nonis, D., & Hedberg, J. (2006). Gaming in a 3D Multiuser Virtual Environment: Engaging students in science lessons. British Journal of Educational Technology, 37(2). doi:10.1111/j.1467-8535.2006.00531.x
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Miller, G. A. (1956). The magical number seven, plus or minus two: Some limits on our capacity for processing information. Psychological Review, 63, 81–97. doi:10.1037/h0043158 Molka-Danielsen, J., & Deutschmann, M. (Eds.). (2009). Learning and teaching in the virtual world of Second Life. Trondheim, Norway: Tapir Academic Press. Molka-Danielsen, J., Richardson, D., Deutchmann, M., & Carter, B. (2007). Teaching languages in a virtual world. Oslo: Nokobit Proceedings, Tapir Akademisk Forlag. Oblinger, D. (2004). The next generation of educational engagement. Journal of Interactive Media in Education, 8. Paivio, A. (1986). Mental representations: A dualcoding approach. New York: Oxford University Press. Paris, S. G., & Paris, A. H. (2001). Classroom applications of research on self-regulated learning. Educational Psychologist, 36, 89–101. doi:10.1207/S15326985EP3602_4 Peterson, L. R., & Peterson, M. J. (1959). Shortterm retention of individual verbal items. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 58, 193–198. doi:10.1037/h0049234 Roussou, M. (2004). Learning by doing and learning through play: An exploration of interactivity in virtual environments for children. ACM Computers in Entertainment, 2(1).
Salmon, G. (2009). The future for (second) life and learning. British Journal of Educational Technology, 40(3). doi:10.1111/j.1467-8535.2009.00967.x Schunk, D. H. (2008). Learning theories: An educational perspective (5th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall. Schwienhorst, K. (2002). Why virtual, why environments? Implementing virtual reality concepts in computer-assisted language learning. Simulation & Gaming, 33(2). Sherry, L. (1996). Issues in distance learning. International Journal of Educational Telecommunications, 1(4), 337–365. Skinner, B. F. (1953). Science and human behavior. New York: Free Press. Spolsky, B. (1989). Conditions for second language learning. Introduction to a general theory. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Swan, K. (2002). Building learning communities in online courses: The importance of interaction. Education Communication and Information, 2(1), 23–49. doi:10.1080/1463631022000005016 Wang, C., Song, H., Xia, F., & Yan, Q. (2009). Integrating Second Life into an EFL program: Students’ perspectives. Journal of Educational Technology Development and Exchange, 2(1).
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Chapter 18
Education-Oriented Research Activities Conducted in Second Life Jiuguang Feng Towson University, USA Liyan Song Towson University, USA
ABSTRACT Second Life (SL) is a multiuser virtual environment (MUVE) that can be used to enhance students’ learning. It is a virtual environment constructed by SL residents, where students can engage in collaborative learning with other SL residents. In the field of education, SL has been used as a professional tool, a synchronous online system, a virtual environment mimicking real life, a platform for role-playing, a communication tool between teachers and students. This chapter focuses on education-oriented research activities conducted in SL. The authors explain and analyze SL usage in higher education, foreign language instruction as well as investigated its contribution to various learning paradigms, and suggested future research directions.
INTRODUCTION Various perspectives (e.g., SL as a new economy or an educational tool) have had significant influence on Second Life and residents in Second Life. As educators, our primary concern is about the impact on student learning, and our main interest is to explore what is happening with Second Life in education today and impacts on the future. Different perspectives are interwoven in most of the cases. This chapter attempts to address the followDOI: 10.4018/978-1-61692-822-3.ch018
ing topics: SL in teaching for higher education; SL for foreign language learning; and research on social factors in SL in education. The topics (as shown in Table 1) can help illustrate some major uses and impact of SL in education. Higher education is moving toward studentcentered learning environments and this movement has provoked a series of reforms, service learning, learning communities, collaborative learning, and technology enhanced classroom (Daynes, Esplin, & Kristensen, 2004). Second Life (SL), a multi-user virtual environment (MUVE), where university students and instruc-
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Table 1. Educational research activities and issues in Second Life Activities and Issues
Illustrations
Organizations
SL in higher educational
Campus building, courses and office hours
NMC (New Media Consortium) Virtual campus of universities
SL for foreign language
Formal and informal learning experience
English Village Chinese and Spanish in SL
Social factors
Students’ social exploration and activities
Second Life Bar Association Second Life Liberation Army
tors can meet and collaborate to work on course projects and exchange course related information, seems to fit in the general trend of the development of higher education. SL and a few other online virtual worlds have been identified as ‘emerging technologies likely to have a large impact on teaching, learning, or creative expression within higher education’ (Johnson, Lavine & Smith, 2007). Apparently, SL has had impact on teaching and learning in higher education institutions and the impact is very likely to increase in the near future. One of the subjects that have been taught in SL is foreign languages, though it is still at its early stage of development. Learning foreign languages in SL has already generated great interest from students, teachers and education consultants. SL residents can study and practice foreign languages in both a formal and informal way. Some of those classes are structured lessons. Other activities are more informal where the residents can meet other residents from all over the world. One issue that has been brought to people’s attention with these environments is social interaction. Just like the real world where people interact with each other socially, residents in Second Life participate in social activities. Social presence and the feeling of being surrounded by others is a key factor to the success of virtual worlds. As students interact with other students socially during instructional activities, they might be looking for shared experiences and a sense of social presence in other places within SL. Therefore, educators should be
aware of some of social factors while conducting instructional activities in Virtual worlds. The purpose of this chapter is to analyze issues with teaching in SL for higher education, foreign language, and social factors for teaching and learning in SL. In addition, we develop a rationale for the popularity of Second Life, especially in higher education institutions and foreign language teaching and provide some guidance for educators who have already conducted teaching activities or who want to start using SL.
SeCOND LIFe IN HIgHeR eDUCATION As a well-known fact, SL is not the first virtual community, but it has become a widely known MUVE, especially in higher education. Recent statistics show that there are over 100 educational institutes that have established their virtual campus in Second Life and are actively working in the virtual world (Joly, 2007). Besides teaching activities, SL has also been used to build student communities, student and faculty communities, develop self-paced learning and even to promote the image of universities.
Teaching Classes in SL in Higher education Higher education institutions are advancing their online teaching methods by offering classes in Second Life. The basic instructional models offered
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by universities in SL are categorized as follows based on literature review and findings from a small scale qualitative study on SL in teaching: •
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SL as a professional tool. As a web development student said, “For me, second life is best place to implement 3-D modeling.” Since SL is viewed as an emerging technology, some courses offered by the university in SL are to teach how to use SL itself as a professional tool. Some typical examples are computer science and interactive multimedia courses. In computer science classes that are offered in SL, the building and scripting functions of Second Life allows students to create objects and content by themselves, which facilitate experiential learning of computer skills. In interactive multimedia classes, the art students can use their rich imagination and 3-dimensional objects building skills to create objects that resemble things or even artistic works. For example, a professor at the University of Florida taught an Aesthetic Computing class in Second Life. In the class, students are required to create interactive objects in Second Life with their programming knowledge. Later the professor led a tour and discussion of the digital objects and the programming code developed by students for the course projects (Science Daily, 2007). In Towson University, Braman et al. (2009), a computer science instructor has taught two courses in SL, “Computers and Creativity”, and “Information Technology for Business”, have attracted students from business, economics and computer science tracks. Since there has been a substantial increase of economic activities in SL and students can possibly make profits in the future if they can use SL as a professional tool. There are practical motives for students to learn how to use SL as a professional tool.
•
•
SL as a synchronous online system in teaching. SL is primarily used as a synchronous online system. Braman et al. (2009) noted that students seemed to prefer the use of Blackboard to the use of SL because they see Blackboard as an easy way to access materials anytime and from any connection online. However, different from other typical distance learning delivery platforms, “Second Life gives us the capability to really have a classroom experience with the students”, said Rebecca Nesson, the instructor of a class in Harvard Law School (Lamb, 2006). Therefore, teaching in SL, the emerging synchronous online system, will be more effective if the course can integrate other synchronous and asynchronous online systems within the Second Life environment to enrich learner’s media experience. SL as a virtual environment mimicking real life in teaching. Residents of Second Life can build whatever they can imagine, either classroom spaces that mimic real life or learning spaces that could never exist in real life. Educators can create specific environments for their special instructional purposes, such as important architectural sites, historical sites and other environments that mimics real life environment. Vassar Island in SL is a classical example. Developers of Vassar Island have replicated the interior of the Sistine Chapel in order to give the faculty an idea of the kinds of locations that can be portrayed on Second Life. Another example is the Virtual Alamo (SLurl), which is virtual recreation of real life San Antonio landmark, the Alamo. It includes historically accurate buildings, virtual recreations of historical artifacts and extensive information about the real life site via note cards and signs spread throughout the build. These projects demonstrate how historical
Education-Oriented Research Activities Conducted in Second Life
•
or architectural monuments can be recreated in a virtual world, giving students an opportunity to view historically significant architectural sites. SL as a platform for role-playing.“I have been to a place where you can act in a Shakespeare’s play, for example, Hamlet. You can dress up as the characters in the play and act. It is a lot of fun. The only thing you need to do is that you need to get your costumes by yourself.” -An interview with a staff member who holds office hours in SL
It is easy to do role-playing in SL due to the selfconstructed and usually narrative environment. For example, there’s one area in SL with a theme influenced by a science fiction called “steampunk,” which imagines that the Victorians developed advanced technology like computers, robots, and spaceships. The purpose of role-playing is to experiment something that cannot be experienced in real life classroom due to time and place constraints (e.g., we can never go back to the 18th century). In addition, people’s identities are fixed. Therefore, careful design of role-playing may support different kinds of instructional purposes, such as language training, interpersonal skills training, interactive novels and representation of the historical events, or even firefighter training. Generally speaking, SL can provide various ways for role-playing in narrative environments. The only limitation is people’s imagination. •
SL as a communication tool. SL is an emerging phenomenon. Some teachers have realized the merits of SL and have begun to take advantage of it. For example, in Towson University, Towson faculty members Jan Baum, James Braman, and Bridget Sullivan meet with students Monday night to chat about Second Life, share SL tips and tricks, and tour a couple of amazing places in-world. More and more faculty at
Towson are becoming interested in holding office hours in the Towson Innovation Lab in SL. Towson faculty can ask for research space and get technical support from Center for Instructional Advancement and technology (CIAT) on campus. Students are able to meet their instructors in communicate by way of either texting messages or voice-chatting. The president of Towson University, Dr. Caret, held a Study break in Braman Hall on the Towson Innovation Lab Island in SL on April 2nd, 2009. Dr. Caret and students communicated effectively in SL on topics such as non-smoking regulations, tuition, and parking space. In the future, SL will be used more and more as a communication tool between students and teachers. What makes Second Life a unique communication tool? How is it different from MSN or a chat room? One of the instructors in our study commented, “Some students have come to the office hours just to socialize, explore and to gain more experience building in SL. We have taken groups of students around Second Life to explore other interesting areas. I also sometimes meet students in SL outside of the regular set office hour time if it doesn’t meet their schedule.” More importantly, students will find the realness of their communication because of their virtual presence in SL.
Why Use Second Life? Developing a Rationale Although there are various teaching activities in SL, there is not much rationale for teaching in SL. The most distinctive advantages of SL are dynamic interaction and students’ intrinsic motivation, both of which are characteristics of constructivist instructional approach.
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Teaching in SL: Constructivists or Objectivists? Specific instructional approaches are always based on or guided by epistemologies: beliefs about the origins, nature, and limits of human knowledge (Lebow, 1993). Sometimes, these differences of opinion have generated strident debate in the literature (Baines & Stanley, 2000). The traditional division of approaches to learning into behaviourist and constructivist has led to a perception that the two are opposites (Reeves & Harmon, 1994). This would mean that any given learning experience would either be objectivist or constructivist, or anywhere between the two, but, essentially, as one goes up, the other has to go down. There are explicit evidence that constructivist goes up and objectivist goes down with teaching in Second Life. Some of the evidences are reflected in teaching in SL are summarized as follows. •
•
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Teacher’s role: Constructivists believe that people construct knowledge by participating in certain experience (Sfard, 1998), and teachers are guides and facilitators as students generate their own knowledge. As we summarized earlier, most of the SL instructional models are constructivist in that teachers provide collaborative resources and assist students in learning about different topics. It would be much less meaningful if university instructors use SL to only deliver directed instruction. Digital class room or face-to-face class will be more effective medium than SL for direct instruction. Students’ role: In the immersive and interactive 3-D virtual environment, students usually collaborate through their Avatars to increase ability to work independently and with others. It is rare to see that students are sitting in a virtual classroom in SL and passively participating in the classes. They constantly interact and cooperate with
•
other Avatars or explore a wide range of resources offered in SL. For example, the art major students explore other art sites and language learners practice foreign language with classmates or native speakers. Types of activities: Although Molenda (1991) observed, an either-or stance between behaviorism and constructivism seems to gain us little for instructors. Rather, both sides need to find a way to merge the two approaches in a way that will benefit learners and teachers, instructional models based on constructivism are highly suggested due to the salient features of SL, such as being interactive and immersive. On the other hand, since SL can be effectively integrated with face-to-face, and other asynchronous online teaching models, directed instruction models can be used in these teaching models, as Sfard (1998) agrees that “one metaphor is not enough” (p.10) to explain how all learning take place or address all problems inherent in learning.
Intrinsic Motivation Generally speaking, SL is not for play, and it is vastly different from other massive multiple online role-playing games (MMORPGs). However, it shares similarities with MMORPGs since they are both MUVEs. MUVEs enable multiple participants to simultaneously access virtual contexts, to interact with digital artifacts, to represent themselves through avatars, to communicate with other participants and with computer-based agents, and to engage in collaborative learning activities of various types (Dick, 2007). Dick further pointed out that the core of MMORPG design is a narrative interactive environment, and what is most significant about the design of an MMORPG is that it is an open-ended environment and it allows players to choose, to challenge and achieve while helping players to progress and learn. A
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narrative interactive environment is easy to design in Second Life. Avatars can dress like characters from history or fiction. In one case, teachers developed packs of clothing representing the dress of various immigrant populations to the United States. Students study the immigrants and their historical context and engage in role–playing to display what they have learned. The exciting part of learning in SL is that there are all kinds of possibilities and the residents need to fully participate and make choice. Malone and Lepper (1987) argued that choice is a significant variable in fostering motivation. Besides choices, a sense of achievement also can foster intrinsic motivation. Malone and Lepper (1987) noted the significance of challenge and uncertainty in fostering motivation in gameplay. Therefore, the SL instructional models should adopt flexible design which allows participants to choose, challenge and achieve in order to foster learners’ problem solving and increase their intrinsic motivation.
Teaching in Second Life: How to Start? The faculty members in our study are in the art and computer science departments. They primarily use SL as a professional tool for computer skills and 3-demensional skills. The reasons are obvious since those instructors have the knowledge and skills to us these environments. Research shows that faculty who are knowledgeable and skillful in using one technology may then be more willing to try a different technology (Kagima & Hausafus 2000). This implies the importance of technology competence in teaching in SL. In the beginning, it is essential for educators to get acclimated about how to use the interface. Moreover, instructors are faced with the challenge of having to develop a whole new set of instructional models that will work in this environment. Therefore, effective instructional design is needed. In addition, since teaching in SL is relatively new, getting resources, finding
support and careful instructional deign are all very necessary. We propose the following suggestions to help faculty to start teaching in SL: •
•
•
Get to know SL. Rogers (2003) pointed out that the first stage of the Innovation Decision Process is knowledge. “Knowledge is gained when an individual (or decision-making unit) learns of the innovation existence and gains some understanding of how it functions” (p20). There is much information about SL in various mediums for universities and individual instructors who want to start using SL such as Wikis, books and Blogs. Wiley has recently published a book about Second Life titled Second Life: the Official Guide. It is aimed at the beginning users and would be a good reference book to learn about SL. On the SL education page, people can also find pointers to mailing lists such as the SLED list (education focus) and the SLRL list (research focus) (Second Life Education. http://secondlife.com/education). Create an Avatar, get around in SL. When instructors want to teach in SL, they need to experience and get familiar with SL. They will experiment with their appearances: how to navigate around, how to pick up things, how to fly, and so on. It is also important to explore possibilities of how SL can be used in teaching and how to design instruction in SL. Find support. There are a number of professional organizations that can provide support and resources for educators who want to experience teaching in SL. For universities who want to build virtual campuses, New Media Consortium (NMC) is a good place to go. NMC is an international non-profit organization and there are nearly 300 learning-focused organizations that have dedicated to the exploration and use of new media and new technologies
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(http://www.nmc.org/). One of the projects of NMC is The NMC Campus in Second Life, which has evolved into the largest educational presence in that virtual world, and it is occupying the virtual equivalent of more than 2000 acres in SL. The NMC has designed a space within Second Life expressly to support collaboration, learning, insightful interaction, and experimentation—and to encourage exploration of the potential of virtual environments. Some instructors in SL team in one university told us that it is a very good deal to lease an island for campus from NMC for a certain period of time, which saves a lot of time and energy. Then the university can decide whether to buy the campus or not. Linden Lab, the company that started Second Life, also works with education organizations and support them to become familiar with the benefits of virtual worlds, connect them with educational peers who are active in Second Life, and showcase their projects in SL (www.secondlife.com). For individual teachers, besides seeking support or possible grants from organizations such as NMC and Second Life, the branches that provide technical supports for integrating technology into teaching on campus are always good places to go, such as virtual college and center for integration technology into teaching. In Towson University, a specialist in Second Life at CITA works with faculty members to design and develop curriculum and courses, and implement teaching and learning strategies in SL. Similar support might be available on your campus, too. For individuals who try to teach in SL or even start a campus for the university, it is also practical to get grants from your own university. In our study, the instructor who started SL campus first learned about SL at a conference. She thought it was very interesting. Then she met a group of people who shared the same interest, wrote and
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obtained a teaching innovation grant from the university, which enabled them to lease the island from the NMC. Then the NMC built the center building for them. • Design courses. The most complicated and time consuming part is to design courses in SL. As we synthesized earlier, there are different ways to use SL in teaching. An easy way to start with SL might be to use it as a communication tool. One of the instructors we interviewed first asked the students to come to virtual office hours in SL. Then she held workshops where she would gather with the students in SL, and led them to build particular projects. As stated earlier, highly constructivist instructional models are essential while teaching in SL and there are various ways to use SL besides as a professional tool in computer and art major. For example, a hybrid instructional models that are integrated with face-to-face class and other asynchronous online systems can address different kinds of problems or different aspects of the same problems more effectively. • Practical tips on using SL in teaching. The following are some practical tips for faculty to start teaching in SL: ◦ Be aware of technical problems. One of the key issues with the use of SL in teaching is technical problem. Most modern computers can run most virtual worlds, such as Second Life. However, some laptops without dedicated graphic cards have trouble with Second Life, which is a more graphically intense world. It is important to make sure the computer is adequately equipped to run SL smoothly. ◦ Be aware of your virtual appearance and presence in SL. Just like in the real world, your presence in SL plays an important role, too. It is impor-
Education-Oriented Research Activities Conducted in Second Life
◦
◦
tant that instructors dress professionally in SL so that the students would feel comfortable around you. It is equally important that students dress appropriately to avoid unnecessary distractions. Provide SL orientation training for new students. A prerequisite for successful learning in SL is that students are familiar with and comfortable in SL. Therefore, it is important to provide SL training for new students before asking them to participate in SL instructional activities. Be aware of Copyright issues. Since there are a great number of resources available in SL, the educators need to pay close attention to the copyright issues. Besides making research on copyright issues and “Fair Use” policy, educators should consult the copyright experts and make sure not to violate the copyright law since SL is a quite new digital medium. Some related copyright issues will be mentioned in the later part of this chapter.
SeCOND LIFe FOR FOReIgN LANgUAge LeARNINg english and Other Languages in SL As English is a popular language in the world, there is great enthusiasm in the ESL field for English teaching. Three levels of organizations have been established for and been involved in English learning: official, unofficial, and business. At the official level, The British Council has created a learning zone for both group and independent learners in the Second Life virtual environment. Interactive English learning activities and quests
based on UK culture are available for all Second Life residents registered as Teens” (http://www. britishcouncil.org/hongkong-english-secondlife. htm). At the unofficial level, some organizations have been established to vigorously promote teaching and learning English in Second Life, such as Second Life English Community (http://slenglish. ning.com/) and Second Life English Blog (http:// slenglish.ning.com/), aiming to build connection among English teachers and learners, and to “encourage communication and cultural awareness/ understanding”. The potential of SL in English teaching has also caught attention from English training business. For example, Avatar English (http://www.avatarlanguages.com/home.php), an online company, is using innovative online tools including virtual worlds, such as Second Life to help learners learn English. Although the purposes of those organizations vary, they all use SL a social environment for language learning, and students can use their English in very real situations with real people, similar to as if they were actually present in an English-speaking country. As Spanish and Chinese are gaining popularity, there is increasing presence of Spanish and Chinese teaching and research activities. The Virtual University Design and technology has built a Confucius College, their efforts are to “immerse beginning Chinese language learners into Second Life Chinese Island (SLCI) for an accredited college course” (http://vudat.msu.edu/1500/).Their primary research interests include how location and dwell time could be designed to be associated with learner intentional sets for instructors to design artifacts and material. As it can be predicated that like English Islands, more and more Chinese and Spanish Islands, or even some other languages, such as French and German, will appear in SL and will taken advantage by more and more foreign language teachers and learners.
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A Theoretical Framework for Foreign Language Teaching and Recommendations Language Leaning, Culture, and SL as a Social and Cultural Phenomenon Language is one aspect of the culture of a particular ethnic group and that the relationship of that to the learners’ language community is extremely important. Schumann’s (1978) research argued that social and psychological distance between the second language learner and the target language community plays a major role in second language learning, the speech of the second language learner is restricted to the communicative function (Schumann, 1978). The implication of Schumann’s theory in foreign language teaching is that students should be provided enough opportunities to be exposed in the culture of the target language. However, in Schumann’s age, it was not easy to do so since that could only be achieved by limited ways, such as introducing lessons involving local newspapers, cartoons, advertisements, which could help to informally lead to language acquisition at the same time. The emerging technology, which usually has more variety of medium, such as Second Life, can provide more authentic cultural environments. Multimedia and podcast can provide more cultural topics. However, no single technology is comparable to SL, which can almost provide the other “real world” in the virtual reality. For example, Mandarin learners are able to eat moon cakes in China Town while talking with Chinese native speakers in SL. Although some researchers like Stauble (1978) found rough correlation between psychological distance and ESL proficiency, others like Kelley (1982) found no relationship between acculturation and proficiency. It is widely agreed nowadays that the importance of cultural acculturation in the foreign language learning process (Freeman & Long, 1991). From the cases of foreign teaching and learning in
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SL, such as Avatar English (www.avatarenglish. com), Confucius school in SL in Michigan State University (http://vudat.msu.edu/1500/), SL can be used in foreign language teaching to enhance the acculturation process of students in the 3-D virtual learning environment, such as taking part in cultural activities in the virtual reality and roleplaying in the seemingly real cultural environment of the target language.
Language, Communication and SL as a Platform for Role-Playing in Teaching There is a need to focus on communicative proficiency in language teaching and that Communicative Language Teaching can fulfill this need. From the perspective of foreign learners, Canale and Swain (1980) pointed out that “communicative competence” is an essential aspect of language learning and its implication is characterized with strong emphasis on interaction, either between peers or between teachers and students. Generally, foreign language teaching in SL focuses on communicative and contextual factors in language use. The students are usually well motivated to communicate with peers, teachers or even native speakers. As Bryant (2006) found that environments of language immersion have been simulated and students are given the opportunity to apply their language skills toward “real life” goals within an extensive context. For example, students can pretend to be waiters (waitresses), shop assistants or even fictional character in SL in virtual environments, such as restaurants, shops, or even in a spaceship. That is why that it is not surprising Holmberg and Huvila (2008) also found a surprising observation outside the survey in his study that some of the students used Second Life on their own time to improve their language skills. One of the students had spent a lot of time in the French–speaking areas of Second Life exercising both her written and spoken French. It has shown that students are tremendously motivated to communicate with each other by using the
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foreign language and this discovery strengthens our belief in the huge potential that Second Life has for language education, an area certainly requiring further research.
Recommendations for Foreign Language Teaching in SL As analyzed previously, the possible reasons for the popularity of SL in foreign language teaching are the cultural contexts of the target languages and platform to enhance communicative competence that are provided by SL. Therefore, first, foreign language instructors should include audiovisual components in social environments in SL for students to interact with teachers and other students. Foreign language teaching in SL should focus on communicative and contextual factors in language use. Second, like other SL courses, the foreign language classes in SL should be learners-centered and task-based. Students can talk with real people in the foreign language and complete real communication within the virtual world. The aim is to mimic face to face communication, both in terms of the social functions and the information conveying functions, through creating a genuine need to communicate (www.avatarenglish.com).
ReSeARCH ON SOCIAL FACTORS IN SL IN eDUCATION Cultural Identities and CrossCultural Communication in SL William C. Diehl and Esther Prins (2008) studied on intercultural literacy and cultural identity regarding Second Life participants called “Unintended Outcomes in Second Life: Intercultural Literacy and Cultural Identity in a Virtual World.” The study examines Second Life (SL) residents in general and their view of identity within SL through the “activity system” they participate in. In other words, the activities instructors participate
in within such an environment tend to “enhance participants’ intercultural literacy” (Diehl & Prins, 2008). Diehl and Prins (2008) used a mixed methods approach, based on interviews, field notes, and surveys. They took a random sample of 30 participants from various backgrounds by meeting them through the virtual world itself or through blogs. The survey in the Diehl and Prins’ study included questions about the activities residents participated in Second Life, such as the time spent, length of participation, events attended, what they had learned in SL, and questions about their real life, which included questions about their appearance, characteristics, “national origin, languages spoken, gender educational attainment, and cultural contacts.” Diehl and Prins used Heyward’s model of intercultural literacy and Cultural Historical Activity Theory (CHAT) to analyze the open-ended responses from their survey regarding the construction of their participants’ identity and literacy within the virtual world. In addition, one of the researchers observed avatars in several public areas for 70 hours to examine people’s cultural backgrounds and cross-cultural interactions, and conducted interviews through the environment’s own instant messaging system. The results show that the majority of users can speak more than one language, are friends with other residents from other cultures, and have learned about other cultures in Second Life. It needs to be further researched that the participants’ group identity formation through the engagement of activities within 3-D virtual environments.
Legal and ethical Issues in SL The differences between virtual worlds and the real world often blur the proper application of laws and ethical standards. Authors have noted that in the computer-based simulated environment some users seem to detach themselves from the fear of “real world” consequences. These users engage in such inappropriate behavior as illegal file-sharing
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(copyright infringement), spamming, multiple identities, identity deception, and illicit materials (Kerbs, 2005). Other inappropriate activities in the virtual world include breach of privacy, eavesdropping, exploitation, and the violation of professional ethics, confidentiality and proprietary information. The possible negative influences in SL for students are gambling, pornography and wild acts and misbehaving of the Avatars because of the anonymity in virtual world. As in many digital mediums, while teaching in SL, educators will confront copyrights issue. Conn (2002) points out that the federal Copyright Act of 1976 applies regardless of publication medium, and copyright protection automatically applies whenever the work is fixed in a tangible medium, including print, internet, and on a website (Conn, 2002; Johnson & Groneman, 2003; Lipinski, 2000). Besides the Copyright Act, the policy in SL educational sites also conforms to the Digital Millennium Copyright Act (“DMCA”). Copyright-infringing materials found within the world of Second Life can be identified and removed via Linden Lab’s DMCA compliance process listed at http://secondlife.com/corporate/ dmca.php, and all users must agree to comply with such process and with copyright laws. In our study, the art instructor asked students to hang their digital form of their art work in LS. The art works and other works hung in the art galleries in virtual campus in SL are copyrighted. Other residents cannot use, make derivatives, or change these works. In our study, the majority architecture except for the large buildings in its SL campus was built by the students in that university. In this case, the creator of the content, the students or the instructors, in the virtual campus in SL retains copyright and other intellectual property rights, to the extent that it has such rights under applicable law (Second life Education, 2009).
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Solution and Recommendation The social factors are the major reason that makes SL different from other educational technologies. Educators need to be sensitive and be aware of those factors and try to utilize them in teaching. Educators need to pay attention to a few important aspects. First, get a general picture of the complexity of SL as a social phenomenon. There are all kinds of social activities in SL, such as marriage, shopping, dating and selling and buying real estates. The knowledge of the social factors and activities can help educators have more and clearer ideas to start or improve their teaching in SL. Second, try to minimize the negative factors in SL. For example, due to the anonymity of the residents in SL, some of them sometimes do things beyond the boundaries. It is necessary for educators to know what is going on in SL. Third, be aware of the copy rights and intellectual property issues. Since SL is a new digital medium, the regulations of copy rights issues are more subtle. Many teachers have heard the term “Fair Use” and take that to mean they can use items for educational purpose. However, it is a much more complicated matter and it is very important for educators to know about copyright laws while teaching in SL.
FUTURe ReSeARCH DIReCTIONS The above analysis points out avenues for future research in design and development of SL usage in education. SL, with its unique characteristics such as interactivity, active engagement, and intrinsic motivation, can be an effective learning environment for various learning activities. However, little research has been conducted to generate effective instructional models in SL. First, there is a great need for more research on
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how different instructional approaches for the design and development of courses in SL can affect students’ learning and satisfaction. For example, there is a need to study how to design a small quest and task-oriented activities to facilitate students learning in the SL virtual environment. In addition, research is needed to investigate various ways that SL can be used in teaching, such as a communication tool and an online learning environment that mimics real life. The importance of this type of research is that it can provide a generic framework to develop SL instructional models to guide and assist educators to develop their own courses more effectively. Secondly, the success of teaching in SL is affected by various factors such as learners’ identities, legal issues, and other cultural phenomenon in SL. For example, although the literature addresses many academic advantages and cost-benefits of implementing SL and how successful learning can be achieved, there is little information about students’ non-academic needs (e.g., social and emotional needs) and how these needs interact or affect learning. This may include learners’ cultural identities and legal and ethical issues in SL. More research is needed to investigate these factors and how they impact on learning. Thirdly, research is needed to investigate how SL can be used in foreign language teaching and classifications of foreign language instructional models. The purposes of foreign language instructional approaches in SL are to enhance students’ communicative competence of the target language and help them to know more about the culture of the target language. Advantages of SL virtual learning environments are the cultural environment of the target language and SL for ‘communicative competence’ (Canale &Swain, 1980).
CONCLUSION
learning in SL. Integrating SL in teaching is more aligned with constructivist learning philosophy and it can be an effective learning environment especially for foreign language teaching because of its unique social interactive nature. There are legal and ethical issues that educators need to keep in mind while teaching in SL. Copyright and fair use regulations are must-know knowledge for educators teaching in SL. Second life is generally free, constructed by SL residents and is suitable for educational purposes in various settings. Although SL for teaching has been implemented in the educational arena, especially in higher education institutions and foreign language teaching, the future implementation of SL in education should not be underestimated. Presently, research has uncovered development, teaching and/or learning activities which use Second Life in over 80 percent of UK universities (Johnson, 2007) and at least 300 universities around the world teach courses or conduct research in SL (Michels, 2008) taking advantage of the platform to deliver a high quality service to a worldwide audience at low cost. It allows educators not only to enhance their portfolio of teaching strategies, but to transform routine class activities into something that can instill in the students the values of lifelong learning and inspire their initiatives in learning, and simultaneously contributing to the wider community.
ReFeReNCeS Baines, L., & Stanley, G. (2000). We want to see the teacher. Phi Delta Kappan, 82(4), 327–330. Braman, J., Vincenti, G., Arboleda, A., & Jinman, A. (2009). Learning Computer Science Fundamentals through Virtual Environments. Online Communities and Social Computing. HCI International Conference. San Diego, CA, USA
In this chapter, we discussed the use of SL in higher education with a focus on teaching and
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Bryant, T. (2006). Using world of Warcraft and other MMORPGs to foster a targeted, social, and cooperative approach toward language learning. Retrieved Jun 10, 2009, from http://www. academiccommons.org/commons/essay/bryantMMORPGs-for-SLA Canale, M., & Swain, M. (1980). Theoretical Bases of Communicative Approach to Second Language Teaching and Testing. Applied Linguistics, 4, 1–47. doi:10.1093/applin/1.1.1 Conn, K. (2002). The internet and the law: What educators need to know?Alexandria, VA: ASCD. Daynes, G., Esplin, P., & Kristensen, K. (2004). Learning as an Epidemic: The Tipping Point, Freshman Academy, and Institutional Change. Perspective. Perspectives London policy and practice in higher education, 8(4), 113-118. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. EJ681973) Retrieved April 18, 2009, from ERIC database. Diehl, W.C., & Prins. E. (2008). Unintended Outcomes in “Second Life”: Intercultural Literacy and Cultural Identity in a Virtual World. Language and intellectual communication, 8(2), 101-108. Freeman, D., & Long, M. H. (1991). An introduction to second language acquisition theory and research. London: Longman. Holmberg, K., & Huvila, I. (2008). Learning together apart: Distance education in virtual world. Retrieved May 26, 2009, from http://firstmonday. org/htbin/cgiwrap/bin/ojs/index.php/fm/article/ viewArticle/2178/2033 Johnson, K., & Groneman, N. (2003). Legal and illegal use of internet: Implication for educators. Journal of Education for Business, 78(3), 147–152. doi:10.1080/08832320309599712 Johnson, L. F., Levine, A., & Smith, R. S. (2007). 2007 Horizon Report. Austin, TX: The New Media Consortium.
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Johnson, P. (2007). Snapshots of Second Life use in UK HE and FE. Eduserv Foundation. Retrieved Jun 10 from http://www.eduserv.org.uk/foundation/studies/slsnapshots. Retrieved on 2008-08-04 Joly, K. (2007). A Second Life for Higher Education? Retrieved May 26, 2009, from http://www.universitybusiness.com/viewarticle. aspx?articleid=797 Kagima, L. K., & Hausafus, C. O. (2000). Integration of electronic communication in higher education Contributions of faculty computer selfefficacy. The Internet and Higher Education, 2(4), 221–235. doi:10.1016/S1096-7516(00)00027-0 Kelley, I. (1982). Interlanguage variation and social/psychological influences within a development stage. Tesis de MA en TESL, University of California at Los Angeles. Kerbs, R. W. (2005). Social and ethical considerations in virtual worlds. The Electronic Library, 5(23), 539–547. doi:10.1108/02640470510631254 Lamb, G. M. (2006). Real Learning In A Virtual World. Retrieved June 2, 2009, from http://www. csmonitor.com/2006/1005/p13s02-legn.html Lebow, D. (1993). Constructivist values for instructional systems design: Five principles toward a new mindset. Educational Technology Research and Development, 41(3), 4–16. doi:10.1007/ BF02297354 Lipinski, T. (2000). Designing and using webbased material in education: A web page legal audit-Part I-Intellectual Property. ELA Notes. Education Law Association, 35(4), 10–15. Malone, T. W., & Lepper, M. R. (1987). A taxonomy of intrinsic motivations for learning. In R.E. Snow & M.J. Farrr (Eds.), Aptitude, learning and instruction, Vol. 3: Conative and affective process analyses (pp. 223-253). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
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Michels, P. (2008). Universities Use Second Life to Teach Complex Concepts. Retrieved Jun 11, 200. http://www.govtech.com/gt/252550. Molenda, M. (1991). A philosophical critique on the claims of “constructivism.”. Educational Technology, 31(9), 44–48. Reeves, T. C., & Harmon, W. (1994). Systematic Evaluation Procedures for Interactive Multimedia for Education and Training. In Reisman, S. (Ed.), Multimedia Computing: Preparing for the 21st Century. Hershey, PA: Idea Group. Rogers, E. M. (2003). Diffusion of innovations (5th ed.). New York: Free Press. Schumann, J. H. (1978). The Pidgination Process: A Model for Second Language Acquisition. Rowley, MA: Newbury House. Second Life Education. Retrieved from http://secondlife.com/education Science Daily. (2007). Distance Learning Moves Into ‘Second Life’ Virtual Classroom. Retrieved June 26, 2009, http://www.sciencedaily.com/ releases/2007/02/070207193301.htm Sfard, A. (1998). One-two metaphors for leaning and the dangers of choosing just one. Educational Researcher, 27(2), 4–13. Stauble, A. (1978). The Process of Decreolization: a Model for Second Language Development. Language Learning, 28(1), 29–54. doi:10.1111/j.1467-1770.1978.tb00303.x
keY TeRmS& DeFINITIONS SL in Education: Second Life (SL) is an online 3-D virtual world. SL is usually used as a professional tool, a platform for role-playing, a virtual environment to mimic real life, a communication tool and synchronous online system. SL as a Social Phenomenon: SL should be interpreted as a multi-facets virtual reality and it is a social and cultural phenomenon. The social and cultural contexts can be fully utilized in education. SL as a Professional Tool: SL can be taught as a tool for students’ future profession. This specially applies for students who study certain majors, such as computer science and media design. SL as Platform for Role-Playing: SL is often used as platform for role-playing. Students can simulate experiences, while interacting with others doing the same to enhance their learning. SL as a Virtual Environment: Residents of Second Life can build virtual environments that either mimic real life or learning spaces that could never exist in real life for students’ learning to break the constraints of time and space. SL as a Communication Tool: SL can be used as a communication tool for teachers to hold office hours and students’ meet and communicate for group projects. SL as a Synchronous Online System: Students always join the SL virtual learning environment at the same and usually the same site, as SL is a synchronous online system.
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Section 4
Techniques, Applications, and Design for Education Using Virtual Environments
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Chapter 19
Enhancing Tertiary Healthcare Education through 3D MUVE-Based Simulations Charlynn Miller University of Ballarat, Australia Mark J. W. Lee University of Ballarat, Australia Luke Rogers University of Ballarat, Australia Grant Meredith University of Ballarat, Australia Blake Peck University of Ballarat, Australia
ABSTRACT This chapter focuses specifically on the use of three-dimensional multi-user virtual environments (3D MUVEs) for simulation-based teaching and learning in tertiary-level healthcare education. It draws on a broad range of extant research conducted over the past three decades, synthesizing this with newer developments and examples that have emerged since the advent and proliferation of the “3D Web.” The chapter adopts and advocates a research-informed approach to surveying and examining current initiatives and future directions, backed by relevant literature in the areas of online learning, constructivist learning theory, and simulations. Both opportunities and challenges are discussed, with the aim of making a contribution to the development of best practice in the field. DOI: 10.4018/978-1-61692-822-3.ch019
Enhancing Tertiary Healthcare Education through 3D MUVE-Based Simulations
INTRODUCTION Three-dimensional multi-user virtual environments (3D MUVEs), including virtual worlds such as Second Life and Active Worlds, as well as popular massively multiplayer online games (MMOGs) such as World of Warcraft, Runescape, and The Sims Online, are receiving significant attention and interest from tertiary educators as a means for providing their students with engaging, immersive, multi-modal online learning experiences. These environments hold great potential for enriching higher education teaching and learning by presenting opportunities to bridge the divide between students’ experiences with technology in formal education settings and those that occur in other aspects of their lives (Prensky, 2001b, 2001c, 2006; Wolburg & Pokrywczynski, 2001; de Freitas, 2008). Excited at the possibilities, universities and colleges across the globe are building models of their campuses in virtual worlds using a variety of platforms, and using them to deliver in-world lectures, tutorials, seminars, and collaborative exercises. Such initiatives are also allowing education institutions to reach new audiences, extending learning beyond the conventional boundaries that have been long in use. Indeed the tyranny of distance faced by many students, either due to campus disparity, living conditions, or time, provides a compelling argument for the use of 3D MUVEs as a means of fostering a learners’ sense of presence, which is widely acknowledged as a key constituent of effective online learning (Bronack, Riedl, & Tashner, 2005). In addition to replicating on-campus or classroom-based teaching activities, 3D MUVE technology can be used as a basis for simulations, to deliver authentic learning experiences that are difficult, impractical, or impossible to achieve in the real world (Saunders, 2007). Frequently described as “non-linear exploratory environments” (Aldrich, 2004, 2005), simulations have been used
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as part of computer-assisted learning (CAL) materials for at least three decades, with “SimCity” being one of the earliest and most popular examples. Until recently, however, the prohibitive costs of equipment and computational power required to enable high-fidelity 3D simulations confined them to specialized laboratory environments and medical and military training facilities. In the last decade, the ubiquity of the multimedia-capable, broadband-connected personal computer has led to a resurgence of interest in web-based virtual reality (VR). The new wave of multi-user online games and virtual worlds is increasingly being seen as offering viable alternatives to visiting a real place or performing a real activity. 3D MUVEbased simulations can allow the learner to develop, practice, and refine vocational, professional, and other skills in a real-time, collaborative virtual environment that is safe and cost effective, yet reflects and incorporates much of the dynamic complexity of the real world. This chapter commences with a critical exploration of the motivation and rationale for using 3D MUVE-based simulations in higher education teaching and learning, with a specific emphasis on the healthcare domain, based on a systematic review of the literature. Theoretical and pedagogical models and frameworks that underlie current and proposed uses of 3D MUVE-based simulations in healthcare education are surveyed, before reporting on current initiatives that represent the major issues surrounding research and practice in this area. The aim is to distill and illuminate the key developments/milestones and challenges in order to provide an overall “snapshot” of the field, to help guide and inform scholars and professionals. The chapter concludes with a discussion of the future of 3D MUVE-based simulations in healthcare education, including some of the challenges and opportunities for both researchers and practitioners.
Enhancing Tertiary Healthcare Education through 3D MUVE-Based Simulations
BACkgROUND: THe CASe FOR SImULATIONS IN HeALTHCARe eDUCATION Research in healthcare education has found that professional and personal clinical experience is an essential aspect in the development of competent healthcare professionals (Higgs & Titchen, 2000; Benson, 2004). Fanning and Gaba (2008) agree that in healthcare education, adult students learn most effectively through experience, wherein they develop an understanding by doing, thinking about, and assimilating lessons learnt into everyday behaviors. In undergraduate healthcare programs, students have traditionally gained on-the-job experience by participating in clinical field placements. However, evidence is mounting about the inherent issues and problems with clinical field placements, such as the difficulty of embedding such activities into the learning process at the most opportune time for the integration and consolidation of theoretical and practical knowledge, and the fact that students often receive dissimilar experiences due to variations in patient acuity and institutional cultures where the learning is patient-centered rather than student-centered. These issues, combined with the current ethical and professional climate, have led to the suggestion that they may be inappropriate as an exclusive means of providing experiential learning opportunities for pre-service healthcare professionals (Ziv, Small, & Wolpe, 2000; Lee et al., 2007; Heinrichs, Youngblood, Harter, & Dev, 2008). This has provided a strong impetus for educators to explore the use of simulated activities that can reproduce experience by other means (Alinier, 2007). A healthcare worker’s ability to solve problems and make accurate clinical judgments in a timely manner is crucial to patient safety and wellbeing. Since the 1960s, healthcare educators have documented the use of simulation as a teaching and learning strategy to provide hands-on experience, with the aim of increasing patient safety, while
simultaneously maximizing flexibility and minimizing risk when training novices (Lind, 1961). Aldrich (2004) defines simulations broadly as tools that facilitate learning through practice in a repeatable, focused environment (Aldrich, 2004). According to Prensky (2001a), the term “simulation” can have various interpretations, including but not limited to: (i) a synthetic or counterfeit creation; (ii) the creation of an artificial world that approximates the real one; (iii) an activity that represents and/or imitates the reality of a real place (such as the workplace); and (iv) a mathematical or algorithmic model, combined with a set of initial conditions, that allows prediction and visualization as time unfolds. When designed well, simulations can aid students’ retention, understanding, application, and integration of specific domain knowledge and concepts, as well as facilitating the development of generic attributes and skills like decision-making, creativity, and problem solving. In terms of the affective domain, simulation can be used to rouse interest, boost motivation, and instill values (Randel, Morris, Wetzel & Whitehill, 1992; Ellington, Gordon, & Fowlie, 1998). In a healthcare education simulation, the main idea is to create experiences for learners in which they are actively engaged in attempting to solve problems by interacting and communicating with peers, the environment, equipment, and patients (Miller, 1984). Research attests to the benefit of clinical simulations to complement from traditional classroom-based learning (Bruce, Bridges, & Holcomb, 2003; Engum & Jeffries, 2003; Jeffries, 2006). Such simulations can equip learners with skills that can be directly transferred into the real clinical setting (Clague et al., 1997; Engum, Jeffries, & Fisher, 2003). Clinical simulation does not rely on the random exposure provided by real clinical fieldwork, but rather allows students to practice skills in a safe and non-threatening yet immersive environment (Fanning & Gaba, 2008). Common clinical simulations employed in contemporary education programs include case studies and role-playing activities, part-task trainers,
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as well as “full-mission” simulations (Beaubien & Baker, 2004). Alinier (2007) analyses typologies of educationally-focused medical simulation tools, and identifies six technological simulation levels based on their functions and the fidelity of the experience they can provide to healthcare students. These levels include: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
Alinier describes a variety of learning experiences that can be achieved by each level, highlighting the need for educators to recognize how simulations can enhance cognitive learning when they are appropriately incorporated teaching and learning strategies. The next section explores how both cognitive and social constructivist learning theories and strategies can be used to guide and inform the design and use of simulations in healthcare education.
Constructing Clinical experience through Simulation Constructivist learning theory is an essential consideration for educators seeking to design effective educational simulations. Constructivist approaches derive from the work of theorists such as Dewey (1929), Piaget (1972), Vygotsky (1978), and Bruner (1986). The fundamental tenet of constructivism is the idea that by reflecting on his or her experiences, the learner constructs a personal understanding of the world (Wiggins 1998; Jonassen, Peck, & Wilson, 1999; McLoughlin & Luca, 2000). From a constructivist point of view, learners build or “negotiate” meaning for a concept from their interpretation of its use in one or more contexts that they have observed or experienced. They generate their own rules
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and mental models that they use to make sense of their experiences, and that cannot be directly transmitted or transferred between individuals. A learning approach that is based on constructivist principles and that has become increasingly popular in medical and healthcare education in recent decades is problem-based learning (PBL) (Savery & Duffy, 1995). As discussed earlier, clinical simulations can be designed so as to provide students with practice in problem-based decision making, based on real-life situations. Both PBL and constructivism emphasize the role of the learner as an active creator rather than a passive recipient of information, and recognize the learner as the chief architect of knowledge building (Barrows & Tamblyn, 1980; von Glaserfeld, 1987). At the heart of the PBL process is the aim of stimulating an inquiring attitude and a search for understanding (Margetson, 1993). PBL encourages students to learn in a self-directed fashion through questioning, probing, showing curiosity, discussing, hypothesizing, making decisions, and collborating with others to work towards the solution problems representative of practice (Hmelo-Silver, Duncan, & Chinn, 2007; Sims, 2009). Barrows and Tamblyn (1980) suggest the use of a hypothetical-deductive model, which consists of four steps or stages, as a means of facilitating and scaffolding the PBL process: 1. 2. 3.
4.
A theoretical hypothesis is generated. From this theoretical hypothesis comes a prediction. An event is then observed or experimented to determine whether the hypothesis is confirmed or refuted. Through reflection, changes are made to the student’s cognitive understanding.
Linked to the concept of PBL is the notion of experiential learning (Kolb, 1984), which is particularly suited to learning a profession whereby the integration of theory and practice occurs in a cyclic process to enable the learner to develop
Enhancing Tertiary Healthcare Education through 3D MUVE-Based Simulations
understanding from direct experience (Grant & Marsden, 1992). Problem-based simulation may be considered a form of experiential learning, as it based on the idea that concrete experience provides a basis for observation and reflection, suggesting that learning through observation and interaction with a simulated environment will allow the student to make illuminating discoveries and develop a superior cognitive understanding, as opposed to simply reading about a problem from a book. In the words of Kolb, “Knowledge results from the combination of grasping and transforming experience” (p. 41); he further explains how the learner’s observations and reflections are refined and assimilated into abstract concepts that can be applied to new experiences. In other words, the learning arising out of a simulation can be actively tested and refined, and in turn result in new experiences and the formation of new understandings. Role-play is another related strategy that has become a popular form of creating simulated clinical experiences for healthcare students. It allows learners to assume and act on the behaviors of a particular character, with minimal risk involved (McLaughlan & Kirkpatrick, 2004). A simulation that requires students to play a role for a specific purpose encourages them to apply sets of interests, values, and knowledge specific to the profession, thereby allowing them to experience and learn the adopted role in a safe, non-threatening environment (McLaughlan & Kirkpatrick, 2004). Johnson, Zerwic, and Theis (1999) conducted a study involving the implementation and qualitative evaluation of a videotaped role-play by senior level nursing students recreating a realistic clinical situation. Through observation and feedback from the participants, the authors found that simulating clinical experience through role-play assisted students in building on prior knowledge, retaining new knowledge, and relating the simulation scenario to real clinical problems, in addition to contributing to the further development of their critical-thinking skills and problem-solving abilities.
Numerous studies have been conducted whose findings attest to the effectiveness of using constructivist methods such as PBL, experiential learning, and role-play to actively engage healthcare students in activities whose the focus is on the learners as constructors of their own knowledge, in authentic contexts that are cognitively similar to those in which the knowledge would be applied (Barron et al., 1998; Hickey, 1999). A similar experiment conducted by Alinier, Harwood, Gordon, and Hunt (2006) presented results which determined the effect an intermediatefidelity scenario-based simulation can have on healthcare students’clinical skills and competence. As well as the learning material provided to the control group, the experimental group was exposed to an intermediate-fidelity scenario-based simulation that required students to work in small teams to solve problems based on real-life situations. By comparing pre- and post-test results the study found that the experimental group improved their performance on an Objective Structured Clinical Examination by almost twice as much compared with the control group. The difference between the mean scores was statistically significant, indicating that simulation is a useful training technique as it enables healthcare students to practice skills and obtain hands on experience in a safe and controlled environment as well as build capacity in terms of non-technical skills such as teamwork and communication. Research in educational theory supports the constructivist view that students learn more effectively by engaging in collaborative problem solving activities and that technology plays a major role in developing the ways in which students access, assess, and integrate new information and acquire knowledge (Hanson & Sinclair, 2008). Hanson and Sinclair propose that the purpose of a learning activity is not so much the problem being solved, but the learning experience which helps students develop a cognitive understanding “that may be generalized beyond the specific problem” (p. 3).
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Simulations can provide healthcare students with the opportunity to improve communication and, thus, enhance patient safety. Collaboration and social negotiation of meaning is an important part of the problem-solving process in a team structure (Savery & Duffy, 1995). Research has shown that communication failures are an important cause of errors and accidents, with various studies illustrating a high rate of communication and teamwork failures in healthcare practice (Sexton, Thomas, & Helmreich, 2000; Lingard et al., 2004). Such studies identify a fundamental need for simulation to assist healthcare students learn both technical and non-technical skills required for the real world conduct of their profession. Using an appropriately developed simulated case scenario, healthcare team members can work collaboratively within a clinical situation by assessing the presented symptoms, providing appropriate interventions, and managing the simulation response to the various treatments. A well developed simulated scenario requires clinicians to solve problems, work as a team, and communicate effectively with their colleagues and other providers (Beyea & Kobokovich, 2004). It follows that well designed simulations have the capacity to build the communicative and collaborative skill foundation for developing safe healthcare practitioners (Koutantji et al., 2008). To understand the outcomes of simulation in enhancing the learning process, many researchers have studied the impact of integrating technology with constructivist methods in simulation training over the last two decades. The literature discussed in this section illustrates how scenariobased simulation can assist healthcare students to make transitions to actual patient care and clinical environments (Whitton & Hynes, 2006; Koutantji et al., 2008). By combining technical skills with human factors, team management, and situational awareness concepts and incorporating these into the design of a simulation, participants concurrently learn and develop clinical skills and concepts related to patient safety, reducing the
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potential for errors in the workplace (Johnson et al., 1999; Tiwari, Lai, So, & Yuen, 2006; Alinier et al., 2006).
The Use of Computer and Internet-Based Simulations in Healthcare education Over the last few decades, computer-based simulations have become a popular platform for simulating clinical experience as they have a relatively low cost, allow for flexible learning, lend themselves to student-centered pedagogies, and encourage engagement in active learning (Benson, 2004; Alinier, 2007). Furthermore, on a broader level, advancements in information and communication technologies (ICTs), as well as the changing needs and demands of students, who now typically juggle multiple demands and cannot always be physically present on campus, are profoundly influencing instructional formats and delivery modes of healthcare programs at tertiary education institutions worldwide. The acknowledged benefits of online learning delivery in this field include but are not limited to enhancement of marketability; maximization of students’ choice of learning styles, location, time, and place of learning; reduction in instruction time; enhancement of effectiveness and mastery of learning; potential improvements in retention; and increases in student motivation, satisfaction, and enjoyment of the learning experience (Farrell & McGrath, 2001; Kenny, 2002). Early uses of digital simulation involved using the computer to carry out a series of statistical trials using the Monte Carlo method (Nunnally & Bernstein, 1994). Today, advances in graphical, acoustic, and haptic technologies have opened up myriad possibilities in terms of ways in which interactive digital simulations can be used in healthcare education. VR simulations, in particular, have become a popular avenue for allowing healthcare students to practice a range of skills and improve techniques without the con-
Enhancing Tertiary Healthcare Education through 3D MUVE-Based Simulations
sequences normally associated with mistakes or failure. Both desktop and immersive VR clinical simulations have been used in healthcare training for a variety of teaching and learning purposes, such as teaching facts, principles, and concepts; assessing the student’s progress or competency with a certain skill, integrating the use of technology in the learning experience and developing problem solving and diagnostic reasoning skills in a safe, non-threatening environment (Waltz, Strickland, & Lenz, 2004; Jeffries, 2006; Lee et al., 2007; Taber, 2008). VR simulations also reduce the potential risks involved in training nurses and can help develop standards and streamline and optimize procedures. In Engum et al.’s (2003) article on intravenous catheter training system, they report on a randomized experiment using a desktop VR simulation of an IV catheter for third year medical and baccalaureate nursing students. The study compared the effectiveness of this interactive multimedia simulation with a traditional laboratory experience of teaching IV venipuncture skills to both nursing and medical students. The control group was exposed to a traditional method of instruction involving a scripted self-study module which involved a 10-minute videotape, instructor demonstration, and hands-on-experience using plastic mannequin arms. The experimental group was exposed to an interactive multimedia catheter simulator program utilizing virtual reality. Pretest and post-test feedback found a significant improvement in cognitive gains, student satisfaction, and documentation of the procedure with the traditional laboratory group as compared with the computer catheter simulator group. While study results supported the traditional-learning methods as superior in five areas evaluated, the authors concluded that both groups were similar in their ability to demonstrate the skill correctly and the experimental group enjoyed the use of VR simulation in the learning process. In a similar study conducted by Jeffries, Woolf, and Linde (2003) the researchers investigated the
effectiveness of an interactive virtual simulation compared with traditional methods for teaching the skill of performing a 12-lead ECG (an electrical recording of the heart which is used in the investigation of heart disease). The study used a randomized pre-test/post-test experimental design involving 77 baccalaureate nursing students. The control group (n = 32) was exposed to a traditional method of a brief lecture, demonstration and hands on experience using a plastic mannequin with a real 12-lead ECG machine. The experimental group (n = 45) was exposed to the same content but used an interactive multimedia CD-ROM who obtained experience through embedded virtual reality activities. The study found a significant improvement (p < 0.0001) in the pre-test/posttest scores for both groups. However there was no significant difference between the two groups cognitive gains; with the control group having a pre-test mean of 14.6 and a post-test mean of 19.8, and the experiment group having pre-test mean of 13.6 and a post-test mean of 20.3 (p < 0.05). The two groups also displayed similar satisfaction with their instructional methods and ability to demonstrate the skill correctly on a live, simulated patient, suggesting that a skill learned from a computer-simulated experience can be similar to a skill learned via traditional methods. These results also imply that a healthcare student’s experience from a computer simulation can be effectively transferred into the real world. Interactive instructional tools that involve realistic environments and incorporate constructive learning are increasingly being used to supplement real practical training. A study by Mili, Barr, Harris, and Pittiglio (2008) investigated the benefits of Virtual training simulations from a pedagogical perspective as they identified a problem with controlling what the student is exposed to and what feedback they are provided with hospitalbased learning. The study found that healthcare educators perceived that virtual simulation could:
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•
• • •
•
•
•
Give healthcare educators more control over what the healthcare students learn and what cases they are exposed to; Provide timely and quality feedback to students; Pace the load and level of difficulty based on the students performance; Insure consistency of case or simulation presentation, thus strengthening the overall process; Provide an opportunity for the faculty to create and edit scenarios as well as determine the criteria for grading; Allow students to have the opportunity to compare their answers with the evaluations criteria; and Capture student performance records for comparison across virtual patient cases and students.
Other researchers have sought to evaluate the effectiveness of a computer-based simulation as a means for increasing the retention of particular healthcare skills. Curran, Aziz, O’Young, and Bessell (2004) performed a randomized pre-test/ post-test experimental study using computer simulation to update neonatal resuscitation skills four months after the initial training and then tested the students’ knowledge and performance four months after the second training. The study investigated a convenience sample of third-year undergraduate medical students involving an experimental group that was updated using a computerized simulator that monitored the effectiveness of resuscitation. The control group was updated using instructional video. The authors reported there were significant decreases in the students’ knowledge levels at the four and eight-month period, however there were no significant differences in the retention between the experimental and control groups with both groups having a similar decrease in test scores over the 8 months. These findings suggest that computer-based simulation can be as effective as video instruction in the retention of information
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and development particular skill. A qualitative component also reported positive responses from students to their experiences with the simulator system with the majority of students agreeing that the simulation helped them to better understand the performance of neonatal resuscitation, and that it was a useful training tool for medical students. Students also indicated that simulated experience can improve confidence with healthcare students; with a vast majority agreeing that the simulation had better prepared them to deal with a future neonatal emergency. The authors conclude that apart from the cognitive benefits of a computer simulation, via the Internet, the “system could provide an opportunity for facilitating remote skills training and assessment in a more costeffective manner than traditional face-to-face methods” (p. 163).
3D mUVes and Virtual Worlds: New Opportunities for Online Learning Simulations The idea of synchronous interactive virtual spaces is not new. Early forms of virtual spaces such as text-based MUDs (multi-user domains) and MOOs (MUDs, object-oriented) have been used in education for a number of decades (Nykvist, 2005). However, the recent resurgence of interest in web-based virtual reality (VR), fuelled by everincreasing processing power, image resolution, and network bandwidth, has given rise to a set of emerging technologies that have been collectively dubbed the “3D Web.” One such technology that has generated significant interest with tertiary educators is 3D virtual worlds. In addition to the capabilities and affordances provided by preexisting synchronous online communication tools and spaces, 3D virtual worlds like Second Life enable learners to interact with and manipulate information and representations of an environment and synchronously communicate with other people from a first person perspective (Dickey, 2005).
Enhancing Tertiary Healthcare Education through 3D MUVE-Based Simulations
At its most basic form, a virtual world offers three things: a) a 3D space or environment; b) an avatar that represent the individual user; c) interactive chat, either using text or voice or both (Dickey, 2005). Second Life can be described as an online computer-based entity that can simulate a real-world environment by representing objects to the user, providing the user with the impression, as realistically as possible, of being in another place. The model world may simulate rules based on the real world or some fantasy world. Through the use of an avatar, a digital representation of the user, people can create, interact with and manipulate elements of the modeled world and communicate with other users (Haycock & Kemp, 2008). Communication between users ranges from text, graphical icons, visual gesture, sound and voice. Although research into 3D MUVEs as learning environments is still in its infancy, a number of studies have been conducted that document educationally-relevant outcomes arising from the use of such environments in relation to the affective (e.g. sense of presence, motivation) and collaborative aspects of learning (Bronack et al. 2005; Baker, Wentz, & Woods, 2009; Ritzema & Harris, 2008; Haycock & Kemp, 2008). In addition, significant extant literature is available that documents the results of studies from similar technologies such as immersive VR and multiuser domains (MUDs) that support constructivist learning, online learning communities, and digital game-based learning (Fanderclai, 1995; Bruckman, 2002; Gee, 2003). Specific to the healthcare domain, an article by four Stanford University medical staff (Heinrichs et al., 2008) describes a series of case studies that compared the learning outcomes and usability of a Human Patient Simulator (HPS) and a developed virtual world as an instructional tool. Thirty medical students were randomly assigned to a HPS group and a virtual world group. Using a pre-test/post-test the students were exposed to four team-training cases. Results of a quantitative study showed both groups gained a significant
difference between the pre-test/post-test scores, with no significant differences in the gain scores between the groups. Sixty-two percent of the virtual world students indicated they thought multi-player game-based training was as effective as or more effective than traditional methods; 56% said the game environment would be useful for initial training; and 75% said the game environment would be useful for refresher training. These results suggest that team training and assessment is feasible using virtual world technologies and that it can be as effective as the traditional method of using human patient simulators. A review of the literature found that in most cases higher education students enjoyed learning in 3D MUVEs and they could help students understand new concepts and learn new material. It also suggested that MUVEs can also enable medical and healthcare students to make meaningful social interactions and develop team work skills in a safe online environment. However, Berge (2008) cautions that activities in virtual worlds that can be accomplished in a regular website or by video conferencing technologies have little value, other than novelty, and can have a negative effect on the learning process as a result of a steep technical learning curve and added cognitive load. The value of MUVEs in tertiary education and training is its ability to provide unique opportunities for students to engage in online simulated learning experiences. The unique platform of MUVEs allows educators to create simulations in an environment incorporating: •
•
Information richness: Second Life has been described as a manifestation of the latest instructional technology tools (Good, 2004); meeting the learning needs of different students learning style by allowing a variety of content to be presented within a simulation. High levels of immersion: Through willing suspense of disbelief, immersion leads to the impression that one is participating
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•
•
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in realistic experiences (Dede, 2005). By simulating an experience in a virtual world such as Second Life trainees can concentrate on the clinical problem as it would be presented in reality, without relying on their imaginative senses, improving the student cognitive development of a skill or understanding (Alinier, 2007). Multi-user interactivity: As discussed earlier, problem-based learning is more effective in teams trying to solve problems. Second Life enables problem centered role-play activities involving peer interaction and critical thinking where students can link up with others who have knowledge they need; lurk, watching others who know how to do what they want to do; and lunge, jumping in to try new things (Sontag, 2009). Gaming elements: While many try to define and differentiate games from simulations, it is arguable that they are more alike than they are different. Aldrich (2004) weakens the distinction between the two by recommending that educational simulations should incorporate “applied pressure situations that tap users’ emotions and force them to act” (p. 9). He advocates viewing educational simulations as being a result of the convergence of simulation elements, game elements, and pedagogical elements (Aldrich, 2005). Simulations in virtual worlds can incorporate multi-user gaming elements similar to that of MassivelyMultiplayer Online Role-playing Games (MMORPGs). By incorporating gaming aspects into a virtual simulated environment, students can become motivated to learn and obtain a meaningful experience by playing an active role in the learning process (Gee, 2003).
MUVEs provide healthcare educators with unique teaching and learning strategies that can assist in meeting the needs of today’s healthcare students. A review of the literature suggests that students can learn and understand new concepts and material, make meaningful social interactions and develop teamwork skills in virtual worlds such as Second Life (Haycock & Kemp, 2008; Ritzema & Harris, 2008; Baker et al., 2009). Overall, Second Life is an ideal setting for proactively engaging healthcare students in constructing knowledge which relates to realistic problems as well as assisting in the development of problem solving skills in a collaborative environment without inflicting harm to patients (Heinrichs et al., 2008). A virtual simulation has the ability to create an artificial social structure where problembased scenarios can be created, allowing students to actively co-construct mental models of technical and interpersonal skills through experiencing human interaction in problematic environments. Unlike traditional technologies immersive virtual worlds such as Second Life can incorporate essential learning materials with effective educational gaming strategies (Gee, 2003). The use of 3D MUVEs for simulation-based teaching and learning in higher education draws on a broad range of extant research conducted over the past three decades and can be synthesized with newer developments and examples that have come about since the advent and proliferation of the “3D Web.” Currently, perhaps due to the media hype and attention surrounding the area, much of the recently-published literature on the use of 3D games and virtual worlds is “showand-tell,” highly rhetorical in nature and bereft of sound theoretical underpinnings. Building on the constructivist approaches investigated above, the authors will explore a variety of current healthcare simulations operating within the MUVE of Second Life to illustrate the impact and viability of simulation education using MUVEs.
Enhancing Tertiary Healthcare Education through 3D MUVE-Based Simulations
3D mUVe-Based Healthcare Simulations: Some International examples from Second Life Second Life (SL) is a virtual world that has gained much attention among tertiary educators as it enables its users to explore, socialize and participate in individual and group role-play activities. Second Life is developed by Linden Lab, which uses a client-side program called the Second Life Viewer to allow its users, called “residents,” to interact in a virtual environment through an avatar. The report entitled The Second Life Economy – First Quarter 2009 in Detail (Linden Labs, 2009) revealed that in March 2009, the monthly unique residents with repeat user logins was 732,526. This figure is 25% more than for March 2008, and represents a 9% growth from the Q4 2008 figure recorded in December 2008, illustrating the burgeoning growth of this virtual world platform. In 2008, Second Life residents accumulated a total of approximately 397 million user hours, an increase in 61% over 2007. In the last quarter of 2009, Second Life residents logged over 120 million hours. Numerous tertiary education institutions across the globe now rent or own virtual land in Second Life. Universities and colleges generally use their virtual spaces to build “campuses” in which to conduct lectures and tutorials, display artwork, hold music performances, and host various types of gatherings (Baker et al., 2009). The following subsections showcase a range of examples of healthcare simulations developed by institutions in the UK, USA, and Australia that are currently operating within Second Life, and that transcend the mere modeling or replication of on-campus activities in the virtual environment. The key pedagogical features, rationale, and benefits of the examples presented are outlined in each case.
Heart Murmur Simulation A pioneering virtual world-based simulation in the area of cardiovascular health is the Second Life Heart Murmur Sim (n.d., Kemp, 2006), conceived at the San Jose State University. The main purposes of this simulation are to enable clinical students to undergo cardiac auscultation training, to tour a virtual clinic modeled on a real one, and to hone and test their ability to identify the sounds of different types of heart murmurs. Clinical students are presented with a range of patients within a virtual ward of whose heart beats are audible on different locations on the chest that mirror real life stethoscopic listening points. The virtual patients range in type from those having a normal heart beat to those exhibiting serious heart conditions such as ventricular septal defects (VSDs). This enables a student to practice in making diagnoses based on hearing heart rhythms under various health conditions. This is a conceptually simple yet very effective simulation that allows students to rehearse and refine techniques at a time and place of their choosing, away from the distractions and hazards involved in real hospital wards. This simulation also removes the patient factor from the exercise, as no longer do the students have to examine real and sometimes very ill patients in hectic wards in order to gain the full advantage of exposure to and practice with authentic workplace situations.
Virtual Hallucinations The mental illness of schizophrenia is difficult for the unaffected to understand, and even more difficult for those affected to live with. In an effort to promote better understanding of this condition and to raise the public’s awareness of its often misunderstood symptoms and their impact on individuals, the University of California, Davis (UCD) Health System created the Virtual Hallucinations (n. d.) simulation in Second Life.
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The Virtual Hallucinations project strives to educate both members of the general public and healthcare professionals about schizophrenia by presenting them with simulated experiences of commonly-suffered hallucinations (Au, 2004). The simulation includes coverage of both audible hallucinations, which are the most common variety, as well as the less-commonly suffered visual hallucinations, in an attempt to illustrate and demonstrate how those with hallucination disorders experience the world (Au, 2004). The power behind such a simulation lies in its ability to train mental health professionals in a more realistic way to understand how these illnesses affect the patient without having to put a medical student straight into a psychiatric ward to study and observe real patients. Another key advantage of this simulation is to allow the general public to experience flashes of simulated hallucinogenic episodes first hand in order to better understand and raise awareness about the plight of mentallyill people. In contrast to the Heart Murmur application described in the previous subsection that mimics a real-world workplace scenario, primarily with the aim of maximizing flexibility and accessibility and decreasing levels of cost and risk, Virtual Hallucinations is an example of how 3D MUVEbased simulations can be used to afford learners the ability to undergo experiences that would be impossible for them to have in the real world.
Genetics Lab/Museum Created by Mary Anne Clark at Texas Wesleyan University, USA, the Gene Pool (n. d.; Clark, n. d.) features an interactive SL-based genetics lab/ museum and virtual learning space in which visitors can engage in various activities designed to assist them in developing a detailed understanding about DNA and human chromosomes. They can, for example, conduct simulated lab experiments in the virtual environment and explore a giant 3D eukaryotic cell, as well as playing a “Mating
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Game” in a recreation of the Augustinian Abbey at Brno where Mendel carried out much of his work about the laws of inheritance.
Surgery Techniques The popularity and growth of Second Life has given rise to the development and use of powerful and informative surgical simulations that enable medical students to perform surgery in a controlled, safe, and extremely cost-effective environment free of the dangers of life-critical errors and legal ramifications. One such example is by Dr. James Kinross and colleagues from the Imperial College of London who are seen as pioneers in online medical simulations. Kinross applauds Second Life for its low-cost infrastructure and growing expert community, which in turn has lead to fast and informed simulation development. In July 2007, Kinross and colleagues created a virtual hospital called Second Health (n. d.) and an accompanying series of short “machinima” documentary films to describe what health care of the future could look like (Second Health movies, 2009). Second Health is an ongoing development and is located in the SciLands, a specialised region of Second Life for Science, Technology and Educational applications. Inside Second Health is the highly developed London Hospital, which contains highly detailed, informative and interactive simulated wards and procedures such as: acute care, day procedures, endoscopy, operating theatres, and a futuristic view of polyclinics. Kinross and colleagues have seen a valuable future in harnessing virtual worlds, and as a result have created a specialized Medical Media and Design Laboratory to ensure further research and development into online and interactive human health education.
Speech Therapy Treatment, Training, and Support Academics and students at the University of Ballarat in Australia have developed a Virtual Stut-
Enhancing Tertiary Healthcare Education through 3D MUVE-Based Simulations
tering Support Centre (n. d.) (VSCC) in Second Life. The VSCC is a virtual facility containing a range of simulations to assist speech therapists, their patients, and affiliated support groups. The focus will initially be on a particular speech disorder, namely stuttering (alalia syllabaris, also known as stammering–alalia literalis or anarthria literalis) but is intended to expand in the future to encompass the treatment and support of other types of speech impairment. At the outset, the VSCC will be used for selfhelp and self-directed support by containing three distinct simulations to enable those with speech impairments to experience close-to-real-world conditions that enable them to safely and privately practice speech and control techniques in a location of their own choosing and at a pace that suits them. A number of simulations have been created, including a job interview simulation, a simulation involving a busy cafe with ordering capability, and a simulation allowing users to practice engaging in telephone conversations (Meredith, 2009). Continuing development will enable various support groups to be hosted in Second Life and to truly open up a world of equity, treatment, support, and understanding to all. Speech therapists will be encouraged to develop programs for this new environment and to test their effectiveness. People suffering from speech impairments will also be surveyed to elicit feedback that will inform further development and refinement of the facility.
in 2008 to construct an emergency room scenario within the virtual world that could be used to provide real-time skills to nursing students (http:// slurl.com/secondlife/University%20of%20Ballarat/138/187/36) (Figure 1). The Critical Life simulation contains six different scenarios, each portraying a possible emergency room crisis. The scenarios include various clinical diagnostic problems such as clinical documentation, respiratory, pharmacological, electrocardiogram and family issues. Students work in teams of three or four within each scenario to make collaborative decisions about the care of a patient in crisis. Student nurses can assess the patient through a series of questions, including interaction with the patient’s family. Decisions are team-based, with consensus required to move forward. Text, audio, and tactile interaction are used, and the simulation depicts the motion of the patient, working medical machines, and an observation board. The application can be used for training and assessment of novices, as well as acting as a practice facility for re-skilling. Collaborative learning and the fostering of teamwork skills are facilitated in parallel to the development of specialist nursing skills, through the use of a process model whereby (Rogers, 2008, p. 828):
Emergency Room Scenarios
b)
In Australia, the Commonwealth Government’s report into health information management calls for all Australian universities to take a leading role in integrating information technology into healthcare curricula (Commonwealth of Australia, 1997). In response to this imperative, another exciting development at the University of Ballarat involves using Second Life as a platform for emergency room scenarios to train pre-service nurses (Rogers, 2008, 2009). A project was undertaken
a)
c) d)
e)
The team is faced with a clinical problem which requires action; Group discussion is encouraged as no action can be taken in the simulation without a unanimous decision; From the group discussion a solution is formulated; Each team member must carry out the solution decided upon by the team for the action to take place and for the simulation to continue; Once the problem is solved, each team member reflects (in written form) on the
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Figure 1. Critical Life scenario developed at the University of Ballarat
individual and team processes of the action carried out. The initiative also serves to address a need for the university, which operates multiple campuses in regional Victoria, to cater for the needs of students and lecturers dispersed across various locations. Research into the use of these scenarios for nursing students has revealed that participants found the simulation to be a positive experience that can assist in the development of technical and non-technical nursing skills. Further, the participants found the simulation easy to use, realistic, incorporated effective learning strategies. These results encourage development and testing of other healthcare interventions within Second Life. Future planned research includes investigation of skill enhancement of students over time.
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CHALLeNgeS AND BARRIeRS TO THe USe OF 3D mUVeBASeD SImULATIONS IN HeALTHCARe eDUCATION Both anecdotal and empirical evidence suggests that computer-based simulations can expose healthcare students to meaningful experiences and assist them in developing a range of skills and competencies. However, some leading researchers argue that online learning has a limited range of training functions due to its unrealistic settings, and therefore cannot provide problem-based learning supported by cognitive science (Jeffries, 2006; Alinier, 2007). A review of the literature exposed a serious issue relating to the teaching and learning practices being incorporated into computer-based clinical simulations and online learning regarding the effect the simulation has
Enhancing Tertiary Healthcare Education through 3D MUVE-Based Simulations
on the students’ learning. In very few cases did the e-learning activity involve collaboration, focused reflection, articulation, and team-guided practice, all of which have been shown to promote diagnostic reasoning and encourage learning (Murphy, 2005). Traditionally, online and other forms of computer-assisted learning in healthcare have rarely been anything more than individual students passively viewing information or playing a game by themselves (Jeffries, 2006). There is a need for online learning activities, soundly underpinned by pedagogical models and cognitive science principles, that allow students to be actively involved in trying to solve problems presented to them by interacting and communicating with their peers, environment, equipment, and patients. This process encourages the student to learn by doing, thinking about, and assimilating lessons learned into everyday behaviors (Fanning & Gaba, 2008). A further challenge is that in using technologydriven simulations for healthcare education, there is a danger that learners will become skillful at using the training technology rather than with actual patients. Trainers have to make sure that the skills developed by trainees are not becoming automatic procedures that can only be performed using a given model and under certain circumstances (Alinier, 2007). An important issue, therefore, and one that is central to the debate about the efficacy of simulation-based approaches to learning, training, and skills development in general, is the transfer of learning from the virtual environment of a 3D MUVE-based simulation to the corresponding real environment (Orlansky et al., 1994; Higgins & Champion, 2000). While learning transfer relies upon a degree of fidelity to the real phenomenon or task, deciding on the degree or level of physical and cognitive fidelity (Hays & Singer, 1989) required for different learners, learning objectives, and learning scenarios is contentious and problematic. In fact, many researchers maintain that there is a lack of conclusive evidence supporting the belief that a high degree of fidelity or realism in the simulated environment translates into better
achievement of learning outcomes; in fact, some believe that digital simulations that are overly elaborate or realistic in their sensory portrayals of objects and places can increase cognitive load and detract from learners’ ability to attend to the primary learning tasks and objectives at hand (Andrews & Bell, 2000; Fadde, 2006; Dalgarno & Lee, 2010).
CONCLUSION: ImPLICATIONS AND ReCOmmeNDATIONS FOR PRACTICe AND FUTURe ReSeARCH This chapter has presented a case for the use of 3D MUVE-based simulations for tertiary-level healthcare education. The current ethical and professional climate foreshadows a growing concern for patient safety, which is diminishing the exposure healthcare students have to real world practice. Moreover, the 21st-century tertiary healthcare student requires and demands flexibility in delivery approaches and modalities to cater to his/her needs, preferences, and learning styles. The literature reviewed in this chapter suggests that 3D MUVEs and virtual worlds have the ability to afford learning tasks that aid learners in understanding new concepts, encourage them to engage meaningful social interactions, and assist them in developing both domain or subjectspecific and generic skills (Kemp, 2006; Ritzema & Harris, 2008; Baker et al., 2009). More empirical research is needed to validate the claims that have been made about the use of virtual worlds for simulated clinical learning experiences, and to ascertain whether the use of such applications can actually lead to improved or enhanced learning outcomes. Applied studies and the sharing of stories, experiences, anecdotes, and vignettes is also important to establish what works and why. Future work in the area of MUVE-based simulations for healthcare students will need to include discussions about best practice in these areas.
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There are thousands of sites sponsored or built by universities all over the world. Many simply reproduce the real-world university in structure and replicate activities that take place on the physical campus, such as lectures and tutorials. Equally, there are hundreds of attempts at simulations for education in MUVEs such as Second Life. Many of these have little or no impact on the participant because they lack a fundamental understanding of the theoretical foundations of such simulations. The development of best practices in this area will assist in relevant, useful and educative simulations that can show impact and advancement. All in all, the use of 3D MUVE-based simulations in clinical experience through a virtual world is a relatively new and complex area of research, albeit one that presents much promise and potential. While it is unlikely that 3D MUVE or virtual world-based simulations will completely replace hands-on learning activities and social interaction in the real world, they can certainly serve as a powerful adjunct and a means of facilitating rich, immersive, socio-experiential learning experiences that will contribute to the development of competent healthcare professionals.
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keY TeRmS AND DeFINITIONS 3D MUVE-Based Simulation: An online multi-user computer-based simulation that makes use and takes advantage of the affordances and
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capabilities of a 3D MUVE such as a 3D virtual world or multiplayer online game. See also simulation, virtual world, massively multiplayer online game (MMOG). Authentic Learning: Learning that encourages learners to engage in real-world problems and projects that are meaningful and interesting to them and that have relevance beyond the walls of the classroom or other formal learning environment. Avatar: In a MUVE such as a virtual world or MMOG a visual representation of a user’s real or surrogate identity and appearance. Through his/ her avatar, a user consciously or unconsciously creates a virtual portrayal of him/herself (or of an alternative self) within the environment, and in doing so builds an online identity that is projected to others. Users are typically able to control their avatars’ actions in real time, in addition to modifying its characteristics and appearance. Cognitive Flexibility: Denotes the ability of an individual to adapt his/her cognitive processing strategies to face new and/or unexpected conditions in the environment. It is considered by educational researchers to be a key concept influencing the ability of a learner to transfer knowledge and skills to new situations. See also transfer of learning. Collaborative Learning: An umbrella term for a variety of teaching and learning approaches that involve joint intellectual effort by students or students and teachers. Learners engage in a common task in which each individual depends on and is accountable to each other. Teams or groups of students work together in searching for understanding meaning, and/or solutions or in creating an artifact of their learning such as a product. Constructivism: An epistemology (psychological theory of knowledge) that argues that individuals generate knowledge and meaning as a result of their experiences. Constructivism is not a specific pedagogy although both individualcognitive constructivist and social constructivist views of learning have had a wide-ranging impact
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on contemporary learning theories and instructional methods, and underlie many education reform movements. Constructivism is not to be confused with constructionism, an educational theory developed by Papert. Experiential Learning: The process of making meaning from direct experience or learning through reflection on doing, as opposed to learning by rote or through didactic/transmissive teaching methods. The idea of experiential learning was inspired by the Aristotle and popularized by Kolb, drawing on the Constructivist theories of Dewey and Piaget. Experiential learning has contributed significantly to the development of the related, but distinct and broader, philosophy of experiential education. See also Constructivism, problem-based learning. Inquiry-Based Learning: A term used to describe a range of instructional strategies based on premises that are centered around the need for learners to ask questions then actively seek out answers to those questions. It is commonly used in the teaching of science. The teacher takes on the role of a “facilitator,” who supports learners rather than simply giving them the answers, encouraging them to take responsibility for their learning through active exploration, discovery, and reflection. Massively Multiplayer Online Game (MMOG): An Internet-based computer game involving large numbers of players often to the order of thousands or even tens of thousands. Many genres or categories of MMOGs exist, including but not limited to action (e.g. Pirates of the Caribbean Online, Lego Universe, Toontown Online), first-person shooter (e.g. World War II Online), real-time strategy (e.g. Beyond Protocol, Monopoly City Streets), turn-based strategy (e.g. Dofus), flight simulation (e.g. AirwaySim, Fighter Ace), and role-playing. See also massively multiplayer online role-playing game (MMORPG). Massively Multiplayer Online Role-Playing Game (MMORPG): A type of Massively-Multiplayer Online Game (MMOG) in which players
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form groups, clans or guilds to engage role-play with one another. Examples of popular and wellknown MMORPGs are World of Warcraft, Runescape, Ultima Online, and Guild Wars. See also massively-multiplayer online game (MMOG). Problem-Based Learning (PBL): A form of authentic inquiry-based, experiential learning in which students learn by working collaboratively in groups to solve problems, and reflecting on their experiences. The problems are typically challenging and open-ended, mirroring the nature and complexity of problems in the real world in that they are often ill-structured and do not result in neat, convergent outcomes. See also authentic learning, experiential learning, inquiry-based learning. Second Life (SL): A popular 3D virtual world platform developed by Linden Labs in which users, called “Residents,” can customize avatars that they use to perform a range of in-world activities. SL Residents can explore, meet other residents, socialize and interact with one another using voice and text-based chat/messaging tools, participate in individual and group activities, and create and trade virtual goods and services with one another. Other key features of SL include its economy, which incorporates an internal currency, the Linden dollar (L$), as well as the ability to purchase or rent land on which to erect buildings. See also virtual world. Simulation: Simulation involves the imitation of real objects, locations, events, and/or processes. It generally entails modeling or representing certain selected, key characteristics or behaviors of particular physical or abstract systems. Computerbased and computer-assisted simulations are now used in many contexts, including but not limited to the modeling of natural and human systems with the aim of gaining insight into their functioning; other applications include simulation of technology for performance optimization, safety engineering, and testing, as well as to support managerial decision-making. In education and training, simulation can be used to deliver au-
thentic, experiential, and problem-based learning experiences that may be difficult, impractical, or impossible to achieve in the real world. “Whatif” simulation can also be used to demonstrate the eventual real effects of alternative conditions and courses of action to facilitate inquiry-based learning and enhance conceptual understanding. See also 3D MUVE-based simulation, authentic learning, experiential learning, inquiry-based learning, problem-based learning. Transfer of Learning: A term used to describe the application of skills, knowledge, and/ or attitudes learned in one situation or context to another situation or context that shares similar characteristics. For example, learning transfer may occur between two cognitively similar learning scenarios, or from a formal learning environment into a workplace or job situation. With respect to simulated learning in virtual environments, the term may be used to refer to the transfer of knowledge, skills, and/or attitudes learned in the virtual environment to the corresponding real environment. See also cognitive flexibility. Virtual Reality (VR): A term used to refer to a technology or set of technologies that allows users to experience and interact with computersimulated places and/or objects. The simulated environment and artifacts can be similar to or mimic the real world, for example, as in flight and combat simulators, or they can differ significantly from reality, as is the case with many VR games that construct imaginary or fantasy worlds. Traditionally, VR environments have been primarily visual experiences, but modern applications now include additional sensory information, such as sound and tactile or force feedback information. The development of sophisticated head mounted displays (HMDs), wired gloves, and miniaturization, as well as the proliferation of a range of popular science fiction literature and motion pictures, have fuelled the tendency to associate VR with immersive, highly visual, 3D environments. However, VR may include a wide variety of applications, encompassing applications such
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commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) games and Internet-based virtual worlds that can be accessed using standard personal computer hardware. See also virtual world. Virtual World: The definition of virtual worlds has changed over the years with the evolution of virtual reality and synchronous online communications technologies. In the 1980s and 1990s. The term was used broadly to refer to any single-user or multi-user computer-simulated environment or artificial space, which encompassed a variety of text-based and graphical MUDs (multi-user domains), MOOs (MUDs, object- otiented), and multiplayer games. In recent years the definition appears to have narrowed and is now often used to refer specifically to three-dimensional,
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Internet-based, multi-user simulated worlds such as Second Life, in which users, through their avatars, can experience, manipulate, and interact with virtual objects and places that are either modelled according to the real world or instead depict fantasy worlds. Communication between users may occur via text, static graphical icons (e.g. “emoticons”), visual gestures and “facial” expressions, sound (including human or synthetic voice), and occasionally, may take more sophisticated forms such as touch, voice commands, and balance senses. See also avatar, Second Life (SL), virtual reality (VR).
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Chapter 20
New Augmented Reality Applications: Inorganic Chemistry Education Manuela Núñez Redó Universitat Jaume I de Castellón, Spain Arturo Quintana Torres Universitat Jaume I de Castellón, Spain Ricardo Quirós Universitat Jaume I de Castellón, Spain Inma Núñez Redó Universitat Jaume I de Castellón, Spain Juan B. Carda Castelló Universitat Jaume I de Castellón, Spain Emilio Camahort Universidad Politécnica de Valencia, Spain
ABSTRACT In this Chapter, the authors will present an Augmented Reality (AR) system for teaching Inorganic Chemistry to university-level students. Augmented Reality (AR) is a computer related research area that allows users to see views of the real world enhanced with computer-generated text and visual information. AR with 3D models can be used as an educational aid to help students gain spatial intuition. This is really important and useful in disciplines like Inorganic Chemistry, where solving problems related to 3D crystal structures, understanding these structures or facing symmetry related problems can be supported by computer generated 3D graphics. AR is an immersive technology that can improve education offering more interaction and realism. It can also be applied to real-time online and in-classroom teaching. Our system is based on inexpensive webcams and open-source software. A survey the authors conducted after using it in the classroom shows great acceptance of the system and improved results when solving Inorganic Chemistry problems related to 3D structures. This opens up new possibilities of self-assessment and interaction. DOI: 10.4018/978-1-61692-822-3.ch020
INTRODUCTION Nowadays, there is a change in the learningteaching process and how people understand it. Students are no longer mere receptacles for information and knowledge, but they are also an active part of the process. New advances in Information Technologies have become significant contributors to this change. For example, recent advances in Computer Graphics and Computer Hardware have introduced Information Technologies into the classroom. PowerPoint presentations, for example, are being used pervasively in classrooms around the world. The problem of this technology is that the student remains a passive element of the learning process. Information Technologies must be used to better and more effectively involve the students in their own education. Augmented Reality (AR) is a fairly new area of Computer Graphics that relies on other computerrelated disciplines like hardware, computer vision, and sensing and tracking. It allows the user to view the real world with superimposed computer generated annotations and graphics. AR systems may be used by multiple users at the same time. This provides the opportunity for collaborative applications, like engineering design, architecture, multi-user games, and education, among others. AR can be used in education to show the students models that cannot be seen in the real world. Two examples are: planets and galaxies that are too big, and atoms and molecules that are too small. Another example is multiple types of chemical, physical and engineering processes like reactions, explosions, computational fluid dynamics, and motion simulations that cannot be easily taught to the students using traditional means like transparencies and the chalkboard. We are interested in applying AR to Inorganic Chemistry education at the university level. Specifically, we want to show the students different material and compound structures, symmetry and unit cells, and modes of vibration where move-
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ment is important. We want to show all of these in 3D, and we want to allow the students to move and manipulate the models. The goal is to teach them spatial intuition and a 3D understanding of the chemical structures, a key skill for the students to understand and solve Inorganic Chemistry problems. We thus introduce an AR system for teaching university-level Inorganic Chemistry. Our system renders material and compound structures as well as other inorganic models for better understanding by the students. The system allows multiple users and different 3D models of chemical structures. The system is used to teach both theory and laboratory classes. During the laboratory classes problems are solved that require the students to develop a good 3D spatial understanding. Our experiments demonstrate that the students like the system. They even want to take it home, so they can use it as a self-assessment tool and as a tool for online learning in real time. They also suggested improving the system by adding stereo imaging. Although our system was developed for Inorganic Chemistry, other disciplines may benefit from it. For example, it can be applied to mathematics, organic chemistry, theoretical physics, astronomy, applied physics and engineering. Its simplicity and ease of use make it suitable for university students and younger students, like secondary, junior-high and high-school students. Moreover, we have used our system to teach Chemistry classes to 11-12 year old students. We did that as part of a program aimed at bringing younger students to our University. The experience was highly positive, and students showed great interest since they were able to interact with the structures as a game, learning and playing at the same time. Summarizing, our goal is to introduce Augmented Reality into Inorganic Chemistry education. There are two reasons why: improve the students’ understanding of materials structures using AR, and provide the professor with a tool to better explain those structures that require a good
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3D spatial intuition. We summarize the goals of our experience as follows. With respect to the students of Inorganic Chemistry we pursue the following goals: •
•
• •
•
We want them to get actively involved in their learning by introducing a novel technology like AR. We want to provide them with a tool to view different 3D material structures in an intuitive way. We want to increase their 3D analysis and perception skills. During class, we want them to manipulate the structures independently or in groups; we also want them to do it with the professor, and on their own, thus working on problem solving; finally, we want them to develop aptitudes such as initiative and class participation by manipulating the structures; and we want them to collaborate in groups. We also want to bring new computer technologies to the students, increasing their knowledge, their abilities and their communication skills; these skills are critical for the students to successfully join multidisciplinary teams with experts from other areas.
With respect to the professors of Inorganic Chemistry, we want to achieve the following goals: •
•
We want to provide them with a tool that catches the students’ attention by attracting and surprising them; student attention and participation should be maximized. We want to increase the professors’ options to efficiently teach concepts where a good spatial intuition is critical for the students’ understanding.
Finally, our computer related goals are the following:
• • •
We want to compile a database of 3D models of chemical structures. We want to use it in a collaborative AR system with markers and cameras. We want to implement our system with inexpensive hardware and open-source libraries; we thus want to promote free software usage.
The rest of this Chapter is organized as follows. First, we review basic concepts of AR, and we argue why it is important for education. Then, we describe how we introduced it into the classroom. Specifically, we describe the methodologies used for designing and implementing structures, improving coordination and interaction in the classroom, and the models and structures developed. Finally, we present the students’ opinions and some ideas for improvements and future work.
BACkgROUND In this Section, we define Augmented Reality and we argue why introducing AR is good for Education. Then, we show several examples of AR applied to Inorganic Chemistry. Finally, we discuss the results obtained with those examples.
What is Augmented Reality? Augmented Reality is a technique that introduces virtual objects in the visual field of a user in real time, mixing both worlds, the real world and the virtual world. Augmented Reality systems are an extension of Virtual Environments (VEs). These systems present the user with an enhanced view of the real world. This view contains virtual elements. The visual augmentation may be accompanied by sound, tactile (haptic) and other types of augmentation. Visual augmentation requires that the user’s movements be tracked. Tracking computes the position and orientation of the user’s head so
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that the virtual elements can be correctly rendered and displayed. Rendered elements are displayed on top of the user’s view of the real world. Mixing both this view and the virtual graphics and text can be done in either of two ways. See-through devices let the user see the real world directly. They display the graphics in a transparent screen located between the real world and the user’s eyes. The display may be an LED or an OLED like those used in projectors. Alternatively, a camera mounted on the user’s head may capture images of the real world. These images may then be combined with the virtual graphics and displayed on a head mounted display (HMD). The main advantage of AR systems over regular VEs is that they combine virtual and real world imagery, thus providing a much richer experience. Interaction between the real and the virtual world is illustrated in Figure 1. In order to develop Augmented Reality applications, there is a software library called ARToolkit. The library is written in C/C++ and is available under GNU’s General Public License. ARToolkit implements several computer vision algorithms. These algorithms solve the main problems of the technology, like computing the camera location in real time, tracking a marker or a real-world object, and estimating the camera’s intrinsic parameters. To solve these problems ARToolkit uses pattern recognition techniques
applied to marker registration (see Figure 2). When the system recognizes a marker, it retrieves information about its size, orientation and position. That information is then used to superimpose 3D models on the marker’s image. Augmented Reality applications capture images from cameras. Once the system has an image, it applies image processing algorithms to determine if the image contains a marker. Then, it determines the marker’s location in the image and overlays one or more virtual objects on top of it. Virtual objects are exactly aligned with the realworld objects because the marker recognition algorithm produces an accurate set of camera parameters for the image. The final result makes the users feel is if they were immersed in a hybrid world. AR systems can be single-user or multi-user collaborative systems. Single-user systems have been applied to science, engineering, training and entertainment, among others. Collaborative systems have been applied to the same areas with much more valuable results. For example, Schmalstieg et al. (2002) developed the StudierStube system to view scientific data. They use see-through HMDs to allow multiple users to view the same data superimposed on the real world. Today AR is a matured technology. Early surveys date back more than one decade (Azuma, 1997). Books have also been published entirely
Figure 1. Left, interaction between the real world and the virtual world in our AR system: a webcam captures the real world, the computer combines it with the virtual objects, and the result is shown to the user in the output screen; right, a screenshot of the real world overlaid with a chemical structure
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Figure 2. Example of patterns or markers used in Augmented Reality
devoted to this area (Bimber & Raskar, 2005; Cawood & Fiala, 2008). However and despite its maturity, AR has been barely applied to education. Many processes, ideas and concepts can be better illustrated using both images of the real world and graphics. Think for example of an architecture student looking at a building. We may let him look at different floor plans at the same time. A different but much better approach uses AR to superimpose the internal structure on the building so that he can understand why it will not collapse. In this Section we present the benefits of using AR in education. We also survey previous work in the same area.
For students to learn more and better, education has to be both experimental and interactive. We learn more from hands-on experiences than from traditional lectures. Also, collaboration and discussions between students help their education by teaching them opinions and methods proposed by their peers. This is more interesting for science and engineering students. However, other disciplines like law may benefit from new technologies, for example using teleconferencing to attend or participate in remote trials. AR is mature enough to be applied to many every-day activities. Education is one of them, especially for the following reasons (Billinghurst, 2002):
Importance of Applying Augmented Reality to education
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University teaching has not evolved much for centuries. The method of attending lectures, taking notes and taking a final exam dates back to the 15th and 16th centuries. Recently, new technologies have appeared in the classroom. For example, it is common to see PowerPoint presentations and use networked platforms like Moodle (Cole & Foster, 2007). Using these new technologies does not imply an increased interaction between students and the professor. In fact, many times information keeps on flowing in just one direction from the professor to the students.
• •
AR supports seamless interaction between real and virtual environments, AR allows using a tangible interface metaphor for object manipulation, and AR provides the ability to transition smoothly between reality and virtual worlds.
AR can also be used for online education. Project MARIE (Multimedia Augmented Reality Interface for E-Learning) uses AR to present 3D information to the students (Liarokapis et al., 2002). The authors argue that AR is more effective than VEs in terms of price, realism and interactivity. They also predict that AR will be used in many every-day applications in ten years.
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AR has been around for more than a decade. However, only a few systems have been applied to education. Project MagicBook was presented at the SIGGRAPH conference in 2000 (Billinghurst, Kato, & Poupyrev, 2001). A MagicBook includes text and images like any other book. But it also uses special markers that can be viewed with an HMD that superimposes 3D animated scenes on the book’s pages. This interesting approach is considered to be the first application of AR to education. It was followed by the implementation of ARToolkit, an open-source AR library widely used for writing AR applications. Project MARIE was presented in 2002 (Liarokapis et al., 2002). It supports multiple students interacting with various virtual objects. It also provides a framework for writing AR-based educational applications. For example, it has been used to browse Web3D worlds for engineering education (Liarokapis et al., 2004). Researchers at the Technical University of Vienna started working on AR-based education with the StudierStube project. More recently, they built another system called Construct3D (Kaufmann, Schmalstieg, & Wagner, 2000). Construct3D has been successfully applied to geometry and mathematics teaching (Kaufmann & Schmalstieg, 2002). All of the above applications are based on AR technology that is either too expensive or too complex for every-day use. With the advent of ARToolkit and Personal Data Assistants (PDAs) AR systems became smaller and less expensive. Such systems are not immersive, but they are better suited for education applications where the students may be young and a bit careless. The “Education Arcade” group of MIT has collaborated with the Boston Museum of Sciences to develop the project “Mystery at the Museum” (Klopfer et al., 2005). In the project a child and an adult are paired up. They are given a PDA with a camera and then they are asked to solve an enigma by looking for clues in the Museum. The clues are markers and the enigma is related to a
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relevant historic event. The children involved in the project enjoyed the experience and learned a lot of history. Our idea is somehow similar.
Ambiguity and 3D Perception Not every student has the same 3D spatial perception. Some students have difficulties envisioning 3D objects drawn or displayed in 2D. This is relevant in Chemistry where students must analyze 3D structures in order to devise correct answers to the class problems. 2D produces optical illusions that usually stem from the ambiguities of 2D rendering. Some examples of these illusions are the Necker cube, the Schroder stairs, or some of M.C. Escher drawings. Figure 3 shows the Necker cube and Schroder’s stair ambiguities. The Necker cube drawing is ambiguous because the image does not tell which face of the cube is in the back and which in the front, producing two different interpretations of the drawing. In the Schroder stairs, the illusion of a change of perspective shows up when the drawing is rotated 90º clockwise or when the head is turned to the left. Finally, M.C. Escher became famous for his representations of paradoxes and ambiguities. For example, in his “Waterfall” lithography of 1961 the water is always flowing thanks to an optical illusion.
AUgmeNTeD ReALITY AND INORgANIC CHemISTRY eDUCATION Brief Description of the Classes Where AR is Used We use AR to help teach three different classes related to Inorganic Chemistry: Material Sciences, Ceramic Inorganic Chemistry and Advanced Chemistry Laboratory. The classes belong to the Chemistry program of the Universitat Jaume I of Castellón in Spain.
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Figure 3. Examples of optical illusions: top, the Necker cube: (a) where two edges of the cube cross, the image does not tell which one is in the front and which one in the back, (b) and (c) the two possible interpretations of the cube; bottom, the Schroder stairs: both stairs are the same and interchangeable; however, their perspectives are completely different
Material Sciences teaches the relationship between the properties and the structure of materials. Ceramic Inorganic Chemistry deals with ceramic materials from an inorganic point of view. It also deals with the importance of their structure in the final properties that can be developed. Finally, in Advanced Chemistry Laboratory, students have to synthesize an inorganic pigment, which consists of two main parts, a chromophore and a host matrix that is a crystal structure. These classes are well suited for AR application because they are closely related and they are based on the knowledge of the structure of compounds and materials, especially ceramic materials. These materials’ structures are much better understood using 3D models and rendering, and tangible interfaces. In addition, these classes have another advantage for the application of AR: all of them are taught during the same semester. So, we can teach at the same time material related to the three classes, and we can plan coordinating activities.
Advantages of Using AR in Inorganic Chemistry education The ambiguity of 2D models together with the difficulties of 3D analysis and perception imply that: • •
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Very often important concepts are not assimilated, Problems that can be easily solved by rotating a structure and analyzing its symmetry are almost unsolvable, even for competent students, and Many students end up memorizing structures and problem solutions before the exam, and a forgetting them few days later.
Instead, we want the students to derive structures from much simpler concepts. This would help the knowledge settle in their minds. Our AR system thus allows tangible interaction with the virtual compounds and structures, thus simplifying their 3D analysis. The main two benefits of applying AR to our classes are:
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•
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Students have a much better comprehension and understanding of the fundamental concepts and structures presented in class, and A powerful and flexible AR tool simplifies the professors’ task of explaining the basic concepts related to materials structure.
So, the main advantage of applying AR to Inorganic Chemistry is that the students achieve a better understanding of the concepts and crystalline structures that are taught in these classes. That way it becomes a powerful tool for the professors. Now we are going to describe the main benefits for the different classes where we use AR. In Materials Science, the materials properties are closely related to their structure, and students have to acquire this knowledge. The main aspects where AR can help are: •
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The definition and comprehension of the crystal structure of solids, according to their unit cell, the metallic crystal structures and the ceramic crystal structures. Helping with solving problems where the understanding of 3D structure is the key, problems such as density computations, unit cell volumes, atomic packing factor or coordination number and geometry. Understanding the relationship between the lattice parameters and the unit cell geometry, in each crystalline system, their crystallographic directions and planes. Study the formation of ionic structures, from the easiest ones to the more complex ones. Learning how the properties of some materials are extremely related to the symmetry of their unit cell, for example, the electric properties of ferroelectric materials, that exhibit polarization in the absence of an electric field and are based on the generation of a dipole moment caused by the rela-
tive displacement of some ions from their symmetrical positions in the unit cell. In Advanced Chemistry Laboratory students have to synthesize a pigment that consists of a chromophore and a ceramic crystal structure. Therefore, AR can help students understand these crystal structures and, therefore, the pigments. Moreover, in Advance Chemistry Laboratory, students have to write a report analyzing the results and characterizations of the pigments which are strongly related to their structure. The advantages in this class are: • •
•
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A better understanding of the crystal structures of each pigment. Understand how the chromophores interact with the crystal structures, or host matrix, in each pigment, because pigments can be classified attending to these criteria. Study the formation of these pigments, paying special attention to solid solutions and doping mechanisms. For pigment characterization, one of the most important techniques is X-ray diffraction that entirely depends on the crystal structure of the materials; to understand this technique and its results, the crystalline systems must be studied.
Ceramic Inorganic Chemistry is completely based on ceramics from an inorganic point of view. In this class, the structure and microstructure of the materials are key to understand their behavior and properties. Therefore, the principal benefits of integrating AR in Ceramic Inorganic Chemistry are: •
Learning the silicates, their structures and classification: silicates are one of the main components of ceramics, and their classification, based on their structure, is very important, although difficult to learn. The reason is that the students tend to memo-
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•
•
•
•
rize it instead of understanding it. AR can improve that. Study the structure of clays, their layers, and the cations and anions they may incorporate. Understand the differences between crystals and glasses according to their inner structure, because crystal structures are arranged in 3D while glass is amorphous. In these classes, X-ray diffraction, the crystalline systems and crystallographic planes are also studied. Study ceramic pigments and their importance in ceramics, with regard to their inorganic properties and structure. This is a topic related to Advanced Chemistry Laboratory.
methodology for Introducing AR into Inorganic Chemistry education Introducing AR into Inorganic Chemistry education is accomplished in three different phases with three different methodologies. First we use a methodology to design models and implement structures using VRML (Virtual Reality Modeling Language). Our second methodology is for introducing AR into the classroom. The third methodology is for coordination and interaction during the classes.
Methodology for the Design and Implementation of Structures To describe the design and implementation of models and structures we need to explain how Chemistry and Computer Science relate to each other in our AR system. The Computer Science part deals with the implementation of interactive 3D graphics that represent the different crystalline structures that we want to study. These graphics have been built using VRML. In order to program in this language, we need a text editor. VRML allows coding the models and supports an interac-
tive 3D viewer to render the results. This viewer works as a VRML plug-in for Internet browsers. With the plug-in installed, the browser can open a file with the VRML extension and display the models contained in it. Relating to the applications of Augmented Reality, we have modified current programs and developed new applications. This is because we wanted to incorporate new features, like new markers with associated named structures. We also implemented a user friendly graphical interface that can be run by the student, thus enabling autonomous learning. To modify existing AR applications and build new ones, we need to take into account that ARToolkit uses a set of additional libraries. For example, ARToolkit provides tools to capture images from video sources, process those images to optically track markers in them, composite synthetic and real-world contents, and display the resulting images. For this, there are libraries such us Direct Show Video Library (DSVideoLib), openVRML and OpenGL. DSVideoLib is a DirectShow wrapper supporting concurrent access to frame buffers from multiple threads. This library is useful for developing applications that require live video input from a variety of capture devices. In ARToolkit, the configuration of the video input devices is specified in an XML file, conforming to the DSVideoLib XML schema. In our system we use different XML files to identify the webcams used in our system. Figure 4 shows the data path used by our system to transfer the video stream from the input camera, through the analysis and rendering stages, and to the output display screen. The process uses computer vision algorithms to identify the markers. Marker identification looks for a pattern in the input video stream. This is achieved by converting each input image into a binary one and identifying the black marker frame. There may be more than one marker in each input image. Once the markers are identified, their positions and orientations
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are computed relatively to the camera. Then, the symbols inside the frames are matched to the marker templates in our AR system, and the virtual objects associated to the markers are transformed and aligned to them. The resulting 3D scene is rendered using both OpenGL and OpenVRML. ARToolkit overlays the rendered objects on the video stream displayed to the user.
Methodology to Introduce AR into the Classroom To apply AR technology to our classes let us first consider our current methodology. We do not want to introduce substantial changes to it. Instead, our goal is to naturally improve our current methodology using the AR system. To do so we add AR ses-
sions to our current theory, problem, practice and laboratory classes. That is, we alternate between using the blackboard, PowerPoint presentations and other teaching resources, and using structure analysis using the AR system. The system allows students to inspect a set of material structures by moving a maker. The marker is recognized by ARToolkit. The 3D models of the material structures are drawn on the markers when these are recognized by the AR system. Our system uses a personal computer and six webcams connected with USB cables and a concentrator. We organize the students in groups of two. We give each group a set of markers. The images captured by the cameras are projected onto a large screen located in the classroom. That way, each student can observe and manipulate the
Figure 4. Diagram of the procedure that overlays virtual objects on the input video stream
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structure of the marker she is holding in her hand. Students can also view their classmates’ structures as well as the professor’s lecture. Figure 5 contains a diagram of the classroom’s AR setup, and some pictures of the classroom during a class taught using our AR system. Our installation allows twelve students to interact with our AR system. In larger classes we can use higher resolution cameras or cameras mounted on tripods to capture more than one marker. That way several students can interact at the same time with different virtual structures. We have used this system to improve our theory classes and to help with problem solving classes. Problems where geometry is important to find a solution are best suited for using our AR system. One class of such problems is finding geometric elements in a crystal structure.
Methodology to Improve Coordination and Interaction Using AR in Class The three classes where we use AR are taught during the same semester. They also have the same level, and are mainly based on the structure of materials. They provide a framework to carry out some collaborative activities. There are several topics that are common to the three classes, even though they are taught from different perspectives. In the three classes the 3D structure of materials is very important. As an example we review ceramic pigments and silicates. Case 1: Ceramic Pigments In Materials Science, pigments are taught from the perspective of connecting their optical properties and their structure. Ceramic Inorganic Chemistry focuses on the composition of ceramic pigments
Figure 5. Multimedia classroom with webcams and markers for the professor and twelve students: left, class setup: the students are grouped into six groups of two; right, Inorganic Chemistry lecture with our AR system: physical setup of the classroom for four groups of two students, each group with its webcam and set of makers; students manipulating the MgAl2O4 spinel structure; and students interacting with the zircon ZrSiO4 crystal structure
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and their relationship with ceramics. Finally, Advanced Chemistry Laboratory teaches about synthesis, characterization and results according to their crystal structure. Spatial structure is key to understanding and learning pigments. Therefore, using AR in these classes is important, because it makes a big impact on the students’ curiosity, improving their motivation. Students may be taking one, two or all three classes. Students who have attended one class where pigments were studied can easily deduce the new aspects taught in the other classes. In our case, the students that attended a class where AR was used got actively involved in teaching their fellow students, improving collaboration. This methodology provides a successful peer learning process and improves cooperation. Additionally, it allows more students to use the AR system. Case 2: Structural Classification of Silicates In the case of silicates, their structures and classification are taught in all three classes. Therefore, the methodology is slightly different from the methodology used for the pigments. First of all, the classification of silicates is taught using blackboard and PowerPoint presentations. Then, when students have the basic knowledge, the AR system is introduced to distinguish and identify the structures, and to learn the chemical formula of the compounds, the unit cell, etc. In this case, we prepare two sessions for all the students. Finally, the last week of the semester, before the exams, the AR system is used to help students answer questions about silicates, as preparation for the exam. We have observed that students answer correctly and quickly to questions that used to be difficult for them. The results are highly positive.
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Description of the models and Developed Structures To describe the models developed for the different classes, we focus on the benefits of using AR in Inorganic Chemistry education. All models and structures are designed considering their functionality, what we wanted to teach or explain, and how the VRML models contributed to them. The models in this Section are thus described from the point of view of their importance and contribution to the classes. VRML models were developed to understand and define the crystal structure of solids and, more importantly, their unit cell. In the case of metallic crystal structures, a common example is the Hexagonal Close-Packed Crystal Structure (HCP). This structure appears when three layers of spheres are packed as ABA, being A and B different positions of the layers (see Figure 6a). The hexagonal unit cell takes six atoms to form a hexagon and surround another atom in the top and bottom layers. This unit cell has also another plane with three atoms in the center of the cell. In our models, each color represents a different layer. Note that the arrangement of spheres creates tetrahedral and octahedral sites. In order to observe these sites, the spheres in the model are transparent to a certain degree. Depending on the position and orientation of the pattern, these sites are visible or not. For the Body-Centered Cubic Crystal Structure (BCC) and the Face-Centered Cubic Crystal Structure (FCC), other models were developed. These models help the resolution of problems and questions related to the unit cell. Examples are obtaining the volume of an HCP unit cell in terms of the atomic radius, devising the atomic packing factor for the FCC crystal structure, and computing theoretical densities. In order to learn the crystal systems and crystallographic planes, the structures have been modeled
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Figure 6. Some models developed to understand the basic elements of crystalline materials: (a) Hexagonal Close-Packed Crystal Structure; (b) Bravais lattices: Tetragonal P and Tetragonal I; and (c) models to understand crystallographic planes and Miller indices
according to different geometries. There are seven crystallographic unit cells of crystals, according to their axes of symmetry. For example, there are the cubic system with four threefold axes, and the triclinic system with no symmetry axes. 14 Bravais lattices can be defined that can be primitive cells (P), cells with lattice points in the center (I), or cells with lattice points in the center of the faces (F). Figure 6b shows some of them. The crystallographic planes are designated by the Miller indices (hkl), which must be determined from reciprocals of fractional axial intercepts. Any two planes parallel to each other are equivalent and have identical indices. For crystals having hexagonal symmetry, there is a convention in the use of four indices, the Bravais-Miller indices (hkil). These all represent complicated problems
that the students must solve obtaining the crystallographic planes or the Miller indices for a plane that is drawn within a unit cell. Because of this, we have modeled two structures, a cubic and a hexagonal structure both with some planes inside. Students have to find and designate these planes (see Figure 6c). In order to help the students, planes may appear or disappear as they move the structures. This occurs because the models are designed so that one plane does not interfere with the other planes. To understand crystal structures, we have modeled the most important ones, trying to underline their main aspects. For example, the spinel, MgAl2O4, can be described as an FCC lattice of O2- ions while Mg2+ ions fill the tetrahedral sites and Al3+ the octahedral ones (see Figure 7a).
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Here it is important to understand where each tetrahedral and octahedral site is in the structure, and how many sites are in the unit cell. The cation and anion ratio, the coordination geometry and the occupancy are some of the concepts that can be inferred from this structure. Moreover, Spinel structures are widely studied because of their electrical and magnetic properties. In addition, a lot of pigments have spinels as a host matrix. The corundum crystal structure, Al2O3, is a well-known structure and compound, and a good
example of a hexagonal unit cell (see Figure 7b). It consists of an HCP arrangement of O2- ions with Al3+ ions filling octahedral positions. In this structure, two thirds of the available octahedral positions are filled with Al3+ ions, as can be seen in the model. Also, note the repeated pattern of the planes. This structure has interesting mechanical and optical properties. Ruby and sapphire are based on this structure. In the case of ruby, corundum is doped with chromium, and Cr3+ ions are placed in the positions of Al3+, obtaining a
Figure 7. Models of important crystal structures: (a) spinel crystal structure: as the student moves the maker, the AR system displays an AB2O4 spinel structure with octahedral and tetrahedral holes; (b) Al2O3 corundum crystal structure: the student holds a marker with a corumdum α-Al2O3 structure where Al atoms are drawn with dark spheres and the holes are drawn as white spheres; and (c) a zircon crystal structure (ZrSiO4) made of isolated SiO4 tetrahedrons and Zr atoms with a dodecahedral organization (small white spheres)
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characteristic red color. This is an important ceramic pigment. The zircon crystal structure, ZrSiO4, is a famous structure that consists of tetrahedrons with one atom of silicon in the center and four atoms of oxygen in the vertices (see Figure 7c). These tetrahedrons are not bound together, thus not sharing atoms of oxygen. The zirconium connects the isolated tetrahedrons in such a way that each zirconium bounds to 8 atoms of oxygen and has a dodecahedral organization. All of these can be observed in the modeled structure. Zircon is a very important structure in ceramics and a famous host
matrix for pigments, developing a wide range of colors like pink, yellow or blue. This structure is an example of nesosilicate, a subclass of silicates. To understand the silicates and their classification, their main structures have been modeled. The basic structure is the tetrahedron Si-4O (see Figure 8a). Each atom of silicon is bound to four oxygen atoms located at the corners of the tetrahedron. The silicon atom is located at the center. The silicate structures come from the different ways in which the tetrahedron [SiO4]4- can be combined into 1D, 2D and 3D arrangements.
Figure 8. Models for understanding the silicates and their structural classification: (a) basic unit to form silicates: each tetrahedron Si-4O is made of four O atoms located at its vertices and a Si atom at its center; (b) ZrSiO4, zircon, an example of a nesosilicate; (c) basic units of nesosilicates: isolated tetrahedrons, each disconnected from all the other ones; (d) the main components of sorosilicates: two tetrahedrons of Si-4O joined by an atom of oxygen; (e) cyclosilicates: the student is observing the rings of three and six tetrahedrons; (f) a student studying the layers of rings in the beryl Be3Al2(SiO3)6, an example of a cyclosilicate: (g) phyllosilicates, consisting of sheets of tetrahedrons; and (h) inosilicate models: single chain inosilicate (pyroxene) and doble chain inosilicate (amphibole)
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The most structurally simple silicates involve isolated tetrahedrons. The zircon (ZrSiO4), described above, is one of the most famous examples (see Figure 8b). These silicates are called nesosilicates (see Figure 8c). When there are two isolated tetrahedrons sharing a common oxygen atom, they are called sorosilicates, [Si2O7]6- (see Figure 8d). Compounds of this subclass are formed when cations are bounded to each double tetrahedron. The cyclosilicates are rings that consist of three or six tetrahedrons sharing oxygen atoms (see Figure 8e). Their formula can be easily calculated from their basic rings: [Si3O9]6- for the cyclosilicates of three tetrahedrons and [Si6O18]12- for the cyclosilicates of six tetrahedrons. An example of a cyclosilicate is the beryl, Be3Al2(SiO3)6. Its structure is based on layers of rings of tetrahedrons (see Figure 8f). When the tetrahedrons are arranged forming chains, there are called inosilicates (see Figure 8h). They can be made of a single chain or a double chain of tetrahedrons. The single chains are pyroxenes and the double chains, amphiboles. The formula is [SinO3n]2n- for pyroxenes and [Si4nO11n]6n− for amphiboles. These formulas may be inferred from the structures. Phyllosilicates consist of sheets of tetrahedrons (see Figure 8g). A two-dimensional layered structure is produced by sharing three oxygen ions with each of the tetrahedrons. For this structure the repeating unit formula may be represented by [SinO3n]2n-. When the tetrahedrons are arranged in a 3D framework, sharing each oxygen atoms, they are called tectosilicates.
Students’ Opinion In order to know the students’ opinion about our AR system, we performed a survey in the three classes. The goal was to find their opinions about the advantages and disadvantages of the system. We also wanted to know whether it was useful or not.
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We surveyed fifteen students randomly chosen from the three classes Note that some of them were in more than one class. Their general opinion was that using AR to understand crystalline structures was very useful. All of them said that AR was a powerful tool that helped them understand the 3D arrangement of structures. Furthermore, most of them (70%) wanted to use it at home on their personal laptop or desktop computer. 40% of the students agreed that the main advantage of using AR in Inorganic Chemistry was the possibility of interacting with the models by moving and rotating the physical markers. This was more intuitive than imagining the final structure of a compound using two-dimensional figures and pictures. Another 40% answered that the main advantage was the option of easily analyzing the crystalline structures from different angles and directions. Finally, the remaining 20% said that our system was very valuable in helping them improve their visual and spatial skills. As for the disadvantages, 50% of the students complained about not having a physical system permanently installed in the classroom. They want a system with more webcams. They also want to be able to faster set up the system at the beginning of the class. Another 15% thought that the main disadvantage was the small size of the images in the projection screen. Finally, the remaining 35% of the students did not see any disadvantage to the system. They also recommended continuing with the project and having the AR system further improved. Finally, we asked about adding stereo to the system, and 95% of the students agreed that it would be a good idea.
FUTURe ReSeARCH DIReCTIONS In this Section, we explain possible ways to continue and improve the work we are doing. For that, we consider the opinions of the people
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involved in this experience as students, professors and developers. First of all, we want to apply our system to other areas of Inorganic Chemistry. We also want to apply it to other disciplines like mathematics (vector and linear algebra), physics (vector physics) and engineering (applications). Finally, we want to improve the tracking and rendering capabilities of the system. We would like to increase the number of models of crystal structures, crystalline systems and molecules. That way the students will have a larger number of examples to learn from. With the increase in models, new markers will be created. Likewise, the number of applications will be increased to handle both new models and new markers. Another user suggestion is to maintain a classroom permanently outfitted for collaborative AR education. With a permanent classroom, the time to start using the system will be substantially reduced. Furthermore, the new classroom will fulfill other requirements. For example, it will allow having a good beamer, having windows with blinds to avoid the sunlight, and improving the control the lighting conditions. The students’ desks could also be better arranged for learning using our AR system. As a short-term objective we also plan to improve our system’s interactivity. This interaction will appear between the system and the student, and it will depend on the 3D structure to be studied. The goal is to provide the student with feedback from the computer in order to help him acquire a better knowledge of Inorganic Chemistry. This interaction will be done in two ways. First, we will support interaction between certain patterns, so that the user will be capable of pointing at some parts of the 3D model. The user will also be able to identify them, having a response from the computer depending on whether the answer is right or wrong. Secondly, several quizzes will be integrated in the AR application. They will be made of a set of questions that will be displayed
on the computer screen while student is using the system. Students will then be able to answer using the keyboard while moving the 3D model. Since the system does not have special or expensive requirements, some users suggested that we adapt it to distance and on-line learning. The idea is to develop a virtual learning environment, so that the professor can send both the application and the marker to the students. Then, the students would run the application and answer the related questions on their own. The system would then send the answers back to the professor either by email or using a virtual environment application. Due to the remarkable technological advances in mobile devices in the last few years, we can have devices with the features needed to run Augmented Reality applications. These devices, like PDAs and mobile phones, are becoming more and more popular and inexpensive. The number of mobile devices is expected to reach one billion by 2012 (Wagner & Schmalstieg, 2007). For this reason, we want to migrate our system from computers to mobile devices, such as ultra-mobile PCs (UMPCs), personal digital assistants (PDAs) and SmartPhones. Our objective is to provide the student with a tool embedded in his own mobile device, allowing him autonomous learning without using a computer.
CONCLUSION We have introduced an AR system for teaching Inorganic Chemistry at the university level. Our system uses inexpensive cameras and open-source software to set up a collaborative environment that supports several groups of students interacting with material and compound structures. The structures are modeled in 3D using VRML. Interaction is handled using hand-held markers and ARToolkit, a public domain AR software library. There are clear advantages in using this powerful tool for educational purposes in Inorganic Chemistry. AR introduces improvements that
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benefit both sides of the learning and teaching process. On the learning side, there is great acceptance of the technology, because the system attracts students’ attention in such a way that everybody wants to go where the system is located to try and use it. Our experience with the system shows that the students enjoy it and learn more Inorganic Chemistry. After using it, they were asked their opinion, and they provided highly positive responses. In fact, they asked whether they could take the system home. On the teaching side, a tool has been created that helps professors explain 3D crystal structures, molecules, unit cells and so on. We developed a set of 3D models of Chemistry structures that helped the professor teach spatial intuition to the students. The students’ experience can be summarized as follows. They are aware that they are using an innovative and original technology. They provided an enthusiastic response and became more motivated to participate in the experience. It was easy to incorporate the system into several classes, so that the students could use the new AR tools to observe, analyze and study different 3D crystal structures and molecules in an intuitive way. We also observed that students substantially improved their spatial intuition and learned to better understand visual cues. Although this ability differs depending on the student, it is a skill that can be learned with time and practice. In the survey they took after using our system, some students admitted that it could provide a new means to improve their perception abilities. Students could manipulate different structures by themselves, both individually and in groups, while listening to the professor’s explanations or solving problems. Due to the motivation to participate, students improved various skills like initiative and cooperation. Since the work was usually done in groups of two, collaboration was also improved. As an example, once, due to time constraints, only one group was able to manipulate the AR system. The
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rest of the class took the initiative and started giving instructions to solve the problem. Another issue is bringing new technologies to the students in order to improve their knowledge. Students learn to communicate successfully with experts from other areas in order to acquire the ability to work in a multidisciplinary team. This is achieved because students experiment multidisciplinary teams and the interaction between them. This fact awoke the students’ curiosity so that they started asking about the origin of our work, realizing that it is possible to mix independent disciplines in order to devise new ideas. Some students also asked for testing new advances and developments of our system, even after they were done with the classes and their degree requirements. As for the Inorganic Chemistry professors, they were happy to have a user friendly and useful tool for teaching. The system surprises the students, capturing their attention and encouraging them to increase participation. It also provides the professors with an application that helps them teach students spatial perception, a very important factor in Inorganic Chemistry. Furthermore, professors improve their explanations previously done in 2D, and see the students’ understanding when viewing their cameras. As a result, the professor can correct the students’ mistakes and misunderstandings, emphasizing those most common among them. Finally, from the Computer Science perspective, the main goals that have been accomplished are the following. First, the increased use of Open Source software, since all the software developed for our system is under the terms of the GNU General Public License. Secondly, a large set of crystal structures and models have been created and adapted to the professor’s requirements. These models allow him to teach 3D intuition and concepts. Also, we have added text and transparency to clarify certain parts of the displayed structures. And we have made certain objects appear and disappear depending on the orientation of the model.
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With all of this we developed a system made of several applications that use the models created and the Open Source libraries. Finally, an experimental multimedia classroom was setup, supporting collaborative structure manipulation. Since the system was developed for different situations, it is possible to design various experimental setups, depending on the purpose of each lesson. For this reason, we cover different kinds of systems, such as one-camera and multi-camera systems. One of our setups is a class with an experimental system made of seven webcams simultaneously connected to our system. The students are divided into seven groups of two, each with a camera. That way, all groups can control with their camera the AR application and handle different VRML models overlaid on the patterns of the markers. As a result, each group gained knowledge from the structure it was studying. It also learned from the other groups that were handling other structures, collaborating with each other and enhancing peer learning. For the above reasons, we want to apply this system to other areas of Inorganic Chemistry, as well as disciplines like mathematics (vector and linear algebra), physics (vector physics) and engineering (applications). We also want to improve the tracking and rendering capabilities of the system. Finally, we want to support more students and we want to have a classroom permanently outfitted for collaborative AR education. All in all, the experience was very positive, from the points of view of both the students and the professors, because it greatly improved and helped the teaching-learning process.
ACkNOWLeDgmeNT This work was partially supported by a grant of the “Proyectos de Mejora e Innovación Educativa 2007/2008” of the Unitat de Suport Educatiu (USE) of the Universtitat Jaume I. This support is gratefully acknowledged. We would also like to thank the USE for its recognition of our teaching
innovation project as the best project of 2007/2008. Finally, we are thankful to all the students who welcomed this work into their classrooms, for their opinions, contributions and encouragements.
ReFeReNCeS Azuma, R. T. (1997). A Survey of Augmented Reality. Presence (Cambridge, Mass.), 6(4), 355–385. Billinghurst, M. (2002). Augmented Reality in Education. New Horizons for Learning. Retrieved from http://www.newhorizons.org/strategies/ technology/billinghurst.htm Billinghurst, M., Kato, H., & Poupyrev, I. (2001). The MagicBook - moving seamlessly between reality and virtuality. IEEE Computer Graphics and Applications, 21(3), 6–8. Bimber, O., & Raskar, R. (2005). Spatial Augmented Reality: Merging Real and Virtual Worlds. Natik, MA: A K Peters, Ltd. Cawood, S., & Fiala, M. (2008). Augmented Reality: A Practical Guide. Raleigh, NC: The Pragmatic Bookshelf. Cole, J., & Foster, H. (2007). Using Moodle: Teaching with the Popular Open Source Course Management System,(2nd ed.).London: O’Reilly Media, Inc. Kaufmann, H., & Schmalstieg, D. (2002). Mathematics and geometry education with collaborative augmented reality. International Conference on Computer Graphics and Interactive Techniques, ACM SIGGRAPH 2002 conference abstracts and applications, 37-41. New York: ACM. Kaufmann, H., Schmalstieg, D., & Wagner, M. (2000). Construct3D: A Virtual Reality Application for Mathematics and Geometry Education. Education and Information Technologies, 5(4), 263–276. doi:10.1023/A:1012049406877
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Klopfer, E., Perry, J., Squire, K., Jan, M., & Steinkuehler, C. (2005). Mystery at the museum: a collaborative game for museum education. Proceedings of the 2005 conference on Computer support for collaborative learning: learning 2005: the next 10 years! 316-320. Taipei, Taiwan: International Society of the Learning Sciences. Liarokapis, F., Mourkoussis, N., White, M., Darcy, J., Sifniotis, M., & Petridis, P. (2004). Web3D and augmented reality to support engineering education. World Transactions on Engineering and Technology Education, 3(1), 11–14. Liarokapis, F., Petridis, P., Lister, P. F., & White, M. (2002). Multimedia Augmented Reality Interface for E-Learning (MARIE). World Transactions on Engineering and Technology Education, 1(2), 173–176. Schmalstieg, D., Fuhrmann, A., Hesina, G., Szalavári, Z., Encarnaçäo, L. M., Gervautz, M., & Purgathofer, W. (2002). The studierstube augmented reality project. Presence (Cambridge, Mass.), 11(1), 33–54. doi:10.1162/105474602317343640 Wagner, D., & Schmalstieg, D. (2007). Artoolkitplus for pose tracking on mobile devices. In Grabner, M., & Grabner, H. (Eds.), Computer Vision WinterWorkshop 2007. St. Lambrecht, Austria: Graz Technical University.
ADDITIONAL ReADINg Ames, A. L., Nadeau, D. R., & Moreland, J. L. (1996). The VRML sourcebook. New York: Wiley cop. Azuma, R., Baillot, Y., Behringer, R., Feiner, S., Julier, S., & MacIntyre, B. (2001). Recent advances in augmented reality. IEEE Computer Graphics and Applications, 21(6), 34–47. doi:10.1109/38.963459
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Barsoum, M. (1997). Fundamentals of Ceramics. New York: McGraw-Hill. Bimber, O., & Raskar, R. (2005). Spatial Augmented Reality: Merging Real and Virtual Worlds. Wellesley, MA: A K Peters LTD. Burdea, G. C., & Coiffet., P. (2003). Virtual Reality Technology. New York: Wiley-IEEE Press. Callister, W. D. (2002). Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction (6th ed.). New York: John Wiley & Sons. Carda, J. B., & Sánchez-Muñoz, L. (Eds.). (2003). Enciclopedia Cerámica, Vol.II.: Materias Primas y Aditivos. Castellón, Spain: Faenza Editrice Ibérica. Chiang, Y. M., Birnie, D. P. III, & Kingery, W. D. (1997). Physical Ceramics: Principles for Ceramic Science and Engineering. New York: John Wiley &Sons. Douglas, B.E., & Ho, Shih-Ming. (2006). Structure and Chemistry of Crystalline Solid. Pittsburgh,PA: Springer. Escribano, P., Carda, J. B., & Cordoncillo, E. (Ed.). (2001). Enciclopedia Cerámica, Vol.I.: Esmaltes y pigmentos cerámicos. Castellón, Spain: Ed. Faenza Editrice Ibérica. Fischer, T. (2008). Materials science for engineering students Burlington: Elsevier/Academic Press, cop. Gittler, G., & Glück, J. (1998). Differential Transfer of Learning: Effects of Instruction in Descriptive Geometry on Spatial Test Performance. Journal for Geometry and Graphics, 2(1), 71–84. Goldstone, R. L., & Son, J. Y. (2005). The transfer of scientific principles using concrete and idealized simulations. Journal of the Learning Sciences, 14, 69–110. doi:10.1207/s15327809jls1401_4 Jenkins, R., & Snyder, R. L. (1996). Introduction to X-Ray Powder Diffractometry. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
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Kaufmann, H., Schmalstieg, D., & Wagner, M. (2000). Construct3D: A Virtual Reality application for Mathematics and Geometry Education. [The Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers.]. Education and Information Technologies, 5(4), 263–276. doi:10.1023/A:1012049406877 Kingery, W. D., Bowen, H. K., & Uhlmann, D. R. (1976). Introduction to Ceramics (2nd ed.). New York: Ed. John Wiley & Sons. Mantovani, F. (2001). VR Learning: Potential and Challenges for the Use of 3D Environments in Education and Training. In Riva, G., & Galimberti, C. (Eds.), Towards CyberPsychology: Mind, Cognitions and Society in the Internet Age (pp. 207–226). Amsterdam: IOS Press. Matsuba, S., & Roehl, B. (1996). Using VRML. Indianapolis, IN: Que Publishing. Meltzer, D. E. (2005). Relation between students’ problem-solving performance and representational format. American Journal of Physics, 73(5), 463–478. doi:10.1119/1.1862636 National Research Council. (2001). Knowing what students know: The science and design of educational assessment. J. W., Pellegrino, N (Chudowski, N., & Glaser, R. W., Eds.). Washington, DC: National Academy Press. Schroeder, R. (1995). Learning from Virtual Reality Applications in Education. Virtual Reality: Research. Development and Application, 1(1), 33–39. Shackelford, J. F. (2000). Introduction to Materials Science for Engineers (5th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, Inc. Sherman, W. R., & Craig, A. (2003). Understanding Virtual Reality: Interface, Application, and Design. New York: Kaufmann.
Slater, M., Steed, A., & Chrysanthou, Y. (2001). Computer Graphics and Virtual Environments: From Realism to Real. Addison-Wesley. Boston: Addison-Wesley Longman Publishing Co. Smart, L., & Moore, E. (1995). Solid State Chemistry (3rd ed.). New York: CRC Press Inc. Smith, W. F. (2003). Foundations on Materials Science and Engineering. New York: Ed. McGraw-Hil. Squire, K. D., & Jan, M. (2007). Mad City Mystery: Developing scientific argumentation skills with a place-based augmented reality game on handheld computers. Journal of Science Education and Technology, 16(1), 5–29. doi:10.1007/ s10956-006-9037-z West, A. R. (1990). Solid State Chemistry and its Applications. Chichester, England: Ed. John Willey & Sons.
keY TeRmS AND DeFINITIONS Augmented Reality: A technology based on graphics and computer vision algorithms which combines real-world and computer-generated data, in such a way that the generated 3D virtual objects are overlaid in real time into footage of the real surrounding environment. Therefore, Augmented Reality is a technique that combines computer-generated visual information with a user’s perception of the real world. Computer Vision: A branch of artificial intelligence and image processing concerned with computer processing of images from the real world. This technology uses algorithms to extract, characterize, and interpret information in visual images of a three-dimensional world. VRML: Virtual Reality Modeling Language. A computer-graphics programming language used to represent interactive vector graphics and render 3D virtual worlds.
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Peer Learning: Peer-based learning involves working together to achieve a learning goal. With this, students learn with and from one another, without the immediate intervention of a professor. Therefore, each student acts as both the professor and the learner. Inorganic Chemistry: is the branch of chemistry that studies the behavior, properties and structure of inorganic compounds, the ones that are not organic (based on C-H bonds). Crystalline Solid: a solid material characterized by the periodic and repeating array of its atoms, ions or molecules that extends in the three spatial dimensions. Crystal Structure: For crystalline solids, crystal structure is the way in which atoms or ions are arranged in space, creating a three di-
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mensional array. The basic structural unit of the crystal structure is the unit cell, which depends on its geometry and the atoms that contains. Ceramics: Ceramic materials. Inorganic nonmetallic compounds that consist of metallic and non-metallic elements. Ceramic Pigments: a ceramic compound used to develop color that consists of two main parts, a chromophore and a host matrix. This host matrix is a crystal structure. Silicates: ceramic compounds based on the silica tetrahedron that consists of a silicon ion in the centre with four oxygen ions surrounding it and located at the corners of the tetrahedron. Depending on the different ways in which these units are combined, silicate structures acquire one-, two- or three- dimensional arrangements.
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Chapter 21
Interactive Models Based on Virtual Reality Technology Used in Civil Engineering Education Alcínia Zita Sampaio University of Lisbon, Portugal Pedro Gameiro Henriques University of Lisbon, Portugal Carlos Oliveira Cruz University of Lisbon, Portugal Octávio Peres Martins University of Lisbon, Portugal
ABSTRACT Concerning the educational task, a school of engineering can be reasonably expected to constantly update computational resources which are in frequent use in the professions, technology which must be introduced into the training of the student, leading to their adaptation for curricula in these disciplines. The interaction allowed by three-dimensional geometric models could make an end to passive attitudes of learners as an opposition to traditional teaching systems. In addition, virtual reality technology could be applied as a complement to three-dimensional modeling, leading to a better communication between the various stakeholders in the process, whether in training, in education or in professional practice. Techniques of virtual reality were applied on the development of teaching models related to the construction activity. The involvement of virtual reality techniques in the development of educational applications brings new perspectives to the teaching of subjects related to the field of Civil Engineering activity. DOI: 10.4018/978-1-61692-822-3.ch021
Interactive Models Based on Virtual Reality Technology Used in Civil Engineering Education
INTRODUCTION Since its development and initiation, information and communication technologies (ICT) has changed every facet of human existence and established itself as a part of the social and economic enterprises, as well as in entertainment, education, culture, etc. The educational sector has recognized these potentials and incorporated networks and multimedia as important tools for enhancement and upgrade of learning process. At present times, the educational process includes many ICT based methods for teaching and learning. So, the relevance of the use of ICT in education is quite evident nowadays. In particular, the use of ICT in teacher training has been considerably analyzed, especially in relation to learn how to use ICT as a teaching tool. Exposing teachers in training to the technologies and experiences that will be important to their professional future can contribute to the development of a range of indispensable abilities for their teaching activities which are not available in a model of traditional training. It is a fact that advanced computer and information network technology has revolutionized our teaching and learning approaches and methods and this also changes the learning environment. Thus, by means of the use of the technologies teachers were able to integrate different aspects that are novel in relation to traditional education, like the change and renovation in the didactic process, besides the use of new recourses, educational infrastructures and practices. Furthermore the ICT suppose a modification in the strategies and methodologies that harness the continuous learning of student, and have become an important instrument of support in the educational innovation in the last years, allowing the personalization of the learning process, centering now more in the learning of the student. In fact, communication technology provides a mean to connect people and to share information and expertise, enabling the growth of both individual and collective knowledge and skills. Educa-
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tional institutions can use it to access information, as a form of collaboration and communication with teachers, as a tool for conveying educational contents, and as a mean of online teaching. To use this technology there are details that must be addressed, namely specific instructional resources and a framework that facilitates both the different interactions (teacher-learner, learner-learner and learner-content) and the inherent comprehension (Gomes & Caldeira, 2004). A communication platform allows participates to exchange information about specific domains, interact and learn in a cooperative way and it encourages the continuous sharing of materials, plans, problem solving, presentations and continuous reflection on the different dimensions of team network. So an aspect that must be improved is preparing didactical materials to support the teaching activity in an ICT platform. Concerning the educational task, the interaction allowed by three-dimensional geometric models (3D) could make an end to passive attitudes of learners as an opposition to traditional teaching systems. In addition, virtual reality technology (VR) could be applied as a complement to 3D modeling, leading to a better communication between the various stakeholders in the process, whether in training, in education or in professional practice. This task is particularly relevant to the presentation of processes which are defined through sequential stages as generally is the case in the learning of new curricular subjects. Besides this constant updating of training in the new graphic resources available to engineering/architecture professions, and in widespread and frequent use, the school should also adapt its teaching activities to the new tools of visual communication. In fact, several software engineering is used today in practical discipline, which requires that future engineers have the competencies and knowledge to develop economical and feasible solutions. Undergraduate students must be educated and trained to perform the roles required for software development in order to create effective
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solutions. So practice and training in the real world are important factors to achieve the required level of competencies and collaboration between academy and industry can generate proper scenarios for real practices. However, commonly there is a misconnection between these parts due to the fact that their interests and activities are different (Juárez-Ramírez et al., 2009). Actually, 3D models and VR technology has been introduced into course presentation to aid both the lectures and students. They offer students the opportunity to visualize the engineering concepts and processes they learn in the classroom. Gibbon, in Electrical Engineering, uses laboratories containing operational amplifiers and a resonant circuit, based in 3D modeling tools in order to a better understood of the circuits issues presented in the formal lectures (Gibbon, 2008) and MJimenez uses a virtual laboratory, implemented in Matlab, for the analysis of the uniform torsion in beams, allowing the visualization of the physical phenomenon and achieving correct solutions (Juárez-Ramírez et al., 2009). Other examples of computer simulation and VR projects to aid in the teaching of engineering students are remote physics experiments (Ozvoldova et al., 2006), simulation control testing (Su, Hu & Ciou, 2006) and virtual laboratories (Safigianni & Pournaras, 2008). The application of VR in training, both surgical (Perez et al., 2008) and laboratory (Bell & Fogler, 2004), are references for models used in professional instruction. This chapter intends essentially to highlight the new possibilities that the use of VR and 3D modeling could bring to education. The text describes the application of 3D geometric modeling and VR technologies in the development of educational models in Civil Engineering domain. The main objective of the practical application of the models is to support class-based learning. In addition, this kind of application constitutes an important interactive didactic tool to be implemented in e-learning platforms. The involvement of virtual reality techniques in the development of
educational applications brings new perspectives to Engineering education.
3D mODeLS IN eNgINeeRINg / ARCHITeCTURe ACTIVITY At present, in carrying out a project in engineering or architecture, the use of graphic systems and, in particular, those relating to 3D modeling, makes a very positive contribution to improving the transmission of rigorously correct technical information and, in general, to the understanding of spatial configurations. This means of expression surpasses a drawing, a picture or a diagram, making the understanding of the real form more intuitive (Sampaio & Henriques, 2008).
Architecture Wherever we look, we see three-dimensional shapes: buildings, furniture, plants, even people themselves. The world around us is in three dimensions: length, width and height. Drawings layouts are created to represent the idea of these three dimensions. When we represent any object, we have the choice of drawing it “flat” (drawing) or as a “solid” (3D model). A floor plan is an example of a two-dimensional representation of a house. The results of the architectural design of a building are usually several drawings, and lately they are often complemented with 3D model. Architects create 3D models of houses, so their clients can more clearly understand what the house will look like when it is built. Often customers do not have the technical skill and expertise to fully understand the 3D space arrangement of the house or building, just by looking to 2D drawings. However, the history of computers in designing is very short when comparing to the evolution of traditional designing based on drawings and sketches by pencil and paper (Gero, 1985). The development of ICT suggests the present and novel Computer Aided-Design (CAD) programs have
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been changing the way of designing, at least partly. In general, the designers approve the use of CAD because it improves designing, but mostly CAD is still used just as auxiliary means in drawing. But CAD could easily allow achieving clear benefits in design project process. For instances, CAD can make drafting and the creation of alternatives quicker and more effective along several stages of designing, including the conception phase. But for that, it is not enough that designer learns to use CAD properly, he/she have to also learn to create and to support their activity with it, which requires also a new way of thinking and reacting towards CAD (Penttila, 2005). The more conservative designers defended that CAD could merely add to existing design capabilities. But the reality shows that the new technology continues to change the way we design, rather than merely augment or replace human drawers. For instances, in architectural design the 21st century world project leads to VR models allowing sharing geometrically complex and information-rich 3D interactive worlds over the web (Adamo-Villani, Johnson & Penrod, 2009).
Construction Normally, in the construction contexts, the 3D geometric models are used to present architectural projects, showing only their final shape. They not allow the visual simulation of their physical modification. The models concerning construction needs to be able to produce changes of the project geometry. The integration of geometric representations of a building together with scheduling data related to construction planning information is the bases of 4D (3D + time) models. So, in this field, 4D models combine 3D models with the project timeline (Retik, 1997), and the VR technology has been used to turn 4D models more realistic allowing interaction with the environment representing the construction place. The use of 4D models just linked with construction planning software
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or with virtual/interactive capacities, concerns essentially economic and administrative benefits as a way of presenting the visual simulation of the expected situation of the work in several step of its evolution. Therefore in the construction industry, the general use of 3D and 4D models is the visualization of the building design for demonstration purposes to the client, and not as a design support system. The majority of the industry’s clients are inexperienced in building design and construction processes. 3D building models are produced to show the client how their building will look like if they decided to procure the proposed project. Provided that the 3D model of the building progress is generated as construction progresses, this data can be used for the calculation of interim payments, schedule control and assessment, conflict management or avoidance purposes. 3D and 4D modeling are being used to improve the production, analysis, and management of design and construction information in many phases and areas of construction projects (Fischer & Kunz, 2004). VTT Building Technology has been developing and implementing applications based on this technique improving a better communication between the partners in a construction project (Leinonen, Kähkönen & Retik, 2003). Note also the contribution of VR in Architecture/Engineering, to support conception design (Petzold, Bimber & Tonn, 2007), presenting the plan (Khanzode, Fisher & Reed, 2007) or following the progress of construction (Fischer, 2000). The didactic VR models presented in the text shows the sequence of construction processes allowing the visualization of each step. The models concern a wall and a roof, as significant components of a building and two methods of bridges construction, with different degree of detail and technical information. VR technology was applied for educational proposes, targeted to Civil Engineering students.
Interactive Models Based on Virtual Reality Technology Used in Civil Engineering Education
Rehabilitation Rehabilitation is a kind of construction work where the final result is even more important, and it must be evaluated in a very earlier stage, before any decision or construction work became definitive. Rehabilitation must promote the preservation of the historical value of ancient buildings and improve a sustainable urban development. In the rehabilitation of buildings the systems CAD could be useful to the outcome of the building anomalies analyses and also to workout alternative solutions. Two recent works regarding Bologna master thesis were developed based on CAD technology. The students J. Neves and B. Martins had to learn 3D advanced modeling. In both works, 3D model was an important tool in order to survey the anomalies in the structures and to support decisions based on the visual analyses of alternative solutions of rehabilitation (Sampaio, Neves & Martins, 2009): •
Neves studied an historic building that was submitted to a rehabilitation process that includes the detection of structural anomalies, the replacement of damaged resistant elements and the adaptation of the building to new services (Figure 1). This application clearly demonstrates that the 3D geometric model allowed a quicker understanding of the structural organization of the building and it was a useful tool for the surveying and mapping of its damages. It would also be very useful for presenting
•
different retrofitting solutions to the owner of the building and for helping him choose one of them, as it has been proved in the stairs comparison. Martins considered the installation of new sanitary equipment in an old building, which presents a significant degree of degradation. In this case, two alterative solutions were workout and modeled (Figure 2). By manipulating the models, the understanding of all sanitary elements in the room is quite clear, better than just analyzing plan drawings. In both solutions it was carried out the information, concerning the specification of sanitary elements, the quantity of pipe elements for cool and water supplies, the quantity and characterization of materials for covering interior surface of walls and to place over the floor. The 3D models assist to work out this kind of data and to clearly analyze the space in an aesthetic point of view. The geometric model also helps to identify incompatibilities, when we need to introduce, new elements within old structures with few space.
The 3D model application is a very important tool, to support rehabilitation decisions. In both cases study, the 3D models were created in order to better understand the geometry of the environment where the rehabilitation is going to take place, to quantify the amount of work needed and to evaluate different alternative of rehabilitation. These works are a contribution to the acceptance
Figure 1. Perspectives of the historic building 3D model and alternative solutions for the stairs
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Figure 2. 3D models of two alterative solutions
of the use of CAD, not only as a good “drawer”, but also as an important support on the analyses of rehabilitation works. Both are student works. Thus, teach CAD in school is helpful to students in order to prepare them to consider this technology as an important support, later in professional activity, and also to facilitate the link between, engineering theory and its implementation.
VR Interactive models Virtual reality is a technology that allows users to explore and manipulate computer- generation of 3D interactive environment in real time. This technology offers advantages such as: representational fidelity (degree of realism of the rendered objects), immediacy of control and high level of participation (ability to look at objects from different points of view, and the ability to pick up, examine and modify objects within the virtual world), and the feeling of presence or immersion (as a consequence of realism of representation and high degree of control). It makes the VR environment intrinsically motivating and engaging by giving the users the possibility of being part of the reconstructed world, and by allowing them to focus entirely on the task at hand. VR is also seen today as an integrating technology, with great potential for communication between project participants, and most recently, as a tool for the support of decision-making, made possible by
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the integration of distinct computer applications in the virtual model. The main aim of a research project, which is now in progress at the Department of Civil Engineering of the Technical University of Lisbon, is to develop virtual models as tools to support decision-making in the planning of construction management and maintenance (Sampaio, Ferreira & Rosário, 2009). The virtual models give the capacity to allow them to transmit, visually and interactively, information related to the physical behavior of materials, components of given infrastructures, defined as a function of the time variable. The interactive application allows decisions to be made on conception options in the definition of plans for maintenance, conservation or rehabilitation. In this context, the research project presents the development of a VR application, involving knowledge of the physical aspects of materials, in particular, those which have a short timed function, use and environmental factors, integrating them in digital spatial representations. In this way, the indisputable advantage of the easy interpretation and perception of space provided by the visualization of 3D models, and the technical content underlying the real characteristics of the observed elements are brought together. Effective integration of advanced visualization capacities is incorporated into the interactive simulation systems. The integration of several specific applications has been established on domains such as VR and augmented reality (AR) environments, CAD
Interactive Models Based on Virtual Reality Technology Used in Civil Engineering Education
systems, and visualization systems (ZudilovaSeinstra, 2009). The present project integrates VR system and a computer application implemented in Visual Basic (VB) language. Until now, a first prototype concerning the lighting system was developed. It allows the examination of the physical model, visualizing, for each element modeled in 3D and linked to a database, the corresponding technical information concerned with the wear and tear aspects of the material, defined for that period of time (Figure 3). In addition, the analysis of solutions for maintenance work or substitution and inherent cost are predicted, the results being obtained interactively and visualized in the virtual environment itself. The aim is that the virtual model should be able to be applied directly over the 3D models of new constructions. The practical usage of these models is directed, then, towards supporting decision-making in the conception phase and the planning of maintenance. In further work other components will be analyzed and incorporated into the virtual system. The prototype links the 3D model to a data base concerning the lighting system management within a collaborative virtual environment. It means that it can be manipulated by partners interested in creating, transforming and analyzing data in order to obtain results and to make decisions. The process of developing the prototype interface considers these purposes. Then, the model is easy to use and not require sophisticated computer skills by users, as many are not com-
puter experts. The human perceptual and cognitive capabilities were taken into account when designing this visualization tool. It uses an interactive 3D visualization system based on the selection of element directly within the virtual 3D world. Furthermore, associated with each component there are integrated databases, allowing the consult of the require data in any point in time. The scholarship holders involved, in this work, are 5th year students of Civil Engineering. They had to learn advanced software of geometric modeling and visualization and to explore the capacities of a RV technology system, the EON Studio (EON, 2008). In addition, a bibliographic research support had to be made regarding the maintenance of constructions, lighting systems usually applied in a building and the characteristics of different types of lamps. Also programming skills had to be adapted to establish the integration needed for the creation of a lighting virtual prototype. Furthermore, the structure of different kind of databases had to be studied and implemented, integrating diverse type of information, needed to develop the interactive virtual model. At present, three Bologna master dissertations regarding the incorporation of different building components of the initial prototype are in progress. The studies contemplate the planning definition strategies of surface maintenance of external walls (Rita), of interior wall (Daniel) and of floors (Filipe). The correspondent databases related to the characterization of each material, associated anomalies and repairing type of work
Figure 3. VR model and actualized information concerning lighting elements
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must be defined in order to obtain a RV model that could visually present the whole information in an interactive way.
Learning CAD and VR in School The use of CAD and VR systems is helpful in areas such as Architecture, Engineering and Construction (AEC). However, the introduction of these new technologies in the designers practice has been everything but smooth (Duarte, 2007). Reality, nevertheless, demonstrates that the role of the computer can facilitate the resolution of certain design problems but may jeopardize the solving of others. Time and experience permit problem categorizing, so the contact of architectural and engineering students with new technologies in the early stages of their learning and training process is important. An architecture and engineering school can be expected to constantly update computational resources which are in frequent use in the professions. Resources should be introduced into the training of the student, leading to their adaptation for curricula in drawing and modeling disciplines (Sampaio & Cruz, 2008). Actually a set of curricular tools were devised to accomplish this goal with the updated undergraduate program. As a result, some schools introduced CAD courses in the first years of their programs. Frequently, the computer is still used as a drafting tool in the last stages of the design process to produce accurate drawings. But the actual goal is to give students the opportunity to use the 3D models as a conception tool, as a preferential mean of communication and as a support to easily elaborate alternatives of structural, constructive or rehabilitation building designs. At the Lisbon Technical University, in Technical Drawing (1st year), included in the curricula program of the Integrated Master in Civil Engineering, the adaptation has been gradual accompanying the development of new graphics systems/products supporting plan drawing and modeling. At present, the subject Computer
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Assisted Drawing (also at the 1st year) is considering the introduction of a module on teaching a graphic system supporting engineering activities. Its introduction is complemented by basic notions of Computer Graphics. The cases referred above, concerning 3D models on rehabilitation and the interactive VR prototype to support decision-making in maintenance, are examples allowed at school to learn and practice these new graphical products. Furthermore, in the Department of Civil Engineering, there are several research works in progress concerning construction, and using 3D, 4D models and VR technology as important resources. The results of these studies are going to be entered as a Bologna master dissertation. The students are 5th year degree. Examples of titles are: Building maintenance plans visualised in virtual environment: the interior wall surfaces (D. Rosário); VR technology applied on façades buildings maintenance (R. Gomes); 3D Modelling and bridges construction processes (L. Viana); Rehabilitation of a military building supported on virtual models (L. Neves); Construction management supported on 4D virtual models (J. Santos). The students have to learn new technology and improve skills, knowledge and practice on geometric modelling, complementing the 1st year training achieved in the CAD module.
VIRTUAL ReALITY mODeLS IN eDUCATION The aim of the practical application of the virtual models, described in this part of the chapter, is to provide support in Civil Engineering education namely in those disciplines relating to drawing, bridges and construction process both in classroom-based education and in distance learning based on e-learning technology. Engineering construction work models were created, from which it was possible to obtain 3D models corresponding to different states of their shape,
Interactive Models Based on Virtual Reality Technology Used in Civil Engineering Education
simulating distinct stages of the carrying out processes. In order to create models, which could visually simulate the progressive sequence of the process and allowing interact with it, techniques of virtual reality were used. Virtual instruments could complete or replace the experimental part in various cases. These applications allow users to conduct process and present briefly fundamental theory of the phenomena or provide full information concerning the experiments. So, the educational virtual experiments must be well framed in the lesson context. Specialist in construction processes and bridge design were consulted and implicated in the development of the educational models in order to obtain efficient and accurate didactic applications: •
•
In construction, the selected examples are three elementary situations of works, one concerns the execution of an external wall, a basic component of a building (Sampaio & Henriques, 2007), the second presents the cantilever method of bridge deck construction (Sampaio, Henriques & Ferreira, 2006), a frequent construction technique and the last attends the incremental launching method of bridge deck construction (Martins & Sampaio, 2009). The developed applications make it possible to show the physical evolution of the works, the monitoring of the planned construction sequence, and the visualization of details of the form of every component of each construction. They also assist the study of the type and method of operation of the equipment necessary for these construction methodologies; The roof model supports the explanation of subject matter pertaining to elevation projection representations applied to the drawing of roofs (Sampaio & Cruz, 2008). This model presents the method of designing a roof using the usual graphic elements of plan drawing but displaying them in their
3D position. The model shows in animation the intersection between two simple roofs in order to explain how to define a more complex roof. In this way the model supports the learning of the methodology used in drawing roofs. The pedagogic aspect and the technical knowledge transmitted by the models are present in the selection of the quantity and type of elements to show in each virtual model, on the sequence of exhibition to follow, on the relationship established between the components of both type of construction, on the degree of geometric details needed to present and on the technical information that must go with each constructive step. Further details complement, in a positive way, the educational applications bringing to them more utility and efficiency. Namely, the model of the wall shows the information concerning construction activity of interest for students corresponding to the geometric stage displayed in each moment and the cantilever deck construction model shows particularly the movement of the equipment in operation during the progressive activity. So when students go to visit real work places, since the essential details were previously presented and explained in class, they are able to better understand the construction operation they are seeing. When modeling 3D environments a clear intention of what to show must be planned, because the objects to display and the details of each one must be appropriated to the goal the teacher or designer want to achieve with the model. For instance, if the objective is to explain the relationship between construction phases and the financial stages, the 4D model must represent the correspondent physical situation according to the established construction diagram and with the degree of detail appropriated. Developing didactic models for students concerns technical tasks, at a level that could be understood by undergraduate students, but also demands pedagogical attitudes.
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In addition, the use of techniques of virtual reality on the development of these didactic applications is helpful to education improving the efficiency of the models in the way it allows the interactivity with the simulated environment of each activity. The virtual model can be manipulated interactively allowing the teacher or student to monitor the physical evolution of the work and the construction activities inherent in its progression. This type of model allows the participant to interact in an intuitive manner with the 3D space, to repeat the sequence or task until the desired level of proficiency or skill has been achieved and to perform in a safe environment. Therefore, this new concept of VR technology applied to didactic models brings new perspectives to the teaching of subjects in Civil Engineering education.
VR model of the Wall One of the developed applications corresponds to the model of a masonry cavity wall, one of the basic components of a standard construction. To enable the visual simulation of the construction of the wall, the geometric model generated is composed of a set of elements, each representing one component of the construction. Every element was modeled with the AutoCAD system. Using the EON Reality system (EON, 2008), a system based on virtual reality technology, specific properties were applied to the model of the wall in order to obtain a virtual environment.
The definition of the 3D model of an exterior wall of a conventional building comprises: the structural elements (foundations, columns and beams), the vertical filler panels and two bay elements (door and window). The selection of elements and the degree of detail of the 3D model configuration of each component had the support of teachers and specialist in construction: •
•
The structural elements of the model were created with parallelepipeds and were connected according to their usual placement in building works. Because this is an educational model, with the purpose of representing the reality accurately, the steel reinforcements were also defined. In the model, the rods of the reinforcements are shown as tubular components with circular cross-section (Figure 4); The type of masonry selected corresponds to an external wall formed by a double panel of breezeblocks, 11cm wide with an air cavity, 6cm wide. Complementary to this, the vertical panels were modeled, comprising: the thermal isolation plate placed between the brick panels; the plaster applied to the external surface of the wall; the stucco applied on the internal surface; two coats of paint both inside and out and the stone slabs placed on the exterior surface (Figure 5);
Figure 4. 3D models of the steel reinforcements of the structural elements
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•
Finally, two usual bay elements, a door and a window, were modeled (Figure 6).
The complete geometric model was transferred to the virtual reality system EON. In this system, the visual simulation of the building process of the wall, following a realistic plan of the construction progress, was programmed. The order in which components are consecutively exhibited and incorporated into the virtual model, represent properly the physical evolution of the wall under construction. For this effect, 23 phases of construction were considered:
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During the animation, the student can control the length of time that any phase is exhibited and observe the model using the most suitable camera and zoom positions for a correct perception of the details of construction elements (Figure 7); It is possible to highlight the component incorporated at each new phase and to examine it in detail (Figure 8); Included, under the window in which the virtual scene is exhibited, is a bar, which shows the progress of the construction. Throughout the animation, the bar is filled, progressively, with small rectangles symbolizing the percentage built at the time of
Figure 5. 3D models of the vertical filler panels
Figure 6. 3D models of the bay elements and the complete 3D models of the wall
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•
the viewing of that particular phase, in relation to the completed wall construction. Symbolically, it represents the bar diagrams normally used on construction plans (Figure 8); Simultaneously, with the visualization of each phase, a text is shown (in the upper right corner of the window, Figure 9), giving data relating to the stage being shown, namely, its position within the construction sequence, the description of the activity and the characterization of the material of the component being incorporated.
The development of the model was supported by engineer specialist in construction activity. In this educational application, it was important to include details such as: • • • •
Bar showing the construction progress; Text with information concerning the stage observed; The possibility to highlight elements from the model; The accuracy of the reinforcements and the way they connect inside the structural elements;
Figure 7. Control the length of time and zoom positions
Figure 8. Elements displaced from the global model of the wall
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•
The details of the configuration of vertical panels and components of the window and the door.
Through direct interaction with the model, it is possible both to monitor the progress of the construction process of the wall and to access information relating to each element, namely, its composition and the phase of execution or assembly of the actual work, and compare it with the planned schedule. This model had been used to distinct advantage as an educational aid in Civil Engineering degree course modules.
VR model of the Cantilever method of Bridge Construction The second model created allows the visual simulation of the construction of a bridge using the cantilever method. Students are able to interact with the model dictating the speed of the process, which allows them to observe details of the advanced equipment and of the elements of the bridge (pillars, deck and abutments). The sequence is defined according to the norms of planning in this type of work. The North Viaduct of the Bridge Farm, in Madeira, Portugal, was
the case selected for representation in the virtual environment. In cross-section, the deck of the viaduct shows a box girder solution and its height varies in a parabolic way along its three spans. The most common construction technique for this typology is the cantilever method of deck bridge construction. A computer graphic system which enables the geometric modeling of a bridge deck of box girder typology was used to generate, 3D models of deck segments necessary for the visual simulation of the construction of the bridge. Geometric description can be entered directly into the deckmodeling computer product. To achieve this, the developed interface presents diagrams linked to parameters of the dimensions, so facilitating the description of the geometry established for each concrete case of the deck. Figure 10 shows the interface corresponding to the cross-section of the deck and the 3D model of a bridge deck segment. To complete the model of the bridge, the pillars and abutments were modeled using the AutoCAD system. Then followed the modeling of the advanced equipment, which is composed not only of the form traveler, but also the formwork adaptable to the size of each segment, the work platforms for each formwork and the rails along which the
Figure 9. Presentation of text describing the exhibited phase
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Figure 10. Interface to describe cross-section s and the 3D model of a deck segment
carriages run (Figure 11). As, along with the abutments, the deck is concreted with the false work on the ground, the scaffolding for placement at each end of the deck was also modeled (Figure 11). Terrain suitable for the simulation of the positioning of the bridge on its foundations was also modeled. The 3D model of the construction environment was then transposed to the virtual reality system EON Studio. The support of specialist in bridge designs was essential to obtain an accurate model, not only on the geometry definition of components of the bridge and devices, but also on the establishment of the progression sequence
and of the way the equipment operates (Figure 12): •
•
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This method starts by applying concrete to a first segment on each pillar, the segment being long enough to install on it the work equipment; The construction of the deck proceeds with the symmetrical execution of the segments starting from each pillar, using the advanced equipment; The continuation of the deck, joining the cantilever spans is completed with the positioning of the closing segment;
Figure 11. 3D models of the scaffolding and the advanced equipment
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Figure 12. Placing the initial pillars, movement of the advanced equipment, positioning of the closing segment and concreting above the false work near the abutment
•
Finally, the zone of the deck near the supports is constructed, using a false work resting on the ground.
The virtual model was programmed in order to show correctly this sequence. For the simulation of the first cantilever segment (in each span), the four form travelers, the corresponding work platforms and the formwork components are included in the scenario. Once the first segments have been concreted, the construction of the cantilevered deck takes place. In each phase, two pairs of segments are defined. For each new segment the following steps are established (Figure 13): • •
Rising the form traveler; Moving the rails in the same direction as the construction (relocating them on the latest segment to have been concreted);
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Moving the form traveler on the rails, positioning it in the zone of the next segment to be made; Concrete the segment.
Moving the camera closer to the bridge model and applying to it routes around the zone of interest, the student, interacting with the virtual model, can follow the sequence specifications and observing the details of the configurations of the elements involved (Figure 14). In a real construction place of a bridge, for security reasons, the student stays far from the local were bridge is under construction, so they cannot observe in detail the way of operation and the progression of the construction. Interacting with the model in class or using their personal computers they better understand what is going on there in the work place.
Figure 13. Movement of the advanced equipment
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Figure 14. Camera positioned closer to the model
VR model of the Incremental Launching method of Bridge Construction Another interactive model concerning construction of deck bridges to support Civil Engineering education was created (Martins, 2009). The construction of bridge decks using the method on incremental launching exist from the 60s but their implementation did not occur in the same way in different countries. As possible causes are the aesthetic constrains and the high investment needed. The developed RV model provides a contribution to the dissemination of information concerning this construction method, through a recording of visual simulation of the phases and the equipment that comprises the construction process. The method of construction to apply has a great influence on the selection of the cross section of the deck and, consequently, on the structural solution. The incremental launching method consists of casting 15m to 30m long segments of the bridge deck in a stationary formwork (Figure 15) to push a completed segment forward with hydraulic jacks along the bridge axis. This method is appropriated in viaducts over valleys and mountains with spans about 50m. The application of the process requires that the cross section of the deck is constant, because each section will have different states of bending moments and thus different tensions. The adequate type of section is the box girder (Figure 16). Every ele-
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ments needed in the virtual scenario were modeled and then the interaction was programmed using the some software based on the virtual reality technology, the EON Studio. The 3D model of all elements was generated using AutoCAD. The metal elements supporting the form and the formwork itself composed by beams and panels, made of wood, were created. To represent the reinforcements a steel mesh was designed. With the objective to allow some immersive capacity to the model, the river was represented by a surface with mixed colors and the selected panorama simulates a typical environment of river banks. In order to report an overview of the construction place the camera points initially to the casting yard (Figure 15). At this stage just the abutments, piers, and beams of the foundation of the yard are visible. Next, the exterior form work composed of 26 identical elements is building up. So, only the assembly of one element is visualized in detail. During the animation, the position of the camera and its movement are synchronized to show the details of the elements or the assembly type and also an overview of the working place. After placing the external panels of the shuttering and the reinforcement mesh, starts the visual simulation of the casting work. The elements that make up the interior false work are placed incrementally, starting with the metallic support, followed by the longitudinal beams and
Interactive Models Based on Virtual Reality Technology Used in Civil Engineering Education
Figure 15. The casting yard
Figure 16. Sequence of the incremental launched of the deck
Figure 17. Visualization of the formwork structure and the insertion of the reinforcement steel bars
finishing with the implementation of shuttering panels (Figure 17). Next, the assembly of the launching nose is installed (Figure 18). The camera is adjusted to allow the correct visualization of this work. After casting the first segment the displacement of this element takes place. For that the temporary support of the nose is removed and the segment is separated from the shuttering.
To represent the advance of the deck, the launching equipment appears in detail, and it consists of two parts located under each web of deck, and thought four movements illustrated in Figure 19, provides the launching of the segments. This cycle is repeated until the progress of the first segment reaches about 31m (Figure 16). The arrival of the nose to the first pier is achieved during the advance of the second seg-
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Figure 18. Installation of the metallic launching nose
Figure 19. Displacement of the launching nose
Figure 20. Nose arriving at a pier
ment. The Figure 20 illustrates the transposition process of the pier by the nose. In it the small brown parallelepiped are the launch pads and are placed manually by workers between the nose and the temporary support placed over each pier. The camera is positioned to show properly the work. This phase of the animation is programmed to run various actions at the same time, adequately synchronized. The construction of the remaining segments is performed in fast mode, because the process is identical to the initial segment. Already in the final phase of construction the yard is removed and the space is covered of land. Finally the guards
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are positioned and also other finishing elements (Figure 21). The model was placed in a repository created under the activities of e-school, a platform developed in the Technical University of Lisbon, to be accessed by students and teachers of another institutions related to Civil Engineering. The application is oriented, not only as a learning tool, but also to professionals related to the construction of this kind of bridges. This model presents a great complexity of geometry and material concerning the different elements used in a real work process. It provides an immersive capacity inherent to virtual world
Interactive Models Based on Virtual Reality Technology Used in Civil Engineering Education
Figure 21. The guards and also other finishing elements are positioned
and it has a menu of events display allowing the students and teachers to select a specific part. The camera movement shows the model in a consistent way to present all sequences of events allowing the user to perceive correctly the most important details of this construction method. The model was worked out attending both the technical knowledge and didactic aspects namely in how and what to show. It also attend that the model is going to be manipulated by undergraduate students of Civil Engineering. So, the model could be an important support to teachers to illustrate bridges construction issues in class and after, by themselves, using their PCs. The animation of the construction process can be visualized at http://www.octaviomartins.com/ lancamentoIncremental/.
VR model of the Roof Following from those examples, a proposal was put forward to generate an educational model related to the graphic construction of a roof 3D model. Drawings using elevation projection is one of the topics in the subject of Technical Drawing included in the syllabus of the module on Computer Assisted Drawing. This representation uses only the view obtained by horizontal projection, the plan. However, the drawing is complemented by the relevant data, the elevations value and the graphics related to the three-dimensional space.
As far as the roof drawing is concerned the initial data needed are: the specification of the geometric outline of the roof and the slope of each of the roof planes of which it is made up. Based on this information the plan of the corresponding roof is drawn (Figure 22). So, when defining drawings and 3D models some geometric elements must be used: the slopes represented by their corresponding right-angled triangles and the elevation lines. These are shown traced on a plan but they identify three-dimensional elements (Figure 22). In order to facilitate the ability to understand the spatial aspect inherent in the process, a didactic model was created in which all the methodology underlying its construction is presented in a virtual interactive environment. So, when defining drawings and 3D models of the roof some geometric elements must be used: the base, the slopes represented by their corresponding rightangled triangles and the elevation lines. These are shown traced on a plan but they identify threedimensional elements. In order to facilitate the ability to understand the spatial aspect inherent in the process, the didactic model presents, in a virtual interactive environment all the methodology underlying the construction of a roof. Two basic blocks of roof composes the selected example. Figure 23 shows the outline of the roof under consideration and the slope value for each of the roof planes. When making plan drawings for roofs made up of more than four planes the initial form has to be subdivided into quadrangles.
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Figure 22. Perspective and drawing of a roof
Figure 23. Initial outline of the roof and gradient of roof planes and the breakdown into two quadrangles
In order to define the virtual environment for the simulation a 3D representation of all its constituent elements was required. The modeling was carried out using AutoCAD. The components thus generated were rendered by the virtual reality system EON Studio, leading to the definition of the desired interactive animation. The model was programmed to show the detailed construction of the roof over one of the trapezoidal bases followed by the process of intersecting the two blocks. Thus solid models had to be used in order to achieve 3D representation (Figure 24):
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Two individualized wire-frame trapezoids (the base of two roofs composed of four planes); Two right-angled triangles representing the established value for the slopes of each water-plane (1:1 e 2:3); The unitary elevation roof lines with homogeneous elevation for each of the roof planes, referring to one of the roof block, forming a closed polygonal line; The surfaces of 4 roof water planes for each of the block.
The programmed sequence is supported on the didactic way of explaining this issue to students, and reflects the real methodology by which the
Interactive Models Based on Virtual Reality Technology Used in Civil Engineering Education
Figure 24. 3D Models of the graphic elements of the roof
Figure 25. Animation sequence
2D drawing is achieved. First the initial configuration of the roof base must be divided in simple four edges bases. Over each one a triangle representing the roof water slope is positioned near the respective edge. After that four roof planes are collocated in there correct special position,
forming a simple roof. In an identical way the second roof is modeled. Finally the intersection between the two four plane roofs is defined. The animation of the model follows the sequence of operations illustrated in Figure 25:
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• • • • • • • •
Presentation of the initial base shape; Subdivision of this shape into two polygons; Placement of the triangle representing the slope value 2:3 next to one of the edges; Insertion of the triangles with 1:1 pitch in normal positions for each of the edges; Introduction of the polygon of the appropriate elevation; Inclusion of the plane surfaces representing the 4 roof planes; Representation of the second of the two blocks which make up the roof; Intersection of the two roof blocks.
The model allows interaction with the building process sequence enabling the user to backtrack and manipulate the camera position and distance in relation to the model. The final objective of this model is to show the complete roof constructed on a basis of the concepts of engineering drawing applied to the plan drawing of that structure. The intersection of the two blocks of the roof clearly illustrates how roofs with more than four planes must be executed (Figure 26).
LeARNINg ASPeCTS The models are actually used in face-to-face classes of disciplines of Civil Engineering curriculum: Technical Drawing and Computer Assisted Drawing (1st year), Construction Process (4th year) and Bridges (5th year). They were placed on the Figure 26. Backtracking and different viewpoints
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webpage for each discipline thus being available for students to manipulate. The student should download the EON Viewer application available at http://download.eonreality.com. The traditional way to present the curricular subjects involved in those virtual models are 2D layouts or pictures. Now, the teacher interacts with the 3D models showing the sequence construction and the constitution of the modeled type of work. Essentially, the models are used to introduce new subjects: •
As in Technical Drawing, students have to define and draw structural plants over the architectural layouts, the virtual model of the wall helps to explain the connection between the architectural drawings and the structural solutions needed to support the building configuration. Some topics must be assumed when choosing a structural solution in order to minimize the unpleasant visual appearance in the interior of a house when structural elements (beams and columns) are included in it. The students are 1st year degree, so they have some difficulty to understand the three-dimensional localization of the structural elements and how they must be concreted almost inside the limits of the walls. The relationships between the architectural configurations and the structural elements in a building are well explained following the exhibition of the virtual construction of the wall (Figure 27).
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•
In the discipline of Construction Process, in order to prepare students to visit real work places, the teacher shows the construction animation and explains some subjects of the construction process of the wall. Namely, the way the net of irons is defined inside a beam or a column and specially the complexity of the relationship between the distinct types of irons near the zone where the structural elements connect each other (Figure 28). In order to clearly explain this issue related to the structural elements, the iron nets were created as 3D models with distinct colors, and they appear on the virtual scenario following a specific planned schedule. The type, sequence and thickness of each vertical panel that composes a cavity wall are well presented in the virtual model showing step by
•
step the relationship between each other (Figure 28). The configuration detail of each element of a complete wall can be clearly observed manipulating the virtual environment of the construction; The construction models of the deck bridges particularly shows the complexity associated to the construction work of the deck. Both models also illustrate in detail the movement of the equipment. In class, the teacher must explain way the process must follow both sequence of steps and the way the equipment devices operates (Figure 29). When the student, of the 5th year, goes to a real work place he can observe the complexity of the work and better understand the progression of construction previously explained;
Figure 27. The relationships between the architectural and the structural elements in a wall
Figure 28. Complex relationship between reinforcements in the joint zones of the structural elements and the sequence of the vertical panels
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Figure 29. The models show in detail the movement of the equipment
Figure 30. Definition of a more complex roof based in two simple blocks
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The roof model is an educational application to support the discipline Computer Aided Drawing (1st year). The issues involved require three-dimensional awareness which, in traditional methods of teaching, transmitted through plane view. This application supports the explanation of topics related to the construction of both simple roofs and more complex ones (that is, those that are more difficult for students to grasp). The model shows, in an animated way, the intersection between two simple blocks defining a more complex roof (Figure 30).
CONCLUSION It has been demonstrated, through the presented examples, how the technology of virtual reality can be used in the elaboration of teaching material with educational interest in the area of construction processes. The advantage of introducing new technologies and didactic material suitable for university students and technical education should be made known and applied. There was a focus on the importance of teaching CAD systems at school, not only as a good executer of “drawings” but mostly as a helpful tool to develop research
Interactive Models Based on Virtual Reality Technology Used in Civil Engineering Education
work and, as a professional support in the engineering activity. The three first applications represent standard processes in constructions. The student can interact with the virtual models in such a way that he can set in motion the construction sequence demanded by actual construction work. Observe the methodology applied and analyze in detail every component of the work and the equipment needed to support the construction process. Test how the different pieces of construction elements mix with each other and become incorporate the model. The virtual reality technology was also applied to a roof in order to create an educational application of interest to the teaching of CAD. The issue involved requires three-dimensional drawing location elements which, in traditional methods of teaching, are taught using only the horizontal projection. This application supports the explanation of topics related to the construction of both simple roofs and more complex ones. These models are used in subjects involving construction and drawing in courses in Civil Engineering and Architecture. There are many other possibilities for the creation of computational models mainly where the subject matter is suitable for description along its sequential stages of development. The applications with these characteristics make the advantage of using techniques of virtual reality more self-evident, especially when compared to the simple manipulation of complete models which cannot be broken down. The pedagogical aspects and the technical concepts must be attended to on the elaboration of those models. The main objective of the practical application of the model is to support class-based learning. In addition, it can be used in distance training based on e-learning platform technology. The involvement of virtual reality techniques in the development of educational applications brings new perspectives to Engineering education. The main objective of the practical application of the model is to support class-based learning.
In addition, it can be used in distance training based on e-learning platform technology. The involvement of virtual reality techniques in the development of educational applications brings new perspectives to Engineering education.
ReFeReNCeS Adamo-Villani, N., Johnson, E., & Penrod, T. (2009). Virtual reality on the web: the 21st century world project.(m-ICTE 2009) V International Conference on Multimedia and ICT’s in Education.(pp. 622-626). Lisbon, Portugal. Bell, J. T., & Fogler, H. S. (2004). The application of Virtual Reality to (Chemical Engineering) education [Chicago, USA.]. Virtual Reality (Waltham Cross), 2004, 217–218. Duarte, J. (2007). Inserting new technologies in undergraduate architectural curricula: A case study. The 24th eCAADe Conference Education in Computer Aided Architectural Design in Europe,(pp. 423-430). Frankfurt am Main, Germany. EON. (2008). Introduction to working in EON Studio. EON Reality, Inc. Fischer, M. (2000). 4D CAD - 3D Models incorporated with time schedule, CIFE Centre for Integrated Facility Engineering in Finland. Helsinki, Finland: VTT-TEKES. Fischer, M., & Kunz, J. (2004). The scope and role of information technology in construction, CIFE Centre for Integrated Facility Engineering in Finland, technical report #156. Stanford University. Gero, J. S. (1985). Knowledge engineering in Computer-Aided Design. book editor. NorthHolland, Amsterdam.
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Gibbon, G. J. (2008). Combining theory and experimentation to develop inductive learning skills in an electric circuit’s course. ICEE 2008 Conference, Pécs and Budapest, Hungary. Gomes, C., & Caldeira, H. (2004). Virtual learning communities in teacher training, International Conference on Education, Innovation, Technology and Research in Education. IADAT, International Association for the Development of Advances in Technology, (pp. 82-85) Bilbao, Spain. Juárez-Ramírez, R., Sandoval, G. L., Cabrera Gonzállez, C., & Inzunza-Soberanes, S. (2009). Educational strategy based on IT and the collaboration between academy and industry for software engineering education and training, m-ICTE 2009, V International Conference on Multimedia and ICT’s in Education, (pp.172-176) Lisbon, Portugal. Khanzode, A., Fisher, M., & Reed, D. (2007). Challenges and benefits of implementing virtual design and construction technologies for coordination of mechanical, electrical, and plumbing systems on large healthcare project. CIB 24th W78 Conference,(pp. 205-212). Maribor, Slovenia. Leinonen, J., Kähkönen, K., & Retik, A. (2003). New construction management practice based on the virtual reality technology. In Raja R.A., Flood I, William J, O’Brien (Ed.), 4D CAD and Visualization in Construction: Developments and Applications, (pp.75-100). A.A. Balkema Publishers. Martins, O., & Sampaio, A. Z. (2009). Virtual visual simulation of the incremental laughing method of bridges construction, 17º Portuguese Meeting of Computer Graphics, University of the Interior Beira, Covilhã (Portugal), 29-30 October 2009 (accepted to be presented at the conference). Ozvoldova, M., & Cernansky, P. Schuer, F., & Lustig, F. (2006). Internet remote physics experiments in a student laboratory. In W. Aung, et al. (Ed.), Innovations 2006,(pp. 297-304). iNEER, Arlington, VA.
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Penttila, H. (2005). The state-of-the-art of Finnish building product modeling methodology. In Martens B. & Brown A. (Eds.), Computer Aided Architectural Design Futures 2005,(pp. 225-239). Wien,Austria: Springer Verlag. Perez, J.F., Barea, R., Boquete, L., Hidalgo, M.A., & Dapena, M. (2008). Cataract surgery simulator for medical education & finite element/3D human eye model. CISTI 08, 3ª Conferencia Ibérica de Sistemas y Tecnologias de Información, (pp. 9098) Ourense, Spain. Petzold, F., Bimber, O., & Tonn, O. (2007). CAVE without CAVE: on-site visualization and Design Support in and within existing building. eCAADe 07, 25th Conference of Education and Research in Computer Aided Architectural Design in Europe,(pp. 161-168). Frankfurt, Germany. Retik, A. (1997). Planning and monitoring of construction projects using virtual reality projects. Project Management Journal, 3(97), 28–32. Safigianni, A. S., & Pournaras, S. K. (2008). Virtual laboratory arrangement for measuring characteristic power system quantities. In W. Aung, et al. (Ed.), Innovations 2008, (pp. 379391=) iNEER, Arlington, VA. Sampaio, A. Z., & Cruz, C. O. (2008). Visualization in a virtual environment the graphical elaboration of a roof. Technical report DTC/ ICIST nº 10/08. Lisbon, Portugal: Technical University of Lisbon. Sampaio, A. Z., Ferreira, M., & Rosário, D. P. (2009). Interactive virtual application on building maintenance: The lighting component. IRF2009, 3rd International Conference on Integrity, Reliability and Failure: Challenges and opportunities, Symposium Visualization and human-Computer Interaction, Porto, Portugal. Sampaio, A. Z., & Henriques, P. G. (2007). Building activities visualized in virtual environments. eCAADe 07, 25th Conference of Education and Research in Computer Aided Architectural Design in Europe,(pp. 85-89). Frankfurt, Germany.
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Sampaio, A. Z., & Henriques, P. G. (2008). Visual simulation of Civil Engineering activities: Didactic virtual models. WSCG 2008, 16th International Conference in Central Europe on Computer Graphics, Visualization and Computer Vision, (pp.143-149). Plzen, Czech Republic. Sampaio, A. Z., Henriques, P. G., & Cruz, C. O. (2009). Visual simulation of construction activity supported on VR models: e-Learning tools. IADIS International Conference e-Society,(pp. 284-291). Barcelona, Spain. Sampaio, A. Z., Henriques, P. G., & Ferreira, P. S. (2006). Virtual Reality technology applied in Civil Engineering education, m-ICTE 2006, IV International Conference on Multimedia and ICT’s in Education, (pp.1351-1355). Seville, Spain.
Sampaio, A. Z., Neves, J. G., & Martins, B. (2009). 3D models applied in building rehabilitation, CC2009, 12th International Conference on Civil, Structural and Environmental Engineering Computing. B.H.V. Topping, L.F. Costa Neves, R.C. Barros, (Eds), Civil-Comp Press, Stirlingshire, United Kingdom, Funchal, Madeira, Portugal. Su, J., Hu, J., & Ciou, Y. (2006). Low-cost simulated control experimentation conducted in Electrical Engineering Department of National Yulin University of Science and Technology. In W. Aung, et al. (Ed.), Innovations 2006, (pp. 397-408). iNEER. Zudilova-Seinstra, E., Adriaansen, T., & Liere, R. (2009). Trends in interactive visualization: state-of-the-art survey, Book series: Advanced Information and Knowledge Processing. London: Springer-Verlag London Limited.
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Chapter 22
Subject Matter Content Creation for Second Life Delivery: Teaching GIS in Second Life Michael DeMers New Mexico State University, USA
ABSTRACT Worldwide, educators are experimenting with the myriad possibilities that Second Life and other multiuser virtual environments (MUVEs) provide for teaching and learning for online courses. Some find the ability to collaborate enhanced, others see the social presence improved, more acknowledge the ease of employing role play intriguing, and a few have employed highly complex simulations as means of delivering complex material. The ability of educators to develop, test, and effectively deliver meaningful educational content within virtual worlds is often limited by the rather steep learning curve such environments present. This chapter provides first a set of basic guidelines for preparing instructors for an incremental approach to content delivery and predisposes learners for successful implementation and performance. Second, using examples from the discipline of geography, specifically my subspecialty of geographic information systems (GIS), it describes the use of some basic tools contained within Second Life for creation of active course content through small learning objects. Finally, it demonstrates realworld examples of such in-world learning objects from a laboratory-based course to illustrate how traditional course content can be transformed to hands-on exercises in the virtual environment.
INTRODUCTION Since its inception in 2003, Second Life, a 3-D multi-user virtual environment (MUVE) created and operated by the Linden Laboratories in San Francisco, California has had, as one of its DOI: 10.4018/978-1-61692-822-3.ch022
objectives, the application of this emerging technology as a tool for education (Atkinson, 2008). Unlike traditional massively multiplayer online role-playing game (MMORPG) worlds, Second Life is a free-form virtual world where content, context, and experience are all formed at-will rather than being controlled by a preset mission or objective created by the game publisher (Liv-
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ingstone & Kemp, 2008; Pence 2008). The world of Second Life is composed of sims (simulations) of nearly endless variety from historical places, to art museums, clubs, natural areas, and many more (Berge, 2008). This variety continues to grow as the residents of Second Life, including those involved in education, continue to produce simulations of chemical molecules, functioning human systems, medical and research laboratories, genetics experiments, planets, ballets, psychoanalysis facilities (Yellowlees & Cook, 2006), crime scene investigations, and literally thousands of others (Figure 1). While the potential is there to teach nearly any subject in virtual worlds such as Second Life, that potential is seldom realized (Hargis, 2008). This
is partly due to the time commitment necessary to produce simulations, partly due to a lack of preparation to teach in a virtual environment, and partly due to a lack of understanding of how content can be converted to in-world experiences. This chapter provides some necessary first steps for those instructors interested in using Second Life and similar environments for online education. I also discuss what elements seem most important for such preparation, and what tools are available for course development without having to create an entire simulation. Finally, I provide a few quick examples of how I have created small learning objects based on my own subject matter and stress the importance of teaching the relevant Second Life skills prior
Figure 1. Red Square in Second Life is just one of thousands of well designed and detailed simulations in which one can immerse one’s students
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to each assignment to ensure successful implementation. Its purpose is, through example, to increase the likelihood that Second Life and other Multi-User Virtual Environments (MUVE) will be successfully employed for learning regardless of discipline.
LITeRATURe ReVIeW While Second Life and other MUVEs have been available since the early 2000’s, their use as potential learning environments has been a more recent development (Antonacci & Modaress, 2005). This does not mean that educators were not considering the concept, however, because a Second Life workshop, held at the Second Life Community Convention (Livingstone & Kemp, 2006), brought together educators who had already begun development of their virtual classrooms and learning environments. These workshops continue at the Second Life conventions and often provide useful examples of implementations, but provide little guidance for others. Recently, educators have begun the difficult task of linking pedagogy and virtual worlds to better understand its effectiveness. Some have examined the utility of virtual worlds for experiential learning (Jarmon et al., 2008; DeMers, 2010), others examined student perceptions of learning in virtual worlds (Lowe & Clarke, n.d.), still others have provided examples of how specific disciplinary material can be taught in Second Life (Esteves et al., 2009; Herold, 2009; Lee, 2009; Pereira et al., 2009; Dos Santos, 2009). These examples provide encouragement to other disciplinary educators to consider the use of MUVEs as a venue for learning. What is lacking from the literature is a clear path to achieving a successful experience both for the educator and for the learner. Lim (2009) suggested a “six learnings” approach to using Second Life for education: Learning by exploring, by collaborating, by being, by building, by championing
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and by expressing. While quite compelling, such conceptual models are of little use unless placed in a concrete setting with practical guidelines. John Lester (Second Life Name: Pathfinder Linden) (2006) produced a brief sketch of what he considered essential elements of preparing to teach in Second Life. His first suggestion is that you, as the instructor, establish a relatively permanent location within which to deliver your content (Figure 2). Second Life simulations can often disappear in an instant. A simulation of a 1950’s restaurant one day can become a western-wear clothing store the next. Second Life students, like classroom students need to have a sense of permanence, familiarity, and routine. There are numerous organizations providing teaching spaces in Second Life including many universities, educational non-profit cooperatives, and other sims dedicated to teaching. A second recommendation Lester (2006) makes, and one I have emphasized in some of my podcasts (http://idisk.mac.com/akadrgadgethome) is that the instructor must spend time in Second Life prior to and during the learning experience. It is important to remember that Second Life was not designed as a teaching space, but rather as a virtual community in which people live, work, play, and conduct commerce. The faculty member who comes into Second Life to deliver a lecture, take part in a discussion, or perform a demonstration and then promptly leaves does not really become part of the community and the students feel just as disconnected from them as they do when they appear in the classroom three days a week for lectures and then have no further contact with the student. I find it helpful to share fun experiences in Second Life with my students so that they become comfortable with Second Life as an environment and, perhaps more importantly, they begin to view the instructor as more than a talking head. There are many games, dance places, carnivals, rides, amusement parks, and even simulated trips to mars that the students and
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Figure 2. My teaching space on New Mexico State University’s Aggie Island is a rallying point for students. Here I have a white board for slides, blankets for seating, clicker technology for reviews, and the laboratory exercises placed strategically on a platform for the students to retrieve
faculty can truly enjoy together. This strengthens the bond among the students and between student and teacher (Figure 3). As one might guess, Lester (2006) recommends talking to other teachers, but he also recommends talking to your students. The students are often likely to be more in tune with gaming technology and gaming in general and will have both a student perspective and a gamer perspective. One of the comments one of my students, a gamer, made to me relates specifically to the lack of a predefined goal provided by Second Life. She suggested, as does Lester, that specific, measurable goals should be provided so the student can focus on the learning objective. While this is necessarily true of any course delivery method, it might be more particularly important to teaching in Second Life.
Some of Lester’s (2006) conclusions also include unlearning teaching methods that may work in the real world but might fail in the virtual world. This seems to beg the question of how to make that transition, a fundamental purpose of this chapter. Finally, Lester strongly suggests that communicating one’s experiences teaching in Second Life is quite illuminating. He recommends using both student blogs, and also presenting experiences in formal publication outlets to describe what works and what does not. Not only is this a method of enhancing one’s own Second Life teaching, it also encourages others to use this emerging technology for their own classes. From my own observations, I quite agree with Lester’s suggestions. I would add the importance of six classes of skills that the educator must first
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Figure 3. This is one of a large selection of amusing places that one can take one’s students to relax and have fun after a class or building session
learn prior to teaching in Second Life. The first four skill sets are basic survival skills in Second Life. Below is a simple list of these skills.
These survival skills are augmented by a second set of skills that allow for the creation of content and include:
1.
1.
2.
3. 4.
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Changing appearance: necessary for social presence aspects of learning Communication: methods of disseminating information from student to student and student to faculty. Navigation: includes how to walk, fly, use the maps and minimaps Inventory control: required for keeping track of objects acquired, shared, and created in Second Life
2.
3.
Building: the use of the free 3-D building tools of Second Life Scripting: the use of the built-in Linden Scripting Language to make objects move, make sounds, change appearance, etc. Adding content: adding material to an object created including scripts
The level of learning of these two types of skill sets need not be exhaustive and is often controlled by the degree to which they will be used in your own course. For that reason this chapter focuses more on another of Lester’s (2006) observations
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– that of the myriad possible options for course development Second Life provides and how to use those tools to make the transition from the real world to the virtual world. These tools are substantial, they are immersive, and for the most part, free or inexpensive. But tools are of little use unless you know how to apply them. In this instance the application of the tools is aimed at building learning objects.
Learning the Tools of Second Life Best practices in education dictates that you do not teach material with which you are unfamiliar. This typically applies to the content you are going to deliver but it can, and often does refer to the tools and techniques used to use, deliver, or explain that content. The specific tools you might employ differ both based on content and on mode of delivery. If, for example, you are a science teacher wanting to demonstrate the parts of a machine or an insect, you can use a tool as simple as a graphic display so you can explain it. In Second Life this will require that you learn how to use the basic building tools to produce primitive objects (prims) such as a flat board upon which to place your display. Your display is based on a graphic you will need to either produce digitally or convert to a form that can be uploaded to Second Life as a graphic called a “texture” that can then be placed on the object (Figure 4). More advanced skills might be required if, for example, you are teaching computer science, computer graphics, visualization (Bourke 2008) or computer game development, and you want to use the in-world procedural programming language called SLSL (Second Life Scripting Language) (Figure 5). The language is built in to Second Life and provides an ample opportunity to both generate and test the programs but to collaborate on their development as well. There are many in-world resources for acquiring these programming skills and examples abound, many of which come with scripts that can be copied and
employing the Tools of Second Life Although experience has shown that using advanced tools, including those in second life, is not something one can reasonably expect to employ in the earlier part of course development, using them eventually tends to engage the students more than other more passive approaches. The in-world tools such as the scripting language and the 3-D building environment are both robust and relatively easy to learn if taught incrementally. I have generally focused on using the building tools both because they lend themselves to my subject matter and because their three dimensional nature tends to be visually engaging. Moreover, because the student actually creates these objects it is especially engaging to tactile learners.
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Figure 4. Applying a texture (picture) to a prim
There are many classes inside Second Life where you could send your students to pick up the in-world skills. Additionally there are literally thousands of YouTube Videos that teach practically anything one might need to know. Still, the student is not in Second Life to learn Second Life skills, but rather to learn the content of your course. As Lester suggests, it is important that the learning goals be evident, that they be relevant and that they be measurable. My experience with the learning tools is that the successful implementation of the building tools which I employ seems to relate to the following:
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1.
2.
3.
Visual and, in particular, tactile learners are quickest to pick up these skills so I have to provide additional tutor time for those who do not fit these categories Gamers and multi-taskers are also more adept at learning these skills. This mandates, as does the type of learner in point number 1, that the learning style and computer gaming comfort level of the student be assessed either formally or informally. Learning small numbers of skills and practicing them with small, workable projects, during small time spans seems less frustrating
Subject Matter Content Creation for Second Life Delivery
Figure 5. Close-up of a very simple Linden Scripting Language (LSL) script. This one is designed to add rotation to the primitive object(s).
project that related to their academic content. In fact, the immediate application of the tools to the learning object takes advantage of the enthusiasm at successfully negotiating the Second Life skills and reinforces them as well.
Creating Learning Objects
4.
than more complex tasks. It is easy to create more complex projects that build upon the initial skills. Perhaps among the most important is that the skill set learned be learned first in an enjoyable environment and then immediately transferred through their ready application of academic content.
This final point is a major focus of this article. A classic example of producing fun objects and immediately applying the skills learned to utilitarian, course related projects, is from my own class. The initial task for the students to build a trampoline required them to learn how to manipulate prims, texture them, and finally to add an animation. These were three simple tasks but the output provided immediate gratification. Once finished the students’ avatars were quickly jumping up and down and the students were enjoying the product of their handiwork. The natural next step was to apply the learned abilities (prim manipulation, texturing, and adding scripts) to a
My own personal experience indicates that one of the more creative uses of Second Life is to adapt course material to the virtual world. Language teachers, for example, use in-world translators and the ability to meet people from foreign countries. There are many sites in Second Life that are created by most of the world’s nations. In many cases these sims are occupied largely by people who predominantly speak their native tongue. It is possible to use these sims to allow language students to become immersed in the language without the expense of actually taking an immersive language course. Historians create historical settings in which their students can be immersed in these historic places. Such approaches usually employ some form of role-play with the students either creating avatars that represent real historical figures, or appear in-world as costumed visitors in the historical context. Such role play is substantially less expensive and less complex than trying to recreate historical settings in real life. One could, for example, create a simulation of the courtroom of 1926 Dayton, Tennessee. Students could assume the roles of the defendant John Scopes, the defense attorney Clarence Darrow, or the prosecuting attorney William Jennings Bryant. The transcript for the trial could then be employed to drive the simulated trial. By acting out the trial the students, psychologically identifying as the characters, gain a deeper understanding of the trial and its impact. Art, drama, and even dance instructors have a ready-made environment in Second Life to create whatever canvas or stage they require. One welldocumented use of Second Life for art instruction is to bring students to simulations of the Louvre
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or the Sistine Chapel to observe the artworks as if they were really there. Drama instructors have employed the ability to dress the students’ avatars in costumes and create actual performances. Some educators have used relatively inexpensive joystick technology or 3-D mouse technology such as the Space Navigator to set up inworld cinema, called machinima. Some very sophisticated camera angles, special effects, and tracking scenarios can be set up with as much rigor as real world settings and at a minute fraction of the cost. Some instructors have actually incorporated the American Film Institute’s learning materials into machinima production. Second Life has at least one major dance company where the participants are forced to use avatar animation software such as Qavamator to map out each movement and to synchronize those movements with those of the other dancers. Although generally more difficult than humans performing the dance movements, for a detailed analysis of choreography it has potential that some educators have taken advantage of. The potential disciplines that can adopt MUVE environments and the numbers of applications they can create are staggering, but the complete implementation of the tools of Second Life for course content is most likely beyond the capabilities of most educators without at least a substantial time commitment. For example, the well referenced Genome Island that allows for very robust biology and genetics experiences, including performing scientific experiments, while exciting, took nearly five years to create and incorporates substantial levels of building, texturing, and scripting skills. For this reason, I have chosen to take an incremental approach to both teaching in Second Life and to the development of learning experiences. In my first attempt at teaching in Second Life I employed my own familiarity with Second Life tools such as the whiteboard. This inexpensive device allowed me to convert lecture material (PowerPoint frames) from my face-to-face class into textures that could be displayed for my students and their avatars to view. I used this successfully
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to provide an opportunity for the students to form informal study groups, to review for exams, and to be there with them during the process. Anecdotally the exam scores seemed to improve at a faster rate than those students who did not participate. Observations seemed to indicate that forcing the students to use text-based responses during reviews, and making them respond in complete sentences and paragraphs seems to have resulted in better performance on essay exams (DeMers 2008b). While it provided an opportunity for the students to congregate for study and to share the social presence through their avatars, it did not take advantage of the true power of Second Life. My next incremental step was to create small, bite-sized learning objects that took advantage of some of Second Life’s tools without requiring a massive investment in instructor time and learning
USINg SeCOND LIFe TOOLS examples of Learning Objects The field of geographic information systems (GIS) lends itself to the building, animation, scripting, and visualization tools of Second Life, but, as with any other discipline, it requires a modicum of thought about how the transition can take place. There are examples of the use of Second Life for GIS Education (Herwig & Paar, 2002; DeMers, 2008a) but these writings provide little guidance about how to actually create small, bite-sized learning objects that can be incrementally developed in the Second Life environment. I now provide a few simple examples of learning objects that I have created in-world that demonstrate the migration from traditional real-world exercises that are not necessarily readily available to the online student, to virtual ones where the tools are present and collaboration is also possible. Let me preamble this explanation of creating Second Life learning objects for my discipline with a brief description of the course and how
Subject Matter Content Creation for Second Life Delivery
my ideas of using Second Life evolved. I teach a senior/graduate level class called Fundamentals of Geographic Information Systems (GIS). In some semesters this course is offered in a face-to-face environment, while in others it is offered online. The course presents the many aspects of the software, hardware, data, people, and institutions related to the input; storage, editing, and retrieval; analysis; and output of maps and spatial data and information. Because of its focus on maps it has as a prerequisite a course in either map use and analysis or cartography (map creation and geographic visualization). The course has a lecture/reading component in which the students are responsible for adding substantial annotations to PowerPoint frames that are largely graphical rather than text-based, and are based on the course textbook. In addition to this component the students have a laboratory and a related project component that requires them to use the supplied GIS software to manipulate spatial data and maps. The lecture component is meant to provide an environment for learning the more conceptual nature of the software (e.g. data structures, operations, etc.) and other non-software related topics, while the laboratories and project allow the students an opportunity to apply their knowledge of GIS with real data and real analytics. As I have taught this course I have been concerned that the students are not obtaining a truly deep understanding of some of the more basic concepts about the maps and data they use, the way the analysis algorithms work, and the quality of the results they obtain. Without this level of understanding the students are not able to perform meaningful analyses with the software. Some of the simpler concepts related to maps and spatial data require 3-D visualization and tactile manipulation that the GIS software the students use in labs does not provide. Commercial GIS uses a 2-D graphical interface and has at present no method of providing an immersive environment, although that is the agenda of at least some GIS researchers.
The Second Life experiences I provided the students were designed as an optional extra credit experience. Because many students did not have the computing resources necessary for Second Life and others were concerned about its nature as a role play game I did not require students to use Second Life. For those students alternative extra credit opportunities were provided. My original idea for using Second Life was to engage the student in serious discourse, especially regarding their required GIS projects. Second Life provides a social presence unlike typical Learning Management Systems Based online courses. I created a pleasant environment in which the students could gather, with little or no knowledge of the tools of Second Life and work together in a learning community (DeMers 2008a). This plan however was reliant on students commencing their projects at the beginning of the semester. Unfortunately, this didn’t happen because of the steep learning curve of the GIS software and also because of student procrastination. The students themselves actually suggested the use of Second Life as a means of review. While this approach seemed to prepare the students for exams I was still convinced that the immersive, experiential power of Second Life was not being used to best advantage. As such, in my second semester of using Second Life in this course, I decided to engage the students in more hands-on, tactile, and visualization experiences. One relatively easy approach that I took early on was to engage the students in a simple exercise requiring the creation of a virtual display board such as one might see in a scientific meeting. I taught the students how to use three simple primitive objects – the one prim was the flat display portion of the board, and the two smaller prims were the small stands on the bottom ends of the board. While second life does not require such stands for the display board I find that Second Life users are often more comfortable when the nature of the created objects appears to simulate real objects and obey natural and physical laws.
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Once the students developed the board I taught them to size and position the boards, and to add colors and textures (images) to the different parts of these boards. The final product was simplicity itself. I had the students provide me with digital versions of the best map they had produced in the early GIS software laboratory portion of the class. I then uploaded these textures (there is a minimal charge for these) and had the students apply these textures to the display boards. I organized these boards into a large display so the students could peruse their work and that of their fellow students. These posters were also displayed to the public during a day devoted to GIS called National GIS Day. I left the posters up for several weeks so the students would have an opportunity to view them over time. This simple learning object allowed the online student to interact and view other output without ever leaving their homes. Moreover, several professional GIS people who are residents of Second Life were able to view their work as well. The project was viewed many times by the students’ avatars over the six weeks they were on display. This learning object was simple, and helped form a learning community but it did have some serious limitations. First it required a substantial investment in time to teach the students how to create (rez) the prims, resize them, and add textures. It was particularly difficult to do this using text-based chat especially because many of the students had difficulty with the Second Life user interface. For example, one student was unable to receive one-on-one directions through the IM (Instant Message) window because he was having difficulty negotiating the frequent movements from the chat window to the IM window and the building/avatar screen. This student admitted that multi-tasking was something he struggled with. This suggested to me that I needed to rethink the timing and sequencing of any project that involved using the Second Life building tools. Recognizing that I wanted the students to enjoy building necessitated two fundamental changes
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in my approach. First, I needed to set aside time for teaching building skills independent of the assignment itself. Students experience enjoyment when they experience success. Taking a slow, step-by-step, approach where minimal skills are learned at any given time seemed more appropriate. Additionally, I created a scenario in which the results of the activity were not just achievable but also fun. To make this effective I had to first decide what specific Second Life building skills were needed for the upcoming exercise. The exercise I wanted to have the students perform required them to learn how to 1. Retrieve the contents of a box of supplies, 2. Rez a cube, 3. Resize it, 4. Texture (color or place a pattern on), 5. Add contents and 6. Make sure the permissions were set so what they produced could be shared with me as they returned the assignment. Prior to the actual building tutorial I required the students to view several YouTube videos produced by Torley Linden specifically aimed at the required skills for this work. To make their first build easy I employed a single prim. I kept the nature of the object they were making secret so they would be surprised. I taught the students to create a cube, to resize the cube in the shape of a flat panel that their avatar could easily stand on, and to add a color to the prim. I then taught them how to put a texture (an image) on a single side of the prim. In this case I had already provided them as part of a box of supplies with the texture that was a multi-colored pattern that said “My Trampoline” on it. At this point the students were intrigued. Next the students were required to open up the prim that they had just textured with the “My Trampoline” image and select its content tab. I taught the students how to move objects into the contents of the prim. In this case I had provided them with two Linden Scripting Language scripts. One was a script that produced a sound like a trampoline and the other boosted the avatar that walked across the trampoline high in the air and
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back. In short the students created an object that looked like a trampoline, acted like a trampoline, and sounded like a trampoline. Once they finished the build the students were asked to walk across their new toy. The excitement this simple project created lasted for two to three weeks as the students continued to comment on how fun it was. Finally I asked the students to set the permissions for copy, edit, and transfer so that they could give their trampoline to others. This skill is necessary because the students will eventually need to produce content inside a prim for class-work. This class-work must then be given to me and I need to be able to receive the contents and view them so the assignment can be graded. At this point the students had learned the basic skills required to do the exercises. Rather than waiting, however, I immediately assigned the content-related exercise, although I did not require the students to work on it immediately. Some students were rather drained after their first experience building while others immediately began the exercises. Those that did them immediately had two advantages over the others. First, I remained there to guide them through the process and second, the skills they learned were fresh in their minds and they found it faster to do the exercises because they didn’t have to relearn these skills. Additionally, some of the students formed groups and helped each other during the process of doing their exercises.
THe exeRCISeS Over a period of one semester I was able to develop ten Second Life exercises that roughly paralleled the content of the course textbook. It is the conversion of content to Second Life implementation that is at the heart of using Second Life for meaningful education. To do this requires understanding both your disciplinary content and the tools and abilities of Second Life. Below I demonstrate some of
the reasoning behind how I created content-based learning objects. Some GIS software is based on squares (grid cells), which, if one thinks only for a moment, is merely a flat cube (one of the primary prims available in Second Life). When you represent elevation values using squares inside a grid cell based GIS you normally assign a shading pattern to indicate if it is relatively higher or lower than the cell next to it. But, because the cells (blocks) in Second Life are 3-D, the student can actually convert a small portion of a topographic surface using these blocks (Figure 6). The only building skills needed were those regarding how to create, size (with the grid), and color the grids (blocks) and finally how to link them so they were linked as a single object. As before, this exercise was assigned immediately after teaching them the skills they needed. To do this I had to have the students first retrieve their trampoline and add a prim as a sort of border on the outside and give it a texture. At this point the students needed to learn how to link multiple prims by using the tools menu. Because the students were merely modifying the trampoline they had just built this new skill was just a single addition to those they already possessed. As with all my exercises, they moved immediately from the skill learning task to the laboratory exercise. Besides providing the students with an exercise, I also provided them with a set of instructions using a Second Life tool called a notecard. I provided them with explicit learning objectives and related behavioral indicators and grading rubrics. The learning objectives were not Second Life objectives but rather content-related learning objects that employed the tools for their achievement. As with the learning objectives the behavioral indicators were content based not Second Life based. Below are a few examples of behavioral indicators related to using Second Life cubes to represent topographic surfaces.
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Figure 6. A 3-D construction of a topographic surface containing a stream that mimics the 2-D graphic from the textbook. The blue prims illustrate the movement down slope.
Upon completion of the exercise the student will be able to… 1.
2.
3. 4.
5.
Create a 3-D visualization of a topographic surface as represented by a grid-cell based GIS Create a 3-D visualization of a topographic surface with a stream running through the middle. Color code the movement of a fluid along the stream channel that you produced. Use textures on the grid cell prims to illustrate the movement of fluid from the upper surface toward the stream. Explain the limitations of representing surfaces using grid cells.
The conversion from course content to Second Life exercises requires recognition of the physical shape of GIS data cells and their relationship to the
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cubic shape of some of the basic primitive building objects the 3-D building tools provide. This is not unlike the realization that cinematography instructors have about the capabilities to film inside Second Life (called machinima) such as placement, staging, lighting, camera movement, etc. In the sort of blocks world idea of maps that I assumed in my first example, where square portions of the earth are categorized as belonging to one topographic level or another, one can extend the idea for more exercises. For example, grid cell based GIS also characterizes individual grid cells by one type or another (e.g. different land use types). In my second example, I wanted the students to experience how the computer would decide which grid cells would be coded a particular category when they are overlaid on a traditional map. This is a common task in GIS where a clear grid would be laid down on top of a map so that each grid cell gets a unique category. To do this in
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Figure 7. The contents of the lab box (bottom left) that allow the students to perform a grid encoding exercise
a face-to-face class one could easily create a grid drawn on clear acetate and overlaid on the map for the student to code. In the online world this could be done by having the student perform the grid process as they would in a face-to-face class and scanned as pdf files to be returned. This method, however, doesn’t allow the faculty member to be there to observe and assist nor does it allow for collaborative teamwork to accomplish the task. To convert this to a MUVE environment, I once again used the building tools of Second Life to create an 8 X 8 grid created by joining 64 flat square prims together and texturing (coloring) each of them with a black outline. In this way the student
would see 64 squares but could see through the squares just as if it were mylar (Figure 7). I then uploaded a land use map that the students could physically overlay in Second Life. Because the grid was composed of 64 individual primitives the students could then color-code each of these to match the type of land use from the map. As before the exercise included written instructions, learning objectives and behavioral indicators, as well as necessary supplies. It is important to realize that my GIS related exercises were not limited to the grid cell based environment or the blocks world. One of the more difficult concepts for students to grasp in GIS is
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that of map projections. Map projections come in three basic families based on a geometric conception of how the earth’s sphere is converted to a flat map. The three families are conical, cylindrical, and planar (like a picture of the earth). While these are common in the map literature and in map use, cartography, and GIS courses, the students can only envision the shapes in 2-D textbooks or as representations through projection changes performed by the GIS or cartographic software. These images are also 2-D and do illustrate how the lines of longitude and latitude are changed by map projection, but the flat representation still limits student understanding. To overcome this difficulty I again relied on the building tools of Second Life. In this case the student was provided with a Mercator map projection… a map projection in which the lines of latitude and longitude cross at exactly 90 degree angles. This projection is typically developed through the idea of projecting a light from the center of the earth outward onto a cylinder that surrounds the earth. The students are asked to
create a flat prim on which to lay the projected map. The ‘wow’ factor of producing a map in Second Life was supplanted by an even greater reaction when the students were able to create a sphere and flatten it and place the map on that (a planar projection). They then produced a cylinder and placed the texture on the curved part of that shape. And finally they did the same procedure for a conical prim (Figure 8). In addition I had the students place this same map texture on a sphere to show the students what the lines of longitude and latitude would look like on the earth. In this case the students were asked to observe the nature of the grid lines (longitude and latitude) as the map texture was literally projected, in 3-D, inside Second Life. The students were not only surprised at how effectively they could view the lines and how they change, but also that they could walk around the objects and view them as if they were literally in outer space looking at the earth (in the case of the sphere at least). The students’ reaction to this visualization was promising, but the answers to questions posed about the impacts
Figure 8. A perspective of my avatar, Gadget Loon, as he stands amidst the map projections students have created to illustrate how the lines of latitude and longitude change from one family of projections to another
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of different map projection families showed a level of understanding beyond what the typical textbook image inspires.
FINAL THOUgHTS Although I have developed ten exercises I continue to build content as time allows. This approach to content creation is relatively less time and resource intensive that creating massive simulations. Moreover content can be built incrementally as one’s skills in Second Life, and those of your students grow. A future projectoriented experiential exercise that I am currently working on involves a land use decision process. Unlike the previous exercises this one requires a large portion of geographic space. One common use of GIS technology is planning, but before planning can be incorporated into the software the students need to be able to conceptualize how the land will be used, how much will be allocated for each of multiple purposes, and how the uses will interact. I’m creating a portion of NMSU’s teaching island on which the students have the rights to both build and to terraforming (essentially create differences in terrain). The students will be assigned the task of creating a plan on a portion of the land… perhaps 400 meters on a side. I’m developing a list of possible land uses including a park with a scenic topographic outlook and a pond, a factory that the students must hide from the park, a portion of single family housing for people that work at the factory, some row crops, and a small shopping center. These four uses must total 160,000 square meters. To perform this task the students will be working together in teams, where each team is assigned to the development of a single land use. The exercise box will include the usual instructions, learning objectives, answer sheets, textures, and possibly some pre-made objects (e.g. factory buildings). I will also be including a series of tools such as measuring devices so
they can accurately position individual land uses and calculate the area of each. The total land uses must total 160,000 square meters… the size of the study site. To perform this task the students must use several of the GIS related tasks that they have learned. They have to measure the sizes of parcels, evaluate visibility (called a viewshed), determine the appropriate positioning of landuses, and even decide on where to place roads and pathways for movement. Most importantly, the students can immediately visualize the inherent difficulty of managing spatial conflict when land uses are incompatible as a park and a factory might be. This project, unlike the previous examples is collaborative -- requiring the students to work as teams toward a common goal, and also forces them to integrate multiple aspects of their learning rather than one or two. They also learn the art of negotiation and conflict resolution so important in the real application of GIS for land planning. This last example illustrates the continuum from early efforts at lecture and discussion to small learning objects to more complex learning objects. It shows how, after time, small learning objects can evolve into larger objects and those can also grow to large fully developed simulations that allow immersion, role-play, project-based experiential learning environments resembling Genome Island. Regardless of the subject matter, the slow, incremental evolution of Second Life education is more likely to be adopted by individual faculty or small teams of educators than the quick development of an entire domain related simulation.
CONCLUSION Second Life building and scripting tools provide plenty of opportunity for the digitally adaptive instructor to translate course content to the virtual environment. Moreover, it is a potentially powerful online learning environment for the neo-millennial student, particularly those who are
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visual and kinesthetic learners. Because there is a substantial learning curve I suggest that teaching the necessary Second Life skills be done in small pieces, during short time intervals, adding a bit of instant gratification by making them fun, and finally by immediately having the students apply their newly acquired skills to the content-based learning object. While it is desirable to consider extending the use of Second Life to a project based learning approach (Jarmon et al., 2008) one might want to think about building that project from such incremental and manageable modules. Whether your domain is environmental science, art, cinema, business, planning, or any discipline that incorporates tangible objects or interacts in real environments one can readily conceive of these settings being reproduced inside MUVEs like Second Life. Taking the recommended incremental approach the course designer can develop boxed environmental models, encourage students to use the building tools to create artworks and experiment with different shapes and textures, create single scenes of a movie, or set up a small shop. Each of these can eventually be expanded to create whole environmental scenarios, studentcreated art museums, or whole movies. The slow transition approach takes longer but it allows for the course designer the time to learn the tools of the MUVE, to experiment with small learning objects and select those that work. As the number of learning objects increases, the way in which they can be incorporated will often present itself. I have found the approach successful in my discipline and, because MUVEs are the future of education for the neomillenial student, this approach is one that should be adopted by those online course designers who share this realization. To expedite the process of course design in Second Life I began, as many do, using the standard and often freely available teaching tools for presenting lecture and providing chat spaces for discussion. The development of “boxed” exercises provided me with ample time to create content in small amounts that took advantage of
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my own growing Second Life skills. Moreover, the students began to feel comfortable with the routine of coming to a preselected location, at a predefined time to both review for exams and to retrieve their next exercise. Routine helps the students know what to expect and reduces their anxiety level. I found that those who came on a regular basis tended to complete the exercise. A final word of caution is appropriate here. Even for small learning objects such as what I have developed for my course, it is important to recognize that it takes more time than one might expect to complete the work. As the student’s Second Life skills improve, their ability to complete the exercises in a timely manner improves. To adapt to this I would suggest four things. First, make sure that your first few exercises are short and require the least Second Life Skills. Second, prior to each exercise, provide a skills exercise such as the trampoline example I provided, or a review exercise if they have been taught the skills before. These skills are not acquired easily and some may have serious difficulty and may need substantial additional help. Third, encourage students to work collaboratively. This last is important because it encourages them to be in Second Life because they are not alone. It also allows the students to share skills that they have learned through their own experiences. Finally, be there with your students as they build whenever you can. Not only will you add a sense of social presence to the experience, the students will also get a strong sense of your interest in their learning.
ReFeReNCeS Antonacci, D. M., & Modaress, N. (2005). Second Life: The educational possibilities of a massively multiplayer virtual world (MMVW). Kansas Technology Leadership Conference. Retrieved December 2, 2007 from http://www2.kumc.edu/ tlt/SLEDUCAUSESW2005/SLPresentationOutline.htm
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Atkinson, T. (2008). Inside Linden Lab: Second Life™ for Educators. TechTrends: Linking Research and Practice to Improve Learning, 52(3), 16–18.
Herold, D. K. (2009). Virtual Education: Teaching Media Studies in Second Life. Journal of Virtual Worlds Research, 2(1), https://journals.tdl.org/ jvwr/article/view/380/454 (visited October, 2009).
Berge, Zane, L. (2008). Multi-User Virtual Environments for Education and Training? A Critical Review of “Second Life”. Educational Technology Magazine: The Magazine for Managers of Change in Education, 48(3), 27–31.
Herwig, A., & Paar, P. (2002). Game Engines: Tools for Landscape Visualization and Planning? Trends in GIS and Virtualization in Environmental Planning and Design, 161-172.
Bourke, P. (2008). Evaluating Second Life as a Tool for Collaborative Visualization. Proceedings Computer Graphics and Allied Technology, Singapore, April 28-30 http://local.wasp.uwa. edu.au/~pbourke/papers/wasp08b/wasp08b.pdf. DeMers, M. N. (2008). Inside the Metaverse: A Second Life for GIS Education. GIS Educator, Winter, pg. 3. (http://www.esri.com/library/newsletters/giseducator/gised-winter08.pdf)
Jarmon, L., Traphagan, T., & Mayrath, M. (2008). Understanding Project-Based Learning in Second Life with a Pedagogy, Training, and Assessment Trio. Educational Media International, 45(3), 157–176. doi:10.1080/09523980802283889 Lee, P. D. (2009). Using Second Life to Teach Operations Management. Journal of Virtual Worlds Research, 2(1), https://journals.tdl.org/ jvwr/article/view/431/464 (visited October, 2009).
DeMers, M. N. (2008b). Using Virtual Worlds to Get Students to Think in Full Sentences. Rez Ed, October 14. http://www.rezed.org/forum/ topics/2047896:Topic:17524. (visited June, 2009).
Lester, J. (2006). Pathfinder Linden’s Guide to Getting Started in Second Life. Proceedings of the Second Life Education Workshop at the Second Life Community Convention, San Francisco, Aug. 26, Daniel Livingstone and Jeremy Kemp (eds.).
DeMers, M. N. (2010). (in press). Second Life as a Surrogate for Experiential Learning. International Journal of Virtual and Personal Learning Environments.
Lim, K. (2009). The Six Learnings of Second Life: A Framework for Designing Curricular Interventions In-world. Journal of Virtual Worlds Research, 2(1), 3–11.
Dos Santos, R. P. (2009). Second Life Physics: Virtual, Real or Surreal? Journal of Virtual Worlds Research, 2(1), https://journals.tdl.org/ jvwr/article/view/383/455 (visited October 2009).
Livingstone, D., & Kemp, J. (Eds.). (2006). Proceedings of the Second Life Education Workshop at the Second Life Community Convention, San Francisco. http://www.eric. ed.gov:80/ERICDocs/data/ericdocs2sql/content_ storage_01/0000019b/80/1b/ef/03.pdf (visited October, 2009).
Esteves, M., Fonseca, B., Morgado, L., & Martins, P. (2009). Using Second Life for Problem Based Learning in Computer Science Programming. Journal of Virtual Worlds Research, 2(1), https://journals.tdl.org/jvwr/article/view/419/462 (visited October, 2009) Hargis, J. (2008). A Second Life for Distance Learning. Turkish Journal of Online Distance Education, 9(2), 1. http://tojde.anadolu.edu.tr/.
Livingstone, D., & Kemp, J. (2008). Integrating Web-Based and 3D Learning Environments: Second Life Meets Moodle. UPGRADE. The European Journal for the Informatics Professional, 9(3), 8–14.
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Lowe, C., & Clark, M. A. (2008). Student perceptions of learning in a virtual world. Proceedings of the 24th Annual Conference on Distance Teaching and Learning. Retrieved from http://www.uwex. edu/disted/conference/Resource_library/proceedings/08_13442.pdf
Pereira, A. M., Martins, P., Morgado, L., & Fonseca, B. (2009). A Virtual Environment Study in Entrepreneurship Education of Young Children. Journal of Virtual Worlds Research, 2(1), https:// journals.tdl.org/jvwr/article/view/406/459, (visited October, 2009).
Pence, H. E. (2007). The Homeless Professor in Second Life. Journal of Educational Technology Systems, 36(2), 171–177. doi:10.2190/ET.36.2.e
Yellowlees, P. M., & Cook, J. N. (2006). Education about Halucinations Using an Internet Virtual Reality System: A Qualitative Survey. Academic Psychiatry, 30, 534–539. doi:10.1176/ appi.ap.30.6.534
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Chapter 23
New Life for Corporate Training David R. Dannenberg Virginia Tech, USA
ABSTRACT While the educational use of Second Life by the academic community is well established, the number of corporate training and development programs utilizing Second Life has yet to be fully determined. However, while the corporate training use of Second Life may not be as prolific as the academic use, it is occurring. To support this argument the author combines the use of ethnographic evaluation with a review of the existing literature surrounding the corporate use of Second Life. Presented within are what the author found to be the main advantages and hesitations that surround the corporate use of Second Life. The affordances of Second Life, the communication channels, the immersive self-directed building opportunities, and rich, content driven environments, are a unique mix that makes Second Life an ideal medium for developing corporate learning programs.
INTRODUCTION In 2008 Larry Myatt proposed that “Schools must walk away from text-driven instruction and embrace developing technologies if they hope to stem the loss of students” (p. 186). Multi-user virtual environments (MUVEs) allow educators from all fields to ebb the flow of lost students by providing a rich, immersive environment that allows students to interact with content like never DOI: 10.4018/978-1-61692-822-3.ch023
before. Stoerger (2008) notes that, “Virtual worlds enable students to learn through seeing, knowing, and doing within visually rich and mentally engaging spaces” (p. 56). One such MUVE that is particularly well suited for educational pursuits is Second Life. Second Life, one of the oldest virtual worlds in existence, stills remains one of the most used virtual communities with over a million different users logging in during the course of a month (Economic Statistics, 2009). Over the last few years educators within academia have seemed to herald Second Life as the MUVE of
choice. A review conducted by the New Media Consortium determined there were over 1,200 educational focused islands created in Second Life during 2007 alone (Johnson, 2008). Collectively, academia has designed and developed a range of materials within Second Life, covering topics such as computer programming, writing, Art history, philosophy, game design, psychology, medicine, construction, genetics and much more. And given its past history, the academic use of Second Life shows no signs of slowing down. What has not been demonstrated as of yet is the educational use of Second Life by corporate training and development programs. While there has been some scattered use within this community of practitioners, on the whole the corporate community has been slow to adopt Second Life. This may come as a surprise to some. Why does one user community rush to adopt a new tool and the other seemly sit and watch? It goes to reason that the same principles of learning in both the educational and corporate training and development communities are applicable so one would expect to see the same rates of adoption of Second Life in both communities. However, this is certainly not the case. Between September of 2008 and April of 2009 I conducted an eight month evaluation of Second Life, its residents, tools that lend themselves to educational practice and various locations already developed for use by educators, both in corporate and academic settings. As a participant-observer, I explored Second Life and all that it offers; I met various other residents, attended lectures, visited workshops and even participated in my first virtual conference. I found a technology filled with promise and well-structured to only benefit corporate training programs. Because of the visual nature of Second Life, as shown in Figure 1, the platform lends itself very well to education when working with issues that requires 3D visualization, movement and/or interaction and environments too costly, if not impossible, to replicate in real-life (Werner, 2008; Taylor & Chyung, 2008). Second
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Life is also a social platform and allows residents, the term users of Second Life call themselves when in-world, to interact with each other. So besides the obvious student/teacher interaction that can occur, Second Life can also be used for activities such as, role-play exercises, artistic expression and team meetings. Within this chapter I hope to show that while the corporate training use of Second Life may not be as prolific as the academic use, it is occurring. I will first briefly introduce the world of Second Life, discuss some of the main advantages and hesitation that surround its use by the corporate community, and also present examples of activities and exercises within Second Life currently being conducted by the corporate training and development community. It is my desire that by the end of the chapter readers will have a fundamental understanding of Second Life and what it has to offer as a development tool. In discussing some of advantages and resistances surrounding Second Life, readers should find not only a tool full of promise but also realize that just like every other tool it has pros and cons. Finally, the use of real world examples should provide inspiration for personal projects and demonstrate what is currently possible by establishing a Second Life presence.
Second Life Second Life, run by Linden Lab, was opened to the public in 2003 and over the last three years has become the educational flagship of virtual worlds. It is freely available and accessible almost anywhere there is an Internet connection. Once logged in, residents customize their avatar, go through orientation and begin to interact with the environment and each other. Communication in Second Life is conducted through either text-based Instant Messaging or Voice over IP. These tools allow for residents to interact just as they would in the real-world.
New Life for Corporate Training
Figure 1. Looking down onto Aloft Nonprofit Commons in Second Life
Residents can also choose to join, or form, a group. Groups are formed in Second Life when two or more residents maintain membership because of similar interests. Groups members can communicate with each other over long distances through the use of Second Life’s communication tools, build a space for group activities, hold meetings or just hang out together. Groups can also share resources, such as property, materials or inventory items. This allows for the group to work collaboratively on projects, just as they might in the real-life. Educators working in Second Life often choose to form a group around each specific course or class they are teaching. This allows them to quickly communicate in-world to that group just like sending a mass email or communicating via a list-serv. It is also a way to separate different classes and distribute information to specific audiences. Because of its unique blend of communication tools, both voice and text based, and its group collaboration features, Second Life could be considered a visual social networking tool.
The primary distinguishing feature of Second Life, from other MUVEs, is that everything within Second Life is created by a resident. Many other virtual environments may provide participants all the building resources or allow users to select from pre-made template items. Second Life is unique in the fact that while the building blocks in-world were created by Linden Lab, it is up to residents to use those blocks, or prims as they are called in-world, to build everything from the ground up. In certain areas residents can even terraform the landscape to create whatever type of environment they desire, from mountains to beaches to open seas. In response, residents have created every imaginable item including, clothes, furniture, homes, pets, vehicles, human organs, office buildings, theaters, medical equipment, airports, dance clubs, parks, coral reefs and much more. Indeed, building an item in Second Life is only limited by a resident’s interest, creativity and talent. While building in Second Life is not difficult it does require time and patience to master;
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scripting, on the other hand, is harder to pick up. Second Life has its own scripting language, Linden Scripting Language (LSL), which is similar to C. Scripting allows you to create interaction between residents and environmental objects. For example, scripts allow for simple things like doors to open and close, lights to go on and off or handing out note cards to residents that pass within a specific proximity to the object. But scripts also create much more advance interactions such as, vehicles moving under resident control, loading videos to viewer screens, allowing for conversation like interactions with inanimate objects, moving in certain directions or maintaining a certain pose when sitting on a chair. Scripts allow for advanced interactions to be developed in-world and help heighten the immersion experience. Combining building objects with highly detailed scripting creates a very powerful environment. Add this to a virtual environment in which just about anything you can imagine can be built and an immersive learning environment begins to form. However, by coupling these two principles and adding the socialization and collaborative communication tools Second Life has to offer and the situation is transformed dramatically into a learning tool capable of developing educational materials in ways not previously seen.
Second Life Usage Second Life can also be considered an e-learning tool. Newton and Doonga (2007) define e-learning as, self-study materials developed by software tools for computer based instructions. Indeed, Second Life can be included in this category because as a software tool, instructional designers can create materials that are meant for self-study and that remain available to anyone who happens upon them in Second Life. That is not to say Second Life is relegated to self-study materials, the exact opposite is true. Because of its unique nature instruction involving interaction, role play and collaboration (e.g., instructor-led or facili-
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tated events) is also well suited for development within Second Life. However, it can and should be considered as an e-learning development tool. Examining the larger issue of e-learning we know corporate training and development programs see the value of such programs. One study examining the use of e-learning within corporate training programs found that 73% of respondents indicated they use e-learning and of that 84% of the e-learning was delivered via the web (Newton & Doonga, 2007). While they did not study the use of MUVEs, or Second Life specifically, the findings indicate that corporate training and educational programs are open to e-learning as a delivery mechanism. As such, it would stand to reason that as a community of practitioners, both academia and corporate training and development professionals would take advantage of this resource with equal enthusiasm. However, that is not the case. Recent studies have shown that while the academic community is vigorously using Second Life for both research and coursework, their corporate brothers and sisters are not. Over the last few years, educators working in academia have focused time and effort in building educational programs within Second Life. As stated previously, in 2007 over 1200 educational themes islands were created in Second Life (Johnson, 2008). This means that those 1200 islands have some specific educational focus to someone working at a qualifying educational institution, verified at the time of purchase by Linden Lab confirming that the buyers email address ended in “.edu.” However, the exact number of institutions working within Second Life is harder to determine.
Academia in Second Life In reviewing the literature, the ongoing use of Second Life in education and other instructional environments is often estimated but never definitively answered. Nancy Jennings and Chris Collins, from the University of Cincinnati, con-
New Life for Corporate Training
ducted a study in 2007 in an attempt to answer the question of how many universities were actively using Second Life in any form. They found 170 identifiable institutions that either owned land or had an in-world group (Jennings & Collins, 2007). This number was collected through the use of the Second Life search tool and from observational surveys of researchers working in-world; however, it cannot be completely trusted because institutions can choose not to make their presence known, as we will discuss later in this chapter. Ondrejka (2008) states that currently, there are over 150 universities using Second Life in some fashion. Without stating how he determined that exact number, it could be assumed accurate because of his previous relationship with Linden Labs (he was one of the original co-founders of the company) and he might have been able to obtain somewhat privileged and guarded information. However, this number is contradicted by Baker, Wentz & Woods (2009) who say the number of universities and colleges from around the world using Second Life is actually closer to 100. Therefore, while the exact number cannot be determined we can infer that the educational community is definitely using and developing materials within this one particular MUVE.
Corporate Use of Second Life The use of Second Life by corporate training and development programs is much harder to determine. This is because the exact number of companies currently using Second Life is unknown for a number of possible reasons, including: 1.
2.
It would be impossible to determine an exact number as there are too many companies in existence to survey them all. Companies can choose to hide their presence in Second Life and without their direct communication or invitation an observer would never know they existed.
3.
Some corporations tend not to disclose certain information in an effort to protect their image, market share or trade secrets so, again, finding them in Second Life is difficult.
In 2008 Taylor and Chyung attempted to address the issue but failed to come up with realistic hard numbers. Their study solicited “Professionals working in the fields of instructional design, training, e-learning, consulting, and performance improvement” (p. 19) from two existing professional list-servs to volunteer to complete a web survey. Their results found that only 7% of respondents reported that their companies were using Second Life in any form. Furthermore, they found only a moderate willingness to adopt Second Life as a training tool, seeming to indicate that the corporate training and development community is not inclined to use Second Life for e-learning exercises. The results of the Taylor and Chyung study is contradicted in the 2009 ThinkBalm study examining business value of immersive environments. This study found that nearly 80% of respondents are currently working within a virtual environment, though not necessarily Second Life (ThinkBalm Inc., 2009). However, these results are misleading because the study targeted “Immersive Internet practitioners” (p. 3) and these practitioners would be more likely to have projects working in MUVEs than most regular corporate training and development professionals. Therefore, the survey results are biased and should be disregarded form serious consideration. Nonetheless, reviewing this study does prove to be a valuable exercise for one reason; the fact that the study was conducted at all is very important. It does to show that some corporate training and development practitioners are looking at MUVEs and while the use may not be widespread there is an earlier adopter community developing. What will become of this group and its future use of MUVEs has yet to be seen.
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A study conducted by the eLearning Guild might shed the most accurate light on the corporate use of Second Life. In 2007 the Guild surveyed its membership on the use of immersive learning simulations. The online survey was posted in January 2007 and members of the guild, numbering over 30,000, were asked to complete it as part of their online profile. The results began to be examined in December of 2007. In total, over 1,100 eLearning Guild members completed the survey during the course of that year. While the survey focused on the broader topic of the corporate use of immersive learning simulations (e.g., serious games) it did asked one pointed question on the tools used to develop immersive learning environments. One pertinent result was found when the results of that one question were broken down by market share. The use of Second Life in the Educational and Governmental market share was 10%. This again confirms that the Academic community has begun to accept Second Life as a development and delivery tool. However, when looking at the use of Second Life by the corporate market share the results were much lower, at 1.6% (eLearning Guild, 2008). Once more a discrepancy is seen between the academic community and corporate community in its use of Second Life. The results of this study show that as of December 2007 the corporate training and development community had not adopted Second Life as to training tool or delivery mechanism. This certainly contradicts what one might expect in finding a larger number of corporate users of Second Life or at least something more equable between the two populations. Indeed, it seems reasonable to think of the corporate world as being more willing to take risks, more cutting edge and more open to innovation. But so far that is not the result researchers are finding in the limited number of studies examining the issue. However, those numbers might rise in the years to come based on the growing popularity of virtual worlds and the proven value of e-learning.
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It would be prudent, at this point, to differentiate between university training programs and individual instructors and faculty independently using Second Life. It seems that in many cases individual educators have started to use Second Life for instruction or research, but the institutions those faculty members are employed by are not pushing the use of Second Life in other areas. One example of this is Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University; while there are individual faculty members working with Second Life projects the university itself does not have a Second Life presence nor does it conduct staff training in Second Life. In these cases, you should actually consider university training teams equivalent to corporate training and development teams in that fact they are not using Second Life. Moving forward, I would point out that many of the same advantages and hesitancies around Second Life this chapter discusses would be applicable to staff and administrators of college training teams as well.
The Affordances of Second Life During an eight month period, between September 2007 and April 2008, I conducted an evaluation of Second Life. I traveled throughout Second Life as Oaktree Inglewood, my avatar, and acted as a participant observer. During this time, I took classes, attended conferences and workshops, visited landmarks created by educators and corporations, toured museums, met friends, watched movies and talked with educators and corporate trainers. At first I was shocked by the overwhelming sense of alienness I felt when in-world. I was hesitant to talk to people or try things in fear of breaking some unknown cultural custom or practice; it was almost as if I was visiting a foreign country and did not know the language or cultural norms. Though, those fears quickly faded as the full enormity of possibilities of what could be accomplished in Second Life became clear.
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As discussed earlier in this chapter, Second Life is unlike most other MUVEs in that residents create the environment. Imagine walking into a blank room and being able to create anything; that is almost what entering into Second Life feels like. Linden Lab provides the building blocks, in the forms of prims, for residents to build with or residents can purchase pre-made items other residents have created but in the end it is up to the property owner to design, develop and create the specific environment they desire. There is almost nothing stopping a resident from building whatever it is he/she might want and changing it at any point. Once I began to comprehend that I soon realized the power Second Life holds as a training tool. In my own eight month examination of Second Life I found an environment ripe for training and education pursuits to take place for three primary reasons. First, because of the nature of Second Life instructional materials that require visualization, involve movement and/or interaction and replication of environments too costly, if not impossible, to replicate in real-life (Werner, 2008; Taylor & Chyung, 2008) are all well suited for development within Second Life. Second, the resources available to instructional designers within Second Life, both those inherent from Linden Labs and those created by other residents, make Second Life a powerful platform for designing training. And lastly, because of its social networking ability Second Life allows for unforeseen collaboration, peer-learning and communication which only serve to deepen any learning environment.
Visualization, Movement and Replication of Environments Because of the visual nature of Second Life training and education moves into a learning realm not previously seen. No longer are images presented in a flat 2D way, like books or even static images in traditional online learning. Within Second Life items gain the advantage of the depth and are
represented in 3D. Items having multiple complex parts can be created and relationships between parts can be explored. In Second Life developers are not constrained by scale; meaning that unlike real life, no matter the size of the finished product the cost remains the same. Therefore, there is no reason scale cannot be modify to enhance training exercises. For example, an instructor of an automobile mechanics class could create a super-size engine within Second Life and the class could then pull it apart piece by piece to better comprehend the separate parts and their working relationship. One excellent real world example of this concept is taken from the academic arena; educators at Northern Michigan University created two enormous human larynxes so students could fully understand its intricate workings (Figure 2). These two larynxes enable students to walk around and within the complex system so they are best able to picture the mechanisms involved and gain a better understanding of how speech is made within the human body. IBM’s Green Data Center is another example of how one company is using Second Life’s 3D capabilities to relay information. Within the data center visitors can learn how IBM technology can help to reduce energy consumption, a topic gaining widespread attention with the downturn of the economy in the fall of 2008. Training scenarios involving movement and/ or interaction are also well worth pursing in Second Life. Again, taking full advantage of the 3D aspect, Second Life residents can move in all directions, including up and down as appropriate. Creating scenarios in which students must move or interact with their surroundings is easily done in Second Life. This allows for a sense of realism not available in other types of online training. Imperial College London provides a good example of an institution taking advantage of this fact. In order to help teach staff and medical students in a more realistic manner they have built an entire hospital setting (Bradley, 2009). Fully recreated are medical examination rooms and labs
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Figure 2. NMU human larynx b in Second Life
in which residents can move and interact with simulated patients, equipment and colleagues, just as they would in real life. In order to pass the exercise, the participant must demonstrate a full understanding of the material, both medical and professional. For example, before they can interact with simulated patients the learner must wash their hands. Second Life creates a unique training environment in which as learners interact and manipulate their surroundings they are also developing the skills needed to work in real life. Creation of training exercises that might otherwise be impossible or too costly to replicate in real-life is also an area in which Second Life should be considered for use by corporate training and development programs. Many companies work in environments that are highly dangerous or so extreme in other ways that creating real-life training for their employees is cost prohibitive. However, even if you outsource some of your development work the cost to build such scenarios in Second Life is a fraction of what it might cost to put together a highly complex or dangerous real-life situation.
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Play2Train provides training for companies or institutions that work in the extremely dangerous field of mass trauma. Within Second Life Play2Train has created a virtual representation of a town and two hospitals spread over three islands to support its mission to provide training for Strategic National Stockpile, Simple Triage Rapid Transportation, and Risk Communication and Incident Command System incidents (“What is Play2Train”, 2007). The very nature of these types of incidents is too costly and extremely dangerous to replicate in real life. However, within Second Life, Play2Train can recreate mass casualty traumas of many types, train participants from around the world and do so in very realistic, yet totally safe, immersive environment. The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Association (NOAA) provides another example of an agency taking advantage of Second Life. Spread out over two islands they have created many different simulations related to weather events and forecasting that otherwise might prove impossible to simulate otherwise. In moving throughout either island, visitors learn about weather and other natural phenomenon that impact our oceans and
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atmosphere. In one simulation visitors see the effects of oil spill, as shown in Figure 3 in another the effects of a tsunami can be demonstrated and in yet another a coral reef is explored. Putting all three of these concepts together, 3D representation, movement/interaction and environments that otherwise couldn’t be created for training creates a solid educational experience. The World Wildlife Fund (WWF) takes advantage of this fact in Second Life as well. In 2007 the WWF launched Conservation Island which allows visitors to move through various habitats that WWF works within while interacting with some animals and other items to learn about the WWF’s mission, purpose and practices. In real life such training loses something when seen in flat, static images or even on a web site; however, when presented in Second Life visitors have a highly visual, interactive, and immersive experience which could lead to a better, deeper understanding of the WWF.
Second Life Tools The second major affordance of Second Life is the sheer number of items that have been created by educators and other residents that would benefit corporate training programs. The number of available artifacts are far too numerous to be addressed in adequate measures in this one chapter. For the past two to three years, during what has been Second Life’s most news garnering period to date, residents have been busily working on items too numerous to list. Items, such as moving vehicles, news boards gathering information from sites external to Second Life, items that contain scripts to move an avatar in certain ways, interactive question and answer desks, polling stations and much more is available for immediate use. For the purposes of this chapter, I will call out three items that I believe currently have the most potential to significantly impact corporate training programs; these are media screens, bots and holodecks.
Figure 3. NOAA simulated oil spill
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While media screens may not seem like a ground breaking item to list, I would suggest otherwise. Early in their development within Second Life, media screens were fairly basic and mainly allowed for the presentation of static.JPG images. As such, they were typically used for PowerPoint-like presentations to large groups or classes within Second Life. The problem with this, as I’m sure you can guess, is that PowerPoint in Second Life is no more effective that it might be in the real-world. Unless it is supplemented by other material, participants will soon begin to get bored, their attention will wander and chances are learning does not occur to the extent the instructor had hoped. I would even go to so far as to say that these types of presentations in Second Life are even less effective because of the 3D environment. There are too many easily distractible items to catch a participants eye, such as other colorfully garnished avatars, moving environmental objects, or even the built in communication channels might get more attention than the intend presentation. However, over the past year media screens have become much more complex and can now play a much greater variety of content. While static images are still available, newer media boards can launch videos hosted outside of Second Life, search and play You Tube videos, and show HTML pages from the Internet. Given the current rate of development, it probably will not be too much longer before media screens can play Flash-based content. What this means to corporate training professionals is that we are no longer limited in making information available to staff in Second Life. Training sessions no longer have to be an instructor-led event or worse yet the death by PowerPoint which we have all experienced at some point. Using Second Life, training programs could be developed and become entirely self-paced. Imagine, creating a virtual representation of a corporate headquarters. Staff located anywhere in the world could login to Second Life and explore the building. Along the way they could view media
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screens preloaded with content chosen specifically for that location. Maybe they are greeted with a video from the president or head of HR welcoming them to the building and giving instructions or directions for the exercise. As they move through the building they get more information drawn from the company Intranet: benefits, the company mission statement and goals, IT security procedures, whatever it was decided they needed to know. With the use of newer media screens a company Intranet page can be viewed an explored. Media boards now let training professionals push much more information to staff and other interested parties. This makes training more interesting and more likely to stick, since it becomes more interactive and immersive for participants. Another major development that will change the way corporate training and development programs create training within Second Life is bots. By bots I mean robot avatars that simulate a real person and that can functionally be interacted with, even so far as to give a response when spoken to. Such a thing is now currently available within Second Life. Residents have created objects that look just like an avatar and have used them for things a simple as placing them in store like mannequins to display their wares or to give the appearance of being busy in hopes of increasing traffic volume. But others have taken it a step farther and used scripts to simulate interaction, movement and even intelligence. By taking advantage of the Linden Scripting Language, developers have been able to demonstrate the true power of bots. By placing scripts within dummy avatars, movement, conversation and gift giving can be easily simulated. More advanced developers have crossed bots with scripting that allows them to draw upon the power of A.L.I.C.E. (Artificial Linguistic Internet Computer Entity) and AIML (Artificial Intelligence Markup language). A.L.I.C.E. “is a natural language processing chatterbot–a program that engages in a conversation with a human by applying some heuristical pattern matching rules to
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the human’s input”(Artificial Linguistic Internet, 2009, para.1). Pandorabots.com is one website developers can use to create an A.L.I.C.E. agent. When ready, the chatterbot engine can be linked with a bot in Second Life, again through the use of scripts and intelligence is simulated. Such bots are extremely useful working as receptionists or other agents that give out basic information (Figure 4). However, do not be deceived, very complicated chatterbot engine can be created and deeper conversations can be had. For example, say a non-profit organization wanted to train their philanthropy staff to increase communication skills during home visits. In Second Life a scene could be created in which the trainee interacted with two bots simulating a home visit. The bots’ A.L.I.C.E. engines would be developed to be ready for typical statements the trainee should or shouldn’t make and respond accordingly. Never before was such powerful training so easily simulated.
Taking a real-world example, Virtual Bacon, the avatar of John Jamison at the Ounce of Prevention Fund, created a bot to act like a 6 year old child for a training simulation he created. His goal “was to begin getting people thinking about alternative approaches to online learning” and he wanted to create something “beyond the ‘click & read’ approach that most still use” (personal communication, June 29, 2009). In small group testing he found that learning engagement, time on task, learner satisfaction and retention were all much higher than traditional online e-learning. The use of bots in developing training within Second Life will surely help to revolution what is currently being used by most corporations. The final Second Life tool that most training and development professionals should be aware of is called a holodeck. Taking their name from the holodecks of Star Trek fame, holodecks in Second Life work much the same by allowing residents to create multiple scenes or environments within a limited amount of space. While there are different
Figure 4. Walter, a robot receptionist at ImagiLearning
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versions of a holodeck they all work roughly the same way. Residents create one scene at a time and using scripts group that scene together inside the holodeck. Any number of scenes can be created and then using a menu a resident can pull up any scene they need at any time. For training purposes, holodecks serve as an invaluable tool because it enables the changing of scenes at a touch and allow residents to get around the barrier of prim restrictions. As the basic building block in Second Life, only a certain number of prims are allocated to a sim, for a maximum of 15,000. As land is broken down into plots, the number of allowed prims gets smaller and smaller so the crafty developer/builder needs to find ways to lower the number of prims used to build their space. Since the holodeck only displays one scene at a time, only the prim count of the displayed scene counts against the maximum number of prims allowed. For example, let’s say a builder has a holodeck loaded with 10 scenes and each scene has 100 prims; so there are 1000 total prims in the holodeck. However, since only one scene is displayed at a time only 100 prims get counted against the prim count for the parcel and the other 900 are “forgotten” since they are not currently in use. Being able to get around the prim count is one way companies can do more with less space. At one point in time The Nature Conservancy (TNC) had been designing a training scenario to take advantage of the holodeck. As the world’s largest conservation based non-profit, TNC works in hundreds of different environments around the world. To create a simulation that would accurately reflect each environment, or at least the more popular ones, would require a huge amount of space. However, taking advantage of the holodeck, TNC can create multiple scenes within the holodeck and each one can represent a certain environment and teach staff and partners about the projects and efforts currently underway in that area. This use of the holodeck allows them to create a massive project in a limited amount of space,
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while saving money because they do not need to buy and maintain multiple sims in Second Life. Combining the use of media screens, bots and holodecks into one project allows for a truly immersive learning experience to occur. Companies can use all three and replicate anything they want or need at any time. Just imagine one scene of the holodeck has a media screen and a bot to simulate an office environment. This could be used as the company headquarters and provide general information to any resident of Second Life who happened to come by. Another scene could be loaded with two other bots and be set in a living room to provide a simulation for the aforementioned philanthropy training. And yet a third scene could be set as a coral reef to provide training to park rangers on the impacts of reef degradation and over fishing. The possibilities are almost endless as instructional designers incorporate other tools and resources found within Second Life to create even more scenes and provide more realistic scenarios.
Collaboration and Peer Learning The final affordance of Second Life that training and development professionals should be aware of is the social aspect Second Life allows for collaboration, peer-learning and communication. Put aside the immersive 3D environment and the tools that have already been created in Second Life and what you are left with is a user driven online global society. Anyone with a computer who can run the software and has an Internet connection, preferably high-speed broadband, can access Second Life in real-time. This allows for unforeseen collaboration between groups of people who previously might not have had any contact with each other. Indeed, in my own travels as Oaktree Inglewood I regularly met with colleagues from around the U.S., Australia, England, France and Brazil (Figure 5). We were able to meet in person and share ideas, discuss our current individual projects and think of ways we can collaborate
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together. The wealth of knowledge gained in being able to discuss issues in person, rather than by exchanging emails, was invaluable. In 2006 Elisabeth Hayes examined the theme of peer-to-peer learning in a study on situated learning in virtual worlds. In her ethnographic study of Second Life she found that learning can occur in a number of ways. Residents can learn from more experienced residents, from free classes offered in Second Life or from other web based tools such as list-servs or websites outside of Second Life (Hayes, 2006). In each case, the knowledge is passed to the resident/learner from a non-traditional expert (e.g., not a formal teacher). This issue was also examined in 2008 by Jeremy Kemp and Ken Haycock. They examined the occurrence of learning in and through Second Life. The framework of their study is directed as a response to educators “seeking to establish learner-centered, participatory environments” (p. 89). Kemp and Haycock argue that it is the ease
at which instructors and students can work together to create new learning experiences in a social collaborative environment that is important. And this is exactly what Second Life provides. Building on the participatory nature of virtual worlds, Ondrejka (2008) argues that Second Life is uniquely suited as a viable learning environment. He posits that Vygotsky’s theories on education, that of learning needing context within society, definitely plays a role within virtual worlds. To Ondrejka, “virtual worlds both provide engaging playgrounds for experimentation and immerse these playgrounds within social networks” (p. 241). This principle can be seen in examples Ondrejka provides around Legitimate Peripheral Participation, the theory that “people learn best when they spend time with people who have mastered the skills they wish to learn” (p. 242). Within Second Life residents actively learn from each other and peer-to-peer learning is the norm. The ability to learn, become knowledgeable and
Figure 5. Collaborative group meeting
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pass that knowledge on is a key attribute when arguing for the participatory nature of Second Life. It should be noted that there are a great number of reasons to a great number of people as to why corporate training and development programs should begin the earnest examination of Second Life as a training tool. What has been provided here is by no means comprehensive, but it serves to demonstrate valuable points. Second Life is well suited for incorporating instructional materials that require visualization, involve movement and interaction or the replication of environments that otherwise could not be replicated in real-life. Also, there are currently numerous resources available to instructional designers within Second Life, both those inherent from Linden Labs and those created by other residents that make designing training within Second Life a unique experience. And lastly, because of Second Life’s inherent collaboration and communication ability, peer-learning and social networking is heighten and helps to deepen the learning experience. But even with all this there is still hesitancy by the majority of training and development professionals to use Second Life.
Hesitancies towards Second Life As we just discussed, the affordances Second Life provides make it an extremely appealing training tool. Yet, as shown previously, corporate training and development programs are not using it. This section summarizes the main objections professional have stated as reasons they are not inclined to use Second Life and then point out ways these objections can be minimized or seen in a larger context so they do not become stumbling blocks. These hesitations are: 1. 2. 3.
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A steep learning curve for both instructors and students Ongoing maintenance/administrative costs Required technology resources to access/ run Second Life
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Security concerns
Learning Curve One of the primary objections to using Second Life for developing and delivery learning activities, regardless whether you are in academia or the corporate world, is its learning curve (Baker et. all., 2009; Taylor & Chyung, 2008; Werner, 2008). This learning curve is felt by students, instructors and developers. While it only takes a few minutes to create an account and go in-world, once logged into Second Life is takes hours to become comfortable with the environment, controls and everything Second Life has to offer (Stoerger, 2008). Students and instructors alike must learn to move, communicate and manipulate the visible environment. For many, entering Second Life will be the first experience of this kind and it could prove to be a total alien experience. As such, it will require time for participants to adjust and become accustomed to the tool and environment. Only once learners become accustom and comfortable to Second Life should the educational activity take place. To do so any sooner, proves to be too distracting and ineffective as learning is marginalized while dealing with other issues, like movement communication, and interaction. Taking it a step further, instructors, designers and developers have the additional challenge of learning a new software tool. People working in these roles must learn to use the more advanced tools of Second Life to build, script and conform the learning environment. While building is not difficult it does require time and patience to master this ability. Scripting, on the other hand, is harder to learn and takes someone comfortable with computer programming to work with. If one is unfamiliar with programming then you have the added challenge of learning the basic concept of that as well before working with Linden Lab’s proprietary scripting language. To use both of these skills together, as one would have to while building any type of interactive training, will
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require tens, if not hundreds, of hours to become truly proficient. Instructors will also need time in-world and experience to create new teaching management techniques (Baker et al., 2009). Working in a new environment requires time and experience to learn what works and what doesn’t when handling classroom management issues. Instructors will need a little extra time at first to discover for themselves new ways of managing learning exercises occurring in Second Life. While there isn’t a shortcut to learning how to build and script, except to actually start working in Second Life, the learning curve for participants can be countered if instructional experiences are well designed. Baker et al. (2009) offer ten suggestions to make learning within Second Life most effective. 1.
Do Not Send Students in to Second Life without Some Educational Objective 2. Be Prepared for the Unexpected and Have a Contingency Plan 3. Prepare Students for the Social Experience 4. Start Small 5. Send Students in With a Partner 6. Make Students your [the instructor’s] Learning Partners 7. Have the Instructor Spend Time in Second Life First 8. Connect With Other Users of Second Life 9. Consider Second Life to Be One Tool in Your Toolbox 10. Assess the Efficacy of Second Life Dede, Nelson, Ketelhut, Clarke, and Bowman (2009) would add to this list that students need time in-world before experiencing the instructional event in order to become immersed in the environment. Indeed, in my own experiences I recommend and follow the guideline of holding short, introductory sessions to Second Life with my learners before asking them to do any type of instructional activity. This helps to accustom them to the environment and minimize the learn-
ing curve by walking them through the interface together so that when they begin the instructional event they are free to concentrate on the materials and not worry about how to move or their appearance. By following these guidelines, the learning curve associated with Second Life can be significantly reduced if not removed all together.
Involved Costs Another stated challenge of Second Life is its associated costs including the upfront buy-in, ongoing administrative/maintenance fees and also any development fees that are incurred while initially designing and building a sim. In order to conduct training you will want to control the space or property you intend to use. While it is possible to use space owned by other residents, many companies feel that doing so poses to much of a security risk since the space is open to any resident of Second Life. We will talk about security risks and what you can do to handle them later in the chapter. While land comes in varying sizes and locations, most large companies will want to use an entire island or sim as they are also called in Second Life. Buying an entire sim has two main advantages over choosing smaller parcels of property. First, by owning an entire sim residents can choose to “hide” the space from the public eye, a security measure we will discuss shortly. This means that the island does not show up on the Second Life map or appear in any search results. The only way to get there is by direct invitation. Secondly, having an entire sim protects you from inappropriate neighbors building right next to you. When sims are broken into smaller plots and sold or leased to other individuals, there is a risk of building a training center and then have something which might be considered inappropriate get created right next door. By owning an entire sim this will not happen since the owner controls and decides what goes up.
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AS of October 2008, the purchase price for a sim in Second Life was $1000 (USD) for corporations or $700 (USD) for educators and non-profits (Private Region Pricing, 2009). However in Second Life you also have to pay monthly maintenance fees to Linden Labs. This fee was $295 for corporate private islands and $147.50 for educators and non-profits. Therefore, just to own an island for one year in Second Life will cost either $4540 (corporate rate) or $2470 (education and non-profit pricing). Also, there are additional costs for buying items to place on the new site and while many can be acquired free, be prepared to spend some money implementing any new sim. While these are not show stopping prices, they do provide a significant area of concern and consideration when venturing into Second Life. However, to put this in perspective, these expenses are comparative to any other major software purchase but much less than the estimated cost to build a MUVE from scratch, which is estimated to be between 12 and 20 million dollars (Ondrejka, 2008).
Required Hardware Another item associated with cost, and also listed as a reason some corporations are hesitant to try Second Life, is the fact that Second Life is a fairly heavy graphic intensive program and may not run on older computers very well. Therefore, instructional designers need to ensure that participants will be able to run the required software to access Second Life. In many organizations, training departments are underfunded and have a training center full of older model computers. While these computers might be fine for running desktop software, they probably do not have the necessary requirement to run Second Life, which is currently minimally listed as needing an 800 MHz Pentium III with 512 MB of RAM, a high quality graphics card and high speed Internet access (System Requirements, 2008); though even with this low end equipment the viewing experience will be less than optimal. Additionally,
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some corporation may work in locations that do not have high speed Internet available and again the experience becomes less than ideal or may not work at all. To create the possibility of a more optimal experience, trainers and designers will need to ensure the computers being used at least meet, if not exceed, the recommended requirements from Linden Lab listed System Requirements. To ensure this, it may be necessary to upgrade the computers being used or possibly replace them with newer models. Doing so should be given serious consideration as companies weigh the pros and cons of ensuring a better learning experience but this means you also have to consider more upfront costs.
Security Concerns The fourth and final hesitancy surround Second Life deals with security concerns, which remains a huge concern as companies consider launching ventures in Second Life. This issue is a two headed beast and deals with both protecting private resources in Second Life and keeping corporate networks safe from those that may want to take advantage of open network settings in real life. While the first issue can be addressed in Second Life, the second cannot and this becomes a major decision point for some corporations. Since Second Life is available and open to anyone on the Internet, companies have expressed concern over protecting their internal resources. Once a sim is set up, it is possible for other residents to stumble upon it and explore the area. Likewise companies also worry about the behavior of their employees while in-world and have expressed concern about protecting intellectual property rights and ensure proper employee behavior to maintain corporate image. Both of these issues are valid, but both can also be addressed by putting certain security measures in place. When creating a new sim, Linden Lab allows the buyer to request a general area of the metaverse for the sim to sit
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within and companies can indicated they would like an area that isn’t as populated as other areas. Also, residents can request the sim be an island, meaning the sim is not attached to the mainland; this lessens the chance of accidental wandering ins or flyovers by curious neighbors, or other residents, who stumble upon the site. Also, as mentioned previously in this chapter, the owner of the land controls the land right down to limiting its use and hiding it from searches. Residents can also choose to close the property’s borders to residents not on the access list; this list is easily maintained by using groups and setting the access list to only allow certain groups or individuals. For example, Company XYZ could buy a sim and set it to allow group XZY Employees. By simply creating and maintaining the XYZ Employee group, their land is accessible to their employees but not others. While closing a sim’s borders will keep unwanted residents out, those residents can still see into the property and view anything that is visible, so it isn’t foolproof on its own. Private sims can also be hidden. When a sim is hidden it does not show up in searches or on the map. The only way for residents to see it is if they accidentally stumble upon it (and as we just discussed precautions can be put into place to ensure that doesn’t happen), or if they are invited onto the sim. Furthermore, property owners can even disallow landmarks to be created. Landmarks are a locational bookmark within Second Life and allow residents to teleport, travel, back to that location at any time. By disallowing landmarks to be created, residents can not travel back to the sim without an invitation. There are also other advanced ways to keep a sim private by taking advantages of tools created by residents, but by taking the two precautions discussed here, hiding an island and setting the access list, a sim can remain relatively private. As companies start to utilize MUVEs for training, education, collaboration or marketing exercises the worry over inappropriate behavior
begins to emerge. In response, some companies are choosing to set guidelines that govern employee behavior inside of Second Life. More and more these companies are setting the standard that employee behavior in Second Life should be no different than in real life, even though Second Life is full of creativity, individualism and freedom of expression. Sun Microsystems insists its employees’ avatars appear human and Intel has banned employees from visiting adult themed establishments, like strip clubs, if the employee is using an avatar with the last name of “Intel,” a private last name only available to company employees (Semuels, 2008). Taking it a step further, in the summer of 2007 IBM established guidelines dictating employee behavior in Second Life and other MUVEs (IBM Virtual World Guidelines, 2007). While the guidelines are not all encompassing they do a reasonable job of defining appropriate and inappropriate activities for IBM’s employees. Clearly, as this technology grows and matures more corporations may follow suit. The other aspect of concern regarding security is network firewalls. To allow Second Life to work properly a number of specific ports must allow traffic through. The problem with this is that most often times, in the interest of protecting their internal private networks, companies routinely shut down the required ports. By doing so, companies provide better security for the internal systems and significantly reduce the possibility of viruses or other malicious programs entering their networks. The reality of this situation hit The Nature Conservancy in June of 2009 when after spending a year making the case to move training into Second Life their IT Security team indicated that by opening the required ports on their firewall would too significantly threaten organization data and the decision was made to look for other ways to establish a virtual presence. For companies facing similar decisions, the pros and cons of each individual situation must be examined and a decision made in the best interest of the organization.
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CONCLUSION This chapter examined the use of Second Life by corporate training and development programs. While the number of corporations currently exploring Second Life for training exercises are significantly lower than the academic realm, we have seen that Second Life is very well suited for such activity. Currently, Second Life offers instructional designers the opportunity to create affordable, immersive learning environments in which instructors and students can work together in ways not previously seen. Because of the 3D nature of virtual worlds content becomes intrinsically interwoven with the context and this intermingling creates a dynamic instructional environment in which the learner must fully understand both in order to be successful. While we do not know the exact numbers of colleges, universities or corporate training programs currently working within Second Life, we can assume this number will rise over the next few years as more and more educators, from all levels and fields, become aware of the advantages and tools Second Life provides. Within this chapter we examined three tools of primary interest in Second Life: media screen, which allow us to push more dynamic content to learners, holodecks, which allow for the more creative use of smaller spaces by having multiple scenes ready at a moment’s notice, and lastly bots, which allow for programmed interaction and the appearance of intelligence. Collectively, these three items could revolutionize corporate training programs. This is not to say there are no challenges to consider when implementing Second Life. This paper examined four of those challenges: security concerns, cost, necessary resources and a steep learning curve. While each does have a basis for concern, none are insurmountable. The learning curve is not unlike the time spent learning any new development tool; however, for those not developing heavy scripted content and for learners themselves the learning curve is relatively low
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and learners should be very comfortable within an hour or two. Cost was another area of concern. To truly control a space companies will have to spend between $2700 and $5000 (USD). Then there are other tangential costs, such as in-world development expenses or hardware equipment. However, these costs are not any different than those spent purchasing new development software and exponentially less that developing your on virtual world from scratch. Security might prove the biggest stumbling block of all. While precautions can be made once development has started in Second Life, the fact that traffic must be allowed through company firewalls might keep many organizations from moving into Second Life. In the end it is up to each company to weigh the advantages and disadvantages of conducting training or other educational activities in Second Life and decide for themselves the best course of action. The ongoing use of Second Life for educational pursuits for both academic and corporate use cannot, nor should be, disputed. The mix of available tools, opportunities for collaboration and endogenous nature in which content can be intertwined within the environmental context can make Second Life a dynamic learning environment. Because of this unique blend, Second Life will remain a vehicle of instruction that will draw practitioners in the years ahead and I can only image what will happen when corporate use begins to flourish.
ReFeReNCeS Artificial Linguistic Internet Computer Entity. (2009). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved June 30, 2009, from http://en.wikipedia. org/w/index.php?title=Artificial_Linguistic_Internet_Computer_Entity&oldid=300068444 Baker, S. C., Wentz, R. K., & Woods, M. M. (2009). Using Virtual Worlds in Education: Second Life as an Educational Tool. Teaching of Psychology, 36, 59–64. doi:10.1080/00986280802529079
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Bradley, J. (2009). Can Second Life help teach doctors to treat patients? CNN.com Retrieved May 15, 2009 from http://www.cnn.com/2009/ TECH/03/30/doctors.second.life/index.html Dede, C., Nelson, B., Ketelhut, D. J., Clarke, J., & Bowman, C. (2009). Design-based Research Strategies for Studying Situated Learning in a Multi-user Virtual Environment. Retrieved April 26, 2009 from http://muve.gse.harvard.edu/rivercityproject/documents/dedeICLS04.pdf Economic Statistics. (2009). In Second Life. Retrieved June 24, 2009 from http://secondlife. com/statistics/economy-data.php eLearning Guild. (2008). Guild Research 360° Report on Immersive Learning Simulations. Retrieved, June 26, 2009 from http://www.elearningguild.com/showfile.cfm?id=2780 Hayes, E. R. (2006) Situated Learning in Virtual Worlds: The Learning Ecology of Second Life. Proceedings from 2006 Adult Education Research Conference. Retrieved April 25, 2009 from http:// www.adulterc.org/Proceedings/2006/Proceedings/Hayes.pdf Holodeck (2009). In Second Life Wiki. Retrieved May 20, 2009 from http://wiki.secondlife.com/ wiki/Holodeck Jennings, N., & Collins, C. (2007). Virtual or Virtually U: Education Institutions in Second Life. International journal of Social Sciences, 2(3), 180-186. Retrieved April 26, 2009 from http:// www.waset.org/ijss/v2/v2-3-2-28.pdf Johnson, L. (2008). NMC Virtual Worlds Announces Plans for 2008. Retrieved March 15, 2009 from http://virtualworlds.nmc.org/2008/01/16/ nmc-virtual-worlds-announces-plans-for-2008/ Kemp, J. W., & Haycock, K. (2008). Immersive Learning Environments in Parallel Universes: Learning through Second Life. School Libraries Worldwide, 14(2), 89–97.
Myatt, L. (2008). Connecting the Dots: The Unexplored Promise of Visual Literacy in American Classrooms. Phi Delta Kappan, 90(3). 186-189. Retrieved July 5, 2007 from http://www.forumforeducation.org/node/370 Newton, R., & Doonga, N. (2007). Corporate e-learning: Justification for implementation and evaluation of benefits. A study examining the views of training managers and training providers. Education for Information, 25, 111–129. Ondrejka, C. Education Unleashed: Participatory Culture, Education, and innovation in Second Life. The Ecology of Games: Connecting Youth, Games and Learning. Edited by Katie Salen. The John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation Series on Digital Media and Learning. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 2008. 229-252. Private Region Pricing. (2009, April 27). In Second Life. Retrieved April 27, 2009 from http:// secondlife.com/land/privatepricing.php Semuels, A. (2008, May 10). Corporate America’s Second Life. Los Angeles Times. Retrieved June 10, 2009 from http://articles.latimes.com/2008/ may/10/business/fi-secondlife10 Stoerger, S. (2008). Virtual Worlds, Virtual Literacy: An Educational Exploration. Knowledge Quest, 36(3), 50–56. System Requirements. (2009, June 3). In Second Life. Retrieved June 3, 2008 from http://secondlife. com/support/sysreqs.php Taylor, K., & Chyung, S. Y. (2008). Would you Adopt Second Life as a Training and Development Tool? Performance Improvement, 47(8), 17–25. doi:10.1002/pfi.20019 ThinkBalm, Inc. (2009, May 26). ThinkBalm Immersive Internet Business Value Study, Q2 2009. Retrieved June 26, 2009 from http:// thinkbalm.files.wordpress.com/2009/05/thinkbalm-immersive-internet-business-value-studyfinal-5-26-092.pdf
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Virtual World Guidelines, I. B. M. (2007). In IBM. Retrieved July 1, 2009 from http://domino. research.ibm.com/comm/research_projects.nsf/ pages/virtualworlds.IBMVirtualWorldGuidelines.html Werner, T. (2008, August). Using Second Life for Workplace Learning. Brandon Hall, Retrieved from http://www.brandon-hall.com/publications/ secondlife/secondlife.shtml What is Play2Train. (2007). In Play2Train. Retrieved April 21, 2009 from http://play2train. hopto.org/
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keY TeRmS AND DeFINITIONS Bot: An artificial avatar, meaning there is no human sitting at a keyboard driving its action/ behavior, in Second Life. Holodeck: A device in Second Life capable of using a single space to replicate different preconfigured settings or environments when activated. Prim: The basic building block in Second Life; think of it as a single cell in the human body. Resident: A member of the Second Life community. Sim: An island within Second Life. Four sims sit on each real life server for load balancing reasons.
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Chapter 24
Self-Developing a MUVE for Research and Educational Innovations Nick V. Flor University of New Mexico, USA
ABSTRACT Multi-user virtual environment (MUVE) researchers need to create their own virtual worlds and to stop waiting for industry to create innovations. The technology and instructional materials for creating virtual worlds have advanced to the point where a single person, unaided, can develop a virtual world that is suitable for experimentation—even though it may lack the aesthetics of commercially available worlds. The aim of this chapter is to demystify the development of virtual worlds by describing the fundamental skill set you must acquire to self-develop a virtual world. The skills are: modeling, texturing, animation, and programming. The author focuses on two of these skills, modeling and texturing, and describe a set of core techniques for creating the exterior of a virtual world. By practicing and building on these techniques, one can create the interiors and characters for more complex MUVES.
INTRODUCTION As both an information systems and a new media researcher, I find it frustrating that we are in the midst of a technology revolution, yet unlike the natural sciences where academia leads the discovery of innovations, it is industry that is leading the discoveries. For instance, the dotcom revolution yielded innovative Web sites and social networking services like eBay, YouTube, DOI: 10.4018/978-1-61692-822-3.ch024
Twitter, Facebook, and Wikipedia. And what is astonishing is the simplicity of the technology underlying these sites. Many were built initially by one or two individuals in several weeks or less. For example, the technology for EBay was created by a single person over a Labor Day weekend as part of an exercise in internet programming (Cohen, 2003, p. 4). Unfortunately, many information systems researchers seem content to be stenographers of industry—using statistical and qualitative techniques from the natural sciences to essentially
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describe the innovations created by industry. As such, much of information systems research lacks relevance (Benbasat & Zmud, 1999). This should not be the case. We need to realize that we are part of what Nobel-laureate Herb Simon calls a “science of the artificial” (Simon, 1996), and both the design and the creation of innovations are crucial research activities. The importance of doing design and implementation—in addition to natural science approaches to studying information systems—has been argued in the past (March & Smith, 1995), and a design science is starting to emerge (Hevner et al., 2004). The main difference between design science and “plain-old” design is that the goal of design science is to create new knowledge for a community, whereas design as practiced in industry does not necessarily create new knowledge. We find ourselves in the midst of yet another technological revolution—the multi-user virtual environment (MUVE) or virtual worlds revolution—with the potential for radically new forms of research (Bainbridge, 2007). Either we continue studying post hoc the innovative virtual worlds created by industry like Second Life, World of Warcraft, and Guild Wars, to name a few; or we create our own innovations. The question is: given the seeming complexity of virtual worlds, is it reasonable to expect information systems researchers to create them? The general perspective of this chapter is that, similar to the web innovations mentioned earlier, there are many virtual world innovations that information systems researchers can build. Moreover, both the technology and the instructional materials needed to build virtual worlds have advanced to the point where a single or a small number of individuals can build one in a relatively short time span. While the virtual worlds created by academia may not have the awe-inspiring aesthetics found in the virtual worlds that make up commercial games such as World of Warcraft or Halo, one should realize that most of the innovative social networking websites also do not have fantastic
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aesthetics when compared to the sites that a trained artist can create. For researchers and educators who create virtual worlds as part of a design science, the objective is not an aesthetically pleasing virtual world, but rather a virtual world that leads to new knowledge, e.g., new forms of social problem solving, or new forms of communication across multiple media. Aesthetics is secondary. Besides, often what looks to be a fantastically complex virtual world is the result of a skilled artist creating realistic texture maps, a kind of digital wall paper that gets “wrapped” onto the things in the virtual world. The objective of this chapter is to demystify the development of virtual worlds by describing the fundamental skill set you must acquire to self-develop a virtual world and to show you how these skills are applied to create a virtual world. The skills are: modeling, texture mapping, animation, and programming. This chapter focuses on the two skills needed to start building virtual worlds: modeling and texture mapping. Within these skills are a core set of techniques that one can use to start building basic virtual worlds. By practicing and building on these techniques, you can create more complex and aesthetically pleasing virtual worlds. Finally, aside from the practical applications that result from learning the skills necessary to develop virtual worlds, there are research opportunities as well. Currently, the best way to learn the skills for creating virtual worlds is through the trade books published by the makers of the software packages and by professionals. For example, Autodesk publishes books on basic modeling and animation (Autodesk Maya Press, 2009), as well as applying modeling and animation to game development (Autodesk, 2009). Game professionals publish books on specific skills like texture mapping (Ahearn, 2006), or designing levels for games (Co, 2006). However, the techniques for creating these models are based largely on experience and the theoretical foundations underlying these techniques are not explicit. Works by academics
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like Ratner (2009), in which the techniques for modeling human characters are described along with their foundation in classic human anatomy, are rare. Virtual world researchers can build on these techniques, discover new ones, and provide the theoretical grounding for the techniques; thus contributing to the emerging field of design science within the domain of virtual world modeling.
BACkgROUND mINImIUm HARDWARe AND SOFTWARe To experiment with building a virtual world you need the following hardware and software: a. b. c. d.
A personal computer with some form of graphics support. A 3D modeling, animation, and rendering program. A painting program. A game development environment, which will also serve as the virtual world development environment.
It is beyond the scope of this paper to review the numerous combinations of hardware and software that are possible. The important point is to ensure that you have all four items. For all the examples in this chapter, I used the following: (a) a Hewlett Packard TX2000 series tablet PC with an ATI Radeon Mobility HD 3200 onboard graphics chip; (b) Autodesk 3ds Max 2009; (c) Adobe Photoshop CS4; and (d) Microsoft XNA Studio 3.1.
THe FUNDAmeNTAL SkILLS Regardless of what hardware and software combination you decide to use, if you want to self-build a virtual world you need to develop four fundamental skills: (1) modeling—for creating the terrain, the sky, and the things in your world, which include
buildings, rooms, characters, and creatures; (2) texture mapping—for making realistic looking models; (3) animation—for choreographing the movement of the things in your world; and (4) programming—for creating the behaviors of the things in your world, and the consequences of users interacting with things in your world, as well as for creating special effects. The fundamental skills are what you need to start building a virtual world. However, to build a successful virtual world with a community of regular users, there are many other skills you need including: digital storytelling skills for creating enjoyable quests and activities for the participants in your virtual world; user-interface skills for creating controls and displays that make it easy for your users to interact with your virtual world; and business skills—particularly marketing and sales—for designing both advertisements and payment mechanisms. We will focus on just the fundamental skills in the following sections, and I will demonstrate their application to building the exterior of a basic virtual world.
SkILL 1 mODeLINg In the context of building a virtual world, modeling is the process of taking an imagined or actual object and creating a digital representation of that object using a modeling package. This digital representation is known as the model, and the person that creates the model is known as the modeler. To give the model a realistic or aesthetic appearance, the modeler must add textures to the model’s surface. Furthermore, if the model is a character, creature, or other moving object, the modeler must add animations to the model to simulate behaviors. The textured and possibly animated model is then imported into a game development environment, like Microsoft’s XNA Studio, which allows multiple users to interact with it and with other users over a network.
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There are three main ways of modeling: polygon, NURBs (non-uniform rational B-spline), and sub-d (sub-division). We will concentrate on polygon modeling because it is the most natural one to learn — as it is based on geometric primitives and familiar operations — and it is also the one most commonly used in commercial video games. With polygon modeling, one models an object by adding, deleting, and moving vertices, edges, and faces. The drawback to polygon modeling is that it results in models with sharp boundaries. However, most modeling packages include automatic smoothing operators to round off sharp points and edges.
Basic Polygon modeling Techniques In polygon modeling, you typically start off by adding a primitive object like a cube or a plane to your workspace. Figure 1 depicts both a cube and a plane. Cubes and planes consist of vertices, edges, and faces; collectively these are labeled elements. In addition to cubes and planes, most modeling programs include spheres, cylinders, and cones as primitive objects. Given a primitive object, there are four basic operations or techniques that you can perform: (1) move one or more elements; (2) remove one or more elements; (3) cut edges into faces; or (4) extrude faces. The move and remove techniques. You can move or remove any vertex, edge, or face element. Figure 2 depicts an example of moving each of these elements. Removing an element from an object can have unforeseen results. For example, removing a vertex from a cube also removes the three faces that the vertex is a part of (not shown). The cut technique. Moving and removing the vertices, the edges, and the faces of an object gives you some variety in creating new objects. To get more variety, you must cut new edges onto the object. Figure 3 depicts examples of vertical, horizontal, and diagonal cuts. Cutting new edges also creates new faces and vertices. For example, a vertical cut on a cube face yields two faces and
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two new vertices. After you make one or more cuts, you can move or delete any of the elements that result from your cuts. The extrude technique. The final basic way a polygon modeler creates variations is by extruding polygon faces. Extruding takes a face and raises or lowers that face while automatically adding the faces needed to support the raised or lowered face. Figure 4 depicts two examples of extruding a face.
Application of the Basic modeling Techniques to Creating a Virtual World By starting with basic primitives like boxes and planes, and then modifying these primitives using the four basic polygon-modeling techniques of moving, removing, cutting, and extruding, you can create the exterior of a basic virtual world consisting of a terrain, a sky, roads, sidewalks, and buildings. We will also paint the faces of the objects in our virtual world using colors that are available in all modeling programs. Preparatory Step: Selecting a Unit System. Before you start creating a virtual world, you should decide on a unit system. If your modeling program does not support US Standard or Metric units, you can adopt the convention that one unit = one foot. So, for example, if you want to create a square building that is 50-feet wide, 100-feet long, and 200-feet tall, you would start by adding a box primitive that is 50x100x200 units. Step 1. Modeling the Terrain. In creating a virtual world, your first step is to decide how big you want your world to be in terms of the unit system you established in the preparatory step. You can then use a plane primitive as the starting point for your terrain. Figure 5 depicts a 1000x1000 unit terrain suitable for modeling a small street, which has been painted green. Viewing the Model in the Game Development Environment. While a green plane may seem unconvincing as a terrain, especially when
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Figure 1. A polygon modeler typically starts off with a cube (depicted) or a plane
Figure 2. Moving a vertex (left), edge (middle), and face (right) to the left. The element moved is shaded
Figure 3. A vertical (left), horizontal (middle), and two diagonal cuts (right). The vertical and horizontal cuts yield two new faces, and the diagonal cuts yield four faces where there used to be a single face
Figure 4. Examples of extruding a face. The left picture shows a cube with a cut face prior to extruding. The middle picture shows one of the faces extruded outwards; the extruded face is shaded. The right picture shows the same face extruded inward.
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Figure 5. A plane primitive with a green color assigned to the top face. The plane is 1000x1000 units
Figure 6. The 1000x1000 unit plane when viewed from within a game development environment from the perspective of a character standing in the middle of the world
viewed from within a modeling program, viewing the plane within the game development environment can create a different feeling. Viewing a model inside of the game development environment consists of two steps: (1) exporting the model from the modeling program as a file in a standard transfer format, e.g.,.FBX; and (2) importing the file into the development environment.
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Figure 6 is the view that a six-foot tall character would see when standing in the middle of the plane and looking towards the horizon. Step 2. Modeling the Sky. The sky in a simple virtual world can be implemented by adding a sphere primitive that is large enough to engulf the terrain you created in step 1, and then removing the elements in the bottom half of the
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Figure 7. A sky dome. The left picture shows half of a sphere primitive painted blue, which is used to simulate the sky of a virtual world. In the right picture the sky dome is transparent to reveal the terrain.
Figure 8. The terrain and sky dome when viewed inside of the game development environment by a character standing in the middle of the world
sphere. The resulting object is commonly referred to as a sky dome. Figure 7 depicts a sky dome in the modeling program, which has been painted a blue color. As with viewing the terrain in the modeling program, viewing the combined sky dome and terrain in the modeling program is unconvincing. However, Figure 8 depicts the viewpoint of a character standing in the middle of the world looking out towards the horizon. Step 3. Modeling an Asphalt Jungle. Using polygon modeling to create greenery like trees
and bushes can get complicated, especially if your modeling program does not support greenery as basic primitives. However, one can easily create what I call an asphalt jungle in any modeling program. I define an asphalt jungle as a scene consisting of a cross road, gutters, and a sidewalk. An asphalt jungle can be easily modified to represent a neighborhood, a main street, or a downtown. To create an asphalt jungle, you first take the plane representing your terrain and use the cutting technique to create edges that represent the cross
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roads, the gutters, and the sidewalks. You then use the extrude technique to raise the sidewalks and the terrain. Figure 9 depicts a top view of the terrain from Figure 5, without the green coloring, and with the edges cut for the cross roads (40
units wide), gutters (1 unit wide), and sidewalks (5 units wide). Figure 10 is a close up of the intersection of the cross roads. The gutters are visible as thin
Figure 9. The terrain plane viewed from the top, with edges cut for the cross roads, gutters, and sidewalks. Not apparent from the top view is that the sidewalks and terrain have been raised using the extrusion technique.
Figure 10. A close up of the asphalt jungle. The roads are painted black, the sidewalks gray, and the gutters white.
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white lines and the sidewalks are visible as thick gray lines. Figure 11 depicts the asphat jungle when viewed in the game development environment. With the addition of the asphalt jungle, the virtual world is starting to look more realistic. However, it is missing buildings.
Step 4. Creating Buildings. The final step in creating the exterior of a basic virtual world is to add buildings. Creating most buildings is a process of taking a primitive cube, cutting edges, moving elements, and extruding faces. We will go through the creation of a basic house using just these techniques. Note that buildings are typically modeled separately from the terrain and then im-
Figure 11. The asphalt jungle viewed in the game development environment. Note the raised sidewalks
Figure 12. A primitive cube as the starting point for a house
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ported into it. Through programming it is also possible to keep the terrain and buildings as separate files and use the game development environment to add the buildings as needed. Figure 12 depicts four views of a cube that is 25 units wide, 25 units long, and 10 units tall. The views are top, front, left, and perspective. We will
use the cube as the starting point for modeling a one-story house. To make the cube look more like a house, it needs a roof. Creating a roof requires cutting an edge through the middle of the top face (see Figure 13).
Figure 13. The start of a roof, an edge cut in the middle of the top cube face
Figure 14. Creating a roof by moving the cut edge up by 5 units
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The roof structure is created by moving this edge up vertically (see Figure 14). However, the roof lacks depth. By selecting the two roof faces and extruding them, the roof acquires depth. Figure 15 depicts the extruded roof in red.
The next step is to add doors to the house. Similar to creating the asphalt jungle, create a door requires cutting edges into the front face of the house that represent the door and the door frame, then extruding the door frame (see Figure 16).
Figure 15. Extruding the roof faces to give them depth
Figure 16. The door and door frame created by cutting edges for the door and door frame and then extruding the door frame faces
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Finally, we add windows to the house. Similar to creating a door, to create windows you cut edges representing the windows, window frames, and window sills. You then extrude the window frames and the window sills (see Figure 17). Figure 18 depicts the completed house with the door, windows, frames, and roof painted.
With a building created, it can be imported into the terrain. Figure 19 depicts the house imported into our asphalt jungle. Once a building is imported, most modeling programs can automatically generate multiple copies (see Figure 20). Viewed inside the game development environment, the asphalt jungle with the houses starts to
Figure 17. Windows and window frames created by cutting and extruding the front house face
Figure 18. The complete house with all faces painted
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take on the appearance of a neighborhood (see Figure 21). Figure 22 depicts a more complicated building based on the School of Management at the University of New Mexico. I created this building using the same techniques used to create the house: adding a primitive cube, followed by cutting, extruding, and moving elements.
As one adds a greater variety of buildings, the virtual world acquires more realism when viewed in the game development environment (see Figure 23).
Figure 19. The house imported into the asphalt jungle
Figure 20. The house with auto-generated multiple copies
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Figure 21. A view of the houses from within the game development environment
Figure 22. A model of the School of Management at the University of New Mexico. Although more detailed than the house, it was still created by taking primitive cubes, cutting, and extruding.
SkILL 2 TexTURe mAPPINg Just using solid colors gives the appearance of a cartoon virtual world. This may be okay if realism is not important in your virtual world. However, for a more realistic looking virtual world, you must
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add texture maps to all the objects in the world. A texture map is a bitmap created in a program like Photoshop or Illustrator, which you wrap onto the faces of your models. It is the digital analog of wall paper, except that you can apply texture maps to any object. Figure 24 depicts two texture maps,
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Figure 23. A basic virtual world with an asphalt jungle and buildings
Figure 24. Texture maps for a road (left) and a sidewalk (right)
one for the roads and another for the sidewalks in our virtual world example. Applying a texture map to an object is a threestep process: (1) importing the texture map into the modeling program as a material; (2) selecting the object or the faces of the object that will contain the texture map; and (3) applying the texture map to the object or faces. One can also specify whether a texture map is stretched onto a face or
is tiled. Figure 25 depicts the roads and sidewalks with and without texture maps. Figure 26 depicts the virtual world with texture maps when viewed from within the game development environment. Texture mapping is straightforward when the maps are applied to rectangular objects and faces. When the faces are non-rectangular, as is often the case with models of human heads, texture mapping can be non-trivial and very time consum-
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Figure 25. Roads and sidewalks without the texture maps (left) and with the texture maps (right)
Figure 26. View of the virtual world with texture maps for the roads and sidewalks
ing. Nevertheless, the basic principles behind texture mapping are simple and by applying them to simple objects one acquires the foundation for mapping more complex objects.
FUTURe DIReCTIONS I have covered how to develop a basic virtual world consisting of a terrain, sky dome, asphalt jungle (roads, gutters, sidewalks), and buildings. Conspicuously missing from this chapter is a
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discussion of how to model characters and the interiors of buildings. However, once one gains proficiency modeling the exterior objects of a virtual world, these same skills can be applied to modeling interiors and even characters. In fact, one can model any object that can be conceived as collection of stacked boxes. For example, the human head is one of the most complex objects to model. Yet by starting with a box and adding appropriate cuts and extrusions, one can create a reasonable approximation, particularly after adding a smoothing operator to
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Figure 27. A head based on a primitive box that was modified using cutting and extruding (left). The same head with a smoothing operator applied (right).
eliminate the rough edges (see Figure 27). Furniture like couches, chairs, and tables can also be modeled by starting with boxes to represent the flat areas, cutting faces for the legs and backrests, and finally extruding the legs and backrests. The key is to continuously practice the basic polygon modeling techniques. Recall, however, that modeling and texture mapping are only two of the four skills that you need to create a complete virtual world. Once your modeling skill has advanced to the point where you can model not only exteriors, but also interiors and characters, you can start learning the animation skills needed to move your characters, and the programming skills for displaying character animations in response to events.
ReADILY ImPLemeNTABLe eDUCATIONAL APPLICATIONS Assuming that one has learned the four skills of polygon modeling, texture mapping, animation, and programming, there are an unlimited number of virtual world learning applications. Dieterle & Clarke (2005) provide a review of existing multiuser virtual environments in education. Some other applications that are readily implemented with just the four skills, and with limiting the program-
ming to the loading of models and animations in response to events, include: Application 1: Case studies. In business and law schools, it is common for instructors to use case studies—where students read about actual situations, then identify problems and infer solutions. The students’ findings are then discussed in class. Instead of having students read about situations, one can build a virtual world that models the situation and then students can act out the roles in the case. Moreover, the virtual world allows students to explore alternative scenarios with other students, in a way they could only imagine when reading the case. Application 2: Virtual Training. One can use a virtual world to model equipment, materials, and procedures, then have students learn to operate the equipment in the virtual world prior to using the actual items. An example would be a virtual science laboratory, where students could learn how to combine materials with equipment and learn the consequences of mistakes without having to experience actual damage. Application 3: Teamwork and Serious Games. By teaching students the four key skills, they can collaborate to build a serious game within a virtual world. Briefly, a serious game is an application containing elements of videogame play, but with a learning objective (Kelly et al., 2007).
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For example, at University of New Mexico’s Interdisciplinary Film & Digital Media program (IFDM), we teach the basics of polygon modeling and animation in half a semester. In the second half of the semester, the students break up into groups of four consisting of a producer, an artist, a designer, and a programmer and they collaborate to design and implement a serious game. Building such applications will give the multiuser virtual environment developer the experience needed to create more complex environments. And like the Web, the truly innovative uses of multi-user virtual environments lie still ahead.
CONCLUSION This chapter covered two of the basics skills needed to create a virtual world: modeling and texture mapping. The emphasis was on modeling the exterior aspects of a virtual world by taking simple primitives that are available in most modeling programs—like cubes and planes—and then using the operations or techniques of moving and removing elements, as well as cutting edges into faces, and extruding faces to mold these primitives into more complex objects, either real or imagined. While the chapter emphasized the modeling of exterior objects, these same primitives and techniques can be used to create interior objects and characters.
ReFeReNCeS Ahearn, L. (2006). 3D Game Textures. Burlington, MA: Focal Press. Autodesk. (2009). Autodesk 3ds Max 2010: Foundation for Games. San Rafael, CA: Autodesk, Inc. Autodesk Maya Press. (2009). Autodesk Maya 2010: The Modeling and Animation Handbook. San Rafael, CA: Autodesk, Inc.
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Bainbridge, W. S. (2007). The Scientific Research Potential of Virtual Worlds. Science, 317, 472–476. doi:10.1126/science.1146930 Benbasat, I., & Zmud, R. W. (1999). Empirical Research in Information Systems: The Practice of Relevance. Management Information Systems Quarterly, 23(1), 3–16. doi:10.2307/249403 Co, P. (2006). Level Design for Games. Berkeley, CA: New Riders. Cohen, A. (2003). The Perfect Store. New York: Back Bay Books. Dieterle, E., & Clarke, J. (2005). Multi-User Virtual Environments for Teaching and Learning. In Pagani, M. (Ed.), Encyclopedia of multimedia technology and networking (2nd ed., pp. 1033–1041). Hershey, PA: Idea Group. Hevner, A. R., March, S. T., Park, J., & Ram, S. (2004). Design Science in Information Systems Research. Management Information Systems Quarterly, 28(1), 75–105. Kelly, H., Howell, K., Glinert, E., Holding, L., Swain, C., Burrowbridge, A., & Roper, M. (2007). How to Build Serious games. Communications of the ACM, 50, 45–49. doi:10.1145/1272516.1272538 March, S. T., & Smith, G. F. (1995). Design and Natural Science Research on Information Technology. Decision Support Systems, 15, 251–266. doi:10.1016/0167-9236(94)00041-2 Ratner, P. (2009). 3-D Human Modeling and Animation (3rd ed.). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons. Simon, H. A. (1996). The Sciences of the Artificial. Cambridge: MIT Press.
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Chapter 25
Collaborative Learning through Flexible Web CVE: The Experience of WebTalk Ugo Barchetti University of Salento, Italy Alberto Bucciero University of Salento, Italy Luca Mainetti University of Salento, Italy
ABSTRACT This chapter describes the technological platform of the authors’ learning experiences and its evolution through the years, providing insights into the reasons that led to significant design choices and offering guidelines on how to deal with technological issues.
INTRODUCTION Shared virtual environments, as collaboration tools, CVE, are mainly intended as a way to support collaboration of several users working on a common (virtual) scene (data model). Communication between instructors and trainees (simulation and training applications), sharing data (for visually supported discussions of scientists or decision-makers) (CSCW), support for innovative teaching-learning and support for collaborative e-learning (CSCL), are all examples of use for
shared virtual environments. These applications (re)create a multi-user virtual world, according to Damer (1997), as two or three-dimensional graphical environments inhabited by users (represented as digital actors called “avatars”) that share with other users time, space and actions, cooperating together for a common goal. Several different software systems, both commercial and research prototypes, support today’s Collaborative Virtual Environments. We started in 1998 a development, WebTalk, which has evolved, over the years, to the current WebTalk04, described in the next paragraphs.
Previous Approaches Our first original aim was to build a virtual museum where several visitors could “go together”. An application that allowed a virtual visit to the “National Science and Technology Museum” (Paolini et al., 1999; Barbieri, 2000; Barbieri & Paolini, 2001a) of Milan, was for some time available to the public, through the web site of the Museum itself. It hosted a 3D virtual exhibition on the machines “invented” by Leonardo Da Vinci or, more precisely, of wood machines built according to the drawings left by Leonardo. The application, award winner at the 1999 Museums and the Web international conference in New Orleans, allowed the exploration of a building, vaguely representing the actual museum. A “guide”, playing the role of “Leonardo”, had the task of guiding visitors through the virtual rooms. Virtual objects on display were either reproductions of Leonardo’s machines (on display in the museum) or gateways to web pages on the museum’s website. The reproduction of the machines, rather than being realistic, was playful (also because most of Leonardo’s machines do not work in reality). The prototype, called WebTalk-I and written in 1998, at the HOC laboratory of the Polytechnics of Milan, was a client/server framework entirely written in Java and VRML: it required a VRML Browser and a Java Virtual Machine to run a Java applet within the browser. The browsers at that time (Netscape 4 and Explorer 4) had Java and a VRML plug-in installed by default, therefore the application was easily available for most PC users. After six months of experimental usage, it was evident that cooperation (a loose one) among visitors was successful. Finding someone “there”, visiting the museum from a far away place, was an exciting experience: both if the meeting was “prearranged” or it happened by chance. The virtual museum, instead, by itself, was not very attractive to the users. One important highlight from the data we collected at the time, was that when there were no collaboration activities within
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the system (no other users, or nobody playing Leonardo in the virtual environment), the connection time of the users was very low (typically below five minutes). On the contrary, when forms of collaborations where enacted, users remained connected an average of 53 minutes, even engaged on a single topic (Figure 1). We had therefore the evidence that collaboration within virtual environments had a clear, outstanding and unexploited potential for attracting attention and interest of a vast range of participants, regardless of their level of education, sustaining their attention for a long time. “WebTalk-II” was the term for an initial framework project whose goal was to tackle the issues described above, by drafting a generic architecture that was to be the foundation for all subsequent research and development activities. The idea was to lay out the groundwork for terminology and architecture on which to coordinate all future efforts and to offer a schematic vision of all the features and main components of a possible “total collaborative system”. The conceptual framework describes two main abstract concepts for the management of the shared space: the Scene Builder and the bi-dimensional GUI. In conclusion, the WebTalk-II part of the research was fundamental to organize the application domain of Collaborative Virtual Environments and to set the path and the direction of future implementations and applications. The experience with “Virtual Leonardo” and the foundational work made with the WebTalk-II framework enabled the team at the Polytechnic of Milan to move toward an educational environment: the idea was to exploit the potentiality for collaboration (among students now) to the maximum extent. The occasion came with SEE, Shrine Educational Experience (Di Blas et al., 2003), developed in partnership with the Israel Museum in Jerusalem. SEE is about the cultural, religious and historical issues related to the Dead Sea Scrolls, found in the Qumran (near the Dead Sea), in Israel.
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Figure 1. Collaboration in virtual learning environments could sustain students’ attention on a single topic for one hour, on average
The scrolls are documents that either represent a very ancient (often the most ancient) copy of a book of the Bible, or describe features of the life and belief of this sect, living near the Dead Sea, roughly from the second century B.C. to the first century A.D. Targets for the educational collaborative experience were students of junior and senior high-schools. The approach we were required to follow was to apply leverage to the potential of 3D learning environments to create a new methodology of learning, based on cooperation, competition, sharing of knowledge between pairs and interaction. Prior to use the 3D learning environment and meet other classes in the virtual space, each class was required to prepare specific topics with the assistance of their teachers. Then the students connected to the system and started working with other classes, using the computer laboratories of their schools and thus collaborating also with each other, “at their side” of the connection. In order to build an effective and reliable environment, the developing team decided to rely upon web-based “industrialized building blocks”, and the preference was for Macromedia Flash, Shockwave and Director (Barbieri et al., 2004). The choice was mainly determined by the need of having a reliable technology provider (after a few “bruising experiences” with VRML engines
coming in and out of the market) and wide availability (with no additional cost for the users). The resulting environment was named WebTalk3 (WebTalkCube) (Figure 2). The 3D world was based upon the 3D model generated by one of the commercial 3D design tools such as Discreet 3D, Studio Max, Lightwave 3D, etc. Once the 3D model was complete, it was exported (as a monolithic entity that was not possible to split into modules), in Shockwave 3D (W3D), a file format, suitable to be understood by Macromedia applications. The programmer had to import everything into the Director’s stage and only then all the dynamic aspects (including “behaviors” of the interactive objects, the events to which to react, etc.) could be hard coded. Even changing position to one object or a colour change, forced the programmer to ask the designer to make the changes then re-export the geometries, problems similar to the ones we already had in WebTalk-1. Furthermore the development process (including the fact that the “names” within the two environments, the modelling one and the Director, had to be exactly the same) was cumbersome, confusing and expensive (e.g. the Director of the programmers had to learn 3D Studio Max). Despite these problems, SEE and its underlying software system WebTalk3, were successfully deployed and in two years more than 70 schools
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Figure 2. SEE in partnership with the Israel Museum in Jerusalem
in four different countries, involving nearly 1,500 students, have used the environment for highly rewarding educational activities. The technical problems below described required a different approach: •
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Lack of flexibility: there was no modularization of content or behavior; everything had to be hard coded, within Director stages (using cast objects coordinated with Lingo); it was long and expensive to carry on any modification. Non-optimal performances: the communication server (Macromedia Multiuser Server) worked only as “stupid” message dispatcher. Every client, which needed to communicate with another client, had to send data to this central server that forwarded it to every other client (even the
•
ones not interested to the message). It was the job of every client to decide whether to keep or to discard messages received by the server. This approach resulted in a too low refresh rate (position vectors refreshed every two seconds) of the shared state scene; avatars were often visualized as not moving continuously, but disappearing here and reappearing there. Non-optimal reliability: as the MUS (Multi User Server) did not provide any acknowledgment of a received message, there was no assurance that sent messages really arrived at the server and from there to each client application. This negatively affected the overall consistency: avatars may have different positions for different clients; sometimes actions performed on a client were not executed at all on another client;
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even the chat (always served by MUS) sometimes hung up.
LeSSONS LeARNeD AND NeW ReQUIRemeNTS After the successful deployment of SEE, it was decided the launch a new stream of educational applications, based on a common idea, but also with significant differences (in terms of world geometries, interactive objects, textures, collaboration features, etc.). Even within each application different versions were needed (e.g. selecting different content and different quizzes for different groups of schools). Flexibility and configurability became, therefore, a crucial requirement. Moreover, in order to expand the number of schools, we needed to improve both performance and reliability, decreasing, if possible, requirements on connection bandwidth. A number of key decisions were therefore taken for future developments: •
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Choice of a new supporting platform as Macromedia Studio 2004 MX: the large availability of the Macromedia Shockwave player (over 200 million installations all over the world) and its “industry reliability” were crucial elements. Some technical features were also relevant: e.g. the capability of importing 3D Studio file format, the support of Havok physics engine (ability to control and assign physics to both unanimated and animated objects and control their kinematics), the presence of a set of built in behaviors to control, for example, avatar movements. Use of XML as a configuration language: the possibility of “describing” static features (e.g. representing position, colour, dimension etc. of the objects at start-up) and a dynamic features (e.g. defining if objects can be moved, clicked etc.), instead
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of “hard coding” them, was essential for gaining configurability and flexibility. Creation of a specialized parser to “read” the configuration file: commands, written in an Xpath like syntax, are used, in order to find attributes and metadata stored in the (XML) configuration file.
WeBTALk04 Introduction The availability of 3D technologies on consumer platforms is continuously growing as result of the always improving of the 3D accelerated graphics hardware and the enhancements of the 3D software system. Moreover the widespread usage of the Internet as well as the improved average speed connection allows geographically distributed users to work together on specific tasks sharing a large amount of data. As a result an ever-increasing number of web-based three dimensional applications has been developed, most of them working as virtual environments in which users are engaged in a common task, sharing a virtual workspace (Collaborative Virtual Environments). As previously mentioned, a CVE is a computerbased, distributed, 3D virtual space or set of places that support collaborative work and social play. In such places, people, provided with graphical embodiments called avatars that convey their identity, presence and location, can meet and interact with others, with agents, or with virtual objects. Even though CVE are increasingly becoming more and more widespread, as are the 3D technologies and design tool, the development of collaborative three-dimensional applications seems to be deeply dependant on hard coding techniques, yet too closely connected to specific web-3D formats which are often well suited only for particular application domains.
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In our survey of the different implementations of existing commercial and academic CVE, we realized that only a few of them addressed properly the major issues in developing and deploying their Collaborative VE platforms. Our main considerations were: Almost all of them were applications, rather than flexible frameworks: they required extensive reprogramming for being used in different situations and for different purposes, being also inherently oriented towards code construction in a code-centred fashion. We wanted, instead, to create a “format” that could be used over and over, designing our application in a declarative way using simple authoring tools, thus using a document-centred approach since the environment can be automatically generated from this declarative descriptions. The authoring tools they provide are often limited to each particular web-3D format. So most of the 3D scenes generated are mainly monolithic and restricted with regard to both content and programming code reuse. Furthermore poor or no support was give to the collaborative behavior design and the interaction control as a means to stimulate certain kinds of cooperation among users. This applications try to reach a sense of virtual presence as a fundamental requirement through a lifelike representation of the entire rendered scene, despite really making the whole interactive session simply configurable in order to allow nonexpert users to easily define, besides the world and avatar’s appearance, also collaboration rules, allowing interactions and, more generally, to delineate how the actions can take place through the composition of action and events to arouse the sense of virtual.
motivations The main disadvantage of the WebTalkCube project was (as in WebTalk-I) that the authoring and software development processes were still too
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deeply coupled. Furthermore, this development process made it necessary for the programmers to learn 3D Studio Max, with waste of time, additional costs and a little confusion about the competences required by the different actors. This time-expensive and deeply involved development process forced us to reduce to a minimum all changes and fine tuning improvements that were needed during the testing and, even if a little bit of user personalization was made (avatar’s name, html static links, etc.) it was always going to be tricky to be really effective. Learning@Europe, the next academic research project in which we were involved, was sponsored by Accenture Foundations (as part of the Accenture Corporate Citizenship investment programme) and executed in cooperation with Fondazione Italiana Accenture; it was aimed at European high school students dealing with European history. Because of the overall high number of participants expected (in the first test phase of the project more than 1000 students, from six different European countries, took part to the experience) and above all because of the need to personalize each session’s contents (such as images, movies, questions, objects) and interaction rules (i.e. the ability to chat to each other or to move some object) depending on specific users participating and the particular topic given to the session, we had to devise a different, more flexible, approach to the generation of collaborative 3D environments which could grant: •
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A greater easiness of configuration both of the virtual environment settings and the collaboration issues A faster session prototype process also taking into account that, though a lot of the session is very similar, sharing the main common features, there are however a lot of differences due especially to the different citizenships of the users, thus causing: different skins of the avatars, different images of the place they are from to be loaded
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in their virtual dome, different clues hidden in the virtual world, different questions to answer. On the grounds of the previous considerations, the main goals of WebTalk04 (WT04) architecture were: •
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To provide a flexible and highly decoupled development environment to allow different developer teams to design and deploy specific 3D collaborative environments dealing with only the specific task (3D design, contents assembling, story board design, software develop) they were expert in, without regarding any other task. To allow it to easily define and set up a session’s prototype, meant as a set of linked 3D stages that works as a mere place where the action takes place and sharing the same kind of virtual experience (be it educational, entertaining, informative), main collaboration features and the same environmental containers, from which are derived different, context-specific instances of the virtual world, well suited for different users and situations. To convey to these virtual environments a high sense of virtual presence, leaving the full graphic driven paradigm to switch towards a new one that takes the overall application design into account and to provide a set of interaction features to drive the collaboration among users in the specific way the designer was intended to do.
We proposed, then, a declarative format to reduce the programming need for a non-expert designer of the collaborative experience. For this reason we will examine the major issues concerned in the formal description of a CVE both from a static point of view, regarding how the virtual word is when it is generated and from a dynamic point of view regarding on how it can
evolve during the collaborative session through a declarative description of the Event Conditioned Actions (ECA) that can be performed in the virtual environment.
The Runtime environment XML-Based Implementation In this section we will show how the WebTalk04 declarative system is implemented using a markup language coded with XML Schema (XML-Schema: www.w3.org/XML/Schema). Since a homogeneous encoding is provided on all levels, this is a consistent approach for all abstraction stages starting from scene graph level up the description of the complex user’s interactions. Moreover an XML representation is well suited to describe the 3D scene as structured data that can be processed without paying attention to how the data should be presented. The conversion stylesheets in fact allow the switch from one format to another. Through different XSL files, the content of a WT04 XML scene graph file could be easily converted to VRML or X3D, to prettyprinted HTML, or to any number of other formats. Expressions of scenes in XML enables application of a wide range of existing and emerging XML-based tools for transformation, translation and processing. XML provides numerous benefits for extensibility and componentization, as well as the ability to develop well-formed and validated scene graph, an extremely valuable constraint since “broken” 3D content would no longer be allowed to escape onto the Web where if might cause larger scenes to fail. Finally, a formal XML description of the scene graph and the user-to-user or user-to-object interactions seems the best “interface” between the following subsystems: WT04 runtime environment, in which this XML file works as a declarative description of how the
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virtual world has to be rendered, as well as in which way the action can take place and evolve. WT04 authoring environment where the designer defines and fine tunes the world structure and the specific behaviors attached to each user or interactive objects. As shown in Figure 3, we devised our logical architecture as a 3-tier system, detailed as follows: 1.
2.
3.
Scene graph and behavior schema: coded through XML-Schema it represents the structure of a valid WT04 compliant XMLinstance, where it has defined the elements composing XML-instances, hierarchical rules between elements and supported data types. Scene graph and behavior instance prototype: a XML document representing the skeleton of a collaborative session where designer had already fixed geometries forming the virtual environment as well as the main users’ interaction rules. Scene graph and behavior instance: the final and XML instance completed with all information and contents depending on the specific context (specific users involved, specific target of the experience, particular topics given).
When an XML instance is generated, system is ready to start a collaborative session. The XML file is sent (at run time) to the clients’ runtime
Figure 3. WebTalk04 declarative system levels
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environment (coded in Macromedia Director and Flash technology) that interprets the declarations and provides to instance the right components taken from a library (from one hand it instances the right 3D models in the world, on the other it sets up the collaboration’s rule that will govern the shared experience).
Design Consideration One of the essential goals of CVE is to provide the capability of combining multi-participants and the information that they access and manipulate in a single place. We focused our designing considerations and research work on the following components of a CVE system: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
Virtual world representation Avatars Shared objects Virtual actions Access control and behaviors Collaborative metaphors Network communications
To implement an effective CVE system, we have to take care of the previous components, each playing a basic and important role in the overall system, then our declarative description we have to formally describe all these issues. First of all, a CVE system has to provide a shared environment for users to cooperate with
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each other in what we call an environmental container. Then we had to design a XML-based language, basically to describe the 3D scene. This language uses the scene graph paradigm: a hierarchical decomposition of the renderable components in a scene.
WT04 Scene graph The WT04 scene graph (Figure 4) is organized as a sequence of 3D environments called parts in which users can navigate moving from one to another simply colliding with special interactive objects, often in the form of ports or gates, working as teleports, thus causing the unloading of the current part rendered by the engine and the loading the next one. Since this environmental container can be considered a mere sort of stage where the action can take place, we can think at it as a whole, monolithic composite geometry without any kind of interactivity or behavior.
On the basis of this consideration we described the stage in the XML through a single model entry as shown in Algorithm 1. It is clear that a new world instance can be generated simply by putting together and reusing different parts already configured thus creating new virtual sessions as composition of pre-existent modules.
Avatars Avatars are graphical embodiments representing the participants in the collaborative virtual experience. The WT04 schema describes avatars using a particular node structure with the following features: 1.
Avatar Identification Properties
These properties describe how the particular avatar looks like. We can set up, for example, the avatar’s skin, the avatar’s vest (that is due to the team membership) and the avatar’s trousers. In
Figure 4. Top level scene graph XML Schema
Algorithm 1. Sample of WT04 scene graph, coded in its XML schema <World> + +<Part num=”1” url=”@/Part/MeetingPoint.W3D” descr=”First stage”> +<Part num=”2” url=”@/Part/TreasureHunt.W3D” descr=”Second stage”> <World>
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this way, we can set up a particular avatar’s figure that is recognizable by others in the virtual word. 2.
Relative Position and Orientation
With this set of properties we are able to finely set up the start position, orientation and scale of each avatar at the beginning of each session. So we can specify all the geometric variables that allow instancing a particular avatar in a particular position (and particular geometrical peculiarity, such as scale and orientation) during the scene set up at start time. 3.
Character Control Parameters
This set of properties can change an avatar’s physics parameters (mostly affecting its movements). Here we can set up the avatar’s walk speed, run speed and mass. 4.
Animation Control Parameters
This parameters control the avatar’s animation properties. These properties are used to initialize the module that governs the avatar’s animation. This high flexibility and reconfiguration easiness is one of the key points to allows designers to tailor specific graphical embodiments over each user involved in the session, thus emphasizing their sense of awareness of “being there”. We can shape all the avatar’s characteristics so that users belonging to the same team (i.e. the same class), have some graphical feature in the virtual world, defined in Avatar Identification Properties shown above, that visually associates them together. On the other hand, we can use one different avatar (with different traits, skin, animations) for each distinct user by simply associating the right 3D character model from an external geometries’ repository (grouped inside a component library).
Shared Objects WebTalk04 architecture makes use of two different kinds of objects: on the one hand, we use objects (typically embedded in the part file) that are static geometrical files used to populate the scene graph; on the other hand we use Shared Objects that are deeply dynamic objects that can interact with the other components in the collaborative session. Shared Objects are loaded and instanced at start time. WebTalk04 architecture can do mostly everything with this kind of object because we can apply all the geometrical and textures transformations. We can configure two different Shared Objects Properties: 1.
Static Properties
In this XML section we set up the object’s geometrical configuration (tags Geometry), such us the world position (X, Y, Z), the rotation (rotX, rotY, rotZ) and other properties connected with the shared object’s appearance. 2.
Dynamic Properties
The dynamic properties (tags Behaviors) involved with the interplay that the specific shared object can have. Each Shared Object, in fact, interacts with other objects in the world. Configuring this XML node we describe how the shared object reacts to external solicitations. In a few words, we are able to fine set up all the behaviors that the shared object can have dynamically. As seen, our modular approach is based on the hierarchical representation of entities (i.e. user and objects), which makes simple the process of populating the scene graph with shared objects and assigns the right behavior in a particular collaborative context.
Virtual Actions In WT04 architecture, all the collaboration issues are configurable by a set of action that takes effect
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on a specific object or set of objects, or generically in the collaborative shared environment. From a WebTalk04 point of view, actions are single components that are invoked in a particular instant by someone (typically an avatar) or something (typically an object). So actions are modules that we can configure in order to obtain the dynamic reaction we want. Below are listened the most important action modules that our architecture supports (more detailed view in next sections):
to determine the operations that may be carried out on a given object by a given user. In a CVE we need a set of rules or access patterns, which determine whether a user, group of users, or user playing a particular role, can perform a specified action. As our main concern is to control and drive collaboration through appropriate policy of resource and interaction control, we can divide, according to the resource access in Virtual Environments, systems in two main types:
DragObject: Allows dragging of the shared object in the 3D world. This is a 3D drag that allows movement and rotation of the shared object. ChangeColor or ChangeTexture: Changes the colour or the texture of the specified shared object. Showtooltip: Shows a label near the object in the 3D world. StarTrek: Moves the avatar into a specific part. goToUrl: Opens a new browser window on a specific page. This is used to open boards, for example. StartAnimation: This action is used to start a shared object’s embedded animation.
1.
Access Control and Behaviors In WebTalk04 the collaboration issues between user-to-user or user-to-object is intrinsically correlated to the above-mentioned interactions’ primitives as virtual actions supported by the environment, as well as its capability to control and drive collaboration in a specific and welldefined direction. In this sense issues such as object ownership and resource management have a great importance on the whole architecture. Access control is a familiar concept in such fields as operating systems and Computer Supported Collaborative Workgroups, or CSCW (Pettifer & Marsh, 2001). The term ‘access model’ refers to a set of mechanisms used by a system
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Class-based access. This is a programmatic and developer issue and is concerned above all with the integrity and the structure of the underlying programs/objects that form the VE. Object-based access. Refers to the relationship between the affordances of objects and their users as, for example, the availability of an object to be “moved” or “owned” in some way. This is the type of access paradigm on which we founded the WT04 interaction model and its runtime engine.
In our model, interaction is achieved and controlled through a mechanism based on three main concepts using the paradigm of Event Conditioned Actions: 1.
Entity: a general resource within the system. An entity may be a shared object with a graphical representation, or an abstract concept with no visible representation as, for example, a server side remote shared object mapping a certain property of the system. Such entities provide a set of properties representing in some way the inner state of the entity and an amount of listener which the entity is registered to that allow it to react to events and perform one or more actions. In this view users and their own avatars can be considered a particular kind of entity.
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2.
3.
Event: is a trigger that can be raised by some users’ interactions or by the system itself, notifying that something has happened in the shared environment. Events can be grouped into three main types, depending on the different kinds of interaction by which they are caused: a. Indirect active events: they are active since it is the user himself who raises the event, but indirect as they are not generated by a direct voluntary user’s action, such as a mouse click on some entity, but it is the system which raises them, reacting for example to a particular user’s position. A typical example of such an event is OnProximity, raised whenever an entity is closer to another one than a fixed value. b. Direct active events: in this case it is for the user voluntarily to raise the event interacting directly with an entity c. Passive events: they are generated by a shared system state change (i.e. position update event for some entity). Action: see paragraph on Virtual Actions.
According to the classical view the Event Conditioned Actions’ rules are based on the following form: On event If conditions Do actions Moreover in our declarative model, the central concepts around which all the scene graph is described are the objects and users, or, in more general worlds, entities. Then we derived the following entity-oriented interaction control model (Figure 5): In this model the main component is an entity that can be thought of as an abstraction of both users, as active actors of the system allowed to raise events and objects, as passive components
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of the system which listens to events propagated within the virtual environment and reacting to them performing one or more actions. Action target can be indifferently the same entity, which caused in some way the event, or another different one. The group made up of Event and Action takes the name of Behavior as it states the manner in which some entity evolves the system state when perturbed. Using this model we can design and code different behavioral situations; for example the following pseudo code shown in Algorithm 2, which states at the same time: •
•
The way the object should be represented in the CVE, through the element the way it reacts to events, in one word how it behaves, through the element
As the structured XML elements representing the entities’ appearance and behavior make use of intuitive concepts and of a human readable form, we can be confident that even non-programmers without programming skills or any knowledge of scripting languages can understand, manage and produce a valid XML world instance that will configure the runtime environment producing the 3D representation and the interactions expected. Moreover the XML code and component reuse reduces the time to create a particular experience instance, abates the error rate and allows verifying in real time every change made on the setup of the virtual environment.
Collaborative Metaphors Collaborative Metaphors (Barbieri & Paolini, 2001b) are a set of rules to support interaction and collaboration between users who want to explore complex content and information together. The rules determines how the “collaborative com-
Collaborative Learning through Flexible Web CVE
Figure 5. Interaction control model
munity” can be created and managed, how every member of the community can operate on his/ her own or can cooperate with other members. Different types of situation, tasks and user roles determine different behaviors and therefore need different metaphors. WebTalk04 architecture offers a huge support to collaborative metaphors. We can set up in the XML world configuration file a set of specific behaviors that can be applied to a specific metaphor. So we can select what behavior is applied to a specific shared object in
a particular moment. When the specific collaborative metaphor is activated, the corresponding set of interaction rules takes effect and every object uses the right behavior to interact with the “shared world”. There are two different ways to activate a metaphor: 1. 2.
Explicit way: it can be started manually (and asynchronously) by a power user. Implicit way: an interaction in the virtual shared world generates a “Change Metaphor
Algorithm 2. Fragment of the WT04 XML schema representing a generic behavior attached to an interactive object on event. MouseLeftClick if (event.clickedobject.name=”cube01” and event.clickedobject.distance<800) do cube01.changeColor(#red) would be translated in declarative form in:
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Sync Message” that tells all the clients to switch the active metaphor to the new one. All the clients update the new set of rules that are effective. As seen above, thanks to the Collaborative Metaphor paradigm, we are able to manage complex interactions between entities in a virtual shared environment, specifying the current set of collaboration rules governing every aspect of the virtual world. Let us see now, how we can translate a complex interaction rule in an XML-based description used by WebTalk04 engine to control the mutual interplays generated in/by the shared world. Let us suppose we want to map this interaction rule: “When user Garibaldi is close to the gate, the object named ‘cube01’ change its colour to green on all the connected user’s clients and all the users are moved to the part number 2. When this particular user left clicks on this object, the system opens a browser window that links to the url www.somewhere.net”
This is a set of rules that are active only when the selected (fixed) user is close to a particular object: this is what we call Collaborative Metaphor. The XML translation is shown in Algorithm 3. Obviously, defining a huge number of metaphors and melting them together, we can govern the collaborative environment recreating the exact collaborative situation we wanted.
Network Communications This node of the WT04 XML Schema allows us to fine configure the network access. We use a simple declarative approach that permits us to easily decide which communication server we have to use to share the experience state and a set of properties that characterize the connection between the specific client and the communication server. This is a list of the most important parameters we can set up: • •
FCServer: Communication Server IP number and the experience instance name. FPSSharedUsers: These values configure the specific avatar position’s upload and download refresh rates. A high value
Algorithm 3. Fragment of the WT04 XML schema representing the instance of a collaborative metaphor
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means a more detailed position tracking (but more bandwidth is required!!) As seen, we can use a specific XML file in order to set up different bandwidth speed on different client machines. In this way we allow clients with dissimilar connection speeds to access together and simultaneously the same virtual world, ensuring the world share state consistency.
System Architecture The WebTalk04 project makes extensive use of Macromedia technology, while keeping the goals of web-accessibility and use of standard components. The choice of using Macromedia is strategic because of the large spread of the Macromedia Shockwave player, with over 200 million installations all over the world and at the same time allowing the use of a solid, tested and free software player without the need of implementing another one. The WebTalk04 system architecture is written in different programming languages: Lingo (Director coding) with all its extensions made available in recent times as Netlingo and 3D Lingo, Action Script 2 (Flash coding). The architecture is deeply based over a client/ server paradigm and exploits an application server hosting a Web Server for static and dynamic contents and a Communication Server (Macromedia Flashcomm) for sharing data in cooperative and distributed applications. While the server is appointed to listen to client connections and distribute events between the participants, maintaining a centralized state repository, the client side is composed by a Shockwave plug-in which runs inside a regular internet browser such as Netscape or Explorer. The chances are that the average surfer already has Netscape/Explorer, with Shockwave plug-in installed on the system.
When a user hits a WebTalk04 HTML page in the Internet, the Shockwave player embedded is loaded and the user of a WebTalk application sees a browser window, which is split in two parts. The upper half is a W3D movie showing the 3D representation of the world, in which the visitor can move and interact with objects. In this portion of the screen the user can also see other visitors moving and performing actions. A human-shaped figurine (avatar) represents every visitor. In the lower half of the screen a chat window is provided as a flash flat panel in which visitors can write messages to other visitors and can read incoming messages. Figure 6. In order to build a general application, the W3D portion does not embed 3D geometries but the system builds the virtual scene in real time, fetching the separate geometries and textures from a repository; the geometries can be in any of the most common formats currently available, be it 3DS, Plasma, Maya or Lightwave. The collaboration logic, via the WebTalk Interaction Engine (WtIE), detects every event generated both in 2D or 3D interface and forwards them, through the Real Time Message Protocol (RTMP), to the Server. Likewise, every other event generated in the same moment from other clients connected to the same webpage, is distributed by the Flash Communication Server to the Shockwave plug-in on the client side, which passes them up the stack into the W3D worlds. Users can thus see each other’s avatars (humanshaped figurines which mark every user’s position) and can see objects moving and operating in response to the manipulation of other users. All the system architecture is built up around the MVC (Model View Controller) design pattern, in which the model represents the shared world state, the view represents each client web application and the controller is the programming logic that builds up and regulates each end user GUI as well as the shared state. The architecture of WebTalk04 is shown in Figure 7. Let us now describe all its components:
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Collaborative Learning through Flexible Web CVE
Figure 6. A scene from Learning@Europe, an educational application for European schools
•
•
486
Client side. The “world engine” is the client-side of the application. Through a number of modules, it manages the connection with the server and controls the rendering on the client machine. The “interaction engine”, in particular, controls the collaboration features, while “world builder” renders in real time the scene, according with the shared state of all the objects and avatars. Server Side: ◦ Contents Repositories: they store all the geometries and the textures, created at design time. ◦ XML files repository: it stores all the different configuration (XML) files. When a client starts a session, the system selects the right XML file and loads it. ◦ Communication Server: it keeps the actual shared state, keeping track, for
•
example, of positions, rotations and “state” in general of all the avatars and objects. Any change of the shared state is detected and send to all the clients, raising an “onSync” signal. Back End. It consists of a set of tools that allow the “sessions architects” to configure and fine tune all the session parameters.
In order to deploy the application, any Web server (such as IIS or TomCat) can be used; the Communication Server, instead, is a dedicated server managing the interaction between each client and the server. The communication server, in particular, for each shared object maintains several versions: one “remote shared object” preserving the state on the communication server; many “local shared objects” (one for each client) being updated locally. Whenever one interactive element of a client changes one or more of its properties, its corresponding local shared object
Collaborative Learning through Flexible Web CVE
Figure 7. WebTalk04 general architecture
is refreshed and, at the same time, it notifies the communication server the updated value storing it in its remote shared object; at every “onSync” event generated by the communication server, each client receives, inside the OnSync message, a vector of the changes which have occurred since the last refresh, thus updating the value of each slot of their local shared objects.
Authoring Process of Virtual Worlds The authoring process of virtual worlds in WT04 architecture takes a crucial role to fast generate collaborative experiences in a reliable way. This process not only consists of mere definition of geometry populating a particular environment but, above all, it concerns the definition of the complete collaborative session following the storyboard guidelines written by Experience Architects that are translated into complex XML instance, describing for each object:
•
•
Static properties: ◦ Stating how the object is (appearance and starting position and rotation) Dynamic properties: ◦ Stating how the object “life” can evolve (reacting or raising events)
Session Configurator is responsible of the production of XML files containing world formal description and cooperative rules that runtime engines can process. As stated previously, we have identified two phases for creation of collaborative session. The first one is the Session Prototype Configuration while the second one concerns the collaborative Session Instance Definition. The work flow to 3D world creation is based on: •
Design of the scene through tools as 3DStudio and its exportation in Shockwave 3D format in order to make it “readable” by director engine
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Figure 8. Authoring Process
•
•
Definition of the entities populating virtual world and of the collaborative metaphors governing interactions within the CVE, both mapped through a XML description to generate a Session Prototype Fine tuning of the session, choosing of the specific contents to be shown, avatar skin and name, etc. in order to define a specific Session Instance.
On the other hand the workflow to define cooperative scenario consists of: • •
• •
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Users’ roles definition: participating to cooperation. Context definition: intended as different 3D worlds’ environments included in the same navigation environments. Entities definition: included in each context. Cooperative elements: selection as basic mean of interaction between users.
•
Cooperative metaphor selection: defining which cooperative elements will be active for each particular context, user and entity.
Even if the described authoring process follows a well-known workflow (Figure 8) already studied and optimized during previous similar projects, it however involves several actors, each one with different skills and technical capabilities. While it does not seem effective to implement a proprietary 3D design application as there many commercial suites (3Ds, Maya, etc.) being able to satisfy 3D Designer needs, it is indeed necessary to design an authoring tool in order to simplify the process of session generation, as the support to the XML instance coding (in the Session Instance and Prototype Configuration) cannot be simply obtained with a generic XML manager and parser available on the market.
Results WT04 has been applied in two projects, Learning@Europe and Stori@Lombardia involving
Collaborative Learning through Flexible Web CVE
Table 1. Configuration time Configuration
Non structured approach
Geometries of Meeting Point
About 50 min.
About 20 min.
Geometries of Blue Dome
About 60 min.
About 25 min.
Behaviors of Blue Dome
About 30 min.
About 8 min.
Overall session
About 335 min.
About 90 min.
224 schools in seven different countries and more than two thousands students during the years 2005/2006. The two projects had different settings (world and objects) and similar (not equal) activities to create experience instances. The configuration phase represented a crucial aspect for these projects for two reasons: •
•
Authoring process-based approach
high number of users involved (both end user and back end user like Session Configurators, 3D World Designers and so on) need to supply all experiences in a few months
Our authoring process workflow has dramatically reduced the time needed for “customizing a session”. Meanwhile we have developed an authoring tool (Barchetti et al., 2006) able to give support to different expertises involved into the authoring process. To give value to results we tested our the configuration environment on real Learning@Europe sessions according to specific format defined from Experience Architects. Designed session is structured in two part (distinct terrains, 3D objects and collaboration rules) containing respectively 13 and 15 interactive objects with their own behaviors and collaborative metaphors. We used two different approaches to perform the test. The first one is based on a non-structured approach without following any particular authoring process and second one made use of our authoring process and tool. The table below shows the estimated improvement, with respect to reprogram the sessions, by using a non-
structured approach and by using the authoring process. Table 1 describes the effort to load on stage and place the interactive objects in correct position for each part (i.e. an autonomous portion of the 3D environment), for the configuration of the behaviors of the interactive objects and finally for the configuration of the overall session details.
CONCLUSION In this chapter we described the experiences we gained during the years we spent developing a lot of 3D collaborative applications for education purposes. These experiences have shown the need to take into account not only the pedagogical and educational aspects related to the specific experience, but also the conceptual, design and implementative aspects of a generic experience. Then we provided an answer to the specialists needs for the fast prototyping of contents and collaboration management with the WebTalk04 framework. The most challenging future work will be to define a methodology of abstract representation (a modelling language) of a generic “learning session”, intended as a set of “core components”.
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About the Contributors
Giovanni Vincenti received his Doctorate of Science in Applied Information Technology from Towson University in 2007 after an academic career that focused on Bioinformatics through a B.A. in Biology and an M.S. in Computer Science. He is in charge of Research and Development at Gruppo Vincenti, a small but dynamic company with interests across several fields. His main areas of research include Fuzzy Mediation, Technology-Based Education and Emotionally-Aware Agency. He is also a Lecturer with the Department of Computer and Information Sciences at Towson University. He published his findings at several regional, national and international conferences. His interest in education and technology-based instruction comes from years of direct interaction with students in the classroom and empirical experiences that formed him as a teacher. James Braman is a Lecturer in the Department of Computer and Information Sciences at Towson University. He holds a Master's Degree in Computer Science and is currently pursuing a Doctoral Degree in Information Technology. James also serves as a joint editor-in-chief of the (ICST) Transactions on E-Education and E-Learning. He is also part of the Towson University Second Life Initiative, the Towson Innovation Lab, promoting virtual environments for higher education learning. In collaboration with Giovanni Vincenti, has co-authored several publications, recently including the Handbook of Research on Computational Arts and Creative Informatics. His current research focus includes art and technology, intelligent agents, affective computing and education in virtual and immersive environments. *** Nan B. Adams is an Associate Professor in the Department of Educational Leadership and Technology at Southeastern University. Prior to her work at Southeastern, she has served in several leadership positions at the university level, most recently as the Director of Academic Computing for the University of New Orleans. Her K-12 teaching experience includes 7 years teaching inner-city high school science. Prior to her academic work, she has 10 years experience as a geological field engineer managing scientific data collection teams in remote locations. Her expertise and research interests include Curriculum Leadership, Change Leadership, Action Research, Intelligence Theory and Virtual Education Environments. Olga M. Alegre is a Professor in the School of Education at the Universidad de La Laguna (Spain). Her specializations are special education and University evaluation.
Ugo Barchetti has a university degree in Computer Engineering and received a Ph. D in 2007 at the University of Lecce, Italy. His research interests concerns the collaboration in Virtual Reality worlds, and scouting techniques about augmented reality and virtual reality. He is among the chief developers of the WebTalk04 system. His studies aims to use CVEs for e-learning benefits, and is involved in several projects related to e-learning collaborative virtual experiences such as “learning@europe”, “Storia della Lombardia”and “Shrine”Projects. He also took part in the Moda-ML project to design and implement a framework to support textile and clothing supply chain. Alberto Bucciero, received his Ph.D at the University of Lecce, Italy in 2006. Since 2003 he has been tutoring for academic courses of Software Engineering and Computer Graphics. Since 2006, he has been a lecturer for a Management of Business Information course. He carries on his research activities at the Innovation Engineering Innovation Dept. and his main interest include: Enhanced Learning Management System based on 3D virtual environment to support the collaborative learning work on internet. (most important projects Shrine, Storia@Lombardia, Learning@Europe projects), Service Oriented Architecture and middleware tools to support B2B e-commerce for the Supply Chain Management (ModaML, FIM, Trame projects), Modeling and formalization of the requirements for the analysis of informative systems and Formal declarative languages based on XML. He is member of ACM and IEEE Computer Society. Emilio Camahort is an Associate Professor at the Departamento de Sistemas Informáticos y Computación of the Universidad Politécnica de Valencia in Valencia, Spain. He received his degree of Licenciado en Informática from the same University. He also earned an MSc and a PhD in Computer Sciences from the University of Texas at Austin, USA. Before becoming a Professor Dr. Camahort worked at Schlumberger Laboratory for Computer Science in Austin, TX, at AT&T Bell Laboratories in Holmdel, NJ and at Zebra Imaging, Inc., a start-up company in Austin, TX. He currently teaches Computer Graphics at different levels. His research areas of interest are Computer Graphics and Interactive Techniques, Augmented Reality and Autostereoscopy, and Parallel and Distributed Computing. Douglas W. Canfield is the Coordinator of the Language Resource Center at The University of Tennessee in Knoxville. His background is in French and ESL instruction via hybrid courses with significant online modules. His research explores music and video clips as catalysts for the Chomskyan “Language Acquisition Device”, the creation of discourse and gaming communities for language instruction and research, and the leveraging of open-source and low-affect technologies in language resource centers. Doug has been involved in teaching and designing learning materials in Second Life, and is currently the Editor-in-Chief of the Journal of the International Association for Language Learning Technology (IALLT). John M. Carfora, Ed.D., holds degrees from a number of colleges and universities, including The London School of Economics, Harvard University, and a doctorate from Columbia University's Department of Organization and Leadership. A recipient of several international research awards, he has also lectured throughout the United States, Canada, and Europe. John was a Research Scholar at Radio Free Europe-Radio Liberty in Munich, Germany, in the 1970s, where he authored studies on social, economic and political themes for radio broadcasts in Russian and other languages. He has been a professor of economics, and an international consultant with clients such as Disney, American Airlines, and U.S.
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News and World Report. John further served as Director of International Education at the Russian Academy of Management in Moscow, and was founding Curator of the Sir Leonard Bertram Schapiro Collection at the British Library of Political and Economic Sciences. John is Co-Chair of “I-Group,” a National Academy of Sciences committee on international research collaborations, a member of the Board of Directors of the Immersive Education Initiative (http://immersiveeducation.org/), and a former member of the Board of Directors of the Alumni and Friends of the London School of Economics (1982-1990), Dr. Carfora authored the Foreword to Universitas: The Social Restructuring of Higher Education in America, (1998), co-authored a popular “vita” on the New Deal economist Stuart Chase (http://harvardmagazine.com/2004/09/stuart-chase.html), and is currently writing a book, with Dr. W. Alan Hodson, titled Stuart Chase: The Times, Life and Ideas of a Public Intellectual, 1888-1985. Another book on proposal development and project management is scheduled for publication in February (2010) by Sage. Dr. Carfora is Executive Director of the Office for Research and Sponsored Projects at Loyola Marymount University in Los Angeles. John received the Distinguished Service Award from the National Council of University Research Administrators in 2007. In 2009, Dr. Carfora was a Fulbright Scholar in Ireland. Juan B. Carda Castelló received his PhD degree in the University of Valencia and became Professor at Universitat Jaume I of Castellón, where he has taught Inorganic Chemistry at different levels from 1994. He was co-founder of the Group of Solid State Chemistry of the Departamento de Química Inorgánica y Orgánica at the Universtitat Jaume I and Head of the Central Scientific Instrumentation Service at the Universitat Jaume I from 1999, when this service was set up, to 2007. In 2005 he was awarded the Insignia de Oro from the Asociación Española de Técnicos Cerámicos as recognition of his contribution to Ceramics. His research areas of interest are focused on new properties and applications of Ceramic Materials, where he authored more than 200 articles. He is also a reviewer for local and European conferences and journals. Joff Chafer, has taught practical theater modules in the Performing Arts Department at Coventry University, UK since 2005, and since 2006 has been involved with the development of Coventry University’s presence in Second life and is currently working on various projects looking into the possibilities of performance in this virtual world. He originally trained as an actor at Middlesex University and on completion joined Trestle Theatre Company, a theatre company specializing in mask work. He stayed with the company for 18 years working in various capacities as actor/mask maker/designer/writer/director ending up as joint artistic director. Performance highlights include directing at Sydney Opera house and lowlights include being struck by lightning during an open air performance in Elstree. Michelle Crosby-Nagy holds a Bachelors degree from the American University in international studies and is currently pursuing a Masters degree in international science and technology policy at the George Washington University in Washington, D.C. In the spring of 2009 she was selected as a Christine Mirzayan Science and Technology Policy Graduate Fellow. Michelle has worked for the Office of Science and Technology Policy in the Executive Office of the President and is co-founder of two non-profits dealing with skilled foreign nationals. Currently, she works as a Research Associate at the National Academy of Sciences Board on Higher Education and Workforce.
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Carlos Oliveira Cruz received his BSc degree in Civil Engineering, in 2005, and his M.Sc. degree on Transportation, in 2009, both at the University of Porto. He is a lecturer at the Technical University of Lisbon, in the Department of Civil Engineering, where he teaches Technical Drawing and Computer Aided Drawing. His research interests are in the area of virtual reality and he has developed educational models for civil engineering students. He is currently a PhD student at the Technical University of Lisbon and he is working in the area of large scale transportation infrastructures development, management and optimization. Craig A. Cunningham, PhD is an associate professor in the Integrated Studies in Teaching, Technology, and Inquiry department at National-Louis University in Chicago, where he teaches courses in technology in education and the history and philosophy of education. His research interests include the philosophy of John Dewey, the history of moral education, contemporary educational policy, and the use of new technologies to support teaching and learning. He is lead author of Curriculum Webs: Weaving the Web into Teaching and Learning (Allyn & Bacon, 2006) in addition to numerous articles and presentations. David R. Dannenberg, Learning Manager for The Nature Conservancy, is responsible for designing, developing, and implementing technical training for over 3,500 staff located in 35 countries. He has worked in the field of technical communication, documentation, and training for over 10 years. He is currently pursuing a Ph.D. in Instructional Design and Technology from Virginia Tech and studies the intersection of distance education, virtual worlds, and virtual learning environments. He can be reached at [email protected]. Michael DeMers OTLC (2007): New Mexico State University, (PhD (1985), MPhil (1983): University of Kansas, MS (1980), BSEd (1974): University of North Dakota, is Associate Professor of geography at New Mexico State University. Dr. DeMers is the author of four GIS books including GIS for Dummies, and co-editor of the GIS&T Body of Knowledge, published jointly by the University Consortium for Geographic Information Science (UCGIS) and the Association of American Geographers (AAG). His first book, Fundamentals of Geographic Information Systems, now in its fourth edition, has been translated into both Russian and simple Chinese; and his GIS Modeling in Raster is currently being translated into Arabic. Mike’s research involves GIS applications and design, GIS curriculum development, and online GIS education. DeMers is the Vice Chair of the AAG Geography Education Specialty Group and a member of the board of the Applied Geography Specialty Group. Besides his traditional university teaching duties he is also a mentor and teaches Intermediate Second Life for Educators for Sloan-C. He has served on the board of the Biogeography Specialty Group and as the Secretary of the US-International Association for Landscape Ecology. Thomas A. DeVaney earned a PhD from Mississippi State University and is currently an Associate Professor at Southeastern Louisiana University where he teaches research design and statistics courses in traditional classroom and virtual environments. Dr. DeVaney has published numerous articles focusing on instructional methods in online environments. Fabian Di Fiore is an associate professor in computer science at Hasselt University (UHasselt) in Belgium. He obtained a MS in computer science in 1997 at the University of Leuven. In 2004, he fin-
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ished his PhD entitled “A 2.5D Modeling and Animation Framework Supporting Computer Assisted Traditional Animation” at the Expertise Centre for Digital Media (EDM), a research institute of Hasselt University. His research activities are concerned with computer animation, non-photorealistic rendering and highly stylized drawn animation. Kosmas Dimitropoulos received his BSc degree in Electrical and Computer Engineering from the Democritus University and his PhD degree in Applied Informatics from Macedonia University of Thessaloniki in 2001 and 2006 respectively. He is a researcher with the Informatics and Telematics Institute and a visiting professor (lecturer) in the Applied Informatics Department of Macedonia University. His main research interests include computer vision, virtual reality and computer graphics, 3D motion estimation, deformable modelling and 3D reconstruction from stereo images. His involvement with those research areas has led to the co-authoring of more than 10 articles in refereed journals, one book chapter and more than 25 papers in international conferences. He has participated in several European and national research projects. Timothy F. Duruz has considerable experience in the use of computer-mediated communication that dates back to before the emergence of the web. After a successful career in print management, he has spent the last decade and a half devoted to higher education, first in the proprietary sector as a faculty member, administrator and consultant, then as a Visiting Assistant Professor at Suffolk County Community College. Dr. Duruz is known to be an outspoken proponent of the use of technology in the teaching-learning environment, and has expertise in curriculum development and assessment. His other academic interests range from the spatial micro-distribution of power bases in higher education to the greening of advertising media, especially for political campaigns. Jiuguang Feng was born in Inner Mongolia, China. Jiuguang received his master’s degree from the College of Education at Towson University in 2007. He had been working as a teacher for seven years in China before he came to the U.S. in January 2009 for his doctoral study. He was the winner of Marilyn Nicholas scholarship on April, 2009 at Towson. Since coming to the U.S., he became very interested in MUVEs (Multi-user Virtual Environments) and he believes that it is a wonderful tool to create immersive simulations in an educational setting. His interests include technology integration in education, especially MUVE learning environments, and technology integration in foreign language education. Russell Fewster has directed theatre for the past 25 years including work with professional actors, acting students and young people. He studied at Ecole Jacques Lecoq in Paris in the early eighties thus beginning his theatrical journey. In 2000 he completed a Masters by Research in rehearsal decision making at the Centre for Performance Studies in the University of Sydney. He recently submitted his PhD examining the use of video in performance Theatre Studies at the University of Melbourne in early 2010. He is a lecturer in drama and performing arts at the University of South Australia Magill Campus. Nick V. Flor is the Associate Director of the Interdisciplinary Film & Digital Media Program at the University of New Mexico (UNM), and an Associate Professor in the Marketing, Information Systems, and Decision Sciences group at UNM’s Anderson School of Management. Prior to UNM, he spent 8 years as a faculty member at Carnegie Mellon University’s Graduate School of Industrial Administration. Before academia, he worked for 10 years in industry as a software engineer and project leader at
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Hewlett Packard’s San Diego Division. He has published extensively in the areas of virtual communities and online social systems. His current research interests lie in the application of 3D virtual worlds to organizational process improvement. He is the author of Web Business Engineering, and the developer of several profitable autonomous businesses. He received his PhD in Cognitive Science in 1994, and also holds a Bachelor degree in Computer Science, all from the University of California, San Diego. Dafne Gonzalez graduated in Language Teaching, has a Masters degree in Applied Linguistics, and a PhD in Education. She has coordinated the Graduate Studies in Education Programs and has been the Head of the Specialization in Informatics and Education at Universidad Simón Bolívar, in Caracas, Venezuela. Besides teaching technology-related courses at the graduate level, she has also taught English for Architecture and Urban Planning blended and online courses. A webhead since 2002, she is the lead coordinator of the TESOL Electronic Village Online (EVO) and co-moderator of the EVO Becoming a Webhead (BaW) online Workshop series. She has also been teaching the course “Teaching Vocabulary and Grammar Online” for the TESOL Principles and Practices of Online Teaching Certificate Program since 2004. She is now a member of the TESOL CALL-IS Steering Committee. Currently, she is the head of the Spanish Program for Languagelife (a project of Languagelab.com) in Second Life. Suzanne Guerrero is a free-lance materials developer, ESL instructor and editor. After receiving her BA and MA in Linguistics from the University of Pittsburgh, she worked as an ESL/EFL instructor and teacher trainer for several years before moving into publishing. Since 2006, she has worked with Richmond Publishing Mexico, as both author and editor of several mainstream EFL course book series. She was also the syllabus designer and main editor for a three-level suite of general English courses within a MUVE in Languagelab.com. Kimball Harrison is an elementary school Computer Resource Specialist in Virginia Beach, VA. In Second Life since January of 2008, she is a docent at ISTE (International Society for Technology in Education) Island and a VSTE (Virginia Society for Technology in Education) Island facilitator. She is part of a team of four who developed VSTE Island, which includes a re-creation of Jamestown, VA, the first permanent English settlement in the US, and meeting and training venues for educators. Pedro Gameiro Henriques received his PhD in Civil Engineering in 1998. He is an assistant professor in the Technical University of Lisbon. In this Institute he teaches construction processes and construction planning and management. He is the leader of the Construction group in the Construction Institute and the director of the Master Degree Course in the Dep. Civil Engineering. He is the principal investigator of a research project related to virtual reality in the construction process. The principal research areas are construction processes and virtual reality. The last research developments concerns to planning construction work using virtual reality applications. He is member of the Portuguese Association of Engineering Evaluation. Lazaros Ioannidis obtained his diploma from the Department of Informatics of Aristotle University of Thessaloniki (Greece). His research interests include computer networks, networked virtual environments, multimedia and hypermedia.
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Regina Kaplan-Rakowski has a strong background in foreign languages, which allows her to combine expertise in applied linguistics with the research opportunities that are available using modern instructional technology. Kaplan-Rakowski's education includes B.Ed. in TESL, M.Ed. in European Studies, and M.A. in Foreign Languages and Literatures. Presently, she is pursuing a doctorate in Curriculum & Instruction (Instructional Technology & Design) at Southern Illinois University, Carbondale. Her current focus is research on the educational possibilities of teaching foreign languages in virtual environments, especially through virtual worlds and digital games. Nevertheless, she has also accumulated detailed research interests in second language acquisition, especially in bilingualism/multilingualism, code-switching, and the application of mnemonics in language acquisition and instruction. Andreas Konstantinidis obtained his master’s degree from the Department of Informatics of Aristotle University of Thessaloniki (Greece). He is currently a PhD candidate at the same department. His research interests include computer networks, networked virtual environments, multimedia and hypermedia. Wim Lamotte obtained his PhD in computer science (1998) at the Hasselt University, with a thesis in the global illumination and parallelism domain. He is a full professor at the Hasselt University with courses in networking and multimedia. His current research interests include networked virtual environments, computer networks and networked multimedia. At Hasselt University, he is a member of the management committee of the Expertise Centre for Digital Media (EDM) and leads the Multimedia and Communication Technology subgroup of the EDM, which specializes in Networked Virtual Environments. Daniel Laughlin manages NASA’s Learning Technologies Project from Goddard Space Flight Center. Learning Technologies supports the research and development of cutting-edge educational tools that combine NASA mission content with innovative technology and best education practices. The office has sponsored the development of tools that have been featured on the covers of science and technology journals and received international recognition. Dr. Laughlin leads research and development efforts on games and virtual worlds in education and is co-author of the NASA eEducation Roadmap: Research Challenges in the Design of Persistent Immersive Synthetic Environments for Education & Training (2007). Before joining the Learning Technologies Project, Dr. Laughlin spent four years teaching educational technology classes to and more than a decade teaching Western Civilization courses. Mark J. W. Lee is an honorary research fellow with the Graduate School of Information Technology and Mathematical Sciences at the University of Ballarat, Australia. He also holds adjunct senior lecturer appointments in the School of Education, Charles Sturt University, and in the DEHub research centre within the Faculty of Professions at the University of New England. Previously, Lee worked in a variety of teaching, instructional design, and managerial roles within the private vocational education and higher education sectors. He has published almost 50 refereed book chapters, journal articles, and conference papers in the areas of educational technology, e-learning, and innovative pedagogy in tertiary education. Lee is the Chair of the New South Wales Chapter of the IEEE Education Society and serves as founding Editor-in-Chief of Impact: Journal of Applied Research in Workplace E-learning, in addition to being on the editorial boards of a number of international journals.
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About the Contributors
Pete MacKichan is based in Thessaloniki, Greece, where he is a freelance trainer and materials designer. In addition, he teaches pre-sessional ESL (EAP) courses in the UK at the University of Southampton. Pete has a MEd in Educational Technology and ELT from Manchester University and currently his main interests are Second Life and Moodle. He was involved with teaching and designing learning materials in Second Life for LanguageLab.com. He is now developing his own on-line language course, blending web-based e-learning with virtual activities in a dedicated Second Life sim. He also trains teachers and designs materials for Moodle, as well providing technical support for projects such as SEETA, the South Eastern European Teachers’ Associations http://seeta.eu. Luca Mainetti, graduated magna cum laude in Computer Science at the State University of Milan, PhD in Computer Engineering an Automatics at the Polytechnic of Milan, Luca Mainetti has been dealing with multimedia for about nine years both on the practical side, as manager of the HOC (Hypermedia Open Center) multimedia lab at the Polytechnic of Milan, and from the theoretical point of view, deepening, with the PhD, the aspects bound to multimedia standards, to audio and video data storing and to multimedia data bases design. During the nine years of professional activity he took part in several national and international research projects; he held several seminars on the topic of multimedia standards and technologies; he taught at the Polytechnic of Milan in courses of Computer Science Fundamentals, Data Bases and Computer Graphics; he collaborated with several firms and Institutions on multimedia online and offline projects; he published about 15 articles for magazines and scientific conferences specialized on the topic of hypertexts and of project methods. Now he is an associate professor at the University of Lecce. Athanasios Manitsaris received his BSc degree in Mathematics from Aristotel University of Thessaloniki, his MSc in Mathematiques Statistiques from University de Paris VI and his PhD degree in Applied Informatics from Macedonia University of Thessaloniki in 1975, 1977 and 1992 respectively. He is currently a Professor in the Applied Informatics department of Macedonia University. His main research interests include mathematics statistics, multimedia systems, computer graphics and virtual reality and distance learning. His involvement with those research areas has led to the co-authoring of a large number of publications in refereed journals, books and international conferences. Octávio Peres Martins received the MSc Bologna degree in Civil Engineering from the Technical University of Lisbon, Portugal, in 2009. His dissertation covered modelling construction bridges using Virtual Reality technology. He worked as a fellowship on the development of didactic material to be used in the e-school platform within the activity of the Department of Civil Engineering. The models presents in animated way events related with resistance of materials. Research interests include software engineering of e-learning, modelling processes, visualization techniques and VR technology. At present he works is structural design in a private civil engineering office. Grant Meredith is a multimedia/games lecturer at the Graduate School of Information Technology & Mathematical Sciences at the University of Ballarat. Grant is also a confirmed PhD student investigating the university experiences of stuttering students. Grant has strong interests in virtual worlds and simulations and has conceived and designed the Virtual Stuttering Support Centre within 2nd Life. Grant has other widespread research interests including e-learning, human computer interactions and disability studies. Grant is quite active in presenting his concepts and work nationally and internationally.
542
About the Contributors
Charlynn Miller- BSc, Post-Bach (HRD), MEd VCU, PhD UVA - is a researcher, lecturer and Honors Coordinator with the Graduate School of Information Technology & Mathematical Sciences at the University of Ballarat Australia. Charlynn’s research involves the enhancement of learning and teaching through the use of emerging technologies; specifically virtual worlds, social networking, and podcasting. Charlynn also conducts research in the area of Cyber-Safety. Charlynn has a number of publications and grants and regularly presents in the area of emerging technologies and their impact on learning. Charlynn worked in the private IT sector for a number of years as a consultant in manager. Charlynn is a member and practicing computer professional with the Australian Computer Society and the ACS Women’s Committee for Victoria. Cristina Palomeque is a lecturer at the Teacher Training faculty of the University of Barcelona (Spain). She also is an online tutor in a blended master’s degree for teachers of Spanish as a Foreign Language. Her research is focused on Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL). She is currently carrying out her doctoral dissertation research in the field of interaction and learning processes which occur in foreign language learning/teaching contexts in 3D virtual worlds as well as through web 2.0 tools. Blake Peck– BN(Hon.), RN, MRCNA – Blake’s has been a consultant for this team in the development of an immersive nursing scenario within Second Life developed and implemented as an immersive learning, teaching and assessment tool for undergraduate nursing students. With several years of clinical experience in acute care settings, and more recently as an educator of undergraduate nurses in the higher education sector, Blake is well positioned to ensure the links between the reality of nursing and the requirements of student learning are established within the Second Life scenario. In addition to this project, Blake is undertaking further research concerning the attitudes towards and utilization of Podcast technology by undergraduate students. Peter Quax is a senior researcher in computer science at Hasselt University in Belgium. He obtained a MS in computer science at the Transnationale Universiteit Limburg in 2000. His PhD was finished in 2007, entitled “An Architecture for Large-scale Virtual Interactive Communities” at the Expertise Centre for Digital Media (EDM), a research institute of Hasselt University. His current research interests include virtual environments, networking and multimedia. Ricardo Quirós is an Associate Professor at the Departamento de Lenguajes y Sistemas Informáticos of the Universitat Jaume I in Castellón, Spain. He received his PhD degree in Computer Science at the Universidad Politécnica de Valencia in 1996. Currently he is co-director of the Centre for Interactive Visualization, and professor of Information Systems at the Universitat Jaume I. He teaches Multimedia and Computer Animation, and Virtual and Augmented Reality in the Masters Program of Intelligent Systems and Multimedia Systems, and the ERASMUS Mundus Masters Program in Geospatial Technologies. His current research interests are focused on Computer Graphics and Multimedia, especially in Virtual and Augmented Reality, Light Field Rendering, Auto Stereoscopic Displays and 3D Television. He is member of the European Association for Computer Graphics (Eurographics) and reviewer for local and European conferences and journals (Spanish Conference on Computer Graphics, Ibero-American Symposium on Computer Graphics, Computers & Graphics Journal).
543
About the Contributors
Inma Núñez Redó received her Degree in Chemistry at the Universitat Jaume I in Castellón. In 2003 she was awarded “Premio Joven Investigador Electrocerámica 2003”. While studying her PhD in Molecular Chemistry and Materials at the Universitat Jaume I, she was granted an Erasmus scholarship to study at the Università degli Studi di Genova and the Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Istituto per l’Energetica e le Interfasi (CNR-IENI) di Genova, Italy. She teaches Inorganic Chemistry at different levels at the Universitat Jaume I. She is member of the Group of Solid State Chemistry at the Universitat Jaume I and her research areas of interest are Ceramic Materials, focused on Electroceramics, the correlation between structure and properties in materials, and the searching for new properties in Ceramics. Manuela Núñez Redó received her MSc in Computer Science from the Universitat Jaume I of Castellón in 2006. She has also obtained a Master’s Degree in Intelligent Systems from the University Jaume I in 2008. In December 2001, she started working at the European Council for Nuclear Research (CERN) in Geneva, Switzerland, where she worked for two years in the IT Department. In 2005, she was granted an Erasmus scholarship to study at ENSSAT (École Nationale Supérieure des Sciences Appliquées et de Technologie) in Lannion, France. Currently, she teaches Science courses using Augmented Reality. She is a researcher at the Interactive Visualization Group at the Universitat Jaume I and her research areas of interest are Augmented Reality, Computer Vision focusing on Pattern Recognition, Computer Assisted Simulation and Real-Time Rendering. Luke Rogers completed his honors degree at the University of Ballarat in 2009 on the application of simulating clinical scenarios in virtual worlds. Prior to commencing his honors year, Luke was involved in designing and developing a series of virtual nursing simulations in Second Life. Luke worked as a research assistant in 2009 in developing a variety of multi-user virtual simulations in Second Life and researching how these environments can optimise learning. Luke’s areas of expertise include discrete event simulation, simulating AI behaviors and Second Life physics/software engineering. Luke publishes and presents on the impacts of Second Life simulations on learning. Luke is a member of the Australasian Society of Computers in Learning in Tertiary Education (ASCILITE). Alcínia Zita Sampaio is an assistant professor at the Technical University of Lisbon, in the Department of Civil Engineering, PhD in Civil Engineering by Technical University of Lisbon, since 1999. She teaches Technical Drawing since 1984 and Computer Added Drawing since 2003 for Civil Engineering students. The main research fields are geometric modelling and virtual reality applied to construction. In this field she was involved in projects concerning virtual reality in optimisation of construction project planning (2001-2004) and in automation of the generation of bridges models (2001-2004). Also has developed didactic models to support engineering education. Currently she is the principal researcher of a project concerning virtual reality applied to building management (2009-2011). Antonio Santos is an Associate professor in Educational Technology at the Universidad de las Americas at the city of Puebla, Mexico. His professional life has been committed to the promotion of the use of technology in educational organizations. He has been a researcher and consultant in the field of instructional design, distance education and the use of technology for social development. Mr. Santos has been engaged in several grants to investigate the use of technology in different Mexican educational organizations. He has published several articles in the areas of constructivist learning environments and the use of technology in developing countries and co-authored a book on community telecenters. He
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About the Contributors
received a Fulbright Scholarship to do his graduate studies and received a doctorate in education from Indiana University. He has been a member of AECT (Association for Educational Communications and Technology) since 1987. Stephen A. Schrum is an Assistant Professor of Theatre Arts at the University of Pittsburgh at Greensburg. With a PhD. in Dramatic Art from the University of California, Berkeley, Schrum begun teaching with technology in 1993, and since then has been writing and presenting on technology, including editing the book, Theatre in Cyberspace: Issues of Teaching, Acting and Directing (2000). His chapter entitled, “Theatre in Second Life® Holds the VR Mirror Up To Nature,” can be found in Handbook of Research on Computational Arts and Creative Informatics (2009). His other interests include digital filmmaking, virtual performance, and playwrighting, and—as Phorkyad Acropolis in Second Life—performed his full-length monologue, Immaculate Misconceptions, and directed Euripides’ The Bacchae in Second Life in the summer of 2008. He is also the co-owner of the performance venue Muse of Fire. More information can be found on his website, MUSOFYR (“muse of fire”) at www.musofyr.com. Liyan Song, PhD, is an assistant professor in the Department of Educational Technology & Literacy at Towson University. Her research interests include technology integration in education, pre-service teachers’ conceptual change learning experiences, and distance education. Chris Speck has been teaching English/EFL or ESOL since 1996 in a wide variety of countries from Papua New Guinea to the UK. He runs his own website englishlanguagespacestation.com with materials for English teachers and students and has been teaching and writing for the virtual world of Second Life at LanguageLab for the past year and a half. He also writes the ESOL section of Macmillan Publisher’s leading site for English teachers, One Stop English (onestopenglish.com) Paul Sweeney is an independent consultant in e-Learning, e-English, mobile and virtual learning. He has a strong background in educational technology, language teaching and virtual worlds. He was e-learning Manager of the British Council for 5 years, where he was responsible for assessing the elearning needs of 300,000 English learners worldwide. He designed and project-managed global projects in courseware development and learning management system deployment. He has also built worldwide learner communities and led market research projects into technological support for language learning. He acted as a consultant and assessor on a wide variety of e-learning and training partnership projects in Africa, Asia and Latin America. In his previous role as Director of Education for Languagelab.com, he oversaw teacher training, content creation for formal and informal learning programes and all course delivery across English and Spanish programes. He blogs at http://eduworlds.org.In his previous role as Director of Education for Languagelab.com, he oversaw teacher training, content creation for formal and informal learning programes and all course delivery across English and Spanish programes. He is an influential and sought after speaker at international conferences. Julie Sykes is Assistant Professor of Hispanic Linguistics at the University of New Mexico. Her research examines second language acquisition with a special focus on L2 pragmatic development and innovative technologies for language learning. Sykes’ current projects include the development and research of synthetic immersive environments and mobile games for language learning.
545
About the Contributors
Theodouli Terzidou obtained her master’s degree from the Department of Informatics of Aristotle University of Thessaloniki (Greece). Her research interests include networked virtual environments, collaborative learning and intelligent agents. Arturo Quintana Torres is a scholar at the Universitat Jaume I and researcher at the Centre for Interactive Visualization. His educational background is in the Development of Mathematical Models, Information Systems and User Interfaces. He received his degree (2005) in Computer Science at the Universidad de Oriente of Santiago de Cuba, Cuba. His research is in the areas of Information Systems, Virtual Reality and Augmented Reality. He has co-authored several articles, especially related to Augmented Reality. From 2005 to 2007, he worked as professor in the Department of Computer Science at the Universidad de Oriente, where he has taught graduate courses in Mathematical Analysis I, II and III. Currently he is conducting his research in the area of Light Field Rendering combined with Augmented Reality. Chrysanthi Tseloudi is undergraduate student in Department of Informatics of Aristotle University of Thessaloniki (Greece). Her research interests include networked virtual environments and social networks. Thrasyvoulos Tsiatsos obtained his master’s degree and his PhD from the computer engineering and informatics department of Patras University (Greece). He is currently a lecturer in the Department of Informatics of Aristotle University of Thessaloniki as well as research member at Research Unit 6 of Research Academic Computer Technology Institute. His research interests include computer networks, telematics, networked virtual environments, multimedia and hypermedia. Frank Van Reeth is a full-time professor of Computer Science at Hasselt University (UHasselt) in Belgium. His research interests include computer graphics, computer animation, virtual environments, multimedia technology and telematics. At Hasselt University, he is Deputy Managing Director of the Expertise Centre for Digital Media (EDM) and leads the Computer Graphics subgroup of the EDM, which specializes in computer graphics, computer animation and visual computing. He is also co-founder of several spin-off companies. Luis M. Villar is a Professor in the School of Education at the Universidad de Sevilla (Spain). His specializations are teacher education and University faculty development. Denise Wood is a Senior Lecturer in Media Arts, and Teaching and Learning Portfolio Leader in the School of Communication, International Studies and Languages at the University of South Australia. She has extensive experience in the multimedia industry as both a producer and training provider. Denise is the project leader of two nationally funded research grants as well as several university funded projects focusing on the use of innovative technologies in teaching and learning, inclusive design, and enhancing the teaching and research nexus in the undergraduate curriculum. She is currently heading a research team on a project funded by the Australian Teaching and Learning Council, which involves the design and development on an open source, accessible 3D virtual learning platform. The findings from her research have been widely published in book chapters, peer reviewed journal papers and confer-
546
About the Contributors
ence presentations, many of which focus on the use of Web 2.0 and 3D virtual worlds to promote social inclusivity, enhance employment opportunities and to engage young learners in virtual experiential learning that has an impact on ‘real lives’. Denise is Associate Editor of the Higher Education and Research Development Journal (an A* ranked journal) and she is a reviewer of several books, peer reviewed journal publications and conferences. She is a member of the Australian Communications Consumer Action Network, Standing Advisory Committee on Disability Issues as well as various industry and State Government advisory committees, and working groups focusing on the use of Web 2.0 and virtual worlds in education, business and to enhance social inclusion.
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548
Index
Symbols 2D drawings 389 2D graphical interface 423 2D Web 251 3D accelerated graphics 475 3D accelerator graphics card 211, 214 3D analysis 367, 371 3D character model 480 3D collaborative environments 477 3D crystal structures 365, 382 3D design tools 473 3D drag 481 3D environment 205, 224, 251, 264, 395, 476, 479 3D eukaryotic cell 352 3D game 242, 256 3D geometric modeling 389 3D graphics 158, 163, 169, 172, 365, 373 3D immersive environment 52 3D interactive worlds 390 3D intuition 382 3D learning environments 473 3D material structures 367 3D model 365, 366, 367, 368, 371, 374, 381, 382, 387, 389, 390, 391, 392, 393, 394, 396, 397, 399, 400, 405, 408, 409, 413, 473 3D multi-user virtual environment (MUVE) 248, 276, 414 3D MUVE-based simulation 342, 352, 355, 356, 361, 363 3D online multi-user games 248 3D props 224 3D simulation 159, 162 3D software system 475
3D space 224, 389, 396 3D spatial intuition 367 3D spatial perception 370 3D structure 365, 370, 372, 375, 381 3D technologies 475 3D virtual environment 205, 208, 218, 219, 236, 237, 238, 241, 251, 253, 335 3D virtual learning environment 236, 237, 238, 251, 253, 254, 334 3D virtual learning experience 246, 252 3D virtual reality platform 263 3D virtual world 218, 226, 227, 229, 230, 238, 241, 245, 246, 248, 253, 255, 339, 348 3D virtual world portfolios 248 3D virtual world technologies 247 3D visualization 423, 426, 434 3D visualization system 393 3D Web 341, 348, 350 3D world 246, 473, 481, 487 4D (3D + time) 390 4D models 387, 390, 394
A acoustic echo cancellation (AEC) 211, 214, 394 active learning 180, 186, 192, 194 Active Worlds 263, 342 activity system 335 adult learning process 20 Advanced Chemistry Laboratory 370, 371, 372, 373, 376 advanced research projects agency network (ARPANET) 32, 33, 34, 35, 44 affective domain taxonomy 19 agent 44
D data-mining 321 Design-Based Research approach 133, 134 design for interactive media (DIM) 241, 247, 248, 249, 250, 253 Desire2Learn 51 DEVRL 159, 176 didactic models 387, 395, 396 digital communication technologies 59, 60 digital free society 64
Index
‘digital immigrants’ 252 digital information 63 digital intelligence 16, 59, 60, 62, 63, 64 digital knowledge 62 digitally-formed intellectual style 59 digital media 239, 251 digital media techniques 239, 246, 247, 248 Digital Millennium Copyright Act (DMCA) 336 digital native 237, 248, 251, 253, 256 digital native population 226 digital portfolios 67, 70, 71, 86 digital spatial representations 392 digital technology 59, 60, 62, 63, 64, 179, 180, 181, 182 digital tools 64 digital wall paper 454 digital world 192 Dionysus 187, 188 director 473, 474, 478, 485 direct show video library (DSVideoLib) 373 discovery learning theory 19 Discreet 3D 473 discrete intelligence 59, 63 discussion group 44 distance education 30, 31, 41, 43, 157, 158, 159, 162, 163, 165, 166, 169, 171, 172, 175, 176, 178 Distance education 152 distance learning 28, 29, 30, 32, 43, 53, 54, 77 document-centred approach 476 document management 204 domain name 35, 44, 45 domain name system (DNS) 44 drill and practice 17 dual coding theory 309 dungeons and dragons 6 dynamic properties 480
N National GIS day 424 national institute on media and the family (NIMF) 4, 13 national mathematics advisory panel 8, 13 National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) 107, 440, 441 needs analysis 199, 201, 207 needs assessments 81 net generation 236, 254, 255 newbies 271 New Media Consortium (NMC) 327, 331, 332 newsgroup 45, 164 newsgroups 35, 40 NIC 45 NIFLAR project (Networked Interaction in Foreign Language Acquisition and Research) 307 Ning 51 non-player 293, 295, 298, 305 non-player character (NPC) 290, 293, 294, 305 non verbal communication (NVC) 147 normality 197 Notecards 102, 110, 112 NSFNET 35 NURBs (non-uniform rational B-spline) 456
O objectivist 330 online classrooms 32 online community of practice 126, 130 online courses 414, 423 online education 143, 146, 415 online environment 73, 349 online learning 73, 74, 77, 90, 91 online learning environment 16, 18, 73, 337 online professional development 77 online teaching 327, 330 online transferability 142, 152 online virtual world 217 OnSync 487 open-ended environment 330 OpenGL 373, 374 OpenSim 146
R real life environment 328 Real Time Message Protocol (RTMP) 485 Real-Time Transmission Protocol (RTP) 208, 214, 215, 216 real world (RL, or real life) 180, 181, 184, 185, 186, 187, 190, 191, 192 receptive language skills 310 reciprocal teaching 97 recursive knowledge development model 15, 17, 21 recursive knowledge development model for virtual environments 15, 17 required fun 189 Resident 452 responsive educational programs 59 Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy for Learning, Teaching, and Assessing 106 rez 114 rezzing 306, 324 river city 4, 9, 13 rock, paper scissors 224 role-playing 309, 310, 316, 326, 329, 330, 334, 339, 343, 362, 434 router 46
S Salamander Project 110 sandboxes 115 SATNET 34 scaffolds 108, 110 scavenger hunt 185, 186 SciLands 352 scrim 223, 224 Second Health 352, 361 second language acquisition (SLA) 260, 265, 278, 280, 282, 288, 297 second language education 283, 284 second language (L2) 283, 284, 285, 286, 288, 290, 294, 296, 297, 298, 299, 300, 301, 302, 303, 304, 305, Second Life (SL) 2, 3, 12, 13, 50, 51, 52, 64, 94, 98-118, 120, 121, 130, 131, 135, 136,
556
137, 139, 142-155, 180-194, 217-260, 263-272, 278-282, 285, 286, 287, 290, 301, 302, 304, 317-339, 348-364, 414454 Second Life Chinese Island (SLCI) 333 Second Life Community Convention 416, 431 second life education (SLED) 3 Second Life Heart Murmur Sim 351, 359 Second Life Viewer 351 Second Life workshop 416 Secretary’s Commission on Achieving Necessary Skills (SCANS) 95, 96, 97, 119 security concerns 448, 450 SEE, Shrine Educational Experience 472, 473, 474, 475, 490, self-developing a MUVE 453 self-evaluation 69 self-monitoring 309, 319, 321 Session Initiation Protocol (SIP) 208, 214, 216 seven intelligences 62 Shakespeare 182 shared membership 196 Shared Objects 480 shared time/space continuum 224, 229 Shockwave 28, 473, 475, 485, 487 short-term memory 310, 311, 312, 315, 316, 317, 319 sim 105, 112, 415, 416, 421, 444, 447, 448, 449 Simbiotic Translator V2 109 simulated case scenario 346 Sistine Chapel 328 Situational Language 265 six learnings 416 sky dome 459, 468 SL as a communication tool 326, 329, 339 SL as a professional tool 326, 328, 331, 339 SL as a social phenomenon 326, 336, 339 SL as a synchronous online system 328, 339 SL as a virtual environment 326, 328, 339 SL as platform for role-playing 326, 339 SLED 331 S.L.E.U.T.H. 109 SL in education 326, 337, 339 SL in higher education 337 Sloodle 109
Index
SLSL (Second Life Scripting Language) 331, 419 SL virtual learning environments 337 social cognitive theory 309 social constructivist 344, 362 socialization opportunities 197, 201, 208, 211, 213 social networking 435, 439, 446 social presence 327 social virtualities 287 spacewar 7 spatial data 423 SpeakEasy HUD 100 Spidergram Planner 110 SPSS-file 210 staging of Second Life 217, 218, 220, 222 staging Second Life project 217, 220 standardized tests 94, 95 STARBRIGHT World 197, 201 Starlight 197, 201, 216 Stori@Lombardia 488 St. Patrick’s Day 282 student-centered learning environments 326 student voice tool 149 Studio Max 473, 476 sub-d (sub-division) 456 symmetrical execution 400 synchronous communication 164, 165, 208, 263 synchronously 168 synchronous online communication 348 synchronous online system 326, 328, 339 synchronous text-based chat 263 Synthetic Immersive Environment (SIE) 285, 286, 287, 290, 292, 293, 294, 295, 296, 297, 298, 299, 303, 305,
T Talk with Me project 307 target language 260, 262, 265, 268, 269, 270, 271, 276 task-based learning 262, 268, 282, 284, 285, 289, 302 Teacher Networking Center (TNC) 112 teaching approach 23, 24 teaching knowledge 72, 73
Teach You Teach Me - Second Life Language Buddy Network 307 team-based approach 47, 53, 55, 58 team-based learning 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53 team teaching 269 teamwork and serious games 469 tech model railroad club 7 technological, pedagogical, and content knowledge (TPACK) 98 teen grid 108, 113, 115 teleport 307, 310, 314, 315, 317, 318 telepresence 180, 190, 194, 197 telepresent 205 TELNET 33, 46 terrain 455, 456, 458, 459, 460, 461, 462, 464, 468 tertiary-level healthcare education 341, 355 text-based 262, 263 text-based chat 263 text-mining 321 texture mapping 454, 455, 466, 467, 468, 469, 470 texture maps 454, 466, 467, 468 theatre 179, 180, 181, 182, 183, 184, 187, 190, 191, 194 theatre education 179, 191 theatre technology 179, 180, 181, 182, 186, 188, 193 the communicative classroom 265 “The Five Cs.” 261 The Nature Conservancy (TNC) 444 The Sims Online 342 three-dimensional geometric models 387, 388 three-dimensional multi-user virtual environments (3D MUVEs) 341, 342, 348, 349, 350, 355 time lag 223, 224, 225 transmission control protocol/internet protocol (TCP/IP) 33, 46 TSL 113, 115 Twitter 51, 64
U ultra-mobile PCs (UMPCs) 381 united states distance learning association 30, 43
557
Index
unit system 456 universality 63 University iTunes 52 UNIX 37, 45 Usenet 34, 35, 40 user datagram protocol (UDP) 33 user-driven design 283
