Teaching Atlas of Head and Neck Imaging

TEACHING ATLAS HEAD Gild NECK IMAGING Robert Lufkin Alexandra Borges Pablo Villablanca

Thieme

of

Teaching Atlas of Head and Neck Imaging

Teaching Atlas of Head and Neck Imaging

edited by

Robert Lufkin, MD Professor Department of Radiological Sciences UCLA School of Medicine Los Angeles, California

Alexandra Borges, MD Hospital Assistant in Radiology Instituto Portugues de Oncologia-Centro de Lisboa Lisboa, Portugal and

Pablo Villablanca, MD Assistant Professor Director, Clinical Imaging Processing Service Department of Radiological Sciences UCLA School of Medicine Los Angeles, California

2000 Thieme New York . Stuttgart

Thieme New York

333 Seventh Avenue New York, NY 10001 Editor: Jane E. Pennington Editorial Director: Ave McCracken Editorial Assistant: Todd Warnock Developmental Manager: Kathleen P Lyons Director, Production and Manufacturing: Anne Vinnicombe Production Editor: Janice G. Stangel Marketing Director: Phyllis Gold Sales Manager: Ross Lumpkin Chief Financial Officer: Seth S. Fishman President: Brian D. Scanlan Cover Designer: Kevin Kall Compositor: The PRO Group, Inc. Printer: Maple-Vail Book Manufacturing Group The Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication data is available from the publisher. Copyright © 2000 by Thieme Medical Publishers. Inc. This book, including all parts thereof, is legally protected by copyright. Any use, exploitation or commercialization outside the narrow limits set by copyright legislation, without the publisher's consent. is illegal and liable to prosecution. This applies in particular to photostat reproduction, copying, mimeographing or duplication of any kind, translating, preparation of microfilms. and electronic data processing and storage.

Important note: Medical knowledge is ever-changing. As new research and clinical experience broaden our knowledge, changes in treatment and drug therapy may be required. The authors and editors of the material herein have consulted sources believed to be reliable in their efforts to provide information that is complete and in accord with the standards accepted at the time of publication. However, in view of the possibility of human error by the authors, editors, or publisher of the work herein, or changes in medical knowledge. neither the authors, editors, publisher, nor any other party who has been involved in the preparation of this work, warrants that the information contained herein is in every respect accurate or complete, and they are not responsible for any errors or omissions or for the results obtained fTom use of such information. Readers are encouraged to confirm the information contained herein with other sources. For example, readers are advised to check the product information sheet included in the package of each drug they plan to administer to be certain that the information contained in this publication is accurate and that changes have not been made in the recommended dose or in the contraindications for administration. This recommendation is of particular importance in connection with new or infrequently used drugs. Some of the product names, patents, and registered designs referred to in this book are in fact registered trademarks or proprietary names even though specific reference to this fact is not always made in the text. Therefore, the appearance of a name without designation as proprietary is not to be construed as a representation by the publisher that it is in the public domain. Printed in the United States of America

5 4 3 2 I TNY ISBN 0-86577-691-1 GTV ISBN 3-13-107881-2

To all who have a passion in life AB RL

To my loving and supportive family PV RL

CONTENTS Preface Acknowledgme n ts

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I.

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XI Xill

CENTRAL SKULL BASE

3

Case 1 .

Petroclival Meningioma

Case 2.

Trigeminal Nerve Schwannoma

Case 3.

Fibrous Dysplasia

Case 4.

Chondrosarcoma

18

Case 5.

Clival Chordoma

22

Case 6.

M e tastasis ..................................................... . . .. . . .. . ................................

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8 13

27

LARYNX AND HYPOPHARYNX

Case 7.

Epiglo ttitas ........................................................ ....................... ............. .

35

Case 8.

Laryngocele

38

Case 9.

Cord Paralysis

Case 1 0.

Posttraumatic Deformi ty

Case 1 1 .

Vallecular Cyst . .

Case 1 2 .

Chondroid Tumor of the Laryn x

Case 1 3.

Glottic Carcinoma

Case 14.

Transglo tlic/Supraglo ttic Carci noma

Case 1 5 .

Pyriform Sinus Carcinoma

Case 16.

Metas tasis

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NASOPHARYNX AND PARAPHARYNGEAL SPACE

Case 17.

Tornwal d t Cyst

Case 1 8.

Juvenile Nasopharyngeal A ngiofibroma

Case 19.

Glomus Vagale

Case 20.

Post-Styloid

XII

Case 2 1 .

Lymphoma

...

Case 22.

Liposarcoma

Case 23 .

Rhabdosarcoma

Case 24.

Squamous Cell Carcinoma

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Nerve Schwannoma

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NECK, THYROID, PARATHYROID

Case 25.

Thyroglossal Duct Cyst

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1 07

I CONTENTS Branchial Cleft Cyst .... .. ... ................. ........... .. ........ .. .......... .. .. ..

Case 27.

Lymphangioma . . . . . . .. ... . . .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. ... . . . . . . . . . . ..... . . ...

1 15

Case 28.

Tortuous Carotid Artery ........................................................................

1 18

Case 29.

Jug Vein Thrombosis

.. .... .. ........ .. .. ....... .... ..

1 22

Case 30.

Lipoma . ... . . . . .. . . .............................. ..... .............. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... ..

1 27

Case 3 ] .

Madelung Disease ...... . . .. . . ............... ..... . . . . .. . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . ...... .....

132

Case 32.

Retropharyngeal Abscess . ..... .. . . ..... . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .

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1 37

Case 33.

Carotid Body Tumor .. . ............................. .. ........... .......... . .............

143

Case 34.

Schwanoma .. .. .. . ... .. ........... . ..... . ....... .. ..... ..... . ....... ...............

147

Case 35.

Adenopathy

152

Case 36.

Reidel's Thyroiditis .

Case 37.

Goiter

Case 38.

Anaplastic Thyroid Carcinoma . . . .. . .. .. .. . . .. .... . . .... ... . .. .

1 69

Case 39.

Parathyroid Adenoma . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . . . . . . . . .. . .. ... ...... .. ...

1 74

Case 40.

Tracheal Carcinoma . . . .. ................................... . . . . . . . . . .. . . . .. . . . . . . .

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1 79

ORBIT AND VISUAL PATHWAYS

Case 4 1 .

Cellulitis . . . ..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . .. ... ... .. ..

Case 42.

Dacroadenitis .. ...... . . ... . .. . .... .. . ...... .. .............. ......... ... ....... ...

1 89

Case 43.

Pseudotumor . ............ ........ ............ . . . ... . . . . .. . . . .. .... . . . . . . . . ....... ..

1 92

Case 44.

Graves' Ophthalmopath y ................................................ ......................

1 97

Case 45.

Fat Supression Artifact . . . . . . . . . . . . .... . . . . . ..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... ....... ... 203

Case 46.

Optic Neuritis ..... ...... .................... .. .. ........ .............. ............. ... ... ..

207

Case 47.

Hemangioma .................. ............... ....... ........... ............... ....... . . . . . . . . .

211

Case 48.

Meningioma . . . ...... . . . . . ..... .............. . . . . ........ . . .. . . ..... . . . .. . . ....... ...

214

Case 49.

Ocular Melanoma ................................ .. .. ... . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . .. .. . . . ..

219

Case 50.

Retinoblastoma

V I.

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ORAL CAVITY AND OROPHARYNX

Case 5 1 .

Lingual Thyroid .. ..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . . . . . . . ........... . . ......... . . . . . . ... ... . . . . .

Case 52.

Dermoid ..... . .. .. . .. ........ . ........ . . ...... . .......... .......... .. ............... 237

Case 53.

Ranula ........... ......... ..... ........... . . . . . . ..

Case 54.

X I I Nerve Denervation Atrophy ............................. ................... . ........ 244

Case 55.

Tongue Carcinoma .... .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... . . . ... . . . ..... . ... ..

VII.

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III

Case 26.

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SALIVARY GLANDS

Case 56.

Accessory Parotid Gland .. .... .. .... . . ....... .. .. ... .. .. . .... .. ....... .

255

Case 57.

Sialolith . . . . .. . . ......... . . . . . . .. .. . . . . .. . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . ... .

259

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CONTENTSI Case 5 8.

Lymphoepithelial Cysts . . . . .. . .

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263

Case 59.

Postoperative

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267

Case 60.

Sjogrens Syndrome........................... . . ...................................... ...............

270

Case 6 1 .

Pleomorphic Adenoma ....... ........ ..

275

Case 62.

Warthin's Tumor

Case 63.

Oncocytoma

Case 64.

Adenoid Cystic Carcinoma

Case 65.

Mucoepidermoid Carcinoma .. . .

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279 2 82 2 86 289

SINONASAL

Case 66.

Dermoid Cyst .. .. ... . . . . .

Case 67.

Nasopalatine Duct Cyst .. ....... ..

Case 68.

Frontal Osteoma

Case 69.

Mucocele

Case 70.

Fungal Disease ..................... ......... ............. ..................... .. .. ................. 3 1 4

Case

Inverted Papilloma .

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Case 73.

Carcinoma

Case 74.

Esthesioneuroblastoma

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Case 72.

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319 324 328 333

TEMPORAL BONE

Case 75.

Aberrant I nternal Carotid Artery ...... ..... .. ... .................. ......... ... .

Case 76.

Atresia of the External Auditory Canal ............................................ . . .

344

Case 77.

Congenital Anomalies of the I nner Ear ..

349

Case 78.

Fracture

Case 79.

Labyrinthitis Ossificans

Case 80.

Otosclerosis

Case 8 1 .

Petrous Apicitis

Case 82.

Malignant External Otitis .. .. .......... .. ... .................. .......... ....................

375

Case 83.

Acquired Cholesteatoma

38 1

Case 84.

Vestibular Schwannoma

Case 85.

Neurofibromatosis Type

Case 86.

Glomus Tympanicum

Case 87.

Mastoidectomy

Case 88.

Middle Ear Prostheses and Devices ... ... ... ... ... ..... .. .. .... ... .... ......

Case 89.

Bell's Palsy ......................... .. .. .. .. . .. .. . ..

Case 90.

Facial Neuroma ......... .... ......... . .. ... ............... .......... ............... .... ......

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ixl

I CONTENTS Case 9 1 . x.

Stapes Replacement

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423

TMJ AND MANDIBLE

Case 92.

TMJ D islocation

Case 93.

Radicular Cyst

Case 94.

Giant Cell Granulomaffumor

Case 95.

Ameloblastoma

Index

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

................................. ................ . . ...........

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

43 1 437 443 448 451

Preface Vocatus atque non vocatus deus aderit. Carl lung

Head and neck imaging is more important than ever before. In the past, patients re­ ferred for imaging studies of the head and neck region were closely examined by primary care doctors and specialists who would obtain a focused clinical history and perform a detailed physical examination. This filtering process resulted in patients referred for head and neck imaging with finely crafted clinical questions of impor­ tant prognostic and management significance that the image study was well suited to answer. With changes in modern medical care, work-up of patients' complaints has been "streamlined" through a number of mechanisms that has ultimately re­ sulted in less access to medical resources and expertise. This results in increasing numbers of patients referred for head and neck imaging studies that have only a limited clinical work-up. I n order to adequately handle this situation, it is more im­ portant than ever that the radiologist have a thorough knowledge of head and neck imaging. Patients with conditions that in the past would have been diagnosed and managed in the clinic are now being sent to the radiology department for examina­ tion and ultimate triage. I n an increasing number of patients, the radiologist may be the only head and neck specialist that the patient sees. This book is intended for health care professionals in training and those in clinical practice interested in the head and neck. It is a case review of important examples of head and neck pathology but is not designed to be encyclopedic in scope. We hope that the readers of this casebook have as much fun using it as we had writing and preparing the material. Robert Lufkin, MD Alexandra Borges, MD Pablo Villablanca, MD Los Angeles, California 1 999

Acknowledgments We wish to express our sincere appreciation to our colleagues for sbaring their ex­ periences. We thank Dr. Jane Pennington and the staff at Thieme for their invalu­ able help. We also thank Mr. Kyu Na for his assistance with manuscript preparation and editing. Most important, this work could not have been completed without the endless support and encouragement from our families. RL

AB py I would like to thank Jeffrey Wensel and Eric Spak for all the good tips, editing help, and support, and Fernando Torrinha [or all the great images be sent me from Lisbon. AB

xiii

I. Central Skull Base

CENTRAL SKULL BASEl

Case 1 Clinical Presentation A 59-year-old female presented with a 2-year history of pain and paresthesia in­ volving the left side of her face.

A

B

I CENTRAL SKULL BASE

Radiologic Findings MRI of the skull base: Axial TIW (Fig. I-A) and axial enhanced T I W ( Fig. I-B) im­ ages at the level of the pons and axial enhanced T l W image (Fig. I -C) at the level of the middle cerebellar peduncles. These images show a well circumscribed, oval shaped mass centered upon the left prepontine cistern. This mass is isointense to gray matter on the TIW image and shows intense homogeneous enhancement on the post-contrast images. A dural tail is seen along the posterior aspect of the petrous ridge and superiorly along the left tentorium. This mass is compressing but not invading the left cerebral peduncle. The internal auditory canal is free of tumor.

Differential Diagnosis: Prepontine Cistern Mass • • • • •

Trigeminal schwan noma Clivallpetroclival ligament meningioma Parasagittal chordoma Metastasis Basilar artery aneurysm/ectasia

Diagnosis Petroclival meningioma (tentorial type)

Discussion The differential diagnosis of petroclival meningiomas includes cerebellopontine an­ gie (CPA) lesions and lesions arising within or in the immediate vicinity of the petrous apex. Systemic diseases such as multiple myeloma, eosinophilic granuloma, lymphoma, and metastasis should also be included in the differential diagnosis. Le­ sions in these locations may have components in both the posterior and middle cra­ nial fossa by extension over the petrous tip. Epidemiology

Meningiomas constitute approximately 1 5 to 20% of intracranial neoplasms. How­ ever, tumors arising from the skull base are much less common. The most frequent sites of origin are the sphenoid ridge, cribiform plate, paraseUar region, clivus, CPA, tentorium, and cavernous sinus. These tumors are more frequent in females and the peak age at presentation is in the 6th decade. Pathophysiology

Meningiomas are benign tumors that arise from meningothelial cells. Petroclival meningiomas originate from the meningeal folds surrounding the junction of the occipital bone, petrous apex, and sphenoid bone. Several classifications have been proposed because the exact location of the tumor has both clinical and thera­ peutic implications. The classification proposed by Kawase et al (1996) divides petroclival meningiomas into four groups: upper clival (origin in the clivus medially to the trigeminal nerve), cavernous sinus (clival origin and growth into the cav­ ernous sinus), tentorial (tentorial origin above the trigeminal nerve), and petrous apex (petrous origin lateral to the trigeminal nerve). This system, based on the site of dural attachment of the tumor, is useful in selecting the optimal surgical approach. Also, the location of the tumor can be inferred from the presenting

CENTRAL SKULL BASEl symptoms, which are a consequence of impingement upon the surrounding cranial nerves. Clinical Fin dings

Patients with petroclival meningiomas usually present with cranial nerve palsies or uncommonly, with signs of increased intracranial pressure, when the tumors are large enough to cause obstructive hydrocephalus. Cerebellar signs may also be present. The cranial nerves involved depend on the exact tumor location. Deafness, vertigo, and tinnitus are common presenting symptoms when the tumor impinges upon the cisternal segment of the VIIIth and VIIth nerves complex or grows along the LAC. lnvolvement of the trigeminal nerve in its cisternal segment or in the Meckel's cave results in trigeminal neuralgia or facial hypesthesia. Diplopia is also a frequent presenting symptom due to compression of the VIth nerve. This may oc­ cur in its cavernous segment or in its epidural course passing through Dorello's canal. The other cranial nerves coursing in the cavernous sinus ( I I I and IVth) may also be involved. Headaches, imbalance, and papilledema can be the presenting symptoms in patients with large tumors. Other focal neurologic findings may result from brainstem or cerebellar compression. W hen small and separate from cranial nerves, petroclival meningiomas can be completely asymptomatic, discovered inci­ dentally on imaging performed for other reasons. Imaging Findings

CT and MRI are the techniques of choice for imaging skull base meningiomas. On CT meningiomas appear as discrete, iso- or hypodense masses with a broad dural base. Calcification may be present and hyperostosis of the adjacent bone may also be seen, but these are more common with convexity meningiomas. After con­ trast administration there is strong enhancement. A dural tail may be recognized but is not a specific finding. Petroclival meningiomas usually show a flat base on the posterior surface of the petrous bone and a dome shaped medial surface contacting the brainstem. Unlike acoustic tumors, meningiomas show an obtuse angle with the petrous bone and are usually medial to the lAC. However, they can extend along the intracanalicular portion of the nerve sheath. CT is optimal for detection of associated bony erosion or destruction of the petrous apex, which would suggest an alternative, more aggressive process. Lesions arising within the petrous apex usually cause bony expansion. Pneumatization of the petrous apex and petrous apicitis are readily recognized on CT but can be mislead­ ing on MRI. Confusing petrous apicitis with tumor is common on MRI. M Rl is particularly helpful in defining the exact location of the tumor and pattern of spread, factors that are critical in selecting the best surgical approach. On M RI, meningiomas are seen as well-defined globular or plaque-like masses, isointense to gray matter on both Tl W and TIW images. I ntense homogeneous enhancement is usually seen, unless calcification is present. Due to the multiplanar capability and high soft tissue contrast of MR, it is possible to determine the site of tumor attach­ ment and relation to the adjacent cranial nerves. In an MRI of the skull base axial (Fig. I-D) and coronal (Fig. I-E) enhanced T1W images show an enhancing extra­ axial mass located posterolateral to the left cavernous sinus. This mass is well cir­ cumscribed and impinges upon the uncus and hippocampal formation of the left temporal lobe. The mass appears to originate from the lateral margin of the cav­ ernous sinus and does not involve Meckel's cave. The cavernous carotid artery is un­ remarkable and there is no evidence of edema in the surrounding brain parenchyma. The diagnosis is cavernous sinus meningioma. Petroclival meningiomas may extend inferiorly into the jugular foramen and along the tentorium, laterally into the lAC or anteriorly into the cavernous sinus, Meckel's cave, and medial cranial fossa. The signal characteristics of meningiomas allow ready diferentiation from petroclival cystic lesions. In an MRI of the skull

I CENTRAL SKULL BASE

D

E

base, an axial T I W image (Fig. I-F) and an enhanced coronal TI W image (Fig. J -G ) show a right petroclival lobulated mass, isointense to gray matter on Tl W images and strongly enhancing after contrast administration. The lesion is attached to the posterosuperior aspect of the petro us apex and extends superiorly through the am­ biens cistern into the choroidal fissure. The mass impinges upon the right ccrebral peduncle and pons. There is also significant mass efrect upon the right hippocampal rormation. An enhancing dural tail is seen along the cisternal segment of the V I I I and V I [ nerves complex. The diagnosis i s petroclival meningioma (petrous apex type).

F

G

CENTRAL SKULL BASEl

PEARLSIPITFALLS •

MRI s trongly enhances masses tha t are isoi n tense to gray matter and show a "dural tail."

•

An MRI defines the exact loca­ tion and e x tension of the tumor i n to the cavernous sinus, Meckel's cave, ten torium, or lA e.

•

A cr scan is optimal for d e tect­ ing for calcification and focal hy­ perostosis.

•

Whe n diagnosing this condition, the clinician may confuse a meningioma w i th a vestibular schwannoma.

•

•

Whe n diagnosing this condition, the clinician may mistake unilat­ eral re te n tion of secre tions for a tumor. Whe n diagnosing this condition, the clinician may fail to recog­ nize involveme n t of s tructures which would preclude surgery.

Management The treatment for skull base meningiomas is surgical resection. Radiation therapy is usually considered for incomple te resections and recurrences. More recen tly, s tereotatic radiosurgery has been used in the primary treatment of skull base meningiomas when surgical resection is expected to cause unacceptable neurologi­ cal defici ts or to tre a t postsurgical macroscopic disease. This modality appears to al­ low con trol of further grow th without severe morbidi ty, and is a promising tech­ nique in the management of these benign slow growing tumors. Surgical approaches vary according to the location of the tumor, with the focus upon functional preservation of the cranial nerves. Nevertheless, complete resection cannot be achieved in approximately 35% of cases due to tumor adherence to the brainstem, cranial nerves, or cavernous carotid artery. Compl e te removal should not be pursued a t the cost of neurologic impairmen t. Expectant managemen t is also ac­ ceptable for small, asymptomatic tumors in difficult locations.

Suggested Readings Couldwell, W. T., Fukushima, T., Gianno tta, S.L., Weiss, M.H. P e trocLival menin­ giomas: surgical experience in 1 09 cases. Journal of Neurosurgery 84( 1 ):20-8, 1996 Jan. Fazi, S., Barthelemy, M. P e troclival meningioma mimicking the prese n ta tion of a transie n t ischemic a ttack. Acta Neurologica Scandinavica 89( 1 ):75--{j, 1 994 Jan . Kawase, T., Shiobara, R., Ohira, T., Toya, S. Developme n tal pa tterns and character­ istic symptoms of p e troclival meningiomas. Neurologia Medico-Chirurgica 36( 1 ): 1 --{j, 1 996 Jan. Nicolato, A., Ferraresi, P , Foroni, R., Pasqualin, A., Piovan, E . , Severi, F., Masotto, B., Gerosa, M. Gamma K nife radiosurgery i n skull base meningiomas. Preliminary experience wi th 50 cases. S tereotactic and Functional Neurosurgery 66 Suppl 1: 1 1 2-20,1996. Pomeranz, S., UmanskY,I, Elidan, 1., Ashkenazi, E., Valarezo, A., Shalit, M. Giant cranial base tumours. Acta Neurochirurgica 1 29(3--4) : 1 2 1 -6, 1 994. Sekhar, L.N., Wrigh t, D. C, Richardson, R., Monacci, W. P e troclival and foramen magnum meningiomas: surgical approaches and p i tfalls. lournal of Neuro­ Oncology 29(3) :249-59, 1 996 Sep. Ta tagiba, M., Samii, M., Ma tthies, C, Vorkapic, P. Manageme n t of petroclival menin­ giomas: a cri tical analysis of surgical tre a tmen t. Acta Neurochirurgica Supplernen­ tum 65:92--4, 1 996. Thomas, N.W., King, T.T. Meningiomas of the cerebellopontine angle: a report of 4 1 cases. British lournal of Neurosurgery 10(1) :59-68, 1996 Feb. Zen tner, 1., Meyer, B., Vieweg, u., Herberhold, C, Schramm, 1. P e troclival menin­ giomas: is radical resection always the best option? lournal of Neurology, Neuro­ surgery and Psychiatry Apr, 62(4):341-5, 1 997.

icE TRAL SKULL BASE

Case 2 Clinical Presentation A

42-year-old female pre ented with progre sive left-sided facial pain and pares­ the ia.

A

I�

B

CENTRAL SKULL BASEl

Radiologic Findings On an M R I of the skull base the axial T1 W ( Fig. 2-A), and axial (Fig. 2-B) and coro­ nal (Fig. 2-C) post-contrast T l WI show a dumbbell-shaped lesion involving the Meckel's cave and left prepontine ciste rn, following the course of the left trigeminal nerve. The mass is of intermediatellow signal intensity on Tl WI and enhances het­ erogeneously, showing a nonenhancing anterior component. The coronal image shows denervation atrophy of the left pterygoid muscles. There is no evidence of tu­ mor extension through the foramen ovaIe.

Differential Diagnosis: Mass or Abnormal Enhancement of the Trigeminal Nerve • • • • • • • •

Trigeminal nerve schwannoma/neurofibroma Lipoma Hemangioma Perineural spread of a tumor Metastasis Inflammatory disease (sarcoid) Infection ( herpes zoster, Lyme disease, actinomycosis) Lesions in the Meckel's cave: meningioma, dermoid, epidermoid, metastasis

Diagnosis Trigeminal nerve schwan noma

Discussion Epidemiology Schwannomas are benign nerve sheath tumors arising from cranial, spinal or sym­ pathetic nerves. TIley occur exclusively in sensory or mixed nerves. I ntracranial schwannomas are common, comprising 8% of all intracranial tumors. Among these, 95% originate in cranial nerve V I I I . Trigeminal schwan noma, is in a distant second place, and occurs with equal frequency in men and women with a peak incidence in the 4th decade. The trigeminal nerve is the one most commonly involved in the cen­ tral skull base. Trigeminal schwannomas may occur in isolation or in association with neurofibromatosis.

Pathophysiology Trigeminal schwannomas are benign encapsulated tumors which originate from the nerve sheath. They are composed of two different types of tissue designated as An­ toni A and Antoni B (see vestibular schwannoma). These tumors grow slowly, do not tend to recur and rarely show malignant transformation. Malignant trigeminal schwannomas "de novo" are also rare with only a few cases described in the litera­ ture and are more common in the setting of neurofibromatosis (plexiform neurofi­ broma ) . TIlese malignant tumors are characterized by increased cellularity and nuclear pleomorphism and may be confused with sarcomas, speci fically with fi­ brosarcoma. Most malignant trigeminal schwannomas in the head and neck are localized in the retromaxillary or pterygomandibular region. Trigeminal schwannomas are classified according to their location along the course of the nerve. Location determines both the clinical symptoms and the surgi­ cal approach to the lesion. Type I tumors, the most common, occur in the middle cra­ nial fossa in the region of the gasserion ganglion. Type I I I tumors are the second most common, typically seen as dumbbell-shaped tumors with a posterior fossa

I CENTRAL

SKULL BASE component in the prepontine cistern and a middle cranial fossa component in Mecke l 's cave, separated by a waist at the level of the porus trigeminus. Type I I tu­ mors are limited to the posterior fossa, and involve only the cisternal segment of the nerve. Finally, type IV comprises the extracranial tumors with or without minimal intracranial extent.

Clinical Findings Most patients present with pain, paresthesias. and numbness. usually along the course of the first or second divisions of the trigeminal nerve. The association of trigeminal schwannoma with trigeminal neuralgia is controversial. Some experts as­ sociate this neuralgic pain with involvement of the trigeminal root, whereas others relate it to involvement of the gasserian ganglion. Headaches and symptoms of com­ pression of adjacent cranial nerves are common. Diplopia, facial weakness and sen­ sorineural hearing loss are among the most frequent, and result from compression of the cavernous segment of cranial nerve V I and cisternal segments of cranial nerves V l l and V l l l by large trigeminal tumors. Extension of a tumor along the third division of the Vth nerve may result in tris­ mus or weakness of the masticator muscles. Large tumors in the posterior fossa may cause cerebellar and pyramidal symptoms. Extension along the V I division may pre­ sent with exophthalmos and papilledema. Physical exam may reveal loss of corneal reflex.

Imaging Findings Cross-sectional imaging allows precise depiction of tumor location and extent and has largely improved the outcome of surgical treatment. Imaging is also helpful in establishing the diagnosis and in the follow-up of these patients. CT and MRI are used complimentarily to assess bony changes and soft tissue extent, respectively. Plain films of the skull base may suggest the diagnosis by showing enlargement, remodeling or erosion of the skull base neural foramina through which the three di­ visions of the trigeminal nerve exit the skull (superior orbital fissure-V l , foramen rotundum-V2, and foramen ovale-V3). Large tumors may also remodel or erode the petrous apex, lateral aspect of the sphenoid in the region of the cavernous sinus, an­ terior c1inoids or dorsum sellae. CT, due to its higher spatial resolution, shows to advantage these bony changes and at the same time depicts the soft tissue component of the tumor. Trigeminal schwannomas are usually iso - to slightly hyperdense to the brain and enhance on the postcontrast images. Large tumors may be heterogeneous due to cystic degen­ eration, necrosi or intra tumoral hemorrhage. Schwannomas of the Vth nerve tend to be oblong in shape following the long axis of the nerve. They may be seen any­ where from the nerve root, in the lateral aspect of the prepontine cistern to the pe­ ripheral branches of the nerve. A bilobed, dumbbell-shaped tumor is typical of trigeminal schwannomas extending from the cisternal segment in the posterior fossa into the cavernous segment in the middle cranial fossa with constriction of the tu­ mor mass at the level of the porus trigeminus. M RI is the best imaging modality to assess the extent of these tumors. Gadolin­ ium enhanced M R T may depict small tumors that would otherwise be missed. Trigeminal schwannomas tend to be isointense to t he brai n on T l WI, hyperintense on T2WI and enhance after contrast administration. Fluid-fluid levels have been re­ ported in these lesions resulting from hemorrhage, or layering of debris, or fluids with different protein composition. MRI better delineates the relationship of the tumor to adjacent structures, par­ ticularly with the brainstem, petrous apex, VU and V I l l th nerve complex, cavernous sinus and intracranial segments of the internal carotid artery. Replacement of the fat signal adjacent to the skull base foramina and pterygomaxillary fissure is a useful sign of tumor extension into these foramina and is better depicted with noncontrast T l WI .

CENTRAL SKULL BASEl

D

E

Cross sectional studies for patie n ts wi th trigeminal nerve symp toms should in­ clude all segmen ts of the nerve, including the posterior fossa, skull base, orbi ts, and infratemporal fossa. A trophy and fa tty infiltration of the muscles of mas tication may be seen, indicating denervation atrophy. This imaging finding should prompt a search for trigeminal nerve pathology. Differe n tial diagnosis of this lesion includes other cranial nerve schwannomas, es­ pecially scbwannomas of the cis ternal segme n ts of the V II and V l l l th nerves, petro­ c1ival or cavernous meningiomas, perineural spread of tumor, and rare infectious/in­ flammatory processes. Differe n ti a tion from schwannomas of o ther cranial nerves may be difficult when tumors are very l arge, but is usually possible once the radiologist is familiar wi th the anatomy of the cranial nerves. V I I and V I T I nerve schwannomas are more l a teral in position in the prepontine cistern and course in the direction of the internal audi­ tory canal, which may be enlarged. Schwan nom as grow along the nerve sheath by direct extension, as a single bulky lesion. The presence of "skip enhancing lesions" along the trigeminal nerve is typi­ cal of perineural spread of a tumor and should prompt a search for the primary neo­ plasm. Neoplasms mos t likely to show this pattern of spread include adenoid cystic carcinoma, mucoepidermoid carcinoma, lymphoma, and squamous cell carcinoma. The second division of the trigeminal nerve is particularly prone to perineural spread of head and neck tumors due to i ts e x tensive branching n e twork. Usually this spread is re trograde from the peripheral branches to the main trunk. Hematoge­ neous me tastasis to the trigeminal nerve may also occur and are more commonly seen in patients with melanoma, breast, and lung carcinoma. On an MRI of the skull base axial (Fig. 2-D) and coronal (Fig. 2 - E ) post-contrast Tl W images show abnor­ mal enlargeme n t and enhanceme n t of the right Meckel's cave in a patien t wi th known breast carcinoma. The diagnosis is me tasta tic breast disease (hematogeneous dissemination). Inflamma tory "neuritis" manifes ts as abnormal segmental, smooth enhancement along the course of the nerve.

I CENTRAL

SKULL BASE

PEARLSIPITFALLS •

A trigeminal schwannoma can be see n as a n e nhancing mass fol­ lowing the course of the trigemi­ nal nerve.

•

cr and M R I together give a pre­ cise picture of bony changes a nd soft tissue extent.

•

Image all segments of the trigem­ inal nerve.

•

It is importa nt not to miss the full exte nt of the tumor due to an incomplete study.

•

•

Avoid mistaking perineural spread of a tumor for a schwan­ noma. It is important not to miss dener­ vation atrophy of the muscle of mastication.

Man agement llle treatme nt for trigemi nal schwa nnomas is surgical excision. The surgical ap­ proach is dictated by the locatio n a nd exte nt of the tumor. As a ge neral guideline, type 1 tumors are approached through a fro ntotemporal cra niotomy via a tra nsyl­ via n approach. Type 2 tumors are approached through retrosigmoid cra niotomy. Type 3 tumors are approached through a combi ned subtemporal retromastoid ap­ proach, a nd type 4 tumors through a n extradural i nfratemporal approach. The best m a nageme nt of maligna nt schwa nnomas appears to be surgery followed by radia­ tion therapy.

Suggested Readings Catal a no, P., Fang-Hui, E., Som, P.M. Fluid-fluid levels i n be nign neuroge nic tumors. American Journal of Neuroradiology 1 8(2):385-7, 1 997 Feb. Charabi, S., M a ntoni, M., Tos, M .. lllOmse n. 1. Cystic vestibular schwa nnomas: neuroimagi ng a nd growth rate. Journal of Laryngology and Otology 108(5):375-9, 1 994 May. Krish namurthy, S., Holmes, B., Powers, S. K. Schwa nnomas limited to the i nfratem­ poral fossa: report of two cases. Journal of Neuro-Oncology 36(3):269-77, 1998 Feb. Maut ner, VF.. L i nde nau, M., Baser, M.E., Hazim, W., Tatagiba, M., Haase, W., Samii, M., Wais, R., Pulst, S.M. The neuroimagi ng a nd cli nical spectrum of neuro­ fibromatosis 2. Neurosurgery 38(5 ):880-5, discussio n 885-6, 1 996 May. Samii, M., Migliori, M.M., Tatagiba, M., Babu. R. Surgical treatme nt of trigemi nal schwa nnomas. Journal of Neurosurgery 82( 5 ) :7 1 1-8, 1 995 May. Tegos, S ., Georgouli, G.. Gogos. c., Polythothorakis, 1., Sa nidas. V. Mavrogiorgos. C. Primary, maligna nt schwa nnoma i nvolvi ng simulta neously the right Gasserian ga n­ glion a nd the distal part of the right ma ndibular nerve. Case report. Journal of Neu­ rosurgical Sciences 41 (3) :293-7, 1 997 Sep. Turgut, M., Palaoglu, S., Akpi nar, G., Saglam, S. Gia nt schwa nnoma of the trigemi­ nal nerve misdiagnosed as maxillary si nusitis. A case report. South African Journal of Surgery 35(3): 1 3 1 -3, 1 997 Aug. Yamashiro, S., Nagahiro, S., Mimata, c., Kuratsu, 1., Ushio, Y. Maligna nt trigemi nal schwa nnoma associated with xeroderma pigmentosum--case report. NeLII'ologia Medico-Chimrgica 34( 1 2 ) : 8 1 7 -20, 1 9 94 Dec.

CENTRAL SKULL BASEl

Case 3 Clinical Presentation A 35-year-old male presented w i th facial dismorphism, anosmia and pain on chewing.

A

B

/cENTRAL

SKULL BASE

Radiologic Findings Axial cr sections through the skull and facial bones (bone window) ( Figs. 3-A, 3 -B, and 3 -C) show extensive bony changes. These consist of expansion of the medullary cavi ty wi th cystic and ground glass pallerns merging imperceptibly with normal surrounding bone.

Differential Diagnosis: Diffuse Fibroosseus Lesions in the Skull Base or Facial Bones Common • Fibrous dysplasia • Paget's disease • M e tastasis • Ossifying fibroma • M u l tiple os teomas • Hyperparathyroidism Rare • Meningioma tosis • Osteogenesis imperfecta • Juvenile Paget (hereditary hyperphosphatasia) • Progressive diaphyseal dysplasia (Camura tti -Englemann disease) • Pyknodysostosis

Diagnosis Polyostotic fibrous dysplasia (leontiasis ossea)

Discussion Epidemiology Fibrous dysplasia is an idiopathic skeletal disorder characterized by a defect in os­ teoblastic ma tura tion. I t is a common disorder, first described in 1938, by Lichen­ stein and Jaffe. There are three main forms of disease, depending on the number of bones in­ volved and the presence or absence of other clinical fea tures. The monostotic form is the most common, accounting for 75 to 80% of all cases, and tends to preferen­ tially involve such long bones as the femur and ribs. Isolated involveme n t of a sin­ gle craniofacial bone is seen in 10 to 25% of cases with the maxilla and mandible the most freque n t s i tes. The polyostotic form accoun ts for 10 to 25% of cases and may be un i- or bilateral. Craniofacial involvement is responsible for 40 to 60% of cases and is also refered to as leo n tiasis ossea due to the characteris tic facial disfigure­ men t. Albrigh t - McCune -Sternberg syndrome, the rarest form, accoun ts for 10% of cases and consists of unilateral bone involveme n t associa ted with skin pigmentation and precocious puberty. This form is seen almost exclusively in females. Cherub ism is considered a special hereditary form of fibrous dysplasia exclusively involving the jaws. The disease is usually symmetrical and tends to regress spon ta­ neously after puberty. I n the craniofacial form the bones most frequen tly involved include, in decreas­ ing order of frequency, the sphenoid, frontal, maxillary, e thmoid, occipital. and tem­ poral bone. The peak age for fibrous dysplasia is the second and third decades. The disease tends to progress during the period of skeletal growth and to s tabilize once growth ceases, a l though this is not always the case. Milder forms of fibrous dyspla-

CENTRAL SKULL BASEl sia may manifest only in adulthood. The polyostotic forms tend to present earlier in life and have a more aggressive course.

Pathophysiology Pathologically, fibrous dysplasia is characterized by abnormal maturation of medullary bone, which is replaced by mildly to highly cellular tissue composed of a mixture of spindle-shaped fibroblasts and irregular trabeculae of woven bone with­ out osteoblastic lining or progression to lamellar bone. The irregularly shaped bony trabeculae have been compared to chinese characters. The "fibrous bone" merges imperceptibly with normal surrounding bone. Unlike ossifying fibroma and fibrous osteoma, these lesions are not encapsulated. The cortical bone is typically spared, al­ though it may be thinned and transgressed due to marked expansion of the medullary cavity. Malignant transformation has a reported incidence of 0.5 % , with most of the cases occuring after radiation therapy. The interval between diagnosis and malig­ nant degeneration is usually more than one decade. Sarcomas are the most common secondary malignancy, including osteo-, fibrous- and chondrosarcomas. Fifty per cent of tbe sarcomas associated with the monostotic form occur in the craniofacial region. The etiology of fibrous dysplasia is unknown. Three different theories have been proposed to explain its origin including developmental, traumatic and neoplastic. At the present time the former is the most widely accepted .

Clinical Findings Clinical findings largely depend on the extent and location of the disease. Patients with craniofacial involvement present clinically with facial disfigurement, pain, or functional problems including cranial nerve deficits. Progressive, painless facial, or calvarial swelling is the most common presenta­ tion. However, when severe bony expansion is present, sinonasal obstruction, mal­ occlusion, exophthalmus and diplopia may ensue. Obstruction of sinus drainage pre­ disposes these patients to mucocele formation. Cranial nerve deficits, due to stenosis and obliteration of their natural skull base foramina, are a common complication. Anosmia, visual impairment, diplopia, sensorineural hearing loss, and facial nerve palsy are among the most common neurolog.ic deficits, although all cranial nerves may potentially be involved. Physical exam of these patients should always include a full ENT evaluation and assessment of the cranial nerves.

Imaging Findings Imaging is important to establish the diagnosis and to evaluate the extent of the dis­ ease. CT is the preferred modality. The M R T lacks specificity and on plain films; it may be difficult to determine disease extent due to significant overlap of osseous structures in the craniofacial region. The hallmark of fibrous dysplasia is expansion of the medullary cavity by fibrosseous tissue, sparing the cortex and preserving the original shape of the involved bone(s). The woven bone of the medullary cavity may have a variety of patterns, depending on the amount of ossification of the fibrous matrix. A hyperlucent cystic appearance results when trabecular bone formation is poor or absent and is more common in the early stages of the disease. Progressive ossification, with formation of irregular bony trabeculae intermingled with fibrous matrix, leads to the classic "ground-glass" pattern. When bone formation and min­ eralization predominates, the involved bone becomes densely sclerotic. These dif­ ferent patterns may occur together or in isolation. Severely expansive lesions may develop cortical breakthrough. Periosteal reaction is usually not seen except in cases of pathological fracture or malignant transformation.

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Thin cr cction through the kull ba e are mandatory to detcct tenosi or oblit­ eration of neural foramina. omplication uch a nasal ob truction or mucocele formation are also adequately detected on cr ·cans. Tridimcn 'ional reconstructions may provide useful information when urgical treatment is con idcrcd. Figure 3-D hows a cr of the axial section of parallasal sinuses in anothcr patient. Figures 3-E and 3-F arc coronal sections showing expansive cystic bony lesions which involve the maxilla and mandible with multiple peck led calcification . TIle cortices of the maxillary bones are thin ned with focal area of bony dehisccnce. -mere is marked

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PEARLSIPITFALLS •

I t is a painless facial deformi ty (leon tiasis ossea)/craoial nerve palsy which can occur in a young adolescen t.

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Expansive cystic, sclerotic, or ground-glass appearing lesions involve the bone marrow, and spare cortical bone.

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Axial cr sections show iIl­ defined margins wi th the abnor­ mal bone merging imperceptibly w i th normal bone.

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Unilateral polyosto tic fibrous dysplasia in a young female usu­ ally is accompanied by preco­ cious puberty and pigme n ted cutaneous lesions (Albrigh t­ McCune-S ternberg syndrome).

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Fibrous dysplasia is l im i ted to the jaw i n Cherubism.

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The clinician may fail to recog­ nize compromise of cranial nerves due to foraminal e n trap­ ment.

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The clinician may fail to recog­ nize mucocele formation.

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Irradiating fibrous dysplasia le­ sions may lead to a malignan t transformation.

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The clinician may mistake fi­ brous dysplasia for a malignan t process.

displacement of tee th , particularly in the superior alveolus, w i th tee th seen adjacen t to the orbi tal floors. The maxillary sinuses are completely obl i tera ted and there is also obli tera tion of the inferior aspect of the nasal cavi ty. On M R I , fibrous dysplasia presen ts as low or i n termediate in tensity on T l W images and bypoi n tensi ty on TIW images. Hemorrhage and cystic lesions may con­ tribu te to signal h e terogenei ty. I n tense enhancemen t of the medullary cavi ty is the rule. Paget disease, a p a thologic process wi th similar appearance, tends to involve the cortical bone and is more likely to cause bony deformi ty. Also, this disease occurs later in life and, as opposed to polyosto tic fibrous dysplasia, is more predominan t among males. Ossifying fibroma may be difficul t to distinguish from fibrous dysplasia bo th radiographically and p a thologically. However, this lesion tends to be more focal and to have a more aggressive course. Meningiomatosis may cause e x tensive bony sclerosis of the skull base mimicking fibrous dysplasia. Post-con trast CT or M R I of the brain shows the e x tracranial tu­ mor location and resolves this issue.

M anagement Fibrous dysplasia is a benign disease tha t should be managed conservatively unless significant functional impairme n t or neurologic deficits ensue. Surgery for cosmetic reasons should ideally be postponed u n til growth ceases and the lesions s tabilize. When necessary, surgical resections in the craniofacial region should be l im i ted due to the pote n tial surgical complica tions and the high recurrence rate. Recurrence oc­ curs in as many as 20 to 30% of cases wi thin 2 to 3 years after surgery.

Suggested Readings Ferguson, B.J. Fibrous dysplasia of the paranasal sinuses. A merican Journal of Otolaryngology 15(3) :227-30, 1 994 May-Jun. Simovic, S., Klapan, L., Bumber, Z., Bura, M. Fibrous dysplasia i n paranasal cavi ties. Journal of Oto-Rhino-laryngology and Its Related Specialties 58( 1 ) :55-8, 1 996 Jan­ Feb. Van Rompaey, D., Schmel zer, B., Vers traete, W., Cammaert, T. Fibrous dysplasia in the fron toe thmoidal complex: diagnosis and surgical aspects. Acta Oto-Rhino­ Laryngologica Belgica 48( 1 ) :37--40, 1 994.

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SKULL BASE

Case 4 Clinical Presentation A 53-year-old male prese nted with worsening headache and diplopia.

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Radiologic Findings I n an M R I of the skull base. axial post-contrast Tl WI (Fig. 4-A), a nd axial TIWI (Fig. 4-B) show an e nh a nced lesio n i n the ce ntral skull base. ce ntered in the left lat­ eral aspect of the clivus. TIle lesion is heteroge neous on the TIW images with sev­ eral areas of hypoi nte nsity i nterspersed with areas of hyperi nte nsity. probaly repre­ se nt i ng calcificatio ns. TIle left cavernous carotid artery is e ncased by tumor a nd reduced i n caliber at the cervico-petrous j u nction. TIle mass protrudes posteriorly i nto the left prel11edullary cistern.

Differential Diagnosis: Mineralized Lesions of the Skull Base • • • • • •

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Cho ndrosarcoma Chondroma Chondrol11yxoid fibroma Chondroid chordoma Osteosarcoma Metastasis

CENTRAL SKULL BASEl

Diagnosis Low grade chondrosarcoma of the skull base

Discussion Epidemiology Cartilaginous tumors of the skull base are relatively rare. The majority of these are chondrosarcomas, which account for 0. 1 5 % of all intracranial neoplasms and for 5 to 10% of all skull base tumors. Only 5% of chondrosarcomas occur in the head and neck region, the most common locations being the maxilla, mandible, skull base and paranasal sinuses. They can occur at any age, but there is a peak incidence between the 4th and 6th decades. There is no sexual predilection. Their benign counterpart, chondroma, is even rarer and may occur in isolation or as part of Oilier's disease (multiple enchondromatosis) or Maffucci 's syndrome (multiple enchondromas and hemangiomas ).

Pathophysiology Chondrosarcomas usually originate from skull base synchondroses. But they may also arise from cartilaginous remnants left behind during embryologic development, which may account for rare extraosseous locations. Development of chondroid tu­ mors from multi potential mesenchymal cells or from chondral metaplasia of fibrous tissue have also been postulated. Chondrosarcomas may arise de novo or result from malignant degeneration of a pre-existing chondroma. Paget 's disease, fibrous dysplasia and multiple enchondromatosis are all associ­ ated with an increased incidence of chondrosarcomas. This incidence is even higher when these conditions are managed with radiation therapy. Pathologically, chondrosarcomas are divided into three different SUbtypes. The conventional type is the most common and has a better prognosis. The mesenchy­ mal and undifferentiated types show a more aggressive clinical course and bear a worse prognosis. Conventional chondrosarcomas are further subdivided into types 1 through 4 reflecting an increasing grade of cytologic aggressiveness (increased cel­ lularity, pleomorphism and mitotic rate). A simpler and more useful classification system divides chondroid tumors into low, intermediate and high grade neoplasms, taking into account the difficulty in differentiating benign from malignant tumors, both pathologically and radiologically. Also, distinction between chondrosarcomas and chordomas, particularly chondroid chordomas, may only be possible with im­ munohistochemical analysis. I n contradistinction to chordomas, chondrosarcomas do not stain for epithelial markers such as epithelial membrane antigen and keratin. Chondromyxoid fibroma is a rare entity, that shares the same immunohistochemical features with chondrosarcomas. However, on light microscopy this tumor shows an important fibroblastic component made of stellate or spindle-shaped ceLis with scarce eosinophiLic cytoplasm, not usually seen in chondrosarcomas. Chondrosarcomas are locally invasive neoplasms, but rarely metastasize.

Clinical Findings Signs and symptoms of skull base chondrosarcomas are non-specific and depend on the location, extent, and relationship of the tumor to adjacent vital structures. The nonspecific nature of the most frequent symptoms (headache and vagueness, wax­ ing and waning neurologic deficits) delays the diagnosis. The mean time between the onset of symptoms and diagnosis is between 18 to 60 months. Occulomotor disor­ ders, decreased hearing, tinnitus, vertigo and pain, and hyperesthesia in the distri­ bution of the Vth cranial nerve are among the most common presenting neurologic

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deficits in these patients. They relate to the typical location of these tumors laterally in the mid-skull base, and usually involve the cavernous sinus, petrous apex, and cerebello pontine angle (CPA) cistern. Whenever a patient presents with unex­ plainable multiple cranial neuropathies and headache, a skull base neoplasm should be suspected and appropriate imaging studies requested.

Imaging Findings Imaging evaluation of a patient with a suspected skull base neoplasm should include both CT and MRI to delineate the bony and soft tissue changes. CT is particularly valuable in the selling of chondroid tumors as it may show calcifications and tumor mineralization. Chondroid type calcifications are present in 60 to 80% of tumors and include complete and partial ringlets, as well as arciform and fine, punctiform calcifications. The degree of mineralization appears to correlate well with tumor dif­ ferentiation. Low grade tumors show heavy calcification and the more anaplastic high grade tumors show little or no calcification of the tumor matrix. Bone destruc­ tion is seen in 50% of cases and most frequently involves the clivus, petro us apex, and posterior cranial fossa. In an MRI of another patient of the orbits axial T I W (Fig. 4-C) and coronal post-contrast frequency selective fat suppression imaging (FATSAT) TI W (Fig. 4-0) images show a heterogeneously cnhanced mass in the lateral wall of the right orbit (greater wing of the sphenoid bone). This expansive mass shows well defined margins and extends medially into the lateral aspect of the extraconal compartment displacing, but not invading, the lateral rectus muscle. Di­ agnosis: Low grade chondrosarcoma of the greater wing of the sphenoid bone. Clival chondrosarcomas tend to occur off of the midline, an important distinctive feature from chordomas, most commonly seen in the spheno-occipital or petrociival synchondro is. The junction between the vomer and rostrum of the sphenoid is an­ other possible location for this tumor. Chondrosarcomas, although locally invasive. may show well-defined margins, almost geographic in appearancc, but without bony sclerosis. Most tumors show marked contrast enhancement. On M R I , tumors are of intermediate signal intensity on TI WI and fairly hyperin­ tense on TIWI . Calcifications, depending on their size and composition, may present as hypo- or hyperintense foci on M R l or may not be visible at all. Fat-suppressed, contrast-enhanced sequences may be helpful in determining the amount of bone

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PEA RLS/PITFALLS •

This diagnosis should be consid­ ered for patients presenting with headache and vague neurologic symptoms referable to cranial nerves.

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A CT scan will show a mid -skull base lesion located off midline with ring or arciform-like calcifi­ cations.

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Predisposing conditions include: Paget's disease, fibrous dysplasia and multiple enchondromatosis syndromes.

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Results from immunohistochemi­ cal analysis show that chon­ drosarcomas do not stain for ep­ ithelial markers.

•

The clinician might fail to recog­ nize a chondrosarcoma in the setting of an underlying diffuse pathologic process, such as Paget's or fibrous dysplasia.

•

Chondrosarcomas may be indis­ tinguishible from other skull base neoplasms, particularly chordoma, chondromyxoid fi ­ broma, osteosarcoma a n d skull base metastasis.

marrow involvement. Delineation of the neoplasm and its relationship to neurovas­ cular structures is also optimally achieved with M R I . D u e t o the overlap o f the imaging features with other entities, particularly chor­ domas, chondromyxoid fibroma, osteosarcomas and mineralized metastasis, correct diagnosis requires pathologic sampling either by image-guided or open biopsy. Immediate post-operative and subsequent follow-up imaging studies are manda­ tory as residual and recurrent tumors are seen in a high percentage of cases.

Management The multidisciplinary approach to skull base lesions and the advent of image guided neuronavigation systems revolutionized the treatment of these tumors, allowing for more radical resections. However, several authors recommend more conservative surgical approaches with decompressive resections aimed at relief of symptoms and repeated surgeries if the tumor recurs. The goal of surgical treatment should be to achieve maximal tumor resection with the least possible morbidity. Surgical approach depends on tumor location and extent, and may require both intra- and extra-cranial approaches. Radiation has been used both pre-operatively as adjuvant therapy, and as the sole treatment modality. The type of radiation with the highest success rates are charged heavy particles and stereotactic radiosurgery. The prognosis, five year survival rate, of chondrosarcomas (95% ) is better than for chordomas (62% ).

Suggested Readings Crockard, A. Chordomas and chondrosarcomas of the cranial base: results and follow-up of 60 patients. Neurosurgery 38(2) :420, 1 996 Feb. Keel, S.B., Bhan, A.K., Liebsch, N.I, Rosenberg, A.E. Chondromyxoid fibroma of the skull base: a tumor which may be confused with chordoma and chondrosarcoma. A report of three cases and review of the Literature. American Journal of Surgical Pathology 2 1 (5):577-82, 1 997 May. Korten, A.G., ter Berg, H .I, Spincemaille, G.H . , van der Laan, R.T., Van de Wei, A.M. I ntracranial chondrosarcoma: review of the literature and report of 15 cases. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry 65 ( 1 ):88-92, 1998 Jui. Levy, R.A., Quint, D.I, Devaney, K.O. Unusual tumours of the skull and skull base: a pictorial essay. Canadian Association of Radiologists Journal 47(6) :434-43, 1996 Dec. McDermott, M.W., Gutin, P.H. Image-guided surgery for skull base neoplasms using the ISG viewing wand: Anatomic and technical considerations. Neurosurgery Clin­ ics of North A merica 7(2) :285-95, 1 996 Apr. Muthukumar, N., Kondziolka, D., Lunsford, L.D., Flickinger, I e. Stereotactic radio­ surgery for chordoma and chondrosarcoma: further experiences. international Jour­ nal of Radiation Oncology, Biology, Physics 4 1 (2):387-92, 1998 May. Rapidis, A.D., Archondakis, G., Anteriotis, D., Skouteris, e.A . Chondrosarcomas of the skull base: review of the literature and report of two cases. Journal of Cranio­ Maxillo-facial Surgery 25(6):322-7, 1 997 Dec. Weber, A.L., Brown, E.W., Hug, E.B., Liebsch, N.J. Cartilaginous tumors and chor­ domas of the cranial base. Otolaryngologic Clinics of North America 28(3):453-7 1 , 1 995 Jun.

ENTRAL SKULL BASE

Case 5 Clinical Presentation A 69-year-old female presented with headaches and a right X l l t h cranial nerve palsy.

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Radiologic Findings An axial T I W I ( Fig. 5-A) and agillal T2WI ( Fig. 5-B) through the the skull base show a large soft tissue mass replacing the clivus. basioccipul. anterior arch of 1 and the dens. The mass is hypointense to the brain on T I W images and hyperi ntense

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CENTRAL SKULL BASEl on T2W I . There is inferior extension i n to the cervical spinal canal along the a n terior epidural space, to the level of the mid-C2 vertebral body. There is spinal cord com­ pression and kinking a t the cervico-medullary junction. The axial T l WI through the oral cavi ty (Fig. 5-C) shows denervation a trophy of the righ t hemitongue subse­ quent to invasion of the right hypoglossal canal by the tumor.

Differential Diagnosis: Destructive Mass in the Clivus •

•

•

Arising rrom the skull base: chordoma, chondroid tumors (chondroma/chon­ drosarcoma), chondromyxoid fibroma, osteosarcoma, glomus j ugulare, me tastasis, plasmacytoma/mul tiple myeloma, lymphoma, eosinophilic granuloma, fibrous dysplasia Arising above the skull base: meningioma (clivus/planum sphenoidale/tubercu­ lum sella), craniopharyngioma, pi tui tary macroadenoma Arising below the skull base: sphenoidal mucocele, squamous cell carcinoma of the sphenoid sinus, nasopharyngeal carcinoma, nasopharyngeal rhabdomyo­ sarcoma

Diagnosis Clival chordoma

Discussion Epidemiology Chordomas are relatively rare tumors of the skull base, accounting for 1 % of all i n tracranial tumors. Fifty per cen t of chordomas arise in the sacrococcygeal region. O ther common locations include the clivus and the spine which comprise 35% and 1 5 % of all chordomas respe.ctively. I ntracranially, the most common locations are the basisphenoid and basiocciput (near the spheno-occipi tal synchondrosis) and the parasellar region. Rarely, chordomas may arise in the nasopharynx or within the paranasal sinuses. The incidence of chordomas vary according to their location. Clival chordomas can occur at any age but show a peak incidence in the 3rd and 4 th decades. Sacro­ coccygeal chordomas tend to prese n t later in the 40- to 60-year age group. There is a predominance among males.

Pathophysiology Chordomas are histologically benign, locally invasive, and slow growing neoplasms that originate from the primi tive notochord. Because the embryonic notochord terminates a t the sphenoid bone, immediately below the sella turcica, the midline basisphenoid is the mos t common location for this tumor. However, due to the inti­ mate rel a tionships of the n o tochord with several neuroectodermal, mesodermal and endodermal derivatives, which give rise to the diencephalon, primi tive pharynx, Ra thke's pouch, and facial bones, o ther "ectopic" locations including intradural, nasopharyngeal, sellar and sinonasal regions are possible. Notochordal remnants in the nasopharynx are believed to be responsible for the developme n t of Tornwaldt cysts. Uncommonly, these n o tochordal remnants may give rise to a chordoma in these locations. Histologically, the tumor is composed of translucen t cells rich in mucin and glyco­ gen, con taining large in tracy toplasmic vacuoles. These physaliforous cells are usu­ ally arranged in cords or nests separated by thick fibrous sep ta. Macroscopically, the tumor forms a whi te, soft, mul ti lobula ted mass surrounded by a pseudocapsule tba t

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SKULL BASE is composed by compressed adjacent tissue. Gelatinous mucoid fluid, necrosis, hem­ orrhage and sequestered bony fragments are common and contribute to the het­ erogeneous imaging appearance of these neoplasms. Most chordomas are cytologi­ cally benign. The high frequency of recurrence is explained by microscopic extensions of tumor into the adjacent tissues which, together with a difficult surgi­ cal access, makes complete resection problematic. Highly malignant forms of chordoma are also seen containing undifferentiated areas that may be confused with fibrosarcoma. Metastasis is seen in 7 to 14% of cases, primarily to the lymph nodes, lungs and bone. A variant rich in chondroid material, referred to as chondroid chordoma is a con­ troversial pathologic entity, believed by some to represent a low grade chondrosar­ coma. I m munohistochemical stains are very helpful in differentiating chordomas from chondrosarcomas, which may have the same appearance on imaging studies. Whereas chordomas are positive for epithelial markers such as cytokeratin and epithelial membrane antigens, chondrosarcomas are negative for epithelial anti­ bodies, but are positive for mesenchymal markers such as vimentin and protein S- 1 00. Confusion between chordomas and epithelial metastasis to the skull base may occur with immunohistochemical analysis.

Clinical Findings The presenting symptoms depend on the tumor location, extent, and relationship between the tumor and vital skull base structures. Most patients with clival chordo­ mas present with headaches and ophthalmoplegia, usually due to impingement upon the V l t h nerve in Dorello's canal. More extensive lateral extension into the cavenous sinus results in cavernous sinus syndrome with deficits of cranial nerves I I I , I V, V I and V2. Posterior and inferior extension into the jugular foramen presents with palsy of cranial nerves IX, X and XI and involvement of the hy­ poglossal canal results in X l lth nerve palsy. Destruction of the petrous apex and involvement of the CPA cistern may cause V l l t h and VI 1 1th nerve deficits. Ante­ rior growth into the sella turcica may lead to compression of the pituitary gland and hypopituitarism. Symptoms of brainstem compression and increased intracranial pressure signal advanced disease. Destruction of the occipital condyles and exten­ sion of the tumor through the foramen magnum into the upper cervical spinal canal may result in neck pain and quadraparesis. Subarachnoid hemorrhage is a rare form of presentation of intradural tumors.

Imaging Findings Radiologic evaluation of skull base tumors should include both CT and MRI to de­ termine the full bony and soft tissue extent. Depending on their location within the clivus, chordomas are classified as upper, middle or lower clival chordomas. Upper clival chordomas occur rostral to the trigeminal nerve in the region of the dorsum sella . Middle clival chordomas occur between the origin of the Vth and IXth cranial nerves and chordomas of the inferior clivus below the origin of the glossopharyn­ geal nerve. This classification along with evaluation of involvement of critical struc­ tures (cavernous sinuses, circle of Willis and brainstem ) is mandatory in determin­ ing the best management. Chordomas vary in size [rom I to 10cm but most are in the 2 to Scm range. Typically, these tumors arise in the midline clivus near the spheno-occipital synchondrosis. They may extend laterally into the cavernous sinus and petrous apex, anteriorly into the sphenoid sinus. superiorly into the sellar and suprasellar regions, inferiorly into the foramen magnum and/or posteriorly into the j ugular foramen and prepontine cistern. a should include post contrast axial and coronal sections through the skull base and upper cervical spine with images filmed in both soft tissue and high resolution bone windows. Chordomas are seen as iso- or hypodense soft tissue masses with lytic bony destruction and no significant sclerosis. Bony destruction may be limited

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to the clivus or involve the petrous apex, foramen j ugulare, occipital condyles and upper cervical vertebra. Calcifications are present in 50% of cases. These are usually large, distinctive from the typical small ring like or punctiform calcifications seen in chondroid tumors, and may represent sequestered bony fragments or dystrophic calcifications. After contrast administration, these lesions may show little to moder­ ate enhallcemellt with non-enhancing areas corresponding to mucoid or cystic de­ generation. On M R I , the sigllal characteristics are quite variable depending on the presence of tumoral calcification, hemorrhage or cystic degeneration. Usually they tend to be iso- to hypointense on T l W I alld heterogeneously hyperilltense Oil TIWI . A lobu­ lated, boneycomb appearance after gadolinium administration has been described as a characteristic feature of chordomas. M R I is the optimal modality to detect small intraclival tumors which manifest as an area o f T I W hypointensity within the high signal intensity of fat. However, care should be taken to avoid mistaking areas of hematopoietic bone marrow for a clival tumor. To avoid this confusion, one should carefully look [or loss of sigllal void of the cortical margin of the clivus or bony erosion on CT. Axial CT sectiolls througb the clivus in another patient (Fig. 5-D and 5-E) (bone willdows) , show a destructive mass centered ill the clivus and eroding both petrous apices alld the allterior arch of the clivus. Diagnosis: Clival chordoma. M R I is also the modality of choice to evaluate the relationship of the tumor to the structure of the cavenous sinus, j ugular foramen and posterior fossa. It is particu­ larly useful for identifying the presence of compression or encasement of the basi­ lar or cavernous carotid arteries. The main differential consideratioll for dival chordomas are cbondroid tumors of the skull base. The most useful clue is the topography of the lesion. Whereas chor­ domas tend to arise in the midline, chondroid tumors are usually lateral in location arising from the spheno-occipital or petroclival synchondrosis. However, this serves ollly as a gelleral guidline, as chondroid tumors may be midline in location and chor­ domas may locate more laterally due to terminal spliting of the embryonic noto­ chord. Craniopharyngiomas, in addition to their typical cystic appearance and charac­ teristic linear, peripheral calcifications, are usually centered in the sellar region.

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PEARLSIPITFALLS •

The most common location for this destructive mass is in the midline clivus.

•

A characteristic feature of chor­ domas is a multilobulated, hon­ eycomb appearance on post­ contrast M R I .

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Because o f i t s embryonic origins, ectopic locations can include in­ tradural, sellar, nasopharyngeal and sino nasal regions.

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When diagnosing this condition, the clinician might fail to evalu­ ate the fulJ extent of the tumor.

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With MR imaging, care should be taken to avoid mistaking ar­ eas of hematopoietic bone mar­ row in the clivus for a neoplasm.

They have a predilection for postero-superior extension into the interpeduncular cistern. Clival meningiomas, show a broad dural base, tend to be isointense to the brain on all MR sequences, enhance homogenously and exhibit a dural tail . The presence o f a rim of pituitary tissue surrounding a sellar lesion suggests the diagnosis of a pituitary macroadenoma. The signal characteristics of lymphoma, iso- to hypointense on T1 WI and low sig­ nal intensity on T2WI due to hypercelluarity and low water content, usually allows distinction from chordoma. Mucoceles of the sphenoid sinus tend to cause bony expansion and cortical thin­ ing. However, late in the course of the disease cortical breaching may be indistin­ guishible from bony erosion. Squamous cell carcinoma of the sphenoid sinus, plasmacytoma, metastasis and re­ current nasopharyngeal carcinoma may be indistinguishible from a chordoma.

Management Despite the continuous advances in skull base surgery, most chordomas cannot be completely resected due to their tendency for microscopic invasion and to the prox­ imity of important structures such as cranial nerves and major intracranial arteries. Despite this fact, surgical excision should be attempted as radiation therapy is usu­ ally not effective in decreasing the bulk of the tumor. However, radiation using high dose proton beam therapy can be successful in the treatment of a residual tumor. The choice of the best therapeutic approach is based upon many factors including the tumor location, the clinical condition of the patient, and any history of previous surgery or radiation. Transphenoidal surgery may be used for upper and middle cli­ val tumors with only minimal or no lateral extension. Large tumors usually require extensive craniofacial and cervical approaches with increased morbidity and mor­ tality. Imaging is used, both guiding surgery for small neoplasms, and in planning ra­ diosurgery for these skull base tumors. Radiological fol low-up is mandatory due to the high rate of recurrence of these neoplasms.

Suggested Readings Casals, M.M., Hunter, S.B., Olson, J.1., Gussack, G., Blevins, L.S. Jr. Metastatic follic­ ular thyroid carcinoma masquerading as a chordoma. Thyroid 5(3):2 1 7-2 1 , 1 995 Jun. Doucet, v., Peretti-Viton, P, Figarella-Branger, D., Manera, L., Salamon, G. MRI of intracranial chordomas. Extent of tumour and contrast enhancement: criteria for differential diagnosis. Neuroradiology 39(8):571-6, 1 997 Aug. Kaufman, B.A., Francel, pc., Roberts, R.L., Argemand, E., Park, TS., Dehner, L.P. Chondroid chordoma of the lateral skull base. Pediatric Neurosurgery 23(3): 1 59-65, 1 995. Keel, S.B., Bhan, A . K . , Liebsch, N.J., Rosenberg, A.E. Chondromyxoid fibroma of the skull base: a tumor which may be confused with chordoma and chondrosarcoma. A report of three cases and review of the literature. American lournal of Surgical Pathology 2 1 (5):577-82, 1997 May. Maira, G., Pallini, R., Anile, c., Fernandez, E., Salvi nelli, F., La Rocca, L.M., Rossi, G.F. Surgical treatment of clival chordomas: the transsphenoidal approach revisited. lournal of Neurosurgery 85(5):784-92, 1 996 Nov. Tashiro, T , Fukuda, T, Inoue, Y, Nemoto, Y, Shakudo, M., Katsuyama, 1., Hakuba, A., Onoyama, Y Intradural chordoma: case report and review of the literature. Neu­ roradiology 36(4):31 3-5, 1994 May. Weber, A.I., Brown, E.W., Hug, E . B., Liebsch, N.J. Cartilaginous tumors and chor­ domas of the cranial base. OlOlaryngologic Clinics of Norrh America 28(3) :453-7 1 , 1995 Jun.

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Case 6 Clinical Presentation A 25-year-old male presented with headache, hoarseness, nasal regurgitation, and difficulty swal lowi.ng.

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Radiologic Findings In an M R I of the skull base, axial T l W I , and coronal post-contrast T l WI show a de­ structive mass in the posterior skull base centered at the right jugular foramen. This enhancing mass invades the inferior aspect of the clivus, the right occipital condyle, anterior arch of C l , and the right hypoglossal canal. The tumor extends medially and posteriorly behind the right longus colli muscle and appears to transgress the pre-vertebral fascia (Fig. 6-A) . The axial T l W image through the oral cavity shows denervation atrophy of the right hemitongue and rightward deviation of the uvula (Fig. 6-B). The coronal T l W image through the neck demonstrates fatty replace­ ment and flacidity of the right lateral wall of the pharynx, con istent with involve­ ment of cranial nerves IX and X (Fig. 6-C).

Differential Diagnosis: Destructive Lesion of the Posterior Skull Base • • • • •

•

Neoplasm: Malignant: Primary: chondrosarcoma, osteosarcoma, lymphoma, chordoma (midline ) Secondary: plasmacytoma, chloroma, metastasis Benign: schwan noma of the lower cranial nerves, meningioma, chondroma, giant cell tumor, brown tumor, hemangioma, eosinophilic granuloma, glomus jugulare I n fectionlInflammation: osteomyelitis, radiation necrosis

Diagnosis Choriocarcinoma metastatic to the skull base

Discussion Epidemiology Although relatively uncommon, metastasis should always be considered in the dif­ ferential diagnosis of a central skull base mass. There is a peak incidence in the 5th and 6th decades, but they may be seen in any age group. In the pediatric population primary considerations include metastatic neuroblastoma, rhabdomyosarcoma. choriocarcinoma, lymphoma, and chloroma. [ n adulthood the major considerations are prostate, lung and breast carcinoma, and melanoma. Renal cell, thyroid and gastro-intestinal tract neoplasms should also be considered. Skull base metastasis usually occurs in the setting of a known malignancy but occasionally is the first sign of an occult neoplasm. I n the latter circumstance differential diagnosis with primary skull base tumors may be difficult. There is no gender predilection.

Pathophysiology Metastatic disease to the skull base may occur via three different mechanisms. ( 1 ) The most common is direct extension from neoplasms arising in the head and neck region, particularly nasopharyngeal, palatal. parapharyngeal, sphenoid and temporal bone malignancies. Among these, squamous cell carcinoma of the nasopharynx is the most frequent tumor presenting with invasion of the skull base. Limitation of lateral spread by the pharyngobasilar fascia directs tumor growth superiorly and posteriorly in the direction of the clivus and cavernous sinuses. The tumor may also reach the central skull base through the Eustachian tube.

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CENTRAL SKULL BASEl (2) The second most common mechanism is via perineural spread from head and neck tumors, most frequently through branches of the second division of the trigeminal nerve. Neoplasms particularly prone to this type of spread include adenoid cystic carcinoma, squamous cell carcinoma, mucoepidermoid carci­ noma, lymphoma, and melanoma. (3) Finally, metastasis to the skull base may occur via hematogenous dissemination from distant sites. Direct and retrograde perineural spread of tumor to the skull base and intra­ cranial compartment is a consequence of skull base anatomy and the multiple foramina which allow for communication between the intra- and extracranial compartments. Most head and neck spaces communicate freely with the intracranial compartment t hrough one or more foramina. The main common pathway for in­ tracranial spread of head and neck neoplasms is the pterygopalatine fossa, a space limited anteriorly by the posterior wall of the maxillary antrum, bordered posteriorly by the pterygoid plates and containing branches of the second division of the trigeminal nerve, the pterygopalatine ganglion, vessels, and fat. Superiorly, this space communicates with the inferior orbital fissure, medially with the posterior nasal cavity through the sphenopalatine foramen, laterally with the infratemporal fossa (masticator space) through the pterygomaxiUary fissure and inferiorly, with the oral cavity through the pterygopalatine canals. Posteriorly, it communicates with the central skull base via the vidian canal and foramen rotundum. The fora­ men ovale opens into the masticator space and constitutes the second most com­ mon site of perineural spread, along the third division of the trigeminal nerve. Orbital malignancies may access the skull base through the orbital apex or orbital fissures. Perineural spread of parotid gland malignancies along the intra temporal facial nerve is not uncommon and should always be sought. Metastatic disease to the pos­ terior fossa may involve the jugular foramen and be confused with paragangliomas or schwannomas, the most common tumors seen in this region.

Clinical Findings Clinical presentation depends on the exact location of the lesion and on the skull base structures involved. Usually symptoms include headaches and characteristic neurologic syndromes. These syndromes were classified by Posner and Greenberg into five different categories including orbital, cavernous/parasellar, middle cranial fossa (Meckel's cave syndrome), jugular foramen, and occipital condyle syndrome. Metastasis of the central skull base tends to involve the cavernous sinus and Meckel's cave whereas metastasis to the posterior skull base usually involves the jugular foramen and hypoglossal canal . The presence of one of these syndromes should alert the clinician to the presence of a skull base lesion and prompt appro­ priate imaging evaluation.

Imaging Findings The central skull base, due to its anatomic complexity, is best evaluated by dedicated cross-sectional studies allowing detection of subtle lesions. CT should include con­ trast enhanced 3mm thick sections in axial and coronal planes, through the skull base or helical aqusition in the axial plane, followed by coronal reformations. Skull base M R I studies should include multiplanar thin sections including axial Tl W, TIW, and axial and coronal frequency selective fat suppression imaging (FATSAT) post contrast T l W images. These modalities are complimentary and should be used in combination. I n another patient presenting with headache and hearing loss, an

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M R [ of the kull base. axial pre and post-contrast T l W image ( Fig. 6-0) and ( Fig. 6-E ) through the clivus show a large enhancing soft ti ue ma s replacing the the cli­ val bone marrow and invading the petrou and ma toid portions of the right tem­ poral bone. Diagno is: Skull base pia macytoma (courtesy of Dr. J.P. Wensel ) . [ n another patient a n M R I o f the kull base, agiltal T l W (Fig. 6-F) and axial post con­ trast T l W ( Fig. 6-G ) image show an enhancing mass in the left lateral aspect of the sellar and supraseUar regions invading the left cavernou inus. This patient pre­ sented with cavernou inus syndrome. Diagno is: Metastasi from brea t carci­ noma. CT may show subtle foraminal enlargement and ero ion of the cortical bone. Detection of intratumoral calcification and recognition of specific pallerns of calci­ fication may sugge t certain pathologic diagno e uch as chondroid tumors, o teosarcoma, Paget's di ease, fibrou dyspla ia or 0 teobla tic meta ta is. TIle pre ence of bony remodelisg or sclerosis suggests indolent tumors such as meni ngiomas. the Illost frequent benign tumor of the skull base.

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CENTRAL SKULL BASEl

PEARLS/PITFALLS •

The presence of a headache asso­ ciated with a typical skull base cranial nerve syndrome should prompt a search for a skull base lesion.

•

Metastasis to the skull base may be the first sign of an occult malignancy.

•

cr and M R I should be used i n conjunction for better assess­ ment of tumor extension.

•

It is possible to mistake metas­ tases for primary tumors of the skull base.

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The clinician may fail to recog­ nize perineural spread of the tu­ mor.

•

It is possible to mistake a highly vascular metastasis in the region of the jugular foramen for glo­ mus jugulare.

M R I is very sensitive to bone marrow replacement and early perineural spread of tumor, even before foraminal enlargement can be appreciated. Focal, segmental or patchy areas of enhancement along the course of a cranial nerve, replacement of the fat hyperintensity near the foraminal openings and loss of TIWI hyperintensity within Meckel's cave are the typical M R I features of perineural spread of tumor. Clival bone marrow replacement is usually easy to detect on the non-contrast Tl W images as areas of loss of fatty signal intensity. However, incomplete replacement of the hematopoietic bone marrow of the clivus is seen in 15% of the adult population and may mimic neoplastic infiltration. Highly vascular metastases such as renal cell carcinoma, choriocarcinoma, melanoma and thyroid carcinoma may show a "salt and pepper" appearance and when located in the region of the jugular foramen are indistinguishible from para­ gangliomas. Melanoma metastases may show typical hyperintensity on Tl W I due to the paramagnetic effect of melanin. However, this finding is non-specific and may be seen in hemorrhagic metastases, metastases containing mucinous material or cystic metastases from thyroid malignancies which may have a high protein content. Chondroid tumors tend to be heterogeneous in signal characteristics due to the presence of chondroid calcifications and tend to occur in a lateral location centered upon the spheno-occipital or petro-clival synchondroses. The single most specific feature of clival chordomas is their location in the midline. Nuclear medicine SPECT studies using 99mTc may be performed in symptomatic patients with known malignancies, when cross-sectional imaging studies are negative.

Management Metastatic disease of the skull base is usually managed according to the cell type of the primary tumor. Radiation and/or chemotherapy may be used. Surgical resection may be considered in individual cases, particularly those with occult primaries. The surgical approach and completeness of resection depends on the location of the le­ sion.

Suggested Readings Ampil, FL., Hardin, IC, Peskind, S.P. , Stucker, FI Perineural invasion in skin can­ cer of the head and neck: a review of nine cases. Journal of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery 53( 1 ):34-8, 1 995 Jan. Jansen, B.P., Pillay, M., de Bruin, H . G., van den Bent, M.J., Vecht, CJ., Sillevis Smitt, P. A . 99mTc-SPECT in the diagnosis of skull base metastasis. Neurology 48(5) : 1326-30, 1 997 May. Ng, S.H., Chang, T.C, Ko, S.E . , Yen, P.S., Wan , YL., Tang, L.M., Tsai, M . H . Nasopharyngeal carcinoma: M R I and CT assessment. Neuroradiology 39(10):741-6, 1 997 Oct. Sakata, K, Aoki, Y, Karasawa, K , Hasezawa, K , Muta, N., Nakagawa, K., Terahara, A., Onogi, Y, Sasaki, Y, Akanuma, A . Wide variation of probability of lo­ cal failure and distant metastasis among various stages of patients with nasopha­ ryngeal carcinoma. Slrahlenlherapie und Onkologie 1 70(4):2 1 8-24, 1 994 Apr. Sutter, CW., Masilungan, B.G., Shelton, D.K. An unusual first impression of skull base metastasis. "The sunglasses illusion". Clinical Nuclear Medicine 2 1 (4):322, 1 996 Apr.

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II. Larynx and Hypopharynx

LARYNX AND H Y POPHARYNXI

Case 7 Clinical Presentation Adult male presented with pharyngitis and dysphagia.

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Radiologic Findings The lateral radiograph shows abnormal thickening of the epiglottis aryepiglottic folds, and arytenoids (Fig. 7-A). There is no evidence of radio-opaque foreign body or interstitial air.

Differential D iagnosis: Epiglottitis, Supraglottitis • • • •

Squamous ceU carcinoma Supraglottitis/epiglottitis Atypical laryngocele Post-traumatic deformity

Diagnosis Epiglottitis, supraglottitis

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Discussion Epiglottitis, or as it is increasingly known, supraglottitis, is an inflammation of the supraglottic larynx.

Epidemiology The pediatric form is due to Haemophilus influenzae virus infection and occurs in slightly older children. Its incidence in children is decreasing as childhood vaccina­ tions are increasing. The disease in adults is relatively uncommon but may be life-threatening. The death of George Washington is believed by many authors to represent an early recorded case of t he disease. Unlike the decreasing incidence of the pediatric form, the incidence of the acute adult form remains stable. Only a minority of adult cases are caused by H. influenza. More common pathogens are the staphylococcus and streptococcus groups. U nlike epiglottitis, croup manifests as a swelling of the subglottic larynx. trachea, and bronchi due to type I parainfluenza virus or similar organisms. Patients with croup are typically children 6 months to three years of age. Clinically. a characteris­ tic barking cough and stridor are present. The subglottic edema results in the signature radiographic appearance of the loss of the normal shoulder shape of the subglottic angle. I nstead there is a church­ steeple or wine-bottle appearance of this area on the frontal radiograph or coronal vIew.

Clinical Fi ndings Supraglottitis patients present with sore throat, dysphagia, drooling (due to failure 10 control secretions), and oflen, airway compromise. On examination, the supra­ glottic larynx is swollen, often with a cherry red appearance. The radiographic find­ ings of enlarged epiglottis on the lateral view are due to edema of this and other supraglottic laryngeal structures. Close supervision of the patient with epiglottitis is

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The epiglottis and supraglottis can appear thickened on CT or MR imaging.

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The organism responsible for pe­ diatric epiglottis is usually Haemophilus influenza.

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The organism responsible for epiglottis in adults is usually a member of the staphylococcus or streptococcus groups.

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Cross sectional imaging will help rule out complications.

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Epiglottitis is often a missed di­ agnosis in patients with impend­ ing acute airway compromise.

required because acute airway closure may occur, and intubation or emergency tra­ cheostomy may be necessary.

Imaging Findings The classic appearance on the lateral radiograph is that of a thickened "thumb-like" epiglottis (Fig. 7-A). Normally, its appearance is a thin "shoe-horn" shape (Fig. 7-B). Generalized edema of the supraglottic larynx is another finding. Although measurements are not necessary to make the diagnosis, some detailed studies have been performed. For example, the ratio of the soft-tissue parameters to the anteroposterior width of the C-4 vertebral body yields three key parameters re­ ported to be of high statistical significance in the diagnosis of adult epiglottitis. ( 1 ) The ratio of the width of the epiglottis to the anteroposterior width of C-4 should not be greater than 0.33 (sensitivity, 96% ; specificity, 100% ) . (2 ) The ratio of the prevertebral soft tissue to C-4 should not exceed 0.5 (sensitiv­ ity, 37% ; specificity, 100% ) . (3) The ratio o f the width of the hypopharyngeal airway to the width o f C-4 should be less than 1 .5 (sensitivity, 44% ; specificity, 87% ).

Because the symptoms may be nonspecific, in some cases CT or MRT may be use­ ful to exclude other conditions with similar symptoms such as laryngitis, foreign body, peritonsillar abscess, and tonsillitis. The most common CT/MRI findings of epiglottitis are thickening of the epiglottis, aryepiglottic folds, false and true vocal cords, obliteration of the preepiglottic fat, thickening of the platysma muscle, and reticulation of the subcutaneous fat. Multiple loculated fluid-density collections consistent with abscesses can be see!1. Although the diagnosis of supraglottitis is generally made on the basis of the patient'S history, direct endoscopy, and plain films, CT/MRJ may be used to confirm the diagnosis when an adequate clinical ex­ amination cannot be performed. CompLications such as deep neck abscess also may be identified easily with CT or M R I . Examinations requiring the patient to lie supine should be performed with caution as this position can precipitate acute air­ way closure.

Suggested Readings Barrow, H.N., Vastola, A.P., Wang, R.c. Adult supraglottitis. OlOlaryngology and Head and Neck Surgery 1 09(3 Pt 1 ):474-7, 1 993 Sep. Dawson, K.P., Steinberg, A . , Capaldi, N. The lateral radiograph of neck in laryngo­ tracheo-bronchitis (croup). Journal of QualilY in Clinical Praclice 1 4( 1 ):39-43, 1 994 Mar. Frantz, T.D., Rasgon, B.M. Acute epiglottitis: changing epidemiologic patterns. 010laryngology and Head and Neck Surgery 109(3 Pt 1 ):457-60, 1 993 Sep. John, S.D., Swischuk, L.E., Hayden, c.K. Jr., Freeman, D.H., Ir. Aryepiglottic fold width in patients with epiglottitis: where should measurements be obtained? Radi­ ology 190( 1 ): 1 23-5, 1 994 Jan. Kass, E.G., McFadden, E.A., Jacobson, S., Toohill, R.l Acute epiglottitis in the adult: experience with a seasonal presentation. Laryngoscope 103(8):84 1-4, 1993 Aug. Nemzek, WR., Katzberg, R.W., Van Slyke, M.A., Bickley, r.S. A reappraisal of the ra­ diologic findings of acute inflammation of the epiglottis and supraglottic structures in adults. American fournal of Neuroradiology 1 6(3):495-502, 1 995 Mar. Smith, M.M., Mukherji, S.K., Thompson, lE. Castillo, M. CT in adult supraglottitis. American Journal of Neuroradiology, 1 7(7) : 1 355-8, 1 996 Aug.

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I LARY

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Case 8 Clinical Presentation A 77-year-old male presented with hoarsene s. On physical examination there was a bulge in the raise cord level ( Fig. 8-A).

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LARYNX AND H Y POPHARYNXI

Radiologic Findings On a T l -weighted image (Fig. 8-B), there is an oval, sharply marginated abnormal­ ity in the false cord obliterating the paralaryngeal fat. The mucosa can be seen along the medial margin, indicating that this is in a submucosal position. ( Image courtesy of Dr. Hugh D. Curtin.)

Differential Diagnosis: Paralaryngeal Cyst • • • • • •

Laryngocele Congenital laryngeal cyst Cyst of the epiglottis Branchial cleft cyst Neoplasm with necrosis simulating cyst Thyroglossal duct cyst

Diagnosis I n ternal laryngocele

Discussion Epidemiology Laryngoceles are usually unilateral, although they may be bilateral in 25% of cases. Laryngoceles commonly present in adulthood and many are asymptomatic.

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Pathophysiology Laryngoceles are formed by a dilation of the small saccule (appendix) of the laryn­ geal ventricle. The laryngeal saccule is a small diverticulum that passes superiorly from the ventricle of the larynx. In so doing, it passes into the paraglottic space at the level of the false cord. Some experts use the term saccular cyst if it is fluid filled and laryngocele if it is air filled. For this discussion. either form will be referred to as a laryngocele. Sometimes this appendix expands superiorly in the paralaryngeal space, medial to the thyroid cartilage, where it is known as an internal laryngocele and can present as a submucosal supraglottic space mass. Figure 8-C shows a line drawing of a coro­ nal view of the larynx with internal (right) and mixed/external ( left) laryngocele. An axial Tl W image with contrast (Fig. 8-0 ) in another patient shows no enhancement of a cystic paralaryngeal mass. Lateral displacement of the thyroid lamina can occur. Alternatively, if the dilated saccule extends through the thyrohyoid membrane out into the soft tissues of the neck, it is a mixed (external) laryngocele. This form may present as a soft tissue neck mass. An unobstructed laryngocele is filled with air. When obstructed. high protein fluid accumulates within the dilated appendix. H the obstructed fluid becomes infected. it is referred to as a pyolaryngocele. Sometimes a small lesion near the neck of the saccule causes the obstruction and subsequent formation of a laryngocele. Laryngoceles may be associated with chronic granulomatous disease, such as tuberculosis. Laryngoceles are benign entities. However, they can result from a carcinoma of the true cord or ventricle. The laryngeal saccule is normally collapsed. but if there is a tumor obstructing its outflow into the ventricle, it can dilate, forming a laryngocele or saccular cyst. The differential diagnosis of a submucosal mass in the larynx should include var­ ious benign and malignant lesions. The imaging appearances of these otlier entities. however, are usually distinct from a typical laryngocele. Other cysts of the larynx include congenital laryngeal cysts, which present in newborns as smooth. mucosal

LARYNX AND HYPOPHA RYNXI

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PEARLS/PITFALLS •

A laryngocele may be internal or mixed (external), and it may be filled witb fluid or air.

•

Laryngoceles may be seen in combination witb small glottic cancer.

•

The clinician must beware not to mistake tbe incidental laryngo­ cele for tumor extension in a patient with known laryngeal cancer.

•

In a patient with known laryngo­ cele, it is important to determine whether it is a small cancer tbat may be causing the laryngocele.

•

An extemal laryngocele may be mistaken for a branchial cleft cyst or thyroglossal duct cyst.

covered, rounded masses of the false cords and aryepiglottic folds. Congenital cysts in infants are similar to laryngoceles in adults in that both entities are lined with res­ piratory epithelium. They differ in that, unlike larygnoceles, congenital cysts do not have a connection with the laryngeal lumen. Cysts of the epiglottis are similar to congenital in that they do not communicate with the laryngeal lumen but they are similar to laryngoceles in that tbey typically occur in adults. All tbree of the above lesions may be associated with airway com­ promise.

I m aging Findings In imaging studies, a laryngocele is a rounded well-circumscribed soft tissue mass or air collection that extends superiorly from the laryngeal ventricle and false cord into the paralaryngeal space (internal laryngocele) or lateral to the thyrohyoid mem­ brane (rnixed/external laryngocele). In mixed laryngoceles, both internal and exter­ nal cystic features can be identified. Figure 8-E shows a coronal reformatted CT scan of a patient with a rnixed/external laryngocele. The signal intensity of the fluid will depend on the protein content. A typical M R appearance depends on wbether the laryngocele is filled with air or fluid. A signal void indicates that it is air filled whereas the intermediate signal is consistent with a saccular cyst. I n either situation the region of the ventricle should be carefully examined to exclude a tumor. I ntravenous contrast may be helpful in order to belp define the cystic nature of the lesion (Fig. 8-E).

Management lnternal laryngoceles may be aspirated, incised, drained, and marsupialized. Exter­ nal/mixed laryngoceles are often treated with an external surgical approach follow­ ing any internal components for removal.

Suggested Readings Curtin, H.D. Imaging of the larynx: current concepts. Radiology 1 73: 1-1 1 , 1 989. Teresi, L.M., Lufkin, R.B., Hanafee, W.N. Magnetic resonance imaging of the larynx. Radiologic Clinics of North A merica 27:393-406, 1 989.

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Case 9 Clinical Presentation A 47-year-old female presented with per istent hoarseness (Fig. 9-A).

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Radiologic Findings The left true vocal cord is partially abducted and appears slightly inferior to the other cord on the axial image ( Fig. 9-B). There is asymmetry on a higher section due 42

LARYNX AND H Y POPHARYNXI to medial positioning of the left aryepiglottic fold and resultant widening of the left pyriform sinus (Fig. 9-C).

Differential Diagnosis: Vocal Cord Paralysis • • • •

Old trauma Arytenoid dislocation Laryngocele Carcinoma

Diagnosis Vocal cord paralysis

Discussion The recurrent laryngeal nerve innervates all the intrinsic muscles of the larynx. Paresis or palsy of this nerve usually results in a characteristic clinical and radi­ ographic appearance of the larynx as well as hoarseness or weak voice in the pa­ tient. Because of the long course of the left recurrent nerve around the ductus arte­ riosus before its ascent up the tracheoesophageal groove to the vocal cord, it is particularly susceptible to injury. Thus, vocal cord paresis may result from insult to tbe brainstem, skull base, neck, or mediastinum.

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Pathophysiology The vagus nerve exits the skullbase via the pars nervosa of the jugular foramen and travels inferiorly j ust posterior to the carotid artery and jugular vein. Due to differ­ ences in vascular embryology between the two sides, the recurrent nerve loops around the subclavian artery on the right and under the aortic arch ductus arterio­ sus on the left (Fig. 9-0, after Jacobs et al.). ll1Us, imaging studies for right sided disease cover only to the level of the subclavian artery while evaluation of the left recurrent nerve must include sections all the way down to the aortic arch. Both nerves then ascend in the tracheoesophageal groove to the larynx. As with denervation elsewhere in the body, there is a subsequent laxity of the muscle groups following nerve injury. In the larynx, the most prominent muscle group is the thyroarytenoid muscle, which includes the vocalis muscle. Denervation results in medial rotation of the vocal process of the arytenoid cartilage and a para­ median position of the muscle, which the inexperienced observer on radiographic studies may mistake for a small vocal cord mass. With paresis. in addition to the arytenoid cartilage and vocalis muscle rotating into the midline in the adduction position, the structures also sag downward. This causes ipsilateral widening of the laryngeal ventricle, which may be visible on coro­ nal MRT imaging. Because the aryepiglottic fold is attached to the arytenoid carti­ lage, this downward displacement also results in ipsilateral widening of the piriform sinus. This is also visible on imaging studies. These findings strongly suggest recur­ rent nerve paralysis and help distinguish this entity from other causes of vocal cord fullness, which do not have these features. Although nerve dysfunction may be related to tumors or vascular conditions, or may be idiopathic, the vast majority of vocal cord paralysis is related to trauma dur­ ing neck or thyroid surgery. The superior laryngeal nerve exits the vagus nerve and innervates the cricothy­ roid muscle, providing sensory innervation of the larynx. It is usually not possible to diagnose paralysis from the radiological findings; however, due to subtle asymmetry of the larynx, the diagnosis may sometimes be made clinically with unilateral in­ volvemenL l maging plays a role in this case to evaluate the course of the nerve from the larynx to the skullbase to exclude pathology. With symmetrical bilateral in­ volvement, clinical or radiologic diagnosis is usually not possible. ll1is usually causes adduction of the vocal cords and airway compromise.

Imaging Findings Vocal cord thickening is a nonspecific finding. It does not necessarily imply tumor or edema and may be secondary to paresis. The paramedian location of the true vocal cord and the anteromedial rotation of the arytenoid process occurs due to denervation of the cricothyroid muscle (which is a tensor of the true vocal cord). The presence of ipsilateral piriform sinus and ventricle widening visible on imaging studies helps to differentiate vocal cord fullness due to paresis from other vocal cord masses. With long-standing denervation, there may be atrophy as well as subtle ratty re­ placement visible as increased signal on M R T l weighted images. ll1ere also may be increased signal intensity on T2W images unrelated to fatty replacement. which may be a change in water content related to loss of innervation. The value of radiology in this condition is twofold. First, the astute radiologist may make the diagnosis in the situation when the clinical picture is unclear and the imaging findings are characteristic. Second, once the correct diagnosis of laryngeal paralysis has been made, it is incumbent upon the radiologist to evalaute the entire course of the recurrent nerves from the brainstem to mediastinum to look for pos­ sible causes of dysfunction. Because of the course of the recurrent nerve, scans must cover down to the aortic arch if the paralysis is left-sided, whereas it is only neces­ sary to go down to the brachial artery if the paralysis is right-sided.

L A RY N X AND H Y POPHARYNXI

PEARLS/PITFALLS •

Radiologic findings include ipsi­ lateral widening of the piriform sinus and ventricle. Later, atro­ phy and fatty replacement are denoted by increased 1'2 signal.

•

Scans must go down to the level of brachial artery if the lesion is right-sided, and to the level of the aortic arch if the lesion is left-sided.

•

The clinician must take care not to mistake paralysis for vocal cord mass.

•

It is important to evaluate the entire course of the recurrent nerve.

Suggested Readings Decker, G.A.G., du Plessis, 0.J. Lee McGregor's synopsis of surgical anatomy. 12th ed. Bristol: John Wright and Sons Ltd., 1986: 372. Gacek, M . , Gacek, RR Cricoarytenoid joint mobility after chronic vocal cord paralysis. Laryngoscope 106( 12 Pt 1 ) : 1 528-30, 1996 Dec. Jacobs, c.J., Harnsberger, H . R , Lufkin, RB. Vagal neuropathy: evaluation with CT and M R imaging. Radiology ] 64:97-1 02, 1987. Tanaka, S., Hirano, M., Umeno, H . Laryngeal behavior in unilateral superior laryn­ geal nerve paralysis. A nnals of Otology, Rhinology and Laryngology 103(2): 93-7, 1 994 Feb.

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Case 10 Clinical Presentation A 6 1 -year-old male complained of having weakness in his voice for the pa t everal weeks. The patient denied dysphagia and hoar ene but did describe occasional pain in the laryngeal area when speaking. He did not drink or smoke and could re­ call no trauma to hi neck. Examination of the patient's head and neck revealed no external neck masses and no gro pathology of tbe oral cavity, nasopharynx, oropharynx, or nose. Vi ualization of the larynx showed a submucosal mass in the region of the left false vocal cord ( Fig. l O-A).

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Radiologic Findings A cr scan at the level of the false vocal cords shows the laryngeal "rna s" to be due to a deformity of the underlying left thyroid cartilage (Fig. 1 0-B). 0 other soft ti sue rna es were noted. MR imaging at the same level also demon trates the " mas " created by the laryngeal cartilage deformity (Fig. 1 0- ). The cr and MRI scans of the larynx readily identify the cau e of the rna s to be due to di tortion and devia­ tion of the left thyroid cartilage at the level of the false vocal cord . 0 associated oft tissue mass or obliteration of fa cial plane is pre ent.

Differential Diagnosis: Abnormal Shape of the Laryngeal Cartilage • • • • • • •

Abnormal shape of laryngeal cartilage hronic po ttraumatic deformity Po tsurgical changes Acute laryngeal trauma hondroid neopla m of the larynx Metastasi to the cartilage ongenital deformity

Diagnosis hronic posttraumatic deformity of the larynx

Discussion Clinical Findings Unlike acute laryngeal injury where the history of trauma is usually the presenting finding. patient with chronic post-traumatic laryngeal deformities may present with a variety of vague symptom and may deny any history of trauma. Patient with chronic posttraumatic laryngeal deformitie may present to the clin­ ician with a ymptomatic, muco ai-covered laryngeal "masses " long after the initial

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(and often forgotten) trauma. Hanson, et al ( 1 982) included six factors in their symptom complex of old laryngeal injury: ( 1 ) voice fatigue, (2) sensation of food "sticking" in the throat, (3) soreness in the side of the neck, (4) submucosal mass in the supraglottic larynx, and (5) CT or (6) M R I evidence of trauma.

Imaging Findings Posttraumatic deformity of the laryngeal cartilages can now be diagnosed by using current CT and MR scanning techniques. This is of particular aid to the clinician who is evaluating a laryngeal mass with no history of injury to the neck. CT and MR imaging are both effective in this situation, and although M R imaging allows better soft tissue contrast resolution and can produce coronal and sagittal views, CT is probably superior for visualization of the ossified cartilage and associated changes. The chronic findings of trauma of the larynx are soft tissue abnormalities due to scarring and granulation and post-traumatic deformity of the laryngeal skeleton. I t i s important t o recognize the appearance o f these chronic structural changes o n the imaging studies as tbey may occur in individuals who do not recall the initial trauma. Correct diagnosis may avoid an unnecessary biopsy or even more invasive procedure. Figure l O-D shows an M R I Axial T l W image in another patient with deformity of the thyroid cartilage presumably due to prior trauma who presented with hoarse­ ness and a "mass" on clinical examination. CT images (Fig. I O- E ) are shown for a third patient with post-traumatic deformity of the thyroid cartilage causing a pseudomass on the right.

Man agement These patients usually need no specific management for the laryngeal deformity. If there is airway compromise or voice changes, specific therapy may be necessary.

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Posttraumatic deformity of the larynx often presents as a submu­ cosal "mass."

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Voice fatigue, a sensation of food sticking i n the throat, neck sore­ ness, a submucosal mass in the supraglottic larynx, and cr or M R evidence are the derming characteristics of posttraumatic deformity of the cartilage.

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Many patients do not recall any history of laryngeal trauma.

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If care is not taken, posttrau­ matic deformity can be mistaken for neoplasm or other pathology.

References Bent, IP. 3rd, Porubsky, E.S. 111 e management of blunt fractures of the thyroid car­ tilage. Otolaryngology and Head and Neck Surgery 1 1 0(2): 1 95-202, 1994 Feb. ehui, L., Lufkin, R., Hanafee, W. The use of M R I in the identification of post­ traumatic laryngeal deformities. Clinical Imaging 1 4 : 1 27-130, 1990. H a nson, D.G., Mancuso, A.A., Hanafee, W.N. Pseudomass lesions due to occult trauma of the larynx. Laryngoscope 92:1 249-1 253, 1 982.

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Case 11 Clinical Presentation A 69-year-old male pre ented with right neck fullness and right otalgia.

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Sagillal T l W (Fig. l 1 -A). axial T l W (Fig. I I -B), and axial TIW ( Fig. l l -C) MR images through the supraglollic larynx show a I .S-cm rounded. well-defined cystic

LARYNX AND HYPOPHARYNXI lesion in the left vallecula, displacing the the epiglottis posteriorly. This lesion is homogeneously hypointense on Tl W images and hyperintense on T2W images and does not enhance. There is slight impingement the tip of the epiglottis, which is dis­ placed posteriorly. The glosso-epiglottic fold, base of the tongue, piriform sinuses, and remainder of the larynx are unremarkable (Figs. l l -A-l l -C).

Differential D iagnosis: Vallecular Mass •

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Cystic: vallecular cyst; cyst in the base of the tongue; dermoid/teratoma; lym­ phangioma/cystic hygroma; laryngocele Solid: ectopic thyroid; hemangioma; squamous cell carcinoma

Diagnosis Vallecular cyst

Discussion Epidemiology Vallecular cysts are lesions rarely seen in adulthood. In the pediatric age group, supraglottic cysts at the tongue base and vallecula comprise the majority of laryn­ geal cysts. Although anatomically the vallecula is not part of the larynx, pathologi­ cally it may be considered as such. The age of presentation is variable but usually vallecular cysts present in infants. There is no gender predominance.

Pathophysiology Vallecular cysts are retention cysts that arise secondary to ductal obstruction of mucous glands. Histologically, they are true epithelial-lined cysts. An association with laryngomalacia, probably secondary to extrinsic compression by the cyst, has been described. The condition consists of a redundant epiglottis with prolapse into the laryngeal vestibule during inspiration. Removal of the cyst usually leads to res­ olution.

Clinical Findings Infants present clinically with feeding difficulty, failure to thrive, stridor or respira­ tory distress. Early diagnosis and a high index of suspicion are required as these lesions may cause life-threatening airway obstruction. Adults may present with difficulty swallowing, fullness in the throat, referred ear pain or stridor when the lesion is large and impinges on the laryngeal vestibule. On direct laryngoscopy, these lesions manifest as a submucosal fullness, obliterating the vallecula, but may be missed if the valleculae are overlooked. D ifferential diagnosis from solid masses may not be possible on clinical exam and imaging studies are es­ sential in determining the exact location, extent and nature of the lesion.

Imaging Findings Lateral projection radiographs of the soft tissues of the neck are useful i n children presenting with stridor. Supraglottic cysts manifest as an abnormal soft tissue density, posterior to the tongue base that obliterates the vallecula and displaces the epiglottis posteriorly. A barium esophagram may be helpful and will show a filling defect in the vallec­ ula and mass effect upon the supraglottic airway. Sectional CT or M R imaging is the method of choice to evaluate the site of ori­ gin, extent and nature of the lesion. On CT, a vallecular cyst manifests as a fluid

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density. non-enhancing lesion centered in the vallecula, posterior to the base of the tongue. The degree of airway obstruction and displacement of the epiglottis are adequately assessed and may alert the surgeon to the need for a tracheostomy before any procedure is attempted. Coronal or sagittal MR imaging may better delineate the cranio-caudal extent of the lesion. Axial TI W (Fig. 11 - 0 ) and axial TIW (Fig. 1 1 -E) M R images through the supraglottis in another patient show a 2-cm cystic lesion in the left vallecula and a smaller, less than 5-mm, cyst in the contralateral side. This patient was diagnosed with bilateral vallecular cysts. When infected, vallecular cysts may demonstrate increased density and enhance heterogeneously, making them indistinguishable from an abscess. On sectional imaging, determination of the exact site of the lesion greatly assists in differentiat­ ing vallecular cysts from other cystic lesions such as thyroglossal duct cyst (TGDC), tongue base cyst and laryngocele. TGDC tends to be more midline and have a more anterior location between the strap muscles and the hyoid bone or thyroid ala. Internal laryngoceles grow superiorly in the paraglottic space and obliterate or push the vallecula superiorly. However, their inferior extent and connection with the laryngeal ventricle is adequately detected on imaging studies. Finally, dermoids are usually located in the base of the tongue and floor of the mouth, and typically contain fat. In children, ectopic thyroid tissue should be ruled out, and the presence of a thyroid gland in normal anatomic position confirmed by a thyroid scan with 1 - 1 3 1 , before surgery is performed.

Man agement Vallecular cysts may be managed by aspiration via an endoscopic approach. The disadvantage of this procedure is the high rate of recurrence. Marsupialization and laser ablation are the techniques of choice. Rarely. a supraglottoplasty may be necessary to remove the cyst and correct redundant epiglottis and aryepiglottic folds.

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An infant with a vallecular cyst often presents with feeding diffi­ culty and stridor.

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A cystic lesion often is centered in the vallecula.

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Patients with vallecular cysts should be evaluated carefully for any degree of airway compro­ mise.

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A vallecular cyst may be mis­ taken for other supraglottic cystic lesions.

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An abnormal supraglottic soft tissue mass on lateral plain films of the neck may be difficult to recognize.

Suggested Readings Oluwole, M. Congenital vallecular cyst: a cause of failure to thrive. British Journal of Clinical Practice 50(3): 1 70, 1 996 Apr-May. Wang, C.R., Lim, K.E. Vallecular cysts: report of two cases. Pediatric Radiology 25 Suppl 1 :S21 8-9, 1 995 Nov. Wong, K.S., Li, H . Y., Huang, T.S. Vallecular cyst synchronous with laryngomala­ cia: presentation of two cases. Otolaryngology and Head and Neck Surgery 1 1 3(5):621 -4, 1 995 Nov.

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Case 12 Clinical Presentation A 40-year-old male presented with gradual onset dyspnea.

Radiologic Findings The axial CT scan (Fig. 1 2-A) shows an expansile mass centered in the posterior cricoid cartilage on the right. There are areas of speckled calcification within the lesion.

Differential Diagnosis: Expansile Lesion of the Laryngeal Cartilage • • • •

Chondroma Chondrosarcoma Metastasis Post-traumatic deformity

Diagnosis Chondroid tumor of the larynx (chondrosarcoma)

Discussion Epidemiology Chondroid tumors of the laryngeal cartilage are uncommon neoplasms. They are found predominantly in men (3 : 1 ratio) in their 4th through 6th decades. This is

LARYNX AND HYPOPHARYNXI similar to the age range of patients with cartilaginous tumors of the facial area. Chondroid tumors of the larynx are unlike other cartilaginous neoplasms (espe­ cially chondrosarcomas) of extralaryngeal origin, which tend to affect young and middle aged adults. Chondroid tumors are the most common mesenchymal tumor of the larynx. The specific histology may range from chondroma to chondrosarcoma. Chondrosarcoma is the most frequently encountered non-epithelial malignancy of the larynx.

Pathophysiology The location of these tumors in over 75% of cases is the posterior lamina of the cricoid cartilage. Histologically all documented cases have arisen from hyaline car­ tilage with no evidence of elastic cartilage. Biopsy may be difficult because of the firmness of the tumor. Interpretation of the findings is also problematic. Chondroma and low-grade chondrosarcoma are diffi­ cult to distinguish histologically. Some authors advocate that all laryngeal neo­ plasms containing hyaline cartilage should be considered chondrosarcomas until proven otherwise. They suggest that evidence of the lesion's benign nature is deter­ mined by either: ( 1 ) its failure to metastasize or recur over a period of several years follow-up or (2) pathologic examination of the lesion in its entirety.

Clinical Findings The clinical findings are nonspecific and tend to be due to gradual encroachment of the subglottic space. This can manifest as a neck mass or, if situated within the air­ way, as a slowly progressive obstruction, hoarseness or dyspnea. Because most lesions are below the vocal cords, hoarseness may be minimal, with dyspnea or stri­ dor the more common symptom.

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I maging Fi ndings Chondroid tumors are characterized by focal expansion of the laryngeal cartilage. They show typical mottled chondroid calcification in 80% of lesions. It is very diffi­ cult to distinguish chondroma from low grade chondrosarcoma radiographically. Higher grade chondrosarcomas may show more aggressive radiographic features. cr is the preferred imaging technique because of its ability to define subtle calcifi­ cations. On MRI these findings are less obvious. Figures l 2-8-l 2-F show five other patients with chondrosarcoma of the larynx. The large lesion in Figure 1 2-8 is simi­ lar to figure 1 2-A with significant airway obstruction. Figure 1 2-C shows a densely calcified lesion. Figure 1 2-0 shows a smaller lesion with rare calcifications and Fig­ ure 1 2-E shows a lesion with prominent central calcifications. The small lesion in Figure 1 2-F appears as a slight widening of the cricoid cartilage without significant airway compromise.

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Chondrosarcoma presents as ex­ pansion of the laryngeal cartilage with chondroid calcifications.

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The cricoid cartilage is most fre­ quently affected, followed by the thyroid and arytenoid cart i l ages.

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Chondroma and chondrosar­ coma difficult to dist inguish

Management Although laryngeal chondrosarcoma reportedly can recur, local surgical excision without radical margins and with long-term clinical follow-up is recommended. Al­ though conservative therapy is acceptable i n most instances, total laryngectomy may be performed in cases of extensive tumor, high-grade lesions, and recurrences. CO2 laser excision for palliation has been shown to be a viable alternative in patients with high-operative risk.

Suggested Readings

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The clinician must take care not to mistake chondrosarcoma for carcinoma of the larynx.

Bogdan, C.l, Maniglia, A . I . , Eliachar, I . , Katz, R . L. Chondrosarcoma of the larynx: challenges in diagnosis and management. Head and Neck 16(2): 1 27-34, 1 994 Mar­ Apr. Bough, I .DJ., Chiles, PI, Fratalli, M.A., Vernose, G. Laryngeal chondrosarcoma: two unusual cases. American Journal of Otolaryngology 16(2): 1 26-3 1 , 1 995 Mar-Apr. Browne, ID. Management of nonepidermoid cancer of the larynx. Otolaryngologic Clinics of North A merica 30(2):2 1 5-29, 1 997 Apr. Chiu, L.D., Rasgon, B.M. Laryngeal chondroma: a benign process with long-term clinical implications. Ear, Nose, and Throat fournaI 75(8) :540-2, 544-9, 1996 Aug. Lewis, IE., Olsen, K.D., Inwards, c.Y Cartilaginous tumors of the larynx: clinico­ pathologic review of 47 cases. A nnals of Otology, Rhinology and Laryngology 106(2) :94-100, 1997 Feb.

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Case 13 Clinical Presentation A 59-year-old male presented with progressive hoarseness over the last 4 months. Endoscopy (Fig. 13-A) shows an exophytic mass extending from the anterior com­ missure to the posterior third of the vocal cord.

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Radiologic Findings An axial TZW MR image (Fig. 1 3-8) through the cords of a similar patient shows a high intensity lesion invading the right true cord musculature involving the anterior commisure. A coronal T l W MR scan of the same patient in Figure 1 3-C shows that the lesion extends from the true cord to the right laryngeal ventricle. However, it does not involve the false vocal cord. The para laryngeal space also appears to be clear.

Differential Diagnosis: Vocal Cord Assymetry • • • •

Glottic carcinoma Recurrent nerve paralysis Teflon injection of vocal cord Squamous cell carcinoma of the vocal cord

Diagnosis Squamous cell carcinoma of the vocal cord

Discussion Epidemiology Glottic tumors (arising from the true cords) are the most common laryngeal can­ cers, typically affecting males in their fifth to seventh decades. Of malignancies of

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13-1

Tumor, Node, Metastasis (T M ) Staging Glottic Cancer

T l -Limited to vocal cords T2-Extends to supraglottic and/or subglottic and/or with impaired cord mobility TI-Limited to larynx with cord fixation T4-I nvades thyroid cartilage and/or extralaryngeal spread

the larynx, 90% are squamous cell carcinomas and these tumors are usually well differentiated. Glottic malignancies are slow-growing lesions that tend to metasta­ size late as a result of the limited lymphatic drainage of the vocal cords. Initially most patients complain of intermittent hoarseness that progressively worsens. These tumors have been linked to smoking and radiation exposure. Seventy-five percent of these tumors involve the anterior half of the true vocal cord, as is seen in this patient. Early glottic lesions have an excellent prognosis; the five year survival approaches 95% with surgery or radiation therapy. Cross sectional imaging of these lesions may show thickening of the true cords or they may be nor­ mal. I f the clinician has a clear view and can confirm that the lesion is an early T1 tumor, M R I is not necessary. With more advanced tumors and because the signals from tumor and muscle differ, the distinction between exophytic lesions and lesions infiltrating the true cord musculature is well demonstrated. True cord tumors spread to involve the mucosa over the arytenoids or at the anterior commissure of the cricoarytenoid joints. Figure 1 3-0 i llustrates a coronal view of the larynx with a car­ cinoma shown as a mass in the region of the true vocal cord (speckled pattern).

Clinical Findings Because glottic cancers involve the vocal cords, they also present very early with hoarseness. Nodal spread is rare in the case of early lesions because there is an ab­ sence of lymphatics along the free margin of the vocal cords. Advanced lesions with a fixed cord, however, have a higher incidence of lymphatic involvement. Since these tumors are readily accessible, the majority are diagnosed and management planned by clinical examination using laryngoscopy and biopsy. The primary role of CT and MR imaging, therefore, is to define the extent of the disease for appropri­ ate management.

I m aging Findings For all these reasons, despite the fact that squamous cell carcinomas are the most common laryngeal cancers, they are not the most common laryngeal cancer in radi­ ology departments because imaging studies add little to the diagnostic workup in most cases. The very early true cord tumor can be readily evaluated on indirect clinical examination and generally does not require an imaging study. The more advanced lesions that show extension to the anterior commissure regions above or below the vocal cord are quite a different matter. They require imaging techniques to show deep infiltration and the full extent of the tumor. Tl glottic lesions (Table 1 3-\ ) are confined to the true cords without affecting the cord's mobility. CT scan of these lesions may how true cord thickening or they may look normal. CT density differences between a nonenhancing tumor and muscle are not great enough to allow one to predict invasion of the true cord musculature in most cases. Because M R signals from tumor and muscle differ significantly, MR imaging is the more sensitive imaging modality for determining muscle invasion. The high fat content within the larynx makes T l -weighted images preferable to the T2-weighted images in which the tumor may be obscured by the intensity of the are­ olar tissue. T2 lesions (Table 1 3-1 ) are defined as those that have spread to either the supra­ or subglottic region and show normal or only slightly impaired mobility of the true

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An early symptom of squamous cell carcinoma is voice change.

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Lesions are usually well differen­ tiated and slow growing.

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Spread to the lymphatics is usu­ ally limited.

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Surgical resection or radiother­ apy are the preferred treatment modalities.

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Imaging studies have limited value in this diagnosis.

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Underestimating tumor exten­ sion may result in undertreat­ ment.

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Squamous cell carcinoma of the vocal cord should not be con­ fused with paramedian cord due to recurrent nerve paralysis.

vocal cord. With CT, impaired mobility is implied in the scan by the diminished motion artifacts on the involved side. In addition, the true cord typically takes a paramedian position and the arytenoid is displaced more medially. These changes also are seen on MR i mages. True cord tumors may spread to involve the mucosa over the arytenoids or at the anterior commissure. On CT and MR imaging any more than 1 mm of thickness of the anterior commissure is considered abnormal and would require an "extended" hemilaryngectomy. One of the advantages of MRI over CT is that sagittal M R images provide an excellent view of the anterior com­ missure and its relationship to the supraglottic and subglottic compartments. Tumors at the anterior commissure may follow the central tendon of the vocal ligaments into the thyroid cartilage. This is very difficult to detect by clinical exam and may be difficult to detect by CT as well. Cartilaginous destruction appears as a moderate signal interrupting the normal outer rim of low signal, calcified cartilage and/or as a focal area of lower signal in the high signal central marrow. Since focal asymmetric areas of diminished density may be a normal variant in this region, an area of demineralization i n the paramedian does not necessarily indicate cartilagi­ nous invasion. MR imaging is more accurate in diagnosing early cartilaginous inva­ sion since the signal from the tumor differs dramatically from that of cartilage regardless of its state of m ineralization. Vocal cord fixation comprises a T3 lesion (Table 13- 1 ) . Since cricoid cartilage is almost invariably symmetric in its degree of ossification, any decrease in signal from one side of the cricoid cartilage is evidence of a T3 lesion. Fixation is rarely due to causes other than tumor, such as rheumatoid arthritis. Cord fixation may be the result of several mechanisms. A tumor may infiltrate the intrinsic laryngeal musculature and fix the cord to the thyroid cartilage. A bulky tumor may limit cord mobility by mass effect or may involve the cricoarytenoid joint. Scans may show an arytenoid cartilage in the median or paramedian position. MR imaging can show how the spread to the deep tissue planes and cartilage inva­ sion lead to fixation. Only rarely is fixation due to causes other than tumor, such as rheumatoid arthritis. Mucosal spread to the false cord may not be appreciated with M R I . However, extension across the ventricle to the false cord via the paralaryngeal space will decrease the fatty high signal deep to the cord. Coronal sections are particularly useful because bulky lesions occasionally bulge upward, distorting the false cords rather than invading them. This may be difficult to appreciate on axial images.

Management T1 and T2 lesions may be treated with surgery or radiation. Spread to the false cord and significant subglottic spread may necessitate a vertical hemilaryngectomy. Fur­ ther extension may fix the vocal cord to produce a T3 lesion, which may worsen the prognosis and make selection of the appropriate therapy potentially more difficult. Advanced lesions with cartilage invasion generally require surgery.

Suggested Readings Katsounakis, 1., Remy, H., Vuong, T. , Gelinas, M., Tabah, R. I mpact of magnetic res­ onance imaging and computed tomography on the staging of laryngeal cancer. Eu­ ropean Archives of Oto-Rhino-laryngology 252(4):206-8, 1995. Mukherji S.K., Castillo M., Huda w., Suojanen J., Kubilis P, Tart R.P, Dhillon G. Comparison of dynamic and spiral CT for imaging the glottic larynx. Journal of Computer Assisted Tomography 1 9(6):899-904, 1 995 Nov-Dec. Teresi, L.M., Lufkin, R.B., Hanafee, W.N. Magnetic resonance imaging of the larynx. Radiologic Clinics of North America 27:393-406, 1 989. Weinstein, G.S., Laccourreye, 0., Brasnu, D., Yousem, D.M. The role of computed to­ mography and magnetic resonance imaging in planning for conservation laryngeal surgery. Neuroimaging Clinics of North America 6(2):497-504, 1996 May.

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Case 14 Clinical Presentation A 70-year-old male presented with hoarseness.

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Radiologic Findings The axial T I weighted M R I shows an infrahyoid supraglottic mass replacing the preepiglottic fat and narrowing the supraglottic airway ( Fig. 1 4-A). The 1'2 weighted axial image shows similar findings with improved muscle/tumor contrast ( Fig. 1 4-B). The sagittal Tl weighted image shows the mass extending inferiorly to the level of the true vocal cords ( Fig. 1 4-C).

Differential Diagnosis: Supraglottic Mass • • • • • • • • •

Carcinoma Laryngocele Post-traumatic deformity [pseudomass 1 Papilloma Chondroma Metastasis Amyloid Hemangioma Lymphoma

Diagnosis Supraglottic carcinoma of the larynx

Discussion Epidemiology Supraglottic tumors may arise anywhere [rom the false vocal cords to the epiglottis. These malignancies comprise 20 to 35% of all laryngeal cancers. Unlike glottic can­ cers, they tend to present later. They are also more poorly differentiated histologi­ cally. Because of abundant lymphatics in the supraglottic region, these tumors tend to metastasize early to lymph nodes high in the neck and involve the internal jugu­ lar chain and often the jugulo-digastric node. Consequently, supraglottic cancers often present as more advanced tumors than glottic lesions. Imaging studies are crit­ ical in their workup. For tbis reason they are the often the most common laryngeal cancer seen in many radiology departments.

Pathophysiology Histologically, the vast majority of laryngopharyngeal cancers are of squamous cell origin. Other types of malignancies found in the larynx and hypopharynx include verrucous carcinoma. pseudosarcoma, adenocarcinoma, "spindle cell" carcinoma. oat cell carcinoma, and basal cell carcinoma. Laryngeal malignancies of connective tissue and hematopoietic elements have also been documented. Examples include chondrosarcoma, fibrosarcoma, reticulosarcoma. and lymphosarcoma.

Clinical Fi ndings Carcinoma of the supraglottic region can be subdivided into two groups: ( I ) ante­ rior carcinomas which arise on the epiglottis and anterior false cords and (2) pos­ terolateral carcinomas which arise from the medial surface of the aryepiglottic folds and the para laryngeal spaces (marginal tumors). I n the anterior epiglottis group, the lesions may be either above or below the level of the hyoid bone. Suprahyoid epiglottic lesions show early invasion of the preepiglottic space, glosso-epiglottic,

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AND H YPOPHA RYNX and pharyngo-epiglottic folds. On T l W MR images the preepiglollic space i of high intensity because of its high fat con ten!. Infiltration with intermediate-signal tumor is readily identified. Advanced suprahyoid epiglottic cancers frequently cross the midline with the paralaryngeal lymphatics and extend into the paramedian portions of the thyroid cartilage, just above the anterior commissure level. Tumors of the infrahyoid epiglottis rarely grow inferiorly to the laryngeal ventri­ cle. If a supraglollic laryngectomy is to be successful, a free margin must be present above the thyroepiglottic ligament with no cartilage invasion. Recalling that no ap­ preciable tissue thickness should be visible at the anterior commissure, the vertical extent of the lesion can be readily determined. Occasionally, the normal tissue thick­ ness associated with the inferior pole of the epiglottic cartilage and the thy­ roepiglottic ligament at the level of the false cord may be interpreted as tumor. Here, sagillal images are particularly useful (Fig. 1 4-C). Posterolateral (marginal) supraglottic tumors appear as thickened aryepiglollic folds and as a mass in the paralaryngeal space. Their natural tendency is to grow posteriorly and inferiorly to the arytenoids, rather than anteriorly to the preepiglot­ tic space. I nvasion of the thyroid lamina occurs late and almost invariably along the postero-Iateral-inferior margin. Tumors may also grow cephalad within the preepiglottic space to invade the tongue base without distorting the mucosa in the valleculae. Sagillal images will show spread to the tongue base to best advantage. Marginal supraglollic cancers may also arise from the surface of the aryepiglottic fold and spread to the infrahyoid epiglottis, false cord, and eventually to the cricoarytenoid joint where invasion may cause cord fixation. [ t may be difficult to distinguish an advanced piriform sinus carcinoma from a marginal supraglottic car­ cinoma. Axial images clearly show the limits of the tumor relative to the preepiglot­ tic space, tongue base, and hypopharynx. Lymph node metastasis is especially likely with aryepiglottic fold tumors. Thyroid cartilage invasion is a rare finding unless the tumor has become transglollic. The hyoid bone is usually displaced by tumor and not destroyed.

Imaging Findings Rarely does radiologic imaging play a significant role in reaching a diagnosis of ma­ lignancy in the larynx and hypopharynx. These regions are so readily accessible to clinical examination that the combination of cytology and visual inspection usually strongly indicates the diagnosis of cancer. Therefore, the primary role of studies in imaging the larynx and hypopharynx is to define the extent of the disease. While laryngoscopy can show mucosal surfaces and masses involving the lumen, deep extensions are difficult to detect clinically. However, these extensions can have pro­ found implications for the management of disease. CT. and to an even greater extent, M R [ can define this important deep anatomy. Imaging studies may detect the deep extent of tumors that have normal overlying mucosa and are not detectable on endoscopy. Sometimes large. bulky, proximal lesions obscure the view of endoscopists, who may have difficulty in viewing the infraglottic region and the apices (inferior tips) of the pyriform sinuses. Imaging is also useful to detect clinically occult laryngoceles associated with a paraventricular tumor.

M anagement Frequency selective fat suppression imaging ( FATSAT) contrast-enhanced se­ quences may be useful to answer the clinical questions such as the tumor extent into the fat of the pre-epiglottic and paralaryngeal spaces. Additionally. these sequences determine. to advantage, the presence of cartilage invasion, as is found in most adult patients. The laryngeal cartilages are ossified and contain bone marrow. Using CT and/or MRI for staging, a partial laryngectomy with preservation of glollic function may be possible instead of a total laryngectomy. in some cases. In others, tumor

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Supraglottic carcinoma presents later, is more poorly differenti­ ated and grows faster tban glottic lesions.

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Lymphatic spread to upper cervi­ cal nodes may occur.

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I n certain cases, voice conserva­ tion surgery with partial laryn­ gectomy is possible.

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I maging studies are very valu­ able in this diagnosis.

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I t is very difficult to recognize tbe true extention of supraglottic tumors.

invasion of the laryngeal cartilages, pre-epiglottic space, or infraglottic region may exclude radiation therapy as the sole treatment. The loss of natural voice function resulting from a total laryngectomy can be dev· astating to many individuals. Less radical laryngeal resections that allow the preser­ vation of natural speech and the protective sphincter mechanism of the larynx have been developed for certain smaller laryngeal tumors. Planning for any of these con­ servation laryngeal surgeries depends on an accurate pre-operative knowledge of the precise extent of the disease within the larynx. All surgical techniques require an intact cricoid cartilage and at least one mobile arytenoid on which to construct the functional voice box. cr and MRI can provide this essential information. To plan this type of operation, the direct coronal and sagittal imaging capabilities of MR are an advantage over axial CT images, in their ability to define critical infor­ mation regarding the cranial-caudal extent of the tumors. The recognition of tumor spread to other area also markedly affects patient management. In the case of spread of the supraglottic tumor to involve the tongue base, a partial glossectomy may have to be performed in addition to the primary surgery. In other areas, extraorgan spread may render the tumor unresectable.

References Katsounakis, I . , Remy, H., Vuong, T., Gaelinas, M., Tabah, R. Impact of magnetic res­ onance imaging and computed tomography on the staging of laryngeal cancer. Eu­ ropean A rchives of Oto-Rhino-Iaryngology 252 4:206-8, 1 995. Larsson, S. Y., Mancuso, A., Hoover, I., Hanafee, W. Differentiation of pyriform sinus cancer from supraglottic laryngeal cancer by computed tomography. Radiol­ ogy 1 4 1 :427-432, 198 1 . Myers, E.N., Alvi, A . Management o f carcinoma o f the supraglottic larynx: evolu­ tion, current concepts, and future trends. Laryn.goscope 1 06 5 Pt 1 :559-{j7, 1 996 May. Thabet, H .M., Sessions, D.G., Gado, M.H., Gnepp, D.A., Harvey, J.E., Talaat, M. Comparison of clinical evaluation and computed tomographic diagnostic accuracy for tumors of the larynx and hypopharynx. Laryngoscope 106 5 Pt 1 :589-94, 1 996 May.

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Case 15 Clinical Presentation A 62-year-old male complained of mild dysphagia of 6 weeks duration.

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Radiologic Findings On axial T l -weighted images (Figs. 1 5-A and IS-B), a left-sided pyriform sinus mass is seen, well delineated from the surrounding fat. Note that the t umor/muscle inter­ face is indistinct. In contrast, on axial T2-weighted images (Figs. l S-C and 1 5-0), the high signal intensity of the tumor allows excellent differentiation from pharyngeal and prevertebral musculature but blends with fat. At the level of the false vocal cords (Fig. IS-A), the bulky mass invades the posterolateral portion of the thyroid cartilage.

Differential Diagnosis: Pyriform Sinus Mass • • • • • •

Pyriform sinus carcinoma Post-operative scarring Post radiation edema Metastases Mesenchymal tumor Lymphoma

Diagnosis Pyriform sinus carcinoma

Discussion Pyriform sinus carcinoma is one of the most conUTIon cancers of the hypopharynx. These tumors are usually well advanced on presentation. I nitial manifestations are often subtle and include pain in the throat or referred pain to the ear, with later dys­ phagia, otalgia, or an isolated lump in the neck. U n like the hoarseness tbat occurs with vocal cord involvement, patients with pyriform sinus cancer often have a char­ acteristic alteration in their vocalization described as a "potato voice".

Epidemiology These lesions behave more aggressively than endolaryngeal lesions and comprise 1 0 t o 20% o f "laryngeal" cancers. They are actually cancers o f the inferior hypophar­ ynx. Early nodal disease occurs because of the rich lymphatics anterior to the pyri­ form si n uses.

Pathophysiology Pathologically, the majority of these tumors are squamous cell carcinomas. They tend to spread submucosally, either ( 1 ) circumferentially with extension into the posterior pharyngeal wall or (2) posterolaterally with deep invasion and associated cartilage destruction. The size of the tumor does not necessarily relate to the degree of biological aggressiveness or the tendency for cartilage destruction. Pyriform sinus tumors grow in two major patterns. ( 1 ) Tumors in the lateral wall invade the thyroid cartilage and soft tissues of the neck forming bulky masses about the pyriform sinus. (2) Tumors of the medial wall extend into the paralaryngeal space and vocalis muscle, resembling marginal supraglottic lesions. Despite the similarities, pyriform sinus tumors have several characteristics that distinguish them from marginal supraglottic lesions. Pyriform sinus tumors fre­ quently invade the thyroid cartilage, usually at its posterolateral margins. In addi­ tion, pyriform sinus lesions tend to be unilateral and submucosal. If extensive, these tumors may widen the space between the thyroid and cricoid cartilages (cricothy-

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Cartilage invasion is a frequent finding.

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It is unusual for these tumors to cross the midline.

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The clinician should keep a sharp eye so as not to overlook adenopathy.

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Pyriform sinus masses may be mistaken for laryngeal cancer.

roid notch). This is because the tough conus elasticus tends to direct the tumor pos­ terolaterally and inferiorly.

I m aging Findings Clinical examination is often difficult and incomplete. Cross-sectional imaging is necessary to evaluate the extent of submucosal spread. M R I allows excellent soft tissue definition and is valuable in distinguishing a tu­ mor from surrounding structures. On T1 -weighted images, the primary tumor signal intensity differs sufficiently from fat so that its margins are well seen. On 1'2weighted images, the bright signal blends with fat but is clearly distinguished from surrounding musculature. Thus, T1 -weighted sequences are better at determining tumor/fat contrast, whereas T2-weighted images are helpful in determining tu­ mor/muscle contrast.

Management Surgical resection is the treatment of choice, often in conjunction with radiation therapy. Nodal dissection is performed as necessary.

Suggested Readings AlIal, A.S. Cancer of the pyriform sinus: trends towards conservative treatment. Bul­ letin Cancer 84 7:757-62, 1997 Jul. Elias, M.M., H ilgers, F.l., Keus, R.B., Gregor, R.T., Hart, A.A., Balm, AJ. Carcinoma of the pyriform sinus: a retrospective analysis of treatment results over a 20-year pe­ riod. Clinical Otolaryngology 20 3:249-53, 1995 Jun. Larsson, S.Y., M ancuso, A., Hoover, L., Hanafee, W. Differentiation of pyriform si­ nus cancer from supraglottic laryngeal cancer by computed tomography. Radiology 141 :427-432, 1 981 .

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LARYNX AND HYPOPHARYNXI

Case 16 Clinical Presentation A 5 1-year-old male presented with a right neck mass and hoarseness. Ten years ear­ lier, the patient had undergone an above-the-knee amputation for an osteogenic sarcoma of the right proximal tibia. Two years later, he was found to have a solitary right pulmonary metastasis, which was resected without difficulty. Now, eight years later, he has presented with the current lesion.

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Radiologic Findings An axial T I -weighted image (Fig. 1 6-A) shows a low-intensity mass (arrowheads) originating from the marrow space of thyroid cartilage. Cricoid cartilage (C) and the left side of the thyroid cartilage (T) are preserved. A coronal T l -weighted image (Fig. 1 6- 8 ) shows a 5-cm lesion on the right side of the larynx, which is displacing paralaryngeal fat medially (arrowhead). A coronal T2-weighted image (Fig. 1 6-C) shows the submucosal location of a high intensity mass (arrow) with preservation of mucosal tissues medial to the lesion (arrowhead) . Fine-needle aspiration (Fig. 1 6-D) demonstrated a group of round to oval cells embedded in the fibrous stroma (H & E, original X 400). Nuclei are irregular and hyperchromatic, suggestive of a metastatic tumor.

Differential Diagnosis: Destructive Laryngeal Mass Centered in the Cartilage • • •

Atypical squamous cell carcinoma of the larynx Primary chondral tumor Metastasis to the larynx

Diagnosis Metastasis to the larynx (osteosarcoma)

Discussion Epidemiology Secondary laryngeal tumors are uncommon, accounting for approximately 0.02% of all laryngeal malignancies. In 1 988, Ferlito et al reviewed the world literature, which revealed 1 1 3 cases, and his series added another 7, for a total of 1 20 cases known at that time. The most common primary tumors metastasizing to the larynx are melanomas of the skin (27 to 37% ), renal cell carcinomas ( 1 3 to 1 7% ), carcinomas of the breast (9 to I I % ), lung carcinomas (8 to 1 1 % ), and adenocarcinomas of the prostate (6 to 7% ). Osteosarcoma metastatic to the larynx is rare although its appearance is simi-

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PEARLS/PITFALLS •

In general, laryngeal lesions are quite destructive.

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Metastases are usually centered over the laryngeal cartilage.

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Melanoma, renal cell, breast, and lung primary carcinomas com­ monly metastasize to the larynx.

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Metastases to the larynx are of­ ten mistaken for primary squa­ mous cell carcinoma or aggres­ sive chondrosarcoma.

lar to other metastases to the larynx. A CT scan of a second patient with metastatic renal cell carcinoma to the larynx (Fig. 1 6-E) shows similar findings.

Pathophysiology Metastasis to the larynx is an uncommon event, and metastases occurring in the thy­ roid cartilage are rarer still, contributing to 2.6% of secondary laryngeal tumors. Metastases to the thyroid cartilage are possible only after endochondral ossification and development of a marrow space, which occurs by adulthood. Their most likely route of spread is hematogenously, either retrograde through the valveless vertebral veins, as described by Batson ( 1 940), or from the vena cava through the pulmonary circulation to the laryngeal artery.

Imaging Findings The MR appearance of the entity is unlike the appearance of most primary squa­ mous cell tumors of the larynx, which tend to arise from the mucosal surface rather than centered over the cartilage as in this case. Unlike most primary chondral tumors of the larynx (which are also centered over the cartilage), this lesion is very aggressive and destroys the cartilage rather than expanding or remodeling it. There is also no evidence of calcification to suggest a chondral tumor. There is preserva­ tion of the right side of the thyroid cartilage and of the cricoid cartilage. On coronal sections, the vocal cords appear displaced medially without gross invasion. Com­ paring T I - and T2-weighted images, it appears that the lesion is submucosal (Figs. 1 6-B and 1 6-C).

Management Metastasis to the larynx is almost always associated with long-standing, widely dis­ seminated disease, and carries a poor prognosis. General treatment recommenda­ tions for these lesions have emphasized a palliative approach, but there are reports in the literature of long-term survivors. I n the case of metastatic osteosarcoma, there are reports in the literature promoting metastatectomy in selected patients, espe­ cially those with isolated pulmonary metastases. In those patients treated surgically without evidence of disease, there is a 20 to 30% long-term survival. This case illus­ trates the typical longstanding history of patients found to have metastases to the larynx.

Suggested Readings Batsakis, IF., Luna, M.A., Byers, R.M. Metastases to the larynx. Head and Neck Surgery 7:458-60, 1 948. Batson, O.V. Function of vertebral veins and their role in spread of metastases. An­ nals of Surgery 1 12 : 1 38-49, 1 940. Cavicchi, 0., Farneti, G., Occhiuzzi, I . , Sorrenti, G. Laryngeal metastasis from colonic adenocarcinoma. Journal of Laryngology and Otology 104:730-2, 1 990. Cullen, lR. Ovarian carcinoma metastatic to the larynx. Journal of Laryngology an.d Otology 1 04:48-9, 1 990. Ferlito, A., Caruso, G., Recher, G. Secondary laryngeal tumors. A rch.ives of Oto­ laryngology and Head and Neck Surgery 1 1 4:635-9, 1 988. Fields, lA. Renal carcinoma metastasis to larynx. Laryngoscope 76:99-10 1 , 1 966. Grignon, 0.1., Ro, 1.y., Ayala, A.G. Carcinoma of the prostate metastasizing to vo­ cal cord. Urology 36:85-8, 1 990. Ikeda, M., Takahashi, H . , Karaho, T. Amelanotic melanoma metastatic to the epiglottis. Journal of Laryngology and Otology 1 05:776-9, 1 99 1 .

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AND HYPOPHARYNX Szmeja, Z., Kruk-Zagajewska, A., Salwa-Zurawska, W. Metastases of renal adenocarcinoma to the larynx and paranasal sinuses. Otolaryngol Pol 4 1 :221-7, 1 987. Whicker I.H., Carder, G.A., Devine, K.D. Metastasis to the larynx, report of a case review of the literature. A rch Olo/aryngoI 96: 182-4, 1 972.

III. Nasopharynx and Parapharyngeal Space

NASOPHARYNX AND PARAPHARYNGEAL SPACEI

Case 17 Clinical Presentation An adult male presented with headaches. A rounded midline, mucosal covered na­ sopharyngeal mass was noted. He denied foul breath, nasal discharge. or muscular spasm with head motion.

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Findings A 4mm rounded midline, mucosal covered nasopharyngeal mass was noted (Fig. 1 7-A) A 4 mm high signal intensity lesion on T l - ( Fig. 1 7-B) and T2-weighted ( Fig. 1 7-C) images can be seen in the nasopharyngeal midline. The surrounding soft tissues are intact. The lesion is homogeneous in signal intensity. There is no com­ munication with the intracranial space.

Differential Diagnosis: Cystic Nasopharyngeal Mass • • • •

Tornwaldt cyst Encephalomeningocele Pharyngeal cyst Atypical lymph node

Diagnosis Tornwaldt (or Thornwaldt) cyst.

Discussion Epidemiology G.L. Tornwaldt was a German physician from the 1 9th century who described an inflammation or abscess of an embryonic remnant cyst of the pharyngeal bursa appearing at the posterior median wall of the nasopharynx. His name is spelled both Tornwaldt and Thornwaldt in various publications although Tornwaldt appears to be the preferred spelling. Tornwaldt's cysts are found in 4% of normal autopsy spec­ imens. There is no gender predilection.

Pathophysiology The nasopharyngeal bursa represents the site of the caudal-most end of notocord. A Tornwaldt cyst results from an adhesion between the pharyngeal endoderm and the notocord. The bursa may appear as a midline pit or closed over as a cyst.

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A Tornwaldt cyst is a midline, cystic thin walled nasopharyngeal mass.

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It is an embryologic remnant.

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A Tornwaldt cyst contains fluid, or occasionally air.

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It is usually asymptomatic.

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Symptoms may include postnasal discharge, bad taste or odor, coughing, or prevertebral neck pain with motion.

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An encephalocele may be mis­ taken for a Tornwaldt cyst.

The cyst, which may have a canal that extends to the pharyngeal mucosa, is situ­ ated beneath the adenoid, or its remnants, and extends backward and upward to the periosteum of the occipital bone. This canal may become obstructed, resulting in infection and abscess formation.

Clinical Findings Most Torowaldt's cysts are asymptomatic. When present, symptoms can include postnasal discharge, crusting, frequent colds, sneezing, hoarseness, bad taste or odor, coughing, or prevertebral neck pain with motion. Other symptoms may be nasal speech, cervical adenitis, or symptoms relating to the ear such as vertigo, tinnitus, earache, or deafness. With infection, prevertebral muscle spasm may occur.

Imaging Findings Tornwaldt cysts vary from 1 to 5 mm in diameter and are generally rounded. M R I demonstrates high signal intensity both o n T l - and T2-weighted images, likely re­ lated to either proteinaceous or hemorrhagic cyst contents. On CT they are rounded cysts. Figure 1 7-D shows a CT scan of another patient with this lesion. These cysts may on rare occasions extend off the midline. They usually are fluid filled but occa­ sionally contain air. A CT scan of another patient with an air-filled cyst can be seen in Figure 1 7-E. The integrity of the overlying bone should always be confirmed with sagittal, coronal, or more cephalad axial views in order to rule out the uncommon possibil­ ity of meningocele or encepalocele.

Management Treatment consists of surgical drainage and excision for symptomatic lesions. As­ symptomatic lesions are usually not treated.

Suggested Readings Miyahara, H., Matsunaga, T. Tornwaldt's disease. A cta Oto-Laryngologica 5 1 7:36-9, Supplement 1 994.

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Case 18 Clinical Presentation A teenage male complaiJ1Cd of nasal stuffiness for 2 years and several episodes of spontaneous nose bleeds for 6 months.

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NASOPHA RYNX AND PARAPHARYNGEAL SPACEI

Findings In the lateral radiograph of the midface, there is a soft tissue mass which bows the posterior wall of the maxillary sinus anteriorly (Fig. IS-A). The axial CT with contrast through the same level shows an enhancing mass arising from the region of the pterygopalatine fossa and extending to the infratemporal fossa on the right (Fig. 1 S-B). An axial T l -weighted M R scan of a similar patient shows a large, intermedi­ ate signal intensity lesion occluding the nasal cavity and nasopharynx with widening of the left pterygopalatine fossa. There are multiple punctate areas of signal void throughout the mass (Fig. I S-C).

Differential Diagnosis: Expansile Nasopharyngeal Mass • • • • • •

Juvenile angiofibroma Chordoma R h abdomyosarcoma Schwannoma of the 5th cranial nerve Nasopharyngeal carcinoma Angiomatous polyp

Diagnosis Juvenile nasopharyngeal angiofibroma UNA)

Discussion Epidemiology Juvenile nasopharyngeal angiofibroma is a benign tumor of the nasopharynx com­ posed of fibrous connective tissue and an abundance of endothelium-lined vascular V

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spaces. The name of the disease is derived from the fact tbat it occurs during ado­ lescence, almost exclusively in boys. Some experts suggest that finding this lesion in a female patient should be an indication for a DNA gender test.

Pathophysiology Although the pathogenesis is not fully understood, the tumor is thought to be a mal­ formation of vascular tissue. TIlese tumors are believed to originate in the postero­ lateral wall of the nasal cavity near or within the sphenopalatine foramen. JNAs tend to follow vessels as they grow through natural foramina and fissures, expand­ ing as they grow. The vascular supply is primarily via branches of the external carotid artery. The characteristic angiographic appearance is shown in Figure I S-D. With intracranial extension, the internal carotid artery may also supply portions of the mass. Extension may commonly be found in the infratemporal fossa (via the pterygomaxillary fissure), orbital apex (via the inferior orbital fissure), and. less of­ ten, into the middle cranial fossa via foramen rotundum.

Clinical Findings The most common presenting complaint is nasal obstruction and epistaxis.

Imaging Findings Figure lS-E is an axial MR image of a patient who has a large JNA with intracra­ nial extension. The punctate and serpentine areas of signal void seen on MRI sug­ gest a highly vascular lesion. Widening of the pterygopalatine fossa is perhaps the most helpful distinguishing feature of JNA (occurring in over three quarters of pa­ tients in one study). cr optimally demonstrates the bony changes usually with re­ modeling and thinning of bone, without frank destruction. Diagnostic angiograms are no longer routinely done. Preoperative embolization is performed on almost all

NASOPHARYNX AND PARAPHARYNGEAL SPACEI

PEARLS/PITFALLS •

Nasal mass with nosebleeds is a common symptom in a young male with JNA.

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JNA typically widens the ptery­ gopalatine fossa.

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JNA may show a vascular pat­ tern on imaging studies.

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The clinician must beware not to fail to perform preoperative em­ bolization.

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A biopsy of a JNA in uncon­ trolled fashion can lead to severe hemorrhage.

lesions. Accurate radiologic diagnosis is important since biopsy of a JNA can lead to severe hemorrhage.

Management Surgery is the treatment of choice for these lesions with preoperative embolization in nearly all cases. Radiation therapy is used in selected cases that are not amenable to surgical resection.

Suggested Readings Antonelli, A.R., Cappiello, 1., Di Lorenzo, D., Donajo, CA., Nicolai, P, Orlandini, A. Diagnosis, staging, and treatment of juvenile nasopharyngeal angiofibroma. Laryn­ goscope 97: 1 31 9-1325, 1 987. B rooker, D.S., Kenny, B., Gibson, R.G., Primrose, W.J. Juvenile nasopharyngeal angiofibroma in a static population: the implications of misdiagnosis. Clinical Oto­ laryngology 1 4:497-502, 1 989. Economou, T.S., Abemayor, F., Ward, P.H . Juvenile nasopharyngeal angiofibroma: an update of the UCLA experience, 1 960-1985. Laryngoscope 98: 1 70-175, 1988. Jamal, M.N. Imaging and management of angiofibroma. European A rchives of Oto­ Rhino-laryngology 251 (4):241-5, 1 994. Lloyd, GA. Phelps, P.D. Juvenile angiofibroma: imaging by magnetic resonance, cr and conventional techniques. Clinical Otolaryngology 1 1 :247-259, 1 986. Ungkanont, K., Byers, R.M., Weber, R.S., Callender, D.L., Wolf, P.F., Goepfert, H. Juvenile nasopharyngeal angiofibroma: an update of therapeutic management. Head and Neck 18(1 ) :60-6, 1 996 Jan-Feb.

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Case 19 Clinical Presentation A 50-year-old female patient with a known malignancy was referred for evaluation of a new parapharyngeal space mass.

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Findings A mass is demonstrated on Tl and T2 weighted axial images (Figs. 19-A-19-B). I t is located in the poststyloid compartment of the left parapharyngeal space with ante­ rior displacement of the carotid arteries. There are many serpentine structures, seen as signal void, within and around the mass suggesting hypervascularity. Because of the question of metastasis, under M R I guidance a 22 g needle was passed into the lesion and cells were obtained for cytologic study (Fig. 1 9-C).

Differential Diagnosis: Post-styloid Parapharyngeal Space Mass • • • • •

Glomus vagale Glomus jugulare Schwan noma Meningioma Metastasis

Diagnosis Glomus vagale

Discussion Paragangliomas and schwannomas are the two most common diagnoses for a post styloid parapharyngeal space mass (Fig. 1 9-D-normal, Fig 1 9-E-cross hatched 83 1

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AND PARAPHARYNGEAL SPACE mass-after Dr. Hugh Curtin) Vagal paragangliomas represent approximately 1 0% of incidence of all branchial paragangliomas and show a female dominance of 2.5 : l . Vagal and carotid body tumors are more likely to be multifocal than paragan­ gliomas in other head and neck locations.

Epidemiology There is a tendency of multicentricity of tumors ( 1 0%), especially in a patient with a carotid body showing familial tendency (26% ). The incidence 01' true malignancy showing metastasis varies from 2-6% . The biologic behavior or natural course of the tumors is not clearly correlated with histologic appearances.

Pathophysiology A paraganglioma is a slowly growing neuroendocrine neoplasm that arises from neural crest derivatives. T n the case of glomus vagale, this is usually from the nodose ganglion of the vagus nerve. Chemodectoma, glomus tumor, nonchromaCfin para­ ganglioma, and neurocristopathic tumor are other names given to this lesion. Precapillary arteriovenous shunts and nonchromaffin cells are characteristic of the histologic appearance of these tumors. Paragangliomas of the head and neck can be classified by their locations. Tumors of carotid and vagal locations are most frequent. Tympanic and jugular tumors are less frequent. Histologically, sheets of tumor cells are often divided into ball-like clusters ("Zelballen") separated by thin fibrovascular septa.

Clinical Findings The most frequent presenting symptom is a mass in the cervical or pharyngeal area, and 30% of patients have cranial nerve impairment that frequently manifests itself by neck hypoesthesia and pharyngeal pain. A woman in her forties with a painful pharyngeal mass, associated with Xth and X l l th nerve impairment has a very high likelihood of having a vagal paraganglioma. This tumor may arise from paragan-

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Glomus vagale has a "salt and pepper" appearance on M R I .

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A mass i s located i n t h e post­ styloid parapharyngeal space.

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Performing a biopsy or surgery without preoperative emboliza­ tion could cause bleeding.

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Synchronous or metachronous lesions may be detected in pa­ tients with glomus vagale.

glions in two locations, intravagal and extravagal, and an intravagal tumor produces rapid vagal impairment.

I m aging Findings A vagal tumor is easily delineated on CT and M R I with its well-encapsulated and hypervascular nature. The mass effect on adjacent vessels is quite different from that of a carotid body tumor and may be a clue for differentation. The internal carotid artery is displaced anteriorly by a vagal tumor (Fig. 1 9-F) whereas posterolateral displacement of the artery with separation from the external carotid artery is char­ acteristic of a carotid body tumor. Conventional angiography is no longer routinely used For diagnosis but is valuable for preoperative embolization. Some investigators are beginning to use color Doppler ultrasound to help characterize these lesions. Fine needle aspiration as demonstrated in this case is rarely used to make the diag­ nosIs. A glomus vagale is generally located more cephalad than a carotid body tumor which is characteristically located at the carotid bifurcation. U nlike glomus jugulare tumors which are located at the jugular bulb, glomus vagale tumors are more caudad. Schwannomas may occur in a similar post styloid parapharyngeal space location with similar displacement of the carotid vessels as a glomus vagale. However, they are much less vascular without the "salt and pepper" appearance of the paragan­ glioma.

Management Surgery is the primary treatment for these lesions with radiation therapy used as an alternative for complex cases. Preoperative embolization in order to control bleed­ ing is the rule.

Suggested Readings Batsakis, J.G Tumors of the head and neck: clinical and palhoiogical considerations, 2nd ed. Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins, 1 979. Cole, J.M., Beiler, D. Long-term results of treatment for glomus j ugulare and glomus vagale tumors with radiotherapy. Laryngoscope 1 04( 1 2 ) : 1 46 1 -5, 1 994 Dec. Jansen, J.e., Baatenburg de Jong, R.J., Schipper, 1, van der Mey, A.G, van Oils, A.P. Color Doppler imaging of paragangliomas in the neck. Journal of Clinical Vilra­ sOllnd 25(9):481-5, 1 997 Nov-Dec. Lasjaunias, P., Berenstein, A. Surgical neuroangiography, vol 2. Endovascl.llar lreal­ men! of craniofacial lesions. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1 987. Leverstein, H., Castelijns, lA., Snow, GB. The value of magnetic resonance imaging in the differential diagnosis of parapharyngeal space tumours. Clinical OlOlaryngol­ ogy 20(5):428-33, 1 995 Oct. Som, P.M., Sacher, M., Stollman, A.L. Common tumors of the parapharyngeal space: refined imaging diagnosis. Radiology 1 69:8 1 -85, 1 988. Zak, EO., Lawson, W. The paraganglionic chemoreceplor syslem. Physiology, pmhol­ ogy, and clinical medicine. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1 982.

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Case 20 Clinical Presentation A 45-year-old female who had an M R I for unrelated reasons.

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Findings A well-circum cribed mas with a homogeneously hypointensc center i een in the right poststyloid parapharyngeal space on the TI W images (Fig. 20-A). 11le TIW images how a more heterogeneous interior. True flow void do not appear to be present ( Fig. 20-B). The mass extends from the level of the soft palate to the mid­ oropharynx. The rna di place the carotid artery medially and the medial ptery­ goid muscle anteriorly. There i no evidence of the infiltration of the urrounding struct ures.

Differential Diagnosis: Post-styloid Parapharyngeal (Carotid) Space Mass • • • • •

G lomu vagale Glomu jugulare Schwan noma Meningioma Metastasis

Diagnosis chwannoma in the poststyloid compartment of the parapharyngeal pace.

Discussion Knowledge of the contents of the para pharyngeal space is es ential in determining the differential diagnosis of masses in this region. The parapharyngeal pace is lat86

NASOPHARYNX AND PARAPHARYNGEAL SPACEI

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eral to the pharyngobasilar fascia that surrounds the nasopharynx. The parapharyn­ geal spacc can be further subdivided into prestyloid and poststyloid compartments. TIlese compartments are separated by fascia containing the tensor veli palatini mus­ cle fibers. The medial pterygoid muscle and fascia form the lateral border of the prestyloid compartment and separate the prcstyloid parapharyngeal space from the masticator space. The prestyloid space contains mostly fat with occasional salivary gland rests. Salivary gland tumors are rare in the poststyloid compartment, but are the most common tumor found in the prestyloid compartment. TIle poststyloid compartment contains the carotid artery, jugular vein, and the lower four cranial nerves. Some experts refer to this area as the carotid space. Post­ styloid lesions are generally related to the great vessels, cranial nerves (neural sheath tumors and paragangliomas) , or lymph nodes. Paragangliomas and schwan­ nomas are the two most common post styloid parapharyngeal space masses.

Epidemiology Schwannomas are common, usually solitary, benign tumors that peak during the third through sixth decades of life. Multiple lesions may be seen in patients with neurofibromatosis.

Pathophysiology Schwanomas are cncapsulated neoplasms of the Schwal1l1 cell. They are usually be­ nign. Two tissue types predominate; Antoni A (cellular) and Antoni B (myxoid) componcnts. Malignant forms may occur. One malignant type. the melanotic schwannoma, has cells that contain heavily pigmented cytoplasm. with abundant melanin pigment. TIle effects of the paramagnetic melanin may be visible on MR images. Figures 20-C & 20-0 show a patient with a melanotic schwanoma of the poststyloid para­ pharyngcal spacc. Thc TI W non contrast image (Fig. 20-C) shows TI shortening in the mass. The TIW image ( Fig. 20- 0 ) also shows TI shortening due to the melanin. Immunohistochemical stains are often positive for S- 1 00 protein and anti-human melanoma HMB45 marker.

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Schwannomas are one of the most common poststyloid para­ pharyngeal space masses.

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Schwannomas show an interme­ diate signal on T1 W and a high signal on TZW M R I images.

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A schwannoma is a benign, slow growing mass.

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A schwannoma can be confused with a glomus tumor.

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Clinical Findings Symptoms are usually related to compression of the adjacent nerves and other structures. It is common for these lesions to present as asymptomatic parapharyn­ geal space masses.

Imaging Findi ngs Both M R I and CT are excellent for delineating tumor extension. Schwannomas on T l -weighted images are of intermediate to low signal intensity and enhance in­ tensely with contrast. They tend to have a heterogeneously high intensity signal on TI-weighted images. I f serpentine flow voids or a salt and pepper appearance is pre­ sent, a glomus tumor (paraganglioma) should be considered.

M an agement Surgery is the treatment of choice for these lesions. To approach the parapharyngeal space a transcervical approach is most often used. This minimizes the morbidity fol­ lowing manipulation of the facial nerve that may be present with a transparotid ap­ proach.

Suggested Readings Curtin, H. Separation of the masticator space from the para pharyngeal space. Radi­ ology ] 63: 1 95-204, 1 987. Leverstein, H., Castelijns, 1. A. , Snow, G.B. The value of magnetic resonance imaging in the differential diagnosis of parapharyngeal space tumours. Clinical Otolaryngol­ ogy 20(5):428-33, 1 995 Oct. Marco, v., Sirvent, 1., Alvarez Moro, 1., Clavel, M., Muntal, M.T., Bauza, A. Malignant melanotic schwannoma fine-needle aspiration biopsy findings. Diagnostic Cytopathology 18 4:284-6, 1 998 Apr. Pensak, M.L., Gluckman, lL., Shumrick, K.A. Parapharyngeal space tumors: an algorithm for evaluation and management. Laryngoscope I 04(9):1 1 70-3, 1 994 Sep. Som, P.M., Curtin, H.D. Lesions of the parapharyngeal space. Role of MR imaging. Otolaryngologic Clinics of North A merica 28(3):5 1 5-42, ] 995 Jun.

NASOPHARYNX AND PARAPHARYNGEAL SPACEI

Case 21 Clinical Presentation A 59-year-old male presented with a history of progressive hearing loss on the left side. The patient also noted bilateral neck swelling.

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Findings A T l -weighted axial sequence of the nasopharynx (Fig. 2 1 -A) shows diffuse soft tissue infiltration of the vault of the nasopharynx with low to intermediate signal in Tl -weighted images. There is obliteration of the fossae of Rosenmtiller and also opacification of the mastoid air cells on the left side. Extension of this lesion beyond the pharyngobasilar fascia is present on left. The longus colli muscle is invaded. Mul­ tiple bilateral lymph nodes are presented in the neck (Fig. 2 1 -8). Incidental note is also made of medial location of the carotid arteries.

Differential D iagnosis: Nasopharyngeal Mass • • • • • •

Carcinoma Lymphoma Rhabdomyosarcoma Adenoidal tissue Tornwaldt cyst Retropharyngeal adenopathy

Diagnosis Nonhodgkins lymphoma of the nasopharynx.

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Discussion Epidemiology Nonhodgkin's lymphoma is the second most common histologic diagnosis (after squamous cell carcinoma) made in nasopharyngeal malignancies. l1le lesion usually appears as smooth. exophytic, submucosal. and non ulcerative. One should be aware that extranodal lymphoma in the head and neck region increases the probability of systemic disease below the clavicle or diaphragm. and the majority of patients have involvement of cervical lymph nodes. The tonsils are most often involved, followed by the nasopharynx and the lymphoid tissue of the base of the tongue.

Clinical Fi ndings In the nasopharynx. symptoms related to the ear usually lead to early detection of the tumor when it is fairly small because of the proximity of the lesion to the orifice of the eustachian tube. Figure 2 1 -C shows a nonhodgkins lymphoma in another pa­ tient. The T I W MR image depicts left mastoid nuid and left sided nasopharyngeal mass invading the prevertebral muscles. A large right retropharyngeal node is pre­ sent ( » . Figure 2 1 -D is an MRI of a patient with non hodgkins lymphoma of the na­ sopharynx. A bulky left sided nasopharyngeal mass is present with left sided ob­ structive ear disease.

Pathophysiology Of head and neck lymphomas 75% are non hodgkin and 25% are hodgk in. The nodal form is most common for both types. l1le majority of cases of extranodal lym­ ph om as of the head and neck are histiocytic lymphomas and lymphocytic lym­ phomas of the diffuse type. Involvement of extranodal sites of the head and neck by Hodgkin's disease is rare. Extranodal lymphoma may be either lymphatic ( Waldeyer's ring) or extra lymphatic. WaJdeyer's Ring of lymphoid tissue consists of: ( I ) Adenoids ( nasopharyngeal lymphoid tissue). ( 2 ) Palatine tonsils. and ( 3 ) Lin­ gual tonsils. Most of the patients with lymphoma limited to the head and neck are in the fourth to eighth decades of life.

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Lymphoma of the nasopharynx shows up on imaging studies as a bulky mass with extensive adenopathy.

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Of head and neck lymphomas, 75% are nonbodgkin type.

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Chemotherapy and radiation therapy are the primary modes of treatment for lymphoma.

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Lymphoma of the nasopharynx may be indistinguishable on imaging studies from carcinoma of the nasopharynx.

•

Care should be taken to avoid mistaking a lymphoma for nor­ mal adenoidal tissue.

I maging Findings The pharyngobasilar fascia is the superior fascial continuation of the constrictor muscles of the pharynx. It separates the pharyngeal mucosa from the deeper mus­ culature and serves to hold the airway open as it attaches to the skull base. It is com­ posed of the deep layer of the deep cervical fascia. On MRI or contrast enhanced CT scanning it can often be identified by its "whale tail" configuration. Figure 2 1-E depicts a right sided nasopharygeal lymphoma [> 1 in another patient seen on contrast enhanced CT. The pharygobasilar fascia is lat­ erally violated by the tumor but is intact posteriorly [->1 and on the left. It pro­ vides an important imaging landmark to help differentiate benign from more ag­ gressive nasopharyngeal masses. Normal adenoidal lymphoid tissue does not cross this boundary while more malignancies such as carcinoma and lymphoma and ag­ gressive infections do. Lymphoma of the nasopharynx may be indistinguishable on imaging studies from nasopharyngeal carcinoma. A bulky nasopharyngeal mass with extensive adenopathy should suggest the diagnosis. Similar findings (na­ sopharynx mass and adenopathy) may be seen with H I V positive patients and in younger patients with infectious mononucleosis.

Management Radiation therapy a n d chemotherapy are t h e primary modes of treatment for lym­ phoma.

Suggested Readings Braull, I . F. M R I of the nasopharynx. Radio Clin North Am 27:327, 1989. Kieserman, S.P., Stern, 1. Malignant tran formation of nasopharyngeal lymphoid hy­ perplasia. Otolaryngology and Head and Neck Surgery 1 1 3(4) :474-6, 1 995 Oct. Yanagisawa, E., Citardi. M.1. Endoscopic view of malignant lymphoma of the na­ sopharynx. Ear, Nose, and Throat iOLirnaI 73(8):5 14-6, 1 994 Aug.

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Case 22 Clinical Presentation A 69-year-old female pre ented \ ith a rna in her right lateral neck. On phy ical exam a oft. non tender. mobile rna was palpated underneath the right mandibular angle and in the right ubmandibular reg.ion.

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Findings An M R I wa done of the neck. Figures 22-A and 22-8 show the a ial TI W I . Figure depict the axial T2WI. aDd Figure 22-D how the enhanced axial TI W I . M R I

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NASOPHARYNX AND PARAPHARYNGEAL SPACE! of the neck shows a 6 em hour glass shaped mass centered in the right prestyloid parapharyngeal space (PPS), extending posterolaterally into the parotid space through an enlarged stylomandibular notch. Medially, it bulges into the right lateral wall of the oropharynx. This well defined lesion causes mass effect but does not appear to infiltrate the adjacent structures. The mass is predominantly homoge­ neous except for the presence of l i near septations within the most lateral and infe­ rior components. The signal follows that of the subcutaneous fat, although it appears slightly hyperintense to the remainder of the subcutaneous fat on T2W images. There was no evidence of cervical lymphadenopathy ( Figs. 22-A, 22-B and 22-C).

Differential Diagnosis: Fatty Lesions in the PPS • • • • • • •

Lipoma Angiolipoma Dermoid cyst/teratoma Hibernoma Lipoblastoma/Lipoblastomatosis (pediatric patients) Benign symmetric lipomatosis (Madelung disease) Liposarcoma

Diagnosis PPS Liposarcoma

Discussion Epidemiology Fatty tumors are common in the body, but only l 3% occur in the head and neck re­ gion. I n the head and neck, they can be subcutaneous or submucosal and the most common location is in the subcutaneous soft tissues of the posterior neck. They tend to grow with age and are more common in obese people. Although they e nlarge with increasing body weight, they do not decrease in size with weight loss. Age of presentation and location varies with gender. In males, they tend to occur in the head and neck region after the 6th decade of life, whereas in females they tend to present earlier (4th decade) and are usually found below the clavicles. Liposarcomas are much less common than lipomas and are exceedingly rare in the head and neck. The ratio of liposarcoma to lipoma has been estimated as 1 : 20. The incidence of l iposarcomas above the clavicles is low, around 5 % , and there are only 80 cases described in the literature. There is a slight male predominance with a male to female ratio of 3 : 2. The age range is broad with a peak incidence in the 6th decade.

Pathophysiology Liposarcomas are malignant tumors which arise from lipoblasts or totipotential mes­ enchymal cells, usually adjacent to muscle or fascia. They are much more common in the deep-seated fat, rarely arising in the subcutaneous soft tissues. They do not origi­ nate from pre-existing lipomas. The histologic classification of these tumors is con­ troversial as the biological behavior of adipose tissue neoplasms depends not only on morphology but also on location. According to some experts, fatty neoplasms arising in deep fatty spaces tend to behave in a more aggressive fashion than their histologic counterparts do in subcutaneous fat. Therefore, deep adipose tissue neoplasms should be considered malignant even in the absence of cytologic features of malignancy. Depending on their histologic features, liposarcomas are usually classified into four categories: well-differentiated, myxoid, round cell and pleomorphic. Whereas

ASOPHARYNX A D PA RAPHARYNGEAL SPACE the former two categories rarely metastasize and have a high five year survival rate, the latter show a high recurrence rate and a high rate of distant metastasis.

Clinical Fi ndings Lipomatous lesions in the PPS present as any other mass in the same location. They cause few. if any symptoms until they become large and compress adjacent neu­ rovascular structures or compromi e the airway. llley may grow laterally into the parotid or submandibular spaces and present, as in this case, as a neck mass. On physical exam, detection of a fatty PPS mass can be difficult as this neck space usually contains primarily fat. Usually, a medial bulge of the lateral pharyngeal wall is the only visible sign and often is only detected after the lesion has reached 2.5 to 3cm in size. Earaches, tubal dysfunction, fullness or foreign body sensation in the oropharynx may be the presenting symptoms and are nonspecific. When large enough, these le­ sions may cause airway obstruction. When palpable, they manifest as soft. lobulated masses that may or may not be mobile. Rarely, neurologic deficits due to compres­ sion of neurovascular structures may ensue. Differential diagnosis of a PPS mass in­ cludes abscess, atypical branchial cleft cyst, benign and malignant salivary gland rest tumors, mesenchymal tumors, such as lipoma and hemangioma and, less commonly. neural sheath tumors. Pseudomass, due to asymmetry of the pterygoid plexus. should also be considered.

I magi ng Fi ndings Imaging is crucial in the diagnosis of lesions seated in the deep spaces of the neck, which are not accessible to clinical examination. It is common for a PPS mass to be detected as an incidental finding in a study performed for unrelated reasons. Both cr and MRJ are well-suited to detect masses in the PPS and may be diagnostic when a lipomatous lesion is seen. Although the imaging appearance of lipomas is pathognomonic on cr scans. li­ posarcomas may be difficult or impossible to diagnose based on imaging, as they may mimic any other soft tissue tumor (malignant fibrous h istiocytoma. lymphoma, plasmocytoma, rhabdomyosarcoma). Depending on their histologic subtype they may contain varying amounts of fat intermingled with other soft tissue components. Therefore, the density of the lesion depends on its composition and vascularity. and may be similar to that of muscle. On contrast enhanced cr scans, liposarcomas often manifest as heterogeneous masses containing a combination of fat and enhancing soft tissue elements. llle at­ tenuation value of fat characteristically varies between - 65 and - 1 00 Hounsfield units. It has been stated that the attenuation value of fat seen in liposarcomas is higher than that of subcutaneous fat. When liposarcomas are exclusively composed of fat, demonstration of contrast enhancement is useful in differentiating them from lipomas, which usually do not enhance. However, angiolipoma, another benign fatty tumor, may show contrast en­ hancement and be indistinguishible from a liposarcoma. Fibrous septations may be seen in both benign and malignant fatty lesions. I ll-defined margins and infiltration of adjacent structures are the most reliable differentiating features, but are incon­ sistent. The MRI appearance of liposarcomas in the head and neck is not well docu­ mented due to the rarity of this entity. However, it has been reported that the ap­ pearance of liposarcomas differs from subcutaneous fat in that the signal character­ istics of fat within a liposarcoma tends to be of lower signal intensity on T I W sequences and higher signal intensity on TIW sequences. M R I is less specific than cr in diagnosing fatty tumors, because the signal char­ acteristics may overlap with those of mature hematomas. Several techniques have been used to separate these entities including calculation of T l W and TIW relax-

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Fatty tumors in the deep spaces of the neck should be considered to be liposarcoma until proven otherwise.

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Demonstration of contrast en­ hancement and iU-defined mar­ gins with infiltration of adjacent structures are the most reliable differentiating features, but are inconsistent.

•

Care should be taken not to con­ sider all fatty tumors with well­ defined margins as benign lipo­ mas.

•

Care should be taken not to ex­ clude liposarcoma from the dif­ ferential diagnosis when the tu­ mor is predominantly soft tissue density/intensity.

ation times, gradient echo imaging and several techniques of fat suppression. How­ ever, even using these techniques, a definite diagnosis is not always possible because hemorrhage within a fatty lesion is common. The most reliable technique to detect fat on M R I is frequency selective fat suppression imaging ( FATSAT) in which a spe­ cific saturation pulse in the resonant frequency of fat is given. The advantages of M R I in the evaluation of liposarcomas include a better delin­ eation of the neoplasm, and demonstration of the presence or absence of cleavage planes between the tumor and adjacent structures, due to its multiplanar capability. Metastatic lymphadenopathy is rarely seen. In the pediatric patient, lipoblastoma and Iipoblastomatosis should be consid­ ered. These tumors have a similar imaging appearance as liposarcoma and, although rare, are more common than liposarcomas in the pediatric age group. The differen­ tial diagnosis is important as lipoblastomas are considered hamartomatous lesions and should be managed accordjngly. Both discrete and diffuse forms have been de­ scribed. Other fatty tumors that show contrast enhancement and soft tissue compo­ nents include hibemomas, angiolipomas and teratomas.

Management Liposarcomas of the head and neck should be managed surgically by wide local excision. Tn the PPS several approaches can be used depending on the size of the lesion and surgeon's preference. These include transcervical, submandibular. transparotid, transoral, and infratemporal approaches. In selected cases adjuvant radiotherapy may be of benefit. Palliative radiation therapy may prolong survival in inoperable cases. Neck dissections are not performed routinely as cervical metasta­ sis are rare.

Suggested Reading Abdullah, BJ., Liam, C.K . , Kaur, B., Mathew, K.M. Parapharyngeal space lipoma causing sleep-apnoea. British Journal of Radiology 70(838):1 063-5, 1997 Oct. Collins, M.H., Chatten, 1. Lipoblastomallipoblastomatosis: a clinicopathologic study of 25 tumors. American Journal of Surgical Pathology 2 1 ( 1 0): 1 1 3 1-7, 1 997 Oct. Elango, S. Parapharyngeal space Ijpoma. Ear, Nose, and Throat Journal 74( 1 ):52-3, 1 995 Jan. Kraus, M.D., Guillou, L., Fletcher, C.O. Well-differentiated infla=atory lipo­ sarcoma: an uncommon and easily overlooked variant of a common sarcoma. Amer­ ican Journal of Surgical Pathology 2 1 (5):518-27, 1 997 May. Saddik, M., Oldring, OJ., Mourad, W.A. Liposarcoma of the base of tongue and ton­ sillar fossa: A possibly underdiagnosed neoplasm. A rchives of Pathology and Labo­ ratory Medicine 1 20(3):292-5, 1 996 Mar. Stewart, M.G., Schwartz, M.R., Alford, B.R. Atypical and malignant lipomatous le­ sions of the head and neck. A rchives of Otolaryngology and Head and Neck Surgery 1 20 ( 1 0 ) : 1 15 1-5, 1 994 Oct.

Case 23 Clinical Presentation three-year-old female pre ented with history of chronic na al ob truction.

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Findings An axial cr section through the basiphenoid (bone window) (Fig. 23-A) shows a large soft tissue mass occupying the nasopharynx, nasal vault and nasal cavity, ex­ tending through the left sphenopallatine foramen into the left pterygopallatine fossa. There is bony destruction involving the left basisphenoid, medial wall of the left maxillary sinus and nasal septum. An axial cr section through the low na­ sopharynx (soft tissue window) (Fig. 23-B) shows a large left-sided retropharyngeal nodal conglomerate that appears separate from the midline nasopharyngeal mass. In an axial TIW M R image (Fig. 23-C) at tbe same level as the CT section showing the large midline nasopharyngeal mass is seen as separate from bilateral retropha­ ryngeal lymphadenopathy ( Fig. 23-0). The coronal enhanced T1 W MR image ( Fig. 23-0) shows the craniocaudal extent of the mass and homogeneous contrast en­ hancement. There is no evidence of meningeal spread or intracranial invasion through the cranial nerves foramina ( Fig. 23-E). The sagittal Tl W MR image (Fig. 23-F) shows a bulky soft tissue mass occupying the nasopharynx, nasal cavity, nasal vault and oropharynx, obstructing the choana and oropharyngeal airway.

Differential Diagnosis: "Aggressive" Nasopharyngeal Mass in a Child •

• • • • • • • • •

Rhabdomyosarcoma (includes other soft tissue sarcomas such as fibrosarcoma, angiosarcoma, mesenchymal chondrosarcoma, malignant mesenchymoma) Lymphoma Chloroma Langerhans' cell tumor Nasopharyngeal carcinoma Metastatic neuroblastoma Esthesioneuroblastoma Hemangiopericytoma Minor salivary gland malignancy Aggressive infection (fungal, TB, Cocci)

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Diagnosis Nasopharyngeal rhabdomyosarcoma (embryonal type)

Discussion Epidemiology Rhabdomyosarcoma is the most common malignant soft tissue tumor in children under 1 5 years of age. In the head and neck, it is the most common sarcoma and the third most common malignancy following lymphoma and retinoblastoma. Two peaks of prevalence are noted, one between 2 and 5 years of age and the other be­ tween 1 5 and 20 years. Seventy percent of tumors occur before age 10. In the head and neck, the most common location is the orbit followed in decreasing order of fre­ quency by the nasopharynx, paranasal sinuses, and middle ear cavity.

Pathophysiology Rhabdomyosarcoma is a malignant mesenchymal tumor that originates from undif­ ferentiated mesenchymal cells, the precursors of skeletal muscle. The tumor was first described in 1 854, by Weber and further characterized by Stout. who described the histology of this tumor more precisely. 0 predisposing factors are recognized, but a chromosomal translocation is noted in almost half of the children with rhab­ domyosarcoma. Pathologically, three main types of spindle cell tumor are recognized. The most common is the embryonal type, which comprises 75% of all cases and is the form most commonly encountered in the head and neck. This cell type is een in younger children and carries a better prognosis, with a 5 year survival rate of 65% after com­ bined treatment with radio- and chemotherapy. H istologically, the embryonal cell type may be confused with anaplastic carcinoma, large cell lymphoma. esthesioneu­ roblastoma and melanoma. Botryoid rhabdomyosarcoma is not histologically dif­ ferent from the embryonal type and its name is derived from its macroscopic grape­ like appearance. The second most common, the alveolar type ( I S% ). tends to occur in older patients (second decade) . I t spreads to lymph nodes and carries a worse prognosis with only a 2% S year survival rate. Finally, the least common form is pleomorphic rhabdomyosarcoma, considered to be an adult form as only 6% of cases occur before age 6. The most important diagnostic criterion is the identifica­ tion of rhabdomyoblast . within the tumor. D i fferent stains help to characterize the tumor, such as desmin, myoglobin and muscle specific actin.

Clinical Findings Clinical presentation depends on the location of the tumor. asopharyngeal rhab­ domyosarcomas tend to grow silently and present as large destructive masses at a late stage. Very young children may present with difficulty breathing and eating and failure to thrive. Older children present with sinonasal symptoms similar 10 those of sinus infection which further delay the diagnosis. asal obstruction. rhinorrhea. and epistaxis are the most common presenting symptoms. Hearing impairment due to obstructive serous otitis is also common. Local pain appears late in the course of the disease and usually indicates bony destruction. Cranial nerve and other neurologic signs and symptoms imply skull base invasion with intracranial extension. ENT examination usually discloses a nasopharyngeal mass which may extend into the nasal cavity. Because the tumor itself is submucosal, the clinical findings are non-specific and may mimic hypertrophic turbinates and hypertrophic adenoids. common findings in pediatric patients. Tumor subsite and tumor. node, metastasis (TN M ) staging have important impli­ cations in management and prognosis. Subsites are classified into orbital. para-

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NASOP H A RYNX AND PARAPHARYNGEAL SPACEI meningeal, and miscellaneous tumors. The parameningeal group includes the na­ sopharynx, paranasal sinuses, pterygopallatine fossa, infratemporal fossa, and tem­ poral bone. The close proximity to the skull base and meninges makes this group of tumors particularly prone to intracrarual extension and meningeal spread, worsen­ ing the prognosis. The TNM classification for soft tissue sarcomas of the impacts and Use Committee ( IUAC) divides these tumors into two groups according to their lo­ cal invasiveness. Tl includes tumors confined to the muscle group of origin, 1'2 in­ cludes tumors which have spread through the fascial planes outside the muscle group of origin , and invading neurovascular structures or bone. Overall, lymph node metastasis are seen in 50% of cases at presentation and distant metastasis in 58% . The most common metastatic sites include the lungs, bone marrow and brain.

Imaging Findings Imaging is crucial for the diagnosis, determination of local and distant tumor extent, treatment planing and detection of local recurrence. Cross sectional imaging may disclose the aggressive nature of a nasopharyngeal mass by showing deep invasion and bone destruction, which can not be assessed on clirucal exam. This can differ­ entiate adenoidal hypertrophy from more aggressive lesions. However, lack of specificity in tissue characterization necessitates biopsy to confirm t he diagnosis. On CT, the main findings include a bulky mass, isodense to muscle, with little to moderate homogeneous contrast enhancement, expansion or erosion of skull base foramina, or destructive bony changes of the skull base. The low yield of CT in soft tissue characterization makes it difficult to separate tumor from post-obstructive changes in the paranasal sinuses and mastoids, to detect meningeal spread, and sep­ arate residual scar tissue from recurrent mass. Poor prognostic signs on CT include skull base destruction and intracranial spread. M R I is the modality of choice in evaluation of soft tissue tumors of the head and neck. It allows multi planar delineation of the tumor, differentiation between the tumor and post-obstructive inflammatory changes, and detection of meningeal and cranial nerve spread in post-contrast images. Rhabdomyosarcoma tends to be of intermediate signal intensity on Tl WI, hy­ perintense on T2WI and enhances homogeneously. Cervical and retropharyngeal lymphadenopathy should be surveyed. Imaging follow-up should include a scan after completion of treatment, then follow-up scans every 2 months during the first year, every 4 months for 2 years, and once a year, thereafter. Imaging should also be performed any time symptoms ap­ pear or a clinical exam disclnses new findings. It has been demonstrated that the presence of a post-therapeutic residual mass (defined as a region of soft tissue thickening at the original tumor site with en­ hancement and absence of mass effect) is a poor prognostic sign heralding an in­ creased probability of tumor recurrence. Differential diagnosis from other aggres­ sive looking nasopharyngeal masses, such as lymphoma, Langerhans' cell tumor, chloroma, nasopharyngeal carcinoma, metastasis from neuroblastoma and other soft tissue sarcomas is not possible based solely on the imaging findings, and biopsy is mandatory.

Management The overall prognosis of rhabdomyosarcoma markedly improved, with the advent of multidrug chemotherapeutic regimens and external beam radiotherapy, from a 55% to an 80% 5 year survival rate in patients with non metastatic disease. These regimens had their major impact in the treatment of parameningeal tumors, not amenable to curative surgery or requiring major craniofacial resections with inade­ quate surgical margins. Surgery plays an important role in many patients. A sagittal Tl W MR image (Fig. 23-F) shows the same patient after radiotherapy and chemotherapy. There was complete resolution of the soft tissue mass.

ASOPHARYNX AND PARAPHARYNGEAL SPACE

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A nasopharyngeal mass can of­ ten be found in a child with chronic sinus symptoms.

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Rhabdomyosarcoma can show signs of deep invasion.

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cr imaging may show bony de­ structive changes in the base of the skull and erosion of cranial nerves foramina.

Care must be taken not to mis­ take an aggressive nasopharyn­ geal mass for adenoidal hyper­ trophy. Care must be taken not to mis­ take post-obstructive changes i n the paranasal sinuses a n d mas­ toids for tumor extension. Care must be taken not to miss i n tracranial and meningeal spread of the tumor.

Suggested Reading Gilles, R., Couanet, D., Sigal, R., De Baere, T. , Tardivon, A, Masselot, 1., Vanel. D. Head and neck rhabdomyosarcomas in children: value of clinical and cr findings in the detection of loco-regional relapses. Clinical Radiology 49(6):41 2-5, 1 994 Jun. Kowalski, L.P., San, c.l . Prognostic factors in head and neck soft tissue sarcomas: analysis of 1 28 cases. Journal of Surgical Oncology 56(2):83-8, 1994 Jun. Kraus, D.H., Saenz, N.C., Gollamudi, S., Heller, G., Moustakis, M., Gardiner, S., Ger­ ald, w.L., Ghavimi, E, LaQuaglia, M.P. Pediatric rhabdomyosarcoma of the head and neck. American Journal of Surgery 174(5):556-60, 1 997 Nov. Lee,J.H., Lee, M.S., Lee, B.H., Choe, D.H., Do, YS., Kim, K.H., Chin, S.Y, Shim, YS., Cho, KJ. Rhabdomyosarcoma of the head and neck in adults: MR and CT findings. American Journal of Neuroradiology 1 7 ( 10):1 923-8, 1 996 Nov-Dec. Lyos, A.T., Goepfert, H., Luna, M .A, Jaffe, N., Malpica, A Soft tissue sarcoma of the head and neck in children and adolescents. Cancer 77( 1 ): 1 93-200, 1 996 Jan I . Odell, P.E Head and neck sarcomas:a review. Journal of Orolaryngology 25( 1 ):7-13. 1 996 Feb. Park, Y W. Evaluation of neck masses i n children. Americall Family Physician 5 1 (8): 1 904- 1 2, 1 995 Jun. Yang, W.T., Kwan, W.H., Li, C.K., Metreweli, C. Imaging of pediatric head and neck rhabdomyosarcomas with emphasis on magnetic resonance imaging and a review of the literature. Pediarric Hematology and Oncology 14(3):243-57, 1 997 May-Jun.

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Case 24 Clinical Presentation A 42-year-old male presented with unilateral serous otitis media.

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Findings The axial Tl W MRI shows (Fig. 24-A) a right sided nasopharyngeal mass which in­ vades the prevertebral musculature.

Differential D iagnosis: Nasopharyngeal Mass • • • •

Adenoidal tissue Lymphoma Carcinoma Tornwaldt cyst

Diagnosis Squamous cell carcinoma of the nasopharynx

Discussion The nasopharynx remains an area that is occult to casual clinical examination. Its proximity to the skull base makes cancers in this region particularly devastating.

ASOPHARYNX AND PARAPHARYNGEAL SPACE

Epidemiology Malignancies of the nasopharynx can be divided into three groups. Seventy percent are carcinomas and 20% are lymphomas. The remaining 1 0% are made up of a va­ riety of lesions including adenocarcinoma, rhabdomyosarcoma, melanoma, adenoid cystic carcinoma, and others. Squamous cell carcinoma of the nasopharynx is a tumor not commonly seen in the United States. However, in certain portions of the world, (Canton, China) it is one of the most common cancers. Human leukocyte antigen A-2 and B-sin histo­ compatibility loci have been identified as possible markers in the Chinese popula­ tion for susceptibility to this disease. While the incidence of the disease in American born Chinese decreases, it is still seven times higher than for other Americans. Antibodies against Epstein-Barr virus have been associated with the undifferen­ tiated form of nasopharyngeal carcinoma. Other risk factors for nasopharyngeal carcinoma include nitrosamines (found in dry salted fish) and exposure to polycyclic hydrocarbons (found in burned foods).

Pathophysiology Carcinoma of the nasopharynx based on histopathology, is classified according to the World Health Organization into three types. Type 1 is squamous cell carcinoma which is similar to other lesions found in the upper aerodigestive system. Type 1 1 lesions have little or no keratin production and are referred to as a non keratinizing carcinoma. Because of their similarity to urinary tract tumors they are sometimes referred to as transitional cell carcinomas. Type I I I carcinomas include lymphoep­ ithelioma, spindle cell and clear cell squamous carcinoma. While Type I and I I lesions are usually found i n adults, type I I I lesions have a bimodal age distribution.

Clinical Findings Nasopharyngeal carcinoma may present as a change in voice quality, impaired hear­ ing, or a mass in the nasopharynx. Often the first sign of abnormality is the accu­ mulation of fluid in the middle ear or mastoid caused by obstruction of the eu­ stachian tube.

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Lymphadenopathy is also very common in nasopharyngeal carcinoma and is seen in approximately 70% of patients at presentation. Nodal extent ion to the nodes of Rouviere (lateral retropharyngeal nodes) is frequent. Figure 24-B shows large lat­ eral retropharyngeal lymph nodes (» in a patient with squamous cell carcinoma of the nasopharynx. A common presentation of nasopharyngeal carcinoma is a mass in the nasopharynx and spinal accessory lymphadenopathy.

I m aging Findings An M R I examination of the nasopharynx is indicated to: ( I ) delineate the extent of a known malignancy, (2) search for the presence of the tumor in a patient with symptoms or clinical findings, and (3) follow treated patients with a history of na­ sopharyngeal cancer to rule out recurrence. Figure 24-C shows a recurrent right sided nasopharyngeal carcinoma in a 21 year old who had undergone radiation therapy for her original disease (note atrophic changes on the contralateral side). Anatomical routes hy which tumors extend from the nasopharynx to the middle cranial fossa may be shown by imaging studies. By following the eustachian tube, nasopharyngeal carcinoma can pass through the tough pharyngobasilar fascia at its only natural defect, the sinus of Morgagni. From this point, a tumor may enter the parapharyngeal space and extend to the floor of the middle cranial fossa by ex­ tending along the course of the eustachian tube in the sphenoidal sulcus, following it to the region of the foramen lacerum and ova Ie, and then extending into the cav­ ernous sinus. Figure 24-0 shows a large nasopharyngeal carcinoma extending through a widened foramen ovale to invade the middle cranial fossa. Note that the internal carotid artery is encircled by the mass on this section. Tumors high in the nasopharynx may also gain access to the middle cranial fossa via either the pterygoid canal or sphenopalatine foramen. Through the pterygoid canal, tumors may extend directly to the foramen lacerum, or erode through the thin lateral wall of sphenoid sinus, entering the cavernous sinus. Through the sphenopalatine foramen, tumors may extend directly to the pterygopalatine fossa, inferior and superior orbital fissures, and into the cavernous sinus. I n cases of na-

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The clinicians should search for an occult nasopharyngeal mass in patients presenting with nodal extension to the posterior trangle. The clinician should identify in­ tracranial extension and adenopathy which may have treatment and prognostic signifi­ cance.

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Care should be taken not to miss a nasopharyngeal mass in adult patients presenting with unilat­ eral serous otitis media.

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Care should be taken not to con­ fuse carcinoma with adenoidal enlargement.

sopharyngeal carcinoma with neck metastases, MR images may show an extranodal tumor abutting and surrounding the carotid artery and jugular vein.

Management The role of surgery in this disease is limited to biopsy and staging. Radiation ther­ apy is the standard treatment for nasopharyngeal carcinoma. Advanced lesions may also require chemotherapy.

Suggested Readings Teresi, L.M., Lufkin, R.B., Hanatee, W. MR imaging of the nasopharynx and floor of the middle cranial fossa. Part 1 . Normal anatomy. Radiology 1 64:8 1 1 , 1 987. Teresi, L.M., Lufkin, R.B., Hanatee, W. MR imaging of the nasopharynx and floor of the middle cranial fossa. Part I I . Malignant tumors, etc. Radiology 164:81 7, 1 987.

IV. Neck, Thyroid, Parathyroid

ECK, THYROID, PA RATHYROI DI

Case 25 Clinical Presentation An adult male patient presented with painles midline swelling adjacent to the hy­ oid bone.

A

Radiologic Findings CT cans revealed a thin walled midline cy tic mass adjacent to the hyoid bone

(Fig. 25-A).

Differential Diagnosis: Anterior Cystic Neck Mass • • • • • • • • •

Branchial cleft cyst External laryngocele Thyroglossal duct cy t Necrotic lymph node Ab ce s ySlic hygroma Dermoid llHombosed anterior jugular vein Aneurysm

Diagnosis Thyroglossal duct cyst

Discussion 11lyroglossal duct cy ts are more frequently found in children. but they also may present in adulthood. They can be found anywhere along the thyroglo sal tract, ex-

1 07 1

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THYROID, PARATHY ROID

pyramidal lobe thyroid

B

tending from the foramen cecum to the thyroid gland, and most frequently present as anterior, midline or paramedian neck masses. Although they are reported most commonly in the low to mid-neck, up to 20% occur above the hyoid bone. They may be seen as a mass at the root of the tongue. The cyst is often associated with the body of the hyoid bone, and in order to avoid a surgical recurrence, the body of the hyoid bone should be removed along with the cyst.

Pathophysiology The thyroglossal duct is an epithelial lined tubular structure extending from the foramen cecum, around the inferior border of the hyoid bone to the pyramidal lobe of the thyroid bed (Fig. 25-B). It is formed by the 3rd week of gestation and nor­ mally involutes by the 1 0th week. If any portion fails to involute, the secretory epithelial lining may cause a cyst to be formed. Although these are congenital lesions, they often do not present until there is inflammation or blocked drainage.

Clinical Findings Most patients present with asymptomatic neck masses within the anterior triangle. Fistulas are uncommon but can occur related to surgery or complicated infection. Most cysts ( >75% ) are midline and are most common at or near the level of the hyoid bone.

Imaging Findings Thyroglossal duct cysts typically appear as a cystic thin-walled midline mass on CT or M R T scanning. They may be intimately associated with the hyoid bone. Tby-

1 1 08

o

c

as ell-circums ribed fluid-den it tructures in roglossal ducI cy t' appear on the midline. The cy I are u ually large I at the b oid level but aJ lrack inferiorly adjacent to tbe laryngeal kelelon Fig. 25- ). On M R I tbe nuid content may be expected to demon trate tbe same anatomic and gro morph logic features. yst nuid ill how both long Tl and 1'2 in appro­ priately weighted pin echo image The ignal of the nuid depend on its content or M R l un Ie (e.g protein. hemorrhage). The cy t rim ill be nonenhancing on inflammati n i pre ent. which i often the ca e on mplomatic Ie ions. Perhap the mo t significant morphol gic feature to be determined by or M R I i evidence of internal or external fi tulae. adherence I underlying lruclure or lobulati n ince the e eem to be the mo t important cau e f urgical recurrences. agina! TI WI in another patient (Fig. 25-D) how a characteri lie cyst (arrow). n axial T2WI ( Fig. 25- ) in another patient show cy tic signal (arrow) adjacent to the hyoid bone. \

0

\

.•

\

Management

When pos. ible, surgery is the treatment of choice. The goal or the surgery is to remove all the epithelial lining. Becau e of their e tent, complete rem val rna be 1 09

/ NECK,

THYROID, PARATHYRO I D

PEARLS/PITFALLS •

A thyroglossal duct cyst appears as a thin walled midline cystic mass on cr and M R I scanning.

•

A t hyroglossal duct cyst is lo­ cated along path of thyroglossal duct.

•

A thyroglossal duct cyst has a characteristic appearance on cr and M R images.

•

Surgical removal is the treatment of choice.

•

Care should be taken not to mis­ take a thyroglossal duct cyst for a thin walled abscess or necrotic node.

difficult and may recur. Extensive resection (Sistrunk procedure), which removes the entire duct, midportion of the hyoid bone and a portion of the tongue base, has decreased the recurrence rate from 50% to 20% .

Suggested Readings Johnson, u., Smith P., Akintunde, M.O., Robson, A.K., Stafford, F. W. Assessment of pre-operative investigations of thyroglossal cysts. fournal of the Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh 41 ( 1 ):48-9, 1 996 Feb. Kawanaka, M., Sugimoto, Y., Suehiro, M . , Fukuchi, M. Thyroid imaging in a typical case of acute suppurative thyroiditis with abscess formation due to infection from a persistent thyroglossal duct. A nnals of Nuclear Medicine 8(2) : 1 59-62, 1 994 M ay. Lim-Dunham, lE., Feinstein, K.A., Yousefzadeh, D.K., Ben-Ami, T. Sonographic demonstration of a normal thyroid gland excludes ectopic thyroid in patients with thyroglossal duct cyst. A merican fournal of Roentgenology 1 64(6) : 1 489-9 1 , 1 995 Jun. McHenry, c.R . , Danish, R . , Murphy, T., Marty, 1.1. Atypical t hyroglossal duct cyst: a rare cause for a solitary cold thyroid nodule in childhood. American Surgeon 59(4):223-8, 1 993 Apr. Urao M . , Teitelbaum, D.H., Miyano, T. Lingual thyroglossal duct cyst: a unique sur­ gical approach. fournal of Pediatric Surgery 3 1 ( 1 1 ): 1 574-6, 1 996 Nov.

/2 2 9

E K, THYRO I D PA R ATH Y RO I DI

Case 26 Clinical Presentation A 36-year-old male presented with a history of progressive swelling in his neck. Phy ical examination revealed a round. painless. mass just inferior to the mandible on the left.

A

B

Findings There is a well-circum cribed cystic rna in the right lateral neck ( Figs. 26-A, 26-6, & 26- ). TIle submandibular gland is displaced anteriorly. The sternocleidomastoid

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D muscle is displaced posterolaterally, and the carotid artery and jugular vein are dis­ placed medially. (Case courtesy of Dr. Andrew Berger.)

Differential Diagnosis: Cystic Neck Mass • • • • • • • •

Thyroglossal cyst Branchial cleft cyst Cystic hygroma Necrotic lymph node Laryngocele Sebaceous cyst Jugular vein Lipoma

Diagnosis Second branchial cleft cyst.

Discussion Epidemiology Second branchial cleft cysts are the most common congenital cystic neck masses. These cysts usually present during the second to fifth decades of life. Second branchial cleft anomaly comprises a spectrum of cysts, sinus tracts, and fistulae that are caused by incomplete obliteration of the branchial apparatus.

Pathophysiology Branchial cleft cysts represent a congenital cystic anomaly of the branchial appara­ tus (Fig. 26-0, 5-week embryo). TIle branchial apparatus begins to develop in the third week of gestation, surrounding the primitive pharynx. The branchial appara-

N ECK, THYRO I D, PARATHYROIDI tus consists of five transverse mesodermal ridges, separated by clefts. Each cleft is met by an outpouching of the pharynx, called the pharyngeal pouch, with a thin membrane separating the structures at their interface. The branchial apparatus de­ velops into the main structures of the face, nasopharynx, oropharynx, and neck. The first branchial arch ( I in Fig. 26-0) gives rise to the maxilla and mandible, as wel l as the facial artery and mandibular and maxillary divisions of the trigeminal nerve. The first cleft pinches off and gives rise to the external auditory canal, with the thin membrane separating it from the pharyngeal pouch, becoming the tym­ panic membrane. Cysts associated with this cleft are uncommon and occur in the re­ gion of the external auditory canal. The second branchial arch ( I I in Fig. 26-0) forms, among other structures, the sty­ loid process, anterior base of the tongue, and posterior belly of the digastric muscle. The fate of the second branchial cleft is controversial, but in conjunction with rem­ nants of the second pharyngeal pouch, it is believed to be responsible for 95% of branchial cleft cysts. Second branchial cleft cysts occur via the persistence of the cleft as an epithelium­ lined tract ( * in Fig. 26-0) that courses between the second and third branchial arch ( I l l in Fig. 26-0). If the tract exists in its entirety (i.e., there is a complete fistula), its internal opening usually lies in the tonsillar fossa. From there, the tract runs beneath tbe stylobyoid muscle and posterior belly of the digastric muscle, and above the glossopbaryngeal and hypoglossal nerves. Further on, it crosses between the inter­ nal and external carotid arteries (see Fig. 26-D). Below the carotid bifurcation, it courses along the carotid sheath a nteromedial to the sternocleidomastoid muscle. The external opening appears along the anterior edge of the sternocleidomastoid, usually in its middle third. If the tract is incomplete, it may present as an isolated cyst anywhere along tbe course of the tract, or as a cyst in communication with an internal or external fistula. There is a spectrum of cysts, sinus tracts, and fistulae that arise from incomplete obliteration of this branchial apparatus. Cysts are much more common than fistulae or sinuses.

Clinical Findings The second branchial cleft cyst most often presents as a smooth, nontender, fluctu­ ant mass located along the upper third of the sternocleidomastoid. Wben not in

E

F

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THYRO I D, PARATHYROID

PEARLS/PITFALLS •

Second branchial cleft cysts are the most common congenital cys­ tic neck masses.

•

Second branchial cleft cysts may have internal oral or external lower neck fistulae.

•

Ninety five per cent of second branchial cleft cysts are from sec­ ond branchial cleft.

•

A second branchial cleft cyst can pass between the internal and external carotid arteries.

•

Care should be taken not to mis­ take a second branchial cleft cyst for an abscess.

communication with an external fistula, the cyst may go unnoticed until the second to fourth decades. The discovery of the cyst is often related to an upper respiratory infection, which causes transient enlargement of the cyst. Cysts may become in­ fected and progress to abscess formation, with the possibility that spontaneous rup­ ture or incision and drainage will lead to a permanent fistula. Patients with a branchial fistula may present with persistent mucous discharge from a skin opening in the neck.

I maging Findings The introduction of ultrasonography, CT, and M R I has improved the accuracy of di­ agnosis of these lesions. The course and extent of a fistulous tract may be demar­ cated by fistulography, which may be followed by CT scanning. The cysts are well demonstrated on cr and M R I scanning. On cr, they are usually sharply mar­ ginated, centrally hypodense masses with thin enhancing capsule. On M R I a noninfected second branchial cleft cyst presents as a homogeneous, low to intermediate signal intensity cystic mass on T l -weighted images (Fig. 26-E; s-submandibular gland, m-branchial cleft cyst, sm-sternocleidomastoid muscle: image courtesy of Dr. E l len K. Tabor). They are usually high signal on T2 weighted images (Fig. 26-F; image courtesy of Dr. E l len K. Tabor). The lesion is well circum­ scribed and thin walled. If there has been previous infection, there will be varying degrees o[ wall thickening, increased signal intensity and obliteration of the sur­ rounding [at planes. The radiographic differential diagnosis includes neck abscesses, branchiogenic carcinoma, lipoma, tuberculous adenitis, cystic hygroma, paraganglioma, and metastatic neoplasm. The benign, thin walled, cystic appearance, classic location, and T l and T2 parameters usually allow correct radiographic diagnosis, with differ­ entiation from an abscess presenting the greatest difficulty. Thyroglossal duct cysts tend to be close to midline and laryngoceles usually have an obviolls association with the larynx.

Management Complete excision under general anesthesia is the treatment of choice. The proce­ dure is associated with a low incidence of local complications and neurologic sequelae. The overall recurrence rate is less than 5% after a follow-up of 2 years.

Suggested Readings Agaton-Bonilla, F.e., Gay-Escoda, e. Diagnosis and treatment of branchial cleft cysts and fistulae. A retrospective study of 1 83 patients. lnternatio ll al Journal of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery 25(6):449-52, 1 996 Dec. Batsakis, J.G. Tumors of the head and neck: clinical and pathological considerations, 2nd ed. Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins, 1 979;5 1 4-520. Chandler, J.P, Mitchell, B. Branchial cleft cysts, sinllses, and fistulas. OlOlaryngologic Clinics of North America 1 4: 1 75-1 86, j 98 1 . De, P.R., Mikhail, T. A combined approach excision of branchial fistula. Journal of Laryngology and Otology 1 09( 1 0) :999-1 000, 1 995 Oct. De Schepper, A.M., Monheim, P, Degryse, H . R . , Van de Heyning, P. cr of second branchial cleft cysts and fistula: comparison with M R I in three cases. Annals of Ra­ diology 3 ] : 1 4 1-1 48, 1 988. Reynolds, J.H . Y, Wolinski, A.P Sonographic appearance of branchial cysts. Clinical Radiology 48(2): 1 09-10, 1 993 Aug.

ECK, T H Y ROID, PA RATHYRO I DI

Case 27 Clinical Presentation An adult female pre ented with a painless lower neck mass.

B

A

Findings A homogeneous mass is pre ent in the posterior triangle. It conforms to surround­ ing oft tissue structures ( Figs. 27-A and 27-B). (Case courtesy of Dr. Andrew Berger.)

Differential Diagnosis: Cystic Neck Mass • • • • • •

Branchial cleft cyst Lymphangioma Thyroglossal duct cyst External laryngocele Necrotic lymph node Lipoma

Diagnosis Lymphangioma

Discussion Lymphangiomas are benign malformations of the lymphatic sy tern.

CK, T H Y RO I D. PARATH Y RO I D

Epidemiology Mo t lymphangioma occur during childhood with 60% present at birth. and 0% presenting by 2 years of age. This corre pond to the period when the greate t de­ velopment of the lymphatic ystem OCCUJ . There i no gender predominance. orne of tho e that occur in adult may be of traumatic rather than developmen tal origin.

Pat hophy iology Lymphangioma are nonencap ulated lesions of lymphoid ti ue. Mo t researcher in thi area feel the e Ie ion a re malformation rather than true neopla m . For the record, they are cia sified into three group , ba ed on the size of the I mphatic pace within the rna : ( I ) lymphangioma implex are compo ed of thin walled capil lary sized channel , (2) cavernou lymphangioma have more dilated lymphatic with fibrous adventitia and (3) cy tic hygroma have large cy ts up to everal cen-

c

11 16

D

N ECK, THYRO I D, PARATHYROIDI

PEARLS/PITFALLS •

•

Most lymphangiomas occur dur­ ing childhood with 60% present at birth, and 80% presenting by 2 years of age. A lymphangioma is a cystic neck mass that classically occurs in the posterior triangle.

•

A lymphangioma is a non en­ hancing, soft pliable mass.

•

Care should be taken not to mis­ take a lymphangioma for a necrotic lymph node.

•

Care should be taken not to fail to recognise the full extent of the lymphangioma for adequate sur­ gical planning.

timeters in diameter. I n practice, the radiographic appearance of these types over­ lap and, in fact, all three tissue types may occur in the same lesion.

Clinical Findings Lymphangiomas are generally painless, compressible neck masses. Cystic hygromas classically occur in the posterior triangle but may extend more anteriorly.

Imaging Findings U ltrasound is valuable in imaging these lesions especially in the perinatal period. CT and M R I are useful for defining the full extent of the lesions. Accurate delin­ eation of lesion extension is important for preoperative diagnosis, surgical planning, and assessing recurrence. Lymphangiomas are characteristically soft and conform to existing tissue spaces rather than distorting surrounding structures. Because of their large cystic spaces, they do not typically enhance with contrast. They are low signal on Tl WI (Fig. 27-C) and high signal on TIWI ( Figs. 27-D and 27-E). With infection or hemorrhage, these signal characteristics may change.

M anagement Surgery is the therapy of choice for most patients with this condition. Imaging is es­ pecially valuable to define the full extent of the lesion to allow full excision at surgery.

Suggested Readings Borecky, N., Gudinchet, E, Laurini, R., Duvoisin, B., Hohlfeld, 1., Schnyder, P. Imag­ ing of cervicothoracic lymphangiomas in children. Pediatric RadioLogy 25 2 : 1 27-30, 1 995. D ubois, 1., Garel, L., Grignon, A., David, M., Laberge, L., Filiatrault, D., Powell, 1. Imaging of hemangiomas and vascular malformations in children. A cademic Radi­ ology 5 5:390-400, 1 998 May. Fung, K., Poenaru, D., Soboleski, D.A., Kamal, I . M . I mpact of magnetic resonance imaging on the surgical management of cystic hygromas. Journal of Pediatric Surgery 33 6:839-41 , 1 998 Jun. Vazquez, E., Enriquez. G., Castellote, A., Lucaya, J., Creixell, S., Aso, C, Regas, 1. US, CT, and MR imaging of neck lesions in children. Radiographies 15 1 : 1 05-22, 1 995 Jan.

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Case 28 Clinical Presentation An adult female was brought to the clinic after sustaining a fall and complai ning of neck pain and a sore throat. Physical examination demonstrated slight muscle spasm in the cervical region without point tenderness. An exudative pharyngitis was also present. There was no evidence of a pulsatile neck mass.

B

A

Radiologic Findings Cervical radiographs (Fig. 28-A) demonstrated prevertebral soft tissue widening. 1l1ere was no evidence of cervical fracture. Prevertebral vascular calcifications were not present. Because of the radiographic and clinical findings, an MRI was per­ formed of the upper neck (Fig 28-B). There was no evidence of abscess. A tubular structure with signal void on all sequences was seen in the prevertebral soft tissues.

Differential Diagnosis: Prevertebral Soft Tissue Widening • • • • •

Abscess Neoplasm Post-traumatic change Lymph fluid Tortuous carotid artery

Diagnosis Medially deviated (tortuous) carotid artery

N ECK, THYROI D, PARATHYROID1

Discussion The cervical prevertebral soft tissues are made up of the prevertebral space and the retropharyngeal space. The prevertebral space is bounded posteriorly by the anterior longitudinal ligament of the vertebral column, and anteriorly by the prevertebral fascia (deep layer of deep cervical fascia.) This space extends the entire length of the vertebral column. The retropharyngeal space is bounded posteriorly by the prevertebral fascia and anteriorly by tbe buccopharyngeal fascia (middle layer of the deep cervical fascia.) The retropharyngeal space extends from the skull base to the level of tbe sixth tho­ racic vertebral body. The retropbaryngeal space normally contains only lymph nodes. Several other spaces border the retropharyngeal space. The pbaryngeal mu­ cosal space of the nasopharynx, oropharynx, and hypopharynx are located anteri­ orly. The carotid space (i.e., poststyloid portion of the parapharyngeal space) is located lateral to the retropbaryngeal space. It contains the carotid artery, internal j ugular vein, the lower four cranial nerves, as well as most of the external carotid artery branches.

Epidemiology Congenital tortuosity of the internal carotid artery has an estimated incidence of < 1 % of the population. This abnormal course results from failure of uncoiling of an embryological bend present at the junction of tbe embryonic dorsal aorta and the third aortic arch. The aberrant vessel will course adjacent to the tonsiLlar capsule of the pharyngeal wall in close apposition with the superior constrictor muscle. Medial deviation of the carotid artery also is seen with normal aging as an inci­ dental finding. Redundency of the carotid arteries also has been related to a de­ crease in cerebral flow with rotational motion of the neck and stroke.

Pathophysiology The retropharyngeal space is an area that is frequently involved by pathologic processes arising from contiguous spaces or primarily in that space. A large number of abnormalities involving the retropharyngeal space have been reported, such as abscess, benign and malignant neoplasm, lymphedema, post-traumatic processes, and ectatic carotid arteries. Tortuous carotid arteries and congenital aberrant course of the carotid arteries are relatively less well known. Awareness of these entities becomes significant be­ cause of procedures that may be performed sucb as oropharyngeal intubation, biopsy, abscess drainage, or other surgical procedures. All of these procedures could result in vascular injury, witb potentiaLly disastrous results.

I maging Findings The presence of this finding in older patients may sometimes be associated with vas­ cular calcifications on lateral and frontal cervical radiographs. Calcified carotid arteries in normal position overlie the vertebrae on the lateral radiograph and can be seen lateral to the vertebrae on tbe frontal views. In patients with medial devia­ tion of the carotid arteries, the calcified vessels are anterior to the vertebrae on the lateral view and are usually not visible or superimposed upon the vertebrae on the frontal view. CT or M R I scans with or without intravenous contrast enhancement may be needed for proper localization of the medial position of the carotids. This is espe­ cially true when vascular pulsations are felt on pbysical examination, but no definite

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calcifications are seen on plain radiographs. Prior to biopsy, an M R I of another pa­ tient with metastatic lung carcinoma to the right medial pterygoid muscle and pha­ ryngeal wall (Fig. 28-C, arrow) revealed a carotid artery adjacent to the mass, in­ denting the posterior pharyngeal airway. Figure 28-0 shows an enhanced view of a CT scan of another patient with a tortuous carotid artery (arrow). A reformatted coronal enhanced CT scan in another patient (Fig. 28-E) shows the medial position of the vessel.

Suggested Readings Cheung, Y.K., Sham, J.S.T., Chan, F.L., Leong, L.L.Y., Choy, D. Computed tomogra­ phy of the paranasopharyngeal spaces: normal variations and criteria for tumor ex­ tension. Clinical Radiology 45: 109-1 13, 1 992. Daniello, N.J., Goldstein, S. l . Retropharyngeal hematoma secondary to minor blunt head and neck trauma. Ear, Nose, and Throat lou.rnaI 73:4 1-43. 1 994.

N ECK, THYROID, PARATHYROml

PEARLS/PITFALLS •

A tortuous carotid artery can show up as a pre vertebral soft tissue mass on radiographic imaging.

•

A tortuous carotid artery bas a characteristic cr and MRI ap­ pearance.

•

Do not biopsy! ! ! ! ! !

Davis, W.L., Harnsberger, H.R, Smoker, W.R.K., Watanabe, A.S. Retropharyngeal space: evaluation of normal anatomy and diseases with CT and MR imaging. Radi­ ology 1 74:59--64, 1 990. Gianoli, GJ., Espinola, T.E., Guarisco, J.L., Miller, R H . Retropharyngeal space in­ fection: changing trends. Otolaryngology and Head and Neck Surgery 1 05:92-100, 1 99 1 . Poe, L.B., Manzione, 1. Y. , Wasenko, J.1., Kellman, R M . Acute internal j ugular vein thombosis associated with pseudoabscess of the retropharyngeal space. A merican Journal of Neuroradiology 1 6:892-896, 1 995. Silver, A.J., Mawad, M.E., Hilal, S.K., Sane, P., Ganti, S.R . Computed tomography of the carotid space and related cervical spaces. Radiology 1 50:723-728, 1 984. Som, P.M., B iller, H.F., Lawson, W., Sacher, M., Lanzieri, c.F. Parapharyngeal space masses: an updated protocol based upon 1 04 cases. Radiology 1 53 : 1 49-156, 1 984. Wong, Y K., Novotny, G.M. Retropharyngeal space-a review of anatomy, pathol­ ogy, and clinical presentation. Journal of Otolaryngology 7:528-535, 1 978.

E K, T H Y RO I D. PA RATH Y RO I D

Case 29 Clinical Presentation A 56-year-old female with nonHodgkin lymphoma presented with discomfort and a palpable mass in the right anterior neck.

A

B

Radiologic Findings An axial IT section at the in fragloltic level (Fig. 29-A) shows an enlarged right mass lacking enhancement. The central portion i hypoden e with a surrounding rim of enhancement. An axial ection at the supraglottic level ( Fig. 29- B ) hows a peripheral area of enhancement. There are no inflammatory change urrounding the mass. The carotid arteries and left internal jugular vein ( U V ) are unremarkable.

Differential Diagnosis: Anterolateral Neck Mass •

•

•

•

Pseudomasses: hypertrophy of the sternocleidoma lOid muscle, status poSt unilat­ eral radical neck di section Vascular masses: asymmetry of the j ugular veins, jugular vein ectasia, aneurysm of the jugular vein, jugular vein thrombosis (bland, septic or metastatic clot). aneurysm of the carotid artery, arteriovenous fistula. hemangioma. lymphan­ gioma y tic ma es: branchial cleft cy t, external laryngocele. cy tic adenopathy. thy­ roid cysts olid masses: adenopat hy. paraganglioma, schwannoma, ab ce s, neurofibroma. thyroid tumors, lipoma

Diagnosis (' mernal jugular vein thrombo is

1 22

N ECK, THYROID, PA RATH YRO l Dl

Discussion There is a long List of differential diagnoses for a patient presenting with an antero­ lateral neck mass. Although these masses are easily amenable to diagnostic FNA due to their superficial location, care should be taken to avoid puncturing a normal vessel or a vascular mass. As such, a thorough physical examination and diagnostic imaging should be performed before more invasive maneuvers are undertaken. Asymmetry of the venous drainage of the neck is fairly common either in the number or size of the vessels. The most common and striking of these normal vari­ ants is asymmetry in the size of the IN's. I n 80% of cases the right IJV is larger than the left. The IJV can be congenitally absent or there may be more than one vessel on the same side.

Epidemiology In the preantibiotic era, septic [JV t hrombosis (lJVT) was a frequent complication of local and regional infectious processes occuring in the head and neck. Lemierre's syndrome, also known as necrobacilosis, was a well known lethal entity referring to suppurative thrombophlebitis of the TlV, secondary to an oropharyngeal infection. With the widespread use of antibiotics, vascular involvement from an infectious process of the head and neck has became rare. However, there has been a resur­ gence of IJV thrombophlebitis in the past few decades, due to the more aggressive and invasive care of critical patients and the increasing number of intravenous drug abusers. At the present date, the more frequent causes of IJV thrombophlebitis are placement of central venous lines and puncture of the lJV by intravenous drug abusers. The incidence of jugular vein thrombosis i n patients with indwelling catheters is as high as 60% in most series and this number is thought to be an un­ derestimate, as the diagnosis may be easily overlooked.

Pathophysiology TIle pathogenesis of IJVT involves several factors. Causes relating to endothelial damage include placement of indwelling catheters, central venous lines, direct puncture of the IlV (usually by intravenous drug abusers), surgical damage during head and neck procedures, cervical trauma (open or blunt trauma), radiotherapy and infection. An infection may result from direct in­ noculation or from hematogeneous or lymphatic spread through the vasa vasorum, which ultimately leads to intimal disruption. In cases of an infected thrombus, the entity is referred to as thrombophlebitis and has more ominous implications. Ton­ sillitis, otomastoiditis and odontogenic infections are the leading causes of IJV thrombophlebitis. Causes related to hypercoagulable states include malignancies, paraproteinemias, connective tissue disorders (systemic lupus erythematosus), pregnancy, and defects in the coagulation cascade (e.g., protein C and protein S deficiency, deficency of antithrombin TIl, etc. ). The final factor potentiating thrombosis is blood stasis, which is present in states of dehydration, hypotension and prolonged imobilization. lJVT can result from extension of a thrombus arising in intracranial venous sinuses, par­ ticularly the sigmoid and transverse sinuses. Pathologically a thrombus seen within the LJV may be bland, infected or neo­ plastic in nature. Clinical history and imaging findings usually allow [or discrimina­ tion of these entities.

Clinical Findings The clinical presentation of IJVT may be quite nonspecific and not infrequently asymptomatic and detected as an incidental finding. Neck discomfort, pain and a

I NECK,

THYRO ID . PARATHYROID cervical mass are the most frequent presenting symptoms. When there is associated infection. symptoms of sepsis may dominate the clinical picture. Physical exam usu­ ally reveals a palpable mass along the anterior border of the sternocleidomastoid muscle which may be firm and tender ("cord sign ) . I nflammatory changes in the overlying skin indicate thrombophlebitis. In such cases, fever, elevated white count and elevated sedimentation rate are usually present. Complaints of headaches and other neurologic signs suggest intracranial deep venous thrombus propagation with impending risk of hemorrhagic infarction. Fundoscopic examination will reveal pa­ pilledema. Complications of IJVT include pulmonary and systemic thromboembolism, su­ perior vena cava syndrome, and chylothorax. "

I maging Fi n dings The diagnosis of IJVT is most often established based on imaging findings. Imaging is also mandatory for defining the extent of the thrombus and identifying any asso­ ciated complications. U ltrasound is the modality of choice in the initial evaluation of a patient pre­ senting with a lateral neck mass. 11lis modality will rapidly determine the location of the mass and reveal whether it is vascular, cystic or solid. Sonographic signs of thrombosis include the presence of an incompressible, dilated vessel with filling of the lumen by hypoecboic material and loss of respiratory phase changes in the cal­ iber of the vessel. Using Doppler, it is possible to make the diagnosis and to identify any residual flow suggestive of partial thrombosis or recanalization. Collateral cir­ culation can also be depicted. Limitations of US include the inability to evaluate the vessel above the mandiblular angle and below the supraclavicular notch. and less conspicuity of the surrounding soft tissues and vessel wall. CT with and without contrast enhancement has been advocated as the preferred noninvasive diagnostic modality. The CT appearance depends on the age of the clot and whether the clot is infected or contains a tumor. Acute thrombus ( less than 24 hours) is hyperdense relative to flowing blood and may go undetected if precontrast images are not obtained as it blends with the contrast enhanced blood. Subacute and chronic bland clots appear as hypodense material partially or completely filling the lumen. A surrounding hyperdense rim is frequently noted corresponding to enhancement of the vessel wall . lllis is due to dilation of the vasa vasorum, although local inflammation may also contribute to this phenomenon. Neoplastic clots usu­ ally cause irregular vessel dilatation due to invasion of the vessel wall. In the enhanced scan enlarged venous collaterals are easily depicted. CT adequately determines the full extent of the thrombus and in some cases also reveals the un­ derlying cause such as an abscess or tumor of the head and neck. The presence of an ill-defined vessel wall witb surrounding inflammatory changes (e.g., soft tissue thick­ ening, fatty stranding and loss of fascial planes) is diagnostic of thrombophlebitis. Less commonly, a fluid collection can be seen within or surrounding the vessel wal l representing an abscess. Enlargement of the retropharyngeal space by hypodense material is sometimes seen and is thought to be related to interstitial edema. This should not be mistaken for a retropharyngeal abscess as the cause of the venous thrombosis. Care should be taken with the timing of the contrast bolus in order to avoid a false-negative result. Vascular flow phenomena result in asymmetric and heteroge­ neous enhancement of the IJV, which may be mistaken for thrombosis or may make it impossible to ensure an accurate diagnosis. This problem became more frequent after the introduction of power injectors and faster scaning times (helical CT). Whenever the diagnosis is in doubt the study should be repeated with a longer de­ lay between the bolus injection and image acquisition. Another potential pitfall for the inexperienced radiologist is mistaking IJVT for a necrotic lymph node. The ver­ tically tubular nature and smooth peripheral enhancing rim seen with the former

1 1 24

ECK, TH Y RO I D, PA RATH Y RO I DI

C

hould preve nt thi confusion. Disadvantages of cr include radiation exposure and the need for intravcnou contra t admini tration. An en hanced cr scan of the neck (axial ection at the level of the hyoid bone) in a patient with thromboph lebitis of the left IJV demonstrate a lack of enhancement of the left IJ V, which show a central area of hypodensity surounded by a rim of pe­ ripheral enhancement (Fig. 29- ) . The wall of the vessel i indistinct and there i oft ti sue den ity and fany tranding encircling the vein. The fa cial plane with the ip i­ lateral sternocleidomastoid muscle is indistinct. The left common carotid artery is smaller than the right. but patent. There are no abnormalitie in the right jugular vein. On M R I . J VT may be more difficult to detect because slow flow or transient sta­ is in the ve el may mimic clot as they both appear as intraluminal hyperinten ity. The signal intensity depends on the age of the thrombu becau e of the biochemi­ cal changes undergone by clotted blood. The multiplanar capability and high oft tis­ ue re olution make M R I an ideal tool to evaluate the extent of the thrombu and any a ociated soft tis ue changes. M R venography with a two dimensional time of flight gradient echo acquisition has hown excellent correlation with Doppler US and conventional venography in the detection of venous thrombosi . onventional venography wa abandoned as a diagno tic tool due to the inva ive nature of the procedure and the potential for complication related to embolization of the clot.

M anagement IJVT is managed with ant icoagulant therapy, primarily for prevention of pulmonary thromboembolic events. When ant icoagulants are ine ffective. intravascular proce­ dure may be attempted to remove the clot. In the ca e of an infected clot. broad spectrum antibiotics should be init iated after blood culture are pcrformed. 111c presence of purulent thrombophlebitis with intraluminal absces formation man­ date' excision of the I1V to prevent serious complications. oncomitant i n fected collections in the head and neck region hould be debrided and appropriately drained. eopla tic thrombus is usually resistant to oral anticoagulation but may repond to hcparin the rapy. However, primary thcrapy should target the malignancy itself with chemotherapy or radiation therapy.

1 25 1

INECK, THYRO I D, PARATHYROLD PEARLS/PITFALLS

An INT appears as a "cord like" mass in the anterolateral neck on radiographic imaging.

•

•

Predisposing factors to INT in­ clude indwelling catheters, cen­ tral venous Lines, i ntravenous drug abusers, head and neck in­ fections, cervical trauma, and hy­ percoagulable states.

•

E nhanced cr shows an enlarged vessel, lacking contrast enhance­ ment.

•

Care should be taken not to per­ form an FNA before excluding a vascular origin for a lateral neck mass.

•

•

•

Care should be taken not to mis­ take asymmetric and heteroge­ neous enhancement of the IJV for thrombosis. Care should be taken not to mis­ take IIV thrombosis for necrotic nodes.

A clinician should take care not to perform an i.ncomplete study which does not not include the full extent of the clot.

1 1 26

Suggested Readings D uffey, D.C, Billings, K.R., Eichel, B.S., Sercarz, 1.A. Internal jugular vein throm­ bosis. A nnals of Otology, Rhinology and Laryngology 104( 1 1 ):899-904, 1 995 Nov. Finn, 1.p., Zisk, 1.H., Edelman, R R, Wallner, B.K., Hartnell, G.G .. Stokes, K.R .. Longmaid, H.E. Central venous occlusion: MR angiography. Radiology 1 87( 1 ): 245-5 1 , 1 993 Apr. Gudinchet, F., Maeder, P., Neveceral, P., Schnyder, P. Lemierre's syndrome in chil­ dren: high-resolution cr and color Doppler sonography patterns. CheST 1 1 2( I ):

27 1 -3, 1 997 Jul.

Kalan, A., Tariq, M., Harar, R P.. Gatland, D. Spontaneous internal jugular vein thrombosis and recurrent laryngeal nerve palsy: a rare simultaneous presentation of an occult malignant neoplasm. Joumal of Laryngology and OTology 1 1 0( 1 2): 1 1 66-8, 1 996 Dec. Leontsinis, TG., Currie, A.R., Mannell, A. Internal jugular vein thrombosis follow­ ing functional neck dissection. Laryngoscope 1 05(2): 1 69-74, 1 995 Feb. Poe, L.B., Manzione, 1. Y., Wasenko, 1.1., Kellman, RM. Acute internal jugular vein thrombosis associated with pseudoabscess of the retropharyngeal space. Americall Journal of Neuroradiology 1 6(4 Su p pl ) 892-6 , 1 995 Apr. Sakai, 0., Nakashima, N., Shibayama, C, Shinozaki, T , Furuse. M. Asymmetrical or heterogeneous enhancement of the internal jugular veins in contrast-enhanced CT of the head and neck. NeLiroradiology 39(4):292-5, 1 997 Apr. Stocks, RM., Milburn, M., Thompson, 1. Unusual neck masses secondary to jugular venous abnormalities: case report and discussion. American Surgeon 63(4):305-9, 1 997 Apr. Terada, Y. , Mitsui, T , Jikuya, T , Kaminishi, Y., Watanabe, K. Infected throm­ bophlebitis of the right internal jugular vein. Journal of Vascular Surgery 24(6): 1 066-7, 1 996 Dec. Tovi, F., Fliss, D.M., Noyek, A.M. Septic internal jugular vein thrombosis. Journal of Otolaryngology 22(6):41 5-20, 1 993 Dec. :

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Case 30 Clinical Presentation A 65-year-old male presented with a painle s mass in the left po terior neck. On clinical exam a oft, mobile mass was palpated in the left occipital region.

A

B

Radiologic Findings An enhanced cr scan of the neck ( Fig. 30 A ) hows a 2 x 1 .5 cm well-circum­ scribed, fat density mass in the subcutaneous soft tissues of the left occipital region. A thin enhancing rim is noted. There a re no areas of central enhancement and no internal septations. The attenuation value within the lesion was -85 HOllnsfield units ( H U ) the same as subcutaneous fat. Figure 30-B is a photograph of the surgi­ cal pecimen from the patient. -

Differential Diagnosis: Fatty Tumors of the Neck •

•

Solitary fatty tumor • With no evidence of contra t enhancement: lipoma, dermoid cyst • With contrast enhancement: angiolipoma, hibernoma, lipobla tomaJlipoblas­ tomato i , liposarcoma Multiple fatty tumors • Benign symmetric lipomatosis ( Madelung disease) • ushing syndrome

Diagnosis Posterior neck lipoma

1 27

1 N ECK,

THYROID, PARATHYROID

Discussion Epidemiology Lipomas are benign, encapsulated, mesencbymal tumors. Although highly prevalent in the body, only 13% of lipomas occur in the head and neck, most frequently in the subcutaneous soft tissues. Submucosal lipomas also have been reported in the phar­ ynx, oral cavity and larynx, but are much rarer. The most frequent location is the posterior neck. There is a male predominance, with a peak incidence in the 7th decade. Lipomas are more frequent in obese people. ll1ese tumors tend to increase in size with age and body weight, but do not decrease in size with weight loss.

C

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NECK, THYRO I D, PA RATH YROIDI

Pathophysiology Pathologically, lipomas are encapsulated, benign tumors composed of adult fat cells, separated into lobules by septae of connective tissue ( fibrolipomas). When highly vascularized, these lesions are classified as angiolipomas. Angiolipomas may be of the infiltrating or non-infiltrating sUbtype. The latter may infiltrate adjacent muscles and neurovascular bundles, demonstrating a more aggressive appearance. However. angiolipomas are rare in the head and neck. Another histologic subtype of lipoma is the spindle cell lipoma, which is charac­ terized by a mixture of fat cells and spindle-shaped fibroblasts in a collagenous ma­ trix. This subtype of tumor, has a more aggressive cytologic appearance than the conventional lipoma, with considerable nuclear pleomorphism, and may be con­ fused with a well-differentiated liposarcoma. Submucosal Lipomas may arise within a muscle or from intermuscular fascial septa. These deep seated lipomas may be sessile or pedunculated. Although benign, these lesions may recur when not completely resected. Malig­ nant degeneration of a lipoma has never been fully proved. Most experts agree that liposarcomas arise de novo and not from pre-existing lipomas. Lipomas may be congenital or acquired, and are thought to arise from a multi po­ tential mesenchymal cell. TIlere are several congenital and acquired diffuse, 110n­ encapsulated lipomatoid lesions which are not true neoplasms. These include, among others, lipoblastomatosis, which is a growth of embryonal lipoblasts seen in children, and benign symmetric lipomatosis, which is a disease of middle-aged men characterized by multiple symmetric accumulations of fatty tissue in the neck.

Clinical Findings Neck lipomas usually present as subcutaneous soft, non-tender, freely movable masses that may have a lobulated surface. TIle most common location is the poste­ rior neck, but other subcutaneous locations are possible. Axial TI W (Fig. 30-C) and T2W ( Fig. 30-D) images in another patient with a subcutaneous lipoma show a large

F

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1 NECK,

THYROID, PA RATHY RO I D mass in the anterolateral and inferior aspect of the right neck, insinuating between the thyroid gland and the strap muscles and splaying these structures. There is also posterior deviation of the neck vessels and leftward deviation of the airway. The mass shows well defined margins and follows the signal intensity of subcutaneous fat on both sequences. Coronal T l W image (Fig. 30-E) shows the craniocaudal extent of the mass in the right cervico-thoracic j unction. There are linear areas of hy­ pointensity within the mass representing fibrous septa. Patients usually present for cosmetic reasons, very rarely with compressive symp­ toms. Even submucosal lipomas are frequently asymptomatic. The presence of symptoms depends on tumor size and location. They are usually related to airway obstruction, compression of the pharynx or visceral space of the infrahyoid neck, and include dysphagia, dysphonia, stridor, sleep apnea, foreign body sensation in the throat, and irritating paroxysmal cough. On clinical exam, submucosal lipomas are non-specific in appearance and mani­ fest as any other submucosal mass bulging the walls of the pharynx or larynx. Coro­ nal M R I of the larynx of another patient with submucosal lipoma of the larynx (Fig. 30-F) shows a submucosal mass centered in the right paraglottic space. The mass has the same signal intensity as the subcutaneous fat and insinuates itself through the adjacent laryngeal structures, including the ipsilateral true vocal cord. An axial Tl W image at the supraglottic level (Fig. 30-G) shows a decrease in the transverse diam­ eter of the airway caused by this submucosal mass. I n the oral cavity, lipomas may cause discomfort during speech or mastication, and manifest as a yellowish submucosal mass located in the tongue or cheek. Multiple lipomas may be seen in association with several syndromes, such as mul­ tiple familial lipomatosis, Birt-Hogg-Dube syndrome, Gardner's syndrome, multiple familial and nonfamilial spindle cell lipomas, etc.

Imaging Findings Fat has unique characteristics on both CT and M RI allowing for the diagnosis of most lipomatoid masses. The diagnostic role of imaging is especially important in submucosal lesions, which are non-specific on clinical exam, and have a vast differ­ ential diagnosis. I maging is also necessary to evaluate the extent of the tumor, which may be transpatial, and to look for any aggressive features. On CT, lipomas manifest as well-circumscribed fat density masses with -65 to - 1 00 HU, with a thin and smooth e n hancing capsule and, eventually, thin intratu­ moral septations. M R l gives better delineation of the tumor, showing to advantage any infiltrative behavior or transpatial extent. Lipomas follow the signal characteristics of fat, hy­ perintense on Tl WI and intermediate signal intensity on T2WL When the diagnosis is in doubt additional fat-suppression sequences may be used. Characteristically, lipomas do not show contrast enhancement. This is an important distinguishing fea­ ture from liposarcoma. Lipomas also tend to displace and compress rather than in­ filtrate adjacent structures. Lipomas also may be an incidental finding.

M anagement Surgical excision is the treatment of choice, when warranted. Care should be taken to do a complete resection due to the high rate of recurrence. The rate of recurrence is believed to be secondary to microscopic foci of lipomatous inflltration of adjacent soft tissues. The recurrence rate of infiltrating lipomas is as high as as 62% . Lipo­ suction assisted excision of lipomas may be used in cervico-facial lesions to improve the cosmetic result and the technique can be repeated as needed in case of recur­ rence, with no increasing risk. Submucosal lesions, depending on their size and lo­ cation, may be removed endoscopically, or via an external approach.

1 1 30

NECK, THYROID, PA RATHYROIDI

PEARLSIPITFALLS •

•

A lipoma presents as a soft, non­ tender mass in the posterior neck. 0.n cr and MR i mages a lipoma can be seen as a homogeneous, well-defined, fat density or fat signal intensity mass.

•

•

Care should be taken not to fail to evaluate the full extent of the tumor. The clinician should take care not to mistake diffuse lipomatous processes with true, encapsulated lipomas.

Suggested Readings Abdullah, B.1., Liam, C.K., Kaur, H., Mathew, K.M. Para pharyngeal space lipoma causing sleep apnoea. British fournal of Radiology 70(838 ) : 1 063-5, 1 997 Oct. Calhoun, K.H., Bradfield, 1.1., Thompson, C. Liposuction-assisted excision of cervicofacial lipomas. Otolaryngology and Head and Neck Surgery 1 1 3(4):401-3, 1995 Oct. Eckel, H.E., JungehUlsing, M. Lipoma of the hypopharynx: pre-operative diagnosis and transoral resection. fournal of Laryngology and Otology 1 08(2): 1 74-7, 1 994 Feb. Elango, S. Parapharyngeal space lipoma. Ear, Nose, and Throat fournaI 74( 1 ) :52-3, 1995 Jan. Kransdorf, M.J., Benign soft-tissue tumors in a large referral population: distribution of specific diagnoses by age, sex, and location. A merican fournal of Roentgenology 164(2) :395-402, 1995 Feb. Murty, K.D., M urty, P.S., George, S., Balakrishnan, R., Mathew, K.I., Varghese, G. Lipoma of the larynx. A merican fournal of Otolaryngology 1 994 Mar-Apr, 1 5(2):149-5l . Tsunoda, A . Lipoma in the peri-tonsillar space. fournal of Laryngology and Otology 108(8):693-5, 1 994 Aug. Worsey, 1., McGuirt, W., Carrau, R.L., Peitzman, A.B. Hibernoma of the neck: a rare cause of neck mass. A merican fournal of Otolaryngology 1 5(2):1 52-4, 1 994 Mar­ Apr. Zeiger, B.w., Zeiger, B.G., Plorer, A., Steiner, H., Fritsch, P.o. Dermal spindle cell lipoma: plexiform and nodular variants. Histopathology 27(6):533-40, 1995 Dec.

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Case 31 Clinical Presentation A 66-year-old male presented with a 5-year history of progre ive generalized neck welling and a recent onset oC hoarsne and nonproductive cough. The patient a lso complained of facial congestion upon exertion. On clinical exam there was a disfig­ uring oft. non-tender. non-mobile, generalized neck swelling with a lobulated ur­ face. 0 discrete masses were palpated.

A

B

Radiologic Findings cr of the neck demonstrates massive accumulation of homogeneou' fat-density tis­ 'ue in all the infrahyoid compartments of the neck, the submandibular and sub­ mental spaces. TIlere is no demarcation from the subcutaneous fat and no encap u­ lated areas or fibrous septalions. Thi fally tissue infiltrate the visceral pace involving the glollic and upraglollic larynx. with definite infiltration of the true vo­ cal cord . TIlere is also infiltration of the retropharyngeal and prevertebral space by thi fat tissue. TIle ternocleidomastoid muscle and trap mu des are displaced and

1 132

NECK, THYROID, PARATHYROI DI compressed. The neck vessels are displaced posterolaterally. There is mediastinal ex­ tent of this increased fat which displaces the thoracic vessels laterally and com­ presses the mediastinal trachea. The tranverse caliber of the trachea is slightly de­ creased at this level due to extrinsic compression ( Figs. 3 1 -A, 3 1 -B and 31-C).

Differential Diagnosis: Diffuse Lipomatosis of the Neck •

•

Without inflammatory signs: benign or multiple symmetric lipomatosis, multiple familial lipomatosis, morbid obesity, Cushing's disease/syndrome, lipoblastomato­ sis (children), liposarcoma With inflammatory signs: Weber-Christian's disease (painful adipositis), Dercum's disease (acute panniculitis), progressive nodular lipomatosis

Diagnosis Benign symmetric lipomatosis (Madelung disease)

Discussion Epidemiology Multiple symmetric lipomatosis is a rare lipodystrophy characterized by the pres­ ence of multiple non encapsulated fatty infiltrative lesions that occur in a symmetric distribution. The disease has several eponyms including Madelung disease, madelung collar, lipomatosis of Launois-Bensaude, and benign symmetric lipomatosis. Men are affected more often than women with a male-to-female ratio of 1 5 : 1 . For unclear reasons Mediterranean males are predominantly afflicted. The fatty deposits usually appear after 20 years of age and the peak age at pre­ sentation is between the 4th and 6th decades. Typically, there is rapid progression of the lipomatous tissue over a variable period of time foLlowed by a period of stabi­ lization or slow progression over many years. A familial incidence has been described with an autosomal dominant mode of in­ heritance, but most cases are sporadic.

Pathophysiology The etiology of Madelung disease is unknown and various theories have been pos­ tulated to explain its pathophysiology. There is an unequivocal relationship with al­ coholism, with 65 to 90% of cases seen in patients with a prolonged history of ethanol abuse and some with chronic liver disease. The accumulation of fat is ex­ plained by the lipogenic and antilipolytic effect of alcohol, through a decrease in B­ adrenergic receptors. Another theory is based on a genetic defect in catecholamine-stimulated lipoly­ sis, which has been associated with hypertrophy of adipocytes in animal models and related to functional sympathetic de nervation. The mechanism of denervation may be related to the alcohol-related neuropathy or to other unknown factors. However, the defect appears to be at the post-receptor level, because the lipolytic response to cyclic AMP is preserved. Finally, another theory places Madelung disease in the group of the phakomatoses. Several metabolic defects have been associated with this disease including hyper­ lipidemia, glucose intolerance, diabetes mellitus, hyperinsulinism, hyperuricemia, hypertension, hypothyroidism, polyneuropathy, and abnormalities in liver [unction tests. Some of these biochemical defects may be associated with alcoholism itself, al­ though most have been reported i n patients with Madelung disease who have no history of ethanol abuse. The frequent association with upper aerodigestive tract neoplasms leads some experts to consider this disease a paraneoplastic syndrome.

PatllOl gically, the fat depo its ar nonencapsulated and compo ed of mall. ma­ ture adipo e cell with a light increa e in fibro a cular troma. 0 cellular pleo­ m rphi m or atypia are een. There i only one rep rt in the ngli h literature of malignant degeneration of the fatty ti' ue in Madelung di ea e. Once pre nt. the fat dep its do not spontaneousl re 01 e. li nical fi nding

Most patient pre ent ith cervical welling ovcr a peri d of ears taU ing disfig­ uremcnt. re triction of motion and. ometime I cal pre ure mpt m "Madelung collar" r "bo e collar" were the term used to de crib the appearance pr duced by large p terior cervical lump extending int the anterior neck, ·ubmandibular. ubmental. parotid and upracla icular region When there i in olvcmenl of th deep and vi ceral pace of the ncck. patient may pre ent with dy pnea. hoar ene or d phagia. Media tinal involvement ha been a iated ilh uperi r vena cava yndrome. On phy ical exam, tbe fat dep it are nontender and nonencap ulated. NT ex­ amination ma di clo e ubmuco al bulge in the pharynx and/or larynx due to ub­ muCO 31 infiltration and extrin ic compre ion of the e ructure linicall . the main differential diagno i i made with ma ive lymphadenopathy. According to the di lributi n f fat dep it Madelung di ea.e i di ided into two ubI pe In 1 pe I, the fatt dep it are focally circum cribed and di tributed ym­ metricall in the upper part of the b d , paring the extremitie There may be me\

\

D

1 1 34

E

NECK, THYROID, PA RATHY R O I DI diastinal extention and involvement of the deep spaces of the neck, including the upper aerodigestive tract. Type I l-disease is characterized by a more diffuse in­ volvement with accumulation of lipomatoid tissue in the entire subcutaneous fat layer, mimicking simple obesity.

Imaging Findings The role of imaging is three-fold: ( 1 ) distinguishing this disease from other causes of diffuse neck swelling when the clinical findings are not clear, (2) evaluating the ex­ tent of fat accumulation and its relationship to adjacent neurovascular structures for therapy planning, and (3) identifying complications due to compression. CT and M R I are the preferred methods for evaluation of this disease and are both diagnostic, demonstrating nonencapsulated deposits of fatty tissue involving several compartments of the neck. The density and signal intensity of the fat de­ posits are similar to that of subcutaneous fat with no demarcation between the two. The most common sites of accumulation of fat tissue are the subcutaneous soft tis­ sues of the posterior and lateral neck, paraspinal region, supraclavicular fossa, an­ terior neck, prevertebral space, parotid region, submandibular and submental re­ gions, and mediastinum. Submucosal fat deposits also may be detected in the visceral space of the neck, even when not clinically apparent. Sectional imaging de­ tects compression and displacement of adjacent structures and allows quantification of airway compromise. M R I , having the advantage of multiplanar capability, better depicts the extent of the fatty deposits and compression of adjacent structures. An enhanced axial CT scan of the neck of another patient with Madelung disease at the glottic (Fig. 3 1 -D ) and supraglottic (Fig. 3 1 -E ) levels show diffuse accumula­ tion of fatty tissue in the anterior and lateral compartments of the neck, sub­ mandibular space, prevertebral, and visceral spaces of the neck. The submandibular glands are displaced anteriorly and compressed, and the sternocleidomastoid mus­ cle and neck vessels are displaced posteriorly by these fat deposits. The supraglottic larynx and true vocal cords are infiltrated by fat. Direct laryngoscopy (Fig. 3 1 -F) of the same patient shows fullness of the paraglottic spaces bilaterally with a smooth yellowish surface. The main distinguishing features from other forms of diffuse lipomatosis include the absence of encapsulation, absence of inflammatory signs in the adjacent soft tis­ sues, and the distribution of fatty deposits. According to some experts fat suppres­ sion and chemical shift imaging can be used to distinguish encapsulated lipomas that are seen in multiple hereditary lipomatosis, and progressive nodular lipomatosis from Madelung disease. Imaging may also be used to monitor medical therapy and to detect complications of surgical procedures, such as hemorrhage and infection.

M anagement 1l1erapy may be required for cosmesis, for functional problems, or to alleviate com­ pressive symptoms. Correction of metabolic imbalances and alcohol abstinence may help to control the disease, but do not reduce the fatty deposits. Medical therapy us­ ing a B2 agonist (salbutamol) has been used with variable success and may help maintain a certain degree of normal lipolysis. Liposuction is tbe preferred treatment for subcutaneous involvement as it can safely be performed under local anesthesia. 1l1is is an important advantage in this patient population, usually poor surgical candidates, due to respiratory distress and chronic liver disease. Also, tbe amount of scarring is much less when compared to open lipectomy, allowing repeated procedures for recurrent disease. Both open and closed resection of these fat deposits have a high recurrence rate and are considered palliative. Open lipectomy is the modality of choice for deep-seated fatty deposits, and when the proximity of the airway or major vascular structures makes liposuc­ tion unsafe.

INECK,

THYROID, PA RATH YROI D

PEARLSIPITFALLS Madelung disease often presents with diffuse neck swelling and the appearance of a "horse col­ lar."

•

Madelung disease is most often seen in middle-aged males with history of chronic alcohol intake.

•

•

•

Accumulation of non-encap u­ lated fat i n the subcutaneous soft tissues, deep spaces of the neck, visceral space, or mediastinum is commonly seen in Madelung dis­ ease. Care should be taken not to mistake the disease for simple obesity.

•

Failure to recognize submucosal deposits of fat can cause airway compromise or other compres­ sive symptoms (superior vena cava yndrome).

•

There is sometimes insuffi c ient coverage of the neck and medi­ astinum, when imaging this dis­ ease.

1 36

Suggested Readings Borges, A., Torrinha, E, Lufkin, R.B., Abemayor, E. Laryngeal involvement in mul­ tiple symmetric lipomatosis: the role of computed tomography in diagnosis. Ameri­ can Journal of Otolaryngology l 8(2): l 27-30. 1 997 Mar-Apr. Chung, J.Y., Ramos-Caro, EA.. Beers. B.. Ford, M . I .. Flowers, E Multiple lipomas, angiolipomas, and parathyroid adenomas in a patient with Birt-Hogg-Oube syn­ drome. Il11ernational Journal of Dermatology 35(5):365-7, 1 996 May. Feldman, D.R .. Schabel. S.1. Multiple symmetrical lipomatosis: computed tomo­ graphic appearance. SoLt/hern Medical Journal 88(6):68 1-2, 1 995 Jun. Kitano, H., akanishi, Y.. Takeuchi, E., agahara. K. Multiple symmetrical lipo­ matosis: no longer just a Mediterranean disea e? Journal of Oto-Rhino-Iaryngology and Its Related Speciallies 56(3): 1 77-80, 1 994 May-Jun. Martin, OS, Sharafuddin, M., Boozan, 1., Sundaram, M., Archer, C MUltiple sym­ metric lipomatosis (Madelung's disease). Skeletal Radiology 24( I ):72-3. 1 995 Jan. Murty, K . D., Murty, P.S., George, S., Balakrishnan, R., Mathew, K.I., Varghese. G. Lipoma of the larynx. American Journal of Otolaryngology 1 5(2): 1 49-5 1 , 1 994 Mar­ Apr. Parmar. C. Blackburn, C Madelung's disease: an uncommon disorder of unknown aetiology? British JOllrnal of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery 34(5):467-70. 1 996 Oct.

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Case 32 Clinical Presentation A 30-year-old male pre ented with malai e. dy phagia. and neck pain and stiffnes . linical exam revealed a eptic patient with erythema of the po terior pharyngeal wall and no definite mass. The neck was painful with motion. l1le patient's prior clin­ ical history was uneventful.

A

B

Findings Lateral plain films of the cervical region how marked full ness of the prevertebral soft t issues, which measure approximately 20 mm in lhickness at the level of C2. The airway is di placed anteriorly, but appear adequate in caliber. No soft t issue em­ physema i noted. There is a l 0 mild traightening of the cervical pine with 10 s of tbe normal lordosis. The cervical vertebral bodies and di k paces showed no ab­ normalities ( Fig. 32-A). An enhanced cr scan performed the same day shows a hy­ poden e mass with an enhancing wall extending fTom the level of the nasopharynx to the post-cricoid region. No mediast inal exten ion wa noted ( Fig. 32- 8 ) .

Differential Diagnosis: Enlargement of the Prevertebral Soft Tissue • •

Ma s within the prevertebral space M ass in the retropharyngeal pace: adenit is/celluliti . ab cess, edema, hematoma, lipoma, metastatic lymphadenopat hy, direcat invasion from na opharyngeal or oropharyngeal squamous cell carcinoma, Kawa aki' disease. atypical third branchial cleCt cyst, hemangiomallymphangioma.

Diagnosis Retropharyngeal absces

1 37 1

1 NECK,

THY RO I D, PA RATHYROID

Danger S pa c e

M i d d l e L a y e r of t h e Deep C e r vi c a l

Fascia

( B u c c o - P h a r y ng e a l F a s c i a )

A l ar F a s c i a

Ret rophar yngea l

(Deep L a y e r of t h e Deep C e r v i c a l F a s c i a )

Space

Pre- Vertebral Fasci a J u gul a r Vei n

(Deep L a y e r of t h e Deep C e r v i c a l F a s c i a )

P r e - Vert ebral Space

C

Caroti d Artery

Discussion The retropharyngeal space ( RPS) is a midline space in the deep neck bounded an­ teriorly by the middle layer of the deep cervical fascia (buccopharyngeal fascia) and posteriorly by the deep layer of the deep cervical fascia (prevertebral fascia). This space extends from the base of the skull to the level of the body ofT4 and is a route for disease extension into the mediastinum. Lymph nodes and fat are the only con­ tents of the retropharyngeal space and, therefore, primary disease processes of this space are uncommon. A midline raphe separates the right and left chains of lymph nodes lying in this space (nodes of Rouviere). Posterior to the RPS lies a virtual space between two slips of the deep layer of the deep cervical fascia, often referred to as the danger space. This potential space can serve as a conduit for spread of dis­ ease to the level of the diaphragm, where these two leaflets join together. The most posterior midline space is the prevertebral space which extends from the skull base to approximately T3 (Fig. 32-C). It has been argued that the retropharyngeal nodes regress by the age of 6 years, which would account for the higher incidence of RPS infection in children. How­ ever, retropharyngeal adenopathy is commonly seen in older patients with head and neck malignancies, especially nasopharyngeal carcinoma.

Epidemiology The incidence of retropharyngeal space infections dropped dramatically during the antibiotic era. However, there has been a recrudescence of this disease in the past 3 decades due to an increasing population of immunocompromised patient . Children are particularly prone to retropharyngeal abscesses due to the spread of infection from adenoidal, tonsillar or middle ear disease. Some series report 95% of retropha­ ryngeal infections occurring before the age of 6 years. In adults. males are more fre-

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N ECK, THYRO I D, PARATHYROIDI quently affected then women (2 : 1 ) and predisposing factors should be carefully searched.

Pathophysiology A retropharyngeal infection can result from spread via lymphatic drainage, direct extension of prevertebral space infection or from direct inoculation related to pen­ etrating trauma. I n fection of the retropharyngeal space may also be iatrogenic (sec­ ondary to surgery), may result from foreign body penetration, or from esophageal perforation. The areas whose primary lymphatic drainage is the retropharyngeal lymph nodes include Waldeyer's ring, the sinonasal tract, the oral cavity and the middle ear. I n the pediatric population upper respiratory infections involving these sites are very com­ mon and may extend into the deep spaces of the neck when untreated. Other pos­ sible etiologies in children include blunt trauma to the oropharynx and impacted foreign bodies. Toddlers are especially prone to oropharyngeal trauma due to unsteady gate and tendency to walk with sharp objects in their mouth. Trauma may result in undetected oropharyngeal hematoma which may secondarily become infected. The organisms most commonly cultured from these deep space infections are group A beta-hemolytic streptococci, Staphylococcus aureus and Hemophilus in­ fluenza. I n adults spread of infection to the deep spaces of the neck is quite infrequent in the absence of predisposing factors. Odontogenic infection due to poor oral hygiene and spread from a peritonsillar abscess are the most common associations. Under­ lying illnesses such as diabetes mellitus, chronic alcoholism, malignancy, H I V infec­ tion, and other causes of immunocompromise are usually present. Spread from cervical osteomyelitis is not uncommon and mycobacterial and fun­ gal infections should be considered in the differential diagnosis. I n the iatrogenic group the most frequent causes are endoscopy and orotracheal intubation which may lead to pharyngeal mucosal tears and subsequent infection. Impaction of for­ eign bodies and esophageal perforation also should be considered i n an adult patient. A great variety of organisms are cultured from retropharyngeal abscesses in adults, depending on the cause of infection and underlying clinical status. These range from Gram negatives to anaerobic organisms and acid fast bacilli.

Clinical Findings Symptoms vary with the patient's age although in most cases patients are septic at presentation. I nfants and young children usually present with difficulty feeding and drooLing. I n older children, obstructive symptoms, particularly stridor, are the most typical presentation. Gastrointestinal symptoms such as nausea and vomiting also may occur and may draw the attention of the clinician away from the head and neck region. The onset of symptoms may be insidious and the patient may not come to medical attention until there is impending airway obstruction. Adults usually present with sore throat, odynophagia, dysphagia and neck pain. On clinical exam there may be inflammatory changes in the pharyngeal walls and a pharyngeal bulge, although these findings are inconsistent. Therefore, a normal ENT examination does not exclude the diagnosis of a retropharyngeal abscess. Fever, leucocytosis and elevated sedimentation rate are the rule.

I maging Findings A lateral plain film of the neck should be performed in any patient with suspected retropharyngeal abscess. Fullness of the prevertebral soft tissues is the hallmark of

K. T H Y ROID. PA RAT H Y RO I D this condition. As a rough guideline. there i prevertebral oft ti ue welling when the distance bet' een the anterior a pect of and the posterior pharyngeal wall is greater than 7 mm for adult and children or when the same distance at 7 meaurc greater than 22 mm in adult or 14 mm in children. I nterst itial air may be een within the prevertebral soft tissue and, although infrequent, is a valuable diagnos­ tic sign. The film should be obtained during quiet respiration becau e with forced expiration (especially i n children). the thickne s of the pharyngeal oft tis ues i

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NECK, THYROID, PA RATHYROIDI overestimated. Plain films of the neck are also useful to rule out other pathologic processes with similar clinical presentations such as supraglottitis and cervical os­ teomyelitis. Cross sectional imaging is the only way to distinguish between retropharyngeal and prevertebral space infections, and this distinction is based upon the location of the mass or fluid collection with respect to the prevertebral fascia. Retropharyngeal masses displace the fascia and prevertebral muscles posteriorly. Conversely, prever­ tebral masses displace these structures anteriorly. Another distinguishing feature of retropharyngeal space masses is that they tend to be lateral in position due to the presence of the median raphe as opposed to prevertebral masses, which are usually midline. However, inflammatory processes may violate fascial planes, making it im­ possible to accurately determine the site of origin. CT is superior to M R I in the evaluation of infectious processes in the head and neck region because it is more accurate in distinguishing adenitis and phlegmon from a true abscess. For this purpose contrast administration is mandatory. Adenitis presents as enlarged lymph nodes, which may or may not show a central area of necrosis and ill-defined margins, suggesting extracapsular spread. A phlegmon appears as an ill defined enhancing soft tissue density, whereas a hypodense lesion with an enhancing rim defines an abscess. Enhanced axial CT at the level of the oropharynx in a patient with retropharyngeal abscess due to a fungal infection (coc­ cidioidomycosis) (Fig. 32- 0 ) shows a large bilobed mass in the retropharyngeal compartment, displacing the longus colli muscles posteriorly and the airway anteri­ orly. This well circumscribed mass is cystic and shows a thick enhancing wall. The largest component of this mass lies on the left side and compresses the airway at this level. Axial T 1 WI (Fig. 32-E) and axial TIWI (Fig. 32-F) of the same patient at the level of the nasopharynx show the superior extent of this lesion, which involves the left longus colli muscle. The signal characteristics are those of a fluid collection. TIlis distinction has important consequences in the management of these patients, be­ cause only an abscess is amenable to surgery. Air-fluid levels and the presence of gas pockets are also more easily detected with CT. Figure 32-0 depicts an enhanced axial CT of the neck at the glottic level in a patient with retropharyngeal abscess that shows retropharyngeal fullness with interstitial gas. The fascial planes between the retropharyngeal space and the carotid sheath are obscured bilaterally. Anaero­ bic organisms were isolated on culture. Another important consideration for surgical planning is the delineation of the full extent of the lesion. Therefore, a cross sectional study should be performed from the skull base to the diaphragm. Extension of an infection into the mediastinum is not uncommon and can be accompanied by pleural and pericardial effusions. Eval­ uation of airway patency is also mandatory and may alert the clinician as to the need for tracheostomy placement. A CT may localize the primary site of infection, detect radiopaque foreign bodies and localize esophageal perforations (using oral contrast administration). I nvolvement of the carotid space by infection may have disastrous complications such as jugular vein thrombosis and spasm or thrombosis of the internal carotid artery. TIl is is another reason to perform an enhanced CT study. I n children, helical CT may circumvent the need for sedation. It should be kept in mind that a CT is not 1 00% accurate in the evaluation of deep space infections. A recent study showed a significant rate of false-positive results for the presence of abscess ( 13% ) and proposes that the decision for surgery should be based on both clinical and imaging data. M R I is especially useful when the primary site of infection is the prevertebral space, as it is the method choice to detect epidural abscesses and to evaluate the in­ tegrity of the spinal cord. On MRT, a retropharyngeal abscess appears hypointense on TI WI (Fig. 32-E ) and hyperintense on TIWl (Fig. 32-F). When intravenous contrast is used. ring en­ hancement is seen. Gas and foreign bodies are more difficult to detect and the im­ ages more difficult to interpret due to susceptibility artifacts.

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PEARLSIPITFALLS A retropharyngeal abscess is more frequently found in chil­ dren and immunocompromised patients.

•

•

Do not exclude a retropharyn­ geal abscess on the basis of a normal ENT/clinical exam.

•

A lateral plain film of the neck should be the first imaging study.

•

An enhanced cr scan is manda­ tory to: (1) distinguish retropha­ ryngeal from prevertebral space infections, (2) distinguish adeni­ tis, flegmon and non-infected fluid collections from abscess, and (3) evaluate the full extent of the inflammatory process.

•

Care should be taken to perform a complete study (including the mediastinum).

•

Care should be taken to not con­ fuse adenitis or phlegmon with an abscess.

•

Care should be taken for the clinician to recognize vascular complications, especially throm­ bosis of the ICA

M R I is the only imaging method that adequately depicts the layers of the deep cervical fascia allowing a more precise localization and better anatomic delineation of the lesion ( Figs. 32-E and 32-F).

Management The management of retropharyngeal infections depends on both the patient's clini­ cal status and the imaging findings. Adenitis and phlegmons are managed conserva­ tively with antibiotics and antiinflammatory drugs. When the clinical response is not adequate, tissue should be obtained for culture and sensitivity tests. When the pres­ ence of an abscess is certain, the lesion should be drained surgically or under imag­ ing guidance. Complex, multi loculated abscesses and those with extremely viscous secretions should preferably be managed surgically, because they would require multiple drains and longer hospitalization. Surgery is also preferred when patients are severely septic or when there is mediastinal extension.

Suggested Readings Babl, EE., Pascucci, R. I mages in clinical medicine. Retropharyngeal abscess. New England Journal of Medicine 337(7):472, 1 997 Aug 14. el-Sayed, Y. , al Dousary, S. Deep-neck space abscesses. Journal of OIO/aryngology 25(4):227-33, 1 996 Aug. Gidley, P w. , Ghorayeb, B.Y., Stiernberg, CM. Contemporary management of deep neck space infections. OlOlaryngology and Head and Neck Surgery 1 16( 1 ): 1 6-22. 1 997 Jan. Goldenberg, D., Golz, A, Joachims, H.Z. Retropharyngeal abscess: a clinical review. Journal of Laryngology and Otology 1 1 1 (6):546-50, 1 997 Jun. Hewel, K., Kioumehr, E, So, G., Wang, M . Infected third branchial cleft cyst: retropharyngeal extension to the superior mediastinum. Canadian Association of Radiologists Journal 47( 2 ) : 1 1 1-3, 1 996 Apr. Karkanevatos, A, Beasley, N.1., Swift, A.C Acute non-tuberculous retropharyngeal abscess in an adult. A case report and review of the literature. Journal of Laryngol­ ogy and Otology 1 1 1 (2) : 1 69-7 1 , 1 997 Feb. Lazor, 1.B., Cunningham, M.J., Eavey, R.D., Weber. A.L. Comparison of computed tomography and surgical findings in deep neck infections. Otolaryngology and Head alld Neck Surgery 1 1 1 (6):746-50, 1 994 Dec. Marra, S., Hotaling, A1. Deep neck infections. A merican Journal of Otolaryngology 1 7(5):287-98, 1 996 Sep-Oct. Nokes, S.R., Adametz, J., Gardner, G., Beaton, J.N. Radiological case of the month. Blastomycosis osteomyelitis with epidural and retropharyngeal abscess. Journal of the A rkansas Medical Society 92(5):253-4, 1 995 Oct. Sakaguchi, M., SalO, S., [shiyama, T., Katsuno, S., Taguchi, K. Characterization and management of deep neck infections. in ernational Journal of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery 26(2 ) : 1 3 1 -4, 1 997 Apr.

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Case 33 Clinical Presentation An adult male presented with a 5-year history of an asymptomatic left cervical mass, which was non tender and without bruit. The patient denied dysphagia, stridor, and neurologic symptoms.

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Radiologic Findings An axial T l W image ( Fig. 33-A ) through the level of the valleculae shows a left sided mass with a heterogeneous "salt and pepper" appearance. The internal and ex­ ternal carotid arteries are displaced anteromedially and splayed.

Differential D iagnosis: Neck Mass • • • • •

Schwannoma Carotid body tumor Adenopathy Branchial cleft cyst Lymph node

Diagnosis Carotid body tumor

ECK, THYRO I D, PARATHYROID

Discussion Epidemiology Paragangliomas are benign tumors arising from paraganglion cells. The most com­ mon paraganglioma in the head and neck is a carotid body tumor. An increased incidence of carotid body tumors has been found in people living at high altitudes. The carotid body tumor arises at the bifurcation of the common carotid artery. As it grows it becomes adherent and difficult to separate from the major vessel. There is a tendency to a multicentricity of tumors ( 10% ) , especially in a patient with a positive familial history (26% ). The incidence of true malignancy showing metastasis is higher in a carotid body tumor ( 1 0% ) than the overall incidence, vary­ ing from 2%-6% . The biologic behavior or natural course of the tumors is not clearly correlated with histologic appearances.

Pathophysiology A paraganglioma is a slowly growing neuroendocrine neoplasm that arises from neural crest derivatives. Chemodectoma, glomus tumor, nonchromaffin paragan­ glioma, and neurocristopathic tumor are the most common names given to this lesion. Precapillary arteriovenous shunts and nonchromaffin cells are characteristic of the histologic appearance of these tumors. Paragangliomas can be classified by their locations: tympanic and jugular tumors are less frequent; tumors of carotid and vagal locations are more frequent. Sheets of tumor cells are often divided into ball-like clusters ("Zelballen " ) separated by thin fibrovascular septa.

Clinical Fi ndings Paragangliomas often present as slowly growing and compressible masses, or cranial nerve paralysis, according to the location. A vertically fixed and laterally movable mass is a characteristic finding in a carotid body tumor.

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Imaging Findings Radiological diagnosis of this tumor is based on location and characteristic byper­ vascularity. M R I has some advantages over CT in delineating and characterizing the lesion witb its superb soft tissue contrast. The hypervascular nature of the tumor can be demonstrated by MR with signal void of flowing vessel. MR angiography can show the major vascular structures adjacent to the tumor as well as tumor vascular­ ity. The characteristic splaying of the carotid bifurcation is characteristic of a carotid body tumor. The most characteristic findings on an M R I are multiple low signal intensity ar­ eas that represent vascular flow voids throughout the tumor. H igh and low signal intensity regions on MR images are called a "salt and pepper" appearance. This appearance is not specific for paraganglioma but may be seen with a number of hypervascular lesions. Figures 33-B and 33-C show another patient witb a less common appearance of a carotid body tumor. The mass is circumferentially located around the common, in­ ternal and external carotid arteries. Figure 33-B is through the common carotid artery and Figure 33-C is slightly more cephalad through the level of the hyoid bone.

M an agement Surgery is the tberapy of choice for most patients with this condition. While con­ ventional angiography is generally no longer used for diagnosis, preoperative em­ bolization is used in most cases to limit bleeding at surgery. The arterial pbase of an angiographic study in a patient with a carotid body tumor (Fig. 33-0) shows the typ­ ical appearance of the displacement of the internal and external arteries by the mass at the bifurcation. During the capillary phase (Fig. 33-E) dense contrast enbance­ ment is noted. Radiation therapy is used in some patients who are not surgical can­ didates.

I N ECK,

THYRO I D, PA RATHYROID

PEARLS/PITFALLS •

The carotid body tumor is a mass tbat is centered at tbe bifurcation of the carotid arteries.

•

A carotid body tumor has a "salt and pepper" appearance on MRl.

•

Do not biopsy or perform surgery without a preoperative embolization.

•

Care must be taken to detect synchronous or metachronous lesions.

Suggested Readings Batsakis, J.G. Tumors of the head and neck: clinical and pathological considerations, 2nd ed. Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins, 1 979. Olsen, WL., Dillon, WI', Kelly, WM. MR imaging of paragangliomas. American Journal of Neuroradiology 7: 1039-1 042, 1 986. Shugar M.A., Mafee M.F. Diagnosis of carotid body tumors in dynamic computer­ ized tomography. Head Neck 5urg 4:5 1 8-521 , 1 982. Vogl , T., Bruning, R., Schedel, H. Paragangliomas of the jugular bulb and carotid body: MR imaging with short sequences and GD-DTPA enhancement. AJNR 1 0:823-827, 1 989.

Case 34 Clinical Presentation w grov ing rna in the right lal53-year-old female presented with a painlc eral neck. n clinical exam the rna i firm, non-lender and non-pul atile.

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Radiologic Findings A sagittal T l W image ( Fig. 34-A) shows a 2.5 X 1 cm well-circumscribed, oval mass, with its long axis parallel to the neck vessels. The mass is located within the right carotid sheath, displacing the common carotid artery and jugular vein anteri­ orly. The axial T2W image (Fig. 34-B) shows heterogeneous T2W hyperintensity and anterior displacement of the neck vessels. No relationship with the cervical nerve roots is noted. Coronal post-contrast Tl W image (Fig. 34-C) shows intense, homo­ geneous enhancement.

Differential Diagnosis: Solid Mass in the Carotid Sheath • •

Inflammatory/Infectious: lymphadenopathy, traumatic neuroma Neoplasm • Benign: nerve sheath tumor (schwannoma, neurofibroma, ganglioneuroma. ganglioblastoma, ganglioneuroblastoma), paragangLioma (glomus vagale, carotid body tumor, glomus jugulare), bpoma, hemangiolymphangioma, granu­ lar cell tumor (rhabdomyoblastoma), thyroid and parathyroid tumors • Malignant: metastatic lymphadenopathy, lymphoma

Diagnosis Vagus nerve schwannoma

Discussion Epidemiology Twenty-five to 45% of nerve sheath tumors occur in the head and neck region. [ n the neck, these tumors may arise from the vagus nerve, sympathetic chain o r cervi­ cal nerve roots, including the brachial plexus. Often the nerve of origin is difficult to determine preoperatively. Benign peripheral nerve tumors include two basic tumors with different patllo­ logic features: schwannomas and neurofibromas. Over the past decades, these tu­ mors have been known by a multitude of names, such as neurilemoma, neurinoma, perineural fibroblastoma, fibroma of the nerve, peripheral glioma, and gliofibrosar­ coma. Schwannomas may present at any age although a peak incidence is noted between the 4th and 6th decades. Neurofibromas tend to occur earlier in life (2nd and 3rd decades), especially when associated with neurofibromatosis type [ (NF- [ ) . Neuro­ fibromas may occur as a solitary lesion or, most often, be multiple. Only 1 0% of pa­ tients with neurofibromas have N F type I. Schwannomas may also be multiple.

Pathophysiology Nerve sheath tumors originate from Schwann cells or neuroectodermal perineural cells. Pathologically, there are two distinct types of nerve sheath tumors with distinct histologic patterns and clinical behavior. Schwannomas or neurilemomas are well­ encapsulated tumors characterized by the presence of two different types of tissue: Antoni A, which is the cellular component made by Schwann cells and fibroblasts, and Antoni B, which is composed of myxoid elements. Hemorrhage and cystic de­ generation may be seen in larger tumors. Neurofibromas are well circumscribed nonencapsulated nerve sheath tumors composed of Schwann cells, fibroblasts and swirls of neuronal elements running through the bulk of the tumor. Plexiform neurofibromas are a histologic variant, pathognomonic of NF I, with a more aggressive behavior. Whereas schwannomas

N ECK, THYROID, PA RATHYROIDI rarely, if ever, undergo malignant degeneration, neurofibromas show a 5% to 15% rate of malignancy, which is higher in patients with N F type 1.

Clinical Findings Symptoms and signs depend on the location of the tumor and nerve of origin. The most common clinical finding is a painless, slowly growing mass in the anterolateral neck. Neurologic symptoms may arise from direct involvement of the nerve by tu­ mor or from adjacent nerves due to compression and ischemia. Involvement of the cervical sympathetic chain may infrequently present with Horner's syndrome (myosis, ptosis and anhydrosis). Vagus nerve tumors may present with dysphonia, dysphagia, hoarseness and arrhythmia. H owever, the presence of these symptoms does not allow for topographic localization of the tumor, because the same symp­ toms may result from compression by an adjacent tumor. Tumors located higher up, near the skull base may involve the jugular foramen causing neuropathy of the lower cranial nerves. Nerve sheath tumors arising in the cervical nerve roots present with sensory and motor deficits in the distribution of the involved root, usually paresthesia and mo­ tor weakness. Pain may occur with large tumors, particularly when there is significant compres­ sion and bone remodeling. On physical exam, the mass is usually non-tender. A sensation of electric shock may be elicited by palpation. The mass is often mobile laterally but not along the axis of the nerve. Pulsation and bruits should be sought to exclude highly vascular lesions, such as a carotid artery aneurysm and a paraganglioma. A biopsy should not be performed before imaging studies rule out these diagnostic possibilities. A biopsy of nerve sheath tumors may be hazardous, causing excruciating pain or nerve damage. A complete physical exam, including a thorough neurologic examination, is rec­ ommended for all patients, especially when neurofibromatosis is a consideration. Electromyographic testing with evaluation of nerve conduction may be helpful in the diagnosis and localization of lesions involving the cervical nerve roots.

Imaging Findings The main purpose of imaging masses in the anterolateral compartment of the neck is to distinguish between solid and cystic lesions and to detect vascular or highly vas­ cularized lesions. These goals may be achieved by using ultrasound with Doppler or cross-sectional imaging. Once the solid nature of the lesion is established, several imaging features should be assessed to narrow the differential diagnosis. These in­ clude the exact location of the lesion, the level of the lesion within the neck, direc­ tion of displacement of adjacent structures (especially the neck vessels), and the de­ gree of vascularity. Schwannomas of the vagus nerve present as fusiform, well-circumscribed soft tis­ sue masses, located in the carotid sheath, dorsally to the internal carotid artery ( lCA), displacing the neck vessels anteriorly. The long axis of the mass parallels the course of the n erve. On CT, schwannomas are typically iso- to hypodense to muscle, depending on tumor cellularity, degree of Antoni B myxoid tissue and presence of hemorrhage or cystic degeneration. In addition, the degree of enhancement is vari­ able. Although most lesions show little to moderate enhancement, one third of schwannomas are highly vascularized and may mjmjc the appearance of a paragan­ glioma. Contrast enhancement appears to be related to extravascular leakage with stagnation and pooling of contrast into the tumor bed. Dynamic CT and M R I stud­ ies usually show a flat, hypovascular curve contrasting with the early arterial peak of paragangliomas. When the lesion is centered at the skull base or extends superiorly into the jugu-

ECK, THYROID. PARATH Y RO ID lar foramen, it may cau e calloping of the bone, a opposed to the permeative change usually een with paraganglioma. M R I bener demon trate the fusiform morphology of the tumor on sagillal and coronal sections. Schwannomas are usually hypointense to muscle on T l W images. bright on T2W image and how intense and uniform enhancement. Rarely these tu­ mors show How voids. In the rare instance where a schwan noma is highly vascular and how How void or a small. Ie s than 2 cm, glomu tumor contains no How voids. differential diagnosis between these lesions may not be po ible. However, the man­ agement is the same, with a t ranscervical urgical approach and preoperative em­ bolization, if required. Large chwannomas may undergo significant cystic degeneration cau ing diag­ nostic problem with other acquired or congenital cy tic lesions of the neck. Glomu jugulare tend to be centered in the region of the jugular foramen and only rarely extend below t he level of the hyoid bone. Permeative bony changes of the jugular foramen are helpful in the differential diagno is. arotid body tumors have a typical location, centered in the carotid bifurcation and splaying apart the I A and external carotid artery (E A). Ultrasound is useful in differentiating cervical nerve sheath tumors from lym­ phadenopathy. Ultrasonic features that favor a neural origin include the pre ence of a olitary, oval shaped hypoechoic lesion with po terior enhancement and ab ence of a fally hilum. Exophytic thyroid nodules and parathyroid adenomas are al 0 a con ideration in the differential diagnosis. Parathyroid adenoma tend to be located more medially in the tracheoe ophageal groove. eurofibromas are u ually indi tinguishable from chwannomas with imaging, but a low, almost water den ity lesion is characteri tic of neurofibromas. Typically, the plexi.form variant of this tumor has a central area of low density/intensity that correspond to the central fibrou core. Fatty degeneration i also a classic feature of neurofibroma . When extensive, it may mimic a lipoma. The pre ence of aggressive imaging features such as ill-defined margin, bony de­ struction, or the presence of distant spread, indicates a malignant nerve sheath tu­ mor (neuroectodermal sarcoma). However, the ab ence of these aggressive features does not confirm a benign nature. Nerve sheath tumors arising from the cervical sympathetic chain are indistin­ guishible from vagus nerve tumors, as the sympathetic chain is located posterome­ dially to the ICA and tumors in this location also displace the vessels anteriorly. Glomus vagale tend to occur within the carotid sheath at the skull base.

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'pEARLSIPITFALLS •

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•

•

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A vagus nerve schwan noma is a painless, slow-growing mass in the carotid sheath, that displaces the neck vessels anteriorly. The typical imaging appearance of a cervical nerve tumor is a dumbbeU-shaped mass bridging and scalloping the cervical neural foramina. A dynamic cr or M R I study shows a flat arterial curve. Care should be taken not to mis­ take a nerve sheath tumor for lymphadenopathy. If the clinician fails to recognize multiple lesions the diagnosis of neurofibromatosis may be missed.

Peripheral nerve sheath tumors arising from the cervical nerve roots or brachial plexus manifest as soft tissue masses in the lateral neck, retroclavicular area, or ax­ illary region. The typical imaging appearance of a cervical nerve root tumor is a dumbbell-shaped lesion that bridges and scallops the neural foramen, with in­ tradural and extraforaminal components. The extraforaminal component may ex­ tend between the anterior and middle scalene muscles into the posterior cervical space and axillary apex. Axial postcontrast T1 W (Fig. 34-D) and TIW (Fig. 34-E) M R r of the neck of a patient with solitary neurofibroma of the right C5-6 nerve root through the level of the true vocal cords show a fusiform mass posterolaterally to the right carotid sheath, along the course of the right C5-6 nerve root. There is no evidence of intracanalar or intraforaminal components. Imaging also is required for surgical planning and follow up of asymptomatic pa­ tients treated conservatively. Tumor growth and interval appearance of aggressive features should prompt intervention.

Management Nerve sheath tumors are managed surgically. Although most schwannomas may be resected without damaging the nerve of origin, resection of neurofibromas is more hazardous and may result in severe morbidity. When it is not possible to preserve the nerve of origin the surgeon should be prepared to perform an end-to-end anas­ tomosis or interpose a nerve graft. Several experts advocate conservative manage­ ment of asymptomatic lesions and imaging follow up to evaluate for growth. The transcervical approach is the most commonly used for lesions located in the lateral neck. When the pathologic diagnosis reveals a malignant nerve sheath tumor, post­ operative radiation should be offered.

Suggested Readings Catalano, P, Fang-Hui, E., Som, P.M . Fluid-fluid levels in benign neurogenic tumors. American Journal of Neuroradiology 1 8(2):385-7, 1 997 Feb. Furukawa, M., Furukawa, M.K, Katoh, K, Tsukuda, M. Differentiation between schwannoma of the vagus nerve and schwan noma of the cervical sympathetic chain by imaging diagnosis. Laryngoscope 1 06( 1 2 Pt 1 ) : 1 548-52, 1 996 Dec. Ganesan, S., Harar, R.P., Owen, R.A., Dawkins, R.S., Prior, A.J. Horner's syndrome: a rare presentation of cervical sympathetic chain schwan noma. Journal of Laryn­ gology and Otology 1 1 1 (5)493-5, 1 997 May. George, B., Lot, G. Neurinomas of the first two cervical nerve roots: a series of 42 cases. Journal of Neurosurgery 82(6):91 7-23, 1 995 Jun. Kumchev, Y, Kalnev, B. A neurofibroma affecting the first right cervical sympathetic ganglion and entering the jugular foramen of the skull base. Folia Medica 39(2) : 15-9, 1 997. Sairyo, K, Henmi, T., Endo, H. Foramen magnum schwannoma with an unusual clin­ ical presentation: case report. Spinal Cord 35(8):554-6, 1 997 Aug. Sheridan, M.F., Yim, D.W. Cervical sympathetic schwannoma: a case report and re­ view of the English literature. Otolaryngology and Head and Neck Surgery 1 17(6):S206- 1 0, 1 997 Dec.

INECK.

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Case 35 Clinical Presentation A middle-aged male with a history of tongue carcinoma pre ented with a new neck mas on the right.

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Radiologic Findings An axial TI W M R image ( Fig. 35-A) shows bilateral masses posterior to the sub­ mandibular giands.llley appear nearly isointense to muscle on this pulse sequence. Following contrast administration there is enhancement of both lesions with a cen­ tral area of nonenhancement on the right ( Fig. 35-B). The T2WI ( Fig. 35-C) shows the central area to be high signal.

Differential Diagnosis: Neck Mass with Central Lucency • • • • •

Branchial cleft cyst Lymphangioma ecrotic lymph nodes Abscess Benign node with fally degeneration

Diagnosis Necrotic lymph node from squamous cell carcinoma metastases

Discussion Epidemiology Squamous cell carcinoma is the most common malignant neoplasm of the upper aerodigestive tract. One of the most important factors that influences therapeutic outcome in the management of patients with this disease is the presence of cervical lymph node metastases. A single nodal metastasis reduces the patient's survival by approximately 50% , regardless of location. or size of the primary tumor in the head and neck.

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THYROI D, PARATHYROID Table 35-1

Correlation between the Rouviere. UICC, and Numeric classifications.

Rouviere

U ICC

Numeric

Submental

Level I

Submandibular Superior jugular nodes Midjugular nodes Inferior jugular nodes Spinal accessory nodes Prelaryngeal nodes Para tracheal nodes Retropharyngeal nodes Parotid and buccal nodes Retroauricular and occipital nodes

Level l Level I I Level I I I Level IV Level V Level VI Level V I I

Submental Submaxillary Lateral cervical group Lateral cervical group Lateral cervical group Lateral cervical group Anterior cervical group Anterior cervical group Retropharyngeal nodes Parotid and facial nodes Mastoid and occipital nodes

Clinical Findings Before the development o f CT, assessment o f cervical nodal metastasis was based completely on palpation of lymph nodes as detected by physical examination. TIle inaccuracy of the physical examination has been documented in a number of stud­ ies. False-negative and false-positive rates of the physical examination are 1 5-20% and 30-50% , respectively. CT and M R I have improved the accuracy of nodal stag­ ing over physical examination. Both techniques allow visualization of nonpalpable nodes deep into the sternocleidomastoid muscle or in the retropharyngeal space.

Pathophysiology Clinically, occult normal-sized nodes with central necrosis or with extracapsular spread can be identified as metastases by CT or MR. Borderline-sized nodes with­ out necrosis or extracapsular spread remain indeterminate by both CT or MR. Size has been a widely used criterion to determine the presence of nodal metastases. Because size data are a continuum, the relative sensitivity and specificity of any size criteria can be adjusted by changes in the threshold dimensions, depending on a clinical setting. Small metastatic nodes can be missed. Conversely, large reactive nodes cannot be differentiated consistently from metastatic nodes. Lucency in lymph nodes by CT can sometimes be seen with normal fally hilus or with fatty replacement of nodal parenchyma following inflammation or irradiation. Post treatment fally density signal is usually peripherally located. Central necrosis also can be seen with lymphoma, papillary thyroid carcinoma. and tuberculous adenitis (Fig. 35-0). The nomenclature of cervical nodes has been complicated by variations among several different nodal classification systems. Cervical nodes were initially catego­ rized by Rouviere into one of 1 0 principal groups based on their precise anatomic location (Table 35- 1 ). Today the most widely accepted classification has been that of the Union I nternational Contre Ie Cancer ( International Union Against Cancer; U lCC) , organized by the American loint Commillee on Cancer (AlCC), wherein cervical lymph nodes are subclassified into 1 2 regions. Head and neck surgeons have increasingly used a more simplified numeric classification based on physical examination, which was established and adopted by the Academy of Otolaryngol­ ogy-Head and Neck Surgery, in 1 99 1 . This simplified classification aims to eliminate misinterpretation due to variation in terminology of cervical nodes as well as to pro­ vide standardization of variable modification of neck dissection. Major cervical nodal groups are classified as level I through level V I . This classification is useful for understanding recent applications of conservative or selective neck dis-

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NECK, THYRO I D, PARATHYROIDI section, in which a part of the cervical nodal groups are removed. Some nodal groups, such as retropharyngeal nodes and intraparotid nodes. are not included in this numeric classification and must be referred to by their U I CC classification.

Imaging Findings [ n the early era of CT, size criteria for nodal metastases were established by inves­ tigating the range of normal variation in size of lymph nodes in subjects without cancer. The initial criterion was that "discrete lymph nodes larger than 1 .5 cm are considered metastases." More recently, size criteria have been reassessed with ex­ tensive pathologic analysis. One study suggested that a minimum (short) axial diameter of 1 1 mm for the j ugulodigastric nodes and 10 mm for all other nodes more accurately reflects the presence of metastases. Sensitivity and specificity of the size criteria in this study were 89% and 73% per specimen and 4 1 .7% and 99.3% per node, respectively. These results indicate that more than one-half of metastatic nodes are smaller than 10 mm. Small metastatic nodes missed by this simple size criterion are seen fre­ quently in a specimen that already contains a large metastatic node. Considering partial voluming effects and the limits of spatial resolution in cross-sectional imag­ ing, there are a substantial number of indeterminate "borderline-size" lymph nodes. Another multicenter study analyzing nodal size in 1 00 neck dissections revealed that 46% of pathologic nodes were less than 1 em and 22% of pathologic nodes were between 1 and 1 .5 cm in diameter. Another pathologic analysis of 750 lymph nodes in patients with head and neck cancer demonstrated that most normal nodes are small (less than 5 mm in diameter) but that metastatic nodes vary in size with­ out having any peak in size distribution. Thus, a significant number of metastatic nodes are missed (false-negative) by simple size criteria. In patients with squamous cell carcinoma, central nodal low attenuation with ring enhancement is likely to represent the presence of necrosis or tumor itself, within metastatic nodes. Tumor cells replacing the medulla of lymph nodes generally show less contrast enhancement than the remaining nodal cortex, resulting in a heteroge­ neous appearance. This finding is highly characteristic of metastatic squamous cell carcinoma. In a large clinical series, 74% of metastatic nodes contained necrosis or cystic areas on pathology, whereas central necrosis was visualized only in 32% of metastatic nodes on imaging studies. Therefore, a homogeneous appearance of lymph nodes on CT or MRI does not exclude the presence of nodal metastasis. Moreover. the incidence of central necrosis in positive nodes was reported to be di­ rectly proportional to the size of the nodes. Even though small metastatic nodes may contain necrotic foci, central necrosis is seen more commonly in larger nodes, which usually are diagnosed as metastases by size criteria alone. Normal fat deposi­ tion. as well as abscess formation in patients with infectious disease, may mimic cen­ tral necrosis of lymph nodes. Spread of the malignancy beyond the lymph node "capsule" has a strong negative impact on patient prognosis. One study reported that the presence of extracapsular spread reduces the 2-year survival of patients by approximately 50% . They con­ cluded that histologic evidence of extracapsular spread is a more sensitive prognos­ tic indicator than is the stage of the head and neck cancer. I ndeed. when extracap­ sular spread is pathologically evident. postoperative radiation therapy is mandatory. CT and MRI findings indicative of extracapsular spread include irregular nodal boundaries and obliteration of the adjacent fat planes, if there has been no recent infection, radiation therapy, or surgical intervention in this region. All of these processes cause irregular nodal borders and obliteration of fat planes.

Management A variety of cervical nodal dissection procedures have been developed for treat­ ment of nodal metastases in head and neck cancer. Radical neck dissection (RND),

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THYROID, PARATH YROID

PEARLS/PITFALLS •

•

•

Large size lymph nodes with cen­ tral necrosis, and extracapsular extension all suggest metastatic involvement. These findings can also be found with infiammatory disease. Care should be taken not to mis­ take metastasis for a benign con­ dition.

involves en bloc removal of aU lymph nodes from level I through level V along with the sternocleidomastoid muscle, internal jugular vein, and spinal accessory nerve. Significant morbidity is associated with RND, uch as shoulder dropping and pain . The idea of a less invasive neck dissection has been developed to minimize func­ tional and cosmetic deficits while maintaining adequate disease control. As more conservative neck dissections have become available without sacrificing prognosis, more accurate and tissue specific presurgical imaging studies are necessary. Radia­ tion therapy is added in selected cases.

Suggested Readings Anzai, Y, Brunberg, J.A., Lufkin, R. Imaging of nodal metastases in the head and neck. Journal of Magnetic Resonance Imaging 7:774-783, 1 997. Don, D., Anzai, Y, Lufkin, R.B., FU, Y S., Calcaterra, T., Lufkin, R. Evaluation of cer­ vical lymph node metastases in squamous cell carcinoma of the head and neck. Laryngoscope 1 05:669-674, 1 995. Som, P. M . Detection of metastases in cervical lymph nodes; CT and MR criteria and differential diagnosis. American Journal of Roentgenology 1 58:961 -969, 1992.

NECK, THY ROID, PARAT H Y ROIDI

Case 36 Clinical Presentation A 58-year-old female presented with a rapidly enlarging neck ma s, progre ive hoar enes, in piratory dyspnea and dysphagia. On phy ical exam a hard woody ma wa palpated in t he right lateral and anterior neck, and was fixed to the sur­ rounding structures. On laryngoscopy right vocal cord paraly i wa noted.

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Radiologic Findings An MRI of the neck shows an asymmetric thyroid gland due to enlargement of the right thyroid lobe, which extends posteriorly into the retrotracheal region. The mar­ gins of this lobe are ill-defined and there is obscurity of the fascial planes with the right sternocleidomastoid muscle, strap muscles, anterior aspect of the right internal jugular vein and prevertebral muscles. The retrotracheal component obliterates the tracheo-esophageal groove and blends with the proximal esophagus, which cannot be separated from this mass. A nodular area of hyperintensity is noted in the medial aspect of the right thyroid lobe, adjacent to the trachea, possibly representing a pre­ existing nodular goiter with high protein content or hemorrhage. The remainder of the right lobe is markedly hypointense compared to the contralateral side. The tra­ chea is deviated anteriorly and to the left, and its tranverse lumen is decreased (Fig. 36-A). The cranio-caudal extent of this lesion is best appreciated in the coronal sec­ tion ( Fig. 36-B). The axial section at the supraglottic level shows right vocal cord paralysis (Fig. 36-C).

Differential Diagnosis: Ill-defined Enlargement of the Thyroid Gland with Extrathyroid Extension •

• •

Infectious/Inflammatory: acute suppurative thyroiditis ( bacterial or fungal), Riedel's thyroiditis (also called invasive fibrous thyroiditis) eoplastic: anaplastic thyroid carcinoma, thyroid lymphoma Iatrogenic: postsurgical changes, postradiation therapy ( radiation induced thyroiditis)

Diagnosis Riedel's thyroiditis

Discussion Thyroiditis is a general term to designate a variety of inflammatory conditions occurring in the thyroid gland. They are classified according to their clinical presen­ tation into acute, sub-acute and chronic forms, and further subclassified according to etiology or pathology. The acute form is usually associated with an infectious process due to bacterial or fungal agents and is also called acute suppurative thy­ roiditis. The subacute category comprises two different conditions: subacute granu­ lomatous thyroiditis (Quervain's thyroiditis), which is thought to result from a viral infection. and subacute lymphocytic thyroiditis, which likely represents an autoim­ mune entity. It differs from Hashimoto's thyroiditis by the fact that it is self-limited and does not tend to cause irreversible hypothyroidism. This entity may be seen in the postpartum period and tends to reccur in subsequent pregnancies. Chronic thy­ roiditis includes Hashimoto's (chronic lymphocytic thyroiditis), an autoimune process that usually results in irreversible hypothyroidism, and Riedel's thyroiditis ( invasive fibrous thyroiditis). With the exception of acute suppurative thyroiditis, all other forms of thyroiditis are limited to the thyroid gland and do not commonly cause vocal cord paralysis. although they can cause compressive symptoms due to gland enlargement. For these reasons they are excluded from the current differential diagnoses. The main clinical and imaging diagnostic mimic of Riedel's thyroiditis is anaplastic thyroid car­ cinoma, which may present in the same age group and with an indistinguishable clinico-radiologic picture. Thyroid lymphoma with a florid reactive desmoplastic reaction. and the fibrosing variant of Hashimoto's thyroiditis may also be very difficult to distinguish from

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N ECK, THYROID, PARATHYROID1 Riedel's thyroiditis pathologicaUy. However, thyroid lymphoma does not tend to have a hard consistency on palpation and Hashimoto's thyroiditis, even the scleros­ ing variant, does not cross the boundaries of the thyroid gland.

Epidemiology Riedel's thyroiditis was first described by Bernhard Riedel in 1883. It is best de­ scribed as a benign fibrotic process with aggressive features, partially or completely involving the thyroid gland and extending beyond the confines of the gland into the soft tissues of the neck. Since first described, multiple terms have been used to refer to this entity such as Riedel's struma, struma thyroiditis and invasive fibrosing thy­ roiditis. It is a rare condition, with an estimated incidence of 0.05% determined in the largest series of thyroid resections reported to date. The female-to-male ratio varies between 3 to 5 : 1 and the age group most commonly affected is between the fourth and seventh decades, with a peak incidence in the late forties. The disease may be uni- or bilateral. There is a well known association with other fibrosclerosing dis­ eases including retroperitoneal and mediastinal fibrosis, orbital pseudotumor (scle­ rosing variety) and Addison's disease.

Pathophysiology The etiology of Riedel's thyroiditis is unknown. There are two main theories, one suggesting an autoimune process, which may be the same or different from the one responsible for Hashimoto's thyroiditis, and the other suggesting a localized or sys­ temic fibrosclerosing inflammatory process. Evidence to support an autoimmune pathophysiology includes the presence of thyroid autoantibodies (anti thyroglobulin and antimicrosomal), the coexistence of histologic features of both Riedel's thy­ roiditis and Hashimoto's in the same gland, and some land, and some isolated re­ ports of other autoimune diseases, such as pernicious anemia associated with Riedel's thyroiditis. Therefore, some experts characterize Riedel's thyroiditis as the end spectrum of chronic lymphocytic thyroiditis. The association with and similari­ ties to other fibrosclerosing diseases support a primary systemic fibrosclerosing

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INECK, THYROID, PARATHYROID process. Recently, an autoimune mechanism. mediated by eosinophils and their highly fibrogenic degranulation products has been proposed as the basis of this sys­ temic fibrosclerosing process. Potential mechanisms for eosinophilic recruitment have been proposed such as adhesion molecules expressed by the vascular en­ dothelium, connective tissue cells and thyroid follicular cells after local stimulation by inflammatory mediators. Macroscopically, Riedel's thyroiditis is characterized by a tony-hard fibrous mass effacing the normal glandular architecture. Microscopically, there is extensive re­ placement of the normal thyroid tissue by paucicellular bands of dense fibrous tis­ sue, with bundles of collagen fibers and a hyalinized matrix invading the capsule and extending into the surrounding tissues. A scarce inflammatory infiltrate may be seen, primarily composed of lymphocytes, plasmocytes and polymorphonuclear (PMN) leukocytes. Recently, attention has been put on the presence of eosinophilic infiltrates in fibrotic regions and in the perivascular spaces. Histologic section of the same patient (Fig. 36-0) shows compressed and atrophic follicles surrounded by dense collagenous bands and scarce inflammatory infiltrate. It is important to note that fibrotic tissue may be found in a variety of other con­ ditions, including other forms of thyroiditis (radiation-induced and Hashimoto·s). nodular goiter, desmoplastic reaction associated with lymphoma, post-trauma. scle­ roderma, amyloid deposition. and neoplastic processes such as undifferentiated thy­ roid carcinoma. Therefore, the presence of three diagnostic criteria is required to make the diag­ nosis of Riedel's thyroiditis. These include the presence of fibrosis of all or part of the thyroid gland, near complete destruction of the involved portion of the gland, with absent or destroyed follicules, and extension beyond the capsule. The major pathologic differences between Riedel's and Hashimoto's disease is the absence of lymphoid germinal centers, the presence of extra thyroid extension. vascuJar changes, and loss of thyroid lobulation in the former. FNA results are often nondiagnostic due to the increased consistency and hypocellularity of the gland. They also may be misleading with a few described cases of false-positives for carcinoma. Surgical biopsy is usually required for accurate di­ agnosis. Clinical Findings

Patients with Riedel's thyroiditis typically present with a rapidly enlarging neck mass, causing compressive symptoms such as hoarseness. inspiratory dyspnea, stri­ dor and dysphagia. Hoarseness may result from direct laryngeal extension. but more commonly results from involvement of the recurrent laryngeal nerve in the tracheo­ esophageal groove. Mediastinal extent may occur and be responsible for venous hy­ pertensive yndromes such as superior vena cava syndrome. The disease may appear first in an otherwise normal gland or a preexisting goiter. Rarely. the gland may be normal in size and show a single nodular lesion. Symptoms and signs of hypothy­ roidism should be sought, although these tend to appear in the later phases when there has been extensive replacement of the thyroid gland parenchyma by fibrotic tissue. On clinical exam, the thyroid gland is diffusely or focally enlarged, with a rock hard consistency and most likely a lobulated surface. Typically, the gland is fixed to surrounding structures, including the skin, and may be impossible to mobilize. Un­ like anaplastic carcinoma, lymphadenopathy is not a feature of Riedel's thyroiditis, an important distinguishing feature. Laryngoscopy may disclose vocal cord paraly­ sis or submucosal laryngeal infiltration. stenosing the laryngeal lumen. Esoph­ agoscopy may demonstrate esophageal stenosis due to extrinsic compression. On clinical history, it is important to ask for symptomatology related to other fi­ brosclerotic processes, such as renal problems, hypertension, visual deficits or jaun­ dice. Laboratory tests may be useful in the differential diagnosis. They should include 1 1 60

NECK, THYROID, PARATHYROIDI erythrocyte sedimentation rate, evaluation of thyroid function and detection of an­ tithyroid antibodies. In some cases, there is an elevated ESR. Euthyroidism or hy­ pothyroidism is the rule and a positive reading for antithyroid antibodies occurs in as many as 67% of cases. Further diagnostic tests should include imaging studies and FNA or surgical biopsy to make a definitive diagnosis and, especially, to exclude malignancy. Imaging Findings

I n addition to providing useful diagnostic information, imaging studies are required to determine the extent of disease and to exclude other sites of systemic involve­ ment. Cross-sectional imaging of the orbits, mediastinum or abdomen may be re­ quired in selected cases. Plain films of the neck and chest may disclose enlargement of the thyroid gland, thyroid calcifications and airway deviation or stenosis. However, cross-sectional imaging better depicts the presence of extrathyroid extension, which is the hallmark of this disease. Ultrasound is the optimal screening test for thyroid disease. Typically, the in­ volved portions of the gland are homogeneously hypoechoeic, but a nodular ap­ pearance, indistinguishable from multinodular goiter, may also be seen. US may also detect extra thyroid fibrotic masses and exclude the presence of lymphadenopathy. Limitations of this modality include the evaluation of mediastinal extent and inva­ sion of air-containing structures such as the larynx, esophagus and trachea. Due to its multiplanar capability, MRI adequately depicts the extent of the lesion and does not necessitate intravenous contrast. The gland may be partially or dif­ fusely enlarged and the involved portions tend to be hypointense on both T l W and T2W images. These are the signal characteristics of fibrotic tissue, although amyloid deposits and hemochromatosis may share these same features on MRI. Addition­ ally MR1 may allow distinction from Hashimoto's thyroiditis, which tends to be markedly hyperintense on T2WI . Less commonly, the gland is heterogeneous in sig­ nal intensity, especially when the disease is superimposed upon a pre-existing goi­ ter. Solitary or multiple nodules may also be present, as in the case presented (Figs. 36-A and 36-8). Extracapsular extension manifests as an irregularity of the margins of the gland, obscurity of the fascial planes, and obvious invasion of the surround­ ing structures. When the isthmus of the gland is involved, infiltration of the strap muscles and skin may be seen. Other structures frequently invaded include the ster­ nocleidomastoid muscle, carotid space, tracheoesophageal groove and postcricoid and retropharyngeal regions. Airway deviation and stenosis is a frequent finding, as well as indistinctness of the esophagus. Vocal cord paralysis, when present, manifests as a paramedian vocal cord, ipsilateral anteromedial deviation of the aryepiglottic fold and enlargement of the pyriform sinus (Fig. 36-C). The presence of cervical lymphadenopathy favors malignancy, most likely anaplastic thyroid carcinoma. As recurrence is seen in a high percentage of cases, imaging follow up is usually re­ quired. CT requires intravenous contrast administration and the only advantage over MRI is the detection of dystrophic calcification, an inconsistent and nonspecific finding in Riedel"s thyroiditis. Scintigraphic studies with Tc pertechnetate show non­ specific decreased activity in the affected portions of the gland. Management

Surgery may be required to alleviate compressive symptoms and for cosmetic rea­ sons, or to make the definitive diagnosis when the FNA is nondiagnostic or doubt­ ful. Tracheostomy may be required for life threatening airway compromise, includ­ ing cases of bilateral vocal cord paralysis. When malignancy is excluded, surgery should be limited, to avoid complications resulting (rom attempted dissection of the invasive fibrotic tissue from surrounding structures. Potential complications include

E K, TH YROID, PA RATHY ROIDI

Case 37 Clinical Presentation A 72-year-old male with a long tanding anterior neck mas pre ented with recent onset of dysphagia, hoar ene s and stridor.

A

B Radiologic Findings Coronal Tl WI (Fig. 37-A) and axial T2Wl (Fig. 37-B) of the neck show multinodu­ lar, diffuse enlargement of the thyroid gland extending into the superior and ante-

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ECK, THYROID, PARATHYROID rior mediastinum and compressing and displacing the trachea and esophagus. TIlere is a dominant nodule in the left thyroid lobe extending posteriorly into the left tracheo-esophageal groove. The signal characteristics of these nodules are heteroge­ neous, which is consistent with the presence of cystic degeneration, calcification and hemorrhage. The gland is lobulated in contour, but shows well-defined margins with no evidence of invasion of the adjacent neck structures. No lymphadenopathy is apparent.

Differential Diagnosis: Multinodular Thyroid Gland Enlargement • • • • • • •

Multinodular goiter Thyroiditis (subacute, Hashimoto's, Quervain's, post-partum) Primary or secondary lymphoma Metastatic disease Undifferentiated/anaplastic carcinoma Thyroid sarcoma Graves disease

Diagnosis Multinodular goiter

Discussion Epidemiology

Goiter is a nonspecific term meaning diffuse enlargement of the thyroid gland, which may be seen in a large variety of pathologic processes affecting the thyroid gland. However, it is commonly used as a synonym [or nontoxic or euthyroid goiter. Endemic goiter, defined as goiter in at least 10% of the population, is the most common cause of goiter worldwide. Seventy five per cent of cases occur in third world countries, which lack iodine prophylaxis, and the remainder in mountainous regions of Europe and Asia. In the United States, endemic goiter is virtually non­ existent and most cases of goiter are termed sporadic goiters. The incidence of goiter in iodine-replete populations has been estimated between 4 and 6% . Non-endemic goiter is more common in women and in the elderly. The incidence of malignant de­ generation varies from I to 4% and increases with age and prior exposure to radiation. Pathophysiology

The pathophysiologic mechanism common to all causes of goiter is an excessive stinlUlation of the epithelial follicular cells leading either to excessive replication and formation of hyperplastic [ollicules, or to hyperfunction with excessive produc­ tion and accumulation o[ colloid material. I n endemic goiter, the gland hypertro­ phies in an attempt to produce more thyroid hormone with less available iodine. Most goitrogens act through the hypothalamic-hypophyseal loop, producing an increase in thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH). Another common mechanism is the stimulation by thyroid antibodies that act directly on the TSH receptors in the follicular cells such as long acting t h yroid stimulator (LATS) in Graves' disease. These thyroid antibodies can also damage the thyroid cells as seen in HashinlOto's thyroiditis. Goiter may also result from congenital enzymatic deficiencies impairing iodine uptake, or organification, or be part o[ congenital syndromes such as Pan­ dred's syndrome (congenital deafness and goiter). Common goitrogens include iodine rich foods (soy beans, sea weeds), iodine containing drugs (amiodarone, con­ trast material, antiseptics), and drugs containing salts, which compete with iodine for thyroid absortion (lithium). The typical progression of goiter is from diffuse enlargement of the thyroid gland to increasing nodularity. 11 64

NECK, THYROID, PARATHYROIDI Pathologically, goiter is characterized by follicular hypertrophy and hyperplasia with accumulation of colloid, resulting in cystic degeneration. When the expanding gland outgrows the blood supply, follicular necrosis and hemorrhage may occur. Dystrophic calcification and psammous calcification of stagnant colloid material are also typical features of goiter. Nodularity results from the presence of small subsets of follicular cells with abnormal growth potential at different sites through­ out the gland. These autonomous replicating follicular cells are thought to be rem­ nants of fetal thyroid tissue or to result from somatic mutations resulting in cell lines with a preferential growth advantage accounting for the formation of a few well-encapsulated nodules. Mutations in the TSH receptor gene account for the development of hyperfunctioning adenomas. It should be stressed that autonomous growth and autonomous function are separate features of follicular cells further contributing to the heterogeneity of multinodular goiter. Depending on its mor­ phologic and functional characteristics, goiter is classified into diffuse or nodular and euthyroid, hypothyroid or hyperthyroid respectively. Cytologically, it is impossible to separate follicular adenomas from carcinomas. 1l1erefore, the general term "follicular tumor" is commonly used. Malignancy can only be diagnosed in the presence of vascular or capsular invasion which requires evaluation of the histologic specimen. Clinical Findings

Seventy five percent of patients who have a goiter present with a chronic asympto­ matic anterior neck mass and seek medical attention for cosmetic reasons. Most commonly, goiters are detected by physicians during routine physical examination. A small percentage present with compressive symptoms, symptoms of thyroid dys­ function (either hypo- or hyperthyroidism) or sudden growth associated with pain. Compressive symptoms include dyspnea, stridor, dysphagia and hoarseness and are seen more often in patients with substernal or intrathoracic goiter. These patients may rarely present with superior vena cava syndrome and rupture of esophageal varices. Although vocal cord paralysis usually signals the presence of malignancy, it may occasionally result from benign compression of the recurrent laryngeal nerve when the goiter grows posteriorly and medially into the tracheo-esophageal groove. Even though 80% of patients with goiter are euthyroid at presentation, subclinical hypo- or hyperthyroidism may be present and therefore thyroid function tests should be performed in the initial evaluation. Sudden enlargement and pain are usually associated with hemorrhage into a follicular cyst, but also may signal malig­ nant transformation. The clinical history should address not only the possible causes of goiter (recent viral infection, pregnancy or recent delivery, autoimune disorders or exposure to goitrogens) but also the risk of malignancy (rate of growth, family history of thyroid cancer, presence of MEN syndromes, etc). The nationality and res­ idence of each patient should be ascertained to rule out the possibility of iodine deficiency. On physical exam the volume, mobility, and consistency of the gland, and the presence of any dominant nodules or cervical and supraclavicular lym­ phadenopathy should be evaluated.1l1e volume of the gland should be recorded in the patient's clinical chart to allow for future comparison and determine the success of therapy. Auscultation of the thyroid gland may detect the presence of a bruit, in­ dicating increased vascularity, typical of Graves' disease. Direct or indirect laryn­ goscopy also should be performed to evaluate vocal cord mobility. Examination of other major organs and systems (particularly the cardiovascular system, skin and eyes) is important to determine the presence of clinical thyroid dysfunction. Bio­ chemical analysis including determination of blood levels of TSH, free triiodothy­ ronine (T3) and tetraiodothyronine (T4), and antithyroid antibodies may be re­ quired. After an adequate history is taken and physical examination and biochemical testing are performed, most patients do not require further diagnostic tests. When the goiter is multinodular at palpation, FNA of any dominant or en­ larging nodules is advised to exclude malignancy.

ECK, THYROI D, PARATHYROID Imaging Findings

Imaging of a goiter has five major goals: ( 1 ) to provide an accurate assessment of glandular volume and morphology; (2) to evaluate compression of adjacent struc­ tures including the airway; (3) to determine the functional status of clinically suspi­ cious nodules; (4) to detect imaging features suggestive of malignant degeneration; and (5) to direct FNA. However, the cost-effectiveness of imaging and the preferred modalities for addressing these problems are the subject of controversy. Surgical candidates should have a cross sectional imaging study to determine the anatomy of the gland and its relationship to adjacent structures. MRI is preferred over CT as it does not involve ionizing radiation, does not require contrast administration, and al­ lows for multiplanar evaluation. The use of iodine based contrast materials on CT not only may precipitate a hyperthyroid crisis but it will interfere with subsequent scintigraphic studies, laboratory tests and radioiodine therapy. TIle only advantage of CT is better sensitivity in detection of thyroid calcifications that, although non­ specific, may be of diagnostic value. M R I gives optimal delineation of the size and configuration of the gland. TIle coronal and sagittal images are particularly helpful in assessing the cranio-caudal extent of the gland, detecting the presence of any me­ diastinal components (plunging goiter) and assessing the status of the airway and esophagus. The use of scintigraphic studies to evaluate the functional status of thyroid nod­ ules is questionable as FNAB is more accurate than scintigraphy in the assessment of thyroid nodules. Scintigraphic studies may be performed with 1 1 23 or Tc99m. The former is used to evaluate glandular function whereas the latter is used to evaluate glandular morphology. According to the amount of radiotracer uptake, nodules may be classified as hot (hyperfunctioning), warm (normally functioning), or cold (hy­ pofunctioning). The importance of this classification lies in the fact that 10 to 25%

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NECK, THYROID, PARATHYROIDI

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of cold nodules are malignant whereas the risk of malignancy in warm or hot nod­ ules is 9% , and I to 4% , respectively. Scintigraphy also may be helpful in patients with hyperthyroid goiter as it differentiates Graves' disease (characterized by a dif­ fuse increase in iodine uptake), toxic multinodular goiter, (presenting with multiple areas of increased uptake), and Plummer's disease (manifesting as a single toxic nodule causing near total suppression of the remainder of the thyroid gland). How­ ever, scintigraphy shows a lot of overlap between benign and malignant nodules and is not sensitive to nodular lesions that are smaller than 1 cm. Ultrasound is the optimal imaging modality for evaluation of the thyroid gland. I t is widely available, rapid, and inexpensive. Ultrasound is very sensitive in the de­ tection of focal thyroid lesions and may show additional lesions in a patient with a single thyroid nodule on palpation. 11 is also very accurate in distinguishing solid and cystic lesions and can provide guidance for FNAs of any suspicious nonpalpa­ ble lesions. Although early studies suggested a higher risk of malignancy in solitary thyroid nodules, most recent series do not confirm these data. [n patients with non­ diagnostic "blind" FNAs, ultrasound may assist in directing the needle to solid com­ ponents of the lesion and increase diagnostic accuracy. The major drawback of US is an inability to evaluate substernal goiters, requiring further assessment with cross­ sectional imaging. Plain films of the chest or soft tissues of the neck may give a gross evaluation of the extent of the gland and detect airway compromise. The imaging features of a goiter include an enlarged heterogeneous thyroid gland with single or multiple nod­ ules and areas of cystic degeneration, hemorrhage and calcification. A lateral plain film of the soft tissues of the neck in a patient with papillary carcinoma arising within a multinodular goiter, (Fig. 37-C) shows a large soft tissue mass in the ante­ rior neck extending inferiorly into the mediastinum. This mass displaces the cervi­ cal trachea posteriorly and decreases the anteroposterior diameter of the trachea. A large nodular area with multiple punctiform calcifications is noted bulging anteri­ orly in the soft tissues of the anterior neck. Larger, coarse calcifications are also noted projecting posteriorly to this mass. Cystic lesions may show fluid-fluid levels due to intracystic hemorrhage or debris. A longitudinal section of a thyroid ultrasound in a patient with colloid goiter (Fig. 37-D) demonstrates a large predominantly cystic nodule in the inferior aspect of the right thyroid lobe with some posterior acoustic enhancement. Echogenic material is seen layering in the dependent portion of the lesion, probably representing debris or hemorrhage. The margins of the nodule are well defined. A transverse section of the right thyroid lobe in another patient (Fig. 37-E) shows an US-guided FNA of a dominant solid nodule in a multinodular goiter that had recently increased in size. The small hyperechoic foci with acoustic shadowing represent calcification. The margins of the nodule are well defined, surrounded by a hypoechoic halo. The mar-

1 NECK, THYROID, PARATHYROID PEARLS/PITFALLS A goiter can presen t as a long­ standing, asymptomatic anterior neck mass.

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The imaging features of a goiter include a diffuse, heterogeneous enlargement of the thyroid gland with mUltiple nodules and areas of cystic degeneration, calcifica­ tion or hemorrhage. Possible mediastinal extension causing compressive symptoms can be seen in a small percentage of patients. FNA studies should be per­ formed in patients who have dominant or rapidly enlarging nodules.. A clinician shouLd take care not to fail to recognize a malignant nodule within a goiter. A clinician shouLd take care not to fail to evaluate the full extent of the gland.

It's important not to mistake other diffuse thyroid processes such as thyroiditis, thyroid lym­ phoma or anaplastic carcinoma for goiter.

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gins of the gland are usually lobulated but well defined with no evidence of invasion of adjacent structures or regional lymphadenopathy. Graves' disease manifests as an enlarged thyroid gland. Sonographically, the gland shows lobulated margins, a dif­ fusely hypoechoic texture and increased vascularity better appreciated on Doppler US (thyroid inferno). Differential diagnosis of a goiter includes several other lesions that present with an enlarged heterogeneous gland. These include several forms of thyroiditis, anaplastic thyroid cancer, lymphoma and metastatic thyroid disease. In the acute inflammatory phase Hashimoto's thyroiditis and Quervain's thyriditis may be par­ ticularly difficult to differentiate from a goiter, requiring adequate clinical and biochemical correlation. Management

Therapy of a goiter should be directed to its cause. Therefore, it may include dietary iodine supplements, elimination of goitrogens, anti-infammatory drugs and anti­ thyroid drugs. Treatment should also address problems associated with hyper­ thyroidism including management of hypertension. arrythmia and ophthalmologic problems. Most patients with euthyroid goiters can be managed conservatively with clinical monitoring of the volume of the gland. However, surgical treatment may be re­ quired for cosmesis, alleviation of compressive symptoms or malignant degenera­ tion. Decrease in glandular volume may be achieved with antithyroid drugs such as levothyroxin, radioiodine or surgery. US guided ethanol ablation of hyperfunction­ ing thyroid nodules has also been used with high success rates.

Suggested Readings Daniels, G.H. Thyroid nodules and noduJar thyroids: a clinical overview. Compre­ 1996 Apr. Dworkin, H.J., Meier, D.A., Kaplan, M. Advances in the management of patients with thyroid disease. Seminars in Nuclear Medicine 25(3):205-20, 1 995 Jul. Hurley, D.L., Gharib, H. Evaluation and management of multinodular goiter. 010laryngologic Clinics of North America, 1 996 Aug, 29(4):527-40. Naik, K.S., Bury, R.F. l maging the thyroid. Clinical Radiology 53(9):630-9, 1998 Sep. Petrone, I.R. A primary care approach to the adult patient with nodular thyroid dis­ ease. Archives of Family Medicine 5(2):92-100, 1 996 Feb. Singh, B., Lucente, F.E., Shaha, A.R. Substernal goiter: a clinical review. American Journal of Otolaryngology 1 5(6):409-16, 1994 Nov-Dec. hensive Therapy 22(4):239-50,

N ECK,

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Case 38 Clinical Presentation A 76-year-old female with a long history of neck swelling reported a rapidly en­ larging right neck mass.

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Radiologic Findings An axial CT through the level of the cricoid ring (Fig. 38-A) shows a large inhomo­ geneous mass within the right lobe of the thyroid gland. This mass is predominantly

1 NECK, THYROID, PARATHYROID hypodense and shows a gross calcification. TIle margins of the gland are indistinct with no cleavage plane between the mass and the strap muscles. Extension into the postcricoid region also is seen with leftward deviation of the in(raglottic larynx and cervical esophagus. Laterally, the mass surrounds and distorts the internal jugular vein, which is otherwise patent. An axial view at the level of the proximal trachea (Fig. 38-B) shows inhomogeneity of both lobes of the thyroid gland, an annular cal­ cification in the right lobe, and two hypodense lymph nodes in the right internal jugular chain. An axial section at the level of the thoracic inlet (Fig. 38-C) clearly shows the strap muscle infiltration. An axial section at the level of the glottis (Fig. 38 D) demonstrates right vocal cord paralysis, with the right vocal cord paramedian in position and a patulous piriform sinus. There is no evidence of cartilaginous in­ vasion. -

Differential Diagnosis: An Aggressive­ looking Thyroid Mass • • •

Infection: Acute suppurative thyroiditis Inflammatory: Reidel's thyroiditis Malignant tumors: anaplastic carcinoma, lymphoma, sarcoma, squamous cell car­ cinoma, metastasis

D iagnosis Anaplastic thyroid carcinoma

D iscussion TIle differential diagnoses of an enlarged thyroid gland include diffuse and multin­ odular goiters, infectious and inflammatory thyroiditis and benign and malignant tumors (Table 38- 1 ). Rapidly enlarging thyroid masses are usually associated with signs of compression and pain, and are due to acute infection/inflammation (acute thyroiditis), hemorrhage in a benign or malignant lesion, or aggressive malignancies such as anaplastic carcinoma or lymphoma. The presence of aggressive features in a thyroid mass, as seen in this case, suggests malignancy, one exception being Reidel's thyroiditis, which is a benign condition with malignant features. Clinically aggressive lesions manifest rapid growth, hoarseness, dysphagia and dyspnea. Characteristic imaging features of these lesions include ill-defined margins, invasion of adjacent structures with loss of cleavage planes between muscles, airway and the carotid sheath, vocal cord paralysis and associated adenopathy. A variety of histologic types are seen with thyroid malignancy including. in order of decreasing frequency, papillary, follicular, medullary, anaplastic, lymphoma, epi­ dermoid, sarcoma and metastasis. Although these cannot be differentiated clinically or on the basis of imaging alone, certain features can suggest the correct diagnosis. In the present case, the patient's age (seventh decade), previous history of long standing goiter, rapid growth and the presence of a ill-defined mass with aggressive features in a background of an heterogeneous, enlarged gland and nodal metastasis point to anaplastic carcinoma. Other thyroid carcinomas should be considered in the differential diagnosis although most tend to occur in younger age groups. Follicular tumor also can be associated with goiter and is usually unifocal. Nodal involvement is rare but the remaining features are indistinguishable from the other forms of malignancy. Papillary carcinoma occurs most frequently in the fifth decade and generally pre­ sents as a unifocal lesion with well- or ill-defined borders (40 and 60% of cases re­ spectively). This lesion can show cystic degeneration, hemorrhage and calcification. Nodal spread is very common and can display the same features as the primary tumor. Medullary carcinoma usually presents with benign features and most are sus­ pected clinically due to an elevated calcitonin level. These tumors are easily distin1 .129

NECK, THYROID, PARATHYROIDI guished from the other differentiated thyroid cancers on the basis of their lack of iodine uptake on scintigraphic studies. Lymphoma can present as a diffusely enlarged gland, mUltiple modules or, more commonly, as a solitary mass (80% of cases). It also may behave as an aggressive/ infiltrative mass and can have associated adenopathy. A previous history of Hashimoto's thyroiditis is the rule, and the presence of necrosis or calcification is rare (less than 7%). Sarcomas are rare tumors i n the thyroid gland and are not associated with a prior history of goiter. The most common variants are angiosarcoma and fibrosarcoma. Imaging findings do not allow distinction from other tumors. Metastases to the thyroid are usually not clinically apparent and are a late event in a patient with known history of cancer. The most frequent presentation is multi­ ple discrete lesions and the most common tumors that metastasize to the thyroid are breast, lung, renal cell carcinoma and melanoma. Reidel's thyroiditis is a rare chronic inflammatory condition that is characterized by extensive fibrosis of the gland infiltrating the capsule and adjacent structures. The clinical presentation can be similar to that of a malignant condition and imaging fea­ tures can also be misleading. Enlarged nodes are not usually present. M RI can be helpful in differentiating this condition from malignancy due to the typical signal intensity of fibrous tissue (hypointense on T1 W and TIW images). Acute thyroiditis is usually clinically apparent with signs and symptoms of in­ flammation being prominent features. It is usually unilateral, limited to one thyroid lobe. When there is abscess formation and rupture, indistinctness of the adjacent structures and nodal involvement can be confused with malignancy. Anaplastic carcinoma of the thyroid can be indistinguishable from an exten­ sive esophageal carcinoma in a patient presenting with dysphagia. This is often the case when the bulk of the tumor grows posteriorly and involves the cervical esophagus. Epidemiology

Anaplastic thyroid carcinoma is a rare tumor ( 1 to 10% of all thyroid malignancies) and is one of the most lethal tumors of the head and neck region. I n areas of en­ demic goiter the incidence is considerably higher with some series reporting an i ncidence of 30% . I n addition, patients with longstanding goiter have an increased susceptibility to this tumor. Coexistence with other histologic variants, particularly with follicular and papillary tumors, suggest that anaplastic carcinoma can result from dedifferentiation of these well-differentiated tumor types. It tends to occur in older patients than other thyroid gland tumors and a slight female predominance is consistently reported in large series. Association with radiation exposure has never been proven. Clinical Findings

The most common and specific clinical presentation is a rapidly growing thyroid mass i n a patient with previous stable thyroid gland enlargement. Other symptoms such as dyspnea, dysphagia and hoarseness are equally frequent in patients with simple goiter or other thyroid masses, both benign and malignant. Weight loss is a frequent associated symptom. On physical examination the most frequent finding, aside from the neck mass, is vocal cord paralysis. Mediastinal extension can also be responsible for superior vena cava syndrome. I maging Findings

A thyroid mass or enlargement should initially be assessed by ultrasound. Ultra­ sound delineates the gland's morphology, identifies focal lesions and their charac­ teristics, detects enlarged nodes, and allows assessment of patency of the neck ves-

I NECK, THYROID, PARATHYROID sels using Doppler mode. Anaplastic carcinomas usually present as ill-defined hypoechoic masses within an inhomogeneous and enlarged gland. CT or M R I should be used to determine invasion of adjacent structures, medi­ astinal extension and to further characterize enlarged lymph nodes looking for evidence of necrosis, calcification and extra-capsular invasion. CT easily detects cal­ cifications which are common in this tumor. Internal areas of necrosis are commonly seen and present as ill-defined regions of hypodensity on CT and areas of hy­ pointensity on T1 W and hyperintensity on T2W M R images. The pattern of spread is easily recognized with both imaging techniques. Initially, there is capsular invasion with infiltration of the extraglandular fat, followed by involvement of the strap mus­ cles and sternocleidomastoid muscle and carotid sheath. Invasion of the larynx and trachea are not uncommon and mediastinal extension is also a possibility. On M RI there are no specific signal characteristics to suggest the diagnosis. Anaplastic tumors present as masses hypointense on Tl and hyperintense on T2W images and show no specific pattern of enhancement. However, MRI can be useful in distinguishing anaplastic carcinoma from Reidel's thyroiditis and lymphoma. In Reidel's, fibrosis of the gland makes it hypointense on both T1 and T2W images. The high cellularity of lymphoma makes it less hyperintense on T2W images than other thyroid malignancies. Recent studies using MRI with gadolinium enhancement showed that another distinguishing feature of primary thyroid lymphoma when compared to other thyroid tumors is poor enhancement. Scintigraphic studies show no evidence of radioactive iodine uptake which is not specific for this tumor. Although clinical and imaging features can suggest the diagnosis of anaplastic tumor, histologic confirmation is mandatory. Tissue can be obtained from FNAB or from open biopsy. FNAB is a safe procedure with high accuracy rates and should be preferred to open biopsy whenever surgery is not considered the treatment of choice. Several samples should be obtained, preferably with imaging guidance to avoid areas of necrosis or hemorrhage. Manage ment

The treatment and prognosis of thyroid cancers depend on the extent of the disease. The staging systems utilized for well differentiated tumors are not very helpful in anaplastic carcinoma that usually presents with more aggressive features. Prognos­ tic factors that proved significant in anaplastic carcinoma include gender, tumor size and complete surgical resection. Female gender and tumor size less than 6 cm are associated with a better prognosis. Tumors that are amenable to complete surgical resection also carry a better outcome. Although there is no consensus as to optimal therapy for this type of tumor, ag­ gressive treatment seems to be associated with a slightly better mean survival rate. Surgery should be offered to all patients amenable to this type of therapy and should be used as palliation of respiratory and upper digestive symptoms. Com­ bined treatments with chemotherapy and hyperfractionated radiotherapy with or without debulking surgery also have a role in those patients with extensive locally invasive lesions. The mean survival rate for this tumor varies between 4 and 1 2 months and the 5 year survival rale ranges from 1 to 7 . 1 'Yo . Death usually results from respiratory failure or inanition because of invasion of the tumor into the up­ per aerodigestive tract or pulmonary metastasis.

Suggested Readings Brooke, P.K., Hameed, M., Zakowski, M.E Fine-needle aspiration of anaplastic thy­ roid carcinoma with varied cytologic and histologic patterns: a case report. Diag­ nostic Cytopathology 1 1 ( 1 ) :60-3, 1994. Greval, R.S., Goyal, S.c., Goyal, R. Chemotherapy and combination therapy in anaplastic thyroid carcinoma. indian Journal of Medical Sciences 47( 1 1 ):269-71 , 1993 Nov.

NECK, THYROID, PARATHYROIDI Hadar, T., Mor, c., Shvero, 1., Levy, R., Segal, K. Anaplastic carcinoma of the thyroid. European Journal of Surgical Oncology 1 9(6):5 1 1 -6, 1993 Dec. Levendag, P.c., De Porre, P.M., van Putten, W.L. Anaplastic carcinoma of the thy­ roid gland treated by radiation therapy. International Journal of Radiation Oncol­ ogy, Biology, Physics 26(1 ): 1 25-8, 1 993 Apr 30. Mathai, v., I dikula, 1., Fenn, A.S., Nair, A. Do long-standing nodular goitres result in malignancies? Australian and New Zealand Journal of Surgery 64(3):180-2, 1 994 Mar. Melliere, 0.1., Ben Yahia, N.E., Becquemin, 1.P., Lange, F., Boulahdour, H. Thyroid carcinoma with tracheal or esophageal involvement: limited or maximal surgery? Surgery 1 13(2):166-72, 1993 Feb. Nakahara, H., Noguchi, S., Murakami, N., et al. Gadolinium enhanced M R imaging of thyroid and parathyroid masses. Radiology 202(3):765-72, 1 997 Mar. Peters, 1., O'Reilly, S., Barragry, 1.M. Anaplastic carcinoma of the thyroid following radio-iodine therapy. Irish Journal of Medical Science 1 62(1 ):3-4, 1 993 Jan. Russell, P., Lean, c.L., Delbridge, L., May, G.L., Dowd, S., Mountford, C.E. Proton magnetic resonance and human thyroid neoplasia. I : Discrimination between be­ nign and malignant neoplasms. A merican Journal of Medicine 96(4):383-8, 1 994 Apr. Salabe, G.B. Aetiology of thyroid cancer: an epidemiological overview. Thyroidol­ ogy 6(1):1 1-9, 1 994 Apr. Staunton, M.D. Thyroid cancer: a multivariate analysis on influence of treatment on long-term survival. European Journal of Surgical Oncology 20(6):613-21, 1 994 Dec. Tan, R.K., Finley, R.K. 3rd., Driscoll, D., Bakamjian, v., Hicks, w.L. Jr., Shedd, D.P Anaplastic carcinoma of the thyroid: a 24-year experience. Head and Neck 17(1):41-7, discussion 47-8, 1 995 Jan-Feb. Tennvall, 1., Lundell, G., Hallquist, A., Wahlberg, P. , Wallin, G., TibbLin, S. Combined doxorubicin, hyperfractionated radiotherapy, and surgery in anaplastic thyroid car­ cinoma. Report on two protocols. The Swedish Anaplastic Thyroid Cancer Group. Cancer 74(4): 1348-54, 1 994 Aug 15.

I N ECK, THYROID, PARATHYROID

Case 39 Clinical Presentation A 47-year-old female presented with fatigue, weakness and diffuse bone pain. Bio­ chemical analysis showed hypercalcemia.

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Radiologic Findings Axial T1 W (Fig. 39-A) and TZW (Fig. 39-B) coronal (Fig. 39-C) poslconlrasl TJ W sections show a small, well-circumscribed, homogeneously enhancing lesion in the left tracheo-esophageal groove. (Case courtesy of Dr. Fernando Torrinha.)

NECK, THYROID, PARATHYROIDI

Differential Diagnosis: D iscreet Mass in the Tracheosophegeal Groove • • • •

Exophytic thyroid nodule Lymphadenopathy Parathyroid adenoma/ carcinoma/ cyst Nerve sheath tumor (cervical roots/ vagus nerve)

Diagnosis Parathyroid adenoma

Discussion Epidemiology

Primary hyperparathyroidism has a prevalence of 0.037% , with 100,000 new cases diagnosed annually in the United States. The disease is more prevalent in post­ menopausal women with a peak incidence between the fifth and sixth decades. Patients with MEN syndrome tend to present earlier. Clinical Findings

Most cases of primary hyperparathyroidism are diagnosed in asymptomatic pa­ tients. When symptoms occur, the most common complaints are fatigue, bone pain, and recurrent renal stones. The classic association of "stones" (renal calculi), "groans" (abdominal cramps), "bones" (osteopenia and arthritides), and "moans" (psychiatric disturbances) is rarely seen. Although hypercalcemic crisis and compression symptoms may occur with large parathyroid adenomas, paticularly when they undergo hemorrhage or necrose, they are more commonly associated with parathyroid carcinoma. Hoarseness, dyspnea, stridor and dysphagia are the most common symptoms, resulting from compression of adjacent structures. Pathophysiology

Primary hyperparathyroidism results from increased secretion of parathyroid hor­ mone (PTH) and subsequent hypercalcemia. Parathyroid adenoma acounts for most of the cases of primary hyperparathyroidism (80 to 85% ), followed by parathy­ roid hyperplasia (15%), parathyroid cysts « 5%), and parathyroid carcinoma « 1 % ). Multiple adenomas are present in 2 to 3% of cases. Ectopic adenomas are not uncommon, representing 10% of all cases. To localize the lesion, it is important to know the anatomy and embryology of the parathyroid glands. Normally, four parathyroid glands are present in each individual (two superior and two inferior) but, supranumerary glands, up to six in number, are seen in 13% of people. The superior parathyroids originate from the endoderm of the fourth pharyngeal pouch along with the thyroid gland. Because their descent to the normal position is minimal and intimately related to the thyroid gland, their position behind the upper lower third of the thyroid is relatively constant with only 2% of ectopic locations. These include ectopic locations at or above the superior thyroid pole, posterior and medially in the retropharyngeal region and below the inferior thyroid artery. Mediastinal locations are rare and usually in the posterior mediastinum. The inferior parathyroid glands originate from the 3rd pharyngeal pouch in close relationship to the thymic anlage. Because they migrate a long distance along with the thymus, ectopic locations are more frequent (50% ). The most common anatomic location for the inferior parathyroid glands is lateral to the lower pole of the thy-

E K, T H Y RO I D. PARATHY R O I D roid. Ectopic location may be anywhere from the angle of the mandible to the low anterior media tinum. I ntrathyroid and intrathymic locations are een in 2% of cases. Histologically, parathyroid adenoma are rather monomorphic, compo ed of chief cells and oxyphil cells embedded within fibrou and adipose ti ue.

Imaging Findings The optimal imaging modality [or asse sment of primary hyperparathyroidism, and whether imaging is necc ary in all patients, are topic of debale. Because the diag­ nosis is u ually made on the basis of clinical and biochemical dala, Ihe primary role of imaging i to localize the di ease pre-operatively, and detect any other head and neck pathology that may be t reated simultaneou ly. However. becau c most parathyroid adenomas are peri thyroidal in location, surgical treatment al ne with­ out preoperative localization i ucces ful in 70 to 90% . depending on the erie , and experience of the surgical team. Although pre-operative imaging improves this uc­ ce s rate to 97%, opponent of thi approach argue that it doc not significantly change surgical morbidity or operative time. I n addition. some studie suggest that the co t of preoperative imaging outweighs its benefits. Arguments to support pre­ operative imaging include the need for only unilateral cervicotOmy when a single adenoma is delected, identification of ectOpic adenomas. and reduction in operating r om time. Therefore. the approach should be tailored to each particular in titution depending on the experience of bOlh the head and neck surgeon and radiologi I , and availability of imaging modalities. Longitudinal U of the neck i n a patient wilh

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parathyroid adenoma (Fig. 39-0; courtesy of Dr. Fernando Torrinha) shows a fairly homogeneous, hypoechoic mass posterior to the right thyroid lobe. The mass is oblong and shows increased through transmission. Two small hypoechoic lesions are noted in the inferior third of the right thyroid lobe. The options for imaging the parathyroid glands are multiple and include US, CT, M R I and nuclear medicine stidies. Studies comparing the accuracy of these imaging modalities alone and in several different combinations show conflicting results in different series. Far from being consensual, general guidelines suggest the use of a functional study (parathyroid scintigraphy) in association with an anatomic study (cross-sectional imaging). In the newly diagnosed patient, US should be used as the screening modality because it is the least expensive and most widely available of all modalities, followed by MRI, when the results are negative or doubtful. The ap­ proach for residual and recurrent hyperparathyroidism includes M R I and parathy­ roid scintigraphy. For difficult, conflicting cases intraoperative US and invasive stud­ ies such as angiography and venous sampling for PTH levels, are recommended. On US, using a linear array 7.5 to 10 Mhz transducer, parathyroid adenomas man­ ifest as round or oblong well circumscribed lesions, peri thyroidal in location. Arathyroid adenomas are usually small, ranging from a few millimeters to 2 cm in size, and homogeneously hypoechoic due to their hypercellularity and cellular monomorphism. Increased through-transmission of the US beam is common due to the lack of acoustic interfaces. Limitations of this modality include inability to de­ tect ectopic adenomas in the mediastinum or near the airway or osseous structures, and low accuracy in differentiating adenomas from exophytic thyroid nodules and cervical lymphadenopathy. The use of color Doppler may be useful in distinguishing parathyroid adenomas from thyroid nodules, because the former lack Doppler sig­ nal. In addition, the presence of a bean-shaped lesion with a central area of hyper­ echogenicity is more likely to be a lymph node. CT has the advantage of allowing simultaneous imaging of the neck and the me­ diastinum and allows for the detection of most ectopic adenomas. Parathyroid ade­ nomas present as well-margined lesions, hypodense to the thyroid gland, enhancing in 25% of cases. Limitations of CT include the need for intravenous contrast ad­ ministration to differentiate parathyroid adenomas from adjacent vessels, artifacts from breathing and swallowing, and beam hardening artifacts, particularly from the shoulder. The inexperienced radiologist may also be confused by tortuous vessels or a tortuous esophagus. Differentiation between adenoma and enlarged lymph nodes may be imposible. MRI is the most accurate of the cross-sectional modalities in detecting eutopic or ectopic parathyroid adenomas. These lesions are of intermediate signal intensity on Tl WI, hyperintense on TIWI and show intense, homogeneous enhancement in most cases. However, highly cellular lesions may be of higher signal intensity on Tl WI and show intermediate signal intensity on TIWI due to a low water content. The most common M R l pitfall is confusion with an enlarged lymph node. Parathyroid adenomas can be heterogeneous with areas of cystic degeneration and hemorrhage, causing further confusion with exophytic thyroid lesions. Calciii­ cation of a parathyroid adenoma is, however, uncommon. Concomitant thyroid le­ sions are seen in 41 % of patients diagnosed with primary hyperparathyroidism. Ill­ defined margins, invasion of adjacent structures and the presence of cervical lymphadenopathy are all suggestive of malignancy. The diagnosis of parathyroid hyperplasia is based solely on enlargement of the parathyroid glands, and the imaging diagnosis is difficult. Normal parathyroid glands usually measure 5 x 3 x 1 mm. When parathyroid hyperplasia is present, MEN syndrome should be considered as it is the underlying cause in 30% of cases. Parathyroid cysts are rarely the cause of primary hyperparathyroidism. Although congenital epithelial parathyroid cysts may occur, most are thought to represent cys­ tic adenomas. When present, they manifest as peri thyroidal or mediastinal cystic le­ sions and the differential diagnosis includes congenital cysts such as third and fourth branchial clefts, bronchogenic and thymic cysts. A variety of scintigraphic studies are

1 NECK, THYROID, PARATHYROID PEARLS/PITFALLS

Primary hyperthyroidism is most prevalent in post-menopausal woman.

•

On US, parathyroid adenomas manifest as small, homogeneous, well circumscribed, perithyroidal or mediastinal in location.

•

Imaging evaluation with US and possibly M RI should be used in the newly diagnosed patient.

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Evaluation with MRI and Tc ses­ tamibi studies sbould be used for the palient with residual or re­ current disease. Consider MEN II (Sipple's syn­ drome) as a possible diagnosis in patients with parathyroid hyper­ plasia.

available for parathyroid imaging. The most accurate include technetium 99m and thallium 201 subtraction studies and technetium sestamibi studies with or without thallium 201 or 1 131 subtraction. The most recent literature reports high accuracy for the sestamibi study using delayed (2 bour) images, precluding the need for imag­ ing subtraction, which can be a source of error and technical difficulty. The increased fixation of thallium 201 and sestamibi in parathyroid adenomas results from the high level of mithochondria in the oxyphilic cells. Limitations of tbe scintigraphic studies include poor detection of small lesions, particularly those smaller then 1 cm, even wben associated with SPECT imaging. Detection of parathyroid hyperplasia and intrathyroidal parathyroid adenomas is also problematic. When evaluating a pa­ tient with residual or recurrent primary hyperthyroidism of the parathyroid glands aU imaging modalities are less accurate due to post-operative changes, including dis­ tortion of anatomy, presence of post-inflammatory granulation tissue and reactive lymphadenopathy. Enhanced axial CT section througb the superior mediastinum of a patient with ectopic Parathyroid adenoma (Fig. 39-E; courtesy of Dr. Fernando Torrinba) shows a well-circumscribed enhancing mass in the prevascular compart­ ment. Enhanced axial CT section in a patient with parathyroid carcinoma (Fig. 39-F; courtesy of Dr. Fernando Torrinha) shows an ill-defined mass in the left tra­ cheoesophageal groove infiltrating the left thyroid lobe. No clear cleavage plane with the esophagus is noted. Management

Care should be taken not to fail to recognize ectopic adenomas due to limited imaging studies.

The gold standard for treatment of parathyroid adenoma is surgical resection. When a single lesion is successfully localized preoperatively, a unilateral cervicotomy is performed. However, some experts recommend intra-operative determination of PTH levels to exclude the possibility of a second missed lesion. When no presurgi­ cal imaging is performed, bilateral cervicotomies are routinely performed and, if no lesions are found, an anterior cervicotomy or mediatinostomy may be required. For high surgical risk patients or patients who refuse surgery, parathyroid adenomas may be managed by image guided therapies such as ethanol ablation, laser ablation or electrocautery. Parathyroid carcinoma is managed by radical surgery followed by radiation therapy.

Care should be taken not to fail to recognize multiple lesions.

Suggested Readings

Care should be taken not to mis­ take enlarged lymph nodes, ves­ sels, or tortuous esophagus or ex0phytic tbyroidal lesions for parathyroid adenoma.

---

Hodin, R.A., Silen, W.W. Detection and management of parathyroid tumors. Cur­ 9( 1):75-8, 1997 Jan. Hopkins, CR., Reading, CC Thyroid and parathyroid imaging. Seminars in Ultra­ sound, Ct and Mr 1 6(4):279-95, 1995 Aug. Loevner, L.A lmaging of the parathyroid glands. Seminars in Ultrasound, Ct and M,. 17(6):563-75, 1 996 Dec. Norton, I.A Reoperation for missed parathyroid adenoma. Advances in Surgery 31 :273-97, 1997. Santos, E., Higgins, CB., Clark, O. Clinical image. Recurrent hyperparathyroidism caused by a paratbyroid cystic adenoma: localization by MRI. lournal of Computer Assisted Tomography 20(6):996-8, 1996 Nov-Dec. Shah a, AR., Sarkar, S., Strashun, A., Yeh, S. Sestamibi scan for preoperative local­ ization in primary byperparatbyroidism. Head and Neck 19(2):87-91, 1 997 Mar. Shen, w., DUren, M., Morita, E., Higgins, C, Duh, O.Y., Siperstein, AE., Clark, O.H. Reoperation for persistent or recurrent primary hyperparathryoidism. Archives of Surgery 131(8):861-7, discussion 867-9, 1996 Aug. Yousem, D.M., Scbeff, A.M. Thyroid and parathyroid gland pathology. Role of imag­ ing. Otoiaryngologic Clinics of North America 28(3):621--49, 1995 Jun. rent Opinion in Oncology

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Case 40 Clinical Presentation A 49-year-old female presented with hemoptysis and cough. After clinical examina­ tion, a CT scan was requested to evaluate a possible mass.

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Radiologic Findings Axial CT images through the level of the upper trachea (Fig. 40-A) and slightly lower (Fig. 40-B) show a right sided posterolateral soft tissue mass which extends into the lumen and causes some airway compromise. There is no evidence of calci­ fication. The mass appears to erode the cartilage and extend into the adjacent tra­ cheal bed.

Differential Diagnosis: Primary Tracheal Carcinoma • • • • • • •

Papilloma Granuloma Foreign body Primary tracheal carcinoma Secondary invasion from adjacent neoplasm Amyloid Ectopic thryoid

Diagnosis Primary tracheal carcinoma

1 NECK, THYROID, PARATHYROID Discussion Epidemiology

Primary neoplasms of the trachea are rare, especiaUy when compared with neo­ plasms of the larynx or lung. Depending on the series reported, there is approxi­ mately one carcinoma of the trachea for every 20 carcinomas of the larynx, and for every 1 80 lung carcinomas. Why this is so remains unclear. Secondary involvement of the trachea by carcinomas is much more common with 1 0-20 cases for every case of primary tracheal carcinoma.

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PEARLSIPITFALLS •

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A primary tracheal carcinoma appears as an invasive tracheal mass which narrows the tracheal lumen. In patients with primary tracheal carcinoma, 20% may have metacbronous or synchronous tumors. Hemoptysis is a presenting symp­ tom in half the patients with pri­ mary tracheal carcinoma. Care should be taken not to mis­ take primary tracheal carcinoma for a more benign tracheal process.

THYROID, PARATHYROIDI

Pathophysiology

Primary tracheal tumors in the pediatric age group are distinctly uncommon with 90% of tumors occurring in adults. In the pediatric population, less than 10% of tumors are malignant. In adults, 50% of primary tracheal neoplasms are malignant. Of these most are carcinomas. Half of these carcinomas are the familiar squamous cell carcinoma. It should also be noted that in patients with primary tracheal carci­ noma, 20% will manifest synchronous or metachronous tumors. Benign nonneoplastic soft tissue masses such as granulomas may occur in the tra­ chea but they do not tend to have an aggressive radiographic appearance. Clinical Findings

The clinical manifestations of tracheal tumors are primarily through the effects of partial airway obstruction. Cough is present in half the patients and dyspnea and wheezing are common. Approximately 25% of the tracheal lumen must be occluded before obstructive symptoms become dominant. Hemoptysis is present in 10% of patients with benign tracheal tumors, and in over 50% of those with malignant tu­ mors. Imaging Findings

The diagnosis is suggested by the presence of a destructive mass narrowing the tra­ cheal lumen. Secondary invasion by malignancies of adjacent structures may have a similar appearance and are much more common than primary tracheal carcinoma. MR images in another patient with thyroid carcinoma (Figs. 40-C and 40-0) show secondary tracheal invasion. The axial T l WI (Fig. 40-C) shows the destructive thy­ roid mass invading and narrowing the tracheal lumen. The coronal T1 WI (Fig. 40-0) shows similar findings. With a more benign appearing tracheal mass, other considerations such as granuloma or papilloma should be considered. When tra­ cheal lumen narrowing is due to cartilage changes without a discrete mass, chon­ dromalacia should be considered. An axial CT in another patient with chondroma­ lacia of the trachea (Fig. 40-E) shows angular narrowing of the lumen and the absence of a soft tissue mass.

Suggested Readings Holbert, I.M., Strollo, O.c. Imaging of the normal trachea. lou al of Thoracic 10(3): 1 7 1 -9, 1 995 Summer. Weber, A.L. Radiologic evaluation of the trachea. Chest Surgery Clinics of North America 6(4):637-73, 1 996 Nov. rn

Imaging

v. Orbit and Visual Pathways

O R B I T A D V1SUAL PATHWAYSI

Case 41 Clinical Presentation A 96-year-old female presented with left orbital pain, swelling and decrea ed vi ion. On phy ical exam there was swelling and erythema of tbe periorbital soft ti sue proptosis and chemo i . Fundo copic examination bowed papilledema.

c

B Radiologic Findings

Axial cr cans of t he orbit (Fig. 4 1 -A and 4 1 -8) show marked swelling and soft tissue thickening of the pre eptal compartment of the left orbit. There i also soft tissue thickening and enhancement surrounding the globe. Fatty stranding i noted in the extra- and inlraconal compartments. No fluid collections are een. Coronal section (Fig. 4 1 -C) how enlargement of the left lateral rectus mu de with ill­ defined margin . Also note the stranding of the retrobulbar fat.

1 85

I ORBIT AND VISUAL PATHWAYS Differential D iagnosis: O rbital Swelling • •

Orbital infection (bacterial, viral, fungal) Orbital inflammation: orbital pseudotumor; granulomatous diseases (sarcoid, Wegener's granulomatosis); vasculitides, connective tissue disorders

Diagnosis Orbital cellulitis (serratia isolated on culture)

Discussion Epidemiology

Although the incidence of infections has markedly decreased with the availability of antibiotic therapy, it is still the most common primary orbital disease process, accounting for more than 50% of orbital pathology. It may affect all age groups, although children are especially susceptible. Pathophysiology

Orbital infection may occur by three different mechanisms, which include in de­ creasing order of frequency, spread from adjacent structures, penetrating trauma and hematogenous spread. Sinusitis is the most frequent cause of orbital cellulitis, accounting for two thirds of all cases of orbital infection, usually spreading from the ethmoid sinus. Spread of infection occurs via the thin, often dehiscent, bony orbital walls and natural foramina. Other sources of direct spread include infection of the facial soft tissues, pharynx and teeth, which may extend into the orbit by means of interconnecting venous plexuses. Orbital involvement also may result from infec­ tion arising in the lacrimal apparatus (lacrimal sac and lacrimal gland). Penetrating trauma, particularly in the presence of an intraorbital foreign body, is the second most common cause of orbital cellulitis. Hematogenous spread of infection to the orbit may be a late event in patients with septicemia. Orbital infections may be acute, subacute or chronic. The majority of acute infec­ tions are bacterial in origin and the most frequent agents include staphylococcus, streptococcus, hemophilus, neisseria and pseudomonas. Viral infections can also pre­ sent acutely and are usualy due to herpes viruses (herpes simplex and herpes zoster). Mycobacterial, fungal and parasitic infections tend to be subacute or chronic at onset. Immunocompromised and diabetic patients are especially prone to fungal infections. Mucor and aspergillus species are the most common opportunis­ tic agents. They may involve the orbit by direct extension from the nasal cavity and paranasal sinuses, through bone destruction. Pathologically, acute infection is char­ acterized by polymorphonuclear leucocytes infiltration, leading to necrosis and rapid destruction of the tissue planes. In chronic infections a mononuclear infiltrate predominates with or without associated multinucleated giant cells. Mycobacterial infection is characterized by the presence of caseating granulomas. Angioinvasion and infarction are the hallmarks of fungal infection. Clinical Findings

Presenting symptoms depend on the severity and extent of the orbital involvement. Orbital infections usually spread in a fairly constant fashion from periorbital in­ flammatory edema to pre-septal cellulitis, followed by retroseptal involvement. Sub­ periosteal abscess, orbital cellulitis and, eventually, an intraorbital abscess may en­ sue. Acute inflammation is characterized by rapid onset of orbital pain and periorbital soft tissue swelling and redness involving the preseptal compartment. The orbital septum, a fibromembranous structure within the eyelids and contiguous

ORBIT A N D V ISUAL PATHWAYS1 with the periorbita, prevents spread of infection into the retroseptal compartment in the early stages. Retroseptal involvement presents with more striking symptoms such as loss of visual acuity, diplopia and exophthalmus. A mass in the superotem­ poral aspect of the orbit suggests the presence of dacryoadenitis, which may be the origin of orbital infection. Physical exam may disclose chemosis, ophthalmoplegia, papilledema, and inflam­ matory signs in the periorbital soft tissues. Signs and symptoms of sinusitis or other head and neck infections are usually present. In children, orbital cellulitis may be the first sign of sinus infection. History of prior trauma, or the possibility of an intraocular foreign body should be elicited. Complications of orbital cellulitis in­ clude thrombosis of the superior orbital vein and cavernous sinus and intracranial spread of infection, with development of epidural, subdural or intra parenchymal abscesses.

Imaging Findings Imaging studies are performed to determine the etiology, extent and complications of the disease. One of the major goals is to differentiate between pre- and retrosep­ tal involvement. which have different prognoses and management. CT is the modal­ ity of choice, as it nicely depicts cortical bony changes and radiopaque intraorbital foreign bodies, and differentiates phlegmon from drainable fluid collections. Thin, 3mm axial and coronal sections should be obtained through the orbits and paranasal sinuses after intravenous contrast administration. M R I is useful in the evaluation of intracranial complications and magnetic resonance venography ( M RV) may dis­ close thrombosis of the superior ophthalmic vein and cavernous sinus without the need for intravenous contrast administration. Imaging cannot differentiate between inflammatory periorbital edema and pre­ septal cellulitis, as they both present with soft tissue thickening of the periorbital soft tissues and stranding of the subcutaneous fat. These inflammatory changes involve the eyelids and adjacent soft tissues. There may be associated uveoscleral thickening and enhancement. Progression to orbital cellulitis manifests as stranding of the intra- and extraconal fat, proptosis and, eventually, as enlargement of the extraocular muscles (EOMs). Subperiosteal phlegmon or abscess is not uncommon when infection spreads from the ethmoidal sinuses. Accumulation of inflammatory

o

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AND VISUAL PATHWAYS tissue and edema beneath the periorbita manifests on cr as a soft tissue density located between the lamina papyracea and the medial rectus muscle. Displacement of a thickened periorbital membrane and medial rectus into the orbit is usually seen. cr of the orbits of another patient ( Fig. 4 1 -0) shows soft tissue thickening and fatty stranding limited to the preseptal and periorbital soft tissues on the left. These inflammatory changes extend to the medial canthus and prezygomatic soft tissues. 111is patient was diagnosed with orbital cellulitis secondary to ethmoidal sinusitis. Progression to a central area of hypodensity surrounded by an enhancing rim indicate abscess formation. This is usually accompanied by increasing mass effect upon the EOMs and optic nerve. Enlargement of the EOMs with ill-defined mar­ gins also may be depicted on cr. Enhancement along the optic nerve sheath indi­ cates perineuritis. An intraconal abscess is rarely seen. Thrombosis of the superior ophthalmic vein and cavernous sinus manifest on CT by e nlargement and absence of contrast enhancement. The hallmark of fungal infection is the presence of bone destruction and rapid progression, whjch can be noted in Figure 4 1 -E. This axial T2W image from another patient hows a crescentic region of hyperintensity in the preseptal compartment of the right orbit, extending laterally into the suprazygo­ matic masticator space. The right globe is slightly proptotic. 111ere is diffuse hyper­ intensity of the intra- and extraconal fat. The right ethmoidal air cells are opacified and there appears to be bony disruption of the medial wall of the right orbit. The diagnosis in this case was mucormycosis of the paranasal sinuses invading the orbit in a diabetic patient. (Case courtesy Dr. J.P. Wensel. )

Management Medical therapy with antibiotics should be directed against the causal agent. according to the results of orbital cultures and antibiograms. Retroseptal involve­ ment may require intravenous therapy, especially when the optic nerve is in danger. Subperiosteal and intraorbital abscesses should be drained surgically. Early surgical debridement is also required in cases of fungal infection to avoid the devastating consequences of intracranial extention.

Suggested Readings Davis, P.C.. Newman, .1 . Advances in neuroimaging of the visual pathways. Amer­ ican Journal of Op/lIhalmology 1 2 1 (6):690--705. 1 996 Jun. .

Haugen, J.R., Ramlo, J. H., Serious complications of acute sin usitis. Posigraduare Medicine 93( 1 ): 1 1 5-8, 1 22, 1 25, 1 993 Jan. Klapper. S.R., Patrinely. J.R., Kaplan, S.L., Font, R.L.. Atypical mycobacterial infec­ tion of the orbit. Op/1fhalmology 102( 1 0) : 1 536-4 1 . 1 995 Oct. Mauriello. lA. Jr .. Yepez. .. Mostafavi, R .. Barofsky, J.. Kapila. R .. Baredes. S., or­ ris, J. Invasive rhinosino-orbital aspergillosis with precipitous visual loss. Canadian Journal of Ophlhalmology 30(3): 1 24-30, 1 995 Apr. Mitchell, C.S., Nelson. M.D. Jr., Orofacial abscesses of odontogenic origin in the pe­ diatric patient. Report of two cases. Pedialric Radiology 23(6 ):432-4. 1 993. Moll, G.W. Jr .. Raila, EA .. Liu. G.c.. Conerly. A.W. Sr. Rhinocerebral mucormycosis in 1 0 0 M. Sequential magnetic resonance imaging of long-term survival with inten­ sive therapy. Diabeles Care 1 7( I I ): 1 348-53, 1 994 Nov. Sullivan, T.l, Patel, B.c., Aylward, G.W., Wright, J.E. Anaerobic orbital abscess sec­ ondary to intraorbital wood. Auslralian and New Zealand Journal of Ophthalmol­ ogy 2 1 ( 1 ):49-52. 1 993 Feb.

ORBIT A N D V ISUAL PATHWAYSI

Case 42 Clinical Presentation The patient is an adult male who presented with new onset proptosis on the right.

A _........ .

I ORBIT

AND V I S UA L PATHWAYS

Radiologic Findings An axial T l W, noncontrast MR image through the orbit (Fig. 42-A) shows a ho­ mogenous enlargement of the right lacrimal gland. There is no evidence of bony in­ vasion. The above findings were confirmed in the coronal ( Fig. 42-B) and axial TIW (Fig. 42-C) images.

Differential Diagnosis: Lacrimal Gland Mass •

•

Lymphoid/I nflammatory: acute (viral, bacterial, orbital pseudotumor, lymphoma) or chronic (sarcoid, Wegener's, thyroid opthmalopathy, Sjogrens's syndrome, Mickulicz syndrome) Epithelial neoplasms: pleomorphic adenoma or malignant tumors (adenoid cystic carcinoma, mucoepidermoid carcinoma, adenocarcinoma)

Diagnosis Lacrimal gland enlargement due to acute dacroadenitis

Discussion Pathophysiology One useful approach to diagnosing masses of the lacrimal glands is to consider that approximately 50% are of the Iymphoidlinflammatory type and 50% are neoplasms of epithelial origin. Dermoid cysts are not included in this scheme. This is because although dermoid cysts may arise near the lacrimal fossa, they are not true lacrimal gland lesions, but, instead, arise from embryological rests in the orbit. Metastases to the lacrimal gland have been reported, but they are rare. The lesions in the lymphoid/inflammatory group run the spectrum from mild in­ flammatory conditions all the way to lymphoma (usually nonhodgkins). Lesions in this group tend to result in diffuse enlargement of the gland and usually show no bone erosion. It is useful to group these lesions according to their time course. The acute group includes bacterial and viral dacroadenitis and tends to involve younger age groups. Orbital pseudotumor and lymphoma can also present with this picture. Entities in the acute group can also have a more chronic course. Other more chronic conditions to be considered are sarcoid, Wegener's, thyroid opthmalopathy, Mickulicz, and Sjogrens's syndromes. Mickulicz's syndrome is non­ specific lacrimal (and salivary) gland swelling associated with leukemia, lymphoma, TB, syphilis, or sarcoid. Sarcoid Sjbgrens's disease is lymphocytic infiltration and enlargement of lacrimal (and salivary) glands associated with connective tissue diseases. This infiltration may

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ORBIT A N D VISUAL PATHWAYSI

Half the cases are lymphoid/in­ flammatory and half are epithe­ lial neoplasms.

be associated with decreased lacrimation (xerophthalmia) and xerostomia (dry mouth). The other 50% of lacrimal gland masses tend to be epithelial cell tumors. Radi­ ographically this group is more likely to show aggressive behavior and occasionally bone involvement. Fifty percent of the tumors in this group are pleomorphic ade­ nomas. A reformatted sagittal CT scan in another patient with a pleomorphic ade­ noma of the lacrimal gland is seen in Figure 42-D. The remaining 50% include adenoid cystic carcinoma, mucoepidermoid carci­ noma, adenocarcinoma, and others.

Epithelial tumors tend to be more aggressive.

Imaging Findings

PEARLS/PITFALLS •

•

•

•

•

Lacrimal gland enlargement is often a non-specific radiographic finding.

Dermoid cysts may occur in this location but also occur through­ out the orbit and in other loca­ tions in the head and neck. Avoid mistaking other (non­ lacrimal) masses for lacrimal gland enlargement.

-

Enlargement of the lacrimal gland is usually a nonspecific radiographic finding that may be due to either inflammatory (dacroadenitis) or neoplastic conditions. The lacrimal glands may be involved with a variety of disease processes. However, because of the histologic similarities of the lacrimal gland with salivary gland tissue, these two groups of glands share many of the same pathologies. Although the radi­ ologic findings are usually nonspecific, the clinical setting may help suggest the diagnosis.

Management Clinical management of lacrimal gland masses depends on the pathology involved. While a specific tissue diagnosis is often not possible based on the CT or M R I find­ ings, these studies provide valuable information about the extent of disease and involvement of adjacent structures.

Suggested Readings Bilaniuk, L.T., Farber, M . Imaging of developmental anomalies of the eye and the orbit. American loumal of Neuroradiology 1 3(2):793-803, 1992 Mar-Apr. Carmody, R.F., Mafee, M . F., Goodwin, lA., Small, K., Haery, C. Orbital and optic pathway sarcoidosis: M R findings. American lournal of Neuroradiology 1 5(4):775-83, 1 994 Apr. Krzystolik, M., Warner, M.A. Orbit and adnexal neoplasia. Current Opinion in Oph­ thalmology 6(5):78-85, 1995 Oct. Shields, c.L., Shields, lA. Lacrimal gland tumors. International Ophthalmology Clinics 33(3): 1 8 1 8, 1 993 Summer.

10RBIT

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Case 43 Clinical Presentation A 9 1 -year-old female pre ented with acute left orbital pain. On clinical exam, there was no proptosis. No inflammatory changes were noted in the anterior orbital com­ partment.

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ORBIT AND VI SUAL PATHWAYSI

Radiologic Findings An axial enhanced TI W image with fat-saturation (Fig. 43-A) shows enlargement of the lateral and medial recti, with involvement of the anterior tendinous insertion on the globe and abnormal enhancement of the intraconal fat. Coronal sections (Figs. 43-B and 43-C) also show generalized enlargement of the extraocular muscles (EOMs) which have ill-defined margins and enhancement of the retrobulbar fat. Abnormal enhancement also is seen along the optic nerve sheath. These changes are more pronounced near the orbital apex. There is no evidence of extension into the optic tracts or cavernous sinus.

Differential Diagnosis: E nlargement of the E xtraocular Muscles • • •

• •

•

I n fection (bacterial, viral or fungal) Thyroid orbitopathy Inflammatory conditions: orbital pseudotumor, Sjiigrens's syndrome, Mickulicz's syndrome, granulomatous conditions (sarcoid, Wegener's granulomatosis), con­ nective tissue disorders (rheumatoid arthritis, lupus, scleroderma), retained for­ eign bodies Vasculitides (PAN, giant cell arteritis) Tumors: hemangioma, rhabdomyoma, plasmacytoma, lymphoma, leukemia, rhab­ domyosarcoma Amyloidosis

Diagnosis Orbital pseudotumor

Discussion Epidemiology The term orbital pseudotumor was first used by Birsch-Hirschfeld in 1 905 to de­ scribe an idiopathic inflammatory condition involving the orbit. This entity is the third most common ophthalmologic disease after thyroid orbitopathy and Iympho­ proliferative disorders, and is the most frequent cause of an intraorbital mass in adults. [t is the underlying cause of unilateral exophthalmos in 25% of patients. Only 5 to 15% of cases of orbital pseudotumor occur in the pediatric age group.

Pathophysiology Orbital pseudotumor defines a clinically and histologically heterogeneous group of lesions for which an identifiable cause cannot be found. I t is a diagnosis of exclusion, after other local or systemic disease processes with similar c1inico-radiographic find­ ings have been ruled out. Proposed etiologic factors include an autoimune process and Iymphoproliferative disease. Histologic changes define two different types of orbital pseudotumor and may vary in the course of the disease. In the acute inflammatory type there is infiltra­ tion of the orbit by polymorphous acute inflammatory cells dispersed in a matrix of granulation tissue, whereas in the chronic sclerosing form, inflammatory changes are replaced by fibrotic tissue with subsequent stretching and deformity of the intraorbital structures. There is also a predominantly lymphocytic variety of pseudo­ tumor, thought to be a prelymphomatous condition. The presence of germinal follicles and increased vascularity helps in differenting this condition from true lymphoma. 1 93

1 0RBIT

AND VI SUA L PATHWAYS

Clinical Findings The symptoms in orbital pseudotumor depend on the degree of inflammatory re­ sponse, the stage (acute, subacute or chronic), and on the affected orbital structures. The most common symptoms in the acute inflammatory form of disease include abrupt onset of orbital pain, swelling of the periorbital tissues, double vision and, occasionally, decreased vision. This form of presentation is easily confused with orbital or periorbital infection, and it is common for patients to be treated initially with antibiotics for several days. On physical exam, there may be chemosis, sclero­ uveitis, papillitis and exudative retinal detachment. The chronic sclerosing form has a more indolent course. Patients typically present with ophthalmoplegia, diplopia, proptosis and progressive visual loss. Several clinico-radiographic classifications based on the involvement of different orbital structures have been proposed, but these normally overlap. The most fre­ quently used separates orbital pseudotumor into six different categories: acute and subacute idiopathic anterior orbital pseudotumor, acute and subacute idiopathic diffuse orbital inflammation. myositic form, apical orbital inflammation (Tolosa­ H unt syndrome), idiopathic dacryoadenitis, and idiopathic perineuritis. The Tolosa­ Hunt syndrome is a variant of pseudotumor characterized by an inflammatory infil­ tration of the orbital apex, with extention into the superior orbital fisure and cavernous sinus. Clinically, it manifests with painful ophthalmoplegia involving cra­ nial nerves I l l, I V and VI and hyposthesia of the periorbital tissues due to involve­ ment of the first division of the trigeminal nerve. Isolated involvement of the lacrimal gland may be acute or chronic, presenting as either a painful or painless mass in the superolateral orbit. Differentiation from dacryoadenitis, lymphoma or other lacrimal gland tumors may require tissue sam­ pling. Perineuritis presents with orbital pain on extraocular movement, decreased vision and papilledema. I ncreased pain upon retrodisplacement of the globe and the pres­ ence of proptosis differentiates perineuritis from true optic neuritis. I rreversible ophthalmoplegia and amaurosis are dismal complications when the disease is not promptly recognized and treated.

Imaging Findings I maging of orbital pseudotumor, although nonspecific, is useful in defining the ex­ tent of the disease and excluding true orbital tumors. When the differentiation from orbital tumor is not possible, FNA may be required. CT and M R I are best suited for these goals, with M R I being superior to CT in the evaluation of the optic nerve, cav­ ernous sinus and globe. Fat-saturated TI W sequences after contrast enhancement are required for evaluation of inflammatory changes in the retrobulbar fat, optic nerve and cavernous sinus. Ocular ultrasound is a good method to evaluate the globe, but much less accurate for assessment of the retrobulbar structures. The structures involved by orbital pseudotumor are, in decreasing order of fre­ quency, retrobulbar fat (76% ), extraocular muscles (57% ), optic nerve (38% ), uvea and sclera (33% ), and lacrimal gland (5% ) . I n the anterior variety o f pseudotumor, the inflammatory changes are seen i n the preseptal orbital compartment and in the globe itself. There is swelling, thickening and enhancement of the preseptal soft tissues. Ocular findings include uveoscleral thickening, blurring of the ocular-optic nerve junction and accumulation of fluid in Tenon's capsule. An accumulation of fluid beneath Tenon's capsule. anechoic on ultrasonography (T sign), appears as a crescentic area of hyperintensity on TIW MR images. Retinal detachment may also be present. Diffuse orbital pseudotumor, also referred to as a tumefactive or infiltrative type of pseudotumor, is characterized by increased soft tissue density and abnormal enhancement of the retrobulbar fat, which molds itself around the globe without distorting the surrounding structures. The globe may be slightly proptotic, but is nor-

1 1 94

ORBIT AND V ISUAL PATHWAYSI mal in shape. I n the sclerosing variety of pseudotumor, the extensive desmoplastic changes manifest as regions of bypointensity on both Tl W and T2W images and a greater amount of distortion and retraction of the orbital structures is seen. These findings harbor a poor prognosis. The absence of mass effect and bony invasion are the main diagnostic clues to differentiate pseudotumor from a true orbital tumor, although distinction from orbital lymphoma may be impossible based on imaging alone. In the myositic form, the inflammatory changes involve one or more EOMs on the same side. Bilateral muscular involvement is less common and, when present, may be confused with thyroid orbitopathy. The main characteristics are enlargement of the muscle(s), involving both the belly and tendinous insertions, and ill-defined margins. The snperior muscle complex and the medial rectus are the most com­ monly affected. Apical orbital inflammation presents as irregular, infiltrative, enbancing soft tis­ sue involving the orbital apex, which may compress the muscle cone and optic nerve, leading to ischemic neuropathy. Extension of this abnormal soft tissue into the cavernous sinus and superior orbital fissure is a hallmark of the Tolosa-Hunt syndrome. Lacrimal adenitis manifests as a nonspecific and diffuse enlargement of the lacrimal gland, with ill-defined margins, and associated inflammatory changes in the surrounding soft tissues. The morphology of the gland is usually preserved. Idiopathic perineuritis usually occurs in association with other inflammatory find­ ings, but occasionally as an isolated finding. The hallmark is enlargement and en­ bancement of the optic nerve-sheath complex, which may show ill-defined margins. I n general terms, the most important imaging features in differentiating pseudo­ tumor from true neoplastic disease are the absence of mass effect, confinement to tbe space of origin and the lack of bony destruction. However, there are a few reported cases of extraorbital extension of pseudotumor, including intracranial extension. As opposed to lymphoma, orbital pseudotumor shows intense enhance­ ment and is hyperintense on T2W images (except for the sclerosing variety). When tbe diagnosis is in doubt, imaging guided FNA, followed by flow cytometry or Southern blot analysis of tbe cytopatbologic specimen, usually allows differentiation between the lymphocytic variety of pseudotumor and true lymphoma. M R I of the orbits in another patient (enhanced Tl W images with fat-saturation,

D

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AND VI SUAL PATHWAYS

PEARLS/PITFALLS Sudden onset of unilateral

•

painful proptosis or ophthalmo­ plegia in an otherwise healthy patient suggests an orbital pseudotumor. •

•

•

•

Rapid and lasting response to steroids usually indicates a pseudotumor. Imaging shows abnormal en­ hancing soft tissue. with ill­ defined margins, confined to the space of origin and little or no mass effect. Do not mistake an orbital pseudotumor for a neoplastic process. Partial response to steroids does not exclude the possibility of an orbital neoplasm!

Fig. 43-D) show intense enhancement in the region of the orbital apex with indis­ tinctness of the muscular cone, intraconal fat and optic nerve sheath. This patient was diagnosed with orbital pseudotumor (apical variety). For another patient with an orbital pseudotumor (anterior variety), an axial CT of the orbits (Fig. 43-E) demonstrates swelling and soft tissue thickening of the pre­ septal compartment of the left orbit. There is thickening and abnormal enhance­ ment of the ocular layers, representing uveo-scleritis. The retrobulbar fat adjacent to the globe also shows stranding, consistent with inflammatory change. An enhanced frequency selective fat suppression imaging ( FATSAT) T1 W, coro­ nal M R image shows enlargement and enhancement of the medial, inferior, and lateral recti of the left orbit. The muscles show ragged margins with slight enhance­ ment of adjacent fat. Note also enhancement surrounding the optic nerve. This patient has orbital pseudotumor (myositic variety with associated perineuritis).

Management Orbital pseudotumor usually has a dramatic and rapid response to steroids. Thus. not infrequently, a course of steroids is attempted when the diagnosis is in doubt. However, several other diseases, including tumors, may have a partial response to steroids. Close follow-up of patients is mandatory whenever the diagnosis is in doubt. The acute inflammatory variety of the disease is particularly sensitive to steroids. TIle subacute and chronic forms. including the sclerosing variety. are unre­ sponsive. Radiation therapy and immunosuppressors may be used in patients unre­ sponsive to steroids, but are not successful in treating fibrosclerosing lesions. When the optic nerve is in danger of compressive ischemic neuropathy, surgical decom­ pression should be attempted.

Suggested Readings Atabay, c., Tyutyunikov, A., Scalise, D., Stolarski, c., Hayes. M.B .. Kennerdell, 1.S., Wall, 1. Serum antibodies reactive with eye muscle membrane antigens are detected in patients with nonspecific orbital inflammation. Ophthalmology 1 02( 1 ): 1 45-53, 1 995 Jan. Berger, 1.W, Rubin. P.A .. Jakobiec, F.A. Pediatric orbital pseudotumor: case report and review of the literature. international Ophthalmology Clinics 36( I ): 1 6 1 -77, 1 996 Winter. Char, D.H., Miller, T., Orbital pseudotumor. Fine-needle aspiration biopsy and re­ sponse to therapy. Ophthalmology 1 00( 1 1 ): 1 702-10, 1 993 Nov. de Jesus, 0., Inserni. 1.A., Gonzalez, A., Colon, L.E. Idiopathic orbital inflammation with intracranial extension. Case report. Journal of Neurosurgery 85(3):5 1 0-3, 1 996 Sep. Mombaerts, I.. Goldschmeding, R., Schlingemann, RO., Koornneef, L. What is or­ bital pseudotumor? Survey of Ophthalmology 4 1 C I ):66-78, 1 996 Jul-Aug. Mombaerts, 1 . , Schlingemann, R.O., Goldschmeding, R, Koornneef, L. Are systemic corticosteroids useful in the management of orbital pseudotumors? Ophthalmology 1 03(3):52 1 -8, 1 996 Mar. Mombaerts, I . , Schlingemann, Ro., Goldschmeding, R., Koornneef, L. Idiopathic granulomatous orbital inflammation. Ophthalmology 1 03 ( 1 2):2 1 35-4 1 , 1 996 Dec. Notter, M., Kern, T., Forrer, A., Meister, F; Schwegler, N. Radiotherapy of pseudo­ tumor orbitae. Frontiers of Radiation Therapy and Oncology 30: 1 80-9 J , J 997. Osguthorpe, 1.D.. Hochman, M. l nflammatory sinus diseases affecting the orbit. 010laryngologic Clinics of North America 26(4):657-7 J . 1 993 Aug. Weber, A.L., Jakobiec, F.A., Sabates, N.R Pseudotumor of the orbit. Neuroimaging Clinics of North America 6( 1 ):73-92, 1 996 Feb.

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ORBIT A N D VISUAL PATHWAYSI

Case 44 Clinical Presentation A 5 1 -year-old female presented with progressive bilateral painless exophthalmus.

B

A

Radiologic Findings An axial CT through the optic nerve canal (Fig. 44-A) shows bilateral enlargement of the medial recti and crowding of the orbital apices. The lateral recti appear nor-

I ORBIT

A N D VISUAL PATHWAYS mal in thickness. A mild degree of proptosis is also noted. Coronal sections ( Figs. 44-B and 44-C) show bilateral enlargement of the extraocular muscles (EOMs) with relative sparing of the lateral recti. The section near the orbital apices ( Fig. 44-C) again shows crowding, which is more pronounced on the right side. Note that the right optic nerve is surrounded only by a thin rim of fat.

Differential Diagnosis: Extraocular Muscle E nlargement •

Endocrine • Thyroid ophthalmopathy • Acromegaly • I nflammatory • Pseudotumor • I n fection: bacterial, fungal, parasitic (cysticercosis, trichinosis) • Plasma cell granuloma • Sarcoid • Neoplastic • Benign: rhabdomyoma • Malignant: lymphoma, rhabdomyosarcoma, metastatic disease • Vascular • Carotid cavernous fistula • Extradural arteriovenous fistula • Deposition diseases: amyloid

Diagnosis Thyroid orbitopathy

Discussion Enlargement of the EOM may result from three basic mechanisms: infiltration by abnormal cells (inflammatory or neoplastic), deposition of abnormal material (amy­ loid, mucopolysaccharides), or edema from vascular congestion. The extent of involvement, and un i- or bilaterality of the process are valuable clues in the differential diagnosis. While neoplastic tumors vascular processes and pseudotumors tend to be unilateral, endocrine diseases tend to affect both orbits. When the clinical and imaging findings are non diagnostic, fine needle aspiration (FNA) guided by imaging is a valuable tool for therapy planning.

Epidemiology Thyroid orbitopathy is also referred to as thyroid associated ophthalmopathy, au­ toimmune thyroid disease, endocrine exophthalmus and Graves' ophthalmopathy. It is the most common orbital disorder, affecting approximately 0.5% of the US population. Thyroid orbitopathy is the most frequent cause of exophthalmus in adults, representing 80% of bilateral and 15 to 28% of unilateral exophthalmus. It usually presents in adulthood with a peak incidence in the fourth and fifth decades of life. Only 5% of cases occur before age 1 5 . Females are more frequently affected. The EOMs are the most common orbital structures to be affected. The involve­ ment is bilateral in 70 to 85% of cases, although asymmetric in 20 to 30% . Isolated involvement of a single EOM is much less common, only seen in 1 0% of patients. Hyperthyroidism is present in the majority of patients (70% ), with increased lev­ els of triiodothyronine (D) and tetraiodothyronine (T4). However, thyroid oph­ thalmopathy may be the first sign of Graves' disease and preceed any hormonal changes by a year or more. TIle incidence of proptosis varies widely in different se­ ries, ranging from 35 to 93% .

1]2?

ORBIT A N D V ISUAL PATHWAYSI Table 44-1

Werner's Modified Staging System for Thyroid Orbitopathy

I-Asymptomatic eyelid retraction I I-Symptomatic eyelid retraction I II-Proptosis greater than 22 mm without diplopia I V-Proptosis greater than 22 mm with diplopia V-Corneal ulceration VI-Loss of vision

Pathophysiol ogy Thyroid ophthalmopathy is due to deposition of abnormal material in the orbital contents, predominantly involving the EOMs and retrobulbar fat. This process is thought to have an autoimune origin due to cross-reactivity between the eye muscle and thyroid autoantigens. Several autoantibodies have been implicated, including long acting thyroid stimulating factor (LATS) and thyroid stimulating immunoglobulins (TSI), which are now recognized as antibodies against the thy­ rotropin receptors of the thyroid gland. In the early acute i nflammatory stage of the disease, there is deposition of hygro­ scopic mucopolysaccharides and glycoproteins, and infiltration by inflammatory cells (lymphocytes and mast cells). With disease progression, there is replacement by collagenous tissue, necrosis of muscle fibers and fatty degeneration. These changes result from chronic increase in orbital pressure, which leads to ischemia and subsequent edema and fibrosis of the EOMs. The fibrotic phase of the disease is usually irreversible. Several factors contribute to the development of proptosis, in­ cluding enlargement of the EOMs increased volume of retrobulbar fat and vascular congestion. Ischemia of the optic nerve, due to compression by the enlarged mus­ cles in the orbital apex, may result in optic neuropathy. The degree of orbital involvement does not correlate with the degree of thyroid dysfunction or the levels of circulating LATS. Thyroid orbitopathy also has been associated with hypothyroidism and Hashimotos' thyroiditis.

Clinical Findings The most common presenting symptoms are proptosis and double vision. On clini­ cal exam, lid lag due to retraction of the upper eyelid, restricted ocular motility and loss of sight may be noted. In the acute phase of the disease periorbital swelling and chemosis are common. Blindness from ischemic optic neuropathy is a dismal conse­ quence of thyroid orbitopathy if early decompression is not undertaken. Corneal ul­ ceration, due to exposure keratitis, is another possible complication of the disease. A family history should be elicited, because 30% of patients have other familial autoimune disorders. Staging systems to evaluate the severity and progression of the disease have been devised. The most commonly used is based on clinical findings and classifies patients into six different stages (Table 44- 1 ) .

I maging Findings U l trasonography, CT and M R I may be used to evaluate orbital involvement in Graves' disease. As orbital involvement may be subclinical, all patients should have an imaging study as a screening test for thyroid orbitopathy. Imaging is useful for detection and serial follow up of proptosis and is crucial for detection of optic nerve compression. The degree of proptosis is measured in the axial plane at the level of the lens, from the interzygomatic line to the anterior margin of the globe. Another important role of imaging is providing guidance for FNA of undeterminate masses.

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ORBIT AND V ISUAL PATHWAYSI Ocular US is well-suited for orbital screening in patients with Graves' disease as it is innocuous, inexpensive and rapidly performed. The major finding on cross sectional imaging is enlargement and enhancement of the EOM, which is usually bilateral and asymmetric. Typically, the muscles most fre­ quently involved are, in decreasing order of frequency, the inferior, medial, superior, and lateral rectus. In patients with isolated involvement of a single muscle the su­ perior rectus and levator palpebrae complex is most commonly affected. Classically, the swelling is maximal in the belly of the muscle, sparing the tendinous attachment to the globe, and the margins of the involved muscles are smooth. These are impor­ tant distinguishing features from orbital pseudotumor, which usually involves the entire length of the muscle and shows ill-defined margins. Other CT findings include increased volume and increased density of the retrobulbar fat and uveoscleral thick­ enmg. Crowding of the orbital apex is usually associated with dilatation of the superior orbital vein and increased diameter of the optic nerve sheath due to CSF trapping in the subarachnoid space. On M R imaging the enlarged muscles are hyperintense on TIW images due to edema and inflammation. Fat-saturated enhanced Tl W images are very sensitive for detection of muscle enlargement due to the increased vascularity of the muscle. The better contrast resolution of M R I makes it the best method to evaluate for optic nerve compression. A "tram track" sign on TIW images may be seen representing dilatation of the subarachnoid space surrounding the optic nerve and is suspicious for optic nerve compression. Differential diagnosis of this sign includes increased intracranial pressure and pseudotumor cerebri. Scintigraphic studies using I I 11n labelled octeotride have proven helpful in iden­ tifying and following patients with inflammatory eye disease as the tracer accumu­ lates in the retrobulbar space. TIle radiotracer fixates in the cell membrane of activated lymphocytes expressing somatostatin receptors. Axial CT of the orbits in another patient (Fig. 44-0) shows symmetric bilateral enlargement of the medial and lateral recti, more prominent at the muscular belly and tapering toward the tendinous insertion on the globes. The margins of the mus­ cles are well-defined. The volume of retrobulbar fat appears increased and shows scanty linear hyperdensities consistent with increased vascularity. There is bilateral proptosis more prominent on the right side. Axial (Fig. 44-E) and coronal (Fig. 44-F) CTs of the orbits in another patient show the appearance of the orbits after decompressive surgery. There has been bilateral resection of the medial wall of the orbits and the markedly enlarged medial recti are seen to herniate through the surgical defect, decompressing the optic nerves. Axial (Fig. 44-G) and sagittal TIW (Fig. 44-H) M R images of the orbits show en­ largement of the muscular bellies of the medial, superior and inferior recti, sparing the tendinous insertions in the globe. There is some crowding of the orbital apices but a thin rim of fat is seen surrounding both optic nerves. There has been prior or­ bital decompression with partial resection of the lamina papyracea bilaterally.

Management Left to its natural course, the disease resolves spontaneously in the majority of patients. However, in 1 0% of cases the progression of orbital involvement leads to recurrent corneal ulcerations and loss of vision. Some local measures may relieve orbital symptoms, particularly in the acute phase of the disease. TIlese include head elevation at night, and lubricating eyedrops and ointments. Steroids and radiation therapy are also useful in the acute inflammatory stage and should be administered to patients with progressive disease that is unresponsive to local measures. Im­ munosuppressive drugs have been used with varying success rates, although the in­ herent risks of this kind of therapy limit their use in this benign condition. Surgery is the only successful therapy in the chronic fibrotic stage of the disease and may be used to correct eyelid retraction or to decompress the optic nerve. Surgical proce-

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PEARLS/PITFALLS

Bilateral or unilateral painless proptosis is one of the most com­ mon presenting symptoms of thyroid orbitopalhy.

•

M R images of the orbit show EOM enlargement involving the

•

muscular belly, sparing the tendi­ nous insertions on the globe. findings include an increased volume of the retrobulbar fat.

cr

•

Do not exclude the diagnosis in euthyroid patients!

•

•

•

Do not fail to recognize muscle enlargement (when bilateral and symmetric). Avoid failing to recognize optic nerve compression.

dures attempt to increase the bony orbit in order to decompress the orbital con­ tents. One or more orbital walls may be ressected depending on the degree of com­ pression.

Suggested Readings Cangiarella, J., Cajigas, A., Savala, E. et al. Fine needle aspiration cytology of orbital masses. Acta Cytological 40(6): 1205- 1 2 1 1 , 1 996 Nov-Dec. Kao, S.C, Kendler, D.L., N ugent, PA., Adler, J.S., Rootman. J. Radiotherapy in the management of thyroid orbitopathy. Computed tomography and clinical outcomes. Archives of Ophthalmology 1 1 1 (6):8 1 9-23, 1 993 Jun. McNab, A.A. Orbital decompression for thyroid orbitopathy. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Ophthalmology 25( 1 ):55-6 1 , 1 997 Feb.

Postema, P.T., Krenning, E.P., Wijngaarde, R., Kooy, P P., Oei, H.Y., van den Bosch, WA., Reubi, J.C, Wiersinga, WM .. Hooijkaas, H . , van der Loo T. et al. 1 1 1 In-DTPA-D-Phe l octreotide scintigraphy in thyroidal and orbital Graves' disease: a parameter for disease activity? Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 79(6): 1 845-5 1 , 1 994 Dec. .

Rosen, CE., Kennerdell, J.S. Extreme eyelid swelling as an unusual presentation of dysthyroid orbitopathy. Journal of Nellro-Ophthalmology 1 5(2):84-9, 1 995 Jun . Sendrowski, D.P. Hyperthyroidism. Optometry Clinics 3(4):87-97, 1 994.

Shokeir, M.O., Pudek, M.R., Katz, S., Rootman, J., Kendler, D.L. The relationship of thyrotropin receptor antibody levels to the severity of thyroid orbitopathy. Clinical Biochemistry 29(2):1 87-9, 1 996 Apr. Villadolid, M.C, Yokoyama. N., Izumi, M. et al. Untreated Graves' disease in pa­ tients without clinical ophthalmopathy demonstrate a high frequency of extraocular muscle enlargement, JOllrnal of Clinical Endocrinilogy and Metabolism. 80(9):28302833, 1 995. Weber, A., Dallow, R., Sabates, N. Graves' disease of the orbit. Nellroimaging Clin­ ics of North America 6( 1 ):6 1 -72. 1 996 Feb. Wilson, WB., Prochoda, M . Radiotherapy for thyroid orbitopathy. Effects on extraocular muscle balance. Archives of Ophthalmology 1 13( 1 1 ): 1 420-5, 1 995 Nov.

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Case 45 Clinical Presentation A 58-year-old female presented with nonspecific left orbital pain. The ophthalmo­ logic exam was normal.

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A Radiologic Findings

Axial ( Fig. 45-A) and coronal ( Fig. 45-B) fat- uppre ed TI WI M R I cans how an ill-defined area of hyperinten ity in the medial and inferior aspect of tbe left orbit. involving both the extra- and intraconal fal. There is no ignal abnormality or mass effect on the adjacent extraocular mu c1es ( EOM). I ncidentally, prior cataract urgery is noted bilaterally.

Differential Diagnosis: Diffuse Hyperintensity in the Extra- and Intraconal Fat on FATS AT Tl WI • •

Artifactual: art i fact due to failure of fat suppression Pathologic: orbital p eudotumor. orbital cellulitis. orbital neoplasm

Diagnosis Artifact due to a ymmetric failure of fat-suppres ion

Discussion Epidemiology Artifacts associated with M R fat uppre sion imaging are relatively frequent in orbital studies and may mimic orbital pathology. These include complete or partial failure of fat suppression. which may be symmetric or asymmetric.

Pathophysiology Fat uppressioo M R J techniques provide a method of improving patial resolution by decreasing t he 110rmal hyperinten ity of the orbital fal. which may ob cure

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AND VISUAL PATHWAYS equally hyperintense lesions on enhanced or nonenbanced T l WI sequences. 1l1cre are several techniques of fat suppression available on M R I scanners which are based on frequency selective pulses ( FATS AT) phase difference descrimination. saturation of signal from short Tl relaxation times (STIR) and variation of phase encoding gradients. The former technique, FATS AT, is the most commonly used and is subject to this artifact. The FATSAT sequence consists of delivery of a 90 degree radiofrequency ( RF) pulse, followed by a RF pulse at the resonant frequency of fat to selectively suppress the fat signal. When two substances with a large difference in magnetic susceptibil­ ity, such as air and fat, share an interface, the main magnetic field ( BO) around this interface is distorted due to a different amplitude of magnetization on each side of the border. This results in a shift of the resonant frequency of the fat protons near the interface toward that of water protons. The result is failure of the presaturation pulse to suppress fat protons. ,

Imaging Findings Failure of fat-suppression manifests as ill-defined regions of hyperintensity. ll1e magnitude of these areas of fat suppression failure are known to depend on the

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I ll-defined area of hyperintensity on FATSAT images could be a result of an artifact due to fat suppression. When an artifact is present, there is an absence of mass effect or signal abnormalities on otber se­ quences. Take care not to mistake fat sup­ pression failure for orbital pathology.

geometry of the interface and its orientation in regard to the main magnetic field, being maximal where the interface is perpendicular to BO. A FATSAT artifact is not difficult to recognize when there is complete or sym­ metric failure of fat suppression. However, it may be misleading when asymmetric. Asymmetry of this artifact is seen in any circumstance that alters either the geome­ try or the orientation of fat-water or fat-air interfaces. This includes physiologic asymmetry of the paranasal sinuses or configuration of the orbits, asymmetric dis­ ease of the paranasal sinuses (with soft tissue or fluid within the sinus) or asymmet­ ric positioning of the patient'S head in the scanner. Differential diagnosis from orbital pseudotumor, orbital cellulitis and orbital neo­ plasm in clinically doubtful cases may be a challenge. Distinguishing features of the artifact vs pathology include a location near fat-air interfaces, ill-defined margins with fading of the hyperintensity towards fat-water interfaces. absence of mass effect on adjacent structures and absence of signal abnormalities on SE T l W and T2W images. Both orbital cellulitis and orbital pseudotumor are inflammatory conditions that are typically hyperintense on T2WI. Orbital neoplasms tend to be more focal and, in general, are also hyperintense on T2WI. To avoid misinterpretation of a FATSAT artifact for orbital pathology, it is im­ portant to correlate the imaging findings with clinical examination. It may also be necessary to use an additional technique of fat suppression, less sensitive to suscep­ tibility artifacts such as STIR, repeat tbe same sequence, changing the orientation of the patient's head in the scanner, and correlate the FATSAT images with T l W and T2W SE sequences. Coronal FATSAT enhanced Tl WI (Fig. 45-C) shows an ill-defined region of hyperintensity along the medial and inferior aspects of the orbits bilaterally. The hyperintensity is maximal near the interfaces with the ethmoid and maxillary sinuses and fades gradually towards the center of the orbit. Axial (Fig. 45-D) and coronal (Fig. 45-E) FATSAT contrast enhanced T l WI show hyperintensity of the intraconal fat in the left orbit, along with marked enlargement of the extra-ocular muscles.

Suggested Readings Anzai, Y., Lufkin, R . B., labour, B.A, Hanafee, W.N. Fat-suppression failure artifacts simulating pathology on frequency-selective fat-suppression MR images of the head and neck. American journal of Neuroradiology 1 3(3):879-84, 1 992 May-Jun. Barakos, J.A Advances in magnetic resonance imaging of the head and neck. Top­ ics in Magnetic Resonance Imaging 6(3): 1 55-65, 1 994 Summer. Barakos, J.A., Dillon, W.P., Chew, W.M. Orbit, skull base, and pharynx: contrast­ enhanced fat suppression M R imaging. Radiology 1 79( 1 ): 1 9 1 -8, 1 99 1 Apr. Borges, A.R., LufkiJ1, R.B., H uang, A.Y., Farahani, K., Anold. A.C. Frequency­ selective fat suppression MR imaging. Localized asymmetric failure of fat suppres­ sion mimicking orbital disease. journal of Neuro-Ophthalmology 1 7( 1 ): 1 2-7, 1 997 Mar. Kaldoudi, E., Williams. S.c., Barker, G.1., Tofts, P.S. A chemical shift selective inver­ sion recovery sequence for fat-suppressed M R l : theory and experimental valida­ tion. Magnetic Resonance Imaging 1 1 (3):34 1 -55, 1 993. Lee, D.H., Simon, J.H . , Szumowski, J., Feasby, T.E., Karlik, S.1., Fox, AJ., Pelz, D.M. Optic neuritis and orbital lesions: lipid-suppressed chemical shift MR imaging. Radiology 1 79(2):543-6, 1 99 1 M ay. LUdeke, K.M., Rbschmann, P., Tischler, R. Susceptibility artefacts in NMR imaging. Magnetic Resonance Imaging 3(4):329-43, 1 985. Mintz, E., Kline, L.B., Duvall, E.R. Diagno tic misinterpretation of fat suppression

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AND VI SUAL PATHWAYS orbital magnetic resonance scanning [ letter1 American Journal of Ophthalmology 1 1 5(2):262�, 1 993 Feb 1 5 . Simon, J., Szumowski. 1., Totterman, S.. Kido, D., Ekholm, S., Wicks, A., Plewes, D. Fat-suppression M R imaging of the orbit. American Journal oj' Nellroradiology 9(5):96 1 -8, 1 988 Sep. Tien, R.D .. Chu, P.K., Hesselink, J. R., Duberg, A., Wiley, C. Intracranial cryptococ­ cosis in immunocompromised patients: CT and M R findings in 29 cases. American Journal of Nellrorndiology 1 2(2):283-9. 1 99 1 Mar-Apr.

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Case 46 Clinical Presentation A 48-year-old female with a hi tory of prior surgery and radiation therapy for a left frontal lobe neoplasm, now pre ents with a new onset of decrea ed vi ual acuity.

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Radiologic Findings Coronal noncontrast Tl WI ( Fig. 46-A), coronal post-contrast frequency selective fat suppression imaging (FATSAT) T l WI ( Fig. 46-B), and axial post-contrast FATSAT T I WI ( Fig. 46-C) show enlargement and abnormal enhancement of the retrocanalic­ ular segment of the optic nerve and optic chiasm, with the left greater than the right.

Differential Diagnosis: Optic Nerve E nlargement and E nhancement (Optic Neuritis) • • •

•

• •

' Demyelinating disease : multiple sclerosis Inflammatory: collagen vascular disease, orbital pseudotumor, sarcoid I nfectious: H I V-related optic neuropathies, tuberculosis, fungal infection, toxo­ plasmosis, syphilis ' Neoplastic : optic glioma, optic nerve meningioma, metastasis, leptomeningeal carcinomatosis ' Vascular : ischemic neuropathy (severe hypertension, systemic vasculopathies) Others: radiation induced optic neuropathy, optic nerve trauma

Note:

'

indicates that the process is usually unilateral.

Diagnosis Radiation-induced optic neuropathy

Discussion Epidemiology Optic neuritis is a general term used to describe an acute inflammatory condition involving the optic nerve. usually presenting as rapid onset of visual loss. While it occurs as an isolated entity, its greater significance results from its association with mUltiple sclerosis (MS). In fact, the term optic neuritis is often misused as a syn­ onym of optic nerve involvement in MS. Optic neuritis is a relatively common disease affecting young adults (mean age of 30 years). There is a slight female predominance. The disease is rare in children.

Pathophysiology Optic nerve inflammation may be due to mUltiple pathologic processes including demyeLinating disease, infection, systemic inflammatory processes. optic nerve ischemia and toxic insults. Because the optic nerve is an extension of the CNS, con­ sisting of bundles of myelinated axons, it is not surprising that it is affected by the same demyelinating diseases as the brain. Approximately 35 to 40% of patients with MS develop optic neuritis and in 15 to 20% optic neuritis is the initial manifestation of MS, meaning that 20% of patients with optic neuritis will develop MS over a short or longer term. Concurrent optic neuritis and cervical myelitis is known as Devic's syndrome, and is uncommonly seen in patients with MS. Infectious processes involving the CNS and meninges may spread to the optic nerve. The conduit for spread may be the nerve itself (e.g., neurotropic viruses such as H IV) or the CSF in the optic nerve sheath. Basilar meningitides such as tuberculosis and fun­ gal meningitis are the most common infectious processes spreading to the optic nervc. Systemic vasculopathies of small and medium sized vessels may also be responsi­ ble for optic neuritis. The optic nerve is fairly sensitive to radiation injury, and radiation necrosis of the optic nerve is a well known complication when the optic nerve is included in the

1208

O R B IT AND V I SUAL PATHWAYSI radiation field. This is usually encountered after radiotherapy for orbital, sinonasal, sellar and orbitofrontal neoplasms. 1l1e effects of radiation are dependent on the total dose and the amount of fractionation.

Clinical Findings Optic neuritis may be asymptomatic, although typically, patients present with sud­ den loss of visual acuity, pain with eye movement, and dyschromatopsia. The visual loss tends to be of sudden onset, but may be more gradual, progressing over a period of 1 to 2 weeks. Slow recovery over a period of 6 to 1 2 weeks is the rule. A rare chronic progressive unremitting variant of optic neuritis has also been de­ scribed, eventually leading to blindness. Symptoms are unilateral in 70% of cases. Diagnosis is based on clinical history and ophthalmologic evaluation, including assessment of visual acuity, color vision, and visual fields. Fundoscopic examination may show optic disc swelling. A thorough clinical history and neurologic exam should be performed in order to exclude MS. Even when optic neuritis is seen in isolation, patients should be closely followed because a significant percentage will eventually develop MS. Radiation induced optic neuropathy has no specific clinical features. Ophthalmo­ logic evaluation may show disc swelling, prepapillary exudates, hemorrhage, and subretinal fluid. The onset of symptoms is usually remote from the time of radiation therapy, and may be confused with recurrence of the primary neoplasm.

I m aging Findings Abnormal imaging findings are not required for the diagnosis of optic neuritis and, when present, the findings are nonspecific. The main role of imaging is to exclude other pathologic processes and to detect other white matter abnormalities in the eNS, making the diagnosis of MS more likely. I maging is also important in the eval­ uation of treatment efficacy and in long-term follow-up. 1l1e best imaging modality to evaluate the visual pathway is M R l . The study should include the orbits and brain. Postcontrast fat-suppressed axial and coronal

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Typically, young adult patients with optic neuritis present with sudden onset of visual loss. MR1 of the orbits including post­ contrast FATSAT Tl W sequence is mandatory. It is important to perform M R I of t h e brain to look for otber evi­ dence of demyelinating disease. The most common MR1 findings for optic neuritis are smooth en­ largement and enhancement of the optic nerve. Avoid mistaking non-neoplastic optic neuritis for neoplastic processes. I t is important to confirm radia­ tion necrosis of the optic nerve with recurrence of the primary tumor. Avoid failing to evaluate tbe brain and miss tbe diagnosis of MS.

T I W images of the orbits are mandatory. The most common findings are optic nerve enlargement and optic nerve enhancement, which may be focal. segmental or dir­ fuse. Single or multiple discontinuous lesions may be seen. More nodular enhance­ ment suggests neoplastic involvement, although sarcoid and some infectious processes (such as tuberculosis and fungal infection) may have a similar appearance. M R I may also show T2W hyperintensity in the optic nerve, optic chiasm and in the parenchymal white matter. T2W abnormality and/or optic nerve enhancement is present in 56 to 72% of pa­ tients with isolated optic neuritis and in 90 to 98% of patients with definitive MS. The diagnostic yield is increased with the use or inversion recovery or FATSAT postcontrast sequences and a surface coil. The number, site and size of the lesions should be reported. These data are useful to evaluate the success of treatment. The retrobulbar segment of the optic nerve is the most commonly involved segment of the optic pathway in MS. CT imaging may also detect optic nerve enlargement and enhancement, but has a lower accuracy when compared to MRI. Radiation necrosis manifests as a focally cxpanded. enhancing optic nerve and optic chiasm. Contrast enhancement is thought to be due to vascular injury result­ ing in increased permeability of the blood-brain barrier. Axial T2WI in a 40-year-old woman with lupus (Fig. 46-0) shows diffuse en­ largement and hyperintensity of the intraorbital segment of the left optic nerve. FATSAT post-contrast T l WI (Fig. 46-E) shows optic nerve asymmetry due to en­ largement of the left optic nerve. 1l1ere is no apparent abnormal enhancement seen .

Manage ment Steroids are used as the "gold standard" treatment for optic neuritis, regardless of cause. Several studies have shown a quicker recovery of vision and a transient pro­ tective effect from development of MS with the use of intravenous methyl pred­ nisolone.

Suggested Readings Cornblath, W.T., Quint, OJ. M R I of optic nerve enlargement in optic neuritis. Neu­ rology 48(4):82 1-5, 1 997 Apr. Kortvelesy, S. Recent advances in the management of optic neuritis. Hawaii Medical Journal 56( 1 0):28 1 , 1 997 Oct. Villablanca, P., Curran, J., Arnold, A .. Lufkin, R. Orbit and optic nerve. Topics in Magnetic Resonance Imaging 8(2):87-1 1 0. 1 996 Apr. Weber. A.L., Klufas, R., Pless, M. Imaging evaluation of the optic nerve and visual pathway including cranial nerves affecting the visual pathway. Neuroimaging Clill­ ics of North America 6( 1 ): 1 43-77, 1 996 Feb.

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Case 47 Clinical Presentation A 64-year-old male presented with gradual proptosis of the right globe over several years.

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Radiologic Findings A well-defined mass in the intraconal space is present 011 the right ( Fig. 47-A). The mass effect causes a slight proptosis. The mass is homogeneous on all sequences. On the TI-weighted sequence, it is hyperintense (Fig. 47-B) ( Image courtesy Drs. Andrew Berger and Ed Helmer). Figure 47-C shows it to be clear of the optic nerve.

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Differential Diagnosis: Retrobulbar Intraconal Mass • • • • • • • • •

Hemangioma Schwanoma Metastasis Pseudotumor Meningioma Hemangiopericytoma Lymphangioma Varix Hematic cyst

Diagnosis Cavernous hemangioma

Discussion Epidemiology A cavernous hemangioma is one of the most common tumors of the orbit and the most common benign primary orbital tumor in the adult. There is a female prepon­ derance, and it usuaLly presents in the third to fifth decade of life. The majority of cavernous hemangiomas are solitary.

Pathophysiology Cavernous hemangiomas are round or oval in shape and may have a slightly nodu­ lar surface. Macroscopically, they are purplish-red in color, well circumscribed, and are encapsulated by a fine fibrous capsule. Microscopically, cavernous hemangiomas have numerous blood-filled vascular channels that are lined with flattened en­ dothelial cells that are surrounded by smooth muscle. The vascular channels are of­ ten separated by fibrous septa. Rarely, phleboliths may be present. Intramuscular hemangiomas may also occasionally occur.

Clinical Fi ndings 1lle clinical course is characteristic: a slow, progressive enlargement with findings related to displacement or compression of orbital structures. This is in distinction to capillary hemangiomas which tend to decrease in size over time. The sign/ symptom at the time of diagnosis is usually proptosis. I f the tumor is in the orbital apex, it may produce diplopia and optic nerve compression. Typical M RI and CT ap­ pearance is that of an oval or round, well-defined enhancing tumor in the intraconal space. The mass is soft and conforms to the shape of the orbit without distorting that structure. Occasionally, a small portion of the lesion may extend into the extraconal space. On MRI it is usually homogeneous in intensity on T l W sequences and heteroge­ neous in appearance on T2W images. On a T I -weighted image. the intensity is greater than muscle and globe and much less than fat. On a T2-weighted image it is more intense than any other tissue. The marked hyperintensity on T2 weighting is due to the high fluid content of the numerous blood-filled microscopic spaces. 1llis intensity component predominates over that of the fibrous and supporting tissues and results in marked hyperintensity. Enhancement with contrast agents occurs dif­ fusely and moderately. A cavernous hemangioma grows insidiously and may be­ come so large that it can expand and remodel the orbital walls.

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ORBIT AND VISUAL PATHWAYS( PEARLS/P ITFALLS •

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Management

A cavernous hemangioma pre­ sents as a retrobulbar, intraconal mass.

Surgical excision is the treatment of choice. The encapsulated tumor can easily be totally removed. Cavernous hemangiomas generally do not recur, even after in­ complete excision.

Typical MRl and cr appearance is of a well-defined, contrast en­ hancing tumor.

Suggested Readings

Take care not to mistake a cav­ ernous hemangioma for a more aggressive process. Avoid mistaking a cavernous hemangioma for a varix of the ophthalmic veins.

Bilaniuk, L.T., Rapoport, R.1. Magnetic resonance imaging of the orbit. Topics in Magnetic Resonance Imaging 63: 1 67-8 1 , 1 994 Summer. Forbes, G. Vascular lesions in the orbit. Neuroimaging Clinics of North America 6 1 : U 3-222, 1 996 Feb. Mukherji, S.K., Tart, R.P., Fitzsimmons, 1. , Belden, C, McGorray, S., Guy, 1., Man­ cuso, A.A. Fat-suppressed MR of the orbit and cavernous sinus: comparison of fast spin-echo and conventional spin-echo. American Journal of Neuroradiology 1 59: 1 707- 14, 1 994 Oct. Sweet, C, Silbergleit, R., Mehta, B. Primary intraosseous hemangioma of the orbit: CT and M R appearance. American Journal of Neuroradiology_ 1 82:379-8 1 , 1 997 Feb.

IORBIT A

Case 48 Clinical Presentation 47-year-old female pre ented with progre ive loss of vi ion in her left eye. Phy ical examination revealed propto is and impaired mobility of the left globe. Fundo­ scopic examination wa unremarkable.

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Radiologic Findings Axial T l W (Fig. 48-A), axial frequency selective fat suppression (FATSAT) T1 W (Fig. 48-B) images after gadolinium enhancement, and coronal FATSAT T I W im­ age after gadolinium enhancement (Fig. 48-C) show a round, weLl-circumscribed intraconal mass in the left orbit. This mass is intimately related to the optic nerve, which is displaced inferiorly and abuts the posterior aspect of the globe anteriorly. The lesion is isointense to the gray matter and shows vivid enhancement after con­ trast administration. There is no evidence of posterior extension to orbital apex and the extraconal muscles are also uninvolved by this mass. A mild to moderate degree of proptosis is noted (Courtesy Dr. Howard Krauss).

D ifferential D iagnosis: E nlargement of the Optic Nerve or Sheath •

• •

Tumors: optic nerve glioma, optic nerve meningioma, optic nerve neuroma, lym­ phoma, leukemia (chloroma), metastasis (hematogeneous: breast and lung, direct in­ vasion: retinoblastoma, uveal melanoma), hemangioblastoma, hemangiopericytoma I nflammatory lesions: orbital pseudotumor, optic neuritis, sarcoidosis Others: pseudotumor cerebri

D iagnosis [ntraorbital meningioma

Discussion In the assessment of orbital lesions accurate localization is critical. In the intraconal compartment, lesions can arise from the globe, extraocular muscles, intraconal fat, optic nerve or sheath. This distinction significantly reduces the list of differential diagnoses. The optic nerve is enveloped by the meninges from the optic chiasm to the pos­ terior aspect of the globe where they merge with the sclera. This meningeal enve­ lope provides an anterior extension of the subarachnoid and subdural spaces. I n the superior intracanalicular portion of the optic nerve, the pia mater, arachnoid mem­ brane, and dura fuse with each other and with the optic nerve, providing an attach­ ment to the optic canal.

Epidemiology Optic nerve meningiomas comprise 5 to 7% of aLl primary orbital tumors. Females are more frequently affected than males (4 : 1 ) and, although there is a broad range, a peak incidence is seen in the fourth and fifth decades. I ntraorbital meningiomas can also occur in children, usually in the first decade of life. TIlese meningiomas show more aggressive behavior than the adult form. Bilateral meningiomas are a diagnostic criteria for neurofibromatosis type 1 .

Pathophysiology I ntraorbital meningiomas may originate within the orbit or on rare occasion, result from direct extension of an intracranial tumor usually arising from the sphenoid ridge. Intraorbital meningiomas can arise from the meningeal sheath of the optic nerve, or from remnants of meningoepithelial cells left behind during embryologic development. The most common location is the optic nerve sheath and the orbital apex. However, meningiomas of the extraconal compartment can be seen, usually arising from the periosteum of the orbital walls. Intracranial meningiomas gain ac-

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AND VISUAL PATHWAYS cess to the orbit either by extension along neural and vascular foramina, or through invasion of the bony walls of the orbit. The most frequent pathologic varieties of intraorbital meningiomas are menin­ goepithelial and transitional cell types. Pathology may be useful in distinguishing the rare angioblastic meningioma from hemangiopericytoma. As the clinical and imaging findings are often nonspecific, FNA should be per­ formed prior to therapy planning. Because most of the lesions are not readily accessible, imaging guidance is usually necessary.

Clinical Findings The clinical presentation of intraorbital meningiomas is non-specific, similar to any other intraorbital mass. The most frequent presenting symptoms include decreased vision, proptosis and constriction of the visual field. However. the clinical presenta­ tion largely depends on the size and location of the tumor. Small meningiomas aris­ ing along the optic nerve sbeath may be asymptomatic for long periods before they come to clinical attention. Clinical examination may reveal papilledema, optic atro­ phy, scotomata, and decreased motility of the extraocular muscles. Canalicular and chiasmal meningiomas are usually not associated with significant proptosis and often present as central scotomata. Clinically, there are a few findings that may help to distinguish a mass arising i n the optic nerve itself from the optic sheath and other i ntraorbital locations. A sig­ nificant visual impairment associated with mild proptosis is more likely to be related to an optic nerve lesion. Conversely, extrinsic lesions tend to produce significant proptosis before compromising visual acuity. It is also typical for primary lesions of the optic nerve to produce transient visual obscurity in the extremes of gaze, or with change in head position due to vascular compression.

Imaging Findings CT and M R I have complementary roles in the evaluation of intraorbital masses. Although M R I has superior soft tissue contrast resolution, in the case of an intra­ orbital meningioma, CT is superior in detecting intratumoral calcification and asso­ ciated bony changes which may be important clues in the differential diagnosis. Beam hardening artifact due to adjacent bone is one limitation of CT, particularly in the evaluation of small perioptic meningiomas. On CT, a meningioma of tbe optic nerve may appear as a tubular thickening, an eccentric mass, or a fusiform enlargement of the optic nerve-sheath complex. Stip­ pled or ring shaped calcifications, although rare, may differentiate these tumors from optic nerve gliomas. Typical associated bony findings include sclerosis and scal­ loping of adjacent bony structures, seen primarily in intracanalicular meningiomas and in those arising from the sphenoid ridge and secondarily invading the orbit. A spongy appearance of the bone around the optic canal, sphenoid wing and chias­ matic sulcus may be the only finding when the tumor is too small to be detected radiographically. Diagnostic dilemmas such as confusion with fibrous dysplasia and Paget's disease occasionally occur. Meningiomas near tbe orbital apex, however, tend to cause demineralization and enlargement of the optic canal. Another finding is the associ­ ation with pneumosinus dilatans, usually of the sphenoid sinus. The cause of this as­ sociation is controversial. Some experts believe meningiomas produce irritation of adjacent bone and cause progressive thinning of the bony walls of the sinus. which then expand. Others suggest that pneumosinus dilatans is the primary process which stimulates the growth of arachnoid cap cells to produce a meningioma. Meningiomas show moderate to marked homogeneous enhancement. The classi­ cal "tram track" sign consists of linear enhancement along the nerve sheath sepa­ rated by a central area of hypodensity which corresponds to the optic nerve.

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However, this sign is not specific for meningioma and can be seen in a variety of in­ flammatory conditions including optic neuritis and pseudotumor. M R I is more accurate in the detection of optic nerve/sheath complex enlarge­ ment, especially when enhanced coronal T l W images with fat saturation are per­ formed. This sequence provides better contrast resolution between the enhancing lesion and the intraconal fat (also hyperintense on TI W I ) and is crucial in the diag­ nosis of small perioptic tumors. Orbital meningiomas are usually slightly hy­ pointense to the brain parenchyma on botb T I W and TIW images and enhance vividly and homogeneously, being clearly distinguishable from the optic nerve. Coronal images are particularly well-suited for evaluation of the optic canal, the optic chiasm and the precise relationship between tbe lesion and the optic nerve (Fig. 48-C). Meningiomas are well circumscribed unless tbey breach the dural Lining and infiltrate the surrounding fat. This is seen more frequently in pediatric patients and represents more aggressive behavior. Associated bony sclerosis may be depicted on M R I as an enlarged area of absent signal corresponding to the enlarged cortical bone. Dilatation of the subarachnoid space, usually due to increased intracranial pres­ sure, may appear as a halo surrounding the optic nerve, following the signal charac­ teristics of CSF. This should not be confused with a tumor as the post-contrast images will show no evidence of enhancement. Diffuse enhancement along the optic nerve is more likely to be related to an inflammatory process, altbough sometimes it is impossible to distinguish from a tumor. Ultrasound is a good screening test for detection of intraorbital lesions because it is readily available and easy to perform. Although the findings are nonspecific, US may be used in FNA guidance and Doppler US may be belpful in the diagnosis of vascular lesions. Axial FATSAT T l W images of the orbit after contrast enhancement (Figs. 48-D and 48-E) show a large hourglass-shaped mass with a larger component centered in the left cavernous sinus and a smaller component in the intraorbital component. The mass extends into the orbit through the optic canal which is markedly enlarged. The cavernous segment of the ICA is medially displaced and compressed by this

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PEARLS/PITFALLS Optic nerve meningiomas are seen most often in middle aged women.

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The most frequent presenting symptoms include proptosis and slowly progressive loss of vision.

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An optic nerve meningioma ap­ pears as a tubular, fusiform or eccentric enhancing lesion along the optic sheath without involve­ ment of the nerve itself.

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Perform enhanced M R l of the orbits with fat saturated Tl W images to get a more accurate picture of the optic nerve/sheath complex. Take care not to miss involve­ ment of the chiasm. Avoid misdiagnosing for an optic nerve glioma. Take care not to confuse dilation of the subarachnoid space around the optic nerve for a tumor. Differentiation from inflamma­ tory conditions is not always possible.

lesion. The lesion extends laterally into the medial cranial fossa compressing and displacing the medial aspect of the temporal lobe.

Management The management of lesions involving the anterior optic pathways is controversial. TIle treatment of intraorbital meningiomas depends upon their location, extent and associated symptoms. As opposed to nerve sheath meningiomas, extradural or "ec­ topic" meningiomas are usually easy to resect without endangering the optic path­ way. Intracanalicular and nerve sheath meningiomas, with some rare exceptions, are not amenable to complete resection without considerable risk of optic nerve dam­ age due to the close proximity of the ophthalmic and central retinal arteries. There­ fore, the decision to perform surgery depends upon the severity of symptoms and disease progression. Surgery is indicated when there is loss of visual acuity, in­ creased proptosis, pain or radiographic evidence of further growth. Intracranial le­ sions with intraorbital extension require a multidisciplinary approach with surgery performed by a team of neurosurgeons and skull base surgeons. Lesions involving the chiasm carry a significant risk of postsurgical blindness. Radiotherapy may be considered in cases of chiasmatic involvement and for recurrence.

Suggested Readings Biesman, B.S.. Heilman, C. Surgical management of lesions affecting the anterior optic pathways. Seminars in Ophrhalmology 1 0(3):260-4, 1 995 Sep. Delfini, R., Missori, P., Tarantino, R., Ciapetta, P., Cantore. G. Primary benign tumors of the orbital cavity: comparative data in a series of patients with optic nerve glioma, sheath meningioma, or neurinoma. SlIrgical Neurology 45(2): 1 47-53. dis­ cussion 1 53-4, 1 996 Feb. Gunalp, I.. Gunduz. K., Duruk, K .. Kanpolat. Y. Neurogenic tumors of the orbit. Japanese Journal of Ophrhalmology 38(2): 1 85-90, 1 994. Hashimoto, M., Tomura. N., Watarai. 1. Retrobulbar orbital metastasis mimicking meningioma. Radiarion Medicine 1 3(2):77-9. 1 995 Mar-Apr. l ng, E . B .. Garrity, 1.A .. Cross, S.A., Ebersold, MJ. Sarcoid masquerading as optic nerve sheath meningioma. Mayo Clinic Proceedings 72( I ):38-43. 1 997 Jan. Johnson, T.E . , Weatherhead, R.G., NasI', A.M .. Siqueira, E.B. Ectopic (extradural) meningioma of the orbit: a report of two cases in children. Journal of Pediarric Oph­ r/1almology and Srrabisl11us 30( 1 ):43-7, 1 993 Jan-Feb. Miller, N.R .. Golnik, K.C., Zeidman, S.M., North, R.B. Pneumosinus dilatans: a sign of intracranial meningioma. Surgical Neurology 46(5):471 -4, 1 996 Nov. Reid, D.. Ngo, H . H . , Lamarche, 1.B. Primary post-traumatic intraorbital menin­ gioma. JOllrnal of Orolaryngology 23(4):298-30 I . 1 994 Aug. Rose, G.E. Orbital meningiomas: surgery, radiotherapy, or hormones? 8riri.l'/1 Jour­ nal of Ophrhalmology 77(5):3 13-4, 1 993 May. Ruscalleda. 1., Feliciani, M., Avila, A., Castaner. E., Guardia, E .. de Juan. M. Neuro­ radiological features of intracranial and intraorbital meningeal hemangiopericy­ tomas. Neurodiology 36(6):440-5, 1 994 Aug.

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Case 49 Clinical Presentation A 65-year-old male consulted his ophthalmologist because of a 2-week history of decreased vision in his right eye. Opthalmic examination revealed a right choroidal mass.

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Radiologic Findings There is a choroidal mass in the right that is seen on the axial CT image (Fig. 49-A). The lesion is hyperintense (arrowhead) on TI W images both before ( Fig. 49-B) and after ( Fig. 49-C) contrast. The contralateral globe is unremarkable.

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Differential Diagnosis: Choroidal Mass • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Melanoma Hemangioma Hemorrhage RetinaUchoroidal detachment Choroidal metastasis Sarcoidosis Retinal cyst Retinoblastoma Retinal gliosis Nevi Leiomyoma Schwanoma Neurofibroma

Diagnosis Choroidal (uveal) melanoma

Discussion Uveal melanomas are the most common primary ocular neoplasm in adults with an annual reported incidence of seven case per million. There is no gender predilec­ tion. It is more common in individuals witb light skin coloring and is almost always unilateral.

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Pathophysiology The tumor arises from malignant transformation of melanocyte in the uveal tract, which is made up of the ciliary body. iris, and choroid. Melanomas in the ciliary body and choroid are believed to originate from preexisting nevi. Choroidal nevi are con­ genital lesions, usually recognized late in the first decade of life and most commonly located in the posterior third of the choroid. TIley are usually not visible with high­ resolution CT or M R I techniques.

Cli nical Fi ndings Diagnosis is usually accomplished using the standard opthalmologic examinations of opthalmo copy, sonography and/or f10 urescein angiography. CT and more often M R I are valuable, however, to evaluate extracapsular extension, which may occur in 1 0 to 1 5% of patients and may be difficult or impossible to evaluate with the prior techniques. Direct opthalmologic visualization may be impo sible in patients with "opaque media" (i.e. cataract, vitreous hemorrhage).

Imaging Fi ndings The CT and M R I appearance of choroidal melanoma is that of an enhancing choroidal mass ( Figs. 49-A-49-C). I nitially there is a smooth contour as the mass elevates Bruch's membrane (lamina vitrea; Fig. 49-D left). With more growth and rupture of the membrane, the tumor assumes a more characteristic mushroom shape (Fig. 49-D. right). TIle adjacent retina also becomes elevated (detached) on either side of the tumor. These fluid collections can usually be differentiated from the primary mass on T2W M R I . The imaging appearance of the melanoma may be mimicked by retinoblastoma, choroidal metastases. hemangioma. or intrachoroidal hemorrhage. Electron-spin resonance studies have shown that melanin produces a stable, free­ radical signal. These radicals cause a proton relaxation enhancement that shortens both T l and 1'2 relaxation time values. Damadian, et al ( 1 974), reported that, unlike other tumors, melanomas have a short T l value, which they attributed to paramag­ netic proton relaxation enhancement by a stable radical in melanin. Because of the relatively shortened TI and 1'2 relaxation time values, owing to paramagnetic prop­ erties of melanin. uveal melanomas may appear relatively hyperintense (to vitre­ ous) on T l W, proton-weighted MR images, and become hypointense on T2W MR scans. On M R I . associated retinal detachment can be easily differentiated from the uveal melanoma. Choroidal hemorrhage may be mistaken for malignant uveal melanoma on clinical examination as well as on various imaging techniques. On M R I , the acute choroidal hemorrhage appears a a moderately hypointense image on T2W MR scans. Subacute choroidal hemorrhage may be seen as an area of het­ erogeneous signal intensity on both T l - and T2-weighted MR images. Chronic choroidal hemorrhage appears as hyperintense areas in both TI W and T2W M R scans. Uveal metastases may b e very difficult t o differentiate from uveal melanoma. Most metastases, however, often appear hyperintense on T2W MR images. Metas­ ta es from primary mucin-producing carcinoma may be very difficult to differenti­ ate from uveal melanomas. Although T l and 1'2 shortening has been seen in some MRI studies of patients with melanoma, the finding is neither particularly sensitive nor specific in the diag­ nosis of melanoma. It is insensitive because not all melanomas contain large amounts of melanin (amelanotic melanomas). The finding is nonspecific because other tissues such as blood breakdown products can also cause relaxation enhance­ ment.

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PEARLSIPITFALLS •

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Management

Tl shortening for melanoma is neither particularly sensitive or specific.

Treatment is based on the size. location and extent of the tumor. Brachytherapy with or without local excision. enucleation. orbital exenteration. or percutaneous proton irradiation are all treatment options.

Amelanotic melanomas may have relatively low levels of the paramagnetic stable free radical.

Suggested Readings

Subacute hemorrhage with methemoglobin is paramagnetic. Proteinaceous fluid may cause T l shortening. Care should be taken not to con­ fuse a choroidal melanoma with choroidal metastasis or other mimics.

Damadian. R .. Zaner. K . . Hor. D.. DiMaio. T. H uman tumors detected by nuclear magnetic resonance. Proceedings or the ational Academy of Sciencc SA 7 1 : 1 4 7 1 - 1 473, 1 974 . Gomori. JM. et al. Choroidal melanomas: correlation of NMR spectroscopy and MR imaging. Radiology 1 58:443-445, 1 986. Mafee. M.E Malignant uveal melanoma and simulating lesions. MR imaging evalu­ 1 60:773-780. 1 986.

ation. Radiology

Potter, P. O., Shields. C.L .. Shields, JA., Flanders. A.E. Thc role of magnctic reso­ nance imaging in children with intraocular tumors and simulating lesions. Oplulwl111010gy 1 03 1 1 : 1 774-83. 1 996 Nov.

Romani. A .. Baldcschi. L., Genovesi - E be rt F. . G re mi g ni . E .. Ragone. M.e.. Rizzo. S .. ardi, M. Sensitivity and specificity of ultrasonography. fluorescein vidcoangiogra­ phy indocyanine green videoangiography. magnetic resonance and radioim­ munoscintigraphy in the diagnosis of primary choroidal malignant melanoma. Oph­ thalmologicnl 2 1 2 Suppl 1 :44-6, 1 998 . Scott, l .u.. Murray, T.G . Hughes. JR. Evaluation of imaging techniques for detec­ tion of extraocular extension of choroidal melanoma . A rchives of Ophthalmology 1 1 6 7:897-9, 1998 luI. .

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Case 50 Clinical Presentation n

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-month-old child pre ented with leukocoria and trabi mus.

A Radiologic Findings An axial nonenhanced cr of the orbit (Fig. 50-A) hows a gros ly calcified retro­ lental oft ti ue mass in the po teromedial a pect of the left globe. There is no evidence of extraocular exten ion along the optic nerve or into the retrobulbar fal.

Differential Diagnosis: Intraocular Mass in a Child •

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eoplastic conditions: retinoblastoma and retinocytoma -, uveal melanoma, metastases (neurobla IOma, mo t common), p eudoglioma (retinal a trocytoma or a lrocytic hamartoma) onneopla tic conditions: per i tent hyperpla tic primary vitreous (PHP ) retinopathy of prematurity or retinal dysplasia ( Ropf, Coat's disease. toxocari­ a is or larval granulomato is·, chronic retinal detachment·, uveiti

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ote: The pre encc of calcification in an intraocular mas further limit

po ibilities. The lesions most likely to calcify are marked with

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t he diagnostic

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Diagnosis Retinoblastoma

Discussion eparating retinobla toma ( R B ) from benign nonneopla tic condition . uch a tho e Ii ted above, i one of the major challenge in pediatric ophthalmology. In orne ca e . thi differentiation is impo ible both clinically and radiologically, lead­ ing to delay in t he treatment of this highly malignant tumor and. ometimes, to ocular enucleation for benign pathologie Differentiation of RB from it more benign variants ( retinocytoma) and from uveal melanoma is not mandatory a patient management i the arne. Ocular meta ta e u ually appear long after detection of the primary tumor making the diagno i obviou . Retinal a trocytoma or astrocytic hamartoma is commonly a ociated with tuber­ ou c1ero i and may be the pre enting ign of the di ea e. hronic retinal detachment can appear a a dense retrolental rna s on , which may show dystrophic calcification, mimicking R B. However, this p eudoma s d e not cros the optic nerve head, and i limited anteriorly by the ora serrata. sually, the clinical hi tory and the presence of a predi po ing factor for retinal detachment allow for the correct diagno is. Mo t benign congenital ocular di ease are a socia ted \ ith malformed globe . mi­ crophthalmia and hallo\ anterior chamber nlike RB. they rarely calcify and do so only in the late stage of the disease (dystrophic calcifications in phthisis bulbi ).

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ORBIT AND VISUAL PATH WAYSI Retinopathy of prematurity or retinal dysplasia is associated with prematurity. low birth weight and exposure to supplemental oxygen therapy. which may be elicited from the clinical history. It is typicaUy a bilateral and asymmetric condition which rarely calcifies. With progression of the disease. the globes become micro­ phthalmic with shallow anterior chambers. Persistent hyperplastic primary vitreous is the second most common cause of leukokoria in the pediatric population and may pose diagnostic problems with RB. Distinguishing features include the presence of microphthalmia at birth and a more anterior location within the globe, sometimes manifesting as a triangular shaped mass extending [rom the posterior aspect of the lens toward the optic di c (along the Cloquet's canal). It does not usually calcify. Coat's disease is more common in males and tends to present later in life. between 4 and 1 0 years of age. Like retinoblastoma the globe is normal in mor­ phology and size. On US, a definite solid mass is usually not identified. and on M R I the more solid component of the lesion i s located anterior t o t h e detached enhanc­ ing leaves of the retina, while in RB the tumor arises from the retina and projects into the subretinal effusion. The subretinal effusion in Coat's disease are hyperin­ tense on both T l W ( Fig. 50-B) and T2WI due to its lipoproteinaceous content (Fig. 50-C). Ocular toxocariasis or sclerosing endophthalmitis may be radiologically indistin­ guishable from RB, presenting as solitary or multiple calcified ocular masses (Fig. 50-D). Involvement of other organs and systems and a positive enzyme-linked immunoadsorbent assay (ELISA) for Toxocara canis usually allows an accurate diagnosis.

Ep idemiology Retinoblastoma is a rare congenital intraocular malignancy with a reported world­ wide incidence varying between I : 15,000 and 1 : 34.000 live births, and comprising approximately I % of all pediatric malignancies. It is the most common intraocular malignancy in children and the most frequent cause of leukocoria, responsible for 60% of cases. Although congenital in origin, the median age of presentation depends largely on the efficiency of pediatric health care systems. In the United States, the median age of presentation is 18 months and 98% of all cases are diag­ nosed before age 5 years. There is no gender predominance. Among all forms of RB. 65 to 75% are unilateral and 25 to 33% are bilateral. In the presence of a positive familial history of RB the incidence of bilaterality increases to 65% .

Pathophysiology Retinoblastoma is a primary malignant congenital neoplasm that arises from prim­ itive embryonal retinal cells that are located in the nuclear layer of the retina. These embryonal cells are primitive neuroectodermal derivatives and. therefore, RB is classified within the primitive neuroectodermal tumor (P ET) group. According to their etiology, four different groups of RB are recognized. Non­ hereditary forms comprise 60% of aU cases and result either from a sporadic postzy­ gotic mutation in the retinoblasts or from anomalies involving chromo ome 1 3 (monosomy, deletions. etc). I n these cases, subsequent generations are not affected and RB is more commonly unilateral. Hereditary forms comprise 40% of all cases and may result from a sporadic germinal mutation or an autosomal dominant anom­ aly involving band 14 of chromosome 13 ( R B I gene). Penetrance of the RB I gene in familial RB is high, approaching 95% . 1l1e most common genetic anomaly associated with RB is the deletion of band 1 4 of the long arm of chromosome 1 3 , responsible for codification of the enzyme es­ terase 0, which has been implicated in the tumorigenesis of several malignancies. The RB I gene is thought to act as a tumor supressor gene or antioncogene. Ac­ cording to Knudson's theory, an individual with a familial predisposition inherits

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AND VISUAL PATHWAYS one inactive gene so that only one other mutational event during the susceptible stage of embryonic development is necessary for retinoblasts to become apparent. When larger deletions of chromosome 13 occur, systemic dysmorphic features also may be apparent. These include microcephaly, ear anomalies, mental retardation and genital anomalies. Trilateral RB is a rare variant of RB, consisting of bilateral intraocular RB and an ectopic tumor in the pineal gland, suprasellar or parasellar regions. These tumors are known to be different primaries with a common embryonic origin in primitive neuroectodermal cells. It comprises 4% of all cases of RB and 8% of familial cases. The RB I gene also has been demonstrated to predispose to second nonocular malignancies, which are unrelated to the primary tumor and may occur in locations outside standard radiation ports. Most commonly these tumors are bone or soft tissue sarcomas, including osteo-, chondro- and fibrosarcomas or malignant fibrous histiocytomas. The prevalence of a second tumor in non irradiated areas is estimated to be 1 0% at 10 years of age and increases to 70% at 30 years with a cumulative life risk of 32% in bilateral RB survivors. Pathologically, RB is characterized by the presence of Winterstein rosettes ( neu­ ronal cells linning a central zone of polysaccharides) and fleurettes (flowerlike groups of cells which are markers of photoreceptor differentiation). Hower-Wright rosettes. a group of neuronal cells lining a central area of cobweb filaments. are found in other P ET and are not specific for retinal differentiation. RB is a small round cell tumor. Prominent foci of calcification are typical of this tumor and result from the formation of calcium complexes when DNA is released from necrotic cells. Areas of glial differentiation may also be seen in this tumor. Retinoblastomas metastasize in approximately 10% of patients. The most fre­ quent site is meningeal seeding via the subarachnoid space surrounding the optic nerve. Hematogeneous spread occurs primarily to the bone marrow and liver. Lym­ phatic spread to the preauricular, submandibular and internal jugular chains may occur.

Clinical Findings The most frequent presenting sign of retinoblastoma is leukocoria (60% of cases). Leukocoria, or white pupillary reflex, is a non pecific finding with an extensive dif­ ferential diagnosis, which includes, besides the pathologic conditions listed above. congenital cataracts and coloboma. I n these circum tances all efforts should be made to reach an accurate diagnosis. The importance is twofold: avoiding unneces­ sary enucleations for benign lesions and avoiding delayed diagnosis of RB, leading to increased mortality and precluding ocular salvage therapies. Other common presenting signs include strabismus and pain, secondary to closed angle glaucoma (when the tumor obstructs the irido-corneal angle). Decreased visual acujty, heterochromia iridis, hyphema and phthisis bulbi may develop with progression of the disease. Patients with trilateral RB may first present with headache and other symptoms of increased intracranial pressure, due to noncom­ municating hydrocephalus, in the absence of ocular symptoms. Ophthalmologic examination is the mainstay of the diagnosis, able to detecl tumor beyond the resolution of imaging, as small as 0.02mm. [t may also detect metastatic seeding of the vitreous. Limitations of ophthalmoscopy include the pres­ ence of hyphema, cataracts or vitreous hemorrhage, precluding visualization of the retina and evaluation of tumor extent beyond the globe. Ophthalmoscopic exami­ nation of the contralateral eye is mandatory. Screening of the progeny of patients with bilateral RB and genetic counseling should be provided. RB can be divided into four clinical stages, modified by Prat, et al: limited to the retina (stage I ) , extraretinal intraocular disease (stage I I), extraocular disease lim­ ited to the adnexal structures (stage I l l ) and extraocular disease with distant metas­ tasis (stage IV). A metastatic workup should be performed in clinically advanced

ORBIT A N D VISUAL PATHWAYSI lesions including a complete physical exam, liver function test, lumbar puncture and bone marrow aspirate.

I maging Findings In addition to helping in the differential diagnosis, imaging is mandatory in ad­ vanced lesions to determine local extent and evaluate for the presence of intracra­ nial disease or distant metastasis. Imaging modalities include US, CT and MRI for local disease, and liver and bone scanning to rule out metastatic involvement in advanced cases. The imaging appearance of RB depends on the size of the lesion and pattern of growth. Endophytic lesions are the most common, manifesting as a soft tissue mass protruding into the vitreous chamber, and sometimes associated with floating islands of tumor within the semiliquid vitreous and anterior chamber. The exophytic form appears as a soft tissue mass protruding into the subretinal space, causing reti­ nal detachment and sometimes invasion of the choroid. Finally, the diffuse, or en plaque, pattern is the hardest to recognize and manifests as diffuse retinal thicken­ ing, generally without calcification. The most common location of the tumor is the posterolateral aspect of the globe. The imaging hallmark of RB is the presence of calcification. Ocular US is a quick, inexpensive and readily accessible modality, well-suited for pediatric patients, because it does not involve ionizing radiation and does not re­ quire sedation. It easily separates solid from cystic masses and detects calcification. On US, RBs are usually depicted as echogenic masses protruding into the ane­ chogenic vitreous chamber and showing hyperechogenic foci with acoustic shadow­ ing, corresponding to calcification. Retinal detachment with subretinal fluid, and vitreous and anterior chamber seeding may also be depicted using this modality. Limitations include: ( 1 ) detection of en plaque and exophytic lesions, which cannot be separated from the echogenic ocular layers and retrobulbar fat, and (2) deter­ mining extraocular extent. CT is the most specific imaging modality due to its unique ability to detect calci­ fication as small as 2mm. On CT, RB manifests as a soft tissue mass, showing gross nodular or punctate calcification in 90% of cases. Endophytic lesions are usually lobular in shape and well marginated. Exophytic lesions, which grow subretinally, may mimic a chronic organized retinal detachment and be confused with other be­ nign diseases such as PHPV, ROP, Coat's disease, and larval endophthalmitis. En plaque lesions rarely calcify. A dense vitreous may result from seeding with neoplastic cells or hemorrhage. Extension along the optic nerve manifests as optic nerve enlargement. III-defined margins of the posterior aspect of the globe indicates extraocular invasion into the retrobulbar fat. Extraocular muscle enlargement and soft tissue masses within the orbit may also result from tumor growth. Extension along the optic pathway and subarachnoid seeding is best appreciated on M R I . A pineal or suprasellar enhanc­ ing mass, with or without associated hydrocephalus, makes the diagnosis of trilateral RE. Macrophthalmia is occasionally seen and results from anterior extension of the tumor, leading to obstruction of the irido-corneal angle and increased intraocular pressure. Due to its multi planar capability and high contrast resolution, M R l is the imag­ ing modality of choice to evaluate tumor extent and separate the solid neoplastic component from any associated subretinal fluid. Although M R I is less specific than CT, because of its lack of sensitivity for calcification, the signal characteristics of RB are specific enough to differentiate it from other pathologic conditions. RE is iso- to hyperintense of vitreous on Tl WI and hypointense on T2WI. It shows moderate to intense enhancement and may show areas of necrosis and calcification. The soft tissue mass is easily separated from any subretinal fluid, which is usually hyperin­ tense on both Tl WI and T2WI due to high protein content or hemorrhage. Only the

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AND VISUAL PATHWAYS solid neoplastic component enhances and violates anatomic landmarks such as the ora serrata and optic nerve head. M R l is the modality of choice for depiction of extraocular extent. I nvasion of the uveal tract may be depicted, and manifests as diffuse thickening of the ocular lay­ ers. Fat-suppressed, enhanced TI WI are especially useful in determining extention along the optic nerve. Enhanced TI WI are also necessary to depict metastatic seed­ ing of the vitreous chamber and subarachnoid space. M R I is also useful in the eval­ uation of patients with the noncalcified en plaque form of retinoblastoma. Imaging should be used in the follow-up of patients undergoing conservative therapies (ocular salvage ) and in patients with bilateral RB to allow for early detection of a third pineal or suprasellar tumor. which may occur in 8% of patients. AU pineal calcifications under 6 years of age should be viewed with suspicion and prompt a search for an associated ocular tumor. A metastatic imaging workup should be performed in patients with advanced disease (stages I I I and I V). includ­ ing enhanced M R I of the neuroaxis. and bone and liver scans. 10 the near future, immunoscintigraphy using monoclonal antibodies against membrane antigens. such as neural ceU adhesion molecule ( CAD) marked with gama emitters, may be used to target neoplastic cells and eventually to direct cyto­ toxic agents. Sometimes a differential diagnosis cannot be made based on clinical and imaging findings, and ocular FNA under imaging guidance may be required. eoplastic seed­ ing along the needle tract is a concern. The reliability of aqueous humor cytology following anterior chamber paracentesis is controversial, and therefore ocular enu­ cleation is still performed in cases were the diagnosis is in doubt.

Management Therapy and prognosis greatly depend on tumor extent and staging. When the dis­ ease extends beyond the globe (stages I I I and I V ) the mortality rate approaches 1 00% , while early disease. limited to the globe has a 5 year survival rate of 92% . Few cases of spontaneous regression of RB have been described in the literature. When the tumor is small, ocular salvage can be attained in 75% of cases. Conser­ vative techniques include external beam and episclera plaque radiation, cryother­ apy and photocoagulation. Enucleation is the therapy of choice for more advanced disease. Care should be taken to avoid spillage of the tumor into the orbit. and to remove all neoplastic tissue. This is because one of the worst prognostic factors in RB is the presence of tumor in the surgical margin (associated with a greater than 60% mortality rate) . The extent of optic nerve involvement may change the surgical approach. When ex­ tensive, it mandates a lateral canthotomy to facilitate maximal optic nerve removal. Disseminated disease has a dismal prognosis and responds poorly to systemic chemotherapy. Clinical and imaging follow-up of patients treated conservatively. and of patients with a family history, is recommended to detect recurrent disease or a third neoplasm, respectively.

Suggested Readings Ainbinder, OJ . Haik. B.G., Frei, D.F., Gupta, K.L.. Mafee. M.E Gadolinium en­ hancement: improved M R I detection of retinoblastoma extension into the optic nerve. Nellroradiology 38(8):778-8 1 , 1996 Nov. .

Amoaku, W.M., Willshaw, H.E., Parkes. S.E., Shah. KJ . Mann, J. R. Trilateral retinoblastoma. A report of five patients. Callcer 78(4):858-63. 1 996 Aug 1 5. Beets-Tan. R.G. . Hendriks, M.J., Ramos, L . M .. Tan. K.E. Retinoblastoma: CT and M R I . Neuroradiology 36( 1 ):59-62. 1 994. .

De Potter, 1'.. Flanders, A.E., Shields, J.A., Shields, c.L., Gonzales. C.F.. Rao. Y.M. The role of fat-suppression technique and gadopentetate dimeglumine in magnetic

ORBIT AND VISUAL PATHWAYSI PEARLS/PITFALLS •

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RB appears as a calcified retro­ lental mass, most commonly seen in children. In RB, the retinal mass appears hyperintense on T1 WI and hy­ pointense on TIWI , and is easily differentiated from subretinal fluid.

Frequency selective fat suppres­ sion imaging (FATSAT) en­ hanced T1 WI should be per­ formed to determine extraocular extent. Follow-up of familial and bilat­ eral cases should be done to look for a possible pineal suprasel­ lar neoplasm. OT

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Care should be taken to avoid failing to recognize a bilateral tumor. Avoid making a otisdiagnosis for a benign condition. Care should be taken to avoid not recognizing extraocular ex­ tent. which mandates more radi­ cal surgery. Take care not to fail to consider noncalcified en plaque form in older children with leukokoria.

resonance imaging evaluation of intraocular tumors and simulating lesions [see comments]. Archives of Opluhalmology 1 1 2(3):340-8, 1 994 Mar. Karcioglu, Z.A., al-Mesfer, S.A., Abboud, E., Jabak, M.H., Mullaney, P.B. Workup for metastatic retinoblastoma. A review of 261 patients. Ophthalmology 1 04(2):307- 1 2, 1997 Feb. Potter, P.O., Shields, CL., Shields, lA., Flanders, A.E. The role of magnetic reso­ nance imaging in children with intraocular tumors and simulating lesions. Ophthal· mology 1 03( 1 1 ): 1 774-83, 1 996 Nov. Ramji, EG., Siovis, T.L., Baker, J.D. Orbital sonography in children. Pediatric Radi­ ology 26(4):245-58, 1 996.

Skulski, M., Egelhoff, J.C, Kollias, S.S., Mazewski, C, Ball, WS. Jr. Trilateral retinoblastoma with suprasellar involvement. Neu.roradiology 39( 1 ):41 -3, 1 997 Jan. Smirniotopoulos, IG., Bargallo, N., Mafee, M.F. Differential diagnosis of leukokoria: radiologic-pathologic correlation. Radiographies 14(5): 1 059-79, quiz 1081-2, 1 994 Sep. Tarlton, J.E, Easty, D.L. Applications of monoclonal antibodies in the investigation, diagnosis, and treatment of retinoblastoma. British Journal of Ophthalmology 77( 1 2):805- 1 2 , 1 993 Dec.

VI. Oral Cavity and Oropharynx

o O ROPH A RYNX1

Case 51 Clinical Presentation An adult female pre ented with a 5-year history of a swelling of the floor of her mouth combined with pain during swallowing (Fig. 51-A).

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Radiologic Findings A n axial T I -wcighted image ( Fig. 5 1 -B )

hows a rounded well defined central

2 x 3 em mass in the po terior lOngue. The mass shows a high signal inten ity com­

pared w i t h l he normal muscle of the longu . -nlC 'agi llal T I W view ( Fig. 5 1 - ) sh w similar findi ngs. The radiolabclled i dine [ 1 - 1 3 I J l udy ( Fig. 5 1 - D ) show

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ORAL CAVITY AND OROPHARYNXI increased activity within the mass and no normal thyroid activity. (Images courtesy Dr. Thomas Vogl.)

Differential Diagnosis: Midline Tongue Mass • • • • • • • •

Lingual thyroid Dermoid Thyroglossal duct cyst Atypical carcinoma Lingual tonsil Hemangioma Schwan noma Atypical ranula

Diagnosis Lingual thyroid

Discussion Pathophysiology The primordial thyroid forms an epithelial Lined tube known as the thyroglossal duct (see thyroglossal duct cyst). TIle embryologic thyroid tissue arises within the foramen cecum (behind the circum vallate papillae of the tongue) and descends along the hyoid bone to the thyroid isthmus. The thyroid gland normally traverses the length of the thyroglossal duct to reach its final position anterolateral to the trachea. This migration may be arrested at any point. When the thyroid fails to migrate below the tongue it is known as a lingual thyroid. Even with a normal appear­ ing thyroid gland, residual thyroid tissue may appear anywhere along the thy­ roglossal duct. The reported incidence of ectopic tissue along the tract varies from 0.5-35.0% .

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A lingual thyroid can be located anywhere along t hyroglossal duct. All thyroid pathologies may oc­ cur in ectopic tissue, ie. carci­ noma, etc. Always perform 1 - 1 3 1 scan prior to surgery to identify if other normal thyroid tissue is present. Always assume that a patient has normally located thyroid tissue after lingual thyroid resection.

Clinical Findings Patients may present with an asymptomatic posterior reddish tongue base mass. The incidence of lingula thyroid is slightly higher in women than men.

I maging Findings On M R l , the lingual thyroid appears as a relatively homogeneous midline mass below the foramen cecum. On CT scanning, the ectopic thyroid has the same x-ray increased attenuation features (due to intrinsic iodine) found in normally located thyroid tissue. Images in a second patient show typical focal increased attenuation in the area of ectopic (lingual) thyroid tissue. Figure 5 1 -E shows an axial noncon­ trast CT view. The coronal noncontrast CT view can be seen in Figure 5 1-F. Radiolabelled iodine may be used to define the location of the active thyroid tissue (Fig. 5 1 -D).

Manage ment If surgery is contemplated, a radiolabeled iodine scan should be performed to con­ firm the presence of other normally functioning tissue elsewhere in the neck (Fig. 5 1 -D). It should also be remembered that all of the pathological conditions that may be found in normally located thyroid tissue, may also occur in ectopic thyroid tissue (such as carcinoma, etc.).

Suggested Readings Douglas, P.S., Baker, A.w. Lingual thyroid. Brirish Journal of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery 32(2) : 1 23-4, 1 994 Apr. Giovagnorio, F., Cordier, A., Romeo, R Lingual thyroid: value of integrated imag­ ing. European Radiology 6( 1 ) : 1 05-7, 1 996. Hsu, c.Y., Wang, SJ. Thyroid hemiagenesis accompanying an ectopic sublingual thy­ roid. Clinical Nuclear Medicine 1 9(6):546, 1 994 Jun. Jayaram, G., Kakar, A., Prakash, R Papillary carcinoma arising in sublingual ectopic thyroid concentrating both Tc-99m pertechnetate and 1-1 3 1 . Diagnosis by fine nee­ dle aspiration cytology. Clinical Nuclear Medicine 20(4):381-3, 1995 Apr. Vogl, T., B rUning, R, G revers, G, et. al. MR Imaging of the oropharynx and tongue: comparison of plain and Gd-DTPA studies. Journal of Compurer Assisred Tomogra­ phy 1 2:427-433, 1 988. Vogl, T., Mees, K., Muhling, M., Lissner, 1. Magnetic resonance imaging in diagnos­ ing diseases of the neck. HospimedicaI 1 7-23, 1 987 Jan/Feb.

ORAL CAVITY AND OROPHARYNXI

Case 52 Clinical Presentation A 26-year-old female presented with a long term history of swelling in the floor of her mouth.

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Radiologic Findings A well-defined midline mass in the floor of the mouth, appears hyperintense rela­ tive to muscle on Tl -weighted images (Fig. 52-A). The coronal image shows the mass to be located superior to the geniohyoid muscle and between the genioglossus muscles, elevating the tongue. The increased signal on T l -weighted images may be due to a combination of lipid content and/or complex proteinaceous fluid. An en­ hanced CT scan also shows the mass (Fig. 52-B). ( Images courtesy of Dr. Edward Kassel.)

Differential Diagnosis: Cystic FO M Mass • • • •

Ranula Dermoid cyst Thyroglossal duct cyst Abscess

I ORAL

CAVITY AND OROPHARYNX • • •

Cystic salivary gland neoplasm Cystic hygroma Necrotic neoplasm

Diagnosis Dermoid cyst of the floor of the mouth (sublingual).

D iscussion Dermoid cysts are epithelial-lined cavities with associated skin appendages, includ­ ing hair, hair follicles, and sebaceous glands. The epithelial tissue usually arises from embryonic rests and occasionally from traumatic or iatrogenic implantation. Of der­ moid cysts of the head and neck, 25% occur in the oral cavity, usually in the ante­ rior floor of the mouth.

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A dermoid cyst appears as a well circumscribed, anterior, midline mass on M R . A dermoid cyst may contain fat globules, hair, fluid, keratin de­ bris and/or calcification. Imaging findings for dermoid cysts can be variable. The clinician must beware not to confuse a dermoid cyst with a ranula. The clinician must beware not to confuse a dermoid cyst with a cystic neoplasm.

They are invariably midline and may be found either above the mylohyoid in the sublingual space or below it in the submental space. Sublingual dermoids may raise the tongue and simulate a ranula. Submental space dermoids present as a neck mass.

Pathophysiology The term "dermoid cyst" is used to describe three histologically distinct types of cysts in the head and neck. Most are localized to the orbit, oral cavity, and sinonasal regions. The more common epidermoid cysts are lined with simple squamous cell epithelium and contain no skin appendage. Rare teratoid cysts contain derivatives of skin appendages, endoderm and mesoderm. All three types of cysts may contain a cheesy keratinaceous material.

Clinical Findings Dermoid cysts of the oral cavity usually present in the midline anterior floor of the mouth in the second or third decades. Such cysts may be either acquired implanta­ tions or congenital enclaves of tissue and are subclassified into sublingual and sub­ mental varieties. Sublingual dermoids are superior to the mylohyoid muscle, splitting the midline extrinsic tongue muscles (geniohyoid-genioglossus complex) to occupy the floor of the mouth. Less frequently the sublingual cyst may be laterally located displacing the geniohyoid complex medially. M R I scans of other patients with sublingual der­ moid cysts are seen in Figures 52-C and 52-D. Note the variable appearance. A coro­ nal Tl W I shows decreased signal within the mass (Fig. 52-C). An axial TIWI shows increased signal (Fig. 52-D). Submental dermoids lie inferior to the mylohyoid muscle, between it and the platysma, and tend to present as an anterior neck mass. Either type may elevate the tongue, interfere with deglutition, or grow to a large size and present as a sub­ mandibular mass. An axial CT scan of another patient with a multilocular submen­ tal dermoid cyst can be seen in Figure 52-E.

I maging Findings Dermoids tend to lie anterior to the foramen cecum region, which make a thy­ roglossal duct cyst less likely. They appear well circumscribed. Dermoid cysts may contain various amounts of hair, calcification, fluid, and/or fat. Dermoid tumors are typically hyperintense on T 1-weighted images and less in­ tense on TI-weighted images due to the short Tl and intermediate TI caused by the high lipid content within the cyst. Other tumors have demonstrated variable degrees of Tl and T2 lengthening, related to a variety of contained elements, or areas of sig­ nal void, if regions of dense focal calcification are present. Tumors rich in keratin de­ bris have long T1 and TI signal i ntensities, whereas tumors rich in cholesterin (lipid) have short T1 signal intensities that fade on TI-weighted images. Some cysts may show a characteristic fluid level on MRI. If a portion of the fluid within dermoid cysts is rich in lipids, a chemical shift artifact will be generated in the direction of the frequency-encoding gradient. On cr imaging, dermoid cysts appear as rounded, well-circumscribed, low density masses that may appear multi-loculated or contain fat and calcific densities as well as fluid.

Suggested Reading Batsakis, 1.G. Tumors of the head and neck: clinical and pathological considerations, 2nd ed. Baltimore: Wiliams and Wilkins, 226-228, 1 979. Davidson, H . D., Ouchi, T., Steiner, R.E. N M R imaging of congenital i ntracranial germinal layer neoplasms. Neuroradiology 27:301-303, 1 985.

I ORAL

CAVITY AND OROPHARYNX Dillon, W.P., Miller, E.M. Cervical soft tissues. In: Newton, T.H., Hasso, A.N., Dillon, W.P., ed. Modern Neuroradiology, vol. 3: Computed tomography of {he head and neck. New York: Raven Press, 1 1 .3 1- 1 1 .33, 1 988. Hunter, T.B., Palplanus, S.H., Chernin, M . M . , Coulthara, S.W. Dermoid cyst of the floor of the mouth: CT appearance. AJR 1 4 1 : 1 239-1 240, 1 983.

ORAL CAVITY AND OROPHARYNXI

Case 53 Clinical Presentation The patient presented with a painless fullness in the floor of the mouth.

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Radiologic Findings The axial CT scan with contrast shows a cystic mass in the right sublingual space. There is no associated soft tissue mass or mandibular involvement (Fig. 53-A). The coronal view confirms these findings and shows that the mass does not involve the submandibular space (Fig. 53-B).

Differential D iagnosis: Cyst of the Lateral Floor of the Mouth Region • • • • • • •

Simple ranula Plunging ranula Epidermoid/dermoid Cystic hygroma Atypical thyroglossal duct cyst Atypical branchial cleft cyst Abscess

Diagnosis Simple ranula

I ORAL

CAVITY AND OROPHARYNX

D iscussion A ranula is a mucous retention cyst of the subLingual salivary gland. The name is de­ rived from rana, the Latin word for frog, most likely because the lesion may clini­ cally resemble a frog's belly. A ranula can occur in two forms. A simple ranula is con­ fined to the sublingual space and often presents as intraoral mass lesions (Fig. 53-C, image left). A diving or plunging ranula is a simple ranula that has herniated either around or through the mylohyoid muscle to escape the sublingual space (Fig. 53-C,

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A simple ranula is a retention cyst located in the sublingual space.

image right). I t usually results from the rupture of a simple ranula. Plunging ranu­ lae extend into the submandibular space and present as a submandibular or neck mass.

Pathophysiology

A plunging ranula is a pseudo­ cyst which extends to the sub­ mandibular space or neck.

Ranulae are simple mucous retention cysts of the sublingual glands arising in the sublingual space. The simple ranula is a true cyst whereas the plunging ranula is a pseudocyst.

It's important not to confuse ran­ ulae with other lesions.

Clinical Findings A simple ranula typically presents as an i ntraoral mass. The diagnosis is often made clinically. A plunging ranula presents as a submandibular or neck mass and may have no clinically apparent oral connection.

I maging Findings M R I or CT may be used to study these lesions. Ultrasound has also been used by some experts to evaluate patients with this condition. The contents of the cyst are of the density of water unless they are studied during an acute episode of infection or recent hemorrhage. MR images show the lesion with signal intensity varying according to protein content or the presence of hemorrhage (Fig. 53-0, arrow). On CT or M R I , ranulae usually show an enhancing lining following contrast injection because they are frequently associated with inflammation. Ranulae may occasion­ ally cross the midline on either side of the frenulum.

Management These lesions are treated surgically by complete resection. Imaging studies may be valuable to define the entire extent of disease which may not be apparent based on c1injcal examination alone.

Suggested Readings Coit, W.E. et al. Ranulas and their mimics: CT evaluation Radiology 163:21 1-2 1 6, 1 987. Davison, MJ., Morton, R.P., Mcivor, N.P. Plunging ranula: clinical observations. Head and Neck 20(1 ):63-8, 1 998 Jan. Garcaia, c.J., Flores, P.A., Arce, J.D., Chuaqui, B., Schwartz, D.s. Ultrasonography in the study of salivary gland lesions in children Pediatric Radiology 28(6):41 8-25, 1 998 Jun. Morton, R.P., Bartley, J.R . Simple sublingual ranulas: pathogenesis and manage­ ment. Journal of Otolaryngology 24(4):253-4, 1 995 Aug.

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Case 54 Clinical Presentation A 45-year-old male was referred for evaluation of a right sided tongue mass.

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Radiologic Findings On T2-weighted, non-contrast images ( Fig. 54-A), the right side of the tongue ap­ pears of higher signal intensity than normal tongue muscles. In addition, there is a posterior bulge extending into the airway on the right. Coronal post contrast images (Fig. 54-B) show less contrast between the lesion and the healthy tongue. The process is strictly unilateral without any signs of infiltration or displacement of sur­ rounding tissues.

D ifferential Diagnosis: Tongue Assymetry • • •

Post operative changes: post partial glossectomy Hypoglossal denervation atrophy Floor of mouthltongue neoplasm

D iagnosis Hypoglossal denervation atrophy.

D iscussion H ypoglossal nerve (cranial nerve X I I ) palsy is uncommon. Damage to this nerve produces characteristic manifestations, of which unilateral atrophy of the tongue musculature is the most important. Patients with this disorder have characteristic

ORAL CAVITY AND OROPHARY N XI clinical and imaging findings which should be recognized at the time of presenta­ tion.

Pathophysiology The hypoglossal nerve is the motor nerve of the tongue musculature. The hypoglos­ sal nerve leaves the skull base through the hypoglossal canal medially and above the occipital condyle, close to the anterior rim of the foramen magnum. Beyond the skull base, the hypoglossal nerve is joined by motor nerves from the CI -C2 roots of the ansa cervicalis. These cervical branches proceed unmodified to the geniohyoid muscle and do not exchange fibers with the hypoglossal nerve. Therefore, depend­ ing on the site of the lesion, the geniohyoid muscle may or may not be spared. The mylohyoid muscles and anterior bellies of the digastrics remain unaffected with hypoglossal palsy. When such findings of muscular fatty infiltration are present on cr and MRI, a lesion along the course of the ipsilateral hypoglossal nerve from the tongue to the brainstern should be excluded. In one large series of patients from a large public hospital over 26 years, almost half of the patients presenting with hypoglossal palsy were found to have a malignant tumor as the cause.

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Unilateral atrophy of extrinsic and intrinsic tongue musculature is the most important manifesta­ tion of hypoglossal denervation atrophy. Flaccidity may create a c1inicaUy confusing ipsilateral pseudomass appearance on the lesion. Fifty percent of the cases pre­ senting with xn nerve palsy may be a result of a malignant tumor. Take care not to mistake xn nerve palsy pseudo mass for a tumor. Do not fail to evaluate the course of the X I I nerve for the primary cause of atrophy.

Clinical Findings The clinical appearance of hypoglossal palsy may range from obvious atrophy in severe cases to slight muscle fasciculations in early or mild involvement, which may only be noticed by close friends or lovers. In the earliest stages, it may present with muscular edema. Muscular wasting will occur after 2-3 weeks in any peripheral le­ sion to a motor nerve. Permanent damage leads to muscle atrophy and replacement of the muscle fibers by fat and fibrous tissue. Unilateral hypoglossal nerve palsy results in selective atrophy of the muscles innervated by the twelfth cranial nerve which are the intrinsic and extrinsic tongue muscles. The resulting flaccidity of the muscles can result in a pseudomass on the side of the lesion.

Imaging Findings Both computed tomography and magnetic resonance imaging are useful in assess­ ing dysfunction of the hypoglossal nerve. The choice depends on the status of the patient and the preference of the radiologist. I n either case the appearance is char­ acteristic, with increased fatty infiltrations surrounding the atrophic muscles with sparing of the uninvolved groups (Fig.54-C). Figure 54-0 shows marked atrophy of the genioglossus muscles on the involved side when compared to the other. Atrophy of the intrinsic muscles of the tongue caused by paresis of the hypoglos­ sal nerve leads to prolonged Tl and T2 relaxation times in a characteristic unilateral pattern. When these features are recognized, the radiologist, armed with knowledge of the normal anatomy of the area, can focus on each segment of the nerve in search of a cause. The hypoglossal nerve may be divided into five segments: the medullary, cisternal, skull base, nasopharyngeal/oropharyngeal carotid space, and sublingual segments. Because each segment is usually affected by different disorders, localizing a lesion to a particular segment allows the radiologist to narrow the differential di­ agnosis. Figure 54-E shows characteristic denervation atrophy of the right hemiglos­ sus due to a large glomus tumor in the nasopharyngeal/oropharyngeal carotid space segment of the hypoglossal nerve.

Suggested Readings Keane, J.R. Twelfth-nerve palsy. Analysis of 1 00 cases. A rchives of Neurology 53(6):5 6 1 -6, 1 996 Jun. Thompson, E.O., Smoker, w.R . Hypoglossal nerve palsy: a segmental approach. Ra­ diographies 1 4(5):939-58, 1 994 Sep.

ORAL CAVITY A N D OROPHARYNX1

Case 55 Clinical Presentation A previously healthy 50-year-old female presented with a 3-month history of pro­ gressive soreness of her tongue, dysphagia, and left neck fullness. The patient admitted to a long history of tobacco use (3-4 cigars/day).

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Radiologic Findings The axial Tl-weighted image shows a mass in the left base of the tongue that ex­ tends posteriorly into the airway (Fig. 55-A). Notice that the tumor appears isoill­ tense with the normal musculature of the tongue. The TI-weighted axial image shows increased signal intensity in the mass which now is easily distinguished from adjacent muscle (Fig. 55-B).

Differential D iagnosis: Solid Tongue B ase Mass • • • • •

Squamous ceU carcinoma Lingual thyroid Hemangioma Dermoid Lymphoma 247 1

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Diagnosis Squamous ceU carcinoma involving the base of the left tongue with adenop­ athy.

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Discussion Epide miology The most common malignant tumor of the oral cavity and oropharynx is squamous cell carcinoma, accounting for over 90% of malignant neoplasms. In spite of their common histology, the behavior of individual tumors depends on their location in the mouth. In general, a "malignant gradient" and likelihood of metastases increases with a more posterior location in the oral cavity. Anterior lesions (carcinoma of the lips, buccal mucosa, gingiva, alveolar mucosa, and anterior tongue) are generally moderately to well differentiated and metasta­ size relatively late to regional nodes (submandibular nodes). They are also relatively easy to evaluate clinically, and therefore, CT and MR imaging have limited useful­ ness in this area. Carcinomas of the floor of the mouth, on the other hand, are usually moderately to poorly differentiated and metastasize early to bilateral regional (submandibular, sublingual, and high jugular) nodes. Figure 55-C shows a more anterior floor of mouth carcinoma. Tumors of the base of the tongue (posterior 1 /3) tend to be diag­ nosed at a more advanced stage than tumors of the oral (anterior 2/3) tongue. Tongue base cancers tend to be more aggressive than those of the oral tongue. Their poorer prognosis is also due to overall larger size and increased incidence of nodal metastasis at the time of diagnosis. Approximately 70% of patients with tongue base tumors present with advanced disease (stage I I I or I V ) compared with 30% of pa­ tients with carcinomas of the oral tongue. Tongue base cancers may spread laterally to involve the mandible, anteriorly to involve the oral tongue, and inferiorly to involve the preepiglottic space and supraglottic larynx. Lymphatic spread may oc­ cur bilaterally to submandibular, sublingual, and high jugular nodes. The presence of nodal disease affects the staging of tumors, the patient's overall prognosis, and whether a nodal dissection will be performed with the primary sur­ gical resection. High in the neck and deep to the sternocleidomastoid muscle, adenopathy can be inaccessible to palpation and is best evaluated with an imaging study. When the carotid artery is involved with a tumor, the chance for a primary surgical cure is greatly reduced, and the overall treatment of the patient must be reevaluated. MR images can show to what extent the vessel in question is sur­ rounded by the tumor. As well, when a tumor extends to the mandible, the like­ lihood of a cure by radiation therapy is greatly reduced, and surgery must be considered. Although the dense cortical bone of the mandible produces no signal on M R images, M R I can still resolve tumor involvement of this structure. An adjacent tumor with replacement of the normal low signal of cortical bone is evidence of tumor invasion.

Pathophysiology Squamous cell carcinoma account for over 90% of malignant neoplasms of the oral cavity and oropharynx. Adenocarcinoma, lymphoma, minor salivary gland malignancies, and other rare neoplasms account for the remaining 1 0% . The three major risk factors associated with tumors of squamous cell origin in this region of the head and neck have long been recognized. They are tobacco, alcohol, and syphillis.

Clinical Findings It is often difficult to clinically evaluate the deep floor of the mouth and tongue base, because deep palpation of this area often causes gagging and retching, and is intolerable to most patients. Therefore, CT and especially M R imaging play an im­ portant role in identifying lesions and determining tumor extent.

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CAVITY AND OROPHARYNX

Imaging Findings Carcinoma tends to have a low signal intensity (long T l ) on T l -weighted images, which makes it difficult to differentiate from normal musculature. On TI-weighted images, the tumor has varying degrees of high signal intensity, which allows sharp differentiation of the tumor from the low intensity surrounding muculature. Nor­ mal lymphoid tissue also has increased signal on TI-weighted images that may be confused with the tumor. TIle lack of infiltration helps to separate this benign process. The excellent tissue differentiation and spatial resolution of MRI allow the detection of tumor spread along tissue planes, vascular channels, and muscle bundles. Since the definite diagnosis of cancer is obtained primarily by biopsy, the role of CT and MRJ is to provide an accurate staging work-up in planning therapy. It is clin­ ically important to determine whether the tumor has spread over the midline of the lingular septum, to the mandible, and to the pharynx. The determination of sparing or involvement of the lingual artery and hypoglossal nerve predicts the appropri­ ateness of partial or hemiglossectomy. TIle main bulk of a tongue base cancer is usually of high density and encroaches to varying degrees on the low density of the intrinsic musculature beneath the base of the tongue. Tumor masses may ulcerate or form bulky masses that change the configuration of the tongue. On the other hand, it is surprising bow frequently tbe tumors may infiltrate widely without producing appreciable changes in the volume of the tongue base. As the tumors extend slightly further cephalad and anteriorly beneath the bori­ zontal intrinsic muscle plane, they encroach on the two bundles of the genioglossus muscle. Remembering that the main bulk of the tongue is formed by this paired genioglossus muscle, most tumors involve the genioglossus muscle to some extent. The genioglossus is always separated by a midline low-density raphe. If this low­ density region is obliterated, it is a reliable sign of infiltration across the midline by a tumor mass. The two bundles of the genioglossus should be quite symmetrical and their fan­ shaped course from caudad to cephalad is also an exceLlent landmark on coronal and sagittal scanning. Anteriorly and to either side of the genioglossus muscles are broad low-density planes between it and the mylohyoid muscles. I n this groove lie the sublingual salivary glands and the duct of the submandibular gland. Infiltrating lesions of the floor of the mouth or extension of the tumor into the mobile tongue will obliterate these low-density planes. The sagittal and coronal MR images are superb for giving a volume determina­ tion of any tumor lying within the tongue and floor of the mouth. Equally impor­ tant is the anatomical fact of obliteration of fascial planes and muscle bundles. The spatial information found on axial images (Figs. 55-C-55-D) is supple­ mented by coronal images (Fig. 55-E) of an anterior right sided floor of mouth carcinoma.

Management Both surgery and radiation therapy are used for treating lesions in this area. The hy­ poglossal nerve and the lingual nerve pass along the surface of the deep lobe of the submandibular gland to penetrate the base of the tongue. Lying between the inter­ digitation of the styloglossus and hyoglossus muscles, are the lingual artery and veins. The fascial planes surrounding the artery and vein are loose and serve as an avenue for anterior extension of tumors of the tongue base. 1l1is region should be carefully scrutinized because tumors are frequently found infiltrating adjacent to the vessels. I n addition, an important surgical consideration is the preservation of one hypoglossal nerve and one lingual artery and vein (Lufkin et aI, 1 986). If tumor infiltration is present about both of these vessels, hemiglossectomy is usually not possible.

ORAL CAVITY AND OROPHARYNXI

PEARLS/PITFALLS •

There is more malignant behav­ ior with posterior lesions of the mouth.

•

The status of midline, carotid artery, and mandible are impor­ tant when determining treat­ ment.

•

Take care not to overlook sup­ traglottic larynx extension.

Suggested Readings Arakawa, A., Tsuruta, 1., Nishimura, R., Sakamoto, Y, Korogi, Y , Baba, Y , Furusawa, M., lshimaru, Y, Uji, Y , Taen, A., et al. Lingual carcinoma. Correlation of M R imaging with histopathological findings. Acta Radiologica 37(5):700-7, 1 996 Sep. Crecco, M., Vidiri, A., Palma, 0., Floris, R., Squillaci, E., Mattioli, M., Marzetti, E T stages of tumors of the tongue and floor of the mouth: correlation between M R with gadopentetate dimeglumine and pathologic data. American Journal of Neuro­ radiology 1 5(9): 1 695-702, 1 994 Oct. Lufkin, R.B., Wortham, D.G., Dietrich, R.B., et al. Tongue on M R imaging. Radiology 1 6 1 :69-75, 1 986.

and

oropharynx: findings

Sigal, R., Zagdanski, A.M., Schwaab, G., Bosq, J., Auperin, A., Laplanche, A., Francke, J. P , Eschwege, E, Luboinski, B., Vanel, D? and M R imaging of squamous cell carcinoma of the tongue and floor of the mouth. Radiographics 1 6(4):787-810, 1996 luI. Yasumoto, M., Shibuya, H., Takeda, M., Korenaga, T. Squamous cell carcinoma of the oral cavity: M R findings and value of Tl-versus T2-weighted fast spin-echo images. A merican Journal of Roentgenology 1 64(4):98 1 -7, 1 995 Apr.

VII. Salivary Glands

SALIVARY G LANDSI

Case 56 Clinical Presentation A 35-year-old female presented with a painless left-sided cheek mass. On clinical exam a non tender, nonmobile, soft, 2-cm mass was palpated in the left buccomas­ setric region. The left facial nerve was intact.

A

B Radiologic Findings An M R I of the parotids: (Fig. 56-A) axial T1 WI and (Fig. 56-B) axial TIWI through the parotid glands shows a 2-cm mass, located laterally to the left masseter muscle and caudal to Stenson's duct, following the signal characteristics of the parotid gland parenchyma.

Differential Diagnosis: Unilateral Cheek Mass •

•

•

•

Pseudomass: masseteric hypertrophy, accessory parotid gland, facial process of the parotid gland Infection/Inflammatory: abscess of the masticator or buccal space, sialocele (obstruction of stenson's duct), lymphadenopathy Benign tumors: hemangioma/ Lymphangioma, lipoma, rhabdomyoma, neural sheath tumors (neurofibroma/ schwan noma) , nodular fasciitis/ aggressive fibro­ matosis, salivary gland tumors (pleomorphic adenoma, Warthin's tumor, oncocy­ toma) Malignant tumors: sarcomas (fibro/chondr% steosarcoma), salivary gland malig­ nancies (adenoid cystic and mucoepidermoid carcinomas), rhabdomyosarcoma, liposarcoma

ISALIVARY G LANDS

Diagnosis Acces ory parotid gland

Discussion Epidemiology Acce ory parotid gland are a frequent finding in the general population. The reported incidence in autop y tudies vary from 20 to 50% . Thi accessory parotid ti ue may be un i- or bilateral and ha a similar incidence in male and females. The size of this acce ory parotid ti ue i variable but does noi generally surpass 3 cm in maximal diameter.

c

1 256

D

SALIVARY GLANDSI

Pathophysiology Accessory parotid glands are composed of salivary tissue which is completely sepa­ rated from the bulk of the parotid g.land proper. It is usually located anterior to the superficial lobe of the parotid gland, lateral to the masseter muscle and superior to Stenson's duct. It drains into this duct via a variable number of tributary accessory ducts. The accessory tissue appears to originate from embryologic remnants of parotid gland tissue that are left over when encapsulation of the gland occurs. Although congenital in origin, this tissue is usually not apparent at birth and grows later in life, eventually presenting in adulthood as a palpable mass. Pathologically, this salivary tissue is identical to that of the parotid gland of chil­ dren, containing mixed acini, both serous and mucinous, as opposed to the parotid gland proper in adults, which contains only serous acini. This accessory salivary tissue is susceptible to the same pathologic processes that affect the parotid gland. The most frequent benign neoplasm occuring in the acces­ sory parotid gland is a pleomorphic adenoma. On an M R I of the parotid glands, the axial T1 WI ( Fig. 56-C) and (Fig. 56-D) axial T2WI shows a 2.3-cm mass along the course of the Stenson's duct, anterior to the parotid gland proper, and lateral to the masseter muscle. Note the different signal characteristics between this mass and the parotid gland parenchyma. A coronal T I WI (Fig. 56-E) shows accessory parotid gland tissue in the contralateral side and the mass on the right with slightly differ­ ent T l W signal intensity. Diagnosis: B ilateral accessory parotid gland tissue. Pleo­ morphic adenoma arising from the right accessory parotid tissue. However, the incidence of malignant neoplasms is similar to that of minor salivary glands (approximately 50% ) and there is a preponderance of mucoepidermoid carcinoma over adenoid cystic carcinoma, as is seen in children. This again is explained by the histologic composition of the accessory salivary tissue. One to 7% of all parotid gland tumors occur in accessory parotid glands. I n flammatory pathology such as sialoceles, resulting from obstruction of the draining accessory ducts or Stenson's duct, and chronic sialoadenitis may also be seen.

F

I SALIVARY

GLANDS

PEARLS/PITFALLS •

•

•

•

An accessory parotid gland pre­ sents as a non tender soft tissue mass in the buccomasseteric re­ gion. An accessory parotid gLand is a soft tissue mass, Located Lateral to the masseter, anterior and clearLy separate from the parotid proper, with the same tissue ar­ chitecture as the parotid gLand. Care should be taken not to mis­ take the facial process of the parotid gLand for accessory parotid tissue. Do not mistake accessory parotid tissue for a pathologic process.

Clinical Findings: Patients usually present with a palpable, painless mass in the cheek which is fre­ quently felt after some form of facial trauma tbat cells their attention to that region. On clinical exam a soft, non tender and nonmobile mass is palpated in the bucco­ masseteric region, witbin the middle third of a line drawn from the tragus to the inferior border of the nasal ala. The absence of mobility is due to the medial at­ tachment of the accessory parotid tissue to the masseteric fascia. Clinically, the diagnosis is not readily apparent, as the findings mimic any other mass lesion in the masticator or buccal space.

Imaging Findings Imaging is crucial in the diagnosis of pseudomasses of the buccomasseteric region. Sialography, US, cr and M R I can all establish the diagnosis. Sialography usually demonstrates accessory ducts draining into the superior aspect of Stenson's duct, but may not clearly separate an facial process of the parotid gland proper from true accesory parotid tissue. US, cr and MRl aLI demonstrate a soft tissue mass lateral to the masseter muscle, anterior and clearly separate from the superficial lobe of the parotid gland, with the same tissue architecture as the parotid gland. On an enhanced CT (Fig. 56-F) of the parotid glands, the axial section through the parotid glands shows bilateral anterior extensions of normal parotid gland tissue overlying the lateral aspect of the masseter muscle. Note that this tissue is contiguous with the parotid gland proper. M R l , due to its higher contrast resolution and multi planar capability, is the method of choice to diagnose this situation. The normal accessory gland tissue shows the same signal characteristics as the parotid proper on both T 1 W and T2W images. Correlation of both axial and coronal sections, free of den­ tal artifacts, shows the separation from the parotid proper to advantage. An acces­ sory parotid gland is frequently an incidental finding on studies performed for unrelated reasons and has no clinical significance other than the potential confusion with pathologic processes.

Management o therapy is required if there are no pathologic abnormalities in the accessory sali­ vary tissue. Resection may be required for cosmesis. When performing surgery, a preauricular approach is preferred i n order to protect Stenson's duct and the buc­ cal branch of the facial nerve from i njury.

Suggested Readings Horii, A., Honjo, Y, Nose, M., Ozaki, M., Yoshida, 1. Accessory parotid gland tumor: a case report. Auris, Nasus, Larynx 24( 1 ): 1 05-10, 1 997. Nemecek, 1.R., Marzek, P.A., Young, Y.L. Diagnosis and treatment of accessory parotid gland masses. Annals of Plastic Surgery 33( 1 ):75-9, 1 994 Jul. Tart, RP, Kotzur, I.M., Mancuso, A.A., Glantz, M .S., Mukherji, S.K. CT and MR imaging of the buccal space and buccal space masses. Radiographies \ 5(3):53 \ -50, 1 995 May.

SALIVARY G LANDSI

C ase 57 Clinical Presentation The patient presented with swelling and tenderness in the left cheek region that was exacerbated with eating.

A

Radiologic Findings Figure 57-A is an axial CT scan which shows increased density of the left parotid gland compared to the assymptomatic side. I n addition, a small area of calcification is present on the right, near the entry point of Stensen's duct into the gland.

Differential Diagnosis: Painful Swelling of Single Salivary Gland with Eating • • •

Sialolithiasis Small carcinoma causing obstruction . Other causes of functional stricture of salivary gland duct.

D iagnosis Sialolithiasis of the left parotid gland

ISALIVARY GLANDS

c

D

SALIVARY GLANDSI

Discussion Epidemiology Over 80% of salivary gland stones are found i n the submandibular gland. Ten to fifteen percent occur in the parotid gland and the remainder occur in the sublingual glands. Most are solitary with less than 25% being m u ltiple. The three common locations of submandibular sialolithiasis are the ductal opening into the mouth (30% ) , the posterior edge of the myohyoid muscle (35% ), and the mid portion of the duct (25% ) . A stone within the gland itself or the hilum is rare.

Pathophysiology TIle higher incidence of submandibular stones is believed to be due to several fac­ tors: ( 1 ) a more alkaline p H of the submandibular saliva, which tends to precipitate salts; (2) thicker, more mucousy submandibular saliva; (3) a higher concentration of hydroxy apatite and phosphatase in the submandibular saliva; (4) a narrower Whar­ ton's duct orifice compared to the main lumen; (5) a slight uphill direction of sali­ vary flow in Wharton's duct when the patient is in the upright position.

Clinical Findings Patients with sialolithiasis often present with pain and swelling of the gland, associ­ ated with eating. A lthough when a patient presents with these obstructing symp­ toms, the other possibility to consider is floor of mouth squamous cell carcinoma. Small stones may be entirely asymptomatic.

I maging Findings Approximately 80% of salivary gland stones are radiopaque . The radiological study should start with either plain films (AP, Lateral, submental view) or limited CT. I f n o stone i s found o n plain films, sialography o r thin section CT may be useful t o rule out radiolucent stones. Figure 57-B shows an axial CT scan of a patient with a right salivary stone along the course of Wharton's ducl. Sialographic findings of sialolithiasis are contrast fi lling defect and ductal dilata­ tion, if the duct is obstructed. Since CT is much more sensitive in detecting a tiny focus of calcium compared to plain radiograph, a thin section CT scan has been used for patients with suspected salivary gland stones. CT usually reveals bigh density stones with or without proxin1a1 ductal dilatation. A mimic of submandibular gland stones on CT is unilateral calcification of the stylohyoid ligament. When intravenous contrast is given, the affected gland may show strong and per­ sistent enhancement. This is similar to the persistent nephrogram in patients with obstructing renal calculi. Because of the lower sensitivity of M R I compared to x-ray for the detection of calcification, M R I is less well suited for the study of patients with this disease. Larger stones may be seen 011 M R I as discrete areas of signal void, as in this patient with a submandibular duct calculus (Fig. 57-C & 57-D ) However, M R sialography, using beavily TIW FSE sequences allows for detection of ductile declaration and filling defects within the duct i n a noninvasive fashion and with good correlation with conventional sialography. Ultrasound has been receiving growing attention as a technique for the evalua­ tion of sialolithiasis. Endoscopy of the salivary ducts has also been reported.

Management The approach depends on the location and the size of stones. A small stone may spontaneously pass with the flow of saliva. Some stones may be removed with an

I SALIVARY

G LANDS

P EARLS/PITFALLS •

•

•

•

•

Approximately 80% of stones occur in the submandibular glands. Approximately 80% are radio­ opaque. X-ray is superior to M R in evalu­ ating patients with this disease. Make sure not to miss small floor of mouth squamous cell carci­ noma. Do not mistake calcification in stylohoid ligament on cr for a stone.

endoluminal approach. Larger ones close to the duct orifice can often be removed by intraoral approach. Stones within the central Wharton's duct may need total sub­ mandibulectomy. An interesting new approach that has been described is to use shock wave lithotripsy to destroy the stones.

Suggested Readings Fischbach, R., Kugel, H . , Ernst, S., Schroder, u., Brochhagen, H . G., Jungehulsing, M., Heindel, W. M R sialography: initial experience using a T2-weighted fast SE se­ quence. Journal of Computer Assisted Tomography 2 1 (5 ):826-30, 1 997 Sep-Oct. Nahlieli, 0., Baruchin, A.M. Sialoendoscopy: three years' experience as a diagnostic and treatment modality. Journal of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery 55(9):912-8, dis­ cussion, 1 997 Sep. 9 19-20. Ottaviani, F., Capaccio, P , Rivolta, R., Cosmacini, P , Pignataro, L., Castagnone, D. Salivary gland stones: U S evaluation i n shock wave lithotripsy. Radiology 204(2):437-41 , 1 997 Aug.

SALIVA RY G LANDSI

Case 58 Clinical Presentation A 35-year-old female presented with parotid fullness. The patient's husband is a human immunodeficiency virus positive ( H I V + ) intravenous drug abuser.

A

Radiologic Findings An axial cr with contrast (Fig. 58-A) shows bilateral thin walled cysts within the parotid gland.

Differential Diagnosis: Bilateral Parotid Cysts • • • • •

Benign lympboepithelial cysts Bilateral Warthin's tumor Cystic pleomorphic adenoma Sjogren disease Branchial cleft cyst

Diagnosis Benign lympboepitbelial cysts related to H I V infection

Discussion Epidemiology Isolated benign lymphoepithelial cysts ( B LC) are a rare disorder of the parotid gland with a reported incidence of 0.6% in the general population. In HIV seropos-

I SALIVARY GLA DS Illve patient the incidence of multiple and bilateral parotid Iymphoepithelial cysts i 3-10%. Parotid Iymphoepithelial cy t may manife t prior to the HIV scrocon­ ver ion. Pathophysiology

The cy t are typically located in the superficial portion of the parotid gland. Most are bilateral and epithelial lined. The etiology of the e cyst remains unclear. The hypothe i of the development of H I V-a ociated Iymphoepithelial cy"t" from pre­ exi ting salivary lymph node inclu ion i one pos ibility. Mo t expert now believe that the development of tbe cy ts i actually secondary to the mechanical obstruction of alivary duct caused by lymphoid hyperplasia and

c

264

SALIVARY GLANDSI

PEARLSIPITFALLS •

•

•

•

BLC presents as bilateral parotid cysts. mv seropositivity can be sug­ gested by associated adenopathy and lymphoid hyperplasia.

BLC may occur prior to H I V seropositivity. Do not mistake for bilateral Warthin tumors.

not due to true de novo cyst formation. The enormous cystic dilatation of the ducts presumably is a consequence of ductal obstruction through basal cell hyperplasia of striated ducts and intense intraglandular Iymphofollicular hyperplasia. BLC occur almost exlusively in the parotid glands with little or no involvement of the other salivary glands. This may be due to the fact that the parotid gland is the only salivary gland to contain significant lymphoid tissue within it.

Imaging Findings The lesions appear on imaging studies as thin walled cysts of the parotid gland. Either CT or M R I scanning can suggest the diagnosis. A search for other findings characteristically associated with H I V infection may be useful in establishing these as H I V-associated lesions. The diagnosis of H I V seropositivity can be suggested by the presense of lymphoid hyperplasia as suggested by three findings in the extracranial head and neck: 1 ) bilateral benign lymphoepithelial cysts of the parotid, 2) extensive bilateral cervical adenopathy, and 3) hypertrophy of the tissues of Waldeyer's ring which include the adenoids, lingual tonsils, and palatine tonsils. Figure 58-B shows CT scans of another 44 year old H I V + patient presenting with characteristic findings. Small right sided parotid masses are present, and there is ex­ tensive lymphoid hyperplasia of the nasopharyngeal tissues. On this higher section (Fig. 58 -C) additional lesions are seen on the left parotid coronal TIW M R I in an­ other patient with BLP (Fig. 58-D) shows bilateral intraparotid cysts. In the absence of H I V infection, parotid cysts are rare. A Warthin tumor should be considered in the differential diagnosis because this lesion may appear bilater­ ally in 1 0% of cases. There is often a small mass associated with the cysts.

Management The lesions are usually self-limited and therapy is performed for cosmesis or physi­ cal discomfort. Some authors advocate enucleation as a safe and effective procedure that provides the patient with complete removal of tbe cyst and a low recurrence rate.

Suggested Readings Beitler, J.J., Vikram, B., Silver, CE., Rubin, J.S., Bello, J.A., Mitnick, R.J., Gejerman, G., Davis, L.w. Low-dose radiotherapy for multicystic benign Iymphoepithelial lesions of the parotid gland in H I V-positive patients: long-term results. Head and Neck 1 7 ( 1 ):31-5, 1 995 Jan-Feb. Cohen, M . N., Rao, U, Shedd, D.P. Benign cysts of the parotid gland. Journal of Sur­ gical Oncology 27: 1 1 56-1 1 79, 1 984. Ferraro, FJ. Jr., Rush, B.F Jr., Ruark, D., Oleske, J. Enucleation of parotid Iym­ phoepithelial cyst in patients who are human immunodeficiency virus positive. Surgery, Gynecology and Obstetrics 1 77(5):524-6, 1 993 Nov. Finfer, M.D., Scinella, RA., Rothstein, S.G., et al. Cystic parotid lesions in patients at risk for the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. A rchives of Otolaryngology and Head and Neck Surgery 1 1 4 : 1 290-1 294, 1 988. Holliday, RA., Coben, W.A., Schinella, RA., et al. Benign Iymphoepithelial parotid cysts and hyperplastic cervical adenopathy in A IDS-risk patients: a new CT ap­ pearance. Radiology 1 68:439-441 , 1 988. Martinoli, C, Pretolesi, F, Del Bono, v., Derchi, L.E., Mecca, D., Chiaramondia, M . Benign Iympboepitbelial parotid lesions i n H I V-positive patients: spectrum o f find­ ings at gray-scale and Doppler sonography. A merican Journal of Roentgenology 1 65(4):975-9, 1 995 Oct. Mayer, M . , Haddad, 1. Jr. H uman immunodeficiency virus infection presenting witb

I SALIVARY

G LANDS Iymphoepitbelial cysts i n a six-year-old cbild. A nnals of Otology, Rhinology and Laryngology 105(3):242-4, 1 996 Mar. Schrot, R.J., Adelman, H.M., Linden, C.N., WaUach, P.M. Cystic parotid gland en­ largement in H I V disease. The diffuse infiltrative lymphocytosis syndrome. lama 278(2 ) : 166-7, 1 997 Jul 9. Seddon, B.M., Padley, S.P., Gazzard, B.G. Differential diagnosis of parotid masses in HIV positive men: report of five cases and review. Internalional lournal of SId and A ids 7(3):224-7, 1996 May-Jun. Som, P.M., Brandwein, M.S., Silvers, A. Nodal inclusion cysts of the parotid gland and parapharyngeal space: a discussion of lympboepithelial, A IDS-related parotid, and branchial cysts, cystic Warthin's tumors, and cysts in Sjogren's syndrome. Laryn­ goscope 1 05 ( 1 0) : 1 1 22-8, 1 995 Oct.

SALIVA RY GLANDSI

Case 59 Clinical Presentation The patient is a middle aged male wbo complains of asymmetry of his cbeek and excessive sweating over the area at meal time.

A

B

I SALIVARY

G LA N DS

Radiologic Findings The right parotid gland is small in size compared to the left side on the axial T I weighted image (Fig. 59-A). The 1'2 weighted axial ( Fig. 59-B) and T 1 weighted coronal (Fig. 59-C) show similar findings. The remainder of the surrounding struc­ tures are unremarkable.

Differential Diagnosis: Small Parotid Gland • • • •

Normal variation Chronic post obstructive atrophy Postradiation Postoperative

Diagnosis Normal postoperative findings (total parotidectomy)

Discussion Assymetry of the parotid gland can be due to a number of conditions. Postobstruc­ tive and postradiation atrophy can result in a small gland. However. complete ab­ sence with these conditions is uncommon. Total parotidectomy leaves little normal glandular tissue, while a superficial parotidectomy leaves the portion of the gland deep to the plane of the facial nerve (deep lobe of the gland). Gustatory sweating is a well-known sequela of parotid surgery.

Pathophysiology G ustatory sweating is also known as Frey syndrome which affects the auriculotem­ poral nerve. I n this interesting condition, the secretory parasympathetic fibers of the parotid gland are thought to communicate with the sympathetic nerve fibers of sweat glands and blood vessels of the skin following parotidectomy. Miscommuni­ cation results in subjective gustatory sweating and facial flushing, which appear early with mastication in the postoperative period.

Clinical Findings The diagnosis of post operative changes can be easily made by the patient history. Patients with Frey Syndrome have facial flushing, sweating, or both, localized to the distribution of the auriculotemporal nerve that occurs in response to gustatory stim­ uli (i.e., gustatory sweating). Up to 40% of patients in some series report this con­ dition following parotid surgery or trauma to this area. I t has also been reported as a rare complication of diabetes.

Imaging Findings Either M R I or CT can show the soft tissue anatomy of this area well. I f there is a question of the presense of calculi, CT is the preferred study. Post obstructive or post radiation atrophy may show alteration of signal intensity as well as volume loss of the gland. I f the patient's surgical history is unclear or absent, the radiologist should be able to suggest the correct diagnosis.

Management Parotid resection may be performed in one of two general forms. In a superficial parotidectomy, the gland deep to the facial nerve is spared. Alternatively, a total parotidectomy results in the removal of all parotid tissue on that side.

SALIVARY GLANDSI PEARLSIPITFALLS •

•

•

A parotidectomy may be either superficial or total. Gustatory sweating may occur in up to 40% of patients following parotidectomy. A clinician should not mistake post surgical changes for pathology of the uninvolved side.

Suggested Readings Yamashita, T. , Tomoda, K., Kumazawa, T. The usefulness of partial parotidec­ tomy for benign parotid gland tumors.A retrospective study of 306 cases. Acta Oto­ Laryngologica. Supplement 500: 1 1 3-6, 1993.

I SALI VARY

G LANDS

Case 60 Clinical Presentation A 40-year-old female presented with recurrent episodes of bilateral parotid swelling and xerostomia.

A

B

Radiologic Findings A CT scan of the parotid glands ( Fig. 60- A ) showed enlargement and heterogene­ ity of the glandular parenchyma due to the presence of multiple dense micronod­ ules. Another CT scan performed 2 years later ( Fig. 60-B) shows progression of disease with atrophy and fatty replacement of the parenchyma (Courtesy of Dr. Andrew Berger).

Differential Diagnosis: Bilateral Parotid Enlargement with Parenchymal Heterogeneity •

•

• • •

Sialoadenosis: chronic alcoholism. diabetes. malnutrition ( nutritional mumps), hy­ perlipidemia, drugs, post-radiation therapy Sialadenitis: infectious (viral parotitis, Iymphoepithelial cysts), inliammatory (sarcoidosis, graft versus host disease. Mikulicz's syndrome) Bilateral parotid neoplasms: Warthin's tumor. oncocytoma. pleomorphic adenoma Multiple intraparotid lymphadenopathy: reactive. metastatic, lymphoma Others: amyloidosis. polycystic (dysgenetic) disease. clear cell oncocytosis

D iagnosis Sjogren syndrome or autoimmune sialadenitis

1270

SALIVARY GLANDSI

D iscussion Epidemiology

Sjogren syndrome is a systemic autoimmune disease of the exocrine glands which may occur alone (primary Sjogren syndrome), or in association with connective tis­ sue disorders such as rheumatoid arthritis or lupus (secondary Sjogren syndrome). The real incidence of the disease is probably underestimated because symptoms may be nonspecific, and serologic studies may be negative in the quiescent stages. Autopsy studies show an incidence of 0.4% , placing Sjogren syndrome as the sec­ ond most common autoimmune disease following rheumatoid arthritis. There are childhood and adult forms of the disease. The former, also known as recurrent parotitis, is rare and predominantly affects children between 3 and 6 years of age. Most cases regress spontaneously at puberty and there is a low incidence of disease progression to the adult form. The latter is a chronic progressive disease more common in females (90 to 95% of cases) with a peak incidence between 40 and 60 years of age. P athophysiology

Sjogren syndrome is a chronic inflammatory exocrinopathy affecting, primarily, the salivary and lacrimal glands. The precise mechanism triggering this autoimune process is unknown, although Epstein-Barr Virus ( EBV) and retroviruses have been postulated as possible candidates. Among the salivary glands the parotid glands are the most commonly affected. Sjogren syndrome (SS) is characterized by a diffuse lymphocytic infiltration form­ ing small collections around the intralobular ducts and causing atrophy and re­ placement of the acinar structures. Concurrently, the ductal epithelium proliferates, obliterating the ductal lumina and producing epithelial islands which may undergo granular metaplasia and hyalinization. The presence of these islands is necessary to establish the histologic diagnosis of benign lymphoepithelial lesion or Godwin tumor, but is not specific for SS. In the later stages, fatty infiltration of the glands becomes a prominent feature. Both the epithelial and lymphoid component of these lesions may undergo malignant transformation accounting for the increased inci­ dence of lymphoma (44 times higher than in the general popUlation) and epithelial malignancies in patients with SS. Clinical Findings

SS is defined by a triad which includes xerostomia, keratoconjuntivitis sicca and connective tissue disorder. The presence of two or more of these features makes the diagnosis of SS. Most patients present with oral and ocular symptoms including oral dryness and soreness, difficulty swallowing, oral ulcers, multiple recurrent dental caries and eye dryness and grittiness. Symptoms reflecting involvement of other exocrine glands may also be present, such as skin itching, dyspareunia and nonpro­ ductive cough. Xerostomia is a subjective and nonspecific symptom common to other conditions. Definitive diagnosis of SS requires documentation of decreased salivary flow and the presence of at least one of the following: ( 1 ) Keratocon­ junctivitis sicca, (2) Characteristic findings on salivary or lacrimal gland biopsy, (3) Specific findings on sialogram (diffuse nodular or globular pooling of contrast material > 1 mm in diameter). Symptoms and signs of an associated connective tissue disorder may be present in secondary SS. The serologic markers of the disease are the SS-A and SS-B antibodies. However, these may only be detected in the active phase of the disease and there are sero­ logically negative forms, particularly in males. The presence of persistent or rapid

I SALIVARY

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E

parotid enlargement along with cervical lymphadenopathy suggests malignant de­ generation, most often lymphoma.

I maging Findings Several imaging modalities including sialography, scintigraphy, US, cr and MRI may be used and give complimentary information. Among these, sialography is con­ sidered the gold standard in the diagnosis and staging of this disease. An x-ray sialo­ gram of anotber patient ( lateral view) (Fig. 60-C) shows pooling of contrast mater­ ial in a globular pattern with multiple small collections uniformy distributed thoughout the periphery of the gland resembling a mulberry tree. Imaging findings

1272

SALIVARY GLANDSI depend on the stage of the disease and are more striking in the later stages when cystic degeneration and fatty infiltration predominate. X-ray and MR sialograms may show three different patterns which reflect progressive destructive changes. The earliest stage shows a punctate pattern of numerous peripheral punctate col­ lections of contrast material, less then 1mm in diameter, uniformly distributed throughout the gland. I n the second stage, larger globular collections of contrast ma­ terial measuring between 1 and 2 mm and resembling a mulberry tree are seen. Fi­ nally, the destructive or cavitary pattern shows large, irregular collections of contrast up to 1 cm in diameter, combined with central changes of sialadenitis resulting from ascending infection. I n the earlier stages, the uniformity in the size and distribution of the lesions allows differentiation from chronic sialadenitis. In the end of the ex­ amination a secretagogue may be given showing retention of the contrast material in the ductal collections. Salivary gland scintigraphy with technetium-99m allows for assessment of glan­ dular function. Resting and stimulated tinle-activity curves reflect the production and accumulation of saliva and are a valuable tool in the evaluation of disease pro­ gression. Typically, patients with SS show decreased accumulation, decreased secre­ tion and decreased response to secretory stinlUlation. However, these findings are not specific for SS and may be seen in other chronic diseases of the salivary glands. Ultrasound is a noninvasive and relatively inexpensive imaging modality which is advocated by some experts as the primary screening imaging modality in patients suspected of SS. The most important sonographic finding is bilateral parenchymal inhomogeneity, ranging from multiple discrete hypoechoic foci separated by hyper­ echoic septa to cystic changes in the gland parenchyma. I n the early stages of acute inflammation the gland may appear enlarged and hypoechoic, an appearance indis­ tinguishible from that seen in other inflammatory conditions and with sialoadeno­ sis. I n advanced cases, the findings are those of end stage parotid disease of any eti­ ology; the gland becomes atrophic and may show large cystic cavities. US may also exclude sialolithiasis as the cause of symptoms. On CT scans the parotid glands are enlarged and denser than normal (iso- to hyperdense of the masseter muscle). These early findings are nonspecific and are also found in chronic sialadenitis and sialosis. Later, the glands become heteroge­ neous with an appearance ranging from a micronodular to a honeycombed pattern. A multicystic appearance may be seen similar to that seen with multiple lymphoep­ ithelial cysts, cystic intraparotid lymphadenopathy, multiple abscesses and multicen­ tric Warthin tumors. However, in most circumstances, the history and associated clinical findings allow for the differentiation of these conditions. CT may also be performed after the injection of sialographic contrast material and allow for optimal visualization of the ductal system. MRI findings are similar to those seen on CT, manifest as parenchymal hetero­ geneity, cystic degeneration and fatty replacement. On an MRI of the parotid glands, axial TI W (Fig. 60-D), and axial TIW (Fig. 60-E) images show bilateral en­ largement of the parotid glands and parenchymal hetrogeneity with a granular ap­ pearance. There are small micronodules hypointense on T l WI and high on signal in­ tensity on TIWI corresponding to mildly dilated peripheral ducts. This MRI appearance is the counterpart of the punctate pattern seen in X-ray sialography in the earliest stages of the disease. MR-sialogram using 3D fast spin echo (SE) heav­ ily TIW sequences has been shown to have good correlation with X-ray sialography and may replace thjs invasive modality. Management

Most cases of SS are managed with medical therapy including steroids and, eventu­ ally, other immunosupressors. Parotidectomy is seldom necessary to relieve symp­ toms of recurrent infection but may be necessary in cases of malignant degenera­ tion.

ISALIVARY GLANDS PEARLS/PITFALLS •

•

•

•

•

Sicca syndrome (xerostomia and xerophthalmia) can be major symptoms of SS. A cr scan should show bilateral enlargement of the parotid glands in a patient with SS. SS is characterized by diffuse heterogeneity of the glandular parenchyma progressing to fat replacement and cystic changes. The clinician should avoid mis­ taking SS for sialadenitis (viral parotitis). The clinician should avoid failing to recognize malignant trans­ formation.

Suggested Readings Bohuslavizki, K.H., Brenner, w., Wolf, H., Sippel, C, Tbnshoff, G., Tinnemeyer, S., Clausen, M., Henze, E. Value of quantitative salivary gland scintigraphy in the early stage of Sjogren's syndrome. Nuclear Medicine Communications 16( 1 1 ):917-22, 1 995 Nov. Izumi, M., Eguchi, K., Nakamura, H., Nagataki, S., Nakamura, T. Premature fat de­ position in the salivary glands associated with Sjogren syndrome: MR and cr evi­ dence. American Journal of Neuroradiology 18(5):95 1-8, 1997 May. Izumi, M., Eguchi, K., Ohki, M., Uetani, M., Hayashi, K., Kita, M., Nagataki, S., Nakamura, T. MR imaging of the parotid gland in Sjogren's syndrome: a proposal for new diagnostic criteria. American Journal of Roentgenology 166(6):1483-7, 1 996 Jun. Izumi, M., Eguchi, K., Uetani, M., Nakamura, H., Takagi, Y , Hayashi, K., Nakamura, T. M R features of the lacrimal gland in Sjogren's syndrome. American Journal of Roentgenology 1 70(6):1661-6, 1 998 Jun. Makula, E., Pokorny, G., Rajt
S A L I VA RY G LA

Dsl

Case 61 Clinical Presentation A

A

25-year-old female presented with a painless left cheek mass.

B

ISALIVARY GLANDS

Radiologic Findings Using M RI a relatively homogeneous 3 cm mass in the left parotid was found that involves both the deep and superficial lobes (Fig. 6 1 -A). The lesion demonstrates hyperintensity on the T2-weighted images (Fig. 6 1 -8 ) . On tbe coronal postcontrast T I weighted image, there is heterogeneous enhancement (Fig. 6 I -C).

Differential D iagnosis: Parotid Mass • • • • • • • • •

Pleomorphic adenoma Warthin's tumor Mucoepidermoid carcinoma Adenoid cystic carcinoma Intraparotid lymph node Metastasis Lymphoepithelial cyst Monomorphic adenoma Oncocytoma

Diagnosis Pleomorphic adenoma (benign mixed tumor)

Discussion The pleomorphic adenoma (or benign mixed tumor) is the most common benign salivary gland tumor and the most common tumor of the parotid gland. Epidemiology

Salivary gland tumors affect 1 -3 individuals per 1 00,000 population. 111 i s number is increased 5 - 1 0 times in people of I nuit (Eskimo) ancestry. Approximately 70% of parotid. 50% of submandibular, 30% of sublingual, and 1 0-40% of accessory sali-

D

E

SALIVARY GLANDSI vary gland tumors are benign. Therefore, the smaller the salivary gland of origin, the smaller the likelihood that the tumor is benign. Pleomorphic adenomas occur in all ages, although 60% of cases occur between the third to fifth decades of life. The female/male ratio exceeds 2 : 1. They tend to be solitary lesions, with true multicentric origin being rare. Pathophysiology

The pleomorphic adenoma is composed of a combination of myoepithelial cells and a variety of epithelial and mesenchymal tissue surrounded by a fibrous capsule. Al­ though th e y are well encapsulated, small areas of n e oplas t i c cells will often extend beyond the capsule, known as satellitosis. If simple enucleation is performed, these areas may be left behind and lead to residual disease. Figures 61-D and 61-E show the appearance of such recurrent disease following incomplete resection. Note the rounded, nodular appearance. Larger lesions may show areas of calcification, hem­ orrhage, and necrosis. Malignant transformation may take place in the form of carcinoma expleomor­ phic adenoma. This should be suspected in patients with long standing tumors that show a sudden increase in size or develop new symptoms. Estimates for the likeli­ hood of this occurring, range from 1 -25% of untreated pleomorphic adenomas in various series. Imaging Findings

On MRl, normal parotid tissue has an intermediate intensity between muscle and fat. Because of its high fat content, parotid tissue has a relatively short Tl relaxation, allowing excellent visualization of these glands. On T l -, spin density, and T2-weighted images, the parotid gland is hyperintense relative to adjacent muscula­ ture, but less intense than fat, with parotid tissue very similar in intensity to fat on T2-weighted images. Pleomorphic adenomata have bright signal intensities on T2-weighted images. Tumor-muscle or tumor-normal gland interfaces are better seen on T2- than T l-weighted images where both tumor and parotid gland may have intermediate in­ tensity signals. Pleomorphic adenoma tend to be homogeneous and smoothly mar­ ginated. By contrast Warthin's tumors are more heterogeneous. Multiplicity of lesions also suggests a Warthin's tumor. MRI characteristics that may suggest malignancy include irregular margination, heterogeneous signal, lymphadenopathy, adjacent soft tissue (or bony) invasion, or facial perineural spread. A specific tissue diagnosis of salivary gland tumors is best obtained from aspiration cytology, as the MRI or CT appearance is ultimately non­ specific. Dystrophic calcification does suggest the diagnosis of pleomorphic ade­ noma because tbis finding is rare in other parotid tumors. The deep lobe of the parotid gland extends between the mandibular ramus and styloid process into the parapharyngeal space. For ideal surgical planning, masses arising within the deep lobe ( transparotid approach) must be differentiated from other parapharyngeal space masses (transcervical approach). In true deep lobe tumors, there will be absence of the fatty tissue plane on some or all axial slices between the parapharyngeal deep lobe mass and the normal parotid gland. Normal parotid tissue partially wrapped around the mass or extension of the mass laterally into the stylomandibular tunnel further suggests a deep parotid lobe origin. Deep lobe tumors may extend to the prestyloid compartment of the parapharyngeal space, displacing the internal carotid artery posteriorly. Extraparotid parapharyngeal masses should display a fatty tissue plane between the mass and the deep lobe. Neuromas, paragangliomas, and metastatic nodal masses arise within the poststyloid compartment displacing the internal carotid artery forward. Recurrences foLlowing parotidectomy for pleomorphic adenoma often appear as

I SALIVARY

G LANDS

PEARLSIP ITFALLS

The pleomorphic adenoma is the most common benign sa livary gland tumor.

•

The pleomorphic adenoma is composed of a fibrous capsule, but extracapsular neoplasstic tis­ sue is common.

•

Malignant transformation may take place, but the percentage is controversial ranging from 1 -25% of untreated pleomorphic adenomas.

•

•

•

Calcification in parotid mass sug­ gests the diagnosis of pleomor­ phic adenoma. Do not fail to perform adequate surgical removal, leaving disease behind.

multifocal nodular densities (Fig. 6 1 E). This reflects the common histologic occur­ rence of extracapsular tumor pseudopods which may evade primary resection. -

Management Surgery (superficial or total parotidectomy) is the treatment of choice. Simple exci­ sion is generally not done because of the risk of residual disease.

Suggested Readings Batsakis, J.G. Tumors of the head and neck: clinical and pathological considerations. 2nd ed. Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins. 1 979;21-26. Curtin, H .D. Assessment of salivary gland pathology. Otolaryngologic Clinics of North A merica 2 1 :547-573, 1988. Som, P.M., Biller, H . E High grade malignancies of the parotid gland: identification with MR imaging. Radiology 1 73:823-826, 1989. Som, P.M . , Braun, I.E, Shapiro, M.D., Reede, D.L., Curtin, H . D., Zimmerman, R.A. Tumors of the parapharyngeal space and upper neck: MR imaging characteristics. Radiology 1 64:823-829, 1 987. Som, P.M., Shugar, J.M., Sacher, M., Stollman, A.L., B iller, H.E Benign and malig­ nant parotid pleormorphic adenomas: CT and MR studies. jou.rnal of Computer As­ sisted Tomography 25:65-69, 1 988. Swartz, J.D., Rothman, M .l . , Marlowe, EI., Berger, A.s. MR imaging of parotid mass lesions: attempts at histopathologic differentiation. jou.rnal of Computer Assisted Tomography 1 3:789-796, 1 989. Tabor, E . K., Curtin, H.D. M R of the salivary glands. Radiologic Clinics of North America 27:379-392, 1 989. Teresi, L.M., Lufkin, R.B., Wortham, D.G., et al. Parotid masses: M R imaging. Radi­ ology 163:405-409, 1 987.

1278

SALIVA RY G LANDSI

Case 62 Clinical Presentation An adult male presented with a painless fullness over the angle of the right mandible.

B

c

Radiologic Findings TI weighted images in the axial coronal, and sagittal plane ( Figs. 62-A, 62-B, and 62-C) show a well defined combined deep and superficial lobe mass. It has areas of

279 1

I SALIVARY

G LANDS high signal intensity on both Tl and T2 weighted images that suggest a multicystic nature.

Differential Diagnosis: Cystic Parotid Gland Mass • • • • • • • • •

Warthin's tumor Multiple Iymphoepithelial cysts Intraparotid lymph node metastases Pleomorphic adenoma Sjogren syndrome Intra parotid 1st branchial cleft cystlretention cyst (mucocele) Dermoid cyst Abscesslsialocele Lymphangioma

Diagnosis Warthin's tumor

Discussion Epidemiology Although Warthin's tumors have been reported to occur in a wide age span (2.5 to 92 years), 82% are found in patients between 40 and 70 years of age (average 55 years). There is a decided (5 : 1 ) male predominance, although some recent studies suggest that the incidence in women may be actually closer to that of men. Warthin's tumors represent 6%-10% of all parotid gland tumors, of benign tumors second in frequency only to the pleomorphic adenoma.

Pathophysiology Warthin's tumors are peculiar tumors that contain both salivary and lymphoid com­ ponents. They consist of heterotopic salivary gland ductal elements withi.n lymphoid tissue within or external to the parotid gland. This is why some older textbooks refer to them as cystadenolymphoma or papillary cystadenoma Iymphomatosum. With their limited growth potential, most pathologists consider them to be a hamartoma arising from epithelial inclusions in intraparotid lymph nodes rather than a true neoplasm. Malignant transformation and facial nerve involvement are rare. Because of the pathogenic relationship with lymph nodes, Warthin's tumor may also arise in lymph nodes superficial or medial to the parotid gland. Because the parotid is the only salivary gland to contain appreciable lymphoid tissue, this tumor is rare in the submandibular, sublingual or minor salivary glands. The tumor is encapsulated often with cystic areas. Multiple lesions are common and they are bilateral in 10% of cases.

Clinical Findings This tumor usually manifests as a painless movable mass with only 10% of patients presenting with pain and pressure sensations. They are most often located over the angle of the mandible in the tail of the parotid.

Imaging Findings The typical Warthin's tumor is a well-defined, lobulated, intermediate signal inten­ sity mass with cystic areas. However, any other benign or low-grade malignant tumor could have a similar appearance. I n the majority of cases, M R l is not any

SALIVARY GLANDSI

Warth in's tumor is found almost exclusively in the parotid gland.

more accurate than CT in predicting the histologic nature of the parotid gland because of the unusual histology of salivary gland tumors. Technitium 99m-pertechnetate accumulates in a Warthin's tumor. Some experts suggest that this effect is due to the large number of mitochondria present in the oncocytes within the tumor. Not surprisingly, the only other parotid tumor to show this Technitium uptake is the oncocytoma. The role of ultrasound in the evaluation of the parotid gland has major limita­ tions. These include the failure to visualize the entire parotid gland, relationship of the mass to the facial nerve, and evaluating the spread of large tumors.

This tumor is a cystic encapsu­ lated parotid mass.

Management

PEARLS/PITFALLS •

•

•

•

•

•

•

Most pathologists consider Warthin's tumor to be a hamar­ toma involving salivary ductal elements and lymphoid tissue.

Warthin's tumor is found bilater­ ally in 1 0% of cases. Technicium 99m accumulates in a Warthin's tumor. Avoid confusing with other cystic parotid lesions. It's important not to overlook bilateral disease.

Simple enucleation is adequate for control of this lesion. However, because of the possibility of multicentricity, most surgeons recommend a superficial or total parotidectomy (depending on the size and location of the lesion) to avoid leaving behind residual disease.

Suggested Readings Bruneton, 1.N., Mourou, M . Y., Ultrasound in salivary gland disease. Journal of Oto-Rhino-laryngology and Its Related Specialties 55(5):284-9, 1 993 Sep-Oct. Joe, Y.Q., Westesson, P.L. Tumors of the parotid gland: M R imaging characteristics of various histologic types. American Journal of Roentgenology 1 63(2):433-8, 1994 Aug. Minami, M., Tanioka, H . , Oyama, K., l tai, Y., Eguchi, M., Yoshikawa, K., Murakami, tumor of the parotid gland: M R-pathologic correlation. Amer­ ican Journal of Neuroradiology 1 4 ( 1 ) :209-14, 1 993 Jan-Feb.

T., Sasaki, Y. Warthin

Som, P.M., Brandwein, M.S., Silvers, A. Nodal inclusion cysts of the parotid gland and parapharyngeal space: a discussion of \ymphoepithelial, AIDS-related parotid, and branchial cysts, cystic Warthin's tumors, and cysts in Sjogren's syndrome. Laryn­ goscope 1 05( 1 0 ) : 1 1 22-8, 1 995 Oct. Teresi, L.M., Lufkin, R.E., Warthan, D.G., et al. Parotid masses: MR imaging. Radi­ ology 1 63:405-409, 1987.

281

ISALIVARY GLANDS

Case 63 Clinical Presentation A 74-year-old male presented with a painless mass in the left parotid gland, which had grown slowly over several years.

A

B

SALIVARY GLANDSI

Radiologic Findings On an MRI of the parotid glands the axial T l W (Fig. 63-A), coronal T1 W (Fig. images show a large well circumscribed mass in the left parotid gland replacing most of the superficial lobe and extending into the deep lobe of the gland. The small areas of T l W and TIW hyperintensity may represent hemorrhage or small cystic spaces with high protein content.

63-B), and axial TIW (Fig. 63-C)

Differential Diagnosis: Multiple Discrete Intraparotid Lesions •

•

• • • • •

inflammatory lymphadenopathy (locallregional infection, sarcoidosis, Kimura's disease) Metastatic lymphadenopathy (lymphoma, melanoma, squamous cell carcinoma of the external auditory canal, midface or scalp) Multiple benign Iymphoepithelial lesions Multiple intraparotid cysts Multicentric Warthin's tumor Multicentric oncocytmas Multiple pleomorphic adenomas

Diagnosis Oncocytoma

Discussion Epidemiology

Oncocytoma is a rare neoplasm accounting for less than 1 % of all salivary gland tu­ mors. Oxyphilic adenoma, oncocytic adenoma and oxyphilic granular cell adenoma are synonyms used to refer to this lesion. It is a neoplasm of the elderly with a peak incidence during the sixth and seventh decades of life. There is no gender predomi­ nance. The parotid gland is the most common site of oncocytomas in the head and neck region. The submandibular gland and minor salivary glands are rarely involved but when they are, they are more likely to harbor aggressive tumors. Also, oncocytic metaplasia of minor salivary glands is common among the elderly. Multiple or bilateral tumors are seen in 7% of cases making oncocytomas the sec­ ond most common cause of multicentric parotid neoplasms following Warthin's tu­ mor. The malignant counterpart of this neoplasm is even more uncommon account­ ing for only 0.005% of all epithelial salivary tumors. Pathophysiology

The hallmark of this neoplasm is the presence of large cells containing abundant eosinophylic and granular cytoplasm called oncocytes, which is a term derived from "onkos", the greek word for swelling. Ultrastructural and histochemical studies show that tbe granular appearance of the cytoplasm results from mitochondrial hyperplasia with bizarre forms and loss of typical architectural features. Oncocytes are common in the salivary glands, but can also occur in endocrine organs (thyroid, parathyroid and pituitary glands) and the kidney. These cells, once thought to arise from a degenerative process are now thought to result from redifferentiation of epithelial cells which develop an increased but unbalanced metabolism. This is due to an acquired enzymatic defect in the mitochondrial oxydative process. As such, oncocytes are the result of a mitochondriopathy. [n the salivary glands, oncocytes are not exclusively seen in oncocytomas. They are also a component of other neo283 1

I SALIVARY

GLANDS plasms, such as Warthin's tumor and oncocytic papillary cystadenoma which is a transitional lesion. Histologically, it is difficult to clearly separate oncocytic hyperplasia from a true neoplasm. This distinction is based on cytologic features which include the nuclear­ cytoplasmic ratio and cell polarity. True oncocytomas are primarily composed of oncocytes and should not contain lymphoid tissue. Oncocytomas are usually benign, well-encapsulated neoplasms. Malignant criteria include the presence of mitoses and cellular pleomorphism, extracapsular extent with invasion of adjacent structures, perivascular, lymphatic or perineural invasion, and regional or distant metastasis.

Clinical Findings Oncocytomas typically present in an elderly patient as a painless slow growing parotid mass. Bilateral enlargement of the parotid glands is common and indicates multicentricity. Facial nerve dysfunction and peri parotid or cervical lymphadenopa­ thy are both suggestive of malignancy.

Imaging Findings Like other benign appearing parotid neoplasms, the imaging findings of onco­ cytomas are nonspecific. On cross-sectional imaging, they appear as well­ circumscribed, homogeneous solid masses that tend to be hypoechoic on US and hy­ perdense to the normal parenchyma on CT. On M R I the signal characteristics are also nonspecific showing low signal intensity on T1 and high signal intensity on TIWI. The diagnosis should be considered when multicentric or bilateral neoplasms are seen in the appropriate clinical setting. The presence of aggressive features (ill­ defined margins, perineural spread and regional lymphadenopathy) suggest malig­ nancy. These lesions are indistinguishible from other more common parotid malig­ nancies. The most specific imaging study is sialoscintigraphy using technetium 99m. Unlike other salivary cell types, oncocytes are able to concentrate pertecnetate ions so that tumors containing oncocytes show intense uptake and retention of activity after stimulation. Therefore, sialoscintigraphy allows differentiation of Warthin's tumor and oncocytoma from other benign and malignant salivary gland tumors. I t may also localize regional and distant metastasis when a malignant oncocytoma is present. Other salivary gland conditions, particularly infection and inflammatory processes, also show increased radionuclide uptake either due to hyperemia or retention of the radiotracer in cystic spaces. However, in these circumstances the uptake is usually diffuse and the clinical history is revealing. US and M R I may also be used to guide fine needle aspirate of indeterminate lesions.

Management Benign oncocytomas have a good prognosis and recurrence after complete removal is unusual. Some experts disagree regarding the necessity of resecting asymptomatic lesions in elderly patients, due to their very slow growth and the rarity of malignant degeneration. Malignant oncocytomas require wide resection and radical neck dissection when regional lymph node metastases are present. The role of adjuvant radiotherapy in the treatment of this rare tumor is undetermined. Prognosis is sim­ ilar to that of other epithelial parotid malignancies.

Suggested Readings Davy, c.L., Dardick, I.. Hammond, E., Thomas, M.l. Relationship of clear cell onco­ cytoma to mitochondrial-rich (typical) oncocytomas of parotid salivary gland. An

SALIVARY G LANDSI

PEARLS/PITFALLS •

•

•

•

•

Oncocytomas are painless slow growing parotid mass(es) in an elderly patient. The most specific imaging study is sialoscintigraphy with tech­ netium pertecnetate.

Oncocytomas are the second most common multicentric pri­ mary tumor of the parotid gland. Do not mistake multiple tumors for intra parotid lymphadenop­ athy. Do not mistake oncocytoma for malignancy.

ultrastructural study. Oral Surgery, Oral Medicine, and Oral Pathology 77(5):469-79, 1 994 May. Kandiloros, D., Segas, 1., Papadimitriou, K . , Koutsomanis, P.. Adamopoulos, G. Ma­ lignant oncocytoma of the parotid with oncocytic change of the contralateral gland. American loumal of Otolaryngology 1 6(3):200-4, 1 995 May-1un. Laforga, 1.B., Aranda, F.I . Oncocytic carcinoma of parotid gland: fine-needle aspira­ tion and histologic findings. Diagnostic Cyropathology 1 1 (4):376-9, 1 994 Dec. Mahnke, CG., Hinig, u., Werner, 1.A. Metastasizing malignant oncocytoma of the submandibular gland. loumal of Laryngology and Otology 1 1 2( 1 ): 1 06-9, 1 998 1an. Roden, D.M., Levy, F.E. Oncocytoma of the parotid gland presenting with nerve paralysis. Otolaryngology and Head and Neck Surgery 1 1 0(6):587-90, 1 994 1un. San Pedro, E.C, Lorberboym, M., Machac, 1., Som, P, Shugar, 1. Imaging of multiple bilateral parotid gland oncocytomas. Clinical Nuclear Medicine 20(6):51 5-8, 1 995 Jun. Shintaku, M., Honda, T. Identification of oncocytic lesions of salivary glands by anti­ mitochondrial immunohistochemistry. Histopathology 3 1 (5):408- 1 1 , 1 997 Nov.

285

ISALIVARY GLA DS

Case 64 Clinical Presentation A previously healthy 50-year-old female developed gradual right facial nerve weak­ nes .

A �IIIII

B

D

c

1286

SALIVARY G LANDSI

Radiologic Findings CT scans through the right temporal bone show fusiform widening of the descend­ ing portion of the facial nerve canal ( Figs. 64-A and 64-8). Axial MR images through the parotid gland on that side show an ill defined parotid mass involving both the superficial and deep lobe of the gland ( Figs. 64-C and 64-D).

Differential D iagnosis: Facial Nerve Widening and Parotid Mass • • • •

Parotid mass with seventh nerve invasion Adenoid cystic carcinoma Squamous carcinoma Mucoepidermoid carcinoma

Diagnosis Adenoid cystic carcinoma of the parotid gland with perineural extension along the facial nerve into the temporal bone

Discussion Epidemiology Adenoid cystic carcinoma is a malignant salivary gland tumor that may occur in patients of any age, although it has a peak incidence in the sixth decade. There is a slight female predominance, and it is rare in patients under 20 years of age. Perineural invasion is a defining feature of this tumor. Thus, the short-term (5 year) survival fig­ ures of 70% are misleading. Unlike most other malignancies, recurrences at 1 0 and 1 5 years postoperative are common with this tumor and the actual cure rate is low. Perineural extension is a pathway in which the malignant tumor spreads along perineural or endoneural spaces. In this method, tumors can gain access to deep regions that may not be contiguous with the location of the primary tumor. Recog­ nition of this form of extension may alter the form of treatment and prognosis. Many forms of head and neck neoplasms may spread via neural pathways, but a few cell types have a greater propensity than others. Adenoid cystic carcinoma, although uncommon, has the highest association with this type of spread.

Pathophysiology Adenoid cystic carcinoma is a malignant salivary gland tumor composed of cuboidal cells with a predilection for invading perinew'al lymphatic spaces. Because of its microscopic appearance resulting in cross-sections of tubular cylinders, it was previ­ ously referred to as a "cylindroma." The majority arise from minor salivary glands but can also occur in parotid and submandibular glands.

Clinical Findings The tumor presents as a superficial parotid mass, and despite its malignant nature, its growth rate is quite slow. I t may initially be mobile, but with time becomes in­ durated and fixed to surrounding tissues. Because of its propensity for perineural spread, facial nerve involvement is not uncommon.

Imaging Findings The imaging findings of this tumor may be nonspecific and are similar to other parotid neoplasms. Ill-defined margins suggest a more aggressive lesion. Signs of perineural extension should suggest this histology.

I SALIVARY

G LA N DS

PEARLS/PITFALLS Perineural extension is the hall­ mark of this tumor.

•

There is good short term progno­ sis for patients with adenoid cys­ tic carcinoma.

•

Slow growth with recurrences at 1 0- 1 5 years post diagnosis is not uncommon.

•

FNA cytology is well accepted for evaluation of head and neck masses.

•

Avoid failing to identify per­ ineural extensions.

•

•

Do not mistake an adenoid cystic carcinoma for a benign tumor.

Fine needle aspiration cytology is well accepted for the evaluation of head and neck masses. Specific diagnoses are routinely obtained in greater than 90% of sam­ pled lymph nodes, salivary glands, thyroid, and other soft tissue masses. This proce­ dure has limited complications, is relatively inexpensive, and, if positive, allows the surgeon to proceed immediately with appropriate therapy. In deep lesions the use of CT and M R I guided aspiration biopsies has become a valuable tool in the evalu­ ation of these masses. Typical imaging features of perineural spread include smooth thickening of the nerve by an isointense mass, obliteration of adjacent fat, and concentric enlarge­ ment of the nerve. Atrophy of muscle groups supplied by the involved cranial nerve is indirect evidence of neural involvement, but may be the sole imaging finding.

Manageme nt Parotidectomy is the treatment of choice, with examination of frozen sections for evidence of neural involvement at the time of surgery. Distant spread to lungs or bone is more common than nodal disease. Cervical metastases are uncommon at the time of initial presentation, however if present. a neck dissection should be per­ formed. The most problematic aspect of the management of adenoid cystic carci­ noma is its persistence and tendency to recur locally. Because of radiosensitivity and problems with local control, postoperative radiation is given in many cases.

Suggested Readings Huang, M., Ma, D., Sun, K., Yu, G., Guo, c., Gao, F. Factors influencing survival rate in adenoid cystic carcinoma of the salivary glands. Inlernalional Jol.lrnai of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery 26 6:435-9. 1 997 Dec. Spiro, R.H. Distant metastasis in adenoid cystic carcinoma of salivary origin. Amer­ ican Journal of Surgery 1 74 5:495-8, 1 997 Nov.

1 288

SALIVARY GLANDSI

Case 65 Clinical Presentation A 37-year-old female presented with a left-sided facial mass.

A

B

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GLANDS

Radiologic Findings A 2 em mass in the left parotid gland can be seen arising in the superficial lobe and extending for a moderate distance into the deep lobe (Fig. 65-A). The lesion is het­ erogeneous on TZ-weighted images (Fig. 65-8). The sagittal image shows the lesion displacing the adjacent parotid tissue superiorly. The stylomastoid foramen is clear. Small lymph nodes are visible on this section (Fig. 65-C). (Figures courtesy Dr. Joel Swartz).

Differential D iagnosis: Solitary Parotid Mass • • • • • •

Pleomorphic adenoma Lymph node Warthin's tumor Oncocytoma Mucoepidermoid carcinoma Adenoid cystic carcinoma

D iagnosis Mucoepidermoid carcinoma

Discussion Most lesions of the parotid gland arise in the superficial lobe. The most common be­ nign lesions are the pleomorphic adenoma (benign mixed-cell tumor) and papillary cystadenoma (Warthin's tumor). The most common malignant tumor of the parotid gland and second most common in the submandibular gland is the mucoepidermoid carcinoma.

Pathophysiology Mucoepidermoid carcinomas have 3 predominant cell types, which are mucous. epi­ dermoid, and intermediate. The behavior of the tumor varies greatly depending on its grade and based on its histopathological features. TIle low grade lesions havc a preponderance of mucous cells and cystic areas. Although they are unencapsulated or only partially encapsulated, they are generally well circumscribed. TIley have lim­ ited metastatic potential. The high grade lesions have a high proportion of stratified squamous epilithelial (epidermoid) cells and may be confused with squamous cell carcinoma of the parotid gland. TIley are aggressive. poorly circumscribed lesions that metastasize to lymph nodes, bone. and lung and have a propensity for perineural spread. The intermediate grade tumors fall between these two extremes.

Clinical Findings They typically appear as a focal, well defined. often movable mass in the superficial portion of the parotid gland. High grade lesions tend to be more indurated and fixed. Facial nerve weakness is uncommon, but when present. indicates a higher grade lesion.

Imaging Findings TIle low grade tumors are generally well-circumscribed. Higher grade lesions may be well circumscribed or may be more indistinct with infiltrative margins. In a recent report an attempt was made to histopathologically distinguish various parotid le-

1 290

SALIVARY GLANDSI

PEARLS/P ITFALLS •

•

•

•

•

The behavior of the tumor is based on histologic grade of the mucous and epidermoid cells. Low grade lesions are well cir­ cumscribed. High grade lesions are iU defined with metastases. Whenever malignancy is a possi­ bility, the course of the facial nerve should be included in the study to avoid missing perineural spread. Take care not to confuse these tumors with squamous carci­ noma histologically.

sions based on their M R I signal characteristics. I t was found that, compared to nor­ mal parotid gland tissue, the majority of pleomorphic adenomas were homoge­ neously iso- to hyperintense on T l -weighted images and became homogeneously bright on T2-weighted images. Warthin's tumors and the malignancies were much more heterogeneous with the latter associated with cervical lymphadenopathy. There are many tumors that do not show any reliable growth pattern. Therefore, aspiration cytology is required for all parotid lesions. Whenever malignancy is a pos­ sibility, the course of the facial nerve should be included in the study to avoid miss­ ing perineural spread of the tumor.

Management Surgery is the treatment of choice for mucoepidermoid carcinoma, employing wide local excision. Neck dissections are generally not performed for low or intermedi­ ate grade tumors unless cervical metastases are palpated. For high grade tumors. some experts advocate elective neck dissection as well as post operative radiother­ apy. The 5-year survival rate for low grade lesions is over 90% in most studies. For high grade tumors, this drops to 50-70% .

Suggested Readings Curtin, H .D. Assessment of salivary gland pathology. Otolaryngolgic Clinics of North America 2 1 :547-573, 1 988. Goode, R.K., Auclair, P.L., E llis, G.L. Mucoepidermoid carcinoma of the major sali­ vary glands: clinical and histopathologic analysis of 234 cases with evaluation of grading criteria. Cancer 82(7): 12 1 7-24, 1 998 Apr J . Swartz, J.D., Rothman, M.L, Marlowe, F. l . M R imaging of parotid mass lesions: at­ tempts at histopathologic differentiation. Journal of Compwer Assisted Tomogra­ phy 1 3:789-796, 1 989. Teresi, L.M., Lu[kin, R.B., Wortham, D.G., Harafee W. Parotid masses: M R imaging. Radiology 1 63:405-409, 1987.

29 1 1

VIII. Sinonasal

SINONASAd

Case 66 Clinical Presentation

A 9-month-old infant came in with a nasal mass that has been present since birth.

Radiologic Findings CT axial views (soft tissue window, Figs. 66-A and 66-B) show a discrete benign ap­ pearing mass with fat density (-43.5 H U ) in the nasal ridge. Note the absence of bony changes.

Differential Diagnosis: Nasal Ridge Mass on a Child •

•

• • •

Congenitalldevelopmental lesions: dermal sinus, nasal dermoid/epidermoid, nasal glioma, nasal encephalocele Inflammatory/infectious: cellulitis/Phlegmon or abscess, Pott's puffy tumor, inflammatory polyp, congenital syphilis Trauma to the nasal bones Fibrous displasia involving the nasal bones and forehead Benign and malignant neoplasms: angioma, neurofibroma, teratoma, eosinophilic granuloma, rhabdomyosarcoma, olfactory neuroblastoma, lymphoma, metastases

Diagnosis Dermoid cyst of the nasal ridge

D iscussion Dermoid cysts of the nasal ridge are part of a spectrum of embryological defects re­ lated to the closure of the anterior neuropore. These include sinus tracts, dermoid and epidermoid cysts, nasal gliomas and cephaloceles.

ISINONASAL Brain

Brain

(Tissue or Porenchyma)

(Intranasal Encephalocele) Dura

Pre-Nasal Space

Nasal Bones

Dermoid Cyst (Adapted from English

OM

(cd):

Otolarynyology, New York, Harper and Row, Revised Edition, 1979)

c

D

E

Epidemiology

Congenital abnormalities involving the anterior neuropore are most often detected in the pediatric age group, although they can go unrecognized until adulthood. Most diagnoses are made before age 5 years (85% ) and some series report a slight male predominance. A familial tendency has also been consistently reported in the literature. Pathophysiology

The mechanism in the origin of these congenital defects is related to closure of the anterior neuropore. It includes entrapment of ectodermal tissue in the prenasal or the prefrontal space (fronticulus frontalis) and failure of mesodermic ingrowth with subsequent bony defects in the nasofrontal, ethmoidal or sphenoidal regions. This leads to herniation of meningeal and/or neural tissue. Figure 66-C is a schematic representation of the developmental abnormalities in the closure of the anterior neuropore. Compare the dermoid cyst and intranasal encephalocele.

S INONASAU

Clinical Findings Clinical presentation is variable and includes detection of a mass, dimple or punc­ tum, recurrent inflammatory process in the fronto-nasal region, discharge of pus or cheesy material through a sinus tract, or even recurrent bouts of meningitis.

Imaging Findings I maging has a very important role in the diagnosis and management of these lesions. CT and M R I are often able to distinguish between dermoids, nasal gliomas and cephaloceles because these lesions usually have different densities and signal char­ acteristics. They also detect the full extent of the lesion either by direct or indirect findings. Direct signs of intracranial extension include visualization of a soft tissue tract containing neural tissue, dura or fibrous tissue. The presence of this tract is not always depicted by imaging so that it cannot always be definitely excluded. I ndirect signs consist of bony anomalies such as enlargement of the foramen caecum, broad­ ened nasal bones, "biphid" crista galli process and other frontal bone defects. Dermal sinuses are sinus tracts lined by epithelium that can appear isolated or associated with dermoids or epidermoid cysts. They generally open into the nasal region. Their extent varies from a short blind tip, to a fistulous tract that can extend all the way into the intracranial compartment. They are usually apparent clinically, but imaging studies can be helpful i n delineating their extention and ruling out associated lesions. Dermoids and epidermoids are benign appearing cystic lesions. Epidermoids con­ tain only stratified keratinizing epithelium. Dermoids also have skin appendages and secrete sebaceous material containing keratin and cholesterol. M R I can usually distinguish between these lesions. The former is hypointense on Tl W and hyperin­ tense on TIW images, the latter is hyperintense on Tl W and lower signal on TIW images. On CT the presence of fat density makes dermoid cyst the most likely diag­ nosis. These lesions can be connected to the i ntracranial compartment by a cord of fibrous tissue through the foramen caecum, but if this stalk is free of epithelial lining, it can be left in place without risk of recurrence. The most frequent complication is infection. I n fection is more common in epi­ dermoids than in dermoids. When infection occurs the mass will have the same clin­ ical and imaging characteristics as cellulitis or abscess, and the correct diagnosis is possible only if these entities are considered. The term glioma is a misnomer because this lesion does not represent a true neo­ plasm. It is, rather, an embryologic remnant of glial tissue occasionally connected to the intracranial compartment through a fibrous stalk. As opposed to encephaloceles this lesion does not communicate with the sub­ arachnoid space. Other distinguishing features are an absence of pulsations, no Ftirstenburg sign (enlargement of the mass with compression of the internal jugular vein) and no increase in size with Valsalva. CT and M R I are both nonspecific and show a mass with features identical to gray matter. Encephaloceles consist of herniation of the meninges or meninges plus brain tis­ sue through a bony defect. Those that contain only meninges are called meningo­ celes. Those containing both meninges and brain tissue are called encephalome­ ningoceles. By definition these lesions communicate with the subarachnoid space, contain CSF, and are better imaged with M R I . CT is helpful in defining the under­ lying bony defect(s). Imaging has an important role in the detection of basal en­ cephaloceles that are often not clinically apparent. MRI Tl W images of another patient diagnosed with nasoethmoidal encephalocele (Fig. 66-D, coronal view, Fig. 66-E, saggital view) show herniation of brain tissue through the cribiform plate protuding into the right nare. ( I mages courtesy Wendy Smoker, MD.) The most common anterior encephaloceles are the nasofrontal and nasoeth­ moidal forms. Anterior encephaloceles, depending on their size, are often accompa-

I S I NONASAL PEARLS/PITFALLS •

•

•

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A dermoid cyst of the nasal ridge presen ts as a well defined mass. On cr the presence of fat den­ sity makes a dermoid cyst the most ukely diagnosis. Indirect signs of a dermoid cyst are associated bony abnormali­ ties. This condition is most common among the pediatric group (often present since birth). Never biopsy a nasofrontal mass before imaging studies have been performed and intracranial com­ munication has been excluded.

nied by physical stigmata such as enlargement of the nasal dorsum, hypertelorism or mass overlying the nasofrontal region or protruding into the nasal cavity.

M anagement When a nasal ridge mass is detected clinically, a congenital cause should be consid­ ered, particularly if the lesion has been present since birth. Imaging studies, either CT or MRI, are essential before any procedures such as biopsies or exploration of sinus tracts are attempted. Imaging studies allow for the determination of the full extent of the lesion and can demonstrate intracranial communication when present. This information permits safe and appropriate surgical treatment. When promptly and correctly diagnosed dermoid cysts are managed surgically with good cosmetic results when no previous complications as prolonged infection and inflammation or presence of complex sinus tracts are present. One important surgical point is to remove all the epithelial lining tissue and skin appendages in order to avoid recurrence. The main goals of therapy are cosmesis and prevention of complications.

Suggested Readings Albery, S.M . , Chaljub, G., Cho, N.L. et al. MR imaging of nasal masses. Radiograph­ ies 15(6) : 1 3 1 1-27, 1 995 Nov. Cauchois, R., Laccourreye, 0., B remond, D. et al. Nasal dermal sinus cyst. Annals of Otology, Rhynology and Laryngology 1 03(8 pt 1 ):615-8, 1 994 Aug. Fitzpatrick, E., Miller, R . H . Congenital midline masses: dermoids, gliomas and en­ cephaloceles fou rnal of the Louisiana StaTe Medical Society 148(3):93-6, 1 996 Mar. .

Hladky, J.P., Le Jeune, J.P , Pertuson, B. et al. Nasofrontal dermoid fistulae and cysts: 19 cases. Neuro-Chirurgie 4 1 (5)337-42, 1 995. McGregor, F.B., Geddes, N.K. Nasal dermoids: The significance of a midline puctum. A rchives of Disease in Childhood 68(3):41 8-9, 1993 Mar. Nocini, P.F., Barbaglio, A., Dolci, M., Salgarelli, A. Dermoid cyst of the nose: A case report and review of the literature. Journal of Oral and Maxillo-facial Surgery 54(3): 54(3):357-62, 1 996 Mar. Posnick, J.e., Bortoluzzi, P, Amstrong, D.e., Drake, J.M . I n tracranial nasal dermoid sinus cysts: computed tomographic scan findings and surgical results. Plastic and Re­ constructive Surgery 93(4):745-54, discussion 755-6, 1 994 Apr. Reilly, J.R., Koopman, e.F., Cotton, R. Nasal mass in a pediatric patient. (clinical conference). Head and Neck 14(5):4 1 5-8, 1 992 Sep-Oct. Sweet, R.M. Lesions of the nasal radix in pediatric patients: Diagnosis and manage­ ment. Southern Medical Journal 85(2 ) : 1 64-9, 1 992 Feb.

SINONASAL!

C ase 67 Clinical Presentation A 65-year-old female presented with a slow-growing palatal mass and recent onset of facial deformity, and discomfort on chewing. On clinjcal exam a firm, non-tender, expansile, palatal mass was noted with no overlying mucosal lesions.

A

B

I SI NONASAL

Radiologic Findings A cr of the paranasal sinuses (Fig. 67-A, axial section (bone window), Fig. 67-8. ax­ ial section (soft tissue window), and Fig. 67-C, coronal section (bone window» show a 2.8 X 2 cm midline, well-circumscribed, expansile lesion in the anterior aspect of the hard palate. The lesion is surrounded by a thin rim of cortical bone, except on its most anterior and inferior aspects, where cortical disruption is noted. The lesion ex­ erts mass effect 011 the collumela, which is displaced anteriorly. The maxilla is eden­ tulous and the bone of the maxillary alveolar ridge is thinned and expanded inferi­ orly by this mass. There is no associated soft tissue mass, and no calcification or bony matrix is seen.

Differential Diagnosis: Cystic Lesion in the Maxilla •

•

• •

Odontogenic cyst: radicular/periapical cyst, residual cyst, primordial/dentigerous cyst, odontogenic keratocyst, cystic ameloblastoma Fissural cyst: midline (nasopalatine duct cyst or incisive canal cyst; median palatal cyst), lateral (globullo-maxillary cyst; nasolabial or nasoalveolar cyst ) Bone cysts: simple, unicystic, hemorrhagic cyst; aneurysmal bone cyst Antral lesions extending into the maxillary alveolar ridge: mucocele

D iagnosis Nasopalatine duct or incisive canal cyst

Discussion Epidemiology The nasopalatine duct cyst was first reported in 1 9 1 4, by Meyer. An incidence of 1 % was estimated in the general population, making this the most common nonodon­ togenic cystic lesion of the oral region. This cyst can occur at any age, but usually presents clinically between the fourth and sixth decades of life. A slight male pre­ dominance and predilection for caucasians have been noted.

Pathophysiology Nasopalatine duct cysts are developmental in origin, arising from epithelial rem­ nants of the incisive canal. Some experts have postulated that the proliferation of epithelial remnants is triggered by irritants such as trauma, infection, mucous re­ tention or spontaneous cystic degeneration. The nasopalatine duct cyst belongs to the category of fissural cysts. These are de­ fined as cysts that are lined by squamous or respiratory epithelium entrapped along the fissure lines of the facial bones, during embryologic development. Fissural cysts are named after their anatomic location and are all histologically similar. Embryologically, the nasopalatine duct results from fusion of the paired palatine bones (primary palate) with the palatine processes of the maxilla (secondary palate). This fusion line is " Y " shaped, the midpoint of the . 'Y" representing the in­ cisive foramen and the two arms representing the two separate incisive canals, open­ ing in either side of the base of the nasal septum.

Clinical Findings Incisive canal cysts may be asymptomatic and often present as an incidental imag­ ing finding. The most common clinical findings include palatal swelling, pain and, oc­ casionally, discharge of mucoid material, with a salty taste.

SINONASAd

D

On clinical exam, a submucosal bulge is noted in the midline at the level of the in­ cisive foramen and displacement of the superior incisors may be apparent with large lesions. When infected, pain and a purulent discharge ensue. Electric pulp testing may be used to evaluate sensitivity of the incisors and may differentiate developmental cysts from periapical or radicular cysts, the latter associated with reduced sensi­ tivity.

Imaging Findings Small nasopalatine duct cysts are found incidentally on dental radiographic surveys or on cr studies done for unrelated reasons. They present as a round, ovoid or heart-shaped radiolucency located at or near the midline. The lesion is well-defined, with a peripheral rim of cortical bone. Usually, these cysts extend inferiorly into the alveolar ridge, displacing the incisor roots. They usually do not extend toward the maxillary sinus, although large cysts may cause superior bulging of the inferior wall of the antrum. cr, using both axial and coronal planes, is a valuable tool in separat­ ing intra- from extra-antral lesions. The demonstration of a bony septum between the cystic lesion and the maxillary antra, classifies a lesion as extra-antral, except in the rare case where a mucocele develops in the inferior compartment of a septated maxillary sinus. Coronal CT of the paranasal sinuses of another patient (Fig. 67-D) shows an expansile cystic lesion involving the left lateral aspect of the maxillary alveolar ridge and left maxillary sinus. The superior aspect of this lesion is covered by a convex cortical margin, which may correspond to the inferior wall of the max­ illary sinus displaced superiorly or an expanded maxillary septum. There is marked thinning of the cortical margin of the alveolar ridge. This patient was diagnosed with mucocele within a septated maxillary sinus. New generation panoramic machines, which are capable of tomographic cross­ sectional views, may yield the same information as a CT scan with the advantage of less radiation exposure. M R I is nonspecific and less accurate in the evaluation of cortical bone. Small nasopalatine duct cysts may be impossible to differentiate from an enlarged incisive fossa.

lS I

0 ASAL

PEARLSIPITFALLS •

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•

This fissural cyst is a well­ defined, midline cystic lesion centered in the nasopallatine or incisor canal. With an i ncisive canal cyst there is an absence of periodontal dis­ ease (no evidence of enlarge­ ment of the periodontal space). Avoid confusing tbis develop­ mental cyst with odontogenic le­ sions.

Differential diagnosis of an incisor canal cyst from other odontogenic and non­ odontogenic cystic lesions in the maxilla is based on the typical location of this le­ sion. Absence of abnormal widening of the periodontal ligament in the adjacent in­ cisors excludes the diagnosis of a periapical or radicular cyst. I n addition. nasopalatine duct cysts tend to be located posterior to the roots of the central in­ cisors and displace them forward. In edentulous patients, such as the case presented here, it may be impossible to differentiate this lesion from a residual cyst. The globullomaxillary cyst, another fissural cyst, is located off midline, between the lateral incisor and the canine teeth along the suture line between the lateral nasal and maxillary processes. A soLitary or simple bone cyst is another diagnostic consideration. Although the most common location of this lesion is the mandible, they may occur in the maxil­ lary incisor area and mimic a nasopallatine duct cyst. Distinguishing features in­ clude the larger dimensions of the solitary bone cyst when first noticed, and the typ­ ical scalloped margins near the alveolar ridge, where it burrows between tbe roots of the adjacent teeth. Other odontogenic lesions, such as primordial and dentigerous cysts, are easily distinguisbed due to their particular relationship to teeth. Odontogenic keratocyst and cystic ameloblastoma tend to be multilocular and have a more aggressive imag­ ing appearance and clinical behavior. Unlike nasopalatine duct cysts, these lesions. when located in the maxilla, tend to grow superiorly toward t he maxillary antrum.

Management Nasopallatine duct cysts are benign lesions tbat only require therapy when sympto­ matic. Surgery is the treatment of choice and consists of enucleation of the cyst through a palatal approach. The resulting bony defect heals by new bone formation, usually with no need for reconstructive intervention.

Suggested Readings Daley, T.E.D., Wysocki, G.P. New developments in selected cysts of the jaws. Journal of the Canadian Dental Association. Journal de L Association De/1Iaire Canadienne 63(7):526-7, 530-2, 1 997, lui-Aug. Han, M.H., Chang, K.H., Lee, e.H., Na, D.G., Yeon, K.M., Han, M.e. Cy tic expan­ sile masses of the maxilla: differential diagnosis with CT and M R I . American Jour­ nal of Neuroradiology 1 6(2):333-8, 1 995 Feb. Harris, I . R. , Brown, J.E. Application of cross-sectional imaging in the differential di­ agnosis of apical radiolucency. International Endodontic JoumaI 30(4):288-90, 1997 Jul.

SINONASAd

Case 68 Clinical Presentation A 52 year-old male presented with headaches and nasal congestion.

B

A

Radiologic Findings Coronal CT scans of the paranasal sinuses ( PNS) (Fig. 68-A, bone window and Fig. 68-B, soft tissue window) show a 2 X 1 .2 em pedunculated bony lesion originating from the left lateral aspect of the interfrontal septum. The density of this lesion is similar to that of cortical bone, except for a more hypodense region in the center of the mass. The walls of the frontal sinus are intact. There is no periosteal reaction or bony erosion.

Differential Diagnosis: Radiopaque Lesion in the Paranasal Sinus •

•

Focal and well-defined: osteoma, ossifying fibroma, osteochondroma, osteoid os­ teoma/osteoblastoma, radiopaque foreign body, sinolith (calcified secretions) Generalized and ill-defined: fibrous dysplasia, Paget's disease, osteosarcoma

Diagnosis Frontal sinus osteoma

I SJNONASAL

Discussion Epidemiology Osseous and fibroosseous lesions comprise 25% of nonepithelial tumors involving the paranasal sinuses. The true incidence of sinonasal osteomas is not known be­ cause the majority of these tumors are asymptomatic and remain undetected. Inci­ dences varying from 0.43% and 3% have been reported in several series reviewing imaging studies of the paranasal sinuses. Most series report a male predominance of about 2 : 1 . The age at presentation is broad, usually between the second and fifth decades of life. TIle sinus most commomly involved is the frontal (75 % ), followed, in decreasing order of frequency, by the ethmoids and maxillary sinus. Osteomas of the sphenoid sinus are exceedingly rare.

Pathophysiology The etiology of osteomas is unknown. 111re e theories have been proposed to explain their origin: developmental, traumatic and infectious. The embryological theory pos­ tulates that osteomas form at junctions of developing membranous and endochon­ dral bone, whjch would account for the higher incidence of this tumor in the fronto­ ethmoidal region. Although 20 to 30% of patients with osteomas of the paranasal sinuses have a history of trauma, a causative effect has never been proven. The as­ sociation with infection, which is seen in 30% of cases, is controversial because it is difficult to assess whether infection is a primary or secondary process. Due to the high prevalence of rhinosinusitis in the general population, this association may be coincidental. In addition, in 50% of cases, the tumor obstructs the drainage pathway of the sinus of origin, leading to post-obstructive inflammatory changes. Pathologically, osteomas are benign fibroosseous lesions. Depending on their os­ seous and fibrous content, osteomas are classified into three groups: ( 1 ) ivory or ma­ ture osteoma, composed of dense, compact bone with only small amounts of fibrous tissue, (2) cancellous osteoma, composed of mature cancellous bone with sparse in­ tertrabecullar spaces filled with fibrous tissue, fat or hematopoietic elements and (3) fibrous or "inunature" osteoma, composed of lamellar bone interspersed through a large amount of fibrous tissue. I t has been observed that the amount of compact bone is proportional to the pa­ tient's age and tbat it tends to progress with time. Osteomas grow slowly but inex­ orably. The mean growth rate has been estimated at around 1 .6 mm per year, rang­ ing from 0.44 to 6 mm per year.

Clinical Findings Most osteomas are asympomatic and found incidentally on imaging studies per­ formed for unrelated reasons. The most frequent symptoms include headaches and sinonasal pain. However, some patients have signs and symptoms of rhinosinusitis, or from complications secondary to sinus obstruction by the tumor. I n addition, pa­ tients presenting with headaches, in whom successful resection of the tumor is achieved, may have persistence of this symptom. Complications are relatively infrequent and are associated either with obstruc­ tion of the sinus drainage pathway or growth of a tumor beyond the boundaries of the sinus of origin. The most common is mucocele formation due to obstruction of the naso-frontal duct. Growth of a tumor, breaching through the posterior wall of the frontal sinus into the anterior cranial fossa, can result in CSF leakage, aerocele or pneumocephalus, recurrent meningitis and brain abscess. Large tumors may present with deformation of the forehead due to anterior tu­ mor growth or orbital symptoms such as proptosis, diplopia or amaurosis fugax, when the tumor grows inferiorly or involves the ethmoidal region. Tension pneu­ mocephalus is a surgical emergency, requiring prompt diagnosis and treatment.

S INONASALI

C

�D

I maging Findings The best imaging method to evaluate fibroosseous lesions of the sinonasal region is CT. Plain films detect these tumors when they are composed predominantly of com­ pact, dense, lamellar bone, but may mistake fibrous osteomas for polyps or retention cysts. Plain films also do not allow correct identification of the site of origin within the sinus. This is important information for surgical planning. M R I may be used as an adjunct to detect intracranial and/or intraorbital complications. On CT, osteomas present as bone or mixed density lesions arising from the wall of a paranasal sinus. A coronal CT section of the PNS in another patient (Fig. 68-C) shows a small pedunculated bony lesion originating from the posterior wall of the left frontal sinus (ivory osteoma). They may be broad-based, pedunculated or fill in one or more sinuses. Frontal osteomas may extend to the ethmoidal region, and in these cases it may be difficult to determine the exact site of origin. CT also demon-

I SI NONASAL strates the location of the osteoma in regard to the sinus ostium, and postobstruc­ tive changes, such as mucocele formation. Although most osteomas remain confined to the sinus of origin, conforming to the contour of the sinus, they may continue to enlarge and extend into adjacent structures. A coronal CT section of the paranasal sinuses was done for a patient with frontoethmoidal fibrous osteoma. Figure 68-D shows a large mixed density lesion centered in the right fron to-ethmoidal region, ex­ tending into and deforming the medial orbital wall. TIle lesion is heterogeneous with areas of compact cortical bone and more hypodense components with a ground glass appearance. Coronal CT section of the paranasal sinuses in a patient with recurrent ivory os­ teoma (Fig. 68-E) shows a bony lesion in the right anterior ethmoidal region that is causing slight deformity of the ipsilateral medial orbital wall. I ntraorbital and in­ tracranial extension may be seen with large frontal and/or ethmoidal osteomas. TIle presence of air in the intracranial compartment implies communication between the sinus cavity and the subarachnoid space. The intraorbital contents, specifically, the optic nerve, should be carefully evaluated for signs of compression. I maging studies are mandatory in the follow-up of patients with asymptomatic tumors that do not have an indication for surgery or residual tumor after incomplete resection, to check for growth and possible obstruction of the sinus drainage path­ way. On the other hand successfully treated osteomas do not recur and do not need radiographic follow-up. When multiple osteomas are detected on radiographs, the diagnosis of Gardner"s syndrome should be considered, as this may be the first sign of the disease. Gard­ ner's syndrome includes multiple osteomas of the facial bones, intestinal polyposis and skin tumors. On M R I , osteomas are heterogeneous lesions, usually low to intermediate signal intensity on all sequences. " Ivory" osteomas may present as signal void and be mis­ taken for a normally aerated sinus. Enhanced MRI is the best method to detect in­ tracranial and intraorbital complications. It also may clearly delineate the tumor from any associated postobstructive changes, which are bright on T2W images. CSF leaks from tumor growth or surgical complication may be detected on CT scans with intrathecal contrast administration. Differential diagnosis between fibrous osteoma, ossifying fibroma and monostotic fibrous dysplasia may be difficult. The hallmark of ossifying fibromas is their ten­ dency to behave aggressively and to calcify from the periphery to the center. Fibrous dysplasia, even when localized to a single bone, is more ill-defined, merging imper­ ceptibly with the normal surrounding bone and tends to affect primarily the maxil­ lary bone. Monostotic fibrous dysplasia of the frontal bone is rare. Another condition that mimics osteoma is a foreign body. When present for a long period foreign bodies act as a nidus for deposition of mineral salts, resulting in calcified masses called sinoliths. These masses, unlike osteomas, may be separated from the sinus walls and may move freely within the sinus upon changing the pa­ tient's position. Calcified secretions may also minlic osteomas. They usually result from desiccation of secretions in patients with chronic sinusitis or from fungal in­ fections.

Management Management of osteomas is controversial. Most experts agree that asympto­ matic osteomas should be left alone and closely followed radiographically to assess for possible growth or interval appearance of obstructive changes. I ndica­ tions for surgery in asymptomatic osteomas include extension beyond the sinus boundaries, radiographic demonstration of growth and location near the [ronto­ nasal duct. The surgical technique depends on the location and size of the tumor. Most small osteomas of the [ron tal sinus may be managed by simple trephination and endo­ scopic resection. The osteoplastic approach, with or without secondary obliteration

SI NONASALI

PEARLS/PITFALLS •

•

•

•

•

•

•

A sinsus osteoma presents as a weU-defined bony lesion in the PNS (most commonly in the frontal sinus). Look for the site of attachment to the sinus wall and relationship to the sinus ostium. Look for post-obstructive changes (mucocele). When multiple osteomas are seen, consider the diagnosis of Gardner's syndrome. The clinician should avoid mis­ taking an osteoma for a sinolith or foreign body. Do not fail to recognize obstruc­ tion of the sinus ostium. On MRI an "ivory" osteoma may mimic a normally aerated sinus.

of the frontal sinus, is the prefered method for larger tumors and those that arise from the posterior wall of the sinus.

Suggested Readings AI-Sebeih, K., Desrosiers, M. Bifrontal endoscopic resection of frontal sinus os­ teoma. Laryngoscope 1 08(2):295-8, 1 998 Feb. Atallah, N., Jay, M.M. Osteomas of the paranasal sinuses. Journal of Laryngology and Otology 95(3):291-304, 1 98 1 Mar. Brunori, A., de San tis, S., Bruni, P., Delitala, A., G iuffre, R., Chiappetta, F. Life threatening intracranial complications of frontal sinus osteomas: report of two cases. AC/a Neurochirurgica 1 38( 1 2) : 1 426-30, 1996. Hehar, S.S., Jones, N.S. Fronto-ethmoid osteoma: the place of surgery. Journal of Laryngology and Otology 1 1 1 (4):372-5, 1 997 Apr. Holness, R.O., Attia, E. Osteoma of the frontoethmoidal sinus with secondary brain abscess and intracranial mucocele: case report [letter) [see comments) Neu.rosurgery 35(4):796-7, 1 994 Oct. Koivunen, P., Lopponen, H . , Fors, A.P., Jokinen, K. The growth rate of osteomas of the paranasal sinuses. Clinical Otolaryngology 22(2):1 1 1 -4, 1 997 Apr. Rappaport, J.M . , Attia, E.L. Pneumocephalus in frontal sinus osteoma: a case re­ port. Journal of Otolaryngology 23(6):43Q...6, 1994 Dec.

I SINONASAL

Case 69 Clinical Presentation A 57-year-old female presented with frontal headaches.

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Radiologic Findings Axial (Fig. 69-A) and coronal ( Fig. 69-B) CT images of tbe paranasal sinuses (P S) show complete opacification of the right frontal sinus by a soft tissue mass which is isodense to the brain parenchyma. There is bony remodelling and expansion (note bowing of the posterior wall of the frontal sinus). Minimal mucosal thickening is present in the left frontal sinus which is consistent with chronic inflammation. No evidence of bony erosion or expansion of the mass beyond the confines of the sinus walls is present.

Differential Diagnosis: Soft Tissue Mass Filling Paranasal Sinus • • •

I nflammatory sinus disease Mucocele eoplasm

Diagnosis Frontal sinus mucocele

Discussion Mucoceles of the paranasal sinuses generally have characteristic imaging features, which make this diagnosis straightforward (see Pearls). I f a lesion meets these cri-

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I SI NONASAL teria other possibilities become much less likely. However, other benign lesions, ag­ gressive infections or even malignant slow growing processes can, of course, not be excluded on the basis of cr findings alone. Mucoceles result from obstruction of the ostium of a sinus cavity leading to pro­ gressive accumulation of the secretions trapped within the sinus. Retention cysts, which result from obstruction of the duct of a single mucous gland, can be poten­ tially indistinguishible from a mucocele if large enough to fill the sinus. However, re­ tention cysts do not usually grow large enough to cause expansion of a sinus cavity. Retention cysts are lined by the epithelium of the obstructed gland and are a fre­ quent finding in patients referred for radiologic studies of the paranasal sinus ( 10% ).

Pathophysiology The most common mechanism of obstruction preventing sinus drainage is chronic inflammation resulting in thickening of the m ucoses of the paranasal ostium or from chronic nasal polyposis. Other causes that can lead to obstruction include congeni­ tal anomalies, trauma, prior sinus surgery, fibrosseous lesions, neoplasia and diseases associated with viscid inspissated secretions such as cystic fibrosis. Mucoceles are rare in the pediatric population. When present in this age group, cystic fibrosis should be considered. The presence of complete bony septations within sinus cavity can isolate a compartment within the sinus and is associated with an increased risk of mucocele formation. Several hypotheses bave been proposed to explain the expansile nature of this le­ sion. A combination of pressure necrosis, bone devascularization and release of os­ teolytic enzymes appear to be the most important factors in the pathogenesis of mu­ coceles. Osteolysis of the inner table of the sinus cavity is accompanied by periosteal new bone formation of the outer table leading to remodeling and subsequent ex­ pansion. When bone destruction overcomes bone formation there is destruction of the bony sinus wall and the mucocele is bounded only by its own mucosal linning.

Clinical Findings Mucoceles are far more frequent in the frontal sinus (60% ) due to the small caliber, tortuosity and long course of the nasofrontal duct. Ethmoid (30% ), maxillary ( 1 0% ) and sphenoid « 1 % ) follow in order of decreasing frequency. Symptoms depend on the location of the mucocele and result either from me­ chanical effects or superinfection. Mass effects include bossing of the forehead, nasal vault or cheek, nasal obstruction, proptosis, headaches, orbital apex syndrome and cranial nerve palsies. When infected, mucoceles are known as mucopyoceles, and may cause pain and systemic symptoms. Even when asymptomatic, mucoceles must always be treated due to their aggressive behavior. Axial (Fig. 69-C) and coronal ( Fig. 69-0) cr scans of the paranasal sinus on an­ other patient show extensive soft tissue masses involving the ethmoid, frontal, sphe­ noid and maxillary sinuses. The axial view shows marked expansion of the ethmoid air cells bilaterally with demineralization and bowing of the medial wall of both or­ bits. There is orbital invasion causing proptosis. I mpingement on the optic nerves is also noted. Posteriorly, this mass extends intracranially and invades the left cav­ ernous sinus. On the coronal view the intracranial extension to the left frontal re­ gion and intraorbital extension are better appreciated. Note also slight expansion of the left maxillary sinus. Axial TIW M R images of the paranasal sinus on the same patient ( Figs. 69-E through 69-G) show mixed signal intensities within the Ilasal vault and sinus cavities due to the different components present in this lesion. The nasal cavity and left max­ illary sinus are filled with hyperintense tissue consistent with watery mucous secre­ tions (Fig. 69-E). The ethmoid air cells and frontal sinuses show a predominantly hy­ pointense component with signal voids consistent with dissecated secretions. These

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signal void may simulate aerated sinu es (Fig . 69-F and 69-0). M R I beller delin­ eates the orbital and intracranial exten ion of this proce·s. The e cr and M R I pat­ tern , although showing some aggres ive features that could sugge t a malignant neoplastic condition, are quite characteri tic of a benign process. In particular, note the integrity of the bony trabecula in the ethmoid sinus and the presence of a hy­ podense rim separating the central hyperden e soft tissue rna s from the sinus walls on the cr images and the mixed ignal intensitie een on the M R l tudy. llle patient in Figures 69-C through 69-0 was diagnosed with chronic nasal pol­ yposi with mucocele formation in the ethmoid, frontal, sphenoid and left maxillary sinuses. (Case courle y of Dr. Hugh Curtin.) Figure 69-H depicts an axial cr of an ethmoid mucocele in another patient. The most frequent complications of mucoceles are orbital and intracranial invaion and infection. Intraorbital inva ion with optic nerve impingement can result in irreversible visual 10 For this reason mucoceles should always be considered in the differential diagnosis in a patient with sudden onset of visual loss. Other cranial nerve palsies can occur especially in sphenoid sinu mucoceles extending laterally into the cavernous sinu . Chronic dural inflammation may be re ponsible for some cranial nerve palsies when direct mechanical compression of the cranial nerves is s.

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I S I NONASAL Table 69-1.

M R Signal Voids Within the Paranasal Sinuses Aerated sinus Desiccated secretions Calcifications Fungal concretions (mycetoma) Foreign body Ectopic (undescended) tooth Dentigerous cyst Fresh blood

not documented. Meningitis is another possible complication when infection of the mucocele occurs (mucopyocele).

Imaging Findings Mucoceles can be diagnosed on plain films of the paranasal sinus but cr and M R I are superior in defining the extension and potential complications o f this condition and are essential for therapy planning. cr is the ideal method to evaluate the bony changes and integrity of the bony margins of the sinus walls. CT discloses an expansile nonenhancing mass filling a si­ nus cavity. The density of this mass depends on the chronicity of the lesion and com­ position of the retained secretions. I n early stages mucoceles appear bypodense and tend to become progressively more byperdense as dessication and inspissation of secretions occur. Ocasionally dystrophic calcifications are seen. The bony walls of the sinus appear remodeled and bowed and may appear sclerotic, demineralized or focally absent. When infected, a thin rim of enhancement is noted around the soft tissue mass. M R imaging is the best tool to depict intraorbital and intracranial extension and is also helpful in the differential diagnosis from malignancy when contrast material is used. The signal characteristics depend on the protein and water content of the se­ cretions and several patterns can be seen. In the early stages watery mucous secre­ tions show hypointensity on T1 W and hyperintensity on T2W images. Desiccated stagnant secretions may show low signal on both TI W and T2W images. With para­ magnetic contrast administration mucoceles, enhance peripherally even when not infected but never centrally as do most neoplasms. The presence of signal void within a sinus on both Tl W and T2W images can rep­ resent a variety of conditions ranging from a normal aerated sinus to fresh blood (Table 69- 1 ) . Care must be taken not to misdiagnose a mucocele filled with dessic­ cated secretions for a normal aerated sinus (Fig. 69-F). Always look for signs of ex­ pansion or perform CT in doubtful cases. When infection is present and complicated by meningitis, dural enhancement can also be depicted with both CT and MRT.

Management M ucoceles are generally ways surgical lesions because they behave like slow grow­ ing neoplasms and are potentially life threatening. Two different approaches can be used: intranasal endoscopic surgery or open obliterative surgery. I ntranasal endoscopic treatment is established as the modality of choice for eth­ moid and sphenoid sinus mucoceles, especially when intracranial or intraorbital ex­ tension is present. Frontal sinus mucoceles have been treated using a limited frontal craniotomy, removal of the mucocele and sinus mucosa, followed by packing the si­ nus with fat tissue ( Lynch procedure or osteoplastic flap).

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In pediatric patients consider cystic fibrosis as a differential di­ agnosis.

Postsurgical CT images of the patient presented in this case ( Fig. 69-1, coronal; Fig. 69-J, axial) show the typical appearance of an osteoplastic flap. Bony defects are seen in the anterior wall of the frontal sinus, and the sinus cavity has been packed with fatty tissue. Recent work has shown some advantage to using endoscopic surgery in frontal sinus mucoceles whether or not intracranial or intraorbital exten­ sion is present. The main goal of therapy is to achieve decompression of the mucocele in order to relieve the symptoms associated with mass effect. Several advantages of the endo­ scopic technique have been documented. This technique can be performed in an outpatient basis, sometimes under local anesthesia. No external incisions are re­ quired, and lower rate of complications such as CSF leaks and meningitis in com­ parison with the open obliterative procedure. Imaging follow up is recommended in every case to check for recurrence.

Early findings can be easily missed.

Suggested Readings

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The imaging features of a muco­ cele in the PNS include a mass made of soft tissue that fills the sinus, and sinus bony expansion. Mucoceles result from obstruc­ tion of the sinus ostium.

Bony expansion may be masked by the normal sinus wall contour.

Benninger, M.S., Marks, S. The endoscopic management of sphenoid and ethmoid mucoceles with orbital and intranasal extension. Rhinology 33(3): 1 57-{) 1 , 1 995 Sep. Chua, R., Shapiro, S. A mucopyocele of the clivus: case report. Neurosurgery 39(3):589-90, discussion 590- 1 , 1996 Sep. Delfini, R., Missori, P., lannetti, G., Ciappetta, P., Cantore, G. Mucoceles of the paranasal sinuses with intracranial and intraorbital extension: report of 28 cases. Neurosurgery 32(6):901-{) discussion 906, 1993 Jun. Fligny, 1., Lamas, G., Aidan, P., Fougeront, 8., Soudant, 1. Frontal mucocele. Clinical symptoms, treatment and results apropos of 17 cases. Acta Oto-Rhino-laryngologica Belgica 47(4):429-34, 1 993. Gentile, VG., Isaacson, G. Patterns of sinusitis in cystic fibrosis. Laryngoscope 1 06(8): 1 005-9, 1 996 Aug. Har-el, G. Telescopic extracranial approach to frontal mucoceles with intracranial extension. fournal of Otolaryngology 24(2):98- 1 0 1 , 1 995 Apr. Kpemissi, E., Balo, K., Kpodzro, K. Sinus mucoceles. Apropos of 5 cases. Annales D Oto-Laryngologie ef de Chirurgie Cervico-Faciale 1 1 3(3):17 9-82, 1 996. Krishnan, G., Kumar, G. Frontoethmoid mucocele: one-year follow-up after endo­ scopic frontoethmoidectomy. fournal of Otolaryngology 25( 1 ):37-40, 1 996 Feb. Selvapandian, S., Rajshekhar, V, Chandy, MJ. Mucoceles: a neurosurgical perspec­ tive. British fournal of Neurosurgery 8( 1 ):57-6 1 , 1994. Sterling, K.M., Stollman, A., Sacher, M., Som, P.M. Ossifying fibroma of sphenoid bone with coexistent mucocele: CT and MRT. fournal of Computer Assisted Tomog­ raphy 1 7(3):492-4, 1 993 May-Jun.

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Case 70 Clinical Presentation A 37-year-old H I V positive male presented with chronic sinusitis and blurred vision.

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Radiologic Findings A cr axial view through the maxillary sinus (soft tissue window, Fig. 70-A) shows nodular soft tissue thickening in the right maxillary sinus with bone erosion and dis1 31 4

SI NONASAd ruption of the anterior wall of the sinus and soft tissue extension to the cheek. A cr axial view (soft tissue window, Fig. 70-B) shows opacification of the inferior portion of the right maxillary sinus with high density soft tissue and associated soft tissue ex­ tending to the cheek and bony sclerosis of the sinus walls (compare bony thickness on both sides). A cr coronal view (bone window) 6 months later ( Fig. 70-C) shows thinning and erosion of the inferior orbital rim and transosseous soft tissue exten­ sion into the extraconal compartment of the right orbit. cr axial view (soft tissue window, Fig. 70-0) shows interval growth of the soft tissue component as well as en­ largement of the bony wall defect in the anterior wall of the right maxillary sinus.

Differential D iagnosis: Sinus Disease with Bone Destruction •

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Aggressive infection: nongranulomatous (aspergillosis, mucormycosis, candidia­ sis, histoplasmosis, cryptococosis), granulomatous (actinomycosis, tuberculosis, rhinoscleroma) Noninfectious granulomatous processes: Wegener's granulomatosis, idiopathic midline granuloma, sarcoidosis, cocaine nose Neoplasm: squamous cell carcinoma, lymphoma, adenocarcinoma

Note: [n an H I V positive patient aggressive infection either bacterial (Nocardia) or fungal (aspergillosis, mucormycosis, candidiasis, cryptococosis) are likely, as is an ag­ gressive lymphoma.

Diagnosis Fungal sinusitis (aspergillosis)

Discussion Epidemiology Fungal sinus infections are relatively common involving a large number of organ­ isms. Predisposing factors include immunocompromise, diabetes mellitus, and pro­ longed antibiotic and steroid therapy. Fungal sinus infections can also be seen in otherwise healthy individuals, especially those with poor sinus aeration due to

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ISINONASAL chronic inflammatory disease. There is no definite age or gender predilection. A ge­ ography with warm climates is known to favor fungal growth. Pathophysiology

As in other anatomic regions fungal infections of the sinus can be classified as acute ( fulminant), chronic, allergic and mycetomatous. Fulminant fungal infection typically occurs in an immunocompromised patient and can be life threatening when intraorbital or intracranial extension is seen (rhinocerebral form), with potential complications including vascular invasion and venous or arterial thrombosis. The organisms most commonly implicated are As­ pergillus fumigatus and Mucor species. A cr axial view through the maxillary si-

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Predisposing factors include dia­ betes mellitus, prolonged antibi­ otic or steroid therapy or an im­ munocompromised patient. If the sphenoid sinus alone is in­ volved, consider aspergiJIosis.

Chronic characteristics include nodular mucosal thickening, and bony sclerosis, thinning and re­ modeling. Aggressive features include bony erosion and destruction, and soft tissue extension beyond the si­ nuses. Air-ftuid levels rarely occur. In mycetoma, calcified secretions and fungal concretions have hy­ pointensity on T1 W and T2W M R images (possibly due to iron, manganese and calcium phos­ phate content of the fungal hy­ phae) . Early infection can be indistin­ guishable from bacterial i nfec­ tion/ chronic inftammatory changes. Desiccated sinus secretions can have the same M R I appearance as fungal mycetoma concretions. Aggressive features from infec­ tion are indistinguishable from neoplasm particularly when lo­ calized to a single paranasal cav­ ity in an immunocompetent pa­ tient.

nuses (soft tissue window) in a second patient ( Figs. 70-E and 70-F) shows bilateral opacification of the maxillary sinuses with thinning and erosion of the anterior wall and disruption of the aspect of the lateral waLl of the left maxillary sinus. There is associated extension into the pterygopalatine fossa and masticatory space (compare the density of the fat on both infratemporal fossa). Note bony destruction of the pterygoid plates on this side. TIlis patient was on chronic steroid therapy. The chronic form usuaLly occurs in an immunocompetent host and can be indis­ tinguishable both clinically and radiologically from bacterial infection. The allergic form develops in atopic individuals and results from hypersensitivity reactions. The mechanisms of injury are similar to those of the bronchopulmonary form of aspergillosis. Associated nasal polyposis and/or aspirin allergy can be pres­ ent. Aspergillus fumigatus is the most frequent agent. The mycetoma form usually occurs within a single sinus cavity forming a fungus ball and inciting minimal inftammatory reaction. On CT imaging, it appears as opacification of a sinus cavity with a central area of hyperdensity corresponding to the fungal hyphae, surrounded by peripheral hypodensity and consisting of retained secretions. On M R imaging, hypointensity or a signal void is seen on both T l W and T2W images, representing desiccated mycelia. Aspergillosis mycetoma sphenoid of tbe sinus in a third patient is seen in Figure 70-0 tbrough 70-1. The left sphenoid sinus sbows intermediate signal on tbe Tl W image ( Fig. 70-0) and T2W image ( Fig. 70-H). The right sphenoid sinus shows hypointensity within the sinus on any pulse sequence (Tl , spin density or 1'2). There is linear enbancement of the wall of the si­ nus on the postgadolinium image (Fig. 70-1). The CT scan clearly shows tbe findings (Fig. 70-J). ( I mages are courtesy of Dr. Peter Som.) The maxillary and ethmoid air cells are most commonly involved by fungal infec­ tion. This involvement is frequently unilateral, but can be bilateral when more ag­ gressive forms are seen, as in immunocompromised patients. When the sphenoid si­ nus is the only sinus involved, aspergillosis sbould be considered.

Imaging Findings There are no specific imaging charateristics that allow distinction between the most frequent bacterial infections and the different fungal agents. When an aggressive, bone destroying lesion involving only one sinus is present, malignancy cannot be ex­ cluded on the basis of imaging alone. Other aggressive noninfectious granulomatous processes that should be considered are Wegener's granulomatosis, sarcoidosis, id­ iopathic midline destructive disease and exposure to cocaine or other toxic agents such as chromate salts.

Management The treatment of choice for fungal infections is wide surgical debridement and spe­ cific antifungal agents. Recurrence is common and the prognosis can be dismal, par­ ticularly for immunocompromised patients who are not properly diagnosed and promptly treated.

Suggested Readings Blitzer, A., Lawson, W., Fungal infections of the nose and paranasal sinuses, Part I . Otolaryngologic Clinics of North America 26(6): 1 007-35, 1 993 Dec. De Shazo, R.D., Sweain. R.E. Diagnostic criteria for allergic fungal sinusites. Jour­ nal ofAllergy and Clinical Immunology 96(1 ):24-35. 1995 Jul. Johnson, CD., Brandes. W. I nvasive aspergillosis of the sphenoethmoid sinuses in an immunocompetent host. lourn.al of the A merican Osteopathic Association 92(8): 1047-51 , 1 992 Aug.

I S INONASAL Lawson, W., Blitzer, A. Fungal infections of the nose and paranasal sinuses, Part I I . Qrolaryngologic Clinics of North America 26(6): 1 037--68, 1993 Dec. Som, P.M., Curtin, H.D. Chronic inflammatory sinonasal diseases including fungal infections-The role of imaging. Radiologic Clinics of North America 3 1 ( 1 ):33-34, 1 993 Jan. Terk, M.R., Underwood, D.Z., Zee, C.S., Colletti, P. M . MR imaging in rhinocerebral and intracranial mucormycosis with CT and pathologic correlation. Magnelic Resonance Imaging 1 0 ( 1 ):8 1 -7, 1 992.

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Case 71 Clinical Presentation A 67-year-old male presented with progressive onset of left nasal obstruction, post nasal drip and pain in the left cheek.

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Radiologic Findings On nonenhanced CT images of the paranasal sinuses, a soft tissue lobulated mass can be seen centered in the lateral wall of the left nare extending to the ipsilateral maxillary sinus (axial view, Fig. 7 1 -A ) . There is marked bony resorption of the me­ dial wall of this sinus and enlargement of the nasoantral window. The mass extends superiorly into the left ethmoidal air cells (Fig. 7 1 - 8 ) and there is slight expansion of the bony walls, particularly of the lamina papyracea that is bowed laterally (com­ pare to the right side). Mucosal thickening is present in some right sided ethmoidal air cells. Coronal T2W M R I of the paranasal sinuses (Fig. 7 1 -C) shows a homoge­ neous intermediate intensity mass obliterating the left nares and extending to tbe maxillary and ethmoidal air cells. No signs of secondary obstructive sinusitis is seen. There is no evidence of orbital involvement.

Differential Diagnosis: Unilateral Nasal Cavity Mass • • • • • •

Polyp (nasoantral polyp) Granulomatous process (infectious or noninfectious) Papilloma Squamous cell carcinoma (SCCa) of the maxillary sinus Nasopharyngeal angiofibroma Angiomatous polyp

Diagnosis Inverted papilloma

Discussion The differential diagnosis of this lesion should include nasoantral polyp, granulo­ matous processes (both infectious and noninfectious) and papilloma. A lthough the radiologic features of this case appear benign, a SCCa of the nasal cavity cannot be excluded on the basis of imaging alone. Sinonasal polyposis is typically a bilateral process presenting most frequently in children and young adults and can be ex­ cluded in this case. Juvenile angiofibroma is not a likely differential in this age group. Mucoceles, the most frequent expansile legion of the paranasal sinus, should be included in the differential whenever there is bony expansion of a sinus. How­ ever, in this case, such a diagnosis is not likely as the mass is centered in the nasal cavity.

Epidemiology Papillomas of the nasal cavity and paranasal sinuses are infrequent lesions, consti­ tuting between 0.4% and 4.7% of all sinonasal tumors. Inverted papillomas occur most commonly in males (4 : 1 ) between the fourth and sixth decades. They are lo­ cally invasive, spread readily along epithelial surfaces and may be multifocal. Re­ currence is a common problem, varying between 25% and 50% . The importance of early recognition and treatment is underscored by this le­ sion's potential for malignant transformation, most frequently into a squamous cell carcinoma. The incidence of malignant degeneration or coexistence of in­ vetted papilloma with squamous cell carcinoma is around 5% to 1 0% . Some series reported numbers as high as 56% or more with long follow-up times. For this reason, although they are benign lesions, they are managed with aggressive surgical excision.

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Pathophysiology The pathophysiology of this lesion is not known. Some experts reported an associa­ tion with viral infections (notably human papilloma virus) and various environ­ mental exposures. A history of atopy and chronic inflammation also have been im­ plicated.

Clinical Findings I nitial symptoms usually include unilateral nasal obstruction, postnasal drip, epi­ staxis and headaches. Later symptoms relate to tumor extension into the sinus or or­ bits and can include proptosis or diplopia. The lesion almost always originates in the lateral wall of the nasal cavity and typically extends into the maxillary sinus. Un­ usual presentations include septal lesions and isolated lesions inside a sinus cavity. Bilaterality is rare.

Imaging Findings Imaging plays an important role in determining the extent of the lesion, and in the post therapeutic follow-up of this pathologic entity. Usually the imaging findings are nonspecific but when correlated with the clinical history, they can suggest the diag­ nosis. Whenever papilloma is in question, CT studies should be performed with and without intravenous contrast. On the precontrast studies these lesions are seen as soft tissue masses originating from the lateral wall of the nasal cavity. Papillomas be­ have as heterogeneously enhancing masses. Heterogeneous enhancement permits distinction from mucoceles (nonenhancing lesions), and is useful in separating the real bulk of the tumor from secondary obstructive sinusitis. Bony abnormalities are not unusual especially when the papilloma becomes large. These abnormalities are clearly depicted on CT studies and may include remodeling, thinning, bowing, ero­ sion or sclerosis of the bony walls. Calcifications can be seen inside the tumor, and generally represents rests of bony walls of the sinuses rather than dystrophic calci­ fications. Depiction of extension into the maxillary and ethmoid sinuses or into the na­ sopharynx is very important for treatment planning, and determines whether the le­ sion is amenable to endoscopic intranasal surgery. Regular follow up is necessary for early detection of recurrence, and aggressive features that may suggest malignant transformation. These features include aggressive bony destruction, extensive, and soft tissue infiltration. MRI is particularly useful in the evaluation of orbital and intracranial extension and distinction of papillomas from inflammatory processes. It provides similar in­ formation as CT scanning and both studies are only required in complex cases. Papillomas show intermediate signal intensity on Tl W and T2W images and en­ hance heterogeneously after administration of gadolinium. Inflammatory processes, depending on their chronicity, can be hypo- or hyperintense on Tl W images and hyper- or hypointense on T2W images (see discussion on mucoceles). After contrast administration, inflammatory lesions usually show peripheral enhancement, except for highly vascularized polyps that also can enhance centrally.

Pathology Histopathologically, they are classified as either fungiform, inverted or cylindric. TIle first two forms are the most commonly seen. TIlese lesions consist on hyperplasia of the ciliated epithelium lining the nasal cavity and sinuses, also called the Schneider­ ian epithelium. Other commonly used designations for sinonasal papillomas include Schneiderian papillomas, hyperplastic papillomas and transitional cell papilloma. The inverted papilloma type results from the ingrowth of the epithelium beneath

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the seromucinous glands with formation of an endophytic mass. Figure T I -D depicts a histologic section of inverting papilloma from another patient. Note the characteristic inversion of the epithelium for which the neoplasm is named.

Management Except for small lesions limited to the nasal cavity, inverted papillomas are typically managed by open surgery. Despite their benign histology, the high incidence of ma­ lignant degeneration results in aggressive surgical management. The surgical approach, depending on the extent of the lesion, is usually a lateral rhinectomy with en bloc resection of the lateral wall of the nasal cavity or an eth­ moidectomy with medial maxillectomy. Endoscopic intranasal surgical treatment yields better cosmetic results, but should be reserved for very focal lesions and for the management of recurrences. Biopsies of any suspicious areas detected on imag­ ing studies should be performed before endoscopic surgery in order to exclude ex­ tension to those areas, or possible malignant transformation. The role of radiotherapy in these lesions is poorly defined and should be limited to unresectable lesions, multiple reccurences or as an adjunct following incomplete surgery.

Suggested Readings Deitmer. T., Wiener, e. Is there an occupational etiology of inverted papilloma of the nose and sinuses? A cta Oto-Laryn.gologica 1 1 6(5):762-5, 1 996 Sep. Hug, E.B., Wang, e.e., Montgomery, W.W., Goodman, M.L. Management of inverted papilloma of the nasal cavity and paranasal sinuses: importance of radiation ther­ apy. lnternational Journal of Radiacion Oncology, Biology, Physics 26( 1 ) :67-72, 1 993 Apr 30. Lawson, W., Ho, BT., Shaari, e.M., Biller, H .F. inverted papilloma: a report of 1 1 2 cases. Laryngoscope 1 05(3 Pt 1 ):282-8, 1 995 Mar. Michaels, L. Benign mucosal tumors of the nose and paranasal sinuses. Seminars in. Diagnostic Pathology 1 3(2): 1 1 3-7, 1 996 May.

Michaels, L., Young, M. Histogenesis of papillomas of the paranasal sinuses. Archives of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine vol. 1 1 9, 82 1-26, 1 995 Sept.

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Adult males are most commonly affected by this condition. A unilateral nasal mass is one of the primary symptoms found with inverted papilloma. An inverted papilloma may con­ tain rests of bony trabeculae. A n inverted papilloma may show aggressive bone changes. Inverted papillomas have a high malignant transformation rate. Do not mistake for inflammatory sinus disease. Avoid missing aggressive regions of tumor, which may represent malignant transformation.

Outzen, K.E., Grontveld, A., Jorgensen, K., Clausen, P.P. , Ladefoged, C. Inverted papilloma: incidence and late results of surgical treatment. Rhinology 34(2) : 1 1 4-8, 1 996 Jun. Roobottom, C.A., Jewell, F.M., Kabala, 1. Primary and recurrent inverting papil­ loma: appearances with magnetic resonance imaging. Clinical Radiology 50(7): 472-5, 1 995 Jul. Stankiewicz, lA., Girgis, S.l Endoscopic surgical treatment of nasal and paranasal sinus inverted papilloma. Otolaryngology and Head and Neck Surgery 1 09(6): 988-95, 1 993 Dec. Vrabec, D.P. The inverted Schneiderian papilloma: a 25-year study. Laryngoscope 1 04(5 Pt 1 ):582-605, 1 994 May. Woodruff, W.W., Vrabec, D.P. Inverted papilloma of the nasal vault and paranasal si­ nuses: spectrum of CT findings. A merican Journal of Roentgenology 1 62(2):41 9-23, 1 994 Feb.

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Case 72 Clinical Presentation A 44-year-old male presented with nasal obstruction and chronic purulent rhinor­ rhea.

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Radiologic Findings TIle coronal CT scan (Fig. 72-A) shows mucosal thickening of the ethmoid and max­ illary sinuses bilaterally. Ln addition, there is a small nasal septal perforation.

Differential Diagnosis: Nasal Lymphoma • • • • • • •

Cocaine abuse Sarcoid Syphilis Wegener's granulomatosis Nasal lymphoma Squamous cell carcinoma Trauma

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Diagnosis Nasal lymphoma

Discussion Epidemiology I n the United States and other developed countries, since the early 1 970s, non­ Hodgkin's lymphoma has had one of the largest increases in incidence of any can­ cer. Between 1 973 and 1 989, there has been a 60% increase in incidence with cur­ rent annual increases of 3.3%/year. Although increases in AIDS is a major factor, it is estimated that only 1 0 to 1 5% of all new cases are A I D S related. Nasal lymphoma is one of the rarest forms of extra nodal lymphoma in the west­ ern population representing less than 0.5% of the group. This is in contrast to Asia where sinonasal lymphoma is the second most common type of extra nodal lym­ phoma, exceeded only by those in the gastrointestinal system. I nterestingly, over 90% of Asian nasal lymphomas have T-cell markers and no B-cell markers. I n all pa­ tients, regardless of geographic origin, Epstein-Barr virus has been demonstrated in all nasal T-cell lymphomas.

Pathophysiology I n 1 939, Wegener described a "rhinogenic granulomatosis" in patients with necro­ tizing granulomatous vasculitis of the upper and lower respiratory tract and kidneys. The lungs are involved in nearly all cases. After exclusion of the Wegener's granulomatosis patients, the remaining group of patients with idiopathic aggressive destructive nasal lesions were known in the 1 950s and 1 960s as having "lethal midline granuloma." This was a particularly poor choice of terms because it became clear that although the disease was almost always midline, it was not always lethal or granulomatous. I n the 1970s and 1 980s, patients with this disorder were subclassified into the fol­ lowing 3 groups based on variations in histology and clinical behavior: ( 1 ) Idiopathic midline destructive disease, which was characterized by localized destructive lesion of the nasal cavity with nonspecific inflammation and necro­ sis; (2) Polymorphic reticulosis or lymphomatoid granulomatosis, which involved a pseudolymphomatous tissue reaction; (3) Extranodal lymphoma usually nonHodgkin's type. Finally, in the 1 990s, advances in immunocytochemical phenotyping have allowed a great simplification of our understanding of this disease. The vast majority of pa­ tients from the previous groups are now known to have lymphoma of the nasal tract. ll1e use of the previous nomenclature to describe these sinonasal lymphomas should be discontinued.

Clinical Findings The median age of patients at diagnosis is 50 years. Nasal obstruction and/or puru­ lent nasal discharge are frequent presenting symptoms. Epistaxis and facial swelling are also sometimes seen. Eventually, septal perforation, sinonasal-oral fistulas, and even "autorhinectomy" may develop.

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I maging Findings cr or M R I studies will, in early patient , show nonspecific inonasal finding of mu­ cosal thickening uggesting chronic sinona al inflammation. Eventually, destructive lesions appear with septal perforation and occasionally inonasal oral fistulae. An axial cr can in another nasal lymphoma patient ( Fig. 72-8) hows more complete destruction of the nasal eptum. The destructive nasal imaging findings may be iden­ tical to tho e seen in Wegener's granulomatosi . A n axial cr in a patient with Wegener's granulomatosis ( Fig. 72-C) shows milder soft tissue changes in the nasal cavity. Identical findings may be presen t with nasal lymphoma. With advanced dis­ ea e, complete na al destruction (autorhinectomy) may occur in either thi disease or with Wegener's patients ( Fig. 72-D, axial, Fig. 72-E, coronal).

Management Radiation therapy is the treatment of choice although some experts use chemother­ apy alone. or in combination with radiation therapy.

326

SINONASAd

PEARLSIPITFALLS •

•

•

•

•

•

Suggested Readings

A nasal lymphoma is typified by a destructive midline nasal le­ sion.

Borisch, 8., Hennig, I . , Laeng, R.H., Waelti, E . R., Kraft, R., Laissue, 1. Association of the subtype 2 of tbe Epstein-Barr virus with T-cell nonHodgkin's lymphoma of the midline granuloma type. Blood 82(3):858-64, 1 993 Aug l .

Patients with nasal lymphoma of­ ten have T-cell markers.

Chen, H . H . , Fong, L . , Su, 1.1., Ting, L.L., Hong, R.L., Leung, H.W., Lui, L.T. Experi­ ence of radiotherapy in lethal midline granuloma witb special emphasis on centro­ facial T-cell lympboma: a retrospective analysis covering a 34 year period. Radio­ therapy and Oncology 38(1 ): 1 -6, 1996 Jan.

Before diagnosing nasal lym­ phoma, the clinician must rule out Wegener's granulomatosis, as well as other causes. Another name for nasal lym­ phomas is "lethal midline granu­ loma," which is a misnomer be­ cause these lesions are not always lethal or granulomatous. No longer use these terms: lethal midline granuloma, idiopathic. midline destructive disease, poly­ morphic reticulosis, lymphoma­ toid granulomatosis, or pseudolymphoma. Do not mistake for Wegener's or other causes of midine nasal de­ struction.

Dictor, M., Cervin, A., Kalm, 0., Rambech, E. Sinonasal T-cell lymphoma in tbe dif­ ferential diagnosis of lethal midline granuloma using in situ hybridization for Epstein-Barr virus RNA. Modern Pathology 9 ( 1):7-14, 1 996 Jan. Hartig, G., Montone, K . , Wasik, M . , Chalian, A., Hayden, R. Nasal T-cell lympboma and the lethal midline granuloma syndrome. Otolaryngology and Head and Neck Surgery 1 14(4):653-6, 1 996 Apr. Ramsay, A.D., Rooney, N. Lymphomas of the head and neck. 1 : Nasofacial T-cell lymphoma. European fournal of Cancer. Part B, Oral Oncology 298(2):99- 1 02, 1 993 Apr. Sevinsky, L.D., Woscoff, A., Jaimovich, L., Terzian, A. Nasal cocaine abuse mimick­ ing midline granuloma. fournal of the American Academy of Dermatology 32(2 Pt 1 ):286-7, 1 995 Feb.

ISINONASAL

Case 73 Clinical Presentation A 59-year-old male with a longstanding history of chronic sinusitis presented with left facial swelling.

A

B

SINONASALI

Radiologic Findings Enhanced axial cr of the paransal sinus (PNS) (Fig. 73-A) shows an enhancing soft tissue mass in the posterior aspect of the right maxillary sinus, destroying the pos­ terior wall of this sinus and invading the right pterygopalatine fossa and masticator space. The ipsilateral pterygoid plates are eroded. Coronal T1 W M R I (Fig. 73-B) shows the cranio-caudal extent of the mass and medial extension into the left nasal cavity. Inferiorly, the mass invades the right superior alveolar ridge and extends into the oral cavity. Axial T2W M R I (Fig. 73-C) separates the neoplastic tissue from the postobstructive inflammatory changes in the right maxillary sinus, which show higher signal intensity.

Differential Diagnosis: Destructive Maxillary Sinus Process •

Neoplasm: squamous cell carcinoma, adenocarcinoma, minor salivary gland neoplasms, lymphoma, melanoma, esthesioneuroblastoma, sarcomas (osteo-, chondro-, fibrosarcomas), malignant fibrous histiocytoma, plasmocytoma, metas­ tasis. rhabdomyosarcoma eosinophilic granuloma Aggressive infection: bacterial osteomyelitis, fungal infection (aspergillosis, mu­ comycosis), syphyllis, rhinoseleroma Others: Wegener's granulomatosis, cocaine abuse, radiation osteitis, rhinotilexo­ mania *,

•

•

*

Note: Those diagnoses that are more likely in the pediatric age group are indicated by a *.

Diagnosis Destructive maxillary sinus process

Discussion Epidemiology Sinonasal carcinomas are rare, comprising only 3% of all head and neck tumors. Among these, approximately 50% are of epithelial origin. The maxillary antrum is most commonly involved (80% of cases) followed in decreasing order of frequency by the nasal cavity (20% ), ethmoid complex ( 10% ) and sphenoid and frontal sinuses « 1 % ) . There is a male predisposition with a male-to-female ratio of 2 : 1 and a peak incidence in the sixth decade. Ninety percent of cases are seen in patients over age 40 years. In the pediatric population, most destructive sinonasal masses are either rhabdomyosarcomas or eosinophilic granulomas.

Pathophysiology Several predisposing factors have been implicated in the pathogenesis of sinonasal neoplasms. Occupational exposure to irritants such as nickel, chromium, wood fur­ niture, mustard gas and radium are associated with an increased incidence of carci­ nomas, mostly squamous cell and adenocarcinoma. An increased incidence of sinonasal carcinoma and sarcoma is also seen in patients previously exposed to ra­ diation and thorotrast. Fifteen to twenty five percent of patients with inverting pa­ pilloma have synchronous or metachronous squamous cell carcinoma. Other less es­ tablished causative factors include chronic sinusitis, sinonasal polyposis and chronic naso-antral fistulas. The association with airborne agents explains the increased incidence of sinonasal carcinomas in the nasal cavity and maxillary antra, the first barrier to inhaled irritants.

IS INONASAL

D

E

Because the site of origin and pattern of tumor spread have prognostic and ther­ apeutic impact, several systems bave been used to classify squamous cell carcinoma of the paranasal sinuses, most regarding antral tumors, the most prevalent location. Axial T l W image in another patient (Fig. 73-C) shows a soft tissue mass filling the left maxillary sinus, breaching tbe anterior wall of this sinus and infiltrating the premaxillary soft tissues. Coronal frequency selective fat suppression imaging (FATS AT) postcontrast T l WI in that same patient (Fig. 73-D) shows medial exten­ sion of the lesion into the left nasal cavity with destruction of the middle turbinate and medial wall of the maxillary antrum, and superior extent into the extraconal compartment of the left orbit. There has been breaching of tbe medial and inferior walls of the left orbit and the mass is seen to displace the inferior rectus superiorly and laterally. The mass enhances homogeneously. This patient was diagnosed witb squamous cell carcinoma of tbe left maxillary sinus. In 1 933, Ohngren subdivided the maxillary antrum into a supra- and infrastruc­ ture using an imaginary line joining the medial canthus with the angle of the mandible. A lateral view (Fig. 73-E) demonstrates the division of the maxillary si­ nus into a supra- and infrastructure by Ohngren's line (from the medial canthus to the angle of tbe mandible). Neoplasms located posterosuperior to this line are ei­ tber unresectable or require wide craniofacial resections, usually total maxillectomy with orbital exenteration, and have a grave prognosis ( 1 0% 5 year survival rate). Tu­ mors located anteroinferior to this line can be managed with partial or total maxil­ lectomy and have a better prognosis (58% five year survival). The tumor, node, metastasis (TNM ) classification is based in Ohngren's line. Max­ illary neoplasms are classified as listed in Table 1 . Because the lymphatic drainage of the paranasal sinuses is poor, nodal metasta­ sis are rare ( 1 5 % ) and usually indicate spread of the tumor beyond the boundaries of the maxillary sinus, most commonly into the alveolar sulcus, pterygopallatine fossa and/or premaxillary soft tissues. The primary lymphatic drainage of the paranasal sinuses is to the retropharyngeal lymph nodes. However. because this lymphatic pathway is often obliterated due to repeated childhood infections, the secondary lymph nodes, (high internal jugular chain and submandibular nodes) are the most commonly involved.

SINONASAU Table 1.

TNM Classification for Grading Maxillary Neoplasms

T l - Tumor limited to the antral mucosa 1'2- bony erosion with no extension beyond the bone T3- Extension into the orbit, ethmoidal region or premaxillary soft tissues T4- Extension into the nasopharynx, sphenoid sinus, cribiform plate or pterygopalatine fossa

Clinical Findings Sinonasal carcinomas are detected late in the course of the disease because symp­ toms (nasal stuffiness, sinonasal fullness and nasal quality of voice), are nonspecific and frequently mimic common benign diseases such as chronic sinusitis or sinonasal polyposis. These inflammatory/infectious processes usually arise secondary to an underlying neoplasm, overshadowing and delaying the diagnosis. Unilateral nasal obsruction and epistaxis in an adult patient strongly suggest the diagnosis. Unfortu­ nately, most cases present with symptoms reflecting invasion of adjacent structures such as facial swelling, diplopia, orbital pain, proptosis, decreasing vision and headache. Spread of the tumor to the masticator space and nasolacrimal duct is not rare and may present with trismus and epiphora, respectively. On physical exam, the most common finding is a nasal mass. Visual field defects, decreased visual acuity and cranial nerves deficits (usually cranial nerve V) can oc­ cur. Sinonasal e ndoscopy is not reliable for evaluation of tumor extent.

I maging Findings Cross-sectional imaging is the only reliable method to evaluate tumor extent, al­ lowing more precise treatment planning. The radiologist's role is to provide accurate tumor mapping and detect critical areas of involvement which may alter either the treatment modality or the surgical approach. In the case of a maxillary tumor, these critical areas include the orbits, pterygopalatine fossa, anterior and middle cranial fossa, maxillary alveolar ridge and palate. M R I and CT are complimentary and, together, can provide adequate mapping of both soft tissue and bony involvement. Antral neoplasms present as poorly enhanc­ ing soft tissue masses, usually extending beyond the boundaries of the sinus of ori­ gin. On CT, it may be difficult to differentiate neoplasm from postobstructive in­ flammatory changes on the basis of differential attenuation values. 1'2W MRI is of great advantage because it's able to separate the intermediate signal intensity of neoplasm from the bright signal intensity of inflammatory material. Squamous cell carcinoma tends to be fairly homogeneous, although large tumors may contain ar­ eas of necrosis or hemorrhage. Small tumors often escape both clinical and radio­ logic detection. The only imaging criteria that suggest malignancy are the presence of aggressive bony changes or enlarged lymph nodes, both signaling advanced dis­ ease. The pattern of bony involvement gives some diagnostic clues in terms of tumor histology. Rapidly growing aggressive tumors tend to present with bony erosion, the area of bony destruction being disproportionate relatively to the size of the soft tis­ sue mass. On the other end, low growing neoplasms tend cause bony remodeling and thinning. Sclerotic, thickened .b one usually reflects chronic inflammation. How­ ever, some aggressive inflammatory/infectious conditions may present with aggres­ sive bony destruction, indistinguishible from a malignant neoplasm. The presence of calcification/ossification are usually asociated with osseous, chon­ droid or fibro-osseous lesions, and are uncommon in sinonasal carcinomas. It may be difficult to differentiate ossification/ calcification from residual bone due to de­ struction.

I SINONASAL PEARLSIPITFALLS •

•

•

•

•

•

Unilateral nasal obstruction or unilateral epistaxis in an adult patient strongly suggest destruc­ tive maxillary sinus process. On cross-sectional imaging some aggressive inflammatory/infec­ tious conditions show up as irreg­ ular margins and bony destruc­ tion. Perform cr and M R I to evalu­ ate bony and soft tissue extent. Avoid confusing a neoplasm with postobstructive inflammatory changes in the adjacent sinuses. Avoid failing to recognize the full extent of tumor. Avoid considering all aggressive bony changes as malignant neo­ plasms.

Three dimensional reconstructions of sinonasal neoplasms may be useful in sur­ gical or radiation therapy planning. Imaging follow-up is mandatory for detection of recurrence or residual tumor and a baseline, posttherapy scan should be obtained for future comparison.

Management Treatment of sinonasal carcinoma depends on the stage of the disease. For most T3 and T4 tumors the treatment options are radiation therapy or wide craniofacial re­ sections. While there is more morbidity associated with surgery, especially in terms of facial disfigurement, most studies have shown a better survival rate in patients who have undergone surgery. Tl and T2 tumors are managed surgically with total or partial maxillectomy.

Suggested Readings Alvarez, I . , Suarez, e., Rodrigo, lP, Nunez, E, Caminero, M.J. Prognostic factors in paranasal sinus cancer. A merican Journal of Otolaryngology 16(2) : 1 09-]4, 1995 Mar-Apr. Carinci, E, Curioni, e., Padula, E., Calearo, e. Cancer of the nasal cavity and paranasal sinuses: a new staging system. International Jou.rnal of Oral and Maxillo­ facial Surgery 25( 1 ):34--9, 1 996 Feb. Harbo, G., Grau, e., Bundgaard, T., Overgaard, M . , Elbntmd, 0., S0gaard, H., Over­ gaard, l Cancer of the nasal cavity and paranasal sinuses. A clinico-pathological study of 277 patients. Acta Oncologica 36( 1 ):45-50, 1 997. Houston, G.D. Sinonasal undifferentiated carcinoma: report of two cases and review of the literature. Oral Su.rgery, Oral Medicine, Oral Pathology, Oral Radiology and Endodontics 85(2) : 1 85-8, 1 998 Feb. Jakobsen, M.H., Larsen, S.K., Kirkegaard, l, Hansen, H .S. Cancer of the nasal cav­ ity and paranasal sinuses. Prognosis and outcome of treatment. Acta Oncologica 36( 1 ):27-3 1 , 1 997. Lesperance, M.M., Esclamado, RM. Squamous cell carcinoma arising in inverted papilloma. Laryngoscope 1 05(2):1 78-83, 1 995 Feb. Parsons, IT., Kimsey, Ee., Mendenhall, W.M., Million, R R , Cassisi, N.J., Stringer, S.P. Radiation therapy for sinus malignancies. Otolaryngologic Clinics of North A merica 28(6):1259-68, 1 995 Dec. Som, P.M., Silvers, A . R., Catalano, P.l, Brandwein, M., Khorsandi, A.S. Adenosqua­ mous carcinoma of the facial bones, skull base, and calvaria: CT and MR manifes­ tations. A merican Journal of Neuroradiology 1 8( 1 ) : 1 73-5, 1997 Jan. Wennerberg, l Pre versus postoperative radiotherapy of resectable squamous cell carcinoma of the head and neck. Acta Oto-Laryngologica 1 15(4):465-74, 1995 luI.

1332

SINONASAU

Case 74 Clinical Presentation A 67-year-old male presented with a 3-month history of anosmia and epistaxis.

A

B

Radiologic Findings A large, solid mass is demonstrated in the ethmoid sinus extending into the nasal si­ nus and the floor of the frontal lobe (Fig. 74-A). Coronal TI WI (Fig. 74-8) show sig­ nificant contrast enhancement of the mass. (Case courtesy of Dr William Yuh.)

Differential Diagnosis: Destructive Nasal Mass • • • • • • • • • •

Esthesioneuroblastoma Carcinoma Lymphoma Extramedullary plasmacytoma Melanoma Metastasis Rhabdomyosarcoma Neurogenic tumors Inverted papilloma Nasal polyps

Diagnosis Esthesioneuroblastoma

I S INONASAL Table 1.

The Kadish System for Grading Esthesioneuroblastoma Kadish A: tumor confined to the nasal cavity. Kadish B: tumor confined to nasal cavity and paranasal sinuses Kadish C: tumor extends beyond these regions.

D iscussion Epidemio logy A n esthesioneuroblastoma (or olfactory neuroblastoma) is an uncommon malig· nant nasoethmoid neoplasm of neural crest origin, accounting for approximately 2% of nasal neoplasms. It occurs in all age groups (3-88 years), with a bimodal dis­ tribution, and peaks during the second and sixth decades.

Pathophysiology The tumor arises from stem cells of neuroectodermal tissue lining the cribiform plate, upper 1/3 of the nasal septum, superior turbinates, and anterior ethmoid. The tumors may be histologically confused with other small cell tumors, which can oc­ cur in the sinonasal region such as anaplastic carcinoma, large cell lymphoma, ex­ tramedullary plasmacytoma, arnelanotic melanoma, and embryonal rhabdomyosar­ coma. Electron microscopy and immunohistochemical tests are often required for a definitive diagnosis.

Clinical Findings Nasal obstruction is the most common presenting symptom. Other symptoms in­ clude epistaxis, rhinorrhea, headache, anosmia, facial pain, and/or proptosis. The tu­ mors are often unilateral and tend to invade locally, with extension into the oppo­ site nasal cavity, paranasal sinuses, orbit, and brain. They can spread via the cribiform plate or via the superior nasal meatus into the frontal and ethmoid si­ nuses. Up to 20% spread hernatogenously to cervical nodes, liver, lung, bone, and brain. The tumor grows slowly, with expansion of bony margins or erosion and destruc­ tion of surrounding bone, (e.g., displacement of orbital walls, erosion of frontoeth­ moidal complex or cribriform plate).

Imaging Findings Cross sectional imaging is invaluable in the staging of patients with this tumor. These tumors usually show enhancement on CT, and vascular blush on angiography. CT is useful to delineate the bone involvement and intratumoral calcifications. A few reports describe hyperostosis of adjacent bone, presumably due to the slow growth. The radiologic findings are nonspecific, demonstrating a destructive vascu-

Table 2.

The TMN System (modified by Biller) for Grading Esthesioneuroblastoma

T l - Nasal and paranasal involvement with cribiform plate erosion TI- Above plus involvement of the orbit and/or anterior cranial fossa. T3- I ndicates resectable brain invasion. T4- I ndicates unresectable brain or skull base invasion. N and M indicate nodal involvement and distant metastases respectively.

SINONASAd

c

D

lar mass in the nasoethmoidal region. Marginal tumor cysts are felt by some experts to be suggestive of the diagnosis. M R I findings often show a mass in the typical location with signal intensity simi­ lar to that of the brain on proton density, Tl W, and T2W images. There is intense contrast enhancement. U nlike many lesions in the differential diagnosis, which usu­ ally show high T2W signal intensity, esthesioneuroblastoma is often isointense with

I STNONASAL P EARLSIPITFALLS An esthesioneuroblastoma is a destructive mass centered over the nasal vault.

•

It occurs in all age groups, with a bimodal age distribution.

•

Immunohistochemical tests and electron microscopy are fre­ quently necessary for diagnosis.

•

Aggressive cranifacial resection should be performed, even for intracranial involvement.

•

Histological and radiological findings may be confused with a number of sinonasal tumors.

•

•

Don't mistake opacified ob­ structed sinuses for tumor exten­ sion.

the brain on T2W images. Demonstration of dural or meningeal enhancement may suggest an olfactory groove meningioma (tail sign). M R I may be useful in detecting postobstructive sinus opacification, which may be mistaken for tumor extension on cr studies.

Management Preoperative staging is predictive of outcome. Accurate staging is important be­ cause local disease has excellent prognosis after treatment. Two similar staging sys­ tems are available for esthesioneuroblastoma. These are the Kadish and the TMN sy terns (see Tables 1 and 2). A coronal Tl WI in another patient with esthesioneuroblastoma (Fig. 74-C) shows findings similar to those in the patient presented in this case. A coronal Tl WT in a third esthesioneuroblastoma patient with more limited disease (Fig. 74-0) shows no gross intracranial involvement. A cr scan of advanced disease in a fourth est he­ sioneuroblastoma patient (Fig. 74-E; Kadish D ) shows extensive skull base involve­ ment. Surgery is the treatment of choice with or without radiation therapy for these le­ sions. Aggressive en bloc craniofacial resection is performed including the tumor and the cribiform plate. Some experts claim up to 90% cure rates with this ap­ proach.

Suggested Readings Derdeyn, C P., Moran, C.J., Wippold, EJ. 2nd., Chason, D.P., Koby, M.B., Rodriguez, E M R I of esthesioneuroblastoma. Journal of Computer Assisted Tomography 1 8 ( 1 ): 1 6-2 1 , 1 994 Jan-Feb. Eustace, S., Suojanen, 1., B uff, B., McEniff, N., 1anuario, 1., Norris, C Preoperative imaging of esthesioneuroblastoma. Clinical Radiology 50(9):639-43, 1 995 Sep. Harrison, D. Surgical pathology of olfactory neuroblastoma. Head Neck Surg 7:60-64, 1 984. Li, C, Yousem, D.M ., Hayden, R.E., Ooty, R.L. Olfactory neuroblastoma: M R eval­ uation. American lournal of Neuroradiology 1 4(5) : 1 1 67-71 , 1 993 Sep-Oct. Regengogen, V.S., et al. Hyperostotic esthesioneuroblastoma. CT and MR findings. loumal of Computer Assisted Tomography 12:52-56, 1 988. Schroth, G., et al. M R imaging of esthesioneuroblastoma. lournal of Computer As· sisted Tomography 1 0:3 ] 6-31 9, 1 986. Schuster, 1.J., Phillips, CD., Levine, P.A . M R of esthesioneuroblastoma (olfactory neuroblastoma) and appearance after craniofacial resection. American loumal of Neuroradiology 1 5(6): 1 1 69-77, 1 994 Jun. Slevin, N.J., Irwin, C1., Banerjee, S.S., Gupta, N.K., Farrington, W.T. Olfactory neural tumours-the role of external beam radiotherapy. lournal of Laryngology and Otol· ogy 1 10( 1 1 ): 1 0 1 2-6, 1 996 Nov. Som, P.M., Lidov, M., Brandwein, M . , Catalano, P., Biller, H .E Sinonasal est he­ sioneuroblastoma with intracranial extension: marginal tumor cysts as a diagnostic M R finding. American loumal of Neuroradiology 1 5(7) : 1 259-62, 1 994 Aug. Woodhead, P., Lloyd, G.A. Olfactory neuroblastoma: imaging by magnetic reso­ nance, CT and conventional techniques. Clinical Otolaryngology 1 3:387-394, 1 988.

1336

IX. Temporal B one

TEMPORAL BONEI

Case 75 Clinical Presentation A ten-year-old female presented with left conductive bearing loss.

A

B Radiologic Findings A cr of the temporal bone: (close-up view) (Fig. 75-A) shows the dehiscence of the bony wall tbat normally separates the horizontal segment of the internal carotid artery ( ICA) from the tympanic cavity. On a cr of the temporal bone (axial view) (Fig. 75-B) there is an absence of the vertical portion of the petrous segment of the ICA with an abnormally positioned ascending vessel on the left side. The right side is normal.

Differential Diagnosis: Vascular Intratympanic Mass • • • • • • • •

Glomus tympanicum Aberrant carotid artery Carotid artery aneurysm Persistent stapedial artery Exposed jugular bulb Exposed carotid artery Hemangioma Extensive glomus jugulare

Diagnosis Aberrant internal carotid artery 339

ITEMPORAL BONE

ICA

c

CCA

D

E

ECA

inferior tympanic artery CCA

134 0

F

TEMPORAL BONEI

ascending pharyngeal artery

CCA

ECA

G

--------....

s tapes

H

/TE M PORAL

BONE

Discussion An aberrant course of the rCA through the middle ear is a rare vascular abnormal­ ity and a very rare cause of symptoms related to tbe middle ear.

Pa thophysiology Several congenital mechanisms have been implicated in the origin of aberrant rCA. Similar findings in another patient with aberrant rCA can be seen in Figure 7S-C schematic representation of normal anatomy as well as various vascular anomalies of the middle ear. Fig. 7S-D depicts normal anatomy and Fig. 7S-E shows an exposed tortuous l CA. Figure 7S-F shows an aberrant rCA, which is the persistence of em­ bryologic vessels replacing the vertical petrous segment of the rCA. The inferior tympanic artery arising from the ascending pharyngeal artery anastomoses with carotico-tympanic branches arising from the persistent hyoid artery. Figure 7S-G shows a persistent stapedial artery. Figure 7S-H depicts an aberrant ICA and per­ sistent stapedial artery. These include partial absence and agenesis of the vertical petrous portion of the ICA. Persistence of embryologic vessels replace the vertical petrous segment of the ICA. The inferior tympanic artery arising from the ascend­ ing pharyngeal artery anastomoses with carotico-tympanic branches arising from the persistent hyoid artery. A tortuous exposed ICA bulging through a defect in the bony carotid canal sep­ arating the ICA from the middle ear cavity can have a similar appearance. However, unlike the congenital form, the vertical petrous portion of the lCA is usually in nor­ mal position with a tortuous rCA. Figure 7S-r shows another patient with a tortuous exposed carotid artery. A persistent stapedial artery may occur with or without an aberrant internal carotid artery. It passes between the stapedial crura to follow an enlarged segment of the tympanic portion of the facial nerve canal anteriorly, enters the middle fossa lateral to the geniculate ganglion, and finally becomes the middle meningeal artery. The ipsilateral foramen spinosum, which normally contains the middle meningeal artery, is absent Fig. 7S-D.

Clinical Findings Most cases come to clinical attention due to conductive hearing loss, pulsatile tinni­ tus or otalgia. Otologic examination may disclose a vascular tympanic mass. The condition may also be asymptomatic, detected incidentally on imaging studies per­ formed for other reasons. Several diagnostic possibilities should be considered in the differential diagnosis of a vascular tympanic mass. These include a high riding exposed jugular bulb, ex­ posed carotid artery, glomus tumors, hemangiomas, and chronic inflammatory con­ ditions such as cholesterol granuloma and inflammatory debris with hemorrhage. l n terventional otologic procedures (including biopsies) done prior to performing an imaging study can be hazardous if a vascular abnormality is present.

Imaging Findings Imaging with CT is, in most instances, diagnostic if this entity is kept in mind. When there are no symptoms suggestive of this diagnosis, or when the diagnosis is in doubt comparison of both temporal bones is helpful in detection of the asymmetry. Care should be taken in the rare circumstance when the abnormality is bilateral. CT, M R I , M R A and conventional angiography can be diagnostic showing the aberrant course or absence of the vertical petrous portion of the ICA. On CT imaging, as in this case, there is an enhancing soft tissue mass in the hy­ potympanum extending posterolaterally towards the oval window. Dehiscence of the bony wall that usually separates the rCA from the tympanic cavity and persis-

1342

TEMPORAL BONEI

PEARLSIPITFALLS •

•

•

•

An aspect of this condition is of­ ten an absent vertical petrous segment of the ICA. The bony covering of horizontal ICA and tympanic cavity in this condition is often absent. A patient with this condition may be asymptomatic. Do not bio psy ! ! ! ! ! !

-'-------

tence of aberrant embryologic vessels can be seen. CT depicts the bony changes bet­ ter than M R I and high resolution CT is considered the best tool to screen for this pathology (Fig. 75-C). On MRA and conventional angiography, lateral displacement of the tympanic portion of the ICA is evident. Other possible findings on angiography include areas of vascular ectasia, or stenosis, or depiction of abnormal vessels replacing the verti­ cal portion of the ICA (i.e., anastomoses of the inferior tympanic artery, branch of the ascending pharyngeal artery, and carotico-tympanic branches from the fetal hy­ oid artery). Which findings appear depend on the pathophysiologic factors that gave rise to this abnormality.

Management CLinical management of this situation is dictated by the severity of symptoms. The only available therapy is surgery, which involves repositioning of the ICA and sep­ aration of the vessel from the oval window, ossicles and tympanic membrane. This may be achieved by placement of a Silastic baffle or placement of a stapes pros­ thesis.

Suggested Readings Ashikaga, R., Araki, Y., Ishida, O. Bilateral aberrant internal carotid arteries. Neu­ rorradiology 37(8):655-7, 1 995 Nov. Cole, R.D., May, IS. Aberrant internal carotid artery. Southern Medical Journal 87(1 2 ) : 1 277-80, 1 994 Dec. Dietz, R.R., Davis, W.L . , H arnsberger, H . R . et al. MR imaging and MR angiography in the evaluation of pulsatile tinnitus. American Journal of Neuroradiology 1 5(5): 879-89, 1 994 May. Glasscock, M . E . , Seshul, M., Seshul, M.B., Sr. Bilateral aberrant internal carotid artery-case presentation. A rchives of Otolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery 1 1 9(3):335-9, 1 993 Mar. Guinto, F.e. Jr., Garrabrant, E.e., Radcliffe, W.B. Radiology of the persistent stape­ dial artery. Radiology 1 05 :365-369, 1 972. Pirodda, A., Sorrenti, G., Marliani, A.F., Capello 1. Arterial anomalies of the middle ear associated with stapes ankylosis. Journal of Laryngology and Otology 1 08(3): 237-9, 1 994 Mar. Rodgers, G.K., Applegate, L., De La Cruz, A., Lo, W. Magnetic Resonance Angiog­ raphy: Analysis of vascular lesions of the temporal bone and skull base. American Journal of Otology 1 4 ( 1 ):56--{i2, 1 993 Jan. Shankar, L., Metha, A.L., Hawke, M., Rutka, 1. High Resolution CT of an aberrant internel carotid artery. Journal of Otolaryngology 2 1 (5):373-5, 1 992 Oct. Takahashi, S., Higano, S., Kuriara, N., Shirane, R. et al. Congenital absence and aber­ rant course of the internal carotid artery. European Radiology 6(5):571-3, 1 996.

ITEMPORAL

BONE

Case 76 Clinical Presentation A 22-year-old female presented with right sided conductive hearing loss. A mal­ formed auricle was noted.

A

B

Radiologic Findings On a cr of the temporal bones, (Fig. 76-A) an axial section through the external au­ ditory canal ( EAC) shows bony atresia of the right EAC and a small malformed au­ ricle. An axial section through the mesotympanum (Fig. 76-B) shows a shallow tym­ panic cavity and fusion of the malleus and incus to the lateral wall of the middle ear cavity.

Differential Diagnosis: Absence or Stenosis of the External Auditory Canal •

•

Congenital: stenosis of the EAC, bony or membranous atresia of the EAC, Treacher-Collins' syndrome, Crouzon's disease, Klippel-Feil syndrome, Golden­ har's syndrome, cleidocranial dysostosis, osteopetrosis, thalidomide embryopathy, congenital rubeolla Acquired: exostosis of the EAC, osteoma of the EAC, postsurgical changes, re­ current external otitis

Diagnosis Bony atresia of the EAC

TEMPORAL BONEI

Discussion An understanding of ear embryology is crucial for understanding congenital mal­ formations of the external auditory canal. The external and middle ear structures share a common embryologic origin from the first branchial groove while inner ear structures arise from the otic vesicle, a neuroectodermal derivative. Therefore, con­ genital anomalies of the external and middle ear usually occur in isolation. How­ ever, a higher than expected incidence of inner ear malformations has been noted in patients with congenital atresia of the EAC when compared to the general pop­ ulation, thought to be related to problems in cellular induction. Congenital anomalies of the external and middle ears can also occur in associa­ tion with genetic syndromes, chromosomal defects and infectious or toxic/terato­ genic embryopathies.

Epidemiology Atresia of the EAC usually occurs in conjunction with microtia and has a reported incidence of one in 3300 to 1 0,000 live births. Bilaterality is seen in approximately 20% of the cases.

Pathophysiology Congenital atresia of the EAC results from abnormal development of the first branchial cleft. This ectodermal derivative is initially represented by a solid core of epithelial cells which extends medially to the area of the tympanic ring and first pha­ ryngeal pouch. By the seventh month of gestation, when most of the middle and in­ ner ear structures are already formed, there is resorption of these epithelial cells with canalization of the EAC, progressing from medial to lateral. When this resorp­ tion process fails or is prematurely interrupted, total or partial atresia, or stenosis of the EAC results. The atresia may be bony or membranous and may be associated with an absent or dysplastic tympanic membrane, ossicular malformations or mandibular hypoplasia, as all these structures also derive, at least partially, from the first branchial arch. TIle classification of external and middle ear malformations proposed by Om­ bradanne is simple and clinically useful. A major malformation implies absence or severe stenosis of the EAC, an absent or atretic tympanic membrane and fusion, or deformity of the ossicles, and is usually associated with an abnormal course of the facial nerve. Minor malformations are harder to detect. as they affect the middle ear structures, with the EAC and tympanic membrane either normal or slightly smaller than expected.

Clinical Findings Congenital atresia of the EAC should always be considered in infants with aural dysplasia. The physical examination of these newborns should include a thorough assessment of craniofacial structures, evaluation of facial nerve function and grading the caliber of the EAC. Unilateral atresia of the EAC may escape detec­ tion for years, especially when there are no obvious deformities of the auricle. Bilateral EAC atresia, when unrecognized at birth, usually comes to medical attention as the child manifests a conductive hearing loss. The degree of aural dysplasia should be assessed because there is a correlation between the degree of microtia, and other external and middle ear malformations. Audiometric evaluation of young infants is difficult and auditory brainstem responses (ABR) may be necessary. A thorough determination of cochlear function is mandatory in order to avoid surgery upon a patient's only functional ear, or in an ear without potential for hearing improvement.

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Imaging Findings CT is the study of choice for evaluation of external and middle ear malformations. Whenever there is a bony or membranous atresia of the EAC, the radiologist must determine the status of the ossicular chain, identify the tympanic membrane and the round and oval windows, as well as the course of the facial nerve and vascular struc­ tures related to the temporal bone (internal carotid artery, jugular bulb and sigmoid sinus). Other bony malformations, particularly of the temporomandibular joint (TMJ) and mandible, should also be noted. These findings help to determine oper­ ability and minimize complications of surgery. CT is also useful in detecting secondary cholesteatomas of the EAC, a frequent complication in these patients. The desquamated epithelium is trapped within the stenotic canal and starts to grow within the canal and into the middle ear.

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Congenital atresia of the EAC should always be considered i n infants with a ural dysplasia. Bilateral EAC atresia usually comes to medical attention as the child manifests a conductive hearing loss. It is manda tory to determine if an EAC atresia is the result of an isolated congenital malfonnation or syndromic in origin. cr evaluation should include: ( 1 ) status of the ossicular chain and tympanic cavity; (2) deter­ mining the presence or absence of oval and round windows: (3) the course of the facial nerve; (4) vascular anomalies ( Internal carotid artery ( I CA», jugular bulb, sigmoid sinus; (5) other as­ sociated malformations.

The clinician should avoid miss­ ing a bony or membranous atre­ sia when no aural dysplasia is identified. The clinician should avoid failure to detect an abnonnal course of the facial nerve.

The most frequent imaging findings associated with atresia of the EAC include hypoplasia of the tympanic cavity (which is usually small and shallow), absence, dys­ plasia or fusion of the ossicles, and a ventrally displaced facial nerve (sometimes lacking the tympanic segment). This segment of the facial nerve is most commonly affected, can be dehiscent and may be displaced inferiorly as low as the level of the round window. Abnormal positions of the facial nerve may limit surgical access to the middle ear and increase the risk for facial nerve injury. Poor pneumatization of the mastoid is frequently seen. Vascular abnormalities occasionally associated with this entity include a hypoplastic or aberrant internal carotid artery with persistence of the stapedial artery, a high riding jugular bulb, and anterior displacement of the sigmoid plate. On a CT of the temporal bones axial (Fig. 76-C) and coronal (Fig. 76-0) sections through the mesotympanum show atresia of the EAC and absence of tympanic cavity. The mastoid air cells are also not pneumatized. The diagnosis for this patient is complex malformation of the ear involving the external and middle ear structures. On a cr of the temporal bones an axial section through the EAC (Fig.76-E) shows soft tissue filling in the cartilaginous portion of the EAC. The auricle is small and malformed. The diagnosis for this patient is fibrous atresia of the EAC. I n ner ear structures should also be assessed. The most common anomalies seen in association with EAC atresia include hypoplasia of the lateral semicircular canal and widening of the vestibular aqueduct. Malformation of the lateral semicircular canal should prompt a search for a labyrinthine fistula.

Management Management of EAC atresia depends upon whether the condition is unilateral or bilateral, and on the results of audiometric testing. U n ilateral atresia does not re­ quire medical intervention if hearing in the contralateral ear is unimpaired and, in most cases, surgery is limited to correction of the aural dysplasia, for cosmesis. Ap­ proximately %l of these patients are not surgical candidates and in those who are, only 60 to 70% will have a satisfactory degree of hearing improvement. Due to the potential morbidity of this surgery, most surgeons are reluctant to operate on uni­ lateral atresias. Bilateral atresia demands immediate attention and early amplification is manda­ tory to avoid intellectual impairment. Tn this instance, the goal of surgery is to re­ store sufficient hearing so that amplification is no longer needed. Surgery should preferably be performed after complete development of the temporal bones at age 5 or 6. Selection of the ear to operate on depends on audiometric and imaging find­ ings.

Suggested Readings Chandrasekhar, S.S., De la Cruz, A., Garrido, E. Surgery of congenital aural atresia. American lournal of Otology 1 6(6):7 1 3-7, 1 995 Nov. Cremers, W. R., Smeets, 1.H. Acquired atresia of the external auditory canal. Surgi­ cal treatment and results. A rchives of Otolaryngology and Head and Neck Surgery 1 1 9(2): 1 62-4, 1 993 Feb. lahrsdoerfer, R.A., Jacobson, 1.T. Treacher Collins syndrome: otologic and auditory management. lou mal of the A merican A cademy ofAudiology 6( 1 ):93-1 02, 1995 Jan. Lambert, P R., Dodson, E.E. Congenital malformations of the external auditory canal, Otolaryngo!ogic Clinics of North America 29(5):741 -60, 1 996 Oct. Lumbroso, c., Sebag, G., Argyropoulou, M . , Manach, Y , Lallemand, D. Preoperative X-ray computed tomographic evaluation of major aplasia of the ear in children. lournal de Radiologie 76(4): 1 85-9, 1 995 Apr. Mayer, T.E . , Brueckmann, H . , Siegert, R., Witt, A., Weerda, H. High-resolution CT

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BONE of the temporal bone in dysplasia of the auricle and external auditory canal. Amer­ ican Journal of Neuroradiology 1 8( 1 ):53-65, 1 997 lan. Murphy, T. P , Burstein, F, Cohen, S. Management of congenital atresia of the exter­ nal auditory canal. Otolaryngology and Head and Neck Surgery 1 16(6 Pt 1 ):580-4, 1 997 1un. Vallino-Napoli, l . D. Audiologic and otologic characteristics of Pfeiffer syndrome. Cleft Palate-Craniofacial JOllrnaI 33(6):524-9, 1 996 Nov.

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Case 77 Clinical Presentation An eight-month-old child was noticed to be deaf and brought in by the parents for otologic evaluation.

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A Radiologic Findings

On a CT of the temporal bone, axial sections are obtained through the level of the cochlea (Figs. 77-A and 77-B). These images show abnormal morphology of the cochlea, and a dilated vestibule. The cochlea has no internal architecture, and the middle and apical turns are not recognized. A thin bony septum separates the cochlea from the vestibule which differentiates this entity from a common cavity de­ formity.

Differential Diagnosis: Abnormally Shaped Labyrinth • • •

Incomplete partition of the cochlea (Mondini's malformation) Common cavity Cochlear hypoplasia

Diagnosis I ncomplete partition of the cochlea (Mondini malformation)

Discussion Congenital ear anomalies are the most frequent cause of deafness in childhood and may be due to malformations involving the external, middle, or inner ear structures.

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BONE Congenital anomalies of the external auditory canal (EAC) and middle ear are as­ sociated with conductive hearing loss while inner ear anomalies are associated with sensorineural hearing loss. Although the the middle and external ear have a differ­ ent embryologic origin from the inner ear, combined malformations of the inner and middle/external ear are seen more frequently than expected in the general pop­ ulation. Imaging findings are usually diagnostic when the bony labyrinth is involved. How­ ever, some congenital inner ear anomalies can not be identified as they involve structures which are not resolved by currently available imaging techniques.

Epidemiology Approximately 20% of patients with congenital sensorineural hearing loss have ra­ diographic abnormalities of the inner ear. These may occur in isolation or as part of complex otocraniofacial dysplasias. I n 80% of cases the anomaly is bilateral and tends to be symmetric in both ears.

Pathophysiology Congenital anomalies of the inner ear result from an arrest or abnormal embry­ ologic development of the otic vesicle. The otic vesicle is a neuroectodermal deriv­ ative originating from an ectodermal thickening of the lateral surface of the neural tube, (otic placode), by the third week of gestation. During the fourth gestational week there is invagination of the otic placode into the surrounding mesenchyme, and a single cavity, the otocyst, is formed. Three folds form within tbe otocyst sepa­ rating the major future components of the inner ear: cochlea, vestibule and en­ dolymphatic sac. Between the fifth and eighth weeks of gestation the cochlear duct grows and infolds on itself until 2 11z to 23/4 turns are formed . Simultaneously, during the sixth gestational week, the semicircular canals start to form as evagination orig­ inating from tbe vestibular bud. The central portion of this evagination is then re­ sorbed and replaced by mesenchyme forming the superior, posterior and lateral semicircular canals, in tbat order. The vestibular aqueduct, which is very large in the early stages of development, undergoes progressive narrowing between the fifth and eigth weeks of gestation until it attains its normal dimension (5 x 3 mm in antero­ posterior and transverse diameters, respectively). The different morphologic vari-

Table 1

Congenital Anomalies of the I nner Ear A. involving the Membranous Labyrinth • Scheibe's disease or cochleosaccular dysplasia • Siebmman's disease • A lexander's disease B. Anomalies of the Bony Labyrinth 1 . I nvolving the cochlea • Complete labyrinthine aplasia or Michel's deformity • Common cavity • Cochlear aplasia • Cochlear hypoplasia • I ncomplete partition or Mondini's malformation 2. Without cochlear involvement • Aplasia, hypoplasia or dilatation of the semicircular canals • Aplasia, hypoplasia or dilatation of the vestibule • Assimilation of the lateral semicircular canal • Dilatation of the vestibular aqueduct

TEMPORAL BONEI Table 2

Syndromes Associated with Labyrinthine M alformations

1 . Otocervical Syndromes Goldenhar's syndrome-Hypoplastic cochlea or common cavity; short l AC's Klippel-Feil syndrome-Hypoplastic cochlea and SCCs; stenotic l AC Wildervanck syndrome-Aplasia or hypoplasia of labyrinthine structures 2. Other Syndromes Pandred's syndrome-Hypoplastic cochlea Waardenburg syndrome-Irregular vestibule and malformation of the SCC's Moebius syndrome-Hypoplastic cochlea or common cavity; dilatation of the vestibule and semicircular canals (SCC's) DiGeorge syndrome-Aplastic or dysplastic cochlea

ants of inner ear anomalies appear to be related to an arrest in embryogenesis at dif­ ferent stages of development (Table 1 ) . When the otic placode does not form, a complete labyrinthine aplasia (also called Michel's deformity) will result. This manifests as an absent cochlea, vestibule and semicircular canals. When the otocyst fails to develop, a common cavity is formed with no separation between the vestibule and cochlea (common cavity deformity). Arrest in development of the cochlear bud leads to cocblear aplasia or hypoplasia. Abnormal partition and infolding of the cochlear duct results in incomplete parti­ tion deformity, or Mondini's malformation. Some of the most frequent causes of congenital deafness involve the membra­ nous labyrintb in isolation and appear later in the course of embryologic develop­ ment. These are due to a decreased number, or disorganization, of the cells respon­ sible for neuronal transmission of the auditory impulses to the brain, which include the organ of Corti and spiral ganglia. Abnormal embryologic development of the inner ear may result from different types of insults during pregnancy. Exposure to toxic and infectious teratogens are among the most common with thalidomide and viral infections being frequently im­ plicated. The increased incidence of these anomalies in the same family favor a pos­ sible genetic predisposition. Several familial and otocervical syndromes are associ­ ated with inner ear anomalies (Table 2 ) .

C linical Findings The clinical presentation of inner ear anomalies is highly dependent on the struc­ tures involved and in the degree of deafness, which is dictated by the histologic com­ ponents of the membranous labyrinth rather tben the morphology of the bony or membranous labyrintb. This is why there is a poor correlation between the mor­ phologic changes detected by imaging, and the degree of sensorineural bearing loss. Profound deafness is usually detected in infancy by the parents when the child does not respond to auditory stimuli. Later in childbood, deafness may present as a global delay in intellectual development. Lesser degrees of deafness are difficult to detect. Usually they are noted because the cbild appears inattentive or tends to ap­ proach the sources of sound (TV, radio, etc.) . The degree of deafness may be pro­ gressive and present later in adult life as fluctuating hearing loss. Other presenta­ tions include dizziness and vertigo due to involvement of tbe vestibular apparatus, but are rare. When there is an associated perilympbatic fistula, patients may present with recurrent meningitis. The most likely source for a CSF leak in malformed ears is an abnormal communication between the cochlea and tbe internal auditory canal ( l AC). A family history and history of exposure to teratogens may be elicited. Audiologic evaluation should include speech and pure tone audiometry, impedance studies and auditory brain stem evoked responses ( A BR's) in children wbo are unable to co­ operate with behavioral testing.

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TEMPORAL BONEI Electronystagmograms should be obtained In patients with vestibular symp­ toms.

Imaging Findings CT remains tbe method of choice for evaluating congenital malformations of the in­ ner ear. It depicts abnormalities in the bony labyrinth and may also detect any as­ sociated anomalies of the middle and external ear. High resolution CT, using a bone algorithm and thin sections ( J to 15 mm) in both axial and coronal planes, should be performed. CT may be the only imaging method to differentiate between la by ri n th i tis ossifi­ cans and congenital anomalies of the inner ear. I n tbe latter there is usually loss of the normal bony landmarks of the tympanic cavity, such as absence of the cochlear promontory, arcuate eminence and promontory of the lateral semicircular canal. The absent development of the membranous structures fails to induce the forma­ tion of these bony landmarks which are usually presen t in acquired conditions. On M R I , these entities may be confused because they both present with partial or com­ plete absence of the membranous labyrinth. CT, with intrathecal contrast adminis­ tration, is the best imaging tool to detect and localize perilymphatic fistulas. When evaluating a patient for possible inner ear congenital malformation, one must be familiar with the normal anatomy because asymmetry may not be helpful ( i n 80% of cases tbe anomaly is bilateral). A careful evaluation for the presence and size of all the inner ear structures should be performed. It is also important to ex­ amine the course of the facial nerve and the size of the internal auditory canal. In complete aplasia of the labyrinth (Michel's deformity) there may be a small, single cavity or several dysplastic cystic structures replacing the cochlea, vestibule and semicircular canals. The common cavity deformity is characterized by the pres­ ence of a single large cystic cavity with no separation between the cochlea and vestibule, and no internal architecture, although the semicircular canals may be nor­ mally developed. i n cochlear aplasia or hypoplasia the cochlea is either absent or rudimentary. On a CT of tbe temporal bone axial sections at the level of the meso­ tympanum show absence of the cochlea (Fig. 77-C). The l AC is normal in size and the labyrinthine portion of the facial nerve is seen coursing anteriorly. The vestibule and semicircular canals are present and well developed. The middle ear cavity is filled with soft tissue which does not displace or erode the ossicles. The diagnosis is cochlear aplasia. Mondini malformation is diagnosed when the cochlea shows less then the normal 2 'h turns. Usually there is a cystic basal turn with no evidence of modiolus separat­ ing the middle and apical turns. Associated dilatation of the vestibular aqueduct is a common finding. Other malformations easily detected on CT include dilatation or atresia of the vestibule and dilatation or atresia of the semicircular canals (Figs. 77-F & 77-G). Anomalies of tbe lateral semicircular canal are among the most frequent congeni­ tal anomalies of the bony labyrinth. I t is unusual to bave involvement of the supe­ rior or posterior semicircular canal without involvement of the lateral semicircular canal, as this is the last to form. In assimilation of the semicircular canals there is no complete bony separation between the semicircular canal, and the vestibule, which appears dilated.On a CT of the temporal bone axial sections through the l AC show lack of separation between the vestibule and the lateral semicircular canal (Figs. 77o and 77-E). The posterior semicircular canal is normal in caliber and there are no cochlear abnormalities. The diagnosis for this patient is assimilation of the lateral semicircular canal. The dilated ampullary portion of the semicircular canals should not be mistaken For abnormal dilatation. On a CT of the temporal bone axial sections at the level of the cochlea demonstrate a small, atretic vestibule and absence of semicircular canals ( Figs. 77-F and 77-G). At this level ( Fig. 77-C) one should normally see the lateral semicircular canal protruding into the middle ear cavity. Instead, the medial

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Approximately 20% of patients with congenital sensorineural hearing loss have radiographic abnormalities of the inner ear. Perform a high resolution cr of the temporal bones to evalu­ ate the bony labyrinth. Look for abnormal morphology of the inner (e.g., size and num­ ber of turns of the cochlea, vestibule, semicircular canals, vestibular aqueduct), middle and external ear structures. Evaluate the size of the internal auditory canal, especially if the patient is a candidate for cochlear implants. Evaluate the course of the fa­ cial nerve. Perform high resolution M R I using G E 30FT TZW se­ quences to look for subtle anomalies of the membranous labyrinth. Avoid failure to recognize ab­ normal anatomy of the inner ear. Avoid failure to recognize hy­ ploplasia or atresia of the lAC. Do not mistake labyrinthitis os­ sificans for a congenital anom­ aly. Do not mistake the ampulla of the semicircular canals for ab­ normal dilatation.

wall of the tympanic cavity appears flattened. Abnormal soft tissue is seen filling the mastoid air cells. The diagnosis for this patient is aplasia of the semicircular canals and atresia of the vestibule. High-resolution M R I using phased arra coils and gradient echo tridimensional Fourrier transform TZW sequences ( H R GE-3DFf TZW I ) nicely depict the mem­ branous labyrinth demonstrating the intra labyrinthine fluid filled spaces. When pa­ tients present in adulthood with progressive sensorineural hearing loss or vertigo, M RI is the first examination to be performed to rule out vestibular schwanomma or CPA masses. Also, M R I has shown great value in demonstrating obliteration of the scala tympani or scala vestibuli which may contraindicate the placement of cochlear implants.

Managemen t The management of congenital inner ear anomalies depends on the age of the pa­ tient and degree of hearing loss. Early diagnosis is important to avoid further intel­ lectual deterioration and atrophy of the vestibulocochlear nerve. Appropriate hearing amplification and specialized educational programs should be implemented as soon as possible. Hearing aids may be adequate in patients with mild to moderate hearing loss. For patients with sensory deafness, direct electrical stimulation of the cochlea through the placement of cochlear implants is the ther­ apy of choice. However, for this therapy to work, the neuronal element have to be intact. At the present time the only contraindication for cochlear implants is the ab­ sence or marked hypoplasia of the vestibulocochlear nerve. Possible complications of cochlear implants include stimulation of the facial nerve and CSF leak due to de­ ficiencies in the cribiform region of the internal auditory canal.

Suggested Reading Bauman, N.M., Kirby-Keyser L.J., Dolan, K . D., Wexler, D., Gantz. B.1., McCabe, B.F., Bale, J.F. JT. Mondini dysplasia and congenital cytomegalovirus infection. Journal of Pediatrics 1 24( 1 ):7 1-8, 1 994 Jan. Jackler, R.K. Luxford, W.M . House, W.F. Congenital malformations of the inner ear: A classification based on embryogenesis. Laryngoscope 97 (suppl. 45) : 1 - 1 4, 1 987. Jackler, R.K., Luxford, W.M . , House, W.F. Sound detection with the cochlear implant in five ears of four children with congenital malformations of the cochlea. Laryngo­ scope 97(suppl. 45): 1 5- 1 7, 1 987. Lumbroso, c., Sebag, G., Argyropoulou, M . , Manach, Y, Lallemand, O. Preoperative X-ray computed tomographic evaluation of major aplasia of the ear in children. Journal de Radiologie 76(4): 1 85-9, 1 995 Apr. Luntz, M . , Balkany, T., Hodges, AV, Telischi, F.F. Cochlear implants in children with congenital inner ear malformations. Archives of Otolaryn.gology and /-lead and Neck Surgery 1 23(9):974-7, 1 997 Sep. Marres, H.A., Cremers, C.W., Huygen, P. L., Joosten, F.B. The deafness, pre-auricular sinus, external ear anomaly and commissural lip pits syndrome: otological. vestibu­ lar and radiological findings. Journal of Laryngology and Otology 1 08( 1 ): 1 3-8, 1 994 Jan. Monsell, E.M., Jackler, R.K., Mota, C. Linthicum, F.H . Congenital malformations of the inner ear: Histologic findings in five temporal bones Laryngoscope 97 (suppl. 45) : 1 8-24, 1 987. Weissman, J.L., Hearing loss. Radiology 1 99(3):593-6 1 1 , 1 996 Jun. Weissman, J.L., Weber, P.c., Bluestone, C.O. Congenital perilymphatic fistula: com­ puted tomography appearance of middle ear and inner ear anomalies. Otolaryngol­ ogy and /-lead and Neck Surgery 1 1 1 (3 Pt 1 ):243-9, 1 994 Sep.

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Case 78 Clinical Presentation A 25-year-old male was brought to the emergency room following a motor vehicle accident. There was evidence of head injury with otorrhagia and hearing loss.

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Radiologic Findings On CT of the temporal bones (axial section) there is a linear radiolucency crossing the long axis of the temporal bone, extending from the posterior and superior wall of the external auditory canal to the petrous apex and passing through the epitym­ panum. The middle ear cavity and mastoid air cells are filled with soft tissue density, likely representing blood. There is no evidence of ossicular fracture or dislocation. The inner ear structures are intact.

Differential Diagnosis: Longitudinal Fracture of the Temporal Bone • •

Temporal bone fracture Normal anatomy (normal sutures and fissures) 355 1

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Diagnosis Longitudinal fracture of the temporal bone

Discussion A linear radiolucency in the temporal bone in the context of head trauma has no differential diagnosis other than normal anatomic structures and neurovascular grooves which can be mistaken for fractures by the unwary radiologist. Normal structures which may mimic a fracture line include the subarcuate fissure, facial nerve canal, vestibular and cochlear aqueducts and tympanosquamous fissure.

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Epidemiology Temporal bone fractures are common in the setting of blunt head trauma, orten as­ sociated with motor vehicle accidents and recreational activities.

Pathophysiology Fractures are classified as either longitudinal or transverse, depending upon their orientation with respect to the long axis of the petrous temporal bone. Longitudinal fractures are more frequent (approximately SO% of all temporal bone fractures) and occur along the long axis of the bone. TIle mechanism of injury is typically a direct blow to the temporoparietal region, resulting in a fracture line beginning in the temporal squamosa and extending into the mastoid. Longitudinal fractures are further subdivided into anterior and posterior according to their rela­ tionship with the labyrinth. Transverse fractures are those perpendicular to the long axis of the temporal bone (Figs. 7S-B and 7S-C). These usually result from more severe impact to the skull, usually in an anteroposterior direction (occipital or frontal). The fracture line may be medial or lateral to the arcuate eminence. With the advent of high resolu­ tion CT more fractures are now being classified as mixed or combined, escaping this simplistic classification (Fig. 7S-D). In these cases, the fracture line shows a complex and often oblique course within the temporal bone. In longitudinal fractures, the fracture line begins in the squamosa, extends through the superior and posterior walls of the EAC and accross the roof of the middle ear, through the petrous apex, ending near the foramen lacerum. This type of fracture is frequently associated with lacerations of the EAC and tympanic membrane causing otorrhagia. TIle ossicular chain is often disrupted ei­ ther due to fracture, or dislocation. The incus is most susceptible to fracture due to its lack of ligamentous or tendinous attachments to the walls of the middle ear cavity. Ossicular chain disruption most commonly occurs at the incudostapedial joint; malleoincudal disruption is less common. On a CT of the temporal bones ( Fig. 7S-E) an axial section at the level of the attic shows that there is a disruption of the ossicular chain with abnormal alignment between the head of the malleus and the body of the incus. The "ice cream ball" (head of the malleus) has fallen off the cone (body of the incus). Soft tissue density is seen surrounding the ossicles. The diagno­ sis is malleoincudal dislocation in a patient with head trauma. Conductive hearing loss is the hallmark of this fracture. Facial nerve paralysis is present in 10 to 20% of cases and is usually delayed and transient. The facial nerve is injured in its tympanic segment immediately distal to the anterior genu (genicu­ late ganglion). The inner ear structures are normally preserved as the path of least resistence for fracture line progression is extralabyrinthine. CSF leaks are also more commonly associated with longitudinal fractures, sec­ ondary to disruption of the tegmen tympani or posterior mastoid air cells. In transverse fractures, the fracture line typically begins at the foramen magnum and courses across the occipital bone, j ugular fossa, petrous pyramid, and then into the floor of the middle cranial fossa. These fractures commonly involve the labyrinth causing a complete and irreversible sensorineural hearing loss. Transverse fractures can also extend into the carotid canal causing traumatic dissection or occlusion of the petrous segment of the internal carotid artery. I njury of the facial nerve is com­ mon (30 to 50% ) and is usually immediate and complete. The most frequent site of facial nerve injury is the labyrinthine segment proximal to the geniculate ganglion. Other possible complications are perilymphatic fistulas which may result from frac­ ture extension into the round or oval windows, or footplate of the stapes. This re­ sults in fluctuating neurosensorial hearing loss and positional vertigo. Pneumo-

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BONE labyrinth may also result from transverse fractures and suggests a comunication be­ tween the vestibule, cochlea or semicircular canals, and the middle ear cavity or mastoid air cells. Occasionally, pneumolabyrinth is due to fracture or dislocation of the footplate of the stapes. Fractures involving the squamous portion of the temporal bone are potentially fa­ tal due to injury to the middle meningeal artery or transverse and sigmoid sinuses with subsequent epidural hematoma formation. Temporal bone fractures may also involve isolate portions of the external audi­ tory canal, the glenoid fossa and the styloid process.

Clinical Findings Clinical signs of temporal bone fracture may be overlooked due to the patient's gen­ eral condition. Usually the craniocerebral manifestations dominate the clinical pic­ ture drawing the attention of clinician and radiologist away from the temporal bones. TIle most frequent symptoms associated with temporal bone trauma are hearing loss (conductive, sensorineural or mixed), vertigo and facial nerve palsy. I n uncon­ scious patients these findings may go undetected, and therefore a high degree of sus­ picion is required to make the diagnosis. Valuable clinical signs include otorrhagia, otorrhea, rinorrhea and Battle's sign (retroauricular ecchymosis). Hemorrhage through the external auditory canal may be a consequence of laceration of the EAC itself or of the middle ear cavity if there is associated rupture of the tympanic membrane. Otorrhea and rinorrhea imply a CSF leak. When the tympanic membrane (TM ) is ruptured, CSF will leak into the EAC. When the TM is intact, CSF will accumu­ late in the middle ear cavity and drain into the nasopharynx via tbe Eustachian tube. Evaluation of hearing deficits and of the integrity of the facial nerve should also be performed whenever the mechanism of trauma or the clinical signs suggest the possibility of an injured temporal bone.

Imaging Findings The need for radiological evaluation of the temporal bone following head trauma should be based on the patient's clinical status. Imaging studies should provide in­ formation as to the precise location of the fracture. The integrity of the ossicular chain, the status of the facial nerve and the presence of pneumolabyrinth or CSF leak must all be assessed. CT is the preferred imaging modality in the evaluation of temporal bone trauma due to its superior ability to demonstrate bony detail, allowing adequate character­ ization of fractures and ossicular derrangements. CT is also the method of choice for the evaluation of posttraumatic bearing loss, vertigo, facial nerve palsy and CSF leaks. Axial CT sections through the temporal bone ( Figs. 78-B and 78-C) show a linear radiolucency crossing the short axis of the temporal bone, through the otic capsule (vestibule and semicircular canals). The diagnosis is transverse fracture of the temporal bone in a trauma victim, wbo presented with sudden hearing loss. Ideally, CT examination should include both axial and coronal sections. However, this is not always possible as many trauma patients cannot tolerate the prone posi­ tion. Fortunately, most fractures are adequately depicted in the axial plane as they follow the long axis of the temporal bone. Fig. 78-0-0n a CT of the temporal bone (coronal section) ( Fig. 78-0) there are two separate fracture lines in the temporal bone with oblique orientations. The most superior fracture involves the superior as­ pect of the mastoids near the squamosa of the temporal bone. The second fracture crosses the middle ear cavity through the epitympanum, extending from the supe­ rior wall of the external auditory canal to the tegmen tympani. TIle diagnosis is complex fracture of the temporal bone.

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cr of the temporal bones should

be performed whenever the mechanism of trauma or clinical signs suggest the possibility of temporal bone injury. •

•

•

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Search for fracture lines and in­ direct signs of fracture. Carefully evaluate the ossicular chain, facial nerve canal, labyrinth, carotid canal, most fre­ quent sites of CSF fistulas(See Table 1 ). Avoid mistaking norm.al anatomy for a fracture (sutures and fis­ sures). Avoid missing a fracture line or ossicular dislocation.

Table 1

Temporal Bone Fractures

Incidence I njury site Hearing loss Middle ear Ossicular dislocation Labyrinth

Longitudinal

Transverse

75% -80% temporoparietal conductive injured common spared

20%-25% occipital sensorineural spared rare injured

Other evidence of temporal bone trauma can also be detected including hemo­ tympanum, rupture of the tympanic membrane and pneumolabyrinth. CT is also the method of choice for detection of long term postraumatic complications such as ac­ quired cholesteatoma. This usually shows particularly aggressive features because epithelial cells can seed the course of the fracture line. When a CSF fistula is sus­ pected CT with intrathecal contrast should be used to localize the fistula and plan surgical repair. These leaks frequently involve disruption of the tegmen tympani, posterior mastoid air cells, or lAC and adjacent petrous air cells. M R I should be used as a problem solving technique in cases of facial nerve paral­ ysis and vestibular syndromes not explained by CT findings. In these cases an MRI may be able to demonstrate facial nerve hematoma or edema and labyrinthine hemorrhage.

Management Traumatic injuries to the temporal bone may have incapacitating and grave long term consequences. Therefore, early detection and treatment is critical. Indications for surgery include ossicular fracture or dislocation, decompression of the facia nerve, labyrinthine fistulae and correction of CSF leaks. Early recognition and treatment of these injuries avoid permanent irreversible hearing loss and facial nerve paralysis, recurrent bouts of meningitis, and fluctuating neurosensorial hearing loss and vertigo.

Suggested Reading Backous, D.D., Minor, L.B., Niparko, IK. Trauma to the external auditory canal and temporal bone. Otolaryngologic Clinics of Norch America 29(5):853-66, 1 996 Oct. Brandle, P., Satoretti-Schefer, S. Bohmer, A., Wichmann, W., Fisch, U. Correlation of MRI, clinical, and electroneuronographic findings in acute facial nerve palsy. Amer­ ican Journal of Otology 1 7(1) : 1 54-6 1 , 1 996 Jan. Brodie, H.A., Thompson, T.e. Management of complications from 820 temporal bone fractures. American Journal of Otology 1 8(2) : 188-97, 1 997 Mar. Casselman, IW. Temporal bone imaging. Neuroimaging Clinics of North America 6(2):265-89, 1 996 May. Deguine, e., Pulec, IL. Traumatic dislocation of the incus. Eal; Nose, and Throat Journal 74( 1 2):800, 1 995 Dec. Driscoll, e.L., Facer, G.W. Temporal bone fracture. Em; Nose, and Throat Journal 75( 1 ) : 1 0, 1 996 Jan. Moran, S.G., McCarthy, M.e., Uddin, D.E., Poelstra, R.I Predictors of positive CT scans in the trauma patient with minor head injury. American Surgeon 60(7):533-5, discussion 535-6, 1994 Jul. Nosan, o.K., Benecke, IE. Jr., Murr, A . H . Current perspective on temporal bone trauma. Otolaryngology and Head and Neck Surgery 1 1 7 ( 1 ):67-71 , 1 997 Jul.

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BONE Weinberger, D.G., Selesnick, S.H . Roller blade faUs-a new cause of temporal bone fractures: case reports. journal of Trauma 37(3):500-3, 1994 Sep. Yanagihara, N., Murakami, S., Nishihara, S. Temporal bone fractures inducing facial nerve paralysis: a new classification and its clinical significance. Ear, Nose, and Throat journal 76(2):79-80, 83-6, 1997 Feb.

Case 79

TEMPORAL BONEI

Clinical Presentation A 58-year-old male presented with right anacusis and new left sensorineural hear­ ing loss. The patient had a remote history of trauma to the right temporal bone.

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Radiological Findings The Tl-weighted image (Fig. 79-A) shows a soft tissue mass expanding the right in­ ternal auditory canal and extending into the cerebellopontine angle cistern. On the T2-weighted sequence (Fig. 79-B) the bright signal of CSF cannot be identified within the left internal auditory canal. There is also a complete lack of signal from the labyrinth on the right side. The axial CT scan helps to clarify the situation (Figs.

ITEMPORAL

BONE 79-C and 79-D). The right cochlea and labyrinth are filled in with bone. The bone overlying what would have been the right horizontal semicircular canal, bulg­ ing into the middle ear, has a normal configuration. ( Images courtesy of Jane L. Weissman MD.)

Differential Diagnosis: Increased Bone Density of the Temporal Bone • •

Otic capsule involved: Michel deformity, labyrinthitis ossificans/obliterans Otic capsule spared: Paget disease, fibrous dysplasia, osteogenesis imperfecta, os­ teopetrosis

Diagnosis Labyrinthitis ossificans/obliterans (posttraumatic) on the right; acoustic tumor on the left

Discussion Pathophysiology Labyrinthitis ossmcans (or obliterans) is an inflammatory process from various causes resulting in partial or total obliteration of the bony labyrinth. The cause in

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TEMPORAL BONEI this patient is most likely posttraumatic. There are multiple other etiologies for this entity. These include postsurgical (status postlabyrinthectomy), meningogenic sec­ ondary to spread along the internal auditory canal or cochlear aqueduct, and tym­ panogenic or hematogenously spread infections. Tympanogenic labyrinthitis ossificans occurs secondary to chronic otitis media with or without cholesteatoma. The inflammatory process may invade the oval win­ dow or round window or erode the horizontal semicircular canal. Tympanogenic labyrinthitis ossificans is most commonly unilateral. The meningogenic form occurs due to spread of bacterial meningitis along the lAC or cochlear acqueduct. The hematogenic type is the rarest, and is related to bloodborne measels or mumps in­ fection. Meningogenic or hematogenic labyrinthitis ossificans can be bilateral. Labyrinthitis ossificans causes include: (1) tympanogenic with chronic otitis me­ dia; (2) Posttraumatic; (3) Postlabyrinthectomy; (4) Meningogenic via lAC or cochlear acqueduct; and (5) Hematogenic The process begins with a proliferation of bacteria and leukocytes in the peri­ lymph spaces. Next a proliferation of fibroblasts results in a fibrous stage. Ossifica­ tion occurs as a result of abnormal proliferation of undifferentiated mesenchymal cells in the basilar membrane, endosteum, and modiolus. These cells then differen­ tiate into fibroblasts and then os teo blasts. The labyrinthine ossification results from the osteoblasts forming abnormal bony trabeculae.

I maging Findings Ossification of the membranous labyrinth has a characteristic appearance on CT and is referred to as labyrinthitis ossificans or labyrinthitis obLiterans. Figure 79-E depicts a CT on another patient with tympanogenic labyrinthitis ossificans. A mas­ toidectomy defect is present. The cochlea remains patent although the vestibule and semicircular canals are obliterated. An axial CT was done on a third patient with labyrinthitis ossificans related to os­ teomyelitis of the temporal bone (Fig. 79-F). It shows obliteration of the entire labyrinth with narrowing of the middle ear cleft. The coronal views ( Fig. 79-G) con­ firm these findings. The absence of signal from this structure on M R scanning also suggest the diag­ nosis. Other osseous diseases that affect the temporal bone such as Paget's disease, fibrous dysplasia, osteogenesis imperfecta, osteopetrosis, and otosclerosis tend to spare the labyrinth, and thus, usually do not have this imaging appearance. Occasionally, a Michel anomaly can be mistaken for labyrinthitis ossificans. The Michel anomaly is near total agenesis of the inner ear structures, although there may occasionally be a single small labyrinthine cavity. When the bone overlying what would have been the horizontal semicircular canal has a normal configuration, an acquired condition such as labyrinthitis ossificans is more Likely than Michel anomaly. This finding suggests that the normal inner ear structures were present at one time, as opposed to the congenital Michel anomaly where the entire otic capsule is often more atretic.

Management Antibacterial or antiviral treatment may be used for this disease with variable suc­ cess rates. Labyrinthitis ossificans is usually a contraindication for cochlear implan­ tation.

Suggested Readings Casselman, J.W., Kuhweide, R., Dehaene, r., Ampe, W., Devlies, F. Magnetic reso­ nance examination of the inner ear and cerebel\opontine angle in patients with ver-

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Labyrinthitis ossificans is typified by complete sclerosis of the cochlea and labyrinth. Labyrinthitis ossificans can result from postinfectious, traumatic, or surgical reasons. Rule out Michel deformity if ab­ normally shaped bony contours are seen.

tigo and/or abnormal findings at vestibular testing. ACla Olo-LarYllgologica. SIIP­ plemenl 5 13 : 1 5-27, 1994. Guirado, C.R., Martinez, P.. Roig, R., Mirosa, E, Salmeron, J., Florensa, E, Roger. M .. Barragan. Y. Three-dimensional MR of the inner ear with steady-state free preces­ sion. American Journal of Neuroradiology 16(9):1909-13, 1995 Oct. Kiefer, J., von lIberg, C. Special surgical problems in cochlear implant patients. Ad­ van.ces in Olo-Rhino-Iaryngology 52:135-9, 1 997.

M afee, M.E MR imaging of intralabyrinthine schwan noma, labyrinthitis, and other labyrinthine pathology. OLO/aryngologic Clinics of Norlh America 28(3):407-30, 1995 Jun. Mark, A.S., Fitzgerald, D. M R I of the inner ear. Bail/jeres Clinical Nellrology 3(3):51 5-35, 1994 Nov.

If this condition is bilateral, con­ sider a meningogenic or hernato­ genic origin.

Mark, A.S.. Fitzgerald, D. Segmental enhancement of the cochlea on contrast­ enhanced MR: correlation with the frequency of hearing loss and possible sign of perilymphatic fistula and autoimmune labyrinthitis. American JOllrnal of Neurora­ diology 14(4):991-6, 1993 Jul-Aug.

Avoid confusion with Michel anomaly.

Swartz, J.D. The inner ear. I n : Swartz J.D., ed. Imaging of Ihe lemporal bOlle. New York: Thieme Medical Publishers, 154-157, 1986.

If the otic capsule is spared, consider other fibro-osseus pathology. Labyrinthitis ossificans is usually a contraindication for cochlear implantation.

Wilson, D.E., Talbot, J.M., Hodgson, R.S. Magnetic resonance imaging-enhancing le­ sions of the labyrinth and facial nerve. Clinical correlation. Archives of Orolaryn­ go logy and Head and Neck Surgery 120(5):560-4, 1994 May.

Case 80

TEMPORAL BONEI

Clinical Presentation A 45-year-old female presented with bilateral hearing loss, proven to be mixed on subsequent audiometric examination.

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Radiologic Findings (Fig. 80-A, 80-B): On axial CT sections through the basal and apical turns of the cochlea ( Figs. 80-A and 80-B), and a coronal CT section (Fig. 80-C), there is a curvi­ linear halo of bony demineralization surrounding the cochlea and associated widen­ ing of the oval window. This is due to another foci of osteolysis in the most anterior aspect of this structure. The ossicular chain and mastoids are unremarkable.

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BONE

Differential Diagnosis: Osteolysis of the Temporal Bone •

•

Focal: retrofenestrallcochlear otosclerosis, langerhans ceU granuloma (Hystiocy­ tosis X), tertiary syphilis (gumma) and osteitis of late congenital syphilis Diffuse: osteogenesis imperfecta, Paget's disease, fibrous dysplasia

Diagnosis Otosclerosis

Discussion Osteolysis involving the temporal bone can be focal or diffuse. A focal curvilinear area of bony resorption surrounding the cochlea is almost pathognomonic for retro­ fenestral or cochlear otosclerosis. Langerhans cell granuloma is a proliferative disease that may involve the tempo­ ral bone and manifest as a focal mass associated with bony erosion. Although tertiary syphilis can produce spongiotic changes indistinguishible from those of cochlear otosclerosis, there is usually an associated sclerotic component representing reactive proliferation of the adjacent bone. Furthermore, this entity is rarely seen. A more diffuse type of osteolysis can be seen in fibrosseous dysplasias such as Paget's disease and fibrous dysplasia. However, these diseases tend to spare the otic capsule and usually evolve to a ground glass appearence with fibrous dysplasia, and condensed trabeculae with Paget's. Bony expansion may be seen with both entities. Paget's disease or osteitis deformans occurs late in life and is more frequent in males. Involvement of the temporal bone is not infrequent and is more commonly seen in the polyostotic forms of the disease. Usually, the bony changes begin in the petrous apex and demineralization of the perilabyrinth is a late manifestation. Other bony dysplasias such as osteogenesis imperfecta tarda (Von Hoeve dis­ ease), can also involve the temporal bone in a diffuse fashion with bony demineral­ ization seen in the early stages of the disease process. However, progression to in­ creased bone density and other associated features usually allow the correct diagnosis. According to several authors otosclerosis and osteogenesis imperfecta are different spectra of the same disease sharing the same physiopathologic mechanism.

Epidemiology Otosclerosis is an osteodystrophy of unknown origin which involves the otic cap­ sule. It is an indolent progressive disease, more common in women, with a peak in­ cidence in the third and fourth decades. Approximately 70% of the cases are famil­ ial with autosomal dominant inheritance. The disease is bilateral in 80% and often asynchronous. There are two different forms of this disease with different clinical and radiologic presentations. Fenestral otosclerosis, the most common form, involves the oval win­ dow and footplate of the stapes and presents with conductive hearing loss. Retro­ fenestral or cochlear otosclerosis involves the otic capsule and presents as a sen­ sorineural or mixed type of hearing loss.

Pathophysiology Otosclerosis is thought to be an osteodystrophic process resulting from the replace­ ment of the middle endochondral layer of the otic capsule by disorganized fibrous or spongiotic bony tissue. The otic capsule is unique in its composition, with an outer periosteal layer and an inner endosteal layer enclosing a layer of endochondral bone. This endochondral layer is not replaced by mature haversian bone but. in-

TEMPORAL BONEI stead, remains in a state of primary ossification, unlike osseous structures elsewhere in the body. Histologically, the areas of spongiotic bone seen in the early phases of the disease are hypercellular and hypervascular and are progressively replaced by dense, non­ lamellar, sclerotic bone.The mechanism that triggers the otosclerotic changes is un­ known. Clinical Findi ngs

Otosclerosis may present with tinnitus, bilateral hearing loss (90% before age 40) or as an incidental imaging findil1g in patients with unrelated symptoms. The type of hearing deficit depends on the sites of involvement. Conductive hearing loss is the hallmark of fenestral otosclerosis. The stapedial reflex may be absent and some pa­ tients present with hyperacusia. In cochlear or retrofenestral otosclerosis the hear­ ing deficit is usually mixed, although an isolated sensorineural deficit can occasion­ ally be seen. The cause of the sensorineural hearing loss is not fully understood but is thought to be due to release of cytotoxic enzymes that penetrate the membranous labyrinth and damage the cells of the organ of Corti. The disease is diagnosed on the basis of otoscopy, audiometry and audiometric brain stem response (ABR). However, the extent of the disease cannot be determined on the basis of clinical findings. I maging Find i ngs

Hearing loss is a major indication for cross-sectional imaging of the temporal bone. In conductive hearing loss, CT is the method of choice because it provides clear de­ piction of the bony structures (i.e., external auditory canal and middle ear cavity) and tympanic membrane. Patients presenting with sensorineural hearing loss are usually imaged with MR, which permits better visualization of the fluid filled mem­ branous labyrinth and the Vll and VIII nerve complexes. Imaging is the only means for evaluation of the extent of disease and for planning of surgical treatment. The radiologic findings of otosclerosis may precede clinical symptoms and among the patients with otospongiotic foci detected on imaging studies, only 1 in 8 will develop clinical signs of the disease.

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BONE In fenestral otosclerosis the earliest CT change is enlargement of the oval window due to replacement of the endochondral layer of the otic capsule by hypodense spongiotic bone. This change typically begins in the anterior wall of the oval win­ dow and then extends into the annular ligament to involve the footplate of the stapes. With progression of the disease, sclerotic changes ensue and obliterate the oval window. Similar changes may also present in the oval window, promontory and course of the facial nerve, although they may be difficult to detect on imaging studies. Retrofenestral otosclerosis rarely occurs in isolation. Bony demineralization sur­ rounding the cochlea produces the double ring sign (figs. SO-A-C) which is almost pathognomonic for this disease. This halo of hypodensity may be limited to a seg­ ment of the capsule or completely surround the entire contour of the cochlea. The progression to mature osteospongiotic foci manifest as localized or diffuse areas of bony sclerosis which are difficult to appreciate on CT studies as these areas of remineralization have the same density of the normal otic capsule. The only evi­ dence of apposition of new otosclerotic bone may be a scalloped appearance of the capsule. An axial CT scan in a different patient (Fig. SO-D) shows a curvilinear ra­ diolucency surrounding the cochlea (». This patient had no evidence of oval win­ dow involvement. Several experts have proposed a quantitative densitometric assessment of the cochlear capsule to help identify otosclerotic foci and determine the progression of the disease. CT is also the preferred imaging method in posttherapeutic follow-up to identify reccurent disease and demonstrate the position of a stapedial prostheses. An axial CT scan of the temporal bone (Fig. SO-E) shows the normal appearence of a metal­ lic prosthesis replacing the stapes. The role of M R I imaging in the evaluation of otosclerosis is not yet established. The few available studies showed faint enhancement or blush presumably due to pooling of contrast within the numerous vascular channels found in early os­ teospongious foci. M R I is, however, particularly well suited for evaluation of the lu­ men of the cochlea in candidates for cochlear implants. High resolution T2W images with phased array coils allow detection of small filling defects resulting either from fibrosis or ossification. High resolution tympanocochlear scintigraphy in conjunction with correlative imaging is a potential tool for the detection and localization of small active foci of otospongiosis. This technique which combines functional and morphologic informa­ tion yields a spatial resoluton of 3 to 4 mm. The bone seeking agent concentrates in areas of active bone metabolism which can be mapped onto a selected radiographic image.

Management Patients with fenestral otosclerosis are managed surgically. In the past, stapes mobi­ lization and fenestration of the lateral semicircular canal was the therapy of choice. Currently, the most common procedure is a stapedectomy with replacement by a stapedial endoprosthesis. Complications related to this prosthesis include disloca­ tion of the lateral end of the prosthesis with separation from the long process of the incus, necrosis of the long process of the incus, and medial migration of the pros­ thesis into the vestibule. 1l1ese complications are usually associated with clinical symptoms such as recurrent hearing loss and vertigo. Isolated retrofenestral otosclerosis when associated with bilateral sensorineural hearing loss can be managed with cochlear implants. cr and, more recently, MRI studies are very helpful in treatment planning. Conservative therapy with fluoride is thought to arrest disease progression.

1 �68

TEMPORAL BONEI

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Otosclerosis is an indolent, pro­ gressive disease that can cause bilateral hearing loss before age 40. About 70% of patients with oto­ sclerosis have a family history of hearing loss. Bony demineralization surround­ ing the cochlea produces the double ring sign. The earliest cr change is en­ largement of the oval window. With progression of the disease, sclerotic changes ensue and obliterate the oval window. Small foci of otospongiosis are difficult to recognize and require high degree of suspicion. Avoid missing the migration of a stapedial prosthesis.

Suggested Readings Arriaga, M.A., Carrier, D. M R I and clinical decisions in cochlear implantation. American Journal of Otology 17(4):547-53, 1 996 Jul. Mark, A.S. , Fitzgerald, D. MRI of the inner ear. Baillieres Clinical Neurology 3(3):5 15-35, 1994 Nov. Mark, A.S., Seltzer, S., Harnsberger, H.R. Sensorineural hearing loss: more than meets the eye? American Journal of Neuroradiology 14( 1 ) :37-45, 1 993 Jan-Feb. Rizer, EM., Guthikonda, M., Lippy, W.H., Schuring, A . G. Simultaneous presentation of facial nerve neuroma and otosclerosis. American Journal of Otology 15(3): 427-30, 1 994 May. Ross, U.H . , Laszig, R, Bornemann, H., Ulrich, C Osteogenesis imperfecta: clinical symptoms and update findings in computed tomography and tympano-cochlear scintigraphy. A cta OIO·Laryngologica 113(5):620-4, 1 993 Sep. Ross, U.H., Reinhardt, M.I, Berlis, A. Localization of active otosclerotic foci by tympano-cochlear scintigraphy (TCS) using correlative imaging. Journal of Laryn· gology and Otology 109( 1 1 ): 1 05 1-6, 1995 Nov. Saunders, IE., Derebery, M . I, Lo, W.W. Magnetic resonance imaging of cochlear otosclerosis. Annals of Otology, Rhinology and Laryngology 104( 1 0 Pt 1 ):826-9, 1995 Oct. Valvassori, G.E. Imaging of otosclerosis. Otolaryngologic Clinics of North America 26(3):359-71 , 1993 Jun. Weissman, IL. Hearing loss. Radiology 199(3):593-611, 1996 Jun.

Woolford, TJ., Roberts, G.R , Hartley, C, Ramsden, RT. Etiology of hearing loss and cochlear computed tomography: findings in preimplant assessment. Annals of Otology, Rhinology, and Laryngology. Supplement 166:201-6, 1995 Sep.

/TEMPORAL BONE

Case 81 Clinical Presentation A 52-year-old male with a prolonged history of chronic right-sided otorrhea pre­ sented with an unremitting headache, diplopia and paresthesia of the right cheek. Clinical exam revealed right abducens nerve palsy and decreased right facial tactile sensation in the distribution of the second and third divisions of the trigeminal nerve.

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Radiologic Findings On CT of the temporal bones, axial (Fig. 8 1 -A ) and coronal (Fig. 81 -B) sections through the petrous apices show complete opacification of the right petro us apex as­ sociated with sclerosis and irregularity of the bony trabecula. On an M R I of the temporal bones of the same patient (Fig. 81 -C), an axial TIW image shows complete opacification of the right petro us air cells and air cells along the posterior aspect of the petrous carotid canal, causing some local expansion and anterior displacement of the right longus colli muscle. The coronal post-contrast Tl W image ( Fig. 8 1 - D ) shows contrast enhancement consistent with internal archi­ tecture.

Differential Diagnosis: Destructive Lesions in the Petrous Apex •

•

Infectious/Inflammatory: petrous apicitis/petrous apex abscess, malignant otitis externa (skull base osteomyelitis) Tumors: • Benign: cholesteatoma, meningioma, paraganglioma, cholesterol granuloma • Malignant: chordoma, skull base chondrosarcoma, lymphoma, plasmacytoma/ multiple myeloma, metastasis, nasopharyngeal carcinoma

Diagnosis Petro us apicitis with Gradenigo's syndrome

Discussion Epidemiology Once a common and devastating disease, petrous apicitis became a rare entity after the introduction of antibiotics. It is more commonly seen in patients with pneuma­ tized petrous apices.

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BONE Anatomically, the petro us apex is defined as the portion of the temporal bone lying anteromedial to the otic capsule and posterolateral to the clivus, with the extreme apex terminating at the fibrocartilaginous tissue of the foramen lacerum. The bone marrow content and degree of pneumatization of the petro us apex is highly variable among individuals. Most studies report a 30 to 40% incidence of pneumatized petrous apices i n the general population which tends to parallel the degree of pneumatization of the squamous-mastoid portion of the temporal bone. I n the great majority of patients pneumatization is bilaterally symmetric, but in about 10% of cases it may be asymmetric. Tn another patient, an axial TIW image through the petrous apex shows intremediate signal intensity, similar to that of the bone marrow of the clivus. The diagnosis for this patient is asymmetric bone marrow. The complex anatomic relationship of the petro us apex with the intracranial con­ tents, cranial nerves and major intracerebral vessels explains the clinical syndromes and complications associated with lesions in this location. Some experts divide the petrous apex into two compartments: one anterior to the internal auditory canal, harboring most pathologic processes, and the other posterior to the internal audi­ tory canal (lAC), usually containing compact bone of the otic capsule and rarely pneumatized. Important relationships of the petrous apex include the cisternal segment of the trigeminal nerve and Meckel's cave superiorly, Dorello's canal (a dural fold tra­ versed by the abducens nerve) superomedially, the cavernous sinus and petrous segment of the internal carotid artery anteriorly, and the infratemporal fossa and cerebello-positive angle (CPA) cistern posteriorly.

Pathophysiology I n the early 1930's, there was great controversy concerning the pathophysiology of petrous apicitis and the best surgical treatment for this often fatal disease. While some considered petrous apicitis an osteitis, others considered it a true osteomyelitis requiring extensive surgical resection and debridement of the petro us apex. Currently, most experts consider two forms of disease, depending whether the in­ fection involves solely the mucosalized spaces in a highly pneumatized petrous apex (apicitis) or involves the bone marrow in a poorly pneumatized or non pneumatized petrous apex (osteomyelitis). In most cases, petro us apicitis results from spread of i nflammatory debris because of an acute or chronic middle ear or mastoid infection into a pneumatized petrous apex. The middle ear cavity and mastoid communicate with the petrous air cells through extensions from supralabyrinthine, infralabyrinthine and peritubal areas, via subarcuate tracts. These communicating tracts are very small and easily become obstructed by inflammatory debris. This can lead to progression of the infective process and possible abscess formation in the isolated petrous air cells. The chronic form of the disease is the most frequent and is usually silent and in­ sidious, leading to a delay in diagnosis. When left untreated, the infection progresses to involve adjacen t structures including the cavernous sinus, cranial nerves, adjacent meninges and dural sinuses. Devastating complications, such as meningitis, venous sinus thrombophlebitis and intra- and extracerebral abscesses may result. The most common pathogens are the same as those causing otitis media, although unusual flora, including anaerobes and enterobacteriaceae have been isolated in these patients. Tuberculosis and syphilis are also considerations, especially in chronic insidious cases unresponsive to conventional antibiotic therapy.

Clinical Fin di ngs Most patients with petrous apicitis have either a history of recent acute otomas­ toiditis or, more likely, chronic ear drainage. Gradenigo's syndrome, a classic triad of symptoms which includes chronic otorrhea, diplopia and trigeminal neuralgia, lo-

TEMPORAL BONEI calizes the lesion to the petrous apex, but is rarely present. Therefore, a high clinical suspicion is necessary to make this diagnosis early in the course of the disease, be­ fore complications develop. Deep aural or retrorbital pain, unremitting headache, vestibulo-cochlear symptoms, facial nerve palsy and trismus may also be presenting symptoms. Altered mentation and high spiking fevers are ominous signs, indicating intracranial spread. Otologic examination usually reveals acute or chronic middle ear infection. Neu­ rologic exam is crucial to detect cranial nerve involvement and may reveal diplopia, strabismus, trigeminal nerve dysfunction and facial nerve palsy. Leukocytosis with excess neutrophils is the rule in i mmunocompetent individuals. Imaging is useful to confirm the diagnosis, determine the extent of disease, and plan treatment.

I maging Find i ngs The hallmark of petrous apicitis is opacification of the petrous air cells associated with erosion and destruction of bony trabecula and/or cortical margins of the petro us bone. cr is the modality of choice to detect such bony changes. A cystic, ex­ pansile lesion with a thick irregular enhancing rim, suggests abscess formation from coalescence of infected air cells. I n the chronic setting, common associated findings i.nclude underpneumatization and sclerosis of the temporal bone. The CT findings are nonspecific and mimic any other destructive lesion of the petrous apex, includ­ ing some benign and malignant neoplasms. I n the clinical setting of chronjc otomas­ toiditis the most pertinent differential consideration is cholesteatoma, which also presents as a soft tissue destructive mass. Malignant otitis extern a may also present as an irregular bony destructive process involving the skull base and petrous apex. However, involvement of the external auditory canal, the typical pattern of spread into the parotid space and infratemporal fossa, and history of diabetes usually al­ lows differentiation of these two entities. MRI is particularly useful to evaluate the extent of the soft tissue component and detect intracranjal complications. Extension into the cavernous sinus manifests as enhancing soft tissue bulging the lateral wall of the involved sinus. Abnormal en­ hancement may also be seen within Meckel's cave indicating involvement of the Gasserian ganglion or along the course of cranial nerves V or V I I . Enhancemnet of the abducens nerve is not usually detectable, even on high resolution M R images, due to the diminutive size of tills nerve. Cranial nerve enhancement is best detected on coronal postcontrast fat-saturated MR T l W images. On MRI, acute petrous apicitis is usually hypointense on Tl WI and hyperintense on TIWI. Enhancemnet of the apical air cells reflects the presence of infiammed mucosa. Thick, irregular enhancement surrounding an expansile cystic cavity indi­ cates abscess formation. I n ferior extension into the i nfratemporal fossa should be sought. I n the clinical setting of chronic disease, signal characteristics of the trapped in­ flammatory debris are variable. There may be intermediate or high signal intensity on T l WI, depending on the protein content of the retained fluid with hyperintensity on T2 weighting. TI hypointensity is rare and suggests dessication, calcification or chronic hemorrhage. In the few cases of petro us apex osteomyelitis arising in a nonpneumatized petrous apex, the clue to the diagnosis is infiltration of the bone marrow manifested by a lack of bright fat signal Tl W I , and abnormal enhancement on postcontrast images. Enhanced MRI is also the modality of choice to evaluate [or intracerebral complications such as meningitis, extra- or intracerebral abscesses and venous sinus thrombosis/thrombophlebitis. There are two major MRT pitfalls that may mimic pathology: asymmetric bone marrow in a nonpneumatized or poorly pneumatized petrous apex, and effusion in the petrous air cells. Asymmetry in the amount of bone marrow in the petrous apices may confuse the inexperienced radiologist. The fact that the asymmetric soft tissue follows the signal characteristics of orbital fat in all sequences is usually

ITEMPORAL BONE PEARLSIPITFALLS Gradenigo's syndrome is a classic triad of symptoms which include chronic otorrhea, diplopia, and trigeminal nerve dysfunction.

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The haUmark of petro us apicitis is opacification of the petrous apex air cells associated with bony destructive changes.

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A petrous apex abscess is indi­ cated by thick irregular enhance­ ment surrounding an expansile cystic cavity.

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The typical pattern of spread is to the cavernous sinus, infratem­ poral and middle cranial fossa.

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Do not fail to recognize intracra­ nial involvement (i.e., cavernous sinus, Meckel's cave, meninges).

•

Avoid mistaking asymmetric bone marrow in the petrous apex for pathology.

enough to confirm this normal variant. In problematic cases a fat suppressed se­ quence should be performed. Trapped fluid in petrous apex air cells is occasionally seen in asymptomatic patients and in patients with symptoms unrelated to the petrous apex. It usually follows an upper respiratory infection and does not neces­ sarily indicate petrous apicitis. In these circumstances there is usually little mucosal enhancement of the apical air cells and no bony destruction is noted on CT scans. Follow-up studies are necessary to evaluate the clinical significance and natural his­ tory of this imaging finding. To evaluate petrous apex pathology a combination of both cross-sectional imag­ ing modalities, MRI, and CT is usually required to increase the specificity and diag­ nostic yield. Technetium and Gallium bone scans using SPECT may be helpful in distinguishing apicitis from frank osteomyelitis and evaluating response to treat­ ment.

Management Most cases of petrous apicitis are managed conservatively with intravenous antibi­ otics tailored to the specific agent. Surgical drainage may be required in unremilling cases or when a frank abscess is present. The surgical approach is planned on the ba­ sis of the CT scan, which allows a road map of the bony anatomy. A prelabyrinthine approach, between the cochlea and the posterior genu of the petrous corotid artery, is the preferred surgical route, but may not be possible in patients with unfavorable anatomy. A middle cranial fossa subtemporal approach is an alternative.

Suggested Readings Bourne, R.R . Maclaren, R.E. Intracranial plasmacytoma masquerading as Graden­ igo's yndrome (Ieller). British Journal of Ophthalmology 82(4):458-9, 1 998 Apr. .

Frates, M.e., Oates, E. Partous apicitis: evaluation by bone SPECT and magnetic resonance imaging. Clinical Nuclear Medicine 1 5(5):293-4, 1 990 May.

Gadre, A.K., Brodie, H . A .. Fayad, IN., O'Leary, M.1. Venous channels of the petrous apex: their presence and clinical imporlance. Otolaryngology and Head and Neck Surgery 1 1 6(2) : 1 68-74, 1 997 Feb. Hardjasudarma, M . , Edwards, R.L., Ganley, lP., Aarstad, R.E Magnetic resonance imaging features of Gradenigo's syndrome. American Journal of OtolarYl1gology 1 6(4):247-50, 1 995 Jul-Aug.

Horn, K.L., Erasmus, M.D., Akiya, E I . Suppurative petrous apicitis: osteitis or osteomyelitis? An imaging case report. American Journal of Otolaryngology 1 7( 1 ):54-7, 1 996 Jan-Feb. Jackler. R.K., Parker, D.A. Radiographic differential diagnosis of petrous apex le­ sions. American Journal of Otology 1 3(6):561-74, 1 992 Nov. Murakami, T., Tsubaki, 1.. Tahara, Y, Nagashima, T. Gradenigo's syndrome: CT and MRI findings. Pediatric Radiology 26(9):684-5, 1 996 Sep.

1374

Case 82

TEMPORAL BONEI

Clinical Presentation A 64-year-old diabetic

male presented with a two week history of right sided otor­ rhea and otalgia that was unresponsive to antibiotics. Four days before presentation he noted right cheek swelling and trismus.

A

B

c

D

ITEMPORAL BONE

E

Radiologic Findings On an MRI of the temporal bones and neck an axial T1 WI pre- (Fig. 82-A) and postcontrast (Fig. 82-B) show marked swelling and abnormal soft tissue thickening in the right external auditory canal (EAC), parotid space, masticator and parapha­ ryngeal spaces, obliterating all the surrounding fascial planes. This swelling extends posteriorly into the subcutaneous soft tissues overlying the mastoid bone, temporal squamosa and right occipital region. There is swelling and abnormal enhancement of the right parotid gland, masseter and lateral pterygoid muscles (Fig. 82-B). The mastoid air cells are opacified and the lateral cortical margin of the mastoid bone is indistinct. On a CT scan of the temporal bones (Figs. 82-C and 82-D), axial sections through the EAC show soft tissue opacification of the EAC and bony erosion and disruption of the posterior wall of the internal auditory canal (lAC) and lateral cortical mar­ gin of the mastoid. The mastoid air cells are opacified and an air-fluid level is noted in the mastoid antrum. There is also abnormal soft tissue density within the middle ear cavity. The ossicular chain is not displaced nor eroded. The coronal section (Fig. 82-E) again shows bony destruction of the EAC and lateral aspect of the mastoid bone.

Differential Diagnosis: Abnormal Soft Tissue Mass in the EAC Associated with Bony Erosion •

•

Inflammatory: malignant external otitis, benign necrotizing otitis externa, cholesteatoma of the EAC Neoplastic (lesions may arise primarily in the EAC or invade it secondarily from surrounding structures): squamous cell carcinoma of the EAC, basal cell carci­ noma of the EAC, salivary gland malignancies (adenoid cystic and mucoepider­ moid carcinomas), melanoma, metastasis, ceruminoma (ceruminous adenocarci­ noma)

Diagnosis Malignant otitis externa (MOE)

TEMPORAL BONEI

Discussion Epidemiology Malignant external otitis was first described by Chandler in 1 968, although a case of temporal bone osteomyelitis was previously described by Meltzer and Keleman in 1 959. Other terms commonly used to refer to this entity are necrotizing or invasive oti­ tis externa. It is a rare entity, typically presenting in elderly diabetic patients. How­ ever, it may be seen with other forms of immunosuppression, as in AIDS, where the disease may present in younger patients.

Pathophysiology Malignant external otitis is a severe infectious process which begins in the EAC and frequently spreads throughout the temporal bone, skull base and suprahyoid neck, crossing fascial planes. The most common agent is Pseudomonas aeruginosa, an op­ portunistic organism which tends to grow in moist environments and devitalized tis­ sues, especially when there is an imbalance in the normal commensal flora. Less fre­ quently, other agents have been implicated including other bacteria, such as Staphylococcus aureus and Proteus mirabilis, and fungal agents such as Aspergillus species. Predisposing factors include diabetes mellitus, immunosuppression (congenital or acquired), history of prior EAC lavage, and chronic use of antimicrobial agents which do not cover pseudomonas species. The inciting event appears to be a dermatitis of the EAC, compromising the nor­ mal barrier of the skin. TIlis may be due to trauma after syringe jet lavage or repeated introduction of foreign bodies into the EAC. In diabetic patients, mi­ croangiopathy due to endarteritis may compromise the microcirculation in the EAC, increasing the susceptibiliy to infection ( ischemic perichondritis). The moist environment of the EAC, especially after repeated use of topical antibiotics to cover other agents of otitis externa, further favors the growth of the commensal pseudomonas aeruginosa. The infection usually begins at the junction of the cartilaginous and bony portions of the EAC and from there, spreads insidiously and silently to the temporal bone and surrounding stuctures. Pseudomonas typically produces endo- and exotoxins, including the enzymes col­ lagenase and elastase, which enables the organism to disseminate easily across the fascia of the suprahyoid neck. Furthermore, immunosuppression diminishes the ability to mount an adequate inflammatory response. In the case of diabetic pa­ tients, there is defective chemotaxis of leukocytes, as the defective blood supply, caused by microangiopathic changes, impedes the delivery of inflammatory cells to the affected regions. The pattern of spread is fairly consistent. Initially, the disease tends to spread in­ feriorly, through the small clefts normally present in the floor of the EAC ( fissures of Santorini), to involve the soft tissues inferior to the temporal bone, including the parotid space, infratemporal masticator space, and skull base. Less common routes of dissemination include posterior spread to the mastoid air cells, anteriorly into the TMJ and medially into the middle ear cavity and petrous apex.

C l in ical Findings The most common presenting symptoms are unrelenting otalgia, and purulent otor­ rhea despite antibiotic therapy. This purulent otorrhea, may be scant or profuse and typically presents as a foul smelling greenish exudate. With disease progression, headaches, usually located over the temporal bone region, pain in the TMJ, trismus and cranial nerve palsies may ensue. The presence of headaches and cranial nerve

377 1

ITEMPORAL

BONE palsies usually indicate skull base osteomyelitis. Trismus results from involvement of the TMJ or nasopharyngeal masticator space. The cranial nerve most commonly af­ fected is the facial nerve. This is due to the progression of infection through the sty­ lomastoid foramen, or direct involvement of the facial nerve canal ill the tympanic or mastoid segments. Extension of the infectious process into the petrous apex and cavernous sinus may present as Gradenigo's or cavernous sinus syndrome, respec­ tively. Involvement of the jugular foramen may cause Vernet's syndrome with dys­ function of cranial nerves IX, X and X I . If left untreated, infection may spread intracranially into the meninges and result in a subdural or epidural empyema or an intraparenchymal abscess. Venous sinus thrombosis may also result. Other complications include parotid gland or mastica­ tor abscesses, chondritis of the EAC and auricule, and development of fistulous tracts. A history of noninsulin dependent diabetes, another type of immunosuppression, and recent ear lavage should be sought. In the early stages, clinical examination shows swelling and erythema of the EAC mucosa, initially at the junction of the cartilaginous and bony portions, and later in­ volving all the EAC and tympanic membrane. This swelling and erythema spreads to the auricule and, eventually, to the subcutaneous soft tissues overlying the mas­ toid and parotid regions. Otoscopy discloses granulation tissue in the EAC and, in advanced cases, ulceration of the inferior wall of the EAC may be seen. 1l1ere may be fluid in the tympanic cavity, mimicking an otitis media. A facial nerve paralysis or other cranial nerve palsies may be apparent on clinical exam. Diagnosis is based on a high index of clinical suspicion in patients with a concor­ dant history, and is confirmed by laboratory tests and imaging findings. The most re­ liable laboratory finding is isolation of the agent from the EAC exudate. An ele­ vated sedimentation rate is always present, but leukocytosis is an inconsistent finding, especially in immunocompromised patients. Recurrence after appropriate therapy is seen in approximately 20% of cases.

Imaging Findi ngs The major goals of imaging are to determine disease extent, to identify drainable fluid collections, evaluate the success of therapy and help confirm the diagnosis CT is the modality of choice, as it adequately depicts cortical bony changes which, when present, are the hallmark of this disease. MRI is used as an adjunct to evaluate the soft tissue extent and detect any intracranial complications. MRI may also detect bone marrow changes in the skull base which may not be apparent on CT. Bone scintigraphy, especially a gallium scan, is the best imaging tool for early di­ agnosis and patient follow-up. This is particularly important as the imaging findings seen on CT and M R I usually lag behind clinical resolution and may be interpreted as persistent or recurrent disease. Osteolysis may never resolve after complete erad­ ication of the disease. The most common CT finding is the presence of a soft tissue density in the EAC. However, this finding lacks specificity as it may represent a variety of pathologic en­ tities including a cerumen plug, simple otitis externa, keratosis obturans or a foreign body. The presence of bony erosion and cortical disruption of the bony EAC, mas­ toid or skull base, in conjunction with a concordant clinical history, is the hallmark of this entity. CT may also demonstrate opacification of the middle ear cavity and mastoid air cells due to postobstructive changes or direct extension of granulation tissue. Soft tissue changes include obliteration of the fascial and fat planes, initially beneath the EAC and later involving the parotid, parapharyngeal and masticator spaces. Mass effect upon the nasopharynx is another possible mechanism for eu­ stachian tube obstruction. Soft tissue swelling and thickening may also be present in the pinna, subcutaneous soft tissues overlying the region of the mastoid and tempo­ ral bone squamosa and in the TMJ. Abnormal soft tissue density, obliterating the fat seen in the stylomastoid foramen. indicates facial nerve involvement and is usually

1378

TEMPORAL BONEI

PEARLSIPITFALLS •

•

•

•

•

•

MOE typically presents in el­ derly diabetic patients with chronic otalgia and otorrbea. It is unremitting with conventional antibiotics. The most common agent is pseudomonas aeruginosa. On imaging, an MOE appears as a soft tissue mass witbin the EAC associated witb bony de­ struction. The typical pattern of spread is anteroinferiorly into the parotid space, and inferomediaUy into the infratemporal masticator space. Avoid mistaking MOE for a ma­ lignancy. Avoid not recognizing complica­ tions such as intracranial exten­ tion and sinus tbrombosis.

associated with facial nerve paresis. Abscesses may develop, manifesting as hypo­ dense lesions surrounded by an irregular enhancing rim. On MRI the soft tissue changes may be better delineated. The inflammatory tis­ sue in malignant external otitis is nonspecific in appearance (isointense to muscle on Tl WI and hyperintense on T2WI), showing intense enhancement except in areas of tissue necrosis. However, some studies describe this inflammatory tissue as by­ pointense on both T l W and T2WI, witb scant enhancement. These features are tbougbt to indicate the denser nature of this soft tissue material and its tendency to fibrose. Pre- and postcontrast images should always be obtained to allow detection of bone marrow changes and meningeal enhancement. Fat-suppressed images may be helpful in selected cases, where the abnormal soft tissue is surrounded by fat. Coro­ nal sections are very useful in detecting obliteration of the fat underneath the EAC, one of the earliest signs of spread of infection outside the EAC. MRV may be needed to confirm sinus thrombosis. The major differential diagnosis is made with neoplastic lesions of the temporal bone. Squamous and basal cell carcinomas are the most frequent malignancies oc­ curing in the EAC. They present in the same age group and the imaging findings (soft tissue mass associated with bony destructive changes) are indistinguishible from those seen in MOE. Other less common malignancies include minor salivary gland neoplasms, adenocarcinoma originating in the ceruminous glands, melanoma and metastasis. Clinical correlation and biopsy are warranted to make the diag­ nosis. Cholesteatoma of the EAC, an inflammatory condition usually associated with chronic otitis, may also present as a soft tissue mass with associated erosion of the bony EAC. However, this condition tends to be more focal and is not associated with the diffuse soft tissue changes seen in MOE. Finally, benign necrotizing otitis externa, a rare condition of unknown etiology characterized by formation of au avascular bony sequestrum in the tympanic plate, may also mimic MOE.

Management Antibiotic therapy is the mainstay of treatment and should be directed to the etio­ logic agent. As the majority of cases are caused by Pseudomonas aeruginosa the treatment of choice is long term (6 to 8 weeks) ciprofloxacin. In extensive cases, a course of intravenous antibiotics may be warranted to halt progession. i n the pres­ ence of osteomyelitis with bony sequestra or abscess formation, surgery should be performed with drainage and extensive debridement of the necrotic tissue. In the rare instances of MOE caused by Aspergillus species, amphotericin B is the treat­ ment of choice, with surgical debridment also performed when needed. Hyperbaric oxygen therapy can also be used as an adjunct with varying rates of success. Control of the baseline disease process (diabetes or other type of immuno­ suppression) also helps resolve the infectious process. A baseline imaging study, ei­ ther CT or MRI, after completion of therapy, should be performed for easier as­ sessment of possible recurrent disease.

Suggested Reading Amorosa, L., Modugno, G.c., Pi rodda, A . Malignant external otitis: review and per­ sonal experience. Acta Oto-Laryngologica, Supplement 521 :3-16, 1 996. Gordon, G., Giddings, N.A. I nvasive otitis extern a due to Aspergillus species: case report and review. Clinical Infectious Diseases 1 9(5):866-70, 1 994 Nov. Grandis, 1.R., Curtin, H.D., Yu, Y.L. Necrotizing (malignant) external otitis: prospec­ tive comparison of CT and M R imaging in diagnosis and follow-up. Radiology 1 96(2):499-504, 1 995 Aug.

ITEMPORAL

BONE Hern, 1.D., Almeyda, 1., Thomas, D.M., Main, 1., Patel, K.S. Malignant otitis externa in H I V and A IDS. Journal of Laryngology and Oeology 1 1 0(8):770-5, 1996 Aug. Hickham, M., Amedee, R.G. Malignant otitis externa. Journal of the Louisiana State Medical Society 1 48( 1 2):5 1 1-3, 1 996 Dec. Lucente, F.E., Parisier, S.c., James R. Chandler: "Malignant external otitis." Laryn­ goscope 106(7):805-7, 1 996 Jul. Manfrini, S., Gregorio, F. , Capoolicasa, E. Diabetes mellitus and malignant external otitis: a case study. Journal of Diabetes and Its Complications 1 0( 1 ):2-5, 1 996 Jan­ Feb. Slattery, W.H . 3rd., Brackmann, D.E. Skull base osteomyelitis. Malignant external otitis. Otolaryngologic Clinics of North America 29(5):795-806, 1 996 Oct. Stokke I, M.P., Boot, C.N., van Eck-Smit, RL. SPECf gallium scintigraphy in malig­ nant external otitis: initial staging and follow-up. Case reports. Laryngoscope 106(3 Pt 1 ):338-40, 1996 Mar. Wormald, p.1. Surgical management of benign necrotizing otitis externa. Journal of Laryngology and Otology 108(2): 101-5, 1 994 Feb.

Case 83

TEMPORAL BONEI

Clinical Presentation A 20-year-old male presents with a history of several bouts of otitis media and pro­ gressive right sided conductive hearing loss.

A

B

ITEMPORAL

BONE

Radiologic Findings On a CT of the temporal bones (coronal views) (Fig. 83-A) there is a nondependent globular soft tissue mass in the epitympanum centered between the scutum and the head of the malleus (Prussak's space). The scutum is blunted and eroded and there is also demineralization of the head of the malleus. The tegmen tympani is thin but is still intact. A section slightly more posterior (Fig. 83-B) shows the medial extent of the mass abutting the horizontal segment of the facial nerve and the lateral semi­ circular canal which is intact. On axial views of the same patient (Fig. 83-C) there is posterior extension of the mass into the mastoid antrum through the additus ad antrum. Note that the mastoid is poorly pneumatized and sclerotic, which is consis­ tent with the patient's history of chronic reccurent otitis media and mastoiditis.

Differential Diagnosis: Soft Tissue in the Middle Ear • • • • • • •

Cholesteatoma Chronic otitis media Granulation tissue Cholesterol granuloma Malignant otitis extern a Glomus tympanicum Neoplasm (squamous cell carcinoma in adult patients and rhabdomyosarcoma in children)

Diagnosis Pars flaccida cholesteatoma (acquired)

Discussion Although the imaging findings strongly suggest the correct diagnosis, the differen­ tial diagnosis of this lesion includes cholesteatoma, chronic otitis media, granulation tissue, cholesterol granuloma, "malignant" otitis externa and neoplasm. In chronic otitis media there is usually bony sclerosis of the ossicular chain, and erosions, when present, affect predominantly the incus and stapes. Bony fixation is a sequela of chronic inflammatory processes and is a cause of conductive deafness. The process may involve the formation of granulation tissue and release of prote­ olytic enzymes. Gross erosion of the scutum as in the present case makes this diag­ nosis unlikely. CT is not able to distinguish granulation tissue from cholesteatoma in the absence of bony erosion. Contrast enhanced M R I is sometimes able to distinguish between these two lesions, as granulation tissue enhances intensely, while cholesteatomas show no enhancement or only faint peripheral rim. This peripheral enhancement is due to the presence of a thin lining of granulation tissue formed in relation to the ectopic epithelial tissue. Overall, CT is the study of choice for evaluation here be­ cause of its sensitivity to bone detail. Cholesterol granuloma displays typical signal characteristics on MR imaging which allows distinction from cholesteatoma. The signal characteristics of choles­ terol granuloma are hyperintense on both TI W and T2W images. These lesions oc­ cur more frequently in the region of the petrous bone, although they can also ap­ pear in the middle ear. Neoplasms of the temporal bone region usually arise from the epithelium of the external auditory canal, secondary to perineural invasion along the facial or trigem­ inal nerves, or from direct extension of malignant cells along the Eustachian tubes. They are highly aggressive lesions usually showing invasive features and bony de-

TEMPORAL BONEI Table

1

Two Types of Cholesteatoma

TM perforation Location Ossicles displaced Bone erosion Ossicles erosion

Attic cholesteatoma (flaccida) Pars flaccida Pruss a k 's space medially lateral tympanic wall maleus and body of incus

Sinus cholesteatoma (tensa) Pars tensa Sinus tympani laterally initially subtle long process of incus

struction in an early stage This diagnosis should be suspected, particularly if there are intra parotid or preauricular adenopathy. Acute infection of the middle ear cavity can be distinguished from cholesteatoma by the presence of air-fluid levels and the dependent nature of the soft tissue in the former condition. This can be confirmed by changing the position of the patient in the scanner. Malignant otitis externa (MOE) is an aggressive infection caused by Pseudo­ monas aeruginosa which can present as a soft tissue mass in the middle ear cavity. MOE usually affects older patients with immune dysfunction (most commonly dia­ betes). This infectious process usually begins in the external auditory canal. Isolated involvement of the middle ear does not favor this diagnosis. Bony erosion and de­ struction of the external auditory canal region is characteristic. Extension into the parotid space through the styloid mastoid foramen is a frequent complication.

Pathophysiology Cholesteatomas arise from neovascularized ectopic squamous epithelium. The ec­ topic tissue exfoliates epithelial cells and keratin debris, forming a mass, which be­ comes entrapped in the middle ear cavity. The mass produces erosion of the adja­ cent bony structures due to mechanical pressure. The ectopic epithelium can originate either from e mbryologic remnants (see con­ genital cholesteatomas) or, much more frequently, from invagination of epithelium via the external auditory canal. I t can also originate from tympanic membrane (ac­ quired cholesteatoma) either via an epithelial retraction pocket or a perforated tympanic membrane. (Squamous epithelium is normally present on only the exter­ nal aspect of the tympanic membrane). Acquired colesteatomas are further divided into pars flaccida and pars tensa cholesteatomas, depending on the site of origin. Pars flaccida type usually results from invagination of the Shrappnell membrane into Prussak's space. This is due to negative pressure inside the middle ear cavity re­ sulting from eustachian tube dysfuntion. The most posterosuperior portion of the tympanic membrane lacks a fibrous layer and is easily retracted into the middle ear. Pars tensa cholesteatomas usually result from perforation of the tympanic mem­ brane, usually as a consequence of middle ear infection. A lthough many other mechanisms of cholesteatoma formation have been proposed, the pathogenesis of this entity is still not fully understood. The growth pattern of these lesions is quite characteristic and occurs along paths of least resistence (See Table 1 ). Pars flaccida cholesteatomas grow posterolateralJy into the attic and from there into the mastoid antrum through the additus ad antrum. Pars tensa cholesteatomas are more variable in location depending on the site of tympanic membrane perforation. Frequently, perforations are marginal in lo­ cation and arise posterosuperiorly. This type of cholesteatoma often grows posteri­ orly into the sinus tympani, a blind area to otoscopic examination. Acquired cholesteatomas occur exclusively in the middle ear cavity except in postsurgical recurrences which frequently arise in mastoidal surgical defects.

ITEMPORAL BONE Clinical Findings Correlation of clinical history, otologic examination and imaging findings are neces­ sary to arrive at the correct diagnosis of masses in the middle ear. A previous history of repeated otologic infections, tympanic tube placement or previous otologic surgery are all predisposing factors to cholesteatoma formation. Symptoms include progressive hearing loss, fullness inside the ear or fetid otologic discbarge. The visualization of a whitish mass within the middle ear cavity associated with retraction of the tympanic membrane favors the diagnosis of cholesteatoma. A bulging membrane is more consistent with acute infection with middle ear fluid, whereas a normal appearing tympanic membrane favors accumulation of debris.

E

1384

F

TEMPORAL BONEI

I maging Findings CT is the examination of choice when a cholesteatoma is suspected and should al­ most always be performed prior to urgery. It shows the location of the lesion, its re­ lation to the tympanic membrane and also depicts bony erosion and extension be­ yond the confines of the middle ear. CT is particularly well suited to demonstrate involvement of the facial nerve canal, erosion of the tegmen tympani, dehiscence of the semicircular canals (SCC) (most frequently the lateral canal) and extension into locations that are blind to clinical examination such as the sinus tympani. CT of the temporal bones of another patient (coronal views) (Fig. 85-0) shows a soft tissue mass medial to tbe body of the incus and head of the malleus, which are eroded. I n Figure 83-E, the horizontal SCC appears t o b e eroded d u e t o partial volume artifact, but is actually intact as seen on axial view -3C. The scutum(s) is also intact. An ax­ ial view (Fig. 83-F) shows the posterior extent of the mass into the mastoid antrum and intact horizontal SCc.

G

ITEMPORAL

BONE Table 2

Complications Associated with Cholesteatoma Labyrinthine fistula Facial nerve paralysis Sinus thrombosis Meningitis Encephalitis Abscess Petrous apex syndrome (Gradenigo's syndrome)

Figures 83-G and 83-H show an enhanced CT of the temporal bones in a 30-year­ old woman with cholesteatoma, who presented with progressive right hearing loss, otalgia, vertigo, fever and leucocytosis. Axial (Fig. 83-G) and coronal views ( Fig. 83-H) show a soft tissue mass in the middle ear cavity, eroding the ossicular chain and destroying the bony covering of the lateral semicircular canal. Axial views ( Figs. 83-1 and 83-J) show internal jugular and occipital vein throm­ bosis extending into the sigmoid sinus which is also partially thrombosed. In pars flaccida cholesteatomas a globular mass in Prussak's space that produces erosion of the scutum is the earliest finding, and is best demonstrated on coronal im­ ages. Further growth of the tumor leads to erosion of the ossicles, particularly the head of the maleus and long process of the incus. This is followed by invasion of the mastoid air cells and tegmen tympani with possible extension into the middle cra­ nial fossa. Pars tensa cholesteatomas grow between the cochlear promontory and the inner margin of the ossicular chain, and erode primarily the stapes and short process of the incus. These features are best appreciated on axial sections. Extension into the oval window, dehiscence of the facial nerve canal, and erosion of the lateral semi­ circular canal are common. The presence of bony erosions, although suggestive of cholesteatoma may be seen in other conditions. Chronic inflammation, particularly with formation of granula­ tion tissue, is another possible cause. M R I usually shows nonspecific features. Cholesteatomas are usually hypointense on T l W and hyperintense in T2W images as is inflammatory debris or fluid. Con­ trast enhanced M R I is sometimes useful in distinguishing granulation tissue from cholesteatoma. This is because granulation tissue enhances strongly while cholesteatomas show no enhacement or only thin peripheral enhancement. MRI should also be performed when intracranial extension is suspected.

Management The most frequent complications of cholesteatomas include ossicular destruction, facial nerve involvement and labyrinthine fistula (see Table 2). Complications may manifest clinically as conductive deafness, facial nerve paralysis and persistent ver­ tigo. Cholesteatomas are particularly prone to superinfection. These may be confined to the temporal bone or extend intracranially and lead to subperiosteal abcesses. labyrinthitis, petrous apicitis, venous thrombosis, meningitis and meningeal or brain abcesses ( Figs. 83-G-J). When the patient with cholsteatoma presents with sepsis, imaging studies, preferably MRI, should be performed to rule out such complica­ tions. Another possible complication is a CSF fistula from destruction of the tegmen tympani or inner wall of the mastoid presenting as CSF otorrhea or recurrent meningitis. The treatment for cholesteatomas is surgical, involving some form of mastoidec­ tomy performed. Cholesteatomas limited to Prussak's space or to the sinus tympani have been successfully treated by marsupialization of the retraction pocket and es-

TEMPORAL BONEI

PEARLS/PITFALLS •

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•

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A nondependent globular soft tissue mass near TM favors the diagnosis of cholesteatoma. A cr can depict any associated bony erosion.

tablishment of middle ear ventilation to avoid recurrent negative pressures. Recur­ rences are frequent (7% to 50% ) and long term clinical and imaging follow-up should be performed to exclude this possibility. Recurrence is more common in chil­ dren than adults and can occur as late as 1 2 years after initial surgical treatment. Re­ currences usually originate near the oval window or sinus tympani, both regarded as difficult surgical sites.

Suggested Reading

Erosion of the ossicular chain is one of the most frequent features of cholesteatoma.

Chao, w.Y., Tseng, H.Z., Chang, S.J. Eustachian tube dysfunction in the pathogene­ sis of cholesteatoma: clinical considerations. Journal of Otolaryngology 25(5):334-8, 1 996 Oct.

A prior history of recurrent otitis media is a predisposing factor to cholesteatoma formation.

Denoyelle, E, Silberman, B., Garabedian, E.N. Value of magnetic resonance imaging associated with x-ray computed tomography in the screening of residual choles­ teatoma after primary surgery. Annales D Oto-Laryngologie et de Chirurgie Cer­ vico-Faciale 1 11 (2 ):85-8, 1994.

Take care not to miss early bone erosion.

Kobayashi, T., Toshima, M . , Yaginuma, Y., Ishidoya, M., Suetake, M., Takasaka, T. Pathogenesis of attic retraction pocket and cholesteatoma as studied by computed tomography. American Journal of Otology 15(5):658-62, 1994 Sep.

Take care not to mistake postop­ erative bone changes for erosion.

Leonetti, J.P., Buckingham, R.A., Marzo, S.J. Retraction cholesteatoma of the sinus tympani. American Journal of Otology 7(6):823-6, 1 996 Nov. Mafee, M.E M R I and CT in the evaluation of acquired and congenital choleste­ atomas of the temporal bone. Journal of Otolaryngology 22(4):239-48, 1 993 Aug. Sade, J., Fuchs, C. Cholesteatoma: ossicular destruction i n adults and children. Jour­ nal of Laryngology and Otology 108(7):541-4, 1 994 Jul. Stenstrom, c., I ngvarsson, L. Late effects on ear disease in otitis-prone children: a long-term follow-up study. Acta Oto-Laryngologica 1 1 5(5):658-63, 1995 Sep. Vartiainen, E. Factors associated with recurrence of cholesteatoma. Journal of Laryngology and Otology 109(7):590-2, 1995 Jul. Weissman, J.L. Hearing loss. Radiology 199(3):593-6 1 1 , 1 996 Jun.

ITEMPORAL BONE

Case 84 Clinical Presentation A 78-year-old male presented with right side hearing loss and tinnitus. Otoscopic ex­ amination was normal. Audiometric testing disclosed sensorineural hearing loss on the right.

A

B

TEMPORAL BONEI

Radiologic Findings On an MRI of the temporal bone, axial sections Tl WI (Fig. 84-A) show a large het­ erogeneous mass, hypointense to brain parenchyma, centered in the right CPA cis­ tern and extending into the internal auditory canal ( l AC). The lesion impinges on the middle cerebellar peduncle and pons, displacing these structures to the con­ tralateral side. The IV ventricle is also displaced and compressed. On TIWI (Fig. 84-B) the tumor is heterogeneous but predominantely hyperintense to brain. T1 WI postcontrast (Fig. 84-C) shows intense heterogeneous enhancement of both the cis­ ternal and intracanalicular components. Also note the enlargement of the lAC and the "mushroom" shape of the tumor.

Differential Diagnosis: CPA Mass •

•

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Mimics or pseudotumors: cerebellar floculus, tuft of choroid plexus, prominent anterior interior cerebellar artery (AICA), prominent jugular bulb Tumors • Arising primarily in the CPA cistern: acoustic tumor, meningioma, epidermoid cyst, arachnoid cyst, nonacoustic schwannomas (trigeminal and facial nerve) • Direct extension from adjacent structures: glomus jugulare, brain stem glioma, ependymoma of the fourth ventricle, cerebellar astrocytoma, chordoma, chon­ drosarcoma (spheno-occipital synchondrosis) Vascular lesions: vertebrobasilar dolichoectasia, aneurysms (vertebrobasilar, AICA), AVM's I nfectious/Inflammatory: basilar meningitis (bacterial, fungal, TB, cryptococcosis, syphilis), arachnoiditis, sarcoid, leptomeningeal metastasis

Diagnosis Vestibular schwan noma

Discussion Epidemiology The incidence of acoustic tumors is 2000 to 3000 new cases per year i n the US. This incidence corresponds to approximately 1 tumor per 1 00,000 persons per year. They comprise 8 to 10% of all intracranial tumors and 60 to 90% of all CPA neoplasms, depending on the series. Although they are commonly refered to as acoustic neuro­ mas, this term is a misnomer because these tumors are schwannomas pathologically, and most frequently arise from the i n ferior division of the vestibular nerve. Vestibu­ lar schwannomas are most prevalent between the fourth and seventh decades, and are rare in children and young adults in the absence of neurofibromatosis type " (NFII). There is a slight female predominance. The tumor is normally sensitive and is known to grow during pregnancy. Ninety five percen t of tumors are unilateral. Bi­ laterality is diagnostic of NF I I .

Pathophysiology Vestibular schwan nom as are benign, slow-growing neoplasms ansmg from the Schwann cells of the peripheral nerve sheath, usually near the Schwann-glial inter­ face in the vicinity of the vestibular (Scarpa) ganglion. Histologically, they are char­ acterized by the presence of Verocay bodies and Antoni A and Antoni B growth patterns. Verocay bodies are well-defined cylindrical structures composed of Antoni A type tissue which, on cross-section, produces a palisading pattern of nuclei around a central mass of cytoplasm. Antoni A type tissue consists of a compact arrangement

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BONE of spindle cells, sometimes forming palisades. Antoni B type tissue has a looser ap­ pearance, characterized by the presence of cystic components and areas of bemor­ rhage. The latter predominates in large tumors which are more prone to degenera­ tive changes. The growth rate of these tumors is generally slow. Because tbe nerve sheath encircles the nerve from the cisternal component to the porus acousticus internus, schwannomas can occur anywhere along the course of the nerve to the level of the meatal foramen. Depending on their location vestibular schwannomas may be divided into purely intracanalicular, purely cisternal, or mixed. The mixed type is the most common type on imaging studies, followed by purely intracanalicular tumors. Purely cisternal neoplasms are rare and are usually large lesions. Ten percent of patients have a family rustory of acoustic tumors in tbe absence of neurofibromatosis type I I . NF II is a bereditary phacomatosis associated witb CbTO­ mosome 22. It is characterized by bilateral acoustic tumors usually presenting be­ fore age 2 1 . Other CNS tumors associated with this condition include meningiomas, other cranial nerve schwannomas, glial tumors, neurofibromas, and spinal ependy­ momas. Malignant degeneration is rare, but may occur in patients with neurofibro­ matosis.

Clinical findings Symptoms from vestibular schwannomas result from compression of the nerve fibers, and compromise of the vascular supply to the nerve. Symptomatology de­ pends on the size and location of tbe tumor, but most present with progressive, asymmetric higb frequency sensorineural bearing loss (SNHL). Vertigo and tinnitus are also common presenting symptoms. Symptoms associated with larger tumors in­ clude disequilibrium and headaches, resulting from compression of the cerebellum and fourth ventricle. Other cranial nerve symptoms may also be present due to di­ rect compression. Cranial nerve VII may be compressed in its intracanalicular seg­ ment causing facial paresis or spasm. The trigeminal nerve may be compressed at the CPA cistern causing facial numbness and loss of corneal reflex. Subarachnoid hemorrhage is a rare form of presentation. Sudden hearing loss occurs in 10% of cases and results from acute tumor growth, usually related to intra tumoral hemor­ rhage. CPA syndrome is a nonspecific triad of symptoms frequently seen in patients with acoustic tumors and consists of SNHL, tinnitus and vertigo. CPA syndrome may be seen with other lesions in the same location. Evaluation of patients with this syn­ drome sbould include audiometric testing, a speech discrimination test, auditory

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TEMPORAL BONEI brain stem evoked responses (ABSR) and an enhanced M R I of the brain and tem­ poral bone.

I m aging Findings Enhanced M R I of the temporal bones is the preferred modality to assess patients with CPA syndrome or SNHL. It has proven to be the most sensitive technique for acoustic tumor detection, superior to ABSRs which have a progressively higher false-negative rate as the size of the tumor decreases. For tumors less than 1 cm in size the rate of false negatives using ABSRs exceeds 20% . M R I is the gold standard for diagnosing acoustic tumors, detecting subclinical tumors as small as 1 or 2 mm in size. Early detection is a major requisite for hearing preservation surgery. High resolution gradient echo TIW sequences using tridimensional Fourrier transform (3DFT), or construction interference in the steady state (CISS) sequences are very

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BONE sensitive, detecting small intracanalicular tumors as nonspecific filling defects within the fluid-filled lAC. An M RI of the temporal bones (GE 3DTOF T2WI) (Fig. 84-0) showed a filling defect in the right l AC which proved to be a 5mm intracanalicular schwannoma at surgery. However, comparative studies between contrast enhanced MRI and these high resolution GE T2W sequences show superiority of the en­ hanced studies. MRI should also be used in the screening of high risk populations, including rel­ atives of patients with NF II and acoustic tumors presenting before age 30. Addi­ tionally, M R I is used in therapy planning and in the [ollow-up of patients treated conservatively, with radiosurgery or subtotal surgical resection. Although CT is also able to detect tumors larger then 1 cm in size, its major role is to provide the surgeon with anatomical landmarks and to demonstrate any bony abnormalities or normal variants in the temporal bone anatomy. such as an abnor­ mal course of the facial nerve, displaced sigmoid plate or high riding jugular bulb. The imaging features of acoustic tumors depend on size and location. A small per­ centage of acoustic tumors present as purely intracanalicular masses. On MRI, they are usually isointense to gray maller on both T l W and T2WI and enhance intensely. They tend to be cylindrical in shape, confined by the l AC, and show a convex me­ dial border. On an enhanced MRI of the temporal bones an axial Tl WI ( Fig. 84-E) shows an intensely enhancing tubular mass in the right l AC. The mass extends lat­ erally to the level of the porus acousticus internus and shows a convex medial mar­ gin. The diagnosis is intracanalicular schwannoma. When sufficiently large, (greater than 1 cm), they may be detected on CT by flar­ ing and/or erosion of the l AC. The lAC is considered to be enlarged when there is height asymmetry greater than 2mm and flared when the posterior wall of the l AC is shortened to less than 3cm (Fig. 4-B). Displacement and erosion of the crista fal­ ciformis is also a good indirect sign of an acoustic tumor. Most acoustic tumors are complex, with a large spherical cisternal component. centered in the porus acousticus with obtuse angles at the temporal bone tumor in­ terface, and a smaller funnel shaped intracanalicular component widening the bony lAC. Their appearance is often likened to that of an ice cream cone or a mushroom. The cisternal component usually enlarges the ipsilateral CPA cistern and effaces the opposite CSF spaces. When large, these tumors impinge upon the lateral aspect of the pons, middle cerebellar peduncle and cerebellar hemisphere, displacing the brain stem to the contralateral side. On a CT of the brain and temporal bones (Fig. 84-F) an enhanced axial section through the level of the lAC shows a large, hetero­ geneously enhancing CPA mass, centered in the lAC. Note the acute angles with the temporal bone and the "ice cream cone" shape (the "cone" being the intracanalicu­ lar component and the "ice cream", the larger cisternal component of the tumor. (Fig. 84-G) An axial section (bone window) ( Fig. 84-G) shows flaring and enlarge­ ment of the bony l AC tapering towards the porus acousticus internus. The fourth ventricle may also be displaced and compressed, causing obstructive hydrocephalus. Large tumors may be associated with perifocal edema of the adja­ cent brain. Impingement upon the trigeminal nerve and jugular foramen may also be present. Purely cisternal tumors are the largest and tend to be oval in shape. Due to their large size degenerative changes related to insufficient vascular supply are usually seen, consisting of cystic degeneration and hemorrhage. On MRI, mixed and cisternal tumors are iso- to hypointense to gray matter on T l WI and hyperintense on T2WI. When large, they may be heterogeneous in signal intensity due to the presence of cystic change, dystrophic calcification or blood degradation products. Unlike small tumors, they show heterogeneous enhancement. On CT, acoustic tumors are iso-to hypodense to brain parenchyma. Five percent of acoustic tumors have an associated arachnoid cyst. With the advent of minimally invasive therapies for acoustic tumors. MRI has been used to provide tridimensional volumetric information to allow for computer designed radiation ports for radiosurgery. After radiation therapy, follow up MRls may be obtained at regular intervals to evaluate for changes in tumor size and sig-

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Enhanced M R I of the temporal bones should be performed in all patients presenting with progres­ sive asymmetric SNHL. A vestibular schwannoma is an intracanalicular or CPA mass centered in the porus acousticus forming acute angles with the temporal bone. Enlargement, flaring or erosion of the bony lAC can be detected on CT scan. Avoid excluding the diagnosis based on a normal ABSR's or normal CT scan of the temporal bone. Do not misdiagnose for CPA meningioma or schwannomas arising from other cranial nerves, especially cranial nerves YIT and Y. Avoid failing to recognize a small intracanalicular tumor. Avoid interpreting the return of contrast enhancement after ra­ diosurgery as a tumor recur­ rence.

nal characteristics. I n the majority of cases the tumor eitber shrinks or stabilizes in size, shows loss of contrast enhancement from the central portion to the periphery and areas of T l W and T2W hyperintensity related to fibrosis and calcification. Sub­ sequent return in contrast enhancement does not necessarily mean tumor growth, as it may be due to replacement of tumor by fibrous tissue. Areas of T2W hyperin­ tensity may be noted in the adjacent brain due to radiation necrosis. The major differential consideration for a small intracanalicular tumor is facial nerve schwannoma. Usually these tumors follow the course of tbe facial nerve along the labyrinthine segment towards the geniculate ganglion and may cause inferior displacement of the crista falciformis. When confined to the lAC, differentiation from acoustic schwannoma may not be possible, eitber clinically or radiographically. CPA meningiomas may mimic an acoustic schwannoma. Helpful distinguishing features include eccentricity relative to the l AC, a broad dural base forming obtuse angles with the temporal bone and the presence of a dural tail. Sometimes a dural tail, extending into the sheath of the Y I Tth and VIIIth nerve complex, may be a con­ fusing feature. On the other hand, some acoustic tumors may show a dural tail. Other CPA tumors such as epidermoids and aracbnoid cysts are easily differenti­ ated on the basis of their density or signal characteristics, usually following that of CSF. Epidermoid cysts have a characteristic lobulated shape, burrowing into tbe crevices of the surrounding structures.

Managemen t Acoustic tumors may be managed conservatively, by radiosurgery or conventional surgery. Due to tbe slow growth rate of these tumors, conservative management is now widely accepted, especially in older patients or poor surgical candidates. This is on the proviso that hearing is no longer recoverable and there are no neurologic symptoms related to brain stem or cerebellar compression or hydrocephalus. I n these circumstances, patients should b e followed clinically and radiographically with serial MRls at regular intervals to check for tumor growth or neurologic deteriora­ tion which mandates some form of tberapy. Radiosurgery is a minimally invasive form of therapy which allows tumor control in a great percentage of patients. According to some series, the overall tumor con­ trol rate is 92% , which is comparable to tbat of conventional surgery. Potential can­ didates include patients with poor general healtb, high surgical risk, failure of prior surgery or refusal to undergo conventional surgery. Some disadvantages include compliance with a strict clinical and radiographic [oHow-up, temporary worsening of symptoms and late complications, usually related to cranial nerve deficits, the most common being hearing loss. Conventional microsurgery is still the only curative treatment and is mandatory in patients with large tumors causing neurologic symptoms or evidence of rapid tu­ mor ( >0.2 cm/year). lt is also the best way to preserve hearing in patients with small intracanalicular tumors.

Suggested Readings Astor, F.C, Lechtenberg, CL., Banks, R.D., Hanft, K.L., Hanson, M.R., Salanga, V.D., DeSai, M.B. Proposed algoritbm to aid the diagnosis of cerebellopontine an­ gie tumors. Sourhern Medical Journal 90(5):5 1 4-7, 1 997 M ay. Carrier, D.A., Arriaga, M.A. Cost-effective evaluation of asymmetric sensorineural hearing loss with focused magnetic resonance imaging. Otolaryngology and Head and Neck Surgery 1 1 6(6 Ptl):567-74, 1 997 Jun. Glasscock, M.E. 3rd., Pappas, D.G. Jr., Manolidis, S., Yon Doersten, P.G., Jackson, CG., Storper, I .S. Management of acoustic neuroma in the elderly population. American .Journal of Otology 1 8(2):236-4 1 , discussion 241-2, 1997 Mar. Hayashi, M . , Kubo, 0., Sato, H., Taira, T., Tajika, Y., Izawa, M., Takakura, K. Corre-

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BONE lation between M R image characteristics and histological features of acoustic schwannoma. Noshuyo Byori 1 3(2): 1 39-44, 1 996 Nov. Kohan, D., Downey, L.L., Lim, 1., Cohen, N.L., Elowitz, E. Uncommon lesions pre­ senting as tumors of the internal auditory canal and cerebellopontine angle. Ameri­ can Journal of Otology 18(3):386-92, 1 997 May. Levo, R . , Pyykkb, l., B1omstedt, G. Nonsurgical treatment of vestibular schwan­ noma patients. Acta Oto-Laryngologica. Supplemenl 529:56-8, 1 997. Lunsford, L.D., Kondziolka, D.S., Flickinger, 1.C Radiosurgery of tumors of the cerebellopontine angle. Clinical Neurosurgery 4 1 : 1 68-84, 1 994. Pendl, G., Ganz, IC, Kitz, K. Eustacchio, S. Acoustic neurinomas with macrocysts treated with Gamma Knife radiosurgery. Stereotactic and Functional Neurosurgery 66 Suppl 1 : 103-1 1 , 1 996. Thomsen, 1., Tos, M. Management of acoustic neuromas. Annales D Oto-Laryngolo­ gie et de Chirurgie Cervico-Faciale 1 10(4): 1 79-9 1 , 1 993. Wilson, D.F., Talbot, 1.M., Mills, L. A critical appraisal of tbe role of auditory brain stem response and magnetic resonance imaging in acoustic neuroma diagnosis. American Journal of Otology 1 8(5):673-8 1 , 1 997 Sep.

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Case 85

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Clinical Presentation A 1 9-year-old male presented with bilateral en orineural hearing loss, tinnitus and imbalance.

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Radiologic Findings Axial po t-contrast T l W I through the I A s (Fig. 8S-A) and through the ventricle ( Fig. 8S-B) shows multiple extra-axial enhancing tumors including bilateral PA, bi­ lateral Meckel' cave , left cavernous sinus and posterior wall of the third ventricle. ll1e rigbt CPA tumor di places the medulla and TVth ventricle leftward and im­ pinges upon the right cerebellar hemisphere. The right sided CPA tumor extends to the fundus of the lAC and futher laterally into the labyrinth.

Differential Diagnosis: Multiple Cranial Nerve and CNS Tumors •

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Neurocutaneou syndrome (phakomato es): neurofibromato is type I , neurofi­ bromato is type I I , tuberous sclerosis, von Hippel-Lindau Others: schwannomatosis, FI and F I I mosaicism (segmental NFl or N FI I ), mult iple meningiomas

Diagnosis eurofibromato i type I I ( F I I ) or central neurofibromatosi pre enting with bi­ lateral vestibular schwannomas, bilateral trigeminal scbwannoma , cavernous sinu meni ngioma and third ventricle ependymoma.

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Discussion Epidemiology Neurofibromatosis type I I is the second most common phakomatosis following NFL The phakomatoses, or neurocutaneous syndromes, are genetic disorders manifesting abnormal proliferation of neuroectodermal and mesenchymal tissue which lead to the development of neoplasms and hamartomas in the central and peripheral ner­ vous systems and skin. NFlI has an estimated incidence of 1 : 50,000 people in the general population. More than 50% of patients present before 25 years of age with bilateral sensorineural hearing loss; 1 0% become symptomatic before age 1 0.

Pathophysiology NFII is a genetic disorder with a high degree of penetrance which may be inherited as an autosomal dominant trait or acquired by spontaneous mutation. The N F I I gene h a s been localized in t h e 1 2 t b locus of t b e long arm o f chromosome 2 2 (22q 1 2). This gene encodes for a protein named merlin or schwannomin which acts as a tu­ mor supressor. Different mutations in this gene have been identified leading to dif­ ferent abnormalities in the protein product. The majority are nonsense or frameshift mutations resulting in a smaller, probably nonfunctional, truncated protein, respon­ sible for a more severe clinical form of the disease (Wishart). Some are missense mutations that lead to single amino acid changes in the protein, and are associated with milder forms of disease (Gardner-Frazier) that are undetectable by standard mutational analysis. These different mutations not only correlate with different de­ grees in the severity of NFII, but are also responsible for N F l J variants such as schwannomatosis, NFlI mosaicism (segmental N FI I ) and multiple meningiomas. Abnormalities in the 22q 12 gene locus are associated not only with NFII, but are also present in patients with unilateral vestibular schwannomas, meningiomas and other neoplasms, such as melanoma, breast carcinoma and malignant mesothelioma.

Cl i n ical Findings The diagnosis of N F l l is made clinically as a cost effective genetic test because mu­ tation detection has not yet been identified. Ninety six percent of patients with NFIl present with sensorineural hearing loss, most before age 25. Other signs and symp­ toms depend on the location of other tumors in the peripheral or central nervous system. Definite diagnosis of NFII is made in the presence of bilateral vestibular schwannomas, or family history of N F l I in a first degree relative plus unilateral vestibular schwannoma before age 30, or any two of the following: meningioma, glioma, schwannoma, juvenile posterior subcapsular lenticular opacity, or juvenile cortical cataract. It should be emphasized that evaluation for NFIl must include long term follow-up and that a sing.le evaluation is inadequate. Patients with a family h istory of NFI I , with unilateral vestibular schwannoma or meningioma before age 30 or with multiple spinal tumors are at risk for NFI l (pre­ sumptive or probable NFI I ) and should be further evaluated. TIle diagnostic crite­ ria of presumptive NFl I includes unilateral vestibular schwannoma before age 30, plus one of the following: meningioma, glioma, schwannoma,juvenile posterior sub­ capsular lenticular opacity, or juvenil cortical cataract, or two or more meningiomas plus unilateral vestibular schwannoma before age 30 or one of the following: glioma, schwannoma, juvenile posterior subcapsular lenticular opacity or juvenile conical cataract. The clinical evaluation of patients with NFII should have an annual neurologic exam with audometric testing and brain stem evoked responses, as well as periodic opbthalmologic exams. After a mutation has been identified in a particular family, a 100% specific test be­ comes available for that family by linkage analysis using specific markers to identify

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the F I J gene. Diagno is of acquired mutation and prenatal diagno is are not available al the present time.

Imaging Fi ndings The imaging modality of choice both for creening and follow-up of patients with NFl I is M R I . High re olution contra '1 enhanced M R I of the temporal bone is con­ sidered the gold standard for identi fication of vestibular schwan nomas, upplanting audiometric brain stem evoked respon e . Enhanced M R I of the brain and pine should also be performed in all patients with newly diagnosed N F l / , Follow-up ima g.i ng studies are tailored individually depending on the interval appearance or aggravation of symptoms, and the location of previously diagno ed tumor . A a general guideline, follow-up examinations should be performed annually.

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BONE MRI is also used in the screening of patients with a family history of NFII in first degree relatives. The screening protocol should begin in early childhood, particu­ larly in families with early onset of NFl!. Because ophthalmologic developmental abnormalities, including retinal hamartomas, cortical wedge opacities and juvenile posterior subcapsular cataracts are among the earliest signs of NFII, a thorough neurophthalmologic exam at a young age may permit early diagnosis of the disease. A normal M R I after age 30 makes NFI I very unlikely and justifies cessation of for­ mal screening, except for families with late onset. M R I provides optimal depiction of all the central nervous system tumors com­ monly seen in NFII including schwannomas, meningiomas, ependymomas and oc­ casional gliomas or neurofibromas. Following cranial nerve V I I I , the trigeminal nerve is the second most common site for schwannomas in NFl!. Care should be taken to avoid confusion between dural ectasia of the nerve sheath, causing flaring of the lAC, and vestibular schwannoma. The former follows the signal intensity of CSF and does not show contrast-enhancement. Also, it is important to differentiate meningiomas of the CPA from vestibular nerve schwannomas (see vestibular schwannoma). Meningiomas are the second most common tumor type seen in pa­ tients with NFII. More frequently they occur parasagittally, in the sphenoid ridge or olfactory groove, but may also be intraventricular or grow along the sheath of in­ tracranial nerves. In an M R I of the brain and orbits in another patient, axial post­ contrast T1 WI through the skull base (Fig. 85-C) shows bilateral acoustic tumors and an enhancing tumor in the right Meckel's cave. ( Fig. 85-0) An axial T1 W (Fig. 85-0) and coronal post-contrast frequency selective fat suppression imaging ( FATSAT) T1 WI ( Fig. 85-E) show a large enhancing tumor centrally enveloping the left optic nerve. The diagnosis is bilateral acoustic schwannomas, right Meckel's cave schwannoma and left optic nerve meningioma in a patient with NFII. On an MRI of the brain in another patient an axial post contrast T l W image (Fig. 85-F) shows a right CPA, left intracanalicular and left Meckel's cave enhancing tu­ mors. The diagnosis for this patient is N F I I . Meningiomatosis, characterized b y innumerable small meningiomas seeding the dura, may occur in the setting of definitive N F l l or as an NFII variant. In the spinal canal the most common location is the thoracic region. Ependymomas may also be seen in the brain or spinal cord. Additional imaging findings include spinal dural ec­ tasia (thoracic meningocele), aqueductal stenosis, syringomyelia, heterotopias, and abnormalities in the sulcation pattern of the cerebrum. White matter unidentified objects ( UBOs) are more commonly associated with NFl, but have also been re­ ported with NFII. Hydrocephalus is not uncomon in N F I I patients and may result from compression of the IVth ventricle from CPA tumors (vestibular schwannomas or CPA meningioma), from ventricular ependymoma or from aqueductal stenosis. Differential diagnosis includes other phakomatoses and NFl! variants and is based upon the location and type of tumors present. The hallmark of NFl is the presence of optic gliomas, peripheral neurofibromas and astrocytomas (usually pi­ locytic). M R l clearly distinguishes optic gliomas from optic nerve meningiomas (see optic nerve meningioma). Clinically, the presence of multiple cafe au lait spots also favors the diagnosis of NFL The imaging features of tuberous sclerosis with multiple subependymal nodules, giant cell astrocytoma and cortical tubers, and of von Hippel-Lindau with multiple CNS hemangiblastomas are usuaLly both distinct from NFl!.

Management The treatment of N F I I is based on surgical treatment of the neoplasms associated with the disease. The major problem in patients with N F I I is bilateral sensorineural hearing loss leading to deafness at an early age. Decisions regarding conservative surgical or radiosurgical therapy of vestibular schwan nom as are complex and con­ troversial, especially in this new era of brain stem implants. SmaLl, less than 1 .5 cm, vestibular schwannomas confined to the lAC can often be completely resected with

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Definite diagnosis of NFII is made in the presence of bilateral vestibular schwannomas. Patients are at risk for NFIT if they have unilateral vestibular schwannoma or meningioma di­ agnosed before age 30, with or without family history of NFIT. Screening with contrast­ enhanced M RI is the modality of choice, and should include the brain, spine, and high resolution imaging of the temporal bones.

preservation of hearing and facial nerve function. Larger tumors causing cerebellar symptoms or hydrocephalus require surgical debulking and decompression. Stereo­ tactic radiosurgery or gamma knife radiosurgery may be used as an alternative to surgery or a neoadjuvant therapy for residual disease. This modality may lead to re­ gression in tumor size or arrest in tumor growth, but is not devoid of complications. Other brain and spinal tumors such as meningiomas, other cranial nerve schwan no­ mas and ependymomas, should be closely monitored for growth and imaged when­ ever symptoms arise. Most are managed surgically, as radiation therapy of these slow growing tumors has been associated with malignant degeneration. Hearing and speech augmentation techniques are also important in patient management. Ge­ netic counseling should be provided.

Suggested Readings Bikhazi, N.B., Slattery, W.H . 3rd, Lalwani, A.K., Jackler, R K., Bikbazi, P.H., Brack­ mann, D.E. Familial occurrence of unilateral vestibular schwan noma. Laryngoscope 107(9): 1 176-80, 1 997 Sep.

Avoid mistaking an optic nerve meningioma for a glioma

Deen, H.G., Ebersold, M.J., Harner, S.G., Beatty, c.w., Marion, M.S., Wbaren, RE., Green, J.D., Quast, L. Conservative management of acoustic neuroma: an outcome study. Neurosurgery 39(2):260-4, discussion 264-6, 1996 Aug.

Do not fail to recognize bilateral vestibular schwannomas.

Evans, D.G., Ramsden, R , Huson, S.M., Harris, R, Lye, R., King, T.T. Type 2 neu­ rofibromatosis: the need for supraregional care? lournal of Laryngology and 010/­ ogy 107(5):401-6, 1 993 M ay.

It is important to provide screen­ ing to first degree relatives of pa­ tients with NFlI.

Gutmann, D.H., Aylsworth, A., Carey, lC., Korf, B., Marks, J., Pyeritz, RE., Ruben­ stein, A., Viskochil, D. The diagnostic evaluation and m ultidisciplinary management of neurofibromatosis 1 and neurofibromatosis 2. lama 278(1 ):51-7, 1997 Jul 2. Val-Bernal, J.F., Figols, J., Vazquez-Barquero, A. Cutaneous plexiform schwannoma associated with neurofibromatosis type 2. Cancer 76(7): 1 1 8 1-6, 1 995 Oct 1 .

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Case 86 Clinical Presentation The patient presented with a gradual onset of hearing loss. On physical exam, a red mass was noted behind the tympanic membrane (Fig. 86-A).

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Radiologic Findings I n Figure 86-A, a bright red retrotympanic mass is visible. 1lle CT (Fig. 86-B) shows a rounded mass in the middle ear. The bony walls of the carotid artery and jugular vein are intact.

Differential Diagnosis: A Vascular Middle Ear Mass • • • • • • • •

Glomus tympanicum Aberrant carotid artery Carotid artery aneurysm Persistent stapedial artery Exposed jugular bulb Exposed carotid artery Hemangioma Extensive glomus jugulare

Diagnosis Glomus tympanicum

Discussion Epidemiology Paragangliomas have a female predominance in most series. Ten percent are multi­ ple, so it is always worthwhile to check the other common locations in the head and

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Glomus tympanicum tumors are classically associated with a red­ dish purple mass on otoscopy. The frequent presentation on imaging is as a soft tissue mass over the cochlear promontory. Preoperative embolization is generally not needed because of tbeir small size. cr is the imaging study of choice.

Avoid mistaking glomus tympan­ icum tumors for other vascular anomalies.

neck (glomus juguJare, vagale, and carotid body tumor.) Another 1 0% of the tumors are associated with malignant tumors elsewhere in the body. A small percentage are reported to be familial. Glomus tympanicum tumors arise from paraganglia along Jacobson's and Arnold's nerves within the tympanic cavity.

Clinical Findings Glomus tympanicum tumors tend to present with otologic symptoms early because of their location and are as a result, often small. They are classically associated with a retrotympanic reddish purple mass on otologic examination.

I m aging Findings The frequent presentation on imaging is a small soft tissue mass centered over the cochlear promontory. In Figure 86-C, a small glomus tympanicum in another patient is visible as a soft tissue mass centered over the promontory. Because of their small size, the "salt and pepper" MRI appearance with serpentine flow voids, seen fre­ quently with larger glomus tumors elsewhere, are generally not present. Glomus tympanicum tumors may be indistinguishable from other soft tissue masses seen in the tympanic cavity on CT or M R I . Because of its superior bony de­ tail, CT is the study of choice for investigation of this tumor. lt is important to iden­ tify the normal bony walls of the carotid and jugular to avoid mistaking exposed vessels (a normal variant) for a glomus tumor. Figures 86-D through 86-F show a comparison of glomus tympanicum, exposed carotid artery, and jugular vein in three other patients. All present with retrotym­ panic vascular masses. Figure 86-D shows a glomus tympanicum in a third patient. Note the intact carotid canal bony wall promontory ( + ). Figure 86-E depicts a com­ parison with another patient with an exposed carotid artery (a normal variant). Fig­ ure 86-F shows another patient with a high riding jugular bulb. As the tumor grows larger, spread is seen as permeative bony changes generally along paths of least re­ sistance. On angiography, the tumors are hypervascular. An angiogram of another patient with glomus tympanic urn (Fig. 86-G) shows characteristic blush ( - ). Many experts feel that this appearance is diagnostic, especially if other vascular tumors such as metastatic renal cell carcinoma or pheochromocytoma are not likely.

M anagement Surgery is the primary treatment with radiation therapy reserved for difficult cases. Unlike other paragangliomas, because of their small size, most glomus tympanicum tumors do not require preoperative embolization for control of blood loss at surgery. Several complex schemes have been developed for surgical planning. In general, with small tumors limited to the middle ear cleft, a simple transcanal approach is used. With larger and more extensive tumors, more aggressive surgery is required.

Suggested Readings Cheng, A., Niparko, J.K. Imaging quiz case 2. Glomus tympanicum tumor of the temporal bone. A rchives of Otolaryngology and Head and Neck Surgery 1 23(5):549. 551-2 , 1 997 May. Goldstein, W.S., Bowen, B.C., Balkany, T. Malignant hemangioendothelioma of the temporal bone masquerading as glomus tympanicum. Annals of Otology, Rhinology and Laryngology 1 03(2) : 1 56-9, 1 994 Feb.

TEMPORAL BONEI Pirodda, A., Sorrenti, G., Marliani, A.F., Cappello, T. Arterial anomalies of the mid­ dle ear associated with stapes ankylosis. Journal of Laryngology and Otology 108(3):237-9, 1994 Mar. Stewart, K., Kountakis, S.E., Chang, c.Y., lahrsdoerfer, R.A. Magnetic resonance an­ giography in tbe evaluation of glomus lympanicum tumors. American Journal of Otolaryngology 18(2): 1 1 6-20, 1 997 Mar-Apr.

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Case 87 Clinical Presentation The patient presented with hearing loss.

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Radiologic Findings A cr scan shows a large bony defect centered over the mastoid air cells. The ossi­ c1es and external auditory canal are intact. Figure 87-A depicts an axial view through the mesotympanum. The ossicles are intact. Figure 87-B shows a section through the upper temporomandibular joint (TMJ ). A small soft tissue mass is pres­ ent in the middle ear which may represent cerumen.

Table 1

Mastoidectomy Types Simple (closed canal) Mastoidectomy -remove some or all mastoid cells -maintain EAC and ossicles Radical (open cavity) Mastoidectomy • Modified Radical Mastoidectomy (Bondy) -remove mastoid air cells and EAC -ossicular chain intact • Radical Mastoidectomy -remove mastoid cells and EAC -preservation of stapes superstructure -often with tympanoplasty

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Differential Diagnosis: Mastoid Bone Defect • • • • •

Neoplastic bone destruction Cholesteatoma Postop simple mastoidectomy Postop radical mastoidectomy Posttraumatic deformity

Diagnosis Normal postoperative appearance of a simple (closed canal) mastoidectomy

Discussion Mastoidectomy is usually performed for chronic otomastoiditis or cholesteatoma. and, less commonly, for neoplasm. When describing the postoperative imaging find­ ings following mastoid/middle ear surgery, it is important to be familiar with the var­ ious surgeries that may be performed in order not to confuse surgical changes for pathology. Although each mastoidectomy is slightly different. depending on the unique anatomy and pathology of the patient as well as the surgeon's preferences. a general categorization is still possible. Two general types of mastoidectomy are per­ formed: closed canal and open canal types (see Table 1 ) .

Table 2

Postmastoidectomy Imaging Evaluation (1) (2) (3) (4) (5)

Determine the type of surgical procedure Define the status of the ossicular chain Examine soft tissue contents of surgical cavity Check for possible perilymph fistula Define bony margins of the facial nerve canal

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For a simple (closed canal) mastoidectomy, procedures of this type share the at­ tributes of preservation of the external auditory canal ( E AC) wall and ossicles. Two general types are possible ( Figs. 87-A and 87-B). With the more limited form, only a few diseased mastoid cells are removed. With more extensive disease, a full intact canal wall mastoidectomy is performed, which removes most or all mastoid air cells. The second type is a radical (open cavity) mastoidectomy. This group of mas­ toidectomies allows greater access, tends to have lower recurrence rates, and is gen­ erally more commonly encountered. They have the shared properties of removal of the EAC wall as well as all the mastoid air cells. Another patient with a radical mas­ toidectomy can be seen in Figure 87-C. The EAC wall, ossicles, and mastoid air cells are all absent. With the modified radical mastoidectomy, the ossicular chain is preserved. A stan­ dard radical mastoidectomy results in the sacrifice of the bulk of the ossicular chain. An attempt is generally made to preserve the stapes superstructure [or hearing preservation.

Imaging Findings CT evaluation of the postoperative patient ( M RI has little role for the evaluation of fine bony detail) should be directed toward the evaluation of several factors (see Table 2). The general type of surgical procedure should be determined. This is es­ sential in order to recognize abnormal bony changes related to progression of the disease. The status of the ossiculuar chain should be noted. TIle contents of the sur­ gical cavity should be evaluated to identify residual or recurrent disease. For exam­ ple, the sinus tympani is an area poorly seen on clinical examination, but may be eas­ ily evaluated on axial CT for the possibility of residual cholesteatoma. Some soft tissue (e.g., granulation tissue, etc.) is normally present within the mastoidectomy defect. It is important to note any new areas of bone destruction (not related to prior surgery) that would suggest residual cholesteatoma. The inner ear structures should be examined to exclude perilymph fistula forma­ tion (an abnormal communication between the middle and inner ear.) If left un­ treated, this may lead to labyrinthitis and meningitis. CT findings that might suggest this are pneumo labyrinth or abnormal fluid collections around the labyrinth in the middle ear. Figure 87-E shows pneumo labyrinth in a third patient following tem­ poral bone surgery. Air is visible in the cochlea and vestibule.

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PEARLS/PITFALLS •

•

•

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Mastoidectomy postoperative changes tend to follow standard patterns. A simple mastoidectomy pre­ serves the EAC and ossicles. A radical mastoidectomy sacri­ fices the EAC wall. Take care not to confuse patho­ logic bone destruction with post­ surgical changes.

The bony margins of the facial nerve canal should also be studied to document their integrity. It should be remembered that over half of normal individuals will have at least some degree of normal gross facial canal 'dehiscence'. This is seen most commonly near the oval window.

Suggested reading Moreano, E.H., Paparella, M . M . , Zelterman, D., Goycoolea L. Prevalence of facial canal dehiscence and of persistent stapedial artery in the human middle ear: a re­ port of 1 000 temporal bones. Laryngoscope 104: 309-320, March 1994.

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Case 88 Clinical Presentation A 57-year-old female with history of prior temporal bone surgery presented with re­ current conductive hearing loss and otorrhea.

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Radiologic Findings On a CT of the temporal bones, coronal (Fig. 88-A) and axial (Fig. 88-B) sections through the middle ear cavity show an inferiorly displaced ossicular prosthesis (TORP). TIle most medial end of the prosthesis lost contact with the oval window niche and the bulk of the prosthesis is in the hypotympanum. There is abnormal soft tissue in the middle ear surrounding the displaced prosthesis and in the oval window and allic. A partial mastoidectomy defect is noted as well as chronic inflammatory changes in the remaining mastoid air cells.

Differential Diagnosis: Hyperdense Obj ect within the Middle Ear • •

Foreign body in the hypotympanum inciting an inflammatory reaction Displaced ossicular prosthesis with recurrent inflammatory changes in the mid­ dle ear

Diagnosis Displaced total ossicular replacement prosthesis (TORP) associated with recurrent inflammation

Discussion Tympanoplasty, ossiculoplasty and partial or total ossicular replacement are common surgical procedures of the middle ear, performed with the aim of re-

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establishing adequate conductive hearing. Most of these surgeries are done in patients with tympanosclerosis in order to release fixation of the middle ear struc­ tures and allow transmisson and amplification of sound waves. The most commonly performed procedure is ossiculoplasty, in which a homograft (usually nose cartilage) or a synthetic graft is used to reshape or replace part or all the ossicular chain. The synthetic prostheses in current use are made of porcelain and several different porous materials such as Protoplast and Plastopore. Figure 88-C depicts a porcelain ossicular prosthesis. A partial ossicular replacement prosthesis (PORP) is on the left and a total ossicular replacement prosthesis (TORP) is on the right. With partial replacement the native stapes is left in place and the prosthesis in­ terposed between the head of the stapes and the ear drum is referred to as partial ossicular replacement prosthesis (PORP). CT of the temporal bone ( Fig. 88-D) ax­ ial and (Fig. 88-E ) coronal sections show very dense abnormally shaped ossicles. 1l1e diagnosis is nondisplaced partial ossicular replacement prosthesis (PORP). Usually a piece of tragal cartilage is interposed between the distal end of the prosthesis and the stapes to cushion the contact between these two structures and prevent sublux­ ation. When total ossicular replacement is performed the stapes suprastructure is re­ sected and the total ossicular replacement prosthesis (TORP) is apposed directly to the stapes footplate. I ncus interposition is the second most common surgical proce-

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In the absence of native ossicles, replacement by prosthetic mater­ ial is necessary to re-establish ad­ equate conductive hearing. When the native stapes is in place the prosthesis is a PORP. When aU the ossicles, including the stapes are absent, the pros­ thesis is a TORP. Do not mistake normal postoper­ ative changes for temporal bone pathology. Do not fail to recognize surgical complications such as prosthesis luxation or migration.

dure and consists of resection and reshaping of this ossicle, followed by interposi­ tion of the redesigned incus between the tympanic membrane and the stapes.

Cli n ical Findings Following uncomplicated surgery the patient should gradually recover conductive hearing once postsurgical fluid and inflammatory tissue are resorbed. Postoperative vertigo, sensorineural hearing loss and facial nerve palsy are usually transient and regress spontaneously. Persistence of these symptoms suggests complications such as perilymphatic fistula or damage to the facial nerve. Persistent or recurrent con­ ductive hearing loss implies surgical complication or recurrence of the disease (pro­ gression of fibrosclerosis). Malposition of the prosthesis and overgrowth of granu­ lation tissue are among the most common causes of surgical failure. Ear drainage due to persistence of chronic infection/inflammation is common .

I maging TIle goal of imaging after ossiculoplasty is twofold: to identify postoperative com­ plications, and to provide a baseline evaluation of the postoperative anatomy. The radiologist should be able to categorize the surgical defect, evaluate the surgical cavity and margins, identify debris or recurrent disease, and determine the type and position of the ossicular prosthesis. cr is the modality of choice for postoperative assessment and identification of potential complications. Malposition, luxation or migration of the synthetic pros­ theses is easily recognized once one is familiar with the different types of available prostheses and their normal positioning. The "vacant oval window" is a sign of pros­ thesis displacement. Homografts may be difficult to visualize, particularly when the middle ear is filled with soft tissue or fluid. Soft tissue density in the middle ear cavity is a nonspecific cr finding which may represent granulation tissue, CSF arising from a perilym­ phatic fistula, blood, infected secretions, redundant mucosa or even surgical packing material.

Management Surgical complications may necessitate revision of the middle ear cavity and. even­ tually, replacement of the ossicular prosthesis.

Suggested Reading Dornhoffer, 1.L. Hearing results with the Dornhoffer ossicular replacement pros­ theses. LarYl1goscope 1 08(4 Pt 1 ):53 1 -6, 1 998 Apr. EI-Seifi, A., Fouad, B. Long-term fate of Plastipore in the middle ear. Journa/ of Oro­ Rhino-laryngology and irs Relared Specialries 60( 4 ) : 1 98-201 , 1 998 Jul-Aug. Emmett. 1.R. Plasti-pore implants in middle ear surgery. Orolaryngologic Clillics of Nonh America 28(2):265-72. 1 995 Apr. Macias, 1.D., Glasscock, M.E. 3rd. Widick, M . H .. Schall, D.G., Haynes, D.S., Josey. A.F. Ossiculoplasty using the black hydroxyapatite hybrid ossicular replacement prostheses. American Journal of Orology 1 6(6):7 1 8-2 1 , 1 995 Nov. Sakai, N., Asai. T., Matsushima, 1., Kokubun, T., Kurihara, H., Koichi, K .. I n uyama. Y, Terayama, Y Surgical results of tympanoplasty with hokudai-shaped partial and to­ tal ossicular replacement prostheses. A nificial Organs 20(8):947-50. 1 996 Aug. Schuring. A.G. Ossiculoplasty with semibiologic and composite prostheses. Oro­ laryngologic Clinics of Nonh America 27(4):747-57, 1 994 Aug.

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TEMPORAL BONEI Slater, P.w., Rizer, F.M., Schuring, A.G., Lippy, W.H . Practical use of total and par­ tial ossicular replacement prostheses in ossiculoplasty. Laryngoscope 107(9): 1 1 93-8, 1 997 Sep. Waddington, C, McKennis, A.T., Goodlett, A. Treatment of conductive hearing loss with ossicular chain reconstruction procedures. Aorn Journal 65(3):5 1 1-5, 5 1 8, 52 1 -2, 1 997 Mar. Wehrs, R.E. Incus interposition and ossiculoplasty with hydroxyapatite prostheses. Otolaryngologic Clinics of North America 27(4):677-88, 1 994 Aug.

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Case 89 Clinical Presentation A-28-year-old female presented with acute onset of right facial weakness with no prior history of trauma. Physical examination confirmed a right peripheral facial nerve palsy. No other cranial palsies were noted. The otoscopic exam was normal.

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Radiologic Findings On an M R I of the temporal bone an axial enhanced T l WI shows marked enhance­ ment in the right labyrinthine segment of the facial nerve and geniculate ganglion ( Fig. 89-A), tympanic (Fig. 89-8), and mastoid ( Fig. 89-C) segments.

TEMPORAL BONEI

Differential Diagnosis: Acute Peripheral Facial Nerve Palsy •

•

• • •

Inflammatory/In fectious conditions: Bell's palsy, herpes zoster otticus ( Ramsay­ Hunt syndrome), other viral infections (Epstein-Barr virus, H I V, rubella, mumps, polio, coxsackie and influenza), otitis media/mastoiditis (bacterial or fungal), Lyme disease, syphilis Trauma: temporal bone fracture (longitudinal or transverse), temporal bone contusion Tumors (see facial nerve schwannoma): benign, malignant Iatrogenic: post-surgical from a transmastoid approach Others (usuaUy more gradual in onset): diabetes mellitus, hypothyroidism, sar­ coid, Guillain-Barre syndrome

Diagnosis Bell's palsy

Discussion Epidemiology In 1 82 1 , Sir Charles Bell described an isolated, sudden, unilateral, peripheral facial nerve paralysis of unknown etiology which was later named Bell's palsy or idio­ pathic facial nerve paralysis. Bell's palsy is the most frequent cause of facial n e rve paralysis, afflicting 1 5 to 40 : 10,000 people per year. It accounts for more than 50% of all cases of facial nerve paralysis and is three times more common than Ramsay-Hunt syndrome, the second most frequent etiology. Both sexes are equally affected. There is no age predilection, although it is more frequent in middle-aged adults. A positive family history is encountered in 1 0% of cases. Pregnancy is an important predispos­ ing factor, increasing the incidence of facial nerve palsy up to three times in the last trimester.

Pathophysiology A lthough the etiology of this condition is unknown, a considerable amount of evi­ dence gathered in past decades, points to a viral-induced neuritis, with herpes sim­ plex virus (HSV) being the most frequently implicated agent. The virus is thought to be in a latent state in the geniculate ganglion with reactivation by a nonspecific triggering event such as stress or superinfection by an heterotopic virus. The dor­ mant virus would then replicate and cause an inflammatory neuritis. This inflamma­ tory response, characterized by edema and a mononucleated infiltrate, causes com­ pression of the nerve against the rigid bony walls of the fallopian canal, leading to a final common pathway of ischemia and degeneration of the nerve fibers. Pathologi­ cally, the typical findings include a lymphocytic infiltrate with associated demyeli­ nation and, eventually, axonal destruction. The disorder is usuaUy progressive for the first week . Nerve conduction only be­ comes affected approximately 3 days after neural degeneration has occurred. Due to the anatomy of the facial nerve canal, the site most susceptible to injury is the labyrinthine segment, particularly at the level of the meatal foramen (site of entrance of the facial nerve into the fallopian canal after leaving the internal auditory canal ( lAC). Not only is this the narrowest segment of the facial bone in the temporal bone, the blood supply to this region is poorer due to lack of anastomosing arterial arcades. Other pathophysiologic mechanisms involving genetic, metabolic, autoimune, and vascular pathways are also possible etiologic components.

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ITEMPORAL BO E Cli n ical Fi ndi ngs

Bell's palsy typically pre ents with udden onset of unilateral peripheral facial nerve paraly i , sometime associated with postauricular pain, fever and tinnitus. A mild hearing deficit may al 0 be pre en!. In 60% of cases, a history of prior upper re pi­ ralOry infection is elicited and this may be the predisposing factor. On phy ical exam the patient may have facial asymmetry, drooling, 10 of the ipilateral na olabial fold, a widened palpebral fissure and a smooth forehead. Or the facial palsy may only become apparent with voluntary movements, depending on the degree of paralysi . The House-Brackmann facial nerve grading system. which categorizes paralysis from I to VI (normal to complete paraly i ). i commonly used to follow patients and evaluate therapeutic response. It is also used a a prognostic indicator.

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Perineural

...---­ vascular plexus

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TEMPORAL BONEI Clinical history is important to exclude other possible etiologies. The presence of a vesicular rash in the lAC and tympanic membrane is pathognomonic of herpes zoster infection (Ramsay-Hunt syndrome). Prior history of a tick bite ( Lyme dis­ ease) should be elicited, particularly in young patients. Other possibilities such as a otomastoiditis, H I V infection, diabetes, bypotbyroidism, sarcoidosis and trauma are easily assessed by clinical history and serologic tests. The major diagnostic challenge consists of differentiating Bell's palsy from facial nerve tumors, which may also present with acute paralysis. Features pointing toward a neoplastic etiology include recurrent palsy, duration of symptoms longer tben 3 months without improvement, associated facial spasm or twitch and paralysis of isolated branches of the facial nerve. Diagnostic and prognostic testing should include assessment of the 3 brancbes of the facial nerve (Schirmer test, stapedial reflex, evaluation of taste and salivation), electromyography, electroneurograpby and evaluation of the VIIIth cranial nerve (audiogram, caloric tests and electronystagmogram).

I maging Fin d i ngs Imaging of Bell's palsy is not mandatory, as 80% of cases show spontaneous recov­ ery without any treatment. I ndications for imaging include either atypical cases where otber diagnostic possibilities, such as a tumor, bave to be excluded, or when decompression surgery is a consideration due to the presence of bad prognostic signs. In the latter, the role of imaging is to provide anatomic detail of the facial nerve canal and temporal bone to the surgeon. The imaging method of choice for inflammatory conditions is MRI. CT is used as a complimentary modality to provide bony detail and evaluate for anomalies in the middle ear cavity and mastoid. On MRl, all the inflammatory processes involving tbe facial nerve manifest as in­ tense enhancement along the course of the nerve, usually involving more then one segment. The most characteristic feature is enbancement of the intracanalicular seg­ ment, followed by the labyrinthine segement and geniculate ganglion, which do not usually enhance in normal subjects. Due to their rich arterial supply from the per­ ineural vascular plexus, the tympanic and mastoid segments of the facial nerve show enhancement in normal subjects. This should not be mistaken for pathology. On an M R I of the temporal bone an axial T 1 WI (Fig. 89-0) shows the left tympanic seg­ ment of the facial nerve as a linear structure isointense to brain parenchyma. En­ hanced axial Tl W I (Fig. 89-E) shows faint enhancement of the nerve in a patient with no symptoms related to the facial nerve. Figure 89-F depicts schematic representation of tbe perineural vascular plexus surrounding the tympanic segment of the facial nerve. (Modified from a photo from Steve Gebarski) Although several attempts have been made to correlate the degree and extent of enhancement with clinical severity, physiologic tests and prognosis, none have been successful to date. The degree of enhancement can be objectively evaluated using an index of signal intensity ratio, defined as tbe ratio between the signal intensity of the facial nerve and tbe brain stem after subtracting background noise. Enhancement may be normal at presentation but tends to increase as tbe disease progresses. This is thought to result from a reduced supply of gadolinium to the ischemic compressed segment of tbe nerve. Therefore, absence of enhancement does not necessarily im­ ply a better prognosis. Also, facial nerve enhancement tends to lag behind tbe reso­ lution of symptoms and normalization of neurophysiologic tests. Enhancement of the facial nerve is nonspecific, occurring in other inflammatory and neoplastic conditions. Perineural spread of the tumor is a potential diagnos­ tic problem if the radiologist is not aware of a prior history of malignancy in the head and neck. This is because it may present as diffuse enhancement tbat is indistinguishable from tbat of an inflammatory condition. Facial nerve tumors usu­ ally present as focal areas of enhancement associated with enlargement of the

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nerve and remodeling of the facial nerve canal, best depicted in high resolution cr studies. cr is also useful to evaluate paralysis caused by traumatic injury to

BeU's palsy typically presents with acute onset of unilateral, pe­ ripheral facial nerve paralysis.

the temporal bone .

On MR!, there is enhancement along the course of the facial nerve, involving intracanalicular and labyrinthine segments.

In the great majority of cases, Bell's palsy is managed medically with oral pred­ nisone and, most recently, acyclovir, for a period of 10 days. The goal of this therapy is to avoid further nerve degeneration and prevent sequelae. I t has proven effective in several double-blinded studies comparing non treated patients with patients who were treated with prednisone associated with placebo, and prednisone associated with acyclovir. Surgical treatment with nerve decompression has limited indications. It is per­ formed in patients with bad prognostic signs, which include complete paralysis at presentation and a 90% or greater facial nerve degeneration detected on elec­ troneurography, and when the diagnosis is in doubt due to recurrence or persistence of symptoms for 6 months or longer. Eye care using artificial tears, ointments and, if necessary, ocular patches, is mandatory to avoid grave complications such as exposure keratitis and corneal in­ fection which may result in blindness. Although the prognosis is good in about 90% of cases, 1 0% of patients never recover facial nerve function and another 10% have recurrent disease.

BeU's palsy is usually resolved i n 6 weeks t o 3 months. Avoid mistaking normal facial nerve enhancement for path­ ology. Avoid excluding the diagnosis on the basis of a normal MRI. Avoid mistaking a facial nerve tumor for opacified mastoid air cells.

Management

Suggested Readings Adour, K.K. Otological complications of herpes zoster. Annals of Neurology 35 Suppl:S62-4, 1 994. Bauer, CA., Coker, N.1. Update on facial nerve disorders. Otolaryngologic Clinics of North America 29(3):445-54, 1 996 Jun. Catalano, P.J., Sen, C, Biller, H.E Cranial neuropathy secondary to perineural spread of cutaneous malignancies. American lournal of Otology 1 6(6):772-7. 1 995 Nov. Girard, N., Raybaud, C, Poncet, M. 3D-Ff M R I of the facial nerve. Neuroradiology 36(6):462-8, 1 994 Aug. Jabor, M.A., Gianoli, G. Management of Bell's palsy. lournal of the Louisiana State Medical Society 148(7):279-83, 1 996 Jul. Jonsson, L., Tien, R., Engstrom, M., Thuomas, K.A. Gd-DPTA enhanced MRI in Bell's palsy and herpes zoster oticus: an overview and implications for future stud­ ies. Acta Oto-Laryngologica 1 1 5(5):577-84, 1 995 Sep. Kohsyu, H., Aoyagi, M., Tojima, H., Tada, Y, Inamura, H., lkarashi, T., Koike, Y Facial nerve enhancement in Gd-MR I in patients with Bell's palsy. Acta Oto­ Laryngologica. Supplemel1l 5 1 1 : 165-9, 1 994. Manfre, L., Lagalla, R., Tortorici, M., Riggio, E, Ferrara, S. Bell's palsy and visual­ ization of the facial nerve by MRJ. Revue de Laryngologie Otologie Rhinologie 1 1 6(2):9 1-3, 1 995. Ramsey, K.L., Kaseff, L,G. Role of magnetic resonance imaging in the diagnosis of bilateral facial paralysis. American lournal of Otology 1 4(6):605-9, 1 993 Nov. Saat�i, J . , Sahintiirk, E, Sennaroglu, L., Boyvat, E, Giirsel, B., Besim, A. MRI of the facial nerve in idiopathic facial palsy. European Radiology 6(5):631-6, 1 996. Schirm, 1., Mulkens, P.S. Bell's palsy and herpes simplex virus. Apmis 105( l l ): 8 1 5-23, 1 997 Nov. Tada, Y, Aoyagi, M., Tojima, H., l namura, H., Saito, 0., Maeyama, H., Kohsyu. H., Koike, Y Gd-DTPA enhanced MRI in Ramsay Hunt syndrome. Acta Oto-Laryngo­ logica. SlIpplement 5 1 1 : 1 70-4, 1 994.

Case 90

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Clinical Presentation A 38-year-old female presented with a recurrent history of left facial nerve palsy and ear pain. Clinical examination confirmed a left-sided peripheral facial nerve palsy. On otoscopy a grayish lesion was seen protruding through the posterior wall of the external auditory canal ( E AC), breaching the posterior aspect of the tym­ panic membrane.

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Radiologic Findings O n an M R I of the brain (sagittal T 1 WI) (Fig. 90-A) there is a fusiform lesion along the mastoid segment of the facial nerve extending from the posterior genu to the stylomastoid foramen . The lesion is isointense to gray matter on this Tl W I . An ax­ ial TIWI (Fig. 90-B) shows the typical hyperintensity of these tumors. Note the lat­ eral extent of the tumor transgressing the posterior wall of the EAC.

Differential Diagnosis: Facial Nerve Palsy • • •

I nflammatory/Infectious conditions: Bell's palsy, herpes zoster oticus Trauma: temporal bone fractures (transverse or longitudinal) Tumors: • Benign: facial nerve tumors (schwan noma, hemangioma, lipoma), acoustic schwan noma, CPA meningioma, epidermoid cyst (congenital cholesteatoma), choristoma, glomus tympanicum

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Malignant: perineural spread (parotid or EAC malignancies), direct invasion (glomus jugulare, embryonal rhabdomyosarcoma, Langerhan's cell tumor, cystadenocarcinoma of the endolymphatic sac), lymphoma, metastasis, facial nerve sarcoma

Diagnosis Facial nerve schwannoma (mastoid segment)

Discussion Epidemiology Facial nerve schwan nom as are rare tumors, when compared to the much more common acoustic schwannomas. They can occur in any segment of the facial nerve, but the area of the geniculate ganglion is the most frequently involved. The majority of facial nerve palsies are idiopathic in origin (Bell's palsy). Ac­ cording to several series only 6 to 13% of cases of facial nerve dysfunctions are caused by tumors. To understand the clinical presentation and management of facial nerve pathol­ ogy, it is crucial to know the exact course, branching pattern and functions of this nerve. After leaving the brainstem at the ponto-medullary junction, the facial nerve is a natomically divided into six different segments: •

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a cisternal segment traversing the CPA cistern and extending from the brainstem to the porus acousticus intern us; an i ntracanalicular segment where the facial nerve courses in the anterosuperior quadrant, superiorly to the cochlear nerve; an intralabyrinthine segment coursing anteriorly from the porus acousticus inter­ nus to the geniculate ganglion; a tympanic segment extending from the anterior genu to the posterior genu along the medial wall of the middle ear cavity; a vertical or mastoid segment from the posterior genu to the stylo-mastoid foramen; finally, an intraparotid segment traversing the parenchyma of the gland lateral to the retromandibular vein and external carotid artery.

Along its course i n the temporal bone the facial nerve gives off three branches. The first branch is the greater petrosal superficial nerve which comes off the facial nerve at the level of the geniculate ganglion. It carries secretomotor fibers to the lacrimal gland and is responsible for lacrimation. The stapedius nerve is the second intra temporal branch. [t comes off the tympanic segment of the facial nerve at the level of the facial nerve recess, lateral to the pyramidal eminence. This nerve sup­ plies the stapedius muscle and is responsible for sound dampening. In the mastoid segment, the facial nerve gives off its last intratemporal branch, the chorda tympani. This nerve carries special sensory fibers to the anterior two thirds of the tongue. Knowing the special functions of the facial nerve helps in localizing a lesion along the course of the nerve and allows a more focused imaging study. In general, when lacrimation is preserved, the lesion is located distally to the geniculate ganglion. When sound dampening is preserved the lesion is more likely located distally to the tympanic segment. Finally, when taste is preserved, the lesion is distal to the mastoid segment. Although these general topographic guidelines may be accurate when dealing with an inflammatory or traumatic process involving the facial nerve, they are not as useful in localizing neoplastic lesions. Neoplastic lesions, particularly those growing in the nerve sheath, tend to spare some nerve fibers so that preser­ vation of certain functions do not necessarily mean that the lesion is located distally to the nerve branch responsible for that function.

TEMPORAL BONEI

Pathophysiology Facial nerve schwannomas are benign, slow growing tumors arising from the nerve sheath. Histologically, they are encapsulated tumors composed of Schwann cells in­ termingled with a collageneous stroma. Schwannomas are characterized by two dif­ ferent patterns of growth. The Antoni A type tissue is compact and contains elon­ gated spindle shaped cells. The Antoni B type tissue is looser, often with a cystic structure and hemorrhage. As tumor size increases there is an increased tendency for cystic change and intratumoral hemorrhage.

Clinical Findings Although the hallmark of facial nerve schwannoma is a chronic or recurrent facial nerve palsy, unremitting with conservative measures, symptoms related to the facial nerve may be absent or late in onset depending on tumor location and size. Clinical evaluation of a patient suspected to have a facial nerve tumor should include a tear, stapedial reflex and electric taste testing, a complete neuro-otologic exam with po­ sitional and caloric testing, audiogram and ABR's, and an enhanced M R I of the brain and temporal bone. Facial nerve schwannomas located in the CPA cistern and/or internal auditory canal ( l AC) are clinically indistinguishable from acoustic tumors because they usu­ ally present with vestibulocochlear symptoms including unsteadiness, sensorineural hearing loss, tinnitus and vertigo. Facial nerve symptoms, such as hemifacial spasm, facial twitch, and palsy, although more frequently seen than with acoustic schwan­ nomas, appear late in the course of the disease, when the tumor has reached a con­ siderable size. The early dysfunction of the V I IIth cranial nerve appears to be re­ lated to the increased vulnerability of the tightly packed and thinely myelinated fibers of the acoustic nerve to compression and hypoperfusion. If large enough, these tumors may cause cerebellar symptoms, other cranial nerve palsies and hy­ drocephalus. Schwan nomas arising in the labyrinthine segment and geniculate gan­ glion are usually silent for a long period of time and manifest with a slow, gradually progressive facial palsy and twitch. Tumors involving the tympanic segment may present with ear fullness, pulsatile tinnitus and conductive hearing loss, mimicking the clinical presentation of a glomus tympanicum. Only late in the course will patients develop a gradually progressive facial nerve palsy. On otoscopic exam a mass may be seen in the superior aspect of the middle ear cavity touching the medial wall of the tympanic membrane. Biopsy of such a lesion should be avoided because it may be followed by acute onset of fa­ cial nerve palsy. In the mastoid segment, schwannomas present with sudden or gradual facial nerve palsy mimicking Bell's palsy. Occasionally, progressive conductive hearing loss and otorrhea may ensue due to tumor growth into the EAC and involvement of the tympanic membrane. Again, these tumors should not be biopsied for the rea­ son given above. Finally, tumors of the parotid segment of the facial nerve produce a slowly progressive facial nerve paralysis. A parotid gland mass may be palpated. Due to their similar clinical presentation facial nerve schwannomas are usually misdiagnosed as Bell's palsy. Persistence or ipsilateral recurrence of symptoms and associated facial twitch requires a thorough search for a facial nerve tumor. On the other hand, acute onset of facial nerve palsy, although more typical in patients with Bell's palsy, does not exclude tumor, because this may be a consequence of abrupt compromise of the vascular supply to the nerve from mass effect.

Imaging Findings MRI is the best imaging method to evaluate patients with facial nerve paralysis, sen­ sorineural hearing loss or vertigo. It should be performed whenever a patient pre­ sents with a recurrent or persistent facial nerve palsy (more then 3 months). When

419

ITEM PORAL

c

80 E

D

F E

a ma is detected along the expected course of the facial nerve, high resolution ( H R ) CT imaging hould be performed to further characterize any a ociated bony change . Facial nerve schwannomas manifest as fusiform or sausage shaped masses with well-defined margins growing along the expected cour e of the nerve. On M R I these tumors are i ointense to gray matter on T l WI, hyperinten e on T2WI and enhance homogeneously. M R l adequately depicts small cisternal and in­ tracanalicular tumors which are ea ily missed on . However it may not differen­ tiate chwannoma originating in the facial nerve from tho e arising from the ve tibulocochlear nerve. On an MRl of the temporal bone . an axial Tl WI (Fig. 90) hows a mas i ointen e to gray matter in the right PA ci tern extending into the right l AC. The lA is enlarged [rom the poru acousticu internu to the fun­ dus. This lesion, indi tinguishable from an acoustic tumor, proved to be a facial

1420

TEMPORAL BONEI nerve tumor at surgery. The diagnosis is facial nerve schwannoma (cisternal and in­ tracanalicular). Useful imaging features to distinguish facial nerve schwannomas from acoustic and other nonacoustic schwannomas incl ude the precise location and epicenter of the lesion, pattern of extention and associated foraminal changes. Slight eccentricity of the tumor, relative to the center of the lAC, and anterior ex­ tension of the tumor in the direction of the geniculate ganglion favor the diagnosis of facial nerve tumor. Labyrinthine tumors may herniate into the middle cranial fossa assuming a dumbell shape and eventually mimick a trigeminal nerve tumor. However, in this instance the epicenter of the lesion lies anterior and medial to the lAC. Prior history of a malignancy in the head and neck region usually allows dif­ ferentiation between a primary facial nerve tumor and perineural spread from an­ other primary site. On CT, the lesion, if large enough, expands and erodes the bony walls of the fa­ cial nerve canal. Small, focal areas of bony dehiscence may be developmental in ori­ gin and should not be confused with bony destruction by tumor. Another potential imaging pitfall is confusing a persistent stapedial artery or aberrant course of the carotid artery in the middle ear cavity for a facial nerve tumor. CT is especially useful in the evaluation of tumors located in the tympanic and mastoid segments of the facial nerve. In the former, it is important to evaluate the relationship of the tumor with the ossicular chain and look for evidence of bony ero­ sion of the cochlear promontory or lateral semi-circular canal. In the latter, it may detect erosion of the posterior wall of the EAC and evaluate the relationship of the tumor with the tympanic membrane. In labyrinthine tumors, erosion of the petrous carotid canal should be looked for and reported to the surgeon. On CT, the presence of intra tumoral bony spicules, honeycombed appearence of bone and indistinct margins favor an ossifying angioma. Most frequently, facial nerve hemangiomas can not be differentiated from facial nerve schwannomas on clinical grounds or imaging studies. However, this distinction is is not crucial as it has no impact on patient management. Epidermoid cysts along the course of the facial nerve are usually hypodense to the brain, do not enhance, and tend to have irregular, lobulated margins burrowing into the crevices of surrounding structures. On an HRCT scan of the temporal bone (axial section) (Fig 90-D) there is a soft tissue mass in the region of the facial nerve recess, extending posteriorly and inferi­ orly into the mastoid bone along the expected course of the vertical segment of the facial nerve. The diagnosis is facial nerve schwannoma (involving the tympanic and mastoid segments of the nerve). On a CT of the temporal bone (Fig. 90-E) an axial section through the epytym­ panum shows enlargement of the left l AC and a soft tissue mass expanding the re­ gion of the geniculate ganglion, causing bony erosion. An axial section through the inferior mastoid (Fig 90-F) shows an expansile lesion in the mastoid portion of the facial nerve canal.

Management Facial nerve schwannomas are managed surgically. In order to determine the best surgical approach, the surgeon needs to know in advance, and as precisely as possi­ ble, the segment or segments of the facial nerve involved by tumor. This must take into account the feasibility of facial nerve grafting and preservation of hearing. Facial nerve grafting should be performed whenever there is disruption of the nerve and the extent of the tumor does not allow for an end-to-end anastomosis. The donor site for nerve grafting is usually the great auricular nerve. Resection of tympanic tumors may involve partial or complete resection of the ossicles. Recon­ struction using an ossicular prosthesis or tympanoplasty should be attempted after recovery of facial nerve function.

ITEMPORAL

BONE

PEARLSIPITFALLS •

•

•

•

•

•

The hallmark of facial nerve schwannoma is a recurrent or long term history (>3 months) of facial nerve palsy. On MRI. facial nerve schwanno­ mas manifest as a fusiform or sausage shaped, well defined le­ sion along the course of the fa­ cial nerve. On CT, if the lesion is large enough, it causes expansion or erosion of the facial nerve canal. There can be acute onset of fa­ cial nerve palsy after biopsy of a lesion in the middle ear cavity or E AC. Avoid confusing a normal devel­ opmental dehiscence of the facial nerve canal or a persistent stape­ dial artery for a facial nerve tumor. Do not fail to recognize a recur­ rent or persistent falcial nerve palsy and perform a full neuro­ otologic examination and ade­ quate imaging studies.

Suggested Readings Anand, CS., Kumra, P.K., Anand, T.S., Singh, S. K. Facial nerve schwan noma. Journal of Laryngology and Otology 9 1 ( 1 2 ) : 1 093-9, 1 977 Dec. Chen, 1.M., Moll, C, Wichmann, W., Kurrer, M.O., Fisch, U. Magnetic resonance imaging and intraoperative frozen sections in intra temporal facial schwannomas. A merican Journal of Otology 16(1 ):68-74, 1 995 Jan. Fagan, P.A., Misra, S.N., Doust, B. Facial neuroma of the cerebellopontine angle and the internal auditory canal. Laryngoscope 103(4 Pt 1 ):442-6, 1 993 Apr. Hajjaj, M., Linthicum, FH. Jr. Facial nerve schwannoma: nerve fibre dissemination. Journal of Laryngology and Otology 1 10(7):632-3, 1 996 Jul. McMenomey, S.O., Glasscock, M.E. 3rd., Minor, L.B., Jackson, CG., Strasnick, B. Fa­ cial nerve neuromas presenting as acoustic tumors. American Journal of Otology 15(3 ):307- 1 2, 1 994 May. M ajoie, CB., Hulsmans, F1., Castelijns, 1. A. , Walter, A., B ras, 1., Peeters, FL. Perineural tumor extension of facial malignant melanoma: CT and MRJ. Journal of Computer Assisted Tomography 1 7(6):973-5, 1 993 Nov-Dec. Orloff, L.A., Duckert, L.G. Magnetic resonance imaging of intra temporal facial nerve lesions in the animal model. Laryngoscope 105(5 Pt 1 ):465-7 1 , 1 995 May. Pulec, 1.L. Facial nerve angioma. Ear, Nose, and Throat Journal 75(4):225-38, 1 996 Apr. Tew, J.M. Jr., Yeh, H.S., Miller, G.W., Shahbabian, S. l ntratemporal schwannoma of the facial nerve. Neurosurgery 1 3(2):186-8, 1 983 Aug. Zhang, Q., Jessurun, 1., Schachern, P.A., Paparella, M.M., Fulton, S. Outgrowing schwannomas arising from tympanic segments of the facial nerve. American Journal of Otolaryngology 1 7(5):31 1-5, 1 996 Sep-Oct.

Case 91

TEMPORAL BONE\

Clinical Presentation TIle patient is a 47-year-old male with a history of middle ear urgery 2 years ago, now pre enting with evere vertigo and recurrent hearing loss.

A _ _

B

Radiologic Findings On a cr of the temporal bones the axial (Figs. 9 I -A and 9 1 -8) and coronal (Fig. 9 1 -C) sections through the oval window show a long metallic structure interposed be­ tween the long process of the incus and the oval window, protruding into the vestibule.

Differential Diagnosis: Metallic Object in the Middle Ear • •

Displaced stapedial prosthesis Foreign body

ITEMPORAL

BONE

Diagnosis Displaced stapedial prosthesis with medial migration into the vestibule

Discussion Epidemiology Treatment of otosclerosis, a common cause of hearing loss in the young adult, has been the subject of much research in the past century. Several surgical procedures have been used with varying success. The first stapedial surgeries were performed by Kessel in 1 875, including stapedectomy and stapedial mobilization. Due to the high rate of failure and associated morbidity, these surgeries were rapidly discontinued. In 1 9 1 3, Jenkins first described an innovative type of surgery which he called "fen­ estration". This surgery consisted of the creation of a window in the vestibule or in the lateral semicircular canal, allowing the transmission of sound waves from the middle ear to the perilymph. A cr shows the temporal bones in a 87-year-old woman with history of temporal bone surgery which was performed in the early 1 940s. This coronal section through the vestibule shows bony dehiscence of the lat­ eral semicircular canal and a linear soft tissue density closely applied to this defect. The diagnosis is fenestration surgery with creation of a labyrinthine window in the lateral semicircular canal and apposition of a tympano-cutaneous flap. This surgical procedure was further improved by JuLius Lempert who, in 1 938, de­ scribed the fenestration surgery employing a stopple. The placement of a cartilagi­ nous stopple, apposed to the newly created window, prevented its closure by re­ growth of otospongiotic tissue and decreased the incidence of postoperative labyrinthytis. Continuous improvements in surgical technique and instrumentation, lead to the rehabilitation of stapedial surgery in 1 952, by Rosen. In 1 957, John Shea introduced the stapedial prostheses which are now the gold standard For the treat­ ment of fenestral otosclerosis.

D

TEMPORAL BONEI

E

Pathophysiology The goal of stapedial surgery in patients with fenestral otosclerosis is to resect the otosclerotic/spongiotic tissue from the footplate of the stapes, freeing the oval window and allowing the transmission of sound waves to the perilymphatic compartment. In order to preserve the amplification of sound provided by the ossi­ cles and avoid reclosure of the oval window, a prosthesis is interposed between the long process of the incus and the oval window. Several stapedial prostheses are currently available, made of different materials such as teflon, silastic, stain­ less steel and various plastics. Figure 9 1 -E is a photograph of two different stain­ less steel stapedial prostheses, a "metallic piston" is on the left and a "hook wire" is on the right.

Clinical Find i ngs After uncomplicated stapes surgery the patient usually recovers conductive hearing. The onset of dizziness, vertigo, facial nerve palsy, sensorineural hearing loss or re­ current or persistent conductive hearing loss may result from surgical complication or failure. Vertigo and sensorineural hearing loss seen in the immediate postoperative pe­ riod are usually self-limited, due to manipulation of the oval window with a tran­ sient inflammatory response. If these symptoms recur or persist, a complication (such as malposition or intravestibular migration of the stapes prosthesis, presence of a perilymphatic fistula or post-surgical inflammatory labyrinthytis), should be considered. Persistent or recurrent conductive hearing loss is associated with pros­ thesis displacement, or may result from overgrowth of otospongiotic tissue or post­ operative granulation tissue.

Imaging Findings CT and/or M Rl are mandatory in the postoperative assessment of patients with fen­ estral otosclerosis and should be performed even in the absence of symptoms as a baseline for future comparison. CT is the modality of choice as it allows adequate visualization of the ossicular chain and oval window. MetalLic "piston" type stape-

I TEMPORAL BONE

F

dial prostheses are easily visualized on CT, but a thin stainless wire prosthesis and a plastic prosthesis may be difficult or impossible to visualize, even using high­ resolution contiguous 1 mm sections in tbe axial and coronal planes. A coronal CT section of the temporal bones through tbe oval window (Fig. 9 1 -F) show enlarge­ ment of the oval window and a thin linear structure replacing the normal stapes. The diagnosis is stapedial prosthesis (sillastic). On postoperative studies the radiologist should comment on the position of the prosthesis, the presence or absence of soft tissue density within the middle ear cav­ ity and on the status of the facial nerve canal and labyrinth. TIle normally function­ ing prosthesis may be located in the anterior, central or posterior portion of the oval window. In the patient with persistent or recurrent conductive hearing loss a CT may show malposition of the prosthesis outside tbe oval window. loss of contact between the proximal, most lateral aspect of the prosthesis and the long process of the incus (incudo-prosthetic luxation), or avascular necrosis of the long process of the incus. Regrowth of otospongiotic/sclerotic tissue or granulation tissue around the oval window may be responsible for the conductive hearing loss. In the patient present­ ing with vertigo, a CT may show intravestibular migration of the stapedial prosthe­ sis or indirect signs of a perilymphatic fistula, with an air-fluid level or fluid density filling the middle ear (stapes gusher). The presence of air within the labyrinth (pneu­ molabyrinth) is also higbly suggestive of tbis complication. When a CT is negative, a postcontrast M R l should be performed. Labyrinthine enhancement may be seen in the site of a perilymphatic fistula and diffuse labyrinthine enhancement is the hallmark of inflammatory labyrinthitis. Chronic labyrinthitis is a late complication which may be identified on MRJ using 30FT G E heavily T2WI by the presence of intralabyrinthine adhesions manifesting as lack of T2W signal. M R I is also useful for the detection of intracranial complications such as menin­ gitis.

TEMPORAL BONEI

PEARLS/PITFALLS •

•

•

•

•

•

•

A history of prior temporal bone surgery coupled with vertigo and recurrent hearing loss could indi­ cate a displaced stapedial pros­ thesis. Absence of normal stapes on cr scan could mean a thin stainless wire prosthesis or a plastic pros­ thesis have been implanted, since they are hard to visualize. A stapedial prosthesis is a metal­ lic or plastic structure interposed between the long process of the incus and the oval window. Avoid mistaking normal postop­ erative findings for temporal bone pathology. Do not fail to recognize postsur­ gical complications. Avoid mistaking a stapedial pros­ thesis for a foreign body. Avoid mistaking fenestration surgery for a labyrinthine fistula.

Management Most surgical complications (especially those related to mal positioning or migration of the stapedial prosthesis) require further surgery with prosthetic replacement. In­ flammatory labyrinthitis is managed with steroids.

Suggested Reading Grolman, w., Tange, R.A., de Bruijn, A.1., Hart, A.A., Schouwen burg, P.F. A re­ trospective study of the hearing results obtained after stapedotomy by the im­ plantation of two Teflon pistons with a different diameter. European A rchives of Olo-Rhino-laryngology 254(9-10):422--4, 1 997. Han, w.w., Incesulu, A., McKenna, M.1., Rauch, S.D., Nadol, lB. Jr., Glynn, R.1. Re­ vision stapedectomy: intraoperative findings, results, and review of the literature. Laryngoscope 107(9): 1 185-92, 1 997 Sep. Kinney, S.E. Reporting of results of surgery for conductive hearing loss [editorial] Otolaryngology and Head and Neck Surgery 1 17(5 ) :43 1 -2, 1 997 Nov. Mathews, S.B., Hetzler, D.G., Hilsinger, R.L. Jr. Incus and stapes footplate simula­ tor. Laryngoscope 107(1 2 Pt 1 ) : 1 6 14--6 , 1 997 Dec. Richter, E., Mally, K . , Heger, F. Long-term results of stapes surgery with the Schuknecht wire-teflon prosthesis. Laryngo-Rhino-Otologie 73(3 ) : 1 57-9, 1994 Mar. Somers, T. , Govaerts, P., Marquet, T. , Offeciers, E. Statistical analysis of otosclerosis surgery performed by Jean Marquet. Annals of Oeology, Rhinology and Laryngol­ ogy 1 03 ( 12):945-51 , 1 994 Dec. Wehrs, R.E. Incus interposition and ossiculoplasty with hydroxyapatite prostheses. Oeolaryngologic Clinics of Norlh America 27(4):677-88, 1 994 Aug.

x. TMJ and Mandible

Case 92

TMJ AND MANDIBLEI

Clinical Presentation A 3 1-year-old female presented with pain over the temporo mandibular joint (TMJ) region and trismus. Clinical examination revealed a limited ability to open her mouth, with a 2cm intercuspid distance.

A

Radiologic Findings On an MRI of the temporomandibular joints (TMJs) Figure 92-A shows oblique saggital sections in closed and open mouth positions (T1 W images). On closed mouth position (left) the posterior band of the disk lies anterior to the condyle. With opening (right) of the mouth the disk translates a minimal amount anteriorly and is not recaptured by the condyle. The bilaminar zone is not visualized, which is con­ sistent with marked thinning of this structure.

Differential Diagnosis: Internal Derangement of the T MJ • • • • • •

Anterior dislocation with reduction Anterior dislocation without reduction Disk perforation Postsurgical changes Osteoarthritis Erosive (inflammatory) arthritis

Diagnosis Anterior disk dislocation without reduction

hMJ

AND MANDIBLE

Discussion Epidemiology TMJ symptoms are very common with several large series of articles reporting an incidence of 28% among the adult population. A female predominance is consis­ tently reported and the peak incidence of TMJ symptoms occurs in the second decade. Most cases are idiopathic although several predisposing factors have been identi­ fied. These include dentition problems, arthritides, trauma, congenital abnormalities of the condyles, and hyperactivity of the muscles of mastication such as with brux­ ism. TMJ derangement is often bilateral as the mandible acts as a single functional unit.

Pathophysiology I nternal derangement of the TMJ is a frequent finding and may present a variety of abnormalities in the position and morphology of the disk and articular surfaces. The

B

t

artiCUlar eminen

c

condyle

/

C1)::::

d fossa

DIBLEI abnormalities most commonly depicted on imaging tudies are anterior di location of the disk with or without reduduction, combined di location (both in the frontal and saggital planes), acquired and congenital morphologic abnormalities of the condyles, and abnormal excur ion of the condyles, and disk with opening of the mouth. The pathophy iologic condition that leads to di k di location is thought to be the increa ed stretch of the fibroelastic fiber of the bilaminar zone with 10 of the abil­ ity to exert a re training force on the disk as the condyle translates forward. The stress which is exerted on the neurovascular bundle by com pre sion between the condyle and articular eminence, leads to pain.

Cl i nical Fi nding The most frequent symptom in patient with TMJ derangement are pain. crepita­ tion and limitation of excur ion. Popping during mouth opening, crepitation, pain on palpation of the masticatory mu c1es and trismus are obvious on clinical exami­ nation.

D

articular eminence

disk

�t

glenoid fos sa

D- EAC

condyle E

433 1

ITMJ

F

The TMJ is a diarthrodial articulation compo ed of the mandibular condyle. the glenoid fo a and the articular emi nence of the temp ral bone. The congruence be­ tween the e convex haped articular u rface is establi hed b a biconcave articular di k. Thi di k ha a " bow tie" morphology with two thick anterior and po terior bands united by a thinner intermediate zone. me fibers of the superior belly of the lateral pterygoid muscle in ert on the anterior band and are responsible for the an­ terior translational movement of the di c during mouth opening. 1lle posterior band i connected to the posterior aspect of the articular capsule by fibroela tic ti ue containing the neurova cular bundle. Thi bilaminar zone i responsible for repo i­ tioning the di k posteriorly with elevation of the mandible. thorough under tanding of the normal relation hip of the TMJ component i critical in the diagno is of pathology. In the clo ed mouth position, the posterior band hould be po itioned at 1 2 o'clock relative to the condyle, with the intermedi­ ate zone between the anterior a pect of the condyle and the articular emi nence. Fig . 92-B& (oblique aggital TI W image) and 92-0& illu trate the normal po­ ition of the articular di k in open mouth position. The po terior band of the di k lie po terior to the tip of the condyle and the intermediate zone between the condyle and the articular eminence. With opening of the mouth. the condyle and di k translate anteriorly and the po terior band lie po terior to the condyle while the intermediate zone is positioned between the tip of the condyle and the articular eminence. An M R I of the TMJ ( Fig. 92-F; TJ WI oblique aggital ection ) in the clo ed m uth po ition ( left) how the posterior band anterior to the tip of the condyle. With opening of the mouth (right) the disk resumes its normal po ition. The patient was diagno ed with dislocation with reduction.

Im aging Fi nding Before the advent of M R I . the disk and it in ertion could only be vi ualized with arthrography. or indirectly. with . ondylar po ition and excur ion and degener­ ative change can be a e 'sed with plain film of the TMJ or u ing con entional to­ mography. However, the po iti n of the di k cannot be determined on thi imaging technique. With the u e of contra t material injected into the articulation, the di k can be delineated. alone using sagillal and coronal recon truction i not reliable in the diagno­ i of di location becau e the di k is incon i tently vi ualized. Ith ugh they are ac­ curate in the diagno is of internal derangement of the TMJ and the only imaging modalities able to reliably diagno e di k perforation or fragmentation, conventional

1434

TMJ AND MANDIBLEI and CT arthrography are invasive procedures, with possible complication and pa­ tient discomfort. The high resolution and multiplanar capabilities of MRI for evaluating the TMJ makes it the best tool for evaluating the TMJ. Bony structures, disk, articular carti­ lage and tendino-ligamentous insertions are all visible with this imaging modality. The disk is seen as a biconcave structure hypointense on T 1 W and TIW images in­ terposed between the condyle and the glenoid fossa. The bilaminar zone is inter­ mediate in signal except when degenerated. Chronic pressure upon this structure leads to inflammation and fibrosis with loss of signal on both T1 W and TIW images, mimmicking the signal characteristics of the disk. Oblique sagittal and coronal images of the TMJs perpendicular and parallel to the long axi, of the condyle should be performed using high resolution dual coils. We routinely perform sagittal T l W and T2W images in closed and open mouth posi­ tions and coronal T 1 W images with the mouth closed. When appropriate, sagittal T l W images with closed and open mouth positions are performed with a corrective splint in place to evaluate the efficacy of the device in reestablishing the normal relationship of the articular elements. M R I abnormalities should always be correlated with the patient's symptomatol­ ogy and cautiously interpreted; studies demonstrate that roughly 30% of asympto­ matic individuals can have abnormalities in disk position and morphology. Imaging findings alone are not diagnostic of disease. Conversely a normal M R I does not ex­ clude TMJ pathology. I n ternal derangements can be temporarily unstable. The diagnosis of anterior dislocation is made when the normal position of the disk relative to the condyle is lost and the posterior band of the disk lies anteriorly to the condylar tip. When the disk resumes its normal position with opening of the mouth, a reducible a nterior dislocation is diagnosed. When the disk shows further anterior displacement in the open mouth position a non-reducible anterior dis­ location is present. Figures 92-B (saggital T1 W M R I ) and 92-C illustrate the normal position of the articular disk in closed mouth position. The posterior band of the disk lies at 1 2 o'clock in relation to the tip of the condyle. A nterior dislocations may be associated with medial (more frequent) or lateral dislocations in the coronal plane. Limited excursion, or bite-block, is diagnosed when there is a limited or no ante­ rior excursion of the mandibular condyle with opening of the mouth (Fig 92-A). Degenerative changes of the articular surfaces are best detected by CT which may reveal sclerosis, cortical irregularities or erosions of the articular surfaces. M R I shows t h e abnormal morphology o f the condyle, thinning o f the articular cartilage, sclerosis of the cortical bone and abnormal bone marrow signal and joint effusion. Flattening of the condyle and articular eminence are almost pathognomonic of sub­ acute or chronic disk detachment. The lesser the antero-posterior diameter of the condyle, the greater the degree of internal derrangement. Perforation of the disk is a difficult diagnosis on M R I as the intermediate zone can be so thin that it is not visualized, simulating a perforation. Another pitfall of di­ agnosing disk perforation arises when the bilaminar zone is thickened and shows loss of signal, mimmicking the posterior band of the disk.

Management Therapy is aimed at restoring the normal anatomic relationship of the articular ele­ ments and mantaining the congruency of the articular surfaces in order to avoid fur­ ther destruction of articular cartilage. This can be achieved conservatively using splints, anterior repositioning appliances (ARA) and biofeedback techniques. Surgery is indicated in cases of protracted chronic dislocations when conservative measures fail to resolve the clinical problem. Surgical techniques include reposi­ tioning of the disk, disk replacement by a prosthesis, plasty of the articular surfaces (eminoplasty) or condilotomy. M R I is the best modality for post therapeutic follow-up and can evaluate the ef-

ITMJ

AND MANDIBLE ficacy of the different therapeutic options. Plain films using cephalometrically cor­ rected tomograms can assess repositioning of the condyle for disc recapture.

Suggested Readings Brady, A.P., McDevitt, L., Stack, J.P., Downey, D. A technique for magnetic reso­ nance imaging of the temporomandibular joint. Clinical Radiology 47(2): 1 27-33, 1 993 Feb. Dorsay, T.A., Youngberg, R.A. Cine M R I of the TMJ: need for initial closed mouth images without the Burnett device. lournal of Computer Assisted Tomography 1 9( 1 ): 163-4, 1 995 Jan-Feb. Dorsay, T.A., Youngberg, R.A., Orr, F.E., Mulrean, J. Cine MRI in the evaluation of the Proplast-Teflon TMJ interpositional implant. lournal of CompLiler Assisted To­ mography 1 9(5):800-3, 1 995 Sep-Oct. Katzberg, R.W., Westesson, P.L., Tallents, R.H., Drake, C.M. Anatomic disorders of the temporomandibular joint disc in asymptomatic subjects. lournal of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery 54(2 ) : 1 47-53, 1 996 Feb. Muller-Leisse, c., Augthun, M., Bauer, W., Roth, A., Gunther, R. Anterior disc dis­ placement without reduction in the temporomandibular joint: MR1 and associated clinical findings. lournal of Magnetic Resonance Imaging 6(5):769-74, 1 996 Sep-Oct. Rammelsberg, P., Pospiech, P.R., Jager, L., Pho Duc, 1M., Bohm, A.D., Gernet, W. Variability of disk position in asymptomatic volunteers and patients with internal derangements of the TMJ. Oral Surgery, Oral Medicine, Oral Pathology, Oral Radi­ ology and Endodontics 83(3):393-9, 1 997 Mar. Rao, YM. Imaging of the temporomandibular joint. Seminars in Ultrasound, CI and Mr 1 6(6):51 3-26, 1 995 Dec. Simmons, H.C. 3rd., Gibbs, S.J. Recapture of temporomandibular joint disks using anterior repositioning appliances: an M R I study. Cranio 1 3(4):227-37, 1 995 Oct. Takebayashi, S., Takama, T., Okada, S., Masuda, G., Matsubara, S. MRI of the TMJ disc with intravenous administration of gadopentetate dimeglumine. lournal of Computer Assisted Tomography 2 1 (2):209- 1 5, 1 997 Mar-Apr.

1 436

Case 93

TMJ AND M AN D I BLEI

Clinical Presentation A 52-year-old male with a history of prior root canal treatment presented with tooth pain and swelling of the lingual gingiva. On dental exam evidence of prior en­ dodontic treatment was present in the first and second right, and second left incisors. Painfull swelling of the buccal and lingual gingiva was also present.

A

Radiologic Findings A n intraoral radiograph (Fig. 93-A) shows a unilocular cystic lesion around the tip of the first right mandibular incisor. The margins of this lesion are well defined and slightly sclerotic. There is evidence of prior endodontic treatment of tbe involved tooth, and resorption of the tip of the root is also noted. (courtesy Dr. Lewis R. Eversole)

Differential Diagnosis: Unilocular Cystic Mandible Lesions •

Odontogenic cysts: periodontal cyst, dentigerous cyst, residual cyst, primordial cyst, odontogenic keratocyst, ameloblastoma.

hMJ

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I . Primordial cyst 2 . De ntigerous cyst 3 . Rad i c u l ar or Periapical cyst 4.Residual cyst 5 . Lateral or Periodontal cyst

Nonodontogenic cysts: traumatic cyst, developmental cortical bone defects (Stafne's cyst).

Diagnosis Radicular cyst

Discussion The differential diagnosis of unilocular cystic lesions of the mandible includes a va­ riety of odontogenic, nonodontogenic and developmental lesions. The relationship of radicular cysts to teeth is an important differential feature that, along with patient age and FNA, facilitates the diagnosis. A schematic representation of the most fre­ quent mandibular unicystic lesions and their typical relationship to teeth can be seen in Figure 93-8. In the odontogenic category lesions can arise from different odontogenic elements such as the dental lamina (odontogenic keratocyst or OKC), enamel epithelium (dentigerous cyst) and root sheath of Hertwig ( radicular cyst). Dentigerous cysts can be radiographically suspected due to their typical relationship with the crown of an impacted tooth. Differential diagnosis between a radicular cyst and an OKC may be impossible on c1inico-radiographic grounds. Radicular cysts do not show keratinizing epithe­ lium which is typical of OKCs. Histochemical analysis of the contents of an OKC also shows elevated levels of glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase which is consis­ tent with the higher metabolic rate of this lesion. cr and MRI can sometimes distinguish unicystic ameloblastoma from a radicu­ lar cyst. On cr there may be an enhancing solid component projecting into the lumen of the lesion and on MRI enhancing papillary projections are seen. These fea­ tures should, however, be cautiously i nterpreted, because the walls of a radicular

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cyst may be thick and intensely enhancing when infected. F A howing ameloblas­ tic cell is needed to conclu ively establish the diagnosi of amelobla toma. Residual cyst are any cystic lesion that remain in the mandible after extraction of the overlying tooth. It can correspond to a prior periodontal cy t (although the e usually regres after tooth extraction) or any other cy tic Ie ion. I n Figure 93- , a panoramic view of the left mandible how a unilocular cy tic Ie ion with well de­ fined margins in an edentulous region. This benign appearing cystic lesion lightly displaces the roots of the adjacent second molar, which i otherwise normal. The normal appearence of this tooth potenlially excludes the po ibility of a lateral pe­ riodontal cyst as thi entity is a socia ted with a carious or devitalized tooth. The di­ agno is by exclusion is that of a residual cyst, possibly a radicular cyst, originating from the extracted first molar, that has not yet regres ed.

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They should be distinguished from a dental extraction socket, which shows radi­ olucent defects along the alveolar ridge, gradually tilling in with bone and smooth­ ing the alveolar margin. Figure 93-0 shows a panoramic view of an edentulous mandible with irregularities of the alveolar ridge. The largest defect is present in the region of the second molar, mimicking a cystic lesion or an aggressive mandibular process destroying the cortex. This patient had an oral tongue carcinoma and had several teeth extra ted before beginning radiation therapy. The cortical defects in the alveolar ridge represent the typical features of dental extraction sockets. A primordial cyst is the designation given to a cystic lesion arising from odonto­ genic elements. It has no recognizable relationship with the teeth and it is unknown from which layer of odontogenic tissue they are derived. Traumatic cysts are thought to result from bone marrow hemorrhage secondary to trauma with development of a blood filled cavity. They usually occur in associa­ tion with vital teeth. Typical radiographic features include a sharply marginated bor­ der with finger-like projections between the roots. Developmental cyst (Stafne's cyst) are marginal bony defects located in the lin­ gual aspect of the posterior mandible, distal to the second molar and below the in­ ferior alveolar canal. They are asymptomatic and most often discovered incidentally on routine plain radiographs, although they may be palpable. cr or MRI are per­ formed to rule out aggressive conditions eroding the mandibular cortex, and usually show associated salivary tissue which is thought to be responsible for this congeni­ tal defect. Radiographically they have well defined, slightly sclerotic margins and do not exceed 2 cm in maximal diameter. Figure 93-E shows a lateral view of the mandible with a well corticalized bony defect in the inferior mandibular cortex. This defect locates in the parasymphyseal region and below the level of the of the infe­ rior alveolar canal. The diagnosis for this patient is developmental cortical de­ fect (Stafne's cyst).

Epidem i o l ogy Periodontal cysts are the most common cystic lesions of the mandible, accounting for 40% of all periapical radiolucencies. According to their relationship with the roots of a tooth they are categorized as either radicular (centered upon the tip of the root) or lateral (eccentric to the root tip). They belong to the group of odonto­ genic lesions arising from the root sheath of Hertwig. They are more common in

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men and more frequently detected around age SO. al though they can be found at any age. ll1is Ie ion i rarely seen in association with deciduou dentition. A strong association with poor dental hygiene is recognized.

Pathophysiology Periodontal cyst result from an infectious or traumatic insult, or may be related to prior endodontic treatment. All these factors account for devitalization of the root canals, and for a periapical inflammatory proce s. Periapical inflammation, if main­ tained, tends to progre to a granuloma, and eventually, a periodontal cyst by way of activation of ostecla tic activity and secondary bone resorption. Anaerobic agents are usually the ource of periodontal infection. According to most expert the cy t will degenerate once the inciting timulus is removed. Radicular cy t are the end product of a spectrum of change related to periapical inflammation. This proce s u ually begins with increased vascularity and an inflam matory infiltrate surrounding a root and progressing to proliferation of fibroblast and epithelial rests of the root sheath. Finally, exten ion of the proces to the bone marrow with resorption of bony trabeculae forms a cystic cavity filled with inflammatory debris. There i a lag be­ tween hi tologic and radiographic finding . On radiographs thi progression is man­ ifested by widening of the periodontal space, with subsequent los of the lamina dura and a cystic radiol ucency around or lateral to the root. The arbitrary ize radiographically separating periapical granuloma from peri­ odontal cyst i 1 6 mm.

Cl inical Fi ndings Periodontal cy t are most often asymptomatic and incidentally di covered on r u­ tine dental radiographs. Symptoms such as swelling and tooth displacement are as­ sociated with larger lesions. Pain, foul breath and pontaneous purulent discharge into the oral cavity are seen when infection i pre ent. On a cr of the mandible (coronal reconstructions) ( Fig. 93-F) there is a midline cy tic lesion a'sociated with the roots of the inci or showing an area of cortical perforation on the lingual a pect of the mandible. The diagnosis for thi patient i infected radicular cy t fistulized to the oral cavity. 441

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Radiographically, a periodontal cyst is seen as a unilocular cystic lesion around a root of a devital­ ized tooth. Radicular cysts usually regress after tooth extraction.

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A periodontal cyst may mimic other more aggresive lesions such as OKC and unicystic ameloblastoma. Aggressive lesions such as lym­ phoma and metastasis can also manifest as a periapical radiolu­ cency.

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Imaging Findings Radiographically, periodontal cysts are unilocular lesions associated with the root of a devitalized tootb, showing well defined slightly sclerotic borders. When long­ standing, the lesion can grow and cause tooth displacement and root resorption, al­ though these features are only seen in 5% of cases. The cystic contents are homo­ geneous in density on CT. M R I has not proven useful in distinguishing radicular cysts from OKCs or unicystic ameloblastoma.

Management The management of radicular cysts is conservative, because most of these lesions heal spontaneously after root canal treatment or dental extraction. When there has been prior endodontic treatment and the tooth is sealed, opening of the pulp and debridement are usually sufficient. The previous trend to cunette the cavity in or­ der to remove aU epithelial remnants, has lost favor and may be harmful to the pe­ riapical vessels of adjacent teeth as well as other structures. Large, symptomatic periradicular lesions should, however, be managed by decompression procedures such as marsupialization, exteriorization or depressurization, especially when they impinge upon other structures (e.g., maxillary sinus, nasal cavity, inferior alveolar canal).

Suggested Readings Formigli, L., Orlandini, S.Z., Tonelli, P., Giannelli, M., Martini, M., Brandi, M.L., Bergamini, M., Orlandini, G.E. Osteolytic processes in human radicular cysts: mor­ phological and biochemical results. Journal of Oral Pathology and Medicine 24(5):21 6--20, 1 995 May. Gao, Z., Flaitz, CM., Mackenzie, I .C Expression of keratinocyte growth factor in periapical lesions. Journal of Dental Research 75(9) : 1 658-63, 1 996 Sep. Leung, S.F., Barnes, I.E. Conservative management of a radicular cyst associated with a nonvital tooth. Denial Update 22(6):253-6, 1 995 lui-Aug. Mason, G.r., Matthews, lB. In situ determination of different dehydrogenase activ­ ity profiles in the linings of odontogenic keratocysts and radicular cysts. Hisrochem­ ical Journal 28(3) : 187-93, 1 996 Mar. Mass, E., Kaplan, I., H i rshberg, A. A clinical and histopathological study of radicu­ lar cysts associated with primary molars. Journal of Oral Pathology and Medicine 24( 1 0):458-61 , 1 995 Nov. Minami, M., Kaneda, T., Ozawa, K., Yamamoto, H . , Itai, Y, Ozawa, M . , Yoshikawa, K., Sasaki, Y Cystic lesions of the maxillomandibular region: MR imaging distinc­ tion of odontogenic keratocysts and ameloblastomas from other cysts. American Journal of Roentgenology 1 66(4):943-9, 1996 Apr. Shrout M.K., Hall, J.M., Hildebolt, CE. Differentiation of periapical granulomas and radicular cysts by digital radiometric analysis. Oral Surgery, Oral Medicine, and Oral Pathology 76(3):356-6 1 , 1 993 Sep. Walton, R.E. The residual radicular cyst: does it exist? [editorial]. Oral Surgery, Oral Medicine, Oral Pathology, Oral Radiology and Endodontics 82(5):47 1 , 1996 Nov. White, S.C, Sapp, J.P., Seto, B.G., Mankovich, N.J. Absence of radiometric differen­ tiation between periapical cysts and granulomas. Oral Surgery, Oral Medicine, and Oral Pathology 78(5):650-4, 1 994 Nov. Zecchi-Orlandini, S., Formigli, L., Giannelli, M., Martini, M . , Tonelli, P., Brandi, M . L., Bergamini, M . , Orlandini, G.E. Radicular cysts are involved in the recruitment of osteoclast precursors. Journal of Oral Pathology and Medicine 25(6):325-30, 1 996 luI.

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Case 94

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Clinical Presentation A 2 1 -year-old female presented with nontender swelling of the left jaw, near the mandibular symphysis.

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Radiologic Findings On a CT of the mandible (Fig. 94-A) soft tissue and (Fig. 94-B) bone windows there is an expansile multilocular lytic lesion in the left parasymphyseal region. The bony septations within this lesion are rectilinear and there is thinning of the cortical mar­ gins. FNA revealed giant cells.

Differential Diagnosis: Giant Cells on FNA • • • • •

Giant cell granuloma Giant cell tumor Aneurysmal bone cyst Brown tumor Cherubism

Diagnosis Central giant cell granuloma

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Discussion This Ie ion is included in the broad radiographic category of multilocular cystic le­ sions of the mandible which includes several odontogenic and nonodontogenic en­ t ities. The only clinical and radiological features suggestive of thi diagnosis are pa­ tient age ( usually between the second and third decades), a location anterior to the second molar. and a tendency to extend across the midline. They al 0 tend to occur more freq uently in dentulous areas. Other characteristics, such a tooth di place­ ment and root resorption, relate more to the aggre siveness of the lesion and have little diagno tic specificity. F A may establish the diagno is, typically showing multinucleated giant cells, al­ though these cells may also be seen in other conditon including giant cell tumor. osteiti fibrosa cystica (or brown tumor of hyperparathyroidism) aneury mal bone cyst and cherubism. Giant cell granulomas are classified as peripheral or central according to location. 1 ) The peripheral lesion, also called epulis (or fibroma), is more frequent and is seen in the oft ti ues, usually the Ungual or vestibular gingiva. everal repeated traumatic events have been proposed a predisposing factor , such as dental extrac­ tion and ill-fitting dentures. Presentation, occurs typically later in life, usually after age 40. 2) The central or intrao seous lesions are rarer and controversy still exi ts re­ garding their pathophysiology and even their existence as a separate entity. ome expert have proposed that these lesions be divided into aggressive and nonaggres­ sive types, (which has more clinical ignificance), rather tban classification as two separate entit ies: giant cell granuloma (GCG) and giant cell tumor (GCT). Other think that both GCG, GCT and the aneurysmal bone cyst represent a continuum of the same proce s, each lesion howing different degrees of aggressivness modified by the age of the patient and location of the lesion. The term giant cell "reparative" granuloma, also used to refer to tbis entity, is being discarded because the lesion does not correspond to a reparative proce s.

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Epidemiology Central giant cell granulomas are relatively rare lesions that may occur in the jaws or in the small bones of hands and feet. In the jaw bones, they account for fewer then 7% of all benign lesions and they are more frequently seen in the mandible (2/3 of the cases). The peak incidence is in the second and third decades. A female predominance is consistently reported.

Pathophysiology TIle origin of giant cell granulomas is still the subject of speculation. The character­ istic cell is the multinucleated giant cell which some claim is derived from endothe­ lial cell lines and others consider osteoclastic in origin. Favoring the later hypothe­ sis is the fact that some GCG can be controlled using calcitonin therapy, and that they share some sinliJarity to brown tumors. Odontogenic origin has also been pro­ posed due to the tendency of the lesion to occur in dentulous areas at an age when there is an increased proliferation of these tissues. Nuclear inclusions seen on pathology suggest a viral etiology and are similar to those noted on Paget's disease. Trauma has never been proven to be a predisposing factor. The hallmark of GCG is the presence of giant cells in an exuberant fibrous ma­ trix. Osteoid formation and areas of hemorrhage may also be present and allow dif­ ferentiation from GCT. In GCT the giant cells are more diffusely and evenly dipersed in a matrix lacking the fibrous stroma and formed by cells with nuclei sim­ ilar to the nuclei of osteoclasts. In a microscopic view of a giant cell tumor of the mandible ( Fig. 94-E) note the mUltiple, evenly dispersed multinucleated giant cells within a matrix formed by cells which nuclei are similar to osteoclaSIS. The presence of scarse fibrous tissue within the matrix of the tumor differentiates this lesion from the more common giant cell granuloma.

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The peak incidence of GCGs and GeTs is in the second decade. As it grows, it may become a multilocular cystic lesion. The most common location is i n the anterior mandible. These lesions have a tendency to cross the midline. M ultinucleated giant cells can be seen on FNA. These lesions may mimic a brown tumor (perform labora­ tory tests to rule out hyper­ parathyroidism). The presence of giant ceUs is not pathognomonic for this lesion.

Brown tumor and cherub ism, although histologically similar to GCG and GeT, can be distinguished clinically. Brown tumor can be distinguished because of the typical laboratory values and cherubism by the typical c1inico-radiologic picture. Whenever a giant ceU lesion is diagnosed on FNA, serum calcium an parathormone serum levels should be determined to rule out hyperparathyroidism.

Clinical Findings This lesion is more commonly asymptomatic and discovered as an incidental find­ ing on a routine dental examination. When the lesion comes to clinical attention it is often large and presents with pain, swelling, pathologic fracture, numbness along the course of the inferior alveolar nerve or functional problems related to chewing.

Imaging Findings I maging is best performed with plain radiographs and CT. I n the earlier stages GCG can be unilocular with a well defined sclerotic margin. As the lesion grows, it may become multilocular and expansile showing progressively more aggressive features. As with other mandibular lesions, CT is used to evaluate the lesion's extent, in­ tegrity of the cortex, and the relationship to nearby teeth. Periosteal reaction may be seen, particularly when the cortex has been breached; soft tissue extension is also a possibility. The matrix of the tumor shows enhancement. On a CT of the maxilla, the axial view (Fig. 94-C) and coronal views (Fig. 94-0) show an expansile multi­ locular lesion in the right maxilla extending from the alveolar ridge into the right nasal cavity and right maxillary sinus. There is disruption of the inferior wall of the maxillary sinus and alveolar process. Lateral extension into the soft tissues of the right cheek is also noted. The lesion shows internal rectilinear septa. The diagnosis is giant cell tumor of the maxiUa. M R I may differentiate this lesion from the rare aneurysmal bone cysts which usu­ ally show typical fluid-fluid levels related to degradation of hemoglobin. Otherwise, this technique offers no advantadge in the differential diagnosis, the lesion being hy­ pointense on both Tl W and T2W i mages.

Management Giant cell granulomas are managed surgically. Depending on the size and aggres­ sivness of the lesion GCGs can be managed with simple curretage or radical res­ section, with or without bone grafting. These lesions are benign and do not tend to reccur when completely excised. Medical therapy with calcitonin, which has an in­ hibitory effect on osteoclasts can lead to remission of GCG.

Suggested Readings Bodner, L., Bar-Ziv, 1. Radiographic features of central giant cell granuloma of the jaws in children. Pediatric Radiology 26(2): 1 48-5 1 , ] 996. Kaffe, I ., Ardekian, L., Taicher, S., Littner, M.M., B uchner, A. Radiologic features of central giant cell granuloma of the jaws. Oral Surgery, Oral Medicine, Oral Pathol­ ogy, Oral Radiology and Endodontics 8 1 (6):720-6, 1 996 1un. Katz, 1.0., UnderhiU, T.E. Multilocular radiolucencies. Dental Clinics of North

America 38(1 ):63-8 1 , 1 994 Jan. Kaw, YT. Fine needle aspiration cytology of central giant cell granuloma of the jaw. A report of two cases. Acta Cytologica 38(3):475-8, 1 994 May-Jun.

TMJ AND MANDIBLEI Whitaker, S.B., Bouquot, IE. Estrogen and progesterone receptor status of central giant cell lesions of the jaws. Oral Surgery, Oral Medicine, and Oral Pathology 77(6):64 1-4, 1 994 Jun. Whitaker, S.B., Singh, B.B. Intraoral giant cell lesions: the peripheral and central forms of these entities. Practical Periodontics and Aesthetic Dentistry 7(6):41 -7, 1 995 Aug.

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Case 95 Clinical Presentation A 66-year-old female presented with a painless, slowly enlarging lump on the right side of her mouth.

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Radiologic Findings On a CT, soft tissue windows (Fig. 95-A) show a multilocular cystic mass expanding the right aspect of the mandible. A CT of the bone windows ( Fig. 95-B) shows ex­ pansion and thinning of the mandibular cortex around the mass.

Differential Diagnosis: Aggressive Multilocular Cystic Mandibular Mass • • • • • • • • • •

Ameloblastoma Odontogenic keratocyst Giant cell granuloma/tumor Eosinophilic granuloma Aneurysmal bone cyst Traumatic bone cyst B rown tumor Mutiple myeloma Metastasis Hemangioma

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Diagnosis Ameloblastoma of the mandible.

Discussion Epidemiology Ameloblastomas are epithelial odontogenic tumors believed to arise from ameloblasts. They usually occur in the third and fourth decades and may occur both in the maxillae and mandible. Eighty percent of the tumors arise in the mandible, with the molar ramus region the most common site of involvement. The remaining 20% arise in the maxillae. These tumors may extend locally into the maxillary sinus, nose, orbit, and base of the skull and rarely will metastasize.

Pathophysiology The gross appearance of the tumor is that of a relatively circumscribed cystic or solid lesion with larger tumors demonstrating necrosis and cystic degeneration. The histologic appearance is of two types: follicular is the most prevalent form with is­ lands of epithelium and fibrous stroma, and plexiJorm has islands of mature fibrous stromata intermixed with strands of epithelium. In both histologies, the outermost cells resemble ameloblastic or enamel epithelium.

Clinical Findings Ameloblastomas are slow growing and typically present as a painless mass.

I maging Findings The classic radiographic appearance is that of a uni- or multilocular radiolucency. A cr scan of another patient with ameloblastoma shows a similar multilocular ag-

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Ameloblastomas are epithelial odontogenic tumors believed to arise from ameloblasts. Most of the tumors (80% ) are found in the mandible, while 20% are found in the maxilLa. Unilocular or multilocular imag­ ing (nonspecific) is the classic ra­ diographic appearance. These tumors extend locally to adjacent areas, and rarely metas­ tasize.

gressive cystic lesion. Figure 95-C depicts the soft tissue windows while Figure 95-D shows the bone windows. The multilocular form may have a honeycomb or 'soap bubble' appearance although the bony margins are often well defined. The ra­ diographic findings are usually not specific for this entity and include several lesions in the differential diagnosis. The typical MR appearance is hyperintense signal on T2-weighted images and in­ termediate to hyperintense signal on proton-weighted images. Hyperintense signals on both proton- and T2-weighted images are suggestive of cystic ameloblastomas, whereas intermediate signal intensity on proton-weighted images is suggestive of solid elements of the ameloblastoma. M R has been reported to be superior to CT in terms of defining the tumor-normal tissue interface with less beam hardening sig­ nal degradation, and superior identification of the cystic component. CT is superior in defining the bony anatomy.

Management

Currettage or surgical excision are the treatments of choice.

Treatment consists of complete block resection of the tumor especially if the tumor is sobd. The cystic tumors tend to be less aggressive and some authorities treat with currettage.

Do not mistake ameloblastoma for other more benign lesion.

Suggested Readings Han, M.H., Chang, KH., Lee, CH., Na, D.G., Yeon, K M., Han, M.C Cystic expan­ sile masses of the maxilla: differential diagnosis with CT and MR. American Journal of Neuroradiology 1 6(2):333-8, 1 995 Feb. Heffez, L., Maffe, M.F., Vaiana, RJ. The role of magnetic resonance imaging in the diagnosis and management of ameloblastoma. Oral Surgery, Oral Medicine, Oral Pathology, Oral Radiology and Endodontics 65:2- 1 2, 1 988. McClatchey, K.D. Odontogenic lesions: tumors and cysts. In: Batsakis J.G, ed. Tu­ mors of the head and neck: clinical and pathological consideratiol1s, 2nd ed. Balti­ more: Williams and Wilkins 531 -536, 1 979. Minami, M . , Kaneda, T., Ozawa, K, Yamamoto, H . , ltai, Y, Ozawa, M . , Yoshikawa, K., Sasaki, Y Cystic lesions of the maxillomandibular region: MR imaging distinc­ tion of odontogenic keratocysts and ameloblastomas from other cysts. American Journal of Roentgenology 1 66(4):943-9, 1 996 Apr. Weissman, 1 .L., Snyderman, C.H., Yousem, S.A., Curtin, H . D. Ameloblastoma of the maxilla: CT and MR appearance. American Journal of Neuroradiology 14( 1 ):223--6. 1 993 Jan-Feb.

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Index

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Abdomen, cross-sectional imaging of, for Riedel's thyroiditis, 161 Aberrant internal carotid artery, 339-343 clinical findings of, 342 clinical presentation of, 339 differential diagnosis of, 339 imaging findings of, 342-343 management of, 343 pathophysiology of, 342 radiologic findings of, 339 schematic representation of, 340f, 34 1f, 342 Accessory parotid gland, 255-258 clinical findings of, 258 clinical presentation of, 255 differential diagnosis of, 255 epidemiology of, 256 imaging findings of, 258 management of, 258 pathophysiology of, 257 radiologic findings of, 255 Accessory salivary tissue, 257 Acoustic tumors, 392 and labyrinthitis ossificansiobliterans, 36 1 -364 Acute thyroiditis, 1 7 1 Acyclovir, for Bell's palsy. 4 1 6 Adenitis. 1 42 Adenoidal hypertrophy. and nasopharyngeal mass, 1 00 Adenoid cystic carcinoma, of parotid gland, 286-288 clinical findings of, 287 clinical presentation of, 286 differential diagnosis of, 287 epidemiology of, 287 imaging findings of, 287-288 management of, 288 pathophysiology of, 287 radiologic indings f of, 287 recurrence rate of. 288 Adenopathy, 68 Adjuvant radiotherapy, for multiple bilateral oncocytomas, 284 Adjuvant therapy, for Riedel's thyroiditis, 1 62 Albright-McCune-Sternberg syndrome, 1 4 Alveolar type. spindle cell tumor, 98 Amelanotic melanomas, 221 Ameloblastoma of mandible, 448-450 clinical findings of, 449 clinical presentation of, 448 differential diagnosis of. 448 epidemiology of. 449 imaging findings of. 449-450

management of, 450 pathophysiology of, 449 radiologic findings of, 448 Amphotericin B, for malignant otitis externa ( MOE), 379 Amplification for bony atresia of external auditory canal. 347 for incomplete partition of cochlea, 354 Ampulla of semicircular canals, and incomplete partition of cochlea, 354 Anaplastic thyroid carcinoma, 169-172 clinical findings of. 1 7 1 clinical presentation of. 1 69 differential diagnosis of, 170 epidemiology of. 1 7 1 imaging findings of, 1 7 1 - 1 72 management of, 1 72 radiologic findings of, 1 69-170 and Riedel's thyroiditis, 1 62 survival rate of. 1 72 A ngiography for aberrant internal carotid artery. 342 for esthesioneuroblastoma, 334 for glomus tympanicum, 401f, 402 for glomus vagal, 85 for Juvenile nasopharyngeal angiofibroma (JNA), 79f, 80 Anterior carcinomas, of supraglottic region, 63 Anterior disk dislocation, without reduction, 43 1 -436 clinical findings of, 433-434 clinical presentation of. 43 1 differential diagnosis of, 431 epidemiology of. 432 gender predominance of, 432 imaging findings of, 434-435 management of, 435-436 pathophysiology of. 432-433 radiologic findings of, 432 Anterior repositioning appliances (ARA). for anterior disk dislocation, 435 Antibacterial treatment, for labyrinthitis ossificansiobliterans and acoustic tumor. 363 Antibiotic therapy for internal jugular vein thrombosis. 1 25 for malignant otitis externa ( MOE). 379 for orbital cellulitis. 1 88 for petrous apicitis, 374 for retropharyngeal abscess, 142 Anticoagulant therapy, for internal jugular vein thrombosis, 1 25 Antifungal agents, for fungal sinusitis. 3 1 7 Antiinflammatory drugs, for retropharyngeal abscess, 142 Antithyroid drugs, for multinodular goiter, 1 68

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IINDEX Antiviral treatment, for labyrinthitis ossificans/obliterans and acoustic tumor, 363 Antoni A and facial nerve schwan noma, 4 1 9 and vestibular schwannoma, 389-390 Antoni B and facial nerve schwan noma, 4 1 9 and vestibular schwannoma, 389-390 Apical nrbital inflammation, 1 95 Arachnoid cysts. 393 Artifact. due to asymmetric fat-suppression failure. 203-205 clinical presentation of, 203 differential diagnosis of. 203 epidemiology 01', 203 imaging findings of. 204-205 pathophysiology of, 203-204 radiologic findings of, 203 Aryepiglottic fold. M RI of. for vocal cord paralysis. 42[. 43. 44 Arytenoid cartilage, 57 and vocal cord paralysis, 44 Arytenoids, radiograph of, for epiglottitis, 35/ Aspergillosis, 3 1 4-3 1 7 Aspergillus fumigatus. 3 1 7 Aspergillus species. and malignant otitis externa ( MOE), 379 Aspiration, and vallecular cysts, 52 Astrocytic hamartoma, 224 Atresia, of external auditory canal, 344-347 Audiogram, for Bell's palsy, 4 1 5 Audiometric evaluation for bony atresia of external auditory canal, 345 for CPA syndrome, 390-39 1 Auditory brainstem evoked responses for bony atresia of external auditory canal. 345 for incomplete partition of cochlea in children, 351 for CPA syndrome. 390-39 1 Autoimmune sialadenitis, 270-274 Autorhinectomy, 325 B

B2 agonist, for benign symmetric lipomatosis. 1 35 Basiphenoid, cr of, for nasopharyngeal rhabdomyosarcoma. 96[. 97 Bell's palsy, 4 1 2-4 1 6 clinical findi ngs of, 4 1 4-4 1 5 clinical presentation of. 4 1 2 differential diagno is of. 4 1 3 epidemiology of. 4 1 3 and facial nerve schwan noma, 4 1 9 imaging findings of. 4 1 5-4 1 6 management of, 4 1 6 pathophysiology of. 4 1 3 radiologic findings of, 4 1 2 recurrence rate of, 4 1 6 survival rate of, 4 1 6 Benign Iymphoepithelial cysts. and H I V infection, 263-265 clinical presentation of, 263 differential diagnosis of. 263 epidemiology of, 263-264 imaging findings of. 265 management of. 265 pathophysiology of. 264-265 radiologic findings of. 263 recurrence rate of. 265

1452

Benign symmetric lipomatosis. 1 32-1 36 clinical findings of, 1 34, 1 36 clinical presentation of. 1 32 differential diagnosis of, 1 33 epidemiology of, 1 33 gender differences of, 1 33 imaging findings of, 1 35, 1 36 management of, 1 3 5 pathophysiology of, 1 33-134 radiologic findings of, 1 32- 1 33 Benign tracheal process. and primary tracheal carcinoma. 1 8 1 Benign tumor. and adenoid cystic carcinoma. 288 Bilateral accessory parotid gland tissue, 257 Bilateral atresia, of external auditory canal, 344-347 Bilateral disease, and Warthin's tumor, 28 1 Bilateral oncocytomas, 282-285 Bilateral vallecular cysts, 52 Bilateral Warthin t umors. and benign Iymphoepithelial cysts. 265 Biller modification, of tumor, node. metastasis (TN M ) staging. 3341 Biofeedback techniques, for anterior disk dislocation, 435 Biopsy su rgery. for squamous cell carcinoma, 1 04 Birth, and lymphangioma. 1 1 7 Birt-Hogg-Dube syndrome, 1 30 Bone scintigraphy, for malignant otitis extern a ( MOE), 378 Bony atresia. of external auditory canal, 344-347 clinical findings of, 345 clinical presentation of. 344 differential diagnosis of. 344 epidemiology of, 345 imaging findings of, 346-347 management of. 347 pathophysiology of, 345 radiologic findings of, 344 Bony dysplasias, 366 Botryoid rhabdomyosarcoma, 99 Brachytherapy, for choroidal melanoma, 222 Brain tissue, M R I of, for dermoid cyst, 296[. 297 Branchial cleft cyst, 4 1 , 1 1 1 - 1 1 4 C

C�lcifications. and clival chordoma, 25 Caloric testing, for facial nerve schwan noma, 4 1 9 Caloric tests, for Bell's palsy, 4 1 5 Carcinomas of larynx. 57 of nasopharynx, 9 1 of supraglottic region, 63 Carotid artery, medial deviated (tortuous), 1 1 8- 1 2 1 Carotid body tumor, 85, 1 43-146 clinical findings of, 1 44 clinical presentation of, 1 43 differential diagnosis of, 143 epidemiology of, 1 44 imaging findings of, 1 45 management of, 145 pathophysiology of, 144 radiologic findings of, 1 43 Cavernous hemangioma, 2 '1 1 -2 1 3 clinical findings of, 2 1 2 clinical presentation of, 2 1 I differential diagnosis of, 2 1 2

I N DEXI epidemiology of, 2 1 2 management of, 2 1 3 pathophysiology of, 2 1 2 radiologic findings of, 2 1 1 recurrenCe rate of, 2 1 3 Cavernous lymphangioma, 1 1 6-1 1 7 Central giant cell granuloma, 443-446 classifications of, 444 clinical findings of, 446 clinical presentation of, 443 differential diagnosis of, 443 epidemiology of. 445 imaging findings of, 446 management of, 446 pathophysiology of, 445-446 radiologic findings of, 443 Central neurofibromatosis, 395-399 Cerebellopontine angle (CPA) lesions, 4 Cerebellopontine angle (CPA) syndrome audiometric evaluation, 390--39 1 auditory brainstem evoked responses for, 390--3 91 epidemiology of, 389 and facial nerve schwannoma, 420 imaging findings of, 391 , 393 and neurofibromatosis type 1 1 , 395, 398 symptoms of, 390--39 1 Cerebral peduncle, 4 Cervical lymphadenopathy, and nasopharyngeal rhabdomyosarcoma, 99 Cervical metastasis, for para pharyngeal space liposarcoma, 95 Cervical nodes, nomenclature of, 1 54. 1 54r Cervical radiographs, of neck, for medial deviated (tortious) carotid artery, 1 18, 1 1 8f Cervical region, lateral plain films of, for retropharyngeal abscess, 1 37, 1 37f, 1 39-140, 142 Cervical spine, cr of, for c1ival chordoma, 24-25 Cervicothoracic junction, MRI of, for posterior neck lipoma, 1 28f, 1 30 Chemotherapy for anaplastic thyroid carcinoma, 1 72 for internal jugular vein thrombosis, 126 for metastatic disease of skull base, 3 1 for nasal lymphoma, 326 for nasopharyngeal rhabdomyosarcoma, 98, 99 for non hodgkins lymphoma of nasopharynx, 9 1 for retinoblastoma, 228 for squamous cell carcinoma, 104 Cherubism, 1 4 and fibrous dysplasia, 1 7 Children auditory brainstem evoked responses in, for incomplete partition of cochlea, 35 1 and chronic sinus symptoms, 100 and dermoid cyst, 298 ectopic thyroid tissue in, 52 epiglottitis in, 36 and leukocoria. 229 lipoblastoma and lipoblastomatosis in, 95 and lymphangioma, 1 1 6 and primary tracheal carcinoma, 1 8 1 and retinoblastoma, 229 and retropharyngeal abscess, 1 38 imaging for, 140

and rhabdomyosarcoma, 98 and Sjogren syndrome, 2 7 1 a n d vallecular cyst, 5 2 Cholesteatoma, 381 -387 complications with, 3831 types of, 383r Cholesteatoma of EAC, and malignant otitis externa (MOE), 379 Cholesterol granuloma, 382 Chondroid tumor characterization of. 56 of larynx, 54-57 clinical findings of, 55 clinical presentation of, 54 differential diagnosis of, 54 epidemiology of, 54-55 imaging findings of, 56 management of, 57 pathophysiology of, 55 radiologic findings of, 54 recurrence rate of, 57 Chondroma, 57 Chondrosarcoma, 54-57 low grade, of skull base, 1 8-21 VS. metastasis to larynx, 7 1 Chordomas, 2 1 , 22-26 classification of, 24 Choriocarcinoma. metastatic, to skull base, 27-3 1 clinical findings of, 29 clinical presentation of, 27 differential diagnosis of, 28 epidemiology of, 28 imaging findings of, 29-3 1 management of, 3 1 pathophysiology of, 28-29 radiologic findings of, 28 recurrence rate of, 3 1 Choroidal melanoma. 2 1 9-222 clinical findings of, 221 clinical presentation of, 2 1 9 differential diagnosis of, 220 imaging findings of, 221 management of, 222 pathophysiology of, 2 2 1 radiologic findings of, 2 1 9 Chronic lymphocytic thyroiditis, 1 58 Chronic posttraumatic deformity. of larynx. 46-49 clinical findings of, 47-48 clinical presentation of, 46 differential diagnosis of, 47 imaging findings of, 48 management of, 48 radiologic findings of, 47 Chronic sinus symptoms and children, 1 00 Ciprolloxacin, for malignant otitis externa ( MOE). 379 C1ival chondrosarcoma, 20 Clival chordoma, 22-26 clinical findings of, 24 clinical presentation of. 22 differential diagnosis of, 23 epidemiology of, 23

IIN DEX C1ival chordoma (continued) imaging findings of. 24-26 management of. 26 pat hophysiology of. 23-24 radiologic findings of, 22-23 recurrence rate of. 26 Clivus. CT of. for c1ival chordoma, 25. 25f Closed canal mastoidectomy, 404--407 Coat's disease, 224j; 225 Cochlea. incomplete partition 01', 349-354 Cochlear implants for incomplete partition of cochlea. 354 for otosclerosis. 368 Cochlear otosclerosis. 366, 368 Colloid goiter. 167 Computerized tomography (CT) for anterior disk dislocation, 434--43 5 of basiphenoid, for nasopharyngeal rhabdomyosarcoma, 96[, 97 for Bell's palsy. 415 for carotid body tumor. 145 for cavernous hemangioma. 2 13 of clivus, for c1ival chordoma. 25, 251' of cricoid ring, for anaplastic thyroid carcinoma, 169, 1 69f for epiglollitis. 37 for glomus vagal, 85 and glollic lesions. 60 of hyoid bone. for thyroglossal dust cyst, 107. 107[, 108-109. 109f, 1 1 0 for internal laryngocele. 41 for intraorbital meningioma, 2 1 6 for laryngectomy staging, for supraglollic carcinoma. 64-65 of larynx for chondroid tumor. 54. 54j: 55j: 56. 56j: 57f for chronic posllraumatic deformity of larynx, 46j: 47. 48, 48f for metastasis. 70j: 7 1 for vallecular cyst. 51-52 for lymphangioma, 1 1 7 of mandible for ameloblastoma. 448, 448j: 449--450. 4491' for central giant cell granuloma, 443, 443[, 444f, 446 for multinodular goiter. 166-168 for mUltiple bilateral oncocytomas, 284 of nasopharynx for Juvenile nasopharyngeal angiofibroma (JNA). 78f, 79, 80 for nasopharyngeal rhabdomyosarcoma. 96j: 97, 99, 100 for Tornwaldt cyst. 76f, 77 of neck for benign symmetric lipomatosis, 1 32, 1 32j: 134f, 1 35 for internal jugular vein thrombosis, 1 22, 122f, 124-125. 125j: 126 for medial deviated (tortuous) carotid artery, 1 19-120. 1 201' for necrotic lymph node, 153[, 1 54, 1 55 for parapharyngeal space liposarcoma, 94-95 for normal postoperative findings, 268 of oral cavity for dermoid cyst. 237, 237j; 238[, 239 for hypoglossal denervation atrophy. 245. 246 for lingual thyroid. 235j: 236 for ranula. 241 . 24lj; 243 for squamous cell carcinoma. 249. 250 of orbits for choroidal melanoma. 2 1 9, 2 1 9f, 221

for lacrimal gland enlargement. 190[, 191 for orbital cellulitis, 185, 185j; 187-188, 187f for retinoblastoma, 223, 223[, 224, 227-228 [or thyroid orbitopathy, 197-198, 197j: 199-20 I . 200j: 202 for parathyroid adenoma, 1 77-178 of parotid glands for adenoid cystic carcinoma. 286[, 287, 288 for benign Iymphoepithelial cysts, 263. 263j: 264[, 265 for Sjogren syndrome, 270, 270[, 272-273, 274 for pleomorphic adenoma, 277 of post-cricoid region. for retropharyngeal abscess, 137. 137f, 139-142 for posterior neck lipoma, 130, 1 3 1 for radiation-induced optic neuropathy, 2 1 0 for radicular cyst, 438. 440. 441, 442 for Riedel's thyroiditis, 1 6 1 o f salivary glands for accessory parotid gland, 257[, 258 for sialolithiasis, 259. 259[, 260f. 261 , 262 for schwannoma, 88 for second branchial cleft cyst, 1 14 of sinonasal for dermoid cyst, 295. 295j: 297-298 for destructive maxillary sinus process. 328[, 329. 331-332 for esthesioneurohlastoma, 334-336, 335f for frontal sinus mucoceles. 308, 308j: 309}; 3 1 0-312. 31 1[, 313 for frontal sinus osteoma, 303, 303j; 305-306. 305f for fungal sinusitis, 314-31 5, 3 I 4f-315f for inverted papilloma, 3 1 9j; 320, 32 1 for nasal lymphoma, 324, 324[, 326. 326f for nasopalatine duct cyst, 299[, 300, 301-302, 30 l f of skull and facial hones, for polyostotic fihrous dysplasia. 13j; 14. 1 5-17, 1 6f of skull base for choriocarcinoma metastatic. 30, 3 1 for low grade chondrosarcoma, 20, 2 1 for skull base meningiomas, 5 , 7 of temporal bone for aberrant internal carotid artery. 339. 339j; 340j: 342-343 [or Bell's palsy, 4 1 2, 4 1 2j; 414[, 415--416 for bony atresia of external auditory canal, 344. 344j: 346-347. 346f for displaced stapedial prosthesis, 423, 423j; 424, 425--426 for displaced total ossicular replacement prosthesis (TORP). 408. 408j: 409, 409[, 410 for facial nerve schwannoma. 419--421 . 420j: 422 [or glomus tympanicum, 400. 400[, 401j: 402 for incomplete partition of cochlea, 349, 349[, 352f, 353-354 for labyrinthitis ossificans/obliterans and acoustic tumor, 361 , 361[, 362[, 363 for longitudinal fracture, 355. 355j; 356j: 357, 358-359 for malignant otitis externa (MOE). 375j: 376. 376j: 378-379 for normal postoperative simple mastoidectomy, 404, 404[, 405[, 406--407, 4061' for otosclerosis, 365, 365}; 367-368, 367f for pars flaccida cholesteatoma, 381j: 382. 384[, 385-386, 385j: 387 for petro us apicitis. 370[, 37 1 , 373-374 of thyroid, for anaplastic thyroid carcinoma. 16<). 169[, 1 70. 1 72 of trachea. for primary tracheal carcinoma. 17<), 1 79j: 1 80j: 181 for trigeminal nerve schwannoma, 10

INDEXI for vagus nerve schwannoma, 149. 1 5 1 for Warthin's tumor, 281 Congenital anomalies, of ear, 342, 345. 349-354 inner. 3501, 354 Congenital deafness. and membranous labyrinth, 35 1 Congenital ear anomalies, 342. 345, 349-354 Congenital inner ear anomalies, 350/, 354 Conservative surgery, for neurofibromatosis type 1 1 . 398 Construction interference in steady state (CISS), for vestibular schwannoma. 391 Conventional microsurgery, for vestibular schwannoma, 393 Conventional venography, for internal jugular vein thrombosis, 1 25 Correlative imaging, for otosclerosis, 368 Cosmetic surgery. for Riedel's thyroiditis, 1 6 1 -1 62 CPA syndrome. See Cerebellopontine angle syndrome Cranial fossa, and squamous cell carcinoma, 1 03 Cranial nerve XII palsy. 244, 246 Craniocaudal M R l of for nasopharyngeal rhabdomyosarcoma, 96[, 97 for posterior neck lipoma, 1 28[, 1 30 Craniofacial resection for destructive maxillary sinus process, 332 for esthesioneuroblastoma. 336 Craniopharyngiomas, 25-26 Cribriform plate, M R I of, for dermoid cyst, 296[, 297 Cricoid cartilage, 56, 57 cr of, for chondroid tumor, 54, 54[ M R I of, for metastasis, 69[, 70 Cricoid ring, cr of, for anaplastic thyroid carcinoma. 169. 1 69[ Cross-sectional imaging for destructive maxillary sinus process, 33 1 , 332 for esthesioneuroblastoma, 334 for multiple bilateral oncocytomas, 284 of orbits, mediastinum, or abdomen for Riedel's thyroiditis, 161 for pyriform sinus carcinoma, 68 for retropharyngeal abscess, 1 4 1 for trigeminal nerve schwannoma, 1 0, 1 1 Croup. 36 Cryotherapy, for retinoblastoma, 228 Curettage. See Surgical excision Cystic hygromas. 1 1 6-1 1 7 Cystic lesions, 53 and multinodular goiter, 1 67 Cystic neoplasm, and dermoid cyst, 239 Cystic parotid lesions, and Warthin's tumor, 281 D

Debulking surgery, for anaplastic thyroid carcinoma, 1 72 Decompression procedures. for radicular cyst, 442 Decompressive resections, for low grade chondrosarcoma, 2 1 Dental lamina. and radicular cyst. 438 Dental radiographs. for periodontal cysts. 44 1 . 442 Depressurization. ror radicular cyst, 442 Dermal sinuses. 297 Dermoid cysts, 1 9 1 of mouth, 237-239 clinical findings of, 237, 239 clinical presentation of, 237 differential diagnosis of, 237-238

imaging findings of, 239 pathophysiology of. 239 or nasal ridge, 295-298 age predominance of, 296. 298 clinical findings of, 297 clinical presentation of, 295 differential diagnosis of, 295 epidemiology of, 296 gender predominance or, 296 imaging findings of, 297-298 management of, 298 pathophysiology of, 296 radiologic findings of, 295 Dermoids, 297 Destructive maxillary sinus process, 328-332 clinical findings of. 3 3 1 clinical presentation of, 328 differential diagnosis of. 329 epidemiology of, 329 imaging findings of. 331-332 management of, 332 pathophysiology of. 329-330 radiologic findings of. 329 tumor, node. metastasis (TN M ) classification for. 330. 33 1 1 Developmental cyst, 440 Diabetes mellitus. and malignant otitis externa (MOE), 377 Diffuse lipomatous processes, vs. encapsulated lipomas, 1 3 1 Direct endoscopy, for epiglottitis, 37 Disk dislocation, without reduction. 43 1 -436 Displaced stapedial prosthesis. 423-427 clinical findings of, 425 clinical presentation of. 423 differential diagnosis of. 423 epidemiology of, 424 imaging findings of. 425-426 management of, 427 pathophysiology of. 425 radiologic findings of. 423 Displaced total ossicular replacement prosthesis (TORP), 408-41 0 clinical findings of, 4 1 0 clinical presentation of, 408 differential diagnosis of. 408 imaging findings of, 4 1 0 management of, 4 1 0 radiologic findings of, 408 Doppler ultrasound, for glomus vagal, 85 Doppler US venography, for internal jugular vein thrombosis, 1 25 Dorello's canal, and petrous apicitis. 372 Dural tail and c1ival chordoma. 26 and petroclival meningioma, 4, 7 E

Ear congenital anomalies of. 342. 345. 349-354 inner, 3501, 354 Ectopic thyroid tissue, in children. 52 Electric taste testing, for facial nerve schwannoma. 4 1 9 Electrocautery, for parathyroid adenoma. 1 78 Electromyography, for Bell's palsy, 4 1 5 Electroneurography, for Bell's palsy. 4 1 5

!INDEX Electron microscopy, for esthesioneuroblastoma, 336 Electron-spin resonance studies, for choroidal melanoma, 221 Electronystagmogram. for Bell's palsy, 415 ELISA, for retinoblastoma, 225 Embryonal type. spindle cell tumor, 98 En bloc craniofacial resection, for esthesioneuroblastoma, 336 En bloc resection, for inverted papilloma. 322 Encapsulated lipomas, vs. diffuse lipomatous processes, 131 Encephaloceles, 297 Enchondromatosis syndromes, 21 Endemic goiter. 164 Endoluminal approach, for sialolithiasis of parotid gland, 262 Endoscopic intranasal surgical treatment, for inverted papilloma. 322 Endoscopic resection, for frontal sinus osteoma, 306 Endoscopic surgery, for frontal sinus mucoceles, 3 12, 313 for posterior neck lipoma, '130 Endoscopy for epiglottitis, 37 for sialolithiasis of parotid gland, 261 of vocal cord, for squamous cell carcinoma, 58! End-to-end anastomosis, for vagus nerve schwannoma. 151 Enucleation for benign Iympboepitbelial cysts, 265 for choroidal melanoma, 222 for nasopalatine duct cyst, 302 for retinoblastoma, 228 for Warthin's tumor, 281 Enyzme-linked immunoabsorbent assay ( ELISA), for retinoblastoma, 225 Epidermoids, 297, 393 Epiglottis aryepiglottic folds radiograph of, for epiglottitis, 35J, 36! Epiglottitis, 35-37 in adults, 36 clinical findings of, 36--37 clinical presentation of, 35 differential diagnosis of, 35 epidemiology of. 36 imaging findings of. 37 radiologic findings of, 35 Episclera plaque radiation, for retinoblastoma, 228 Eskimo ancestry, and pleomorphic adenoma, 276 Esophageal carcinoma, and anaplastic thyroid carcinoma, 171 Esthesioneuroblastoma, 333-336 clinical findings of. 334 clinical presentation of, 333 differential diagnosis of, 333 epidemiology of. 334 imaging findings of, 334-336 Kadish grading system for, 3341 management of, 336 pathophysiology of, 334 radiologic findings of. 333 recurrence rate of, 336 tumor, node. metastasis (TNM) staging for, 3341 Ethanol ablation of hyperfunctioning thyroid nodules. 168 for parathyroid adenoma, 178 Ethmoidectomy. for inverted papilloma, 322 Eustachian tube MRI of, for nonhodgkins lymphoma. 90, 90!

Excision, for pleomorphic adenoma, 278 Exophytic thyroid nodules, and vagus nerve schwannoma. 150 Exteriorization. for radicular cyst, 442 External auditory canal, 344-347 External beam radiation, for retinoblastoma, 228 External beam radiotherapy, for nasopharyngeal rhabdomyosarcoma, 99 External laryngocele, 41 F

Facial nerve grading system. 414 Facial nerve grafting, for facial nerve schwannoma. 421 Facial nerve schwannoma. 4 17-422 clinical findings of, 419 clinical presentation of, 417 differential diagnosis of. 417-418 epidemiology of, 418 imaging findings of, 41 9-421 management of, 421 pathophysiology of, 419 radiologic findings of, 4 1 7 Facial process, and accessory parotid gland. 258 False vocal cords, 63 CT of, for chronic posttraumatic deformity of larynx. 46j.' 47 MRI of. 38J, 39 for chronic posttraumatic deformity of larynx. 46J, 47 for pyriform sinus carcinoma, 66J, 67 FATSAT. See Frequency selective fat suppression imaging Fenestral otosclerosis, 366, 368 Fibrogenic disorders, and Riedel's tbyroiditis. 162 Fibrous dysplasia, 13-17, 21 and cherubism, 17 forms of, 14 and intraorbital meningioma, 216 Fine needle aspiration cytology for adenoid cystic carcinoma, 288 for central giant cell granuloma, 444 for mucoepidermoid carcinoma, 291 Fissural cyst, and nasopalatine duct cyst. 302 Fleurettes. 226 Fluoride therapy, for otosclerosis, 368 Follicular tumor. 165 Foramen ovale. and squamous cell carcinoma. 103 Fossae of RosenmiiUer, 89 Frenulum, and ranula, 243 Frequency selective fat suppression imaging (FATSAT) for destructive maxillary sinus process, 330 for fat suppression artifacts of orbit. 204, 205 for intraorbital meningioma, 2 1 5, 217 for low grade chondrosarcoma. 20. 20! for malignant otitis externa (MOE), 379 for parapharyngeal space liposarcoma. 95 for radiation-induced optic neuropathy. 208. 2 1 0 and retinoblastoma, 229 for supraglottic carcinomas of larynx. 64 Frontal sinus mucoceles, 308-3 13 clinical findings of, 310--312 clinical presentation of, 308 differential diagnosis of, 308 imaging findings of. 312 management of. 312-31 3 pathophysiology of, 3 10 radiologic findings of, 308

INDEXI

Frontal sinus osteoma, 303-307 clinical findings of, 304 clinical presentation of, 303 differential diagnosis of, 303 epidemiology of, 304 imaging findings of, 305-306 management 0(, 306--307 pathophysiology of, 304 radiologic findings of, 303 Fulminant fungal infection. 31 6--3 17 Fungal sinusitis, 314-317 clinical presentation of, 314 differential diagnosis of, 315 epidemiology of, 315-31 6 imaging findings of, 317 management of, 317 pathophysiology of, 316--3 17 radiologic findings of, 314-315 recurrence rate of, 317 survival rate of, 317 G

Gadolinium enhanced MRI, for trigeminal nerve schwannoma, 10 Gallium bone scans for malignant otitis externa (MOE), 378 for petrous apicitis, 374 Gamma knife radiosurgery, for neurofibromatosis type 11, 399 Gardner's syndrome, 130 and frontal sinus osteoma, 306 Genetic counseling, for neurofibromatosis type 11, 399 Giant cell granuloma. 443-446 Giant cell tumor (GCf), and central giant cell granuloma, 444 Glioma, 297 Globullomaxillary cyst, and nasopalatine duct cyst, 302 Glomus jugulare, 150 Glomus tumor, schwannoma in poststyloid parapharyngeal space, 88 Glomus tympanicum, 400-402 clinical findings 0[, 402 clinical presentation of, 400 differential diagnosis of, 400 epidemiology of, 400-402 imaging findings of, 402 management of, 402 radiologic findings 0(, 400 Glomus vagal, 82-85 clinical findings of, 84-85 clinical presentation of, 82 differential diagnosis of, 83 epidemiology 0[, 84 imaging findings of, 85 management of, 85 pathophysiology of. 84 radiologic findings of, 83 Glottic cancers, 63 Glottic lesions MRI and Cf for. 60 for staging, 60, Glottic tumors. 59 Goiters, 163-168 imaging goals for. 166 and malignant nodules, 1 68 VS.

Gradenigo's syndrome, and petrous apicitis, 370-374 Graves' disease, and thyroid orbitopathy, 198 G ustatory sweating, and normal postoperative findings, 268, 269 H

Haemophilus inlluenzae virus, and pediatric epiglottitis, 36, 37 Hashimoto's thyroiditis, 158 MRI for, 161 Hearing aid. See Amplification Hemoptysis, and primary tracheal carcinoma, 181 Heparin therapy, for internal jugular vein thrombosis, 126 Herpes simplex virus (HSV), and Bell's palsy, 413 Herpes zoster infection, and Bell's palsy, 415 HIV infection. and benign Iymphoepithelial cysts, 263-265 Hodgkin's disease, 90 Horse collar, 134, 136 House-Brackmann facial nerve grading system, 414 Hower-Wright rosettes. 226 Hydrocephalus, and neurofibromatosis type 11, 398 Hyoid bone, for thyroglossal dust cyst Cf of, 107, 107! 1 08-109, 109! 1 1 0 MRI of, 108-109, l 09! 1 10 Hyperbaric oxygen therapy for malignant otitis externa (MOE), 379 Hyperfractionated radiotherapy, for anaplastic thyroid carcinoma, 172 Hyperthyroidism, and thyroid orbitopathy, 198 Hypoglossal denervation atrophy, 244-246 clinical findings of, 246 clinical presentation of, 244 di[ferential diagnosis of, 244 imaging findings of, 246 pathophysiology of, 245 radiologic findings of, 244 Hypopharynx, malignancy types of, 63 Hypoplasia, of tympanic cavity, 347 Idiopathic, 327 Idiopathic midline destructive disease, 317 Idiopathic perineuritis, 195 Immunohistochemical test, for esthesioneuroblastoma, 336 Immunoscintigraphy, for retinoblastoma, 228 Immunosuppression, and malignant otitis externa (MOE), 377 [mmunosuppressors for orbital pseudotumor, 196 or Sjogren syndrome, 273 Incisive canal cyst, 299-302 Incomplete partition, of cochlea, 349-354 clinical findings of, 351-353 clinical presentation of, 349 differential diagnosis of, 349 epidemiology of, 350 imaging findings of, 353-354 management of, 354 pathophysiology of, 350-351 radiologic findings of, 349 Infants and bony atresia of external auditory canal, 345 and dermoid cyst, 298 and lymphangioma, 1 17 and vallecular cysts, 53

IINDEX Infection and dermoid cysl. 297 and frontal sinus mucoceles. 3 1 2 and fungal sinusitis, 3 1 7 and malignant otitis externa (MOE). 377 I nferior hypopharynx. cancers of. 67 Inflammatory sinus disease. and inverted papilloma. 323 Infrahyoid epiglottis, tumors of. 64 Infratemporal fossa, Cf of. for Juvenile nasopharyngeal angiofibroma (JNA), 78f, 79 Inner ear, congenital anomalies 0[, 3501, 354 Internal carotid artery, 339-343 Internal jugular vein thrombosis, 1 22-126 clinical findings of. 123-124 clinical presentation of. 1 22 differential diagnosis 0[, 122 epidemiology of, 1 23 imaging findings of. 124-125 management of. 1 25-1 26 and necrotic nodes. 1 26 pathophysiology of. 123 radiologic findings of. 1 22 and thrombosis. 126 I,llernal laryngocele, 38-41 clinical presentation of, 38 differential diagnosis of, 39 epidemiology of, 39 imaging findings of. 4 1 management of, 4 1 pathophysiology of. 40-41 radiologic findings of, 39 and vallecular cysl. 52 International Union Against Cancer, and nomenclature of cervical nodes. 1 54. 1 541 Intraconal space. MRI of. for cavernous hemangioma. 21 1 . 21 If, 212. 2 1 3 Intranasal endoscopic surgery. for frontal sinus mucoceles, 312 I ntraocular malignancy. 223-228 Intraoral approach. for sialolithiasis of parotid gland. 262 Intraoral radiograph, of mandible, for radicular cyst, 437, 437[ Intraorbital meningioma. 2 1 4-21 8 and chiasm involvemenl. 2 1 8 clinical findings of. 2 1 6 clinical presentation of. 21 4 differential diagnosis of. 2 1 5 epidemiology of. 2 1 5 gender predominance of. 2 1 8 imaging findings of. 2 1 6-2 1 8 manag�ment of. 218 pathophysiology of. 2 1 5-21 6 radiologic findings of. 2 1 5 Intraparotid lymphadenopathy. and multiple bilateral oncocytomas. 285 Intravascular procedures, for internal jugular vein thrombosis, 125 Intravenous antibiotics, for petrous apicitis, 374 Intravenous contract, for sialolithiasis of parotid gland. 261 Intravenous therapy. for orbital cellulitis, 188 Inut ancestry. and pleomorphic adenoma. 276 Invasive fibrous thyroiditis. 1 58. 1 59. See also Riedel's thyroiditis I nverted papilloma. 31 9-322 clinical findings of, 321 clinical presentation of, 3 1 9

differential diagnosis of, 320 epidemiology 0[, 320 imaging findings of, 321 management of, 322 pathology of. 321-322 pathophysiology of, 321 radiologic findings of. 320 Iodine supplements, for multinodular goiter, 1 68 1- 131 study, for lingual thyroid, 234, 234f, 236 J

Jugular vein thrombosis, 122-126 Juvenile nasopharyngeal angiofibroma (JNA), 78-81 clinical findings of. 80 clinical presentation of. 78 differential diagnosis of. 79 epidemiology of. 79-80 imaging findings of. 80-81 management of. 81 pathophysiology of, 80 and pterygopalatine fossa, 81 radiologic findings of, 79 K

Kadish grading system for esthesioneuroblastoma. 3341

L

Labyrinthine aplasia, 35 1 , 353. See also Michel's deformity Labyrinthine malformations. associated syndromes with. 35 11 Labyrinthitis. 426 steroids for. 427 Labyrinthitis ossificans, and incomplete partition of cochlea. 354 Labyrinthitis ossificans/obliterans, and acoustic tumor, 361-364 clinical presentation of, 361 differential diagnosis of, 362 imaging findings of, 363 management of. 363 pathophysiology of. 362-363 radiologic findings of, 361-362 Lacrimal adenitis, 1 95 Lacrimal gland enlargement, due to acute dacroadenitis, 189-191 clinical presentation of, 189 differential diagnosis of, 1 90 imaging findings of, 1 9 1 management of, 1 9 1 pathophysiology of. 190- 1 9 1 radiologic findings of. 190 Langerhans cell granuloma. and otosclerosis. 366 Laryngeal cancers, 59. 63. 67 Laryngeal chondrosarcoma. 54-57 Laryngeal malignancies, 59 Laryngeal trauma, 46, 49 Laryngectomy. for chondroid tumor of larynx, 57 Laryngectomy staging for supraglottic carcinoma. 64-65 Laryngocele, internal, 38-41 Laryngoscopy, for supraglottic carcinoma. 64 Larynx chronic posttraumatic deformity of. 46-49 Cf of for chondroid tumor. 54, 54f, 55f, 56, 56f, 57[ for chronic posttraumatic deformity of larynx. 46f, 47. 48. 48[

INDEXI for internal laryngocele, 4 I for metastasis. 70f, 71 for vallecular cyst, 51-52 malignancy types of, 63 MRl of for chronic posttraumatic deformity of larynx, 46f, 47, 47f, 48 for internal laryngocele, 38f, 39, 40, 40[ for metastasis to larynx, 69f, 70, 7 1 for posterior neck lipoma, 1 29f, 130 for pyriform sinus carcinoma, 66f, 67, 68 for squamous cell carcinoma, 58f, 59, 60-61 for supraglottic carcinoma, 62f, 63, 64, 65 for vallecular cyst, 50f, 5 1 , 52, 52[ for vocal cord paralysis, 42f, 43, 44,45 Laser ablation for parathyroid adenoma, 1 78 and vallecular cysts. 52 Laser excision, for chondroid tumor of larynx, 57 Lateral plain films, of cervical region, for retropharyngeal abscess, 137, 137f, 139-140, 142 Lateral retropharyngeal nodes, 103 Lateral rhinectomy, for inverted papilloma, 322 Left thyroid cartilage, MRI and cr of, for chronic posttraumatic deformity of larynx, 46f, 47 Lethal midline granuloma, 324-327 Leukocoria, 226, 227 and children, 229 Leukocytosis, and petrous apicitis, 373 Levels, and nomenclature of cervical nodes, 154, 1 54r Levothyroxin, for multinodular goiter, 1 68 Lingual thyroid. 233-236 clinical findings of, 236 clinical presentation of. 233 differential diagnosis of, 235 imaging findings of, 236 management of, 236 pathophysiology of, 235 radiologic findings of, 234-235 Lipoblastoma. and pediatrics, 95 Lipoblastomatosis, and pediatrics. 95 Lipomatosis. 132-136 Lipomatosis of Launois-Bensaude. 133 Liposarcomas, categories of, 93 Liposuction for benign symmetric lipomatosis, 135 for posterior neck lipoma, 130 Liver disease, and benign symmetric lipomatosis, 1 36 Longitudinal fracture, of temporal bone, 355-359 clinical findings of, 358 clinical presentation of, 355 differential diagnosis of. 355 epidemiology of, 357 imaging findings of. 358 management of. 359 pathophysiology of, 357-358 radiologic findings of. 355 Longitudinal ultrasound, for parathyroid adenoma. 176-177, 176[ Low grade chondrosarcoma, of skull base, 1 8-21 clinical findings of, 1 9-20 clinical presentation of, 18 differential diagnosis of. 18 epidemiology of, 1 9

imaging findings of, 20-21 management of, 21 pathophysiology of, 1 9 radiologic findings of, 18 recurrence rate of, 21 survival rate of, 21 Lucency, in lymph nodes, 154 Lupus, and radiation-induced optic neuropathy, 210 Lyme disease, and Bell's palsy, 415 Lymphadenopathy, 103 and nerve sheath tumor, 151 Lymphangioma, 1 15-1 17 clinical findings of, 1 17 clinical presentation of, 1 15 differential diagnosis of. 1 1 5 epidemiology of, 1 1 6 imaging findings of, 1 1 7 management of, 1 1 7 and necrotic lymph node. 1 17 pathophysiology of, 1 16-1 17 radiologic findings of, 1 15 Lymphangioma simplex, 1 16-1 17 Lymphoma of head and neck. 89-91 of nasopharynx, 91 nonhodgkin hodgkin, 90 signal characteristics of, 26 Lymphomatoid granulomatosis, 327 Lynch procedure, for frontal sinus mucoceles, 312 vs.

M

Madelung collar, 133, 134, 1 36 Madelung disease, 1 32-136 Magnetic resonance angiography, for carotid body tumor, 145 Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) for aberrant internal carotid artery, 342-343 for ameloblastoma of mandible, 450 for anaplastic thyroid carcinoma, 172 [or benign symmetric lipomatosis, 135 for central giant ceU granuloma, 446 [or chondroid tumors of larynx, 56 for displaced stapedial prosthesis, 425-426 of dural tail, 7 for epiglottitis, 37 for frontal sinus osteoma, 305, 306, 307 for glomus tympanicum, 402 and glottic lesions, 60 for Hashimoto's thyroiditis, 161 of hyoid bone, for thyroglossal dust cyst. 108-109, 109f, 1 1 0 for incomplete partition of cochlea, 354 for internal jugular vein thrombosis, 125 of intraconal space, for cavernous hemangioma, 2 1 1 , 21 1f, 212. 213 for laryngectomy staging, for supraglottic carcinoma, 64-65 of larynx for chronic posttraumatic deformity of larynx. 46f, 47. 47f, 48 for internal laryngocele, 38f, 39. 40. 40[ for metastasis. 69f, 70, 71 for pyriform sinus carcinoma, 66f, 67, 68 for supraglottic carcinoma. 62f, 63. 64, 65 for vocal cord paralysis, 42f, 43, 44. 45 for nasal lymphoma. 326

lINDEX Magnetic resonance imaging (MRJ) (continlled) for nasopalatine duct cyst, 301 of nasopharynx for Juvenile nasopharyngeal angiofibroma (JNA), 78J, 79, 80, 80f

for nasopharyngeal rhabdomyosarcoma, 97, 97J, 99 for nonhodgkins lymphoma, 89. 89J, 90, 90J, 9 1 for squamous cell carcinoma, 1 0 1 , 1 01J, 102J, 103-1 04, 1 03f for Tornwaldt cyst, 75J, 76, 77 of neck for choriocarcinoma metastatic, 27J, 28 for lymphangioma. l I5, 1 1 5J, 1 1 6J, 1 1 7 for medial deviated (tortuous) carotid artery, 1 1 8, 1 1 8J, 1 1 9- 1 20, 1 20f

for multinodular goiter, 1 63, 1 63J, 1 66- 1 68 for necrotic lymph node. 1 52J, 1 53. 1 54, 1 55 for parapharyngeal space liposarcoma, 92-93. 92J, 94-95 for posterior neck lipoma. 1 28J, 1 29. 1 29J, 1 30. 1 3 1 for retropharyngeal abscess, 1 40J, 1 4 1 - 1 42 for Riedel's thyroiditis, 1 57J, 1 58, 1 60, 1 62 for second branchial cleft cyst. 1 1 3J, 1 14 [or vagus nerve schwan noma. 1 47J, 148, 149- 1 5 1 , 1 50f for normal postoperative simple mastoidectomy, 406 of oral cavity for c1ival chordoma, 22-23. 22J, 25. 26 for dermoid cyst, 237, 237J, 238J, 239 for hypoglossal denervation atrophy. 244, 244J, 245. 246 for lingual thyroid. 234. 234J, 236 for ranula, 242J, 243 for squamous cell carcinoma, 247, 247J, 248J, 249, 250 of orbit for choroidal melanoma. 2 1 9, 2 1 9J, 2 2 1 for fat suppression artifacts, 203. 203J, 204-205 for intraorbital meningioma, 2 1 4J, 2 1 5, 2 1 6--2 18, 2 1 7f for lacrimal gland enlargement. 1 89J, 1 90, 1 9 1 for orbital cellulitis. 1 87- 1 88, 1 87f for orbital pseudotumor. 1 92J, 1 93, 194- 1 96. 1 95f for thyroid orbitopathy, 1 99-20 1 , 200J, 202 for otosclerosis. 367-368 of parapharyngeal space, for glomus vagal. 82J, 83, 84J, 85 of parathyroid, for parathyroid adenoma, 1 74, 1 74[, 1 76-- 178, 1 76f of parotid glands for adenoid cystic carcinoma, 286[, 287, 288 for benign Iymphoepithelial cysts. 264J, 265 for mucoepidermoid carcinoma, 289J, 290, 291 for multiple bilateral oncocytomas. 282[, 283, 284 for normal postoperative findings, 267[, 268 for pleomorphic adenoma. 275J, 276. 276J, 277-278 for Sjogren syndrome, 272-273, 272f for pars flaccida cholesteatoma, 382, 386 for polyostotic fibrous dysplasia, 1 5 . 1 7 of poststyloid parapharyngeal space, for schwan noma, 86, 86J, 87, 87j,' 88

for radicular cyst, 438, 440. 442 of salivary glands for accessory parotid gland, 255, 255[, 256j,' 257, 258 for sialolithiasis. 260J, 26 1 . 262 for Warthin's tumor, 279, 279[, 280-28 1 of sinonasal for dermoid cyst, 296[, 297-298 for destructive maxillary sinus process, 328J, 329, 330. 330[, 33 1-332

460

for esthesioneuroblastoma, 333, 333[, 335-336, 335f for frontal sinus mucoceles, 309[, 3 1 0 for fungal sinusitis, 3 1 6[, 3 1 7 for inverted papilloma, 3 1 9J, 320, 32 1 of sk ull base for choriocarcinoma metastatic. 27[, 28, 29-3 1 , 30f for c1ival chordoma. 22-23, 22[, 25, 26 for low grade chondrosarcoma, 18, 1 8J, 20, 20f for petroclival meningiomas, 3J, 4, 5, 6f for trigeminal nerve schwannoma. 8[, 9, 10. I I, 1 1f of supraglottic larynx, for vallecular cyst, 50[, 5 1 . 52. 52f of temporal bone for facial nerve schwannoma. 417, 4 1 7J, 4 1 9-42 1 . 420J, 422 for labyrinthitis ossificans/obliterans and acoustic tumor, 36 1 , 361£ 363

for malignant otitis externa (MOE). 375£ 376, 378-379 for neurofibromatosis type 1 1 , 395, 395J, 397-398, 397f for petrous apicitis, 370[, 37 1 , 373-374 for vestibular schwannoma, 388, 388[, 391-393 for temporal bone fractures, 359 of temporomandibular joint (TMJ), for anterior disk dislocation, 43 1 , 43 1[, 432£ 433J, 434-435, 434f of trachea. for primary tracheal carcinoma, 180J, 1 8 1 of valleculae, for carotid body tumor, 143, 1 43j,' 144[, 145, 1 46 of visual pathways, for radiation-induced optic neuropathy. 207[, 208, 209-2 10. 209f

of vocal cord, for squamous cell carcinoma. 58}: 59. 60-61 Magnetic resonance signal voids, within paranasal sinuses, 3 1 2r Magnetic resonance venography (M RV) for internal jugular vein thrombosis, 1 25 for orbital cellulitis, 1 87 Malignancy, and multiple bilateral oncocytomas, 285 Malignant otitis externa (MOE), 375-379 clinical findings of, 377-378 clinical presentation of, 375 differential diagnosis of, 376 epidemiology of, 377 imaging findings of, 378-379 management of, 379 pathophysiology of, 377 radiologic findings of, 376 recurrence rate of, 378, 379 Malignant transformation, and Sjogren syndrome. 274 Mandible CT of for ameloblastoma, 448, 448J, 449-450. 449f for central giant cell granuloma, 443, 443[, 444j,' 446 intraoral radiograph of, for radicular cyst, 437, 437f Marginal supraglottic tumors, 64 Marsupialization for pars flaccida cholesteatoma. 386-387 for radicular cyst, 442 and vallecular cysts, 52 Mastoid air cells, 89 Mastoidectomy, 404-407 for pars flaccida cholesteatoma, 386 types of, 404r Maxillary sinus process, 328-332 tumor, node, metastasis (TNM) staging for, 331 r Maxillectomy, for destructive maxillary sinus process. 332 Meckel's cave and neurofibromatosis type 1 1 , 398 and petrous apicitis, 372

INDEXI

Medial deviated (tortuous) carotid 311ery, 1 18-121 clinical presentation of. 1 18 differential diagnosis of, 1 18 epidemiology of, 1 1 9 imaging findings of, 1 19-120 pathophysiology of, 1 19 radiologic findings of, 1 18 Medial maxillectomy, for inverted papilloma, 322 Mediastinum cross-sectional imaging of, for Riedel's thyroiditis, 161 Medical therapy for benign symmetric lipomatosis, 1 35 for orbital cellulitis, 188 for Sjogren syndrome, 273 Melanoma, 3 1 Melanotic schwannoma, of poststyloid parapharyngeal space, 87 Membranous labyrinth, and congenital deafness, 351 MEN II, and parathyroid hyperplasia, 178 Meningeal folds, 4 Meningiomas, 4 Meningiomatosis, 1 7 characterization of, 398 Meningitis, 426 MeningotheLial cells, 4 Mesenchymal tumor, of larynx, 55 Metastasectomy, for metastasis to larynx, 71 Metastasis, 24 to larynx, 69-72 clinical presentation of, 69 differential diagnosis of, 70 epidemiology of, 70-71 imaging findings of, 7 1 management of, 7 1 pathophysiology of, 7 1 radiologic findings of, 70 squamous cell carcinoma and aggressive chondrosarcoma, 71 survival rate of, 71 Metastatic disease, of skull base, 27-3 1 Methyl prednisolone for radiation-induced optic neuropathy, 210 Michel's deformity, 351 , 353 and labyrinthitis ossificans, 363, 364 Microsurgery for vestibular schwannoma, 393 Middle cranial fossa, and squamous cell carcinoma, 103 Middle cranial fossa subtemporal approach, for petrous apicitis, 374 Midline destructive disease, 327 Mikulicz's syndrome, 190 Mixed laryngocele, 41 Modified radical mastoidectomy, 406 Mondini's malformation, 349-354 Mucoceles, 308-313 Mucoepidermoid carcinoma, 289-291 clinical findings of, 290 clinical presentation of, 289 differential diagnosis of, 290 imaging findings of, 290-291 management of, 291 pathophysiology of, 290 radiologic findings of, 290 survival rate of, 291 Multidisciplinary surgery, for intraorbital meningioma, 218 vs.

Multinodular goiter, 163-168 clinical findings of, 165 clinical presentation of, 163 differential diagnosis of, 164 epidemiology of, 164 imaging findings of, 166-168 management of, 168 pathophysiology of, 1 64-165 radiologic findings of, 163-164 Multiple bilateral oncocytomas, 282-285 clinical findings of, 284 clinical presentation of, 282 differential diagnosis of, 283 epidemiology of, 283 imaging findings of, 284 management o� 284 pathophysiology of, 283-284 radiologic findings of, 283 recurrence rate of, 284 Multiple sclerosis, and radiation-induced optic neuropathy, 210 Myxoid liposarcomas, 93-94 N

Nasal lymphoma, 324-327 clinical findings of, 325 clinical presentation of, 324 differential diagnosis of, 324 epidemiology of, 325 imaging findings of, 326 management of, 326 pathophysiology of, 325 radiologic findings of, 324 Nasal ridge, for dermoid cyst CT of, 295, 295[, 297-298 MRI of, 296[, 297-298 Nasopalatine duct cyst, 299-302 clinical findings of, 300-301 clinical presentation of, 299 differential diagnosis of, 300 epidemiology of, 300 imaging findings of, 301-302 management of, 302 pathophysiology of, 300 radiologic findings of, 300 Nasopharyngeal bursa. 76-77 Nasopharyngeal lymphoma, 91 Nasopharyngeal mass, and adenoidal hypertrophy, 1 00 Nasopharyngeal rhabdomyosarcoma embryonal type, 96-100 clinical findings of, 98--99 clinical presentation of, 96 differential diagnosis of, 97 epidemiology of, 98 imaging findings of, 99 management of, 99 pathophysiology of, 98 radiologic findings of, 97 survival rate of, 99 Nasopharynx CT or for Juvenile nasopharyngeal angiofibroma (JNA), 78[, 79, 80 for nasopharyngeal rhabdomyosarcoma, 96[, 97, 99, 100

IINDEX

Nasopharynx (conrilllled) for non hodgkins lymphoma. 91, 9 1! for Tornwaldt cyst. 76f, 77 MRl of for Juvenile nasopharyngeal angiofibroma (JNA), 78]; 79, 80, 80! for nasopharyngeal rhabdomyosarcoma, 97, 97f 99 for non hodgkins lymphoma, 89, 89f, 90, 90f, 91 for squamous cell carcinoma, 101 , 1 01f, 1 02f, 1 03-1 04. 103! for Tornwaldt cyst. 75f, 76, 77 Neck cervical radiographs of, for medial deviated (tortuous) carotid artery, 1 18, 1 1 8! cr of for benign symmetric lipomatosis, 1 32. 132f, 134f, 1 35 for internal jugular vein thrombosis, 1 22, 1 22f, 1 24-125, 1 25}: 126 for medial deviated (tortuous) carotid artery, 1 1 9-120, 1 20! for necrotic lymph node, 153f, 1 54, 1 55 for parapharyngeal space liposarcoma, 94-95 MRl of for choriocarcinoma metastatic, 27f, 28 for lymphangioma, 1 1 5. 1 I Sf, 1 1 6f, 1 1 7 for medial deviated (tortuous) carotid artery. 1 1 8, 1 18}: 1 1 9-120. 1 20! for multinodular goiter, 1 63, 163f, 1 66-- 1 68 for necrotic lymph node, 1 52f, 1 53, 1 54, 1 55 for parapharyngeal space liposarcoma, 92-93, 92f, 94-95 for posterior neck Lipoma, 1 28f, 129, 1 29f, 130, 1 3 1 for retropharyngeal abscess, 140f, 141-142 for Riedel's thyroiditis, 1 57f, 1 58, 1 60, 1 62 for second branchial cleft cyst, 1 13f, 1 1 4 for thyroglossal dust cyst. 108--1 09, 1 09f, J J O for vagus nerve schwannoma, 1 47f, 148, 149- 1 5 1 , J 50! plain film of. for Riedel's thyroiditis, 1 6 1 Neck dissection for adenoid cystic carcinoma, 288 for mucoepidermoid carcinoma, 29 1 for necrotic lymph node, J56 for parapharyngeal space liposarcoma. 95 Neck lipoma. 1 27-1 3 1 Necrotic lymph node and lymphangioma, J J 7 from squamous cell carcinoma metastases. 1 52-156 clinical findings of. 1 54 clinical presentation of. 1 52 differential diagnosis of, 1 53 epidemiology of. 1 53 imaging findings of, 155 management of. 1 55-1 56 pathophysiology of. 1 54-1 55 radiologic findings of. 1 53 survival rate of, 1 53, 1 54 Necrotic nodes, and internal jugular vein thrombosis, 1 26 Neoadjuvant therapy for neurofibromatosis type I I . 399 Neoplastic process and non-neoplastic optic neuritis, 210 and orbital pseudotumor, 1 96 Nerve decompression for Bell's palsy. 4 1 6 erve sheath tumors, 147-15J Nerve X I I palsy, 244, 246 Neuroectodermal perineural cells, 148

Neurofibromas, 1 48, 1 49 eurofibromatosis, 1 5 1 Neurofibromatosis type 11, 395-399 clinical findings of, 396--397 clinical presentation of, 395 differential diagnosis of, 395 epidemiology of, 396 imaging findings of, 397-398 management of, 398-399 pathophysiology of, 396 radiologic findings of, 395 Nodal dissection, for pyriform sinus carcinoma, 68 Nodes of Rouviere, 103 Nonhodgkins lymphoma, 1 22 of nasopharynx, 89-9 1 clinical findings of, 90 clinical presentation of, 89 differential diagnosis of. 89 epidemiology of. 90 imaging findings of, 91 management of, 91 pathophysiology of, 90 radiologic findings of, 89 Non-neoplastic optic neuritis, and neoplastic processes, 210 Normal postoperative findings, of parotid gland, 267-269 clinical findings of. 268 clinical presentation of, 267 differential diagnosis of, 268 imaging findings of. 268 management of, 268 pathophysiology of, 268 radiologic findings of, 268 Normal postoperative simple mastoidectomy, 404-407 clinical presentation of. 404 differential diagnosis of, 405 imaging findings of, 406-407 radiologic findings of, 404 Nosebleeds, 78, 81 o

Obesity, and benign symmetric lipomatosis, 136 Obliterative surgery, for frontal sinus mucoceles, 3 1 2 Occult nasopharyngeal mass, 104 Ocular toxocariasis. 225 Ocular ultrasound. for retinoblastoma, 227 Odontogenic keratocyst. and nldicular cyst, 438 Odontogenic lesions, and nasopalatine duct cyst, 302 Ohngren's line, and destructive maxillary sinus process, 330 OKC, 438 Olfactory neuroblastoma, 333-336 Oncocytomas, 282-285 Opacified obstructed sinuses, and esthesioneuroblastoma, 336 Open cavity mastoidectomy, 406 Open lipectomy, for benign symmetric lipomatosis, 1. 35 Open obliterative surgery, for frontal sinus mucoceles, 3 1 2 Ophthalmic veins, varix o f. and cavernous hemangioma, 2 1 3 Optic nerve. radiation necrosis of. 208-209 Optic nerve glioma, and intraorbital meningioma, 2 1 8 Optic nerve meningiomas, 2 1 4-2 1 8 Optic neuropathy. radiation-induced, 207-210 Oral cavity CT of for dermoid cyst, 237, 237}: 238f, 239

INDExJ

for hypoglossal denervation atrophy, 245, 246 for lingual thyroid. 235J, 236 for ranula. 24 1 . 24 1J, 243 for squamous cell carcinoma, 249, 250 MRl of for choriocarcinoma metastatic, 27/. 28 for clival chordoma, 22/. 23 for dermoid cyst. 237, 237J, 238J, 239 for hypoglossal denervation atrophy, 244, 244J, 245, 246 for lingual thyroid. 234, 234J, 236 for ranula. 242J, 243 for squamous cell carcinoma. 247. 247J, 248J, 249. 250 Orbit cross-sectional imaging of, for Riedel's thyroiditis. 1 6 1 Cf of for choroidal melanoma. 2 1 9, 2 1 9J, 2 2 1 for lacrimal gland enlargement, 1 90J, 1 9 1 for orbital cellulitis, 1 85, 1 85J, 1 87-188. 1 87! for retinoblastoma, 223. 223J, 224, 227-228 for thyroid orbitopathy, 1 97-198, 1 97J, 1 99-20 1 , 200/. 202 MRl of for cavernous hemangioma, 2 1 1 , 2 1 1 J, 2 1 2, 2 1 3 for choroidal melanoma, 2 1 9, 2 1 91, 22 1 for fat suppression artifacts. 203, 2031, 204-205 for intraorbital meningioma, 2 1 4J, 2 1 5, 2 1 6-2 1 8, 2 17! for lacrimal gland enlargement. 1 89/. 1 90, 1 9 1 for orbital cellulitis, 1 87-188. 1 87! for orbital pseudotumor. 1 92J, 1 93. 1 94-1 96, 1 95! for thyroid orbitopathy. 1 99-201 . 200j; 202 tumors of. 2 1 1 -2 1 3 Orbital cellulitis, 1 85-1 88, 205 clinical findings 01', 186- 1 87 clinical presentation of, 1 85 differential diagnosis of, 1 86 epidemiology of, 186 imaging findings of, 1 87-188 management 01', 1 88 pathophysiology of. 1 86 radiologic findings of, 185 Orbital exenteration, for choroidal melanoma, 222 Orbital infections, 1 86 Orbital neoplasms. and radiotherapy. 209 Orbital pathology, and fat suppression artifacts of orbit. 205 Orbital pseudotumor, 192-196. 205 clinical findings of, 1 94 clinical presentation of. 1 92 differential diagnosis of. 1 93 epidemiology of, 1 93 imaging findings of. 1 94-196 management of. 1 96 pathophysiology of. 1 93 radiologic findings of. 1 93 Orbital tumors. 2 1 4-2 1 8 Orbitofrontal neoplasms. and radiotherapy. 209 Oropharynx. See Oral cavity Ossicular dislocation. and longitudinal fracture of temporal bone. 359

Ossifying fibroma. 1 5 . 1 7 Osteitis deformans, 366 Osteolysis. 366 Osteoma, 303-307 Osteoplastic approach, for frontal sinus osteoma, 306-307

Osteoplastic flap, for frontal sinus mucoceles, 3 1 2 Osteosarcoma, 69-72 Otic placode, and labyrinthine aplasia, 35 1 Otologic examination, for petrous apicitis, 373 Otorrhea, 358 Otosclerosis, 365-369 clinical findings of, 367 clinical presentation of, 365 differential diagnosis of. 366 epidemiology of, 366 imaging findings of, 367-368 management of, 368 pathophysiology of, 366-367 radiologic findings 01', 365 treatment 01', 424 p

Paget's disease, 1 7, 2 1 , 366 and intraorbital meningioma. 216 Palliative radiation therapy, for parapharyngeal space liposarcoma, 95 Papilledema, 1 94 Paragangliomas classifications 01', 84 and poststyloid parapharyngeal space. 83-84 Paranasal sinus ( PNS) Cf of for destructive maxillary sinus process, 328J, 329, 33 1 -332 for frontal sinus mucoceles, 308, 308J, 309J, 3 1 0-3 1 2, 3 1 1J, 3 1 3 for frontal sinus osteoma, 303. 303J, 305-306, 305! for inverted papilloma. 3 1 9/. 320. 321 for nasopalatine duct cyst, 301-302. 301! MRl of for destructive maxillary sinus process, 328J, 329, 330, 330J, 331-332

for frontal sinus mucoceles, 309J, 3 10 for inverted papilloma, 3 1 9J, 320, 321 M R signal voids within, 3 1 2r Parapharyngeal space MRl of for glomus vagal, 82J, 83. 841, 85 for schwannoma. 86, 86/. 87, 87J, 88 Parapharyngeal space liposarcoma, 92-95 clinical findings of, 94 clinical presentation of, 92 differential diagnosis of, 93 epidemiology 01', 93 imaging findings of. 94-95 management of, 95 pathophysiology of, 93-94 radiologic findings of, 92-93 Parathyroid MRI of. for parathyroid adenoma, 1 74. 1 741, Parathyroid adenoma, 1 74-178 clinical findings of, 1 75 clinical presentation of, 1 74 differential diagnosis of, 175 epidemiology of, 1 75 imaging findings of, 1 76-178 management of, 1 78 pathophysiology of, 1 75-176 radiologic findings of, 1 74

1 76-178, 1 76f

I INDEX

Parathyroid adenomas, and vagus nerve schwannoma, 150 Parathyroid cysts, 1 77-178 Parathyroid hyperplasia, 1 77 Parotidectomy for adenoid cystic carcinoma, 288 for pleomorphic adenoma, 278 for Sjogren syndrome, 273 for Warthin's tumor. 281 Parotid glands, 255-258. See also Salivary glands CT of for adenoid cystic carcinoma. 286f, 287, 288 for benign Iymphoepithelial cysts, 263, 263f, 264f, 265 for sialolithiasis. 259. 259f, 260/; 261 . 262 for Sjogren syndrome, 270, 270f, 272-273. 274 and HIV infection, 263-265 MRl of for adenoid cystic carcinoma, 286f, 287, 288 for benign Iymphoepithelial cysts, 264f, 265 for mucoepidermoid carcinoma, 289f, 290, 291 for multiple bilateral oncocytomas, 282f, 283, 284 for normal postoperative findings, 267f, 268 for pleomorphic adenoma, 275f, 276. 276f, 277-278 for sialolithiasis, 260f, 261 , 262 for Sjogren syndrome, 272-273, 272/ sialography of for Sjogren syndrome, 272-273, 272/ and Warthin's tumor. 280. 281 Parotid resection, for normal postoperative findings, 268 Pars flaccida cholesteatoma, 381-387 clinical findings of. 384 clinical presentation of. 381 complications with, 387 differential diagnosis of, 382 imaging findings of, 385-386 management of. 386-387 pathophysiology of. 383 radiologic findings of, 382 recurrence rate of, 387 types of, 3831 Partial maxillectomy, for destructive maxillary sinus process, 332 Partial ossicular replacement prosthesis (PORP). 409 Pathologic process, and accessory parotid gland, 258 Pediatrics. See Children; Infants Percutaneous proton irradiation. for choroidal melanoma, 222 Perinatal period, and lymphangioma, 1 17 Perineuritis, 194 Periodontal cysts. 440-441 Petroclival meningioma classification of, 4 petrous apex type, 6 tentorial type, 3-7 clinical findings of, S clinical presentation of. 3 differential diagnosis of. 5, 7 epidemiology of, 4 management of. 6-7 pathophysiOlogy of. 4 radiologic findings of. 4 recurrence rate of. 7 Petrolls apicitis with Gradenigo's syndrome. 370--374 clinical findings of. 372-373

clinical presentation of. 370 differential diagnosis of, 371 epidemiology of, 371-372 imaging findings of, 373-374 management of. 374 pathophysiology of, 372 radiologic findings of. 371 Petrous ridge. dural tail, 4 Pharynx, MRI of. for posterior neck lipoma, 129f, 130 Phlegmons, 142 Photocoagulation. for retinoblastoma. 228 Plain film abnormal supraglottic soft tissue mass, 53 for anterior disk dislocation. 436 of cervical region. for retropharyngeal abscess, 1 37, 1 37f, 1 39-140, 1 42 for epiglottitis, 37 for frontal sinus osteoma. 305 for multinodular goiter. 1 67 of neck, for Riedel's thyroiditis, 161 for sialolithiasis of parotid gland. 261 for trigeminal nerve schwannoma. 10 Pleomorphic adenoma, 275-278 clinical presentation of, 275 differential diagnosis of, 276 epidemiology of. 276-277 imaging findings of, 277-278 management of, 278 pathophysiology of, 277 radiologic findings of, 276 recurrence rate of, 277-278 Pleomorphic liposarcomas, 93-94 Pleomorphic rhabdomyosarcoma, spindle cell tumor. 98 Polymorphic reticulosis, 327 Polyostotic fibrous dysplasia leontiasis ossea. 13- 1 7 clinical findings of, 15 clinical presentation of. 1 3 differential diagnosis of, 1 4 epidemiology of. 14-- 1 5 etiology of, 15 imaging findings of, 1 5-17 management of. 1 7 pathophysiology of, I S radiologic findings of. 14 recurrence rate of, 17 PORP, 409 Post-cricoid region. CT of, for retropharyngeal abscess. 1 37. 1 37f, 1 39-142 Posterior neck lipoma, 1 27-1 3 1 clinical findings of, 1 29-130 clinical presentation of, 1 27 differential diagnosis of. 1 27 epidemiology of. 128 imaging findings of. 1 30. 1 3 1 management of, 1 30 pathophysiology of, 1 29 radiologic findings of, 127 recurrence rate of, 130 surgical specimen of, 1 27f Posterior triangle. MRI of. for lymphangioma, 1 15. 1 15f, 1 16f, J 17 Posterolateral carcinomas, of supraglottic region. 63

I NDEXI

Posterolateral supraglottic tumors, 64 Postmastoidectomy imaging evaluation, 405t Postoperative radiotherapy for adenoid cystic carcinoma, 288 for mucoepidermoid carcinoma, 291 for vagus nerve schwannoma. 1 5 1 Postoperative simple mastoidectomy, 404-407 Poststyloid parapharyngeal space. MRI of, for schwannoma. 86, 86f, 87, 87f, 88 Posttraumatic deformity, of larynx, 46-49 Prednisone, for Bell's palsy, 4L6 Prelabyrinthine approach, for petrous apicitis, 374 Preoperative embolization for carotid body tumor. 1 45, 1 46 for gLomus vagal, 85 for JuveniLe nasopharyngeal angiofibroma (JNA), 81 Preoperative staging, for esthesioneurobLastoma, 336 Primary tracheal carcinoma, 1 79-1 8 1 clinical findings of. L 8 L clinical presentation of, 1 79 differential diagnosis of, 1 79 epidemiology of. 1 80 imaging findings of, 181 pathophysiology of, 1 8 1 radiologic findings of, 1 79 Primordial cyst, 440 Prosthesis, for anterior disk dislocation, 435 Proton beam therapy. for clival chordoma, 26 Pseudolymphoma, 327 Pseudomonas, and malignant otitis externa (MOE), 377 Pseudomonas aeruginosa. and malignant otitis externa (MOE), 379 Pterygopalatine fossa CT of for Juvenile nasopharyngeal angiofibroma (JNA), 78f, 79 MRl of for Juvenile nasopharyngeal angiofibroma (JNA), 78f, 79 Purulent thrombophlebitis, and internal jugular vein thrombosis, 125 Pyriform sinus carcinoma, 66-68 clinical presentation of, 66 differential diagnosis of. 67 epidemiology of, 67 imaging findings of. 68 laryngeal cancer, 68 management of, 68 pathophysiology 0[, 67-68 radiologic findings of. 67 supraglollic lesions, 67 vs.

vs.

Q

Quervain's thyroiditis. 1 58 R

Radiation-induced optic neuropathy. 207-210 clinical Ilndings of, 209 clinical presentation of. 207 differential diagnosis of, 208 epidemiology of, 208 gender predominance of, 208 imaging findings of. 209-210

management of, 210 pathophysiology of. 208-209 radiologic findings of, 208 Radiation necrosis of optic nerve, 208-209 for radiation-induced optic neuropathy, 210 Radiation therapy for anaplastic thyroid carcinoma. 1 72 for carotid body tumor. 145 for dival chordoma. 26 for destructive maxillary sinus process, 332 for csthesioneuroblastoma, 336 for glomus tympanicum, 402 for glomus vagal, 85 for internal jugular vein thrombosis, 126 for intraorbital meningioma, 218 for inverted papilloma, 322 for Juvenile nasopharyngeal angiofibroma (JNA), 81 for low grade chondrosarcoma. 21 for multiple bilateral oncocytomas, 284 for nasal lymphoma, 326 for nasopharyngeal rhabdomyosarcoma, 98, 99 for nasopharynx non hodgkins lymphoma, 91 for necrotic lymph node, 1 56 for neurofibromatosis type [1, 399 for orbital pseudolUmor, 1 96 for parapharyngeal space liposarcoma, 95 for parathyroid carcinoma, 1 78 for pyriform sinus carcinoma, 68 for skull base metastatic disease, 31 and squamous cell carcinoma. 61 for squamous cell carcinoma, 103, 1 04, 250 for supraglottic carcinoma. 64-65 for tentorial type petroclival meningioma, 6 for thyroid orbitopathy, 201 Radical mastoidectomy, 406 Radical neck dissection (RND) for multiple bilateral oncocytomas, 284 for necrotic lymph node, 1 53f, 1 54, 155 Radical surgery, for parathyroid carcinoma. 1 78 Radicular cyst. 437-432 age predominance of, 440-441 clinical findings of. 441 clinical presentation of, 437 differential diagnosis of. 437-438 epidemiology of. 440-441 imaging findings of, 442 management of. 442 pathophysiology of, 441 radiologic findings of, 437 Radiographic differential diagnosis, for second branchial cleft cyst, 1 14 Radiographic image, for otosclerosis. 368 Radiographs of epiglollis aryepiglollic folds, 35f, 36/ for frontal sinus osteoma. 306 of mandible, for radicular cyst. 437. 437/ for periodontal cysts, 441 . 442 Radioiodine, for multinodular goiter, 1 68 Radiolabelled iodine (1- 1 3 1 ) study, for lingual thyroid. 234. 234f, 236 Radiological imaging, for supraglottic carcinomas of larynx, 64

(INDEX Radiosurgery for neurofibromatosis type I I, 398 for vestibular schwannoma. 393 Ramsay-Hunt syndrome, and Bell's palsy. 4 1 5 Ranula, 24 1 -243 clinical findings of, 243 clinical presentation of. 24 1 and dermoid cyst. 239 differential diagnosis of, 241 imaging findings of, 243 management 0[, 243 pathophysiology 0[, 243 radiologic findings of, 241 Reconstruction, for facial nerve schwannoma. 42 1 Recurrent parotitis, 271 Renal cell carcinoma, 31 Residual cysts, 439 Respiratory distress, and benign symmetric lipomatosis. 1 36 Retinal astrocytoma, 224 Retinoblastoma, 223-228 clinical findings of, 226-227 clinical presentation of, 223 differential diagnosis of. 223 epidem iology of. 225 groups of. 225 imaging findings of, 227-228 management of. 228 pathophysiology of, 225-226 radiologic findings of, 223 recurrence rate of. 228 stages 0[, 226-227 survival rate of. 228 Retrofenestral otosclerosis, 366, 368 Retropharyngeal abscess. 1 37-142 clinical findings of, 1 39 clinical presentation of, 1 37 differential diagnosis of, 1 37 epidemiology of. 1 38-139 imaging findings of, 1 39-142 management of, 142 pathophysiology of, 1 39 radiologic findings of, 1 37 Retropharyngeal infection. 1 39 Retropharyngeal lymphadenopathy, and nasopharyngeal rhabdomyosarcoma. 99 Retropharyngeal nodes, 1 03 Retropharyngeal space, 1 38 Rhabdomyosarcoma, 96- 100 Rhinogenic granulomatosis. 325 Rhinorrhea, 358 Riedel's struma, 1 59. See also Riedel's thyroiditis Riedel's thyroiditis, 1 57-162, 1 7 1 clinical findings of, 1 60- 1 6 1 clinical presentation of. 1 5 7 differential diagnosis of, 1 58 epidemiology of. 1 59 imaging findings of, 1 6 1 management of, 1 6 1 -162 pathophysiology of. 159- 1 60 radiologic findings 0[. 1 58 RosenmUller's fossae, 89

Round cell liposarcomas. 93-94 Rouviere, and nomenclature o[ cervical nodes, 1 54. 1541 S

Salbutamol. for benign symmetric lipomatosis. 1 35 Salivary glands CT of for accessory parotid gland. 257f, 258 for sialolithiasis, 259. 259f. 260f. 261, 262 M R l of for accessory parotid gland. 255, 255f. 256f. 257. 258 for sialolithiasis, 260f, 26 1 , 262 for Warthin's tumor, 279, 279f. 280-281 Salivary gland scintigraphy, for Sjogren syndrome, 273 Salivary gland tumors, 275-278 Sarcoid, 1 90 Sarcoidosis, 3 1 7 Sarcoid Sjogren's syndrome. 1 90-1 9 1 Schirmer's test. for Bell's palsy, 4 1 5 Schwann cells, 148 Schwan noma definition of. 9 and poststyloid parapharyngeal space, 83-84. 85 in poststyloid parapharyngeal space. 86-88 clinical findings of. 88 clinical presentation of. 86 differential diagnosis of. 86 epidemiology of, 87 vs. glomus tumor, 88 imaging findings of. 88 management of, 88 pathophysiOlogy of. 87 radiologic findings of. 86 of vagus nerve, 1 47- 1 5 1 Scintigraphic studies for malignant otitis externa ( MOE), 378 for multinodular goiter. 1 66-167 for otosclerosis, 368 for parathyroid adenoma. 1 78 for Riedel's thyroiditis. 1 6 1 [or Sjogren syndrome. 272-273 Sclerosing endophthalmitis, 225 Secondary cholesteatomas, of external auditory canal, 346 Secondary laryngeal tumors. 70 Second branchial cleft cyst. 1 1 1 -1 1 4 clinical findings 0[, 1 1 3-1 1 4 clinical presentation of. I I I differential diagnosis of, 1 1 2 epidemiology of, 1 1 2 imaging findings of, 1 1 1f, 1 14 management of. 1 1 4 pathophysiology of. 1 1 2- 1 J 3 radiologic findings of, 1 1 1- 1 1 2 Sellar neoplasms, and radiotherapy. 209 Sensorineural hearing loss (SNHL). 367, 390 and displaced stapedial prosthesis. 425 Serolls otitis media, 1 04 Shock wave lithotripsy, for sialolithiasis of parotid gland, 262 Sialadenitis. and Sjogren syndrome. 274 Sialography. of parotid glands for sialolithiasis, 261 for Sjogren syndrome. 272-273. 272[

INDEXI Sialolithiasis, of left parotid gland, clinical findings of,

261

259-262

M R l of

27[, 28 22-23, 22[, 25, 26 [or low grade chondrosarcoma, 1 8, 1 8f, 20, 20f for meningiomas, 3[, 4, 5, 6f for trigeminal nerve schwannoma, 8f, 9, 1 0-1 1 , 1 1f Skull base chondrosarcoma. 1 8-21 Skull base choriocarcinoma metastatic, 27-3 1 for choriocarcinoma metastatic,

259 differential diagnosis of, 259 epidemiology of, 261 imaging findi ngs of, 261 management of, 261-262 pathophysiology of, 261 radiologic findings of, 259 clinical presentation of,

for dival chordoma,

SPECT imaging

Sialoscintigraphy

284, 285 Sicca syndrome, and Sjogren syndrome, 274 Silastic baffle, 343 for multiple bilateral oncocytomas,

Simple excision. See also Surgical excision

278 Simple mastoidectomy, 404-407 Simple ranula, 241-243

for dermoid cyst,

307

1 30

26

98

vs.

metastasis to larynx,

71

and mucoepidermoid carcinoma,

295, 295[, 297-298

296[, 297-298

for destructive maxillary sinus process,

331-332

328j; 329, 330, 330j;

333, 333[, 335-336, 335f 309[, 310 for fungal sinusitis, 3 1 6[, 317 for inverted papilloma, 3 1 9[, 320, 321 Sinonasal carcinomas, 329 Sinonasal neoplasms, and radiotherapy, 209 Sinus m ucoceles, 308-31 3 Sinus of Morgagn i, 103 Sinus osteoma, 303-307 Sipple's syndrome, and parathyroid hyperplasia, 1 78 Sistrunk procedure, for thyroglossal dust cyst, 1 09- 1 1 0 Sjogren's syndrome, 190, 270-274 clinical findings of, 271-272 clinical presentation of, 270 differential diagnosis of, 270 epidemiology of, 271 imaging findings of, 272-273 management of, 273 pathophysiology of, 271 radiologic findings of, 270 for esthesioneuroblastoma,

for frontal sin us mucoceles,

for choriocarcinoma metastatic.

24-25, 25f

for low grade chondrosarcoma,

5, 7

291

Staging s urgery, for squamous cell carcinoma, Stapedectomy, for otosclerosis,

30, 31 20, 2 1

13j; 1 4, 15-17, 1 6/ for trigeminal nerve schwannoma. 10 for polyostotic fibrous dysplasia,

1 04

Stapedial prosthesis,

423-427

368

Stapedial reflex, for Bell's palsy,

415

Stapedial reflex test. for facial nerve schwannoma,

343

Staphylococcus, and adult epiglottitis,

Skull base

for clival chordoma,

435

Staging systems, for anaplastic thyroid carcinoma,

Stapes prosthesis,

Skip enhancing lesions, I I CT of

101-104 clinical findings of, 102-103 clinical presentation of, 101 differential diagnosis of, 101 epidemiology of. 1 02 imaging findings of, I 03-1 04 management of, 104 pathophysiology of, 102 radiologic findings of, 1 0 1 of tongue, 247-251 clinical findings of, 249 clinical presentation of, 247 differential diagnosis of, 247 epidemiology of, 249 imaging findings of. 250 management of, 250 pathophysiology of. 249 radiologic findings of, 247 of vocal cord, 58-61 clinical findings of, 60 clinical presentation of, 58 differential diagnosis of, 59 epidemiology of, 59-60 imaging findings of, 60-61 management of, 61 radiologic findings of, 59 Stahle's cyst. 440

390-391

of nasopharynx,

328/; 329, 331-332 334-336, 335f for frontal sinus mucoceles, 308, 308[, 309[, 3 1 0-3 J2, 311[, 313 for frontal sinus osteoma, 303, 303[, 305-306, 305f for fungal sinusitis, 3 1 4-31 5, 3 1 4f-3 1 5[ for inverted papilloma, 3 1 9[, 320, 321 for nasal lymphoma, 324, 3241; 326, 326f for nasopalatine duct cyst, 299[, 300, 301-302, 30lf

for meni ngiomas,

Speech discrimination test, and CPA syndrome, Sphenoid sinus, mucoceles of,

Squamous cell carcinoma

for esthesioneuroblastoma,

for dermoid cyst.

1 78

Spli nts, for anterior disk dislocation,

for destructive maxillary sinus process,

M R l of

374

Spindle cell tumor, types of,

Sinonasal CT of

for petrous apicitis,

Spindle cell l i pomas,

for pleomorphic adenoma,

Sinolith, and frontal sinus osteoma,

for parathyroid adenoma,

Stensen's duct and accessory parotid gland,

36, 37

257, 258 259

and sialolithiasis of parotid gland, Stereotactic radiosurgery

21 11, 399

for low grade chondrosarcoma, for neurofibromatosis type

for petroclival meningioma, tentorial type,

6-7

1 72 419

IINDEX Steroids for inflammatory labyrinthitis, 427 for orbital pseudotumor. 1 96 for radiation-induced optic neuropathy. 2 1 0 for Riedel's thyroidit is. 1 62 for Sjogren syndrome. 273 for thyroid orbitopat hy. 201 Streptococcus. and adult epiglottitis. 36, 37 Struma thyroiditis. 1 59. See a/so Riedel's thyroiditis Stylohyoid ligament calcification. and sialolithiasis of parotid gland. 262 Subglottic edema, 36 Sublingual dermoids. 239 Submandibulectomy. for sialolithiasis of parotid gland, 262 Superficial parotidectomy for pleomorphic adenoma, 278 for Warthin's tumor. 281 Supraglottic ai rway. MRI of. for supraglottic carcinoma, 62f 63 Supraglottic carcinoma of larynx, 62-65 clinical findings of. 63-64 clinical presentation of. 62 differe ntial diagnosis of. 63 epidemiology of, 63 imaging findings of. 64 management of. 64-65 pathophysiology of. 63 radiologic findings of. 63 types of. 63 Supraglottic larynx. M R I of. for vallecular cyst. 50f 5 1 . 52 . 52f Supraglottic tumors. 63. 64 Supraglottitis. 35-37 Supraglottoplasty. and vallecular cysts. 52 Suptraglottic larynx extension. and squamous cell carcinoma. 251 Surgery for aberrant internal carotid artery. 343 for Bell's palsy. 4 1 6 for bony atresia o f external auditory canal. 347 for carotid body tumor. 145 for dermoid cyst. 298 for displaced stapedial prosthesis. 427 for esthesioneuroblastoma, 336 for frontal sinus osteoma. 306 for glomus tympanicum. 402 for glomus vagal. 85 for intraorbital meningioma. 2 1 8 for inverted papilloma. 322 for lingual thyroid. 236 for m ucoepidermoid carcinoma. 291 for multinodular goiter. 1 68 for nasopalatine duct cyst. 302 for otosclerosis, 368 for pars flaccid a cholesteatoma. 386 for pleomorphic adenoma. 278 for retropharyngeal abscess. 1 42 for Riedel's thyroidit is. 1 6 1 - 1 62 for schwan noma in poststyloid parapharyngeal space. 88 for squamous cell carcinoma. 250 for temporal bone fractures. 3591 for thyroid orbitopathy. 20 l -202 Surgical debridement for fungal sinusit is. 3 1 7 for malignant otitis externa ( MOE). 379

1468

for orbital cellulitis. 1 88 for radicular cyst. 442 Surgical decompression. for orbital pseudot umor. 1 96 Surgical drainage. for petrous apicitis. 374 Surgical excision for ameloblastoma of mandible. 450 for cavernous hemangioma. 2 1 3 for central giant cell granuloma. 446 for chondroid tumor of larynx. 57 for lymphangioma. 1 1 7 for parapharyngeal space liposarcoma. 95 for pleomorphic adenoma. 278 for posterior neck lipoma. 1 30 for second branchial cleft cyst. 1 1 4 for Tornwaldt cyst, 77 for trigeminal nerve schwannoma, 1 2 Surgical repositioning. for anterior disk dislocation. 435 Surgical resection for accessory parotid gland. 258 for amelobla ·toma of mandible. 450 for anaplastic thyroid carcinoma. 1 72 for central giant cell granuloma. 446 for facial nerve schwannoma. 421 for Juvenile nasopharyngeal angiofibroma (JNA). 81 for metastatic disease. of skull base. 3 1 for multiple bilateral oncocytomas. 284 for parathyroid adenoma. 1 78 for petroclival meningioma. tentorial type. 6-7 for polyostotic fibrous dysplasia. 1 7 for pyriform sinus carcinoma. 68 for ranula. 243 and squamous cell carcinoma, 61 for thyroglossal dust cyst. 1 09-1 1 0 for vagus nerve schwannoma, 1 5 1 Syphilis and otosclerosis. 366 and petrous apicitis. 372 Systemic chemotherapy. for retinoblastoma. 228 Systemic vasculopathies. and radiation-induced optic neuropathy. 208 T

Tamoxifen. for fibrogenic disorders, 1 62 T-cell markers. and nasal lymphoma. 327 Tear test. for facial nerve schwannoma. 4 1 9 Technetium bone scans. for petrous apicitis, 374 Technetium 99m-pertechnetate for multiple bilateral oncocytomas. 284 and Warthin's tumor. 281 Technetium sestamibi studies. for parathyroid adenomas. 1 78 Temporal bone Cf of for aberrant internal carotid artery. 339. 339f 340f 342-343 for Bell's palsy. 4 1 2. 4 1 2f 4 l 4f, 4 1 5-4 1 6 for bony atresia o f external auditory canal. 344. 344f, 346-347. 346f for displaced stapedial prosthesis. 423. 423f, 424. 425-426 for facial nerve schwan noma. 4 1 9-42 1 . 420f 422 for glomus tympanicum. 400, 400f, 40 If, 402 for incomplete partition of cochlea. 349, 349f, 352f 353-354 for labyrinthitis ossificans/obliterans and acoustic tumor. 31i I . 361f 362f 363

INDEXI for longitudinal fracture, 355, 355[, 356[, 357, 358-359 for malignant otitis externa ( MOE), 37St, 376, 376t, 378-379 for normal postoperative simple mastoidectomy, 404, 404[, 405[, 406-407, 406/ for otosclerosis, 365, 365[, 367-368, 367/ for pars flaccida cholesteatoma, 381[, 382, 384j; 385-386, 385[, 387 for petrous apicitis, 370j; 37 1 , 373-374 longitudinal fracture of, 355-359 M R l of for facial nerve schwannoma, 4 1 7, 4 1 7[, 4 I 9--42 1 , 420[, 422 for labyrinthitis ossificans/obliterans and acoustic tumor, 36 1 , 361f, 363 for malignant otitis externa ( MOE), 375f, 376, 378-379 for neurofibromatosis type 1 1 , 395, 3951; 397-398, 397f for petrous apicitis, 370[, 37 1 , 373-374 for vestibular schwannoma, 388, 388[, 391-393 Temporal bone fractures, 3591 Temporomandibular joint (TMJ), M R I of, for anterior disk dislocation, 43 1 , 431f, 432f, 433f, 434--435, 434f Tenon's capsule, 1 94 Tentorium, 4 11lOrnwaldt cyst, 75-77 lllree dimensional reconstruction, for destructive maxillary sinus process, 332 Thrombosis, and internal jugular vein thrombosis, 1 26 Thyroglossal duct, and lingual thyroid, 236 Thyroglossal duct cyst, 4 1 , 52, 107- 1 1 0 clinical findings of, 1 08 clinical presentation of, 1 07 differential diagnosis of, 1 07 imaging findings of, 108-109 management of, 109-1 1 0 pathophysiology of, 1 08 radiologic findings of, 107 recurrence rate of, 1 1 0 Thyroid CT of, for anaplastic thyroid carcinoma, 1 69, 1 69f, 1 70, 1 72 and goiters, 1 68 Thyroid carcinoma, 3 1 Thyroid cartilage, 57 MRI of, for metastasis, 69f, 70 Thyroiditis, 1 57-162 lllyroid lymphoma, 1 58-159 Thyroid ophthalmopathy, 1 99 Thyroid orbitopathy, 1 97-202 clinical findings of, 1 99 clinical presentation of, 1 97 differential diagnosis of, 1 98 epidemiology of, I 98 imaging findings of, 1 99-20 1 management of, 20 1 -202 pathophysiology of, 1 99 radiologic findings of, 1 97-198 recurrence rate of, 20 1 Thyroid ultrasound, for multinodular goiter, 1 67 Tick bite, and Bell's palsy, 4 1 5 TMJ. See Temporomandibular joint TMJ derangement, 43 1 --436 Tornwaldt, G.L., 76 Tornwaldt cyst, 75-77 clinical findings of, 77

clinical presentation of, 75 differential diagnosis of, 76 epidemiology of, 76 imaging findings of, 77 management of, 77 pathophysiology of, 76-77 radiologic findings of, 76 TORP, 408--4 1 0 Total maxillectomy, for destructive maxillary sinus process, 332 Total ossicular replacement prosthesis (TORP), 408--41 0 Total parotidectomy for pleomorphic adenoma, 278 for Warthin 's tumor, 281 Toxocara canis, 225 Trachea for primary tracheal carcinoma CT of, 1 79, 1 79f, 1 80f, 1 8 1 M R I of, 1 80[, 1 8 1 Tram track, and intraorbital meningioma, 2 1 6 Transphenoidal s urgery, for clival chordoma, 26 Trephination resection, for frontal sinus osteoma, 306 Tridimensional Fourrier transform, for vestibular schwannoma, 391 Trigeminal nerve schwan noma, 8-12 classifications of, 9-1 0 clinical findings of, 1 0 clinical presentation of, 8 differential diagnosis of, 9, 1 1 epidemiology of, 9 imaging findi ngs of, 1 0- 1 1 management of, 1 2 pathophysiology of, 9-1 0 radiologic findings of, 9 Trilateral retinoblastoma, 226 True vocal cords, M R I of, for supraglottic carcinoma, 62f, 63 Tuberculosis, and petrous apicitis, 372 Tuberous sclerosis, and neurofibromatosis type n, 398 Tumor, node, metastasis (TN M ) staging Biller modification of, 3341 for destructive maxillary sinus process, 330, 33 1 1 for esthesioneuroblastoma, 3341 and nasopharyngeal rhabdomyosarcoma, 98-99 for Ohngren's line, 330 Tumor, node, metastasis (TN M ) staging glottic, 601 u

UICe, and nomenclature of cervical nodes, 1 54, 1 541 Ultrasound anechoic on, 194 for internal jugular vein thrombosis, 1 24 for intraorbital meningioma, 2 1 7 for lymphangioma, 1 1 7 for multinodular goiter, 167 for multiple bilateral oncocytomas, 284 for ranula, 243 for retinoblastoma, 227 for Riedel's thyroiditis, ) 6) for second branchial cleft cyst, I 1 4 for sialolithiasis o f parotid gland, 2 6 1 for Sjogren syndrome, 272-273 for thyroid orbitopalhy, 1 99-20 I for vagus nerve schwannoma. 1 50 for Warthin's tumor, 281

IINDEX Ultrasound guided ethanol ablation, of hyperfunctioning thyroid nodules, 1 68 Unilateral atresia, of external auditory canal, 344-347 Uveal melanoma, 2 1 9-222 V

Vagal paraganglioma, 84-85 Vagus nerve schwannoma, 1 47- 1 5 1 clinical findings of, 149 clinical presentation of, 1 47 differential diagnosis of. 1 48 epidemiology of, 148 imaging findings of, 1 49- 1 5 1 management of. 1 5 1 pathophysiology of, 148- 1 49 radiologic findings of, 148 Valleculae, MRI of, for carotid body tumor, 143, 1 43f, 1 44f, 145, 1 46 Vallecular cyst, 50--5 3 clinical findings of, 5 1 clinical presentation of, 50 differential diagnosis of, 5 1 epidem iology of, 5 ] imaging findings of. 5 1 -52 management of, 52 pathophysiology of. 5 1 radiologic findings of, 50--5 1 Varix, of ophthalmic veins, and cavernous hemangioma, 2 1 3 Vascular blush. o n angiography. for esthesioneuroblastoma, 334 Verocay bodies, and vestibular schwannoma, 389-390 Vertigo, and displaced stapedial prosthesis, 425 Vestibular schwannoma, 7. 388-393 age predominance of, 389 clinical findings of. 390--39 1 clinical presentation of, 388 differential diagnosis of, 389 epidemiology of, 389 gender predominance of, 389 imaging findings of. 39 1 -393 management of, 393 pathophysiology of. 389-390 radiologic findings of, 389 Viral parotitis, and Sjogren syndrome, 274 Visual pathways, M R I of, for radiation-induced optic neuropathy, 207f, 208, 209-2 1 0, 209[

Vocal cord endoscopy of. for squamous cell carcinoma, 58[ fixation of, 6 1 MRl of for pyriform sinus carcinoma, 66f, 67 for squamous cell carcinoma, 58f, 59, 60--6 1 for supraglottic carcinoma, 62f, 63 paralysis of, 42-45 clinical presentation of, 42 differential diagnosis of. 43 imaging findings of, 44 left side vs. right side, 44, 45 pathophysiology of, 44 radiologic findings of, 42-43 Voice change, 6 1 Voice conservation surgery. for supraglottic carcinoma. 65 Voice fatigue, 49 Von Hippel-Lindau, and neurofibromatosis type 11, 398 W

Waldeyer's ring, 90. 1 39 Warthin's tumor, 279-28 1 age discrimination of. 280 age predominance of, 280 benign Iymphoepithelial cysts and. 265 clinical findings of, 280 clinical presentation of, 279 differential diagnosis of, 280 epidemiology of, 280 imaging findings of, 280--2 81 management of, 281 pathophysiology of, 280 radiologic findings of, 279-280 Wegener's granulomatosis, 3 1 7, 325. 327 Wegener's syndrome. 1 90 Well-differentiated liposarcomas, 93-94 Werner's modified staging system, for thyroid orbitopathy, 1 991 Wharton's duct, and sialolithiasis of parotid gland, 261 , 262 White pupillary reflex, 226, 227 Winterstein rosettes, 226 X

Xerophthalmia. and Sjogren syndrome, 274 Xerostomia, and Sjogren syndrome, 274

TEMPORAL BONEI

PEARLSIPITFALLS •

•

•

•

An aspect of this condition is of­ ten an absent vertical petrous segment of the ICA. The bony covering of horizontal ICA and tympanic cavity in this condition is often absent. A patient with this condition may be asymptomatic. Do not bio psy!!!!!!

-'-------

tence of aberrant embryologic vessels can be seen. CT depicts the bony changes bet­ ter than M R I and high resolution CT is considered the best tool to screen for this pathology (Fig. 75-C). On MRA and conventional angiography, lateral displacement of the tympanic portion of the ICA is evident. Other possible findings on angiography include areas of vascular ectasia, or stenosis, or depiction of abnormal vessels replacing the verti­ cal portion of the ICA (i.e., anastomoses of the inferior tympanic artery, branch of the ascending pharyngeal artery, and carotico-tympanic branches from the fetal hy­ oid artery). Which findings appear depend on the pathophysiologic factors that gave rise to this abnormality.

M anagement CLinical management of this situation is dictated by the severity of symptoms. The only available therapy is surgery, which involves repositioning of the ICA and sep­ aration of the vessel from the oval window, ossicles and tympanic membrane. This may be achieved by placement of a Silastic baffle or placement of a stapes pros­ thesis.

Suggested Readings Ashikaga, R., Araki, Y., Ishida, O. B ilateral aberrant internal carotid arteries. Neu­ rorradiology 37(8):655-7, 1 995 Nov. Cole, R.D., May, IS. Aberrant internal carotid artery. Southern Medical Journal 87(1 2):1277-80, 1 994 Dec. Dietz, R.R., Davis, W.L., Harnsberger, H . R . et al. MR imaging and MR angiography in the evaluation of pulsatile tinnitus. American Journal of Neuroradiology 1 5(5): 879-89, 1 994 May. Glasscock, M.E., Seshul, M., Seshul, M.B., Sr. Bilateral aberrant internal carotid artery-case presentation. A rchives of Otolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery 1 1 9(3):335-9, 1 993 Mar. Guinto, F.e. Jr., Garrabrant, E.e., Radcliffe, W.B. Radiology of the persistent stape­ dial artery. Radiology 1 05:365-369, 1 972. Pirodda, A., Sorrenti, G., Marliani, A.F., Capello 1. Arterial anomalies of the middle ear associated with stapes ankylosis. Journal of Laryngology and Otology 1 08(3): 237-9, 1994 Mar. Rodgers, G.K., Applegate, L., De La Cruz, A., Lo, W. Magnetic Resonance Angiog­ raphy: Analysis of vascular lesions of the temporal bone and skull base. American Journal of Otology 14(1 ):56--{i2, 1 993 Jan. Shankar, L., Metha, A.L., Hawke, M., Rutka, 1. High Resolution CT of an aberrant internel carotid artery. Journal of Otolaryngology 2 1(5):373-5, 1 992 Oct. Takahashi, S., Higano, S., Kuriara, N., Shirane, R. et al. Congenital absence and aber­ rant course of the internal carotid artery. European Radiology 6(5):571-3, 1 996.

ITEMPORAL

BON E

Case 76 Clinical Presentation A 22-year-old female presented with right sided conductive hearing loss. A mal­ formed auricle was noted.

A

B

Radiologic Findings On a cr of the temporal bones, (Fig. 76-A) an axial section through the external au­ ditory canal (EAC) shows bony atresia of the right EAC and a small malformed au­ ricle. An axial section through the mesotympanum (Fig. 76-B) shows a shallow tym­ panic cavity and fusion of the malleus and incus to the lateral wall of the middle ear cavity.

Differential Diagnosis: Absence or Stenosis of the External Auditory Canal •

•

Congenital: stenosis of the EAC, bony or membranous atresia of the EAC, Treacher-Collins' syndrome, Crouzon's disease, Klippel-Feil syndrome, Golden­ har's syndrome, cleidocranial dysostosis, osteopetrosis, thalidomide embryopathy, congenital rubeolla Acquired: exostosis of the EAC, osteoma of the EAC, postsurgical changes, re­ current external otitis

Diagnosis Bony atresia of the EAC

TEMPORAL BONEI

Discussion An understanding of ear embryology is crucial for understanding congenital mal­ formations of the external auditory canal. The external and middle ear structures share a common embryologic origin from the first branchial groove while inner ear structures arise from the otic vesicle, a neuroectodermal derivative. Therefore, con­ genital anomalies of the external and middle ear usually occur in isolation. How­ ever, a higher than expected incidence of inner ear malformations has been noted in patients with congenital atresia of the EAC when compared to the general pop­ ulation, thought to be related to problems in cellular induction. Congenital anomalies of the external and middle ears can also occur in associa­ tion with genetic syndromes, chromosomal defects and infectious or toxic/terato­ genic embryopathies.

Epidemiology Atresia of the EAC usually occurs in conjunction with microtia and has a reported incidence of one in 3300 to 1 0,000 live births. Bilaterality is seen in approximately 20% of the cases.

Pathophysiology Congenital atresia of the EAC results from abnormal development of the first branchial cleft. This ectodermal derivative is initially represented by a solid core of epithelial cells which extends medially to the area of the tympanic ring and first pha­ ryngeal pouch. By the seventh month of gestation, when most of the middle and in­ ner ear structures are already formed, there is resorption of these epithelial cells with canalization of the EAC, progressing from medial to lateral. When this resorp­ tion process fails or is prematurely interrupted, total or partial atresia, or stenosis of the EAC results. The atresia may be bony or membranous and may be associated with an absent or dysplastic tympanic membrane, ossicular malformations or mandibular hypoplasia, as all these structures also derive, at least partially, from the first branchial arch. TIle classification of external and middle ear malformations proposed by Om­ bradanne is simple and clinically useful. A major malformation implies absence or severe stenosis of the EAC, an absent or atretic tympanic membrane and fusion, or deformity of the ossicles, and is usually associated with an abnormal course of the facial nerve. Minor malformations are harder to detect. as they affect the middle ear structures, with the EAC and tympanic membrane either normal or slightly smaller than expected.

Clinical Findings Congenital atresia of the EAC should always be considered in infants with aural dysplasia. The physical examination of these newborns should include a thorough assessment of craniofacial structures, evaluation of facial nerve function and grading the caliber of the EAC. Unilateral atresia of the EAC may escape detec­ tion for years, especially when there are no obvious deformities of the auricle. Bilateral EAC atresia, when unrecognized at birth, usually comes to medical attention as the child manifests a conductive hearing loss. The degree of aural dysplasia should be assessed because there is a correlation between the degree of microtia, and other external and middle ear malformations. Audiometric evaluation of young infants is difficult and auditory brainstem responses (ABR) may be necessary. A thorough determination of cochlear function is mandatory in order to avoid surgery upon a patient's only functional ear, or in an ear without potential for hearing improvement.

ITEMPORAL

BONE

I maging Findings CT is the study of choice for evaluation of external and middle ear malformations. Whenever there is a bony or membranous atresia of the EAC, the radiologist must determine the status of the ossicular chain, identify the tympanic membrane and the round and oval windows, as well as the course of the facial nerve and vascular struc­ tures related to the temporal bone (internal carotid artery, jugular bulb and sigmoid sinus). Other bony malformations, particularly of the temporomandibular joint (TMJ) and mandible, should also be noted. These findings help to determine oper­ ability and minimize complications of surgery. CT is also useful in detecting secondary cholesteatomas of the EAC, a frequent complication in these patients. The desquamated epithelium is trapped within the stenotic canal and starts to grow within the canal and into the middle ear.

c

o

TEMPORAL BONEI

PEA RLSIPITFALLS •

•

•

•

•

•

Congenital atresia of the EAC should always be considered i n infants with a ural dysplasia. Bilateral EAC atresia usually comes to medical attention as the child manifests a conductive hearing loss. It is manda tory to determine if an EAC atresia is the result of an isolated congenital malfonnation or syndromic in origin. cr evaluation should include: ( 1 ) status of the ossicular chain and tympanic cavity; (2) deter­ mining the presence or absence of oval and round w indows: (3) the course of the facial nerve; (4) vascular anomalies (Internal carotid artery ( I CA», jugular bulb, sigmoid sinus; ( 5 ) other as­ sociated malformations.

The clinician should avoid miss­ ing a bony or membranous atre­ sia when no aural dysplasia is identified. The clinician should avoid failure to detect an abnonnal course of the facial nerve.

The most frequent imaging findings associated with atresia of the EAC include hypoplasia of the tympanic cavity (which is usually small and shallow), absence, dys­ plasia or fusion of the ossicles, and a ventrally displaced facial nerve (sometimes lacking the tympanic segment). This segment of the facial nerve is most commonly affected, can be dehiscent and may be displaced inferiorly as low as the level of the round window. Abnormal positions of the facial nerve may limit surgical access to the middle ear and i ncrease the risk for facial nerve injury. Poor pneumatization of the mastoid is frequently seen. Vascular abnormalities occasionally associated with this entity include a hypoplastic or aberrant internal carotid artery with persistence of the stapedial artery, a high riding j ugular bulb, and anterior displacement of the sigmoid plate. On a CT of the temporal bones axial (Fig. 76-C) and coronal (Fig. 76-0) sections through the mesotympanum show atresia of the EAC and absence of tympanic cavity. The mastoid air cells are also not pneumatized. The diagnosis for this patient is complex malformation of the ear involving the external and middle ear structures. On a cr of the temporal bones an axial section through the EAC (Fig.76-E ) shows soft tissue filling i n the cartilaginous portion o f the EAC. The auricle i s small and malformed. The diagnosis for this patient is fibrous atresia of the EAC. Inner ear structures should also be assessed. The most common anomalies seen in association with EAC atresia include hypoplasia of the lateral semicircular canal and widening of the vestibular aqueduct. M alformation of the lateral semicircular canal should prompt a search for a labyrinthine fistula.

Management Management of EAC atresia depends upon whether the condition is unilateral or bilateral, and on the results of audiometric testing. U nilateral atresia does not re­ quire medical intervention if hearing in the contralateral ear is unimpaired and, in most cases, surgery is limited to correction of the aural dysplasia, for cosmesis. Ap­ proximately %l of t hese patients are not surgical candidates and in those who are, only 60 to 70% will have a satisfactory degree of hearing improvement. Due to the potential morbidity of this surgery, most surgeons are reluctant to operate on uni­ lateral atresias. Bilateral atresia demands immediate attention and early amplification is manda­ tory to avoid intellectual impairment. Tn this instance, the goal of surgery is to re­ store sufficient hearing so that amplification is no longer needed. Surgery should preferably be performed after complete development of the temporal bones at age 5 or 6. Selection of the ear to operate on depends on audiometric and imaging find­ ings.

Suggested Readings Chandrasekhar, S.S., De la Cruz, A., Garrido, E. Surgery of congenital aural atresia. American lournal of Otology 1 6(6):7 1 3-7, 1 995 Nov. Cremers, W. R., Smeets, 1.H. Acquired atresia of the external auditory canal. Surgi­ cal treatment and results. A rchives of Otolaryngology and Head and Neck Surgery 1 19(2):162-4, 1 993 Feb. lahrsdoerfer, R.A., Jacobson, 1.T. Treacher Collins syndrome: otologic and auditory management. lou mal of the A merican A cademy ofAudiology 6(1 ):93-102, 1995 Jan. Lambert, PR., Dodson, E.E. Congenital malformations of the external auditory canal, Otolaryngo!ogic Clinics of North America 29(5):741 -60, 1 996 Oct. Lumbroso, c., Sebag, G., Argyropoulou, M . , Manach, Y, Lallemand, D. Preoperative X-ray computed tomographic evaluation of major aplasia of the ear in children. lournal de Radiologie 76(4 ) : 1 85-9, 1 995 Apr. Mayer, T.E . , Brueckmann, H., Siegert, R., Witt, A., Weerda, H. High-resolution CT

ITEMPORAL

BONE of the temporal bone in dysplasia of the auricle and external auditory canal. Amer­ ican Journal of Neuroradiology 1 8( 1 ):53-65, 1 997 lan. Murphy, T.P, Burstein, F, Cohen, S. Management of congenital atresia of the exter­ nal auditory canal. Otolaryngology and Head and Neck Surgery 1 16(6 Pt 1 ):580-4, 1 997 1un. Vallino-Napoli, l.D. Audiologic and otologic characteristics of Pfeiffer syndrome. Cleft Palate-Craniofacial JOllrnaI33(6):524-9, 1 996 Nov.

1 348

Case 77

TEMPORAL BONEI

Clinical Presentation An eight-month-old child was noticed to be deaf and brought in by the parents for otologic evaluation.

B

A

Radiologic Findings On a CT of the temporal bone, axial sections are obtained through the level of the cochlea (Figs. 77-A and 77-B). These images show abnormal morphology of the cochlea, and a dilated vestibule. The cochlea has no internal architecture, and the middle and apical turns are not recognized. A thin bony septum separates the cochlea from the vestibule which differentiates this entity from a common cavity de­ formity.

Differential Diagnosis: Abnormally Shaped Labyrinth • • •

Incomplete partition of the cochlea ( Mondini's malformation) Common cavity Cochlear hypoplasia

Diagnosis I ncomplete partition of the cochlea ( Mondini malformation)

Discussion Congenital ear anomalies are the most frequent cause of deafness in childhood and may be due to malformations involving the external, middle, or inner ear structures.

ITE M PO RA L

BONE Congenital anomalies of the external auditory canal (EAC) and middle ear are as­ sociated with conductive hearing loss while inner ear anomalies are associated with sensorineural hearing loss. Although the the middle and external ear have a differ­ ent embryologic origin from the inner ear, combined malformations of the inner and middle/external ear are seen more frequently than expected in the general pop­ ulation. Imaging findings are usually diagnostic when the bony labyrinth is involved. How­ ever, some congenital inner ear anomalies can not be identified as they involve structures which are not resolved by currently available imaging techniques.

Epidemiology Approximately 20% of patients with congenital sensorineural hearing loss have ra­ diographic abnormalities of the inner ear. These may occur in isolation or as part of complex otocraniofacial dysplasias. In 80% of cases the anomaly is bilateral and tends to be symmetric in both ears.

Pathophysiology Congenital anomalies of the inner ear result from an arrest or abnormal embry­ ologic development of the otic vesicle. The otic vesicle is a neuroectodermal deriv­ ative originating from an ectodermal thickening of the lateral surface of the neural tube, (otic placode), by the third week of gestation. During the fourth gestational week there is invagination of the otic placode into the surrounding mesenchyme, and a single cavity, the otocyst, is formed. Three folds form within tbe otocyst sepa­ rating the major future components of the inner ear: cochlea, vestibule and en­ dolymphatic sac. Between the fifth and eighth weeks of gestation the cochlear duct grows and infolds on itself until 211z to 23/4 turns are formed. Simultaneously, during the sixth gestational week, the semicircular canals start to form as evagination orig­ inating from tbe vestibular bud. The central portion of this evagination is then re­ sorbed and replaced by mesenchyme forming the superior, posterior and lateral semicircular canals, in tbat order. The vestibular aqueduct, which is very large in the early stages of development, undergoes progressive narrowing between the fifth and eigth weeks of gestation until it attains its normal dimension (5 x 3 mm in antero­ posterior and transverse diameters, respectively). The different morphologic vari-

Table 1

Congenital Anomalies of the I nner Ear A. involving the Membranous Labyrinth • Scheibe's disease or cochleosaccular dysplasia • Siebmman's disease • A lexander's disease B. Anomalies of the Bony Labyrinth 1 . I nvolving the cochlea • Complete labyrinthine aplasia or Michel's deformity • Common cavity • Cochlear aplasia • Cochlear hypoplasia • Incomplete partition or Mondini's malformation 2. Without cochlear involvement • Aplasia, hypoplasia or dilatation of the semicircular canals • Aplasia, hypoplasia or dilatation of the vestibule • Assimilation of the lateral semicircular canal • Dilatation of the vestibular aqueduct

TEMPORAL BON EI Table 2

Syndromes Associated with Labyrinthine M alformations

1 . Otocervical Syndromes Goldenhar's syndrome-Hypoplastic cochlea or common cavity; short l AC's Klippel-Feil syndrome-Hypoplastic cochlea and SCCs; stenotic l AC Wildervanck syndrome-Aplasia or hypoplasia of labyrinthine structures 2. Other Syndromes Pandred's syndrome-Hypoplastic cochlea Waardenburg syndrome-Irregular vestibule and malformation of the SCC's Moebius syndrome-Hypoplastic cochlea or common cavity; dilatation of the vestibule and semicircular canals (SCC's) D iGeorge syndrome-Aplastic or dysplastic cochlea

ants of inner ear anomalies appear to be related to an arrest in embryogenesis at dif­ ferent stages of development (Table 1 ). When the otic placode does not form, a complete labyrinthine aplasia (also called Michel's deformity) will result. This manifests as an absent cochlea, vestibule and semicircular canals. When the otocyst fails to develop, a common cavity is formed with no separation between the vestibule and cochlea (common cavity deformity). A rrest in development of the cochlear bud leads to cocblear aplasia or hypoplasia. Abnormal partition and infolding of the cochlear duct results in incomplete parti­ tion deformity, or Mondini's malformation. Some of the most frequent causes of congenital deafness involve the membra­ nous labyrintb in isolation and appear later in the course of embryologic develop­ ment. These are due to a decreased number, or disorganization, of the cells respon­ sible for neuronal transmission of the auditory impulses to the brain, which include the organ of Corti and spiral ganglia. Abnormal embryologic development of the inner ear may result from different types of insults during pregnancy. Exposure to toxic and i nfectious teratogens are among the most common with thalidomide and viral i n fections being frequently im­ plicated. The i ncreased incidence of these anomalies in the same family favor a pos­ sible genetic predisposition. Several familial and otocervical syndromes are associ­ ated with inner ear anomalies (Table 2).

Clinical Findings The clinical presentation of inner ear anomalies is highly dependent on the struc­ tures involved and in the degree of deafness, which is dictated by the histologic com­ ponents of the membranous labyrinth rather tben the morphology of the bony or membranous labyrintb. This is why there is a poor correlation between the mor­ phologic changes detected by imaging, and the degree of sensorineural bearing loss. Profound deafness is usually detected in i nfancy by the parents when the child does not respond to auditory stimuli. Later in childbood, deafness may present as a global delay in intellectual development. Lesser degrees of deafness are difficult to detect. Usually they are noted because the cbild appears inattentive or tends to ap­ proach the sources of sound (TV, radio, etc.). The degree of deafness may be pro­ gressive and present later in adult life as fluctuating hearing loss. Other presenta­ tions include dizziness and vertigo due to involvement of tbe vestibular apparatus, but are rare. When there is an associated perilympbatic fistula, patients may present with recurrent meningitis. The most likely source for a CSF leak in malformed ears is an abnormal communication between the cochlea and tbe internal auditory canal ( l AC). A family history and history of exposure to teratogens may be elicited. Audiologic evaluation should include speech and pure tone audiometry, impedance studies and auditory brain stem evoked responses (ABR's) in children wbo are unable to co­ operate with behavioral testing.

ITEMPORAL BONE

F

13 52

G

TEMPORAL BONEI Electronystagmograms should be obtained In patients with vestibular symp­ toms.

Imaging Findings CT remains tbe method of choice for evaluating congenital malformations of the in­ ner ear. It depicts abnormalities in the bony labyrinth and may also detect any as­ sociated anomalies of the middle and external ear. High resolution CT, using a bone algorithm and thin sections (J to 15 mm) in both axial and coronal planes, should be performed. CT may be the only imaging method to differentiate between la by ri n th i tis ossifi­ cans and congenital anomalies of the inner ear. I n tbe latter there is usually loss of the normal bony landmarks of the tympanic cavity, such as absence of the cochlear promontory, arcuate eminence and promontory of the lateral semicircular canal. The absent development of the membranous structures fails to induce the forma­ tion of these bony landmarks which are usually present in acquired conditions. On M R I , these entities may be confused because they both present with partial or com­ plete absence of the membranous labyrinth. CT, with intrathecal contrast adminis­ tration, is the best imaging tool to detect and localize perilymphatic fistulas. When evaluating a patient for possible inner ear congenital malformation, one must be familiar with the normal anatomy because asymmetry may not be helpful (in 80% of cases tbe anomaly is bilateral). A careful evaluation for the presence and size of all the inner ear structures should be performed. It is also important to ex­ amine the course of the facial nerve and the size of the internal auditory canal. In complete aplasia of the labyrinth (Michel's deformity) there may be a small, single cavity or several dysplastic cystic structures replacing the cochlea, vestibule and semicircular canals. The common cavity deformity is characterized by the pres­ ence of a single large cystic cavity with no separation between the cochlea and vestibule, and no internal architecture, although the semicircular canals may be nor­ mally developed. in cochlear aplasia or hypoplasia the cochlea is either absent or rudimentary. On a CT of tbe temporal bone axial sections at the level of the meso­ tympanum show absence of the cochlea (Fig. 77-C). The lAC is normal in size and the labyrinthine portion of the facial nerve is seen coursing anteriorly. The vestibule and semicircular canals are present and well developed. The middle ear cavity is filled with soft tissue which does not displace or erode the ossicles. The diagnosis is cochlear aplasia. Mondini malformation is diagnosed when the cochlea shows less then the normal 2'h turns. Usually there is a cystic basal turn with no evidence of modiolus separat­ ing the middle and apical turns. Associated dilatation of the vestibular aqueduct is a common finding. Other malformations easily detected on CT include dilatation or atresia of the vestibule and dilatation or atresia of the semicircular canals (Figs. 77-F & 77-G). Anomalies of tbe lateral semicircular canal are among the most frequent congeni­ tal anomalies of the bony labyrinth. It is unusual to bave involvement of the supe­ rior or posterior semicircular canal without involvement of the lateral semicircular canal, as this is the last to form. In assimilation of the semicircular canals there is no complete bony separation between the semicircular canal, and the vestibule, which appears dilated.On a CT of the temporal bone axial sections through the l AC show lack of separation between the vestibule and the lateral semicircular canal (Figs. 77o and 77-E). The posterior semicircular canal is normal in caliber and there are no cochlear abnormalities. The diagnosis for this patient is assimilation of the lateral semicircular canal. The dilated ampullary portion of the semicircular canals should not be mistaken For abnormal dilatation. On a CT of the temporal bone axial sections at the level of the cochlea demonstrate a small, atretic vestibule and absence of semicircular canals (Figs. 77-F and 77-G). At this level (Fig. 77-C) one should normally see the lateral semicircular canal protruding into the middle ear cavity. Instead, the medial

ITEMPORAL

BONE

PEARLSIPITFALLS •

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

Approximately 20% of patients with congenital sensorineural hearing loss have radiographic abnormalities of the inner ear. Perform a high resolution cr of the temporal bones to evalu­ ate the bony labyrinth. Look for abnormal morphology of the inner (e.g., size and num­ ber of turns of the cochlea, vestibule, semicircular canals, vestibular aqueduct), middle and external ear structures. Evaluate the size of the internal auditory canal, especially if the patient is a candidate for cochlear implants. Evaluate the course of the fa­ cial nerve. Perform high resolution MRI using GE 30FT TZW se­ quences to look for subtle anomalies of the membranous labyrinth. Avoid failure to recognize ab­ normal anatomy of the inner ear. Avoid failure to recognize hy­ ploplasia or atresia of the lAC. Do not mistake labyrinthitis os­ sificans for a congenital anom­ aly. Do not mistake the ampulla of the semicircular canals for ab­ normal dilatation.

wall of the tympanic cavity appears flattened. Abnormal soft tissue is seen filling the mastoid air cells. The diagnosis for this patient is aplasia of the semicircular canals and atresia of the vestibule. High-resolution M RI using phased arra coils and gradient echo tridimensional Fourrier transform TZW sequences ( H R GE-3DFf TZWI ) nicely depict the mem­ branous labyrinth demonstrating the intra labyrinthine fluid filled spaces. When pa­ tients present in adulthood with progressive sensorineural hearing loss or vertigo, M R I is the first examination to be performed to rule out vestibular schwanomma or CPA masses. Also, M R I has shown great value in demonstrating obliteration of the scala tympani or scala vestibuli which may contraindicate the placement of cochlear implants.

M anagement The management of congenital inner ear anomalies depends on the age of the pa­ tient and degree of hearing loss. Early diagnosis is important to avoid further intel­ lectual deterioration and atrophy of the vestibulocochlear nerve. Appropriate hearing amplification and specialized educational programs should be implemented as soon as possible. Hearing aids may be adequate in patients with mild to moderate hearing loss. For patients with sensory deafness, direct electrical stimulation of the cochlea through the placement of cochlear implants is the ther­ apy of choice. However, for this therapy to work, the neuronal element have to be intact. At the present time the only contraindication for cochlear implants is the ab­ sence or marked hypoplasia of the vestibulocochlear nerve. Possible complications of cochlear implants include stimulation of the facial nerve and CSF leak due to de­ ficiencies in the cribiform region of the internal auditory canal.

Suggested Reading Bauman, N.M., Kirby-Keyser L.J., Dolan, K . D. , Wexler, D., Gantz. B.1., McCabe, B.F., Bale, J.F. JT. Mondini dysplasia and congenital cytomegalovirus infection. Journal of Pediatrics 124( 1):7 1-8, 1994 Jan. Jackler, R.K. Luxford, W.M . House, W.F. Congenital malformations of the inner ear: A classification based on embryogenesis. Laryngoscope 97 (suppl. 45): 1-14, 1987. Jackler, R.K., Luxford, W.M., House, W.F. Sound detection with the cochlear implant in five ears of four children with congenital malformations of the cochlea. Laryngo­ scope 97(suppl. 45): 15-17, 1987. Lumbroso, c., Sebag, G., Argyropoulou, M., Manach, Y, Lallemand, O. Preoperative X-ray computed tomographic evaluation of major aplasia of the ear in children. Journal de Radiologie 76(4):185-9, 1995 Apr. Luntz, M., Balkany, T., Hodges, AV, Telischi, F.F. Cochlear implants in children with congenital inner ear malformations. A rchives of Otolaryn.gology and /-lead and Neck Surgery 1 23(9):974-7, 1997 Sep. Marres, H.A., Cremers, C.W., Huygen, P.L., Joosten, F.B. The deafness, pre-auricular sinus, external ear anomaly and commissural lip pits syndrome: otological. vestibu­ lar and radiological findings. Journal of Laryngology and Otology 108( 1): 13-8, 1994 Jan. Monsell, E.M., Jackler, R.K., Mota, C. Linthicum, F.H. Congenital malformations of the inner ear: Histologic findings in five temporal bones Laryngoscope 97 (suppl. 45):18-24, 1987. Weissman, J.L., Hearing loss. Radiology 199(3):593-6 1 1, 1996 Jun. Weissman, J.L., Weber, P.c., Bl uestone, C.O. Congenital perilymphatic fistula: com­ puted tomography appearance of middle ear and inner ear anomalies. Otolaryngol­ ogy and /-lead and Neck Surgery 1 11(3 Pt 1 ):243-9, 1994 Sep.

Case 78

TEMPORAL BONEI

Clinical Presentation A 25-year-old male was brought to the emergency room following a motor vehicle accident. There was evidence of head injury with otorrhagia and hearing loss.

A

Radiologic Findings On CT of the temporal bones (axial section) there is a linear radiolucency crossing the long axis of the temporal bone, extending from the posterior and superior wall of the external auditory canal to the petrous apex and passing through the epitym­ panum. The middle ear cavity and mastoid air cells are filled with soft tissue density, likely representing blood. There is no evidence of ossicular fracture or dislocation. The inner ear structures are intact.

Differential Diagnosis: Longitudinal Fracture of the Temporal Bone • •

Temporal bone fracture Normal anatomy (normal sutures and fissures)

3551

ITEMPORAL

BONE

Diagnosis Longitudinal fracture of the temporal bone

Discussion A linear radiolucency in the temporal bone in the context of head trauma has no differential diagnosis other than normal anatomic structures and neurovascular grooves which can be mistaken for fractures by the unwary radiologist. Normal structures which may mimic a fracture line include the subarcuate fissure, facial nerve canal, vestibular and cochlear aqueducts and tympanosquamous fissure.

D

1356

E

TEMPORAL BONEI

Epidemiology Temporal bone fractures are common in the setting of blunt head trauma, orten as­ sociated with motor vehicle accidents and recreational activities.

Pathophysiology Fractures are classified as either longitudinal or transverse, depending upon their orientation with respect to the long axis of the petrous temporal bone. Longitudinal fractures are more frequent (approximately SO% of all temporal bone fractures) and occur along the long axis of the bone. TIle mechanism of injury is typically a direct blow to the temporoparietal region, resulting in a fracture line beginning in the temporal squamosa and extending into the mastoid. Longitudinal fractures are further subdivided into anterior and posterior according to their rela­ tionship with the labyrinth. Transverse fractures are those perpendicular to the long axis of the temporal bone (Figs. 7S-B and 7S-C). These usually result from more severe impact to the skull, usually in an anteroposterior direction (occipital or frontal). The fracture line may be medial or lateral to the arcuate eminence. With the advent of high resolu­ tion CT more fractures are now being classified as mixed or combined, escaping this simplistic classification (Fig. 7S-D). In these cases, the fracture line shows a complex and often oblique course within the temporal bone. In longitudinal fractures, the fracture line begins in the squamosa, extends through the superior and posterior walls of the EAC and accross the roof of the middle ear, through the petrous apex, ending near the foramen lacerum. This type of fracture is frequently associated with lacerations of the EAC and tympanic membrane causing otorrhagia. TIle ossicular chain is often disrupted ei­ ther due to fracture, or dislocation. The incus is most susceptible to fracture due to its lack of ligamentous or tendinous attachments to the walls of the middle ear cavity. Ossicular chain disruption most commonly occurs at the incudostapedial joint; malleoincudal disruption is less common. On a CT of the temporal bones (Fig. 7S-E) an axial section at the level of the attic shows that there is a disruption of the ossicular chain with abnormal alignment between the head of the malleus and the body of the incus. The "ice cream ball" (head of the malleus) has fallen off the cone (body of the incus). Soft tissue density is seen surrounding the ossicles. The diagno­ sis is malleoincudal dislocation in a patient with head trauma. Conductive hearing loss is the hallmark of this fracture. Facial nerve paralysis is present in 10 to 20% of cases and is usually delayed and transient. The facial nerve is injured in its tympanic segment immediately distal to the anterior genu (genicu­ late ganglion). The inner ear structures are normally preserved as the path of least resistence for fracture line progression is extralabyrinthine. CSF leaks are also more commonly associated with longitudinal fractures, sec­ ondary to disruption of the tegmen tympani or posterior mastoid air cells. In transverse fractures, the fracture line typically begins at the foramen magnum and courses across the occipital bone, j ugular fossa, petrous pyramid, and then into the floor of the middle cranial fossa. These fractures commonly involve the labyrinth causing a complete and irreversible sensorineural hearing loss. Transverse fractures can also extend into the carotid canal causing traumatic dissection or occlusion of the petrous segment of the internal carotid artery. Injury of the facial nerve is com­ mon (30 to 50% ) and is usually immediate and complete. The most frequent site of facial nerve injury is the labyrinthine segment proximal to the geniculate ganglion. Other possible complications are perilymphatic fistulas which may result from frac­ ture extension into the round or oval windows, or footplate of the stapes. This re­ sults in fluctuating neurosensorial hearing loss and positional vertigo. Pneumo-

ITEMPORAL

BONE labyrinth may also result from transverse fractures and suggests a comunication be­ tween the vestibule, cochlea or semicircular canals, and the middle ear cavity or mastoid air cells. Occasionally, pneumolabyrinth is due to fracture or dislocation of the footplate of the stapes. Fractures involving the squamous portion of the temporal bone are potentially fa­ tal due to injury to the middle meningeal artery or transverse and sigmoid sinuses with subsequent epidural hematoma formation. Temporal bone fractures may also involve isolate portions of the external audi­ tory canal, the glenoid fossa and the styloid process.

Clinical Findings Clinical signs of temporal bone fracture may be overlooked due to the patient's gen­ eral condition. Usually the craniocerebral manifestations dominate the clinical pic­ ture drawing the attention of clinician and radiologist away from the temporal bones. TIle most frequent symptoms associated with temporal bone trauma are hearing loss (conductive, sensorineural or mixed), vertigo and facial nerve palsy. I n uncon­ scious patients these findings may go undetected, and therefore a high degree of sus­ picion is required to make the diagnosis. Valuable clinical signs include otorrhagia, otorrhea, rinorrhea and Battle's sign (retroauricular ecchymosis). Hemorrhage through the external auditory canal may be a consequence of laceration of the EAC itself or of the middle ear cavity if there is associated rupture of the tympanic membrane. Otorrhea and rinorrhea imply a CSF leak. When the tympanic membrane (TM ) is ruptured, CSF will leak into the EAC. When the TM is intact, CSF will accumu­ late in the middle ear cavity and drain into the nasopharynx via tbe Eustachian tube. Evaluation of hearing deficits and of the integrity of the facial nerve should also be performed whenever the mechanism of trauma or the clinical signs suggest the possibility of an i nj ured temporal bone.

Imaging Findings The need for radiological evaluation of the temporal bone following head trauma should be based on the patient's clinical status. Imaging studies should provide in­ formation as to the precise location of the fracture. The integrity of the ossicular chain, the status of the facial nerve and the presence of pneumolabyrinth or CSF leak must all be assessed. CT is the preferred imaging modality i n the evaluation of temporal bone trauma due to its superior ability to demonstrate bony detail, allowing adequate character­ ization of fractures and ossicular derrangements. CT is also the method of choice for the evaluation of posttraumatic bearing loss, vertigo, facial nerve palsy and CSF leaks. Axial CT sections through the temporal bone (Figs. 78-B and 78-C) show a linear radiolucency crossing the short axis of the temporal bone, through the otic capsule (vestibule and semicircular canals). The diagnosis is transverse fracture of the temporal bone in a trauma victim, wbo presented with sudden hearing loss. Ideally, CT examination should include both axial and coronal sections. However, this is not always possible as many trauma patients cannot tolerate the prone posi­ tion. Fortunately, most fractures are adequately depicted in the axial plane as they follow the long axis of the temporal bone. Fig. 78-0-0n a CT of the temporal bone (coronal section) (Fig. 78-0) t here are two separate fracture lines in the temporal bone with oblique orientations. The most superior fracture involves the superior as­ pect of the mastoids near the squamosa of the temporal bone. The second fracture crosses the middle ear cavity through the epitympanum, extending from the supe­ rior wall of the external auditory canal to the tegmen tympani. TIle diagnosis is complex fracture of the temporal bone.

TEMPORAL BONEI

PEARLS/PITFALLS •

cr of the temporal bones should

be performed whenever the mechanism of trauma or clinical signs suggest the possibility of temporal bone injury. •

•

•

•

Search for fracture lines and in­ direct signs of fracture. Carefully evaluate the ossicular chain, facial nerve canal, labyrinth, carotid canal, most fre­ quent sites of CSF fistulas(See Table 1 ) . Avoid mistaking norm.al anatomy for a fracture (sutures and fis­ sures). Avoid missing a fracture line or ossicular dislocation.

Table 1

Temporal Bone Fractures

Incidence Injury site Hearing loss Middle ear Ossicular dislocation Labyrinth

Longitudinal

Transverse

75%-80% temporoparietal conductive injured common spared

20%-25% occipital sensorineural spared rare injured

Other evidence of temporal bone trauma can also be detected including hemo­ tympanum, rupture of the tympanic membrane and pneumolabyrinth. CT is also the method of choice for detection of long term postraumatic complications such as ac­ quired cholesteatoma. This usually shows particularly aggressive features because epithelial cells can seed the course of the fracture line. When a CSF fistula is sus­ pected CT with intrathecal contrast should be used to localize the fistula and plan surgical repair. These leaks frequently involve disruption of the tegmen tympani, posterior mastoid air cells, or lAC and adjacent petrous air cells. MRI should be used as a problem solving technique in cases of facial nerve paral­ ysis and vestibular syndromes not explained by CT findings. In these cases an MRI may be able to demonstrate facial nerve hematoma or edema and labyrinthine hemorrhage.

Management Traumatic injuries to the temporal bone may have incapacitating and grave long term consequences. Therefore, early detection and treatment is critical. Indications for surgery include ossicular fracture or dislocation, decompression of the facia nerve, labyrinthine fistulae and correction of CSF leaks. Early recognition and treatment of these injuries avoid permanent irreversible hearing loss and facial nerve paralysis, recurrent bouts of meningitis, and fluctuating neurosensorial hearing loss and vertigo.

Suggested Reading Backous, D.D., Minor, L.B., Niparko, IK. Trauma to the external auditory canal and temporal bone. Otolaryngologic Clinics of Norch A merica 29(5):853-66, 1996 Oct. Brandle, P., Satoretti-Schefer, S. Bohmer, A . , Wichmann, W., Fisch, U. Correlation of MRI, clinical, and electroneuronographic findings in acute facial nerve palsy. Amer­ ican Journal of Otology 1 7(1) : 1 54-6 1 , 1 996 Jan. Brodie, H .A., Thompson, T.e. Management of complications from 820 temporal bone fractures. American Journal of Otology 1 8 ( 2 ) : 1 88-97, 1 997 Mar. Casselman, IW. Temporal bone imaging. Neuroimaging Clinics of North America 6(2):265-89, 1 996 May. Deguine, e., Pulec, IL. Traumatic dislocation of the incus. Eal; Nose, and Throat Journal 74 ( 1 2 ): 800, 1 995 Dec. Driscoll, e.L., Facer, G.W. Temporal bone fracture. Em; Nose, and Throat Journal 75 ( 1 ) : 1 0, 1 996 Jan. Moran, S.G., McCarthy, M.e., Uddin, D.E., Poelstra, R.I Predictors of positive CT scans in the trauma patient with minor head injury. American Surgeon 60(7):533-5, discussion 535-6, 1994 Jul. Nosan, o.K., Benecke, IE. Jr., Murr, A . H . Current perspective on temporal bone trauma. Otolaryngology and Head and Neck Surgery 1 1 7( 1 ):67-71 , 1 997 Jul.

ITEMPORAL

BONE Weinberger, D.G., Selesnick, S.H . Roller blade faUs-a new cause of temporal bone fractures: case reports. journal of Trauma 37(3):500-3, 1994 Sep. Yanagihara, N., Murakami, S., Nishihara, S. Temporal bone fractures inducing facial nerve paralysis: a new classification and its clinical significance. Ear, Nose, and Throat journal 76(2):79-80, 83-6, 1997 Feb.

Case 79

TEMPORAL BONEI

Clinical Presentation A 58-year-old male presented with right anacusis and new left sensorineural hear­ ing loss. The patient had a remote history of trauma to the right temporal bone.

A

B

C

D

Radiological Findings The Tl-weighted image (Fig. 79-A) shows a soft tissue mass expanding the right in­ ternal auditory canal and extending into the cerebellopontine angle cistern. On the T2-weighted sequence (Fig. 79-B) the bright signal of CSF cannot be identified within the left internal auditory canal. There is also a complete lack of signal from the labyrinth on the right side. The axial CT scan helps to clarify the situation (Figs.

ITEMPORAL

BONE 79-C and 79-D). The right cochlea and labyrinth are filled in with bone. The bone overlying what would have been the right horizontal semicircular canal, bulg­ ing into the middle ear, has a normal configuration. ( I mages courtesy of Jane L. Weissman MD.)

Differential Diagnosis: Increased Bone Density of the Temporal Bone • •

Otic capsule involved: Michel deformity, labyrinthitis ossificans/obliterans Otic capsule spared: Paget disease, fibrous dysplasia, osteogenesis imperfecta, os­ teopetrosis

Diagnosis Labyrinthitis ossificans/obliterans (posttraumatic) on the right; acoustic tumor on the left

Discussion Pathophysiology Labyrinthitis ossmcans (or obliterans) is an inflammatory process from various causes resulting in partial or total obliteration of the bony labyrinth. The cause in

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TEMPORAL BONEI this patient is most likely posttraumatic. There are multiple other etiologies for this entity. These include postsurgical (status postlabyrinthectomy), meningogenic sec­ ondary to spread along the internal auditory canal or cochlear aqueduct, and tym­ panogenic or hematogenously spread infections. Tympanogenic labyrinthitis ossificans occurs secondary to chronic otitis media with or without cholesteatoma. The inflammatory process may invade the oval win­ dow or round window or erode the horizontal semicircular canal. Tympanogenic labyrinthitis ossificans is most commonly unilateral. The meningogenic form occurs due to spread of bacterial meningitis along the lAC or cochlear acqueduct. The hematogenic type is the rarest, and is related to bloodborne measels or mumps in­ fection. Meningogenic or hematogenic labyrinthitis ossificans can be bilateral. Labyrinthitis ossificans causes include: (1) tympanogenic with chronic otitis me­ dia; (2) Posttraumatic; (3) Postlabyrinthectomy; (4) Meningogenic via lAC or cochlear acqueduct; and (5) Hematogenic The process begins with a proliferation of bacteria and leukocytes in the peri­ lymph spaces. Next a proliferation of fibroblasts results in a fibrous stage. Ossifica­ tion occurs as a result of abnormal proliferation of undifferentiated mesenchymal cells in the basilar membrane, endosteum, and modiolus. These cells then differen­ tiate into fibroblasts and then os teo blasts. The labyrinthine ossification results from the osteoblasts forming abnormal bony trabeculae.

I maging Findings Ossification of the membranous labyrinth has a characteristic appearance on CT and is referred to as labyrinthitis ossificans or labyrinthitis obLiterans. Figure 79-E depicts a CT on another patient with tympanogenic labyrinthitis ossificans. A mas­ toidectomy defect is present. The cochlea remains patent although the vestibule and semicircular canals are obliterated. An axial CT was done on a third patient with labyrinthitis ossificans related to os­ teomyelitis of the temporal bone (Fig. 79-F). It shows obliteration of the entire labyrinth with narrowing of the middle ear cleft. The coronal views (Fig. 79-G) con­ firm these findings. The absence of signal from this structure on M R scanning also suggest the diag­ nosis. Other osseous diseases that affect the temporal bone such as Paget's disease, fibrous dysplasia, osteogenesis imperfecta, osteopetrosis, and otosclerosis tend to spare the labyrinth, and thus, usually do not have this imaging appearance. Occasionally, a Michel anomaly can be mistaken for labyrinthitis ossificans. The Michel anomaly is near total agenesis of the inner ear structures, although there may occasionally be a single small labyrinthine cavity. When the bone overlying what would have been the horizontal semicircular canal has a normal configuration, an acquired condition such as labyrinthitis ossificans is more Likely than Michel anomaly. This finding suggests that the normal inner ear structures were present at one time, as opposed to the congenital Michel anomaly where the entire otic capsule is often more atretic.

Management Antibacterial or antiviral treatment may be used for this disease with variable suc­ cess rates. Labyrinthitis ossificans is usually a contraindication for cochlear implan­ tation.

Suggested Readings Casselman, J.W., Kuhweide, R., Dehaene, r . , Ampe, W., Devlies, F. Magnetic reso­ nance examination of the inner ear and cerebel\opontine angle in patients with ver-

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Labyrinthitis ossificans is typified by complete sclerosis of the cochlea and labyrinth. Labyrinthitis ossificans can result from postinfectious, traumatic, or surgical reasons. Rule out Michel deformity if ab­ normally shaped bony contours are seen.

tigo and/or abnormal findings at vestibular testing. ACla Olo-LarYllgologica. SIIP­ plemenl 5 13: 15-27, 1994. Guirado, C. R., Martinez, P.. Roig, R., Mirosa, E, Salmeron, J., Florensa, E, Roger. M .. Barragan. Y. Three-dimensional M R of the inner ear with steady-state free preces­ sion. American Journal of Neuroradiology 16(9): 1909-13, 1995 Oct. Kiefer, J., von l Iberg, C. Special surgical problems in cochlear implant patients. Ad­ van.ces in Olo-Rhino-Iaryngology 52: 135-9, 1997.

Mafee, M . E MR imaging of intralabyrinthine schwan noma, labyrinthitis, and other labyrinthine pathology. OLO/aryngologic Clinics of Norlh America 28(3):407-30, 1 995 Jun. Mark, A.S., Fitzgerald, D. M R I of the inner ear. Bail/jeres Clinical Nellrology 3(3):5 15-35, 1 994 Nov.

If this condition is bilateral, con­ sider a meningogenic or hernato­ genic origin.

Mark, A.S .. Fitzgerald, D. Segmental enhancement of the cochlea on contrast­ enhanced MR: correlation with the frequency of hearing loss and possible sign of perilymphatic fistula and autoimmune labyrinthitis. American JOllrnal of Neurora­ diology 14(4):99 1-6, 1993 Jul-Aug.

Avoid confusion with Michel anomaly.

Swartz, J.D. The inner ear. I n : Swartz J.D., ed. Imaging of Ihe lemporal bOlle. New York: Thieme Medical Publishers, 154-157, 1986.

If the otic capsule is spared, consider other fibro-osseus pathology. Labyrinthitis ossificans is usually a contraindication for cochlear implantation.

Wilson, D.E., Talbot, J.M., Hodgson, R.S. Magnetic resonance imaging-enhancing le­ sions of the labyrinth and facial nerve. Clinical correlation. Archives of Orolaryn­ go logy and Head and Neck Surgery 120(5):560-4, 1994 May.

Case 80

TEMPORAL BONEI

Clinical Presentation A 45-year-old female presented with bilateral hearing loss, proven to be mixed on subsequent audiometric examination.

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Radiologic Findings (Fig. 80-A, 80-B): On axial CT sections through the basal and apical turns of the cochlea (Figs. 80-A and 80-B), and a coronal CT section (Fig. 80-C), there is a curvi­ linear halo of bony demineralization surrounding the cochlea and associated widen­ ing of the oval window. This is due to another foci of osteolysis in the most anterior aspect of this structure. The ossicular chain and mastoids are unremarkable.

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Differential Diagnosis: Osteolysis of the Temporal Bone •

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Focal: retrofenestrallcochlear otosclerosis, langerhans ceU granuloma ( Hystiocy­ tosis X), tertiary syphilis (gumma) and osteitis of late congenital syphilis Diffuse: osteogenesis imperfecta, Paget's disease, fibrous dysplasia

Diagnosis Otosclerosis

Discussion Osteolysis involving the temporal bone can be focal or diffuse. A focal curvilinear area of bony resorption surrounding the cochlea is almost pathognomonic for retro­ fenestral or cochlear otosclerosis. Langerhans cell granuloma is a proliferative disease that may involve the tempo­ ral bone and manifest as a focal mass associated with bony erosion. Although tertiary syphilis can produce spongiotic changes indistinguishible from those of cochlear otosclerosis, there is usually an associated sclerotic component representing reactive proliferation of the adjacent bone. Furthermore, this entity is rarely seen. A more diffuse type of osteolysis can be seen in fibrosseous dysplasias such as Paget's disease and fibrous dysplasia. However, these diseases tend to spare the otic capsule and usually evolve to a ground glass appearence with fibrous dysplasia, and condensed trabeculae with Paget's. Bony expansion may be seen with both entities. Paget's disease or osteitis deformans occurs late in life and is more frequent in males. I nvolvement of the temporal bone is not infrequent and is more commonly seen in the polyostotic forms of the disease. Usually, the bony changes begin in the petrous apex and demineralization of the perilabyrinth is a late manifestation. Other bony dysplasias such as osteogenesis imperfecta tarda (Von Hoeve dis­ ease), can also involve the temporal bone in a diffuse fashion with bony demineral­ ization seen in the early stages of the disease process. However, progression to in­ creased bone density and other associated features usually allow the correct diagnosis. According to several authors otosclerosis and osteogenesis imperfecta are different spectra of the same disease sharing the same physiopathologic mechanism.

Epidemiology Otosclerosis is an osteodystrophy of unknown origin which involves the otic cap­ sule. It is an indolent progressive disease, more common in women, with a peak in­ cidence in the third and fourth decades. Approximately 70% of the cases are famil­ ial with autosomal dominant inheritance. The disease is bilateral in 80% and often asynchronous. There are two different forms of this disease with different clinical and radiologic presentations. Fenestral otosclerosis, the most common form, involves the oval win­ dow and footplate of the stapes and presents with conductive hearing loss. Retro­ fenestral or cochlear otosclerosis involves the otic capsule and presents as a sen­ sorineural or mixed type of hearing loss.

Pathophysiology Otosclerosis is thought to be an osteodystrophic process resulting from the replace­ ment of the middle endochondral layer of the otic capsule by disorganized fibrous or spongiotic bony tissue. The otic capsule is unique in its composition, with an outer periosteal layer and an inner endosteal layer enclosing a layer of endochondral bone. This endochondral layer is not replaced by mature haversian bone but. in-

TEMPORAL BONEI stead, remains in a state of primary ossification, unlike osseous structures elsewhere in the body. Histologically, the areas of spongiotic bone seen in the early phases of the disease are hypercellular and hypervascular and are progressively replaced by dense, non­ lamellar, sclerotic bone.The mechanism that triggers the otosclerotic changes is un­ known. Clinical Findings

Otosclerosis may present with tinnitus, bilateral hearing loss (90% before age 40) or as an incidental imaging findil1g in patients with unrelated symptoms. The type of hearing deficit depends on the sites of involvement. Conductive hearing loss is the hallmark of fenestral otosclerosis. The stapedial reflex may be absent and some pa­ tients present with hyperacusia. In cochlear or retrofenestral otosclerosis the hear­ ing deficit is usually mixed, although an isolated sensorineural deficit can occasion­ ally be seen. The cause of the sensorineural hearing loss is not fully understood but is thought to be due to release of cytotoxic enzymes that penetrate the membranous labyrinth and damage the cells of the organ of Corti. The disease is diagnosed on the basis of otoscopy, audiometry and audiometric brain stem response (ABR). However, the extent of the disease cannot be determined on the basis of clinical findings. I m aging Findings

Hearing loss is a major indication for cross-sectional imaging of the temporal bone. In conductive hearing loss, CT is the method of choice because it provides clear de­ piction of the bony structures (i.e., external auditory canal and middle ear cavity) and tympanic membrane. Patients presenting with sensorineural hearing loss are usually imaged with MR, which permits better visualization of the fluid filled mem­ branous labyrinth and the Vll and VIII nerve complexes. Imaging is the only means for evaluation of the extent of disease and for planning of surgical treatment. The radiologic findings of otosclerosis may precede clinical symptoms and among the patients with otospongiotic foci detected on imaging studies, only 1 in 8 will develop clinical signs of the disease.

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BONE In fenestral otosclerosis the earliest CT change is enlargement of the oval window due to replacement of the endochondral layer of the otic capsule by hypodense spongiotic bone. This change typically begins in the anterior wall of the oval win­ dow and then extends into the annular ligament to involve the footplate of the stapes. With progression of the disease, sclerotic changes ensue and obliterate the oval window. Similar changes may also present in the oval window, promontory and course of the facial nerve, although they may be difficult to detect on imaging studies. Retrofenestral otosclerosis rarely occurs in isolation. Bony demineralization sur­ rounding the cochlea produces the double ring sign (figs. SO-A-C) which is almost pathognomonic for this disease. This halo of hypodensity may be limited to a seg­ ment of the capsule or completely surround the entire contour of the cochlea. The progression to mature osteospongiotic foci manifest as localized or diffuse areas of bony sclerosis which are difficult to appreciate on CT studies as these areas of remineralization have the same density of the normal otic capsule. The only evi­ dence of apposition of new otosclerotic bone may be a scalloped appearance of the capsule. An axial CT scan in a differen t patient (Fig. SO-D) shows a curvilinear ra­ diolucency surrounding the cochlea (» . This patient had no evidence of oval win­ dow involvement. Several experts have proposed a quantitative densitometric assessment of the cochlear capsule to help identify otosclerotic foci and determine the progression of the disease. CT is also the preferred imaging method in posttherapeutic follow-up to identify reccurent disease and demonstrate the position of a stapedial prostheses. An axial CT scan of the temporal bone (Fig. SO-E) shows the normal appearence of a metal­ lic prosthesis replacing the stapes. The role of MRI imaging in the evaluation of otosclerosis is not yet established. The few available studies showed faint enhancement or blush presumably due to pooling of contrast within the numerous vascular channels found in early os­ teospongious foci. MRI is, however, particularly well suited for evaluation of the lu­ men of the cochlea in candidates for cochlear implants. High resolution T2W images with phased array coils allow detection of small filling defects resulting either from fibrosis or ossification. High resolution tympanocochlear scintigraphy in conjunction with correlative imaging is a potential tool for the detection and localization of small active foci of otospongiosis. This technique which combines functional and morphologic informa­ tion yields a spatial resoluton of 3 to 4 mm. The bone seeking agent concentrates in areas of active bone metabolism which can be mapped onto a selected radiographic image.

Management Patients with fenestral otosclerosis are managed surgically. In the past, stapes mobi­ lization and fenestration of the lateral semicircular canal was the therapy of choice. Currently, the most common procedure is a stapedectomy with replacement by a stapedial endoprosthesis. Complications related to this prosthesis include disloca­ tion of the lateral end of the prosthesis with separation from the long process of the incus, necrosis of the long process of the incus, and medial migration of the pros­ thesis into the vestibule. 1l1ese complications are usually associated with clinical symptoms such as recurrent hearing loss and vertigo. Isolated retrofenestral otosclerosis when associated with bilateral sensorineural hearing loss can be managed with cochlear implants. cr and, more recently, MRI studies are very helpful in treatment planning. Conservative therapy with fluoride is thought to arrest disease progression.

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Suggested Readings

Otosclerosis is an indolent, pro­ gressive disease that can cause bilateral hearing loss before age 40.

Arriaga, M.A., Carrier, D. M R I and clinical decisions in cochlear implantation. A merican Journal of Otology 1 7(4):547-53, 1 996 Jul.

About 70% of patients with oto­ sclerosis have a family history of hearing loss.

Mark, A.S., Seltzer, S., Harnsberger, H.R. Sensorineural hearing loss: more than meets the eye? A merican Journal of Neuroradiology 1 4 ( 1):37-45, 1 993 Jan-Feb.

Bony demineralization surround­ ing the cochlea produces the double ring sign. The earliest cr change is en­ largement of the oval window. With progression of the disease, sclerotic changes ensue and obliterate the oval window. Small foci of otospongiosis are difficult to recognize and require high degree of suspicion. Avoid missing the migration of a stapedial prosthesis.

Mark, A.S., Fitzgerald, D. MRI of the inner ear. Baillieres Clinical Neurology 3(3):5 15-35, 1 994 Nov.

Rizer, EM., Guthikonda, M., Lippy, W.H., Schuring, A . G. Simultaneous presentation of facial nerve neuroma and otosclerosis. American Journal of Otology 15(3): 427-30, 1 994 May. Ross, U.H . , Laszig, R, Bornemann, H . , Ulrich, C Osteogenesis imperfecta: clinical symptoms and update findings in computed tomography and tympano-cochlear scintigraphy. A cta OIO·Laryngologica 1 1 3(5):620-4, 1 993 Sep.

Ross, U.H., Reinhardt, M.I, Berlis, A. Localization of active otosclerotic foci by tympano-cochlear scintigraphy (TCS) using correlative imaging. Journal of Laryn· gology and Otology 1 09( 1 1 ):105 1-6, 1995 Nov.

Saunders, IE., Derebery, M.I, Lo, W.W. Magnetic resonance imaging of cochlear otosclerosis. Annals of Otology, Rhinology and Laryngology 104( 1 0 Pt 1 ):826-9, 1 995 Oct.

Valvassori, G.E. Imaging of otosclerosis. Otolaryngologic Clinics of North America 26(3):359-71 , 1 993 Jun.

Weissman, IL. Hearing loss. Radiology 199(3):593-61 1 , 1 996 Jun. Woolford, TJ., Roberts, G.R, Hartley, C, Ramsden, RT. Etiology of hearing loss and cochlear computed tomography: findings in preimplant assessment. Annals of Otology, Rhinology, and Laryngology. Supplement 1 66:201-6, 1 995 Sep.

/TEMPORAL BONE

Case 81 Clinical Presentation A 52-year-old male with a prolonged history of chronic right-sided otorrhea pre­ sented with an unremitting headache, diplopia and paresthesia of the right cheek. Clinical exam revealed right abducens nerve palsy and decreased right facial tactile sensation in the distribution of the second and third divisions of the trigeminal nerve.

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Radiologic Findings On CT of the temporal bones, axial ( Fig. 8 1 -A) and coronal ( Fig. 8 1 - B ) sections through the petrous apices show complete opacification of the right petro us apex as­ sociated with sclerosis and irregularity of the bony trabecula. On an M R I of the temporal bones of the same patient (Fig. 8 1 -C), an axial TIW image shows complete opacification of the right petro us air cells and air cells along the posterior aspect of the petrous carotid canal, causing some local expansion and anterior displacement of the right longus colli muscle. The coronal post-contrast Tl W image (Fig. 8 1 -D ) shows contrast enhancement consistent with internal archi­ tecture.

Differential Diagnosis: Destructive Lesions in the Petrous Apex •

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Infectious/Inflammatory: petrous apicitis/petrous apex abscess, malignant otitis externa (skull base osteomyelitis) Tumors: • Benign: cholesteatoma, meningioma, paraganglioma, cholesterol granuloma • Malignant: chordoma, skull base chondrosarcoma, lymphoma, plasmacytoma/ multiple myeloma, metastasis, nasopharyngeal carcinoma

Diagnosis Petro us apicitis with Gradenigo's syndrome

Discussion Epidemiology Once a common and devastating disease, petrous apicitis became a rare entity after the introduction of antibiotics. I t is more commonly seen in patients with pneuma­ tized petrous apices.

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BONE Anatomically, the petro us apex is defined as the portion of the temporal bone lying anteromedial to the otic capsule and posterolateral to the clivus, with the extreme apex terminating at the fibrocartilaginous tissue of the foramen lacerum. The bone marrow content and degree of pneumatization of the petro us apex is highly variable among individuals. Most studies report a 30 to 40% incidence of pneumatized petrous apices i n the general population which tends to parallel the degree of pneumatization of the squamous-mastoid portion of the temporal bone. I n the great majority of patients pneumatization is bilaterally symmetric, but in about 10% of cases it may be asymmetric. Tn another patient, an axial TIW image through the petrous apex shows intremediate signal intensity, similar to that of the bone marrow of the clivus. The diagnosis for this patient is asymmetric bone marrow. The complex anatomic relationship of the petro us apex with the intracranial con­ tents, cranial nerves and major intracerebral vessels explains the clinical syndromes and complications associated with lesions in this location. Some experts divide the petrous apex into two compartments: one anterior to the internal auditory canal, harboring most pathologic processes, and the other posterior to the internal audi­ tory canal (lAC), usually containing compact bone of the otic capsule and rarely pneumatized. Important relationships of the petrous apex include the cisternal segment of the trigeminal nerve and Meckel's cave superiorly, Dorello's canal (a dural fold tra­ versed by the abducens nerve) superomedially, the cavernous sinus and petrous segment of the internal carotid artery anteriorly, and the infratemporal fossa and cerebello-positive angle (CPA) cistern posteriorly.

Pathophysiology I n the early 1 930's, there was great controversy concerning the pathophysiology of petrous apicitis and the best surgical treatment for this often fatal disease. While some considered petrous apicitis an osteitis, others considered it a true osteomyelitis requiring extensive surgical resection and debridement of the petro us apex. Currently, most experts consider two forms of disease, depending whether the in­ fection involves solely the mucosalized spaces in a highly pneumatized petrous apex (apicitis) or involves the bone marrow in a poorly pneumatized or non pneumatized petrous apex (osteomyelitis). I n most cases, petro us apicitis results from spread of i nflammatory debris because of an acute or chronic middle ear or mastoid infection into a pneumatized petrous apex. The middle ear cavity and mastoid communicate with the petrous air cells through extensions from supralabyrinthine, infralabyrinthine and peritubal areas, via subarcuate tracts. These communicating tracts are very small and easily become obstructed by inflammatory debris. This can lead to progression of the infective process and possible abscess formation in the isolated petrous air cells. The chronic form of the disease is the most frequent and is usually silent and in­ sidious, leading to a delay in diagnosis. When left untreated, the infection progresses to involve adjacent structures including the cavernous sinus, cranial nerves, adjacen t meninges and dural sinuses. Devastating complications, such as meningitis, venous sinus thrombophlebitis and intra- and extracerebral abscesses may result. The most common pathogens are the same as those causing otitis media, although unusual flora, including anaerobes and enterobacteriaceae have been isolated i n these patients. Tuberculosis a n d syphilis are also considerations, especially in chronic insidious cases unresponsive to conventional antibiotic therapy.

Clinical Findings Most patients with petrous apicitis have either a history of recent acute otomas­ toiditis or, more likely, chronic ear drainage. Gradenigo's syndrome, a classic triad of symptoms which includes chronic otorrhea, diplopia and trigeminal neuralgia, lo-

TEMPORAL BONEI calizes the lesion to the petrous apex, but is rarely present. Therefore, a high clinical suspicion is necessary to make this diagnosis early in the course of the disease, be­ fore complications develop. Deep aural or retrorbital pain, unremitting headache, vestibulo-cochlear symptoms, facial nerve palsy and trismus may also be presenting symptoms. Altered mentation and high spiking fevers are ominous signs, indicating intracranial spread. Otologic examination usually reveals acute or chronic middle ear infection. Neu­ rologic exam is crucial to detect cranial nerve involvement and may reveal diplopia, strabismus, trigeminal nerve dysfunction and facial nerve palsy. Leukocytosis with excess neutrophils is the rule in immunocompetent individuals. Imaging is useful to confirm the diagnosis, determine the extent of disease, and plan treatment.

Imaging Findings The hallmark of petrous apicitis is opacification of the petrous air cells associated with erosion and destruction of bony trabecula and/or cortical margins of the petro us bone. cr is the modality of choice to detect such bony changes. A cystic, ex­ pansile lesion with a thick irregular enhancing rim, suggests abscess formation from coalescence of infected air cells. I n the chronic setting, common associated findings i.nclude underpneumatization and sclerosis of the temporal bone. The CT findings are nonspecific and mimic any other destructive lesion of the petrous apex, includ­ ing some benign and malignant neoplasms. I n the clinical setting of chronjc otomas­ toiditis the most pertinent differential consideration is cholesteatoma, which also presents as a soft tissue destructive mass. Malignant otitis extern a may also present as an irregular bony destructive process involving the skull base and petrous apex. However, involvement of the external auditory canal, the typical pattern of spread into the parotid space and infratemporal fossa, and history of diabetes usually al­ lows differentiation of these two entities. M R I is particularly useful to evaluate the extent of the soft tissue component and detect intracranjal complications. Extension into the cavernous sinus manifests as enhancing soft tissue bulging the lateral wall of the involved sinus. Abnormal en­ hancement may also be seen within Meckel's cave indicating involvement of the Gasserian ganglion or along the course of cranial nerves V or V I I . Enhancemnet of the abducens nerve is not usually detectable, even on high resolution M R images, due to the diminutive size of tills nerve. Cranial nerve enhancement is best detected on coronal postcontrast fat-saturated M R T l W images. On M R I , acute petrous apicitis is usually hypointense on Tl WI and hyperintense on TIW I . Enhancemnet of the apical air cells reflects the presence of infiammed mucosa. Thick, irregular enhancement surrounding an expansile cystic cavity indi­ cates abscess formation. Inferior extension into the infratemporal fossa should be sought. I n the clinical setting of chronic disease, signal characteristics of the trapped in­ flammatory debris are variable. There may be intermediate or high signal intensity on T l WI, depending on the protein content of the retained fluid with hyperintensity on T2 weighting. TI hypointensity is rare and suggests dessication, calcification or chronic hemorrhage. In the few cases of petro us apex osteomyelitis arising in a nonpneumatized petrous apex, the clue to the diagnosis is infiltration of the bone marrow manifested by a lack of bright fat signal Tl W I , and abnormal enhancement on postcontrast images. Enhanced M R I is also the modality of choice to evaluate [or intracerebral complications such as meningitis, extra- or intracerebral abscesses and venous sinus thrombosis/thrombophlebitis. There are two major M R T pitfalls that may mimic pathology: asymmetric bone marrow in a nonpneumatized or poorly pneumatized petrous apex, and effusion in the petrous air cells. Asymmetry in the amount of bone marrow in the petro us apices may confuse the inexperienced radiologist. The fact that the asymmetric soft tissue follows the signal characteristics of orbital fat in all sequences is usually

ITEMPORAL BONE PEARLSIPITFALLS Gradenigo's syndrome is a classic triad of symptoms which include chronic otorrhea, diplopia, and trigeminal nerve dysfunction.

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The haUmark of petrous apicitis is opacification of the petrous apex air cells associated with bony destructive changes.

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A petrous apex abscess is indi­ cated by thick irregular enhance­ ment surrounding an expansile cystic cavity. The typical pattern of spread is to the cavernous sinus, infratem­ poral and middle cranial fossa.

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Do not fail to recognize intracra­ nial involvement (i.e., cavernous sinus, Meckel's cave, meninges). Avoid mistaking asymmetric bone marrow in the petrous apex for pathology.

enough to confirm this normal variant. In problematic cases a fat suppressed se­ quence should be performed. Trapped fluid in petrous apex air cells is occasionally seen in asymptomatic patients and in patients with symptoms unrelated to the petrous apex. It usually follows an upper respiratory infection and does not neces­ sarily indicate petrous apicitis. In these circumstances there is usually little mucosal enhancement of the apical air cells and no bony destruction is noted on CT scans. Follow-up studies are necessary to evaluate the clinical significance and natural his­ tory of this imaging finding. To evaluate petrous apex pathology a combination of both cross-sectional imag­ ing modalities, MRI, and CT is usually required to increase the specificity and diag­ nostic yield. Technetium and Gallium bone scans using SPECT may be helpful in distinguishing apicitis from frank osteomyelitis and evaluating response to treat­ ment.

Management Most cases of petrous apicitis are managed conservatively with intravenous antibi­ otics tailored to the specific agent. Surgical drainage may be required in unremilling cases or when a frank abscess is present. The surgical approach is planned on the ba­ sis of the CT scan, which allows a road map of the bony anatomy. A prelabyrinthine approach, between the cochlea and the posterior genu of the petrous corotid artery, is the preferred surgical route, but may not be possible in patients with unfavorable anatomy. A middle cranial fossa subtemporal approach is an alternative.

Suggested Readings Bourne, R.R . Maclaren, R.E. Intracranial plasmacytoma masquerading as Graden­ igo's yndrome (Ieller). British Journal of Ophthalmology 82(4):458-9, 1 998 Apr. .

Frates, M.e., Oates, E. Partous apicitis: evaluation by bone SPECT and magnetic resonance imaging. Clinical Nuclear Medicine 15(5):293-4, 1990 May. Gadre, A.K., Brodie, H . A .. Fayad, IN., O'Leary, M.1. Venous channels of the petrous apex: their presence and clinical imporlance. Otolaryngology and Head and Neck Surgery 1 1 6(2) : 1 68-74, 1997 Feb. Hardjasudarma, M . , Edwards, R.L., Ganley, lP., Aarstad, R.E Magnetic resonance imaging features of Gradenigo's syndrome. American Journal of OtolarYl1gology 1 6(4):247-50, 1995 Jul-Aug.

Horn, K.L., Erasmus, M.D., Akiya, E I . Suppurative petrous apicitis: osteitis or osteomyelitis? An imaging case report. American Journal of Otolaryngology 1 7( 1 ):54-7, 1 996 Jan-Feb. Jackler. R.K., Parker, D.A. Radiographic differential diagnosis of petrous apex le­ sions. American Journal of Otology 1 3(6):561-74, 1 992 Nov.

Murakami, T., Tsubaki, 1.. Tahara, Y, Nagashima, T. Gradenigo's syndrome: CT and MRI findings. Pediatric Radiology 26(9):684-5, 1996 Sep.

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Case 82

T EMPORAL BONEI

Clinical Presentation A 64-year-old diabetic male presented with a two week history of right sided

otor­ rhea and otalgia that was unresponsive to antibiotics. Four days before presentation he noted right cheek swelling and trismus.

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Radiologic Findings On an MRI of the temporal bones and neck an axial T1 WI pre- (Fig. 82-A) and postcontrast (Fig. 82-B) show marked swelling and abnormal soft tissue thickening in the right external auditory canal (EAC), parotid space, masticator and parapha­ ryngeal spaces, obliterating all the surrounding fascial planes. This swelling extends posteriorly into the subcutaneous soft tissues overlying the mastoid bone, temporal squamosa and right occipital region. There is swelling and abnormal enhancement of the right parotid gland, masseter and lateral pterygoid muscles (Fig. 82-B). The mastoid air cells are opacified and the lateral cortical margin of the mastoid bone is indistinct. On a CT scan of the temporal bones (Figs. 82-C and 82-D), axial sections through the EAC show soft tissue opacification of the EAC and bony erosion and disruption of the posterior wall of the internal auditory canal (lAC) and lateral cortical mar­ gin of the mastoid. The mastoid air cells are opacified and an air-fluid level is noted in the mastoid antrum. There is also abnormal soft tissue density within the middle ear cavity. The ossicular chain is not displaced nor eroded. The coronal section (Fig. 82-E) again shows bony destruction of the EAC and lateral aspect of the mastoid bone.

Differential Diagnosis: Abnormal Soft Tissue Mass in the EAC Associated with Bony Erosion •

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Inflammatory: malignant external otitis, benign necrotizing otitis externa, cholesteatoma of the EAC Neoplastic (lesions may arise primarily in the EAC or invade it secondarily from surrounding structures): squamous cell carcinoma of the EAC, basal cell carci­ noma of the EAC, salivary gland malignancies (adenoid cystic and mucoepider­ moid carcinomas), melanoma, metastasis, ceruminoma (ceruminous adenocarci­ noma)

Diagnosis Malignant otitis externa (MOE)

TEMPORAL BONEI

Discussion Epidemiology Malignant external otitis was first described by Chandler in 1 968, although a case of temporal bone osteomyelitis was previously described by Meltzer and Keleman in 1 959. Other terms commonly used to refer to this entity are necrotizing or invasive oti­ tis externa. It is a rare entity, typically presenting in elderly diabetic patients. How­ ever, it may be seen with other forms of immunosuppression, as in AIDS, where the disease may present in younger patients.

Pathophysiology Malignant external otitis is a severe infectious process which begins in the EAC and frequently spreads throughout the temporal bone, skull base and suprahyoid neck, crossing fascial planes. The most common agent is Pseudomonas aeruginosa, an op­ portunistic organism which tends to grow in moist environments and devitalized tis­ sues, especially when there is an imbalance in the normal commensal flora. Less fre­ quently, other agents have been implicated including other bacteria, such as Staphylococcus aureus and Proteus mirabilis, and fungal agents such as Aspergillus species. Predisposing factors include diabetes mellitus, immunosuppression (congenital or acquired), history of prior EAC lavage, and chronic use of antimicrobial agents which do not cover pseudomonas species. The inciting event appears to be a dermatitis of the EAC, compromising the nor­ mal barrier of the skin. TIlis may be due to trauma after syringe jet lavage or repeated introduction of foreign bodies into the EAC. In diabetic patients, mi­ croangiopathy due to endarteritis may compromise the microcirculation in the EAC, increasing the susceptibiliy to infection (ischemic perichondritis). The moist environment of the EAC, especially after repeated use of topical antibiotics to cover other agents of otitis externa, further favors the growth of the commensal pseudomonas aeruginosa. The infection usually begins at the junction of the cartilaginous and bony portions of the EAC and from there, spreads insidiously and silently to the temporal bone and surrounding stuctures. Pseudomonas typically produces endo- and exotoxins, including the enzymes col­ lagenase and elastase, which enables the organism to disseminate easily across the fascia of the suprahyoid neck. Furthermore, immunosuppression diminishes the ability to mount an adequate inflammatory response. In the case of diabetic pa­ tients, there is defective chemotaxis of leukocytes, as the defective blood supply, caused by microangiopathic changes, impedes the delivery of inflammatory cells to the affected regions. The pattern of spread is fairly consistent. Initially, the disease tends to spread in­ feriorly, through the small clefts normally present in the floor of the EAC ( fissures of Santorini), to involve the soft tissues inferior to the temporal bone, including the parotid space, infratemporal masticator space, and skull base. Less common routes of dissemination include posterior spread to the mastoid air cells, anteriorly into the TMJ and medially into the middle ear cavity and petrous apex.

Clinical Findings The most common presenting symptoms are unrelenting otalgia, and purulent otor­ rhea despite antibiotic therapy. This purulent otorrhea, may be scant or profuse and typically presents as a foul smelling greenish exudate. With disease progression, headaches, usually located over the temporal bone region, pain in the TMJ, trismus and cranial nerve palsies may ensue. The presence of headaches and cranial nerve

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ITEMPORAL

BONE palsies usually indicate skull base osteomyelitis. Trismus results from involvement of the TMJ or nasopharyngeal masticator space. The cranial nerve most commonly af­ fected is the facial nerve. This is due to the progression of infection through the sty­ lomastoid foramen, or direct involvement of the facial nerve canal ill the tympanic or mastoid segments. Extension of the infectious process into the petrous apex and cavernous sinus may present as Gradenigo's or cavernous sinus syndrome, respec­ tively. I nvolvement of the jugular foramen may cause Vernet's syndrome with dys­ function of cranial nerves IX, X and X I . If left untreated, infection may spread intracranially into the meninges and result in a subdural or epidural empyema or an intraparenchymal abscess. Venous sinus thrombosis may also result. Other complications include parotid gland or mastica­ tor abscesses, chondritis of the EAC and auricule, and development of fistulous tracts. A history of noninsulin dependent diabetes, another type of immunosuppression, and recent ear lavage should be sought. In the early stages, clinical examination shows swelling and erythema of the EAC mucosa, initially at the junction of the cartilaginous and bony portions, and later in­ volving all the EAC and tympanic membrane. This swelling and erythema spreads to the auricule and, eventually, to the subcutaneous soft tissues overlying the mas­ toid and parotid regions. Otoscopy discloses granulation tissue in the EAC and, in advanced cases, ulceration of the inferior wall of the EAC may be seen. 1l1ere may be fluid in the tympanic cavity, mimicking an otitis media. A facial nerve paralysis or other cranial nerve palsies may be apparent on clinical exam. Diagnosis is based on a high index of clinical suspicion in patients with a concor­ dant history, and is confirmed by laboratory tests and imaging findings. The most re­ liable laboratory finding is isolation of the agent from the EAC exudate. An ele­ vated sedimentation rate is always present, but leukocytosis is an inconsistent finding, especially in immunocompromised patients. Recurrence after appropriate therapy is seen in approximately 20% of cases.

I maging Findi ngs The major goals of imaging are to determine disease extent, to identify drainable fluid collections, evaluate the success of therapy and help confirm the diagnosis CT is the modality of choice, as it adequately depicts cortical bony changes which, when present, are the hallmark of this disease. M R I is used as an adjunct to evaluate the soft tissue extent and detect any intracranial complications. M R I may also detect bone marrow changes in the skull base which may not be apparent on CT. Bone scintigraphy, especially a gallium scan, is the best imaging tool for early di­ agnosis and patient follow-up. This is particularly important as the imaging findings seen on CT and M R I usually lag behind clinical resolution and may be interpreted as persistent or recurrent disease. Osteolysis may never resolve after complete erad­ ication of the disease. The most common CT finding is the presence of a soft tissue density in the EAC. However, this finding lacks specificity as it may represent a variety of pathologic en­ tities including a cerumen plug, simple otitis externa, keratosis obturans or a foreign body. The presence of bony erosion and cortical disruption of the bony EAC, mas­ toid or skull base, in conjunction with a concordant clinical history, is the hallmark of this entity. CT may also demonstrate opacification of the middle ear cavity and mastoid air cells due to postobstructive changes or direct extension of granulation tissue. Soft tissue changes include obliteration of the fascial and fat planes, initially beneath the EAC and later involving the parotid, parapharyngeal and masticator spaces. Mass effect upon the nasopharynx is another possible mechanism for eu­ stachian tube obstruction. Soft tissue swelling and thickening may also be present in the pinna, subcutaneous soft tissues overlying the region of the mastoid and tempo­ ral bone squamosa and in the TMJ. Abnormal soft tissue density, obliterating the fat seen in the stylomastoid foramen. indicates facial nerve involvement and is usually

137 8

TEMPORAL BONEI

PEARLSIPITFALLS •

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MOE typically presents in el­ derly diabetic patients with chronic otalgia and otorrbea. It is unremitting with conventional antibiotics. The most common agent is pseudomonas aeruginosa. On imaging, an MOE appears as a soft tissue mass witbin the EAC associated witb bony de­ struction. The typical pattern of spread is anteroinferiorly into the parotid space, and inferomediaUy into the infratemporal masticator space. Avoid mistaking MOE for a ma­ lignancy. Avoid not recognizing complica­ tions such as intracranial exten­ tion and sinus tbrombosis.

associated with facial nerve paresis. Abscesses may develop, manifesting as hypo­ dense lesions surrounded by an irregular enhancing rim. On MRI the soft tissue changes may be better delineated. The inflammatory tis­ sue in malignant external otitis is nonspecific in appearance (isointense to muscle on Tl WI and hyperintense on T2WI), showing intense enhancement except in areas of tissue necrosis. However, some studies describe this inflammatory tissue as by­ pointense on both Tl W and T2WI, witb scant enhancement. These features are tbougbt to indicate the denser nature of this soft tissue material and its tendency to fibrose. Pre- and postcontrast images should always be obtained to allow detection of bone marrow changes and meningeal enhancement. Fat-suppressed images may be helpful in selected cases, where the abnormal soft tissue is surrounded by fat. Coro­ nal sections are very useful in detecting obliteration of the fat underneath the EAC, one of the earliest signs of spread of infection outside the EAC. MRV may be needed to confirm sinus thrombosis. The major differential diagnosis is made with neoplastic lesions of the temporal bone. Squamous and basal cell carcinomas are the most frequent malignancies oc­ curing in the EAC. They present in the same age group and the imaging findings (soft tissue mass associated with bony destructive changes) are indistinguishible from those seen in MOE. Other less common malignancies include minor salivary gland neoplasms, adenocarcinoma originating in the ceruminous glands, melanoma and metastasis. Clinical correlation and biopsy are warranted to make the diag­ nosis. Cholesteatoma of the EAC, an inflammatory condition usually associated with chronic otitis, may also present as a soft tissue mass with associated erosion of the bony EAC. However, this condition tends to be more focal and is not associated with the diffuse soft tissue changes seen in MOE. Finally, benign necrotizing otitis externa, a rare condition of unknown etiology characterized by formation of au avascular bony sequestrum in the tympanic plate, may also mimic MOE.

Management Antibiotic therapy is the mainstay of treatment and should be directed to the etio­ logic agent. As the majority of cases are caused by Pseudomonas aeruginosa the treatment of choice is long term (6 to 8 weeks) ciprofloxacin. In extensive cases, a course of intravenous antibiotics may be warranted to halt progession. i n the pres­ ence of osteomyelitis with bony sequestra or abscess formation, surgery should be performed with drainage and extensive debridement of the necrotic tissue. I n the rare instances of MOE caused by Aspergillus species, amphotericin B is the treat­ ment of choice, with surgical debridment also performed when needed. Hyperbaric oxygen therapy can also be used as an adjunct with varying rates of success. Control of the baseline disease process (diabetes or other type of immuno­ suppression) also helps resolve the infectious process. A baseline imaging study, ei­ ther CT or MRI, after completion of therapy, should be performed for easier as­ sessment of possible recurrent disease.

Suggested Reading Amorosa, L., Modugno, G.c., Pi rodda, A . Malignant external otitis: review and per­ sonal experience. Acta Oto-Laryngologica, Supplement 521 :3-16, 1 996. Gordon, G., Giddings, N.A. I nvasive otitis extern a due to Aspergillus species: case report and review. Clinical Infectious Diseases 1 9(5):866-70, 1 994 Nov. Grandis, 1.R., Curtin, H.D., Yu, Y.L. Necrotizing (malignant) external otitis: prospec­ tive comparison of CT and M R imaging in diagnosis and follow-up. Radiology 1 96(2):499-504, 1 995 Aug.

ITEMPORAL

BONE Hern, 1.D., Almeyda, 1., Thomas, D.M . , Main, 1., Patel, K.S. Malignant otitis externa in H I V and A IDS. Journal of Laryngology and Oeology 1 1 0(8):770-5, 1996 Aug. Hickham, M., Amedee, R.G. Malignant otitis externa. Journal of the Louisiana State Medical Society 1 48( 1 2 ) : 5 1 1-3, 1 996 Dec. Lucente, F.E., Parisier, S.c., James R. Chandler: "Malignant external otitis." Laryn­ goscope 1 06(7):805-7, 1 996 Jul. Manfrini, S., Gregorio, F. , Capoolicasa, E. Diabetes mellitus and malignant external otitis: a case study. Journal of Diabetes and Its Complications 1 0( 1 ):2-5, 1 996 Jan­ Feb. Slattery, W.H. 3rd., Brackmann, D.E. Skull base osteomyelitis. Malignant external otitis. Otolaryngologic Clinics of North A merica 29(5):795-806, 1 996 Oct. Stokke I, M.P., Boot, C.N., van Eck-Smit, RL. SPECf gallium scintigraphy in malig­ nant external otitis: initial staging and follow-up. Case reports. Laryngoscope 106(3 Pt 1 ):338-40, 1 996 Mar. Wormald, p.1. Surgical management of benign necrotizing otitis externa. Journal of Laryngology and Otology 108(2): 1 0 1 -5, 1 994 Feb.

Case 83

TEMPORAL BONEI

Clinical Presentation A 20-year-old male presents with a history of several bouts of otitis media and pro­ gressive right sided conductive hearing loss.

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ITEMPORAL

BONE

Radiologic Findings On a CT of the temporal bones (coronal views) (Fig. 83-A) there is a nondependent globular soft tissue mass in the epitympanum centered between the scutum and the head of the malleus (Prussak's space). The scutum is blunted and eroded and there is also demineralization of the head of the malleus. The tegmen tympani is thin but is still intact. A section slightly more posterior (Fig. 83-B) shows the medial extent of the mass abutting the horizontal segment of the facial nerve and the lateral semi­ circular canal which is intact. On axial views of the same patient (Fig. 83-C) there is posterior extension of the mass into the mastoid antrum through the additus ad antrum. Note that the mastoid is poorly pneumatized and sclerotic, which is consis­ tent with the patient's history of chronic reccurent otitis media and mastoiditis.

Differential Diagnosis: Soft Tissue in the Middle Ear • • • • • • •

Cholesteatoma Chronic otitis media Granulation tissue Cholesterol granuloma Malignant otitis extern a Glomus tympanicum Neoplasm (squamous cell carcinoma in adult patients and rhabdomyosarcoma in children)

Diagnosis Pars flaccida cholesteatoma (acquired)

Discussion Although the imaging findings strongly suggest the correct diagnosis, the differen­ tial diagnosis of this lesion includes cholesteatoma, chronic otitis media, granulation tissue, cholesterol granuloma, "malignant" otitis externa and neoplasm. In chronic otitis media there is usually bony sclerosis of the ossicular chain, and erosions, when present, affect predominantly the incus and stapes. Bony fixation is a sequela of chronic inflammatory processes and is a cause of conductive deafness. The process may involve the formation of granulation tissue and release of prote­ olytic enzymes. Gross erosion of the scutum as in the present case makes this diag­ nosis unlikely. CT is not able to distinguish granulation tissue from cholesteatoma in the absence of bony erosion. Contrast enhanced M R I is sometimes able to distinguish between these two lesions, as granulation tissue enhances intensely, while cholesteatomas show no enhancement or only faint peripheral rim. This peripheral enhancement is due to the presence of a thin lining of granulation tissue formed in relation to the ectopic epithelial tissue. Overall, CT is the study of choice for evaluation here be­ cause of its sensitivity to bone detail. Cholesterol granuloma displays typical signal characteristics on MR imaging which allows distinction from cholesteatoma. The signal characteristics of choles­ terol granuloma are hyperintense on both TI W and T2W images. These lesions oc­ cur more frequently in the region of the petrous bone, although they can also ap­ pear in the middle ear. Neoplasms of the temporal bone region usually arise from the epithelium of the external auditory canal, secondary to perineural invasion along the facial or trigem­ inal nerves, or from direct extension of malignant cells along the Eustachian tubes. They are highly aggressive lesions usually showing invasive features and bony de-

TEMPORAL BONEI Table

1

Two Types of Cholesteatoma

TM perforation Location Ossicles displaced Bone erosion Ossicles erosion

Attic cholesteatoma (flaccida) Pars flaccida Prussa k 's space medially lateral tympanic wall maleus and body of incus

Sinus cholesteatoma (tensa) Pars tensa Sinus tympani laterally initially subtle long process of incus

struction in an early stage This diagnosis should be suspected, particularly if there are intra parotid or preauricular adenopathy. Acute infection of the middle ear cavity can be distinguished from cholesteatoma by the presence of air-fluid levels and the dependent nature of the soft tissue in the former condition. This can be confirmed by changing the position of the patient in the scanner. Malignant otitis externa (MOE) is an aggressive infection caused by Pseudo­ monas aeruginosa which can present as a soft tissue mass in the middle ear cavity. M O E usually affects older patients with immune dysfunction (most commonly dia­ betes). This infectious process usually begins in the external auditory canal. Isolated involvement of the middle ear does not favor this diagnosis. Bony erosion and de­ struction of the external auditory canal region is characteristic. Extension into the parotid space through the styloid mastoid foramen is a frequent complication.

Pathophysiology Cholesteatomas arise from neovascularized ectopic squamous epithelium. The ec­ topic tissue exfoliates epithelial cells and keratin debris, forming a mass, which be­ comes entrapped in the middle ear cavity. The mass produces erosion of the adja­ cent bony structures due to mechanical pressure. The ectopic epithelium can originate either from e mbryologic remnants (see con­ genital cholesteatomas) or, much more frequently, from invagination of epithelium via the external auditory canal. I t can also originate from tympanic membrane (ac­ quired cholesteatoma) either via an epithelial retraction pocket or a perforated tympanic membrane. (Squamous epithelium is normally present on only the exter­ nal aspect of the tympanic membrane). Acquired colesteatomas are further divided into pars flaccida and pars tensa cholesteatomas, depending on the site of origin. Pars flaccida type usually results from invagination of the Shrappnell membrane into Prussak's space. This is due to negative pressure inside the middle ear cavity re­ sulting from eustachian tube dysfuntion. The most posterosuperior portion of the tympanic membrane lacks a fibrous layer and is easily retracted into the middle ear. Pars tensa cholesteatomas usually result from perforation of the tympanic mem­ brane, usually as a consequence of middle ear infection. A lthough many other mechanisms of cholesteatoma formation have been proposed, the pathogenesis of this entity is still not fully understood. The growth pattern of these lesions is quite characteristic and occurs along paths of least resistence (See Table 1 ). Pars flaccida cholesteatomas grow posterolateralJy into the attic and from there into the mastoid antrum through the additus ad antrum. Pars tensa cholesteatomas are more variable in location depending on the site of tympanic membrane perforation. Frequently, perforations are marginal in lo­ cation and arise posterosuperiorly. This type of cholesteatoma often grows posteri­ orly into the sinus tympani, a blind area to otoscopic examination. Acquired cholesteatomas occur exclusively in the middle ear cavity except in postsurgical recurrences which frequently arise in mastoidal surgical defects.

ITEM PORAL BONE Clinical Findings Correlation of clinical history, otologic examination and imaging findings are neces­ sary to arrive at the correct diagnosis of masses in the middle ear. A previous history of repeated otologic infections, tympanic tube placement or previous otologic surgery are all predisposing factors to cholesteatoma formation. Symptoms include progressive hearing loss, fullness inside the ear or fetid otologic discbarge. The visualization of a whitish mass within the middle ear cavity associated with retraction of the tympanic membrane favors the diagnosis of cholesteatoma. A bulging membrane is more consistent with acute infection with middle ear fluid, whereas a normal appearing tympanic membrane favors accumulation of debris.

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1384

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TEMPORAL BONEI

I m aging Findings CT is the examination of choice when a cholesteatoma is suspected and should al­ most always be performed prior to urgery. It shows the location of the lesion, its re­ lation to the tympanic membrane and also depicts bony erosion and extension be­ yond the confines of the middle ear. CT is particularly well suited to demonstrate involvement of the facial nerve canal, erosion of the tegmen tympani, dehiscence of the semicircular canals (SCC) (most frequently the lateral canal) and extension into locations that are blind to clinical examination such as the sinus tympani. CT of the temporal bones of another patient (coronal views) (Fig. 85-0) shows a soft tissue mass medial to tbe body of the incus and head of the malleus, which are eroded. In Figure 83-E, the horizontal SCC appears to be eroded due to partial volume artifact, but is actually intact as seen on axial view -3C. The scutum(s) is also intact. An ax­ ial view (Fig. 83-F) shows the posterior extent of the mass into the mastoid antrum and intact horizontal SCc.

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ITEMPORAL

BONE Table 2

Complications Associated with Cholesteatoma Labyrinthine fistula Facial nerve paralysis Sinus thrombosis Meningitis Encephalitis Abscess Petrous apex syndrome (Gradenigo's syndrome)

Figures 83-G and 83-H show an enhanced CT of the temporal bones in a 30-year­ old woman with cholesteatoma, who presented with progressive right hearing loss, otalgia, vertigo, fever and leucocytosis. Axial (Fig. 83-G) and coronal views (Fig. 83-H) show a soft tissue mass in the middle ear cavity, eroding the ossicular chain and destroying the bony covering of the lateral semicircular canal. Axial views (Figs. 83-1 and 83-J) show internal jugular and occipital vein throm­ bosis extending into the sigmoid sinus which is also partially thrombosed. I n pars flaccida cholesteatomas a globular mass in Prussak's space that produces erosion of the scutum is the earliest finding, and is best demonstrated on coronal im­ ages. Further growth of the tumor leads to erosion of the ossicles, particularly the head of the maleus and long process of the incus. This is followed by invasion of the mastoid air cells and tegmen tympani with possible extension into the middle cra­ nial fossa. Pars tensa cholesteatomas grow between the cochlear promontory and the inner margin of the ossicular chain, and erode primarily the stapes and short process of the incus. These features are best appreciated on axial sections. Extension into the oval window, dehiscence of the facial nerve canal, and erosion of the lateral semi­ circular canal are common. The presence of bony erosions, although suggestive of cholesteatoma may be seen in other conditions. Chronic inflammation, particularly with formation of granula­ tion tissue, is another possible cause. M R I usually shows nonspecific features. Cholesteatomas are usually hypointense on T l W and hyperintense in T2W images as is inflammatory debris or fluid. Con­ trast enhanced M R I is sometimes useful in distinguishing granulation tissue from cholesteatoma. This is because granulation tissue enhances strongly while cholesteatomas show no enhacement or only thin peripheral enhancement. M R I should also be performed when intracranial extension i s suspected.

Management The most frequent complications of cholesteatomas include ossicular destruction, facial nerve involvement and labyrinthine fistula (see Table 2). Complications may manifest clinically as conductive deafness, facial nerve paralysis and persistent ver­ tigo. Cholesteatomas are particularly prone to superinfection. These may be confined to the temporal bone or extend intracranially and lead to subperiosteal abcesses. labyrinthitis, petrous apicitis, venous thrombosis, meningitis and meningeal or brain abcesses (Figs. 83-G-J). When the patient with cholsteatoma presents with sepsis, imaging studies, preferably MRI, should be performed to rule out such complica­ tions. Another possible complication is a CSF fistula from destruction of the tegmen tympani or inner wall of the mastoid presenting as CSF otorrhea or recurrent meningitis. The treatment for cholesteatomas is surgical, involving some form of mastoidec­ tomy performed. Cholesteatomas limited to Prussak's space or to the sinus tympani have been successfully treated by marsupialization of the retraction pocket and es-

TEMPORAL BONEI

PEARLS/PITFALLS •

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A non dependent globular soft tissue mass near TM favors the diagnosis of cholesteatoma. A cr can depict any associated bony erosion.

tablishment of middle ear ventilation to avoid recurrent negative pressures. Recur­ rences are frequent (7% to 50% ) and long term clinical and imaging follow-up should be performed to exclude this possibility. Recurrence is more common in chil­ dren than adults and can occur as late as 1 2 years after initial surgical treatment. Re­ currences usually originate near the oval window or sinus tympani, both regarded as difficult surgical sites.

Suggested Reading

Erosion of the ossicular chain is one of the most frequent features of cholesteatoma.

Chao, w.Y., Tseng, H .Z., Chang, S.J. Eustachian tube dysfunction in the pathogene­ sis of cholesteatoma: clinical considerations. Journal of Otolaryngology 25(5):334-8, 1 996 Oct.

A prior history of recurrent otitis media is a predisposing factor to cholesteatoma formation.

Denoyelle, E, Silberman, B., Garabedian, E.N. Value of magnetic resonance imaging associated with x-ray computed tomography in the screening of residual choles­ teatoma after primary surgery. A nnales D Oto-Laryngologie et de Chirurgie Cer­ vico-Faciale 1 1 1(2):85-8, 1994.

Take care not to miss early bone erosion.

Kobayashi, T., Toshima, M . , Yaginuma, Y., Ishidoya, M., Suetake, M., Takasaka, T. Pathogenesis of attic retraction pocket and cholesteatoma as studied by computed tomography. A merican Journal of Otology 1 5(5):658-62, 1 994 Sep.

Take care not to mistake postop­ erative bone changes for erosion.

Leonetti, J.P., Buckingham, R.A., Marzo, S.J. Retraction cholesteatoma of the sinus tympani. American Journal of Otology 7(6):823-6, 1 996 Nov. Mafee, M . E M R I and CT i n the evaluation of acquired and congenital choleste­ atomas of the temporal bone. Journal of Otolaryngology 22(4):239-48, 1 993 Aug. Sade, J., Fuchs, C. Cholesteatoma: ossicular destruction i n adults and children. Jour­ nal of Laryngology and Otology 1 08(7):541-4, 1 994 Jul. Stenstrom, c., Ingvarsson, L. Late effects on ear disease in otitis-prone children: a long-term follow-up study. Acta Oto-Laryngologica 1 15(5):658-63, 1 995 Sep. Vartiainen, E. Factors associated with recurrence of cholesteatoma. Journal of Laryngology and Otology 1 09(7):590-2, 1995 Jul. Weissman, J.L. Hearing loss. Radiology 199(3):593-6 1 1 , 1 996 Jun.

ITEMPORAL BONE

Case 84 Clinical Presentation A 78-year-old male presented with right side hearing loss and tinnitus. Otoscopic ex­ amination was normal. Audiometric testing disclosed sensorineural hearing loss on the right.

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TEMPORAL BONEI

Radiologic Findings On an M R I of the temporal bone, axial sections Tl WI (Fig. 84-A) show a large het­ erogeneous mass, hypointense to brain parenchyma, centered in the right CPA cis­ tern and extending into the internal auditory canal ( l AC). The lesion impinges on the middle cerebellar peduncle and pons, displacing these structures to the con­ tralateral side. The I V ventricle is also displaced and compressed. On TIWI (Fig. 84-B) the tumor is heterogeneous but predominantely hyperintense to brain. T1 WI postcontrast (Fig. 84-C) shows intense heterogeneous enhancement of both the cis­ ternal and intracanalicular components. Also note the enlargement of the l AC and the "mushroom" shape of the tumor.

Differential Diagnosis: CPA Mass •

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Mimics or pseudotumors: cerebellar floculus, tuft of choroid plexus, prominent anterior interior cerebellar artery (AICA ) , prominent jugular bulb Tumors • Arising primarily in the CPA cistern: acoustic tumor, meningioma, epidermoid cyst, arachnoid cyst, nonacoustic schwannomas (trigeminal and facial nerve) • Direct extension from adjacent structures: glomus j ugulare, brain stem glioma, ependymoma of the fourth ventricle, cerebellar astrocytoma, chordoma, chon­ drosarcoma (spheno-occipital synchondrosis) Vascular lesions: vertebrobasilar dolichoectasia, aneurysms (vertebrobasilar, AICA), AVM's Infectious/Inflammatory: basilar meningitis (bacterial, fungal, TB, cryptococcosis, syphilis), arachnoiditis, sarcoid, leptomeningeal metastasis

Diagnosis Vestibular schwan noma

Discussion Epidemiology The incidence of acoustic tumors is 2000 to 3000 new cases per year in the US. This incidence corresponds to approximately 1 tumor per 1 00,000 persons per year. They comprise 8 to 10% of all intracranial tumors and 60 to 90% of all CPA neoplasms, depending on the series. Although they are commonly refered to as acoustic neuro­ mas, this term is a misnomer because these tumors are schwannomas pathologically, and most frequently arise from the i n ferior division of the vestibular nerve. Vestibu­ lar schwannomas are most prevalent between the fourth and seventh decades, and are rare in children and young adults in the absence of neurofibromatosis type " (NFII ) . There is a slight female predominance. The tumor is normally sensitive and is known to grow during pregnancy. Ninety five percent of tumors are unilateral. Bi­ laterality is diagnostic of NF I I .

Pathophysiology Vestibular schwan nom as are benign, slow-growing neoplasms ansmg from the Schwann cells of the peripheral nerve sheath, usually near the Schwann-glial inter­ face in the vicinity of the vestibular (Scarpa) ganglion. H istologically, they are char­ acterized by the presence of Verocay bodies and Antoni A and Antoni B growth patterns. Verocay bodies are well-defined cylindrical structures composed of Antoni A type tissue which, on cross-section, produces a palisading pattern of nuclei around a central mass of cytoplasm. Antoni A type tissue consists of a compact arrangement

ITEMPORAL

BONE of spindle cells, sometimes forming palisades. Antoni B type tissue has a looser ap­ pearance, characterized by the presence of cystic components and areas of bemor­ rhage. The latter predominates in large tumors which are more prone to degenera­ tive changes. The growth rate of these tumors is generally slow. Because tbe nerve sheath encircles the nerve from the cisternal component to the porus acousticus internus, schwannomas can occur anywhere along the course of the nerve to the level of the meatal foramen. Depending on their location vestibular schwannomas may be divided into purely intracanalicular, purely cisternal, or mixed. The mixed type is the most common type on imaging studies, followed by purely intracanalicular tumors. Purely cisternal neoplasms are rare and are usually large lesions. Ten percent of patients have a family rustory of acoustic tumors in tbe absence of neurofibromatosis type I I . NF I I is a bereditary phacomatosis associated witb CbTO­ mosome 22. I t is characterized by bilateral acoustic tumors usually presenting be­ fore age 21. Other CNS tumors associated with this condition include meningiomas, other cranial nerve schwannomas, glial tumors, neurofibromas, and spinal ependy­ momas. Malignant degeneration is rare, but may occur in patients with neurofibro­ matosis.

Clinical findings Symptoms from vestibular schwannomas result from compression of the nerve fibers, and compromise of the vascular supply to the nerve. Symptomatology de­ pends on the size and location of tbe tumor, but most present with progressive, asymmetric higb frequency sensorineural bearing loss (SNHL). Vertigo and tinnitus are also common presenting symptoms. Symptoms associated with larger tumors in­ clude disequilibrium and headaches, resulting from compression of the cerebellum and fourth ventricle. Other cranial nerve symptoms may also be present due to di­ rect compression. Cranial nerve V I I may be compressed in its intracanalicular seg­ ment causing facial paresis or spasm. The trigeminal nerve may be compressed at the CPA cistern causing facial numbness and loss of corneal reflex. Subarachnoid hemorrhage is a rare form of presentation. Sudden hearing loss occurs in 10% of cases and results from acute tumor growth, usually related to intra tumoral hemor­ rhage. CPA syndrome is a nonspecific triad of symptoms frequently seen in patients with acoustic tumors and consists of SNHL, tinnitus and vertigo. CPA syndrome may be seen with other lesions in the same location. Evaluation of patients with this syn­ drome sbould include audiometric testing, a speech discrimination test, auditory

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TEMPORAL BONEI brain stem evoked responses (ABSR) and an enhanced M R I of the brain and tem­ poral bone.

I m aging Findings Enhanced M R I of the temporal bones is the preferred modality to assess patients with CPA syndrome or SNHL. It has proven to be the most sensitive technique for acoustic tumor detection, superior to ABSRs which have a progressively higher false-negative rate as the size of the tumor decreases. For tumors less than 1 cm in size the rate of false negatives using ABSRs exceeds 20% . M R I is the gold standard for diagnosing acoustic tumors, detecting subclinical tumors as small as 1 or 2 mm in size. Early detection is a major requisite for hearing preservation surgery. High resolution gradient echo TIW sequences using tridimensional Fourrier transform (3DFT), or construction interference in the steady state (CISS) sequences are very

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BONE sensitive, detecting small intracanalicular tumors as nonspecific filling defects within the fluid-filled lAC. An M R I of the temporal bones (GE 3DTOFT2WI) (Fig. 84-0) showed a filling defect in the right l AC which proved to be a 5mm intracanalicular schwannoma at surgery. However, comparative studies between contrast enhanced M R I and these high resolution GE T2W sequences show superiority of the en­ hanced studies. M R I should also be used in the screening of high risk populations, including rel­ atives of patients with NF II and acoustic tumors presenting before age 30. Addi­ tionally, M R I is used in therapy planning and in the [ollow-up of patients treated conservatively, with radiosurgery or subtotal surgical resection. Although CT is also able to detect tumors larger then 1 cm in size, its major role is to provide the surgeon with anatomical landmarks and to demonstrate any bony abnormalities or normal variants in the temporal bone anatomy. such as an abnor­ mal course of the facial nerve, displaced sigmoid plate or high riding j ugular bulb. The imaging features of acoustic tumors depend on size and location. A small per­ centage of acoustic tumors present as purely intracanalicular masses. On MRI, they are usually isointense to gray maller on both T l W and T2WI and enhance intensely. They tend to be cylindrical in shape, confined by the l AC, and show a convex me­ dial border. On an enhanced MRI of the temporal bones an axial T l WI (Fig. 84-E) shows an intensely enhancing tubular mass in the right l AC. The mass extends lat­ erally to the level of the porus acousticus internus and shows a convex medial mar­ gin. The diagnosis is intracanalicular schwannoma. When sufficiently large, (greater than 1 cm), they may be detected on CT by flar­ ing and/or erosion of the l AC. The lAC is considered to be enlarged when there is height asymmetry greater than 2mm and flared when the posterior wall of the l AC is shortened to less than 3cm (Fig. 4-B). Displacement and erosion of the crista fal­ ciformis is also a good indirect sign of an acoustic tumor. Most acoustic tumors are complex, with a large spherical cisternal component. centered in the porus acousticus with obtuse angles at the temporal bone tumor in­ terface, and a smaller funnel shaped intracanalicular component widening the bony lAC. Their appearance is often likened to that of an ice cream cone or a mushroom. The cisternal component usually enlarges the ipsilateral CPA cistern and effaces the opposite CSF spaces. When large, these tumors impinge upon the lateral aspect of the pons, middle cerebellar peduncle and cerebellar hemisphere, displacing the brain stem to the contralateral side. On a CT of the brain and temporal bones (Fig. 84-F) an enhanced axial section through the level of the l AC shows a large, hetero­ geneously enhancing CPA mass, centered in the lAC. Note the acute angles with the temporal bone and the "ice cream cone" shape (the "cone" being the intracanalicu­ lar component and the "ice cream", the larger cisternal component of the tumor. (Fig. 84-G) An axial section (bone window) (Fig. 84-G) shows flaring and enlarge­ ment of the bony l AC tapering towards the porus acousticus internus. The fourth ventricle may also be displaced and compressed, causing obstructive hydrocephalus. Large tumors may be associated with perifocal edema of the adja­ cent brain. Impingement upon the trigeminal nerve and jugular foramen may also be present. Purely cisternal tumors are the largest and tend to be oval in shape. Due to their large size degenerative changes related to insufficient vascular supply are usually seen, consisting of cystic degeneration and hemorrhage. On MRI, mixed and cisternal tumors are iso- to hypointense to gray matter on T l WI and hyperintense on T2WI . When large, they may be heterogeneous in signal intensity due to the presence of cystic change, dystrophic calcification or blood degradation products. U nlike small tumors, they show heterogeneous enhancement. On CT, acoustic tumors are iso-to hypodense to brain parenchyma. Five percent of acoustic tumors have an associated arachnoid cyst. With the advent of minimally invasive therapies for acoustic tumors. MRI has been used to provide tridimensional volumetric information to allow for computer designed radiation ports for radiosurgery. After radiation therapy, follow up M R l s may b e obtained at regular intervals t o evaluate for changes i n tumor size and sig-

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Enhanced M R I of the temporal bones should be performed in all patients presenting with progres­ sive asymmetric SNHL. A vestibular schwannoma is an intracanalicular or CPA mass centered in the porus acousticus forming acute angles with the temporal bone. Enlargement, flaring or erosion of the bony lAC can be detected on CT scan. Avoid excluding the diagnosis based on a normal ABSR's or normal CT scan of the temporal bone. Do not misdiagnose for CPA meningioma or schwannomas arising from other cranial nerves, especially cranial nerves YIT and Y. Avoid failing to recognize a small intracanalicular tumor. Avoid interpreting the return of contrast enhancement after ra­ diosurgery as a tumor recur­ rence.

nal characteristics. I n the majority of cases the tumor eitber shrinks or stabilizes in size, shows loss of contrast enhancement from the central portion to the periphery and areas of T l W and T2W hyperintensity related to fibrosis and calcification. Sub­ sequent return in contrast enhancement does not necessarily mean tumor growth, as it may be due to replacement of tumor by fibrous tissue. Areas of T2W hyperin­ tensity may be noted in the adjacent brain due to radiation necrosis. The major differential consideration for a small intracanalicular tumor is facial nerve schwannoma. Usually these tumors follow the course of tbe facial nerve along the labyrinthine segment towards the geniculate ganglion and may cause inferior displacement of the crista falciformis. When confined to the lAC, differentiation from acoustic schwannoma may not be possible, eitber clinically or radiographically. CPA meningiomas may mimic an acoustic schwannoma. Helpful distinguishing features include eccentricity relative to the l AC, a broad dural base forming obtuse angles with the temporal bone and the presence of a dural tail. Sometimes a dural tail, extending into the sheath of the YITth and V I IIth nerve complex, may be a con­ fusing feature. On the other hand, some acoustic tumors may show a dural tail. Other CPA tumors such as epidermoids and aracbnoid cysts are easily differenti­ ated on the basis of their density or signal characteristics, usually following that of CSF. Epidermoid cysts have a characteristic lobulated shape, burrowing into tbe crevices of the surrounding structures.

Management Acoustic tumors may be managed conservatively, by radiosurgery or conventional surgery. Due to tbe slow growth rate of these tumors, conservative management is now widely accepted, especially in older patients or poor surgical candidates. This is on the proviso that hearing is no longer recoverable and there are no neurologic symptoms related to brain stem or cerebellar compression or hydrocephalus. In these circumstances, patients should be followed clinically and radiographically with serial MRls at regular intervals to check for tumor growth or neurologic deteriora­ tion which mandates some form of tberapy. Radiosurgery is a minimally invasive form of therapy which allows tumor control in a great percentage of patients. According to some series, the overall tumor con­ trol rate is 92% , which is comparable to tbat of conventional surgery. Potential can­ didates include patients with poor general healtb, high surgical risk, failure of prior surgery or refusal to undergo conventional surgery. Some disadvantages include compliance with a strict clinical and radiographic [oHow-up, temporary worsening of symptoms and late complications, usually related to cranial nerve deficits, the most common being hearing loss. Conventional microsurgery is still the only curative treatment and is mandatory in patients with large tumors causing neurologic symptoms or evidence of rapid tu­ mor ( >0.2 cm/year). lt is also the best way to preserve hearing in patients with small intracanalicular tumors.

Suggested Readings Astor, F.C, Lechtenberg, CL., Banks, R.D., Hanft, K.L., Hanson, M.R., Salanga, V.D., DeSai, M.B. Proposed algoritbm to aid the diagnosis of cerebellopontine an­ gie tumors. Sourhern Medical Journal 90(5):5 1 4-7, 1 997 M ay. Carrier, D.A . , Arriaga, M.A. Cost-effective evaluation of asymmetric sensorineural hearing loss with focused magnetic resonance imaging. Otolaryngology and Head and Neck Surgery 1 1 6(6 P tl ):567-74, 1 997 Jun. Glasscock, M.E. 3rd., Pappas, D.G. Jr., Manolidis, S., Yon Doersten, P.G., Jackson, CG., Storper, I.S. Management of acoustic neuroma in the elderly population. American .Journal of Otology 1 8(2):236-4 1 , discussion 241-2, 1997 Mar. Hayashi, M . , Kubo, 0., Sato, H., Taira, T., Tajika, Y., Izawa, M., Takakura, K. Corre-

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BONE lation between M R image characteristics and histological features of acoustic schwannoma. Noshuyo Byori 1 3(2) : 1 39-44, 1 996 Nov. Kohan, D., Downey, L.L., Lim, 1., Cohen, N.L., Elowitz, E. Uncommon lesions pre­ senting as tumors of the internal auditory canal and cerebellopontine angle. Ameri­ can Journal of Otology 1 8(3):386-92, 1 997 May. Levo, R . , Pyykkb, l . , B1omstedt, G. Nonsurgical treatment of vestibular schwan­ noma patients. Acta Oto-Laryngologica. Supplemenl 529:56-8, 1 997. Lunsford, L.D., Kondziolka, D.S., Flickinger, 1.C Radiosurgery of tumors of the cerebellopontine angle. Clinical Neurosurgery 4 1 : 1 68-84, 1 994. Pendl, G., Ganz, IC, Kitz, K. Eustacchio, S. Acoustic neurinomas with macrocysts treated with Gamma Knife radiosurgery. Stereotactic and Functional Neurosurgery 66 Suppl 1 : 103-1 1 , 1 996. Thomsen, 1., Tos, M. Management of acoustic neuromas. Annales D Oto-Laryngolo­ gie et de Chirurgie Cervico-Faciale 1 10(4) : 179-9 1 , 1 993. Wilson, D.F., Talbot, 1.M., Mills, L. A critical appraisal of tbe role of auditory brain stem response and magnetic resonance imaging in acoustic neuroma diagnosis. American Journal of Otology 1 8(5):673-81 , 1 997 Sep.

394

Case 85

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Clinical Presentation A 1 9-year-old male presented with bilateral en orineural hearing loss, tinnitus and imbalance.

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Radiologic Findings Axial po t-contrast T l WI through the IA s (Fig. 8S-A) and through the ventricle (Fig. 8S-B) shows multiple extra-axial enhancing tumors including bilateral PA, bi­ lateral Meckel' cave , left cavernous sinus and posterior wall of the third ventricle. ll1e rigbt CPA tumor di places the medulla and TVth ventricle leftward and im­ pinges upon the right cerebellar hemisphere. The right sided CPA tumor extends to the fundus of the lAC and futher laterally into the labyrinth.

Differential D iagnosis: Multiple Cranial Nerve and CNS Tumors •

•

Neurocutaneou syndrome (phakomato es): neurofibromato is type I , neurofi­ bromato is type II, tuberous sclerosis, von Hippel-Lindau Others: schwannomatosis, FI and FI I mosaicism (segmental NFl or NFII), multiple meningiomas

Diagnosis eurofibromato i type I I ( FI I ) or central neurofibromatosi pre enting with bi­ lateral vestibular schwannomas, bilateral trigeminal scbwannoma , cavernous sinu meningioma and third ventricle ependymoma.

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Discussion Epidemiology Neurofibromatosis type I I is the second most common phakomatosis following NFL The phakomatoses, or neurocutaneous syndromes, are genetic disorders manifesting abnormal proliferation of neuroectodermal and mesenchymal tissue which lead to the development of neoplasms and hamartomas in the central and peripheral ner­ vous systems and skin. NFlI has an estimated incidence of 1 : 50,000 people in the general population. More than 50% of patients present before 25 years of age with bilateral sensorineural hearing loss; 1 0% become symptomatic before age 10.

Pathophysiology NFII is a genetic disorder with a high degree of penetrance which may be inherited as an autosomal dominant trait or acquired by spontaneous mutation. The NFII gene has been localized in the 12tb locus of tbe long arm of chromosome 22 (22q 1 2). This gene encodes for a protein named merlin or schwannomin which acts as a tu­ mor supressor. Different mutations i n this gene have been identified leading to dif­ ferent abnormalities in the protein product. The majority are nonsense or frameshift mutations resulting in a smaller, probably nonfunctional, truncated protein, respon­ sible for a more severe clinical form of the disease (Wishart). Some are missense mutations that lead to single amino acid changes in the protein, and are associated with milder forms of disease (Gardner-Frazier) that are undetectable by standard mutational analysis. These different mutations not only correlate with different de­ grees in the severity of NFI I , but are also responsible for NFlJ variants such as schwannomatosis, NFlI mosaicism (segmental NFII) and multiple meningiomas. Abnormalities in the 22q 1 2 gene locus are associated not only with NFII, but are also present in patients with unilateral vestibular schwannomas, meningiomas and other neoplasms, such as melanoma, breast carcinoma and malignant mesothelioma.

Clinical Findings The diagnosis of N F l l is made clinically as a cost effective genetic test because mu­ tation detection has not yet been identified. Ninety six percent of patients with NFIl present with sensorineural hearing loss, most before age 25. Other signs and symp­ toms depend on the location of other tumors in the peripheral or central nervous system. Definite diagnosis of NFII is made in the presence of bilateral vestibular schwannomas, or family history of N F l I in a first degree relative plus unilateral vestibular schwannoma before age 30, or any two of the following: meningioma, glioma, schwannoma, juvenile posterior subcapsular lenticular opacity, or juvenile cortical cataract. It should be emphasized that evaluation for NFIl must include long term follow-up and that a sing.le evaluation is inadequate. Patients with a family history of NFII, with unilateral vestibular schwannoma or meningioma before age 30 or with multiple spinal tumors are at risk for NFI l (pre­ sumptive or probable NFI I ) and should be further evaluated. TIle diagnostic crite­ ria of presumptive NFl I includes unilateral vestibular schwannoma before age 30, plus one of the following: meningioma, glioma, schwannoma, juvenile posterior sub­ capsular lenticular opacity, or juvenil cortical cataract, or two or more meningiomas plus unilateral vestibular schwannoma before age 30 or one of the following: glioma, schwannoma, juvenile posterior subcapsular lenticular opacity or juvenile conical cataract. The clinical evaluation of patients with NFII should have an annual neurologic exam with audometric testing and brain stem evoked responses, as well as periodic opbthalmologic exams. After a mutation has been identified in a particular family, a 100% specific test be­ comes available for that family by linkage analysis using specific markers to identify

TEMPORAL BO EI the FIJ gene. Diagno is of acquired mutation and prenatal diagno is are not available al the present time. I m aging Findings

The imaging modality of choice both for creening and follow-up of patients with NFl I is M R I . High re olution contra '1 enhanced M R I of the temporal bone is con­ sidered the gold standard for identification of vestibular schwannomas, upplanting audiometric brain stem evoked respon e . Enhanced MRI of the brain and pine should also be performed in all patients with newly diagnosed NFl / , Follow-up imag.i ng studies are tailored individually depending on the interval appearance or aggravation of symptoms, and the location of previously diagno ed tumor . A a general guideline, follow-up examinations should be performed annually.

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BONE MRI is also used i n the screening of patients with a family history of NFII in first degree relatives. The screening protocol should begin in early childhood, particu­ larly in families with early onset of NFl!. Because ophthalmologic developmental abnormalities, including retinal hamartomas, cortical wedge opacities and juvenile posterior subcapsular cataracts are among the earliest signs of NFII, a thorough neurophthalmologic exam at a young age may permit early diagnosis of the disease. A normal M R I after age 30 makes NFII very unlikely and justifies cessation of for­ mal screening, except for families with late onset. MRI provides optimal depiction of all the central nervous system tumors com­ monly seen in NFII including schwannomas, meningiomas, ependymomas and oc­ casional gliomas or neurofibromas. Following cranial nerve V I I I , the trigeminal nerve is the second most common site for schwannomas in NFl!. Care should be taken to avoid confusion between dural ectasia of the nerve sheath, causing flaring of the lAC, and vestibular schwannoma. The former follows the signal intensity of CSF and does not show contrast-enhancement. Also, it is important to differentiate meningiomas of the CPA from vestibular nerve schwannomas (see vestibular schwannoma). Meningiomas are the second most common tumor type seen in pa­ tients with NFII . More frequently they occur parasagittally, in the sphenoid ridge or olfactory groove, but may also be intraventricular or grow along the sheath of in­ tracranial nerves. In an M R I of the brain and orbits in another patient, axial post­ contrast T1 WI through the skull base (Fig. 85-C) shows bilateral acoustic tumors and an enhancing tumor in the right Meckel's cave. (Fig. 85-0) A n axial T1 W (Fig. 85-0) and coronal post-contrast frequency selective fat suppression imaging (FATSAT) T1 WI (Fig. 85-E) show a large enhancing tumor centrally enveloping the left optic nerve. The diagnosis is bilateral acoustic schwannomas, right Meckel's cave schwannoma and left optic nerve meningioma in a patient with N F I I . On an M R I o f the brain in another patient an axial post contrast T l W image (Fig. 85-F) shows a right CPA, left intracanalicular and left Meckel's cave enhancing tu­ mors. The diagnosis for this patient is NFII. Meningiomatosis, characterized by innumerable small meningiomas seeding the dura, may occur in the setting of definitive NFl l or as an NFII variant. In the spinal canal the most common location is the thoracic region. Ependymomas may also be seen in the brain or spinal cord. Additional imaging findings include spinal dural ec­ tasia (thoracic meningocele), aqueductal stenosis, syringomyelia, heterotopias, and abnormalities in the sulcation pattern of the cerebrum. White matter unidentified objects ( UBOs) are more commonly associated with NFl, but have also been re­ ported with NFII. Hydrocephalus is not uncomon in NFII patients and may result from compression of the I Vth ventricle from CPA tumors (vestibular schwannomas or CPA meningioma), from ventricular ependymoma or from aqueductal stenosis. Differential diagnosis includes other phakomatoses and NFl! variants and is based upon the location and type of tumors present. The hallmark of NFl is the presence of optic gliomas, peripheral neurofibromas and astrocytomas (usually pi­ locytic). M R l clearly distinguishes optic gliomas from optic nerve meningiomas (see optic nerve meningioma). Clinically, the presence of multiple cafe au lait spots also favors the diagnosis of NFL The imaging features of tuberous sclerosis with multiple subependymal nodules, giant cell astrocytoma and cortical tubers, and of von Hippel-Lindau with multiple CNS hemangiblastomas are usuaLly both distinct from NFl!.

Management The treatment of NFII is based on surgical treatment of the neoplasms associated with the disease. The major problem in patients with NFII is bilateral sensorineural hearing loss leading to deafness at an early age. Decisions regarding conservative surgical or radiosurgical therapy of vestibular schwan nom as are complex and con­ troversial, especially in this new era of brain stem implants. SmaLl, less than 1 .5 cm, vestibular schwannomas confined to the l AC can often be completely resected with

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Definite diagnosis of NFII is made in the presence of bilateral vestibular schwannomas. Patients are at risk for NFIT if they have unilateral vestibular schwannoma or meningioma di­ agnosed before age 30, with or without family history of NFIT.

preservation of hearing and facial nerve function. Larger tumors causing cerebellar symptoms or hydrocephalus require surgical debulking and decompression. Stereo­ tactic radiosurgery or gamma knife radiosurgery may be used as an alternative to surgery or a neoadjuvant therapy for residual disease. This modality may lead to re­ gression in tumor size or arrest in tumor growth, but is not devoid of complications. Other brain and spinal tumors such as meningiomas, other cranial nerve schwan no­ mas and ependymomas, should be closely monitored for growth and imaged when­ ever symptoms arise. Most are managed surgically, as radiation therapy of these slow growing tumors has been associated with malignant degeneration. Hearing and speech augmentation techniques are also important in patient management. Ge­ netic counseling should be provided.

Screening with contrast­ enhanced MRI is the modality of choice, and should include the brain, spine, and high resolution imaging of the temporal bones.

Suggested Readings

Avoid mistaking an optic nerve meningioma for a glioma

Deen, H.G., Ebersold, M.J., Harner, S.G., B eatty, c.w., Marion, M.S., Wbaren, RE., Green, J.D., Quast, L. Conservative management of acoustic neuroma: an outcome study. Neurosurgery 39(2) :260-4, discussion 264-6, 1996 Aug.

Do not fail to recognize bilateral vestibular schwannomas.

Evans, D.G., Ramsden, R , Huson, S.M., Harris, R , Lye, R., King, T.T. Type 2 neu­ rofibromatosis: the need for supraregional care? lournal of Laryngology and 010/­ ogy 1 07(5):401-6, 1 993 May.

It is important to provide screen­ ing to first degree relatives of pa­ tients with NFlI.

Bikhazi, N.B., Slattery, W.H . 3rd, Lalwani, A.K., Jackler, R K., Bikbazi, P.H., Brack­ mann, D.E. Familial occurrence of unilateral vestibular schwannoma. Laryngoscope 107(9) : 1 1 76-80, 1 997 Sep.

Gutmann, D.H., Aylsworth, A., Carey, lC., Korf, B., Marks, J., Pyeritz, RE., Ruben­ stein, A., Viskochil, D. The diagnostic evaluation and m ultidisciplinary management of neurofibromatosis 1 and neurofibromatosis 2. lama 278( 1 ):51-7, 1 997 Jul 2. Val-Bernal, J.F., Figols, J., Vazquez-Barquero, A. Cutaneous plexiform schwan noma associated with neurofibromatosis type 2. Cancer 76(7): 1 1 8 1-6, 1 995 Oct 1 .

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Case 86 Clinical Presentation The patient presented with a gradual onset of hearing loss. On physical exam, a red mass was noted behind the tympanic membrane (Fig. 86-A).

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Radiologic Findings I n Figure 86-A, a bright red retrotympanic mass is visible. 1lle CT (Fig. 86-B) shows a rounded mass in the middle ear. The bony walls of the carotid artery and jugular vein are intact.

Differential Diagnosis: A Vascular Middle Ear Mass • • • • • • • •

Glomus tympanicum Aberrant carotid artery Carotid artery aneurysm Persistent stapedial artery Exposed jugular bulb Exposed carotid artery Hemangioma Extensive glomus j ugulare

Diagnosis Glomus tympanicum

Discussion Epidemiology Paragangliomas have a female predominance in most series. Ten percent are multi­ ple, so it is always worthwhile to check the other common locations in the head and

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Glomus tympanicum tumors are classically associated with a red­ dish purple mass on otoscopy. The frequent presentation on imaging is as a soft tissue mass over the cochlear promontory. Preoperative embolization is generally not needed because of tbeir small size. cr is the imaging study of choice.

Avoid mistaking glomus tympan­ icum tumors for other vascular anomalies.

neck (glomus juguJare, vagale, and carotid body tumor.) Another 1 0% of the tumors are associated with malignant tumors elsewhere in the body. A small percentage are reported to be familial. Glomus tympanicum tumors arise from paraganglia along Jacobson's and Arnold's nerves within the tympanic cavity.

Clinical Findings Glomus tympanicum tumors tend to present with otologic symptoms early because of their location and are as a result, often small. They are classically associated with a retrotympanic reddish purple mass on otologic examination.

I m aging Findings The frequent presentation on imaging is a small soft tissue mass centered over the cochlear promontory. In Figure 86-C, a small glomus tympanicum in another patient is visible as a soft tissue mass centered over the promontory. Because of their small size, the "salt and pepper" MRI appearance with serpentine flow voids, seen fre­ quently with larger glomus tumors elsewhere, are generally not present. Glomus tympanicum tumors may be indistinguishable from other soft tissue masses seen in the tympanic cavity on CT or M R I . Because of its superior bony de­ tail, CT is the study of choice for investigation of this tumor. lt is important to iden­ tify the normal bony walls of the carotid and jugular to avoid mistaking exposed vessels (a normal variant) for a glomus tumor. Figures 86-D through 86-F show a comparison of glomus tympanicum, exposed carotid artery, and jugular vein in three other patients. All present with retrotym­ panic vascular masses. Figure 86-D shows a glomus tympanicum in a third patient. Note the intact carotid canal bony wall promontory ( + ). Figure 86-E depicts a com­ parison with another patient with an exposed carotid artery (a normal variant). Fig­ ure 86-F shows another patient with a high riding jugular bulb. As the tumor grows larger, spread is seen as permeative bony changes generally along paths of least re­ sistance. On angiography, the tumors are hypervascular. An angiogram of another patient with glomus tympanic urn (Fig. 86-G) shows characteristic blush ( - ). Many experts feel that this appearance is diagnostic, especially if other vascular tumors such as metastatic renal cell carcinoma or pheochromocytoma are not likely.

M anagement Surgery is the primary treatment with radiation therapy reserved for difficult cases. Unlike other paragangliomas, because of their small size, most glomus tympanicum tumors do not require preoperative embolization for control of blood loss at surgery. Several complex schemes have been developed for surgical planning. In general, with small tumors limited to the middle ear cleft, a simple transcanal approach is used. With larger and more extensive tumors, more aggressive surgery is required.

Suggested Readings Cheng, A . , Niparko, J.K . Imaging quiz case 2. Glomus tympanicum tumor of the temporal bone. A rchives of Otolaryngology and Head and Neck Surgery 1 23(5):549. 551-2, 1 997 May. Goldstein, W.S., Bowen, B.C., Balkany, T. Malignant hemangioendothelioma of the temporal bone masquerading as glomus tympanicum. Annals of Otology, Rhinology and Laryngology 1 03(2 ) : 1 56-9, 1 994 Feb.

TEMPORAL BONEI Pirodda, A., Sorrenti, G., Marliani, A.F., Cappello, T. Arterial anomalies of the mid­ dle ear associated with stapes ankylosis. Journal of Laryngology and Otology 108(3):237-9, 1994 Mar. Stewart, K., Kountakis, S.E., Chang, c.Y., lahrsdoerfer, R.A. Magnetic resonance an­ giography i n tbe evaluation of glomus lympanicum tumors. A merican Journal of Otolaryngology 1 8(2) : 1 1 6-20, 1 997 Mar-Apr.

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Case 87 Clinical Presentation The patient presented with hearing loss.

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Radiologic Findings A cr scan shows a large bony defect centered over the mastoid air cells. The ossi­ c1es and external auditory canal are intact. Figure 87-A depicts an axial view through the mesotympanum. The ossicles are intact. Figure 87-B shows a section through the upper temporomandibular joint (TMJ ). A small soft tissue mass is pres­ ent in the middle ear which may represent cerumen.

Table 1

Mastoidectomy Types Simple (closed canal) Mastoidectomy -remove some or all mastoid cells -maintain EAC and ossicles Radical (open cavity) Mastoidectomy •

Modified Radical Mastoidectomy (Bondy)

-remove mastoid air cells and EAC -ossicular chain intact • Radical Mastoidectomy -remove mastoid cells and EAC -preservation of stapes superstructure -often with tympanoplasty

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Differential Diagnosis: Mastoid Bone Defect • • • • •

Neoplastic bone destruction Cholesteatoma Postop simple mastoidectomy Postop radical mastoidectomy Posttraumatic deformity

Diagnosis Normal postoperative appearance of a simple (closed canal) mastoidectomy

Discussion Mastoidectomy is usually performed for chronic otomastoiditis or cholesteatoma. and, less commonly, for neoplasm. When describing the postoperative imaging find­ ings following mastoid/middle ear surgery, it is important to be familiar with the var­ ious surgeries that may be performed in order not to confuse surgical changes for pathology. Although each mastoidectomy is slightly different. depending on the unique anatomy and pathology of the patient as well as the surgeon's preferences. a general categorization is still possible. Two general types of mastoidectomy are per­ formed: closed canal and open canal types (see Table 1 ) .

Table 2

Postmastoidectomy Imaging Evaluation (1) (2) (3) (4) (5)

Determine the type of surgical procedure Define the status of the ossicular chain Examine soft tissue contents of surgical cavity Check for possible perilymph fistula Define bony margins of the facial nerve canal

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For a simple (closed canal) mastoidectomy, procedures of this type share the at­ tributes of preservation of the external auditory canal ( E AC) wall and ossicles. Two general types are possible ( Figs. 87-A and 87-B). With the more limited form, only a few diseased mastoid cells are removed. With more extensive disease, a full intact canal wall mastoidectomy is performed, which removes most or all mastoid air cells. The second type is a radical (open cavity) mastoidectomy. This group of mas­ toidectomies allows greater access, tends to have lower recurrence rates, and is gen­ erally more commonly encountered. They have the shared properties of removal of the EAC wall as well as all the mastoid air cells. Another patient with a radical mas­ toidectomy can be seen in Figure 87-C. The EAC wall, ossicles, and mastoid air cells are all absent. With the modified radical mastoidectomy, the ossicular chain is preserved. A stan­ dard radical mastoidectomy results in the sacrifice of the bulk of the ossicular chain. An attempt is generally made to preserve the stapes superstructure [or hearing preservation.

I m aging Findings CT evaluation of the postoperative patient (MRI has little role for the evaluation of fine bony detail) should be directed toward the evaluation of several factors (see Table 2). The general type of surgical procedure should be determined. This is es­ sential in order to recognize abnormal bony changes related to progression of the disease. The status of the ossiculuar chain should be noted. TIle contents of the sur­ gical cavity should be evaluated to identify residual or recurrent disease. For exam­ ple, the sinus tympani is an area poorly seen on clinical examination, but may be eas­ ily evaluated on axial CT for the possibility of residual cholesteatoma. Some soft tissue (e.g., granulation tissue, etc.) is normally present within the mastoidectomy defect. It is important to note any new areas of bone destruction (not related to prior surgery) that would suggest residual cholesteatoma. The inner ear structures should be examined to exclude perilymph fistula forma­ tion (an abnormal communication between the middle and inner ear.) If left un­ treated, this may lead to labyrinthitis and meningitis. CT findings that might suggest this are pneumo labyrinth or abnormal fluid collections around the labyrinth in the middle ear. Figure 87-E shows pneumo labyrinth in a third patient following tem­ poral bone surgery. Air is visible in the cochlea and vestibule.

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PEARLS/PITFALLS •

•

•

•

Mastoidectomy postoperative changes tend to follow standard patterns. A simple mastoidectomy pre­ serves the EAC and ossicles. A radical mastoidectomy sacri­ fices the EAC wall. Take care not to confuse patho­ logic bone destruction with post­ surgical changes.

The bony margins of the facial nerve canal should also be studied to document their integrity. It should be remembered that over half of normal individuals will have at least some degree of normal gross facial canal 'dehiscence'. This is seen most commonly near the oval window.

Suggested reading Moreano, E.H., Paparella, M.M., Zelterman, D., Goycoolea L. Prevalence of facial canal dehiscence and of persistent stapedial artery in the human middle ear: a re­ port of 1 000 temporal bones. Laryngoscope 104: 309-320, March 1 994.

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Case 88 Clinical Presentation A 57-year-old female with history of prior temporal bone surgery presented with re­ current conductive hearing loss and otorrhea.

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Radiologic Findings On a CT of the temporal bones, coronal (Fig. 88-A) and axial (Fig. 88-B) sections through the middle ear cavity show an inferiorly displaced ossicular prosthesis (TO R P) . TIle most medial end of the prosthesis lost contact with the oval window niche and the bulk of the prosthesis is in the hypotympanum. There is abnormal soft tissue in the middle ear surrounding the displaced prosthesis and in the oval window and allic. A partial mastoidectomy defect is noted as well as chronic inflammatory changes in the remaining mastoid air cells.

Differential Diagnosis: Hyperdense Obj ect within the Middle Ear • •

Foreign body in the hypotympanum inciting an inflammatory reaction Displaced ossicular prosthesis with recurrent inflammatory changes in the mid­ dle ear

Diagnosis Displaced total ossicular replacement prosthesis (TORP) associated with recurrent inflammation

Discussion Tympanoplasty, ossiculoplasty and partial or total ossicular replacement are common surgical procedures of the middle ear, performed with the aim of re-

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establishing adequate conductive hearing. Most of these surgeries are done in patients with tympanosclerosis in order to release fixation of the middle ear struc­ tures and allow transmisson and amplification of sound waves. The most commonly performed procedure is ossiculoplasty, in which a homograft (usually nose cartilage) or a synthetic graft is used to reshape or replace part or all the ossicular chain. The synthetic prostheses in current use are made of porcelain and several different porous materials such as Protoplast and Plastopore. Figure 88-C depicts a porcelain ossicular prosthesis. A partial ossicular replacement prosthesis (PORP) is on the left and a total ossicular replacement prosthesis (TORP) is on the right. With partial replacement the native stapes is left in place and the prosthesis in­ terposed between the head of the stapes and the ear drum is referred to as partial ossicular replacement prosthesis (PORP). CT of the temporal bone ( Fig. 88-D) ax­ ial and (Fig. 88-E ) coronal sections show very dense abnormally shaped ossicles. 1l1e diagnosis is nondisplaced partial ossicular replacement prosthesis (PORP ) . Usually a piece of tragal cartilage is interposed between the distal end of the prosthesis and the stapes to cushion the contact between these two structures and prevent sublux­ ation. When total ossicular replacement is performed the stapes suprastructure is re­ sected and the total ossicular replacement prosthesis (TORP) is apposed directly to the stapes footplate. I ncus interposition is the second most common surgical proce-

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PEARLS/PITFALLS •

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•

•

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In the absence of native ossicles, replacement by prosthetic mater­ ial is necessary to re-establish ad­ equate conductive hearing. When the native stapes is in place the prosthesis is a PORP. When aU the ossicles, including the stapes are absent, the pros­ thesis is a TORP. Do not mistake normal postoper­ ative changes for temporal bone pathology. Do not fail to recognize surgical complications such as prosthesis luxation or migration.

dure and consists of resection and reshaping of this ossicle, followed by interposi­ tion of the redesigned incus between the tympanic membrane and the stapes.

Clinical Findings Following uncomplicated surgery the patient should gradually recover conductive hearing once postsurgical fluid and inflammatory tissue are resorbed. Postoperative vertigo, sensorineural hearing loss and facial nerve palsy are usually transient and regress spontaneously. Persistence of these symptoms suggests complications such as perilymphatic fistula or damage to the facial nerve. Persistent or recurrent con­ ductive hearing loss implies surgical complication or recurrence of the disease (pro­ gression of fibrosclerosis). Malposition of the prosthesis and overgrowth of granu­ lation tissue are among the most common causes of surgical failure. Ear drainage due to persistence of chronic infection/inflammation is common .

I maging TIle goal of imaging after ossiculoplasty is twofold: to identify postoperative com­ plications, and to provide a baseline evaluation of the postoperative anatomy. The radiologist should be able to categorize the surgical defect, evaluate the surgical cavity and margins, identify debris or recurrent disease, and determine the type and position of the ossicular prosthesis. cr is the modality of choice for postoperative assessment and identification of potential complications. Malposition, luxation or migration of the synthetic pros­ theses is easily recognized once one is familiar with the different types of available prostheses and their normal positioning. The "vacant oval window" is a sign of pros­ thesis displacement. Homografts may be difficult to visualize, particularly when the middle ear is filled with soft tissue or fluid. Soft tissue density in the middle ear cavity is a nonspecific cr finding which may represent granulation tissue, CSF arising from a perilym­ phatic fistula, blood, infected secretions, redundant mucosa or even surgical packing material.

Management Surgical complications may necessitate revision of the middle ear cavity and. even­ tually, replacement of the ossicular prosthesis.

Suggested Reading Dornhoffer, 1.L. Hearing results with the Dornhoffer ossicular replacement pros­ theses. LarYl1goscope 1 08(4 Pt 1 ):53 1 -6, 1 998 Apr. EI-Seifi, A., Fouad, B. Long-term fate of Plastipore in the middle ear. Journa/ of Oro­ Rhino-laryngology and irs Relared Specialries 60(4): 1 98-201 , 1 998 Jul-Aug. Emmett. 1.R. Plasti-pore implants in middle ear surgery. Orolaryngologic Clillics of Nonh America 28(2):265-72. 1 995 Apr. Macias, 1.D., G lasscock, M.E. 3rd. Widick, M . H .. Schall, D.G., Haynes, D.S., Josey. A.F. Ossiculoplasty using the black hydroxyapatite hybrid ossicular replacement prostheses. American Journal of Orology 1 6(6):7 1 8-2 1 , 1 995 Nov. Sakai, N., Asai. T., Matsushima, 1., Kokubun, T., Kurihara, H., Koichi, K .. I nuyama. Y , Terayama, Y Surgical results o f tympanoplasty with hokudai-shaped partial and to­ tal ossicular replacement prostheses. A nificial Organs 20(8):947-50. 1 996 Aug. Schuring. A.G. Ossiculoplasty with semibiologic and composite prostheses. Oro­ laryngologic Clinics of Nonh America 27(4):747-57, 1 994 Aug.

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TEMPORAL BONEI Slater, P.w., Rizer, F.M., Schuring, A.G., Lippy, W.H . Practical use of total and par­ tial ossicular replacement prostheses in ossiculoplasty. Laryngoscope 107(9) : 1 1 93-8, 1997 Sep. Waddington, C, McKennis, A.T., Goodlett, A. Treatment of conductive hearing loss with ossicular chain reconstruction procedures. Aorn Journal 65(3):5 1 1-5, 5 1 8, 521-2, 1 997 Mar. Wehrs, R.E. Incus interposition and ossiculoplasty with hydroxyapatite prostheses. Otolaryngologic Clinics of North America 27(4):677-88, 1 994 Aug.

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Case 89 Clinical Presentation A-28-year-old female presented with acute onset of right facial weakness with no prior history of trauma. Physical examination confirmed a right peripheral facial nerve palsy. No other cranial palsies were noted. The otoscopic exam was normal.

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Radiologic Findings On an M R I of the temporal bone an axial enhanced T l WI shows marked enhance­ ment in the right labyrinthine segment of the facial nerve and geniculate ganglion ( Fig. 89-A), tympanic (Fig. 89-8), and mastoid (Fig. 89-C) segments.

TEMPORAL BONEI

Differential Diagnosis: Acute Peripheral Facial Nerve Palsy •

•

• • •

Inflammatory/Infectious conditions: Bell's palsy, herpes zoster otticus ( Ramsay­ Hunt syndrome), other viral infections (Epstein-Barr virus, H I V, rubella, mumps, polio, coxsackie and influenza), otitis media/mastoiditis (bacterial or fungal), Lyme disease, syphilis Trauma: temporal bone fracture (longitudinal or transverse), temporal bone contusion Tumors (see facial nerve schwannoma): benign, malignant Iatrogenic: post-surgical from a transmastoid approach Others (usuaUy more gradual in onset): diabetes mellitus, hypothyroidism, sar­ coid, Guillain-Barre syndrome

Diagnosis Bell's palsy

Discussion Epidemiology In 1 82 1 , Sir Charles Bell described an isolated, sudden, unilateral, peripheral facial nerve paralysis of unknown etiology which was later named Bell's palsy or idio­ pathic facial nerve paralysis. Bell's palsy is the most frequent cause of facial nerve paralysis, afflicting 1 5 to 40 : 1 0,000 people per year. It accounts for more than 50% of all cases of facial nerve paralysis and is three times more common than Ramsay-Hunt syndrome, the second most frequent etiology. Both sexes are equally affected. There is no age predilection, although it is more frequent in middle-aged adults. A positive family history is encountered in 1 0% of cases. Pregnancy is an important predispos­ ing factor, increasing the incidence of facial nerve palsy up to three times in the last trimester.

Pathophysiology A lthough the etiology of this condition is unknown, a considerable amount of evi­ dence gathered in past decades, points to a viral-induced neuritis, with herpes sim­ plex virus (HSV) being the most frequently implicated agent. The virus is thought to be in a latent state in the geniculate ganglion with reactivation by a nonspecific triggering event such as stress or superinfection by an heterotopic virus. The dor­ mant virus would then replicate and cause an inflammatory neuritis. This inflamma­ tory response, characterized by edema and a mononucleated infiltrate, causes com­ pression of the nerve against the rigid bony walls of the fallopian canal, leading to a final common pathway of ischemia and degeneration of the nerve fibers. Pathologi­ cally, the typical findings include a lymphocytic infiltrate with associated demyeli­ nation and, eventually, axonal destruction. The disorder is usuaUy progressive for the first week . Nerve conduction only be­ comes affected approximately 3 days after neural degeneration has occurred. Due to the anatomy of the facial nerve canal, the site most susceptible to injury is the labyrinthine segment, particularly at the level of the meatal foramen (site of entrance of the facial nerve into the fallopian canal after leaving the internal auditory canal ( lAC). Not only is this the narrowest segment of the facial bone in the temporal bone, the blood supply to this region is poorer due to lack of anastomosing arterial arcades. Other pathophysiologic mechanisms involving genetic, metabolic, autoimune, and vascular pathways are also possible etiologic components.

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Bell's palsy typically pre ents with udden onset of unilateral peripheral facial nerve paraly i , sometime associated with postauricular pain, fever and tinnitus. A mild hearing deficit may al 0 be pre en!. In 60% of cases, a history of prior upper re pi­ ralOry infection is elicited and this may be the predisposing factor. On phy ical exam the patient may have facial asymmetry, drooling, 10 of the ipilateral na olabial fold, a widened palpebral fissure and a smooth forehead. Or the facial palsy may only become apparent with voluntary movements, depending on the degree of paralysi . The House-Brackmann facial nerve grading system. which categorizes paralysis from I to VI (normal to complete paraly i ). i commonly used to follow patients and evaluate therapeutic response. It is also used a a prognostic indicator.

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Perineural vascular plexus

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TEMPORAL BONEI Clinical history is important to exclude other possible etiologies. The presence of a vesicular rash in the lAC and tympanic membrane is pathognomonic of herpes zoster infection (Ramsay-Hunt syndrome) . Prior history of a tick bite (Lyme dis­ ease) should be elicited, particularly in young patients. Other possibilities such as a otomastoiditis, HIV infection, diabetes, bypotbyroidism, sarcoidosis and trauma are easily assessed by clinical history and serologic tests. The major diagnostic challenge consists of differentiating Bell's palsy from facial nerve tumors, which may also present with acute paralysis. Features pointing toward a neoplastic etiology include recurrent palsy, duration of symptoms longer tben 3 months without improvement, associated facial spasm or twitch and paralysis of isolated branches of the facial nerve. Diagnostic and prognostic testing should include assessment of the 3 brancbes of the facial nerve (Schirmer test, stapedial reflex, evaluation of taste and salivation), electromyography, electroneurograpby and evaluation of the V I IIth cranial nerve (audiogram, caloric tests and electronystagmogram).

Imaging Findi ngs Imaging of Bell's palsy is not mandatory, as 80% of cases show spontaneous recov­ ery without any treatment. I ndications for imaging include either atypical cases where otber diagnostic possibilities, such as a tumor, bave to be excluded, or when decompression surgery is a consideration due to the presence of bad prognostic signs. In the latter, the role of imaging is to provide anatomic detail of the facial nerve canal and temporal bone to the surgeon. The imaging method of choice for inflammatory conditions is MRI. CT is used as a complimentary modality to provide bony detail and evaluate for anomalies in the middle ear cavity and mastoid. On MRl, all the inflammatory processes involving tbe facial nerve manifest as in­ tense enhancement along the course of the nerve, usually involving more then one segment. The most characteristic feature is enbancement of the intracanalicular seg­ ment, followed by the labyrinthine segement and geniculate ganglion, which do not usually enhance in normal subjects. Due to their rich arterial supply from the per­ ineural vascular plexus, the tympanic and mastoid segments of the facial nerve show enhancement in normal subjects. This should not be mistaken for pathology. On an M R I of the temporal bone an axial T 1 WI (Fig. 89-0) shows the left tympanic seg­ ment of the facial nerve as a linear structure isointense to brain parenchyma. En­ hanced axial Tl W I (Fig. 89-E) shows faint enhancement of the nerve in a patient with no symptoms related to the facial nerve. Figure 89-F depicts schematic representation of tbe perineural vascular plexus surrounding the tympanic segment of the facial nerve. (Modified from a photo from Steve Gebarski) Although several attempts have been made to correlate the degree and extent of enhancement with clinical severity, physiologic tests and prognosis, none have been successful to date. The degree of enhancement can be objectively evaluated using an index of signal intensity ratio, defined as tbe ratio between the signal intensity of the facial nerve and tbe brain stem after subtracting background noise. E nhancement may be normal at presentation but tends to increase as tbe disease progresses. This is thought to result from a reduced supply of gadolinium to the ischemic compressed segment of tbe nerve. Therefore, absence of enhancement does not necessarily im­ ply a better prognosis. Also, facial nerve enhancement tends to lag behind tbe reso­ lution of symptoms and normalization of neurophysiologic tests. Enhancement of the facial nerve is nonspecific, occurring in other inflammatory and neoplastic conditions. Perineural spread of the tumor is a potential diagnos­ tic problem if the radiologist is not aware of a prior history of malignancy in the head and neck. This is because it may present as diffuse enhancement tbat is indistinguishable from tbat of an inflammatory condition. Facial nerve tumors usu­ ally presen t as focal areas of enhancement associated with enlargement of the

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PEA RLSIPITFALLS •

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BeU's palsy typically presents with acute onset of unilateral, pe­ ripheral facial nerve paralysis. On MR!, there is enhancement along the course of the facial nerve, involving intracanalicular and labyrinthine segments. BeU's palsy is usually resolved i n 6 weeks t o 3 months. Avoid mistaking normal facial nerve enhancement for path­ ology. Avoid excluding the diagnosis on the basis of a normal MRI. Avoid mistaking a facial nerve tumor for opacified mastoid air cells.

nerve and remodeling of the facial nerve canal, best depicted in high resolution cr studies. cr is also useful to evaluate paralysis caused by traumatic injury to the temporal bone .

Management In the great majority of cases, Bell's palsy is managed medically with oral pred­ nisone and, most recently, acyclovir, for a period of 1 0 days. The goal of this therapy is to avoid further nerve degeneration and prevent sequelae. It has proven effective in several double-blinded studies comparing non treated patients with patients who were treated with prednisone associated with placebo, and prednisone associated with acyclovir. Surgical treatment with nerve decompression has limited indications. It is per­ formed in patients with bad prognostic signs, which include complete paralysis at presentation and a 90% or greater facial nerve degeneration detected on elec­ troneurography, and when the diagnosis is in doubt due to recurrence or persistence of symptoms for 6 months or longer. Eye care using artificial tears, ointments and, if necessary, ocular patches, is mandatory to avoid grave complications such as exposure keratitis and corneal in­ fection which may result in blindness. Although the prognosis is good in about 90% of cases, 1 0% of patients never recover facial nerve function and another 10% have recurrent disease.

Suggested Readings Adour, K.K. Otological complications of herpes zoster. Annals of Neurology 35 Suppl:S62-4, 1 994. Bauer, CA., Coker, N.1. Update on facial nerve disorders. Otolaryngologic Clinics of North America 29(3):445-54, 1 996 Jun. Catalano, P.J., Sen, C, Biller, H . E Cranial neuropathy secondary to perineural spread of cutaneous malignancies. American lournal of Otology 1 6(6):772-7. 1 995 Nov. Girard, N., Raybaud, C, Poncet, M. 3D-Ff M R I of the facial nerve. Neuroradiology 36(6):462-8, 1 994 Aug. Jabor, M.A., Gianoli, G. Management of Bell's palsy. lournal of the Louisiana State Medical Society 1 48(7):279-83, 1 996 Jul. Jonsson, L., Tien, R., Engstrom, M., Thuomas, K.A. Gd-DPTA enhanced MRI in Bell's palsy and herpes zoster oticus: an overview and implications for future stud­ ies. A cta Oto-Laryngologica 1 1 5(5):577-84, 1 995 Sep. Kohsyu, H., Aoyagi, M., Tojima, H . , Tada, Y, I namura, H . , lkarashi, T., Koike, Y Facial nerve enhancement in Gd-MR I in patients with Bell's palsy. Acta Oto­ Laryngologica. Supplemel1l 5 1 1 : 165-9, 1 994. Manfre, L., Lagalla, R., Tortorici, M., Riggio, E, Ferrara, S. Bell's palsy and visual­ ization of the facial nerve by MRJ. Revue de Laryngologie Otologie Rhinologie 1 1 6(2):9 1-3, 1 995. Ramsey, K.L., Kaseff, L,G. Role of magnetic resonance imaging in the diagnosis of bilateral facial paralysis. A merican lournal of Otology 1 4(6):605-9, 1 993 Nov.

Saat�i, J., Sahintiirk, E, Sennaroglu, L., Boyvat, E, G iirsel, B., Besim, A. MRI of the facial nerve in idiopathic facial palsy. European Radiology 6(5):63 1 -6, 1 996. Schirm, 1., Mulkens, P.S. Bell's palsy and herpes simplex virus. Apmis 105( l l ): 8 1 5-23, 1 997 Nov.

Tada, Y, Aoyagi, M., Tojima, H., l namura, H . , Saito, 0., Maeyama, H . , Kohsyu. H., Koike, Y Gd-DTPA enhanced M R I in Ramsay Hunt syndrome. A cta Oto-Laryngo­ logica. SlIpplement 5 1 1 : 1 70-4, 1 994.

Case 90

TEMPORAL BONEI

Clinical Presentation A 38-year-old female presented with a recurrent history of left facial nerve palsy and ear pain. Clinical examination confirmed a left-sided peripheral facial nerve palsy. On otoscopy a grayish lesion was seen protruding through the posterior wall of the external auditory canal (EAC), breaching the posterior aspect of the tym­ panic membrane.

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Radiologic Findings On an M R I of the brain (sagittal T 1 WI) (Fig. 90-A) there is a fusiform lesion along the mastoid segment of the facial nerve extending from the posterior genu to the stylomastoid foramen. The lesion is isointense to gray matter on this Tl W I . An ax­ ial TIWI (Fig. 90-B) shows the typical hyperintensity of these tumors. Note the lat­ eral extent of the tumor transgressing the posterior wall of the EAC.

Differential Diagnosis: Facial Nerve Palsy • • •

I nflammatory/I n fectious conditions: Bell's palsy, herpes zoster oticus Trauma: temporal bone fractures (transverse or longitudinal) Tumors: • Benign: facial nerve tumors (schwan noma, hemangioma, lipoma), acoustic schwan noma, CPA meningioma, epidermoid cyst (congenital cholesteatoma), choristoma, glomus tympanicum

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Malignant: perineural spread (parotid or EAC malignancies), direct invasion (glomus jugulare, embryonal rhabdomyosarcoma, Langerhan's cell tumor, cystadenocarcinoma of the endolymphatic sac), lymphoma, metastasis, facial nerve sarcoma

Diagnosis Facial nerve schwannoma (mastoid segmen t )

Discussion Epidemiology Facial nerve schwan nom as are rare tumors, when compared to the much more common acoustic schwannomas. They can occur in any segment of the facial nerve, but the area of the geniculate ganglion is the most frequently involved. The majority of facial nerve palsies are idiopathic in origin (Bell's palsy). Ac­ cording to several series only 6 to 13% of cases of facial nerve dysfunctions are caused by tumors. To understand the clinical presentation and management of facial nerve pathol­ ogy, it is crucial to know the exact course, branching pattern and functions of this nerve. After leaving the brainstem at the ponto-medullary junction, the facial nerve is a natomically divided into six different segments: •

•

•

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a cisternal segment traversing the CPA cistern and extending from the brainstem to the porus acousticus intern us; an i ntracanalicular segment where the facial nerve courses in the anterosuperior quadrant, superiorly to the cochlear nerve; an intralabyrinthine segment coursing anteriorly from the porus acousticus inter­ nus to the geniculate ganglion; a tympanic segment extending from the anterior genu to the posterior genu along the medial wall of the middle ear cavity; a vertical or mastoid segment from the posterior genu to the stylo-mastoid foramen; finally, an intraparotid segment traversing the parenchyma of the gland lateral to the retromandibular vein and external carotid artery.

Along its course i n the temporal bone the facial nerve gives off three branches. The first branch is the greater petrosal superficial nerve which comes off the facial nerve at the level of the geniculate ganglion. It carries secretomotor fibers to the lacrimal gland and is responsible for lacrimation. The stapedius nerve is the second intra temporal branch. [t comes off the tympanic segment of the facial nerve at the level of the facial nerve recess, lateral to the pyramidal eminence. This nerve sup­ plies the stapedius muscle and is responsible for sound dampening. I n the mastoid segment, the facial nerve gives off its last intratemporal branch, the chorda tympani. This nerve carries special sensory fibers to the anterior two thirds of the tongue. Knowing the special functions of the facial nerve helps in localizing a lesion along the course of the nerve and allows a more focused imaging study. In general, when lacrimation is preserved, the lesion is located distally to the geniculate ganglion. When sound dampening is preserved the lesion is more likely located distally to the tympanic segment. Finally, when taste is preserved, the lesion is distal to the mastoid segment. Although these general topographic guidelines may be accurate when dealing with an inflammatory or traumatic process involving the facial nerve, they are not as useful in localizing neoplastic lesions. Neoplastic lesions, particularly those growing in the nerve sheath, tend to spare some nerve fibers so that preser­ vation of certain functions do not necessarily mean that the lesion is located distally to the nerve branch responsible for that function.

TEMPORAL BONEI

Pathophysiology Facial nerve schwannomas are benign, slow growing tumors arising from the nerve sheath. Histologically, they are encapsulated tumors composed of Schwann cells in­ termingled with a collageneous stroma. Schwannomas are characterized by two dif­ ferent patterns of growth. The Antoni A type tissue is compact and contains elon­ gated spindle shaped cells. The Antoni B type tissue is looser, often with a cystic structure and hemorrhage. As tumor size increases there is an increased tendency for cystic change and intratumoral hemorrhage.

Clinical Findings Although the hallmark of facial nerve schwannoma is a chronic or recurrent facial nerve palsy, unremitting with conservative measures, symptoms related to the facial nerve may be absent or late in onset depending on tumor location and size. Clinical evaluation of a patient suspected to have a facial nerve tumor should include a tear, stapedial reflex and electric taste testing, a complete neuro-otologic exam with po­ sitional and caloric testing, audiogram and ABR's, and an enhanced M R I of the brain and temporal bone. Facial nerve schwannomas located in the CPA cistern and/or internal auditory canal ( l AC) are clinically indistinguishable from acoustic tumors because they usu­ ally present with vestibulocochlear symptoms including unsteadiness, sensorineural hearing loss, tinnitus and vertigo. Facial nerve symptoms, such as hemifacial spasm, facial twitch, and palsy, although more frequently seen than with acoustic schwan­ nomas, appear late in the course of the disease, when the tumor has reached a con­ siderable size. The early dysfunction of the V I IIth cranial nerve appears to be re­ lated to the increased vulnerability of the tightly packed and thinely myelinated fibers of the acoustic nerve to compression and hypoperfusion. If large enough, these tumors may cause cerebellar symptoms, other cranial nerve palsies and hy­ drocephalus. Schwan nom as arising in the labyrinthine segment and geniculate gan­ glion are usually silent for a long period of time and manifest with a slow, gradually progressive facial palsy and twitch. Tumors involving the tympanic segment may present with ear fullness, pulsatile tinnitus and conductive hearing loss, mimicking the clinical presentation of a glomus tympanicum. Only late in the course will patients develop a gradually progressive facial nerve palsy. On otoscopic exam a mass may be seen in the superior aspect of the middle ear cavity touching the medial wall of the tympanic membrane. Biopsy of such a lesion should be avoided because it may be followed by acute onset of fa­ cial nerve palsy. In the mastoid segment, schwannomas present with sudden or gradual facial nerve palsy mimicking Bell's palsy. Occasionally, progressive conductive hearing loss and otorrhea may ensue due to tumor growth into the EAC and involvement of the tympanic membrane. Again, these tumors should not be biopsied for the rea­ son given above. Finally, tumors of the parotid segment of the facial nerve produce a slowly progressive facial nerve paralysis. A parotid gland mass may be palpated. Due to their similar clinical presentation facial nerve schwannomas are usually misdiagnosed as Bell's palsy. Persistence or ipsilateral recurrence of symptoms and associated facial twitch requires a thorough search for a facial nerve tumor. On the other hand, acute onset of facial nerve palsy, although more typical in patients with Bell's palsy, does not exclude tumor, because this may be a consequence of abrupt compromise of the vascular supply to the nerve from mass effect.

I m aging Findings M R I is the best imaging method to evaluate patients with facial nerve paralysis, sen­ sorineural hearing loss or vertigo. I t should be performed whenever a patient pre­ sents with a recurrent or persistent facial nerve palsy (more then 3 months). When

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a ma is detected along the expected course of the facial nerve, high resolution ( HR) CT imaging hould be performed to further characterize any a ociated bony change . Facial nerve schwannomas manifest as fusiform or sausage shaped masses with well-defined margins growing along the expected cour e of the nerve. On MRI these tumors are i ointense to gray matter on Tl WI, hyperinten e on T2WI and enhance homogeneously. MRl adequately depicts small cisternal and in­ tracanalicular tumors which are ea ily missed on . However it may not differen­ tiate chwannoma originating in the facial nerve from tho e arising from the ve tibulocochlear nerve. On an MRl of the temporal bone . an axial Tl WI ( Fig. 90) hows a mas i ointen e to gray matter in the right PA ci tern extending into the right lAC. The lA is enlarged [rom the poru acousticu internu to the fun­ dus. This lesion, indi tinguishable from an acoustic tumor, proved to be a facial

1 420

TEMPORAL BONEI nerve tumor at surgery. The diagnosis is facial nerve schwannoma (cisternal and in­ tracanalicular). Useful imaging features to distinguish facial nerve schwannomas from acoustic and other nonacoustic schwannomas incl ude the precise location and epicenter of the lesion, pattern of extention and associated foraminal changes. Slight eccentricity of the tumor, relative to the center of the lAC, and anterior ex­ tension of the tumor i n the direction of the geniculate ganglion favor the diagnosis of facial nerve tumor. Labyrinthine tumors may herniate into the middle cranial fossa assuming a dumbell shape and eventually mimick a trigeminal nerve tumor. However, in this instance the epicenter of the lesion lies anterior and medial to the lAC. Prior history of a malignancy in the head and neck region usually allows dif­ ferentiation between a primary facial nerve tumor and perineural spread from an­ other primary site. On CT, the lesion, if large enough, expands and erodes the bony walls of the fa­ cial nerve canal. Small, focal areas of bony dehiscence may be developmental in ori­ gin and should not be confused with bony destruction by tumor. Another potential imaging pitfall is confusing a persistent stapedial artery or aberrant course of the carotid artery in the middle ear cavity for a facial nerve tumor. CT is especially useful in the evaluation of tumors located in the tympanic and mastoid segments of the facial nerve. In the former, it is important to evaluate the relationship of the tumor with the ossicular chain and look for evidence of bony ero­ sion of the cochlear promontory or lateral semi-circular canal. In the latter, it may detect erosion of the posterior wall of the EAC and evaluate the relationship of the tumor with the tympanic membrane. In labyrinthine tumors, erosion of the petrous carotid canal should be looked for and reported to the surgeon. On CT, the presence of intra tumoral bony spicules, honeycombed appearence of bone and indistinct margins favor an ossifying angioma. Most frequently, facial nerve hemangiomas can not be differentiated from facial nerve schwannomas on clinical grounds or imaging studies. However, this distinction is is not crucial as it has no impact on patient management. Epidermoid cysts along the course of the facial nerve are usually hypodense to the brain, do not enhance, and tend to have irregular, lobulated margins burrowing into the crevices of surrounding structures. On an HRCT scan of the temporal bone (axial section) (Fig 90-D) there is a soft tissue mass i n the region of the facial nerve recess, extending posteriorly and inferi­ orly into the mastoid bone along the expected course of the vertical segment of the facial nerve. The diagnosis is facial nerve schwannoma (involving the tympanic and mastoid segments of the nerve) . On a CT o f the temporal bone (Fig. 90-E) an axial section through the epytym­ panum shows e nlargement of the left lAC and a soft tissue mass expanding the re­ gion of the geniculate ganglion, causing bony erosion. An axial section through the inferior mastoid (Fig 90-F) shows an expansile lesion in the mastoid portion of the facial nerve canal.

Management Facial nerve schwannomas are managed surgically. In order to determine the best surgical approach, the surgeon needs to know in advance, and as precisely as possi­ ble, the segment or segments of the facial nerve involved by tumor. This must take into account the feasibility of facial nerve grafting and preservation of hearing. Facial nerve grafting should be performed whenever there is disruption of the nerve and the extent of the tumor does not allow for an end-to-end anastomosis. The donor site for nerve grafting is usually the great auricular nerve. Resection of tympanic tumors may involve partial or complete resection of the ossicles. Recon­ struction using an ossicular prosthesis or tympanoplasty should be attempted after recovery of facial nerve function.

ITEMPORAL

BONE

PEARLSIPITFALLS •

•

•

•

•

•

The hallmark of facial nerve schwannoma is a recurrent or long term history (>3 months) of facial nerve palsy. On MRI. facial nerve schwanno­ mas manifest as a fusiform or sausage shaped, well defined le­ sion along the course of the fa­ cial nerve. On CT, if the lesion is large enough, it causes expansion or erosion of the facial nerve canal. There can be acute onset of fa­ cial nerve palsy after biopsy of a lesion in the middle ear cavity or EAC. Avoid confusing a normal devel­ opmental dehiscence of the facial nerve canal or a persisten t stape­ dial artery for a facial nerve tumor. Do not fail to recognize a recur­ rent or persistent falcial nerve palsy and perform a full neuro­ otologic examination and ade­ quate imaging studies.

Suggested Readings Anand, CS., Kumra, P.K., Anand, T.S., Singh, S. K. Facial nerve schwan noma. Journal of Laryngology and Otology 9 1 ( 12 ) : 1 093-9, 1 977 Dec. Chen, 1.M., Moll, C, Wichmann, W., Kurrer, M.O., Fisch, U. Magnetic resonance imaging and intraoperative frozen sections in intra temporal facial schwannomas. A merican Journal of Otology 16(1 ):68-74, 1 995 Jan. Fagan, P.A., Misra, S.N., Doust, B. Facial neuroma of the cerebellopontine angle and the internal auditory canal. Laryngoscope 103(4 Pt 1 ):442-6, 1 993 Apr. Hajjaj, M., Linthicum, FH. Jr. Facial nerve schwannoma: nerve fibre dissemination. Journal of Laryngology and Otology 1 10(7):632-3, 1 996 Jul. McMenomey, S.O., G lasscock, M.E. 3rd., Minor, L.B., Jackson, CG., Strasnick, B. Fa­ cial nerve neuromas presenting as acoustic tumors. American Journal of Otology 15(3):307-12, 1 994 May. Majoie, CB., Hulsmans, F1., Castelijns, 1. A. , Walter, A . , Bras, 1., Peeters, FL. Perineural tumor extension of facial malignant melanoma: CT and MRJ. Journal of Computer Assisted Tomography 1 7(6):973-5, 1993 Nov-Dec. Orloff, L.A., Duckert, L.G. Magnetic resonance imaging of intratemporal facial nerve lesions in the animal model. Laryngoscope 105(5 Pt 1 ):465-7 1 , 1 995 May. Pulec, 1.L. Facial nerve angioma. Ear, Nose, and Throat Journal 75(4):225-38, 1 996 Apr. Tew, J.M. Jr., Yeh, H.S., Miller, G.W., Shahbabian, S. lntratemporal schwannoma of the facial nerve. Neurosurgery 13(2) : 1 86-8, 1 983 Aug. Zhang, Q., Jessurun, 1., Schachern, P.A., Paparella, M.M., Fulton, S. Outgrowing schwannomas arising from tympanic segments of the facial nerve. American Journal of Otolaryngology 1 7(5):3 1 1-5, 1 996 Sep-Oct.

Case 91

TEMPORAL BONE\

Clinical Presentation TIle patient is a 47-year-old male with a history of middle ear urgery 2 years ago, now pre enting with evere vertigo and recurrent hearing loss.

A _ _

B

Radiologic Findings On a

of the temporal bones the axial (Figs. 9 I -A and 91 -8) and coronal ( Fig. the oval window show a long metallic structure interposed be­ tween the long process of the incus and the oval window, protruding into the vestibule. cr

9 1-C) sections through

Differential Diagnosis: Metallic Object in the Middle Ear • •

Displaced stapedial prosthesis Foreign body

ITEMPORAL

BONE

Diagnosis Displaced stapedial prosthesis with medial migration into the vestibule

Discussion Epi demiology Treatment of otosclerosis, a common cause of hearing loss in the young adult, has been the subject of much research in the past century. Several surgical procedures have been used with varying success. The first stapedial surgeries were performed by Kessel in 1 875, including stapedectomy and stapedial mobilization. Due to the high rate of failure and associated morbidity, these surgeries were rapidly discontinued. In 1 913, Jenkins first described an innovative type of surgery which he called "fen­ estration". This surgery consisted of the creation of a window in the vestibule or in the lateral semicircular canal, allowing the transmission of sound waves from the middle ear to the perilymph. A cr shows the temporal bones in a 87-year-old woman with history of temporal bone surgery which was performed in the early 1 940s. This coronal section through the vestibule shows bony dehiscence of the lat­ eral semicircular canal and a linear soft tissue density closely applied to this defect. The diagnosis is fenestration surgery with creation of a labyrinthine window in the lateral semicircular canal and apposition of a tympano-cutaneous flap. This surgical procedure was further improved by JuLius Lempert who, in 1 938, de­ scribed the fenestration surgery employing a stopple. The placement of a cartilagi­ nous stopple, apposed to the newly created window, prevented its closure by re­ growth of otospongiotic tissue and decreased the incidence of postoperative labyrinthytis. Continuous improvements in surgical technique and instrumentation, lead to the rehabilitation of stapedial surgery in 1 952, by Rosen. In 1 957, John Shea introduced the stapedial prostheses which are now the gold standard For the treat­ ment of fenestral otosclerosis.

D

TEMPORAL BONEI

E

Pathophysiology The goal of stapedial surgery in patients with fenestral otosclerosis is to resect the otosclerotic/spongiotic tissue from the footplate of the stapes, freeing the oval window and allowing the transmission of sound waves to the perilymphatic compartment. I n order to preserve the amplification of sound provided by the ossi­ cles and avoid reclosure of the oval window, a prosthesis is interposed between the long process of the incus and the oval window. Several stapedial prostheses are currently available, made of different materials such as teflon, silastic, stain­ less steel and various plastics. Figure 9 1 -E is a photograph of two different stain­ less steel stapedial prostheses, a "metallic piston" is on the left and a "hook wire" is on the right.

Clinical Findings After uncomplicated stapes surgery the patient usually recovers conductive hearing. The onset of dizziness, vertigo, facial nerve palsy, sensorineural hearing loss or re­ current or persistent conductive hearing loss may result from surgical complication or failure. Vertigo and sensorineural hearing loss seen in the immediate postoperative pe­ riod are usually self-limited, due to manipulation of the oval window with a tran­ sient inflammatory response. If these symptoms recur or persist, a complication (such as malposition or intravestibular migration of the stapes prosthesis, presence of a perilymphatic fistula or post-surgical inflammatory labyrinthytis), should be considered. Persistent or recurrent conductive hearing loss is associated with pros­ thesis displacement, or may result from overgrowth of otospongiotic tissue or post­ operative granulation tissue.

Imaging Findings CT and/or M Rl are mandatory in the postoperative assessment of patients with fen­ estral otosclerosis and should be performed even in the absence of symptoms as a baseline for future comparison. CT is the modality of choice as it allows adequate visualization of the ossicular chain and oval window. MetalLic "piston" type stape-

I TEMPORAL BONE

F

dial prostheses are easily visualized on CT, but a thin stainless wire prosthesis and a plastic prosthesis may be difficult or impossible to visualize, even using high­ resolution contiguous 1 mm sections in tbe axial and coronal planes. A coronal CT section of the temporal bones through tbe oval window (Fig. 9 1 -F) show enlarge­ ment of the oval window and a thin linear structure replacing the normal stapes. The diagnosis is stapedial prosthesis (sillastic). On postoperative studies the radiologist should comment on the position of the prosthesis, the presence or absence of soft tissue density within the middle ear cav­ ity and on the status of the facial nerve canal and labyrinth. TIle normally function­ ing prosthesis may be located in the anterior, central or posterior portion of the oval window. I n the patient with persistent or recurrent conductive hearing loss a CT may show malposition of the prosthesis outside tbe oval window. loss of contact between the proximal, most lateral aspect of the prosthesis and the long process of the incus (incudo-prosthetic luxation), or avascular necrosis of the long process of the incus. Regrowth of otospongiotic/sclerotic tissue or granulation tissue around the oval window may be responsible for the conductive hearing loss. I n the patient present­ ing with vertigo, a CT may show intravestibular migration of the stapedial prosthe­ sis or indirect signs of a perilymphatic fistula, with an air-fluid level or fluid density filling the middle ear (stapes gusher). The presence of air within the labyrinth (pneu­ molabyrinth) is also higbly suggestive of tbis complication. When a CT is negative, a postcontrast M R l should be performed. Labyrinthine enhancement may be seen in the site of a perilymphatic fistula and diffuse labyrinthine enhancement is the hallmark of inflammatory labyrinthitis. Chronic labyrinthitis is a late complication which may be identified on MRJ using 30FT G E heavily T2WI by the presence of intralabyrinthine adhesions manifesting as lack of T2W signal. M R I is also useful for the detection of intracranial complications such as menin­ gitis.

TEMPORAL BONEI

PEARLS/PITFALLS •

•

•

•

•

•

•

A history of prior temporal bone surgery coupled with vertigo and recurrent hearing loss could indi­ cate a displaced stapedial pros­ thesis. Absence of normal stapes on cr scan could mean a thin stainless wire prosthesis or a plastic pros­ thesis have been implanted, since they are hard to visualize. A stapedial prosthesis is a metal­ lic or plastic structure i nterposed between the long process of the incus and the oval window. Avoid mistaking normal postop­ erative findings for temporal bone pathology. Do not fail to recognize postsur­ gical complications. Avoid mistaking a stapedial pros­ thesis for a foreign body. Avoid mistaking fenestration surgery for a labyrinthine fistula.

Management Most surgical complications (especially those related to mal positioning or migration of the stapedial prosthesis) require further surgery with prosthetic replacement. In­ flammatory labyrinthitis is managed with steroids.

Suggested Reading Grolman, w., Tange, R.A., de Bruijn, A.1., Hart, A.A., Schouwen burg, P.F. A re­ trospective study of the hearing results obtained after stapedotomy by the im­ plantation of two Teflon pistons with a different diameter. European A rchives of Olo-Rhino-laryngology 254(9- 1 0):422--4, 1 997. Han, w.w., Incesulu, A . , McKenna, M.1., Rauch, S.D., Nadol, lB. Jr., Glynn, R.1. Re­ vision stapedectomy: intraoperative findings, results, and review of the literature. Laryngoscope 107(9) : 1 1 85-92, 1 997 Sep. Kinney, S.E. Reporting of results of surgery for conductive hearing loss [editorial] Otolaryngology and Head and Neck Surgery 1 17(5 ) :43 1 -2, 1 997 Nov. Mathews, S.B., Hetzler, D.G., Hilsinger, R.L. Jr. I ncus and stapes footplate simula­ tor. Laryngoscope 107(1 2 Pt 1 ) : 1 6 14--6 , 1 997 Dec. Richter, E., Mally, K . , Heger, F. Long-term results of stapes surgery with the Schuknecht wire-teflon prosthesis. Laryngo-Rhino-Otologie 73(3 ) : 1 57-9, 1 994 Mar. Somers, T. , Govaerts, P., Marquet, T. , Offeciers, E. Statistical analysis of otosclerosis surgery performed by Jean Marquet. Annals of Oeology, Rhinology and Laryngol­ ogy 1 03 ( 12 ):945-51 , 1 994 Dec. Wehrs, R.E. Incus interposition and ossiculoplasty with hydroxyapatite prostheses. Oeolaryngologic Clinics of Norlh America 27(4):677-88, 1 994 Aug.

x. TMJ and Mandible

Case 92

TMJ AND MANDI B LEI

Clinical Presentation A 3 1-year-old female presented with pain over the temporo mandibular joint (TMJ) region and trismus. Clinical examination revealed a limited ability to open her mouth, with a 2cm intercuspid distance.

A

Radiologic Findings On an M R I of the temporomandibular joints (TMJs) Figure 92-A shows oblique saggital sections in closed and open mouth positions (T1 W images). On closed mouth position (left) the posterior band of the disk lies anterior to the condyle. With opening (right) of the mouth the disk translates a minimal amount anteriorly and is not recaptured by the condyle. The bilaminar zone is not visualized, which is con­ sistent with marked thinning of this structure.

Differential Diagnosis: Internal Derangement of the T MJ • • • • • •

Anterior dislocation with reduction Anterior dislocation without reduction Disk perforation Postsurgical changes Osteoarthritis Erosive (inflammatory) arthritis

Diagnosis Anterior disk dislocation without reduction

hMJ

AND MANDIBLE

Discussion Epidemiology TMJ symptoms are very common with several large series of articles reporting an incidence of 28% among the adult population. A female predominance is consis­ tently reported and the peak incidence of TMJ symptoms occurs in the second decade. Most cases are idiopathic although several predisposing factors have been identi­ fied. These include dentition problems, arthritides, trauma, congenital abnormalities of the condyles, and hyperactivity of the muscles of mastication such as with brux­ ism. TMJ derangement is often bilateral as the mandible acts as a single functional unit.

Pathophysiology I nternal derangement of the TMJ is a frequent finding and may present a variety of abnormalities in the position and morphology of the disk and articular surfaces. The

B

t

artiCUlar eminen

c

condyle

/

C1)::::

d fossa

DIBLEI abnormalities most commonly depicted on imaging tudies are anterior di location of the disk with or without reduduction, combined di location (both in the frontal and saggital planes), acquired and congenital morphologic abnormalities of the condyles, and abnormal excur ion of the condyles, and disk with opening of the mouth. The pathophy iologic condition that leads to di k di location is thought to be the inc rea ed stretch of the fibroelastic fiber of the bilaminar zone with 10 of the abil­ ity to exert a re training force on the disk as the condyle translates forward. The stress which is exerted on the neurovascular bundle by com pre sion between the condyle and articular eminence, leads to pain.

C l i ni ca l Fi n ding The most frequent symptom in patient with TMJ derangement are pain. crepita­ tion and limitation of excur ion. Popping during mouth opening, crepitation, pain on palpation of the masticatory mu c1es and trismus are obvious on clinical exami­ nation.

D

articular eminence

disk

�t

glenoid fos sa

D- EAC

condyle E

433 1

ITMJ

F

The TMJ is a diarthrodial articulation compo ed of the mandibular condyle. the glenoid fo a and the articular eminence of the temp ral bone. The congruence be­ tween the e convex haped articular urface is establi hed b a biconcave articular di k. Thi di k ha a " bow tie" morphology with two thick anterior and po terior bands united by a thinner intermediate zone. me fibers of the superior belly of the lateral pterygoid muscle in ert on the anterior band and are responsible for the an­ terior translational movement of the di c during mouth opening. 1lle posterior band i connected to the posterior aspect of the articular capsule by fibroela tic ti ue containing the neurova cular bundle. Thi bilaminar zone i responsible for repo i­ tioning the di k posteriorly with elevation of the mandible. thorough under tanding of the normal relation hip of the TMJ component i critical in the diagno is of pathology. In the clo ed mouth position, the posterior band hould be po itioned at 1 2 o'clock relative to the condyle, with the intermedi­ ate zone between the anterior a pect of the condyle and the articular eminence. Fig . 92-B& (oblique aggital TI W image) and 92-0& illu trate the normal po­ ition of the articular di k in open mouth position. The po terior band of the di k lie po terior to the tip of the condyle and the intermediate zone between the condyle and the articular eminence. With opening of the mouth. the condyle and di k translate anteriorly and the po terior band lie po terior to the condyle while the intermediate zone is positioned between the tip of the condyle and the articular eminence. An M R I of the TMJ (Fig. 92-F; TJ WI oblique aggital ection ) in the clo ed m uth po ition ( left) how the posterior band anterior to the tip of the condyle. With opening of the mouth (right) the disk resumes its normal po ition. The patient was diagno ed with dislocation with reduction.

I m aging Fi nding Before the advent of M R I . the disk and it in ertion could only be vi ualized with . ondylar po ition and excur ion and degener­ arthrography. or indirectly. with ative change can be a e 'sed with plain film of the TMJ or u ing con entional to­ mography. However, the po iti n of the di k cannot be determined on thi imaging technique. With the u e of contra t material injected into the articulation, the di k can be delineated. alone using sagillal and coronal recon truction i not reliable in the diagno­ i of di location becau e the di k is incon i tently vi ualized. Ith ugh they are ac­ curate in the diagno is of internal derangement of the TMJ and the only imaging modalities able to reliably diagno e di k perforation or fragmentation, conventional

1 434

TMJ AND MANDIBLEI and CT arthrography are invasive procedures, with possible complication and pa­ tient discomfort. The high resolution and multiplanar capabilities of MRI for evaluating the TMJ makes it the best tool for evaluating the TMJ. Bony structures, disk, articular carti­ lage and tendino-ligamentous insertions are all visible with this imaging modality. The disk is seen as a biconcave structure hypointense on T 1 W and TIW images in­ terposed between the condyle and the glenoid fossa. The bilaminar zone is inter­ mediate in signal except when degenerated. Chronic pressure upon this structure leads to inflammation and fibrosis with loss of signal on both T1 W and TIW images, mimmicking the signal characteristics of the disk. Oblique sagittal and coronal images of the TMJs perpendicular and parallel to the long axi, of the condyle should be performed using high resolution dual coils. We routinely perform sagittal T l W and T2W images in closed and open mouth posi­ tions and coronal T1 W images with the mouth closed. When appropriate, sagittal T l W images with closed and open mouth positions are performed with a corrective splint in place to evaluate the efficacy of the device in reestablishing the normal relationship of the articular elements. M R I abnormalities should always be correlated with the patient's symptomatol­ ogy and cautiously interpreted; studies demonstrate that roughly 30% of asympto­ matic individuals can have abnormalities in disk position and morphology. Imaging findings alone are not diagnostic of disease. Conversely a normal M R I does not ex­ clude TMJ pathology. I n ternal derangements can be temporarily unstable. The diagnosis of anterior dislocation is made when the normal position of the disk relative to the condyle is lost and the posterior band of the disk lies anteriorly to the condylar tip. When the disk resumes its normal position with opening of the mouth, a reducible anterior dislocation is diagnosed. When the disk shows further anterior displacement in the open mouth position a non-reducible anterior dis­ location is present. Figures 92-B (saggital T1 W M R I ) and 92-C illustrate the normal position of the articular disk in closed mouth position. The posterior band of the disk lies at 1 2 o'clock in relation to the tip of the condyle. A nterior dislocations may be associated with medial (more frequent) or lateral dislocations in the coronal plane. Limited excursion, or bite-block, is diagnosed when there is a limited or no ante­ rior excursion of the mandibular condyle with opening of the mouth (Fig 92-A). Degenerative changes of the articular surfaces are best detected by CT which may reveal sclerosis, cortical irregularities or erosions of the articular surfaces. M R I shows the abnormal morphology o f the condyle, thinning o f the articular cartilage, sclerosis of the cortical bone and abnormal bone marrow signal and joint effusion. Flattening of the condyle and articular eminence are almost pathognomonic of sub­ acute or chronic disk detachment. The lesser the antero-posterior diameter of the condyle, the greater the degree of internal derrangement. Perforation of the disk is a difficult diagnosis on M R I as the intermediate zone can be so thin that it is not visualized, simulating a perforation. Another pitfall of di­ agnosing disk perforation arises when the bilaminar zone is thickened and shows loss of signal, mimmicking the posterior band of the disk.

Management Therapy is aimed at restoring the normal anatomic relationship of the articular ele­ ments and mantaining the congruency of the articular surfaces i n order to avoid fur­ ther destruction of articular cartilage. This can be achieved conservatively using splints, anterior repositioning appliances (ARA) and biofeedback techniques. S urgery is indicated in cases of protracted chronic dislocations when conservative measures fail to resolve the clinical problem. Surgical techniques include reposi­ tioning of the disk, disk replacement by a prosthesis, plasty of the articular surfaces (eminoplasty) or condilotomy. M RI is the best modality for post therapeutic follow-up and can evaluate the ef-

ITMJ

AND MANDIBLE ficacy of the different therapeutic options. Plain films using cephalometrically cor­ rected tomograms can assess repositioning of the condyle for disc recapture.

Suggested Readings Brady, A.P., McDevitt, L., Stack, J.P., Downey, D. A technique for magnetic reso­ nance imaging of the temporomandibular joint. Clinical Radiology 47(2): 1 27-33, 1 993 Feb. Dorsay, T.A., Youngberg, R.A. Cine M R I of the TMJ: need for initial closed mouth images without the Burnett device. lournal of Computer Assisted Tomography 1 9( 1 ) : 1 63-4, 1 995 Jan-Feb. Dorsay, T.A., Youngberg, R.A., Orr, F.E., Mulrean, J. Cine MRI in the evaluation of the Proplast-Teflon TMJ interpositional implant. lournal of CompLiler Assisted To­ mography 1 9(5):800-3, 1 995 Sep-Oct. Katzberg, R.W., Westesson, P.L., Tallents, R.H., Drake, C.M. Anatomic disorders of the temporomandibular joint disc in asymptomatic subjects. lournal of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery 54(2 ) : 1 47-53, 1 996 Feb. Muller-Leisse, c., Augthun, M., Bauer, W., Roth, A., Gunther, R. Anterior disc dis­ placement without reduction in the temporomandibular joint: M R 1 and associated clinical findings. lournal of Magnetic Resonance Imaging 6(5):769-74, 1 996 Sep-Oct. Rammelsberg, P., Pospiech, P.R., Jager, L., Pho Duc, 1M., Bohm, A.D., Gernet, W. Variability of disk position in asymptomatic volunteers and patients with internal derangements of the TMJ. Oral Surgery, Oral Medicine, Oral Pathology, Oral Radi­ ology and Endodontics 83(3):393-9, 1 997 Mar. Rao, YM. Imaging of the temporomandibular joint. Seminars in Ultrasound, CI and Mr 1 6(6):5 1 3-26, 1 995 Dec. Simmons, H.C. 3rd., Gibbs, S.J. Recapture of temporomandibular joint disks using anterior repositioning appliances: an M R I study. Cranio 13(4):227-37, 1995 Oct. Takebayashi, S., Takama, T., Okada, S., Masuda, G., Matsubara, S. MRI of the TMJ disc with intravenous administration of gadopentetate dimeglumine. lournal of Computer Assisted Tomography 2 1 (2):209-15, 1 997 Mar-Apr.

1436

Case 93

TMJ A N D M A N D I BLEI

Clinical Presentation A 52-year-old male with a history of prior root canal treatment presented with tooth pain and swelling of the lingual gingiva. On dental exam evidence of prior en­ dodontic treatment was present in the first and second right, and second left incisors. Painfull swelling of the buccal and lingual gingiva was also present.

A

Radiologic Findings An intraoral radiograph (Fig. 93-A) shows a unilocular cystic lesion around the tip of the first right mandibular incisor. The margins of this lesion are well defined and slightly sclerotic. There is evidence of prior endodontic treatment of tbe involved tooth, and resorption of the tip of the root is also noted. (courtesy Dr. Lewis R. Eversole)

Differential Diagnosis: Unilocular Cystic Mandible Lesions •

Odontogenic cysts: periodontal cyst, dentigerous cyst, residual cyst, primordial cyst, odontogenic keratocyst, ameloblastoma.

hMJ

AND MANDI BLE

. . ... . :.

B

•

:

I . Primordial cyst 2 . De ntigerous cyst 3 . Rad i c u l ar or Periapical cyst 4.Residual cyst 5 . Lateral or Periodontal cyst

Nonodontogenic cysts: traumatic cyst, developmental cortical bone defects (Stafne's cyst).

Diagnosis Radicular cyst

Discussion The differential diagnosis of unilocular cystic lesions of the mandible includes a va­ riety of odontogenic, nonodontogenic and developmental lesions. The relationship of radicular cysts to teeth is an important differential feature that, along with patient age and FNA, facilitates the diagnosis. A schematic representation of the most fre­ quent mandibular unicystic lesions and their typical relationship to teeth can be seen in Figure 93-8. I n the odontogenic category lesions can arise from different odontogenic elements such as the dental lamina (odontogenic keratocyst or OKC), enamel epithelium (dentigerous cyst) and root sheath of Hertwig (radicular cyst). Dentigerous cysts can be radiographically suspected due to their typical relationship with the crown of an impacted tooth. Differential diagnosis between a radicular cyst and an OKC may be impossible on c1inico-radiographic grounds. Radicular cysts do not show keratinizing epithe­ lium which is typical of OKCs. Histochemical analysis of the contents of an OKC also shows elevated levels of glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase which is consis­ tent with the higher metabolic rate of this lesion. cr and MRI can sometimes distinguish unicystic ameloblastoma from a radicu­ lar cyst. On cr there may be an enhancing solid component projecting into the lumen of the lesion and on M R I enhancing papillary projections are seen. These fea­ tures should, however, be cautiously i nterpreted, because the walls of a radicular

438

TMJ A D MANDI BLEI

c

cyst may be thick and intensely enhancing when infected. F A howing ameloblas­ tic cell is needed to conclu ively establish the diagnosi of amelobla toma. Residual cyst are any cystic lesion that remain in the mandible after extraction of the overlying tooth. It can correspond to a prior periodontal cy t (although the e usually regres after tooth extraction) or any other cy tic Ie ion. In Figure 93- , a panoramic view of the left mandible how a unilocular cy tic Ie ion with well de­ fined margins in an edentulous region. This benign appearing cystic lesion lightly displaces the roots of the adjacent second molar, which i otherwise normal. The normal appearence of this tooth potenlially excludes the po ibility of a lateral pe­ riodontal cyst as thi entity is a socia ted with a carious or devitalized tooth. The di­ agno is by exclusion is that of a residual cyst, possibly a radicular cyst, originating from the extracted first molar, that has not yet regres ed.

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They should be distinguished from a dental extraction socket, which shows radi­ olucent defects along the alveolar ridge, gradually tilling in with bone and smooth­ ing the alveolar margin. Figure 93-0 shows a panoramic view of an edentulous mandible with irregularities of the alveolar ridge. The largest defect is present in the region of the second molar, mimicking a cystic lesion or an aggressive mandibular process destroying the cortex. This patient had an oral tongue carcinoma and had several teeth extra ted before beginning radiation therapy. The cortical defects in the alveolar ridge represent the typical features of dental extraction sockets. A primordial cyst is the designation given to a cystic lesion arising from odonto­ genic elements. It has no recognizable relationship with the teeth and it is unknown from which layer of odontogenic tissue they are derived. Traumatic cysts are thought to result from bone marrow hemorrhage secondary to trauma with development of a blood filled cavity. They usually occur in associa­ tion with vital teeth. Typical radiographic features include a sharply marginated bor­ der with finger-like projections between the roots. Developmental cyst (Stafne's cyst) are marginal bony defects located in the lin­ gual aspect of the posterior mandible, distal to the second molar and below the in­ ferior alveolar canal. They are asymptomatic and most often discovered incidentally on routine plain radiographs, although they may be palpable. cr or MRI are per­ formed to rule out aggressive conditions eroding the mandibular cortex, and usually show associated salivary tissue which is thought to be responsible for this congeni­ tal defect. Radiographically they have well defined, slightly sclerotic margins and do not exceed 2 cm in maximal diameter. Figure 93-E shows a lateral view of the mandible with a well corticalized bony defect in the inferior mandibular cortex. This defect locates in the parasymphyseal region and below the level of the of the infe­ rior alveolar canal. The diagnosis for this patient is developmental cortical de­ fect (Stafne's cyst).

Epidemiology Periodontal cysts are the most common cystic lesions of the mandible, accounting for 40% of all periapical radiolucencies. According to their relationship with the roots of a tooth they are categorized as either radicular (centered upon the tip of the root) or lateral (eccentric to the root tip). They belong to the group of odonto­ genic lesions arising from the root sheath of Hertwig. They are more common in

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men and more frequently detected around age SO. although they can be found at any age. ll1is Ie ion i rarely seen in association with deciduou dentition. A strong association with poor dental hygiene is recognized.

Pathophysiology Periodontal cyst result from an infectious or traumatic insult, or may be related to prior endodontic treatment. All these factors account for devitalization of the root canals, and for a periapical inflammatory proce s. Periapical inflammation, if main­ tained, tends to progre to a granuloma, and eventually, a periodontal cyst by way of activation of ostecla tic activity and secondary bone resorption. Anaerobic agents are usually the ource of periodontal infection. According to most expert the cy t will degenerate once the inciting timulus is removed. Radicular cy t are the end product of a spectrum of change related to periapical inflammation. This proce s u ually begins with increased vascularity and an inflammatory infiltrate surrounding a root and progressing to proliferation of fibroblast and epithelial rests of the root sheath. Finally, exten ion of the proces to the bone marrow with resorption of bony trabeculae forms a cystic cavity filled with inflammatory debris. There i a lag be­ tween hi tologic and radiographic finding . On radiographs thi progression is man­ ifested by widening of the periodontal space, with subsequent los of the lamina dura and a cystic radiolucency around or lateral to the root. The arbitrary ize radiographically separating periapical granuloma from peri­ odontal cyst i 1 6 mm.

Cl inica l Findings Periodontal cy t are most often asymptomatic and incidentally di covered on r u­ tine dental radiographs. Symptoms such as swelling and tooth displacement are as­ sociated with larger lesions. Pain, foul breath and pontaneous purulent discharge into the oral cavity are seen when infection i pre ent. On a cr of the mandible (coronal reconstructions) ( Fig. 93-F) there is a midline cy tic lesion a'sociated with the roots of the inci or showing an area of cortical perforation on the lingual a pect of the mandible. The diagnosis for thi patient i infected radicular cy t fistulized to the oral cavity. 441

hMl

AND MANDIBLE

PEARLSIPITFALLS Radiographically, a periodontal cyst is seen as a unilocular cystic lesion around a root of a devital­ ized tooth.

•

Radicular cysts usually regress after tooth extraction.

•

•

•

A periodontal cyst may mimic other more aggresive lesions such as OKC and unicystic ameloblastoma. Aggressive lesions such as lym­ phoma and metastasis can also manifest as a periapical radiolu­ cency.

� ----------

Imaging Findings Radiographically, periodontal cysts are unilocular lesions associated with the root of a devitalized tootb, showing well defined slightly sclerotic borders. When long­ standing, the lesion can grow and cause tooth displacement and root resorption, al­ though these features are only seen in 5% of cases. The cystic contents are homo­ geneous in density on CT. M R I has not proven useful in distinguishing radicular cysts from OKCs or unicystic ameloblastoma.

Management The management of radicular cysts is conservative, because most of these lesions heal spontaneously after root canal treatment or dental extraction. When there has been prior endodontic treatment and the tooth is sealed, opening of the pulp and debridement are usually sufficient. The previous trend to cunette the cavity in or­ der to remove aU epithelial remnants, has lost favor and may be harmful to the pe­ riapical vessels of adjacent teeth as well as other structures. Large, symptomatic periradicular lesions should, however, be managed by decompression procedures such as marsupialization, exteriorization or depressurization, especially when they impinge upon other structures (e.g., maxillary sinus, nasal cavity, inferior alveolar canal).

Suggested Readings Formigli, L., Orlandini, S.Z., Tonelli, P., Giannelli, M., Martini, M., Brandi, M.L., Bergamini, M., Orlandini, G.E. Osteolytic processes in human radicular cysts: mor­ phological and biochemical results. Journal of Oral Pathology and Medicine 24(5):21 6--20, 1 995 May. Gao, Z., Flaitz, CM., Mackenzie, I.C Expression of keratinocyte growth factor in periapical lesions. Journal of Dental Research 75(9) : 1 658-63, 1 996 Sep. Leung, S.F., Barnes, I.E. Conservative management of a radicular cyst associated with a nonvital tooth. Denial Update 22(6):253-6, 1 995 lui-Aug. Mason, G.r., Matthews, lB. In situ determination of different dehydrogenase activ­ ity profiles in the linings of odontogenic keratocysts and radicular cysts. Hisrochem­ ical Journal 28(3) : 187-93, 1 996 Mar. Mass, E., Kaplan, I., Hirshberg, A. A clinical and histopathological study of radicu­ lar cysts associated with primary molars. Journal of Oral Pathology and Medicine 24( 1 0):458-6 1 , 1 995 Nov. Minami, M., Kaneda, T., Ozawa, K., Yamamoto, H . , Itai, Y, Ozawa, M . , Yoshikawa, K., Sasaki, Y Cystic lesions of the maxillomandibular region: MR imaging distinc­ tion of odontogenic keratocysts and ameloblastomas from other cysts. American Journal of Roentgenology 1 66(4):943-9, 1996 Apr. Shrout M.K., Hall, J.M., Hildebolt, CE. Differentiation of periapical granulomas and radicular cysts by digital radiometric analysis. Oral Surgery, Oral Medicine, and Oral Pathology 76(3):356-6 1 , 1 993 Sep. Walton, R.E. The residual radicular cyst: does it exist? [editorial]. Oral Surgery, Oral Medicine, Oral Pathology, Oral Radiology and Endodontics 82(5):47 1 , 1996 Nov. White, S.C, Sapp, J.P., Seto, B.G., Mankovich, N.J. Absence of radiometric differen­ tiation between periapical cysts and granulomas. Oral Surgery, Oral Medicine, and Oral Pathology 78(5):650-4, 1994 Nov. Zecchi-Orlandini, S., Formigli, L., Giannelli, M., Martini, M . , Tonelli, P., Brandi, M.L., Bergamini, M . , Orlandini, G.E. Radicular cysts are involved in the recruitment of osteoclast precursors. Journal of Oral Pathology and Medicine 25(6):325-30, 1 996 luI.

1442

Case 94

TMJ AND MANDIBLEI

Clinical Presentation A 2 1 -year-old female presented with nontender swelling of the left jaw, near the mandibular symphysis.

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Radiologic Findings On a CT of the mandible (Fig. 94-A) soft tissue and (Fig. 94-B) bone windows there is an expansile multilocular lytic lesion in the left parasymphyseal region. The bony septations within this lesion are rectilinear and there is thinning of the cortical mar­ gins. FNA revealed giant cells.

Differential Diagnosis: Giant Cells on FNA • • • • •

Giant cell granuloma Giant cell tumor Aneurysmal bone cyst Brown tumor Cherubism

Diagnosis Central giant cell granuloma

ITMJ

AND MANDI BLE

Discussion This Ie ion is included in the broad radiographic category of multilocular cystic le­ sions of the mandible which includes several odontogenic and nonodontogenic en­ tities. The only clinical and radiological features suggestive of thi diagnosis are pa­ tient age ( usually between the second and third decades), a location anterior to the second molar. and a tendency to extend across the midline. They al 0 tend to occur more frequently in dentulous areas. Other characteristics, such a tooth di place­ ment and root resorption, relate more to the aggre siveness of the lesion and have little diagno tic specificity. F A may establish the diagno is, typically showing multinucleated giant cells, al­ though these cells may also be seen in other conditon including giant cell tumor. osteiti fibrosa cystica (or brown tumor of hyperparathyroidism) aneury mal bone cyst and cherubism. Giant cell granulomas are classified as peripheral or central according to location. 1 ) The peripheral lesion, also called epulis (or fibroma), is more frequent and is seen in the oft ti ues, usually the Ungual or vestibular gingiva. everal repeated traumatic events have been proposed a predisposing factor , such as dental extrac­ tion and ill-fitting dentures. Presentation, occurs typically later in life, usually after age 40. 2) The central or intrao seous lesions are rarer and controversy still exi ts re­ garding their pathophysiology and even their existence as a separate entity. ome expert have proposed that these lesions be divided into aggressive and nonaggres­ sive types, (which has more clinical ignificance), rather tban classification as two separate entities: giant cell granuloma (GCG) and giant cell tumor (GCT). Other think that both GCG, GCT and the aneurysmal bone cyst represent a continuum of the same proce s, each lesion howing different degrees of aggressivness modified by the age of the patient and location of the lesion. The term giant cell "reparative" granuloma, also used to refer to tbis entity, is being discarded because the lesion does not correspond to a reparative proce s.

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Epidemiology Central giant cell granulomas are relatively rare lesions that may occur in the jaws or in the small bones of hands and feet. I n the jaw bones, they account for fewer then 7% of all benign lesions and they are more frequently seen in the mandible (2/3 of the cases). The peak incidence is in the second and third decades. A female predominance is consistently reported.

Pathophysiology TIle origin of giant cell granulomas is still the subject of speculation. The character­ istic cell is the multinucleated giant cell which some claim is derived from endothe­ lial cell lines and others consider osteoclastic in origin. Favoring the later hypothe­ sis is the fact that some GCG can be controlled using calcitonin therapy, and that they share some sinliJarity to brown tumors. Odontogenic origin has also been pro­ posed due to the tendency of the lesion to occur in dentulous areas at an age when there is an increased proliferation of these tissues. Nuclear inclusions seen on pathology suggest a viral etiology and are similar to those noted on Paget's disease. Trauma has never been proven to be a predisposing factor. The hallmark of GCG is the presence of giant cells in an exuberant fibrous ma­ trix. Osteoid formation and areas of hemorrhage may also be present and allow dif­ ferentiation from GCT. I n GCT the giant cells are more diffusely and evenly dipersed in a matrix lacking the fibrous stroma and formed by cells with nuclei sim­ ilar to the nuclei of osteoclasts. I n a microscopic view of a giant cell tumor of the mandible (Fig. 94-E) note the mUltiple, evenly dispersed multinucleated giant cells within a matrix formed by cells which nuclei are similar to osteoclaSIS. The presence of scarse fibrous tissue within the matrix of the tumor differentiates this lesion from the more common giant cell granuloma.

ITMI

AND MANDIBLE

PEARLSIPITFALLS •

•

•

•

•

•

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The peak incidence of GCGs and GeTs is in the second decade. As it grows, it may become a multilocular cystic lesion. The most common location is i n the anterior mandible. These lesions have a tendency to cross the midline. M ultinucleated giant cells can be seen on FNA. These lesions may mimic a brown tumor (perform labora­ tory tests to rule out hyper­ parathyroidism). The presence of giant ceUs is not pathognomonic for this lesion.

Brown tumor and cherub ism, although histologically similar to GCG and GeT, can be distinguished clinically. Brown tumor can be distinguished because of the typical laboratory values and cherubism by the typical c1inico-radiologic picture. Whenever a giant ceU lesion is diagnosed on FNA, serum calcium an parathormone serum levels should be determined to rule out hyperparathyroidism.

Clinical Findings This lesion is more commonly asymptomatic and discovered as an incidental find­ ing on a routine dental examination. When the lesion comes to clinical attention it is often large and presents with pain, swelling, pathologic fracture, numbness along the course of the inferior alveolar nerve or functional problems related to chewing.

I m aging Findings Imaging is best performed with plain radiographs and CT. In the earlier stages GCG can be unilocular with a well defined sclerotic margin. As the lesion grows, it may become multilocular and expansile showing progressively more aggressive features. As with other mandibular lesions, CT is used to evaluate the lesion's extent, in­ tegrity of the cortex, and the relationship to nearby teeth. Periosteal reaction may be seen, particularly when the cortex has been breached; soft tissue extension is also a possibility. The matrix of the tumor shows enhancement. On a CT of the maxilla, the axial view (Fig. 94-C) and coronal views (Fig. 94-0) show an expansile multi­ locular lesion in the right maxilla extending from the alveolar ridge into the right nasal cavity and right maxillary sinus. There is disruption of the inferior wall of the maxillary sinus and alveolar process. Lateral extension into the soft tissues of the right cheek is also noted. The lesion shows internal rectilinear septa. The diagnosis is giant cell tumor of the maxiUa. M R I may differentiate this lesion from the rare aneurysmal bone cysts which usu­ ally show typical fluid-fluid levels related to degradation of hemoglobin. Otherwise, this technique offers no advantadge in the differential diagnosis, the lesion being hy­ pointense on both Tl W and T2W images.

Management Giant cell granulomas are managed surgically. Depending on the size and aggres­ sivness of the lesion GCGs can be managed with simple curretage or radical res­ section, with or without bone grafting. These lesions are benign and do not tend to reccur when completely excised. Medical therapy with calcitonin, which has an in­ hibitory effect on osteoclasts can lead to remission of GCG.

Suggested Readings Bodner, L., Bar-Ziv, 1. Radiographic features of central giant cell granuloma of the jaws in children. Pediatric Radiology 26(2) : 148-5 1 , ] 996. Kaffe, I., Ardekian, L., Taicher, S., Littner, M.M., B uchner, A. Radiologic features of central giant cell granuloma of the jaws. Oral Surgery, Oral Medicine, Oral Pathol­ ogy, Oral Radiology and Endodontics 8 1 (6):720-6, 1 996 1un. Katz, 1.0., UnderhiU, T.E. Multilocular radiolucencies. Dental Clinics of North America 38(1 ):63-8 1 , 1 994 Jan. Kaw, YT. Fine needle aspiration cytology of central giant cell granuloma of the jaw. A report of two cases. Acta Cytologica 38(3):475-8, 1 994 May-Jun.

TMJ AND MANDIBLEI Whitaker, S.B., Bouquot, IE. Estrogen and progesterone receptor status of central giant cell lesions of the jaws. Oral Surgery, Oral Medicine, and Oral Pathology 77(6):64 1-4, 1 994 Jun. Whitaker, S.B., Singh, B.B. Intraoral giant cell lesions: the peripheral and central forms of these entities. Practical Periodontics and Aesthetic Dentistry 7(6):41 -7, 1 995 Aug.

ITMJ

AND MANDIBLE

Case 95 Clinical Presentation A 66-year-old female presented with a painless, slowly enlarging lump on the right side of her mouth.

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Radiologic Findings On a CT, soft tissue windows (Fig. 95-A) show a multilocular cystic mass expanding the right aspect of the mandible. A CT of the bone windows (Fig. 95-B) shows ex­ pansion and thinning of the mandibular cortex around the mass.

Differential Diagnosis: Aggressive Multilocular Cystic Mandibular Mass • • • • • • • • • •

Ameloblastoma Odontogenic keratocyst Giant cell granuloma/tumor Eosinophilic granuloma Aneurysmal bone cyst Traumatic bone cyst Brown tumor Mutiple myeloma Metastasis Hemangioma

TMJ AND MANDI BLE1

Diagnosis Ameloblastoma of the mandible.

Discussion Epidemiology Ameloblastomas are epithelial odontogenic tumors believed to arise from ameloblasts. They usually occur in the third and fourth decades and may occur both in the maxillae and mandible. Eighty percent of the tumors arise in the mandible, with the molar ramus region the most common site of involvement. The remaining 20% arise in the maxillae. These tumors may extend locally into the maxillary sinus, nose, orbit, and base of the skull and rarely will metastasize.

Pathophysiology The gross appearance of the tumor is that of a relatively circumscribed cystic or solid lesion with larger tumors demonstrating necrosis and cystic degeneration. The histologic appearance is of two types: follicular is the most prevalent form with is­ lands of epithelium and fibrous stroma, and plexiJorm has islands of mature fibrous stromata intermixed with strands of epithelium. In both histologies, the outermost cells resemble ameloblastic or enamel epithelium.

Clinical Findings Ameloblastomas are slow growing and typically present as a painless mass.

I maging Findings The classic radiographic appearance is that of a uni- or multilocular radiolucency. A cr scan of another patient with ameloblastoma shows a similar multilocular ag-

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PEARLS/P ITFALLS •

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•

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Ameloblastomas are epithelial odontogenic tumors believed to arise from ameloblasts. Most of the tumors (80% ) are found in the mandible, while 20% are found in the maxilLa. Unilocular or multilocular imag­ ing (nonspecific) is the classic ra­ diographic appearance. These tumors extend locally to adjacent areas, and rarely metas­ tasize.

gressive cystic lesion. Figure 95-C depicts the soft tissue windows while Figure 95-D shows the bone windows. The multilocular form may have a honeycomb or 'soap bubble' appearance although the bony margins are often well defined. The ra­ diographic findings are usually not specific for this entity and include several lesions in the differential diagnosis. The typical MR appearance is hyperintense signal on T2-weighted images and in­ termediate to hyperintense signal on proton-weighted images. Hyperintense signals on both proton- and T2-weighted images are suggestive of cystic ameloblastomas, whereas intermediate signal intensity on proton-weighted images is suggestive of solid elements of the ameloblastoma. MR has been reported to be superior to CT in terms of defining the tumor-normal tissue interface with less beam hardening sig­ nal degradation, and superior identification of the cystic component. CT is superior in defining the bony anatomy.

Management

Currettage or surgical excision are the treatments of choice.

Treatment consists of complete block resection of the tumor especially if the tumor is sobd. The cystic tumors tend to be less aggressive and some authorities treat with currettage.

Do not mistake ameloblastoma for other more benign lesion.

Suggested Readings Han, M.H., Chang, KH., Lee, CH., Na, D.G., Yeon, K M., Han, M.C Cystic expan­ sile masses of the maxilla: differential diagnosis with CT and MR. American Journal of Neuroradiology 1 6(2):333-8, 1 995 Feb. Heffez, L., Maffe, M.F., Vaiana, RJ. The role of magnetic resonance imaging in the diagnosis and management of ameloblastoma. Oral Surgery, Oral Medicine, Oral Pathology, Oral Radiology and Endodontics 65:2- 1 2, 1 988. McClatchey, K.D. Odontogenic lesions: tumors and cysts. In: Batsakis J.G, ed. Tu­ mors of the head and neck: clinical and pathological consideratiol1s, 2nd ed. Balti­ more: Williams and Wilkins 531 -536, 1 979. Minami, M . , Kaneda, T., Ozawa, K, Yamamoto, H . , ltai, Y, Ozawa, M . , Yoshikawa, K., Sasaki, Y Cystic lesions of the maxillomandibular region: MR imaging distinc­ tion of odontogenic keratocysts and ameloblastomas from other cysts. American Journal of Roentgenology 1 66(4):943-9, 1 996 Apr. Weissman, 1 .L., Snyderman, C.H., Yousem, S.A., Curtin, H . D. Ameloblastoma of the maxilla: CT and MR appearance. American Journal of Neuroradiology 1 4( 1 ):223--6. 1 993 Jan-Feb.

1450

Index

A

Abdomen, cross-sectional imaging of, for Riedel's thyroiditis, 161 Aberrant internal carotid artery, 339-343 clinical findings of, 342 clinical presentation of, 339 differential diagnosis of, 339 imaging findings of, 342-343 management of, 343 pathophysiology of, 342 radiologic findings of, 339 schematic representation of, 340f, 34 1f, 342 Accessory parotid gland, 255-258 clinical findings of, 258 clinical presentation of, 255 differential diagnosis of, 255 epidemiology of, 256 imaging findings of, 258 management of, 258 pathophysiology of, 257 radiologic findings of, 255 Accessory salivary tissue, 257 Acoustic tumors, 392 and labyrinthitis ossificansiobliterans, 36 1 -364 Acute thyroiditis, 1 7 1 Acyclovir, for Bell's palsy. 4 1 6 Adenitis. 1 42 Adenoidal hypertrophy. and nasopharyngeal mass, 1 00 Adenoid cystic carcinoma, of parotid gland, 286-288 clinical findings of, 287 clinical presentation of, 286 differential diagnosis of, 287 epidemiology of, 287 imaging findings of, 287-288 management of, 288 pathophysiology of, 287 radiologic indings f of, 287 recurrence rate of. 288 Adenopathy, 68 Adjuvant radiotherapy, for multiple bilateral oncocytomas, 284 Adjuvant therapy, for Riedel's thyroiditis, 1 62 Albright-McCune-Sternberg syndrome, 1 4 Alveolar type. spindle cell tumor, 98 Amelanotic melanomas, 221 Ameloblastoma of mandible, 448-450 clinical findings of, 449 clinical presentation of, 448 differential diagnosis of. 448 epidemiology of. 449 imaging findings of. 449-450

management of, 450 pathophysiology of, 449 radiologic findings of, 448 Amphotericin B, for malignant otitis externa ( MOE), 379 Amplification for bony atresia of external auditory canal. 347 for incomplete partition of cochlea, 354 Ampulla of semicircular canals, and incomplete partition of cochlea, 354 Anaplastic thyroid carcinoma, 169-172 clinical findings of. 1 7 1 clinical presentation of. 1 69 differential diagnosis of, 170 epidemiology of. 1 7 1 imaging findings of, 1 7 1 - 1 72 management of, 1 72 radiologic findings of, 1 69-170 and Riedel's thyroiditis, 1 62 survival rate of. 1 72 A ngiography for aberrant internal carotid artery. 342 for esthesioneuroblastoma, 334 for glomus tympanicum, 401f, 402 for glomus vagal, 85 for Juvenile nasopharyngeal angiofibroma (JNA), 79f, 80 Anterior carcinomas, of supraglottic region, 63 Anterior disk dislocation, without reduction, 43 1 -436 clinical findings of, 433-434 clinical presentation of. 43 1 differential diagnosis of, 431 epidemiology of. 432 gender predominance of, 432 imaging findings of, 434-435 management of, 435-436 pathophysiology of. 432-433 radiologic findings of, 432 Anterior repositioning appliances (ARA). for anterior disk dislocation, 435 Antibacterial treatment, for labyrinthitis ossificansiobliterans and acoustic tumor. 363 Antibiotic therapy for internal jugular vein thrombosis. 1 25 for malignant otitis externa ( MOE). 379 for orbital cellulitis. 1 88 for petrous apicitis, 374 for retropharyngeal abscess, 142 Anticoagulant therapy, for internal jugular vein thrombosis, 1 25 Antifungal agents, for fungal sinusitis. 3 1 7 Antiinflammatory drugs, for retropharyngeal abscess, 142 Antithyroid drugs, for multinodular goiter, 1 68

45 1 I

IINDEX Antiviral treatment, for labyrinthitis ossificans/obliterans and acoustic tumor, 363 Antoni A and facial nerve schwan noma, 4 1 9 and vestibular schwannoma, 389-390 Antoni B and facial nerve schwan noma, 4 1 9 and vestibular schwannoma, 389-390 Apical nrbital inflammation, 1 95 Arachnoid cysts. 393 Artifact. due to asymmetric fat-suppression failure. 203-205 clinical presentation of, 203 differential diagnosis of. 203 epidemiology 01', 203 imaging findings of. 204-205 pathophysiology of, 203-204 radiologic findings of, 203 Aryepiglottic fold. M RI of. for vocal cord paralysis. 42[. 43. 44 Arytenoid cartilage, 57 and vocal cord paralysis, 44 Arytenoids, radiograph of, for epiglottitis, 35/ Aspergillosis, 3 1 4-3 1 7 Aspergillus fumigatus. 3 1 7 Aspergillus species. and malignant otitis externa ( MOE), 379 Aspiration, and vallecular cysts, 52 Astrocytic hamartoma, 224 Atresia, of external auditory canal, 344-347 Audiogram, for Bell's palsy, 4 1 5 Audiometric evaluation for bony atresia of external auditory canal, 345 for CPA syndrome, 390-39 1 Auditory brainstem evoked responses for bony atresia of external auditory canal. 345 for incomplete partition of cochlea in children, 351 for CPA syndrome. 390-39 1 Autoimmune sialadenitis, 270-274 Autorhinectomy, 325 B

B2 agonist, for benign symmetric lipomatosis. 1 35 Basiphenoid, cr of, for nasopharyngeal rhabdomyosarcoma. 96[. 97 Bell's palsy, 4 1 2-4 1 6 clinical findi ngs of, 4 1 4-4 1 5 clinical presentation of. 4 1 2 differential diagno is of. 4 1 3 epidemiology of. 4 1 3 and facial nerve schwan noma, 4 1 9 imaging findings of. 4 1 5-4 1 6 management of, 4 1 6 pathophysiology of. 4 1 3 radiologic findings of, 4 1 2 recurrence rate of, 4 1 6 survival rate of, 4 1 6 Benign Iymphoepithelial cysts. and H I V infection, 263-265 clinical presentation of, 263 differential diagnosis of. 263 epidemiology of, 263-264 imaging findings of. 265 management of. 265 pathophysiology of. 264-265 radiologic findings of. 263 recurrence rate of. 265

1452

Benign symmetric lipomatosis. 1 32-1 36 clinical findings of, 1 34, 1 36 clinical presentation of. 1 32 differential diagnosis of, 1 33 epidemiology of, 1 33 gender differences of, 1 33 imaging findings of, 1 35, 1 36 management of, 1 3 5 pathophysiology of, 1 33-134 radiologic findings of, 1 32- 1 33 Benign tracheal process. and primary tracheal carcinoma. 1 8 1 Benign tumor. and adenoid cystic carcinoma. 288 Bilateral accessory parotid gland tissue, 257 Bilateral atresia, of external auditory canal, 344-347 Bilateral disease, and Warthin's tumor, 28 1 Bilateral oncocytomas, 282-285 Bilateral vallecular cysts, 52 Bilateral Warthin t umors. and benign Iymphoepithelial cysts. 265 Biller modification, of tumor, node. metastasis (TN M ) staging. 3341 Biofeedback techniques, for anterior disk dislocation, 435 Biopsy su rgery. for squamous cell carcinoma, 1 04 Birth, and lymphangioma. 1 1 7 Birt-Hogg-Dube syndrome, 1 30 Bone scintigraphy, for malignant otitis extern a ( MOE), 378 Bony atresia. of external auditory canal, 344-347 clinical findings of, 345 clinical presentation of. 344 differential diagnosis of. 344 epidemiology of, 345 imaging findings of, 346-347 management of. 347 pathophysiology of, 345 radiologic findings of, 344 Bony dysplasias, 366 Botryoid rhabdomyosarcoma, 99 Brachytherapy, for choroidal melanoma, 222 Brain tissue, M R I of, for dermoid cyst, 296[. 297 Branchial cleft cyst, 4 1 , 1 1 1 - 1 1 4 C

C�lcifications. and clival chordoma, 25 Caloric testing, for facial nerve schwan noma, 4 1 9 Caloric tests, for Bell's palsy, 4 1 5 Carcinomas of larynx. 57 of nasopharynx, 9 1 of supraglottic region, 63 Carotid artery, medial deviated (tortuous), 1 1 8- 1 2 1 Carotid body tumor, 85, 1 43-146 clinical findings of, 1 44 clinical presentation of, 1 43 differential diagnosis of, 143 epidemiology of, 1 44 imaging findings of, 1 45 management of, 145 pathophysiology of, 144 radiologic findings of, 1 43 Cavernous hemangioma, 2 '1 1 -2 1 3 clinical findings of, 2 1 2 clinical presentation of, 2 1 I differential diagnosis of, 2 1 2

INDEXI epidemiology of, 2 1 2 management of, 2 1 3 pathophysiology of, 2 1 2 radiologic findings of, 2 1 1 recurrenCe rate of, 2 1 3 Cavernous lymphangioma, 1 1 6-1 1 7 Central giant cell granuloma, 443-446 classifications of, 444 clinical findings of, 446 clinical presentation of, 443 differential diagnosis of, 443 epidemiology of. 445 imaging findings of, 446 management of, 446 pathophysiology of, 445-446 radiologic findings of, 443 Central neurofibromatosis, 395-399 Cerebellopontine angle (CPA) lesions, 4 Cerebellopontine angle (CPA) syndrome audiometric evaluation, 390--39 1 auditory brainstem evoked responses for, 390--3 91 epidemiology of, 389 and facial nerve schwannoma, 420 imaging findings of, 391 , 393 and neurofibromatosis type 1 1 , 395, 398 symptoms of, 390--39 1 Cerebral peduncle, 4 Cervical lymphadenopathy, and nasopharyngeal rhabdomyosarcoma, 99 Cervical metastasis, for para pharyngeal space liposarcoma, 95 Cervical nodes, nomenclature of, 1 54. 1 54r Cervical radiographs, of neck, for medial deviated (tortious) carotid artery, 1 18, 1 1 8f Cervical region, lateral plain films of, for retropharyngeal abscess, 1 37, 1 37f, 1 39-140, 142 Cervical spine, cr of, for c1ival chordoma, 24-25 Cervicothoracic junction, MRI of, for posterior neck lipoma, 1 28f, 1 30 Chemotherapy for anaplastic thyroid carcinoma, 1 72 for internal jugular vein thrombosis, 126 for metastatic disease of skull base, 3 1 for nasal lymphoma, 326 for nasopharyngeal rhabdomyosarcoma, 98, 99 for non hodgkins lymphoma of nasopharynx, 9 1 for retinoblastoma, 228 for squamous cell carcinoma, 104 Cherubism, 1 4 and fibrous dysplasia, 1 7 Children auditory brainstem evoked responses in, for incomplete partition of cochlea, 35 1 and chronic sinus symptoms, 100 and dermoid cyst, 298 ectopic thyroid tissue in, 52 epiglottitis in, 36 and leukocoria. 229 lipoblastoma and lipoblastomatosis in, 95 and lymphangioma, 1 1 6 and primary tracheal carcinoma, 1 8 1 and retinoblastoma, 229 and retropharyngeal abscess, 1 38 imaging for, 140

and rhabdomyosarcoma, 98 and Sjogren syndrome, 2 7 1 a n d vallecular cyst, 5 2 Cholesteatoma, 381 -387 complications with, 3831 types of, 383r Cholesteatoma of EAC, and malignant otitis externa (MOE), 379 Cholesterol granuloma, 382 Chondroid tumor characterization of. 56 of larynx, 54-57 clinical findings of, 55 clinical presentation of, 54 differential diagnosis of, 54 epidemiology of, 54-55 imaging findings of, 56 management of, 57 pathophysiology of, 55 radiologic findings of, 54 recurrence rate of, 57 Chondroma, 57 Chondrosarcoma, 54-57 low grade, of skull base, 1 8-21 VS. metastasis to larynx, 7 1 Chordomas, 2 1 , 22-26 classification of, 24 Choriocarcinoma. metastatic, to skull base, 27-3 1 clinical findings of, 29 clinical presentation of, 27 differential diagnosis of, 28 epidemiology of, 28 imaging findings of, 29-3 1 management of, 3 1 pathophysiology of, 28-29 radiologic findings of, 28 recurrence rate of, 3 1 Choroidal melanoma. 2 1 9-222 clinical findings of, 221 clinical presentation of, 2 1 9 differential diagnosis of, 220 imaging findings of, 221 management of, 222 pathophysiology of, 2 2 1 radiologic findings of, 2 1 9 Chronic lymphocytic thyroiditis, 1 58 Chronic posttraumatic deformity. of larynx. 46-49 clinical findings of, 47-48 clinical presentation of, 46 differential diagnosis of, 47 imaging findings of, 48 management of, 48 radiologic findings of, 47 Chronic sinus symptoms and children, 1 00 Ciprolloxacin, for malignant otitis externa ( MOE). 379 C1ival chondrosarcoma, 20 Clival chordoma, 22-26 clinical findings of, 24 clinical presentation of. 22 differential diagnosis of, 23 epidemiology of, 23

IIN DEX C1ival chordoma (continued) imaging findings of. 24-26 management of. 26 pat hophysiology of. 23-24 radiologic findings of, 22-23 recurrence rate of. 26 Clivus. CT of. for c1ival chordoma, 25. 25f Closed canal mastoidectomy, 404--407 Coat's disease, 224j; 225 Cochlea. incomplete partition 01', 349-354 Cochlear implants for incomplete partition of cochlea. 354 for otosclerosis. 368 Cochlear otosclerosis. 366, 368 Colloid goiter. 167 Computerized tomography (CT) for anterior disk dislocation, 434--43 5 of basiphenoid, for nasopharyngeal rhabdomyosarcoma, 96[, 97 for Bell's palsy. 415 for carotid body tumor. 145 for cavernous hemangioma. 2 13 of clivus, for c1ival chordoma. 25, 251' of cricoid ring, for anaplastic thyroid carcinoma, 169, 1 69f for epiglollitis. 37 for glomus vagal, 85 and glollic lesions. 60 of hyoid bone. for thyroglossal dust cyst, 107. 107[, 108-109. 109f, 1 1 0 for internal laryngocele. 41 for intraorbital meningioma, 2 1 6 for laryngectomy staging, for supraglollic carcinoma. 64-65 of larynx for chondroid tumor. 54. 54j: 55j: 56. 56j: 57f for chronic posllraumatic deformity of larynx, 46j: 47. 48, 48f for metastasis. 70j: 7 1 for vallecular cyst. 51-52 for lymphangioma, 1 1 7 of mandible for ameloblastoma. 448, 448j: 449--450. 4491' for central giant cell granuloma, 443, 443[, 444f, 446 for multinodular goiter. 166-168 for mUltiple bilateral oncocytomas, 284 of nasopharynx for Juvenile nasopharyngeal angiofibroma (JNA). 78f, 79, 80 for nasopharyngeal rhabdomyosarcoma. 96j: 97, 99, 100 for Tornwaldt cyst. 76f, 77 of neck for benign symmetric lipomatosis, 1 32, 1 32j: 134f, 1 35 for internal jugular vein thrombosis, 1 22, 122f, 124-125. 125j: 126 for medial deviated (tortuous) carotid artery, 1 19-120. 1 201' for necrotic lymph node, 153[, 1 54, 1 55 for parapharyngeal space liposarcoma, 94-95 for normal postoperative findings, 268 of oral cavity for dermoid cyst. 237, 237j; 238[, 239 for hypoglossal denervation atrophy. 245. 246 for lingual thyroid. 235j: 236 for ranula. 241 . 24lj; 243 for squamous cell carcinoma. 249. 250 of orbits for choroidal melanoma. 2 1 9, 2 1 9f, 221

for lacrimal gland enlargement. 190[, 191 for orbital cellulitis, 185, 185j; 187-188, 187f for retinoblastoma, 223, 223[, 224, 227-228 [or thyroid orbitopathy, 197-198, 197j: 199-20 I . 200j: 202 for parathyroid adenoma, 1 77-178 of parotid glands for adenoid cystic carcinoma. 286[, 287, 288 for benign Iymphoepithelial cysts, 263. 263j: 264[, 265 for Sjogren syndrome, 270, 270[, 272-273, 274 for pleomorphic adenoma, 277 of post-cricoid region. for retropharyngeal abscess, 137. 137f, 139-142 for posterior neck lipoma, 130, 1 3 1 for radiation-induced optic neuropathy, 2 1 0 for radicular cyst, 438. 440. 441, 442 for Riedel's thyroiditis, 1 6 1 o f salivary glands for accessory parotid gland, 257[, 258 for sialolithiasis, 259. 259[, 260f. 261 , 262 for schwannoma, 88 for second branchial cleft cyst, 1 14 of sinonasal for dermoid cyst, 295. 295j: 297-298 for destructive maxillary sinus process. 328[, 329. 331-332 for esthesioneurohlastoma, 334-336, 335f for frontal sinus mucoceles. 308, 308j: 309}; 3 1 0-312. 31 1[, 313 for frontal sinus osteoma, 303, 303j; 305-306. 305f for fungal sinusitis, 314-31 5, 3 I 4f-315f for inverted papilloma, 3 1 9j; 320, 32 1 for nasal lymphoma, 324, 324[, 326. 326f for nasopalatine duct cyst, 299[, 300, 301-302, 30 l f of skull and facial hones, for polyostotic fihrous dysplasia. 13j; 14. 1 5-17, 1 6f of skull base for choriocarcinoma metastatic. 30, 3 1 for low grade chondrosarcoma, 20, 2 1 for skull base meningiomas, 5 , 7 of temporal bone for aberrant internal carotid artery. 339. 339j; 340j: 342-343 [or Bell's palsy, 4 1 2, 4 1 2j; 414[, 415--416 for bony atresia of external auditory canal, 344. 344j: 346-347. 346f for displaced stapedial prosthesis, 423, 423j; 424, 425--426 for displaced total ossicular replacement prosthesis (TORP). 408. 408j: 409, 409[, 410 for facial nerve schwannoma. 419--421 . 420j: 422 [or glomus tympanicum, 400. 400[, 401j: 402 for incomplete partition of cochlea, 349, 349[, 352f, 353-354 for labyrinthitis ossificans/obliterans and acoustic tumor, 361 , 361[, 362[, 363 for longitudinal fracture, 355. 355j; 356j: 357, 358-359 for malignant otitis externa (MOE). 375j: 376. 376j: 378-379 for normal postoperative simple mastoidectomy, 404, 404[, 405[, 406--407, 4061' for otosclerosis, 365, 365}; 367-368, 367f for pars flaccida cholesteatoma, 381j: 382. 384[, 385-386, 385j: 387 for petro us apicitis. 370[, 37 1 , 373-374 of thyroid, for anaplastic thyroid carcinoma. 16<). 169[, 1 70. 1 72 of trachea. for primary tracheal carcinoma. 17<), 1 79j: 1 80j: 181 for trigeminal nerve schwannoma, 10

INDEXI for vagus nerve schwannoma, 149. 1 5 1 for Warthin's tumor, 281 Congenital anomalies, of ear, 342, 345. 349-354 inner. 3501, 354 Congenital deafness. and membranous labyrinth, 35 1 Congenital ear anomalies, 342. 345, 349-354 Congenital inner ear anomalies, 350/, 354 Conservative surgery, for neurofibromatosis type 1 1 . 398 Construction interference in steady state (CISS), for vestibular schwannoma. 391 Conventional microsurgery, for vestibular schwannoma, 393 Conventional venography, for internal jugular vein thrombosis, 1 25 Correlative imaging, for otosclerosis, 368 Cosmetic surgery. for Riedel's thyroiditis, 1 6 1 -1 62 CPA syndrome. See Cerebellopontine angle syndrome Cranial fossa, and squamous cell carcinoma, 1 03 Cranial nerve XII palsy. 244, 246 Craniocaudal M R l of for nasopharyngeal rhabdomyosarcoma, 96[, 97 for posterior neck lipoma, 1 28[, 1 30 Craniofacial resection for destructive maxillary sinus process, 332 for esthesioneuroblastoma. 336 Craniopharyngiomas, 25-26 Cribriform plate, M R I of, for dermoid cyst, 296[, 297 Cricoid cartilage, 56, 57 cr of, for chondroid tumor, 54, 54[ M R I of, for metastasis, 69[, 70 Cricoid ring, cr of, for anaplastic thyroid carcinoma. 169. 1 69[ Cross-sectional imaging for destructive maxillary sinus process, 33 1 , 332 for esthesioneuroblastoma, 334 for multiple bilateral oncocytomas, 284 of orbits, mediastinum, or abdomen for Riedel's thyroiditis, 161 for pyriform sinus carcinoma, 68 for retropharyngeal abscess, 1 4 1 for trigeminal nerve schwannoma, 1 0, 1 1 Croup. 36 Cryotherapy, for retinoblastoma, 228 Curettage. See Surgical excision Cystic hygromas. 1 1 6-1 1 7 Cystic lesions, 53 and multinodular goiter, 1 67 Cystic neoplasm, and dermoid cyst, 239 Cystic parotid lesions, and Warthin's tumor, 281 D

Debulking surgery, for anaplastic thyroid carcinoma, 1 72 Decompression procedures. for radicular cyst, 442 Decompressive resections, for low grade chondrosarcoma, 2 1 Dental lamina. and radicular cyst. 438 Dental radiographs. for periodontal cysts. 44 1 . 442 Depressurization. ror radicular cyst, 442 Dermal sinuses. 297 Dermoid cysts, 1 9 1 of mouth, 237-239 clinical findings of, 237, 239 clinical presentation of, 237 differential diagnosis of, 237-238

imaging findings of, 239 pathophysiology of. 239 or nasal ridge, 295-298 age predominance of, 296. 298 clinical findings of, 297 clinical presentation of, 295 differential diagnosis of, 295 epidemiology of, 296 gender predominance or, 296 imaging findings of, 297-298 management of, 298 pathophysiology of, 296 radiologic findings of, 295 Dermoids, 297 Destructive maxillary sinus process, 328-332 clinical findings of. 3 3 1 clinical presentation of, 328 differential diagnosis of. 329 epidemiology of, 329 imaging findings of. 331-332 management of, 332 pathophysiology of. 329-330 radiologic findings of. 329 tumor, node. metastasis (TN M ) classification for. 330. 33 1 1 Developmental cyst, 440 Diabetes mellitus. and malignant otitis externa (MOE), 377 Diffuse lipomatous processes, vs. encapsulated lipomas, 1 3 1 Direct endoscopy, for epiglottitis, 37 Disk dislocation, without reduction. 43 1 -436 Displaced stapedial prosthesis. 423-427 clinical findings of, 425 clinical presentation of. 423 differential diagnosis of. 423 epidemiology of, 424 imaging findings of. 425-426 management of, 427 pathophysiology of. 425 radiologic findings of. 423 Displaced total ossicular replacement prosthesis (TORP), 408-41 0 clinical findings of, 4 1 0 clinical presentation of, 408 differential diagnosis of. 408 imaging findings of, 4 1 0 management of, 4 1 0 radiologic findings of, 408 Doppler ultrasound, for glomus vagal, 85 Doppler US venography, for internal jugular vein thrombosis, 1 25 Dorello's canal, and petrous apicitis. 372 Dural tail and c1ival chordoma. 26 and petroclival meningioma, 4, 7 E

Ear congenital anomalies of. 342. 345. 349-354 inner, 3501, 354 Ectopic thyroid tissue, in children. 52 Electric taste testing, for facial nerve schwannoma. 4 1 9 Electrocautery, for parathyroid adenoma. 1 78 Electromyography, for Bell's palsy, 4 1 5 Electroneurography, for Bell's palsy. 4 1 5

!INDEX Electron microscopy, for esthesioneuroblastoma, 336 Electron-spin resonance studies, for choroidal melanoma, 221 Electronystagmogram. for Bell's palsy, 415 ELISA, for retinoblastoma, 225 Embryonal type. spindle cell tumor, 98 En bloc craniofacial resection, for esthesioneuroblastoma, 336 En bloc resection, for inverted papilloma. 322 Encapsulated lipomas, vs. diffuse lipomatous processes, 131 Encephaloceles, 297 Enchondromatosis syndromes, 21 Endemic goiter. 164 Endoluminal approach, for sialolithiasis of parotid gland, 262 Endoscopic intranasal surgical treatment, for inverted papilloma. 322 Endoscopic resection, for frontal sinus osteoma, 306 Endoscopic surgery, for frontal sinus mucoceles, 3 12, 313 for posterior neck lipoma, '130 Endoscopy for epiglottitis, 37 for sialolithiasis of parotid gland, 261 of vocal cord, for squamous cell carcinoma, 58! End-to-end anastomosis, for vagus nerve schwannoma. 151 Enucleation for benign Iympboepitbelial cysts, 265 for choroidal melanoma, 222 for nasopalatine duct cyst, 302 for retinoblastoma, 228 for Warthin's tumor, 281 Enyzme-linked immunoabsorbent assay ( ELISA), for retinoblastoma, 225 Epidermoids, 297, 393 Epiglottis aryepiglottic folds radiograph of, for epiglottitis, 35J, 36! Epiglottitis, 35-37 in adults, 36 clinical findings of, 36--37 clinical presentation of, 35 differential diagnosis of, 35 epidemiology of. 36 imaging findings of. 37 radiologic findings of, 35 Episclera plaque radiation, for retinoblastoma, 228 Eskimo ancestry, and pleomorphic adenoma, 276 Esophageal carcinoma, and anaplastic thyroid carcinoma, 171 Esthesioneuroblastoma, 333-336 clinical findings of. 334 clinical presentation of, 333 differential diagnosis of, 333 epidemiology of. 334 imaging findings of, 334-336 Kadish grading system for, 3341 management of, 336 pathophysiology of, 334 radiologic findings of. 333 recurrence rate of, 336 tumor, node. metastasis (TNM) staging for, 3341 Ethanol ablation of hyperfunctioning thyroid nodules. 168 for parathyroid adenoma, 178 Ethmoidectomy. for inverted papilloma, 322 Eustachian tube MRI of, for nonhodgkins lymphoma. 90, 90!

Excision, for pleomorphic adenoma, 278 Exophytic thyroid nodules, and vagus nerve schwannoma. 150 Exteriorization. for radicular cyst, 442 External auditory canal, 344-347 External beam radiation, for retinoblastoma, 228 External beam radiotherapy, for nasopharyngeal rhabdomyosarcoma, 99 External laryngocele, 41 F

Facial nerve grading system. 414 Facial nerve grafting, for facial nerve schwannoma. 421 Facial nerve schwannoma. 4 17-422 clinical findings of, 419 clinical presentation of, 417 differential diagnosis of. 417-418 epidemiology of, 418 imaging findings of, 41 9-421 management of, 421 pathophysiology of, 419 radiologic findings of, 4 1 7 Facial process, and accessory parotid gland. 258 False vocal cords, 63 CT of, for chronic posttraumatic deformity of larynx. 46j.' 47 MRI of. 38J, 39 for chronic posttraumatic deformity of larynx. 46J, 47 for pyriform sinus carcinoma, 66J, 67 FATSAT. See Frequency selective fat suppression imaging Fenestral otosclerosis, 366, 368 Fibrogenic disorders, and Riedel's tbyroiditis. 162 Fibrous dysplasia, 13-17, 21 and cherubism, 17 forms of, 14 and intraorbital meningioma, 216 Fine needle aspiration cytology for adenoid cystic carcinoma, 288 for central giant cell granuloma, 444 for mucoepidermoid carcinoma, 291 Fissural cyst, and nasopalatine duct cyst. 302 Fleurettes. 226 Fluoride therapy, for otosclerosis, 368 Follicular tumor. 165 Foramen ovale. and squamous cell carcinoma. 103 Fossae of RosenmiiUer, 89 Frenulum, and ranula, 243 Frequency selective fat suppression imaging (FATSAT) for destructive maxillary sinus process, 330 for fat suppression artifacts of orbit. 204, 205 for intraorbital meningioma, 2 1 5, 217 for low grade chondrosarcoma. 20. 20! for malignant otitis externa (MOE), 379 for parapharyngeal space liposarcoma. 95 for radiation-induced optic neuropathy. 208. 2 1 0 and retinoblastoma, 229 for supraglottic carcinomas of larynx. 64 Frontal sinus mucoceles, 308-3 13 clinical findings of, 310--312 clinical presentation of, 308 differential diagnosis of, 308 imaging findings of. 312 management of. 312-31 3 pathophysiology of, 3 10 radiologic findings of, 308

INDEXI

Frontal sinus osteoma, 303-307 clinical findings of, 304 clinical presentation of, 303 differential diagnosis of, 303 epidemiology of, 304 imaging findings of, 305-306 management 0(, 306--307 pathophysiology of, 304 radiologic findings of, 303 Fulminant fungal infection. 31 6--3 17 Fungal sinusitis, 314-317 clinical presentation of, 314 differential diagnosis of, 315 epidemiology of, 315-31 6 imaging findings of, 317 management of, 317 pathophysiology of, 316--3 17 radiologic findings of, 314-315 recurrence rate of, 317 survival rate of, 317 G

Gadolinium enhanced MRI, for trigeminal nerve schwannoma, 10 Gallium bone scans for malignant otitis externa (MOE), 378 for petrous apicitis, 374 Gamma knife radiosurgery, for neurofibromatosis type 11, 399 Gardner's syndrome, 130 and frontal sinus osteoma, 306 Genetic counseling, for neurofibromatosis type 11, 399 Giant cell granuloma. 443-446 Giant cell tumor (GCf), and central giant cell granuloma, 444 Glioma, 297 Globullomaxillary cyst, and nasopalatine duct cyst, 302 Glomus jugulare, 150 Glomus tumor, schwannoma in poststyloid parapharyngeal space, 88 Glomus tympanicum, 400-402 clinical findings 0[, 402 clinical presentation of, 400 differential diagnosis of, 400 epidemiology of, 400-402 imaging findings of, 402 management of, 402 radiologic findings 0(, 400 Glomus vagal, 82-85 clinical findings of, 84-85 clinical presentation of, 82 differential diagnosis of, 83 epidemiology 0[, 84 imaging findings of, 85 management of, 85 pathophysiology of. 84 radiologic findings of, 83 Glottic cancers, 63 Glottic lesions MRI and Cf for. 60 for staging, 60, Glottic tumors. 59 Goiters, 163-168 imaging goals for. 166 and malignant nodules, 1 68 VS.

Gradenigo's syndrome, and petrous apicitis, 370-374 Graves' disease, and thyroid orbitopathy, 198 G ustatory sweating, and normal postoperative findings, 268, 269 H

Haemophilus inlluenzae virus, and pediatric epiglottitis, 36, 37 Hashimoto's thyroiditis, 158 MRI for, 161 Hearing aid. See Amplification Hemoptysis, and primary tracheal carcinoma, 181 Heparin therapy, for internal jugular vein thrombosis, 126 Herpes simplex virus (HSV), and Bell's palsy, 413 Herpes zoster infection, and Bell's palsy, 415 HIV infection. and benign Iymphoepithelial cysts, 263-265 Hodgkin's disease, 90 Horse collar, 134, 136 House-Brackmann facial nerve grading system, 414 Hower-Wright rosettes. 226 Hydrocephalus, and neurofibromatosis type 11, 398 Hyoid bone, for thyroglossal dust cyst Cf of, 107, 107! 1 08-109, 109! 1 1 0 MRI of, 108-109, l 09! 1 10 Hyperbaric oxygen therapy for malignant otitis externa (MOE), 379 Hyperfractionated radiotherapy, for anaplastic thyroid carcinoma, 172 Hyperthyroidism, and thyroid orbitopathy, 198 Hypoglossal denervation atrophy, 244-246 clinical findings of, 246 clinical presentation of, 244 di[ferential diagnosis of, 244 imaging findings of, 246 pathophysiology of, 245 radiologic findings of, 244 Hypopharynx, malignancy types of, 63 Hypoplasia, of tympanic cavity, 347 Idiopathic, 327 Idiopathic midline destructive disease, 317 Idiopathic perineuritis, 195 Immunohistochemical test, for esthesioneuroblastoma, 336 Immunoscintigraphy, for retinoblastoma, 228 Immunosuppression, and malignant otitis externa (MOE), 377 [mmunosuppressors for orbital pseudotumor, 196 or Sjogren syndrome, 273 Incisive canal cyst, 299-302 Incomplete partition, of cochlea, 349-354 clinical findings of, 351-353 clinical presentation of, 349 differential diagnosis of, 349 epidemiology of, 350 imaging findings of, 353-354 management of, 354 pathophysiology of, 350-351 radiologic findings of, 349 Infants and bony atresia of external auditory canal, 345 and dermoid cyst, 298 and lymphangioma, 1 17 and vallecular cysts, 53

IINDEX Infection and dermoid cysl. 297 and frontal sinus mucoceles. 3 1 2 and fungal sinusitis, 3 1 7 and malignant otitis externa (MOE). 377 I nferior hypopharynx. cancers of. 67 Inflammatory sinus disease. and inverted papilloma. 323 Infrahyoid epiglottis, tumors of. 64 Infratemporal fossa, Cf of. for Juvenile nasopharyngeal angiofibroma (JNA), 78f, 79 Inner ear, congenital anomalies 0[, 3501, 354 Internal carotid artery, 339-343 Internal jugular vein thrombosis, 1 22-126 clinical findings of. 123-124 clinical presentation of. 1 22 differential diagnosis 0[, 122 epidemiology of, 1 23 imaging findings of. 124-125 management of. 1 25-1 26 and necrotic nodes. 1 26 pathophysiology of. 123 radiologic findings of. 1 22 and thrombosis. 126 I,llernal laryngocele, 38-41 clinical presentation of, 38 differential diagnosis of, 39 epidemiology of, 39 imaging findings of. 4 1 management of, 4 1 pathophysiology of. 40-41 radiologic findings of, 39 and vallecular cysl. 52 International Union Against Cancer, and nomenclature of cervical nodes. 1 54. 1 541 Intraconal space. MRI of. for cavernous hemangioma. 21 1 . 21 If, 212. 2 1 3 Intranasal endoscopic surgery. for frontal sinus mucoceles, 312 I ntraocular malignancy. 223-228 Intraoral approach. for sialolithiasis of parotid gland. 262 Intraoral radiograph, of mandible, for radicular cyst, 437, 437[ Intraorbital meningioma. 2 1 4-21 8 and chiasm involvemenl. 2 1 8 clinical findings of. 2 1 6 clinical presentation of. 21 4 differential diagnosis of. 2 1 5 epidemiology of. 2 1 5 gender predominance of. 2 1 8 imaging findings of. 2 1 6-2 1 8 manag�ment of. 218 pathophysiology of. 2 1 5-21 6 radiologic findings of. 2 1 5 Intraparotid lymphadenopathy. and multiple bilateral oncocytomas. 285 Intravascular procedures, for internal jugular vein thrombosis, 125 Intravenous antibiotics, for petrous apicitis, 374 Intravenous contract, for sialolithiasis of parotid gland. 261 Intravenous therapy. for orbital cellulitis, 188 Inut ancestry. and pleomorphic adenoma. 276 Invasive fibrous thyroiditis. 1 58. 1 59. See also Riedel's thyroiditis I nverted papilloma. 31 9-322 clinical findings of, 321 clinical presentation of, 3 1 9

differential diagnosis of, 320 epidemiology 0[, 320 imaging findings of, 321 management of, 322 pathology of. 321-322 pathophysiology of, 321 radiologic findings of. 320 Iodine supplements, for multinodular goiter, 1 68 1- 131 study, for lingual thyroid, 234, 234f, 236 J

Jugular vein thrombosis, 122-126 Juvenile nasopharyngeal angiofibroma (JNA), 78-81 clinical findings of. 80 clinical presentation of. 78 differential diagnosis of. 79 epidemiology of. 79-80 imaging findings of. 80-81 management of. 81 pathophysiology of, 80 and pterygopalatine fossa, 81 radiologic findings of, 79 K

Kadish grading system for esthesioneuroblastoma. 3341

L

Labyrinthine aplasia, 35 1 , 353. See also Michel's deformity Labyrinthine malformations. associated syndromes with. 35 11 Labyrinthitis. 426 steroids for. 427 Labyrinthitis ossificans, and incomplete partition of cochlea. 354 Labyrinthitis ossificans/obliterans, and acoustic tumor, 361-364 clinical presentation of, 361 differential diagnosis of, 362 imaging findings of, 363 management of. 363 pathophysiology of. 362-363 radiologic findings of, 361-362 Lacrimal adenitis, 1 95 Lacrimal gland enlargement, due to acute dacroadenitis, 189-191 clinical presentation of, 189 differential diagnosis of, 1 90 imaging findings of, 1 9 1 management of, 1 9 1 pathophysiology of. 190- 1 9 1 radiologic findings of. 190 Langerhans cell granuloma. and otosclerosis. 366 Laryngeal cancers, 59. 63. 67 Laryngeal chondrosarcoma. 54-57 Laryngeal malignancies, 59 Laryngeal trauma, 46, 49 Laryngectomy. for chondroid tumor of larynx, 57 Laryngectomy staging for supraglottic carcinoma. 64-65 Laryngocele, internal, 38-41 Laryngoscopy, for supraglottic carcinoma. 64 Larynx chronic posttraumatic deformity of. 46-49 Cf of for chondroid tumor. 54, 54f, 55f, 56, 56f, 57[ for chronic posttraumatic deformity of larynx. 46f, 47. 48. 48[

INDEXI for internal laryngocele, 4 I for metastasis. 70f, 71 for vallecular cyst, 51-52 malignancy types of, 63 MRl of for chronic posttraumatic deformity of larynx, 46f, 47, 47f, 48 for internal laryngocele, 38f, 39, 40, 40[ for metastasis to larynx, 69f, 70, 7 1 for posterior neck lipoma, 1 29f, 130 for pyriform sinus carcinoma, 66f, 67, 68 for squamous cell carcinoma, 58f, 59, 60-61 for supraglottic carcinoma, 62f, 63, 64, 65 for vallecular cyst, 50f, 5 1 , 52, 52[ for vocal cord paralysis, 42f, 43, 44,45 Laser ablation for parathyroid adenoma, 1 78 and vallecular cysts. 52 Laser excision, for chondroid tumor of larynx, 57 Lateral plain films, of cervical region, for retropharyngeal abscess, 137, 137f, 139-140, 142 Lateral retropharyngeal nodes, 103 Lateral rhinectomy, for inverted papilloma, 322 Left thyroid cartilage, MRI and cr of, for chronic posttraumatic deformity of larynx, 46f, 47 Lethal midline granuloma, 324-327 Leukocoria, 226, 227 and children, 229 Leukocytosis, and petrous apicitis, 373 Levels, and nomenclature of cervical nodes, 154, 1 54r Levothyroxin, for multinodular goiter, 1 68 Lingual thyroid. 233-236 clinical findings of, 236 clinical presentation of. 233 differential diagnosis of, 235 imaging findings of, 236 management of, 236 pathophysiology of, 235 radiologic findings of, 234-235 Lipoblastoma. and pediatrics, 95 Lipoblastomatosis, and pediatrics. 95 Lipomatosis. 132-136 Lipomatosis of Launois-Bensaude. 133 Liposarcomas, categories of, 93 Liposuction for benign symmetric lipomatosis, 135 for posterior neck lipoma, 130 Liver disease, and benign symmetric lipomatosis, 1 36 Longitudinal fracture, of temporal bone, 355-359 clinical findings of, 358 clinical presentation of, 355 differential diagnosis of. 355 epidemiology of, 357 imaging findings of. 358 management of. 359 pathophysiology of, 357-358 radiologic findings of. 355 Longitudinal ultrasound, for parathyroid adenoma. 176-177, 176[ Low grade chondrosarcoma, of skull base, 1 8-21 clinical findings of, 1 9-20 clinical presentation of, 18 differential diagnosis of. 18 epidemiology of, 1 9

imaging findings of, 20-21 management of, 21 pathophysiology of, 1 9 radiologic findings of, 18 recurrence rate of, 21 survival rate of, 21 Lucency, in lymph nodes, 154 Lupus, and radiation-induced optic neuropathy, 210 Lyme disease, and Bell's palsy, 415 Lymphadenopathy, 103 and nerve sheath tumor, 151 Lymphangioma, 1 15-1 17 clinical findings of, 1 17 clinical presentation of, 1 15 differential diagnosis of. 1 1 5 epidemiology of, 1 1 6 imaging findings of, 1 1 7 management of, 1 1 7 and necrotic lymph node. 1 17 pathophysiology of, 1 16-1 17 radiologic findings of, 1 15 Lymphangioma simplex, 1 16-1 17 Lymphoma of head and neck. 89-91 of nasopharynx, 91 nonhodgkin hodgkin, 90 signal characteristics of, 26 Lymphomatoid granulomatosis, 327 Lynch procedure, for frontal sinus mucoceles, 312 vs.

M

Madelung collar, 133, 134, 1 36 Madelung disease, 1 32-136 Magnetic resonance angiography, for carotid body tumor, 145 Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) for aberrant internal carotid artery, 342-343 for ameloblastoma of mandible, 450 for anaplastic thyroid carcinoma, 172 [or benign symmetric lipomatosis, 135 for central giant ceU granuloma, 446 [or chondroid tumors of larynx, 56 for displaced stapedial prosthesis, 425-426 of dural tail, 7 for epiglottitis, 37 for frontal sinus osteoma, 305, 306, 307 for glomus tympanicum, 402 and glottic lesions, 60 for Hashimoto's thyroiditis, 161 of hyoid bone, for thyroglossal dust cyst. 108-109, 109f, 1 1 0 for incomplete partition of cochlea, 354 for internal jugular vein thrombosis, 125 of intraconal space, for cavernous hemangioma, 2 1 1 , 21 1f, 212. 213 for laryngectomy staging, for supraglottic carcinoma, 64-65 of larynx for chronic posttraumatic deformity of larynx. 46f, 47. 47f, 48 for internal laryngocele, 38f, 39. 40. 40[ for metastasis. 69f, 70, 71 for pyriform sinus carcinoma, 66f, 67, 68 for supraglottic carcinoma. 62f, 63. 64, 65 for vocal cord paralysis, 42f, 43, 44. 45 for nasal lymphoma. 326

lINDEX Magnetic resonance imaging (MRJ) (continlled) for nasopalatine duct cyst, 301 of nasopharynx for Juvenile nasopharyngeal angiofibroma (JNA), 78J, 79, 80, 80f

for nasopharyngeal rhabdomyosarcoma, 97, 97J, 99 for nonhodgkins lymphoma, 89. 89J, 90, 90J, 9 1 for squamous cell carcinoma, 1 0 1 , 1 01J, 102J, 103-1 04, 1 03f for Tornwaldt cyst, 75J, 76, 77 of neck for choriocarcinoma metastatic, 27J, 28 for lymphangioma. l I5, 1 1 5J, 1 1 6J, 1 1 7 for medial deviated (tortuous) carotid artery, 1 1 8, 1 1 8J, 1 1 9- 1 20, 1 20f

for multinodular goiter, 1 63, 1 63J, 1 66- 1 68 for necrotic lymph node. 1 52J, 1 53. 1 54, 1 55 for parapharyngeal space liposarcoma, 92-93. 92J, 94-95 for posterior neck lipoma. 1 28J, 1 29. 1 29J, 1 30. 1 3 1 for retropharyngeal abscess, 1 40J, 1 4 1 - 1 42 for Riedel's thyroiditis, 1 57J, 1 58, 1 60, 1 62 for second branchial cleft cyst. 1 1 3J, 1 14 [or vagus nerve schwan noma. 1 47J, 148, 149- 1 5 1 , 1 50f for normal postoperative simple mastoidectomy, 406 of oral cavity for c1ival chordoma, 22-23. 22J, 25. 26 for dermoid cyst, 237, 237J, 238J, 239 for hypoglossal denervation atrophy. 244, 244J, 245. 246 for lingual thyroid. 234. 234J, 236 for ranula, 242J, 243 for squamous cell carcinoma, 247, 247J, 248J, 249, 250 of orbit for choroidal melanoma. 2 1 9, 2 1 9J, 2 2 1 for fat suppression artifacts, 203. 203J, 204-205 for intraorbital meningioma, 2 1 4J, 2 1 5, 2 1 6--2 18, 2 1 7f for lacrimal gland enlargement. 1 89J, 1 90, 1 9 1 for orbital cellulitis. 1 87- 1 88, 1 87f for orbital pseudotumor. 1 92J, 1 93, 194- 1 96. 1 95f for thyroid orbitopathy, 1 99-20 1 , 200J, 202 for otosclerosis. 367-368 of parapharyngeal space, for glomus vagal. 82J, 83, 84J, 85 of parathyroid, for parathyroid adenoma, 1 74, 1 74[, 1 76-- 178, 1 76f of parotid glands for adenoid cystic carcinoma, 286[, 287, 288 for benign Iymphoepithelial cysts. 264J, 265 for mucoepidermoid carcinoma, 289J, 290, 291 for multiple bilateral oncocytomas. 282[, 283, 284 for normal postoperative findings, 267[, 268 for pleomorphic adenoma. 275J, 276. 276J, 277-278 for Sjogren syndrome, 272-273, 272f for pars flaccida cholesteatoma, 382, 386 for polyostotic fibrous dysplasia, 1 5 . 1 7 of poststyloid parapharyngeal space, for schwan noma, 86, 86J, 87, 87j,' 88

for radicular cyst, 438, 440. 442 of salivary glands for accessory parotid gland, 255, 255[, 256j,' 257, 258 for sialolithiasis. 260J, 26 1 . 262 for Warthin's tumor, 279, 279[, 280-28 1 of sinonasal for dermoid cyst, 296[, 297-298 for destructive maxillary sinus process, 328J, 329, 330. 330[, 33 1-332

460

for esthesioneuroblastoma, 333, 333[, 335-336, 335f for frontal sinus mucoceles, 309[, 3 1 0 for fungal sinusitis, 3 1 6[, 3 1 7 for inverted papilloma, 3 1 9J, 320, 32 1 of sk ull base for choriocarcinoma metastatic. 27[, 28, 29-3 1 , 30f for c1ival chordoma. 22-23, 22[, 25, 26 for low grade chondrosarcoma, 18, 1 8J, 20, 20f for petroclival meningiomas, 3J, 4, 5, 6f for trigeminal nerve schwannoma. 8[, 9, 10. I I, 1 1f of supraglottic larynx, for vallecular cyst, 50[, 5 1 . 52. 52f of temporal bone for facial nerve schwannoma. 417, 4 1 7J, 4 1 9-42 1 . 420J, 422 for labyrinthitis ossificans/obliterans and acoustic tumor, 36 1 , 361£ 363

for malignant otitis externa (MOE). 375£ 376, 378-379 for neurofibromatosis type 1 1 , 395, 395J, 397-398, 397f for petrous apicitis, 370[, 37 1 , 373-374 for vestibular schwannoma, 388, 388[, 391-393 for temporal bone fractures, 359 of temporomandibular joint (TMJ), for anterior disk dislocation, 43 1 , 43 1[, 432£ 433J, 434-435, 434f of trachea. for primary tracheal carcinoma, 180J, 1 8 1 of valleculae, for carotid body tumor, 143, 1 43j,' 144[, 145, 1 46 of visual pathways, for radiation-induced optic neuropathy. 207[, 208, 209-2 10. 209f

of vocal cord, for squamous cell carcinoma. 58}: 59. 60-61 Magnetic resonance signal voids, within paranasal sinuses, 3 1 2r Magnetic resonance venography (M RV) for internal jugular vein thrombosis, 1 25 for orbital cellulitis, 1 87 Malignancy, and multiple bilateral oncocytomas, 285 Malignant otitis externa (MOE), 375-379 clinical findings of, 377-378 clinical presentation of, 375 differential diagnosis of, 376 epidemiology of, 377 imaging findings of, 378-379 management of, 379 pathophysiology of, 377 radiologic findings of, 376 recurrence rate of, 378, 379 Malignant transformation, and Sjogren syndrome. 274 Mandible CT of for ameloblastoma, 448, 448J, 449-450. 449f for central giant cell granuloma, 443, 443[, 444j,' 446 intraoral radiograph of, for radicular cyst, 437, 437f Marginal supraglottic tumors, 64 Marsupialization for pars flaccida cholesteatoma. 386-387 for radicular cyst, 442 and vallecular cysts, 52 Mastoid air cells, 89 Mastoidectomy, 404-407 for pars flaccida cholesteatoma, 386 types of, 404r Maxillary sinus process, 328-332 tumor, node, metastasis (TNM) staging for, 331 r Maxillectomy, for destructive maxillary sinus process. 332 Meckel's cave and neurofibromatosis type 1 1 , 398 and petrous apicitis, 372

INDEXI

Medial deviated (tortuous) carotid 311ery, 1 18-121 clinical presentation of. 1 18 differential diagnosis of, 1 18 epidemiology of, 1 1 9 imaging findings of, 1 19-120 pathophysiology of, 1 19 radiologic findings of, 1 18 Medial maxillectomy, for inverted papilloma, 322 Mediastinum cross-sectional imaging of, for Riedel's thyroiditis, 161 Medical therapy for benign symmetric lipomatosis, 1 35 for orbital cellulitis, 188 for Sjogren syndrome, 273 Melanoma, 3 1 Melanotic schwannoma, of poststyloid parapharyngeal space, 87 Membranous labyrinth, and congenital deafness, 351 MEN II, and parathyroid hyperplasia, 178 Meningeal folds, 4 Meningiomas, 4 Meningiomatosis, 1 7 characterization of, 398 Meningitis, 426 MeningotheLial cells, 4 Mesenchymal tumor, of larynx, 55 Metastasectomy, for metastasis to larynx, 71 Metastasis, 24 to larynx, 69-72 clinical presentation of, 69 differential diagnosis of, 70 epidemiology of, 70-71 imaging findings of, 7 1 management of, 7 1 pathophysiology of, 7 1 radiologic findings of, 70 squamous cell carcinoma and aggressive chondrosarcoma, 71 survival rate of, 71 Metastatic disease, of skull base, 27-3 1 Methyl prednisolone for radiation-induced optic neuropathy, 210 Michel's deformity, 351 , 353 and labyrinthitis ossificans, 363, 364 Microsurgery for vestibular schwannoma, 393 Middle cranial fossa, and squamous cell carcinoma, 103 Middle cranial fossa subtemporal approach, for petrous apicitis, 374 Midline destructive disease, 327 Mikulicz's syndrome, 190 Mixed laryngocele, 41 Modified radical mastoidectomy, 406 Mondini's malformation, 349-354 Mucoceles, 308-313 Mucoepidermoid carcinoma, 289-291 clinical findings of, 290 clinical presentation of, 289 differential diagnosis of, 290 imaging findings of, 290-291 management of, 291 pathophysiology of, 290 radiologic findings of, 290 survival rate of, 291 Multidisciplinary surgery, for intraorbital meningioma, 218 vs.

Multinodular goiter, 163-168 clinical findings of, 165 clinical presentation of, 163 differential diagnosis of, 164 epidemiology of, 164 imaging findings of, 166-168 management of, 168 pathophysiology of, 1 64-165 radiologic findings of, 163-164 Multiple bilateral oncocytomas, 282-285 clinical findings of, 284 clinical presentation of, 282 differential diagnosis of, 283 epidemiology of, 283 imaging findings of, 284 management o� 284 pathophysiology of, 283-284 radiologic findings of, 283 recurrence rate of, 284 Multiple sclerosis, and radiation-induced optic neuropathy, 210 Myxoid liposarcomas, 93-94 N

Nasal lymphoma, 324-327 clinical findings of, 325 clinical presentation of, 324 differential diagnosis of, 324 epidemiology of, 325 imaging findings of, 326 management of, 326 pathophysiology of, 325 radiologic findings of, 324 Nasal ridge, for dermoid cyst CT of, 295, 295[, 297-298 MRI of, 296[, 297-298 Nasopalatine duct cyst, 299-302 clinical findings of, 300-301 clinical presentation of, 299 differential diagnosis of, 300 epidemiology of, 300 imaging findings of, 301-302 management of, 302 pathophysiology of, 300 radiologic findings of, 300 Nasopharyngeal bursa. 76-77 Nasopharyngeal lymphoma, 91 Nasopharyngeal mass, and adenoidal hypertrophy, 1 00 Nasopharyngeal rhabdomyosarcoma embryonal type, 96-100 clinical findings of, 98--99 clinical presentation of, 96 differential diagnosis of, 97 epidemiology of, 98 imaging findings of, 99 management of, 99 pathophysiology of, 98 radiologic findings of, 97 survival rate of, 99 Nasopharynx CT or for Juvenile nasopharyngeal angiofibroma (JNA), 78[, 79, 80 for nasopharyngeal rhabdomyosarcoma, 96[, 97, 99, 100

IINDEX

Nasopharynx (conrilllled) for non hodgkins lymphoma. 91, 9 1! for Tornwaldt cyst. 76f, 77 MRl of for Juvenile nasopharyngeal angiofibroma (JNA), 78]; 79, 80, 80! for nasopharyngeal rhabdomyosarcoma, 97, 97f 99 for non hodgkins lymphoma, 89, 89f, 90, 90f, 91 for squamous cell carcinoma, 101 , 1 01f, 1 02f, 1 03-1 04. 103! for Tornwaldt cyst. 75f, 76, 77 Neck cervical radiographs of, for medial deviated (tortuous) carotid artery, 1 18, 1 1 8! cr of for benign symmetric lipomatosis, 1 32. 132f, 134f, 1 35 for internal jugular vein thrombosis, 1 22, 1 22f, 1 24-125, 1 25}: 126 for medial deviated (tortuous) carotid artery, 1 1 9-120, 1 20! for necrotic lymph node, 153f, 1 54, 1 55 for parapharyngeal space liposarcoma, 94-95 MRl of for choriocarcinoma metastatic, 27f, 28 for lymphangioma, 1 1 5. 1 I Sf, 1 1 6f, 1 1 7 for medial deviated (tortuous) carotid artery. 1 1 8, 1 18}: 1 1 9-120. 1 20! for multinodular goiter, 1 63, 163f, 1 66-- 1 68 for necrotic lymph node, 1 52f, 1 53, 1 54, 1 55 for parapharyngeal space liposarcoma, 92-93, 92f, 94-95 for posterior neck Lipoma, 1 28f, 129, 1 29f, 130, 1 3 1 for retropharyngeal abscess, 140f, 141-142 for Riedel's thyroiditis, 1 57f, 1 58, 1 60, 1 62 for second branchial cleft cyst, 1 13f, 1 1 4 for thyroglossal dust cyst. 108--1 09, 1 09f, J J O for vagus nerve schwannoma, 1 47f, 148, 149- 1 5 1 , J 50! plain film of. for Riedel's thyroiditis, 1 6 1 Neck dissection for adenoid cystic carcinoma, 288 for mucoepidermoid carcinoma, 29 1 for necrotic lymph node, J56 for parapharyngeal space liposarcoma. 95 Neck lipoma. 1 27-1 3 1 Necrotic lymph node and lymphangioma, J J 7 from squamous cell carcinoma metastases. 1 52-156 clinical findings of. 1 54 clinical presentation of. 1 52 differential diagnosis of, 1 53 epidemiology of. 1 53 imaging findings of, 155 management of. 1 55-1 56 pathophysiology of. 1 54-1 55 radiologic findings of. 1 53 survival rate of, 1 53, 1 54 Necrotic nodes, and internal jugular vein thrombosis, 1 26 Neoadjuvant therapy for neurofibromatosis type I I . 399 Neoplastic process and non-neoplastic optic neuritis, 210 and orbital pseudotumor, 1 96 Nerve decompression for Bell's palsy. 4 1 6 erve sheath tumors, 147-15J Nerve X I I palsy, 244, 246 Neuroectodermal perineural cells, 148

Neurofibromas, 1 48, 1 49 eurofibromatosis, 1 5 1 Neurofibromatosis type 11, 395-399 clinical findings of, 396--397 clinical presentation of, 395 differential diagnosis of, 395 epidemiology of, 396 imaging findings of, 397-398 management of, 398-399 pathophysiology of, 396 radiologic findings of, 395 Nodal dissection, for pyriform sinus carcinoma, 68 Nodes of Rouviere, 103 Nonhodgkins lymphoma, 1 22 of nasopharynx, 89-9 1 clinical findings of, 90 clinical presentation of, 89 differential diagnosis of. 89 epidemiology of. 90 imaging findings of, 91 management of, 91 pathophysiology of, 90 radiologic findings of, 89 Non-neoplastic optic neuritis, and neoplastic processes, 210 Normal postoperative findings, of parotid gland, 267-269 clinical findings of. 268 clinical presentation of, 267 differential diagnosis of, 268 imaging findings of. 268 management of, 268 pathophysiology of, 268 radiologic findings of, 268 Normal postoperative simple mastoidectomy, 404-407 clinical presentation of. 404 differential diagnosis of, 405 imaging findings of, 406-407 radiologic findings of, 404 Nosebleeds, 78, 81 o

Obesity, and benign symmetric lipomatosis, 136 Obliterative surgery, for frontal sinus mucoceles, 3 1 2 Occult nasopharyngeal mass, 104 Ocular toxocariasis. 225 Ocular ultrasound. for retinoblastoma, 227 Odontogenic keratocyst. and nldicular cyst, 438 Odontogenic lesions, and nasopalatine duct cyst, 302 Ohngren's line, and destructive maxillary sinus process, 330 OKC, 438 Olfactory neuroblastoma, 333-336 Oncocytomas, 282-285 Opacified obstructed sinuses, and esthesioneuroblastoma, 336 Open cavity mastoidectomy, 406 Open lipectomy, for benign symmetric lipomatosis, 1. 35 Open obliterative surgery, for frontal sinus mucoceles, 3 1 2 Ophthalmic veins, varix o f. and cavernous hemangioma, 2 1 3 Optic nerve. radiation necrosis of. 208-209 Optic nerve glioma, and intraorbital meningioma, 2 1 8 Optic nerve meningiomas, 2 1 4-2 1 8 Optic neuropathy. radiation-induced, 207-210 Oral cavity CT of for dermoid cyst, 237, 237}: 238f, 239

IN DExJ

for hypoglossal denervation atrophy, 245, 246 for lingual thyroid. 235J, 236 for ranula. 24 1 . 24 1J, 243 for squamous cell carcinoma, 249, 250 MRl of for choriocarcinoma metastatic, 27/. 28 for clival chordoma, 22/. 23 for dermoid cyst. 237, 237J, 238J, 239 for hypoglossal denervation atrophy, 244, 244J, 245, 246 for lingual thyroid. 234, 234J, 236 for ranula. 242J, 243 for squamous cell carcinoma. 247. 247J, 248J, 249. 250 Orbit cross-sectional imaging of, for Riedel's thyroiditis. 1 6 1 Cf of for choroidal melanoma. 2 1 9, 2 1 9J, 2 2 1 for lacrimal gland enlargement, 1 90J, 1 9 1 for orbital cellulitis, 1 85, 1 85J, 1 87-188. 1 87! for retinoblastoma, 223. 223J, 224, 227-228 for thyroid orbitopathy, 1 97-198, 1 97J, 1 99-20 1 , 200/. 202 MRl of for cavernous hemangioma, 2 1 1 , 2 1 1 J, 2 1 2, 2 1 3 for choroidal melanoma, 2 1 9, 2 1 91, 22 1 for fat suppression artifacts. 203, 2031, 204-205 for intraorbital meningioma, 2 1 4J, 2 1 5, 2 1 6-2 1 8, 2 17! for lacrimal gland enlargement. 1 89/. 1 90, 1 9 1 for orbital cellulitis, 1 87-188. 1 87! for orbital pseudotumor. 1 92J, 1 93. 1 94-1 96, 1 95! for thyroid orbitopathy. 1 99-201 . 200j; 202 tumors of. 2 1 1 -2 1 3 Orbital cellulitis, 1 85-1 88, 205 clinical findings 01', 186- 1 87 clinical presentation of, 1 85 differential diagnosis of, 1 86 epidemiology of, 186 imaging findings of, 1 87-188 management 01', 1 88 pathophysiology of. 1 86 radiologic findings of, 185 Orbital exenteration, for choroidal melanoma, 222 Orbital infections, 1 86 Orbital neoplasms. and radiotherapy. 209 Orbital pathology, and fat suppression artifacts of orbit. 205 Orbital pseudotumor, 192-196. 205 clinical findings of, 1 94 clinical presentation of. 1 92 differential diagnosis of. 1 93 epidemiology of, 1 93 imaging findings of. 1 94-196 management of. 1 96 pathophysiology of. 1 93 radiologic findings of. 1 93 Orbital tumors. 2 1 4-2 1 8 Orbitofrontal neoplasms. and radiotherapy. 209 Oropharynx. See Oral cavity Ossicular dislocation. and longitudinal fracture of temporal bone. 359

Ossifying fibroma. 1 5 . 1 7 Osteitis deformans, 366 Osteolysis. 366 Osteoma, 303-307 Osteoplastic approach, for frontal sinus osteoma, 306-307

Osteoplastic flap, for frontal sinus mucoceles, 3 1 2 Osteosarcoma, 69-72 Otic placode, and labyrinthine aplasia, 35 1 Otologic examination, for petrous apicitis, 373 Otorrhea, 358 Otosclerosis, 365-369 clinical findings of, 367 clinical presentation of, 365 differential diagnosis of. 366 epidemiology of, 366 imaging findings of, 367-368 management of, 368 pathophysiology of, 366-367 radiologic findings 01', 365 treatment 01', 424 p

Paget's disease, 1 7, 2 1 , 366 and intraorbital meningioma. 216 Palliative radiation therapy, for parapharyngeal space liposarcoma, 95 Papilledema, 1 94 Paragangliomas classifications 01', 84 and poststyloid parapharyngeal space. 83-84 Paranasal sinus ( PNS) Cf of for destructive maxillary sinus process, 328J, 329, 33 1 -332 for frontal sinus mucoceles, 308, 308J, 309J, 3 1 0-3 1 2, 3 1 1J, 3 1 3 for frontal sinus osteoma, 303. 303J, 305-306, 305! for inverted papilloma. 3 1 9/. 320. 321 for nasopalatine duct cyst, 301-302. 301! MRl of for destructive maxillary sinus process, 328J, 329, 330, 330J, 331-332

for frontal sinus mucoceles, 309J, 3 10 for inverted papilloma, 3 1 9J, 320, 321 M R signal voids within, 3 1 2r Parapharyngeal space MRl of for glomus vagal, 82J, 83. 841, 85 for schwannoma. 86, 86/. 87, 87J, 88 Parapharyngeal space liposarcoma, 92-95 clinical findings of, 94 clinical presentation of, 92 differential diagnosis of, 93 epidemiology 01', 93 imaging findings of. 94-95 management of, 95 pathophysiology of, 93-94 radiologic findings of, 92-93 Parathyroid MRI of. for parathyroid adenoma, 1 74. 1 741, Parathyroid adenoma, 1 74-178 clinical findings of, 1 75 clinical presentation of, 1 74 differential diagnosis of, 175 epidemiology of, 1 75 imaging findings of, 1 76-178 management of, 1 78 pathophysiology of, 1 75-176 radiologic findings of, 1 74

1 76-178, 1 76f

I INDEX Parathyroid adenomas, and vagus nerve schwannoma, 150 Parathyroid cysts, 1 77-178 Parathyroid hyperplasia, 1 77 Parotidectomy for adenoid cystic carcinoma, 288 for pleomorphic adenoma, 278 for Sjogren syndrome, 273 for Warthin's tumor. 281 Parotid glands, 255-258. See also Salivary glands CT of for adenoid cystic carcinoma. 286f, 287, 288 for benign Iymphoepithelial cysts, 263, 263f, 264f, 265 for sialolithiasis. 259. 259f, 260/; 261 . 262 for Sjogren syndrome, 270, 270f, 272-273. 274 and HIV infection, 263-265 MRl of for adenoid cystic carcinoma, 286f, 287, 288 for benign Iymphoepithelial cysts, 264f, 265 for mucoepidermoid carcinoma, 289f, 290, 291 for multiple bilateral oncocytomas, 282f, 283, 284 for normal postoperative findings, 267f, 268 for pleomorphic adenoma, 275f, 276. 276f, 277-278 for sialolithiasis, 260f, 261 , 262 for Sjogren syndrome, 272-273, 272/ sialography of for Sjogren syndrome, 272-273, 272/ and Warthin's tumor. 280. 281 Parotid resection, for normal postoperative findings, 268 Pars flaccida cholesteatoma, 381-387 clinical findings of. 384 clinical presentation of. 381 complications with, 387 differential diagnosis of, 382 imaging findings of, 385-386 management of. 386-387 pathophysiology of. 383 radiologic findings of, 382 recurrence rate of, 387 types of, 3831 Partial maxillectomy, for destructive maxillary sinus process, 332 Partial ossicular replacement prosthesis (PORP). 409 Pathologic process, and accessory parotid gland, 258 Pediatrics. See Children; Infants Percutaneous proton irradiation. for choroidal melanoma, 222 Perinatal period, and lymphangioma, 1 17 Perineuritis, 194 Periodontal cysts. 440-441 Petroclival meningioma classification of, 4 petrous apex type, 6 tentorial type, 3-7 clinical findings of, S clinical presentation of. 3 differential diagnosis of. 5, 7 epidemiology of, 4 management of. 6-7 pathophysiOlogy of. 4 radiologic findings of. 4 recurrence rate of. 7 Petrolls apicitis with Gradenigo's syndrome. 370--374 clinical findings of. 372-373

clinical presentation of. 370 differential diagnosis of, 371 epidemiology of, 371-372 imaging findings of, 373-374 management of. 374 pathophysiology of, 372 radiologic findings of. 371 Petrous ridge. dural tail, 4 Pharynx, MRI of. for posterior neck lipoma, 129f, 130 Phlegmons, 142 Photocoagulation. for retinoblastoma. 228 Plain film abnormal supraglottic soft tissue mass, 53 for anterior disk dislocation. 436 of cervical region. for retropharyngeal abscess, 1 37, 1 37f, 1 39-140, 1 42 for epiglottitis, 37 for frontal sinus osteoma. 305 for multinodular goiter. 1 67 of neck, for Riedel's thyroiditis, 161 for sialolithiasis of parotid gland. 261 for trigeminal nerve schwannoma. 10 Pleomorphic adenoma, 275-278 clinical presentation of, 275 differential diagnosis of, 276 epidemiology of. 276-277 imaging findings of, 277-278 management of, 278 pathophysiology of, 277 radiologic findings of, 276 recurrence rate of, 277-278 Pleomorphic liposarcomas, 93-94 Pleomorphic rhabdomyosarcoma, spindle cell tumor. 98 Polymorphic reticulosis, 327 Polyostotic fibrous dysplasia leontiasis ossea. 13- 1 7 clinical findings of, 15 clinical presentation of. 1 3 differential diagnosis of, 1 4 epidemiology of. 14-- 1 5 etiology of, 15 imaging findings of, 1 5-17 management of. 1 7 pathophysiology of, I S radiologic findings of. 14 recurrence rate of, 17 PORP, 409 Post-cricoid region. CT of, for retropharyngeal abscess. 1 37. 1 37f, 1 39-142 Posterior neck lipoma, 1 27-1 3 1 clinical findings of, 1 29-130 clinical presentation of, 1 27 differential diagnosis of. 1 27 epidemiology of. 128 imaging findings of. 1 30. 1 3 1 management of, 1 30 pathophysiology of, 1 29 radiologic findings of, 127 recurrence rate of, 130 surgical specimen of, 1 27f Posterior triangle. MRI of. for lymphangioma, 1 15. 1 15f, 1 16f, J 17 Posterolateral carcinomas, of supraglottic region. 63

I NDEXI

Posterolateral supraglottic tumors, 64 Postmastoidectomy imaging evaluation, 405t Postoperative radiotherapy for adenoid cystic carcinoma, 288 for mucoepidermoid carcinoma, 291 for vagus nerve schwannoma. 1 5 1 Postoperative simple mastoidectomy, 404-407 Poststyloid parapharyngeal space. MRI of, for schwannoma. 86, 86f, 87, 87f, 88 Posttraumatic deformity, of larynx, 46-49 Prednisone, for Bell's palsy, 4L6 Prelabyrinthine approach, for petrous apicitis, 374 Preoperative embolization for carotid body tumor. 1 45, 1 46 for gLomus vagal, 85 for JuveniLe nasopharyngeal angiofibroma (JNA), 81 Preoperative staging, for esthesioneurobLastoma, 336 Primary tracheal carcinoma, 1 79-1 8 1 clinical findings of. L 8 L clinical presentation of, 1 79 differential diagnosis of, 1 79 epidemiology of. 1 80 imaging findings of, 181 pathophysiology of, 1 8 1 radiologic findings of, 1 79 Primordial cyst, 440 Prosthesis, for anterior disk dislocation, 435 Proton beam therapy. for clival chordoma, 26 Pseudolymphoma, 327 Pseudomonas, and malignant otitis externa (MOE), 377 Pseudomonas aeruginosa. and malignant otitis externa (MOE), 379 Pterygopalatine fossa CT of for Juvenile nasopharyngeal angiofibroma (JNA), 78f, 79 MRl of for Juvenile nasopharyngeal angiofibroma (JNA), 78f, 79 Purulent thrombophlebitis, and internal jugular vein thrombosis, 125 Pyriform sinus carcinoma, 66-68 clinical presentation of, 66 differential diagnosis of. 67 epidemiology of, 67 imaging findings of. 68 laryngeal cancer, 68 management of, 68 pathophysiology 0[, 67-68 radiologic findings of. 67 supraglollic lesions, 67 vs.

vs.

Q

Quervain's thyroiditis. 1 58 R

Radiation-induced optic neuropathy. 207-210 clinical Ilndings of, 209 clinical presentation of. 207 differential diagnosis of, 208 epidemiology of, 208 gender predominance of, 208 imaging findings of. 209-210

management of, 210 pathophysiology of. 208-209 radiologic findings of, 208 Radiation necrosis of optic nerve, 208-209 for radiation-induced optic neuropathy, 210 Radiation therapy for anaplastic thyroid carcinoma. 1 72 for carotid body tumor. 145 for dival chordoma. 26 for destructive maxillary sinus process, 332 for csthesioneuroblastoma, 336 for glomus tympanicum, 402 for glomus vagal, 85 for internal jugular vein thrombosis, 126 for intraorbital meningioma, 218 for inverted papilloma, 322 for Juvenile nasopharyngeal angiofibroma (JNA), 81 for low grade chondrosarcoma. 21 for multiple bilateral oncocytomas, 284 for nasal lymphoma, 326 for nasopharyngeal rhabdomyosarcoma, 98, 99 for nasopharynx non hodgkins lymphoma, 91 for necrotic lymph node, 1 56 for neurofibromatosis type [1, 399 for orbital pseudolUmor, 1 96 for parapharyngeal space liposarcoma, 95 for parathyroid carcinoma, 1 78 for pyriform sinus carcinoma, 68 for skull base metastatic disease, 31 and squamous cell carcinoma. 61 for squamous cell carcinoma, 103, 1 04, 250 for supraglottic carcinoma. 64-65 for tentorial type petroclival meningioma, 6 for thyroid orbitopathy, 201 Radical mastoidectomy, 406 Radical neck dissection (RND) for multiple bilateral oncocytomas, 284 for necrotic lymph node, 1 53f, 1 54, 155 Radical surgery, for parathyroid carcinoma. 1 78 Radicular cyst. 437-432 age predominance of, 440-441 clinical findings of. 441 clinical presentation of, 437 differential diagnosis of. 437-438 epidemiology of. 440-441 imaging findings of, 442 management of. 442 pathophysiology of, 441 radiologic findings of, 437 Radiographic differential diagnosis, for second branchial cleft cyst, 1 14 Radiographic image, for otosclerosis. 368 Radiographs of epiglollis aryepiglollic folds, 35f, 36/ for frontal sinus osteoma. 306 of mandible, for radicular cyst. 437. 437/ for periodontal cysts, 441 . 442 Radioiodine, for multinodular goiter, 1 68 Radiolabelled iodine (1- 1 3 1 ) study, for lingual thyroid. 234. 234f, 236 Radiological imaging, for supraglottic carcinomas of larynx, 64

(INDEX Radiosurgery for neurofibromatosis type I I, 398 for vestibular schwannoma. 393 Ramsay-Hunt syndrome, and Bell's palsy. 4 1 5 Ranula, 24 1 -243 clinical findings of, 243 clinical presentation of. 24 1 and dermoid cyst. 239 differential diagnosis of, 241 imaging findings of, 243 management 0[, 243 pathophysiology 0[, 243 radiologic findings of, 241 Reconstruction, for facial nerve schwannoma. 42 1 Recurrent parotitis, 271 Renal cell carcinoma, 31 Residual cysts, 439 Respiratory distress, and benign symmetric lipomatosis. 1 36 Retinal astrocytoma, 224 Retinoblastoma, 223-228 clinical findings of, 226-227 clinical presentation of, 223 differential diagnosis of. 223 epidem iology of. 225 groups of. 225 imaging findings of, 227-228 management of. 228 pathophysiology of, 225-226 radiologic findings of, 223 recurrence rate of. 228 stages 0[, 226-227 survival rate of. 228 Retrofenestral otosclerosis, 366, 368 Retropharyngeal abscess. 1 37-142 clinical findings of, 1 39 clinical presentation of, 1 37 differential diagnosis of, 1 37 epidemiology of. 1 38-139 imaging findings of, 1 39-142 management of, 142 pathophysiology of, 1 39 radiologic findings of, 1 37 Retropharyngeal infection. 1 39 Retropharyngeal lymphadenopathy, and nasopharyngeal rhabdomyosarcoma. 99 Retropharyngeal nodes, 1 03 Retropharyngeal space, 1 38 Rhabdomyosarcoma, 96- 100 Rhinogenic granulomatosis. 325 Rhinorrhea, 358 Riedel's struma, 1 59. See also Riedel's thyroiditis Riedel's thyroiditis, 1 57-162, 1 7 1 clinical findings of, 1 60- 1 6 1 clinical presentation of. 1 5 7 differential diagnosis of, 1 58 epidemiology of. 1 59 imaging findings of, 1 6 1 management of, 1 6 1 -162 pathophysiology of. 159- 1 60 radiologic findings 0[. 1 58 RosenmUller's fossae, 89

Round cell liposarcomas. 93-94 Rouviere, and nomenclature o[ cervical nodes, 1 54. 1541 S

Salbutamol. for benign symmetric lipomatosis. 1 35 Salivary glands CT of for accessory parotid gland. 257f, 258 for sialolithiasis, 259. 259f. 260f. 261, 262 M R l of for accessory parotid gland. 255, 255f. 256f. 257. 258 for sialolithiasis, 260f, 26 1 , 262 for Warthin's tumor, 279, 279f. 280-281 Salivary gland scintigraphy, for Sjogren syndrome, 273 Salivary gland tumors, 275-278 Sarcoid, 1 90 Sarcoidosis, 3 1 7 Sarcoid Sjogren's syndrome. 1 90-1 9 1 Schirmer's test. for Bell's palsy, 4 1 5 Schwann cells, 148 Schwan noma definition of. 9 and poststyloid parapharyngeal space, 83-84. 85 in poststyloid parapharyngeal space. 86-88 clinical findings of. 88 clinical presentation of. 86 differential diagnosis of. 86 epidemiology of, 87 vs. glomus tumor, 88 imaging findings of. 88 management of, 88 pathophysiOlogy of. 87 radiologic findings of. 86 of vagus nerve, 1 47- 1 5 1 Scintigraphic studies for malignant otitis externa ( MOE), 378 for multinodular goiter. 1 66-167 for otosclerosis, 368 for parathyroid adenoma. 1 78 for Riedel's thyroiditis. 1 6 1 [or Sjogren syndrome. 272-273 Sclerosing endophthalmitis, 225 Secondary cholesteatomas, of external auditory canal, 346 Secondary laryngeal tumors. 70 Second branchial cleft cyst. 1 1 1 -1 1 4 clinical findings 0[, 1 1 3-1 1 4 clinical presentation of. I I I differential diagnosis of, 1 1 2 epidemiology of, 1 1 2 imaging findings of, 1 1 1f, 1 14 management of. 1 1 4 pathophysiology of. 1 1 2- 1 J 3 radiologic findings of, 1 1 1- 1 1 2 Sellar neoplasms, and radiotherapy. 209 Sensorineural hearing loss (SNHL). 367, 390 and displaced stapedial prosthesis. 425 Serolls otitis media, 1 04 Shock wave lithotripsy, for sialolithiasis of parotid gland, 262 Sialadenitis. and Sjogren syndrome. 274 Sialography. of parotid glands for sialolithiasis, 261 for Sjogren syndrome. 272-273. 272[

I

I N DEX Sialolithiasis, of left parotid gland, clinical findings of,

261

259-262

M R l of

27[, 28 22-23, 22[, 25, 26 [or low grade chondrosarcoma, 1 8, 1 8f, 20, 20f for meningiomas, 3[, 4, 5, 6f for trigeminal nerve schwannoma, 8f, 9, 1 0-1 1 , 1 1f Skull base chondrosarcoma. 1 8-21 Skull base choriocarcinoma metastatic, 27-3 1 for choriocarcinoma metastatic,

259 differential diagnosis of, 259 epidemiology of, 261 imaging findi ngs of, 261 management of, 261-262 pathophysiology of, 261 radiologic findings of, 259 clinical presentation of,

for dival chordoma,

SPECT imaging

Sialoscintigraphy

284, 285 Sicca syndrome, and Sjogren syndrome, 274 Silastic baffle, 343 for multiple bilateral oncocytomas,

Simple excision. See also Surgical excision

278 Simple mastoidectomy, 404-407 Simple ranula, 241-243

for dermoid cyst,

307

1 30

26

98

vs.

metastasis to larynx,

71

and mucoepidermoid carcinoma,

295, 295[, 297-298

296[, 297-298

for destructive maxillary sinus process,

331-332

328j; 329, 330, 330j;

333, 333[, 335-336, 335f 309[, 310 for fungal sinusitis, 3 1 6[, 317 for inverted papilloma, 3 1 9[, 320, 321 Sinonasal carcinomas, 329 Sinonasal neoplasms, and radiotherapy, 209 Sinus m ucoceles, 308-31 3 Sinus of Morgagn i, 103 Sinus osteoma, 303-307 Sipple's syndrome, and parathyroid hyperplasia, 1 78 Sistrunk procedure, for thyroglossal dust cyst, 1 09- 1 1 0 Sjogren's syndrome, 190, 270-274 clinical findings of, 271-272 clinical presentation of, 270 differential diagnosis of, 270 epidemiology of, 271 imaging findings of, 272-273 management of, 273 pathophysiology of, 271 radiologic findings of, 270 for esthesioneuroblastoma,

for frontal sin us mucoceles,

for choriocarcinoma metastatic.

24-25, 25f

for low grade chondrosarcoma,

5, 7

291

Staging s urgery, for squamous cell carcinoma, Stapedectomy, for otosclerosis,

30, 31 20, 2 1

13j; 1 4, 15-17, 1 6/ for trigeminal nerve schwannoma. 10 for polyostotic fibrous dysplasia,

1 04

Stapedial prosthesis,

423-427

368

Stapedial reflex, for Bell's palsy,

415

Stapedial reflex test. for facial nerve schwannoma,

343

Staphylococcus, and adult epiglottitis,

Skull base

for clival chordoma,

435

Staging systems, for anaplastic thyroid carcinoma,

Stapes prosthesis,

Skip enhancing lesions, I I CT of

101-104 clinical findings of, 102-103 clinical presentation of, 101 differential diagnosis of, 101 epidemiology of. 1 02 imaging findings of, I 03-1 04 management of, 104 pathophysiology of, 102 radiologic findings of, 1 0 1 of tongue, 247-251 clinical findings of, 249 clinical presentation of, 247 differential diagnosis of, 247 epidemiology of, 249 imaging findings of. 250 management of, 250 pathophysiology of. 249 radiologic findings of, 247 of vocal cord, 58-61 clinical findings of, 60 clinical presentation of, 58 differential diagnosis of, 59 epidemiology of, 59-60 imaging findings of, 60-61 management of, 61 radiologic findings of, 59 Stahle's cyst. 440

390-391

of nasopharynx,

328/; 329, 331-332 334-336, 335f for frontal sinus mucoceles, 308, 308[, 309[, 3 1 0-3 J2, 311[, 313 for frontal sinus osteoma, 303, 303[, 305-306, 305f for fungal sinusitis, 3 1 4-31 5, 3 1 4f-3 1 5[ for inverted papilloma, 3 1 9[, 320, 321 for nasal lymphoma, 324, 3241; 326, 326f for nasopalatine duct cyst, 299[, 300, 301-302, 30lf

for meni ngiomas,

Speech discrimination test, and CPA syndrome, Sphenoid sinus, mucoceles of,

Squamous cell carcinoma

for esthesioneuroblastoma,

for dermoid cyst.

1 78

Spli nts, for anterior disk dislocation,

for destructive maxillary sinus process,

M R l of

374

Spindle cell tumor, types of,

Sinonasal CT of

for petrous apicitis,

Spindle cell l i pomas,

for pleomorphic adenoma,

Sinolith, and frontal sinus osteoma,

for parathyroid adenoma,

Stensen's duct and accessory parotid gland,

36, 37

257, 258 259

and sialolithiasis of parotid gland, Stereotactic radiosurgery

21 11, 399

for low grade chondrosarcoma, for neurofibromatosis type

for petroclival meningioma, tentorial type,

6-7

1 72 419

IINDEX Steroids for inflammatory labyrinthitis, 427 for orbital pseudotumor. 1 96 for radiation-induced optic neuropathy. 2 1 0 for Riedel's thyroidit is. 1 62 for Sjogren syndrome. 273 for thyroid orbitopat hy. 201 Streptococcus. and adult epiglottitis. 36, 37 Struma thyroiditis. 1 59. See a/so Riedel's thyroiditis Stylohyoid ligament calcification. and sialolithiasis of parotid gland. 262 Subglottic edema, 36 Sublingual dermoids. 239 Submandibulectomy. for sialolithiasis of parotid gland, 262 Superficial parotidectomy for pleomorphic adenoma, 278 for Warthin's tumor. 281 Supraglottic ai rway. MRI of. for supraglottic carcinoma, 62f 63 Supraglottic carcinoma of larynx, 62-65 clinical findings of. 63-64 clinical presentation of. 62 differe ntial diagnosis of. 63 epidemiology of, 63 imaging findings of. 64 management of. 64-65 pathophysiology of. 63 radiologic findings of. 63 types of. 63 Supraglottic larynx. M R I of. for vallecular cyst. 50f 5 1 . 52 . 52f Supraglottic tumors. 63. 64 Supraglottitis. 35-37 Supraglottoplasty. and vallecular cysts. 52 Suptraglottic larynx extension. and squamous cell carcinoma. 251 Surgery for aberrant internal carotid artery. 343 for Bell's palsy. 4 1 6 for bony atresia o f external auditory canal. 347 for carotid body tumor. 145 for dermoid cyst. 298 for displaced stapedial prosthesis. 427 for esthesioneuroblastoma, 336 for frontal sinus osteoma. 306 for glomus tympanicum. 402 for glomus vagal. 85 for intraorbital meningioma. 2 1 8 for inverted papilloma. 322 for lingual thyroid. 236 for m ucoepidermoid carcinoma. 291 for multinodular goiter. 1 68 for nasopalatine duct cyst. 302 for otosclerosis, 368 for pars flaccid a cholesteatoma. 386 for pleomorphic adenoma. 278 for retropharyngeal abscess. 1 42 for Riedel's thyroidit is. 1 6 1 - 1 62 for schwan noma in poststyloid parapharyngeal space. 88 for squamous cell carcinoma. 250 for temporal bone fractures. 3591 for thyroid orbitopathy. 20 l -202 Surgical debridement for fungal sinusit is. 3 1 7 for malignant otitis externa ( MOE). 379

1 468

for orbital cellulitis. 1 88 for radicular cyst. 442 Surgical decompression. for orbital pseudot umor. 1 96 Surgical drainage. for petrous apicitis. 374 Surgical excision for ameloblastoma of mandible. 450 for cavernous hemangioma. 2 1 3 for central giant cell granuloma. 446 for chondroid tumor of larynx. 57 for lymphangioma. 1 1 7 for parapharyngeal space liposarcoma. 95 for pleomorphic adenoma. 278 for posterior neck lipoma. 1 30 for second branchial cleft cyst. 1 1 4 for Tornwaldt cyst, 77 for trigeminal nerve schwannoma, 1 2 Surgical repositioning. for anterior disk dislocation. 435 Surgical resection for accessory parotid gland. 258 for amelobla ·toma of mandible. 450 for anaplastic thyroid carcinoma. 1 72 for central giant cell granuloma. 446 for facial nerve schwannoma. 421 for Juvenile nasopharyngeal angiofibroma (JNA). 81 for metastatic disease. of skull base. 3 1 for multiple bilateral oncocytomas. 284 for parathyroid adenoma. 1 78 for petroclival meningioma. tentorial type. 6-7 for polyostotic fibrous dysplasia. 1 7 for pyriform sinus carcinoma. 68 for ranula. 243 and squamous cell carcinoma, 61 for thyroglossal dust cyst. 1 09-1 1 0 for vagus nerve schwannoma, 1 5 1 Syphilis and otosclerosis. 366 and petrous apicitis. 372 Systemic chemotherapy. for retinoblastoma. 228 Systemic vasculopathies. and radiation-induced optic neuropathy. 208 T

Tamoxifen. for fibrogenic disorders, 1 62 T-cell markers. and nasal lymphoma. 327 Tear test. for facial nerve schwannoma. 4 1 9 Technetium bone scans. for petrous apicitis, 374 Technetium 99m-pertechnetate for multiple bilateral oncocytomas. 284 and Warthin's tumor. 281 Technetium sestamibi studies. for parathyroid adenomas. 1 78 Temporal bone Cf of for aberrant internal carotid artery. 339. 339f 340f 342-343 for Bell's palsy. 4 1 2. 4 1 2f 4 l 4f, 4 1 5-4 1 6 for bony atresia o f external auditory canal. 344. 344f, 346-347. 346f for displaced stapedial prosthesis. 423. 423f, 424. 425-426 for facial nerve schwan noma. 4 1 9-42 1 . 420f 422 for glomus tympanicum. 400, 400f, 40 If, 402 for incomplete partition of cochlea. 349, 349f, 352f 353-354 for labyrinthitis ossificans/obliterans and acoustic tumor. 31i I . 361f 362f 363

INDEXI for longitudinal fracture, 355, 355[, 356[, 357, 358-359 for malignant otitis externa ( MOE), 37St, 376, 376t, 378-379 for normal postoperative simple mastoidectomy, 404, 404[, 405[, 406-407, 406/ for otosclerosis, 365, 365[, 367-368, 367/ for pars flaccida cholesteatoma, 381[, 382, 384j; 385-386, 385[, 387 for petrous apicitis, 370j; 37 1 , 373-374 longitudinal fracture of, 355-359 M R l of for facial nerve schwannoma, 4 1 7, 4 1 7[, 4 I 9--42 1 , 420[, 422 for labyrinthitis ossificans/obliterans and acoustic tumor, 36 1 , 361f, 363 for malignant otitis externa ( MOE), 375f, 376, 378-379 for neurofibromatosis type 1 1 , 395, 3951; 397-398, 397f for petrous apicitis, 370[, 37 1 , 373-374 for vestibular schwannoma, 388, 388[, 391-393 Temporal bone fractures, 3591 Temporomandibular joint (TMJ), M R I of, for anterior disk dislocation, 43 1 , 431f, 432f, 433f, 434--435, 434f Tenon's capsule, 1 94 Tentorium, 4 11lOrnwaldt cyst, 75-77 lllree dimensional reconstruction, for destructive maxillary sinus process, 332 Thrombosis, and internal jugular vein thrombosis, 1 26 Thyroglossal duct, and lingual thyroid, 236 Thyroglossal duct cyst, 4 1 , 52, 107- 1 1 0 clinical findings of, 1 08 clinical presentation of, 1 07 differential diagnosis of, 1 07 imaging findings of, 108-109 management of, 109-1 1 0 pathophysiology of, 1 08 radiologic findings of, 107 recurrence rate of, 1 1 0 Thyroid CT of, for anaplastic thyroid carcinoma, 1 69, 1 69f, 1 70, 1 72 and goiters, 1 68 Thyroid carcinoma, 3 1 Thyroid cartilage, 57 MRI of, for metastasis, 69f, 70 Thyroiditis, 1 57-162 lllyroid lymphoma, 1 58-159 Thyroid ophthalmopathy, 1 99 Thyroid orbitopathy, 1 97-202 clinical findings of, 1 99 clinical presentation of, 1 97 differential diagnosis of, 1 98 epidemiology of, I 98 imaging findings of, 1 99-20 1 management of, 20 1 -202 pathophysiology of, 1 99 radiologic findings of, 1 97-198 recurrence rate of, 20 1 Thyroid ultrasound, for multinodular goiter, 1 67 Tick bite, and Bell's palsy, 4 1 5 TMJ. See Temporomandibular joint TMJ derangement, 43 1 --436 Tornwaldt, G.L., 76 Tornwaldt cyst, 75-77 clinical findings of, 77

clinical presentation of, 75 differential diagnosis of, 76 epidemiology of, 76 imaging findings of, 77 management of, 77 pathophysiology of, 76-77 radiologic findings of, 76 TORP, 408--4 1 0 Total maxillectomy, for destructive maxillary sinus process, 332 Total ossicular replacement prosthesis (TORP), 408--41 0 Total parotidectomy for pleomorphic adenoma, 278 for Warthin 's tumor, 281 Toxocara canis, 225 Trachea for primary tracheal carcinoma CT of, 1 79, 1 79f, 1 80f, 1 8 1 M R I of, 1 80[, 1 8 1 Tram track, and intraorbital meningioma, 2 1 6 Transphenoidal s urgery, for clival chordoma, 26 Trephination resection, for frontal sinus osteoma, 306 Tridimensional Fourrier transform, for vestibular schwannoma, 391 Trigeminal nerve schwan noma, 8-12 classifications of, 9-1 0 clinical findings of, 1 0 clinical presentation of, 8 differential diagnosis of, 9, 1 1 epidemiology of, 9 imaging findi ngs of, 1 0- 1 1 management of, 1 2 pathophysiology of, 9-1 0 radiologic findings of, 9 Trilateral retinoblastoma, 226 True vocal cords, M R I of, for supraglottic carcinoma, 62f, 63 Tuberculosis, and petrous apicitis, 372 Tuberous sclerosis, and neurofibromatosis type n, 398 Tumor, node, metastasis (TN M ) staging Biller modification of, 3341 for destructive maxillary sinus process, 330, 33 1 1 for esthesioneuroblastoma, 3341 and nasopharyngeal rhabdomyosarcoma, 98-99 for Ohngren's line, 330 Tumor, node, metastasis (TN M ) staging glottic, 601 u

UICe, and nomenclature of cervical nodes, 1 54, 1 541 Ultrasound anechoic on, 194 for internal jugular vein thrombosis, 1 24 for intraorbital meningioma, 2 1 7 for lymphangioma, 1 1 7 for multinodular goiter, 167 for multiple bilateral oncocytomas, 284 for ranula, 243 for retinoblastoma, 227 for Riedel's thyroiditis, ) 6) for second branchial cleft cyst, I 1 4 for sialolithiasis o f parotid gland, 2 6 1 for Sjogren syndrome, 272-273 for thyroid orbitopalhy, 1 99-20 I for vagus nerve schwannoma. 1 50 for Warthin's tumor, 281

IINDEX Ultrasound guided ethanol ablation, of hyperfunctioning thyroid nodules, 1 68 Unilateral atresia, of external auditory canal, 344-347 Uveal melanoma, 2 1 9-222 V

Vagal paraganglioma, 84-85 Vagus nerve schwannoma, 1 47- 1 5 1 clinical findings of, 149 clinical presentation of, 1 47 differential diagnosis of. 1 48 epidemiology of, 148 imaging findings of, 1 49- 1 5 1 management of. 1 5 1 pathophysiology of, 148- 1 49 radiologic findings of, 148 Valleculae, MRI of, for carotid body tumor, 143, 1 43f, 1 44f, 145, 1 46 Vallecular cyst, 50--5 3 clinical findings of, 5 1 clinical presentation of, 50 differential diagnosis of, 5 1 epidem iology of, 5 ] imaging findings of. 5 1 -52 management of, 52 pathophysiology of. 5 1 radiologic findings of, 50--5 1 Varix, of ophthalmic veins, and cavernous hemangioma, 2 1 3 Vascular blush. o n angiography. for esthesioneuroblastoma, 334 Verocay bodies, and vestibular schwannoma, 389-390 Vertigo, and displaced stapedial prosthesis, 425 Vestibular schwannoma, 7. 388-393 age predominance of, 389 clinical findings of. 390--39 1 clinical presentation of, 388 differential diagnosis of, 389 epidemiology of, 389 gender predominance of, 389 imaging findings of. 39 1 -393 management of, 393 pathophysiology of. 389-390 radiologic findings of, 389 Viral parotitis, and Sjogren syndrome, 274 Visual pathways, M R I of, for radiation-induced optic neuropathy, 207f, 208, 209-2 1 0, 209[

Vocal cord endoscopy of. for squamous cell carcinoma, 58[ fixation of, 6 1 MRl of for pyriform sinus carcinoma, 66f, 67 for squamous cell carcinoma, 58f, 59, 60--6 1 for supraglottic carcinoma, 62f, 63 paralysis of, 42-45 clinical presentation of, 42 differential diagnosis of. 43 imaging findings of, 44 left side vs. right side, 44, 45 pathophysiology of, 44 radiologic findings of, 42-43 Voice change, 6 1 Voice conservation surgery. for supraglottic carcinoma. 65 Voice fatigue, 49 Von Hippel-Lindau, and neurofibromatosis type 11, 398 W

Waldeyer's ring, 90. 1 39 Warthin's tumor, 279-28 1 age discrimination of. 280 age predominance of, 280 benign Iymphoepithelial cysts and. 265 clinical findings of, 280 clinical presentation of, 279 differential diagnosis of, 280 epidemiology of, 280 imaging findings of, 280--2 81 management of, 281 pathophysiology of, 280 radiologic findings of, 279-280 Wegener's granulomatosis, 3 1 7, 325. 327 Wegener's syndrome. 1 90 Well-differentiated liposarcomas, 93-94 Werner's modified staging system, for thyroid orbitopathy, 1 991 Wharton's duct, and sialolithiasis of parotid gland, 261 , 262 White pupillary reflex, 226, 227 Winterstein rosettes, 226 X

Xerophthalmia. and Sjogren syndrome, 274 Xerostomia, and Sjogren syndrome, 274