Spirituality, leadership, work and organizations

Journal of Managerial Psychology

ISSN 0268-3946 Volume 17 Number 3 2002

Spirituality, leadership, work and organizations Guest Editor Nada Korac-Kakabadse Paper format Journal of Managerial Psychology includes eight issues in traditional paper format. The contents of this issue are detailed below.

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Access to Journal of Managerial Psychology online ___ 146 Editorial boards ___________________________________ 147 Abstracts and keywords ___________________________ 148 Guest editorial ____________________________________ 150 The ‘‘what’’, ‘‘why’’ and ‘‘how’’ of spirituality in the workplace Sukumarakurup Krishnakumar and Christopher P. Neck _______________

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Spirituality and leadership praxis Nada Korac-Kakabadse, Alexander Kouzmin and Andrew Kakabadse _____

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Coming out of the closet: negotiating spiritual expression in the workplace Marjolein Lips-Wiersma and Colleen Mills ___________________________

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Linking emotional intelligence, spirituality and workplace performance: definitions, models and ideas for research Len Tischler, Jerry Biberman and Robert McKeage ____________________

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‘‘The Rule of Benedict’’ and its relevance to the world of work Dermot Tredget ________________________________________________

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A spiritual perspective on learning in the workplace Sue Howard ___________________________________________________

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CONTENTS

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EDITORIAL ADVISORY BOARD

EDITORIAL REVIEW BOARD

Professor Neil Anderson Goldsmiths College, University of London, UK

Chair Dr Yehuda Baruch UEA, UK

Professor Chris Argyris Harvard Graduate School of Business Administration, USA Professor Warren Bennis University of Southern California, USA Professor Frank Bournois Universite´ Panthe´on-Assas Paris II, France Dr Yue Wah Chay Singapore Management University, Singapore Professor Cary Cooper University of Manchester Institute of Science and Technology, UK Professor Hugh Gunz University of Toronto, Canada

Dr John Arnold Loughborough University, UK Dr Dean Bartlett University of North London, UK Dr Gayle Baugh University of West Florida, USA

Dr Patricia Hind Ashridge Management College, UK Professor Henry S.R. Kao University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong Dr Robert Kovach and Brett Seamons RHR International Co., London, UK

Professor Geert Hofstede Institute for Research on Intercultural Co-operation, The Netherlands

Dr Peter Liu The Psychological Corporation, Toronto

Professor Andrew Kakabadse Cranfield School of Management, UK Founding Editor of Journal of Managerial Psychology Dr Bruce Kirkcaldy International Centre for the Study of Occupational and Mental Health, Du¨sseldorf, Germany Professor Harold J. Leavitt Stanford University, USA Professor Manuel London State University of New York, Stony Brook, USA Professor Dr Wolfgang Mayrhofer Vienna University of Economics and Business Administration, Austria Professor John B. Miner Consultant and writer, Eugene, Oregon, USA Professor Zhong-Ming Wang Hangzhou University, China

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Dr Patrick Foley Victoria University, Australia

Dr Frank Heller Tavistock Institute, UK

Professor Paul Iles Liverpool Business School, UK

Editorial boards

Dr Robert Kovach RHR International Co., London, UK Dr Zehava Rosenblatt University of Haifa, Israel Dr Raymond Saner and Dr Lichia Yiu Centre for Socio-Economic Development, Geneva, Switzerland Dr Rene´ Schalk Tilburg University, The Netherlands Brett Seamons RHR International Co., London, UK Dr Sherry E. Sullivan Bowling Green State University, USA Professor Gladys L. Symons Ecole Nationale d’Administration Publique, Universite´ de Quebec, Canada Dr Daniel Vloeberghs University of Antwerp, Belgium Dr Jacob (Yaacov) Weisberg Bar-Ilan University, Israel Professor Jack Wood Monash University, Australia

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Journal of Managerial Psychology, Vol. 17 No. 3, 2002, Abstracts and keywords. # MCB UP Limited, 0268-3946

The ‘‘what’’, ‘‘why’’ and ‘‘how’’ of spirituality in the workplace Sukumarakurup Krishnakumar and Christopher P. Neck Keywords Organizational philosophy, Corporate culture While the attention to workplace spirituality is growing, there is debate as to what exactly this term ‘‘spirituality’’ means. There seems to be multiple views of workplace spirituality. It could be argued that there are different definitions for the meaning of ‘‘spirituality’’ due to the very strong personal nature of the word itself. We argue that this multiple view of spirituality is a positive thing for organizations if managers attempt to understand differing spiritual views and also encourage all views within an organization. In this paper, we summarize the different perspectives of spirituality, discuss the benefits of encouraging spirituality within organizations, and examine different perspectives of implementing a spirituality-based culture within firms.

Spirituality and leadership praxis Nada Korac-Kakabadse, Alexander Kouzmin and Andrew Kakabadse Keywords Leadership, Organizational philosophy, Corporate culture Spirituality is a long-neglected dimension in the leadership issue as it is in the psychological contract implicit in work organizations. Traditionally rooted in religion, there are wider spiritualities that the organizational actor can draw upon and a burgeoning literature on personal meaning and transformative leadership. This paper reviews leadership praxis from the frames of wider spiritualities, links spirituality search with contemporary managerialist practices and surveys the breadth of, and commonalities within, varied philosophic positions with regard to the spiritual search.

Coming out of the closet: negotiating spiritual expression in the workplace Marjolein Lips-Wiersma and Colleen Mills Keywords Interpersonal communications, Group dynamics, Modelling, Personal needs, Decision making Current spirit at work literature often assumes spirituality needs to be introduced to the workplace. This paper offers an additional perspective, arguing that spirituality is already present, as many individuals have spiritual beliefs but struggle to articulate or enact these beliefs at work. Exploratory narrative research revealed frequent references to a lack of safety in expressing spirituality at work. The question is why and how do individuals silence their spiritual expression. This paper explores this question and presents a model that captures the ongoing experiential nature of spirituality and proposes that decisions about spiritual expression in the workplace are complex meshes of stimulus, decision-making and action cycles (SDAs) that are embedded in the individual’s sensemaking, interpersonal relationships and group dynamics. Findings are explained through different theoretical lenses such as diversity management, social identity theory, social penetration theory and affective sense making theory. Linking emotional intelligence, spirituality and workplace performance: definitions, models and ideas for research Len Tischler, Jerry Biberman and Robert McKeage Keywords Performance, Interpersonal communications, Theory, Modelling, Research, Ethics Despite a reluctance on the part of organizational researchers to deal with the subjects of emotions or spirituality, recent researchers have begun to argue for the importance of exploring their relationship to workplace performance. Recent research, for example, has shown a positive relationship between emotional intelligence and workplace success. Similarly, it appears that spirituality is related to workplace performance or effectiveness. This paper explores the impacts of emotional intelligence and

spirituality on workplace effectiveness, presents s eve ral the oretical models examining possible linkages among these variables, and, finally, presents several ideas for future research deriving from the models. ‘‘The Rule of Benedict’’ and its relevance to the world of work Dermot Tredget Keywords Ethics, Work, Psychology The Rule of Benedict is over 1,500 years old. In spite of its antiquity, what relevance does it have to the modern world of work? When Benedict complied his rule he envisaged a spiritual community, cut off from the world, that would pray, work and be economically sustainable. He had little idea that this ‘‘little rule for beginners’’ would become one of the most important documents in Western civilisation. Neither did he realise that he was laying the foundations for one of the oldest ‘‘multi-national’’ organisations in existence today. This paper examines what has kept this spiritual ‘‘global community’’ alive and its relevance to the workplace.

A spiritual perspective on learning in the workplace Sue Howard

Abstracts and keywords

Keywords Workplace learning, Organizational philosophy, Ethics, Organizational performance The growing focus on learning as being key to organisational success has raised the level of debate amongst practitioners and academics alike as to just what learning is. Consideration of spiritual ideologies offers the opportunity to reflect upon such areas as: complexity and connectivity, the meaning and purpose of work, individual identity and sensemaking, community and collaborative behaviour, dialogue, moral leadership and wisdom. Our spiritual capacity provides a deep foundation from which to explore and question our ontological assumptions. This paper locates the position of spirituality in the learning debate; examines the relationship between who we are, our being, with what we do, our doing; and implies that organisational performance can be improved by attendance to the spiritual richness of humanity.

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Guest editorial Spirituality is one of the latest phenomena to enter the realm of management debate. In recent years, a considerable volume of mostly popular literature on spirituality and religion has become one of the fastest growing segments in adult publishing (Ferguson and Lee, 1997). In the USA, corporate chaplains represent a booming industry and careers related to spirituality and spiritual counselling in the workplace continue to gain in importance (Austin, 1995). Equally, in the academic literature there is a growing interest on spiritual leadership, and the management and the measurement of individual spirituality. There now exist more than 20 psychometric instruments related to spiritual and transpersonal psychology utilised for both personal development as well as research (MacDonald et al., 1999). Despite such an explosion of interest, certain questions still remain, what is the meaning of spirituality, how is spirituality different from religion, should religious expression be separate from spiritual expression in the workplace, is it appropriate to integrate spirituality into the management of organisations, what are the benefits of spirituality in the workplace and why is a spiritual renaissance occurring today? The concept of spirit has its roots in the Latin word spiritus, meaning breath and in contemporary time has been attributed with a variety of meanings and definitions. From the religiously defined meaning of the soul of a person, spirituality has adopted a moral and emotional identity to even being equated with emotional and intellectual energy. In terms of a general meaning, spirituality refers more to life energy and to the ‘‘non physical’’ or immaterial aspects of life which are deeper and go beyond particular forms of words or scriptures, material objects, places and times and often include emotions, character and identity, as well as vital qualities such as energy, enthusiasm, courage, determination, connectedness with self, others, universe and/or with God. Thus, for some, spirituality is one and the same with religion, whilst for others, spirituality takes on a different meaning, so much that even those who are opposed to religion in the workplace are advocates of adopting spirituality in the workplace (Mitroff and Denton, 1999). Yet, others hold that spirituality looks inward into the individual, generating an awareness of universal values and is concerned with the deeper more mysterious part of our being and identity whilst formal religion looks outward, using formal rites, scriptures and promoting an institutionalization of beliefs and attitudes (Brandt, 1996). Greek philosophers made a distinction between the spirit or the immortal soul, the mind (psyche) and the physical body. In its wider sense, and parallel to ancient Greeks’ perspective, spirituality relates to a feeling of being connected within one’s complete self, with others, the entire universe and/or with God. The underlying theme is that life is part of the fabric of the universe and requires a connectedness and harmony with the nature, the workplace and the home.

Mitroff and Denton’s (1999, p. 84) research concludes that ‘‘unless organisations harness the ‘whole person’ and the immense spiritual energy that is at the core of everything, they will not be able to produce world-class products and services’’. Powerful sentiments which for many are pertinent as so many individuals’ experience of corporations is one of a blind pursuit of shareholder value through costcutting, thus creating tensions between an ever greater reduction of the work force and a need to complete large volumes of work. Such tensions result in a deep mistrust of corporations, generating emotions such as fear, frustration, anger, isolation, alienation and feelings of being an expendable object in the pursuit of profit maximisation (Cohen, 1996). These emotions cannot be vanquished by fancy technology or clever marketing. In fact, such experiences in turn create a hunger for a deeper meaning of life, a need for finding an anchor and a desire for greater integration of the spiritual and work identities (Thompson, 2000). Hence, developing one’s own spiritual side offers a source of strength both on the job and off. Equally, helping other employees develop theirs can make the workplace a stronger, safer and much better place to do business (Brandt, 1996, p. 87). Amongst the most commonly quoted spiritual values are love, harmony, unity, compassion, peace, truth, honesty, understanding, tolerance, namely values that are seen as missing in the workplace, and where the values that are perceived at present are greed, cynicism, arrogance, self-doubt and moral decline (Austin, 1995). Perhaps the reason for the growing need for spirituality in the workplace can be found in John Dewey’s (1976) echo of the ancient, conceptual embodiment of community. Dewey (1976) suggested that the primary outcome of organizational life is less the production of goods than the development of people. The Dewey interpretation is that organizations should be a powerful reflection of the beliefs, values, principles, ideas, feelings, efforts and conduct of the people bounded and connected by them. Tapping into this wellspring requires a personal journey, a spiritual quest that will enrich individuals as well as organizations and the wider community. With such reasoning, this special issue of the Journal of Managerial Psychology through selected papers explores the meaning of spirituality within leadership, work and organizations. Sukumarakurup Krishnakumar and Christopher Neck in their paper ‘‘The ‘what’, ‘why’ and ‘how’ of spirituality in the workplace’’ present different perspectives on meaning of spirituality in the workplace. In the ‘‘Spirituality and leadership praxis’’ paper, Nada KoracKakabadse, Andrew Kakabadse and Alexander Kouzmin explore the influence of spirituality on leadership praxis. Marjolein Lips-Wiersma and Colleen Mills, ‘‘Coming out of the closet: negotiating spiritual expression in the workplace’’, presents findings from their exploratory study into spiritual expression in the workplace. Len Tischler, Jerry Biberman and Robert McKeage in their ‘‘Linking emotional intelligence, spirituality and workplace performance: Definitions, models and ideas for research’’ paper propose an agenda for future research. Dermot Tredget in ‘‘‘The Rule of Benedict’ and its relevance to the world of work’’ examines the relevance of the rule of Benedict to the contemporary

Guest editorial

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workplace. Finally, Sue Howard in her paper, ‘‘A spiritual perspective on learning in the workplace’’ examines the spiritual position to learning in the workplace. Whether spirituality at work is a movement to make corporations a friendlier, more creative environment by entering into the employee’s spiritual side, or an attempt to harness the last untapped resource from employees, is still not well understood. In order to fully appreciate the current spiritual renaissance and assess its impact and consequences within the workplace, further contemplation is needed regarding the individual, their place in the organization and the purpose which organizations should fulfil in society. Nada Korac-Kakabadse Guest Editor References Austin, N.K. (1995), ‘‘Does spirituality at work work?’’, Working Woman, March, pp. 26-8. Brandt, E. (1996), ‘‘Corporate pioneers explore spirituality’’, HR Magazine, April, pp. 82-7. Cohen, G. (1996), ‘‘Towards a spirituality based on justice and ecology’’, Social Policy, Spring, pp. 6-18. Dewey, J. (1976), Society: Educational Theory, Standard Press, New Brunswick, NJ. Ferguson, T. and Lee, J. (1997), ‘‘Spiritual reality’’, Forbes, 27 January, pp. 70-76. MacDonald, D.A., Friedman, H.L. and Kuentzel, J.G. (1999), ‘‘A survey of measures of spiritual and transpersonal constructs: Part one – Research update’’, The Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, Vol. 31 No. 2, pp. 137-53. Mitroff, I.I. and Denton, E. (1999), ‘‘A study of spirituality in the workplace’’, Sloan Management Review, Summer, pp. 83-92. Thompson, C.M. (2000), The Congruent Life: Following the Inward Path to Fulfilling Work and Insider Leadership, Jossey-Bass, San Francisco, CA.

The research register for this journal is available at http://www.emeraldinsight.com/researchregisters

The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at http://www.emeraldinsight.com/0268-3946.htm

The ‘‘what’’, ‘‘why’’ and ‘‘how’’ of spirituality in the workplace Sukumarakurup Krishnakumar and Christopher P. Neck

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Department of Management, Pamplin College of Business, Virginia Tech., Blacksburg, Virginia, USA Keywords Organizational philosophy, Corporate culture Abstract While the attention to workplace spirituality is growing, there is debate as to what exactly this term ‘‘spirituality’’ means. There seems to be multiple views of workplace spirituality. It could be argued that there are different definitions for the meaning of ‘‘spirituality’’ due to the very strong personal nature of the word itself. We argue that this multiple view of spirituality is a positive thing for organizations if managers attempt to understand differing spiritual views and also encourage all views within an organization. In this paper, we summarize the different perspectives of spirituality, discuss the benefits of encouraging spirituality within organizations, and examine different perspectives of implementing a spirituality-based culture within firms. Without work, all life goes rotten – but when work is soulless, life stifles and dies (Albert Camus).

The recent spurt of articles in various popular and scholarly outlets (Manz et al., 2001; Gunther, 2001; Graber, 2001; Brandt, 1996; Thompson, 2000; McCarthy, 1996; Hein, 1999; Herman and Gioia, 1998; Ashmos and Duchon, 2000; Mitroff and Denton, 1999; Bryant, 1998) reflects the growing interest in the corporate world in ‘‘spirituality’’. The question that arises is ‘‘Why is there such an increased interest in workplace spirituality’’? One answer to this question could be that as society has advanced in terms of leisure time, technology and communication of ideas, people increasingly desire to experience spirituality not only in their personal lives, but also in their work where they spend a large amount of their time (Neck and Milliman, 1994; Ray, 1992; Maynard, 1992). Another answer to this question arguably could involve the benefits to an organization for encouraging spirituality in the workplace. In short, some evidence exists that suggests a link between workplace spirituality and enhanced individual creativity (Freshman, 1999), increased honesty and trust within the organization (Wagner-Marsh and Conely, 1999), enhanced sense of personal fulfillment of employees (Burack, 1999), and increased commitment to organizational goals (Delbecq, 1999; Leigh, 1997). It is interesting to note, that while the attention to workplace spirituality is indeed growing, there is debate as to what exactly this term ‘‘spirituality’’ means? In short, there seems to be multiple views of workplace spirituality. For example, one view defines spirituality as something originating from the inside of the individual. Another view sees spirituality as tied to one’s religious affiliation. Still another

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perspective argues that spirituality involves existentialist questions such as ‘‘What is the meaning of my work?’’ and ‘‘Why am I doing this work?’’ It could be argued that there are different definitions for the meaning of ‘‘spirituality’’ due to the very strong personal nature of the word. Indeed, Freshman (1999, p. 325) states that ‘‘[p]ossibly contributing to the pluralistic aspect of spirituality in the workplace is the emphasis on the uniquely personal aspect of spirituality’’. Consequently, we feel these multiple views of spirituality are natural and logical (given the diversity of the workforce) and the search for a definitive description of the term is not the best exercise. Rather a better exercise is to understand the ‘‘what’’ (the meaning) of these multiple views of spirituality in the workplace, the benefits (the ‘‘why’’) for an organization if managers encourage these differing views among organizational members, and the manner in which spirituality can be implemented/encouraged within firms (the ‘‘how’’). Accordingly, the purpose of this article is as follows. First, we will define and describe these different perspectives of spirituality in an accommodative manner. Next, we will examine the positive aspects (the benefits) of encouraging spirituality in organizations regardless of the perspective adopted by organizational members. Then we will compare and contrast different models of implementation of spirituality in the workplace. Finally, we will propose a comprehensive framework of organization spirituality and discuss the implications of this framework to both theory and practice. Definitions of spirituality A number of definitions and perspectives of spirituality appear within the literature. We will next examine some of the most popular viewpoints of spirituality including the intrinsic-origin view, the religious view, and the existentialist perspective. The intrinsic-origin view The intrinsic-origin view of spirituality is that which argues that spirituality is a concept or a principle that originates from the inside of an individual. Guillory’s (2000, p. 33) definition falls within this perspective as he defines spirituality as ‘‘our inner consciousness’’ and ‘‘that which is spiritual comes from within-beyond our programmed beliefs and values’’. One of the most observed characteristics about this perspective or class of definitions about spirituality is that most of the proponents argue that spirituality is something which is beyond the rules of religion (Guillory, 2000). In support, Graber (2001, p. 40) argues: Spirituality avoids the formal and ceremonial connotations of religion; it is nondenominational, non-hierarchical, and non-ecclesiastical. Spirituality implies an inner search for meaning or fulfillment that may be undertaken by anyone regardless of religion.

While this spirituality perspective predominately speaks about some power which originates from inside, it also involves a feeling of being connected with

one’s work and with others (e.g. Ashmos and Duchon, 2000; Neck and Milliman, 1994). For example, Mitroff and Denton (1999, p. 83) define spirituality as ‘‘[t]he basic feeling of being connected with one’s complete self, others and the entire universe’’. Turner’s (1999, p. 41) definition of spirituality can be classified within the intrinsic origin perspective as he views spirituality as ‘‘that which comes from within, beyond the survival instincts of the mind’’. Likewise, Guillory (2000, p. 33) provides a parallel view as he defines spirituality as ‘‘our inner consciousness’’. Religious views A definition of religion is given by Bruce (1996, p. 7): Religion consists of beliefs, actions, and institutions which assume the existence of supernatural entities with powers of action, or impersonal powers or processes possessed of moral purpose.

Hence, religious views of spirituality are those that are specific to a particular religion. For example, the Christians believe that spirituality is the ‘‘call for work.’’ As Naylor et al. (1996, p. 38) attest, ‘‘[t]o be sure, our work participation in the creativity of God is a great blessing, a divine summons, a vocation’’. The Hindus believe that their spirituality is in doing the work with utmost devotion. For the Hindus, one of the important principles is that the effort towards the goal is most important, and the results are supposed to be provided by god. This is embodied in one of the most important tenets, ‘‘Karmanyevadhikaarasthe’’ in their religious text ‘‘The Bhagavad Gita’’ (Menon, 1997). In the Buddhist’s view, hard work and devotion are the tools used to modify an individual’s life and also the institution as a whole, which ultimately results in total enrichment of life and work (Jacobson, 1983). In the Christian view, there is also another side to work, the ‘‘darker side’’ (Naylor et al., 1996, p. 39). It speaks about man deviating from the god’s good intentions and leaning towards greed and immoral actions (Naylor et al., 1996). Obviously, the goal of the Christian view is to steer clear of this dark side of work. The protestant work ethic is well expressed in the views of Martin Luther. He was of the view that God is continually creating, and he would invite us, human beings, to participate (Naylor et al., 1996). The views of Islam about the workplace are commonly denoted under the term ‘‘Islamic Work Ethic (ISE).’’ Islam preaches its followers to be more committed towards the organization. This commitment is said to make the employees embrace organizational change more readily than others (Yousef, 2000). Cooperation and consulting is also encouraged by ISE. This is said to alleviate mistakes (Yousef, 2000). The Islamic work ethic also argues that values such as generosity and justice should be inevitable to the workplace (Yousef, 2000). Other religious views like Taoism and Confucianism also propose spiritual views which can be

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interpreted in the context of that inexplicable feeling of connectedness with the others and the universe (Rice, 1978). Thus, it would seem that a Taoist and Confucianist perspective on workplace spirituality would place importance on teamwork and togetherness. Perhaps, religion-based spirituality is the most controversial when compared to the other views of organizational spirituality. There have been a number of criticisms to this view among managers. For example Gunther (2001, p. 64) states that ‘‘[a]s much as the Americans say they believe in god, most also believe in religious freedom’’. Existentialist views This view of spirituality is perhaps the most connected to the concepts such as the search for meaning in what we are doing at the workplace (Naylor et al., 1996; Neck and Milliman, 1994; Kahnweiler and Otte, 1997). The ‘‘search for meaning’’ has been one of the most quoted phrases in examples of people who quit their jobs to lead a more spiritually enriching life (Naylor et al., 1996, p. 56; Burack, 1999, p. 12). Some of the existential questions which come up are: . Why am I doing this work? . What is the meaning of the work I am doing? . Where does this lead me to? . Is there a reason for my existence and the organization’s? These questions assume importance when people are involved in jobs which are immensely repetitive and boring. The lack of a meaning in the daily work, can lead to ‘‘existential sickness’’ (Naylor et al., 1996, p. 57). The lack of meaning or purpose of work, can lead to ‘‘separation/alienation from oneself’’ (Naylor et al., 1996, p. 59). This can greatly reduce the productivity and can result in employee frustration (Naylor et al., 1996). The preceding discussion provided a brief overview of the differing perspectives of spirituality. We argue that it is only logical that there are different views on the meaning of spirituality, given that this concept is very personally driven. Hence, the importance lies not in providing a single definition for the spirituality term, but rather to first understand the differing perspectives and then to encourage employees to practice their own sense of spirituality in the workplace. Benefits to organizations will be the outcome of such encouragement. Next we discuss some of these benefits of encouraging spirituality in the workplace. Benefits of spirituality in the workplace Research suggests that the encouragement of spirituality in the workplace can lead to benefits in the areas of creativity, honesty and trust, personal fulfillment, and commitment, which will ultimately lead to increased organizational performance.

Intuition and creativity Spirituality can assist the individual to expand the frontiers of his consciousness beyond the normal boundaries, leading to increased intuition and creativity (Guillory, 2000; Cash and Gray, 2000; Harman and Hormann, 1990). Spirituality has the potential to link the creative power of the human mind with that of God’s (Gunther, 2001). Spirituality also breeds awareness, which in turn breeds intuition, and intuition in turn leads to creativity (Freshman, 1999). The completeness that spiritual enrichment provides to the employees will lead to happiness and satisfaction which will cause the employees to be more creative (Turner, 1999). This will result in increased organizational performance and financial success (Turner, 1999). Creativity in the case of spiritually enriched organizations is also encouraged through the continual improvisation in service and also in adapting to the customers’ needs (Guillory, 2000). The turnaround of the IOmega Corporation is a good example of how a careful analysis of the customers’ needs can foster creativity and thereby lead the organization to success (Guillory, 2000). Intuition and creativity can be powerful tools in problem solving. Since spiritual encouragement leads to better insights and also better mental growth and development and thereby the improvement of the person as a whole, the problem solving capabilities increase (Burack, 1999). Creativity is also encouraged by religions, for example, Christians believe that creativity, even in an industrial enterprise, works towards the common good of the community and the society as a whole (Delbecq, 1999). Islam stresses creativity as a way for attaining happiness (Yousef, 2000). Buddhism has creativity as one of its central ideas (Jacobson, 1983). According to Buddhist philosophy, ‘‘Creative experience is all there is’’ (Jacobson, 1983, p. 40). Honesty and trust Many spiritually based organizations have made honesty their prime focus (Wagner-Marsh and Conely, 1999; Burack, 1999). An example of such a company is Wetherill Asscociates (Wagner-Marsh and Conely, 1999). The company instituted and implemented a policy where they promised themselves and others that they will be completely honest towards their customers as well as their suppliers (Wagner-Marsh and Conely, 1999). Also, the element of honesty or truthfulness is unmistakably present in almost all the business transactions (Kriger and Hanson, 1999). Trust is well encouraged within a spiritually enriched company. Especially in times of economic depression, when the company is not doing well, trust between the management and the employees plays a pivotal role in the future performance of the organization. On the contrary, distrust can lead to communication problems inside the organization, and co-operation between the employees and the management is seriously affected (Burack, 1999). Trust can also lead to better organizational performance through accelerated decision making, better communication between the managers, better focus on the customer issues and greater innovation (Kriger and Hanson, 1999).

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Nowhere else have the qualities of truthfulness been portrayed as they are in religious texts. For example, in Hinduism, the concept of ‘‘Sathyameva jayathe’’, meaning, the truth and only truth shall be victorious in the end, is one of the most quoted philosophies (Prabhavananda and Manchester, 1963, p. 47). Also one of the spiritual disciplines, ‘‘yama’’, reiterates the qualities such as ‘‘truthfulness, non-stealing and abstinence from greed’’ (Vrajaprana, 2000, p. 248) Christians believe that accountability is very crucial to the workplace and also the society as a whole. Accountability towards one another, results in better relationships and understanding, which will be helpful in defeating the ways of the evil (Nix, 1997). Accountability and truthfulness towards each other is also helpful in overcoming our natural propensity for sinning (Nix, 1997). Personal fulfillment Spirituality has been associated with Maslow’s higher needs, such as ‘‘belonging and also some sense of achievement’’ (Burack, 1999, p. 284). The ‘‘economic-technological perspective’’ theory suggested includes this sense of personal achievement as a reason for the movement towards spirituality (Tischler, 1999, p. 274). Others have also suggested the involvement of personal development in the movement towards spirituality (Freshman, 1999). Fostering spirituality will lead to the employees feeling complete when they come to work. This will result in a high degree of personal fulfillment and increased morale. This further would lead to increased organizational performance through greater financial success (Turner, 1999). For example, Muslims believe that work is a major source of personal fulfillment and independence (Yousef, 2000). This would lead to the ultimate life-fulfillment (Yousef, 2000). Personal fulfillment is also seen as a method to enhance personal development (Yousef, 2000). Commitment Spirituality increases commitment by establishing a ‘‘Trustful Climate’’ in the workplace (Burack, 1999, pp. 285). ‘‘Organizational commitment is a concept that seeks to capture the nature of attachments formed by individuals, to their employing organizations’’ (Ketchand and Strawser, 2001; p. 1) This quality can be viewed in two different perspectives. This includes commitment of the employees to the organization and also commitment of the organization to quality and to the customer (Wagner-Marsh and Conely, 1999). The commitment of the employees to the organization is further believed to consist of two aspects. One is ‘‘affective commitment’’, where emotional attachment is seen from the individual because he is able to identify with the goals of the organization, and the individual wants to help the organization in achieving its goals (Ketchand and Strawser, 2001). The second aspect of commitment is due to the higher cost of moving to a different organization (Ketchand and Strawser, 2001). In addition to these two types of commitment there are also two main types of causal factors involved in the expression of commitment

towards an organization. The first are ‘‘personal factors’’, which originate from the inside of the individual. This includes factors which exist before the individual joins the organization. The second factor is the ‘‘situational factor.’’ Here the individual is confronted with experiences within the organization and his work environment (Ketchand and Strawser, 2001). This will be crucial in his commitment towards the organization. In all cases, however, trust is crucial in providing a sound base for commitment (Kriger and Hanson, 1999). Christian beliefs have also helped executives to solidify their commitment towards their goals (Delbecq, 1999). Islamic work ethic also views commitment to the job as a virtue (Yousef, 2000). Judaism for example proposes that all individuals are responsible for their products and the responsibility for any defects caused should be owned by the individual who produces it and either sells it directly or through an agent (Dekro and Bush, 1998). Organizational performance It has been suggested that organizations that encourage spirituality may experience enhanced organizational performance (Neck and Milliman, 1994; Turner, 1999; Thompson, 2000). In fact, some research reveals that organizations that encouraged spirituality experienced higher profits and success (Mitroff and Denton, 1999; Turner, 1999). According to Thompson (2000, p. 19): In some cases (referring to research studies), the more spirited companies outperformed the others by 400-500 percent, in terms of net earnings, return-on-investment and shareholder value.

From these citations, it is obvious that organizational performance and financial success can lean heavily on spiritual enrichment of the workplace. Spirituality is recognized as one of the crucial dimensions of the human personality. Therefore, if an organization encourages spirituality, then it is actually encouraging the people to bring their whole self to work (Neck and Milliman, 1994). This would mean a greater personal fulfillment and satisfaction and greater commitment to the work and also the organization. According to Mitroff and Denton (1999, p. 91), ‘‘[n]o organization can survive for long without spirituality and soul.’’ These citations and views, coupled with the previous discussions on the common qualities that the spiritual enrichment brings about, like intuition and creativity, honesty and trust, personal fulfillment and commitment, prove that spirituality is indeed a valuable and inevitable tool for the people and the organization for which they work for. Encouragement and implementation of spirituality in the workplace The implementation of spirituality in an organization can be viewed from two different perspectives. One can be denoted as the organization-centered perspective and the second is the individual-centered perspective.

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The organization-based approach suggests that spirituality should be implemented to the organization as a whole. This was proposed by Mitroff and Denton after extensive empirical studies (Mitroff and Denton, 1999). They suggest that since there are a lot of conflicting preferences and interests between different individuals, it would not be possible to allow spirituality on an individual basis; rather the organization should change as a whole. Here, organizations are classified into groups based on their principle of spirituality. Mitroff and Denton (1999, pp. 8-9) classify organizations as: . ‘‘religion-based’’; . ‘‘evolutionary’’; . ‘‘recovering’’; . ‘‘socially responsible’’; and . ‘‘values based’’ Though the organizations have been classified into groups, Mitroff and Denton (1999) also lays common grounds for the factors present in all of these models which leads to the expression and realization of spirituality. These are identified as a ‘‘key crisis event or precipitating event’’, ‘‘principle of Hope’’, the concept of ‘‘fundamental texts’’, ‘‘spiritual talking and listening’’, ‘‘attitude towards the stake holders’’, the concept of ‘‘limiting greed’’ and ‘‘the identification of functions of an organization which are spiritualized’’ (Mitroff and Denton, 1999, pp. 9-13). The importance of these factors varies with the specific type of organization, they identified. The other view about the implementation, the individual-centered perspective of spirituality, acknowledges and tries to foster from an individualcentered point of view. Here, the organization would not have a strict spiritual orientation, but rather it should try to accommodate and encourage spiritual requests from its employees (Cash and Gray, 2000). This perspective assumes that the organization is a collection of individuals, and that there is a superfluity of different views about spirituality among organizational personnel. Accordingly, the individual-centered model of implementation or encouragement of spirituality starts with the individual (Turner, 1999). This would suggest that leaders in the various organizations should attempt to understand and accept the ‘‘spiritual’’ variety that its members have at an individual level (Turner, 1999). As Leigh (1997, p. 26) states: ‘‘[i]t [spirituality] is about acknowledging that people come to work with more than their bodies and minds; they bring individual talents and unique spirits’’. An individual-centered approach to spiritual enrichment – ‘‘The spiritual freedom model’’ Implementation of spirituality, can lead to the creation of meaning to the work employees do everyday. This is one of the steps towards ultimate personnel fulfillment and satisfaction (Herman and Gioia, 1998). However, the implementation of common spiritual principles in an organization could lead to

the problem of employees not being able to express their own view of spirituality. For example, in a ‘‘religion-based’’ organization, the organization might have a particular belief, and a set of principles according to a particular religion. However, all of the organization’s members might not be willing to accept that particular religion as their only spiritual dimension. This could lead to dissatisfaction and frustration. Here, the individual may know that the end result will be the common good, but since his beliefs are different, he or she will not be willing to express spirituality in the particular manner in which the organization has implemented. Since spirituality is a highly individual-specific dimension we argue that it is necessary that spirituality should be implemented from the individual’s perspective. Also, given the contention that spirituality cannot be viewed in a uni-definitional light, we argue that the end result of spirituality implementation based on an individual approach would be enhanced organizational performance and better personal development of the employees of that organization than that of a spiritually unified organization (Herman and Gioia, 1998). Considering the increasing diversity of today’s workforce, the individual-based approach would be all the more crucial. The encouragement of spirituality should start by encouraging people to speak openly about their spiritual ideas and helping them to relate these ideas to the company’s values (Thompson, 2000). This again points towards an individual-based approach for the encouragement of spirituality. Based on the reviews and the above arguments, we propose a ‘‘spiritual freedom model’’ of implementation. This model, represented in Figure 1, embodies the concept of ‘‘spiritual freedom’’ within an organizational setting. It represents the implementation where people in an organization are encouraged to express their own views of spirituality. Here, the organization doesn’t establish any particular spiritual principle as common to all its employees. The model starts with the organization where it encourages its employees to be free to express their own spiritual beliefs; it tries to accommodate the spiritual requests of its employees, irrespective of their different spiritual beliefs. Since spiritual enrichment of the workplace would do common good through the expression of positive outcomes such as intuition, creativity, honesty, trust, personal fulfillment and commitment. The end result is enhanced organizational performance and long-term organizational success. From a diverse origin to the common good We started by reviewing the multitude of definitions about spirituality. This represented, at least in part, the individualistic differences that exist in the workforce about spirituality. It is also important to look for the key benefits of spiritual accomplishment provided by the different views of spirituality, considering the highly diverse nature of today’s workforce (McCormick, 1994). A workplace without spirituality can ultimately result in high absenteeism, high turnover rates, high stress associated with work deadlines, and depression (Thompson, 2000). On the contrary, an encouragement of spirituality within a firm can lead to enhanced creativity, honesty and trust, personal fulfillment,

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Figure 1. Individual-based ‘‘spiritual freedom’’ model for incorporating and encouraging spirituality among today’s diverse workforce

and commitment, which will ultimately lead to increased organizational performance. Hence there is little doubt that spiritual enrichment brings a number of common benefits to an organization and its people, including those benefits discussed here. It has been proved that ‘‘spirited workplaces’’ have done better with respect to profitability (Thompson, 2000). Therefore, we argue that all views of spirituality should be encouraged in the workplace. However, due to the diversity in the beliefs and definitions that each individual has about spirituality, it will be ideal if managers can encourage the employees to follow their own spirituality path and to relate this path to the goals of the organization. However, this might lead to a wide, diverse set of accommodation requests and also a lot of different views being floated among the workforce in the organization, and there might be times when the organization has to exercise restraint. However, this might only be an extreme case. The organization that has a policy towards spiritual freedom will make its employees develop their potentials fully. This, again, would lead to better work performance and a friendlier corporate world. References Ashmos, D.P. and Duchon, D. (2000), ‘‘Spirituality at work: conceptualization and measure’’, Journal of Management Enquiry, Vol. 9 No. 2, pp. 134-45.

Brandt, E. (1996), ‘‘Corporate pioneers explore spirituality’’, HRMagazine, Vol. 41 No. 4, pp. 82-7. Bruce, S. (1996), Religion in the Modern World, Oxford University Press, Oxford. Bryant, J.S. (1998), ‘‘Faith at work’’, Black Enterprise, Vol. 29 No. 3, p. 161. Burack, E.H. (1999), ‘‘Spirituality in the workplace’’, Journal of Organizational Change Management, Vol. 12 No. 4, pp. 280-91. Cash, K.C. and Gray, G.R. (2000), ‘‘A framework for accommodating religion and spirituality in the workplace’’, Academy of the Management Executive, Vol. 14 No. 3, pp. 124-34. Dekro, J. and Bush, L. (1998), ‘‘Shareholder activism and the ‘torah of money’’’, Tikkun, Vol. 13 No. 5, pp. 66-7. Delbecq, L.A. (1999), ‘‘Christian spirituality and contemporary business leadership’’, Journal of Organizational Change Management, Vol. 12 No. 4, pp. 345-9. Freshman, B. (1999), ‘‘An exploratory analysis of definitions and applications of spirituality in the workplace’’, Journal of Organizational Change Management, Vol. 12 No. 4, pp. 318-27. Graber, D.R. (2001), ‘‘Spirituality and healthcare organizations’’, Journal of Healthcare Management, Vol. 46 No. 1, pp. 39-50. Guillory, W.A. (2000), The Living Organization: Spirituality in the Workplace, Innovations International Inc., Salt Lake City, UT. Gunther, M. (2001), ‘‘God and business’’, Fortune, Vol. 144 No. 1, pp. 59-80. Harman, W. and Hormann, J. (1990), Creative Work: The Constructive Role of Business in a Transforming Society, Knowledge Systems Inc., Indianapolis, IN. Hein, K. (1999), ‘‘A little spirit at work’’, Incentive, Vol. 173 No. 2, p. 6. Herman, R.E. and Gioia, J.L. (1998), ‘‘Making work meaningful: secrets of the future-focused corporation’’, The Futurist, Vol. 32 No. 9, pp. 24-38. Jacobson, N.P. (1983), Buddhism & the Contemporary World, Southern Illinois University Press, Carbondale, IL. Kahnweiler, W. and Otte, F.L. (1997), ‘‘In search of the soul of HRD’’, Human Resource Development Quarterly, Vol. 8 No. 2, pp. 171-81. Ketchand, A.A. and Strawser, J.R (2001), ‘‘Multiple dimensions of organizational commitment: implications for future accounting research’’, Behavioral Research in Accounting, Vol. 13 pp. 1-26. Kriger, M.P. and Hanson, B.J. (1999), ‘‘A value based paradigm for creating truly healthy organizations’’, Journal of Organizational Change Management, Vol. 12 No. 4, pp. 302-17. Leigh, P. (1997), ‘‘The new spirit at work’’, Training and Development, Vol. 51 No. 3, pp. 26-34. McCarthy, J.L. (1996), ‘‘Through the needle’s eye: the spiritual CEO’’, Chief Executive, No. 110, pp. 48-50. McCormick, D. (1994), ‘‘Spirituality and management’’, Journal of Managerial Psychology, Vol. 9 No. 6, pp. 5-8. Manz, C.C., Manz, K.K., Marx, R. and Neck, C.P. (2001), The Wisdom of Solomon at Work: Ancient Virtues for Living and Leading Today, Berrett-Koehler, San Francisco, CA. Maynard, H.B. (1992), ‘‘The evolution of human consciousness’’, in Renesch, J. (Ed.), New Traditions in Business, Berrett-Koehler, San Francisco, CA, pp. 39-52. Menon, J.K. (1997), Srimad Bhagavad Gita, Devi Book Stall, Kodungalloor, India. Mitroff, I.I. and Denton, E.A. (1999), A Spiritual Audit of Corporate America, Jossey-Bass Publishers, San Francisco, CA. Naylor, T.H., Willimon, W.H. and Osterberg, R. (1996), The Search for Meaning in the Workplace, Abington Press, Nashville, TN.

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Neck, C.P. and Milliman, J.F. (1994), ‘‘Thought self-leadership: finding spiritual fulfillment in organizational life’’, Journal of Managerial Psychology, Vol. 9 No. 6, pp. 9-16. Nix, W. (1997), Transforming your workplace for Christ, Broadman and Holdman Publishers, Nashville, TN. Prabhavananda, S. and Manchester, F. (1963), The Upanishads: Breath of the Eternal, The Vedanta Society of Southern California, Hollywood, CA. Ray, M.L. (1992), ‘‘The emerging new paradigm in business’’, in Renesch, J. (Ed.), New Traditions in Business, Berrett-Koehler, San Francisco, CA, pp. 25-38. Rice, E. (1978), Ten Religions of the East, Four Winds Press, New York, NY. Thompson, W.D. (2000), ‘‘Can you train people to be spiritual?’’, Training and Development, Vol. 54 No. 12, pp. 18-19. Tischler, L. (1999), ‘‘The growing interest of spirituality in business: a long term socio-economic explanation’’, Journal of Organizational Change Management, Vol. 12 No. 4, pp. 273-9. Turner, J. (1999), ‘‘Spirituality in the workplace’’, caMagazine, Vol. 132 No. 10, pp. 41-2. Vrajaprana, P. (2000), ‘‘Contemporary spirituality and the thinning of the sacred: a Hindu perspective’’, Cross Currents, Vol. 50 No. 1, p. 248. Wagner-Marsh, F. and Conely, J. (1999), ‘‘The fourth wave: The spiritually based firm’’, Journal of Organizational Change Management, Vol. 12 No. 4, pp. 292-301. Yousef, D. (2000), ‘‘Organizational commitment as a mediator of relationship between Islamic work ethic and attitudes toward organizational change’’, Human Relations, Vol. 53 No. 4, pp. 513-37. Further reading Harrington, D.J. (1998), ‘‘What is the place of spirituality in business?’’, Review of Business, Vol. 20 No. 1, pp. 4-7. Neal, C. (1999), ‘‘A conscious change in the workplace’’, The Journal for Quality and Participation, Vol. 22 No. 2, pp. 27-30.

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Spirituality and leadership praxis Nada Korac-Kakabadse, Alexander Kouzmin and Andrew Kakabadse Cranfield School of Management, Cranfield, UK

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Keywords Leadership, Organizational philosophy, Corporate culture Abstract Spirituality is a long-neglected dimension in the leadership issue as it is in the psychological contract implicit in work organizations. Traditionally rooted in religion, there are wider spiritualities that the organizational actor can draw upon and a burgeoning literature on personal meaning and transformative leadership. This paper reviews leadership praxis from the frames of wider spiritualities, links spirituality search with contemporary managerialist practices and surveys the breadth of, and commonalities within, varied philosophic positions with regard to the spiritual search.

Introduction Understanding the role and functions of leadership is becoming the single most important intellectual task as the role of leaders emerges to be more crucial to the survival and adaptation of social institutions than management of control systems or efficiency audits. For Selznick (1957), in complex social interactions, leadership provides the integrating capacity for moulding social institutions: governmental, business or religious. As early as 386 BC, Plato (1956) initiated one of the first leadership training centres in the world, an institute he called the ‘‘Academy’’, in an attempt to create a new type of statesman; a person who would be able to withstand the unwieldy pressures of office. Four centuries later, Plato’s ideas are found again in the works of Christian philosophers preoccupied with the search for the blessed community; the sanctity of religious authority, individual alienation and man’s proper place in the hierarchical chain of being culminated in the City of God. During the Middle Ages, these ideas had only small significance as they were placed in the shadow of strikingly different ideas and attitudes regarding man’s fate. Three centuries later, in the Age of Reason, these ideas came out of the shadow, developed the cherished idea of ‘‘natural order’’, only to brilliantly light the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries and, reaching high points in the Enlightenment of France and England, expanding Plato’s ideas with new ideal-like, institutional order, social class and kinship. Spirituality, historically, has been rooted in religion. However, its current use in business and in the workplace is most often not associated with any specific religious tradition. Spirituality is conceived elusively as ‘‘an awareness within individuals of a sense of connectedness that exists between inner selves and the world’’ (Stamp, 1991, p. 80). Without over emphasizing definitional aspects, it is also likely that the increased pressures of society, IT developments, globalization, including the pressures of population, environment and food

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demands, pose an additional increased interest in spirituality. Fox (1982, p. 12) suggests that economics, language and politics, education and sexuality are an integral part of spirituality. Mitroff and Denton (1999) defined spirituality as the desire to find ultimate purpose in life and to live accordingly. Others define spirituality loosely as energy, meaning and knowing, whilst yet others draw on Taoist, Buddhist, Hindu, Zen and Native American spiritualities, claiming that these non-Western societies are better in integrating personal life, work, leisure, prayer, religion and other aspects of one’s life. In common with tradition, management and organizations need to acknowledge an underlying theme: a spirit that can breathe new life into endeavours; recreate individuals and groups; and restore hope. Increased attention to personal meaning and transformative leadership has shown striking benefits of integrating personal development and awareness at work (Torbert, 1991; Whyte, 1994). Numerous recent books have emphasized the dramatic increase in interest in incorporating spirituality into management theory, management development and management practice (Bracey et al., 1990; Chappell, 1993; Bolman and Deal, 1995; Renesch and DeFoore, 1996; Neal, 1997; Collins and Porras, 1997; King and Nicol, 1999). Furthermore, a growing stream of research shows that the core benefits of organizational transformation are not merely economic, but that the non-material, even spiritual, qualities of transformation may be the most profound for individuals, organizations and society (Neal and Banner, 1999). For example, in a longitudinal research on 18 ‘‘visionary’’ companies which have been leaders in their industries for over 50 years, Collins and Porras (1997) show that each company’s success was due to a focus on core values, not solely on the bottom line. Although the core values of these organizations were based on noneconomic beliefs and an empowering culture, in economic terms they outperformed their comparison companies by as much as 16:1. Peters and Waterman (1982) came to similar findings in their research on ‘‘excellent’’ companies. Insights from the natural sciences have shown the world to be an individual whole, a web of relationships in which any action has complex, non-linear and unpredictable effects (Gleick, 1987; Capra, 1996). Modern physics asserts that we are part of a larger whole, inter-connected with all life, but we experience ourselves as separate from each other and from nature itself (Capra, 1996). Thus, the physical reality as an ‘‘unbroken, seamless whole’’ where our perception of separateness is merely a habit of thought (Bohm, 1983). However, accepting this new knowledge requires a shift in how we perceive and experience our world (Neal and Banner, 1999). This shift, in turn, brings the values of environmental sustainability, social equality and global awareness to the forefront of attention, recognizing that management is much more than an economic endeavour (Gladwin et al., 1994; Neal and Banner, 1999). Spirituality and consciousness are not irrational, ‘‘far out’’ beliefs but, rather, the core of dynamic evolutionary systems and, thus, must be included in analysis and practice of organizational design, change and management (Ackerman, 1984;

Banner and Gagne, 1995). This paper endeavours to explain spiritual influence Spirituality and on leadership theory from a number of different perspectives – Taoist leadership praxis philosophy, Christian philosophy, Buddhist philosophy, Physics, Sociology and Psychology. The present reality of leadership Mathews (1994) has provided a graphic description of the dilemma facing contemporary executives. He argues that, in the current period of turbulence, as markets become global and more sophisticated, there is seemingly no end to the round of exhortations driving firms to improve their performance – by introducing ‘‘new technology’’ or by adopting ‘‘best practice’’. However, there is also abundant evidence that it is not new technologies themselves that are responsible for improved performance. Rather, it is the way in which these technologies mesh with the organizational and business strategies being pursued by firms that matters. There is an increasing recognition of the place of intuition in management and leadership theory. The contemporary penchant for vision, as a prelude to mission, is one manifestation of this recognition. Mintzberg (1976, p. 53), reflecting on his research into the nature of managerial work, makes the following claim: One fact recurs repeatedly in all of this research – key managerial processes are enormously complex and mysterious (to me as a researcher, as well as to the managers who carry them out), drawing on the vaguest of information and using the least articulated of mental processes. These processes seem to be more relational and holistic than ordered and sequential and more intuitive than intellectual.

Kouzes and Posner (1987, pp. 93-4) expand upon this claim in their examination of leadership. ‘‘Envisioning and intuiting are not logical activities. They do not lend themselves to easy study and observation. They are extremely difficult to explain and quantify.’’ Even so, in recent studies, senior executives have reported that their intuition has been a guide in most of their important decisions. And yet, while the use of intuition is commonplace among executives, they are very reluctant to talk about it. Hard-bitten senior managers see it as too soft and mystical to openly acknowledge. Senge (1990, p. 13) has identified the need for metanoia; a shift of mind, if organizations are to make the transformation into learning organizations. ‘‘When you ask people about what it is like being part of a great team, what is most significant is the meaningfulness of the experience. People talk about being a part of something larger than themselves, of being connected, of being generative. It becomes quite clear that, for many, their experience of being part of a truly great team stands out as singular periods of self – lived to the fullest and some spend the rest of their lives looking for ways to recapture that spirit’’. The word metanoia literally means transcendence of the mind. In the Gnostic action of Christianity, it took on the meaning of awakening shared intuition and direct knowing of the highest (God). Covey (1990) offers an inductively-derived guiding process taken from his experience as a change agent consultant, with an implicit spiritual base of

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Mormon theology. The guiding principles stem from seven habits found to produce good results. Covey (1990) advocates the resurrection of principles as the basis for leadership. He posits that an individual’s character is the principle determinant of personal effectiveness. ‘‘It is a principle-centered, characterbased, ‘‘inside-out’’ approach to personal and interpersonal effectiveness’’ (Covey, 1990, p. 42). Covey’s (1990) consultative approach attempts to develop a vision, with the interest for key stakeholders in mind. The implicit vision seeks a win-win solution that draws on an abundance mentality. He postulates that leaders who learn to set aside urgent problems and concentrate on long-term, important issues achieve better results. His 80/20 rule suggests that more time spent on the 20 per cent that matters will improve organizational effectiveness. Covey’s (1990) principles of seven habits, consisting of attitude, skill and knowledge are derived from a set of principles that include integrity, humility and fidelity. The seventh of these habits, ‘‘sharpening the saw’’, includes spiritual renewal, which he identifies with the continual clarification of value commitment to others. For Covey (1990), leadership is something to be learned through the self-renewal process. Covey (1992) calls for leaders to be proactive (learn optimism), authentic (by evoking values that will be recognized in all of their actions) in priorities, to build synergy (empathetic understanding, winwin) and self-renewal (values and commitments). Two examples of organizations that appear to have negotiated the challenge successfully are Semco (Semler, 1993) and Centennial Medical Centre (Arnold and Plas, 1993). In his book, Maverick, Ricardo Semler describes how he went through the process of letting go in order to transform his company into what has been described as the world’s most unusual organization. In The Human Touch, Arnold and Plas (1993, p. 18) express sentiments such as, ‘‘Those of us who run businesses today need to raise our clenched fists, slowly extend our fingers and let go of our organizations’’. The spiritual leadership approach finds the solution in contemplation, to approach situations with an attitude of discernment rather than one of intervention; acceptance rather than control; letting go rather than holding on; lightening rather than doing; and in humility rather than in competence. The spiritual leadership approach draws also on the Eastern philosophy of Taoism and Confucianism, both of which run harmoniously parallel through Chinese history so that every Chinese person is, at once, Taoist and Confucianist. Taoism and Confucianism, like spiritual leadership, are primarily interested in moral, social and political reforms; cherish the same basic values such as humanity, righteousness, deep love and faithfulness; are opposed to the use of force and punishment; and hold in great esteem the integrity of the individual and social harmony, even though their approaches are different. Taoist principles emphasize that the wise leader does not push to make things happen but allows a process to unfold; the enlightened leader is service not selfishness; a moderate ego demonstrates wisdom; the leader speaks simply and honestly and intervenes only to shed light and create harmony; the leader sets time for silent reflection; the leader should not lose sight of the single

principle of how everything works; being centred means having the ability to Spirituality and recover one’s balance, even in the midst of intense action; selflessness keeps leadership praxis him/her centred; the leader knows when to listen, when to act and when to withdraw (Pheng, 1994). These capacities are all echoed in the spiritual leadership movement. The spiritual leadership movement encompasses the leadership servant 169 (DePree, 1993) and stewardship (Block, 1996) and empowerment models (Bracey et al., 1990) rest on servant leadership philosophy of Quaker theology, portrayed in Greenleaf’s (1977) work, Servant Leadership. Greenleaf (1977; 1973) builds his philosophy on the Gospel of Luke who defines a leader as one who serves, although he credits Hesse’s (1995) Journey to the East as inspiration. According to Greenleaf’s (1973) spiritual philosophy, leaders exist only to serve followers. Indeed, they earn followers only by virtue of their selfless, Gandhi-esque natures. While followers give leaders their allegiance in response to this servant nature, servant leadership emphasizes service to others, a holistic approach to work, personal development and shared decision making – all the characteristics that provide a basis for developmental and empowerment theories (Greenleaf, 1973; 1977). Servant leaders embody seven characteristics: they are servants first; articulators of goals (vision); inspiration of trust; knowable in the art of listening; masters of positive feedback (accept a person, not necessarily a person’s effort or performance); foresightful (use intuitive sense to bridge information gaps to better foresee the unforeseeable); and are proponents of personal development (the process of change starts in the servant, not out there). Greenleaf’s (1977) concept that the process of change starts within the servant, is echoed in Gross’ (1996) work, The Last World on Power. Similarly, Greenleaf’s (1977) concept of ‘‘know how to listen’’ is echoed in Covey’s (1990) emphatic listening, while Greenleaf (1973; 1977) argues that servant leaders respond to any problem by listening first and draws on the prayer of St. Francis, ‘‘Lord, grant that I may not seek so much to be understood as to understand’’. Covey (1990) suggests that one needs to seek to understand first in order to be understood. DePree (1993) sets leaders in the position of servanthood. He sees servant leader models as ones that make possible a true partnership between managers and employees; where both parties are equally responsible for goals. DePree (1993) prescribes 14 characteristics for becoming a servant leader: integrity; vulnerability; discernment; awareness of the human spirit; courage in relationships; sense of humour; intellectual energy and curiosity; respect for the future; regard for the present; understanding of the past; predictability; breath; comfort with ambiguity; and presence. He sees a leader’s job as creating a vision, setting up tough goals in partnership with employees and, then, helping people become winners in the performance game. For Block (1996), stewardship is a triumvirate which includes empowerment, brings accountability and balances responsibility through partnerships. Thus, he uses stewardship to address power, control and choice, through

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empowerment, accountability and partnerships. Block (1996) defines stewardship as the willingness to be accountable for the well-being of large organizations by operating in service, rather than in control of others or, simply, democracy at work – that is, being acceptable and responsible for what is being created without the control of compliance. Block (1996) sees traits and behaviour attributes as prescriptive traps. Bracey et al. (1990) argues that besides competence and confidence, managers also need to be caring and sees the spiritual component of servant leadership as a natural progression in management literature. Bracey et al. (1990) argue that honouring five unspoken employee requests: hear and understand me, even if you disagree with me; please do not make me worry; acknowledge the greatness in me; remember to look for my loving intention; and tell me the truth with compassion, will bring both compassion and acceptability to the workplace. For Burns (1978, p. 46), the moral dimension of the leadership is ‘‘its capacity to rescind the claims of the multiplicity of everyday wants, needs and expectations, to respond to the higher levels of moral development and to relate relationship behaviour – its roles, choices, styles and commitments – to a set of reasoned, relatively explicit conscious values’’. Because of value dimensions, leadership requires a certain kind of character with a certain kind of wisdom in relation to that character (Jearnott, 1989, p. 14). As such, moral leadership presupposes traits of character and qualities of mind. Jearnott (1989, p. 35) defines moral leaders as ‘‘self-possessed individuals – possessed of humanity, principles, vision and the craft to make them real’’. Spirituality at work Because work is a central part of one’s existence, much of the spiritual odyssey occurs within the context of the workplace. Yet, when assessing the relevance of human resources to the effective performance of the organization, few consider the extent to which the organizational environment fosters an individual’s spiritual development, as ‘‘good people in a good environment do good work’’ (Morris, 1997, p. 126). The ‘‘Spirituality at Work’’ movement is an attempt to make corporate life a feeling, more creative, environment by tapping into the employee’s spiritual side (Brandt, 1996). This emerging trend is stimulated by the wide-spread feeling that workplaces have become insecure environments. Downsizing, re-engineering and re-structuring produce many lay-offs that have transformed corporations into unfriendly places (Brandt, 1996). Some argue that the instability that the global economy and downsizing have brought, is one cause of the current interest in religion and spirituality in business (Detroit Free Press, 1998). Many people are afraid of losing their jobs. Those who are left are emotionally scarred by the lay-off of their co-workers. The reduced support staff, more complex technology to master and the intensification of work, leaves employees demotivated. Employees long for strength from within to help them do their jobs and live through fear and insecurities. In addition, the ‘‘greying’’ of the workforce, particularly at

management levels, acknowledges that the spiritual side of work has been Spirituality and dormant far too long. This is possibly reflected in the increased focus on leadership praxis spirituality in the media. For example, in 1997, the fastest growing segment of adult publishing was religious and spiritual material. Under rapid-change technology philosophy, employees are encouraged to foster team-building skills, emotional intelligence and spirituality (Macintyre, 171 1999). To realize the organization’s potential benefit from spirituality, management must address attendant challenges and opportunities by learning to understand the relationship between an individual’s spiritual quest and the organizational environment. This can produce a previously unrealized synergistic relationship in which management’s support of the individual’s spiritual quest for meaning and purpose benefits both the employee and the organization. The waning influence of various groups that once provided spiritual support (churches, civic groups and extended families) and the ever-growing interest in other cultures and philosophies such as Zen Buddhism, Confucianism and Shintoism, tend to emphasize values such as loyalty to one’s group and the ability to find a spiritual centre in any kind of work or activity (Brandt, 1996). However, a distinction should be made between spirituality at work and religion at work. Developing one’s spiritual side offers a source of strength, both on and off the job. At the same time as helping other employees to develop, it can make the workplace stronger, safer and a much saner place to do business, because self-awareness and looking inward is where change begins. Increased availability of instruments, constructs and measures in the area of psychometric testing related to spirituality and trans-personal psychology can be useful, but one must approach such instruments with caution (MacDonald et al., 1999a). There exists an Index of Core Spiritual Experience (Kass et al., 1991), a Personal Philosophy Inventory (Persinger and Richards, 1991) and a Spiritual Well-Being Scale (Paloutzian and Ellison, 1982), to mention just a few. A survey competed by MacDonald et al. (1995, 1999a, b), shows that more than 20 different instruments exist that measure individual spirituality of a kind. However, many organizations and Equal Employment Opportunity (EEO) laws and practices, brought about almost four decades ago, still struggle to deal effectively with the challenges of employees’ rights and needs in the diversified, if not global, workplace (Cash and Gray, 2000). Traditionally, the search for religion was something saved for the Sabbath day and not necessary accommodated at the workplace, which focused on power, profit and takeovers (Cash and Gray, 2000). Spirituality, through meditation, visioning or spiritual contemplation, has become increasingly prevalent and desirable in the workplace and is focused on team work and customer services. There are many positive features of spirituality in business environments. Cavanagh (1999) identifies six benefits as follows: (1) People in the spiritual movement generally have a belief in God. (2) Spirituality puts emphasis on quiet prayer and contemplation in one’s life.

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(3) Spirituality’s centrality to people and listening to others generally improves relations with family and colleagues. (4) There is a genuine commitment to better relations amongst people, which helps bring a greater peace and harmony in the world. (5) The spirituality movement is also optimistic, being convinced that people and the world can become better. (6) Spirituality provides commitment to a sustainable environment, so as to pass on a better world to future generations, which is a movement in itself – Eco-Spirituality. Some, however, argue that spirituality in business advocates is Pantheistic, with the Supreme Being existing in all things (Cavanagh, 1999). As such, is God is not transcendent and is not a personal God. Spirituality in business movements is often person-centred individualism with little conviction of the important role of organizations and less realization of the importance of the common good (Cavanagh, 1999). Moreover, when a particular religious tradition is espoused by a chief executive officer (CEO), and there is demand for other members to embrace the same spiritual beliefs or religious faith, there is a danger of coercion for some and, for others, favouritism towards those with similar beliefs (Cavanagh, 1999). Often, these leaders are owner-entrepreneurs who are Christian evangelicals; largely ‘‘born again’’ Christians, making their faith known explicitly to employees, customers and others with whom they deal. They often encourage prayer groups among employees, often meeting an hour or so before work (Cavanagh, 1999). However, they also tend to be conservative in their views and the causes they support (US News and World Report, 1995). Spiritual leaders Spiritual leaders are moral leaders. Moral leaders prefer not to compromise, accommodate or collaborate in areas where core values are at stake. They prefer to challenge opinions and ideas, rather than accommodate them. Spiritual leaders may sometimes be outspoken and deliberately confrontational with alternative value systems (Fairholm, 1996). Spiritual leaders affirm the superior value of the spiritual over the leadership model. While traditional functions and roles may be smaller, spiritual elders apply them in overly moral ways (Fairholm, 1996). Elements of spiritual leadership include the following: . Building shared values – leaders inspire a sense of shared community values that provide the basis for sanction systems (Fairholm, 1996). . Vision setting – leaders exhibit sustained ability to build consensus and lead within the framework of common vision (Fairholm, 1996). . Sharing meaning – leaders create meanings for others. They engage the heart (Kouzes and Posner, 1987).

.

.

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Enabling – leaders train, educate and coach followers, provide Spirituality and motivation, involve them in approved networks and then free them from leadership praxis situational constraints that hamper growth/transformation towards full effectiveness (DePree, 1993). Influence and power – leaders have no desire to manipulate others. They help followers feel powerful and able to accomplish work on their own 173 (DePree, 1989). Intuition – spiritual leaders are pioneers who try to produce real change that matters to people’s enduring needs, regardless of the risk (Kouzes and Posner, 1987). Service – spiritual leaders are ‘‘servanted’’ (Greenleaf, 1977; DePree, 1993; Gross, 1996). Transformation – spiritual leaders transform themselves, others and their organizations (Covey, 1990; DePree, 1993; Fairholm, 1996).

There is a growing need in workplace culture for leadership and work processes that celebrate the whole individual with needs, desires, values and a ‘‘wanting’’ spirit of Self (Fairholm, 1996). Without taking anything away from religious doctrines, the new focus on workplace spirituality is one way to apply spiritual beliefs and to satisfy the need to feel the spirit through work. A characteristic of the current leadership model is the confusion of dedication, mission or vision with spirituality. Spirituality goes beyond those ideas and provides the under-pinning necessary to make them work with people’s personal and professional lives. Spirituality implies a relationship with something intangible beyond the self (Fairholm, 1996). Spiritual leadership rejects past models of human leadership which focused on values of selfinterest. Spiritual leaders focus on ethical values such as integrity, independence and justice – values drawn heavily on principles from JudeoChristian teachings (Erteszek, 1993). Spiritual leaders clarify the follower’s moral identity and strengthen and deepen their commitment. They make connections between others’ interior workloads of moral reflection and the outer world of work and social relationships. Spirituality in leadership is conceived by many as an awareness within individuals of a sense of connectedness that exists with their inner selves and the world (other people and the environment). Many unequivocally cite that the essence of leadership stems from the leader’s soul, rather than from his/her behaviour. The acceptance of the whole person in the workplace and the learning approach that is holistic in nature have often been compared to Bhuddism and Taoism. Many Taoist notions were brought into Western thought through the work of Heraclitus and have been developed and expressed in different ways by generations of social theorist and scientists, subscribing to what is now a dialectical view of reality. For example, they had a strong influence on the work of Hegel, who did much to advance the dialectical method, and on the work of Marx and psychoanalysts, Freud and Jung.

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Taoism Although Taoist philosophy, which originated in ancient China, is simple in expression, it is compact in conceptuality. ‘‘Tao is, rather, a religious and philosophical concept that is all-pervading, a self existent eternal unity, the source from which all created things emanate and to which they all return’’ (Tao Te Ching, in Mair, 1990, p. 132). It describes how the way of nature (tao means way) is characterized by continuous flux and wholeness shaped by the dynamic interplay of yin and yang. A Taoist philosophy of leadership means acknowledging spirituality. Yin and yang, which originally denoted the dark and sunny sides of a hill, symbolized how the Tao is underpinned by a flow of complementary, yet opposite, energies through which all trends eventually reverse themselves. In other words, to have one also means the other exists. Therefore, Taoism reconciles such matters as sociality with individuality, order with spontaneity, unity with diversity. Of considerable importance is the way in which human life is an integral part of the world process and, therefore, nature. Taoism is a comprehensive source of natural activity; it encapsulates a framework of forms or principles, principles of natural order, both metaphysical and moral. Taoist holds that the disposition or tendency of any situation could be understood in terms of Yin and Yang and that many human situations could be balanced and improved by influencing the relationship between these opposite elements. The Taoist I Ching (Book of Changes) formulates a way of thinking in terms of opposites, codifying archetypal patterns of the Tao found in nature and social worlds. Although the I Ching is now often viewed as the equivalent of a crystal ball, to be used for predicting the future, its true function was to provide a means of understanding the tendencies inherent in the present. As such, it is a document that has much in common with modern attempts to understand the dynamics of transformation and change. The Tao is, therefore, some universal life force and could be accepted without resorting to finding out what it is, although it is useful to explain some terms: tao (the way); te (integrity, it is what you are and represents self-nature or self-realization; that is, the self-hood of every being); and ching (classic) (Mair, 1990, p. 132). One pathway in the context of leadership is the achievement of wisdom and insight, but there are pathways within pathways and it is possible to follow Taoism as a religion and as a philosophy in terms of spiritual and meditative processes or in some combination thereof. Taoism embodies sensitivity to the natural seasons and cycles of life and the environment through universal forces – hence, the concept of the flow (the way and going with it) which is also related to the nature of seasons. Another profound and subtle concept is Wu-Wei or non-action, which should not be confused with doing nothing. It is, rather, a knowledge of the principles, structures and trends of human and natural affairs so that one uses the least amount of energy in dealing with them (Watts, 1992, p. 16). In pragmatic leadership terms, this could be seen as innate wisdom. Wu-Wei embodies spontaneity and non-interference when things follow their own natural course (Tao Te Ching, in Mair, 1990, p. 138). For a leader, this implies a reliance on

capable managers, whilst avoiding the adoption of an authoritarian, top-down Spirituality and stance. leadership praxis These Taoist concepts are embraced by servant leadership and spiritual leadership theories, especially in recognizing how groups and individuals can self-manage their destinies with strategic facilitation. In other words, a Taoist approach to leadership embraces the philosophy of Wu-Wei with the resulting 175 pathways creating a higher level of effectiveness than otherwise might be the case. Wu-Wei, therefore, seeks to maintain the unity of time, the unity of thought and action and the unity of self and environment. The Wu-Wei attitudes of looking for synergy, of patience, of being accepting of emergent events, of never seeking to abstract oneself from the situation but, instead, embedding oneself in it, are all qualities that seem essential for effective performance (Vaill, 1989). Depicting leadership as a facilitation process means recognizing the power of community and related processes within. This also implies a harmony for actions, situations and self. A Taoist approach to leadership, like spiritual leadership, seeks balance and integration in contrast to structuralist approaches, where actions are designed to optimize across these structures. Maintaining the balance is the key to effectiveness (Vaill, 1989). In essence, the leadership style that follows from Taoism is based upon facilitative relationships through the sophisticated but simple concept of WuWei. This involves the Self and its realization as well as strategic astuteness. Going out, going with the flow requires very sophisticated leadership behaviours which have insight and wisdom of a very high order but which are seen as simple by those who perceive or have a feel for the pathway/flow to destiny. Integrating Taoism as a philosophical basis to leadership means that it cannot be ad hoc. It cannot be isolated from the community it is serving, it has to be long run in its flow and it is essential that top teams can provide the impetus to bottom-up processes and commitment. Christian philosophy The first Christian monks were Hermits who lived during the fourth century in the most remote parts of the Egyptian desert – the Desert Fathers. They sought out the isolation of the desert to commune with God, free of worldly distractions. While Jesus and his teachings were their inspiration, the meditative techniques they adopted for finding their God bear strong similarity to those of their Hindu and Buddhist brethren. The ways of the Desert Fathers continue to influence Christian monasticism; selfless love remains a guiding example. Constant remembrance of God has been a mainstay of Christian worship from the beginning. Merton (1960) observed that what is today practiced as prayer in Christian churches is but one of a range of more intensive contemplative practices. ‘‘Life in the world matters only in so far as it reflects an inner life of contemplative practice’’ (Goleman, 1977, p. 55). The spirit of the Christian tradition is summed up by an early Desert Father, Abba Doretheus, in giving directions for spiritual practising. ‘‘Over whatever you have to do, even if it be very urgent and demands great care, I would not have you argue or

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be agitated. For rest assured, everything you do, be it great or small, is but oneeighth of the problem, whereas to keep one’s state undisturbed, even if thereby one should fail to accomplish the task, is the other seven-eighths’’ (Kadloubovsky and Palmer, 1969, p. 161). Buddhist strains Central to Buddhist philosophy is compassion, also embraced by spiritual leadership. Compassion rises from understanding, at the deepest level, that all is connected and that separation from others is an illusion. After the Buddha was enlightened, he returned to his former companions and began teaching. He shared the four noble attitude-truths (Ganna, in Ross, 1980): suffering is inherent in existence; suffering and dissatisfaction arise from our grasping and our sense of separateness (created by the ego); we can let go of our grasping and sense of separation; and the release from ego and greed can occur through an eight-fold path involving: . right understanding, which refers to witnessing the four noble truths; . right purpose, which involves a sense that we are on a path and are committed to spiritual practice; . right speech; . right conduct, which means that we do not intentionally hurt others by speech or action; . right livelihood, which suggests that our work should not involve any activity that would harm others or contribute to their suffering; . right effort, which refers to the fact that each of us must make an individual effort to awaken; . right awareness, which means that, in our daily actions, we are mindful or fully present; and . right concentration or meditation – the need to contemplate and concentrate the mind through meditative practice. Through his teachings and practice, the Buddha encouraged his followers not to engage in intellectual and theoretical debates. He felt that intellectual exchange side-tracks one from a path to wisdom and compassion. Buddha was never [merely] a philosopher; his primary concern was to point out the way to liberation from the deep-rooted attachment to a delusory Self which is the source of all passion-desires and resultant pain and frustration. Philosophical speculations were persistently rejected and denounced by Buddha as useless, foolish and unsalutary. Actually, in Buddha’s teaching, one does not find a philosophy; what one finds is a significant therapeutic device – the instruction on how to get rid of the deep, ego-clinging attitudes (Ganna, in Ross, 1980, p. 28) – the same theme which is echoed in egoless-leadership in the spiritual and servant leadership theories. In spiritual leadership, like Taoism and Buddhism, the goal towards which individuation is tending, is wholeness or integration; a

condition in which all the different elements of the psyche, both conscious and Spirituality and unconscious, are melded. leadership praxis Sociological and psychological strains Increasingly, people are embarking upon a spiritual journey, seeking to discover their true selves, searching for a higher purpose and meaning to their lives (Conger, 1993; 1994). This spiritual journey is not necessarily confined to a religious framework (Conger, 1994) as religions can be viewed as the ‘‘maps’’, while spirituality can be considered to be the ‘‘territory’’ (Patterson, 1997). In general, a spiritual journey is a process of focusing within an order to gain an awareness of Self (Covey, 1990; Csikszentmihalyi, 1990; Stein and Hollwitz, 1992; Peck, 1993; Roof, 1993; Mitroff et al., 1994; Neal, 1997). Only through this journey of awareness of Self can individuals become truly actualized and find meaning and purpose in their work and in their lives (King and Nicol, 1999). A spiritual journey is the individuation process which produces both an interconnection with Self and a connection with others, fostering a sense of order and balance in an otherwise chaotic life (King and Nicol, 1999). The search, and consequent realization, provides an individual with a sense of alignment and order, a spiritual cohesiveness, which instils a sense of rightness and well-being – a sense of wholeness, a oneness with who we are and an awareness of how we fit with our external environment (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990). Thus, individuals become conscious of their whole personality, the Self, and gain awareness of higher purposes and potential capabilities. The goal towards which individuation is tending is wholeness or integration: a condition in which all the different elements of the psyche, both conscious and unconscious, are melded. The person who achieves this goal possesses ‘‘an attitude that is beyond the reach of emotional entanglements and violent shocks – a consciousness detached from the world’’ (Jung, 1967, p. 13). Individuation, in Jung’s view, is a spiritual journey, and the person embarking upon it, although perhaps not subscribing to any creed, is nonetheless pursuing a religious quest. By paying careful attention to the unconscious, as manifested in dream and fantasy, the individual comes to change his/her attitude from one in which ego and will are paramount to one in which he/she acknowledges that they are guided by an integrating factor which is not of their own making. This integrating factor is named the Self, an archetype which not only signifies union between the opposites within the psyche but ‘‘is a God-image or, at least, cannot be distinguished from one’’ (Jung, 1967, 9ii, par 42). Maslow (1968) went to some trouble to argue that mental health should be seen as a transcendence of the environment, rather than an adjustment to it. The job analysis, the requirements of the task, should not be the major criteria of worth or health of the individual. In his view, in order to understand the fully matured person (authentic, self-actualizing, individuated, productive and healthy), one cannot define him/ her in environment-centred terms – the ability to master the environment, to be capable, adequate, effective and competent in relation to it, to do a good job, to perceive it well, to be in good relations to it and

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to be successful in its terms (Maslow, 1968, p. 179). Rather, mature actors should be recognized by their independence of the environment – their ability to stand against it, to fight it, to neglect it, to turn one’s back on it, to refuse it or adapt to it. Maslow (1968) stressed the detachment, the independence, the self-governing character of these people, their tendency to look within for guiding values and rules to live by. Only in this way, can one leave a theoretical place for meditation, contemplation and for all other forms of going into the Self, of fuming away from the outer world in order to listen to the voices (Maslow, 1968, p. 182). Fromm (1979, p. 101) argued that conscious motivations, ideas and beliefs are a blend of false information and that they have irrational passions, rationalizations and prejudices in which morsels of truth swim around and give the reassurance, albeit false, that the whole mixture is real and true. This process attempts to organize the whole cesspool of illusions according to the laws of logic and plausibility. This level of consciousness is supposed to reflect reality; it is the map one uses for organizing life. He asserts that this false map is not repressed but that the knowledge of reality, the knowledge of what is true, is repressed – thus, being referred to the real, in contrast to the falsified, illusionary picture. In this sense, any attempt to increase the sector of being means increased insight into the reality of one’s self, of others and of the world around us. The main ethical goals of Judaism and Christianity, overcoming greed and hate, cannot be realized without another factor that is central in Buddhism, even though it also plays a role in Judaism and in Christianity – that the way to being lies in penetrating the surface and grasping reality (Fromm, 1979, p. 102). Conclusion: towards spirituality in leadership The examination of characteristics of spiritual leadership can lead to (Greenleaf, 1977; Covey, 1990; Cavanagh, 1999): . Improved personal, institutional and leadership spirituality, with added humanity and care. . Facilitative processes for people by going with the flow. . Relationships with internal and external communities, which includes links with nature and the environment. . The leader’s destiny with communities means being equipped to go with the flow and the seasonality that is part of the social, political, physical and economic aspects and, therefore, part of leadership inter-dependency. . A more balanced approach to facilitating everyone’s potential. . The rejection of elitism. . More self-reliance and inter-dependency rather than dependence. . Development processes for people. . More positive recognition of service in its broadest sense. . Going with leadership and organizational flow with high-level facilitation and strategic astuteness.

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. . . . . . . . . . .

Balanced and integrative operating environments through process and Spirituality and teamwork. leadership praxis Internal networks, teams and communities. Everyone with a sense of identity and fulfilment. A quietly efficient community with self-realization maintained over time. 179 No leadership or individual ego-centricity (ego-less leadership). People getting on with their work and enjoying it. Symbiosis of polarity. No domination, but plenty of facilitative participation and leadership. Wisdom and insight. Pleasure from seeing potential realized. Humility, quietude, compassion and sensitivity. Enhanced service as a fundamental ethos.

The Spirit in the business environment can bring vision and enthusiasm to a work (Cavanagh, 1999). Executives who take spirituality seriously are able to more readily lead and articulate vision for the firm (Cavanagh, 1999). There are numerous examples of executives of firms who have articulated the overtly religious vision that guided them as CEOs of their respective firms. For example, Max DePree was chairman and CEO of Herman Miller. During DePree’s tenure, the firm was regularly listed on Fortune’s list of ‘‘best managed’’ and ‘‘most innovative’’. Max DePree made explicit his humane and religiously-based philosophy of management (DePree, 1989). James Autry, who had been CEO of Meredith Communications did much the same (Autry, 1991). This interest in spirituality embraces diverse traditions. The influence of the Koran on his business decisions and activities is cited by Farooq Kathwarai, CEO of Ethan Allen Interiors. Ranwal Rekhi, CEO of CyberMedia, speaks of how Sikhism affects his management style. Tom Chappell, founder and CEO of Tom’s of Maine (Chappell, 1993), explains how, in search for new insights, he enrolled at the Harvard Divinity School and, while there, resolved to use his role as CEO to bring Soul back to the firm. Chappell realized that common values and a shared sense of purpose can turn a company into a community where daily work takes on a deeper meaning and satisfaction (Chappell, 1993). Spirituality in leadership was explicit at the beginning, through the epic of Gilgamesh who ruled at Uruk in ancient Mesopotamia. In the Epic, Gilgamesh does great things in his restless search to assert himself against the iron laws of the Gods which ensure human failure. During the management era of the last hundred years, spirituality has been implicit, only to re-surface at the end of the twentieth century. Modern Western management practice is undergoing change slowly and painfully, recognizing that the quick solutions on which it has relied for many years do not work. One of the reasons for this lies in ignoring the invisible world, the spiritual, the collective unconscious, the

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underlying order of things. One solution lies in contemplation, to approach situations with an attitude of discernment rather than one of intervention; with an attitude of acceptance rather than control; with an attitude of letting go rather than hooking on; with an attitude of listening rather than doing; and with an attitude of humility rather than competence. This is a discoverable leadership approach than can be contemplated and sustained in chaotic times. References Ackerman (1984), The Flow State: A New View of Organizations and Managing, Miles River Press, Alexandria, VA. Arnold, W. and Plas, J. (1993), The Human Touch, Wiley, New York, NY. Autry, J. (1991), Love and Profit: The Art of Caring Leadership, Avon, New York, NY. Banner D. and Gagne, E. (1995), Designing Effective Transformational Views, Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA.

Organizations:

Traditional

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Detroit Free Press (1998), ‘‘Taking God to work: some business leaders let religion influence vision, employee policy’’, 2 October, pp. 1A and 9A. Erteszek, J.J. (1993), ‘‘The common venture enterprise: a western answer to the Japanese art of management’’, New Management, Vol. 1 No. 2, pp. 4-10. Fairholm, G.W. (1996), ‘‘Spiritual leadership: fulfilling whole-self needs at work’’, Leadership and Organizational Development, Vol. 17 No. 5, pp. 11-17. Fox, M. (Ed.) (1982), Western Spirituality: Historical Roots, Ecumenical Routes, Bear and Co., Santa Fe, NM. Fromm, E. (1979), To Have or To Be, Abacus, London. Gladwin, T., Kennelly, J. and Tara-Shelomith, K. (1994), ‘‘Shifting paradigms for sustainable development: implications for management theory and research’’, Academy of Management Review, Vol. 20 No. 4, October, pp. 874-907. Gleick, J. (1987), Chaos: Making a New Science, Penguin, New York, NY. Goleman, D. (1977), The Varieties of the Meditative Experience, Dutton, New York, NY. Greenleaf, R. (1973), The Servant Leader, Greenleaf Center, Newton Center. Greenleaf, R. (1977), Servant Leadership, Paulist Press, New York, NY. Gross, T. (1996), The Last World on Power: Executive Re-Invention For Leaders Who Must Make the Impossible Happen, Doubleday, New York, NY. Hesse, H. (1995), Journey to the East, Picador, London. Jearnott, T.M. (1989), ‘‘Moral leadership and practical wisdom’’, International Journal of Social Economics, Vol. 16 No. 6, pp. 14-38. Jung, C.G. (1967), The Collected Works of CG Jung, Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ. Kadloubovsky, E. and Palmer, G.E.H. (1969), Early Fathers from the Philokalia, Faber and Faber, London. Kass, J.D., Friedman, R., Leserman, J., Zuttermeister, P.C. and Benson, H. (1991), ‘‘Health outcomes and a new index of spiritual experience’’, Journal For the Scientific Studies of Religion, Vol. 30 No. 2, pp. 203-10. King, S. and Nicol, D.M. (1999), ‘‘Organizational enhancement through recognition of individual spirituality: reflections of Jaques and Jung’’, Journal of Organizational Change Management, Vol. 12 No. 3, pp. 17-24. Kouzes, J. and Posner, B. (1987), The Leadership Challenge, Jossey-Bass, San Francisco, CA. MacDonald, D.A., Friedman, H.L. and Kuentzel, J.G. (1999a), ‘‘A survey of measures of spiritual and transpersonal constructs: part one – research update’’, The Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, Vol. 31 No. 2, pp. 137-54. MacDonald, D.A., Kuentzel, J.G. and Friedman, H.L. (1999b), ‘‘A survey of measures of spiritual and transpersonal constructs: part two – research update’’, The Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, Vol. 31 No. 2, pp. 155-77. MacDonald, D.A., LeClair, L., Holland, C.J., Alter, A. and Friedman, H.L. (1995), ‘‘A survey of measures of transpersonal contracts’’, Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, Vol. 27 No. 2, pp. 171-235. Macintyre, B. (1999), ‘‘Lumberjacks urged to discover sensitive side’’, The Times, December 12, p. 12. Mair, V.N. (1990), Tao Te Ching, Leo Tzu: The Classic Book of Integrity and the Way, Bantam, New York, NY. Maslow, A.H. (1968), Toward a Psychology of Being, Van Nostrand, New York, NY. Mathews, J. (1994), Catching the Wave, Allen and Unwin, Sydney.

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Coming out of the closet: negotiating spiritual expression in the workplace Marjolein Lips-Wiersma and Colleen Mills

Negotiating spiritual expression 183

University of Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand Keywords Interpersonal communications, Group dynamics, Modelling, Personal needs, Decision making Abstract Current spirit at work literature often assumes spirituality needs to be introduced to the workplace. This paper offers an additional perspective, arguing that spirituality is already present, as many individuals have spiritual beliefs but struggle to articulate or enact these beliefs at work. Exploratory narrative research revealed frequent references to a lack of safety in expressing spirituality at work. The question is why and how do individuals silence their spiritual expression. This paper explores this question and presents a model that captures the ongoing experiential nature of spirituality and proposes that decisions about spiritual expression in the workplace are complex meshes of stimulus, decision-making and action cycles (SDAs) that are embedded in the individual’s sensemaking, interpersonal relationships and group dynamics. Findings are explained through different theoretical lenses such as diversity management, social identity theory, social penetration theory and affective sensemaking theory.

Introduction In the current spirit at work it is often assumed that spirituality needs to be introduced to the workplace, yet an analysis of a collection of narratives on the influence of spirituality on career behavior revealed frequent references to a lack of safety in expressing spirituality in workplace settings. Words and phrases such as ‘‘being in the closet’’; ‘‘hiding’’; ‘‘safety’’ and ‘‘the risk of being different’’ were repeatedly used suggesting the issue is not one of introducing spirituality into the workplace but of understanding why spirituality is not always expressed in the workplace. The starting point for this paper is therefore the assumption that spirituality is already present because many individuals within organizations report having spiritual beliefs, which are an integral part of who they are, whether at work or elsewhere. Using a set of illustrative workers’ narratives this paper explores the question of how workers decide whether to express their spirituality at work. The extant research on diversity in the workplace is concerned with the conditions necessary in order to create safe, equitable and welcoming work environments. Judgmental and divisive reactions to visible social identities such as race, gender or age have been extensively documented as factors that work against the creation of such an environment. Far less has been documented about reactions to visible religious identity and invisible spiritual beliefs. This invisibility and the concomitant lack of reaction poses challenges as the individual has to make the choice to give voice to or silence his/her

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spiritual social identity in the face of very limited evidence as to how spiritually based communication and behavior will be interpreted and responded to. In this paper we draw on diversity literature, as well as sensemaking, relationship development and social identity theories to analyze narratives that reveal individuals’ decisions regarding the expression of spirituality in the workplace. In particular, we are concerned with the dimensions that contribute to workers’ decisions to silence or express their spirituality. In so doing we suggest a conceptual framework for considering the process of spiritual expression that could provide the basis for further theoretical development as well as alert individuals and organizations to the factors that appear to be implicated in the silencing of spirituality. Risks associated with expressing religious and spiritual identity in a secular organization Religion- and spirituality-based bias is an emerging issue (Bennett, 2001), however little research has been done on the topic. Extant research has primarily focussed on visible religious expressions. A recent US survey by the Tannenbaum Centre[1] found 20 per cent of the surveyed population from the US reported having been a victim of religious bias such as not being allowed to take time off to observe particular holidays or for prayer time or being afraid to ask for time off work to observe these. Workers reported being told not to wear any type of beard or facial hair even when these were worn for religious reasons. And employees who wear clothing that expresses their particular faith were said to be told there may be negative implications for promotion or were made fun of by other employees. While many of these perceived biases and actual experiences were reported by members of minority religions, there was an overall perception, including those of the Christian majority group, that there was a general bias against the expression of religious beliefs in the workplace. Beyond immediate visible religious expressions, and the blatant documented consequences of these for the employee, there is an overall perception that spirituality is a risky topic to raise and discuss within an organizational setting and that individuals self-censure their spiritual values, beliefs and attitudes: Many workers desire opportunities for spiritual expression in the workplace but are hesitant because of fears of offending peers and management (Lewis and Geroy, 2000, p. 683). . . . the result of an intense compound of traditions and attitudes makes spirituality almost undiscussable in grouping where the various belief systems of members are unknown. It feels risky, awkward, and the point of doing it is always in question (Vaill, 1991, p. 11).

Mitroff and Denton (1999) found that most people wished ardently that they could express their spirituality in the workplace. But at the same time, most were extremely hesitant to do so because they had strong fears and doubts that they could do so without offending their peers. At this point it may be useful to make a distinction between religious and spiritual practice. In relation to work and organizations, religion is usually

connoted with prescribed practices such as prayer, specific dress codes or observance of holy days. Spirituality is connoted with daily personal integration and applications of deeply held values such as humility, integrity or service (Conger, 1994; Harlos, 2000; Milliman et al., 1999). In making this distinction we would not like to imply that those belonging to a religion are not concerned with daily applications of values, or that those who do not have a spiritual belief do not have deeply held values. We simply want to indicate a distinction between (prescribed) religious practice and spiritual values, and indicate that the narratives drawn on in this paper come from a study that incorporates both. As such this paper extends the discussion beyond religious bias to include the expression of spiritual values outside the designated religious frameworks. Identity is socially constructed, meaning it is discovered and expressed through exchanges with others. Expression of one’s spirituality, including religious expression, is inextricably associated with this negotiation of identity. There are potentially negative consequences associated with the expression of spirituality, particularly in secular workplaces, despite spirituality’s centrality to the lives of many employees. From diversity literature we can deduce a variety of individual and organizational consequences of expressing marginalized aspects of one’s true and whole identity in the workplace. The diversity literature recognizes that there are risks for individuals and organizations who form allegiances with marginalized social identity groups. One risk for example is that an individual or organization’s professionalism might be brought into question. However there are recognized potential gains to be made by both employees and the organizations they work for when diversity is embraced in the workplace, particularly when this allows people to bring their whole selves to work. Creed and Scully (2000, p. 392) suggest that: Making social identities fully social is significant for employees as it enables them to move beyond the life of the classic, impersonal incumbent of a role and bring their whole self to work .

Within gay and lesbian literature the expression of identity is not only related to bringing the whole self to work but also to social changes that may reduce the stigma and costs of a particular social identity such as being gay (Creed and Scully, 2000). In other words creating a safe environment is being brought about by marginalized individuals taking the risk to express their identity. Women and identity literature also addresses how women can challenge, neutralize and modify social imperatives that restrict the enactment of their identities and live more meaningfully through heightened identity awareness and expression (Hall, 1990). While some diversity literature is concerned with social change and individual well-being, diversity is typically discussed in terms of benefits to the organization. These include functional diversity benefits such as drawing on different perspectives to enhance decision quality, innovation, renewal and creativity as well as benefits of social category diversity such as tapping into a wider pool of qualified and able individuals

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(Schneider and Northcraft, 1999). Literature and research advocating managing religious diversity in the workplace makes claims to both functional and social category benefits (Bennett, 2001). Much of the discourse on spirituality in the workplace is trying to address a sense that: Separation from other people, alienation from their work, and lack of meaning in their lives . . . leaves one feeling dry, unfulfilled and unhappy, and is often experienced as a profound absence or vacuum in one’s life (Cavanagh, 1999, p. 186).

It is suggested that when individuals bring their spirituality to the workplace they feel less alienated from work, self and others and therefore more whole. Additional potential benefits of expression of integrating spirituality and work are identified, such as increased creativity and intuition (Biberman and Whittey, 1997; Neck and Milliman, 1994); improved ethical behavior (Fort, 1995); increased empowerment and concern with the environment (Lee, 1991); more and better leadership (Conger, 1994; Nevard, 1991); stronger more cohesive vision and purpose (Kahnweiler and Otte, 1997) and enhanced team and community building (Hawley, 1993; Henson, 1991; Biberman and Whittey, 1997). This literature supports the thesis that there are potential individual, organizational and social advantages to spirituality being expressed in organizations. However individuals are at the same time self-censuring spiritual expression. For this reason we suggest it is important for organizations and individuals to understand the process of decision-making in relation to spiritual expression. Research design Methodology A combination of narrative and collaborative inquiry (Reason and Rowan, 1981) were used. A narrative inquiry was viewed to be appropriate as ‘‘a life narrative brings to the fore a frame through which purpose and direction in a person’s life can be made visible’’ (Hyde´n, 1995, p. 69) and ‘‘shows the unity and purpose of a human life’’ (MacIntyre, 1981, p. 219). This was considered to be desirable in a study of spirituality. One strength of collaborative inquiry is that research is done ‘‘with’’ rather than ‘‘on’’ individuals (Heron, 1992). It involves the research participants themselves in the analysis of the data, thus ensuring that the interpretations of the data by the researcher are accurate and that the interpretations of the data surpass the limited worldview of the researcher. This was considered to be particularly important to ensure the quality of qualitative analysis on issues of spirituality, as the spirituality of the researcher is different from that of the research participants, and important interpretations could be missed if the researchers’ own spirituality was used as lens or standard. Data collection and context The purpose of this paper is to theorize the experience of spiritual expression in the workplace. Narratives collected in a study with a wider focus of the

influence of spirituality on work behavior were chosen to illustrate the emergent theory. Participants in the primary study considered themselves to have a spiritual dimension to their lives and were actively trying to enact this in their daily life, including their working lives. The overall sample, as well as the illustrative sample drawn on in this paper, was chosen to include a broad range of religious diversity as well as those who had a spiritual belief but did not belong to any religion. Participants in the primary study came from a wide variety of cultural and occupational backgrounds as shown in Table I. These participants were chosen to represent the range of spiritual affiliations present in New Zealand. The illustrative narratives in this paper are representative of all these narratives. Research participants were asked to tell their career (defined as a sequence of paid and non-paid working roles) histories. The interview in which these histories were told started with the following statement by the researcher: ‘‘over the phone we briefly discussed the purpose of this research. I am interested in the interface of your spiritual and/or religious beliefs and your career. In order to find out how these are in harmony or conflict, I am asking you to tell me the story of how your career developed over time. Please start from where you feel you should start. I will not interrupt your process of telling but if at any stage you need some time to reflect, want me to turn off the tape recorder, or need a break, please let me know’’. The introduction was designed so as not to guide the research outcomes to any significant extent, as is appropriate for exploratory research (Tierny and Lincoln, 1997), also to get a richness of data associated with narrative (Polkinghorne, 1997), to enable the individual through the telling of his or her career ‘‘story’’ to reflect on his or her deeper meanings and values in relation to career (Lax, 1996). This is appropriate also to safeguard the internal validity, which is one of the strengths of the qualitative approach (Ritchie et al., 1997), and necessary to bring rigor to doing research into the subjective. All research participants commented on problems relating to expressing spirituality without any prompting, indicating that the negotiation of expression of spirituality is an important concern for those who are trying to enact their spirituality in their working lives. The narratives and the study from which they were drawn should be viewed within its context. New Zealand is a relatively secular society with a church Nationality Religion Occupation Gender Age

9 New Zealand Pakeha; 2 New Zealand Maori; 1 German/Samoan; 1 American; 3 English Anglican (2); Baha’i (2); Buddhist (1); Catholic (2); Christian, no particular denomination (2); Follower of Gurumai (1); Haahi Rangitu (1); Jewish (1); Mormon (1); Quaker (1); Spiritual, no particular denomination (2) HR Manager (1); Packer supermarket (1); Trainer (2); Manager (3); Industrial Chaplain (1); Systems Manager (1); Painter (1); Oyster-farmer (2); Priest (1); Teacher (1); Business Owner (2) 8 Males 8 Females All participants were between 40 and 50 years old

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Table I. Study sample

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attendance declining faster than in most Western countries but the majority of the population (70 per cent) still professes to have a belief in God or some other divine or universal source (Webster, 1992) and an increasing number of people are joining non-Western religions such as Buddhism. Visible spirituality is often encountered within the religious rites of weekend church services (i.e. Christian churches predominate), weddings, baptisms and funerals. Spiritual subtlety is often expected outside the confines of the endorsed religious rites. Under such restricted normative circumstances it does not take much to distinguish one’s self spiritually from the societal norm. Data analysis Each narrative was examined for evidence of the way the informant dealt with his/her spirituality in the workplace. Sections within each narrative were coded and recoded using an iterative analytical process modelled on constant comparison technique that lies at the heart of the Grounded Theory Approach (Glaser, 1978, 1992, 1998; Glaser and Strauss, 1967). This involved coding data into categories that emerged from one narrative and then considering subsequent narratives in terms of these codes, refining the categories each time until they adequately fitted the entire collection of narratives. The conceptual framework Three interrelated dimensions cycled through the narratives and together provided the mechanism for determining the level at which spirituality was expressed (or silenced) in the workplace. These dimensions were stimuli, analysis-leading-to-decision and action. Stimuli refers to the cues individuals used to stimulate active consideration of spiritual expressiveness. Analysisleading-to-decision refers to the decision-making process (or lack off) that ensued, while actions refers to the responses that were attributed to this decision-making process. It is important that the reader appreciates that the actions taken by informants were seldom the result of a single stimulusdecision-making-action cycle (SDA). A narrative can give this impression when studied line by line. When the narrative is considered as a whole, however, an elaborate mesh of cycles is often revealed. This means that the analysis for each narrative shown in Table II should be considered as a whole rather than merely as a sequence of discrete SDA cycles. Within each dimension of an SDA cycle there were a range of different subdimensions. Stimuli could be internally referenced inferences (e.g. inferences based upon feeling states) or externally referenced inferences (e.g. based upon perceptions of the workplace environment). They could be conclusions drawn from comparisons between past and present workplaces or from data from empirical ‘‘tests’’. Thus the stimuli that prompted the SDA cycles spread across a continuum from internal, intuitive factors to the results of empirical processes relying on sensory data. Decision-making could take many forms but frequently involved judgements of cause-effect and confirmatory thinking (i.e. confirming

In the end I even ran a couple of programs within the council and by that time I think I was feeling confident enough that I belonged there

Chris (community manager, public service) I was very much a closet, sort of yoga person and I did not talk about my Guru much to people, who I knew would be very skeptical and cynical about Gurus and the word Guru has so many connotations that as soon as you use that word, I sort of felt like I had to give this whole long lecture of explain what Guru actually means to people. So I would avoid it But I wanted to introduce people in my organization to meditation and this put me in a situation where I had to really come out of the closet within the organization in terms of saying well, you know, I do this kind of thing, I meditate. I invited various people along I talked to all these people and discovered that some were kind of fundamentalist Christians and I realized that I had to keep away from them and not teach them about these things because it got them upset But I made that decision to be constantly very open and also realized that I needed to just talk not make judgements about who I spoke about this to, not censor necessarily, be undiscriminating but not miss opportunities and to allow other forces to be at work

Narrative

In order to act as change agent I have to come out of the closet When people get upset I should keep away from them If I am not evangelical then people are unlikely to react negatively and I allow other forces to be at work When I feel I belong I can do things (i.e. in-group status allows action)

Desire to take on role of change agent intentionality (internally ref. inferences)

Perceived sense of fit (internally ref. inference)

Re-assessment and decision (reasoning)

Consequence: some people got upset (empirical data)

Decided could not deal with consequences

Analysis?decision

Perceived sense of fit anticipated skeptical and cynical reactions (externally referenced inferences)

Stimuli

Praxis

(continued)

Openness

Avoidance

Openness

Avoidance

Actions

Negotiating spiritual expression 189

Table II. Narratives on spiritual expression in the workplace

Table II.

Caitlin (manager health services) I was feeling the conflict between not being able to express myself spiritually quite as I wanted. I was a closet Buddhist. There was a strong Christian influence within the foundation. Whenever I came across anything religious it would be God and Heaven and be with Jesus. I felt I’d better tread very carefully with my Buddhism out of respect for people who had lost children. God and Christ were their means of coping. I also felt I had to do this because people have the weirdest ideas of what a Buddhist actually is and they would have been alarmed that I would rush around in an orange robe and shave my head, so I was circumspect because of that I started to make reference generally to a few people and I erected a little shrine on the windowsill. I found a piece of Kauri gum that is faintly in the shape of the Buddha so there’s my Buddha and then I found a piece of red rock which is like the Sangha and a faint blue green glass bottle top end so I put those three on my windowsill and there are my three jewels right in front of me every day. Not one person ever asked what they were so it was quite good it didn’t freak them out. My little shrine helps me to recollect that one needs to be mindful about what one is doing and skilful in one’s speech and compassionate in one’s dealings and non-judgmental I felt my identity is so tied up with who I am in connection with my work. With the ability to earn a wage, with that recognition from the world. It is so goal oriented and I want to become process oriented and I want to really let go and explore. Be more open, be more open to being able to respond in a more genuine way rather than what I perceived as a confined way

Probleming: preferred Non-action way is judged as less confining but not endorsed. Worker is compromised if she wishes to maintain a positive work identity (continued) Perception of incongruity between work’s ways and own ways (comparative assessment) Desire to work on own terms (intentionality)

Limited signalling of Buddhist identity. (NB., coupled with analysis) If no response or no negative response then it is OK to take limited action (especially at personal level)

Desire to openly operate by Buddhist spiritual values at work (intentionality)

Concealment

Actions

Judged consequences for others as undesirable

Analysis?decision

Perceived sense of fit (internally referenced perception) Anticipation of others’ reactions/perceptions (internally referenced inference)

Stimuli

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Narrative

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Hannah (trainer, manufacturing) A group of Jewish women recently got together and just talked and we all said then how good it was to actually say things and not have to be conscious of what you are saying, and the other people will understand that. I mean, they may only be the things like the importance of being with the family on Friday nights. I do not often have that in my present work environment and feel like a bit of an oddball here. For example, at my current job, if I can’t go out for company drinks on Friday nights, because I am Jewish, people challenge this and while I still do not drink, I do not often explain this anymore. Where in my previous job in which I worked with lots of Maori I could say ‘‘hey, and that is not good enough for you guys not to recongnize that’’. Because their culture and their spirituality was a big part of their lives and we were acknowledging that, we were terribly politically correct then, in every aspect, so that was just another part of it really. Recongnizing and affirming diversity Ther was a belief in something outside of just machines and systems. I guess that is what it is. And that might even be somebody in the group who was into women’s spirituality and she would say ‘‘God is all providing, the universe provides’’. You could say those things. So, that was an expression of where she was coming from, which was, ‘‘hey, you know, it is okay, these things will take care of themselves’’. I cannot imagine saying those things in my current work environment, it seems out of place I sometimes worry for the workers here who are deeply religious Pacific Islanders, and I tried to start with prayers once but they looked at me as if I was mad because it didn’t fit here. But they would normally all start their meetings with a prayer. Even when we had Christmas lunch, the natural thing for them would be to bless the food, but they don’t, and I think its because they know it doesn’t belong here

Narrative

Current workplace is so different so it is inappropriate to act in ways consistent with the old one Perceived incongruency of others’ reaction is taken to confirmed others’ judgement of non-fit

Data

Shared data confirms the comparative analysis and sense of lack of fit When your explanations are not accepted you don’t try again

Analysis?decision

Perception of incongruity between current and previous work’s ways (comparative assessment)

Results of comparative analysis

Data

Perceived lack of fit (internally referenced perception)

Stimuli

(continued)

Cessation of action

Non-action

Non-action

Private action and public concealment

Actions

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Table II.

Table II.

William (systems manager, manufacturing) In my previous workplace I did not integrate my Quaker beliefs. The car industry was dominated by multinationals with very hierachical structures. I knew I was in level seven and there were twenty-six levels. The New Zealand manager was on level 13, so he was half way up to heaven. So there were all these levels and in that kind of environment it was very easy to get swamped and very difficult to be different After a string of computing jobs in different production companies, it was the construction company I am currently working for that gave me the ‘‘break’’ I now think I must have been looking for. The construction comapany was in trouble and needed its employees to start thinking much more creatively to move forward. To achieve this they put all employees on leadership skills. Over the years I had become quite cynical. It had become a habit I wanted to get rid of. So I had already identified there were some things I wanted to change about myself. In the course there was a huge sense of group identity and a set of values which I suddenly realized that I had had for a long time and had been hiding for years. And I came to a major realization that these could be compatible with my work. Values of service, integrity, understanding what you want, but also what other people want, being vulnerable and taking risks. So it was now legitimate to express theses values in the work place And through the course I discovered many like-minded souls, which is important to me and which I now actively look for. It seems to be important to me now that where I do have influence that that influence is used to create an environment and uphold those values so that other people feel that it’s safe or that it’s valuable or worthwhile to be that way

Actions

Openness Others seem more like me so it is OK to express personal values

Analysis?decision

(continued)

Action: articulating and enacting values at work Judgement that the hidden values could be safely expressed in new climate Perception of fit and endoresement (externally referenced inference)

Praxis Perception of group shared The values are values (externally referenced important to others inference) too so it is important for me to facilitate their expression

See below Judgement of incongruity between personal values and mode of operation

Comparative analysis

Perception that it is difficult Anticipated difficulty No action to be different in hierarchical precluded testing company (externally referenced inference)

Recently I’m finding a way through all this. I am working with a group of Sense of fit (externally women from different departments and I have more of a sense of referenced inference) belonging. There seems more respect for each other’s values and we communicate these more openly

Stimuli

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Narrative

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Stimuli

I had the opportunity to opt for redundancy and I started looking for a new job and I did 24 job interviews out of which I was offered 14 positions. The reason why I choose my current job was that I had decided my future employers had to meet two conditions. One was to allow me to get my Moko Whakairo done and the other was for me to be Maori in my work and bring Maori and Pakeha together from my place of strength. And I asked the interviewers ‘‘What are your perceptions on that?’’ My Moko Whakairo is a physical expression (of my spiritual beliefs), because my life and how it is passed on to me by my ancestors is all included and explained in my Moko Whakairo and that is why I wear it with a passion and with pride. The answer that they gave me (at my current job) decided that this was the position that I would take out of the 14. Because the answer that the panel gave me was ‘‘we won’t judge you on how you look if you have a Moko Whakairo’ and in terms of your tradition ‘‘we look on that as a partnership under the Treaty of Waitangi’’, so that made me accept this position, because although they were all Pakeha, they were taking on board my traditions and what I believed Perception that data meant values would be respected (externally referenced inference)

Data

Desire for congruency between preferred ways and workplace ways (intentionality)

Hone (manager community centre) In my previous job in the manufacturing environment I prayed as I think Perception of lack of fit (comparative analysis) I need spiritual help to help me out in whatever needed doing. But I could not express spirituality fully in terms of my traditions, I would not open meetings with a prayer. I feel actions speak louder than words and I tried to put my beliefs into action in my role as a supervisor Data I never had my Moko Whakairo done. I actually approached the Manager when I was made Supervisor, when I asked the Manager what their policy was on tattoos, he actually said to me ‘‘well, effectively it will stop your progression on the corporate ladder’’. And I said ‘‘fair enough’’ but I knew it was going to happen one day.

Narrative

Evidence suggests congruency between workplace and desired way of operating

Immediate situation justifies short-term acceptance does not preclude longer-term action

Anticipated negative reaction

Analysis?decision

(continued)

Action: wearing Moko and working in a Maori way

Delayed action Makes expression of spirituality a condition of accepting a new position

Limited action: some enactment of values

Actions

Negotiating spiritual expression 193

Table II.

Table II.

Regina (industrial chaplin) I struggled with expressing spirituality. I did not want to be presumptuous or patronising and say to them that I saw them all as spiritual beings, as they may not see themselves like that. Yet that was what was driving me in my work and I could only express this at the Chaplain’s meetings. While my head told me this made sense, I often felt somewhat incomplete at work, as if I could not bring in my own source I found I could not discuss God and Jesus directly in the workplace. It would make them nervous. I had to adjust my language. I would discuss Christian values such as love and compassion. Even the word love did not really seem to fit, but for example justice was okay to use. I found I could be more effective by changing to more inclusive language

Actions

Modified action

When your ideas do Concealment not appear to fit then you do not confront others with them

Analysis?decision

Data about people’s reaction The values could be introduced but only if done in a sympathetic manner

Perception of non-fit (internally referenced inference)

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expectations using various intuitive or empirical stimuli). However, what we found most interesting about the processes of decision-making was the beliefs that underpinned these cognitive processes. These underpinning beliefs are given in Table II in the column marked ‘‘analysis?decision’’. The overarching belief is that openness and action with regard to spiritual expression in the workplace should only occur when the likelihood of negative reactions is low. The condition that is assumed to ensure the possibility of negative reactions is low, is a sense of belonging or in other words in-group status. Thus as a whole the decision-making reported in the narratives reveals a tension between group acceptance (i.e. belonging or social fit) and self-expression. This finding is not surprising as it is consistent with many theories on drive and motivation including needs-based motivational theories such as Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs which assumes people are motivated to achieve a sense of belonging and that this provides a platform for achieving a sense of self-actualization (i.e. a sense of fulfilment and authentic self-expression). The sub-categories within the dimension termed ‘‘action’’ stretched across a continuum from protective to political action. Between these two nodes were avoidance, concealment, cessation of action, non-action, limited signalling, openness, modified action and praxis. When the reported actions are classified into these sub-categories it is interesting to see how each narrative contains evidence of some deliberate form of spiritual expression (see Figure 1). Thus the conceptual framework suggests varying degrees of spiritual expression exist. It seems that grappling with the issue of one’s spirituality in the workplace is not just a matter of choosing expression or silence. What people

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Figure 1. A model of spiritual expression in the workplace

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do is actually much more complex than this. The mesh of SDA cycles gives rise to a web of related but sometimes quite different levels of action. In Regina’s narrative, for example, three sorts of spiritual action are taken: concealment, modified action and praxis. This aspect of the conceptual model is a consequence of the ongoing SDA cycles that are woven through a person’s work life and should be taken to reflect the dynamic and evolving nature of spiritual expression. In summary then, the conceptual model we are proposing suggests that dealing with spiritual expression in the workplace is made up of a mesh of interrelated stimulus-decision-making-action cycles. The outcome is an array of actions that must be understood within the context of the ongoing experience of the individual and the underpinning tension between belonging and selfexpression and the belief that expression should only occur in conditions that are unlikely to foster negative reactions. Discussion We found an overarching belief that openness and action with regard to spiritual expression in the workplace should only occur when the likelihood of negative reactions is low. Negative reactions were anticipated as a result of perceived differences. Diversity literature is primarily concerned with marginalized social identity groups, which are usually groups that have (traditionally) been in the minority. In relation to the New Zealand context this raises interesting questions because the majority of the population still professes to have a spiritual belief. One explanation for the findings could be that as a result of an intense compound of religious traditions and a history of subtle and not so subtle religious strife, we are pre-dispositioned to pay more attention to differences than similarities. If this is the case, the distinction between religion and spirituality deserves more attention because whereas religion is connoted with predescribed practice and there are obvious differences in religious practice between religious groups, spirituality is connoted with deeply held values such as humility or integrity as well as a concern with meaningful living, which are likely to have more common ground across different religions. It is worth investigating whether, in exploring spiritual values outside the designated religious frameworks we may come to the conclusion that we have more in common than we think and if so how these commonalities can be expressed in relation to our daily work. Perhaps beyond the diversity perspective, there are other perspectives that are worth exploring. From the narratives we can see that the stimuli that informants suggested prompted their decisions to express or not express spirituality in the workplace were tightly coupled to notions of difference and fit. As noted earlier, these ‘‘difference and fit’’ stimuli ranged from intuitive (i.e. internally referenced, thought stimuli) through to sensory (i.e. externally referenced, perceptual stimuli). This suggests that workers were not merely reacting to environmental cues within a vacuum. Each had an internal frame of reference which provided intuitive stimuli and primed them to detect or infer differences in spiritual

orientation and expression between themselves and others in the work environment. The presence of this internal frame of reference suggests each had a sensitivity to matters spiritual, a predisposition to make comparative and fit judgements about spiritual expression and a concern for the possibility of spiritual marginality. The various types of stimuli fed into an analysis process which lead to decision-making that was ultimately about determining the appropriateness of spiritual expression and hinged on beliefs about the conditions necessary for expression to be appropriate. If the conditions were deemed to be likely to foster negative reactions then the decision was made to limit, conceal or avoid spiritual expression. If the conditions were considered to be unlikely to foster negative reactions then action of some sort was decided to be appropriate or possible. Evaluation of these actions was therefore inevitably tied to a consequence assessment. Taking cognisance of the possible consequences when expressing one’s sense of one’s interactive experiences at work has been proposed as a key aspect of expressing workplace sensemaking (Mills, 2000). It reflects the tension people encounter between behaving normatively in order to gain approval and behaving in ways that allow expression of those deviant (i.e. from the norm) aspects of themselves that risk causing social marginalization. The illustrative narratives in this paper show how expressing one’s sense of spirituality also reflect this tension which is expressed in what could be characterized as a social cost-benefit analysis. Social Penetration Theory (Altman and Taylor, 1973) proposes that relationships are developed by managing the tension between cycles of openness and closedness across a range of conversational topics. It asserts that relationships form and deepen when individuals match increasingly personal levels of self-disclosure on shared topics of interest. Thus it is a theory of reciprocity (Griffin, 1991, p. 163). The more information two people exchange about themselves the more interpersonal their communication becomes. The least available information is psychological (i.e. attitudes, values, beliefs, feelings). This is the most person-specific and intimate and is generally the information people are most cautious about sharing. However, closer relationships are both created and sustained by reciprocated matched sharing of psychological information. If we view the narratives from such a perspective then a more comprehensive understanding of the mesh of SDA cycles is possible. These cycles were all about determining the degree to which spiritual self-expression was possible and selecting an action characterized by an appropriate level of openness or self-disclosure. This was done by considering evidence, intuitions and intentions and how well these matched the work situation. Interestingly, none of the informants talked about taking into account the closeness of his/her relationships with others in the workplace. This is despite spirituality being a topic which demands much higher levels of disclosure and thus intimacy than such topics as sport or cars because it is intimately tied to who we are and how

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we feel about ourselves. The point here is that spiritual expression ranks as a highly intimate process, requiring a level of reciprocated social penetration typical of close personal relationships. In the SDA cycles the informants were focussing on the topic of expression (i.e. spirituality) rather than the intimacy of this expression. From the discourses one could be led to conclude that spirituality was only something that reached the informant’s inner sense of his/ herself rather than the inner senses of each member of the audience. Certainly informants did report concern for the comfort of members of their prospective audience but overt acknowledgement that the expression of one’s spirituality needs to occur within an intimate relationship that allowed reciprocal sharing were largely missing. This suggests that the silencing of spiritual expressiveness may be in the first instance a matter of congruent interpersonal relationships rather than a matter of organizational barriers to spiritual expression. If this is the case the bias towards spiritual expression in the workplace that was detected by the survey conducted by the Tannenbaum Centre could conceivably be explained as a bias against disclosures considered relationally inappropriate rather than disclosures about spirituality specifically. If this was the case then an acceptance of greater spiritual expressiveness would require revising notions of appropriate intimacy in interpersonal relationships in the workplace. This notion is interesting to explore in relation to current spirituality in the workplace literature which is concerned with individuals becoming more whole in the workplace by addressing separation not only from self and work but also others but has not yet recognized that this requires a greater level of intimacy. Furthermore, within current organizational contexts Kofodimos (1993) found that dynamic interplay between self and the organization often enhances a focus on mastery, i.e. the yearning to be independent or autonomous, to experience one’s own distinctness, the self-chosenness of one’s directions, to the exclusion of intimacy (Kofodimos, 1993). In other words expressing intimacy is incompatible with an organizational context in which mastery, rather than intimacy, is usually rewarded. Social Identity Theory (Hogg and Abrams, 1988; Tajfel and Turner, 1979; Turner, 1982, 1985) is a social psychological theory of inter-group behavior. In essence it proposes that the social category to which a person feels they belong provides defining characteristics of this person’s identity. These characteristics are both descriptive and prescriptive, defining how the person sees him/herself and how they think and behave. People have a collection of social categories to which they claim membership and which provide defining characteristics in various contexts. Membership of a particular group becomes especially salient when the associated social identity is central to how the person evaluates him/ herself across a range of contexts. This means group members are strongly motivated to see this group (i.e. in-group) more favorably than other groups to which they do not belong (i.e. out-groups) because in so doing they see themselves favorably.

When people feel excluded from or are not predisposed to belong to a group they are likely to characterize members of this group less favorably than members of groups to which they do belong in order to maintain a positive selfevaluation. Two examples of this process were evident in the narratives. Chris refers to the Christians who got upset when meditation was mentioned as ‘‘fundamentalist Christians’’. This classification could be interpreted as suggesting less positive group behaviors than if just the label ‘‘Christians’’ had been used. Similarly Caitlin assumes Christians have the weirdest ideas about what a Buddhist actually is. This assumption characterizes this out-group as being poorly informed and by implication less favorable than the group with which she identifies (i.e. Buddhist). When we consider the insights gained by considering Social Penetration Theory alongside the categorization and self-enhancement processes at the heart of Social Identity Theory some interesting observations can be made. By being sensitive to stimuli that contribute to a sense of mismatch between his/ herself and others the individual is engaging in a potentially self-exclusionary process of in-group/out-group categorization. This will be enhanced if avoidance or concealment are the chosen actions because such actions will reduce the opportunity for members of the other group to get to know vital psychological information about the individual and participate in developing a close and meaningful interpersonal relationship. Such actions could reduce the likelihood that the individual will strengthen other social identities they share with others. Thus dwelling on differences in spiritual expression rather than similarities has the potential to further marginalize the individual. Depersonalization is the process whereby people think and act in ways that are stereotypic of a particular group. It is not necessarily a negative process as it accounts for the change in identity from an individual to group identity. It is the basic process underlying such group phenomena as cohesion, shared norms and ethnocentrism (Hogg et al., 1995, p. 261). As such it works to bring differences between groups into sharp relief. Social Identity theorists would predict that by behaving in prototypically Buddhist, Maori, Jew, Quaker or Christian ways, particularly in concert with other ‘‘like-minded souls’’, the individual’s sense of social identity and meaning is enhanced. However, this enhancement is a double-edged sword as it is likely to work against the objective of achieving fit or belonging in the wider workplace by accentuating the differences between the individual and those deemed to be in the out-group. If the theorists are right then the concern for the tension between group acceptance (i.e. belonging or sense of social fit) and spiritual self-expression revealed in the narratives is indeed justified. Conclusion The narratives analyzed in this paper illustrate the way workers grapple with the expression of their spirituality in the workplace using interrelated cycles of stimuli-decision-making and action that are underpinned by a tension between the need to belong and the need to express their individual spirituality. The

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insights gained from conceptualizing workers’ approach to spiritual expression as inter-linked decision-making cycles were extended by considering this process from the vantage points of diversity, sensemaking, Social Penetration and Social Identity theories. These analyses suggest that much can be gained by reframing the notions of spiritual expression and silencing within the contexts of consequence assessment, relationship development and social identity. When we do this we see that spiritual expressiveness is tightly linked to individual, interpersonal and social group processes that may or may not be directly governed by the formal organization. Such a conclusion complements that of those who look to organizational structure, policy and culture for explanations for the silencing of spiritual expression in the workplace. This is not to say that spiritual silencing is not something that organizations should be concerned about, but it would seem that individual and informal interpersonal and group processes may have considerable bearing on both whether an individual decides to actively and openly express their spirituality and the social consequences of this expression (or non-expression). If an organization considers the gains of spiritual inclusivity in the workplace to be consistent with the achievement of its goals then there appears to be several principles that could be usefully employed to encourage a diversity of spiritual expression. The first is that it is necessary to recognize that because spirituality is at the heart of many people’s sense of identity its expression is perceived to be risky. This is because it brings with it a sense of personal vulnerability which is magnified for those who perceive themselves to be spiritually different to the majority or norm. It is therefore not surprising that the narratives reveal a deep-seated preoccupation with consequences. Secondly, an organization needs to uncover the ways in which it inadvertently supports the expression of mastery at the exclusion of intimacy and work to eliminate these. Thirdly, if we accept that the relational context shapes how people express their own spirituality and react to expressions of spirituality by others then any action taken by an organization to enhance trust and relationship development should reduce the potential for spirituality to be a source of marginalization in the workplace. We hope other researchers choose to use the framework described in this paper to explore spiritual expression in the workplace in greater depth and extend the framework by considering it in the light of other relevant theories (e.g. social judgement theory). We look forward to the insights offered here being considered in future discussions of diversity management theory and practice in relation to spirituality. Note 1. The survey was performed by the Tannenbaum Centre for Interreligious Understanding and The Society for Human Resource Management Research. The full report was published on the Internet in 2001 and is available from www.tannenbaum.org

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Lee, M. (1991), ‘‘Spirituality in organisations: empowerment and purpose’’, Management Education and Development, Vol. 22 No. 3, pp. 221-6. Lewis, J.S. and Geroy, G.D. (2000), ‘‘Employee spirituality in the workpalce: a cross cultural view for the management of spiritual employees’’, Journal of Management Education, Vol. 24 No. 5, pp. 682-94. MacIntyre, A. (1981), After Virtue, Duckworth, London. Milliman, J., Ferguson, J., Trickett, D. and Condemi, B. (1999), ‘‘Spirit and community at Southwest Airlines: An investigation of a spiritual values-based model’’, Journal of Organizational Change Management, Vol. 12 No. 3, pp. 221-33. Mills, C.E. (2000), ‘‘Taikyoku: a theory of sensemaking about workplace communication’’, Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Canterbury, Canterbury. Mitroff, I.I. and Denton, E.A. (1999), A Spiritual Audit of Corporate America, Jossey-Bass, San Francisco, CA. Neck, C.P. and Milliman, J.F. (1994), ‘‘Thought self-leadership, finding spiritual fulfillment in organizational life’’, Journal of Managerial Psychology, Vol. 9 No. 6, pp. 9-16. Nevard, L. (1991), ‘‘Management – a ‘Spiritual’ foundation?’’, Management Education and Development, Vol. 22 No. 3, pp. 188-96. Polkinghorne, D.E. (1997), ‘‘Reporting qualitative research as practice’’, in Tierny, W.G. and Lincoln, Y.S. (Eds), Representing the Text; Re-framing the Narrative Voice, State University of New York Press, New York, NY. Reason, P. and Rowan, J. (Eds), (1981), Human Inquiry: a Sourcebook of New Paradigm Research, Wiley, Chichester. Ritchie, B.S., Fassinger, R.E., Linn, S.G., Johnson, J., Possner, J. and Robinson, S. (1997), ‘‘Persistence, connection, and passion: A qualitative study of the career development of highly achieving African American-Black and White women’’, Journal of Counseling Psychology, Vol. 44, pp. 133-48. Schneider, S.K. and Northcraft, G.B. (1999), ‘‘Three social dilemmas of workforce diversity in organizations: a social identity perspective’’, Human Relations, Vol. 52 No. 11, pp. 1445-67. Tajfel, H. and Turner, J.C. (1979), ‘‘An integrative theory of intergroup conflict’’, in Austin, W.G. and Worchel, S. (Eds), The Social Psychology of Intergroup Relations, Brooks/Cole, Monterey, CA, pp. 33-47. Tierny, W.G. and Lincoln, Y.S. (Eds) (1997), Representing the Text; Re-framing the Narrative Voice, State University of New York Press, New York, NY. Turner, J.C. (1982), ‘‘Towards a cognitive redefinition of the social group’’, in Tajfel, H. (Ed.), Social Identity and Intergroup Relations, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 1540. Turner, J.C. (1985), ‘‘Social categorization and the self-concept: A social cognitive theory of group behavior’’, in Lawler, E.J. (Ed.), Advances in Group Processes: Theory and Research, JAI Press, Greenwich, CT, Vol. 2. pp. 77-122. Vaill, P.B. (1991), ‘‘The inherent spirituality of organizations’’, paper prepared for the Academy of Management Meeting, Miami Beach, Miami, FL. Webster, A.C. (1992), Values and Beliefs in New Zealand: The Full Report, Alpha Publications, Massey University, Palmerston North.

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Linking emotional intelligence, modelsDefinitions, and ideas for research spirituality and workplace performance Definitions, models and ideas for research

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Len Tischler, Jerry Biberman and Robert McKeage Kantia School of Mangement, University of Scranton, Scranton, Philadelphia, USA Keywords Performance, Interpersonal communications, Theory, Modelling, Research, Ethics Abstract Despite a reluctance on the part of organizational researchers to deal with the subjects of emotions or spirituality, recent researchers have begun to argue for the importance of exploring their relationship to workplace performance. Recent research, for example, has shown a positive relationship between emotional intelligence and workplace success. Similarly, it appears that spirituality is related to workplace performance or effectiveness. This paper explores the impacts of emotional intelligence and spirituality on workplace effectiveness, presents several theoretical models examining possible linkages among these variables, and, finally, presents several ideas for future research deriving from the models.

Introduction Emotions and spirituality are often seen as ‘‘black boxes’’: subjects we cannot know well, so we exclude them or talk around them in our theories and models. Neither term has a clear, universal definition. We (sometimes) know when we are having (feeling) emotions and when we are having (being aware of) spiritual experiences, but we often have difficulty putting these experiences into words that convey precise meaning to others. Except for a few major emotions (e.g. anger, love, envy, anxiety, depression) and spiritual experiences (e.g. feeling connected to the universe, the Transcendent, or God, seeing light, hearing inner or other voices), our emotional and spiritual experiences are often difficult to discern and define even for ourselves when we are having them. Nonetheless, it seems increasingly clear from the emotional intelligence (EI) literature that those with higher EI seem to have healthier, happier, more productive lives and seem to do better at work. It also seems clear from the spirituality literature that people with higher levels of spirituality have healthier, happier, and more productive lives at work. It also seems possible from the literature that people can grow from less to more EI and spirituality over time. This paper presents brief reviews of the EI and spirituality literature mainly as they relate to individuals at work, analyzes similarities and differences across the literature, attempts to model how EI and spirituality might lead to greater workplace success, and suggests future areas for research.

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Review of EI findings The review of EI findings will be divided into two subsections. The first will demonstrate that EI has an impact on work success. The second tries to model the impact. EI has an impact on work success EI has its roots in studies of ‘‘social intelligence’’ in the 1920s and perhaps earlier (Laird, 1925; Moss et al., 1927). It was ‘‘discovered’’ again by Salovey and Mayer (1990) who first called it ‘‘emotional intelligence’’, and represents two of the seven (‘‘multiple’’) intelligences theorized by Gardner (1993): interpersonal and intrapersonal intelligences. Goleman popularized the concept in his 1996 book, as well as the notion that EI might ‘‘matter more’’ than IQ (which represents one of Gardner’s seven intelligences). Currently, there are several definitions of EI in use, and they don’t necessarily match well. EI is a multifaceted construct and we don’t have a clear, simple definition of it. Because of this, it has been difficult to develop a good paper-and-pencil test to measure EI. Nonetheless, following are two of the more widely used definitions at present. Goleman (1998, p. 317) defines EI as ‘‘the capacity for recognizing our own feelings and those of others, for motivating ourselves, and for managing emotions well in ourselves and in our relationships.’’ Martinez (1997, p. 72) ‘‘refers to emotional intelligence as being: . . . an array of non-cognitive skills, capabilities and competencies that influence a person’s ability to cope with environmental demands and pressures’’ (cited in Dulewicz and Higgs, 2000, p. 342). A very recent and excellent review of the EI literature (Dulewicz and Higgs, 2000) demonstrates clearly that EI impacts on work success. Work success was defined in this review as advancement in one’s work organization. The authors not only did an extensive review of the literature, but did their own research using 100 managers in several organizations over seven years. According to Dulewicz and Higgs (2000), the preponderance of theory and evidence supports the view that emotional intelligence is aligned with the concept of competencies. It has not only been difficult for paper-and-pencil tests to measure EI, but these tests also do not yield the kind of results expected when trying to measure EI against any predicted effects of EI. A competency framework appears to hold more empirical promise. A competency framework holds that one who has higher emotional intelligence has certain competencies that another person might not have, and direct measures of these competencies against predicted end results would yield better results than comparing paperand-pencil tests (of these same competencies) against the same predicted end results. In a work setting, the competencies would be job or job-related competencies. Regardless of the means of measuring EI, until now most of the empirical evidence for a relationship between EI and success at work has been anecdotal, with only a few good studies. Those that have used measured competencies, however, appear to demonstrate a relationship between EI competencies and work success.

Using the competency framework, Dulewicz and Higgs (2000) studied 100 Definitions, managers over a 7-year period by looking at a variety of their competencies and models and ideas at their climb in their organizations. They also measured IQ, EI and potentially for research related personality traits using paper-and-pencil tests, and competencies that might not exactly match a definition of EI. They used factor analysis and found six factors with Cronbach Alphas above 0.50. They found that competency205 based EI factors contributed 0.36 to predicting organizational advancement, vs. IQ contributing 0.27. Combined, they predicted 0.52 of advancement. A third set of factors they called Managerial Quotient (MQ) contributed 0.16 independently and, in combination, raised the EI+IQ+MQ contribution to predicting organizational advancement to 0.71. Thus, although EI contributes more to advancement than traditional IQ, together they predict organizational advancement considerably better than either predicts alone. Dulewicz and Higgs (2000) also found that the paper-and-pencil tests of EI and related personality traits did not do an adequate job of predicting organizational advancement even though their measures correlated well with the competencybased measures of EI. Although we do not believe that advancement in an organization is a good sole measure of success in life or at work, based on the above it seems safe to conclude that there is likely to be a relationship between EI and success at work. It also seems that it is possible that EI has impacts on work success more than IQ or rational thinking capability, although the two in combination are likely even more important than either factor alone. Modeling the impact: components and mechanisms of EI that have such impact The next issue is to model the impact of EI on work success. One way to model EI and its impact would be to use Goleman’s (1998) list of EI competencies and to organize them into a matrix that helps us understand how they can have impacts at work (see Table I). We can see from this matrix that EI competencies are of two types, awareness and skills, and that they are of two levels: personal and social. This way of organizing the competencies helps us to understand that EI helps us to be more competent at our own work as well as in our relationships with others, especially in working more productively with others and influencing others to work more productively with us. For example, greater levels of self-confidence lead to higher productivity (Bandura, 1977). People who are self-managing (Bandura, 1976) and conscientious (Barrick and Mount, 1991) tend to be more productive. In terms of social competence, a greater service orientation is good for working with customers (in and out of the organization; Greenleaf, 1977), and greater organizational awareness should clearly help people work more effectively in their organization. Better social skills and skills in leadership, influence, communication, conflict management, teamwork, and collaboration are all touted as desirable skills, especially for managers (Jones et al., 2000). Thus, we can see that the traits of someone with high emotional intelligence are

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Awareness

Skills

Personal competence (how we manage ourselves)

Self-awareness Emotional self-awareness Accurate self-assessment Self-confidence

Social competence (how we handle relationships)

Social awareness Empathy Service orientation Organizational awareness

Self-management Adaptability Self-control Conscientiousness Initiative Achievement Trustworthiness Social skills Leadership Influence Developing others Change catalyst Communication Conflict management Building bonds Teamwork and collaboration

206

Table I. EI competencies

conducive to higher productivity and can give us an understanding of the components and mechanisms of EI that can lead to higher productivity or greater success at work. Review of spirituality findings The review of findings of the relationship of spirituality with work success will be divided into four parts. The first will attempt to define spirituality. The second will demonstrate that spirituality has impacts on work success. The third will delineate arguments for capturing spirituality in terms of ‘‘spiritual intelligence’’ (SI) to parallel EI. The fourth part will model the impact that spirituality has on work success. Defining spirituality There are a number of streams of literature about spirituality. Although books on spirituality in business have become quite popular during the past decade, it is even more difficult to find a common definition for spirituality than for EI. Authors have used the terms ‘‘spirituality’’, ‘‘spiritual’’, and ‘‘spirit’’ in quite disparate ways. One way of categorizing all of the various uses and definitions can be as follows: . The ‘‘spirit’’ of a culture, organization, or work group, as in ‘‘this group is spirited’’ or as in ‘‘the spirit of this organization is strong’’ (or exciting, open, or any adjective). The ‘‘Microsoft Word 97’’ thesaurus equates spirit with an individual’s (or organization’s) vitality, mood, nature, or intent. . ‘‘Spiritual’’ is used similarly, or in ways related to ‘‘emotional’’, or to particular behaviors or attitudes of an individual. For example, being spiritual has been equated with being open, giving, compassionate, or

.

what we imagine as ‘‘holy’’ in one’s behavior, and usually with being Definitions, more unflappable and buoyant than others. Many of the types of models and ideas awareness and some of the skills delineated above in the components of for research EI have also been attributed to spiritual people. Spirituality can also be focused on the origin of being spiritual rather than on the results or signs of it. In this case spirituality has to do with 207 personal experience of God, Allah, the Transcendent, the Beyond, the Sacred. The focus is on the direct experience of something other than what is normally the focus of daily, material, sensory, or even emotional reality. On the other hand, many of the results in daily living of having such experience appear to be similar to the results (behaviors, feeling states, etc.) of being more emotionally mature or intelligent.

For the purpose of this paper, we wish to focus mainly on, and contrast, the second and third definitions. Defining ‘‘spiritual’’ similarly to or in ways related to ‘‘emotional’’, or to particular behaviors or attitudes of an individual, illustrates that spirituality, for some, is related to emotional states, but raises the issue of whether spirituality separates clearly from the areas of concern in EI. On the other hand, one can posit that spirituality is and stems from a personal (intra-personal, interior) experience as described above. However, being an intra-personal experience, one cannot empirically test the spiritual experience itself. It is possible that we might find some chemical or physiological markers for such experience in the future, or some behaviors that indicate spiritual depth (as opposed to emotional intelligence, even if some of these behaviors are the same), but so far all we have found are (behavioral, attitudinal, physiological, etc.) correlates for those who report their own spiritual experience or for those who practice practices which are supposed to lead to increased spiritual experiences. Thus, with either definition of spirituality, we will have measurement or theoretical difficulties. Previous research on spirituality and work It seems that there are several ‘‘camps’’ of academics in terms of opinions about researching spiritual experiences. One camp will only recognize the kinds of rigorous empirical research that are done on material phenomena, even though, as we have seen, some consider spirituality to be an internal experience of the non-material. A second camp wants to simply accept that these experiences and their reported benefits are real because so many people with these experiences seem to historically report approximately the same experiences, even though they are often not well articulated or specified. A third camp tries to do rigorous correlational work with self-reported experiencers (as above), believing that this is the best one can do. Several recent dissertations have used qualitative research approaches. The stance one takes seems to be a paradigmatic issue (Kuhn, 1970), not an issue that is amenable to scientific investigation at this time (not an issue of ‘‘Truth’’). We will now examine the

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research that has been reported to date, with an emphasis on research involving the impact of spirituality on work behaviors and success. Charles Tart, the expert on altered states of consciousness (Tart, 1990) (of which he considers spiritual experience to be one type) has a web site at which he encourages those who have had spiritual experiences to share their experiences in detail. Tart proposes that if we can gather enough detailed selfreport data about such experiences, we might be able to make objective what begins as a purely subjective experience and reporting mechanism. Until recently, however, most research on spiritual experiences has been based on people with similar self-reported experiences or who have been practicing a similar ‘‘spiritual’’ technique. Tart (2001) reports that there are now more than 2,000 studies of the effects of spiritual practices or experiences. Spiritual practices that have been reported on or studied include prayer, a variety of Eastern energy practices such as tai chi, chi gong, martial arts, and yoga, and a variety of Eastern and Western breathing and meditation practices. The many medical research reviews of spiritual practices have demonstrated that spiritual practices produce many positive physiological and psychological health benefits. For example, spiritual well-being has been purported to provide a significant inner strength to people, especially in times of uncertainty and chaos in life. Also, some health insurance companies have lowered their premiums for groups whose participants regularly practice one of these techniques. The largest single group of studies of spirituality – more than 600 studies – is based on people who practice the Transcendental MeditationTM technique (Wallace et al., 1976-1990; Maharishi University of Management, 2001). These studies have examined physiological, psychological, and behavioral changes of people who have practiced Transcendental MeditationTM. We will now briefly summarize the results of these studies. In terms of physiological changes, those who practice Transcendental MeditationTM (and report increasing spiritual experiences) are found to consistently have changed patterns of brain waves (more coherent; Gaylord et al., 1989), increased blood flow to the brain (Jevning and Wilson, 1978), decreased stress hormone production (Hill, 1989), increased muscle relaxation, and lower baseline levels of heart rate, respiration rate, and skin resistance (all ‘‘good’’ things; Dillbeck and Orme-Johnson, 1987). These have been empirically found to lead to increased efficiency of information transfer in the brain (Warshall, 1980), faster recovery from stress, faster physical reactions, and increased stability of the autonomic nervous system (Orme-Johnson, 1973). Long term practice of Transcendental MeditationTM has also been correlated with enhanced creativity and intelligence (Jedrczak et al., 1985), increased field independence (Fergusson, 1993), improved functioning of both the left and right hemispheres of the brain (verbal and analytical thinking as well as synthetic and holistic thinking), and accelerated cognitive development in children (Warner, 1986). In education it has been correlated with increased IQ and academic performance in secondary, college, and graduate students

(Muehlman et al., 1988; Cranson et al., 1991; Kember, 1985), improved problem Definitions, solving ability, increased creativity, increased innovation, autonomy, and models and ideas independence, increased self-esteem, increased ability to deal with abstract and for research complex situations, and decreased anxiety (Shecter, 1977). Psychologically, Transcendental MeditationTM has been found to lead to increased self-actualization (Alexander et al., 1991), general psychological 209 health (Gelderloos et al., 1990), stronger self-identity (Turnbull and Norris, 1982), improved perception of others (Holeman and Seiler, 1979), greater empathy (Griggs, 1976), orientation towards positive values (Gelderloos et al., 1987), growth of wisdom (ego development, affective functioning, and cognitive development; Chandler, 1990), less neuroticism, depression, and sensitivity to criticism, and increased self-esteem, ego strength, and self-actualization (Van Den Berg and Mulder, 1976), increased time competence, independence, selfsupportiveness, self-acceptance, sensitivity to one’s own needs and feelings, and capacity for warm interpersonal relationships (Nidich et al., 1973), greater interest in academic activities, intellectual orientation, adaptability of mental orientation, social extroversion, personal integration, and altruism, and less impulsiveness and anxiety (Penner et al., 1974), and more positive social psychological attitudes (Hanley and Spates, 1978). In business, practicing Transcendental MeditationTM has been correlated with improved work performance, improved relations with co-workers and supervisors, increased work satisfaction, and decreased turnover propensity (Frew, 1974; Alexander et al., 1993). Tart (1990) and his colleagues have done extensive work over the past four decades that demonstrates that having altered states of consciousness, especially states in which one experiences the spiritual realm (Tart calls this cosmic consciousness), has a profound and sometimes lasting impact on one’s view of life, way of feeling about others and life, etc. Tart and his collaborators, and others, have found many physiological, psychological, and behavioral correlates for many of the other practices mentioned above that are somewhat similar to the correlates for Transcendental MeditationTM . A number of dissertations on spirituality and work have appeared in the past ten years. Three of these studies involved correlating some measure of spirituality with a measure of work performance. Zwart (2000) correlated the scores of 266 leaders on the Spirituality Assessment Scale by Hamilton Beazley with the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire by Bass and Avolio, and found no relationship between spirituality and transformational leadership. Frew (2000) correlated indices of organizational stressors, strain and spirituality of 141 employees in a public health organization, finding a significant main effect for spirituality and strain. Trott (1996) correlated a spiritual well-being scale, general self-efficacy scale, organizational commitment scale, open organization profile and an interview schedule for 184 workers in a fortune 100 engineeringconstruction organization. In addition to using correlational measures, Frew and Trott also used qualitative analyses. Frew used qualitative data obtained

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from interviews of a sub-sample of 28 employees, and Trott analyzed 20 interview transcripts using theory elaboration procedures. Much of the empirical research relating spirituality to work in the past ten years has been in the form of dissertations, and most of those dissertations have used some type of qualitative analysis. For example, Foley (1999) used an ‘‘appreciative inquiry’’, creating a ‘‘consensual document’’ based on the stories consultants reported ‘‘when they felt their spirituality alive in their work.’’ Kurth (1995) conducted a ‘‘phenomenological study of selfless service’’ compiled from in depth interviews of 20 participants. Parish and Buller (1999) conducted a qualitative case study to examine whether spirituality inspired effective styles of six educational leaders, three ministerial practitioners, and three political electees. Jacobsen (1994) conducted a delphi study of an international panel of nine experts to explore the relationship between spirituality and transformational leadership. In addition, a number of doctoral dissertations are currently underway using approaches including photographs, diaries and journals, and mixed media. There is much evidence in the emerging body of literature that human beings at work have spiritual needs, many times unfulfilled. However, profit centered business organizations have, for the most part, failed to recognize the merit of spiritual well-being at work. Organizations have for the most part left this dimension of life up to the individual worker. Egan (1999) believes that one of the reasons why organizations have avoided the issue of spirituality in the workplace is that it is often associated with negative connotations of proselyte, the evangelical right, or unduly influence of subordinate behavior. To avoid these issues, he substitutes the word good for spiritual, and claims that the characteristics of a ‘‘good and effective’’ (i.e. spiritual) manager are: trust, competence: grow your subordinates, teach and reward teamwork, be able to negotiate win/win outcomes; focus on delivering quality and value to customers. McCormick (1994) claims that, in spite of recent studies showing that most Americans believe in a God or Universal Spirit (and we must assume this includes many managers as well), the academic literature is void of much research in this area. McCormick cites a number of studies that offer evidence that believing managers claim their relationship with God influences their work more than any other variable. McCormick (1994) cites themes that emerged from the literature on spirituality and the workplace: . compassion; . right livelihood; . selfless service; . meditative work; and . the problem of pluralism. The research so far has gathered evidence of relationships between experiences or practices and ‘‘resultant’’ behaviors. Some of the studies (e.g. see above)

present causal evidence: that spiritual practices or experiences seem to lead to Definitions, certain behaviors, attitudes, or personality traits. The experiences are either models and ideas self-reported (e.g. questionnaires, interviews) or are investigated using for research physiological or other proxies for the experiences, or they use practices that have been shown to develop spiritual experiences. The behaviors, attitudes, personality traits, work characteristics, etc. studied as the dependent variables 211 have been quite varied, as can be seen above. Moreover, subjects have been reported on directly, or they have been compared to themselves over time (with practices), to others who have been using practices for different periods of time, or to control groups that either did nothing or used other techniques, or reported not having spiritual experiences. Studies have been qualitative and quantitative. This wide variety of research seems to indicate that there are benefits to either practicing a spiritual technique or having a spiritual experience (or both). A case for spiritual intelligence? In the past two years, two writers (Emmons, 2000; Zohar and Marshall, 2001) have postulated the notion that spirituality could be an intelligence. Interestingly, this idea was also a focus of attention in the 1920s (Laird, 1925; Moss et al., 1927). We will now examine each recent writer’s arguments. Emmons (2000), writing in the discipline of psychology of religion, argues that spirituality meets Gardner’s (1993) criteria for an intelligence and should be included as an intelligence. (Gardner wrote specifically that spirituality is not an intelligence.) In doing so Emmons (2000, p. 10) postulates that there are at least five core abilities that define spiritual intelligence – namely: (a) the capacity for transcendence; (b) the ability to enter into heightened spiritual states of consciousness; (c) the ability to invest everyday activities, events, and relationships with a sense of the sacred; (d) the ability to utilize spiritual resources to solve problems in living; and (e) the capacity to engage in virtuous behaviors or to be virtuous (to show forgiveness; to express gratitude; to be humble; to display compassion).

Zohar and Marshall (2001) propose that in addition to IQ and EQ (EI), there is another type of intelligence they call ‘‘SQ’’ or ‘‘spiritual intelligence’’. Further, they propose that IQ and EQ are subsidiary to and supported by SQ; SQ is the highest intelligence. Their book has not received the best reviews. So far these seem to be the only arguments for ‘‘spiritual intelligence’’. At this point it seems unclear whether spirituality can be classified as a form or type of intelligence, and for this paper’s purposes it might not need to be. Modeling the impact: components and mechanisms of spirituality that have such impact Although there is no model that breaks spirituality into its components, the research about spirituality can give us clues about some of the aspects of or results of spirituality. We will try to categorize these components into the same general categories as we used to categorize EI components (see Table II for a visual representation of these categories).

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Personal competence (how we manage ourselves)

212

Table II. Competencies that result from increased spirituality

Social competence (how we handle relationships)

Awareness

Skills

Self-awareness Emotional self-awareness Positive self-assessment Self-esteem Independence, self-supportiveness Time competence Self-actualization Positive social attitudes Empathy Altruism

Independence Adaptability/flexibility Less impulsiveness, neuroticism Work performance

Good relations with co-workers Good relations with supervisors Social extroversion Collaborative, developmental Orientation towards positive values Less sensitivity to criticism

The factors noted in Table II derive from the research on the effects of spirituality cited above. For example, in terms of personal awareness competencies, self-awareness, emotional self-awareness, positive selfassessment, and self-esteem all increase with spirituality. These are similar to the personal awareness competencies for EI. In addition, spirituality seems to bring a sense of independence, self-supportiveness, time competence, and selfactualization. Also, some of these traits are, or lead to, personal or social skills. For example, time competence not only is a different kind of awareness of time, but also can lead to different behaviors related to prioritizing time-related activities and getting things done. Self-actualizing and high self-esteem people tend to behave quite differently from other people, especially towards other people. High self-acceptance (positive self-assessment) people tend to lead others in ways that focus on their development and build bonds rather than by barking orders, and tend to be more collaborative than others. Independent people are more self-managing. We can see, then, that those who grow in spirituality tend to grow in both personal and social level EI skills. On the social awareness side, spiritual people demonstrate more positive social attitudes, more empathy, and greater altruism – parallel to EI. They also tend to feel more satisfied with their work. In addition to the social skills mentioned in the last paragraph, those with higher spirituality demonstrate more positive social psychological attitudes, greater social extroversion, greater adaptability of mental orientation (adapt more easily to changes), improved relationships with co-workers and supervisors, greater orientation towards positive values, and less neuroticism, anxiety, and sensitivity to criticism. From the above, we can see that there are great parallels between the awareness and skill competencies of EI and the behavioral, attitude, and personality results of spirituality. However, as Emmons (2000, p. 9) mentioned, we want to caution against making an erroneous inferential leap from the above list of effects of spirituality to defining spirituality in those terms.

Spirituality is more than the qualities of the above list; these are just some of Definitions, the behavioral and emotional results of being more spiritual. models and ideas The developmental perspective on EI and spirituality It is widely held that IQ does not change in adulthood, and, except for several studies on Transcendental MeditationTM (e.g. Cranson et al., 1991; Jedrczak et al., 1985), we have not seen any evidence of processes that systematically raise adult IQ. On the other hand, Goleman (1996) clearly argues that EI can be taught or trained – increased in adulthood. This is the underlying theme and purpose of his books and articles: we can improve our success in life by improving our EI. Dulewicz and Higgs (2000) reviewed all of the EI work and concluded that most researchers in this area do not believe that EI can be raised in adults. This prevailing view is similar to the prevailing view that changing the basic pattern of an individual’s personality in adulthood is rare and entails a very long-term process. On the other hand, we have seen above that techniques such as Transcendental MeditationTM could have the power to raise IQ and improve many other mental functions, and to improve many personality and EI-type traits. From a business viewpoint, there are two key issues. The first is that there is a causal link between these traits and work success (productivity, etc.). The second is that these traits can be developed (improved) in people, leading to improved success at work. We have already shown that IQ, EI, and spirituality improve work success. The next step is to find ways to improve any of these so that work success is improved. This is a major area for investigation. Future research There are several other potential areas of study that arise from the above. Regarding the development of the EI traits, we might suggest that one starting point could be research using the databases of the large leadership training centers. Many executives go to these centers more than once over time, and are often given similar tests each time they go. They also usually answer demographic questions at these facilities, including about their work success. It might be helpful to use this test, demographic, and success data across such training centers to study changes over time in these leaders who attempt to improve themselves. Other opportunities to study means to the development (enhancement) of work success include studying the various spiritual techniques over time to see what changes or improvements occur at work as a result of the practices. We would also call for further studies of EI traits directly in relation to work behaviors and success. We would suggest broadening the dependent variable, ‘‘success’’, to other kinds of individual success at work rather than just climbing the corporate ladder. Derr (1986) made a clear, empirical case that the majority of workers,

for research 213

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Figure 1. Possible explanatory models

including professionals, are not primarily oriented in their career to climbing the corporate ladder. Although we have treated EI and spirituality as separate areas, as they likely are, they appear to lead to similar attitudes, behaviors, and skills. Also, many of these attitudes, behaviors, and skills seem to lead to life and work success. Further, many articles about spirituality tend to focus on or include emotional components so that there often seems to be confusion, or at least intersection and linking, between the two constructs (e.g. Egan, 1999). Thus, it might be useful to develop an overall understanding of the relationships among these factors. Figure 1 offers five ways to possibly model these relationships. We would encourage investigation of these models to see if one has greater explanatory success than the others for either linking or de-coupling these two constructs. It might also be helpful to investigate exactly which attitudes, behaviors, or skills lead to greater success. It is possible that there is a subset of these that

have more causal value than the others. It is also possible that for some people Definitions, certain of these elements are more important than for others, leading to a models and ideas broader list of elements that are causal to success. Studying these competing for research models will require a combination of research methodologies – both quantitative and qualitative. Conclusion In reviewing prior research on emotional intelligence and on spirituality, this paper has established that both EI and spirituality seem to lead to greater individual work success and that the effect size is important enough to investigate further. Anything that leads to a substantive amount of greater work success is worth further investigation. This paper presented two figures that attempt to capture the essential components or elements of enhanced EI and of enhanced spirituality that might have a positive impact on work success at the individual level. It presented research that demonstrates the relationship between each element and some aspect of work success. It found great similarities among these elements for EI and spirituality. In addition, the figures are structured to help us better understand the elements and their relationship to enhanced work performance. They organized the elements into four types of competency enhancements: personal awareness, personal skills, social awareness, and social skills. By grouping the elements, future research might be more broadly focused and effective. Some of the literature links or combines EI with spirituality, while some separates these two concepts. In either case, they seem to lead to many similar behaviors, attitudes, and skills (competencies), which in turn lead to greater work success. The amount of linkage between EI and spirituality is worth investigating, and this paper presented several models that might help to focus and organize that investigation. The practical reason that understanding the linkage or lack of linkage can be important is that it can help when we attempt to develop people for their enhanced success. EI and spirituality seem to aim at the development of similar competencies, but quite differently. Investigating these linkages can help us to answer: Might there be several distinct developmental paths? If so, could there be some common elements across developmental paths? This paper found that although it is still unclear whether developing EI is possible, it is clear that developing people’s spirituality is possible. Many studies have shown the positive results of developing spirituality. By juxtaposing EI and spirituality in this paper, a broader view has emerged: there are a number of competencies that can lead to enhanced individual work success, and they can be developed. Future research can lead to the discovery of the most practical, effective, and efficient methods of developing these competencies.

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Gelderloos, P., Hermans, H.J.M., Ahlstrom, H.H. and Jacoby, R. (1990), ‘‘Transcendence and psychological health: studies with long-term participants of the Transcendental Meditation and TM-Sidhi program’’, Journal of Psychology, Vol. 124 No. 2, pp. 177-97. Goleman, D. (1996), Emotional Intelligence: Why It Can Matter More Than IQ, Bloomsbury Publishing, London. Goleman, D. (1998), Working with the Emotional Intelligence, Bantam Books, New York, NY. Greenleaf, R.K. (1977), Servant Leadership: A Journey into the Nature of Legitimate Power and Greatness, Paulist Press, New York, NY. Griggs, S.T. (1976), ‘‘A preliminary study into the effect of Transcendental Meditation on empathy’’, Master’s thesis (abbr.), School of Human Behavior, United States International University, San Diego, CA. Hanley, C.P. and Spates, J.L. (1978), ‘‘Transcendental Meditation and social psychological attitudes’’, The Journal of Psychology, Vol. 99, pp. 121-7. Hill, D.A. (1989), ‘‘Beta-adrenergic receptor sensitivity, autonomic balance and serotonergic activity in practitioners of Transcendental Meditation’’, Doctoral dissertation, Maharishi University of Management, USA Dissertation Abstracts International, Vol. 50 No. 8, pp. 3330-B. Holeman, R. and Seiler, G. (1979), ‘‘Effects of sensitivity training and Transcendental Meditation on perception of others’’, Perceptual and Motor Skills, Vol. 49, p. 270. Jacobsen, S.E. (1994), ‘‘Spirituality and transformational leadership in secular settings: a Delphi study’’, Dissertation Abstracts International, Seattle University, WA. Jedrczak, A., Beresford, M. and Clements, G. (1985), ‘‘The TM-Sidhi program, pure consciousness, creativity and intelligence’’, The Journal of Creative Behavior, Vol. 19 No. 4, pp. 270-5. Jevning, R. and Wilson, A.F. (1978), ‘‘Behavioral increase of cerebral blood flow’’, The Physiologist, Vol. 21, p. 60 (Abstract). Jones, G.R., George, J.M. and Hill, C.W.L. (2000), Contemporary Management, Irwin McGraw-Hill, Boston, MA. Kember, P. (1985), ‘‘The Transcendental Meditation technique and postgraduate academic performance’’, British Journal of Educational Psychology, Vol. 55, pp. 164-6. Kuhn, T.S. (1970), The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL. Kurth, K.E. (1995), ‘‘An exploration of the expression and perceived impact of selfless service in for-profit organizations (spirituality)’’, Dissertation Abstracts International, The George Washington, Washington, DC. Laird, D.A. (1925), The Psychology of Selecting Men (2nd ed.), McGraw-Hill, New York, NY. McCormick, D.W. (1994), ‘‘Spirituality and management’’, Journal of Management Psychology, Vol. 9 No. 6, pp. 5-8. Maharishi University of Management (2001), available: http://www.mum.edu/tm_research/ tm_biblio/welcome.html Martinez, M.N. (1997), ‘‘The smarts that count’’, HR Magazine, Vol. 42 No. 11, pp. 72-8. Moss, F.A., Hunt, T., Omwake, K.T. and Bonning, M.M. (1927), Social Intelligence Test, Center for Psychological Service, Washington, DC. Muehlman, J.M., Nidich, S.I., Reilly, B. and Cole, C. (1988), ‘‘Relationship of the practice of the Transcendental Meditation technique to academic achievement’’, paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Mid-Western Educational Research Association, Chicago, IL, October, (Refer also to Abstracts of Papers of the Annual Meeting of the Mid-Western Educational Research Association, p. 6, 1988.)

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Nidich, S., Seeman, W. and Dreskin, T. (1973), ‘‘Influence of Transcendental Meditation on selfactualization: a replication’’, Journal of Counseling Psychology, Vol. 20, pp. 565-6. Orme-Johnson, D.W. (1973), ‘‘Autonomic stability and Transcendental Meditation’’, Psychosomatic Medicine, Vol. 35, pp. 341-9. Parish, J. and Buller, C. (1999), ‘‘Women in education: Effective leadership styles as inspired by spirituality’’, Dissertation Abstracts International, University of La Verne, CA. Penner, W.J., Zingle, H.W., Dyck, R. and Truch, S. (1974), ‘‘Does an in-depth Transcendental Meditation course effect change in the personalities of the participants?’’, Western Psychologist, Vol. 4, pp. 104-11. Salovey, P. and Mayer, J.D. (1990), ‘‘Emotional intelligence’’, Imagination, Cognition and Personality, Vol. 9, pp. 185-211. Shecter, H. (1977), ‘‘The Transcendental Meditation program in the classroom: A psychological evaluation’’, Doctoral thesis (summary), Graduate Department of Psychology, York University, North York, Ontario, Dissertation Abstracts International, Vol. 38 No. 7, p. 3372B. Tart, C.T. (Ed.) (1990), Altered States of Consciousness: A Book of Readings, Harper Collins, New York, NY. Tart, C.T. (2001), Personal communications with Len Tischler. Trott, D.C. III (1996), ‘‘Spiritual well being of workers: An exploratory study of spirituality in the workplace’’, Dissertation Abstracts International, The University of Texas at Austin; 0227. Turnbull, M.J. and Norris, H. (1982), ‘‘Effects of Transcendental Meditation on self-identity indices and personality’’, British Journal of Psychology, Vol. 73, pp. 57-68. Van Den Berg, W.P. and Mulder, B. (1976), ‘‘Psychological research on the effects of the Transcendental Meditation technique on a number of personality variables’’, Gedrag: Tijdschrift voor Psychologie (Behavior: Journal of Psychology), Vol. 4, pp. 206-18. Wallace, R.K., Orme-Johnson, D. and Dillbeck, M. (Eds) (1976-1990), Scientific Research on Maharishi’s Transcendental Meditation and TM-Sidhi Program, Collected Papers, Volumes 1-5, Maharishi International University Press, Fairfield, IA (Volume 6 in press). Warner, T.Q. (1986), ‘‘Transcendental Meditation and developmental advancement: mediating abilities and conservation performance’’, Dissertation Abstracts International, Vol. 47 No. 8, pp. 3558B. Warshall, D. (1980), ‘‘Effects of the Transcendental Meditation technique on normal and Jendrassik reflex time’’, Perceptual and Motor Skills, Vol. 50, pp. 1103-6. Zohar, D. and Marshall, I. (2001), SQ: Connecting with Our Spiritual Intelligence, Bloomsbury Publishing, New York, NY. Zwart, G.A. (2000), ‘‘The relationship between spirituality and transformational leadership in public, private and nonprofit sector organizations’’, Dissertation Abstracts International, University of La Verne, CA.

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‘‘The Rule of Benedict’’ and its relevance to the world of work

The Rule of Benedict

Dermot Tredget Benedictine Monk, Douai Abbey, Reading, UK

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Keywords Ethics, Work, Psychology Abstract The Rule of Benedict is over 1,500 years old. In spite of its antiquity, what relevance does it have to the modern world of work? When Benedict complied his rule he envisaged a spiritual community, cut off from the world, that would pray, work and be economically sustainable. He had little idea that this ‘‘little rule for beginners’’ would become one of the most important documents in Western civilisation. Neither did he realise that he was laying the foundations for one of the oldest ‘‘multi-national’’ organisations in existence today. This paper examines what has kept this spiritual ‘‘global community’’ alive and its relevance to the workplace.

Introduction If Benedict of Norcia (c. 480-547) had been familiar with the term ‘‘psychology’’ he would have understood it differently from the way we understand it today. Until the late nineteenth century, the predominant focus of psychology or, as it is sometimes known, traditional psychology, was the human soul (psyche). Although the philosophical foundation of modern psychology were laid as far back as the 17th century (Hayes, 1994) it was the research and work of the introspective psychologists that gave modern psychology its scientific credentials. Now, modern psychology embraces many different fields such as cognitive, physiological, clinical, social, developmental and comparative, not to mention managerial psychology. Whatever Benedict’s academic background, it is probable that he would have been familiar with the term psychology in its ancient sense through the writings of the Greek philosopher Aristotle (384-322) and the Stoics (first and second centuries AD). Aristotle wrote the classic work on psychology De anima. Another important text would have been Augustine of Hippo (354-430) who, in his writings, gives an extensive treatment to psychological matters. Augustine, born in North Africa, was a monk, bishop, philosopher and theologian. Strongly influenced by Platonic dualist thought, he discerned three main faculties in man’s soul, reason, memory and will. Of these three, will was the most important. Particularly significant was Augustine’s understanding of human behaviour, both his own and others. This he displayed in his writings such as the Confessions and his Rule for Monks. It is interesting to note, that to this day, in many liberal arts colleges and universities, ancient texts such as these and the Rule of Benedict (Fry, 1981), form an integral part of the undergraduate foundation year or ‘‘Great Books’’ programme. Until a few decades ago, many leaders in the world of business, public administration and politics were graduates in the classical texts and languages. An understanding

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of how ancient civilisations thought and worked continues to provide important lessons for the twenty-first century. The origins and history of the Rule of Benedict In his youth, towards the end of the fifth century, Benedict was sent to school in Rome. Very little is known about the time he spent there. However, Benedict’s biographer, Pope Gregory the Great (c. 540-590), the pope who sent Augustine (died 604) to evangelise England, tells us in his Dialogues, that during this period Benedict underwent a radical conversion, renounced the world and went to live with a group of monks. He then went to live as a solitary in a cave near Subiaco. After a bitter experience as head of a group of false monks, he returned to Subiaco, where numerous disciples, for whom he established 12 monasteries of 12 monks each, joined him. After this he founded the famous Monte Cassino, some 80 miles south of Rome, on the road to Naples. Benedict lived in turbulent times. Roman civilisation was in the process of collapsing. Barbarian tribes such as the Vandals, Goths, and Huns began to dismember the empire already seriously weakened from within by misgovernment and oppressive taxation, and scourged by famine and pestilence. For over three decades, until the onslaught of the Byzantine emperor on the Italian peninsula, another Barbarian faction, the Ostrogoths, had managed to keep peace. But, by the end of the sixth century, more than 50 years after Benedict’s death, there was no effective political order in Italy. Out of this economic, political and social chaos emerged Benedict’s rule for monks. The word ‘‘monk’’ is derived from a Greek word monos meaning ‘‘alone’’, or ‘‘single’’. He calls it ‘‘this little rule that we have written for beginners’’ (Fry, 1981, p. 297). Monastic life was not a new phenomenon. It is used to describe a form of ascetical life, which is characterised by both a living apart from the world, singly or in groups, and as celibate. The Greek word askesis, from which the word ascertic is derived, meant, ‘‘exercise’’, ‘‘practice’’ or ‘‘training’’. There were monks before the Christian era. For example the Therapeutae or ‘‘Healers’’ described by Philo of Alexandria and the neoPythagorians described by Philostratus. The ascetic life found among the Hindus and Buddhists antedates the origins of Christian monasticism by several centuries at least. The historian Josephus writes about the Essenes, a Jewish ascetic sect, which originated in Palestine in the second century BC and may have lived at Qumran, the site of the Dead Sea Scrolls. For Benedict, the main influences were early Christian. These were the writings, rules and lives of monks (Van den Hoven, 1996) who had lived in the Egyptian desert, North Africa, Syria, Israel, Turkey and Greece. Particularly important was the Rule of the Master, almost three times as long as the Rule of Benedict. The monastic ascetical tradition was manifested in two different forms. Firstly, there was the eremitical, hermit, or anchorite. The word anchorite means ‘‘retirement’’ or ‘‘withdrawal’’. This was the monk who lived in isolation, commonly the desert or a cave, even an empty tomb carved into the rock. Secondly there was the coenobite, the monk who lived in a group or community.

The second form was a development of the first. Benedict favoured the second form, which had flourished in Egypt, and was centred on prayer and work. Combined with his personal experience of being a monk and leader of a monastic community, Benedict distilled these influences to compile his rule. Much is borrowed from other sources such as the Rule of The Master, The Rule of St Basil and the Rule of St Augustine. The Rule of Benedict, only about 9,000 words long, is written in the style of ‘‘wisdom literature’’. It consists of a Prologue and 73 chapters. Benedict frequently quotes from scripture. What the rule demonstrates is an intimate knowledge of human behaviour and organisational structures. It also indicates an understanding of how individuals can flourish and grow in community. Benedict envisaged that his community would be socially inclusive. It is evident that some came from wealthy Roman families where intellectual, cultural and leisurely pursuits were the norm. Other recruits would have been former slaves. Benedict tolerated no social distinction between rich and poor. Monks took their rank from the day or time they entered the monastery (Fry, 1981, p. 279). Benedict’s Rule began to be copied and was circulated widely throughout Western Europe. It is almost certain that the monk, Augustine of Canterbury, sent to England by Pope Gregory the Great, brought a copy of the rule with him. The influence of the Benedictine rule on the growth of the Christian Church and Western civilisation was significant. All over Europe monasteries were established and flourished. They became important landowners, employers and played an essential part in the local economy. Right up to the time of the Protestant Reformation, Benedict’s Rule continued to provide one of the principal models through which people engaged with the world of work. It is also a document that shows that the basics of management go right back to antiquity (Kennedy, 1999). What do monks do today? Today, nearly 26,000 men and women live the Benedictine rule. The Benedictine order has been described as one of the oldest ‘‘multinationals’’ in the world. Those who follow the Rule of Benedict, both Benedictine and Cistercian have, over the centuries adapted the rule to suit modern needs, local conditions and different cultures. Monks and monasteries have continually been reinventing themselves. In adapting the rule they have had to ensure that they preserve its charisms and traditions. There are enduring characteristics about the way Benedictines live their lives. There is balance, harmony and moderation. Under the direction of an abbot, who they chose themselves, they live in a community, which is physically, emotionally and spiritually nurturing and supportive. The paradox is, that although cut off from the world, people want to flock to it. Monasteries have to accommodate more and more guests who are seeking spiritual nourishment. What Benedict and his monastic predecessors intended to become a desert has become an oasis. The relevance of the Rule of Benedict to the workplace The ancient wisdom of the rule could be described in modern business jargon as a manual for high performance coaching. In no particular order, Benedict

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focuses his attention on the structure and day to day running of the organisation, which he calls the community or monastery, the individual or monk, and the leader of the community called the abbot. Benedict’s mission statement set out to provide ‘‘a school of the Lord’s service’’. Although implied, he does not use the words ‘‘spiritual’’ or ‘‘spirituality’’ explicitly once. The dualism, so clearly evident in earlier writers such as Augustine of Hippo and the desert monks is frequently alluded to. It was a fight against the devil for the soul. Through various ascetic practices the body was subdued. The rule provided a radical alternative to the chaos that existed outside the monastery. The monastery structure The monastery was socially inclusive. There was a clearly defined hierarchy in which everyone knew their place. All wore the same monastic garb (Fry, 1981, pp. 261-5). The abbot, chosen from among the monks of the monastery, was the spiritual and temporal leader of the community. Only in exceptional circumstances would a monk from another monastery be chosen or imposed. The abbot was the chief executive, both spiritual and temporal (Fry, 1981, pp. 171-9 and pp. 281-5). He chose his second in command called the prior (Fry, 1981, pp. 285-7) and the seniors or deans (Fry, 1981, pp. 217-9) who with the prior would advise him on the day to day running of the monastery. The abbot also appointed other officials such as the cellarer or bursar, (Fry, 1981, pp. 227-9), porter (Fry, 1981, pp. 287-9), infirmarian (Fry, 1981, pp. 235-7) and novice master (Fry, 1981, pp. 267-71). All, according to ability and other commitments, did duties such as preparing meals, serving and reading in the monastic refectory, cleaning and harvesting (Fry, 1981, pp. 233-5 and pp. 237-9). The daily routine Similar to the organisational structure, the routine of the day was regulated in some detail. The life of a monk was transformed through work of two kinds. First the work of God and second the daily manual work. Each had to earn his living and ensure the monastery was economically sustainable. The Work of God or Opus Dei as Benedict calls it, was the monks’ primary task. During the course of a week all the 150 psalms of the Old Testament Psalter would be recited or sung (Fry, 1981, pp. 213-15). Also included would be various canticles and reading, from scripture and early Christian writings. The monks rose during the night for the first prayer time of the day, which was called Vigils (Fry, 1981, pp. 203-11). At sunrise Lauds was sung (Fry, 1981, pp. 207-9). Throughout the day the monks returned four times for a shorter period of prayer at the first, third, sixth and ninth hours. These were called Prime, Terce, Sext and None (Fry, 1981, p. 11). In the evening, just before sunset Vespers or evening prayer would be sung (Fry, 1981, pp. 213-15). Benedict was anxious that as much as possible could be done in daylight. Finally, just before going to bed, Compline, or night prayers were recited. The same three psalms were used each night. They were soon memorised so that they could be sung in the dark! If for

some reason monks had to go on a journey or work outside the monastery in the fields, they were expected to pray where they were (Fry, 1981, pp. 253-5). Work, sacred reading and study Time was also allocated for work, private reading and study. Books would have been in short supply and limited to the theological writings, sermons and commentaries on scripture by early Christian writers. Therefore, even if a monk could read and write, it was common practice to memorise large sections. Throughout the early centuries and right up to the invention of the printing press the monasteries were safe havens for important books, manuscripts and the dissemination of information. Many monks would spend their time making copies and illuminating the pages with intricate calligraphy and artwork. Interspersed with the daily round of prayer was the other kind of work or manual labour as Benedict calls it (Fry, 1981, pp. 249-53). Work was a duty, an economic necessity and a service to other people within and outside the monastery. The prominence of manual work in the Rule of Benedict contrasts with the ideal of leisure cultivated in Roman civilisation in the sixth century. It is quite likely that many men joining Benedict’s monastery were not used to working with their hands. Yet it was the means by which the buildings, fabric and lands of the monastery could be maintained. In the course of a working day produce might be sold to provide money for alms for the poor. A monk gave up all rights to private ownership (Fry, 1981, pp. 231-3); this applied as much to the profit that might be derived from some craft or service as it did to private possessions. If produce or works of craft were to be sold outside, the price should always be lower. He says, ‘‘The evil of avarice must have no part in establishing prices’’ (Fry, 1981, p. 267). Hospitality One of the main works of the monastery was the provision of accommodation for guests (Fry, 1981, pp. 255-9). These would be travellers, pilgrims, the sick and the poor. The tradition of monastic hospitality goes back to the earliest times. Before inns and hotels monasteries were the main sources of refuge. More importantly they provide a ‘‘spiritual hospitality’’ as well. They were places where people came to be spiritually healed and strengthened. The abbot The appointment and roˆle of the abbot and his management team was crucial to the welfare of any monastic community. Benedict devotes two chapters to the abbot, Chapter 2 on his qualities and Chapter 64 on his election (Fry, 1981, pp. 171-9 and 281-5). Speaking of the qualities of the abbot, Benedict uses the image of father and shepherd. The underlying tone is one of ‘‘servant leadership’’. He reminds him, ‘‘The abbot must, therefore, be aware that the shepherd will bear the blame wherever the father of the household finds that the sheep have yielded no profit’’. He must lead by example rather than words.

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Irrespective of a monk’s social standing or ability, the abbot is not to have favourites in the community. Furthermore: The abbot must always remember what he is and remember what he is called, aware that more will be expected of a man to whom more has been entrusted. He must know what a difficult and demanding burden he has undertaken: directing souls and serving a variety of temperaments, coaxing, reproving and encouraging them as appropriate. He must so accommodate and adapt to each one’s character and intelligence that he will not only keep the flock entrusted to his care from dwindling, but will rejoice in the increase of a good flock. Above all, he must not show too great concern for the fleeting and temporal things of this world, neglecting or treating lightly the welfare of those entrusted to him (Fry, 1981).

In Chapter 64 the focus is more on qualities than responsibilities. ‘‘Goodness of life and wisdom in teaching must be the criteria for choosing an abbot.’’ If he does have to admonish someone he should use prudence and avoid extremes; otherwise, ‘‘by rubbing too hard to remove the rust, he may break the vessel . . . Let him strive to be loved rather than feared’’. Fry (1981) continues: Excitable, anxious, extreme, obstinate, jealous or over suspicious he must not be. Such a man is never at rest. Instead, he must show forethought and consideration in his orders, and whether the task he assigns concerns God or the world, he should be discerning and moderate. Therefore, drawing on this and other examples of discretion, the mother of virtues, he must arrange everything that the strong have something to yearn for and the weak nothing to run from.

The prior and deans Where the community was large, Benedict stressed the importance of delegation. Hence there was a need for a prior and deans. The prior was the abbot’s deputy. ‘‘The prior is to carry out respectfully what the abbot assigns to him, and do nothing contrary to the abbot’s wishes and arrangements’’ (Fry, 1981, p. 287). In contemporary language, the deans were like the board of directors or governing body (Fry, 1981, pp. 217-19). They were to be chosen for their good repute and holy life says Benedict. ‘‘They should be men with whom the abbot can confidently share the burdens of his office. They should be chosen for virtuous living and wise teaching, not for their rank.’’ The cellarer or bursar He was the equivalent of what would now be called the bursar, treasurer or finance director. Appointed by the abbot, he was given responsibility for the day to day running of the domestic services, buildings and plant. Like the abbot, Benedict is similarly prescriptive about the qualities needed for this important position: As cellarer of the monastery, there should be chosen from the community someone who is wise, mature in conduct, temperate, not an excessive eater, not proud, excitable, offensive, dilatory or wasteful, but God fearing, and like a father to the whole community . . . He should not annoy the brothers. If any brother happens to make an unreasonable demand of him, he should not reject him with disdain and cause him distress, but reasonably and humbly deny the improper request. He must show every care and concern for the sick, children, guests and the poor . . . he should not be prone to greed, nor be wasteful or extravagant with the goods of the monastery, but should do everything with moderation and according to the abbot’s

orders. Above all let him be humble. If goods are not available to meet a request, he will offer a kind word in reply (Fry, 1981, pp. 227-9).

Consultation In terms of management style a Benedictine community tends to be autocratic or paternalistic. However, the decision-making process is in many ways participative and consultative. In Chapter 3, Benedict instructs the abbot as follows: As often as anything important is to be done in the monastery, he shall call the whole community together and himself explain what the business is; and after hearing the advice of the brothers, let him ponder it and follow what he judges the wiser counsel. The reason we have said all should be called for counsel is that the Lord often reveals what is better to the younger. The brothers, for their part, are to express their opinions with all humility, and not to presume to defend their own views obstinately. The decision is rather the abbot’s to make . . . (Fry, 1981, p. 295).

Individual formation and mentoring The life of the monk was about growth in virtue through living in a stable community and serving others. At the end of his one-year noviciate the monk made three vows, stability, fidelity to monastic life and obedience. The implication of this commitment was that the monk was always changing. His life became one of continual conversion in which ‘‘life-long learning’’ became an integral part. As Benedict knew from his understanding of the human psyche and his own experience, stability was important. Whenever the temptation came to wander off or give up there needed to be an anchor to which the monk was securely lashed. It was more than a physical stability. It implied an emotional and spiritual link to the community as well. Being part of the monastic family also meant being obedient to the father of the community and to each other. Benedict calls this mutual obedience. ‘‘They should each try to be first to show respect to the other, supporting weaknesses of body or behaviour, and earnestly competing in obedience to one another. No one is to pursue what he judges better for himself, but instead, what he judges better for someone else’’ (Fry, 1981, p. 295). Meeting a need One important insight that modern psychology provides is the human need to seek solitude or time apart, an opportunity to be reflective and explore the meaning and purpose of life, to review our relationships with significant people and the community in which we live. Most importantly, there is a need to examine the activities in which we are engaged, especially our work, which occupies us for the greater part of our waking day. There is substantial evidence to support the growing concern about the workplace and the detrimental effect that some kinds of work are having on personal life, the family, relationships, in fact the whole economic and social structure (Management Today, 1998). Legislation and technology have removed a great deal of the drudgery, danger and injustice of work experienced

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a few decades ago. Greater affluence, opportunities for leisure and holidays have brought additional benefits. But are people happier? In spite of apparent success in the workplace why do some people still feel miserable? In the words of Berglas (2001) ‘‘why do people hit bottom when they reach the top?’’ Many are looking for a new meaning in their life. Looking for places and ways in which they can be spiritually nourished (Alagaliaso, 1999). Neither has spiritual dimension of the physical workspace escaped attention. Duffy (1997) identifies four separate work areas: the hive characterised by intense activity; the den, where small groups come together for concentrated, in-depth exchanges; the coffee house, where bargains and deals are sealed; and lastly (but not least), the cell, where individuals go to be reflective and creative. How can Benedictine monks help business, especially people at work? Firstly, at the heart of Benedictine spirituality is balance and moderation. In a world where work forces are expected to work more hours per week than they did a decade ago people are asking, ‘‘What effect is this having on my life?’’ Benedict, anxious to redress excess, is continually emphasising that the strong should have something to strive for, yet the weak should never be driven away. The rhythm of the monastic day, so structured that the Work of God and the essential work of sustaining the daily routine of the monastery is an attractive alternative. Secondly, the Benedictine way is about conversion and growing in virtue. Covey (1989), makes the point that until the 1950s the American literature on success focused on character especially qualities such as integrity, humility, fidelity, temperance, courage, justice, patience, simplicity and modesty. Do not these attributes remind us that the same qualities and virtues can be found in most chapters of Benedict’s Rule? Covey goes on to lament the fact that since the 1950s the attention of management has turned to personality, a preoccupation with image and ‘‘social Band-Aids’’. What has happened to virtue and character in the world of business? There has been too much emphasis on effectiveness and not enough on striving for excellence. Thirdly, the model of ‘‘servant leadership’’ found in the Rule of Benedict has a significant effect on the way senior management see their role in business. Benedict’s emphasis on the personal qualities of the abbot, prior and cellarer rather than their organisational ability or technical competence provides new insight about leadership. Equally as important is the structure and day to day operation of a Benedictine community. It is socially inclusive. Everyone has their work to do; everyone has their place in community rank irrespective of academic qualifications or age. Most importantly work, according to ability, is done for the service of one another. In his book Servant Leadership, Greenleaf (1991) explores power and greatness through the concept of ‘‘servant leadership’’. Can we both lead and serve at one and the same time he asks? He goes on: Alas we live in an age of the ‘‘anti-leader’’, and our vast educational structure devotes very little care to nurturing leaders or to understand followship . . . The conclusion I reach is that educators are avoiding the issue when they refuse to give the same care to the development of servant leasers as they do to doctors, lawyers, ministers, teachers, engineers, scholars (Greenleaf, 1991, p. 4).

Retreat/workshop programme Why do they come? Recognising the contribution that Benedict’s Rule can make to the world of work, several Benedictine monasteries in Europe have designed and facilitated retreat workshops for senior executives and others involved in human resource management or organisational development. For instance, every two months, Douai Abbey, near Reading in Berkshire, UK runs a series of six weekend residential retreat workshops. Each weekend features a different theme. So far over 120 people have participated in these weekends. Participants come for a variety of reasons. For the majority, ethical issues do not appear to feature highly on the list of reasons for attendance. This might be surprising because at organisational level ethical issues are frequently mentioned in the context of the spiritual dimension and corporate behaviour. Rather many participants use the weekends as a way of exploring personal issues. With a few exceptions they come in their own free time and pay their own fees. Relationships and work/life balance Some come to explore the relationship between their job and everyday life. Faced with increasing workloads and complexity of tasks they are asking the questions, ‘‘have I got the balance right?’’ or, ‘‘what effect is this having on me and the significant people in my life?’’ Such questions might be linked to the type of job they do, the amount of travelling involved or the time spent away from home. Inevitably, what an individual wants out of life is linked to ways in which they see themselves fulfilled? What brings this fullness or ‘‘life in abundance’’? They recognise that the work they do can have an important transforming effect, provided it is done with the right intention. Work does not have to be toil and drudgery. Work can be enjoyed! The non-financial rewards are as important, if not more so, than salary or fringe benefits. Inevitably such reflection leads to evaluation of personal life-style. Am I working so hard, missing out on watching my children grow up, because I want to have a house in a particular neighbourhood or the latest version of such and such a car? One successful but exhausted and disillusioned marketing executive, with over 20 years’ service working for the same international computer giant came on the retreat workshops to discern what kind of job she should move to next. By the time of the third weekend she realised that rather than change job she wanted to focus on changing herself and her attitude to her work. Others have concerns about relationships with colleagues, line managers, bosses and even customers. Some work in a ‘‘politically charged’’ environment. The common denominator is that they have to cope with difficult people. Perhaps there are issues about their own personal development that they need to sort out. Another participant, this time seven years a PA to a senior manager in the airline industry was having great difficulty with her boss as he approached retirement. She knew that her job was vulnerable but he did not want her to leave until after he had retired. Yet, she had to ensure that her future employment was secure.

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What spiritual insights can the Rule of Benedict bring to such a situation? As we have seen, the Rule of Benedict places great emphasis on human qualities and character. It also speaks about ‘‘mutual obedience’’ and respect. Neither should an individual be motivated by self-interest. Participants often find the concept of ‘‘mutual obedience’’ a difficult one to comprehend. This is an obedience, which is motivated by love and respect for the other person. It is an obedience that emerges out of dialogue exchanged in a calm and sensitive manner. It frequently leads to consensus although not always so. It is about being able to speak the truth out of love for the other without fear of reprisal or rejection. But is the word ‘‘love’’ part of the currency of the workplace? Many organisations feel it is and realise that even if they do not readily use the word it is implicit in the way they treat one another and the customer. In the situation with the senior airline executive, the issues were talked through. Being a participant on the retreat workshop programme had given his PA the confidence to remain loyal to her boss but at the same time speak openly and truthfully about her concerns. Coping with failure and success A third area of concern for participants is around that of coping with failure and success. In a competitive business environment it is inevitable that people ‘‘want to win’’. Success is frequently measured in terms of growth, market share, and career progression. But do people have the emotional and psychological maturity to cope when things go wrong? In extreme examples, failure can precipitate negative stress (or distress), burnout, even physical and mental illness. Another learning that the Rule of Benedict brings to the workplace is that failure is an intrinsic part of learning. When we review our life we recognise that times of crisis and difficulty have played an important part in our development as people. We are what we are because of them, rather than in spite of them. It is a strange paradox, but to be truly successful we have to learn how to ‘‘celebrate’’ failure. A small group exercise came up with the following positive aspects of failure, ‘‘a catalyst for working together, liberating, questions meaning, builds up the team, develops humility and makes us stronger’’. At the end of one weekend a thirty-year-old participant, already owner and general manager of a large country club and leisure complex remarked that, ‘‘he now realised that failures were the stepping stones in his goal of having a successful life’’. Equally as important is living and working in an affirming and nurturing workplace. How do we view the failure of others? Is their failure our success? Do we gloat over their misfortune? Events such as redundancy or loss of an important client or bid can be times of significant and corporate failure. Do I and the organisation I work for have the support mechanisms in place? One participant, who lead what was usually a successful IT sales team, spoke of how the team had a ‘‘wake’’ to mourn the loss of an unsuccessful pitch for a multi-million pound contract.

Leadership skills The retreat workshops have also been important as a means of recognising and developing leadership skills in participants. The sections on the abbot and bursar are particularly relevant here. When applying these three chapters of the Rule of Benedict to real life situations, such as a recruitment of a CEO or a finance director another small group came up with the following qualities, ‘‘being able to demonstrate compassion, mercy and judgement at the appropriate times’’ and, ‘‘operating moderately at all times, with self-control, restraint, showing maturity and awareness of self, but taking courageous action when needed’’. Developing virtue ‘‘Developing virtue’’ is not a commonly heard phrase in the workplace. But do we ask of ourselves, and those who work with us, to strive for excellence or merely be effective? There is continual debate about this among those responsible for management selection and development. For instance, what part does ‘‘developing virtue’’ play in an MBA programme? In the Rule of Benedict one important virtue is humility. Because Benedict attached to it such great importance, it is one of his longest chapters. Here is a participant’s interpretation of what it means to be humble in the workplace, ‘‘self motivating, respecting consensus, attentive listening, open communication, team-work, recognising diversity, having shared values, economy of words, laughing with (not at) and moderation.’’ Conclusion What is emerging is that the wisdom and teaching of the Rule of Benedict is as relevant to the world today as it was more than 15 centuries ago. Benedict never pretended that his ‘‘little rule for beginners’’ would have the answer to everything. Linked to the insights that our personal experience and modern management literature bring, the Rule of Benedict offers a practical model for personal and organisational development that both stands the test of time and reinforces modern psychological thinking and practice. Is there anything new under the sun? References Alagaliaso, M. (1999), ‘‘Spirit at work: the search for deeper meaning in the workplace’’, Harvard Business School Bulletin On-Line, April. Berglas, S. (2001), Reclaiming the Fire, Random House, London. Covey, S. (1989), The Seven Habits of Highly Effective People, Simon & Schuster, London. Duffy, F. (1997), The New Office, Conran Octopus, New York, NY. Fry, T. (Ed.) (1981), The Rule of St Benedict: Fry 1980, The Liturgical Press, Collegeville, MN. Greenleaf, R. (1991), Servant Leadership, Paulist Press, Mahwah, NJ. Hayes, N. (1994), Foundations of Psychology, Routledge, London. Kennedy, M. (1999), ‘‘Fayol’s principles and the Rule of St Benedict: is there anything new under the sun?’’, Journal of Management History, Vol. 5. Management Today (1998), ‘‘The great work/life debate’’, June. Van den Hoven (1996), Work in Ancient and Medieval Thought, Gieben, Amsterdam.

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A spiritual perspective on learning in the workplace Sue Howard Strategy Group, Cranfield School of Management, Cranfield, UK Keywords Workplace learning, Organizational philosophy, Ethics, Organizational performance Abstract The growing focus on learning as being key to organisational success has raised the level of debate amongst practitioners and academics alike as to just what learning is. Consideration of spiritual ideologies offers the opportunity to reflect upon such areas as: complexity and connectivity, the meaning and purpose of work, individual identity and sensemaking, community and collaborative behaviour, dialogue, moral leadership and wisdom. Our spiritual capacity provides a deep foundation from which to explore and question our ontological assumptions. This paper locates the position of spirituality in the learning debate; examines the relationship between who we are, our being, with what we do, our doing; and implies that organisational performance can be improved by attendance to the spiritual richness of humanity.

Introduction Recently, the term ‘‘spirituality’’ has gained greater currency in organisation and management development circles. The Academy of Management has set up an interest group on management, spirituality and religion. There are numerous conferences, articles, books, influential websites (such as spiritatwork.com) and courses springing up on the subject which confirm the explosion of interest in spirituality as a new dimension of management. Such levels of interest raise moral questions for leaders in organisations, and require new approaches to development and organisational transformation, to be considered. Is spirituality the key to a ‘‘developed alternative’’ (Kuhn, 1970 cited in Adams, 1998). The subject of ‘‘spirituality’’ is provocative. The very nature of the subject is deeply personal and people are nervous about its introduction into the world of business. This paper provides an overview of some of the key issues involved in the ‘‘spirituality in the workplace’’ approach. It explores what spirituality is, how it is relevant to debates about management learning, the importance of spirituality to leadership and learning, and its influence on transformation in organisations. Spirituality is proposed as a way to make our lives more meaningful and connected, and the world a better place, but some difficult questions remain about it that require further research and theoretical clarification (Boje, 2000, p. xxv) if it is not to become a fad.

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What is spirituality? It is commonly believed that as human beings, we are made up of body, mind, emotions and spirit. Many would place all things that are non-rational, including the psychological world, into the spiritual category. The interplay between our spiritual yearnings, our emotions, psychological capacity and our

capability to learn are all deeply interwoven. Maslow (1970, p. 273) recognised this when he stated: Man’s inherent design or inner nature seems to be not only in his anatomy and physiology, but also his most basic need, yearnings and psychological capacity. This inner nature is usually not obvious and easily seen, but is rather hidden.

In the simplest terms the ‘‘hidden yearning’’ within us is an indicator of our spirituality. We each need to find meaning and purpose and develop our potential, to live an integrated, fulfilled life. Spirituality encompasses the way an individual lives out his or her sense of interconnectedness with the world through an ability to tap into deep resources. It encompasses such terms as truth, love, service, wisdom, joy, peace and wholeness. It is about selfawareness and about unity with others. It combines our basic philosophy towards life, our values, with our conduct and practice. Hence the difficulty with definition – spirituality is both highly individual and intensely personal, as well as inclusive and universal. Whilst many suggest that spirituality need not have any religious associations, it is important to know that spirituality aligns to the notion that there is an unseen order of things behind the veil of materialism. Quantum physics, chaos, complexity and systems theory have demonstrated the reality of this unseen order and shown that everything is connected to everything else (Zohar, 1997). Swiss Physicist J.S. Bell proved that, in effect, the world is ‘‘fundamentally inseparable’’ (Jaworski, 1998, p. 79). Bohm (1980) has contributed to our collective depth of understanding about the unseen reality in the universe, ‘‘the implicate order is a level of reality beyond our normal everyday thoughts and perceptions, as well as beyond any picture of reality offered by a given scientific theory . . . In the implicate order, the totality of existence is enfolded within each ‘fragment’ of space and time . . . Thus everything in the universe affects everything else because they are all part of the same unbroken whole’’ (Bohm, 1980, cited in Jaworski, 1998, p. 78). Those that write about spirituality infer that this unseen reality, the wholeness in our systems, our inseparability and connectedness is a spiritual phenomenon. The suggestion is that spiritual reality is a unifying oneness and it can change our perspective on fragmentation in society. Moxley (2000) says of spirit that it is: . . . the unseen force that weaves through and permeates all our experiences . . . it is because of the work of the spirit that we experience deep communion with others, experience ourselves as part of something larger, experience connectedness to all of life (Moxley, 2000, p. 23).

To be in harmony with the unseen order of things firstly requires us to believe in this unseen order. This is part of the mindset shift that spirituality provokes. Yet, for some, the most difficult part of the spirituality debate is how to understand the nature of the unseen. Spirituality is a term that many people are willing to apply to their lives. And there are many non-theist, new age, naturecentered, and secular conceptions of what it means. These beliefs transcend rationality believing in ‘‘something’’ or a power beyond the self or ego. Faith too

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is defined as belief in something which is not seen. In contrast, there are also negative associations with the term, e.g. pagan spirituality, cults, evil spirits, devil worship etc. It is clear that debates about spirituality require some boundaries to be drawn up, and that the content of spirituality is important. From a faith perspective, spirituality can be seen to be about four sets of connections – with self, with others, with nature or the environment, and with a higher power. Dhiman (2000) suggests that ‘‘spirituality may be described as the awareness of the Divine Principle of our being, as characterised by our effort to live in harmony with the divine principle. And spirituality in the workplace is an attempt to get connected to this divine principle in the context of the workplace’’ (Dhiman, 2000, p. 4). If one attests that the unseen reality, which is spiritual in nature, includes something divine then, whether it is articulated, disguised or rebuffed, at the heart of the matter of spirituality lies the notion of God. Appreciating that the foundation of discussions about spirituality can lead to discussions about the role of God in our lives gives us insight into the way in which we might deny, understand or accept a spiritual reality. Management has broadly accepted that it deals in the realms of self, others and the environment but the concept of a ‘‘higher power’’ or ‘‘divine principle’’ is much more difficult to acknowledge. Part of the confusion arises out of how we distinguish the term ‘‘spirituality’’ from ‘‘religion’’ in our language. Spirit comes from the word ‘‘spiritus’’ which means breath of life. Spirit is the unseen force that breathes life into us, enlivens us, gives energy to us. Spirit helps to define the true, real unique self that is us and confirms our individuality (Moxley, 2000, p. 23). Spirituality also recognises that there is something sacred at the core of all existence. Religion comes from the Latin ‘‘religio’’ which has been translated as reliance or connection (Scott-Peck, 1993, p. 233). It can also mean to re-tie. Whilst many identify religion with a system of dogma and sanctions, religions represent particular forms of the spiritual path. Religions are the oldest systems for attempting to connect with the unseen. Most religions share a recognition of an unseen power, some attest to it as divine love. And, as Marcic (1997) demonstrates, virtually all encourage their adherents to have loving concern for others. The ‘‘retying’’ process, the spiritual journey, calls upon individuals to become more loving and compassionate, less self-oriented and more giving as a result of their beliefs. Maybe, if we can define religion as a ‘‘way of life’’, e.g. part of what we do (our doing) to show our beliefs; then spirituality can perhaps best be thought of as the essence of life itself, who we really are (our being). Our spirituality is what our lives are about. It is our pathway to meaning. It exists regardless of religion, although for many, religion is a route to developing greater spirituality. Spirituality and religion can be, and often are, linked. It might be safe to say that not all religion is bad, and not all spirituality is good and viceversa; both have the potential to be positive or negative. Good outcomes depend on what kind of religion or spirituality is being discussed and how earnestly it is pursued. But spirituality is fundamental to our being regardless of how we

label and identify it, and we can work with it without taking on board a religious perspective if we choose. Other complications in discussing spirituality can arise because people are at different places in their understanding of it. Indeed, that is a fundamental aspect of spirituality – it is not a static phenomenon – it involves change, and is central to our journey towards growth and wholeness. It is helpful to recognise that just as there are developmental stages in our cognitive behaviours, so too are there stages in our spiritual development (Fowler, 1981). People both in and out of religious walks can be on journeys of spiritual growth. Further clarity is provided by research undertaken by members of the managerial and organisational disciplines for the enhancement of ministry (MODEM). They use the terminology of little ‘‘s’’ and big ‘‘S’’. In one sense spirituality with a little ‘‘s’’ (the human spirit) can be discussed somewhat separately from any discussions about the big ‘‘S’’, e.g. God or other transcendent entity. The author recently conducted some research into spirituality with a group of management developers, one of whom commented that ‘‘the big ‘S’ (inspires) people to be on the search, but the small ‘s’ is the bit that we all have the opportunity to work with’’ (Howard, 2000, p. 76). Scott-Peck agrees that whilst our spirituality includes our attempts to be in harmony with the unseen order of things, the unseen order is actually and actively attempting to be in harmony with us (Scott-Peck, 1993, p. 234, emphasis mine). This would suggest that the spirit that we are discussing is alive and is in relationship with us, and implies the concept of a living spiritual being, e.g. God. Perhaps most importantly, the contribution of the idea of a living spirit actively encouraging our spiritual growth indicates that our responsibility to live a spiritual life is not down to us on our own. Spirituality is not simply about self-help. It is of significant interest that Jung, upon whose ideas much management development activity is based, believed that the metaphysical was an integral part of human individuality. He said that he didn’t simply believe in God, rather he knew God existed. His life demonstrated a conscious awareness of the infusion of spirit with his vocation and he wrote ‘‘I had a sense of destiny as though my life was assigned to me by fate and had to be fulfilled. This gave me an inner security . . . Often I had the feeling that in all decisive matters, I was no longer among men, but was alone with God.’’ (Jung, cited in Jaworski, 1998, p. 134). Over the entrance to his home in Switzerland he had placed a latin sign which translated into English reads: ‘‘Invoked or not, God is present’’. Similarly, Moxley describes spirit as being always present ‘‘Whoever you are, wherever you are, whatever you are doing . . . spirit is present. It may be outside your conscious awareness but it is present’’ (Moxley, 2000, p. 23). I conclude from this that one can connect to the always present ‘‘spirit’’ without labelling it as God, or one can attest to it as God and develop understanding from there. A leap of faith must be taken to name the unseen force God. But an increasing number of people in the world of organisational development are prepared to make this leap. Vaill suggests that ‘‘we all need to think and communicate more theologically’’ (Vaill, 1998a, p. 180). The decision to call this

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spirit God or not is determined mainly by our spiritual history, experience, development and cultural norms. Despite the post-modern insistence that grand narratives are dead, people are still looking for some spiritual certainties in life. People need an awareness of the ‘‘big picture’’ – but want it revised, updated and made relevant. That’s partly why issues about spirituality are arising in the workplace where people spend so much of their lives and begin to question what it’s all for. Whatever one’s underlying belief system, everyone has a spiritual life, just as they have an unconscious, whether they like it or not. That many may ignore, actively deny or vigorously flee from the unseen order doesn’t mean they are not spiritual beings; it only means they are trying to avoid, or are unaware of, the fact. In juxtaposition, alongside those who flee from the spiritual are many who have embraced spirituality and their voices cannot be ignored. The disparity of our spiritual development is one of the key struggles with which we engage in daily, whether we recognise it or not. And this is why the spirituality debate is emerging and becoming central to leading-edge thinking for organisations and why it is so important to begin to discuss spiritual realities openly. Spirituality and the management learning debate As the literature on organisational and management learning has evolved we have moved into more and more challenging territory. The ideal of becoming critically reflective (Burgoyne and Reynolds, 1997) has shown that practitioners and theorists alike need to value the ethical and moral aspects of management. In today’s world, leadership continues to juggle with age-old moral concerns (Kakabadse et al., 1998). Managers within organisations must take into account the broader economic, political, cultural and social contexts in order to understand the kind of society that their work is producing or changing. People in organisations become part of systems where management ideologies, good or bad, are ‘‘unwittingly assimilated or imposed’’ upon them (Lievegoed, 1991, p. 71). To survive and succeed, individuals are able to adapt themselves to the organisational culture and climate. But critical management theorists ask whether such ideologies obscure or distract the manager from an awareness of having moral and ethical choices to make. They question – What assumptions are we making in analysing things as we do? What aspects are we leaving out? What value judgements are built into positions taken? What larger social processes are our theory and practice part of? What contradictions and paradoxes are there between these various values, assumptions, agendas, omissions? (Burgoyne and Reynolds, 1997). Management’s role is seen to be about the promotion of mature and adaptive thought and action in pursuit of the collective good (Brown and Starkey, 2000). Post-modernists seriously question the notion of the autonomous good self, the utopian optimism and aspiration to progress embodied in humanist ideology. Instead, they see efforts to control hidden amongst the rhetoric. But even the

critical theorists seem driven by an emancipatory agenda; they work towards the attainment of something better. There are genuine difficulties to be faced in pursuing a goal such as ‘‘the collective good’’. But the emancipatory debate is seen to be central to management learning and it requires that we dig back to the philosophical roots of understanding. Such questioning of management purposes is productive as it leads us to look more profoundly at how we can break through the barriers and blockages in our daily experience of organisational life. We need to acknowledge, and deal with, our fragmentation and the hidden undiscussables in organisations. To do so, we need to explore our basic assumptions about the way the world works, our deeply held convictions, our mental maps, our personal history and fears, and our understanding about how we fit in. Management development thus represents a pathway to understanding and making sense of the world in which we live. In the process of gaining understanding we are forced to become acquainted with concerns over how we are to define ourselves. Exploring organisational identity is vital to the management learning agenda (Burgoyne and Reynolds, 1997; Brown and Starkey, 2000). This includes debates about language and how we use it not just to describe the world, but to create our world (Jaworski, 1998). The significance of the ‘‘spirituality as part of management’’ debate is that we are beginning to talk about a significant ‘‘undiscussable’’ area in relation to our work. Fundamental questioning of what is the ‘‘collective good’’, what is freedom, how to encourage learning and self-awareness, lie at the heart of explorations of both management and spirituality. Our comprehension of what it means to be spiritual might be diverse and our language might be inadequate to describe it, but our ability to move forward together requires that we at least address it. This deeper kind of moral questioning is legitimate territory for today’s managers and leaders in the business world. Learning and spirituality – and the implications for leaders Perhaps one of the most significant attributes of spirituality is that at its root it is a matter of seeing – it is all of life seen from a certain perspective (Turner, 1999). It is about metanoia (Senge, 1990) – a fundamental shift in mind in which individuals come to see themselves as capable of creating the world they truly want rather than reacting to circumstances beyond their control. Metanoia is about taking on an authentic transformational perspective. Perspective transformation is the ‘‘central process of adult development’’ according to Mezirow (1991, p. 155). Bateson’s (1973) level III learning and Argyris and Schon’s (1978) Treble Loop learning concur that transformation begins when we look differently at the set of alternatives facing us. When we can become free of normal constraints, access a ‘‘higher’’ level of awareness, and view the world from the context of planetary consciousness, then we can begin to work out, more appropriately, what acts we should perform. The process of engaging with the wider issues of reality in the cosmos in such a way is a spiritual one. It is by

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engaging with the issues from this dimension that, it is proposed, we are better able to make sense of the world and deal with the minutiae of everyday life. Real learning, and real spirituality, get to the heart of what it means to be human. Learning is circuitous and involves the process of discovering what questions to ask as well as the process of discovering ‘‘answers’’. Our spiritual evaluation is an approach to life that is continuous. Our perception of the world, and our reaction to it are a matter of choice. We can explore the assumptions we live with, which problems we choose to solve, what goals we think it worth pursuing. We are efficient and effective to what end? In essence what is our purpose and what are our priorities? A spiritual world view makes one more responsible for one’s feelings and actions. This has significant implications for those in positions of leadership. Leaders are beginning to understand more fully the impact that their behaviour has on others, on organisations, and the sustainability of the planet. As Vaill (1998b, p. 32) has described, the central essence of our lives is to determine the way in which we are able ‘‘to be in the world with responsibility’’. Handy agrees: ‘‘The trouble with working things out is that you have to start to practise what you preach. Intellectual journeys don’t lead to a rest house’’ (Handy, 1996, p. 21). This is the crux of the matter. We have to answer for our actions because the way we live affects others. We are responsible and accountable for determining how we apply ourselves, and how we develop in our own context. ‘‘Through learning we extend our capacity to create, to be part of the generative process of life’’ (Senge, 1990, p. 14). Our learning must help us to interpret, and decide how to ‘‘create’’ and act, in our particular circumstances. Such responsibility requires courage. But our relationship with the spiritual realm is deemed to give us strength. Jaworski (1998) is enlightening: ‘‘we tend to deny our destiny because of our insecurity, our dread of ostracism, our anxiety, and our lack of courage to risk what we have.’’ And yet, ‘‘When we say yes to the call . . . there exists beyond ourselves and our conscious will a powerful force that helps us along the way and nurtures our growth and transformation’’ (Jaworski, 1998, p. 119). The ultimate aim of a spiritual leader is to find the resources of character to meet his or her destiny – to find the wisdom and power to serve others. Spirituality is claimed as the essence of everyday events. It is both the source of our restless search and the pathway to our connection and purpose. It provides a route to finding the strength and energy we need to live a life of personal fulfilment and integrity. New paradigm thinking has provided us with a scientific explanation and rationale for surrendering ourselves to the flow of synchronicity. The experience of oneness beyond our fragmented separateness offers leaders the possibility of an evolved consciousness. Transformational leadership involves commitment to broad visionary ideals. From an attitude of service to life, rather than self-interest, it strives to help others break free of their limits. Transformational leadership is all about inspiring the release of human possibilities. It suggests we need to grow beyond our fears and help others to do the same.

Thus leadership is being re-evaluated and moving from control to influence, towards non-coercive power. As Senge (1998, p. 158) has written: ‘‘Leaders are visionaries who see possibilities and orient themselves towards creating rather than maintaining . . . Leaders are teachers, facilitators, ‘growers’ of human beings.’’ In developing organisations which have a sense of purpose and commonality of values, leaders need to be inspiring. To do so, new leaders are choosing to relinquish the desire for control, preferring instead to become more self-aware, authentic and courageous. Drawing on Jungian psychodynamic perspective, spiritual leaders have a special responsibility for what is going on in their own consciousness. They need to project their light rather than their shadow (Palmer, 1994). In this way their unique gifts and talents are contributed to influence organisational systems in life-enhancing ways. Additionally, leaders don’t have to have every idea and make every decision. We exist in a web of relationships with various stakeholder groups, and these are paramount. Leaders can transform organisations by seeking to create conditions that free organisational energy, promote positive relationships, and which encourage personal growth by liberating individual responsibility for choices and actions. Again, it is ‘‘being in the world with responsibility’’ (Vaill, 1998b, p. 32) that both spirituality and learning are about. Who we are, our identity and our being, is inextricably linked with what we do – our actions in the world. Such understanding highlights the significance of the subjective path of individual learning and development. Spiritual leadership supports this learning. It encourages people to ask questions, develop their capabilities and discernment, align themselves to a higher vision, and develop a sense of their own personal destiny. Transformation in organisations and leadership Many are now sympathetic to the new paradigm, and we have reached a point in time where optimistic rhetoric and intentions are moving towards a more spiritual view of world systems. The questions for business leaders are fundamental – what is business for? Is capitalism producing the society we want? By what means are companies achieving their strategic objectives? Are organisational structures oppressive or liberating? What is the meaning and purpose of our work? What is the importance of community? How can we work collaboratively? The ideal of organisational transformation (OT) has grown out of the organisational development (OD) movement over the past 20 years or so. OT cannot be neatly defined but it suggests organisations need to change in thought and action at a much more fundamental level than has been accomplished so far by change agents. Previously, in this journal, Dehler and Welsh (1994) have highlighted that spiritual considerations are central to achieving such changes in organisational vision, and alignment of individual energy. The OT movement has been described as ‘‘a profound impulse towards a developed alternative to the old paradigm (reductionist management science)

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. . . and has to come to terms with the spiritual’’ (Vaill, pp. 34 and 43). OT is offered as a way to address the world’s call for a more human face to capitalism. It seeks greater environmental responsibility, social justice, transparency, morality and accountability from organisations. The difficulty is that we struggle to make much progress towards these ideals. Indeed, governments, companies and individuals find themselves in a bind, unable to do the good that they would, instead doing the evil that they don’t really want to. As at individual level, so at organisational level, we struggle to put our good ideas into action. It is suggested that this is because we are not fully developed spiritually. Professor Prabhu Guptara, Director of Executive and Organisational Development at UBS, Switzerland, recently spoke of spirituality as ‘‘dynamite’’, implying that it is only through our connection to the spiritual that we can revolutionise the world (Guptara, 2001). Mitroff and Denton (1999) propose that the choice confronting humanity at this point is not whether organisations can become more spiritual but how they can. Writings in the spirituality at work area suggest that work should contribute to people’s spiritual lives; and their spiritual lives should contribute to their work. Organisations are already affected by spirituality through individuals who attempt to apply their spiritual beliefs, principles and practices at work whether in private or in public. The spiritual perspective indicates that we are in the process of becoming and infers that, since the process of becoming includes what goes on in our working life, learning in organisations is inevitably tapping into it already. Therefore, it seems obvious to conclude that our personal development must include recognition of the spiritual if it is to be comprehensively effective. OT proposes that organisations can choose to support the development of individual spirituality, and further, that they can choose to organise themselves around spiritual principles and goals. For example Barrett (1998) suggests organisations should seek to turn every job into a mission. Hawkins (1991) proposes service as the fundamental purpose for organisations. But there are difficulties. Even if we accept spirituality as central to our world philosophy, we are insufficient in our ability to understand this and to live with it. We might understand more of the mysteries of the universe and the different levels of reality that exist but we still have trouble connecting and applying this in our lives. How is a person spiritual? Spirituality provokes uncomfortable questions in us and may mean confronting pain. Deep reflection on one’s life does not represent an easy option and that is why many people avoid it. Harder still, complex questions arise when moving from personal to organisational spirituality. If we struggle with our personal spirituality, how are organisations to benefit by engaging with this struggle? Should business leaders operate as spiritual guides? Can organisations survive economically if they pursue non-material outcomes, i.e. their responsibility to employees, to society and the environment, above financial ones? How will ‘‘spiritual companies’’ be evaluated by the wider socio-techno-economic systems that are

oriented towards rewarding economic performance? What would a more spiritual organisational culture be like? What expressions of spirituality would be acceptable? Would the power dynamic really encourage individuals to be more honest, forgiving, humble, caring, other-centred, dedicated and inspired? Or would it simply be a means for organizations to infiltrate and control the souls and spirit of their workers, and not just their bodies, minds and emotions? Would agnostics and atheists, and the ‘‘non-spiritual’’, be ostracized? Is the disparity in our outlook being homogenised? More research is required to address the many ethical questions that arise from a pursuit of spirituality in a secular world. Whilst critical questions about organisational spirituality remain, attempts to support the spiritual development of organisational leaders are increasing. For example the introduction of Spirituality and Organisational Transformation as an MBA elective at Cranfield School of Management, UK; and Andre Delbecq’s course on Spirituality for Business Leadership, at Santa Clara University, USA (Delbecq, 2000). Such courses contribute to the appreciation that a spiritual and business life are not incompatible, rather that leadership in business is a calling. The claim is that if leadership is ultimately a spiritual path then more attention surely needs to be paid to how a person integrates their life journey and life work. The participants on Delbecq’s course are a mixture of both MBA students and CEOs. In the midst of high-flying business careers the participants talk explicitly about prayer and reflection upon wisdom literature as the foundation of their ability to have discernment. Prayer being experienced as a spontaneous and diversely liberating everyday activity, rather than a ritual. In different ways, from different backgrounds, the participants open up about their need for spiritual expression and find that their spiritual journey is intrinsic to their ability to become authentic leaders. These courses provide a further insight – that our spiritual development requires space and time for us to reflect together in community. New paradigm thinking highlights the importance of relationships and our relatedness. We need self-awareness, but we also need an awareness of how we perceive, understand and treat others. Humans are connected by the same struggle to make sense of the world and find meaning for themselves within it. Vitally, we must learn to recognise that becoming a person is not something we can do completely by ourselves. An ‘‘I’’ becomes fully an ‘‘I’’ only in meaningful dialogue with a ‘‘thou’’. Transformation exists as a possibility only in the context of the love of another who becomes ‘‘thou’’ to me, even as I am ‘‘thou’’ to him or her (Owen, 1987, pp. 88-9 citing Buber). We can improve if we take time to engage in dialogue on important issues. Organisations do seem to be moving in this direction when they attempt to use processes which engage people in communication through attempts at dialogue and meta-dialogue (Bohm, 1989; Isaacs, 1993), real-time strategic change (Dannemillar and Tyson, 1990), open space technology (Owen, 1993), future search (Weisbord and Janoff, 1995), appreciative inquiry (Shrivastva and Cooperrider, 1990). We are moving towards ‘‘honouring the core spirit of an

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enterprise or community’’ (Levine, 1994, p. 71) and valuing the differences between us. As we grow in our ability to talk explicitly together about spiritual things we will, undoubtedly, find differences in our viewpoints, and face conflicts, but we might also uncover new understanding about our work and find new ways to tackle some of the difficulties that beset us in organisational life. Conclusion This paper has shown that spirituality is an issue which is gaining prominence in management thinking. The desire by many individuals to live lives which are compatible with the demands of their spirituality is insistent and requires attention by practitioners and academics alike. This sense of spirituality is provoking some far-reaching questions about the choices we make in our lives, including how we view our work. Those business leaders who are open to a spiritual path are learning to develop their personal spirituality and to think more deeply about the impact they are having on organisations and society. Such approaches to leadership are to be encouraged if we want organisations to be run for something more than profit and monetary gain. Organisations might well be transformed from a greater understanding of how deep beliefs affect behaviour at work. Talking about spirituality in relation to our work might encourage more individuals to explore their spirituality, and that may lead to wider benefits in organisational life and in society as a whole. We are still at the early stages of exploring just how organisations might become more spiritual, and what benefits or conflicts this might create. But explorations are actively underway and involve content (addressing spirituality explicitly) and process (working in ways that release the highest levels of human potential). Continued research into how spirituality supports transformation at all levels, including how leaders can work with this dimension, is vital to create a more informed understanding of how spirituality impacts individuals and organisations. This research should explore the extent to which spiritual transformation includes the involvement of the divine. More and more people are conscious of being at a frontier time, aware that the choice as to our future is in our hands. The events of September 11th have provoked spiritual questions around the world. Perhaps the greatest of these are: Will we be able to heal the fragmentation that divides us so much, and, if so, how? The spirituality perspective suggests that developing our spiritual insight and practice must surely be part of the answer, even if this is not an easy route. Metanoic transformation can only begin when we recognise, and walk along, the spiritual path. Then we can become connected with the oneness which is the unseen reality in the universe. Recognition of the spiritual provides us with a foundational platform from which to explore a ‘‘developed alternative’’ (Kuhn, 1970 cited in Adams, 1998, p. 34) that will guide our ability to achieve the outcomes we need – individually, in groups, in organisations, in society and in the world.

While the advent of spirituality in the workplace might seem an optimistic step too far for some, I agree with Pedler and Aspinal (1998, p. 105) who say: Balancing learning and worthwhile purposes is continuously difficult, and is unlikely to remain solved in any organisation for long. However, this is a moral debate, which affects everyone who works in the company or is touched by its activities. Our plea is for that debate and argument to be given permission and space to take place in the context of the purpose of all organisations seeking to improve their performance and contribution.

Let’s keep the debate going and be brave enough to discuss these matters openly. Perhaps, ultimately, spirituality is about learning to live in the question and keep it alive. References Adams, J. (1998), Transforming Work, Miles River Press, Alexandria, VA. Argyris, C. and Schon, D.A. (1978), Organisational Learning, Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA. Barrett, R. (1998), Liberating the Corporate Soul – Building a Visionary Organisation, Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford. Bateson, G, (1973), Steps to an Ecology of Mind, Palladin, London. Bohm, D. (1980), Wholeness and the Implicate Order, Routledge & Kegan Paul, cited in Jaworski, J. (1998), Synchronicity – the Inner Path of Leadership, Berrett-Koehler, San Francisco, CA. Bohm, D. (1989), On Dialogue, paper presented at the Seminar by David Bohm at Ojai Foundation, Ojai, CA. Boje, D.M. (2000), ‘‘Another view – approaches to the study of spiritual capitalism’’, in Biberman, J. and Whitty, M.D. (Eds), Work & Spirit – A Reader of New Spiritual Paradigms for Organisations, The University of Scranton Press, Scranton, PA, pp. xxvxxxii. Brown, A. and Starkey, K. (2000), ‘‘Organisational identity and learning: a psychodynamic perspective’’, Academy of Management Review, Vol. 25 No. 1, pp. 102-20. Burgoyne, J. and Reynolds, M. (1997), Management Learning – Integrating Perspectives in Theory and Practice, Sage, London. Dannemillar, K.D. and Tyson, C. (1990), Interactive Strategic Planning: A Consultant’s Guide, Dannemillar Tyson Associates, Ann Arbor, MI. Dehler, G. and Welsh, A. (1994), ‘‘Spirituality and organisational transformation implications for the new management paradigm’’, Journal of Managerial Psychology, Vol. 9 No. 6. Delbecq, A. (2000), ‘‘Spirituality for business leadership’’, Journal of Management Inquiry, Vol. 9 No. 2, June, pp. 114-32. Dhiman, S. (2000), Spirituality in the Workplace, Course Syllabus, Woodbury University, Los Angeles, CA, www.spiritatwork.com/knowledgecenter/university/syllabi/Dhiman.htm Fowler, J. (1981), Stages of Faith, Harper, San Francisco, CA. Guptara, P. (2001), Spirituality at Work: a Comparative Perspective, presentation at Conference on Spirituality in the Workplace, Ridley Hall, Cambridge, 23 June. Handy, C. (1996), Beyond Uncertainty, Harvard Business School Press, Boston, MA. Hawkins, P. (1991), ‘‘The spiritual dimension of the learning organisation’’, Management Education and Development Journal, Vol. 22 No. 3, pp. 172-87. Howard, S. (2000), ‘‘Spirituality and its links to learning in the workplace’’, unpublished Dissertation, Lancaster University, Lancaster.

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