SPECIAL NEEDS IN ORDINARY SCHOOLS General editor: Peter Mittler Associate editors: Mel Ainscow, Brahm Norwich, Peter Pumfrey and Sheila Wolfendale
Special Needs and the Beginning Teacher
Also available: Jenny Corbett: Special Needs in the Twentieth Century Paul Croll and Diana Moses: Special Needs in the Primary School Alan Dyson et al: New Directions in Special Needs Julie Dockrell and David Messer: Children's Language and Communication Difficulties David Johnstone: Further Opportunities
Special Needs and the Beginning Teacher Edited by Peter Benton and Tim O'Brien
CONTINUUM London and New York
Continuum The Tower Building 11 York Road London SE1 7NX www.continuumbooks.com
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© 2000 Peter Benton and Tim O'Brien All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical including photocopying, recording or any information storage or retrieval system, without prior permission in writing from the publishers. First published 2000 Reprinted 2001 British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. ISBN 0 8264 4889 5 (paperback)
Typeset by Kenneth Burnley in Irby, Wirral, Cheshire. Printed and bound in Great Britain by Bookcraft, Midsomer Norton.
Contents
Series Editor 's foreword
vii
Contributors
ix
1 An introduction to special educational needs Ann Hackney
1
2 Providing inclusive differentiation Tim O'Brien
12
3 The Individual Education Plan (IEP) Dennis Guiney
28
4 Teaching all students in multi-ethnic, multilingual Britain Ghazala Bhatti 5 Managing emotional and behavioural difficulties (EBD) in mainstream schools Roy Howarth
44
6 Able children with additional special needs Deborah Eyre and Mary Fitzpatrick
74
7 Understanding the hearing-impaired child in your class Ted Moore
88
57
8 Meeting the needs of visually impaired pupils Annette Auchterlonie
100
9 Approaches to reading difficulties Georgina Glenny
111
10 Approaches to spelling Olive Robinson
126
11 Developing writing skills Olive Robinson
137
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Contents
12 Numeracy: problems and strategies Brenda Stevens 13 Working effectively with Learning Support Assistants (LSAs) Christopher Bradley and Caroline Roaf 14 Special needs and the beginning teacher Peter Benton Bibliography Index
151
171 192 204 211
Series Editor's foreword
The Government's commitment to inclusive education for children can only be delivered if the next generation of teachers is able to accept responsibility for teaching all children in ordinary schools. The scene is set. For the first time, we have a government that is giving a clear lead in moving towards inclusion and is committing new ideas and new resources. Although there is still some way to go before children, families and teachers will experience direct benefit from the new initiatives set out in the 1998 Action Plan, an energetic start has been made. For the past five years, every school has had a Special Needs Co-ordinator and some of the teething problems are being overcome. The Code of Practice for the Identification and Assessment of Special Educational Needs (DFE 1994) itself will be simplified and strengthened by 2001. Above all, the new National Curriculum contains the clearest and most explicit expression of inclusive principles so far. Unlike the 1988 curriculum, inclusion has not been bolted on as an afterthought. By the time the new generation of teachers reaches a happy retirement around 2040, the education system will be very different from the one they are entering today. They can start to change that system by abandoning the language of special educational needs and the thinking that goes with it, which segregates up to a quarter of the children in our schools. Such language creates and strengthens mindsets that 'these children' are different from others and that special expertise is required to meet their needs. Teacher-training providers carry an awesome responsibility because they have not only to support students in acquiring a vast array of knowledge and skills, but also to convey an attitude of mind that all teachers are responsible for the teaching of all children. It cannot be said that they have succeeded, as newly qualified teachers are
viii
Series Editor's foreword
generally dissatisfied with the way in which they have been prepared to include children with learning or behaviour difficulties in their classes. Since so much initial training takes place in schools, this criticism applies as much to their experience in school as in colleges and universities. For some time now it has been the task of the Teacher Training Agency to try to distil the essence of many reports and recommendations into a series of competences required by all newly qualified teachers. Although the TTA prescriptions have had a mixed reception, we can at least be relieved that inclusion has been built into the foundations. Quite apart from the Code of Practice and Individual Education Plans, there are equally relevant references to setting high expectations; ways in which learning is affected by pupils' physical, intellectual, emotional and social development; the need to learn from pupils' misconceptions and mistakes; and to achieve progression through identifying clear objectives. Inclusion is a journey rather than a goal. This book will provide a friendly and helpful companion and a starting point for further professional development. PROFESSOR PETER MITTLER University of Manchester January 2000
Contributors
Annette Auchterlonie is Team Leader of the Visual Impairment Service, Oxfordshire LEA. Peter Benton is Lecturer in Educational Studies, Department of Educational Studies at the University of Oxford. Ghazala Bhatti is Director of the MA in Equity and Change in the Public Services at the University of Reading. Christopher Bradley is an Educational Psychologist in Luton LEA. Deborah Eyre is Head of the Research Centre for Able Pupils at Westminster College, Oxford. Mary Fitzpatrick is Senior Lecturer (Able Pupils) at Westminster College, Oxford. Georgina Glenny is Senior Lecturer in Education at Oxford Brookes University. Dennis Guiney is Educational Psychologist at the Service for Adolescents and Families in Enfield (SAFE), Middlesex. Ann Hackney is Senior Lecturer in Education at Westminster College. Oxford. Roy Howarth is Headteacher of Northern House School for pupils with profound Emotional and Behavioural Difficulties, Oxfordshire LEA. Ted Moore is Head of the Sensory Support Service, Oxfordshire LEA. Tim O'Brien is Principal Tutor for EBD Outreach at the Institute of Education, University of London.
x
Contributors
Caroline Roaf is Editor of the journal Support for Learning and was previously SENCO at Lord Williams's School, Thame, Oxfordshire LEA. Olive Robinson is a former SENCO and is currently a Tutor in Adult Literacy. Brenda Stevens is Lecturer in Mathematics at Oxford Brookes University.
1 An introduction to special educational needs ANN HACKNEY
A glance at the chapter titles for this book gives some idea of the complexity of the subject area. It is obvious that any thorough discussion of special educational needs encompasses not only the children who acquire the label but also curriculum, teaching and organizational strategies, and a variety of support measures and services. In this introductory chapter I shall try to present something of the general context for the more specific topics of later chapters. This includes the Code of Practicefor the Identification and Assessment of Special Educational Needs (DEE 1994) which is the official document of guidance for all teachers and other professionals who support children with special needs. It will also, however, be necessary to present some discussion of other factors which seem essential to an understanding of this complex area. These include matters of definition, history and general educational trends and pressures which ensure that this area of education never stagnates. One example of this capacity for change is the fact that the Code of Practice itself, which was introduced in 1994, is currently subject to a consultation exercise with a view to changes in the next year or so. Likely changes, which seem to be directed to practice rather than principles, will be indicated where appropriate. The recent publication of a consultative Green Paper, Excellence For All Children: Meeting Special Educational Needs (DfEE 1997), sets out a range of possible developments concerning special educational needs. We now have a post-consultation document, Meeting Special Educational Needs: A Programme for Action (DfEE 1998), with a timetable for change going into the new century.
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Special Needs and the Beginning Teacher
DEFINITIONS It is not easy to provide definitions in the special needs area which meet with universal agreement. There are, however, legal definitions which offer a starting point. In the past the definitions focused on 'handicapping categories'. The 1944 Education Act and subsequent regulations listed the following categories: Blind pupils. Partially sighted pupils. Deaf pupils. Partially hearing pupils. Educationally subnormal pupils.1 Epileptic pupils. Maladjusted pupils. Physically handicapped pupils. Pupils suffering from speech defects. Delicate pupils. The thrust of this list was that some factors within the child, diagnosed by a member of the medical profession, would have implications for educational provision, and in many instances such a diagnosis would lead to alternative provision in the form of segregated special schools, special units or special classes. Although there have been considerable changes in our thinking about special needs and in the language we find acceptable to describe children's disabilities or learning difficulties, category labels are still part of the ongoing debate about assessment and provision. The influential Report of 1978, Special Educational Needs, usually referred to as the Warnock Report, confirmed the widespread belief that such categorization was unsatisfactory. The presence of a disability factor was in itself no predictor of educational needs and unnecessarily denied mainstream opportunities to many pupils. The findings and recommendations of the Report were taken up to some extent in the subsequent 1981 Act, which was devoted solely to the education of children with special needs. The definitions employed in that Act are still almost unchanged today and are incorporated into the Code of Practice and, despite reservations, seem unlikely to change in any revision. In the legal documents special needs are defined in terms of learning difficulties, which is a distinct improvement on the handicapping categories. Two main elements are identified; a child has a learning difficulty if he or she:
An introduction to special educational needs
3
1. has a significantly greater difficulty in learning than the majority of children of the same age; or 2. has a disability which either prevents or hinders the child from making use of educational facilities of a kind provided for children of the same age in schools within the area of the local education authority. (Section 156 of the 1993 Education Act) The 1981 Act, and subsequent legislation which now incorporates that Act, go on to promote the widest possible integration of children with special needs into mainstream schools. It is possible to see, therefore, that there has been a move away from the somewhat inflexible link between a disability and special educational provision, but the definitions still focus on the child as the source of any special needs problem. There is, however, the notion of variation in local provision so that a child with special needs in area x may not be seen in the same light in area y. What is still not clear in the definitions, however, is the possible role of the general educational provision in maintaining, aggravating or even creating educational difficulties. In the wider world of educational research, a great deal of thought has been given to the variation between schools in their overall effectiveness, and the ability to meet special needs could be seen as one indicator. Another relevant educational theme which has become prominent since the 1980s has been that of integration or inclusion. The distinction between these terms is not always clear from the literature, but, broadly, it seems that integration requires adjustment by the pupil, albeit with support, to become part of a system that does not quite meet his/her needs; however, inclusion implies a rethinking on the part of a school to meet the needs of all its natural population without seeing any group as 'special'. Such a concept obviously begs the whole question of the validity of the use and definition of the term 'special needs'. There are, however, other issues about the legal definition which should be noted. The two-stranded definition seems to allow us to talk about pupils who have a range of learning difficulties (often referred to as severe, moderate and specific difficulties) which are markedly different from their peers. We can also recognize in the definition children with acknowledged disabilities such as hearing impairment, visual impairment, physical disability and chronic medical disorders. There are, too, factors that are often associated with children who challenge the education system and are often deemed to have special needs, but it is not always easy to accommodate them within the legal definitions. One example relates to emotional and behavioural
4
Special Needs and the Beginning Teacher
difficulties. These undoubtedly affect a pupil's ability to learn and sometimes lead to special or alternative educational provision, but the word 'disability' does not seem to match this category. Many secondary schools reflect this dilemma in that children with emotional and behavioural difficulties (EBD) may be managed outside the special needs provision (despite the fact that the Code of Practice guidance clearly includes them). What, also, do we make of children of high ability? They may have disabilities or specific learning difficulties in addition to their high ability, but perhaps their ability itself, if not challenged effectively, could be the cause for concern. We also know from many studies that children in disadvantaged circumstances, or children from different cultural backgrounds or with different first languages, often fail to achieve successfully at school. It would be wrong to assume that they have underlying learning difficulties arising from some physical or neurological problem or that they have some other disability; but their educational underachievement has long been seen as a cause for concern for schools and government. Lady Warnock, the leader of the committee responsible for the Warnock Report, has since admitted that the Report was at fault in omitting social factors from its conclusions and recommendations. It is clear that it is not easy to offer a definition that holds good for all our concerns: perhaps it is impossible. Nevertheless, definitions are needed as they have implications for labelling, resource allocation, educational management and for some attempt at equitable treatment for the pupils who often find their education less than satisfactory. I have found it helpful with student teachers to use a different kind of definition, that offered by Norwich (1996). He suggests a way of thinking about children which takes into account individual differences, including disability factors or other difficulties, but also recognizes other needs, both common and individual. He therefore advocates a three-fold approach in which we consider: 1. Individual needs (arising from characteristics different from all others). 2. Exceptional needs (arising from characteristics shared by some, e.g. visual impairment, high musical ability). 3. Common needs (arising from characteristics shared by all). In relation to the common needs, Norwich cites as an example the emotional need to belong and to feel related. In addition, I would add the common childhood needs mentioned by Kellmer-Pringle (1980):
An introduction to special educational needs 5
5
Love and security New experiences Praise and recognition Responsibility I find that these ideas act as a timely reminder that the individuals we teach are extremely complex and any learning difficulty they have is only part of their make-up. In focusing too much on that difficulty we can deny them other rights and opportunities. I do not claim that maintaining that balance is easy, and in a busy, over-pressured teaching day it is understandable that 'special needs' becomes shorthand for the complex child. Norwich's ideas, however, encourage us to step back from time to time to check that we are not working in a formulaic way and neglecting other aspects of the whole child. PROVISION Responses to special needs are diverse, as would be expected from the difficulty in getting a clear definition of what we mean by special needs. A brief historical overview The decision to offer a different kind of education in segregated settings was made for some pupils even before the era of compulsory education. This kind of special education was usually for children and young people with obvious disabilities such as sensory or physical impairment, and often had charitable status or intent. When compulsory education arrived, before the beginning of the twentieth century, its limitations in terms of differentiation, and the prescriptive nature of progress through grades, dependent upon clearly defined success criteria, led to the identification of numbers of pupils as failures and to the demand for alternative arrangements. Thus the provision of alternative schools and classes extended to the state system and grew over the next half-century as increasing curriculum demands created more failing or disaffected pupils. By the time of the 1944 Act there were special schools and units, either state maintained or independent, which catered for all the categories of children in the 'handicapping' list. Many such schools still exist, although the labels may have changed. Not all children, however, who were deemed in need of something different were educated outside the mainstream. Within ordinary schools a variety of organizational and support strategies were developed and continue to develop. These tended in
6
Special Needs and the Beginning Teacher
the past to be labelled 'remedial', matching the medical model of educational difficulty. It is more likely now that they will be given the name of 'special needs support' or simply 'learning support'. Traditionally, support was given through withdrawal from the ordinary classroom, either individually or in small groups. Although such support still exists, there is now much more emphasis on in-class support. Those giving support may be teachers or learning support assistants, even voluntary helpers. There is diversity too in the nature of support. It may be focused on basic skills acquisition, particularly in literacy; it may relate to a particular disability, such as independent skills for children with visual disabilities; it may relate clearly to the mainstream activity, enabling pupils to access it at an appropriate level with some individual help. At a more basic level the lone class teacher will be encouraged to meet special needs through careful differentiation of tasks and resources, deployment of groups, the use of peer support and whatever individual help is possible within the constraints of the competing needs of any classroom. It is perhaps not surprising, in the light of the complexity of learning needs and learning styles, motivational and other individual factors, together with the requirement to deliver a common curriculum, that no single method has been proved most effective. Teachers usually adopt an eclectic approach, drawing on experience and received wisdom. They should also receive advice, help and support from a variety of other people, and it is to this range of responsibilities that we turn next. Those responsible for the education of pupils with special needs In the management of the educational provision for pupils with special needs, there is a diversity of personnel not usually expected in education. Even though the primary responsibility lies, as usual, with the class or subject teacher, he/she may be supported by a number of others. Within the school there has to be one or more teachers who coordinate the provision. This person is usually referred to as the SENCO (Special Educational Needs Co-ordinator) and he/she will support both pupils and teacher colleagues. There will usually be a number of learning support assistants who are employed specifically to help pupils with special needs, either in or out of the classroom. Their work may be planned by the teacher or the SENCO. In some schools volunteer helpers may have a role to play. Other people in the educational world, but coming from outside the school, may be involved:
An introduction to special educational needs
7
educational psychologists who assess and advise; specialist support teachers who may, for instance, specialize in the acquisition of literacy skills or have a brief for children with sensory or physical disabilities. Many LEAs have outreach teams to work with schools in relation to EBD pupils or pupils with autism. The complex nature of special needs also demands the involvement of other professionals such as psychiatrists, doctors, clinical psychologists, paramedical staff such as orthoptists or speech and language therapists, and a range of social workers. This variety of outside agents can be important in the career of any pupil with special needs but is particularly obvious in the case of children with multiple difficulties in special schools. Parents too are important partners in the education of all children but parents of children with special needs may have greater involvement with the school in relation to the management and monitoring of their children's progress and may possibly share in particular programmes. As we see in the following section, the role of parents is promoted in the Code of Practice and has been a key feature of special needs thinking since the Warnock Report. Since the Code of Practice was published in 1994 there have been increasing calls for the children themselves to have a Voice' in discussing their own needs and the responses to those needs. This seems to stem from several factors. One is the increasing recognition of children's rights in general to be consulted over decisions that affect them; another reflects our understanding of the importance of ownership of decisions for fully effective implementation; yet another is an awareness that children are likely to have some insight into their own needs if asked the right questions and given the opportunity to express their views. The Code of Practice for the Identification and Assessment of Special Needs In 1994 the Government published a Code of Practice which was designed to give greater guidance to schools in their work with pupils with special needs. It was designed in response to a critical analysis of the situation a decade after the earlier special needs legislation was implemented in 1983. The Code itself is not part of the law but the law requires schools to take account of the Code, and OFSTED inspections investigate how this has been achieved. The Code has a set of principles and then moves on to offer advice for good practice which in 1994 included a five-stage procedure starting with registered recognition of teacher concern and moving through two more school-based stages of increasing support, including the design and implementation of
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Special Needs and the Beginning Teacher
Individual Education Plans, and at Stage 3 the involvement of outside agents. In a few instances, where the schools felt unable, at the end of these stages, to meet a child's needs within their current resources, it was possible to move to a referral for a Statement of Special Needs which, if granted, would ensure a degree of additional support from the LEA either in the mainstream school or within a special school. The Code also laid out duties for the SENCO and an accompanying Regulation made it mandatory for each school to have a special needs policy. Part of the Code detailed the likely criteria for identification of children with a variety of needs: learning difficulties (general and specific), emotional and behavioural difficulties, sensory and physical difficulties, speech and language difficulties, and medical conditions. Throughout the Code the relevant pieces of legislation are set out alongside the guidance elements. REVISION OF THE CODE Over the past five years the evaluation of the Code has been mixed. A perusal of recent issues of the principal special needs journals (e.g. British Journal of Special Education; Support for Learning; Special Children) will quickly give a flavour of these varied evaluations. There has been praise for the high profile given to this area of work and the attention given to children from the first sign of concern. The complexity of the staged process, however, has often seemed over-bureaucratic, particularly in its implications for the SENCO who has the responsibility for monitoring and reviewing the paperwork. At the time of writing, the Government has issued consultative documents which indicate that a modified code will be in operation for the year 2000 or 2001. It seems likely that the school-based stages of support will be simplified, with a first stage labelled School Support. Responsibility will be shared by the teacher and SENCO for generally increased differentiation, together with the IEP, in consultation with pupil and parents. If that is not seen to be effective at review, the second stage, Support Plus, will come into effect and will involve appropriate outside agents together with the school staff in working on and monitoring a suitably revised IEP. The hope is that with a reduction of bureaucracy and paperwork (including the IEP itself, for which examples will now be available in the Code), more help can be directed to the child rather than the system, thus improving the chance of success in meeting needs earlier and reversing the increasing trend to refer children for Statements. As the principles of the Code seem unlikely to be changed, I will
An introduction to special educational needs
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discuss these as a summary of key features in thinking about and working with pupils with special needs. The principles are set out in the first section of the Code. PRINCIPLES OF THE CODE OF PRACTICE The needs of all pupils who may have special educational needs either throughout, or at any time during, their school careers must be addressed; the Code recognizes that there is a continuum of needs and a continuum of provision, which maybe made in a wide variety of different forms. This principle embodies important issues for any teacher and school. There is obviously a need for any system of provision to be flexible enough to accommodate long- and short-term needs, as well as the range of needs and the differing degrees of severity of need, whether short or long term. For instance, a school should be able to give immediate support and monitoring for as long as is necessary to a child whose ability to learn is suddenly upset by a family bereavement, as well as the indefinite support and monitoring for a child with a moderate chronic hearing impairment. It is also important to note that recognized needs should be addressed. In the past there has sometimes been an inclination to leave things for a while, either on the grounds that not all children are ready for learning at the same time, or in the hope that the difficulty would solve itself. Most teachers would probably now admit that difficulties grow if neglected and become more difficult to alleviate, and in the meantime the child often becomes less confident in his or her own ability to move forward and becomes disillusioned with education. Children with special needs require the greatest possible access to a broad and balanced education including the National Curriculum. In the past there was often an emphasis on basic skills work for children with special needs at the expense of access to all areas of the curriculum. This principle should ensure their entitlement to the same curriculum as all children. It is interesting to note, however, that the principle allows for other curriculum elements lying outside the National Curriculum. Many teachers would protest that there is no time for anything outside, but examples exist of creativity in timetabling which allow schools to offer more specialized provision
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Special Needs and the Beginning Teacher
where this is deemed appropriate. One example would be mobility and independence skill development for children with physical or sensory difficulties; another might be social skills work for children with behavioural difficulties. It is important, however, in addressing issues of entitlement and equity relating to curriculum and provision, not to forget that we define special needs in terms of learning difficulties. For many pupils with special needs this often means that their pace or style of learning is different from their peer group, even when they are given the best possible support and the most appropriate differentiation strategies. When new educational initiatives are presented, often now in a prescriptive form, it would appear they are designed for a population of pupils who conform to a concept of 'normal' which fails to represent the diversity of our children. As a result, teachers and pupils often have to struggle with inappropriate demands and expectations until, slowly, modifications and adjustments are made; we have seen this in recent years in relation to the National Curriculum and the literacy strategy. It is also apparent in target-setting and the publication of attainment levels, whereby schools and pupils are somehow expected to smooth out the inevitably uneven profile of achievement, within a year and between years. At present we do not seem to have resolved the dilemma of setting high expectations for all pupils without standardizing those expectations in such a way as to create unjust failure for them and their teachers. The needs of most pupils will be met in the mainstream, and without a statutory assessment or statement of special needs. Children with special educational needs, including children with Statements of special educational needs, should, where appropriate and taking into account the wishes of their parents, be educated alongside their peers in mainstream schools. The encouragement to include pupils with special needs in mainstream education is nothing new. The reiteration of this principle confirms the widespread wish to be inclusive, while retaining alternative opportunities for situations where inclusion is not yet seen as a viable route. In reality there continue to be disputes in some instances when parental and school wishes cannot be reconciled. This is not surprising in view of the lack of consensus on definitions and remedies, but it is a painful conflict.
An introduction to special educational needs
11
Even before he or she reaches compulsory school age a child may have special educational needs requiring the intervention of the LEA as well as the health services. The 1981 Act made it clear that steps should be taken to provide for pre-school children with known or suspected special needs. Again the Code's principles confirm existing beliefs. The knowledge, views and experience of parents are vital. Effective assessment and provision will be secured where there is the greatest possible degree of partnership between parents and their children and schools, LEAs and other agencies. The Warnock Report contained a chapter on 'Parents as Partners' in relation to children with special needs. The Code is at pains to build on that idea and to oblige schools to confer with parents at the very outset of concern and to include them in all subsequent stages, including the drawing up and implementation of Individual Education Plans. Within the Code, too, are suggestions for practices and procedures which are essential in pursuit of the principles. They include early identification and assessment consistent with thoroughness; taking the child's wishes into account; and a multidisciplinary co-operative approach to the resolution of issues. The proposed revisions to the Code of Practice are intended to improve the educational opportunities and support for pupils with special needs, through clarification and simplification of the procedures. The history of this area of education suggests that this will not resolve all the concerns of teachers, pupils and families but it is encouraging that the will is there to change and adapt in the light of the views of those most closely involved in this most complex and ultimately rewarding enterprise. NOTE 1 In 1970 this category was extended to include children previously regarded as ineducable and was sub-divided into ESN(M), i.e. moderate, to indicate existing pupils with considerable learning difficulties, and ESN(S), i.e. severe, to indicate the 'new7 pupils with more disabling difficulties.
2
Providing inclusive differentiation TIM O'BRIEN
INTRODUCTION It is important, at the outset, to state that this chapter does not intend to reinforce the culture where differentiation is seen to apply solely to pupils who are assessed as having 'special educational needs'; in fact, it intends to challenge such an illusory view. The conceptual trap that differentiation is only required for pupils who experience SEN - can limit expectation, quality, achievement and attainment for all. Differentiation is not simply the reactive response of those who encounter teaching difficulties within the special needs domain. Nor should it be perceived as the box of quick-fix curriculum tools that is assumed to be magically imparted to a teacher who gains the title Special Educational Needs Co-ordinator (SENCO). The tools and processes of differentiation are not an appendage - an 'add-on' when core activities are completed; they are critical components of a dynamic and responsive learning environment. My contention is that differentiation has to be viewed as an inclusive, not an exclusive concept, and thus it is the professional responsibility of every teacher because it is embedded in the process of understanding how all pupils learn and what their learning needs are. In this chapter I use the term 'special educational needs' as it is the accepted official terminology (DfEE 1997). SEN was intended to be an inclusive concept; however, an increasing sense of 'overgeneralisation ... and apartness' (Norwich 1996) has been attached to the term since its inception. For some learners it can be stigmatizing and deficitfocused, and for others it can attract sympathy and patronizing attitudes. My aim in this chapter is to highlight the individuality of learners and to promote equity, not to allow such clarity to become lost within the generality of an unquantifiable and often unhelpful categorization of 'specialness'.
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THE CURRICULUM IS NOT A CONCRETE CARPET Before the teacher can 'go forth and apply' a model of differentiation, she or he must reflect upon how to create subjective educational reality, for differentiation is a product of a teacher's mental model of what pedagogy is. An understanding of our own reality - what we think we are doing when we are teaching and how we justify our teaching decisions - is a vital resource for differentiation. This is because the starting point for differentiation is in one's head: it does not start with the mechanical manipulation of a model of 'how to do it'. It begins by reflecting upon the purpose and aims of teaching and learning. The teacher who intends to provide a stimulating and responsive learning environment must be willing to be involved in reflecting upon his or her attitudes and practice too. It is crucial for teachers to understand how they construct a notion of the curriculum, for this can restrict or release their ability to teach and to answer questions which enable them to justify why they choose to teach in a certain style and with certain methods and resources. The curriculum is a key feature of a teaching and learning environment, and an expansive understanding of what the curriculum is provides increased opportunities for inclusive differentiation. These opportunities are limited if the curriculum is perceived to begin and end when pupils encounter the National Curriculum. Identifying the curriculum as the compartmentalized timetable also presents restrictions. The curriculum comprises much more than the timetable - it includes all elements of intended and unintended learning that occur in and through the school and is a vehicle for conveying school aims, philosophy and ethos. The curriculum also exists within social, emotional, moral, spiritual, economic and political contexts. It is through engagement with the curriculum that teachers and pupils develop their self-worth because the curriculum has to be seen to agitate, challenge and be responsive to learners and their teachers. It must enable pupils to problem-find as well as to problem-solve because pupils develop their perception of the world through the questions that are posed by the curriculum and the meaning they construct from the answers they can or cannot give to those questions. The effective teacher differentiates and mediates the learning world, not just the learning timetable. Successful connection with the curriculum should empower pupils to feel an increased sense of competence and confidence, to become autonomous learners and to grow into valued and emancipated adults within a pluralistic and democratic society. Inevitably all of this
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becomes meaningless and irritating rhetoric if the curriculum cannot be seen to respond to the needs that each learner brings to it. The critical mass of the curriculum continues to expand within the current drive for more pupils who are labelled as having SEN to be educated in a mainstream setting (O'Brien 1998a). The curriculum encompasses a total interactive, responsive, dynamic and inclusive human experience and it is enriched and energized by the increasing complexity of learning needs to which it has to respond. Teachers and pupils can also thrive from such enrichment. It is unhelpful to view the curriculum as a concrete carpet. When it is viewed in this way, the central focus is placed upon coverage, causing outcomes to diminish in importance. For example, the demands of a syllabus or the pressure resulting from standards being judged by the crudity of league table output can result in curriculum inflexibility. The curriculum becomes transformed into blocks of knowledge that have to be covered within a specified time sequence. Consequently, it cannot respond to the inevitable diversity and differences in learning pace, style and strategy that learners possess. An imbalance occurs which can cause teachers to assess what pupils have done (coverage) rather than what pupils have learned (outcomes). This is more likely to occur in situations where attainment results are heralded as the only valid and reliable indicator of whole-school effectiveness and are used to define a school's status within the local community. Haunted by tests and overpowered by externally imposed market force ideology, the teacher can begin to develop a form of pedagogical practice that is aimed at reducing class variance and increasing the mean level of attainment. One outcome of this approach is the onset of curriculum paralysis. Another has fundamental moral and ethical implications because it increases the possibility of creating an institutional atmosphere of zero tolerance towards pupils who experience SEN. In a world where learners are redefined as clients and commodities, pupils who are branded with the 'SEN' label become the damaged goods on the educational market stall. The topography of the curriculum is an undulating one. Individual pupils encounter a variety of positive or negative cognitive, emotional and social experiences throughout their interaction with it. Gaining an holistic view of how the landscape and flow of the curriculum feels to each pupil is an important process in the provision of inclusive differentiation. This is more complex in secondary schools where teachers and learners are segregated into subject-specialist zones and where teachers do not necessarily hold information about how a pupil is learning or feeling across the curriculum. By gaining information
Providing inclusive differentiation
15
about how the curriculum feels to the learner, the teacher can begin to provide responsive pedagogy. This information is gained explicitly through planned opportunities that encourage pupils to evaluate their own learning across the curriculum. It is also available implicitly by being responsive to what pupils say and do when they are approaching, engaging in or reflecting upon their learning. WHAT IS DIFFERENTIATION? What do we understand by the term differentiation? What does it look like? If you were visiting a classroom in a country where you could not speak the language, how would you be able to establish if it was taking place or not? Differentiation occurs in all human relationships, and within the educational setting it exists as a form of mutual communication between teachers and learners. The term itself points to the entitlement enshrined in the 1988 Education Act, which states that all pupils are entitled to a curriculum that is broad, balanced, relevant and differentiated. These are the key curriculum tenets to ensure that teaching aims match learning needs and that all pupils receive education that is tailored to them as individuals. Particular issues arise for pupils whose learning difficulties and needs present challenges to the teacher in aiming to provide learning that ensures that they receive their entitlement (Carpenter et al. 1996; Tilstone et al 1998). The key issues surround the ability of the teacher to provide a 'match' between curriculum and learning need and to apply a clear differentiation model to ensure that each learner receives responsive teaching. Many authors have designed differentiation models for classroom usage: Visser (1993), Byers and Rose (1996), McNamara and Moreton (1997), and O'Brien (1998b) are examples of such work. These models detail the practicalities of how the teacher can differentiate, or 'scaffold7, by considering methods such as differentiation by task, outcome, pace, response, resource, presentation, organization and structure. Different models raise questions about learning outcomes: should they be focused on learning content and product for example, or should process be the main concern? They also aim to support the teacher in creating a learning environment that is matched to learning need. However, before this process can be undertaken, the teacher has to demonstrate clarity about the types of learning need that he/she aims to meet and the tools and processes of differentiation that will enable him/her to do so.
16
Special Needs and the Beginning Teacher
Macro and micro differentiation Within an educational setting we can see how the process of differentiation operates on inter-related levels of provision. Differentiation by placement This is an example of differentiation at a macro level and occurs when decisions are made about where pupils should receive their education and how they are grouped within the school they attend. The majority of pupils receive their education in a mainstream setting while the segregated minorities attend different categories of special school. Within schools, decisions are made as to how groups of pupils can be differentiated. Setting, mixed ability and streaming are examples of this process. Another example is formal exclusion. One outcome of perceptions about the behaviour of black pupils - particularly those of white teachers about African-Caribbean males - is that black pupils continue, at a disproportionate level, to be affected by negative stereotyping and the disenfranchising consequences of this form of differentiation (Gillborn and Gipps 1996; Majors et al 1998). Pupils identified as having special needs are also disproportionately represented in data relating to permanent exclusions from mainstream schools (DfEE 1998). In all of its manifestations, differentiation is a status-affirming process that sends powerful implicit and explicit messages to pupils about how they are valued as learners and stakeholders in society. The inclusive movement (UNESCO 1994) is an international and national political movement advocating social justice and equality for all. It aims to promote the philosophy that all learners have the right to learn together in inclusive schools. It is important to assert that the lifeblood of inclusive practice is not the physical process of enabling all learners to learn together by placing them in the same schools. It is the provision of inclusive learning that is the key to success: the manner in which the curriculum responds to each learner, the propositions and opportunities that it offers to them, and the manner in which it includes them in understanding what and how they learn. Differentiation by curriculum National educational legislation, such as the instigation of a National Curriculum, has asserted that the curriculum represents and embodies entitlement for all. In this context, every pupil has a right of access to a common curriculum. The Code of Practice (DFE 1994) is a tool intended to enable pupils who experience learning difficulties to take up their rights. However, some children (mainly those in special
Providing inclusive differentiation
17
schools) receive an adapted or alternative curriculum to meet exceptional long- or short-term needs and goals. Differentiation by pedagogy This is an example of differentiation operating at a micro level. Teachers constantly differentiate the curriculum through their pedagogical attitude and practice. The pedagogical attitude of the teacher is a vital factor in providing inclusive differentiation. Teachers have to be self-critical and analyse the inherent and underlying values, beliefs and assumptions that they bring to the teaching and learning process. This includes reflecting upon aspects such as race, gender, disability, class and equality of learning opportunity. Let us consider the area of SEN in relation to pedagogical attitude. A beginning teacher may find that there are many pupils in a class who experience consistent difficulties in learning and are labelled as having 'special needs'. One may be a wheelchair user who experiences difficulty with the physical process of writing. This pupil may have a good sense of humour and be popular among his peers. Teachers talk positively about him. They also refer to him in value-laden terms such as plucky and courageous. Another pupil may experience learning difficulties that are manifested through behaviour that can be aggressive and abusive in certain contexts and settings. Teachers are far less complimentary when they talk about her, describing her as manipulative and amoral. What pre-judgements will beginning teachers bring to the relationships that they will develop with these pupils? Will each pupil be given an equal chance to achieve? Will every effort be made to provide equality of learning opportunity for both pupils - even if one seems to reject what the teacher offers both as a person and as a professional? Will both feel respected and dignified by their curricular experiences? These questions must be confronted, because how we perceive pupils, and how they receive our perceptions of them, will affect their self-concept and ability to learn. This is one example that raises issues of pedagogical attitude that are relevant to every teacher, not just to those who are new to the profession. However, an incremental awareness of your own beliefs and constructs will not necessarily impact upon what you do when you are teaching and, therefore, the teacher must also analyse the external results of internal reflection. Evidence of how teachers value learners and learning is also transmitted through their pedagogical practice. In the current inclusive climate the teacher has to develop responsive teaching styles to match the increasing range and complexity of learning needs. Such methodologies for diversity have to encourage power sharing, enabling
18
Special Needs and the Beginning Teacher
pupils to express preferences related to their own learning styles, strategies and routes. Inclusive differentiation is most productive when it is planned, is supported by a theoretical model, incorporates spontaneity and choice and is systematically assessed, evaluated and reflected upon. The provision of inclusive differentiation requires an environment that is grounded in fundamental principles. The first of these is a philosophical commitment to the belief that learning is a dynamic and mutually responsive process and that every child can learn. If a teacher stops believing this, then it is time to leave the profession and join another where the enjoyment of human interaction is not an essential requirement. For the teacher there is an eagerness (and a professional responsibility) to learn too. The teacher must believe that environments and people can change for the better. This can be evidenced through the positive relationship that the teacher develops with the pupils. For the pupil, interaction with the learning environment reinforces that progress is expected, recognized and rewarded. APPLYING A FRAMEWORK FOR IDENTIFYING LEARNING NEEDS Differentiation is often described as teaching which is adapted or adjusted to meet individual need (Lewis 1991; Bearne 1996; Sewell 1996). The emphasis upon need rather than difficulty enables the teacher to develop a positive pedagogical attitude because difficulties can, at times, seem unfathomable and overwhelming. The focus upon difficulty will also transmit messages about how the teacher and the school view difference. Crucially for pupils who are deemed to have SEN, an emphasis upon difficulty can be insurmountably negative, whereas an emphasis on need includes them as a group within the wider context and continuum of all pupils, rather than excluding or blaming them for the difficulties they experience and encounter (O'Brien 1998c). In order to meet needs, teachers must have a conceptual understanding of the types of needs that they encounter within the classroom, otherwise the teaching and learning process becomes random and nebulous. Learning is a psycho-social process and therefore it is restricting to perceive needs solely in terms of knowledge-based curriculum access. Norwich (1990) argues that any definition of a learning need should embrace the learning abilities of the pupil and the provision that she or he requires in order to progress. The need is not cited as a withinchild factor that is the same wherever the pupil is taught; it is also
Providing inclusive differentiation
19
dependent upon the provision that is available to the pupil. The causal deficit model of children carrying their fixed learning difficulties around with them from one curriculum area to another will not promote inclusive learning. For learning to take place, something must change and there must be a response to that change. This highlights the complex interplay between what the child offers to the learning environment and what the learning environment offers to the child. Here we have a more ecosystemic view of learning difficulty. It draws attention to the possibility that difficulties may be located within, or caused by, what the school is providing for the learner. The pupil's needs do not stay the same in every context. Different learning environments will impact upon the child's ability to learn, thus demonstrating that teachers do matter and inspirational teachers can make a life-impacting difference. Norwich (1996) provides a framework for a needs model that emphasizes both the exceptionality and commonality of learners. A three-fold model of educational needs - common, distinct and individual (O'Brien 1998b) - proposes that the teacher begins by establishing what pupils have in common rather than becoming overwhelmed by their individual differences. Common needs are those relating to the development of personhood that every member of the human race experiences. They will include a need to feel a sense of belonging, a need to be seen as a communicator, a need to be challenged as a learner, a need to be respected and a need to feel valued as a person. I propose that this should be our starting point for pedagogical interaction. A person's physical, cognitive, emotional, developmental or social difficulties should never be used to deny him/her the right to have his or her common needs met. Distinct needs are those that are highlighted by the groups that children belong to. Examples of these groupings include gender, culture, disability, family and ethnicity. Individual needs are needs that are particular to a particular child at a particular time in a particular context. They are, by their conceptual nature, unique - no other pupil has such needs. This phenomenal diversity of need indicates why inclusive differentiation is far more complicated than the adaptation of classroom handouts; ask the worksheet-weary pupils on the special needs table or those in the bottom set, if you do not believe me. By applying a needs model we can see that the classroom is composed of pupils who have needs in common: we could say that 'everyone is the same'. It is also composed of smaller, regularly reconstructed groups of pupils who have distinct needs: we could say that 'groups of people are similar'. Every classroom group is made up of
20
Special Needs and the Beginning Teacher
individuals who have needs that are totally unique: we could say that 'everyone is different'. To provide differentiation to meet these needs is a complex and often intellectually and physically exhausting process, but it is necessary in order to enable learners to take up their access and claim rights. It also provides curriculum connectivity. Constant interaction with a curriculum that does not connect with the needs of groups and individuals will result in curriculum fall-out pupils will actively disengage from what is on offer because it appears to them that negative outcomes will outweigh positive ones. Some will do so by non-attendance, others through passive resistance, and a proportion may express their resentment by presenting challenging behaviour. LEARNING ABOUT LEARNING The process of differentiation provides cumulative knowledge of how pupils think and an insight into their preferred learning styles and strategies. Analytical reflection and evaluation enable the teacher to establish how the learner constructs a systematic, if idiosyncratic, link between thought and action. Gaining insight into learning styles illustrates how the pupils perceive themselves cognitively and emotionally as learners, how they process information and make preferences within the learning process itself. When learners are given the opportunity to make use of their preferred learning styles, successful learning is enhanced (Greenhalgh 1994). Learning styles are different from learning strategies. Learning strategies demonstrate how pupils react to, and interact with, the learning environment and, in particular, the teaching decisions that are made in order to drive the learning process forward. A fundamental premise for providing differentiation is a knowledge and understanding of how and why pupils learn. As learning is a purposive and interactive process, all pupils should be encouraged to understand their own learning styles and strategies, which will enable them to engage successfully with the curriculum. Flavell (1979) referred to the process of thinking about how you think or learning about how you learn as 'metacognition'. Research evidence illustrates that pupils who are labelled as having SEN can benefit from the intellectual challenge offered by planned curriculum opportunities to reflect on how they think, interact and learn (Watson 1996). Vygotsky (1978) offers an optimistic outlook on the human capability to learn and to understand our own metacognitive processes. He argues that the crucial index of children's development is not what
Providing inclusive differentiation
21
they can do now - their actual level - but what they will be able to do in the future - their potential level. In asserting that learning is most effective when it is seen as a cultural and interpersonal process, he places the teacher in the role of mediator. A teacher is someone who knows something that you do not know and can mediate the learning process with you and on your behalf. Transferring this principle into the classroom, we can instantly see that every learner has the potential to be a teacher and every teacher has the potential to be a learner. Learners should never be burdened or isolated by the SEN label in such a context. Vygotsky describes the difference between a learner's actual and potential level as the 'Zone of Proximal Development' (ZPD). In order to move through the ZPD, pupils need to be able to see that something has changed - they identify a change in themselves or their environment after they have engaged with the curriculum and learned something new: they enter a changed learning state. It is often an interesting exercise to gather pupils together during and at the end of a lesson to ask them what they have learned. It can be even more interesting to discover that what has been learned may not be what you intended to teach! In moving through their ZPD, learners initially need to interact with a teacher in a symbiotic manner. As they progress, they can move from learning that is regulated by others (peers, parents and learning support assistants for example) to selfregulated learning. I propose that a focus upon the ZPD can also provide spiritual development in an educational setting because the pupils gain knowledge about how they learn, how they can change their environment, and how they can become more autonomous. Through identifying and meeting an individual need, the teacher has played a crucial role in expanding the consciousness of the learner and provided an element of self-realization. A LEARNING MODEL Teaching is not simply concerned with the transmission of information that is processed by learners and turned into knowledge. Teaching has to concern itself with, and be responsive to, the process of learning. It appears rational to assume that in order to be an effective teacher you need to possess a theoretical model of how people learn. Figure 2.1 is a model that includes stages in the learning process, and the internal and external factors that influence our ability to learn in an educational culture. These factors apply to the whole learning experience for the whole child and, therefore, their positive or
22
Special Needs and the Beginning Teacher
negative nature will be influenced by what occurs in the home environment as well as at school. The model also includes the ZPD. The inter-related cognitive, social, emotional and pedagogical factors can be applied to generalized areas of learning for all pupils, not just for those who experience learning difficulties. The unification of these factors creates an integrated context in which inclusive learning can flourish. The learning tasks offered by the teacher should be targeted to four cognitive stages of the learning process (after Norman 1978). This ensures that learners can move from stage to stage in order to check and re-check that what they have learned works for them. At any point in these stages the multiplicity of inter-connected positive and negative factors will affect a learner 's ability to learn. I have stated that learning is a human experience and, therefore, it can reveal how we construct and compose our image of 'self7. Learning demands and expectations can extend or destroy how we identify ourselves as learners and how we define our own sense of worth as people. For example, high-expectation learning challenges us to develop and demonstrate skills and strategies that enable us to deal with feelings such as frustration, fear of failure or emotional pain. This is because high-expectation learning exposes and confronts human susceptibilities and challenges the learners to process information about their selves. The individualized interplay between these positive and negative factors will also affect a learner's ability to process the ambivalence and ambiguity inherent in high-demand learning. Pupils with the SEN label have the same rights to high-demand learning as every other member of the learning community and should not receive tasks that devalue and demean them in relation to their status as learners and as people. The rights of minority groups have to be asserted in order to prevent the development of a culture where the majority can reject, humiliate or terrorize the minority. Learning is a cognitive and emotionally demanding process for the teacher and the learner, and thus both have to be willing to confront their own susceptibilities. For the learner, factors such as the impact of previous experience of learning, and how they create a subjective reality of a successful self in particular areas of learning, can create, exacerbate or reduce learning anxiety and frustration. As progress through the cognitive stages of the model occurs, the pupil can benefit from the provision of an atmosphere of protected susceptibility where making learning-informed decisions - which might be conceptualized or described as 'mistakes' - is accepted and encouraged as an extremely healthy part of the learning process.
Providing inclusive differentiation
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Unified internal and external factors
t
Pedagogical factors Inclusion Reflection Mediation Differentiation
Emotional factors
Cognitive factors
Social factors
Metacognition Susceptibility Self-esteems Subjective reality Learning experience
Accretion Restructuring Tuning in Automization De-automization
Culture Status Expectation Interaction
THE LEARNER
Figure 2.1: A dynamic model of learning processes
Stages within the model Stage 1: Accretion At the beginning of any new task there is a high level of accretion where the learner, through sensory channels, continuously receives and structures information that is new in order to process and make meaning from it. If overall learning intentions and the pace and modes of accretion are not made explicit to the learner, it is at this point that she or he may not understand the goals or demands that the teacher
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Special Needs and the Beginning Teacher
has intended. This can place the learner on the fast track to frustration and failure. Think about the last time that you learned something new: how much new information was given and how much could you process? How did you feel when you were confronted with uncertainty? When a high level of accretion is required there is a need for initial input and subsequently decreasing support from the teacher as stage one of the learning process is mastered. Without supportive teaching the prospect of negative feelings related to present and past task failure will certainly increase. If learning remains intrapersonal, learners may not have the skills or conceptual abilities to overcome difficulties they encounter. Collaborative and interpersonal learning, with anyone who can perform the role of teacher, is a necessity when the pace of accumulating new learning increases. The speed at which different pupils move through the stage of accretion is relative to learning need and teaching methodology and resources. The teacher should remain aware of this when setting tasks that involve a high level of new learning. Stage 2: Restructuring and tuning in Now that learning has become less externally mediated, the level of accretion is reduced. The learner can now carry out a task with less assistance from others. The pupil begins to restructure information so that he or she can participate in the task as an independent learner. Pupils do this by experimenting with the meaning that they have constructed from the information or input that they have been given they 'tune in7 to it. It is at this point that there is a moment of realization when the pupils understand that they have learned what they set out to learn and have achieved a new learning state. They may show verbal or physical signs of pleasure at their achievement. The process of tuning in now begins to overtake that of re-structuring. Tuning in offers the opportunity for learners to practise and try out what they have learned. The learners begin to think for themselves, to act upon their learning and to take risks so that they can transform information into knowledge. The tasks that the teacher provides, such as those which involve discovery, problem-solving and application, are those that target this stage of the learning process. Structuring the learning environment to promote interactive, interpersonal and interdependent group activities such as games, role-play and opportunities to express beliefs and opinions, offers fertile opportunities for restructuring and tuning in to learning that is being acquired. Planned opportunities for pupils to engage in curriculum conferencing, where they talk with each other in order to validate and evaluate what they
Providing inclusive differentiation
25
have learned and how they have learned it, will also support this stage of the process. Stage 3: Automization After the processes of accretion, restructuring and tuning in have been assimilated, the learner can fully complete a task. The earlier stages of the learning process do not have to be supported, mediated or regulated by the teacher after this point as the pupil has now 'got it'. However, pupils may need learning support of a different kind that relates to the totality of their learning needs - the bigger picture. Pupils who have a physical disability, those with visual or hearing impairments and those with emotional difficulties, for example, may require specific continued support to facilitate learning. During the process of automization the learners are aware that they are now different; they have learned something new. It is important to emphasize that repeating the task again might provide short-term practice but it is fatally flawed as a long-term strategy intended to provide new learning. Increased demand, application and enrichment, more learning experiences that build upon the emotional and cognitive journey that the pupil has just experienced, will provide further opportunities for learning: more of the same will not. Stage 4: De-automization Over time a learner may forget what was learned and learning no longer becomes automatic. The brain is not an elastic container in which all input remains easily accessible from the moment that it has been processed. It often seems more realistic to consider it as a cerebral sieve, where some learning seems to disappear whilst other learning is retained. Recalling learning that appears to have gone missing can be a problem for all learners and in some cases is a particular issue for those pupils who experience SEN and need to re-develop their learning capacity. For some learners, opportunities to recall and practise old learning will return them to a position where they can apply skills and manipulate knowledge as they had been able to do before. For others, the teacher will have to provide tasks that allow the learners to gain success in whatever stage of the learning process their learning difficulty is occurring. In some situations this will mean returning to opportunities for accretion by approaching the task as if it was completely new learning again, as this might be the perceived subjective experience of the learner. In other situations opportunities for restructuring may help a learner to learn at a quicker pace. For those pupils who are judged to have SEN there is a temptation
26
Special Needs and the Beginning Teacher
for the teacher to return instantly to activities and experiences - often lengthy and repetitive - that are aimed at providing high levels of accretion when this might not be the most beneficial teaching route. Generalized assumptions about SEN can lead to pupils being bombarded with such input when some may need time and space to restructure and tune in to the learning that they have already acquired. An overload of well-intentioned clutter does not support a pupil in disengaging from the curriculum and 'coming up for air' before reengaging with the learning task once again. The chance to 'come up for air' should not be underestimated - for many learners it is a highly effective learning strategy. There are times when success can be achieved through self-teaching or peer teaching and not necessarily mediated or didactic intervention by the adult teacher. Although a nugget of spontaneous differentiation may work wonders in providing successful intervention, the learner will achieve more when the teacher has planned to provide new learning. If this does not happen, tedium, or a concern about appearing different, may result in learners of all abilities performing tasks that keep them busy but, in reality, teach them nothing new. EMOTIONAL DIFFERENTIATION Figure 2.1 emphasizes the external and internal influences on how we learn. The emotional factors that influence our ability to learn should not be overlooked. The reflective teacher is constantly involved in emotional differentiation by responding to the emerging emotional needs of learners as individuals and as members of groups. The teacher will also respond to his or her own changing and emerging emotional needs. The classroom can be a competitive hothouse and for many pupils the pecking order is often brutally real. The difficulties in being seen and identified as a failure are often evident in the comments that learners make to each other. If pupils are verbally abused and criticized for constantly failing - or succeeding - the teacher has a vital role in providing sensitive intervention. The same applies when pupils who have identified themselves as failures protect their fragmented ego by externalizing their frustration or fear of failure. Many pupils will do this by locating blame within environmental factors, such as disregarding the tasks that they have been given as boring or too easy, and claiming that the teacher does not understand their needs. Such a reaction will prevent their ego strength from being sapped even further. If there is verifiable evidence supporting their claims, that represents a serious issue. If they are aiming
Providing inclusive differentiation
27
to entice the teacher out of a learning zone and into a battle zone, the teacher must remain detached from such an invitation and provide supportive intervention. This can be done by re-focusing the discussion onto what the learner can do and by targeting teaching at the stage of the learning process where the difficulty gap appears. I have mentioned the undulating topography of the curriculum in which pupils experience multiple highs and lows. The role of emotional differentiation is to be non-judgemental and responsive to how the pupils feel in the total curriculum experience. In this context it is helpful to think of a learner in terms of self-esteems rather than selfesteem. This enables the teacher to analyse how the pupil perceives herself or himself in relation to different aspects of learning style, strategy and content across the whole curriculum. Anecdotally, it seems that a learner's low self-esteem is often offered as a causal factor in the construction of special needs. We need to move away from the conceptual generality of a single 'self-esteem' - which for pupils who are victims of the SEN label is perceived to remain in free-fall, depressed and damaged at all times. A focus upon the multiple selfesteems of a learner can provide a deeper understanding of the learning history, experience and expectation of individuals. It also offers insights into how an individual constructs, externalizes and acts upon the relationship between thinking and feeling. REFLECTIVE QUESTIONS Inclusive differentiation will be most successful when the teacher has reflected upon his or her own educational reality, the interactions between the learner's social, emotional, pedagogical and cognitive needs across the topography of the curriculum, and related these to a model of how we learn. There are three reflective questions that are fundamental to providing inclusive differentiation. The learner may ask them often; the teacher should be asking them all of the time: What am I doing? Why am I doing it? and What is the point?
3 The Individual Education Plan (IEP) DENNIS GUINEY
INTRODUCTION I recall going into a primary school after arranging to observe a pupil who was a cause of concern. The school had been monitoring her progress in line with the recommendations detailed in the Code of Practice. For busy teachers it is increasingly referred to, in an almost biblical sense, as The Code' and, sure enough, many teachers and support professions, including my own, act as if 'The Code7 contains 'The Word7 and the 'Word7 is 'Individual Education Plans7! This is because, from early in its implementation, SENCOs thought that the Code was enshrined as 'law7 and backed by statute, rather than being a recommended means of establishing good practice. The Times Educational Supplement (1995) reported that the contents of the Code were being 'over-interpreted7 by some LEAs and their officers, despite its stated aim of 'providing practical guidance to local authorities7. This status has remained ever since and may now be difficult to dispel. However, to return to the pupil I was observing. Mila was 9 years old with English as an additional language, and some issues existed around the extent of her early-years learning experience. In class she was seen to be a happy and motivated girl with good social skills. On entering the classroom the teacher had given me a bundle of papers, never a good sign, including copies of all the Individual Education Plans. As I looked through this to find the current one, I noted a second worrying feature - the lEPs were filed in date order, with the most recent on the bottom! Worse was to come. The current IEP had one word written on it: MEMORY. That was it! Could it be that Mila's needs were being identified, assessed, addressed and monitored by this hastily scrawled single word? While I realize that this example of an IEP may be exceptional, my feeling at that time, and subsequently as detailed in this chapter, was
The Individual Education Plan
29
that this experience was very helpful, as it focused my attention on why teachers may use and create lEPs in this way. This chapter, therefore, is not one that will provide a series of step-by-step guides to beginning teachers regarding the 'What' and 'How7 of IEP design and management, though it may help. Instead it is about supporting beginning teachers' thinking and practice about the underlying pedagogical tenets that will inform the identification and assessment of children's individual and sometimes special needs. This will deal with the 'What' and 'Why' parts of the dynamic process of teaching and learning, which for all children and all teachers can only be gauged by a process of systematic tracking of their development through accurate feedback to the teacher. For some children, as presently arranged, this process is felt to need the support of a particular methodology, the IEP. It will be argued here that, like all school developments, good practice in any one area will inform good practice across the school and will have the joint effect of raising teachers' confidence and pupils' achievement.
BACKGROUND AND FOREGROUND The roots of lEPs can be traced back to the 1993 Education Act which required the Secretary of State for Education to issue 'practical guidelines' to LEAs regarding their responsibilities towards children with special educational needs. This resulted in a 'Draft Code' (DFE 1993) issued for consultation purposes and then the final version detailed in the Code of Practice (DFE 1994). Figure 3.1 serves as an introduction to and reminder of the staged process of assessment. The Office for Standards in Education (OFSTED1997) reviewed the impact of the Code, after two years of steady implementation, in terms of its 'suggestion' that schools produce lEPs at Stages 2 and 3 that should: • identify needs; • set specific learning targets; • assist teachers in setting suitable programmes of learning. Given these objectives, it is worthwhile noting several of the findings from this report. Section 73: 'preparation and maintenance of lEPs is the area of greatest concern for the majority of schools'; 'quality is extremely variable'; 'better developed in primary than secondary schools'.
30
Special Needs and the Beginning Teacher Whole-school approaches and influences Behaviour policy; pastoral care (systems); personal and social education; spiritual, moral, social and cultural developments; school ethos; relationships; SEN policy; School Development Plan; partnership with parents; extra-curricular and community activities; accreditation and Records of Achievement; curriculum planning and schemes of work Stage 1 Code of Practice Early identification and in-class provision Good communication, relationships and classroom management; effective differentiation; well-planned and presented lessons; consistency in approach and regular monitoring of progress through day-to-day assessment Stage 2 Code of Practice IEPs constitute 'extra and different' provision (not compensatory). Focused educational effort via clear targets and co-ordinated provision Stage 3 Code of Practice I EPs (different and extra provision). The 'extra' coming from outside agencies and multi-disciplinary collaboration
Embedded Explicit Educational
Stage 4 Code of Practice IEP response determines referral for Statement
Stage 5 Code of Practice
Whatever Stage pupils are at, they have an entitlement to the provision of the previous stages. It follows that if provision at the top of the triangle is good, then the need for 'extra and different' will be reduced Figure 3.1: The IEP and the five Stages of the Code of Practice. Source: Cornwall and Tod 1998
The Individual Education Plan
31
Section 76: 'IEPs are seen by primary school teachers as being valuable and effective; more so than is the case amongst secondary staff/ Section 77: 'We heard a report of one member of a secondary school preparing over 100 IEPs in the weeks prior to an inspection/ Section 78: 'Schools need to give greater attention, not so much to the specific detail of the IEP, but to how it relates to teachers planning/ These comments accord well with the brief vignette presented at the beginning of the chapter and raise further 'Why7 questions. It seems that time, as always, is a factor, and perhaps the larger and more complex the institution, as in secondary compared with primary schools, the harder it is to manage the process of IEP implementation. Yet it may go further than this and be related to the last point made by OFSTED; that is, in thinking more clearly about how and why IEPs relate to teacher planning. As many readers may know, the Code of Practice is currently under review, and the Government, in the form of the Department for Education and Employment, is aiming to issue an updated version, what I term 'Code IF, along with more detailed guidance and exemplars for teachers and schools about formats and management issues. 'We propose to include models of IEP formats and to emphasise that IEPs are most helpful when they are crisply written and focus on three or four short-term targets for the child7 (DfEE 1999). We know that the 'staged7 model will be streamlined and probably re-named. Stages 1 and 2 will in all likelihood be merged into a new 'something7 called 'School Support7. Stage 3 will be called another new 'something7 entitled 'Support Plus7. This use of the term 'something7 is because the DfEE, along with many professionals, do not like the linearity of progression that is implied by the term 'Stages7. It therefore invited respondents to the consultation process to suggest a suitable alternative. The Association of Educational Psychologists (AEP1999) has suggested that there be no reference to all of these stages by the same name, as shown in Table 3.1. On a wider front it can be seen that revision of the Code of Practice is another sign of the current government's commitment to improving education and towards thinking and policy-making around issues of 'social exclusion7 (DfEE 1998). One of the prime movers in the field of education is Michael Barber, who argues (1996) for an 'education revolution7. Part of the myriad of ideas he presents focuses on both teachers7 and pupils7 individual and joint needs. Barber develops a series of ideas which appear to stem from the same source as that lying behind IEPs. For example, he suggests the creation of Individual
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Special Needs and the Beginning Teacher
Table 3.1: Possible alternatives to five-stage model of assessment Previous (existing)
Hinted at (WEE)
New (as suggested by AEP)
Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3 Stage 4 Stage 5
School support School support School support plus
School support School support Specialist intervention Statutory procedures Statement of SEN
? ?
Learning Accounts (ILAs) which would fund continuing professional development for teachers. Barber also proposes the Individual Learning Promise (ILP) which is a commitment, as against a contract, to learning. Agreed between a school, a learner and the learner's parents: with an ILP in place each school would be required to concentrate on the needs of each individual. Every six months, in discussion with the parents they would need to review that child's work and carefully plan a programme for the next six months. The ILP would be a mechanism for ensuring that each pupil was given serious attention and had a learning programme based on evidence about her/his performance. That performance would be properly monitored and targets for improvement regularly set and reviewed, (ibid., p. 253) Barber goes on to note that there will be many objections to each child having an ILP, but does go on to detail how it would work in practice. By contrast with the OFSTED findings mentioned above, plus what we hear every day about teachers' moral duties and workloads, it is hard to envisage how every child in the country could have their own IEP equivalent. This would require revolutionary changes in teachers' working practice and the make-up of education structures and systems. But also, perhaps, there would have to be a revolution in thinking about what it is teachers are trying to achieve through the IEP process, and why. On the other hand, you can imagine many parents and carers and even support professionals asking themselves questions about what must already be occurring, or not occurring, in our schools, if a professor of education is arguing for this as a revolutionary change at the threshold of a new millennium. Many would ask schools and
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teachers 'Do you not do that already?' or 'How do you do it?' Barber might be asking for something entirely new or seeking to formalize and make explicit what is existing common practice. Not every educational commentator is completely enamoured of lEPs as currently used. O'Brien (1998a) states: If lEPs are to be meaningful components of the teaching and learning process they have to support individual needs and involve those individuals that they claim to support. This brings sense and meaning to a process that is in danger of becoming a pointless practice that builds a paper mountain and gets in the way of teaching, (p. 13) It should be noted that O'Brien was arguing from the perspective of a teacher in the role of reflective practitioner, calling not for a revolution outright but certainly for a clearer understanding from and by educationalists in terms of what they are about. O'Brien (1998b) argues that a responsive millennium curriculum should institute an Individual Curriculum Plan (ICP) for all and not an IEP for some. He contests that this will support the process of 'connecting learning intentions with teaching intentions'. The movement I detect in this brief presentation of new ideas in the area of lEPs is that they do not work when they are formed in a vacuum and when they add to the sense of dislocation of the teachers and the pupils. Both Barber and O'Brien appear to be seeking to enable teachers to be confident enough as a profession to be more inclusive, to apply clear and sound pedagogical principles and thinking to their joint planning about individual needs. What appears to be different in their view on this process of planning is the degree of transparency and accountability that it envisages and is built upon. This notion of partnership has long been around, but without an engine to drive it and with the old hostilities between the last government and the teaching profession still fresh in mind, it is not surprising that lEPs have been marginalized in all senses. However, a true sense of real partnership in learning and teaching requires 'grist to its mill'. It needs an agenda, and this can be provided by a focus on what is engendered, held and represented by the IEP, or whatever it becomes. INCLUSION VERSUS OUTCLUSION If we are to move forward into a brave new millennium of formalized individual education planning for pupils and teachers, it will
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probably occur as a gradual evolutionary change, moving out from what is becoming a virtual ghetto of often ill-defined special educational needs. The future appears to suggest that there will be a move towards defining and meeting individual needs within an inclusive social democratic tradition, thus aiding development, growth and coherence at wider social, economic and political levels. This paradigm between 'inclusion' and what I call 'outclusion' is well illustrated in the reality of much IEP planning and application. This is shown in Figure 3.2, which deliberately echoes the format of Figure 3.1. First the diagram shows a linear approach and attitude to IEP planning and management in a top-down model with 'power7 (in this sense representing management of learning) flowing down from above, especially at a time when teachers were feeling criticized by a directive regime in the DFE. The second part shows a holistic, bottomup process. lEPs FOR OUTCLUSION The following explanation of this linear approach to IEP formulation is deliberately written in a biased and non-representative mode, but may mirror some thinking and conversations that have taken place in school staff rooms. The staged model of assessment is seen as an imposition that will take a lot of time and energy (Dwyfor Davies et al. 1998). The amount of time required is not available, given curriculum demands, even 'post Dearing' (Dearing 1993). It generates lots of paperwork, often regarding pupils who 'simply don't deserve it' and ties teachers up with LEA 'bureaucrats' in their representative form as support professionals. These may be educational psychologists who look at the kids for five minutes, tell you what to do in an unintelligible form of jargon and then disappear to drink coffee in the staff room while shuffling more paper. Thus imaginary teachers' lEPs have become a series of statements of the obvious, the bland and the banal, informed by other professionals 'who tell you what you already know', in a report that arrives ten weeks after you needed it. Aims and objectives stated on the IEP are based on subjective and often emotional and personalized views of the child's needs. In an ironic twist it can be beneficial to this teacher if progress is not found as this then moves the child on and through the five Code of Practice stages / hurdles which have to be raced, in order to try to get 'Statements'. These then confer extra resources for schools, classes, teachers and pupils. This/ee/s like extra resources, no matter
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Figure 3.2: Two contrasting models of lEPs
35
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Special Needs and the Beginning Teacher
that it is simply top-sliced from existing funding. A sense of cynicism is engendered by this bureaucratic hoop-jumping that all too quickly can become focused on teaching resources rather than on learning needs. Finally we end up with a teacher's view of the child's needs and the IEP has become a testament to the fact that the teacher's need to have targets has determined the course of the child's learning. lEPs FOR INCLUSION Against this is presented a bottom-up version characterized by an holistic approach to the use of lEPs as a tool and not an end product. This model is based upon a clear pedagogical model and understanding. The attitude is optimistic and action-research based, with teachers confident in their ability to hypothesize about a child's individual and group needs; to plan on that basis; to seek to find out what 'works' rather than relying on definitions of 'what doesn't work'. The teacher is able to support valid and important subjective and emotionally based views with equally valid empirical evidence based upon an understanding of phenomenological knowledge. This sees teacher/learner interactions as opportunities for joint hypothesis testing, managed by the adult with the child and within the oversight of the pupil's parents/carers. Such 'teaching experiments' will require a method of recording outcomes and periodic review. This process defines an active and inclusive definition of the child's learning needs, not the teacher's teaching needs. This in turn is used to inform the next set or series of lEPs. I feel that this is best described as a 'next-step plan' and within that next-step plan it can be seen that the focus on enabling the child to learn is what defines the IEP targets, in marked contrast to the outelusion model. The task now for beginning teachers is to embed this holistic approach and attitude into their everyday professional practice, while at the same time successfully addressing the large number of diverse pressures that modern-day teaching involves. WHO DO YOU DO? AND WHO DON'T YOU DO? I have been very interested to note, when working in a large number of different types of schools, that the adults working within them appear to carry an implicit model or map of 'what they do do' and 'what they do not do'. Very basic examples may suffice to illuminate this. If you go into any mainstream school you may find that they 'do'
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the 'normal' range of children but they don't 'do' older boys, often black youths in Years 10 and 11, who present challenging behaviour. If you go to the Pupil Referral Unit down the road, they do 'do' naughty boys but they don't 'do' pupils with moderate learning difficulties (MLD). The school for children with MLD do 'do' some challenging behaviour but not too much. If necessary, and if it's bad enough, they will feel that 'they' can be better 'done' at a school for pupils with emotional and behavioural difficulties (EBD). The EBD school in turn may not 'do' autistic spectrum disorders. What has changed here? Certainly the training, expertise and experience of the staff in each of these schools and also the number of and type of resources available to them to meet various and complex needs. What has also changed is what they think they do and how this affects their attitude and preparedness to work well at what they do. What is equally interesting is that at the crucial pivotal point of deciding that this is an individual need that 'I do do' and this is an individual need that 'I don't do' they are operating at a personal or communal or institutional margin. At this point we as human beings are most likely, for a number of reasons, to err on the 'do do' side. In this way the borders and extents of our field of operation are held fixed and knowable, thus feeling emotionally and professionally safer. But this is just a short step from our beliefs, value systems and responses becoming stultified, inflexible and over-concrete, which is more likely to result in 'outclusion'. This margin, I believe, is open to amendment through many avenues, such as training, experience, interaction and reflection. But we must be aware of the fact that the IEP process, employed in an holistic manner as detailed above, can be another powerful tool in helping teachers, pupils, parents and carers to begin to move, even if just a little, at the margins of their thinking: from a position of 'I don't do that' to 'I do do that' or even perhaps 'I don't currently do that but I'm learning to try.' lEPs AS MODELS FOR DYNAMIC ASSESSMENT OF NEEDS As mentioned at the beginning of this chapter, it is not my intention to go into the details of IEP formulation and design; this has been covered comprehensively in other publications (Goldthorpe 1998; Cornwall and Tod 1998). In this section I would like to add to the thinking of the beginning teacher who is now approaching lEPs from an holistic, inclusive and optimistic standpoint and who is now beginning to feel the pressure of working with 'that class' or 'that child' or 'that group' tomorrow morning.
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At this point it is important to stand back for a while and have in mind the idea that it is better to choose targets that enable you and the pupil to experience a 'win-win' situation. This means having regard to the topography of the individual needs. This can be informed by the work of Maslow (1970) who first posited a hierarchy of needs. These are presented in Table 3.2. Table 3.2: A hierarchy of needs Need
Status
Level
Physiological needs Safety needs Belongingness and love Esteem Self-actualization
Hunger, thirst, sleep, sex lower Avoidance of fear, trauma, illness, pain, cold, wet T Spouse, partner, friends, peers, social groups Self-confidence, self-worth, capability, purposiveness I Being a whole person, being yourself higher
The model suggests that one cannot function properly at a higher level if lower-level needs are not being fully met. The IEP as a description of teacher-learner interactions will have to take account of such needs in both parties involved in teaching and learning opportunities. These have to be matched carefully to individual needs with such a model in mind. From this brief reminder it can be seen that this hierarchy will certainly apply to the needs of some pupils at certain times. However, it may be slightly removed from the inclusive and pragmatic act of IEP formulation that is being addressed here. Dilts (1983) provides an alternative, if related view, taken from applications of neuro-linguistic programming. This is shown in Figure 3.3. Starting from outside the circle the environment is taken to be what we react to, including our surroundings and other people. Behaviour describes the specific reactions and actions we carry out, often regardless of our capabilities. Capabilities are the groups or sets of behaviours and general skills or strategies that we employ in life in order to live our lives and which give us some control over the environment and our learning, which map our ability to operate on the environment. Beliefs are the sets of ideas that we hold on to and which we think are true. These form the basis for our daily actions and, very importantly, they form the basis of the way we anticipate events and the behaviour of others in the environment. 'Identity' is our basic sense of self and appears to accord well with Maslow's higher-order need for esteem. It defines our core values and sense of self-esteem, self-worth, self-confidence and self-image. A sense of spirituality
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Figure 3.3: A model of individual needs. Source: after Dilts (1983)
guides and shapes our lives. This is not necessarily posited as a religious experience; change at this level has profound repercussions at all other levels. It follows from this that changes made within the inner circles will always affect all of the outer circles. Therefore, very small changes in beliefs can affect a whole range of behaviours, but it is likely to take a lot of behavioural changes to affect changes in beliefs. In turn this can alert teachers, with the aid of the pupil and parents/carers and external support agencies, to focus on ensuring that they always retain an overview of what it is they are trying to achieve through the IEP and how they can begin to best plan to meet which need at which level and in which way, in order to maximize the chances of success and minimize the opportunity for failure. How often do we see examples of lEPs which have carried on for far too long, seeking to make behavioural changes, with little evidence of success - almost in an IEP warp zone' where time stands still - due to there being little or no regard to
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the wider picture of need or even perhaps due to little real understanding or reflection about human needs. LINKING lEPs TO A MODEL OF PLAN-DO-REVIEW lEPs appear to have become separated, for many of the reasons given above, from the planning process that teachers carry out on behalf of their pupils. This separation is not helped by the fact that lEPs can so easily become pieces of paper, removed from the dynamic and exciting process that is the teacher-learner interaction. As previously noted, OFSTED has felt it necessary to point out to schools that lEPs need to be far more clearly related to teacher planning and far more clearly linked via this to curriculum structure. Figure 3.4 is a model which links this process directly to the common plan-do-review model which is already employed in many schools. The model is presented in two forms. On the left is the pragmatic application that will inform the teacher's planning: for the year; for the term; for the week; for the day; for the session; for the class; for a group; for an individual; for themselves. This planning will inform what they do and how they do it and in turn will inform how this series of interactions over time will be monitored and reviewed. During all this, learning will have/should have taken place! On the right the same model is given in terms of an action-research standpoint. This is done deliberately to emphasize that this is what teachers are already doing, whether they recognize this or not, and that the model only seeks to make this theoretical standpoint explicit in terms of the daily use and application of lEPs. The 'plan' is tantamount to a working hypothesis about a group or individual. Within this hypothesis the teacher is able to infer aims and goals and to draw up notional targets. These are seen as involving the pupil and ideally parents/carers at some early stage. 'Do' is typically the act of teaching and learning, whereby the hypothesis is tested and evidence or outcome is gathered about what was observed to happen. This information is then reviewed and used to re-inform the hypothesizing stage. An advantage of working in this way is that it bolsters feelings of professionalism and objectivity. It can also guard against teachers becoming demoralized by a sense of having failed the child, or from emotional aspects getting in the way of seeing what is happening, or even of teaching becoming over-personalized. This is not a bid to de-humanize teaching and learning: quite the opposite. But it is a workable methodology for adopting a 'no-blame approach' to teachers planning for individual needs, the investment
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Figure 3.4: Individual Education Plans as part of the assessment process
Ideas about the pupil
Plan
Do
What could be Who would carry planned that out the plan, and would help the how often? What do you think pupil? the pupil is having What targets do difficulty with? you expect the Why do you think pupil to have achieved over they are having one term? difficulty? Formulation Dialogue
Targets
How these will be carried out
Evidence
Review
How will you know whether the pupil has reached their target?
Was the target reached? If not, what went wrong? Does the plan need changing? Do your ideas about the pupil need changing? Did the plan get carried out often enough to be effective? Did you collect the right sort of evidence to show progress?
What evidence will be collected
Were the targets met?
1. 2. 3. Figure 3.5: A suggested formulation format for lEPs
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Special Needs and the Beginning Teacher
in which can otherwise rebound into negative attributions on all sides. The plan-do-review model is then used to inspire what is best undertaken as a 'formulation dialogue' shown in a linear format in Figure 3.5. This work could be undertaken with a mentor, a teaching peer, a line manager, a support service worker, the pupil and/or parents/carers. First you need to address the notion of your beliefs as the teacher regarding the pupil's needs, and this may well include thinking around issues of spirituality. What do I think the pupil is having difficulty with? Why do I believe this? What evidence have I for this belief? Does this say something about me as teacher, as well as the pupil as learner? How have I considered the totality of the pupil's needs, etc? Only after this is it possible to hypothesize/plan and at that point three or four targets can be set - hopefully bearing a model of need in mind. Second, the 'Do' part of the model is clearly linked with establishing who will do what and when and equally im tantly with establishing what product/outcome/evidence will be engendered by this envisaged action or series of actions. This asks the adults and the pupils to identify how it will be known when the pupil has met the stipulated target(s). What information will be gathered, who will collect it, and in what manner? Lastly, the review stage will be used to re-plan to meet the child's needs in a positive next-step plan. Findings from the review will not be used to blame anybody for failures, though success will be rewarded. The information gained from this process will be used in the next phase to ask once again: What do I think about this pupil? Why do I think this? Thus a positive and virtuous cycle of plan and review is established within clearly delineated structures which ask 'Why' questions. ACCOUNTABILITY AND TRANSPARENCY It is often surprising to walk into a classroom and see the lEPs posted on the walls, almost as a celebration of the school's positive ethos and ability to recognize and meet individual and whole community curriculum needs at the same time. School displays have improved tremendously in recent years, but there is a reluctance to broadcast the individual and group successes that usually lie behind such displays. One wonders how pupils are meant to know what their aims are when they are stated only verbally at the beginning of the session and then disappear into the ether. They are always written down somewhere: often, I have noticed, in a green A4 ring-binder labelled 'SEN lEPs'. Why can't they be displayed on the walls for each child? Not in a way that identifies targets as weaknesses, but in a manner
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which is respectful and open and in which the child is able to participate. The other concern with lEPs is that they often do not appear to be 'active7 documents. If the aim is to seek evidence of what the child can do, they should be accessible to a wide variety of personnel, in a form which is understandable and which invites participation. There are many times when I have been in a classroom and a child has met an IEP target; but this was not held as valid, as the teacher hadn't seen it and the next scheduled review was in four weeks' time! It would be better if one were able to access the IEP in an active way and tick a target achieved, along with date and initial, with appropriate feedback to the child. I am not arguing for an impossibly open and complex system of constant up-dating and revision, but I am suggesting that the whole process needs to come out of the closet (or is it out of the green ring-binder?) in as transparent and participative a way as possible. CONCLUSION None of the above is about the detail of the next IEP you will write as a beginning teacher: that was not the aim. My aim here has been to prepare the groundwork for the task that still lies ahead and to try to illuminate what it is that the IEP can and will deliver for learners and teachers. The IEP is, as ever, a paradigm in microcosm of the everyday reality of what it is that we call teaching and learning. And what of Mila? We started this chapter sitting in a classroom with a young girl with needs and talents, with her teacher who for some reason had given me an IEP with just one word written on it. My hope would be that, if nothing else, after any teacher, beginning or experienced, has read this chapter, an IEP with the one word 'MEMORY' on it will become a thing of the past and will be quickly forgotten.
4
Teaching all students in multi-ethnic, multilingual Britain GHAZALA BHATTI
Teachers should never treat non-standard dialect as sub-standard language but should recognise the intimate links between dialect and identity and the damage to self-esteem and motivation which can be caused by indiscriminate 'correction7 of dialect forms. All children should be supported in valuing their own dialects . . . but they should also be able to use standard English when it is necessary and helpful to do so in speaking as well as in writing. (Cox 1991, p. 128) It was not long before I realised that there was a contradiction between what I understood as good practice, which values and builds on the knowledge and understanding children bring to school, and an educational system which disregards one of the most fundamental attributes anyone has - their language. (Cinamon 1994, p. 74) Debates about the role of language in all subjects in the curriculum, o valuing students and developing the whole person, lie at the heart of any serious discourse about the purpose of education. There has been a renewed interest in 'education' in the UK in the past decade, particularly since the 1988 Education Reform Act. Contrary ideas about issues concerning schooling have caught the public imagination and have been discussed fervently, not only among researchers and academics but als in the popular press. These topics include school league tables, standards in education, the purposes of assessment and parental choice to mention but a few. There is one matter in which there seems to be consensus between different proponents - that a concerted effort must be made so that the outcome of schooling is beneficial for all students. There is nothing new in this statement. Yet, it seems, sufficient progres has not been made and schools cannot afford to become complacent.
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Despite all the discussions and reports which were published over a decade ago in the wake of the Swann Report (DES 1985) which focused on the education of children from ethnic minority groups (Eggleston et al 1986, Modgil et al. 1986), despite recent discussions concerning the Education Acts and the National Curriculum, despite the continued commitment to the 'equality of opportunity' in schools and over 30 years of additional provision for teaching children through Section Eleven1 (Bourne 1989) and now the Single Regeneration Budget (SRB),2 there are still many young people who are under-achieving in school. Among the latter are those whose home language or heritage language is other than English. For a variety of historical, social, cultural and linguistic reasons some of these young people do not have access to the English language or, for that matter, to the English curriculum in the same way as their English-speaking peers because they take English for granted. If teachers are not vigilant or well prepared, if they are not supported by their schools and LEAs, or if they are simply not aware of what is at stake, this situation can go unheeded and the quality of these children's education will continue to suffer. The reason is simple: their linguistic needs are not always recognized for what they are. The languages in which such students are confident are not openly acknowledged (Savva 1991). Sometimes, even when their linguistic needs are recognized by their teachers, the question of adequate provision and suitable resources remains unresolved. There is much that individual teachers who are aware of the needs of all their pupils can do. It is not unusual to find specific cases of schools where there is an ambiguity - a blurring of the boundary (albeit unintended) between special educational needs and the linguistic needs of those who speak English as an additional language (EAL). This is not to deny that there are occasions when SEN and EAL do exist together (Cline 1997). I refer, rather, to those schools where mechanisms do not exist or resources are not used or assessment procedures do not take sufficient account of the need to draw a clear distinction between these two types of provision. In such circumstances decisions may be taken which are not helpful to the students. Similarly, it is not unusual in some primary schools for a child's bilingualism to be perceived as a negative attribute and for this notion to be portrayed uncritically to the secondary school. Why should this be so? Whose problem is it if some pupils at secondary schools, who are not able to access the taught curriculum be it history or science, find themselves devising ways and means of hiding the fact from the very teachers who would like to help them?
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This chapter briefly describes the wider context within which the micro situation of individual teachers and students is located. It then looks at the views of some parents, pupils and their teachers in order to shed light on this issue from different perspectives. It is important to focus on the value which parents of linguistic minority backgrounds attach to their children's education, and particularly to their acquisition of the English language. In order to make sense of this it is useful to briefly revisit the important area of what constitutes 'English' as a subject in its own right, and its relationship to all subjects taught through the medium of the English language, particularly as it affects the opportunities afforded to bilingual and EAL students at Key Stages 3 and 4. This may help to explain why ethnic/linguistic minority children feel obliged to separate their 'home identity' from their 'school identity'. Some feel they are not accepted by their peers because they are not fluent in English or they feel excluded because they speak Patois or Creole or Black British English (Callender 1997) and this affects their learning, while others feel that their culture is not respected (Bhatti 1998). When students fail to access English many subject areas suffer, not just English Language and English Literature. I also discuss teachers' perceptions, particularly two newly qualified teachers' perceptions about how, in their opinion, their subjectspecific concerns and classroom management pressures affect students who are not yet fluent in the English language and who need additional help. While visiting schools in three LEAs (two in inner cities, one in a shire county), I came across two teachers whose advice is often sought by less experienced colleagues. These two teachers have tried and tested practical ways of dealing with the challenges on a daily basis. At the risk of sounding over-simplistic, these words of advice, along with other suggestions, are listed at the end of this chapter under the headings of 'Dos'. The 'Don'ts' have not been listed for obvious reasons: they are the opposite of the 'Dos'. If these ideas worked for some caring and conscientious teachers in two schools, it is hoped they will be of some practical use to others as well. THE WIDER CONTEXT It is difficult to say in absolute figures how many pupils comprise the linguistic minorities in Britain today. The only official statistic given by the DfEE (1997) suggests that more than 7 per cent of pupils are EAL learners in schools in the United Kingdom. Researchers working in this area have found this gap reflected in LEA data.
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Since 1990, the DfEE (Department for Education & Employment) have expected all LEA maintained and grant maintained schools to collect information on the ethnic background of their pupils. Local authorities, however, are under no obligation to analyse examination results in relation to ethnic origin. Consequently, the resulting pattern of information is rather haphazard; even in LEAs that serve substantial ethnic minority communities, we found that practice varied considerably. (Gillborn and Gipps 1996, p. 19) The 1991 census is unhelpful when it comes to distinguishing those people who may describe themselves as bilingual or monolingual EAL speakers. Although more details are now available compared to information collected in previous censuses, current data are about ethnicity and not about language. This has resulted in analysis based on issues such as employment, education and housing (Karn 1997; Modood et al 1997) rather than yielding reliable and certain information about the issue of language use per se. Even the issue of language is complex. It is naive to imagine that all ethnic minority3 pupils have similar linguistic needs. It is more a question of being aware of the different perceptions students have of their learning environments and of their teachers' roles in responding to those needs as and when they emerge (Harris 1997). To add a further dimension of complexity, the subject of EAL and additional help needed by some pupils and not others inevitably becomes embroiled with the issues of racism and of power. Teachers need to be aware of the current context within which the educational needs of linguistic minorities is located. The teaching of English 'has been a focus of keen political interest and political contro . . . as a key subject in the "political education" of the masses' (Ball et al. 1990, p. 47). It has been portrayed as a form of 'cultural polities' (Green 1990, p. 135). Evans (1993) asserts that 'English has a deep split ... between the notion that the core material is language and the notion that it is literature' (p. 170). That 'English was the language of the Empire and English literature was its Bible. But today the Empire writes back. English has become plural - "Englishes'" (p. 7). Within these juxtapositions of different definitions we need to situate the EAL student. There are specific responsibilities which are related to teaching the whole child, and the issue of language is critical. See Romaine (1995) on bilingualism and Edwards (1983) for a useful discussion about language as a classroom issue. Some of the questions raised by the National Curriculum, particularly as it affects secondary schools, challenge teachers to 'take risks'
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and to broaden the scope of what is possible within the constraints and freedom afforded by the curriculum. Set texts have to be taught in measured doses. Teachers in primary schools are able to use informal settings and fluid classroom situations relatively more easily. Yet it is short-sighted and unwise to ignore the challenges posed by students who are not yet fluent in English because, to quote a Year 8 teacher in a secondary school, 'her primary school should have already sorted out reading and writing!' There is insufficient space here to explore this particular school in depth and the classroom situation which gave rise to the comment, but there must be many teachers who, faced by a student in distress, are sometimes tempted to respond in a similar vein. What sort of message does this give a 14-year-old? That there is no hope for her future? Yet teaching is abou learning from our students and it is about responding to them. In the case of EAL students it is also about sending messages to younger children in those families and to their communities. WHAT THE PARENTS SAY Parents educate their children before their children go to school. Their interest in their children's overall development begins long before they start school and it lasts beyond the compulsory school years. Parents who feel disempowered by their children's schools on the basis of language or cultural differences do not wish their children to feel the same kind of alienation. They want their children to succeed, particularly when some feel that they were not afforded educational opportunities themselves. When we discuss teachers and students we sometimes forget to talk about parents. It is illuminating, therefore, to hear some parents' voices about the education of their secondaryschool-aged children and their ideas about the acquisition of the English language. The following quotes are from parents whose children attended the schools which have been mentioned earlier in this chapter. I want that good-for-nothin' Ambrose to set a good example for his little brothers. I refuse to buy him his Gap shirt till he has learned his Maths, his English... He says his teacher don't teach him. How can that be? Of course I wanna good life for him! He won't get it listenin' to all dem pop songs! (Ambrose's mother, a single parent, is of Jamaican descent. Ambrose's best friend had been excluded from school for one week before this conversation, thus the allusion to 'good-for-nothin" and pop songs.)
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If Razia won't speak proper English and won't do proper work at school she will sound silly when she has grown up. She will have to fend for herself in this country. I tell her she is so lucky she gets to go to school. I didn't! (Razia's mother, a single parent, is of Mirpuri descent and she did not go to school after the age of 10. This conversation has been trans lated from Punjabi.) Both mothers were keen that their children should do well at school, although they told me they did not say so explicitly to their children's teachers: they did not feel they needed to. It was Razia's teacher who made the comment about reading and writing which should have been sorted out in the primary school. Razia had been to school in Britain from the age of 5. According to her mother, her education had not been interrupted by long holidays in term time. Razia's 'failure' to read and write properly might have been a failure of her past and present teachers to teach her adequately. She was not classified as an 'SEN child'. There is insufficient space here to dwell on this aspect of children's backgrounds. These parents are mentioned here because they are probably typical of many other parents who have high aspirations for their children and who would fully support their children's teachers in their endeavours. Why do children like Razia 'underachieve'? WHAT THE STUDENTS THINK When I don't know what the Maths teacher said, I look at others and if they'll share their work I try to copy them. He [Maths teacher] speaks so fast and you can't hear him in the back. (14-year-old Bangladeshi student in a mixed-ability set for Maths) Sometimes when the [Science] teacher walks around I go over the words I have written, all over again. I try and look busy. How can I ask for help? They [peers] will all think I am stupid when I am writing out experiments I did... it is easy when we do experiments, there are these other boys who know them [i.e. how to conduct experiments]. (15-year-old Pakistani boy) No I don't like it! I don't like to stand in front of the whole class and make a speech. They [peers] will all laugh at me, because of how I speak [reference to Gujerati accent]. (14-year-old Indian girl)
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Some of these experiences might not be confined to EAL speakers. Lack of confidence in front of one's peers and self-consciousness about one's dialect is not a matter which concerns just EAL learners. It is possible that there were issues to do with classroom management which impacted on the way in which these students reacted in three different schools. It needs to be pointed out that all these instances are self-reported: I was not present in the classrooms when they occurred. They are, nevertheless, significant because they express students7 worries and their perception of their classroom environments. The difficulties encountered, including those of task avoidance, were not expressed directly to the teachers. These sorts of feelings remain hidden from teachers' views. Yet the responsibility for classroom man agement, methods of teaching used and the need to be sensitive to all students' needs are totally in the hands of the teachers. They are in a powerful position in relation to their students, and it is they who need to evaluate their own teaching. I have selected the above quotations to draw attention to the complexity of the social relations which prevail in the classrooms and the quiet but significant presence of power and control invested in the teacher-pupil and pupil-pupil relationship. The above examples have also been chosen because they are related to the issue of language in the classroom as it affects different subject areas. These issues run across the whole school: they are not just the responsibility of the 'language specialist' or the English department in a secondary school. HOW TEACHERS SEE THE SITUATION There are as many stories about the experiences of teaching as there are teachers. I found very different views among teachers within the same school. Some of the experiences depended on the subjects being taught, others depended on where teachers had been brought up. Our local Language Centre closed down nearly three years ago. It had resources teachers used. Well, some teachers used . . . Now where all those displays and books went, heaven knows. But one good thing has come out of all these changes. It has put the responsibility firmly back onto us ... onto the school. Most of my EAL students are local born and bred. Their difficulties in learning are created here in this city right under my nose! (Humanities teacher who has taught in the same inner-city secondary school for seven years)
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I suppose it all depends on teachers' own experiences. I went from an all white village to an all-white school. From there I went to do a degree where in my year there were no... um... you know, people of different nationalities, and then here I am! Forty per cent of my pupils are ethnic minority and I feel I have to do all my learning all over again . . . I don't think my PGCE course prepared me for the north of England! I probably would not have been teaching here if I had not got married and moved! (Science teacher, during the second year of teaching in an inner-city secondary school) These two views were held by teachers in the same school who by their own accounts did not have the opportunity to share their teaching experiences. They certainly did not plan their lessons together. Even though it seemed as though the Science teacher might have gained from interacting with the Humanities teacher, their subject specialisms did not facilitate such a process. It is a large comprehensive school with over 70 members of staff and their experience may not be completely unusual. What may seem to be an obvious point to a researcher may not be perceived in the same way by those who are directly involved in teaching within a school. EAL students have a lot to gain if their teachers talk more often to each other about strategies used for teaching. PARTICULAR ISSUES WHICH CONCERN NEWLY QUALIFIED TEACHERS There are several matters which could be highlighted here. I am interested in raising those issues which concern Bilingual and EAL students and their learning and have space here for only those which were mentioned by two new teachers in two separate schools. There must be others which have been experienced by other teachers in other schools. As will become apparent from the following quotes, the points raised below are context-specific. They were perceived as localized issues. (A) It is overwhelming really. After college it feels like you are on your own for the very first time. Even though I have been teaching for over six months now, I still get that feeling of panic after I have to return to teach after half-term and after longer holidays. It is like starting all over again. Then there are these changes . . . my Head
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of Department went for another job and I have heard the Head of Year 9 has been offered another job. I got on really well with them . . . I feel unconfident about teaching still, I mean teaching even white children. I know it must be harder for Asian children, but you can only do so much at a time, can't you?' (This teacher taught English to fifteen Asian students in all. There were no other ethnic minority students in the school. She did not know which languages they spoke or whether they were Indian, Pakistani or Bangladeshi.) (B) My school is really supportive. Well, I think so anyway. There is a box for students to write their problems in. These can be addressed anonymously to subject teachers or to no one. Of course as a geographer you get the odd joke like 'GM (genetically modified) food sucks, have you tried it?'... witty that! but on the whole there are resource boxes, opportunities to socialise, supportive staff... This is the ninth month I have been here and I feel really lucky, well, not all the time, but most of the time. We have students who speak different languages and have different religions and things, but we all try to make a go of it. Of course there is racist bullying. You'd expect that, wouldn't you? That gets written down in the incident book when it comes to light. I think it is down to strong leadership. We have a Head who cares and Head of Departments who are supported. We have discussions on niggl issues like policies on school uniform, like the language support policy . . . I didn't learn anything in all my life as much as I have learnt in this school! I have even learnt some Bengali. (Probationary teacher in a school with 40 per cent ethnic minority students. There were on average ten ethnic minority students in each class in this school, including African Caribbean, Bangladeshi and Pakistani students.) The exuberance and enthusiasm of the second teacher was catching: she was at ease with herself and in her school. The obvious point to draw attention to is the school's attitude towards new teachers. The teacher in the first school felt isolated and unable to share her problems openly. My position in the school was that of a researcher and a helper, not an 'expert', nor an adviser. This probably accounts for the candid, almost unguarded comments. The teacher in the second school was willing and happy to share her experiences. She was more relaxed and open with her students in the dining hall and in the playground. On
Teaching all students in multi-ethnic, multilingual Britain
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the basis of these two teachers' experiences it is obviously not possible to generalize about all beginning teachers. However, they represent the real experiences of teachers in 1998 at the early phase of their teaching career and therefore they are important. Such experiences may help senior staff in secondary schools to devise better ways of supporting beginning teachers who enter the profession with hope and with willingness to try novel ideas. Some other relevant issues are discussed below. WAYS AHEAD There are many simple and obvious steps which any teacher could take to enable all students to benefit in school. Some of these are easily accessible as suggestions to all schools through SCAA (1996a, 1996b). For secondary school teachers it is useful to know the current policies and practice of their feeder primary or middle schools. There seems to be insufficient time for beginning teachers to do all they feel they want to accomplish within time constraints. Once they have obtained their first teaching posts, it is almost unheard of for secondary teachers to visit the feeder (primary or middle) schools as a matter of course even for half an hour. If this takes place it only occurs when the secondary liaison teacher does a 'round7 of the feeder schools before a new annual intake. To acquaint themselves with the educational background of their EAL students, beginning teachers would find it very helpful if it could be arranged for them to shadow a pupil who is going to go to their secondary school. Failing that, it may be possible to meet or even speak on the phone with the previous class teacher of a pupil who is causing concern. It is always instructive to talk to students about their difficulties. This is not always possible in a crowded classroom where peer pressure sets its own context. Many EAL students will respond on a one-to-one basis if their teachers are genuinely interested in their welfare and in their work. If teachers are prepared to discover where their students are at in their general grasp of a subject and in their knowledge of English then the task of teaching can become more productive because it can be individualized. If an EAL student appears to speak fluently but this is not reflected in his or her written work, it is quite possible that more work needs to be done to bring the student up to the level of which he or she is capable. It would be useful to compare notes with other subject teachers and with the relevant head of year to ascertain the extent to which the difficulty is subject-specific. Teaching EAL students
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effectively demands collaboration between teachers of different subjects. A question worth asking at planning meetings is the extent to which any discretionary curriculum time can be used to support EAL (SCAA 1996b, pp. 17,21). All teachers should know or try to find out which particular language or languages their students can speak or write. Heritage languages are not taught in all primary schools. If someone is fluent and confident in a language other than English it is evidence of the family's commitment to language maintenance. Opportunities can be provided, albeit informally, to display this dexterity. One school I know encourages all students to bring calligraphy to school on the 'book day'. In this way no particular student feels 'picked on as an ethnic', to quote a Year 9 student. Another question worth asking is whether and to what extent the pastoral care system is working in the school. Has the school appointed a counsellor, or does a cluster of schools 'share' one? It is often the case that when EAL is discussed African-Caribbean students' needs are overlooked. Many problems can be sorted out if there is effective communication between different professionals who are linked to a school. An obvious question in this respect is whether there are opportunities for the education social worker to meet or to be introduced to all members of staff, or are 'problem students' the sole domain of a single teacher in practice if not in theory? Is there a resource corner in the staffroom and space in staff meetings to share new ideas from current research and new information which has school-wide implications. Are EAL students discussed, are SEN students' needs discussed, are able students' needs discussed as an agenda item? If not, are there opportunities to raise these issues if school policy is being discussed? If a policy is agreed, are resources to support that decision also agreed? DOs: WISE WORDS FROM TWO RESOURCEFUL TEACHERS It is only fair that the final words in this chapter should be teachers' words. These are, I was told, small 'do-able' strategies which have worked for many teachers in the past. • •
Think of surviving one year at a time and surviving with grace. Ask left, right and centre for help if you need it. Nobody can read your mind all the time. Ask who used to provide ESL support before you joined the schoo and before all the recent changes in jargon set in!
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Go and meet another teacher in another school who is teaching your subject so you can have a moan and learn from them. Collaborate closely with the team of staff who deal with Section 11-type work, all SEN staff, and any other people who like to share their learning with you. Definitely find other beginning teachers for support. Think about specific language issues. Concentrate on a do-able objective for your EAL students. Don't assume your waxing lyrical about your favourite author will be understood for instance. Make learning context-specific. Don't throw away Sunday newspapers (quality press that is!). Give a sheet each to your students to summarize over a week. Not everyone buys the papers you buy. Learn three words in every language which is represented in your class. You'll be amazed with the outcome in relation to your students. Write down these words on the walls in the classroom as a backdrop. Keep the classroom calm and orderly. Don't let them know you are panicking. Make sure you ask yourself what you expect from each student. Keep a secret diary. Write it down and look at it twice a term or more often. Do you expect less from certain students? Be honest and ask why. Write new expectations. Share the higher ones with your students, particularly EAL students. They need more affirmation, more encouragement. Make EAL students feel 'safe' in the class. Disorganized classes, unclear instructions, a lot of disruption (noise) make classes dangerous places. Bullying happens. Even exclusions can happen because of insensitive teaching. Make sure you make the time to talk one-to-one to each student in your class, even for two minutes, each term. Make it a positive interaction. This will make all feel valued and students will not begrudge the time you are giving EAL students. Give extra assessment points for 'buddy system in class', i.e. when one student helps another to redraft an essay for structure, for reading work to each other. Don't do home visiting unless you are absolutely confident that you will not patronize parents. But remember parents are always there to support your work if you need it, even though you don't see them very often.
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These are not exhaustive. Any teacher of any subject can add to this list. Teaching is a rewarding profession and teachers are such influential people for so many students. EAL students always appreciat the effort teachers make to meet their needs. CONCLUDING REMARKS I began this chapter with a discussion of language and of English. I have ended it with some simple suggestions about attitudes towards teaching. Teachers are and will remain some of the most influential people in their students7 lives. It is a privilege to be able to teach in these challenging times, and teaching is not a profession to be taken lightly. NOTES 1 This refers to the funding once available through Central Government under Section 11 of the Local Government Act to assist local education authorities in meeting the educational needs of people whose roots are in those countries which were once British colonies. 2 The Single Regeneration Budget (SRB) was created in 1994 and combined twenty separate programmes previously funded by five different government departments. A considerable amount of Section 11 funding was incorporated into SRB, and educational projects which were previously earmarked under Section 11 now have to be 'bid for' against other competing bids. 3 As soon as we begin to engage seriously with this term as a descriptor, we run into difficulties. Does it apply to newcomers to the UK as well as those who have been in the UK for three or four generations? What about children of 'mixed-race' parentage? 'Ethnic minority' is a contested term, as everyone belongs to an ethnic group. For a discussion of this term see Meighan and Siraj-Blatchford (1997, p. 342).
•5-
Managing emotional and behavioural difficulties (EBD) in mainstream schools ROY HOWARTH
The social demands of schools are a relatively new phenomenon. It was not until the 1870s that universal primary education was established and a further 70 years before secondary. Prior to 1870 only a small percentage of children attended private or church schools. Therefore the institution 'school' is, in historical terms, a very new social dynamic. The state system, from its inception, has never been free from political and social change. The targeting by politicians of the state education system as a change agent for the ills of society has interfered with the healthy evolution of a school system related to the needs of all children. Also the growth of affluence following the Second World War and its effect on social structures and values has left teachers battling with a constantly changing theatre of operation. Over the past ten years the introduction of the radical 1989 Education Act, the National Curriculum, the Code of Practice, the Children Act, the 1991 and 1993 Education Acts, the Office for Standards in Education (OFSTED), Grant Maintained (GM) schools and Local Management of Schools (LMS), coupled with the social consequences of mass unemployment and massive under-spending in the public sector, have meant that teachers have had to carry an increasingly large load both outside and inside the classroom. Whilst the social and educational philosophers continue to rearrange our schools, teachers have had to maintain a firm hold on the classroom. The two major government reports on behavioural problems in our state schools, the Underwood (DES 1955) and Elton (DES 1989) Reports showed common agreement on the underlying dysfunctions of the extremes of this group of children designated EBD (emotional and behavioural difficulties). Even Hansard (the official record of parliamentary proceedings) 1870, concerning the Education Act of that year, relates to the problem: 'Urchins can't learn, ragamuffins won't learn.' It is becoming increasingly clear that this is not a new problem
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in our schools. A small percentage of children have always caused serious concern. They suffer from a disability which is as recognizable and pervasive as blindness or cerebral palsy. In The Prevalence of Disability Among Children (OPCS 1989) about 2 per cent of the school population were identified as having a behavioural disability. In order to understand the origins of EBD it is helpful to look at three main areas of causation: heredity, family and society, and schools themselves. THE ORIGINS OF EBD Heredity These include Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD); Attention Deficit Hyperkinetic Disorder (ADHD); Opposition Defiant Disorder (ODD); and personality disorder/autism continuum. Family and society There are also behaviours which have been created by both family and environment. Michael Rutter (Rutter and Smith 1995) suggests that, over the last 50 years, physical health has improved, with better living conditions. However, against expectations, psycho-social disorders have become substantially more prevalent: • • • • •
Crime shows a strong upward trend. Alcohol and drug abuse show a massive increase. An increase in depressive conditions in the most recent birth cohorts. Research suggests a general increase in psychological dysfunction. Suicide and suicidal behaviours show an increase.
Reasons for these trends include: • • • •
Increase in family discord and break-up (main risk stems from discord and lack of parental support and involvement). Lengthening of adolescent age period. Falling age of puberty, rising age of finishing education, have led to a growth of a strong youth culture. The media: good evidence that people are influenced in their behaviour by what they see and hear.
Managing emotional and behavioural difficulties 59AA Moral values
The research shows no evidence of a general moral decline. However, today's young people are: • • • • • •
more tolerant; less respectful of traditional values; more demanding of autonomy and control; more tolerant of self-interest, minor illegality and personal sexual morality; less confident of major institutions; increasingly emphasizing self-realization and fulfilment.
Other/actors • Increasing affluence and associated increase in people's expectations together with a parallel difficulty in meeting them. • Rise in length of education, increasing awareness of possibilities and increasing expectations that are difficult to fulfil. • Unemployment linked with psycho-social disorders at the individual level, especially alcohol and drug abuse, and crime. Schools themselves Some traits within our society may be creating significant deviancy. However, some difficult and challenging behaviours can be caused by the school and/or the teacher. In the DfEE circular Education for Disaffected Pupils (1990-92) the following common strands were noted in schools where standards of behaviour were unsatisfactory: • • • • • • • •
Verbal and physical aggression were extensive. Physical aggression verging on assault in circulation areas. Reports on intimidation, extortion and bullying were rife. Many lessons disrupted by unruly children. Staff had few skills to defuse difficult situations. On occasions staff fuelled difficult situations by inappropriate confrontational stances. Staff made threats which they could not carry out. Standards of achievement were unsatisfactory.
DESCRIBING THE DISORDER Perhaps the most pragmatic definition of the disorder comes from Pupils with Problems (DfEE 1994). For the purposes of this Circular, children with EBD are shown on a continuum. Their problems are
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clearer and greater than sporadic naughtiness or moodiness and yet not so great as to be classed as mental illness. EBD may show throug withdrawn, depressive, aggressive or self-injurious tendencies. There may be one or many causes. Family environments or physical or sensory impairments may be associated. Children with EBD as defined in the Circular always have special educational needs. Whether the child is judged to have EBD will depend on the nature frequency, persistence, severity, abnormality or cumulative effect of the behaviour compared with normal expectations for a child of similar age. There is no absolute definition.
WHAT WORKS The school The job of the teacher is to deliver the curriculum as clearly and creatively as possible. To do this the school and its teachers must aim for a calm and controlled working environment. The Elton Report (DBS 1989) found that the most frequent problems identified by teachers were talking out of turn, getting out of seat and shouting out, behaviours which are frequent and pervasive and challenge the teacher's ability to deliver the curriculum adequately. The holistic approach to behaviour management is the key facilitator for all other strategies. The school should present itself as a consistent, fair and understandable unit for both students and staff. There should be clear boundaries for adults and students, agreed by all and written out for all to read and own. This can take the form of a school handbook, a behaviour policy or a code of conduct. It must be in writing, current and available to students, teachers, other school adults and parents. The contents need to be relevant to the specific environment and should not contain generalities like 'We should all be nice to each other/ The boundaries laid out in the document must be: • • • • •
Specific to the environment; Measurable in terms of improved standards of behaviour; Attainable in the form of clearly described behaviour targets; Realistic behaviour targets to be set; Timed.
There must also be a time interval in which the behaviour targets are achieved. For this holistic approach the targets and time interval
Managing emotional and behavioural difficulties AAAA
must have joint ownership by both the students and the school adults. Parents should also be included in the process. The behaviour targets set by the school must be in relation to measurable events. These could be: •
• •
•
Exclusions both fixed term and permanent. To reduce this activity by seeking alternative, more positive and creative responses to children who through violence, abuse and disruption show their special needs. Detentions (not a desirable response to bad behaviour). Reducing this response, other than for lateness, may decrease resentment and alienation felt by students. Incidents. Recording the number of incidents which occur in the school related to the significant interruption to the delivery of the curriculum. By identifying and noting the difficulties the challenging students present, strategies can be written which respond in a proactive and intelligent way to the disruption. Attendance, particularly in some age and academic groups. By attracting into school this disengaged and disaffected group a greater sense of community is displayed.
If behaviour targets are to be set, the school should first examine current responses to challenging behaviour and ask objective questions about their effectiveness. There should be agreed, clearly understood responsibilities for the management of behaviour, the Senior Management Team taking responsibility for the organization of appropriate resources and the attitude the school has to challenging behaviour. A clear, fair and consistent method of reporting incidents of disruption should be in place, with standard forms centrally managed, analysed and correlated. Schools should provide the teacher with: • • • •
adequate, appropriate and consistent back-up; appropriate and relevant in-service training in behaviour management; an immediate and consistent response to incidents; clear and consistent communication with parents regarding disruptive behaviour.
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The Teacher Class teachers/adults as the immediate managers of the students should: • • • • •
have a clear understanding of the school's structures for managing disruptive incidents; manage a classroom in which there are high, fair and clear expectations for work, good manners and behaviour; plan work that is adequately differentiated, ensuring achievement for all pupils; aim to be positive and optimistic about their work and the children they teach; have a wide repertoire of supporting and defusing skills to pre-empt difficult behaviour.
Students' behaviour and attitude will only change through positive, rewarding and supportive interchanges with adults. However, this can only occur when the prerequisites for an environment which promotes the use of supportive and positive language are in place as listed below. 1. Curriculum organization • Clear and well organized by the school, the year or department and the teacher. • Interesting and appropriate. • Access to a variety of techniques and activities. Multi-media delivery can maintain interest which might otherwise be lost. • Appropriate high-quality equipment and materials. Poor materials can in themselves produce poor behaviour. • Sensitively differentiated work giving all the students a sense of achievement. 2. Classroom expectations for behaviour Clear. Fair. Agreed by all. Consistently and persistently applied and positively reinforced. Underpinned by the school ethos, reinforced and supported by school systems (rewards and sanctions).
Managing emotional and behavioural difficulties 63AAA
3. Classroom organization • Initially very tight and predictable, moving towards challenging and varied. • Classroom system of reward. 4. Body language • Assertively positive (standing tall). If you want to be in charge, look like it. • Calm stance and facial expression. Students watch for anything else. • Pleasant. It's part of the job. • Calm and confident movement to all areas of the room. It's your classroom: own it. • Non-confrontational. If you confront, expect to be challenged. Choose your areas of importance. • Sensitive to the space between teacher/student (distance, level). • Sensitive eye contact. Too much eye contact can feel threatening. 5. Use of voice • Generally clear, quiet. • Effective use of pause. • Pleasant with some humour. • Sudden change of pitch, volume, tempo can signal disapproval without implying threat. • Anger used sparingly, after considerable positive input and in a calculated way. • Being a good listener as well as a good talker. UNDERSTANDING AND MAINTAINING RELATIONSHIPS It is essential to recognize that many causes of in-school difficulty lie outside the school in: • • • •
family relationships; changes in domestic routines; anxiety about a friend; worries about troubles somewhere else.
Troublesome students tend to have lived, or live, disordered lives where security is often lacking. Hence their need for security, consistency and respect within the school.
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Start each new day afresh: • • • •
Forget the last lesson and feel optimistic about today. Maintain an objective view of the students. Welcome them positively. Give smart equipment and work to show respect.
The teacher must maintain a contemporary relationship with all students, forget even the most recent past and start each period of work fresh and positive, even if the student tries to maintain a level of animosity. For the student the worst scenario occurs when the teacher and the student engage in a relationship that is historical rather than contemporary. Many students with difficulties do not know how to restart relationships positively; it is therefore the teacher's responsibility to repair and manage relationships that are in danger of remaining damaged. The teacher has to take an active role in ensuring that relationships are not affected by any previous difficult encounters. As can be seen from the matrix below (Table 5.1), only when the teacher and the student maintain a positive and contemporary relationship can the outcome be successful. If the teacher has a view of the student that is based upon negative experiences then the student cannot recover a healthy relationship and the outcome can be either poor or disastrous. (You may find it instructive to read David H. Hargreaves et al.'s (1975) Deviance in Classrooms where he describes the labelling theory, and then to listen to comments in the staff room.) Table 5.1: The relationship matrix Student
Adult
Outcome
Contemporary Contemporary Historical Historical
Contemporary Historical Contemporary Historical
Very good Poor Good Disaster
Behaviour will only change to meet the targets set by the school and teacher if students feel good about themselves, are happy about their relationships with the adults, are clear about expectations and are safe within the environment.
Managing emotional and behavioural difficulties 65AA
RESPONSES TO BEHAVIOUR The primary response has two major categories; both concerned with the adult's immediate relationship with the child: Verbal • 'Bright boy', 'Great', 'Best work you have produced', etc. • 'You look good today', 'Smart boy', 'Like your hair', etc. • T liked how you did that', 'Nice smile', 'Keep behaving like that'. • 'Excellent effort'. These can be either very repetitive with low-key prompting, maintaining good behaviour, or made special by voice intonation with or without physical contact. Non-verbal • A smile • Shaking hands • Ruffling hair • Thumbs up, etc. • A wink These are used as constant cues to the students, improving self-esteem and keeping them feeling safe and successful. Good teachers with positive relationships and good outcomes use these positive cues all the time. It's hard work but the end product is excellent. A secondary response is concerned with what the adult can give to the student to recognize good performance: • • • • • • •
Credit points Ticks Treats (cinema tickets, food at Wimpy, etc.) Awards for meaningful achievements or activities Special mentions Good letters home Class-based rewards
These must be fair, consistent, understandable and relevant to the student. They must be achievable by all and be respectful of effort in all areas of the environment, including curriculum achievements at all levels. It should be clearly understood that positive reinforcement will only be successful in a controlled and safe environment.
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Teachers may themselves create behaviour problems by managing their classrooms in a way which in itself produces disruption. They tend to: respond too quickly to difficulties; lack diffusing skills; confront, leaving children with few options; be inconsistent classroom managers; be subjective regarding the student's difficulties; maintain relationships related to the past and not the present. BASIC SKILLS TEACHERS CAN LEARN There are some very basic techniques of good practice that teachers can learn and enjoy using. Like learning to drive a car, once the skills have been mastered they become second nature. The classroom is the teacher's workplace and all that happens there should be with the teacher's consent. The responsibility must lie with the teacher to create an environment where all are safe, and sound learning can take place. The major enabling skill is scanning the class or group. It is essential that teachers scan the whole classroom at regular intervals. To do this all aspects of the teacher's workspace must be visible. Obstacles which students can hide behind, or use to avoid detection, must, wherever possible, be moved. Scanning allows the teacher to: maintain appropriate observations of the whole classroom; have eye contact with specific students; view the class from different points; signal interest and position; assess need for intervention; gain knowledge of class and individual behaviours. How often a teacher scans the classroom will depend on the degree of difficulty of a particular class and the type and number of problematic students it contains. The benefits are self-evident and permit the teacher to anticipate disruption and, by using low-level interventions, settle the class. INTERVENTIONS Interventions allow the teacher to change the mood, speed and activities of the class. These should be clear, well-directed, effective and
Managing emotional and behavioural difficulties 67AA
easily read by the student. They should be as non-confrontational as possible. The teacher at all times should keep a good posture, remaining relaxed but standing and sitting tall. Initial interventions should be as light as possible, perhaps using simple body language. Examples of gestures: hands raised for quiet; the shaking head; hands on hips; sitting on the front of teacher's desk; thumbs up. Examples of facial expressions: raising the eyebrow; closing the lips tightly; looking puzzled; a smile (can have several meanings). Whole-body gestures: moving to the troubled part of the classroom; standing tall at the front of the class in silence; standing quietly at the back of the class; standing quietly behind the hot spot and teaching from there. These do not directly confront the student but allow the teacher to express disapproval. Eye contact should be limited to a glance, otherwise the child might think you need a response. Do not repeat too often; allow the child time to take up the discipline required. Verbal interventions for controlling behaviour, compared to the non-verbal listed above, considerably increase the chance of escalation, can be more confrontational but are more powerful. Initial verbal interventions should be exploratory, non-confrontational and relate directly to the behaviour or the work. These interventions serve to cue the child back to the task in hand and can, in some cases, bring a noisy class back on task. The repertoire could include: 'Do you have a problem with the task?7 'OK let's go through the task again.' 'Do I need to go through the task again?' 'I can't remember saying you had to do that/
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'Can we all get on?' (eye contact with individual child) 'Please continue as asked/ 'Could we please continue?' Again only minimal eye contact should be given. If the initial intervention does not cue the child back to work, then a more intrusive tactic has to be used. Give time for the initial intervention to take effect. Some behaviour will go away if left alone. It can be more effective if the gestures and verbal interventions are combined. These can be used together or used shortly before or after, if thought to be necessary. The strength of the intervention can be increased by: repeating initial cue slightly more firmly; short, non-work-orientated discussion followed by work cues; invalidating using humour followed by work cueing; making a clear statement regarding agreed working practice; praising other students for complying with the stated work task. If the more invasive interventions do not result in the required behaviours, then to maintain standards in the classroom more overt forms of intervention should be introduced: Stop the class and restate task (not too difficult). Rearrange seating (this could, if not achieved, cause a serious escalation). Close books and sit in silence. Give options and restart (open to individual abuse by a disruptive student). Reward the compliant and satisfactory students (this has to be powerful). Other interventions and the responses should be used to assess the possibilities of success of the more confrontational ones. To lose control when this level of obedience is required is unacceptable. A teacher would be placing his or her position as manager on the line and be open for significant challenge if any of the stronger interventions fail. Throughout the intervention the teacher must continue scanning the whole class, enabling an analysis of the intervention used. Once a teacher makes a request it must be undertaken satisfactorily by the student or students. Teachers should not ask for what cannot be achieved.
Managing emotional and behavioural difficulties 69AA
IF THINGS GO WRONG? In any mainstream school there will be students who find life difficult to manage and school almost impossible. These young people have many reasons for their dysfunction and many ways of showing their unhappiness. They can have inconsistent and varied male and female adult models who confuse, disturb and, in some cases, actually abuse them. They are in our classrooms and have to be taught alongside all the rest. In some cases confrontation and humiliation are a regular part of their experience, and it is this they so often try to manifest in classrooms. Challenging behaviours are triggered by a variety of stimuli. The triggers can come from outside and inside the school; they take many forms; they can be immediate or have delayed reactions. Some reactions can be triggered by flashbacks to incidents of violence, abuse and distress. Wherever they come from, the class teacher has to manage the student's behaviour and maintain adequate delivery of the curriculum. The escalation of behaviour has to be managed by skill and manipulation, enabling uninterrupted contact with all the class. Some very challenging behaviours can appear as if from nowhere, but the majority of the more significant problems of management develop at a slower pace within the classroom. Some students, in a sense, are warning teachers about their state of anxiety and their need for appropriate care. Most escalation starts with the trigger phase. The response strategies must in some cases be proactive, preventing the cause of irritation. These triggers are often not significant events in themselves but can be disturbing to a specific individual or a small group of unhappy students (see Table 5.2). If however, after the intervention described above, the student needs to escalate the behaviour further, then the strategies have to be more invasive. The escalation at this stage may be due to factors still unresolved in the classroom or could be related to events outside the classroom over which the teacher has no control. The escalation from the trigger phase to more negative behaviour presents a serious threat to the adequate delivery of the curriculum. This escalation can be caused by: delayed gratification; increased disappointment; negative reinforcement; contradictory demands.
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Table 5.2: Triggers and response strategies Triggers
Response strategies
Criticism: no homework, poor spelling, torn clothing, funny new haircut
avoid any direct public reference to academic ability or outcome be clear and respond quickly to any direct personal remarks between students Clear directions in teacher handbook
Anticipating something bad: exclusion meeting, parents seeing social worker, detention, planning to miss detention.
good communication system in the school, giving relevant information to all staff use the mentoring system preempting difficult meetings School communication system must cover the kinds of events which may cause distress or problems
Disappointment: teacher away, football cancelled, poor outcome of effort, good homework not marked, access to natural parent changed
smart cover system in the school clear, empathetic homework system in place good regular communication with home mentor/tutor system well run and backed strongly by SMT teacher mindful of the effects of public announcements of academic success School to be aware of the special needs of this group of difficult, challenging students. The curriculum delivered in a differentiated, attractive package with ranges of success for different pupils
Self-esteem damaged publicly: unfortunate personal remark by teacher or other pupil, public disclosure of some aspect of home background
teachers should be mindful of their ability to damage; even a minor criticism can cause real grief public references of any kind to home background forbidden teachers must make clear that personal remarks are not tolerated These triggers must be stopped/reduced by the teacher's strength and clarity regarding personal abuse
Managing emotional and behavioural difficulties 71AA Irritation: by other pupil or pupils, constant repetitive demands by teacher
classroom rules clearly set by teacher and class regarding inter-personal boundary setting seating arrangement set by teacher to alleviate irritation teacher's positive attitude to less balanced pupils has brighter and more successful outcomes than constant teacher bullying Teacher should be seen as a clear, fair, caring and consistent manager of the environment
Minor humiliations: to do with clothing, work, haircut
teacher should be aware of the consequences of personal remarks teacher should overtly protect the less able, less well-off and neglected pupils change seating arrangements, moving the more provocative pupils elsewhere It is the teacher's responsibility to protect all students from personal abuse
Making a minor public error: wrong answer, poor work displayed
a public error is difficult to counter act as it is of the student's own making; however, immediate support relating to another area can lessen the difficulty public displays of inadequacy must be avoided Teacher should be aware of inadequacy
The student now presents to the teacher a number of management problems that are driven by a feeling of inadequacy and low selfesteem. The student becomes significantly oppositional, demanding attention and when receiving it, rejecting help. She/he can direct anger at another student, directly challenging the teacher's authority. The student becomes negative about all aspects of the classroom, often moving from one argument to the other, becoming more demanding. It is at this time that the teacher must inform senior staff of a possible difficulty, using agreed call-out systems. Some teachers can at this time become very directive and assertive, a high-risk tactic that can be catastrophic.
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A more subtle but nonetheless firm approach can, if carefully applied, prevent the deterioration of behaviour still further. A number of tactics can be used, each one being a test of the teacher's authority and the extent of the student's negative feelings. The teacher should gauge from the student's response how the student is. The tactics to use might include: informing the student of the procedures already in place, note sent to senior staff, the consequences of such behaviour in the school; directing the student to stay in his or her seat and maintain appropriate language, directing the attention of the student to more peripheral behaviours; maintaining good eye contact, keeping contact with the student and demonstrating a need for appropriate responses; talking slowly, deliberately and quietly, expressing self-control; describing boundaries calmly but with intent; directing the student to a quiet part of the room to settle away from the troubled area. All of these tactics can be tried in combination or one following the other. They can be moved through quickly, giving the student a chance to take the least threatening. Tactics which are high risk include: physical prompting (suggesting by pulling or gently pushing that the student might leave the room); giving, or worse still, shouting ultimatums; trapping a student in a corner with no means of escape save past the teacher; threats of punishment which simply give a negative reinforcement to an already difficult situation. If these extreme tactics do not work, then the teacher faces accelerated escalation and senior staff involvement has to take place. CONCLUSION Good teachers exercise strong, clear and fair discipline, enjoy teaching their subject, have an affinity with the students and approach teaching with enthusiasm. They have clear minds regarding boundary setting and are consistent with their application. They give students take-up time, and request rather than demand. These teachers are most
Managing emotional and behavioural difficulties 73AA effective in schools with clear, jointly owned, lively and creative policies on pupil management, home/school contact and links with external agencies and the wider community. These schools have strong caring leadership that maintains support for all aspects of the school and has a strong belief in the delivery of the curriculum at all levels of ability and interest. FURTHER READING Cole, T., Visser, J. and Upton, G. (1998) Effective Schooling for Pupils with Emotional and Behavioural Difficulties. London: David Fulton. Jones, K. and Charlton, T. (eds) (1996) Overcoming Learning and Behaviour Difficulties - Partnership with Pupils. London: Routledge. Lloyd-Smith, M. and Dwyfor Da vies, J. (eds) (1995) On the Margins: The Educational Experience of'Problem' Pupils in Staffordshire. Stoke on Trent: Trentham. McNamara, S. and Moreton, G. (1995) Changing Behaviour: Teaching Children with Emotional and Behavioural Difficulties in Primary and Secondary Classrooms. London: David Fulton. O'Brien, T. (1998) Promoting Positive Behaviour. London: David Fulton. Office of Population Census and Surveys (1989) The Prevalence of Disability Among Children. Rogers, B. (1998) 'You Know The Fair Rule': Strategies for Making the Hard Job of Discipline in School Easier (Second edition). London: Pitman.
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Able children with additional special needs DEBORAH EYRE AND MARY FITZPATRICK
Meeting the needs of the full ability range in the classroom is an ongoing challenge for teachers. Even where the range of ability has been narrowed, for example within setted classes, the teaching response must take account of individual needs as well as delivering the content and concepts of the lesson. This chapter looks at the needs of pupils who have high ability, i.e. their levels of thinking are significantly beyond that which might be deemed appropriate for their age group, but who also have additional special needs. WHAT DOES IT MEAN TO BE ABLE? One of the problems about provision for able pupils is a lack of agreement regarding a definition of ability. There is, however, some agreement on the kinds of characteristics displayed by able children and these include: Great intellectual curiosity. Ability to learn easily and readily. Initiative and originality in intellectual work. Ability to memorize quickly. Superior powers of reasoning. Traditionally, intelligence has been discussed in terms of IQ, a form of general intelligence which can be measured by testing. More recently, knowledge of the brain has led to a recognition that intelligence may occur in domain specific areas, as exemplified by Gardner's Multiple Intelligences (Gardner 1983), and that an individual may show high ability in any of these areas or in any combination. Within a school context a child may be outstanding in one subject but not in others. Gardner would suggest that some of
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these intelligences are easier to measure by test than others and that some do not lend themselves to testing at all. An example of the latter might be Art. Other psychologists have highlighted the role of cultural influences on our ideas of ability. Sternberg (1985), whose 'triarchic' theory of intelligence divides ability into analytic, creative and practical, indicates that what is seen as high ability in developing countries may not be regarded as such in developed countries. In Britain, for example, linguistic ability is highly valued and therefore children who demonstrate advanced linguistic ability are the most likely to be seen by the school system as able. Finally, ability and achievement, although linked, are not necessarily the same. Some psychologists would hold that high achievement is the best way to be sure of a person's ability, but it is also well known that such factors as home background, motivation and educational opportunities influence performance levels and, therefore, it is likely that some children have the potential to achieve more highly than they do. DEMONSTRATING HIGH ABILITY IN SCHOOL In school high ability is often confused with hard work. Those who work hard, write neatly, get their homework in on time and make thoughtful responses in class are seen as the most able. In reality a proportion of able pupils demonstrate these characteristics, but not all. Equally, some pupils who do work very hard can achieve very acceptable grades, especially in Key Stage 3, but may be unable to achieve highly at A level. For able pupils who are high achievers the rewards can be great but so, too, can be the pressure. Such pressure may come from parents, from teachers, from friends or indeed from the pupils themselves; in extreme cases this can lead to burn-out or breakdown. There may also be able pupils in the classroom who do not achieve highly: this may be through choice or through circumstance. Some able pupils find school dull and are intolerant of mundane activities. They are interested in intellectual ideas, but dislike the discipline imposed by exam syllabuses and timetable constraints. They may fail to complete work and/or revise for tests, but demonstrate ability in classroom discussions and produce occasional pieces of work of outstanding quality. These children can be frustrating to teach generally and may behave in ways which disrupt the teaching of others; but they can be highly responsive to creative curriculum approaches and reward the teacher with work of considerable originality. Other able
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pupils find it difficult to achieve through lack of opportunity or support. They may not be able to get help with their homework or may be in a school where expectations of what pupils will achieve are very low. Some teachers believe that able pupils do not exist in innercity schools. Generally this is a response to the fact that high-achieving able pupils may not be particularly evident; there may, however, be plenty who have the potential to achieve. CROSS-OVER CHILDREN Some highly able children have an accompanying disability, which may be of a learning, physical or emotional nature. This can make it much more difficult for a child to achieve highly, but it is the role of the school to assist that child in maximizing his or her potential, and frequently some creative responses are needed. This chapter looks at some case studies of able pupils with additional special needs, at the kinds of challenges they present and the types of imaginative solutions which are possible. The main reason for a chapter of this kind is that in some schools the disability is given more attention than the ability, and expectations of what the child will achieve are reduced. For example, able dyslexic pupils are often to be found languishing in bottom sets because they are unable to read and write well enough to score highly on module tests. However, their cognitive thinking is advanced and with appropriate support they can operate effectively in top sets. Able children with challenging behaviour, probably the most difficult category of cross-over child, are frequently excluded from school. Hearing- or visually-impaired able children will find that accessing the curriculum is slower or more difficult, but with appropriate help high academic achievement is not only possible but should be expected. It is not possible in a chapter of this size to address in detail all forms of disability which might accompany ability, but by focusing on case studies it is possible to consider some helpful strategies and also to raise awareness of the need for teachers to look beyond the disability. Certain strategies can be employed with all cross-over children, in particular maintaining high expectations of the child whilst recognizing difficulties and obstructions to learning; consultation with the child and where relevant with his or her parents to ensure that strategies are appropriate and effective; understanding the nature of the difficulty and also ways in which tasks can be adapted to make them more accessible for the individual. Cross-over children can seem threatening to teachers since their needs are unfamiliar and individual.
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However, creative teachers will recognize that they already hold within their teaching repertoire most of the strategies they need, and if they couple those with a little basic common sense and the support of the SENCO, meeting these kinds of individual needs is not beyond their capabilities. CASE STUDIES OF CROSS-OVER CHILDREN High ability/dyslexia This combination is one of the most common to be found in school. Able children with dyslexia often proceed through their education without gaining formal recognition because even if they are underachieving they may still be performing at a level which is considered acceptable by the school. Able dyslexic children also tend to develop strategies which serve to hide their difficulties from the teacher. They may rely on friends to help with remembering instructions given orally for homework and may develop styles of working which distract attention from their problems. Teachers need to recognize signs of possible dyslexia rather than wait for it to be diagnosed before they react. Many of the strategies which are helpful for dyslexic children are also useful for other children, especially those who find organization difficult; therefore, it may be that some aspects of teaching can be changed for the whole class rather than just an individualized programme being created. This, of course, helps to reduce feelings of difference and isolation. MARK Year 8,11-18 co-educational comprehensive school Mark's interests tend to be sport- or activity-related. When relaxed he can b an engaging and amusing conversationalist with a sharp eye for detail, irony and incongruity. He has an assertive will and likes his independence. He has a strong competitive edge to his nature but appears unusually sensitive to real or perceived failure, especially when this is in public. In these circumstance he can be seen to over-react to what objectively are minor mishaps or relatively poor performances. Mark's superficially self-confident manner probably masks a fragile self-concept. He transferred to a village primary school from an international school in Italy when he was 9, and from the beginning concern was expressed about his literacy difficulties and the apparently wide discrepancy between his general abilities in class and his ability to read and record his work. He was
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quickly referred to an educational psychologist who completed a full psychological assessment. Inspection of Mark's pattern of psychometric scores indicated that he was a boy of superior general intellectual ability with an atypical weakness in short-term auditory memory. This is something which is commonly associated with phonological processing weaknesses and dyslexia. Mark's overall IQ estimate would be exceeded by fewer than 1 per cent of individuals. At 11, Mark transferred to secondary school and continued to experience considerable difficulty with much of his written work. Both his teachers and his parents were concerned about his under-achievement and the frustration he experienced with his reading and recording. He would often fail to adequately record homework instructions which were issued orally and would take an inordinately long time to produce very little. As a result he would seem to have rushed his homework, or appear lazy or careless in its completion. He rarely produced work which was commensurate with his high levels of conceptual understanding. At this point he was reassessed and found to be highly able, with a significant specific learning difficulty of a dyslexic nature. The educational psychologist recommended that the school: provide a differentiated curriculum modified as appropriate; ensure that Mark has an accurate record of homework tasks and that written work be marked for content and conceptual understanding, with less emphasis on the secretarial skills; provide access to tasks which appeal to his learning style. This is likely to contain a strong visual element (e.g. diagrams rather than narrative writing) and minimal demands on auditory memory and listening skills. Study skills which were 'whole-brain' and visual in nature such as mindmapping/concept mapping were recommended; provide opportunities to develop his word-processing skills and training in the use of an ACE dictionary; make arrangements for special consideration in examinations, both internally and externally; ensure that his self-esteem and self-confidence remain high by avoiding situations where he feels he is failing or where his difficulties are exposed; celebrate his achievements; provide opportunities to explore a wide range of curriculum areas at the levels of extension and enrichment, with no or very little requirement for formal recording of product outcomes; have regular reviews of targets and continue to liaise closely with home.
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High ability/medical Children attend school with a variety of long- and short-term medical complaints which present problems for learning. In some instances illness may be episodic, e.g. asthma, and only evident at certain times or in certain circumstances. Others, whilst not totally debilitating, present ongoing problems and difficulties. Each case here will need an individualized response, but again it is important to consider ways in which to help the child maximize his or her potential rather than lowering the ceiling of expectations. Able children are sometimes particularly creative in finding ways to overcome their problems. Nisha Year 9,11-18 co-educational comprehensive Nisha is an extremely keen and conscientious 14-year-old girl who is quick to make oral contributions in class. However, she has a rather pompous manner which creates tensions with her peers as they feel she patronizes them. She is an only child who tends to seek the company of adults and has few friends of her own age. She is exceptionally able in all areas of the curriculum, apart from physical education and art. She is an avid reader and has an immense vocabulary and general knowledge. Her favourite subject is Mathematics; she calculates with speed and precision and enjoys problem-solving with the ability to concentrate for long periods of time. She is expected to achieve at least level 7 in the forthcoming English SAT and level 8 in Maths and Science. Nisha suffers from severe atopic eczema, asthma and a variety of serious allergies. At times her condition limits her movement. Large areas of her skin are frequently extremely sore and her hands may be affected to an extent where she is unable to use them properly. She has been prescribed steroids for many years and this has stunted her growth (she is very small for her age). The discomfort of her skin does at times interfere with her ability to sleep, leading to a general feeling of fatigue. Nisha has been placed in the top set for Mathematics, English, Science and Modern Languages where the work is differentiated to suit her high ability. She frequently finishes tasks first and is then set extension exercises to broaden her level of understanding. She has taken part in a number of masterclasses organized by the local university. Despite the fact that she is often tired and sore, she drives herself with unremitting determination, a situation which is a source of concern to her teachers and parents. She does not appear to want to relax or pursue a hobby. Although she is not allocated any Learning Support Assistant time, one of the LSAs has taken her 'under her wing' and
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makes a point of checking to see how she is feeling, attention which she appears to enjoy. Much of her work is untidy and messy but this is due in part to the various ointments she needs to use, which get on her pen and smear her work. Her teachers ignore this problem and assess her work on content rather than presentation. Ultimately she is expected to do very well and achieve a good honours degree. It is hoped that she will find companions with whom she can discuss her work and interests, but this might have to wait until she is older. She does not appear to see her lack of friends as a problem and makes no effort to engage with the other pupils in her class. From time to time her Mathematics teacher insists that the class works in a group on a particular problem and when this happens the pupils (usually boys) who are allocated to her group appear to enjoy the intellectual challenge of working with her on a shared project.
High-ability/visual impairment An increasing number of children with visual impairment are being educated in mainstream schools. In the case of visual impairment it is particularly important that the teacher understands the nature of the child's condition, since once again the able/visually impaired child may be highly effective in disguising the impact of his or her disability. Visual impairment can be problematic in schooling since so much of the average secondary school curriculum is based on reading. Therefore, in constructing an Individual Education Plan (IEP) with the child, careful consideration needs to be given to ensuring curriculum entitlement. If, for example, the volume of reading is to be reduced it is essential to avoid any reduction in the level of cognitive challenge. Jake Year 10,11-18 co-educational comprehensive Jake is a tall, rather gangly, unassuming 15-year-old boy. He is a serious person with a somewhat limited sense of humour and an interest in cars. He has a long-standing circle of friends who share his passion for cars. He has an extensive general knowledge and is able to converse with maturity on a very wide range of subjects, being particularly interested in current affairs and the injustices in society. He is exceptionally able in Mathematics and Music and will be taking his GCSE in these subjects a year early, with the expectation that he will achieve A* grades in both subjects. He does not enjoy physical education.
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Jake is visually impaired. He has myopia and cataracts in both eyes and views the world around areas of opacity. He also has nystagmus, a tremor of the eye, so he has only a brief second to take hold of what he sees before it moves. He has no binocular vision so has no scanning ability. He wears glasses and his vision is such that he can cope with most of his school work. The school responds to his learning needs by providing a very full IEP outlining his visual impairment in some detail, which is circulated to everyone who teaches him. This is so that his teachers have a clear understanding of just how hard it is for him to access written text - something which is not obviously apparent. It is important that they not only appreciate his visual difficulties but are also aware of his extremely high ability. Jake does not like to draw attention to the fact that he has difficulties with his vision and is very reluctant to ask for help when he encounters obstacles. Teachers are asked to ensure that all written material is bold, where possible enlarged, and that there is a good contrast between the text and the background. At times he may need additional time to complete tasks that require a lot of reading. Wher appropriate, audio tapes can be used. However, Jake prefers to read for himself. From a sporting viewpoint he has great difficulty with activities that involve fast-moving objects, for example a cricket ball. He is rather clumsy and unco-ordinated, so it is not surprising that he finds most aspects of physical education difficult and unrewarding. Because he is so knowledgeable and self-contained, his teachers often forget that he is visually impaired and do not always remember to provide him with good clear copies of written text. Poor quality photocopies present considerable difficulty. Currently Jake is enjoying Year 10 and is making good progress. He takes part in the debating society and enjoys discussions with the older pupils in the sixth form. He has developed a good relationship with the Head of Sixth who mentors him, encouraging and challenging him as appropriate. He will be using enlarged papers and will be allocated 25 per cent additional time in his GCSE examinations.
High-ability/cerebral palsy Research into able children with cerebral palsy is extremely limited and little has been done to document the ways in which schools might meet such needs. In a condition of this type it is sometimes difficult to establish levels of ability because of communication difficulties, but we do have practical experience of children with cerebral palsy and very high IQ levels. For schools the challenge of enabling such children to maximize their potential is immense. Sometimes the emphasis in school is very heavily upon physical access to lessons and
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development of social/life skills. These are important aspects of education, but need to be combined with consideration of intellectual needs. It is not easy to strike the right balance, as our case study demonstrates; but evidence from SCOPE and others would indicate that for highly able children with cerebral palsy, having their ability recognized is often a real struggle, even before the battle for suitable provision begins.
Sinead Year 12, Provincial 11-18 girls' comprehensive Sinead is a sensitive person with a pleasant nature and a well-developed sense of humour. She finds forming relationships with adults much easier than with her peers. However, as Year 11 proceeded, other pupils began to respect her for her readiness to participate in year group activities. She has a great interest in football. Sinead is highly able in her understanding of concepts, memory and command of language. At GCSE she achieved two A* grades, six A grades and two B grades. Currently she is studying three A levels in French, German and Geography at a sixth-form residential college. Sinead was born with cerebral palsy and, at times, uses a wheelchair. However, she always walks into class with the aid of sticks. She needs help to reach the classroom, getting out and packing away her equipment, including her laptop computer, in practical lessons and sometimes in note-taking. Rooming was planned to provide ground-floor teaching areas, and ramps and a lift were installed. Sinead's special needs are partly physical but her social difficulties are more complex. Her response when spoken to is delayed, and this unnerves other pupils. She becomes upset needlessly when girls disagree with her opinions and takes comments personally. Socially she is very unaware, for example interrupting conversations and not checking her appearance after meals. Sinead was in the top sets for her academic subjects and was included in PE. She also benefited greatly from her participation in the Duke of Edinburgh Award Scheme. She was allocated a number of learning support assistant (LSA) hours. Some of the in-class time was shared with other pupils. Sinead had a main LSA who formed the day-by-day link between the family and school, and between Sinead and school. LSAs tried to encourage Sinead to do as much as she could independently and had some success in the areas of personal cleanliness, self-care and social interaction. Some food technology time was spent with an LSA on life skills and on examining the possibility of shopping and cooking for herself. However, the layout of the school buildings and the need to maximize Sinead's academic potential made it
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impossible for Sinead to get from one building to another quickly enough without help. The SENCO worked with Sinead's tutor group to enable them to understand Sinead's difficulties more clearly. There was always a very close and constructive relationship between home and school. Although the mainstream setting was able to provide access to the full academic curriculum, Sinead's training in social independence was not being fully developed. She made a successful application, supported by the LEA, t a residential college where she could learn to look after herself and attend the local sixth-form college. She is now enjoying success, not only in her A-level courses, but also in her level of independence and in making friendships with other students.
High-ability/physical disability Children with physical disabilities frequently achieve significant academic success. For a child with mobility difficulties, problems for schools relate more to the physical environment than to the curriculum. Problems related to practical subjects do exist but can usually be surmounted. A more significant problem here may relate to teacher expectation, as in our next case study, where significant disability led initially to a lowering of expectations. This case study also highlights the sensitive role of the LSA when dealing with cross-over children. Such children may like and respond to a friendly supportive relationship with the LSA, but they are also fiercely independent and resent patronizing attitudes or support strategies which de-skill them by making them over-dependent.
Imran Year 13, Provincial 11-18 co-educational comprehensive Imran is a self-possessed, thoughtful and articulate sixth-form student. He has an easy and warm manner and is highly regarded both by his peers and the teaching staff. He has a real passion for all sport, his favourite being football. He is extremely able in a number of domains and has a highly developed inter-personal intelligence which manifests itself in his very successful relationships with all around him. He has outstanding linguistic ability and communicates, both orally and in writing, with confidence and flair. At GCSE level he achieved four A* grades, four A grades and one B grade. He took GCSE Mathematics a year early, and was awarded a grade A. Currently he is studying four A levels in English, French, German and Sociology.
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Imran was born with multiple limb deficiencies, with extremely short arms of less than fifteen centimetres, no hands and only one fully formed leg. He wears an artificial leg which enables him to walk and even kick a football around. In the classroom he needs support at the beginning of lessons, getting out his equipment and packing away at the end. In practical lessons he needs a great deal of help with the constructional aspects of the work. He can write extremely well with his 'good' foot, but prefers to use a pen which is placed between his arm and a sports wristband. He worked out this strategy as an alternative to the cumbersome arm and hand prosthesis he had learned to use when he was younger. From the beginning, Imran was placed in top sets for English, Maths, Science and Modern Languages and took part in all the usual extra-curricular and extension activities. He was allocated a number of LSA hours which were used to help him manage in the classroom. The LSAs were given additional training in meeting the needs of able pupils with a physical disability, and were instructed to keep a very low profile, always encouraging him to make use of compensatory strategies. In the early days his teachers had a tendency to award commendations inappropriately, for work that was only 'averagely' good. He was amused but mildly irritated by what he saw as their rather patronizing attitude towards his disability. However, as they got to know him and became more aware of his high ability, this practice stopped. The school, with the support of the County Adviser for ICT, investigated the possibility of using voice-activated software with his computer, but he found it too slow, preferring to write or type himself. At all times the SENCO involved him in discussions about his learning needs, prioritizing the need to maintain a streamlined support service that kept up, as much as was possible, with his speed of thinking and reasoning. He is expected to achieve an excellent set of A levels and take up the place he has been offered at university. Ultimately he hopes to become a sports journalist.
CONCLUSIONS Cross-over children are first and foremost children, but their high ability may go unrecognized because it is masked by their disability. Equally, appropriate provision may be more difficult to achieve than for other able children and a more creative response may be needed from schools. Schools addressing this issue need to think carefully about the following areas.
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1. Identification The identification of cross-over children is complex. The usual methods of using test results, diagnostic assessments, opinions of teachers and parents, and observation of the pupil's response to higher-level tasks, if they are ever exposed to such tasks, is still valid but is complicated by the pupil's particular difficulty. In many cases the deficit or special need in one area is seen as the main area of concern and may mask the pupil's strengths. Efforts will be made to deal with the difficulty rather than focus on the area of strength, a strategy that does little to improve the pupil's self-esteem. Certain conditions attract more sympathy and compassion and ultimately more support, for example, physical disability, visual or hearing impairment and chronic medical problems, whilst other conditions including, for example, dyslexia, dyspraxia, Asperger's syndrome and emotional and behavioural difficulties, may be viewed with scepticism and, in some cases, prejudice. 2. Role of the educational psychologist In order to help identify cross-over children the involvement of an educational psychologist is invaluable. Detailed individual assessment can provide a clearer picture of the pupil's abilities and strengths. In this instance IQ scores may reveal discrepancies between verbal and performance scores, pick up on deficits in long- and shortterm memory, find auditory and/or visual processing difficulties which may in turn provide reasons for other accompanying problems of frustration, poor motivation and low self-esteem. All this data can then be used to design an IEP. 3. School ethos Cross-over children can only flourish within a school system: that values and encourages achievement; where all aspects of achievement are valued equally; where teachers have realistic but high expectations; where pupils are expected to think for themselves and ask searching questions; where pupils are seen as individuals; where teachers provide a differentiated curriculum to meet individual needs.
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4. Provision Cross-over children benefit from the protection of the 1993 Education Act and subsequent Code of Practice (DfEE 1994). The Code's five-stage model outlines very clearly the various stages of intervention and the need for detailed lEPs which are regularly reviewed. However, it is absolutely critical that the main focus of the IEP should not be on the pupil's weakness. The fact that there is a statutory framework to ensure that pupils' needs are met must be used to pursue individual pupils' strengths and provide the necessary differentiation and extension. In many cases the SENCO will manage this work and may call upon some of the following strategies: where necessary provide unobtrusive LSA support that facilitates the pupil's learning (ensuring that the LSA has training inAAAA meetin
the needs of able pupils); provide additional time in tests and to complete assignments; provide special arrangements in tests, e.g. enlarged papers for visually impaired pupils; emphasize compensatory strategies, e.g. use of calculators, spellcheckers, computers, tape recorders etc.; ensure that rewards and commendations are awarded appropriately; cross-over children will notice if they are being patronized; ensure that there are opportunities for group work with other, more able pupils; encourage pupils to take part in clubs and competitions and whole-school events such as plays and assemblies; ensure that the relevant external agencies, e.g. educational psychologist and occupational therapist, contribute to the IEP; ensure regular liaison with parents so that school and home can work together to develop the pupil's abilities. It is important to remember that cross-over children are often extremely capable of finding strategies to compensate for their difficulties. This is to be encouraged but must not put them at a disadvantage. For example, the able visually impaired pupil can cope with regular-sized print but needs to put a disproportionate amount of effort and time into deciphering the text. There is then less time to answer the questions. Overall, the needs of cross-over children do not differ significantly from those of able pupils. They have the same rights to a broad, balanced and challenging curriculum; indeed their presence often has hidden benefits for mainstream schools. Some of these benefits may include the following:
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A differentiated approach in the classroom becomes a real necessity and compels teachers to develop their skills so that they devise ways to enable pupils to both access the curriculum and take on extension tasks. Additional training may be required; for example, a pupil with cerebral palsy may need support with recording and may need to take advantage of the latest voice-activated software. This will automatically necessitate the teacher developing new ICT expertise. The statutory IEP and regular reviews provide the necessary assessment and monitoring procedures and may provide the framework for all pupils, including the able. (Research has shown that in many cases good assessment and monitoring procedures for able pupils have grown out of practice initially developed for pupils with SEN.) The presence of cross-over children will develop in teachers an understanding of the individuality of pupils as a whole. Finally, the presence of cross-over children may help foster a climate of tolerance and sensitivity and will produce a generation that values difference, whether it be high ability, special educational need or both. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The authors wish to thank the following for case study contributions: Liz Cooper, SENCO, Didcot Girls' School, Oxfordshire; Barry Hymer, Educational Psychologist, Cumbria LEA.
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Understanding the hearing-impaired child in your class TED MOORE
INTRODUCTION The aim of this chapter is to provide you with some understanding of what is meant by the term 'deafness'; some knowledge of the implications of having hearing-impaired pupils in your class; some practical advice for use in the classroom; some signs to look for in identifying pupils who may have hearing difficulties; and ideas of where to go to for help, as well as where to find additional information. The terms 'deaf and 'hearing impaired' are used interchangeably in this chapter and cover the whole range of hearing loss. WHAT IS DEAFNESS? The brain formulates the sensation of hearing when sound waves emanating from a sound source, e.g. someone's vocal chords, reach the outer ear and are conveyed via the ear canal and eardrum to the cochlea in the inner ear. The sound waves are then converted into electrical signals which travel along the auditory nerve to the brain, which, in turn, deciphers the message (see Figure 7.1). Deafness is often considered to be the hidden disability and one that carries particular stigmas such as 'deaf and dumb', 'stone deaf, and 'deaf mute'. Most of us tend to be intolerant of those who do not respond to our questions or comments immediately or consistently. If the person has hearing difficulties, then usually this is due to a lack of understanding on our part, as well as impatience! Deafness affects the interaction involved in communication and therefore has a major impact on how pupils and teachers relate to one another in class.
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EAR
Figure 7.1: Cross-section of the ear. Source: Children's Language and Communication Difficulties (Dockrell and Messer, 1998).
THE ONSET OF HEARING LOSS 'Acquired deafness' is the term used when the onset of hearing loss occurs after birth and in particular after language has been acquired. Tre-lingual deafness' is the term usually used when children are born with a hearing loss, which may, if it is a significant loss, have a major effect on language acquisition. Young children will not receive a sufficient and comprehensible input to formulate the linguistic rules of the home-spoken language. This loss is therefore referred to as 'prelingual7 or 'congenital deafness'. TYPES OF HEARING LOSS Conductive deafness If there is something which interferes with the conduction of sound through the outer and middle ear then a person is said to have 'conductive deafness'.
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A block to the sound wave may be caused by wax in the ear canal or damage to the ossicles, but more often than not, it is caused by fluid in the middle ear. This fluid is often the result of the child having a cold or an infection in the throat or ear. If the fluid becomes thick and 'glue-like', it will probably stop the eardrum from moving freely, and a hearing loss may result. This condition is known as 'glue ear' and is thought to affect one in four of all primary-aged pupils. Not all children will be affected in the same way and any hearing loss may fluctuate from day to day. Sensori-neural deafness When sound waves enter the cochlea, vibrations are created which stimulate minute hair cells. The area in which particular hair cells are situated determines the frequency of sound. If some of these cells are damaged by, for example, the German measles virus, then the person is likely to have difficulties, not only in terms of the loudness of sounds, but also in making distinctions between the different speech sounds. In other words, where there is damage to the cochlea, a person is likely to hear only very loud sounds and even then, these sounds (as perceived by those with good hearing) are likely to be distorted. Where there are hearing problems caused by damage to the cochlea or auditory nerve system, then the resultant deafness is called 'Sensori-neural deafness'. It is usually the case that a person with a sensori-neural loss will hear low frequency sounds better than high frequency sounds. This has a direct impact on making distinctions between different speech sounds. In English we make use of low frequency sounds to distinguish vowels, and high frequencies to sort out the consonants. Children may also have a mixed loss, i.e. a sensori-neural loss with a conductive overlay (generally glue ear). Obviously this combination increases the severity of the loss. Therefore, there are a number of ways of describing hearing loss, e.g. an acquired sensori-neural loss. HEARING AIDS If a child has a significant hearing loss which is also likely to be persistent, then hearing aids are likely to be prescribed. There are a number of different types of hearing aid, which can be obtained from both National Health and commercial sources. Usually great care is taken to provide the most appropriate aid. The decision will primarily be based on the nature and degree of hearing loss, the age of the child, and also the personal preference of child and parents. It needs to be
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recognized that hearing aids do not restore hearing. They do make sounds louder and can put an emphasis on different sound frequencies (similar to the bass and treble knobs on stereo systems), but speech sounds may still be distorted. Post-aural hearing aids These are the most common type of hearing aids to be worn these days. They fit behind the ear and are, therefore, often called 'behind the ear' (BTE) aids. These hearing aids are connected via a plastic tube to an earmould. The earmould has to be made individually for each wearer; it contains the amplified sound and of holding the hearing aid in place. If a person has an ill-fitting earmould then there can be feedback problems (a whistling noise), where the aid continually amplifies the sounds it has produced. It is very important that the hearing aid is set to the right control settings - including being turned on! Teachers should seek advice from their local Teacher of the Deaf about the exact volume and control settings. Body-worn aids These aids are worn less in schools nowadays but some children benefit from them for the power and frequency range which they can produce. They are also more easily fitted to the very young child. The controls are similar to the post-aural aid. In-the-ear aids (ITE) These hearing aids have all the components built into a person's individual earmould. However, they are not often used with children, because there would be a need to keep changing them as their ears (and heads!) grow. Bone-conduction and bone-anchored hearing aids (BAHA) A cochlear implant
This differs from a conventional aid in that it does not amplify sound directly. If a child has a major problem in their outer or middle ear, such as having no ear canal, or where a chronic discharge is being produced, then these specific aids may be prescribed. The aids convert the amplified sound into vibrations, which are then conducted through the bones of the skull to the cochlea. The bone-conduction aid is in the form of a headband, whilst a bone-anchored aid has the hearing aid attached to a titanium screw which has been inserted into the mastoid bone of the skull. It is prescribed only for those people who are not able to benefit from conventional hearing aids. To install
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the implant, an operation takes place in which a piece of wire, containing a series of electrodes, is threaded into the cochlea. These electrodes then perform a similar task to the hair cells by electrically stimulating the nerve endings and providing information about the frequency of sounds. The aid also consists of a microphone, a speech processor (worn on the body) and a transmitter which is worn on the side of the head and attached to an internally installed magnet. Radio hearing aids These aids are also called FM systems and are used like one-way radios whereby a message is conveyed from a speaker to a hearingaid wearer. The purpose they serve is crucial to classrooms - noisy p that they can be! Their role is to overcome the difficulties of distance between the speaker (teacher) and the recipient (child). By so doing they can also overcome the problem of noise since the child will (hopefully) receive a very clear signal. They also allow both teacher and child to move freely about the room. Most radio systems these days operate as follows. The teacher wears a lapel microphone attached to a transmitter. The microphone picks up the teacher's voice, the transmitter converts the sounds into radio waves and transmits the signals. A receiver worn by the child, and which is directly linked to his/her own hearing aid, then picks these up. The receiver converts the radio waves back into sound via the child's hearing aid. Auditory training units (ATUs) These are specially designed amplifiers to which are attached a microphone and a headset. The headphone user can receive very high quality and powerful sound without the problem of feedback. They can also be used in conjunction with a computer or television. Inductive loop systems With this system a microphone is plugged into an amplifier which in turn is connected to a loop of wire. This loop is usually placed around a room, hall, theatre, church, etc., in which people with hearing difficulties need to have access to a speaker. Hearing-aid wearers can turn their aids to the T' position, which then enables the aid to pick up the magnetically induced signal from the loop. Again, as with the radio aid, this system enhances the quality of the signal by overcoming the problems of surrounding noise and distance.
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USING HEARING AIDS Hearing aids are essential to those children with significant and persistent hearing loss, but they are only of value if they are properly managed. To be effective the hearing aid must be: worn!; switched on; set up correctly and therefore working to its maximum efficiency; used in good listening conditions; checked at least on a daily basis. IMPLICATIONS OF DEAFNESS Conductive deafness Most people at some time have had the feeling of being 'bunged up' when they have had a cold. Simultaneously, they may well have also experienced a hearing problem when sounds seem to be muffled. This condition is likely to be experienced by many primary-aged children and has the combined effect of making it difficult to hear quiet talk and discriminate all the speech sounds in noisy conditions. The result is that the child can become frustrated by only partially hearing things and may misunderstand instructions or questions. Therefore the interaction between child and teacher can break down. The confusions experienced by the child may result in withdrawal or attentionseeking behaviour. If the teacher is aware of the possible difficulties, then allowances can be made, strategies introduced and a breakdown in relationships avoided. He or she should also recognize that conductive deafness can fluctuate, and therefore children may appear to be 'with it' on some days, and 'in a dream' on others. If this form of deafness persists then it can have serious effects on development and learning. For the young child it can delay the development of language and may disrupt social interaction. A combination of the two can lead to delayed learning, a frustrated child and one who may display lack of attention and/or behavioural problems. For slightly older children, there can be problems with how they converse with their peers and how they tackle reading. For example, if a phonic approach is being used, children with a conductive loss may have difficulties, within the normal classroom environment, of distinguishing the difference between sounds, particularly final and unvoiced consonants, e.g. 'cooked' - pronounced 'kookt', in which
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they may not actually hear the 't' sound. Children with 'glue ear7 or a temporary hearing loss will rarely wear hearing aids, but some simple classroom strategies such as placing them near the teacher and making instructions very clear, will greatly improve the situation. Sensori-neural deafness Children with this type of loss will usually wear hearing aids, but are also likely to receive distorted speech patterns. If they have been deaf since birth then it may be that their speech and language development will be delayed: in some cases severely so. Early intervention, appropriate hearing-aid fitting, good hearing-aid management and intensive conversational experience will usually do much to help in language acquisition and concept development. However, these children will have difficulties in discriminating between different sounds, particularly consonants, because these are high frequency sounds. The relative importance of consonants in English can be seen by eliminating them from sentences, e.g.: I- -i- -oo- -e-i-e -o- -a-. It will soon be time for play. Although there is a general expectation nowadays that many children will be able to make use of distorted speech patterns through their hearing aids, their speech may still reflect their difficulties whereby consonants are omitted or replaced by other sounds. This means that children with sensori-neural deafness will also have similar problems to those of the conductively deaf child. In addition, they will probably have to acquire language, often through an imperfect information-processing system, in order to access the curriculum which is built on the basis of both spoken and written language. Language is the means by which we interact with others; without it, we will have limited access to our peer groups and to society as a whole. Society has stereotypical images of deaf people, but it must be emphasized that they are not a homogeneous group. Even those with a very similar loss are likely to have different personalities, different upbringings and different cognitive abilities. Do not be misled by phrases such as: 'He hears when he wants to'; 'She thinks everyone is talking about her'; 'At least the deaf can watch television'. You are urged to find out about the problem for the individual through your local Teacher of the Deaf and discuss a solution.
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COMMUNICATING WITH DEAF CHILDREN The vast majority of deaf pupils will communicate through speech. However, there will be some profoundly deaf children who will require an alternative mode of communication. This may be because of the degree of hearing loss, or through choice (the family uses British Sign Language (BSL) as the home language) or because the child ha other learning difficulties. If the child in your class needs sign language support then you should be receiving external advice from your local Service for Hearing Impaired Children. However, most deaf children will receive information/speech through the auditory channel and this channel may well be supported by the use of a hearing aid. Deaf children may also gain some very important clues from your facial expression, your body language and your lip patterns. Some general communication rules Speak naturally. Although it may help to slow down a little, do not overdo it! Do not over-exaggerate lip shapes, as this causes distortion. A lot of information can be gleaned from the rhythms and intonation patterns of normal speech. Be clear in what you say. Use full sentences - not an abbreviated or pidgin form! Repeat if necessary - if your message still does not seem to be getting through, re-phrase. face the deaf child whenever you speak. Try as much as possible not to turn your back and speak, e.g. when writing on the blackboard. Make sure your face is in the light. If you stand with your back to a window your face may be in silhouette and therefore you may be difficult to lip-read. Try to remain still when talking. The pupil has an easier task in following what you are saying. Only use natural gestures and facial expressions as you would for any child. Do not shout or allow others to shout. Shouting distorts speech and can make things very uncomfortable for a hearing-aid wearer. Gain the deaf pupil's attention before you begin to speak. It is very difficult to cue into a topic or conversation if the introduction is missed. Reduce noise levels. Background noise will make it very difficult for any deaf person to distinguish what is being said. Be aware of
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CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT The positioning of deaf children in the class is important. As a general rule, ensure that deaf pupils are in the second row back, fairly central, or slightly to the side, so that full lip patterns can be seen. Children will then not have to strain their heads back to see you. However, they should be no more than three or four metres away so that they can make the best use of their hearing (aided or unaided). If children have a unilateral loss (they hear better in one ear than the other), then ensure that they sit with their good ear nearest the speaker (you!). Deaf children should sit in a position where the strongest source of light is on the teacher's face. ADDITIONAL CONSIDERATIONS AND STRATEGIES Have high expectations of deaf children. They need to be exposed to a rich and varied language environment where they should be expected to listen, to join in with others in conversational activities, and to adhere to the code of conduct in your classroom. Be aware that deaf pupils may have relatively poor linguistic skills and have difficulty with reading, phonic work, spelling and writing. The deaf child needs to be an equal conversational partner. Give the child time to make a contribution. Take what he or she says and extend it. Help the child to put language to all that he or she does. Use routine. This helps to give confidence and security. Use plenty of contextual clues or visual aids to clarify your presentations, e.g. use of illustrations, OHP, diagrams, photographs. For older pupils, lesson resumes and advance organizers can be extremely helpful. Written clues/cues may help when you are changing topics, e.g. use of written headings. Write important information/instructions on the board/OHP, e.g.
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changes of venue, homework, examination dates, notices from assemblies. Complete introductions to videos, slides, etc. before turning out the lights. Consider the deaf pupil's situation - in the dark! Demonstrations in which children are encouraged to look at an action while the teacher is talking are virtually impossible for the deaf children who need to lip-read. Care in presentation is needed - not avoidance of demonstrations. N.B. Dictation can also be a problem Break up sessions: long, uninterrupted 'lectures' canbe stressful and tiring for the pupil who has to really concentrate on listening and lip-reading. Summarize - verbally or in written form - the questions, answers and statements of other pupils. Paraphrasing and repetition will also help to clarify meaning. Check sensitively that the pupil has understood what has been said. Therefore, do not ask, 'Do you understand?' The answer is likely to be 'Yes' - (appeasement!). B more subtle! In group situations try not to let more than one person speak at a time. Repetition of what has been said, or checking of what has been understood, are important teaching techniques. Try to include the deaf pupil in all activities and experiences. Seek ways in which you can help deaf pupils become socially integrated. Be aware of their social well-being. Help them towards independence. Investigate examination arrangements for deaf pupils, e.g. SATs, GCSEs, A levels. Seek advice from your local Service for Hearing Impaired Children. A HEARING PROBLEM? SIGNS TO LOOK FOR IN THE CLASSROOM Early diagnosis and intervention are crucial for deaf children. The sooner people realize there is a problem, the sooner that solutions can be sought and help provided. Children exhibit a range of odd or unacceptable behaviours in school, but teachers are often not sure of the cause. Deafness, i.e. lack of hearing clarity, may be a contributory factor. Therefore, if you have concerns about a particular child and think that perhaps he or she may have a hearing problem, have the hearing checked out. Usually this is done through the child's GP, but if you araeaaaaaaaaa unsure talk to your SENCO, or get in touch with your local Service for Hearing Impaired Children.
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The following are some possible signs which may indicate that a child has a hearing problem; but, of course, there may be other reasons for the particular behaviour(s). These signs are probably more applicable to children of nursery and primary age than those of secondary age. Nevertheless, it may be that previous problems may have been overlooked, so do check previous records or pass your concerns on to your SENCO. The child may: be slow to react to instructions and/or be the last one ready for the next activity; have faulty, slurred speech which possibly is marked by the omission of consonants; have delayed language, immature sentence construction and a weak vocabulary base; smile and nod, say 'Yes' when asked something, but not really understand, although trying very hard to please; obviously hear something, but frequently do the wrong thing; hear sometimes, but not others. This may be when he or she has a cold or when sitting in a particular place (the result of a unilateral loss or noise interference?); be extremely distractable, with a minimal concentration span (maybe is often seeking visual clues?); fix his or her eyes intently on the speaker's face (lip-reading?); turn his or her head to one side to catch sound (problems with direction - unilateral loss?); have frequent colds and is constantly 'all bunged up'; a parent may report snoring at night; have problems in discussions and whole-class teaching; be dreamy or withdrawn; have problems with reading, dictation, spelling. WHERE TO GO FOR HELP Within most LEAs there is a specialist Service for Hearing Impaired Pupils/Students which is likely to be managed by a Head of Service and is funded directly by the LEA. This service may be autonomou or be part of a group of specialist services such as 'Sensory Impairment' or 'Learning Support'. Arrangements vary from one LEA to another, but the general type of provision includes advice for parents, advice and teaching support for deaf children placed in mainstream schools, or special schools dealing with other kinds of disability. The
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service has an important role in the assessment and placement of deaf children. Often this may include an audiological assessment in cooperation with the Local Health Trust. Many services also have responsibility for, or close relations with, special units or resource bases for deaf children. They may also offer support to deaf students in colleges of further and higher education. If you have a deaf pupil in your class or you suspect that a child has a hearing loss, talk to your SENCO and, if appropriate, contact your local specialist service. INFORMATION British Association of Teachers of the Deaf (BATOD) Secretary: 21 The Haystacks High Wycombe Bucks HP13 6PY e-mail:
[email protected] Website: http://www.batod.org.uk
NDCS National Deaf Childrens Society 15 Dufferin Street London EC1Y8PD Tel: 0207 250 0123 (information and helpline) 0207 490 8656 (switchboard) Website: http://www.ndcs.org.uk e-mail:
[email protected] RNID Royal National Institute for Deaf People 19-23 Feather stone Street London EC1Y SSL Tel: 0207 296 8000; 8001; 8199 Fax: 02072968035
8 Meeting the needs of visually impaired pupils ANNETTE AUCHTERLONIE
INTRODUCTION This section outlines some of the challenges that inclusion may present both to visually impaired children and their teachers. It also illustrates how teachers may become aware of the problems and some of the ways in which they can help alleviate them. Finally it offers case studies of two children with visual impairment and the reader is asked to consider in what ways each child's difficulties might impinge upon him/her at each stage of his/her life and what actions were taken to help him/her. Underpinning all of what follows is a belief that the visually impaired pupil flourishes in a caring community in which all members are valued equally; one where each pupil is confident that teachers view him or her first and foremost as a child, with individual natural abilities and interests, and also aim to promote personal development through appropriate provision and differentiation. PROBLEM ARE AS Awareness of the individual visual impairment and its implications in the educational setting is the first step towards managing problem areas. A visually impaired (VI) pupil may be partially sighted or blind and with or without additional special educational needs. The pupil's vision may be impaired in a variety of ways: distance vision may be impaired, while near vision may be relatively good; near vision may be impaired; near and distance vision may be impaired; central vision may be impaired;
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peripheral vision may be impaired; vision may be monocular, with resultant restriction of visual field and lack of stereoscopic vision; visual field may be restricted, left and/or right; colour vision may be impaired; photophobia (difficulty in seeing in strong light, glare or reflected light) may be a problem; or there may be a combination of the above. Since there is such wide variation in the way vision may be impaired, the importance of being informed about the individual impairment and management of problem areas cannot be overstressed. For example, a pupil with poor distance vision will have difficulty seeing what is on the board, but near vision may be adequate for close work. It is worth being aware of nystagmus, which is particularly common among visually impaired children. This is an involuntary rhythmic oscillation of the eyes, usually bilateral, and predominantly horizontal in direction. The effect of nystagmus is to smear the retinal image, rather like the effect of moving a camera while taking a photograph. It appears to affect distance vision rather more than near vision, although the more manifest the eye movements, the poorer the vision is likely to be, near and distance. Fatigue, stress, being unwell, invariably cause the nystagmus to be more manifest. A child may adopt a head tilt to obtain best vision, and this must be allowed. A child may also develop a head-shaking strategy when reading or watching television to aid visual performance. The pupil with nystagmus may have 'off' days, when there may be a significant drop in the level of visual efficiency. As there is a much higher incidence of partial sight than blindness in the UK school population, teachers are more likely to have partially sighted pupils in their classes. A major congenital visual impairment is usually diagnosed at an early stage, and educational support is established when the child is starting school. The level of support is monitored and reviewed annually. Occasionally, however, a child's eyesight begins to fail during the school years and the class teacher may be the first person to notice a deterioration in a pupil's vision. It is useful if the teacher is aware of the signs that may indicate the need for specialist help.
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IDENTIFYING VISUAL PROBLEMS IN SCHOOL The following signs may be indications of a visual problem: 1. Physical appearance of the eyes Swollen or red-rimmed eyes, drooping lids, watery eyes, unusual crusting near the lashes, styes. Cloudy appearance of the pupil of the eye; apparent lack of iris; pupils of different sizes. Constant movement of the eyes; eyes that do not appear straight. 2. Behavioural indicators Posture, head-tilting, eyes held close to the task, blinking, eyes touched, rubbed or covered. Sensitivity to light or glare. Complaints of eye pain, headache, dizziness or nausea, especially after periods of close visual work. Skipping letters, words, or parts of sentences when reading or writing. When copying - may distort, omit detail, be unable to identify colours. Span of concentration may be limited. Extra time needed to complete a task; fatigue after concentrating on a task. Difficulty following demonstrations. Poor hand-eye co-ordination. May be withdrawn, reluctant to join in games. Using this checklist as a guide, teachers can take appropriate action according to established procedure in school. It may be, as in the case of refractive errors such as myopia, hypermetropia and astigmatism, that vision can be corrected by spectacles or contact lenses, and this may resolve the problem. However, if vision cannot be improved or improved significantly with correction, further action has to be taken, and advice sought from the LEA Visual Impairment Service regardin management. TEAMWORK Successful inclusion of visually impaired pupils is dependent on teamwork. A child-centred team which shares expertise and ideas is an empowering force, affording the visually impaired pupil access to
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a broad and balanced curriculum and quality education - the entitlement of every pupil. The team is likely to include: pupil; parents; school staff; Visual Impairment Service; health; social services; psychology; other educational services; other agencies or charities. Within the team, liaison enables the class/subject teacher to understand the needs of the VI pupil and to be in a position to meet those needs. The class teacher works in conjunction with the SENCO and Learning Support Department in school and the VI teacher. The SENCO and VI teacher normally liaise with other agencies. Thus class teachers have the necessary back-up to deal with difficulties as they arise. In this way, teamwork liaison becomes a vital element of inclusion. Staff need opportunities to discuss work, adaptations and management of various learning situations. As pupils mature, they should be encouraged to take more responsibility for management of problem areas and should be consulted regarding suitable provision. Pre-planning is crucial to pre-empt any disadvantage to the VI pupil in the classroom. Materials for lessons should be prepared and, where possible, made available in advance. Giving support staff material for adaptation as the lesson begins is a bad method! Simila pupils should not be expected to prepare learning materials. TEACHING GUIDELINES When there is a visually impaired pupil in the class, the class teacher becomes more aware of the visual demands made in various areas of the curriculum. Paradoxically, whilst modern equipment has opene doors and created opportunities, visual methods of learning are so prevalent in education today that VI pupils face difficulties they would not have encountered in the past. The main challenge for children with little or no sight lies in access: access to board work, texts, maps, OHP and television screens, demonstrations, science experiments, sport and PE, for example. Generally a pupil will be supported by staff responsible for ensuring
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that he or she has access to classroom and school activities as far as possible. Where it is not possible for a pupil to participate in an activity, an alternative activity will be put in place. Visually impaired pupils also face the challenge of keeping up with their sighted peers, as they tend to take longer to complete tasks. Partially sighted pupils generally access the curriculum via sight, utilizing suitably adapted learning materials, often in large print, and equipment such as an adjustable desk stand, to raise materials to eye level; and an enlargement facility, perhaps a magnifier or a CCTV (closed circuit TV). Remember, bigger is not always better. For partially sighted pupils, simply enlarging material, particularly on a photocopier, is not necessarily the answer, as this may engender another set of problems - e.g., linear scanning or difficulty in handling an A3-size sheet. Enlarging on a photocopier exacerbates difficulties with poor quality print; better quality can be achieved via a computer. Advice regarding adaptation should always be sought from the VI teacher. The VI Service may be able to prepare adapted texts and workbooks. Competence in touch typing is invaluable, as it enables blind and partially sighted pupils to make optimum use of IT equipment. Thanks to the surge of development in information technology, new opportunities have opened up for people with little or no vision. Using computers, VI pupils can now produce well-presented work and assignments at a good speed. Learning materials can often be accessed more easily via information technology. A laptop computer with speech and / or braille facility may even be regarded as an integral part of the provision. Blind pupils need a combination of tactile and auditory methods of learning, supported by the use of specialized equipment. Today blind pupils work alongside their classmates, producing Braille and print copies of work via computer. Generally pupils are likely to use a Perkins brailler when learning braille. Listening can replace reading in many instances, and full use should be made of tape recorders and dictaphones. General points Allow pupils time to complete tasks. Give clear verbal descriptions and directions. Give individual or small-group explanations or demonstrations. Special programmes (may be necessary in): listening skills; keyboard skills;
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visual enhancement programmes; braille skills; mobility and orientation training; use of audio/IT equipment. Visual displays These should be uncluttered and at eye level and they should use strong contrasts. Use large, bold black lettering. Board work Boards should be clean and dust-free (black), free from reflection (white). Use white chalk on a blackboard, black ink on a white board. Print should be clear, well spaced. Numbering lines can be helpful. State clearly what is being written on the board. Storage/tidiness Trays and cupboards should be easily accessible and clearly labelled. Avoid clutter on floor, e.g. bags. Chairs should be replaced at tables. General decor Surfaces should be light, matt, non-reflective. A strong, contrasting colour may be used to edge stairs, highlight doorways. Specialized equipment This may include: adjustable desk stand; enlargement facilities: low vision aids, CCTV; IT equipment; brailler; audio equipment; talking-calculator, scales, thermometer, etc. Reading It is important for visually impaired children to enjoy reading. The class teacher can help by providing suitable materials, which should
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be in large print, braille or 'moon'. Braille is most commonly used; very occasionally a pupil may learn 'Moon7, which is another tactile system. Whatever the reading medium, ample time should be allowed for reading passages, worksheets, texts. Whilst it may be tempting to read for the VI pupil, such a strategy denies the pupil the necessary reinforcement of reading skills. The class teacher should be aware that tactile reading is generally slower than print reading. Obviously speed also depends on the reader. Provided with braille copies, blind pupils can participate in a wide variety of group activities such as play reading and shared reading. Partially sighted pupils need: good size print; bold, black print on a white or pastel background, giving good contrast; clear, uncluttered layout; ample spacing between lines and between words; no print over illustrations or colours such as blue, grey, purple, brown, etc.; clear illustrations, preferably in primary colours; diagrams which are simply outlined, clearly labelled, without too many details. Writing Black ink gives a better contrast than pencil or blue ink, enabling the pupil to read back his or her work more easily. It may be necessary to use black felt-tip pen. Adapted workbooks may be required, fore example, black lines/squares are easier to see than blue. Good spacing between lines/enlarged squares are often essential. Graph paper and music manuscript may need adaptation. Tactile materials should be provided if necessary - these can be produced via specialized equipment, e.g. a fuser or a thermoform machine. Spectacles/contact lenses Pupils may be careless, sometimes deliberately so, about spectacles and contact lenses. They may lose them, break them, not clean them properly or refuse to wear them. Children who need spectacles or lenses should be encouraged to manage them appropriately and teachers should be aware of pupils showing signs of discomfort as a result of failure to wear or maintain them properly.
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Lighting Good lighting is important for visually impaired children. The type of lighting and the way light is used may have a crucial effect on the extent to which a person with poor vision can see. Suitable lighting means good use of natural light source, and good, even lighting in the building generally, i.e. in classrooms, corridors, hall, stairs and toilets. Careful positioning of lights in the centre of corridors and over doorways will provide useful mobility clues. Avoid glare, bright light, reflections and shadows. Glare can be disabling and cause discomfort. It causes great difficulties to many visually impaired children. Glare can be prevented by using lowpowered fluorescent tubes, and fitting windows with blinds or screens. Avoid standing in front of a window or between windows while talking to pupils. Communication Teachers should be aware of how disadvantaged a pupil is when he or she cannot see facial expressions or the reactions of others. So much of communication is non-verbal, via expressions, gestures, body language. It is important to monitor social interaction. Sometimes intervention is necessary to ensure that sighted peers are aware of the social difficulties faced by a VI pupil, and aware of how to ensure that the VI pupil does not become isolated. Where a VI pupil has additional special educational needs, careful consideration should be given to the effect of the combination of difficulties the pupil faces. Management strategies will be aimed at meeting all special needs appropriately. COLOUR DEFICIENCY Colour deficiency may cause problems for a small proportion of pupils. The use of colour in learning materials may be a delight for most pupils, but a confusing nightmare for the few who have difficulty with colour discrimination and recognition. Exercises which rely on colour coding are particularly problematic and require adaptation. Rarely, a pupil may have no perception of colour at all. Sometimes VI pupils have difficulty discriminating colours, depending on the individual visual impairment. Any pupil who appears to confuse colours consistently should have his/her vision checked as a matter of course, since colour deficiency may be an early indication of a more serious eye disease. The increasing use of colour in educational media makes
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heavy demands on colour-deficient pupils. What was clear in black and white may become confusing in colour. Early development is affected negatively if a child is colourdeficient, especially since at this stage adults are unlikely to be aware of the problem. A young child is frequently mocked for confusing colours, this being an area regarded as 'simple', and so the child learns to develop strategies to hide or camouflage his or her difficulties. Nobody knows what the child actually sees, so that it may be some time before the problem is identified. A class teacher who suspects that a pupil is colour-deficient should seek advice. PSYCHOLOGICAL CONCERNS Teachers should be aware of the psychological impact of visual impairment. The difficulties experienced may lead to a lack of selfconfidence and to frustration. Pupils need understanding and encouragement to participate fully in class and school activities. During adolescence, VI pupils need support and understanding in coming to terms with certain restrictions in their lives. For many, the realization that they will not be able to drive a car, for example, comes as an immense shock. TWO CASE STUDIES The main part of this chapter has necessarily focused on the practicalities and advice about identifying and responding to the needs of the visually impaired pupil in the mainstream classroom. To help the reader understand something of what such an identification and response can mean in real life, there follow two brief case studies of visually impaired children, John and Ann. The reader is asked to consider in what ways each child's difficulties might impinge upon him/her at each stage of his/her life and what actions were taken to help him/her. Case Study 1 (John) John was a lively 13-year-old, enthusiastic about most school work and activities, and a keen sportsman. Over a term, teachers began to notice some deterioration in the standard of his work: he worked more slowly, writing became larger and untidy, he often missed the lines, and he complained o tiredness when reading texts. The sports teacher was puzzled when he saw
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John, normally a good footballer, go for a ball and miss it, then bump into another player. Pupils began to call him clumsy. His English teacher, suspecting that he could not see what was written on the board clearly, had a word with him. John said simply that he did not seem to see so well and he seemed to bump into things, especially when he went out in the evening. He was upset because he had to give up riding his bicycle. The teacher acted swiftly, reporting to the SENCO and conferring with other members of staff. John's parents were consulted. Within a short time his vision was checked, he was referred to an ophthalmologist and had to undergo various tests. During this time, his vision continued to deteriorate, but he appeared relieved that the cause for his distressing difficulties had been established, and he appreciated the support he was given by the teachers. The SENCO made a referral to the Visual Impairment Service, and an assessment of visual function/efficiency was carried out. The VI Teacher was able to advise and support. The diagnosis, when it came, was not good. John had a form of retinitis pigmentosa, a primary retinal degeneration. He had already suffered a loss of peripheral vision and had problems seeing at night and in dim light. Vision was likely to continue to deteriorate, which it did. Within a year his near and distance vision were poor. He could no longer access board work, and sports like football were impossible. During this time, a Multi-Professional Assessment had been carried out and a Statement of Special Educational Needs issued. Meanwhile, strategies had been put in place to help him cope. He followed a programme in touch typing, and when he became proficient he was provided with a laptop computer with auditory facility, which he used to produce work, for taking notes, and for accessing texts. He speedily learnt to make good use of recording, with tape recorder and dictaphone. He was still able to access print, using a portable CCTV, magnifiers, and enlarged print/diagrams. John was aware that he might eventually have to rely on braille, but he felt able to cope with print. Indeed, his vision stabilized to such an extent that he was able to access print throughout his school years. He had mobility training and was able to move around the school environment independently, using a cane. With the help of the Mobility Officer, he soon mastered the route from home to school and was pleased to travel independently. Staff were assigned to support him in various classes and to prepare adapted materials for him. Specialized equipment was provided as necessary, and training given in its use. John continued to participate fully in school activities. He was a member of the choir, and became an active member of the drama club, showing considerable acting talent. A strong swimmer, he did well in swimming galas. The VI Teacher visited school frequently to advise and support, and was involved in regular review meetings. It was not easy for John
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to come to terms with the loss of his vision. The support of his classmates and the school staff was very important to him, and helped him through some difficult times. In fact, John did well, taking a good set of GCSEs before studying for A levels.
Case Study 2 (Ann) Ann had oculocutaneous albinism, an inherited condition characterized by insufficiency of the pigment melanin. She had very fair hair and fair skin, and her irises were pale blue. She had been diagnosed when she was a baby. Her near vision was relatively good, but distance vision was substantially reduced. She had a degree of nystagmus, an involuntary oscillation of the eyes. She was photophobic. She had two pairs of glasses, one of which was tinted. Throughout her school life, staff had worked in liaison with the VI Teacher, and care had been taken to meet her needs. With support, she had always coped very well and made good progress. Careful preparation and liaison of staff ensured a smooth transition to secondary school. The VI Teacher was invited to present an Inset session to the whole school staff at the beginning of the term in which she started. This was followed by discussion with staff in various departments, so that all teachers were well versed in what provision was necessary for her. Her near vision was adequate for most close work, but she found it helpful to have fairly bold print. She had to be protected from bright light, glare and reflection, as these caused her discomfort. She wore tinted glasses outdoors and sometimes opted to stay indoors during break on very sunny days. She had difficulties with board work, but found that if she sat near the board, she could generally read what was on it. Teachers often gave her an individual copy of board work. However, she could not see anything on the OHP, which was frequently used in Modern Languages. A combination of support in lessons and provision of individual copies helped to overcome the difficulties. Games where she had to track a ball through the air proved very problematic, particularly outdoors. There were usually various options on offer in sports lessons, and she was free to make a choice. Ann was a strong, determined character, with a keen sense of humour. She had a variety of interests outside school, took an active part in school activities, and thoroughly enjoyed her school years.
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Approaches to reading difficulties GEORGINA GLENNY
INTRODUCTION Most of us do not remember how we learned to read. Reading is a skill we use daily for a range of purposes and largely take for granted. A typical day may contain numerous engagements with text, for example: reference to the side of a soap-powder packet to establish the amount of soap that should be used for a particular wash; opening a bill to see whether it needs to be paid straight away; checking the diary to see what is arranged for the day; scanning a recipe to ensure we have the right ingredients for supper tonight; skimming the paper to see what happened in last night's match; monitoring the ticket machine selections as we buy a ticket for the train; reading a novel on the journey into work; taking in the billboards on the walk from the station; checking our e-mail and post on arriving at work. Some of this reading is necessary to the smooth conduct of our lives, some we do by choice. But being able to have the choice is a necessary symbol of successful adulthood in our culture. The huge variety of reading tasks listed above demonstrates the complexity of the skills we have developed and makes it difficult to clearly identify individuals with reading difficulties. The adequacy of a particular individual's skills will depend on the individual's reading needs. Thus, a reader who seems to be independent in one setting may be struggling in another. Some people find learning to read much more difficult than do other people, and adults vary enormously in the
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pleasure and interest they take in reading. For some it never becomes more than a functional necessity, whilst for others it is an enjoyable way into other worlds, concerns and areas of knowledge and experience. What level of skill do we want, or have the right to expect, for the youngsters in our care? The purpose of this chapter is to examine the ways in which secondary schoolteachers can establish the level of the reading skills of their pupils, in the contexts in which they are being taught; and, through so doing, support them in becoming more competent and confident readers in those settings. It is not the concern of this chapter to look at severe and complex reading difficulties or to examine the frequently associated problems of behaviour. The focus is on the often large minority of youngsters whose immature reading skills impede their access to the secondary school curriculum: pupils for whom the actions of the perceptive subject teacher, designing appropriate learning contexts, can make a significant difference. THE TRANSITION TO SECONDARY SCHOOL AND THE CHANGING CONTEXT FOR READING The transition from primary to secondary school is a challenge for all youngsters, representing an important rite of passage in their lives. On entering secondary school, children experience a significant change in their learning environment: they move from a culture where they are well known and where their learning needs are mediated by the intimate knowledge of their class teacher, to an environment where the onus is upon them to engage in a range of relationships with adults. These adults will have only limited and partial knowledge of them as learners. For children who have experienced success in primary school, the move to secondary school is full of new possibilities. They enter with a range of skills that will enable them to meet the challenges with which they will be presented and to cope with the substantial changes required in their personal organization and learning style.For children who are lacking confidence as learners, the experience can feel unacceptably risky and the opportunity is experienced as a threat. One of the most significant changes will be the increased reliance on the written word as a learning medium. In the primary classroom increasing independence will have been achieved with written text, but on entry into secondary school, youngsters will show variations in levels of achievement of six years, ranging from performance at the level of the average 8-year-old to that of the average 14-year-old.
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This broad spectrum of reading competence becomes more significant because of the expectations of the teachers in secondary school. There is often an assumption that reading is a skill that children will have achieved in primary school, and they will come into the secondary school knowing how to read. In some senses this is true; a tabloid newspaper is reckoned to require a reading age of between 9 and 10, a level that the majority of youngsters will have achieved. However, tabloid text is designed to be highly readable and does not have to carry the complexity of meanings required by educational texts. Functional literacy that is 'settled for' in adulthood may block educational opportunity for a youngster in school. Another significant change in the reading environment in secondary schools is the increasing exposure to a variety of non-fiction texts. Research into the development of reading of school-age youngsters (for example, Lunzer and Gardner 1979) demonstrates the very different demands made by the reading of fiction and non-fiction. Key features of fiction texts: they are generally designed to be read from start to finish; they have a plot so that the reader is able to use predictive skills; they need no introduction because they are designed to be selfcontained; they engage the reader through interest in the narrative; they are informal in structure with features that make them accessible to the reader; for example, direct speech; they are frequently read aloud so that pupils are familiar with their structure. Non-fiction on the other hand: is usually an interrupted read requiring a range of skills, such as skimming and scanning, leading to selected intensive reading; often uses technical terms whose meaning cannot be predicted; assumes a purposeful context and so requires some kind of introduction; has to rely on the interest generated by the reader having a purpose in relation to the text; is formal in style and made up of different structures that need to be understood: for example, contents, index, glossary, diagrams, captions.
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The reading activities listed at the start of this text were predominantly non-fiction requiring an interrupted read, and they closely reflect the reading tasks required of youngsters in a secondary school. It is, therefore, the support of youngsters in reading non-fiction text which will provide the focus for this chapter. THE IMPLICATIONS OF READING DIFFICULTIES Reading is a skill which goes on developing throughout our lives. It is also part of the development of language as a whole: it both feeds into and relies upon spoken and written language. Reading is an important way in which youngsters develop their vocabulary and learn about the styles and conventions of text that will ultimately provide models for their own writing. At the same time we now know that skills developed through reading have a significant impact on other areas of cognitive development. Studies of non-literate cultures (Vygotsky 1962) found that adults who had never learnt to read performed differently on tasks requiring abstract thinking from people of similar intelligence who were readers. Similarly, Donaldson (1994) has argued that the opportunity to reflect on language provided by the enduring nature of the written word has led to the development of certain kinds of systematic thought valued by our society. Reading difficulties for pupils in secondary schools are therefore very threatening to their achievement. Not only will their partial reading skills prevent them from accessing important parts of the curriculum, but they will also hamper their language development in general. They are also likely to have an impact upon the higher-order thinking processes that are so critical for successful academic achievement. It is perhaps not surprising, then, that reading is a key indicator of a youngster's perception of his or her own progress in school. When children see themselves as failing at reading, they experience this as failing as a learner, and reading difficulties are highly associated with low levels of self-esteem (Lawrence 1987). For youngsters to have proper access to their secondary education, the explicit and continuing development of their reading skills is crucial. Further, the noticeably poor readers are probably only the tip of the iceberg of youngsters who have not developed reading skills sufficient to access text without support. So how can we identify the match between the reading skills the youngsters have developed and the learning environment we provide? How do we support youngsters in developing their reading skills? And what are the roles and responsibilities of the subject teacher, the personal tutor and the
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SENCO in ensuring that needs are met? To begin to answer these questions, it is necessary to have an understanding of how reading develops and what implications this has for the teaching of reading. READING PROCESSES A task analysis of reading reveals a number of processes that underlie skill development and which can be identified as separate strategies that young readers employ. These are the orthographic processor; phonological processor; meaning processor; syntactical processor; context processor. The first of these requires an understanding of the visual conventions of print known as orthographic awareness. The reader recognizes the physical patterning and direction of sequences of text, the shapes of letters and understandings of orthographic consistency and difference; for example, whilst a, A, and a represent the same letter sound, b and d represent different letter sounds. Interpretation of these orthographic features depends on strategies for mapping speech sounds onto the visual representation of print. The reader's ability to do this is a result of phonological awareness. For example, the reader needs to understand that the flow of speech is split into units called words and that the shapes of letters are cues to a range of speech sounds. Making sense of the visual representations of these speech sounds, that is text, is dependent on understanding the meanings of words and the ways in which they are conventionally organized to create meaning together; that is, the syntax of speech and writing. The power of syntax can be seen in the following semi-nonsense comprehension exercise: There were tray gluges pittling in the mongo. The pedro was vainty and ant gluge started tofalute. The oble gluges slived the broge.
1. 2. 3. 4.
How many gluges were pittling in the mongo? What does the word 'pittling7 mean? What happened to ant gluge when the pedro was vainty? Why did ant gluge falute and the oble gluges slive?
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The fact that it is possible to answer questions 1 and 3 and to have a good guess at 2, shows the strength of the syntactical structures that underpin our understanding of spoken and written language. It also explains why students can complete comprehension exercises without understanding what they are about! Finally, the reader constructs an ongoing understanding of the text using predictive knowledge about the context in which it is embedded, gained through familiarity with the language of books, the subject matter of texts, illustrations, etc. There is a lot of ambiguity in the English language that can only be resolved through the use of context clues.
Skilled teachers draw on all these areas of reading experience to support pupils in developing their reading skills. TEACHING READING: TOP-DOWN AND BOTTOM-UP APPROACHES Reading is a complex skill, and whilst there is agreement as to the processes that make up reading, there is considerable debate about the best way to teach it. The argument has rested on the emphasis that is given to what has come to be called top-down as opposed to bottom-up approaches. The top-down approach rests on the assumption that reading is a skill like cycling or driving; that is, it is more than the sum of its parts and needs to be learnt through practice on the activity itself.
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Thus, although a safe learning environment is established and support for the learning is provided, for example when learning to cycle, balance is assisted by hapless parents or stabilizers, the learning activity is essentially the whole activity to be achieved. Similarly, driving lessons may involve brief stops to ensure understanding of the gear shift, or for tense explanations about 'why that was not the best way to take a corner7; but learning is contextualized as much as possible within the real activity. The learner is able to start lessons in the car because he or she comes to driving with considerable experience of what skilled practitioners do and how traffic in general behaves. Much of the understanding that makes us successful drivers is in place before our lessons proceed. The novice driver will know about the layout of the driving area and have a picture of what driving behaviour looks like, that cars travel on the left, that traffic is controlled by signs and traffic lights, etc. The top-down proponents of the teaching of reading argue that reading should be taught in a similar way. Prior to beginning reading, youngsters should have plenty of opportunity to see reading behaviour; for example, being read to and joining in and re-telling stories gives them opportunities to understand many of the conventions of text. As in the teaching of cycling, the adult will support only as long as it is necessary for the novice to retain the balance necessary for fluent performance. Those who argue for a bottom-up approach to reading believe that the sub-skills of the reading process need to be explicitly taught to enable children to learn to read effectively. When youngsters are introduced to text it should be simplified to allow these sub-skills to be learnt in an orderly and developmental way. This argument has been particularly strongly put in relation to children who are slow to develop their reading skills. The sub-skills with which the proponents of the bottom-up approach are usually concerned are those that involve orthographic and phonological processing. Top-down proponents have argued against two aspects of common practice in the teaching of reading. One is the breaking up of reading into a series of sub-skills that are practised independently, in particular the de-contextualized study of phonics. The second is the reduction in the authenticity of the reading task. They have been critical of the development of reading schemes that are so simplified that they no longer relate to meaningful reading activity and are frequently dreary, stilted and not good models of text for the youngster's own writing. This conflict of views has often been characterized as the 'real books debate', and in extreme forms top-down proponents have been critical
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of any use of reading schemes. This position is probably responsible for the current very healthy state of children's literature, and is not inconsistent with the use of imaginatively designed reading schemes. Perera (1993) has produced a very helpful chapter entitled 'Linguistic Aspects of the Good Book' which sets out the parameters of worthwhile and motivating reading material. There is still much debate as to the emphasis that should be placed on the specific teaching of phonics and the role of reading schemes, but research evidence points to the success of broadly based approaches for youngsters with reading difficulties (Sylva and Hurry 1995). An example of such an approach, and one that has been very influential, is Marie Clay's Reading Recovery programme. Clay's model is firmly based in a whole-language approach to the reading process; it is a 'message-gaining, problem-solving activity which increases in power and flexibility the more it is practised' (1979, p. 27). Clay takes a top-down stance and argues that support sessions should always be based on reading appropriate and engaging texts. However, this does not preclude activities that draw attention to crucial aspects of the reading process. Her teaching sessions are tightly structured to include developing a youngster's phonological and orthographic awareness, but the learning takes place within the context of working on a particular piece of text. Her concern with the problems of low self-esteem that accompany youngsters who have reading difficulties has led her to argue for intensive early intervention as soon as it is clear youngsters are falling behind their peers: this would normally be three terms after joining school. Her work raises serious questions about the long periods in primary school when youngsters will experience themselves as having reading problems. Current policy prioritizes resources for special educational needs in secondary schools, and primary schools have little additional support for the intensive intervention that Clay proposes. Without the skills and confidence to practise reading, youngsters fall further and further behind and come to feel that reading is a skill they will never achieve. Research studies have demonstrated the success of Clay's early intervention model (Clay 1993, Sylva and Hurry 1995) and current work is yielding data demonstrating that her intensive textbased strategies are also effective with older youngsters. The principles that underpin her methods provide useful guidelines for intensive one-to-one work (see Clay 1993), and with the development of training programmes for Learning Support Assistants (LSAs) are increasingly being used in secondary schools.
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IDENTIFYING NEEDS Primary teachers prepare transition documentation for youngsters, and schools will also have liaised over pupils who may have particular difficulties. At the same time, in the first few weeks after transition, the Learning Support department will normally screen the year group to identify pupils who may need help with reading or spelling. From these various sources there should be good information about pupils' basic skills. However, such data does need to be sought out and interpreted. If pupils have a clear need for support and the resources are available, then some kind of additional intervention will be set up, usually recorded by the SENCO as an Individual Education Plan (IEP). Such data would normally be collated by the personal tutor for the students in their tutor group, with support from the Learning Support department and the year head. It is then normally the responsibility of the personal tutor, in conjunction with the SENCO, to ensure that subject teachers are clear about the pupils' learning profiles. Knowledge about youngsters' reading and spelling skills is a good starting point, but may not show up problems of a particular pupil's response to a particular subject area. It will also tend to draw attention to youngsters with particular difficulties and will not necessarily identify those who are not obviously failing but still struggling. This is partly because such information is context-specific; only the subject teacher is really able to fully assess the response of a youngster to their particular subject area and learning materials. So how can the subject teacher make such an assessment? ASSESSING THE READABILITY OF TEACHING MATERIALS One method of checking on how youngsters are doing in accessing subject-based text is to check the readability levels of texts that are being used. There are a number of computer programs that enable teachers to carry out readability tests on selected texts which give scores that can be matched to the reading ages of a particular group of pupils. A more direct method of assessing teaching materials is the 100-word test: 1. 2. 3. 4.
Photocopy a typical page from a book in use. Mark out 100 words in the middle of the text to be read. Ask the youngster to read the page. Mark errors in the 100-word section (number and type) as the text is read.
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The test is scored by counting the number of words the youngsters read correctly. If they can manage 95 out of 100 or better, then this is a text they can be expected to read independently. If they manage 90 or better then they can manage the text with support, but if they get fewer than 90 correct then they are unlikely to be gaining access to the material in the text. Testing a sample of youngsters can provide a good sense of the accessibility of the materials. EXTENDING READING SKILLS Youngsters need to experience themselves achieving, and that success needs to occur where it really matters to the youngster: in the normal learning context. The subject teacher has a major role to play in supporting reading because he or she has control over what the child will regard as the real-world reading environment. Whatever improvements can be made with additional support from the Learning Support department, it is in the mainstream classroom where youngsters will monitor their own progress and feel positive about achievement. The first step in ensuring this success is to have a range of appropriate reading materials available. However, there is also a need to extend the child's reading skills, particularly in relation to non-fiction text. The models of complex skill development noted earlier can be broken down into a series of different types of activity which all provide opportunities for the subject teacher to develop reading in the context of their particular subject needs. ESTABLISHING WHAT THE READER ALREADY KNOWS As already noted, a feature of non-fiction text is the importance of coming to it with questions that need to be answered, and to continue to interact with it in a dialogic manner. Reading in the secondary school is an extension of the development of systematic thinking about a particular subject area. Thus, youngsters need to prepare themselves before reading by activating prior knowledge. There are a number of ways in which they can be helped to do this through whole class or small-group discussion, but more specifically they can be encouraged to draw brainstorming diagrams or concept maps. Concept maps involve scattering a sheet of paper with key words, ideas or processes on a particular topic, which can then be linked to demonstrate different types of connection. These provide a good focus for generating specific questions to be asked of the text.
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Non-fiction texts are engaging to us when they meet our purposes, enabling us to select and check out our own questions and previous understanding. Skimming allows us to pass quickly over text which is not relevant to our questions, scanning provides further focus for our search and directs us to the likely areas for more intensive reading. Students can identify and practise these important skills by working on old newspapers with a highlighter pen. The knowledge that skimming and scanning are not only acceptable but good reading practice is a surprise to some youngsters, which enables them to make much better use of reading time in class. Responding to text is a complex skill and so it is helpful to provide structures that enable youngsters to give a staged response to a given text. Supporting them in being clear about what they already know and what they want to find out leads them into the complex domain of note-taking. It is a common teacher complaint that youngsters 'just copy chunks out of books7 but it is rarer for teachers to teach the skills of note-taking or to recognize the complexity of the task (see Figure 9.1). What do 1 know?
What do 1 want to find out?
What did 1 learn?
Figure 9.1: A simple supporting structure. Source: after Wray and Lewis (1997)
INTERACTING WITH TEXT AND MONITORING UNDERSTANDING Non-fiction reading requires a strategic approach to text and therefore an understanding of how text works (awareness of the meaning, syntax and context processing). Activities specifically designed to achieve this are called Directed Activities Related to Texts, shortened to DARTs (Lunzer and Gardner 1984). A commonly used DART is the Cloze procedure. This is a technique based on removal of some words in the text which the reader has to
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re-create. Cloze-based activities can help youngsters to develop reading fluency and skimming skills. This is because it encourages them to read ahead and use prediction skills and therefore gives them a strategy when they meet 'difficult words' - the usual reason for fluency problems. Cloze exercises are also a good way of checking the sense that youngsters are making of text, and are much more interesting and less time-consuming than comprehension exercises. For this type of exercise, regular deletions of text need to be made (e.g. 7th or 9th word), or if a lot of specialist terms are being introduced, the removal of key words can work well. These activities are particularly valuable if they are completed in pairs so that youngsters can discuss strategies. It is, however, important to ensure that you have created a genuine problem-solving activity and not just a crude matching exercise that can be found in many commercially produced Cloze worksheets. Another form of DART is text restructuring. This involves youngsters presenting the content of a piece of text in a new way. This activity again tests understanding and can be a useful exercise to support notetaking. Text restructuring can take the form of cartoon representation, flow diagrams, concept maps, etc. MAKING SKILLS EXPLICIT It is tempting to feel that detailed work on text is the preserve of the English teacher and not of relevance in a crowded subject-teacher's curriculum. However, the connections between reading and thinking are intimate and youngsters need to be initiated into the modes of thinking of particular subject disciplines which will be reflected in the texts used by those disciplines. Raising pupils' awareness of the skills they are using is a crucial step to independence in reading. Strategy Charts (Wray and Lewis 1997) can provide useful reminders of problem-solving procedures that act as a prompt to pupils in difficulties. For example, accessing material from books requires a number of strategic decisions and youngsters frequently begin a search and then give up because they are not immediately successful. The production of a jointly constructed flow chart of procedures for a text search that is on display in the classroom can provide a prop to move pupils towards independent action.
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CRITICAL READING Another aspect of the dialogue with the text is that of positioning the author. Text is often given greater authority than spoken language and pupils need to feel confident in recognizing that it usually represents only one person's view. Teachers provide an important model of the ways in which the credibility of text can be explored, and they can explicitly demonstrate how bias can be assessed through reviewing alternative versions of events. Pupils can be supported in making their own critical decisions about text with the use of probe questions. For example: Who produced this text? Why did they write the text? What questions were they interested in answering? Would you have made different choices about what to include? HOW CAN MATERIALS BE MADE MORE ACCESSIBLE? There are two types of text that will be used in teaching: those prepared by the subject teacher or team, and those that have been commercially produced. Both types of text can be made more accessible for pupils. Vocabulary is the surest, single predictor of text difficulty and demonstrates the intimate link between language development and literacy skills. It is difficult to read words which we do not know, and a careful introduction to the vocabulary of a particular topic can be a great support to youngsters in both gaining understanding of a topic and successfully reading about it. Encouraging youngsters to use a highlighter pen on (appropriate!) text which contains new technical terms can provide focus and enable easy reference at a later date. For school-produced materials, legibility and layout can make a great deal of difference to how readable a text can be. Clear print, short line length and good spacing can all make text more accessible. Simple sentence construction without subordinate clauses will also make the writing easier to read. Icons can be used to guide the reader, for example to mark instructions in the text as distinct from informational text, and attention can be drawn to technical terms with the use of bold or italics. Illustrations can be helpful if they genuinely extend or illustrate the meaning of the text, but are often only a decorative distraction. In the latter case, it is a better use of the paper to concentrate on effective
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layout. However, using good quality photographs to extend or illustrate the content of writing can powerfully enhance the meaning of the text and provide a good focus for group discussion. Topic-related photograph banks are an extremely useful resource to ensure that simplifying texts does not mean that some youngsters receive limited content. ALTERNATIVES TO TEXT One of the major dilemmas for the teacher is the extent to which reading difficulties should be confronted, in order to develop subjectrelated reading competence, or be by-passed to maximize youngsters' access to the curriculum. The resolution of this difficulty is probably a matter of directing focus. If youngsters are required to access material through text, then it is important that they are able to do it confidently, and appropriate support needs to be provided to ensure that they are able to succeed. For key texts that would lose essential meanings through being simplified, taped versions to support the written text need to be provided. However, given the range of technological alternatives to unaided text, working through a range of media allows youngsters who struggle with text to explore ideas on an equal footing with their classmates. The use of video or tape booths to allow the reviewing of material can be particularly important for youngsters to access information that others will achieve through text. Computers are a great aid to supporting youngsters with literacy problems. The possibility of re-drafting material without copying it out again is an enormous relief for youngsters who struggle with literacy. Working on a word processor allows the re-drafting process to be staged so that focus can be concentrated on a particular aspect of the text; for example, spelling or punctuation or cohesion. In the redrafting process the youngster is reading text - in this case very motivating text - that he or she has created. ORGANIZING THE CLASSROOM What messages does the classroom bring as a learning environment? Are there spaces and opportunities for youngsters to access material through a range of technologies? If they have questions to ask, are they likely to find the answers? The motivating factor for youngsters in reading non-fiction is that they will be able to find things out. It is therefore very important that text is organized in the classroom in a
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way that allows youngsters to access it easily and for the material accessed to be of good quality. The need for texts that are clearly and simply written has already been discussed, but it is also very important that the texts are sufficiently detailed to provide answers to the questions the youngsters bring. We are inveterate communicators, and this desire to understand, to crack the code, can be used to assist youngsters in familiarizing themselves with subject-related text. As adults we can see the workings of what is called ambient print when we sit on a tube train in a foreign country. We find ourselves puzzling over the adverts to crack the cod of the foreign language in which we are immersed. The use of classroom displays supported by relevant text can provide a reminder to youngsters of the structure and meaning of technical terms and other aspects of subject-related language. Learning Support Assistants can provide invaluable help in enabling youngsters to have access to classroom resources, but will need help in understanding how you expect the classroom to be used and what levels of support you want to encourage. ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES IN SUPPORTING READING IN THE SECONDARY SCHOOL Supporting the development of reading skills has to be a team endeavour if it is to be successful. In this chapter some strategies for the subject teacher have been explored. For these to be effectively implemented, good communication systems will need to be in place. Support from LSAs will be effective to the extent that the teacher is sharing his or her expectations. Learning support departments can offer advice and help in developing materials to implement the sort of strategies discussed in this chapter. The success of these systems depends on all staff having good access to, and being able to utilize, the knowledge that the whole school has available. The learning support department can be successful in improving pupils' educational opportunities to the extent that they are helping subject teachers in supporting the children.
10 Approaches to spelling OLIVE ROBINSON
THE BACKGROUND The formal approach There have been arguments over the most successful ways of teaching spelling for at least one hundred years. Some have said that formal teaching is the only way, since it is methodical, disciplined, rule-based, involves memory training and is regularly tested. The practitioners of the formal approach frequently used the spelling list both as a means of teaching and of testing. As put into practice in many schools, it developed into a system whereby the children usually took home a list of between ten and twenty words each week and endeavoured to learn them. Then there would be a weekly test to see how well the words had been learnt. This was a method by which many were 'taught' to spell and among them were a number who responded very positively. They enjoyed the spelling tests because almost always they were placed at the top of the class each week for spelling. They were 'natural' spellers, and the list and the subsequent test contained few difficulties for them. Equally, the good spellers knew who would be among the bottom numbers in the test each week. Those unfortunates were perceived, not only by others but by themselves, as the 'lazy' ones, the 'poor learners', the ones who were 'awful at spelling' and who, for some unspecified reason, bore some kind of responsibility for their perpetual lowly position in class. It can be seen immediately that this method, if it is the sole means of 'teaching' spelling, can be a disaster. Basically, it does not teach, but it relies upon the ability and motivation of children to develop their own strategies for learning to spell. It is a system that leads to the kind of confusion about words and their spellings from which many of the adult population suffer today. As an adult literacy student once confided: 'We had to learn twenty words a week. We were tested every
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Friday and if we didn't get them right there was hell to pay. I soon started to bunk off each Friday/ It is a system that rewards those who can, and continually condemns those who can't. However, it does not mean that lists per se should be abandoned. The virtue behind this method was that it contained the seeds of a more structured visual approach to spelling. As we shall see later, if used for specific visual and writing purposes and in different ways, a list can be a spelling aid and not a disaster. This formal list method also did not work on its own because it rarely succeeded in teaching children effectively. Not only were they not given strategies for learning, but their individual difficulties were not diagnosed and catered for. In addition, the words they were given to learn were often words plucked out of the blue: words that a sizeable number of children had not met before. The relevance of the words to the children's learning in any subject, and whether or not the children had met them and used them, either orally or in writing, was barely considered, if at all. The lists were graduated: they started with simple words for the children with spelling problems in the hope that they would get them right, and became increasingly difficult in the hope of defeating the good spellers. The swing of the pendulum: incidental learning As a response to this system, others swung entirely away from the formal approach. They advocated incidental learning based on the view that children would learn as they read and extended their vocabulary. They would start to use their newly acquired words in their own written work and would thus practise their own spelling. This led in turn to written work so full of mis-spellings that at times it even became difficult to mark. Because of the general view that children would learn to spell when they discovered the need for it, there grew a perception that at certain stages of learning development and teaching, correct spelling didn't really matter. To an extent at the time that was true, since the emphasis was on creative free writing and the total product was the aim, rather than the detail contained therein. This approach was fine for the child who had the ability to spell or to learn how to spell, but disastrous for those who didn't. More recently there have been teachers who have come along this route as children, and many of them have few strategies for learning how to spell, and fewer still for teaching it.
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CURRENT APPROACHES We are aware now that correct spelling does matter, because the National Curriculum requires it, and because people are often judged by society in general to be literate by their spelling ability. It matters too because it matters to the ones who can't spell. It hinders their ability to write and communicate, and it reduces their self-image. This feeling is reinforced when their teachers, examiners or employers complain that they are slow or that their written work is careless, or both. Thus their academic work and their employment prospects can suffer unless they are given an appropriate kind of help at an appropriate time. Clearly some investigation into the more successful teaching of spelling became necessary as the need for a more widespread and complex literacy grew in the latter half of the century. With the added advantage of the development of psycholinguistic studies, some valuable research has been undertaken which has led to a better understanding of the ways in which good spelling habits can be acquired. This in turn has helped to develop a more enlightened approach to the teaching of spelling. As teachers, we must realize that we need to study in more depth how to teach spelling without simply relying upon our own experiences, even if we ourselves are good spellers. Different children have different spelling needs and require different approaches to learning. Research has cast doubt upon the theory that learning through rules makes good spellers (Sloboda 1980). Rules are rigid and do not allow for exceptions. For example, we have all learned that 'i' comes before 'e' except after 'c' and then we meet the word 'seize'. Immediately we know that this rule cannot be trusted, and to a poor speller this causes a failure of confidence which can extend to all rule-learning. Additionally, there are many poor spellers who find that learning rules and then applying them is too difficult to be of any help; rather, they could be the cause of added misery in the learning process. There is also evidence that, contrary to general belief, a good reader is not necessarily a good speller, although a poor reader is invariably a poor speller. However, good spellers do seem to be able to write fluently and with ease (Peters 1970). A recognition of the serialization of letters seems to be the answer here. Those who can appreciate visually letters that 'go together', that 'sit comfortably together', have a perceived advantage in spelling. How then can we teach spelling so as to give the majority of children we meet the opportunity to acquire good spelling habits?
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Development of strategies Let us remember our own experiences with spelling. First, we need to spell only the words we need to use in any written task we perform. Next, we need to spell only when we are writing. Therefore, spelling is a skill closely connected to the finger skill of writing. If we are uncertain about the spelling of a word, it is because we have written it down and, almost instinctively, we feel it doesn't look right and we look closely at it to make sure that it is written correctly. When we need to use a previously unknown word or one which is causing us some spelling difficulty, we look at it intently before writing it down. We then look at it again to make sure we have written it correctly and that it looks right. Therefore, spelling has something to do with looking. aa must also take into account that on looking at children's written work, we can see that most frequent spelling mistakes occur, not at the beginning or the end of the words, but in the letters in between. From the above it is clear from our own experience that the words children need to spell are those words which they use in their writing. The words will be a part of their language, their views, their perceptions and knowledge. They will also be those words which we, as teachers, require them to learn in the course of their lessons and educational development. After all, that is the way in which we ourselves use spelling, and for children there should be no difference. The involvement of teachers This presents a good argument to support the premise that every teacher should teach spelling. We should not expect the teacher of English to teach all the words a pupil of any age will need over a period of years. It is of equal importance that the teachers of Geography, the Sciences, History and all other subjects, including English, should be able to help children with appropriate spelling strategies. As different children will require different words in different subjects, it is useful for all children to keep a list of the words with which they have problems, at the back of each of their subject writing books, so that they can be written, learned and tested by the children and later checked by the teacher. The individual aim of any teacher should be to be seen as someone who cares about the spelling abilities of the children, and the general aim is to enable all children to acquire spelling strategies which will enable them to become independent spellers and learners of spelling. This might sound to be time-consuming, but if the teacher organizes a spelling session effectively, then the gradual improvement in the majority of the children's spelling is worth the time spent. And the
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time thus spent, when properly organized, need not be any more than three ten-minute sessions a week from each subject teacher. In my own experience this approach, intensive but given no time to become 'boring7, works very well, not least because of the children's pride in their own eventual progress. If a 'Literacy Hour' is organized, with certain teachers nominated to run it, a pool of required words can be collected from different subject teachers and appropriate strategies can be devised for teaching those words to children with spelling difficulties in specific time slots throughout the term. Look, cover, write We have now to consider those strategies. As we have seen previously, it would seem that good spellers have spelling at their fingertips. They can write fluently and with confidence. They know visually which letters go together. They know the probable serialization of letters within a word. They are familiar with their own language and are not frightened of it. They probably come from a background which appreciates books and reading. They have very likely been read to regularly, they have probably played word games of all kinds. They have had fun with words in a loving and enjoyable atmosphere. But we must remember there are exceptions to this rule too. As we have seen, we need to spell only when we write, but spelling is also a visual process and it also involves motivation. A good speller, if in doubt about the spelling of a word, will seek a correct source of the word and will look at it intently, with the intention of getting it right, and will then write it down. Good spellers will often say the word softly when writing it, reminding themselves of the way in which they looked at the word. Then, if necessary, they will write the word again until they are confident that they have the word at their fingertips. This approach is described as the 'look, cover, write' approach.aaaaa teach the would-be speller to look at the word with 'interest, intent and intention to reproduce a word' (Peters 1985). The next step is to cover the word and then to write it down, articulating the word if that helps. When completed, the word should be looked at: 'Does it look right?' and then checked against the original spelling. This process should be repeated until the word is written correctly two or three times and tested again the next day. The important role for the teacher here is to ensure that the child knows the difference between merely 'looking' and 'looking with intent'. The 'look, cover, write' approach is something that can be practised at all times with any kind of spelling, but there are other approaches
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that should be learned and applied first to many words. Earlier it was said that frequently it is the letters between the beginning and end of words that are mis-spelt. These letter strings often have a visual pattern that can be learned without reference to sound: the pronunciation of the words is left until after the written component has been completed and its purpose understood. It is with this approach that the list, so derided earlier, can prove to be useful. The student is required to write a letter string that forms a visual pattern in a number of words; for example: ough, augh, one. These are written in a column, several times. The letters can be articulated if it helps to remember the sequence. Later, when the eyes and the fingers are used to writing, say, 'ough', beginnings and endings of the words can be attached. Only after this stage should the words be pronounced. Stage 1
Stage 2
ough ough ough ough ough ough ough
bough bought brought though thought thorough cough and so on.
Stage 3: The words should be read aloud. The whole process should be practised over a period of time until the writing of the letter string and the reading of the completed words is fluent and reliable. In this way the mixed pronunciation of the spoken words does not interfere with the finger and eye process of learning to spell. Using the phonic approach There is, of course, a place for pronunciation within the spelling process. Children who have good phonetic skills have an advantage here, but teachers must prevent children from becoming over-reliant on phonetic spelling, and unless this is done early, damage can be done to the spelling capabilities of older children. However, it does have a place with certain categories of words. Peters (1970) found that children who were taught to read by the phonic approach alone did better at spelling than those who were taught entirely by the 'Look and Say' approach. But it is also useful to remember that, when children grow older, it is more important for them to have had access to, and to be able to use, a variety of approaches to spelling if they are ever to have the opportunity to become independent.
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Apart from the more obvious simple words, phonetics can be used with more complicated multisyllabic words. Children should be encouraged to use the words they want to use and to lose any fear they might have of longer words by breaking them into syllables. Each syllable contains a vowel and the vowel determines the spoken shape of the syllable. Each syllable then becomes easier to see, to pronounce and to spell. Bradley and Bryant (1985) endorse the value of phonic training in spelling, and phonic approaches help in this strategy; each syllable should be said as it is written and the vowel sound should be emphasized. For example: cur rent re mem ber com plex im por tant re a lis tic for mal ly This approach can be extended, introducing a visual element as well as the sound, recognizing that some whole words can be put together to make other whole words, for example: some thing under stand for give mess age over come rain coat result ant. Other words lend themselves to being split up, though here the phonetic pronunciation, if generally used, would render them unrecognizable. However, for the purposes of spelling, all is permissible. There must be many people who have consolidated the spelling of words by bizarre pronunciation inside their heads. 'Wed nes day' is one such word and there are of course others. 'Science7 pronounced 'ski ence' springs to mind, and 'main ten ance', and 'fri end'. Words within words Looking for whole words within words can help some spellers enormously. Words like 'to get her' put together make 'together'. There's
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'sin' in the middle of 'business', a 'rat' in 'apparatus' and in 'separate' while we find 'gin' in 'original' and turn in 'nocturnal'. Prefixes and suffixes Games can be played with prefixes and suffixes, which have the reassuring advantage of never changing. This can be of benefit to those who have difficulty with the doubling of letters in some words. First make a list of prefixes and another of suffixes: Prefixes S
Saaaaaaa
Waaaaaaaaaaa
pre ap sur mis re ad dis
ed ing ful ment tion ture ly
point appoint disappoint disappointment disappointing disappointingly
Choose the constant centre of the word you wish to spell (if it happens to be a whole word then so much the better) and add the appropriate prefixes and suffixes. The prefix and the suffix do not change, so in the word above you have two Ps and one S. It can be seen here how a mixture of approaches can help the speller. By pinpointing the word 'point' within the word 'disappoint', the addition of an unchanging prefix consolidates the doubling and the non-doubling of letters. This approach can lead to a discovery of new prefixes and the ways in which they are used to change the meaning of words: Some words have particular prefixes. Beginning with 1 1 1
ia
il aaa illiberal
licit illicit
r
iia
rraaaaaaa
rational irrational
irregular
legal illegal
This approach can also be used to teach those two common nuisances 'tion' and 'ture', pronounced 'shun' and 'cher'. Tracing and underlining a common syllable and finding prefixes and suffixes in a reverse method can also be useful.
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YEN: venture adventure misadventure invent invention Using appropriate strategies Strategies such as these can be utilized by the teacher who makes the connection between where the spelling 'goes wrong7 and the approach or strategy to be practised. There are, for example, commonly used words where mistakes are often made. It is not unusual to see 'hurd7, 'sum7, and the words 'there7 and 'their7 used wrongly and 'their7 spelt 'thier' as well. The word 'heard7 can be taught by looking at the word within it. Ear. We hear through our ear. We heard. We have hearing. 'Sum7, meaning 'some7. This problem can usually be overcome by getting the speller to focus on the letter strings (or family) as we have already seen, concentrating on the visual approach and not the phonetic as the speller clearly does. ome ome ome ome
home come some tome
There7, Their7 and They're7 should never be taught together: this is a recipe for confusion. There7 is a word about place: it contains the word 'here7. We say 'Come here7. We say 'Go there7. All we are doing is putting a T7 onto the front of the word. But it makes all the difference between 'here7 and 'there7. As for the confusion in the spelling; all of these words begin with 'the7. Mnemonics There are other words that will not respond to any of these approaches to spelling: words like 'necessary7, 'occasional7, 'stationery7, 'parallel7. Here mnemonics can be most useful. The word itself can be difficult: a definition designed to help the spelling is required. So we can talk of the word as a 'memory nudge7 and the spelling should become less
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of a problem. Similarly the following words contain their own 'memory nudges' as we apply mnemonics to them: 'Necessary' - 'It is necessary to have one collar but two socks'. The most frequent difficulty with this spelling has been diagnosed by the speller or the teacher as 'Is it two Cs and one S or the other way round?' 'Parallel' - 'ALL these lines are parallel'. 'Occasional' - 'I like the occasional cup of coffee with one sugar'. 'Stationery' - 'When I buy stationery, I buy envelopes'. 'Stationary' - 'I park my car at the station'. The mnemonics that work most successfully, however, are those invented by the speller. They are best remembered because they will connect with the speller's own experience and relationship with the word. The mnemonic can also be kept secret and can be quite ridiculous, but that doesn't matter if it works. Finger tracing If the speller has severe problems and needs additional stimulus, it can always be useful to encourage the student to say the word and then to 'write' or 'trace' it with an index finger on a tactile surface, such as sand, before writing it eventually on paper. This encourages the speller to look at and trace, and to hear and to trace the visual and auditory aspect of any given word. The student is thus encouraged to focus on the letters and the structure of the word and to experience the shape of letters literally 'in the finger tips'. Bradley (1981) found that this approach worked well with extremely poor spellers. She included the pronunciation of the letters as they were traced, as well as that of the whole word. She insisted on careful, sustained practice. She emphasized the importance of using words chosen by the student and not by the teacher. Skills for the teacher and the speller It is always important to remember that spelling is part of the writing system. We are only required to spell when we write. Equally important to remember is that we need to spell the words we wish to use and those are the words we should learn. Children should be encouraged to extend and develop their vocabularies safe in the knowledge that there are systematic and useful strategies to choose from which can work for them. They should understand that the
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teacher knows and applies these strategies. They should also benefit from the knowledge that the more they practise them, the better spellers they become. The teacher's role here should be one of encouragement. Too often, children have been put off trying to spell new words because of the fear of getting them wrong and getting red marks all over their written work; or, perhaps even worse, receiving a sad shake of the teacher's head accompanied by a sigh. It would be good to meet children who would use all sorts of words secure in the knowledge that they would be helped to find appropriate strategies for spelling them if the spelling was wrong. It is worth repeating that spelling habits need to be started at an early age. There are the most distressing problems apparent in some 11-year-olds when they start secondary education, and it would be such a booster for them if their problems were tackled earlier and also if they could arrive in a school that had a good secure spelling policy. Basically there are certain skills that should be taught if we are to encourage good spellers. They are the ability to focus on a word, to 'look with intent'; the ability to discriminate between words and apply different strategies; the ability to write fluently. Again, the use of 'joined-up' writing is an advantage for the development of the 'hand-eye' habit and co-ordination. The sooner letter strings are 'joined up', the earlier children will learn that these letters belong together. It can be seen that a lot of good spelling practice equates with good literacy and reading practice at an early age, and indeed if approaches to good spelling can be taught at this stage it can save some children from the pain of being hindered by spelling problems later on; and others, though burdened with serious problems, will not face the task of spelling with so much dread.
1 Developing writing skills OLIVE ROBINSON
INTRODUCTION Writing is one of the most important activities in a child's school life. The kinds of writing required are various, ranging from note-taking to summarizing; from writing-up experiments to essay-writing. They include stories, diaries, letter-writing, styles which are precise or descriptive, scientific or poetic, and can be formal or informal, and practised in or out of school. More than this, the writing is expected to be legible, grammatical, correctly spelt and well presented. Most of the time the writer is under some kind of pressure and, in examinations, there is an added pressure of limited time. Indeed, when one contemplates the number and complexity of the skills involved, it is amazing that they are mastered by so many, and used to produce works of increasingly high standards over the years. PRIMARY SCHOOLS Primary schools have an all-important role to play in the teaching of handwriting, and do a great deal to help children develop skills and creative writing which will be of immense value to them when they start secondary education and, for many, in life after school. It is at this stage that the foundations are laid for a good writing hand and a good writing structure. It is probably true to say that writing styles continue to change and develop, expand and mature all the way through life, but the love of writing and success at writing are fostered to a large extent by early experiences at primary levels. By the end of their primary school life, the aim should be to make children independent in their writing skills in order to meet what is going to be required of them at the secondary stage. But there are always those who will still be finding free writing difficult and other required styles almost impossible.
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SECONDARY LEVEL At secondary level some children can be turned off writing if it is felt to be too demanding of them. Yet the demands are there and at this stage in the curriculum they can only be modified, if at all, with difficulty. This can clearly present problems for the teacher. It has to be accepted that the demands do present individual children with problems and these will accumulate as the child goes through the school and writing demands become increasingly complex. The problems must be met and understood by all who teach the children so that appropriate writing and teaching strategies can be decided upon and implemented across the curriculum. The special needs staff are of especial help here and Learning Support Assistants (LSAs) are without doubt essential for some children in particular lessons. It is more than desirable that this realization should be part of a wholeschool approach to writing needs. Clearly, it is beneficial for children to have proper diagnosis of their problems plus the security of an established policy which covers all possible special needs, including writing, to help them right from the beginning of their life in any school. As in primary school, it is important that regular writing practice should be given to all those who need it. Too often 'writing is seen as an adjunct to other subjects, rather than something which needs to have specific time devoted to it' (Isaacson 1987). DIFFICULTIES Writing has two components which make it a peculiarly sensitive issue to the writer. The first is that it is personal, an extension of oneself and an encouraged legitimate outlet in a variety of forms for intense privately experienced imaginings, knowledge and insights. The second is that it is an academic activity which requires an audience, even if that audience is the writer only. It is particularly sad, therefore, that there should be a number of children who have quite substantial difficulties with writing. They show their immaturity not only in the creative process but also in their handwriting. The writing of some is hindered by their inability to form letters in an appropriate and speedy fashion. Frequently their writing is difficult to read, the page is often messy and the work incomplete. Some of the children have real and recognized difficulties such as poor motor control due to one or more of a number of causes, but there are others who never live up to expectation. There are slow writers and there are those who are reluctant and unmotivated: a very unhappy combination. In a survey
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of over a thousand pupils in Years 7 to 11 in her own comprehensive school, Roaf (1998) found that an average of 14 per cent wrote at speeds of 25 to 30 words per minute while 61 per cent wrote 15 to 25 words. However, an average of 25 per cent across the school had difficulty in producing speeds of 15 words or less per minute. Of these, about one-fifth were producing very little, fewer than 10 words per minute, even though they had a free choice of subject. Also, the writing of some in this category was barely legible. It is a worrying thought that this situation could be found in many schools throughout the country. FLUENCY AND LEGIBILITY The previous chapter emphasized the need for fluent writing to help successful spelling. From the above it can be seen that fluent writing with speed and efficiency is also required in the secondary school in order to cope with learning demands. The slow writer, the poor writer and the reluctant writer are all at a distinct disadvantage here. If their work is constantly incomplete or if it is so illegible that not even the writer can read it later, then they are in real trouble right from the start. If they are not given appropriate attention, the descent into failure, or its reinforcement, plus a continual erosion of confidence, might well lead to a rejection of all things educational and bring about further problems. The two main ingredients for successful writing are fluency, which helps speed, and legibility. There is not much point in writing if the writing cannot be read with ease and, as we have seen, writing always demands an audience to read the product. To develop these skills, children need to be taught basic letter formation and, at a suitable stage, 'joined-up' handwriting. Many older students welcome advice and demonstrations on how handwriting can be improved because it is seen to be a reflection of themselves on paper. 'Messy' and 'untidy' are two words that they frequently see on their books and this can somehow transform itself into a metaphorical badge that they wear. Their self-image sinks further and they foster a silent wish to produce something on paper of which they can be proud, something that will be worthy of themselves. They often practise their signatures to reinforce this wish. This can be a good starting point to begin talking about handwriting improvements.
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HANDWRITING To encourage fluent, well-formed handwriting, writers should sit in a comfortable, relaxed position. Tables and chairs should be of a height suitable for the height of the writers. They should not have to fight for a space on the table to place their papers, pens or even their arms. The writing implement should be comfortable to use, one that can be held between the thumb and forefinger, is not ill-balanced and can produce a good mark without too much pressure. Students should be encouraged not to slump over their writing but to hold their heads at a suitable distance. Papers and writing books can be placed at angles best suited to the students. This is particularly true for left-handers, who need to 'pull' the pen across the paper so that they can see what they are writing. They also need to sit on the left side of their right-handed neighbours. They should also learn to arrange this for themselves so that they are aware of what they have to do in order to improve. Letter formation Good letter formation requires a relaxed hand. Practice with letter patterns can supply this. Letter patterns are also important to use with young beginners. They will thus be led from scribble to forming patterns and then to the discipline of forming letters. The curved lines in patterns lead on naturally to joined-up writing later. Patterns can be used in a 'warm-up' session for a few minutes each day to help a relaxed hand, particularly for younger pupils. Older students often have fixed habits in the forming of letters and it is doubtful that it would be worthwhile to get them to change, especially if the form expresses something for them. However, they should be helped to improve generally, so that they can see for themselves that they can write more speedily and legibly at the same time. The teacher should encourage writing that sits nicely on the line. All descenders should be seen to drop below the line and all ascenders should be seen to be tall. Older children have often perceived the fact that joined-up writing is faster than printing and have subsequently developed their own styles. What the teacher has to do is to ensure that the preferred style is readable and well presented. To encourage readability the student should ensure that the writing does not fall too far forward or too far back and that the slants of letters are not in mixed directions. Consistency of direction should be the aim. All uprights should be parallel and words should be clearly and adequately spaced. Capital letters must be distinct and the work as a whole should be well defined with margins and clear headers and footers.
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As with spelling, this helping approach to students who have difficulties cannot be the responsibility of the special needs staff alone. The responsibilities remain with the student, and whoever is responsible for teaching that student at any one time is equally responsible for giving appropriate help. Handwriting remains a vital skill and it is a cause for concern when pupils are constantly directed to use the keyboard instead of improving their own writing. There is a proper use of keyboards but their use should never undermine an individual's capability to improve independent personal skills. Total keyboard use is a blessing only for those who cannot function without it. Even so, there are times when its use can be a great boost for any student - in the presentation of work in a professional way for example, or when used to support individuals in different ways (Sassoon 1993). Fluency in writing also includes the fluency of knowing what to say. As with the keyboard, the use of a tape recorder can be beneficial as some students with good oral skills can, for a variety of reasons, have poor handwriting. It must be frustrating to have plenty to say but to lack the skills to say it. To maintain fluency and motivation, the oral skills can be practised, but the writing skill can be given its own practice time when the tape is put away, and it should not be omitted. In the adult world, a quick scan of the handwriting of many members of the leading professions might make anyone query the need for scrupulous teaching of writing and whether it will have any effect. But it is possible that these adults were given appropriate handwriting skills and have moved on with confidence; or it may be possible that they were unfortunately of a generation that experienced the teaching of writing skills at an early age only, or incidentally in later years, if at all. What we are doing here is ensuring that our pupils are following the requirements of the National Curriculum and are being given good foundations for skill survival in their adult lives in the twentyfirst century. Understanding this, it becomes clear that for a number of pupils, constant handwriting practice for speed and legibility should be part of a general approach in most secondary schools. FEELINGS OF FAILURE A sense of failure at a task, of course, brings with it a reluctance to practise that task. In my experience of working with children and adults who were reluctant to write, I found that there were three common reasons for this lack of motivation.
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1. The inability to spell. This had the effect of making them slow and fearful. It led to many crossings out and a messy paper, which made them depressed. 2. Fear of making mistakes. Many of the students were slow in beginning to write when they were younger and always felt under pressure to 'keep up'. They therefore made mistakes. This in turn had led to overmarked work, and their writing books were returned decorated with much red ink. Consequently, they became over-careful and plodded through their writing word by word, losing sight of what they were meant to be communicating and thinking only of the possibility of mistakes. Usually the mistakes remained, as the writers were given no strategies to deal with them. A few gave up altogether trying to put anything of any sense on paper, pretending that they did not care. 3. A perceived inability to express themselves on paper. This, I discovered, was due to a variety of causes which included specific learning difficulties, hyperactivity, lack of concentration, and short-term memory difficulties. Mostly however, there were problems associated with language. A majority of the group had a very poor language background and a severely limited vocabulary. Accompanying this was a perception of the power of words used by authority in all its forms and a subsequent feeling of powerlessness. Fear of getting things wrong or being made to look foolish made them reluctant to write and were expressed as 'I don't know what to say' and T don't know how to say that anyway'. The feeling generally was one of hopelessness. The over-riding need was for a measure of success. SKILLS REQUIRED FOR EXPRESSIVE AND INFORMATIVE WRITING If students are to have a degree of success in writing for any teacher in any subject, they need to understand and keep in mind that the writing is for an audience. The teacher should make clear that one of the purposes of writing is to communicate. It can be for others to read as in an examination, or as letters, etc., or it can be for the writer to read later for revision purposes. It can only be beneficial if the teacher then rehearses this fact and supplies an audience from time to time apart from him/herself. First, questions are necessary. 'What am I writing about?' and 'Who is going to read my writing?' Children could write letters to relations and to friends. Their reports on visits could be displayed for anyone
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to read. One group could write on a certain aspect of a book or a play to exchange with another group writing from a different angle. Criticisms of plays or television programmes or just a straightforward production of a group magazine is useful. Most of these activities are practised anyway, and there are many other strategies that creative teachers use, but it is not always clear to the writers that their work is noted by anyone other than their teachers. For this reason a feedback system can be helpful. Other classes, or groups within a class, governors and parents could all play a part in this. It would all depend on the nature of the writing and the occasion. It is important here to organize a feedback system that is positive and encouraging as well as being accurate. This is necessary for all writers, but especially so for those who have difficulties of any kind. Writing should also have a purpose, which is to convey something about the subject matter. The writer should understand the purpose clearly before setting out to write. Writing has to be sequential and in an appropriate order so that it can be understood by its audience. This means that writing has to be organized so that it displays a knowledge of what the subject matter is and what needs to be said about it. Writing is language, and this is perhaps the most important aspect. THE VALUE OF TALK Beginner writers, and those with learning difficulties, do not often make a connection between the spoken and the written word (Simmons 1988). If you cannot express yourself on paper and do not read, it is not easy to understand the significance of printed language. The power of manipulative spoken language however, and the power of speech and its authoritative use, has great significance. It is difficult for teachers to convince some children that they too can become people who speak and write language. Simmons writes about the use of tape recorders that can be talked into, then listened to and, with discussion, the talk is finally knocked into shape for transcribing. This requires a lot of support and it is in areas like this that the work of an LSA is vital. RELUCTANT WRITERS Other reluctant writers, when given a writing task, find difficulty in recalling sequences and appropriate language. Approaching these twin problems, the teacher can do a great deal to help achievement by
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setting aside some time for discussion. This can retrace the theme of the writing and can use again the words that will be needed. They can be written and copied and the meaning of the words can be discussed, so that all children are given the opportunity to learn and extend their vocabularies in a purposeful way. This activity is useful not only in English classes but in all other subject areas, such as science, where a specialist vocabulary has to be assimilated and used. Similarly, quotations from a currently used text can be a memory prompt when writing later, and can serve to establish links between heard and written language. A desirable level for children with problems is nicely expressed by Westwood (1993): 'What I know about I can talk about. What I can talk about someone can help me to write. What I have written I can read/ Thomas (1997), researching the French approach to writing skills, found that the teaching of writing was considered more demanding than reading and therefore took precedence over it, starting at a very early age and continuing until about 8 or 9 years. 'In France ... handwriting, particularly flowing, joined-up handwriting, is considered fundamental, a physical skill that, once mastered, unlocks the mind/ In using the skills of sequencing and organizing a piece of writing, students initially need time and help from the teacher. The aim, however, is to enable as many students as possible to become independent writers, aware of the needs of the task, aware, too, of how to tackle communication on paper, and aware, above all, of how to organize it. If forms of preparation for writing were utilized by all teachers across the school, then these forms would be perceived by the writers as concomitant skills and their use could only improve the final product. ORGANIZING SKILLS There is no doubt that the teaching of writing presents problems. For many reluctant writers and children with learning difficulties, it is a physical task which can be very tiring, and it is always a demanding mental and linguistic task. It is not easy to enjoy an activity that places such burdens upon not-very-broad shoulders. There have been many attempts to make the process more successful for such students and thus more enjoyable As long ago as 1975, Clay advocated starting children writing before they had learned to read, inventing their own spellings as they went along. The advent of word processors brought confidence and a new skill to many. Lewis and Doorlag (1991) found that, among other things, word processing appears to be of greatest
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value to those who write very little on paper, and to those who have the most severe spelling problems. But Loughrey (in Westwood 1993) found that students generally are more motivated when working at the keyboard and are active throughout the lesson. Seeking and achieving success, in no matter how small a measure, is the key to enjoyment or, at the least, to willingness to participate in this essential writing activity. The growing use of computers in schools has brought other frameworks for writing. There are the possibilities for note-taking, and for generating 'outlines' to organize thinking around specific areas of writing. Handling text through the 'outline' facility on a computer enables the writer to organize ideas and thoughts under appropriate headings and focuses the attention of the writer on the structure and ingredients necessary for descriptive writing and storymaking. The possibility of publishing in a professional way will make a significant difference to motivation. The possible extension of the use of outlines to other areas of the curriculum could do much to improve writing skills of many kinds. On paper, 'writing frames' (Lewis and Wray 1998) perform a similar function. Here, the purpose of the structure is established: an explanation genre; a persuasion genre; a genre for procedure and another for recounting and so on. Papers are divided into frames and each frame contains a prompt which clarifies for the users the ways they should go when thinking of certain language uses. One of the persuasion papers uses the following prompts: Although not everybody would agree, I want to argue that I have . . . reasons for arguing this . . . view. The first is A further reason is and so on to the last frame which states: I think I have shown that It can be seen that writing frames demand a level of sophistication in preparation and setting up, and therefore at first quite a high teacher input. As the initial vocabulary does not come from the writer, there might be a difficulty in passing the structures from teacher to student for independent use. Indeed, as writers become more competent in their use, they might well become more dependent on them and so might the teacher. However, they are excellent in their capacity to focus the attention of writers on the important issues of a wide variety of writing tasks; and for children at primary school level to recognize and use appropriate writing registers is progress of a significant kind.
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Their use, it is important to add, cannot extend to, or satisfactorily replace, creative writing. They are commendably diverse in their use for other kinds of writing but perhaps could be seen as a hindrance to the creative process. A WORKING MODEL? For creative work, it is practical to think of a process where students are asked to use their own ideas around a given theme and to have the important element - time - in considering what and what not to include. This model can best be described as a 'bubble' model, which is not a bad descriptive name as it relies upon a kind of 'brainstorming' (see Figure 10.1). Its advantage is that the words, ideas and questions come from the individual and from the individual's creative and imaginative reactions. It is a personal and private model. If
Figure 10.1: The bubble model
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necessary it can be jotted down on any scrap of paper at any time in any place. At first, it requires guidance from the teacher, and practice. Some children will need constant help, as they would with all their work. But this approach can be used independently and in group or class work with success. First, the title of the writing has to be placed in a frame in the centre of the page. Then all the ideas that one has about the theme are put into bubbles around the rest of the page. As the ideas start to come, decisions can be taken about whether they already link with some of the ideas already stated. If they do, they are placed within the same bubble; if they do not, they go into a new separate bubble. Finally, two bubbles are placed, one above the title and one below it. The one above is for the introductory paragraph and the one below for the conclusion. The emphasis is on getting all ideas down. There should be no worries about spelling or neatness: at this stage they do not matter. It is all written in the rough notebooks of each student, privately and for themselves alone. An offshoot of this is the realization that their own writing has to be legible so that they can read it with ease later on. When all the ideas (or subtitles) have been placed they should be studied very carefully and the writer should ask two questions: Ts there anything else to put in?' and 'Is there anything I should take out?' It should be made plain that this is the stage for final decisions about what is to be in the writing. Things that are seen to be irrelevant can be crossed out together with those that have been repeated. This activity should eliminate last thoughts and hasty additions in the written work, and the presence of a concluding paragraph will ensure a properly finished item. Paragraphing is very difficult to teach to students with learning or language difficulties. I have met a number of adult literacy students whose language experience and general learning background was so poor in their teens that it has been only in adulthood that they have recognized in themselves a need for education and a desire to learn. So few were their own resources in school, and while growing up, that they have been left utterly reliant, for organizing their learning and their writing, on what they perceived to be required of them. I have consequently had students in their 30s and 40s come to me saying 'I never could grasp what went into paragraphs. How many should there be on a page?' Another asked 'How many lines should I write in a paragraph?' The 'bubble model' may well have a way of dealing with these questions. When the writers are satisfied that all that can be included is written
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and placed in the 'bubbles' on the paper before them, they must then turn their attention to the order they should use when writing the contents of the bubbles fully. The first is the introductory bubble and its contents should have been fully discussed with the teacher before its transfer to prose. Then the ideas in the other bubbles are placed in an order for writing and they are numbered. Sometimes a bubble contains subsidiary thoughts that belong to the main idea already in the bubble. All of these supporting ideas can be put together and given a number, so that a bubble then contains two and sometimes three numbers. When all the contents of the 'bubbles' have been numbered it can be noted that not only the order for writing has been planned but the paragraphing has also been decided. Each numbered idea or group of ideas is filled out in writing to become a paragraph. The entire model is also useful for note-taking and can advantageously be adopted by anyone at any stage of learning. The chart, having been made and organized, the writing can start. It is important for the teacher to understand the difficulties some experience in producing this work, and at the same time they should try and encourage success. In the adult world it is very unlikely that work would be written immediately as a best effort and handed in. It is always better and more successful to produce a rough draft first. Children and students respond to this quite well and can be shown how to use the rough draft as a rehearsal. They can then be their own 'first markers', ensuring the paragraphs are properly shown and that mistakes of either the grammatical or spelling kind are corrected to the best of their ability. Only after these things are completed should a fair copy be made and handed in. The teacher will still have a fair amount of marking to do, but the fact that the writer is the first marker can promote a very effective learning structure for both teacher and student. The mistakes that the first markers correct are those that they recognize; those that they leave for the teacher are unrecognized and the correction has to be learnt. It is a useful diagnostic exercise. It should be clear that, whatever structural model is used, there should be effective teacher guidance; there should be effective use of talk, together with a written vocabulary of required words; and a realization that all the work that goes into writing is done before the fair copy is made. The fair copy should be just what its name describes. SENTENCE WRITERS Many children with learning difficulties will need to start by writing just a few sentences. Indeed there will be some who will find it difficult
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to go beyond this stage and they will need some support in whatever class they happen to be. It is important therefore that they should experience success, so that the way will be clear for them to make progress. They must know that they are writing for an audience. It is necessary to talk about a topic. They can be left with a tape recorder so that when the teacher or LSA returns, a transcript can be made of what is recorded. But it is preferable to sit and talk so that personal reactions can be seized upon and written down should the student wish. Sometimes the writer needs a prompt. If the theme is to be 'How I spend my free time', the prompt can be in the form of a question: Q. What did you do last night? A. Well, me and my mates like went to this disco in um that place you know the one in um the High Street no in um Castle Street. This should be written down and read back to the student. It will be recognized as inappropriate language in an inappropriate form for writing down and presenting to someone else. It therefore has to be discussed and a more suitable style found. All points made by the writer in the course of the discussion should be written down and talked about, as every one of the points is a move forward and should be taken seriously. Eventually the following is written: Last night, I went to a disco with some of my friends. The disco was held in Jubilee Hall in Castle Street. Two sentences have emerged in a structure of which the writer approves and to which he or she has to a large part contributed. The use of capital letters and full stops has been demonstrated and the business of communication has been achieved. From this point, the writer can move on, albeit sometimes slowly, to composing four or more consecutive sentences and the road to independence has started. The playing of sequencing games can also help slower writers understand the need for planning a piece of work. THE TEACHER The role of the teacher is reinforced when an understanding of the needs of a wide range of writers is developed. Although children are expected to reach certain levels by certain ages, it is always bad practice to judge a pupil's output by his or her age. It is far better to diagnose the difficulties children are experiencing and to start with
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appropriate resources and properly trained staff and helpers from that point. In this way true and lasting progress is made. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT My sincere thanks are due to the Headmaster and the Head of English of Wheatley Church of England (Controlled) Primary School, Oxfordshire, and to Jack, Jade, Ellie, Sophie, Harry and Josh for their generous help to me.
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Numeracy: problems and strategies BRENDA STEVENS
BACKGROUND 'I remember a teacher telling me that "x" was 2. I kept giving this answer for "x" but it was hardly ever right/ This quotation was from a sixth-form student who subsequently overcame this misconception with V and went on to achieve an upper second in Economics. Fear of, or problems in, numeracy, are not restricted to the few individuals considered to have general learning difficulties. When addressing large groups of graduate trainee teachers it is common for well over half to freely admit that they have experienced many fears and concerns with numeracy and mathematics, either at school or beyond. Not surprisingly then, many trainee teachers do not necessarily relish the idea of being involved with developing numeracy for future generations. Even graduate mathematicians can leave university realizing that there is much they have not understood within their degree course, and feel they have their own special needs. Nationally there continues to be a shortage of mathematicians. It remains unfashionable to be good at mathematics. The approaches to remedying the problems of the generally least able are often equally applicable to anyone who, whilst considered able in other areas, is experiencing mathematical difficulties. Indeed, the teachers who have overcome, but remember, their own earlier fears can do much to develop the mathematics of pupils. Teachers who remember the panic that can occur when learning mathematics, or the resulting fears of feeling stupid because some people found mathematics easy, can bring a patience and understanding to teaching that is really valuable. Their own fears and misconceptions may well exist within their classes. Addressing the difficulties through a subject in which pupils have confidence can be enormously helpful. Problems often arise outside the mathematics classroom, and the remedies
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should not only be the responsibility of mathematics teachers. When pupils transfer their mathematical skills and strategies across the curriculum, then they really are becoming numerate. This chapter aims to show how all teachers have an important part to play in meeting the special mathematical needs of the pupils in their care. WHAT IS NUMERACY? WHY DO PUPILS NEED TO BE NUMERATE? The National Numeracy Strategy (DfEE 1999) describes numeracy as a proficiency that involves confidence and competence with numbers and measures. It states not only that pupils need the computational skills, but that they must also have the inclination and ability to solve number problems in a variety of contexts. When working with Postgraduate Certificate in Education (PGCE) students I asked them to define 'numeracy7. Many thought it was simply the basic skills such as 'adding up' or 'dividing'. Only a few included 'the use of numbers and their applications to different problems'. Numerate pupils will be confident enough to tackle problems, i.e. feel empowered to work out what mathematical skill is needed for a problem without expecting to be told. This is far more than simply knowing the four rules (operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication and division). It is so often the lack of confidence that causes fear of numeracy in both children and adults resulting in underachievement in mathematics. We may be able to do the calculations but we do not recognize when it will help in the problem. Panic must be overcome if the barriers to mathematics are to be broken down. Central skills necessary for confidence in adult life include a sense of size and value of number, ability to estimate and understand units of measure, and ability to interpret the information which others present to them in graph, chart or table form. If pupils and adults are numerate then it empowers them to manage the adult world. For example, when shopping they will know when they are getting value for money, or are receiving the quantities they have ordered. They will understand the likelihood of gaining from the Lottery, and can make judgements with risks they are taking related to their health or safety. Is it worth the risk to eat beef, have unprotected sex or cross the road? How do they decide about taking actions over environmental issues or deciding on investment or insurance policies? These underlying skills are needed in many subjects. All teachers can play an important part in reducing the problems of
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numeracy, not least by giving pupils time to make sense of mathematical situations within their subject areas. Opportunities for mathematical debate arise in many subject areas when the contexts are real, but can often be missed because teachers gloss over the mathematics involved. Too often, in lessons, understanding is assumed, or the teacher's own lack of confidence prevents the data being explored enough to offer insight for the pupil. Such problems are not restricted to the less able, and are perhaps all the more serious for this. In a geography article by Davidson et al. (1998), an example from a geography textbook was taken using 'soil erosion'. Rates for soil erosion were given but the pupils did not have the opportunity to use and develop their numeracy. Pupils were asked to read off the rate for a particular plot from the table. Most pupils gave the correct answer of '0.01 tonnes per hectare per year'. They had this skill, but were they able to conceptualize the compound measures or the environmental issues? For this, pupils needed to understand and be able to estimate decimals, tonnes, hectares, rate of change, and soil erosion. The environmental issue was surely whether the erosion was serious or not. This was not questioned. When some trainee geography teachers were questioned, they were unsure of hectares, tonnes and kilogrammes. They improved their image by discussing the units and rates and made a scale model using soil in a tray. The depth of soil was measured. The trainees could then begin to discuss soil erosion as an environmental issue. As this example indicates, without numeracy, pupils are not empowered to take control of decision-making, problem-solving or analysis of a range of issues affecting them. Without such confidence, a person is vulnerable and has a special mathematical need. WHAT ARE THE INDICATORS THAT PUPILS ARE EXPERIENCING PROBLEMS IN NUMERACY? Some of the things pupils do and say in the classroom can reveal to the teacher that the pupils may be experiencing mathematical problems. The sorts of things that pupils might say are: 'Just tell me what to do.' 'What's 6 times 8 Miss?' 'I've forgotten what to do after I've borrowed one/ 'Why doesn't it say that it's division?' 'Is it an add, Miss?' 'I'm bored/not interested.'
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Behavioural signs might be: looking out of the window, copying out the question, disruptive behaviour, or copying from a friend without any understanding. Words and actions such as these indicate that the pupils are not empowered to use their own mathematical ability. They are switched off, or too panicked to think things through. It is this fear or panic that can disable pupils from thinking mathematically. Pupils increasingly make demands on teachers to help which, if they go unheeded, lead to disruption or increased insecurity. Some needs arise as a result of partial sensory impairment. The tone of the phrases used by pupils and teachers can make each other feel negative, but careful responses are needed if the pupils' views on mathematics are to change. It is easy to respond sharply to the pupil, or tell them 'the answer'. Neither response supports the long-term progress of the pupil. Rogers (1991) talks about the importance of recognizing the prime cause of these disruptions. When a teacher recognizes that pupils are struggling, it is important that the objective is to help them to help themselves and not to focus on the behaviour. Haylock (1991) identifies mathematics anxiety, social problems, reading, language and perceptual problems as indications. Teachers display their own fears, perhaps by avoiding discussion of interpretation (as in the previous geography example). They may also impose their own methods on pupils rather than exploring how the pupils have been thinking or have been taught their mathematics. WHAT IS THE NATURE OF MATHEMATICS? WHICH ASPECTS MAKE IT THREATENING OR EMPOWERING? It is possible to find evidence from very early reports that problems in numeracy are not new. The view that mathematics is right or wrong results in an overt sense of success or failure. Haylock (1991) identifies an over-emphasis in manipulating symbols and algorithms, meaningless routines, disembedded tasks, purposeless activities, and going too fast too soon. These all contribute to mathematics becoming a mystifying experience. He adds that misguided use of mathematics schemes, textbooks and teaching approaches can readily add to the problems. As an example, repeating twenty similar examples calculating the areas of triangles can improve the speed at which pupils can do this, but does little to increase understanding of the concepts of area or triangles. For this, pupils need opportunities to recognize when these skills can be usefully applied.
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Her Majesty's Inspectorate (HMI 1987) identified a number of objectives for mathematics teaching which have been categorized into five areas: facts, skills, concepts, strategies and personal qualities. These require different approaches to learning. • Facts: for example, names and conventions need to be learned. A name, such as dodecahedron, has to be remembered and associated with a correct shape. • Skills: for example, measuring, and calculations without a calculator must be practised and consolidated if pupils are to reach a required level of confidence and efficiency. Facts and skills are relatively easy to teach and equally easy to forget. Many teachers will identify with this as they struggle to develop their ICT skills, and forget them if they are not practised. Forgotten facts and skills such as names, symbols, language and conventions soon lead to frustration, embarrassment and failure. A few minutes of oral or mental work built regularly into lessons are useful in maintaining confidence and efficiency. • Concepts lie at the heart of mathematical understanding. When a pupil has understood a concept - for example what constitutes a triangle - then he/she is empowered to tackle problems related to that concept. It is the sense of what is common to all triangles that is important. It is a normal experience that when groups of trainee teachers are asked to draw a triangle, they invariably draw:
This is valid of course, but it is a sobering thought that Hart (1981) found that only 51 per cent of 11-year-old pupils recognized the diagram below as a triangle:
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How can this be? We come to the concept of a triangle by seeing many three-sided shapes and recognizing the common properties. If this seems at all difficult, it is worth reflecting upon how young children learn to recognize a dog. They will have seen many dogs of all shapes, sizes, amounts of hair, range of barks, tails etc. These images give them the overall concept of a dog without any formal teaching. Surely it can only be lack of experience that prevents 11- year-olds from recognizing a triangle. The differences between the two triangles pictured above are significantly less than those between a poodle and an alsation. The approach to teaching concepts lies in offering sufficiently different experiences for spotting pattern, generalization or common properties. The dog was not conceptualized from always seeing the same dog or by giving a definition of a dog, the approach much used to teach the triangle. From research findings Askew and William (1995) state that, 'Careful choice of examples improves children's concept formation. The ideal examples to use in teaching are "only just" examples and the ideal non-examples are those that are very nearly examples/ Strategies, such as trial and adjustment and being systematic, like concepts, are more complex to teach. Pupils who are able to select and apply appropriate strategies are confident to solve problems, both within and beyond mathematics. Effective teaching offers pupils opportunities to experience appropriate contexts in which to develop their range of strategies and concepts. If these opportunities are insufficient, then pupils are left with half-understood concepts or are insecure in selecting skills and strategies with which to solve problems. Misunderstanding of concepts and the inability to use strategies leads to bewilderment and panic when tackling problems. Once concepts and strategies become a genuine part of the pupils' autonomy, the reliance on memory and learning meaningless routines is reduced. Pupils can fall back onto their conceptual understanding and development of their own methods. In summary, facts must be memorized and skills practised, and are used in routine knowledge and calculation. Concepts and strategies must be experienced and analysed in a variety of contexts over time. They take time to learn but, once established, empower pupils to use mathematics to understand, explore and solve problems. Whilst concepts and strategies remain in developmental stages the opportunities for misconceptions and lack of confidence to tackle problems can readily emerge.
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A further dimension to the issue relates to identifying personal qualities among mathematical objectives and HMI (1987) highlighted the importance of pupils' attitudes to mathematics. Additionally, it is worth reflecting on the implications for the development of a positive classroom climate that a teacher can offer pupils. This topic is considered by Kyriacou (1991) and Rogers (1991). In addition to understanding the nature of mathematics, it is also fascinating to study the psychology of learning mathematics. Effective teachers will understand the psychology of learning and recognize the needs and the preferred methods of learning of pupils and take these into account when planning to teach. SOME CAUSES OF PROBLEMS IN NUMERACY AND SOME STRATEGIES FOR TACKLING THEM There has been a great deal of research, including that by the Assessment of Performance Unit (APU) (1983), Hart (1991), and Keys et al (1996) into common misconceptions in mathematics. In brief, APU researched performances for 11- and 15-year-olds in mathematics. Hart (1991) researched a number of mathematical topics and gave descriptions of the methods pupils used to solve problems at different levels of difficulty. Both these studies are within the UK, whilst Keys et al. (1996) is an international comparison of Year 9 pupils from over 40 countries and on topics in both mathematics and science. Teachers need to be able to identify the nature of the mathematical difficulties that may arise, and have a range of strategies to overcome them. This next section looks at some of the common pitfalls which may arise across the curriculum. The Language of Mathematics Language poses a range of problems that can stand between learners and their mathematics. Pupils may not understand the words, the symbols, the grammar, or be able to pick out the mathematics within the problem. The required skills may well be known but the language creates barriers to applying them. Some of these problem areas are now considered. Double meanings A number of words have precise mathematical meaning but also carry with them another, more common understanding. For example, the word Volume' may suggest sound levels to pupils and leave them
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temporarily confused, while the teacher discusses how much space an object is taking up. At another level the difference between volume and capacity remains confused in everyday language. (Most bottles are labelled with their volume, when more precisely this is their capacity, or quantity the bottle holds. The volume is strictly the quantity of material that the bottle constitutes.) Other words such as 'even7, 'regular', 'similar', 'average', 'digit', 'face', 'prime', hold similar pitfalls. The language of subtraction is, in itself, immensely varied. The words 'difference', 'take-away', 'greater', 'less than', 'more than', 'borrowing', 'shorter', 'longer' add additional complexity to the concept of subtraction. In cases such as these the language may be deflecting pupils from the mathematics they can in fact do. What is needed is enough interactions between pupils and teachers to ensure that they consider the range of meanings and realize the intended mathematical interpretation of the situation. Misunderstandings can also stem from questions that have alternative interpretations. Consider the following question that was given to Year 7 pupils: 'What is the difference between 24 and 9?' Here are some of the answers: 1. 2. 3. 4.
'One is a square number, the other isn't.' 'One is odd and the other is even.' 'One has two digits, the other has one.' '15.'
All these answers are valid, though only (4) uses 'difference' with its most precise mathematical meaning. If the other three are rejected, however, a sense of confusion, failure or resentment may occur, especially when in another situation their answer would have been praised. Discussion can draw out how the context should help the pupil to recognize the intended meaning. Mathematical grammar and the use of symbols and connections 3x + 2 = 14
n =k Z(2n -1) = k2 n=1
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To a mathematician these are sentences offering insight into mathematics. The grammar has rules, the meaning of the symbols is precise and universal. Conventions such as place value and use of brackets can easily muddy the waters for pupils. The underlying mathematical ideas can be reached with more concrete materials, images and more familiar language. Mathematical language is powerful, not least because it is concise and unambiguous. However, this is of little use if it cannot be understood. For many, the barrier is only too obvious. In the first example the same mathematical principles could be reached with the teacher offering the following scenario: T have a number in my head. I have multiplied it by 3 and added 2. The number is now 14. What was my original number?' The pupils who can respond to this understand the concept of equations, and deserve to feel confident in their ability to solve equations. It is a refining process to develop mathematical language, conventions and symbols in order to interpret them algebraically. Many pupils can derive the result for the second example (see Figure 12.1) long before they can interpret the formula. The principles used to teach language, grammar and literature can be used to give confidence to pupils in mathematical interpretation, and in developing conciseness.
Figure 12.1 shows: 3
Pupils working with Multilink can make a number of squares (Figure 12.1) and notice that:
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and from this pattern predict that 'the odd numbers add together to make a square number'. Such pupils are confident in accessing the mathematical ideas behind the formula and summarizing them in everyday language. The virtue of the conciseness of the formula is the demon which can prevent the mathematics being accessed. Keys et al. (1996) found that pupils7 performance in number and algebra generally fell short of expectation, suggesting the importance of evaluating what pupils have learnt and understood before going any further. In practice, algebra should be used as a language that describes a mathematical situation. If it is used too early it is like asking a pupil to read in a language not yet studied. It does not mean the pupils cannot read. Reading ability and comprehension A class was asked to draw an acute angle. This produced: One of these!
and many of these
APU (1983) in their study found that 90 per cent of 11-year-olds could 'calculate 50 x 2', but only 61 per cent could find 'What number is five times as big as 20?' 73 per cent correctly responded with £1.35 to '£2.70 is equally divided between two children. How much does each get?', whereas only 27 per cent could answer with 1.35 to '2.7 metres of cloth is needed to make two tablecloths. Both tablecloths are the same size. How much cloth is needed to make one tablecloth?' The more complex language, 2.70 compared to 2.7, or the different contexts may each
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have added to the difficulty. Pupils need to be able to interpret and apply their mathematical skills to non-mathematical situations. This is at the heart of numeracy. Pupils can feel unnecessarily frustrated and have a sense of failure when the only real problem may be the language that is a barrier to the mathematics. Teachers can help enormously by encouraging pupils to put the question into their own words. Pupils listening to the language of their peers are more likely to make sense of the question. This can work well in co-operative small groups, which, as Askew and William (1995) report, has positive effects on pupil achievement. Recording mathematics Pupils can often 'see an idea' before they can say 'say it in words' and before they can 'write it in words'. Precise mathematical use of symbols, words and conventions is a more sophisticated skill. Teachers can help pupils by hearing their half-developed thoughts and helping them to develop their language from this. Teachers often insist on mathematics being presented in very precise ways. This may then conflict with the way a pupil is thinking. For example, in subtracting 98 from 136, a pupil, when describing his mental calculation said, '98 to 100 is 2, so the answer is 38' but when previously asked to record it initially he wrote: 98, -136
changed it to 136 and then ended up with 136 -98 -98 162
which he knew was wrong. The Numeracy Strategy (DfEE 1999) is encouraging such mental methods to be developed from the pupils' understanding. Similarly, the child who, with Multilink, had found that the sum of odd numbers is a square number needed further support in order to write down his findings in words. Pupils for whom English is a second language There are pupils who struggle with language, but are potentially good mathematicians. Extreme examples might be, say, newly arrived foreign students whose mathematics is good. If these pupils are given their mathematics with few words but with appropriate practical or visual resources, they can do much to continue to develop their mathematical ideas while their second language is developing.
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Visually impaired or hearing-impaired pupils may also benefit from such an approach. Interpreting graphs, tables and sophisticated data
The worlds of advertising, politics, science, holiday brochures and the environment all use graphs and data to persuade the public of 'the truth'. As Disraeli reputedly said, There are lies, damned lies, and statistics/ If pupils and adults are to make sense of the data, then the principal skill required is interpretation. Teachers have a moral duty to help pupils to recognize biased presentations. Any adult unable to recognize misleading data surely has a special need. Research by APU (1983), Hart (1981) and Lenton and Stevens (1999) suggests that when pupils, and even some graduates, are faced with graphs such as those in Figure 12.2, misconceptions often emerge: (a) has been (incorrectly) described as climbing a hill, walking along the top, and going down again, and (b) as travelling NE, North and then NW. Distance
4 (a)
(b)
Time
Time
Figure 12.2: Misconceptions often arise from interpretation of these graphs
Emphasis is often placed on teaching pupils to draw graphs. Computers are available to handle and present data in a range of ways, so teachers should now have more time to offer to discuss the meaning of the data. Discussion gives confidence to interpret statistical graphs. It is useful to ask small groups of pupils to make up stories, commentaries or debates from graphs. As a result of this approach to interpreting graphs the need to label graphs, units, examine scales, origins, and axes becomes clearer.
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Unstable Truths and Misconceptions 'When you multiply by 10 you just add a nought/ 'Multiplying makes the answer bigger/ 'You can't take 8 from 6/ 'A fraction is less than a whole' or 'You can't have more than 100 per cent/
(a)
(b)
(c)
'a is not parallel to c because b is in the way/ '0.7,0.8, 0.9, . . . The next number is 0.10.' '0.345 is smaller than 0.34 because it has thousandths in it, and thousandths are smaller than hundredths/ Most of the above statements are partially true, sometimes true, or have elements of truth in them. Holding such views can prevent mathematical development or, at least, create temporary confusion. Once held, some ideas are hard to shift; consider how long it took to undo the idea that the world was flat. Drawing conflicting ideas from the class can help develop pupils' understanding. '0.345 is bigger than 0.34 because it has more thousandths in it' conflicts with the statement at the beginning of the section. Ideas can be debated, practical resources used to demonstrate beliefs, or calculators used as evidence until the dispute is fully resolved. The teacher's role in this situation becomes that of referee. Askew and William (1995) suggest that 'Learning is more effective when common misconceptions are checked, exposed and discussed in teaching/ Such discussions can also develop reasoning and proof, which are fundamental to the joy of mathematics. Scientists use constructivism to improve pupils' understanding. If constructs or concepts are to be understood, experiences need to be offered to the pupil from which they can dismiss any partially or wrongly held ideas. Half-truths often emerge, unwittingly, from the early levels of mathematics when an idea was taken as fact because it was derived from too few experiences or examples. In the example given, thousandths are smaller than hundredths, but that is only part of the story.
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Misconceptions can begin from an early age. A boy arrived at school, aged four and a half years, his parents saying that he was able to count. He could recite his numbers, but when asked to count a number of objects he said:
'one two three four five six
se
ven eight nine ten
e
lev
en'
He was clearly matching a syllable with a number. Another child, when adding any two numbers together, gave the answer "2!. When she was asked to give '3 + 4' bricks, she counted to three bricks and picked up the third one. Then she counted four bricks and picked up the fourth one. She was now holding two bricks, which was given as the answer. She had not understood the difference between a cardinal number, e.g. a set of three, and the ordinal number, i.e. the third one. If such misconceptions develop undetected, then pupils' mathematics will have very shaky foundations. Concepts which cause concern It was stated earlier that subtraction has a complexity of language. Part of the reason for this is that the operation of subtraction is used for quite different conceptual ideas (analysed in Haylock and Cockburn 1989) such as partitioning: there were seven birds, three flew away; how many were left? And comparison: I am 11, my sister is 4, how much older am I? This shows two of the issues that emerge for subtraction; others occur in other areas of numeracy. Pupils need to understand the nature of subtraction and its application, and they need to be competent at the operation of subtraction. Teachers need clear objectives and teaching strategies to help pupils to appreciate the distinction. Subtraction occurs frequently in other curriculum areas. Comparing data from different countries - temperatures or populations for example - leads to questions using difference. Good questioning or modelling using concrete materials will help the pupil to recognize which calculation is needed. This is no more complex an idea, whatever the numbers. Research and experience show that pupils have much more difficulty calculating with decimal numbers, with large numbers (increasing beyond 100) and small numbers (less than one), with zero (it's harder to work with nothing), with infinity, and with negative numbers (not to mention irrational or complex numbers). Calculators can complete a calculation or subtraction for a
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child who recognizes they need to subtract, but who believes they will fail because the numbers are too difficult. Calculators can also be used to develop pupils' skills. Some very innovative methods emerge, such as: 56 -38 2-2 = 18 The pupil recognized that you can take 8 from 6, i.e. it is negative 2. Therefore, the answer is 20 and negative 2 which is 18. This supports research (Askew and William 1995) that 'Calculators can improve performance and attitude. Open access to calculators does not lead to dependency on calculators, and can improve pupils' numeracy/ A teacher working within mathematics or within another subject can decide upon the major objectives for the pupil in a particular lesson. So, if the numbers are difficult for a child, but the teacher really wants them to compare data, he/she will need to see that pupils recognize that subtraction is needed but allow them to complete this calculation on a calculator. Such decisions can empower pupils to feel in charge of their problem-solving and feel numerate. Few adults use the algorithm for finding a square root, but many understand and apply the idea appropriately. Ratio, proportion and percentage
The concepts of ratio, proportion and percentage are frequently needed for work in other subject areas. They are often used earlier in these subjects than would be appropriate for the National Curriculum level of mathematics of the pupil. For pupils with special mathematical needs the problem is greater. The awareness of this discord has not always been treated sympathetically. The blame is often passed on to the mathematics teacher because the pupils cannot do the mathematics. In reality the pupil is not ready to understand the concept. The tension increases when teachers are insecure in the mathematics themselves. Percentages are just one example of this. During examination periods colleagues frequently ask mathematics teachers 'How do I turn this into a percentage?' Ratio, proportion and percentage are closely linked concepts. Using practical materials allows pupils to build up their concepts, and have them stretched and further developed. Out of these ideas pupils can develop their own methods and skills to complete the necessary calculations efficiently, accurately and with confidence. For example:
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'Susan and Sarah have ten sweets to divide up between them. Each time Susan takes two sweets, Sarah takes three/ Through discussion and practical work pupils can easily work out that Susan had four sweets, which is 2/5 of the sweets, or 40 per cent. Images such as these are powerful and can be used when working in different contexts. The symbolism of ratio can be presented to them later. Compare this approach to the rule for calculating ratio. If we divide a quantity 'c' in the ratio 'a : b' between 'd' and 'e', the amounts each will get are:
, ac d = —7 b
be a +b
If the rule can be matched to the image, then the memory is based in confidence. A pupil might explain the exemplar as follows: 'When Susan get two sweets, (a), Sarah gets three, (b). So that's five sweets, (a + b), needed each time. If there are ten sweets, (c), that has happened twice. So Susan gets four sweets (d = ac/(a + b)) and Sarah gets six (e = bc/(a + b))/ Pupils expressing ideas in their own language greatly increases confidence and often helps them self-correct. There is no need for the formulae. Teachers can find out what pupils understand by asking more open questions. Concepts such as fractions, decimals and percentages appear in many contexts, and failure can be compounded. Teachers should not assume or ignore knowledge, but invite pupils to share their ideas. 'I see Henman was getting 60 per cent of his first serves on Saturday. Was that good? How did they measure it? The rate dropped during the last set? What happened to his serve?' Most children will develop understanding of percentage through this conversation by way of the context. Estimation, measuring, units and scales
In subjects such as science, geography, and design and technology, pupils are regularly expected to measure using scales, rulers, thermometers and other equipment. They are asked to solve problems, complete calculations and understand concepts that use compound units. On the second page of this chapter, it was suggested that pupils need a good understanding of the meaning of the units and an ability to estimate these. When given practical experiences, pupils develop images and feeling for units. They can then respond to such questions as:
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How long is 3 cm; How far is 2 km? How much further is the moon? What would a scale model look like? How big is a hectare? How heavy is an egg, a chair? What weighs a tonne? What does a tonne of sand look like? How long is a million seconds? These are pre-requisites for compound measures and concepts such as density, force, population density, speed acceleration. Practical experience creates the opportunity for teaching through conflict. Some examples are: For density, offer pupils two bags of different materials, e.g. sand and feathers, in identical containers. For area, length and volume, offer two containers of different shapes holding the same volume, or two containers with the same surface area but different shapes. Allow pupils to witness different forces acting (preferably on themselves). Such contexts offer opportunities for pupils to develop their skills with a purpose. Pupils should be taught how to use the instruments and how to read different types of scales, for example ordinal, ratio and interval. There is evidence that insufficient practice is given in secondary schools. Problems can arise with interpreting these; for example: Is a four-star hotel twice as good as a two-star hotel? (Ordinal scale.) Is 40 cm twice as long as 20 cm? (Ratio scale.) Is 40°C twice as hot as 20°C? (Interval scale.) Does 0°C have no temperature? (Compare with a length of Ocm.) Discussions based on such questions inevitably allow understanding to develop.
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TOWARDS NUMERACY: THE WAY FORWARD It has been suggested that having confidence in concepts and strategies is the key to pupils becoming numerate and that competence is required in skills and in remembering facts. The key features in developing mathematical concepts can be identified as: Offering examples of the concept and comparing similarities and differences, e.g. a triangle always has three sides. Offering examples of the non-concept and repeating the above exercise, e.g. when can three lines not make a triangle? Careful questioning, e.g. 'How would you describe this shape?' as opposed to 'What is the name of this shape?' focuses the learner on properties. Using practical examples so that the pupil may subsequently (and not before they are ready) build appropriate images with which they can work. Memory demands an image. Offering opportunities to develop images which are applicable to situations. Discussion and conflict are powerful tools to use with pupils to challenge their thinking. In many subjects opportunities exist to stimulate such thinking. Teachers can: offer statements that are 'always, sometimes or never true'; use, design and play games where pupils have to reach agreement. It is better when both luck and strategy are built in; build on different answers/ideas that arise in class; ask pupils to interpret situations and questions. Meeting concepts using a range of senses, e.g. sight, hearing and touch, further enhances understanding. This will also minimize the disadvantages for a child who has a particular sensory impairment. The author uses an exercise in which post-graduate trainees simulate such impairment when undertaking a mathematics activity. The trainee teachers variously report how important it is to be able to work with practical materials, to have instructions on the board, be given time to complete tasks, be able to clarify with each other or have ICT or other specialist equipment available.
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SEEKING GUIDANCE AND SUPPORT AS A BEGINNING TEACHER Mathematics teachers are in a position to offer colleagues mathematical ideas. Special needs teachers reflect teachers in general and anecdotal evidence suggests they often have lower levels of confidence for numeracy than literacy. However, SENCOs may be able to offer great insight into the nature of the needs of individual pupils. They can often suggest useful strategies, approaches, games and specialized equipment that will help to meet these needs. As a mathematician wanting to develop expertise in this area, the author's best experiences came from working closely, planning together and team teaching with a non-mathematical SENCO. The result was a lifelong interest in mathematics for her and a lifelong interest in special needs for the author. Working together, our objectives became clear, and our use of language, support materials, equipment and our planning resulted in a good atmosphere in which encouragement and success were the norm. Support teachers are invaluable and their time and learning successes are aided by careful planning. The teacher and the support teacher need to have agreed targets and expectations for individual pupils in lessons. Teachers can help the support teachers by ensuring that they are confident in the mathematics and in the approaches that are being used in the classroom. Some key skills to develop are: Questioning to build on the pupils' ideas. Making tasks accessible to the pupils, while not removing the challenge and thus the joy of achievement. Recognizing achievement of targets, and sharing these explicitly with the pupil. SUMMARY As teachers, we all have a responsibility to improve pupils' numeracy. Teachers' belief in pupils' potential is paramount. Research has shown that 'One of the most important things that a teacher can do is to foster a view of ability in mathematics as changeable rather than fixed' (Askew and William 1995). The international context (Keys et al 1996) offers a further thought. At age 14, results vary between topics in different countries. They indicate that the perceived importance of topics influences the level of success. General results are associated with 'mathematical' ethos in
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schools. The attitude or commitment of teachers to this ethos could make a difference. Pupils' confidence will grow if all the teachers they meet are confident with numeracy. Other subjects provide a wealth of opportunity to encourage pupils to use and apply their mathematics so that they can make sense of their mathematics and the world. Numeracy problems need to be embraced, not ignored. Once pupils are numerate, they can become empowered to explore mathematics for itself and as a tool. Only by giving pupils time and opportunities to estimate, calculate, interpret, discuss with each other and with the teacher, will they really gain a full understanding of the mathematical concepts and the place of mathematics in the world.
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Working effectively with Learning Support Assistants (LSAs) CHRISTOPHER BRADLEY AND CAROLINE ROAF LEARNING SUPPORT ASSISTANTS: WHAT'S IN A NAME? Most teachers in mainstream schools will only have worked regularly with Learning Support Assistants (LSAs) in their classrooms in the last ten years. There are three main reasons for this. First, the growth in numbers of LSAs reflects the gradual increase in numbers of children who are benefiting from education in mainstream settings. This trend goes back to the early 1970s when, under the terms of the 1970 Education (Handicapped Children) Act, all children, however serious their disability, were included in the education framework. Previously some had been deemed 'ineducable7 and their progress was the responsibility of Health rather than Education services. The Warnock Report on the education of handicapped children, and the 1981 Education Act, strongly reinforced this trend. This was supported by pressure groups acting on behalf of parents, and child advocacy groups seeking to promote equal opportunities for children who were disabled or educationally disadvantaged. The inclusion of these young people presented a considerable challenge to traditional school ethos, organization and resources. It also had implications for the skills and attitudes of teachers towards the increasing diversity in their classrooms. Second, the policy to increase the number and range of children included in mainstream classrooms coincided with a long period of financial restraint in education and other primary care services. The classroom and welfare assistants who came into mainstream schools initially to support individual children with specific disabilities remained to help hard-pressed teachers manage the learning of their diverse classrooms. Financially, LSAs provided excellent value for money, as hourly workers are paid approximately one-third the salary of the teacher. Furthermore, as non-professionals, LSAs enhanced
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rather than threatened the professional status of teachers. LSAs allowed teachers to delegate some tasks they would otherwise have done themselves and to achieve teaching success on a scale they could not previously have dreamt of. For some educationalists, such as Hargreaves: Teachers should be more like doctors, with education research geared to improving classroom practice, fewer teachers working with more assistants . . . A lot of tasks should be done by teaching assistants or hived off to management. (Hargreaves 1997, p. 11) Finally, financial constraint in education was accompanied by government demands that schools increase their effectiveness and accountability. In the market economy of the 1990s, LSAs were an important resource to help schools meet their targets in relation to criteria such as literacy, school examination results or attendance. The history of LSAs is reflected in the change of name from Welfare Assistant, used in medical settings with the emphasis on supporting children with physical difficulties, to classroom or non-teaching assistant with a broader, whole-classroom brief. The more apt term Learning Support Assistant shifted the focus to the child's learning process and classroom experience. The rapidly evolving educational scene since the Code of Practice on the identification and assessment of special educational needs (DFE1994) has increased LSA numbers and competence. LSAs often have a wide range of skills from family or life experience and training in other careers in, for example, industry, research, youth work or nursing. The majority are women, and many will have lived in the area for many years and bring invaluable local knowledge to their work in the classroom. To children, they offer a measure of stability and continuity which some of them lack in their family life. The government foresees an increasingly important role for LSAs in the new educational environment described in the Green Paper (DfEE 1997) and the 1998 action programme for special educational needs (DfEE 1998). LSA training is stressed in these documents and the effective deployment of LSAs has become a key aspect of the action programme. Although the role is carried out within a standard set of expectations and school procedures, it is diverse because the LSA has to take account of the child's individual needs, learning style and the uniqueness of each class. Also, each LSA brings a particular mixture of skills and experiences which they can apply to their knowledge of the child and their understanding of how children learn. They draw
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on their feelings and reading of the classroom situation to guide decisions on how and when to intervene to support the child's learning and promote his/her independence. Alongside the changes in role, there has been some transfer of skills from special education to mainstream settings. The techniques of the special educational needs support staff are being applied within the mainstream class to promote independent learning more widely for everyone. But more importantly, the changes in perceptions of pupils' capabilities have been driven by the observations of the actual achievements of those children placed by accident or design in mainstream settings. As class teachers, we need to examine our own personal theories about the world. We need to think carefully about how our ideas concerning children's capabilities affect our ability to support them. These may be very different from our own educational experience. WHY HAS A LEARNING SUPPORT ASSISTANT BEEN ALLOCATED TO MY CLASS? It is not always immediately obvious to the classroom teacher why one lesson or class rather than another has the benefit of an LSA. This decision may sometimes seem somewhat arbitrary. In general, it is more likely that a class will be supported where: • • •
success in the subject taught depends on the skills of literacy or numeracy; there are students with statements of SEN; there are students with behaviour problems or other specific learning difficulties.
Depending on the ethos and organization of the school, some SENCOs will allocate additional support to classrooms to promote inclusive practice. The SENCO responds to the changing pattern of need in the school, according to the guidelines set out in legislation and local practice. Some children's needs will have been recognized and addressed throughout their school careers. For example, 2 per cent of children (on average) in any one school will have a Statement of special educational needs maintained by the LEA. These children will have their support needs clearly set out in their Statements and lEPs. In most cases these are prepared by the teacher in conjunction with the SENCO and reviewed with the parents. Others with less complex needs will
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have been given long-term support through lEPs without necessarily having a Statement. However, the special needs of many more will only emerge when the children are older, possibly not until secondary school, because of family or social developmental changes or trauma. Consequently, planning must allow for contingencies which arise during the school year. The special needs team must monitor student changes and liaise with classroom teachers and the school management team, to plan staffing ahead of need, and to allow time for the deployment and training of staff. Other children's needs are not formally recognized or do not receive distinct provision. For instance, the effects of the stress experienced by children living in violent households, or who are long-term carers, have parents who are habitual substance misusers or have psychiatric disorders, are likely to show in, for example, underperformance, absence or unco-operative behaviour. Unless the student can be appropriately supported, the net effect is to reduce their life chances. In addition, many of the child's special needs challenge our usual ways to support them, and creative solutions need to be devised to overcome difficulties. The SENCO compiles an overall audit of the school's special needs from the profiles of each individual student's strengths and weaknesses. The SENCO notes the special educational arrangements required and actions needed for each one to achieve his or her potential. In more complex cases, the SENCO liaises regularly with specialist support staff outside the school and external agencies, such as educational social workers, educational psychologists, social services or the health service. Having identified the number of children experiencing different types of difficulty, the SENCO can begin to identify the range of skills required to support each one's learning and the amount of time required for this. As a rule of thumb, LEAs commonly allocate a certain number of LSA hours over and above those provided by the school, to support students with Statements. Other forms of support, such as additional specialist teacher time, counselling or therapy, may be available in addition or as an alternative. In some cases a child may require the support of one or more LSAs throughout the school day. There may be other reasons, however, for the appearance of an LSA in your classroom. LSAs are far more than a resource for individual pupils or groups of pupils. They are also a resource to support, for example, the newly qualified teacher, an unusually large, difficult or problematic group, or a teacher developing a new course or to help the teacher or SENCO with some observation and assessment. These
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new roles for LSAs emerged in partnership with teachers in the movement towards more effective and reflective practice. It is essential, therefore, that the reason for the presence of an LSA in your class is explained and negotiated with you. The individual or group education plan gives the teaching staff some background information about the pupils as learners and suggests practical strategies to support each one. The classroom teachers use these to develop their own aims for each child's learning. Elements in the IEP are often developed into routines, which can be generalized to other situations. They may be tried out and their success reviewed, then revised. The review of the IEP provides the opportunity to share successful strategies with other teachers and with parents. These trends reflect the change from individualized teaching styles towards use of the standardized structures and strategies characteristic of the literacy and numeracy hour. In summary then, the LSA is there to: • Learn - we need to understand our own views of learning in order to learn the best ways to help the child. • Support (see Figure 13.1). • Assist - through offers of practical help. Aims of the LEA • Opportunity for all • Inclusive education: bring the support to the child not the child to the support, since the setting is a major ingredient in children's success Aims of the school • School ethos in relation to equal opportunities issues such as race, gender, disability, class and poverty • Codes of behaviour e.g. anti-bullying The curriculum • The overall curriculum policy • Curriculum development and differentiation The teachers - in their efforts to implement LEA and school aims and to promote achievement The pupils - all pupils, including those with special needs, to help them to: • appreciate that we all need support at times • accept the idea of sharing support according to need • gain access to the curriculum and develop the skills and relationships necessary to become a successful student
Figure 13.1: Who and what LSAs support
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WORKING WITH LSAs The majority of students, in all their diversity, want their teachers and LSAs to possess the communication skills necessary to help them gain access to the curriculum. These skills include observation, problemsolving, counselling skills and the ability to negotiate between staff. LSAs help teachers by their ability to elicit the point of view of the child and relate this to the social, personal and academic challenges of the classroom. The breadth and depth of these staff skills is likely to be related to their experience and training and their willingness to respond to the continually changing challenges of the classroom. The SEN team can help teachers understand how their teaching aims for a class interact with the particular strengths and weaknesses of the individual pupil. The SENCO advises and supports staff in devising and carrying out intervention programmes appropriate to the profile of the children's special educational needs in their classes. In doing so, SENCOs promote the sharing of skills, the extension of knowledge and exchange of good practice. Informal opportunities are fostered for professional development by discussion, observation, joint work and attendance on training courses. Gradually skills and practices used mainly by specialist staff are incorporated into a wider skill and knowledge base by increasingly adaptable and flexible generic staff. The specialist staff may then advise their colleagues through informal consultation sessions or discussions at SEN team meetings. This complex research and development process, in which problems are identified, information gathered and solutions formulated, depends on reliable and regular feedback. In this task, SENCOs rely on LSAs as their eyes and ears in the classroom. LSAs, through their close working relationships with pupils and teachers, are at the cutting edge of both curriculum differentiation and the personal and social education of the students they support. In secondary schools, teachers frequently remark that their ideal LSA knows everything about their subject and everything about the child. In other words, they want the LSA to be an expert both in the subject being taught, and in the child as learner across the whole curriculum. This seemingly contradictory task is achieved through a network of formal and informal interchanges and meetings between individual teachers and LSAs, with children, with parents, with advisory and support services or with school departmental, pastoral and SEN teams. At the heart lies the classroom - the theatre as it were - in which a child's educational progress is played out. Teachers working with LSAs need
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to be aware of the part their lesson plays in the whole educational life of the individual pupils being supported in that lesson. They also need to become familiar with what LSAs in general, and their own LSA in particular, bring to the class. New roles have emerged in response to the children's changing and various needs. Concepts such as the key worker role, used in residential and EBD schools, are found to be essential in managing the difficulties of students developing the social skills required in a modern mainstream environment. Increasingly, as useful patterns of practice become established and physical and policy problems solved, the difficulties remaining will be due to unhelpful attitudes. Lack of information and understanding can lead to prejudice and lack of adaptations to address specific challenges. The extent of intervention should follow the principle of least intrusive action to achieve the desired effect. Unnecessary intervention wastes resources, cultivates students' dependence on staff, and undermines their belief in their own autonomy. When planning intervention, we need to look at the issues involved for each child. The advantages and disadvantages of different techniques need to be considered and decisions made about which area of need to prioritize. It may be better to concentrate on an easy target first to build up confidence and get to know the child. Conversely, the most difficult areas may force themselves to the top of the agenda, perhaps where there is a need to protect the child or other pupils from physical or social risk. For instance, there may be specific support via the Statement for an autistic child. However, to enable the child to communicate and belong to a social group, the LSA may need to be active in small-group work to promote an accepting ethos for the child. This may prevent problems of isolation or teasing. WHAT SKILLS DOES THE LSA BRING INTO THE CLASS? A list of the tasks a typical LSA job description might include is outlined in Figure 13.2. Although the number of tasks is enormous, it is not an exhaustive list because the job involves responding to the needs of each individual student and it is recognized that often the best way of helping the student can only be learned by time and experience and getting to know the student. In view of this flexible and extensive role, it is no surprise to find that core skills for LSAs lie mainly in the field of interpersonal relations. Above all, effective LSAs are skilled in 'understanding what is necessary to make the content, method and structure of a lesson
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Finding out about the learning difficulties of students and seeking ways to help them achieve. Finding out about the subject, materials used and resources available. Liaising with teachers about the students who are experiencing particular difficulties, their lessons and assessments. Helping prepare resources for students and subjects, including photocopying, taping and word processing materials. Helping teachers with general administrative tasks within the classroom (e.g. giving merit marks, checking work, recording homework in student's diaries, supervising group work, helping with displays, word lists and other information). Reading exam papers to students and helping with the supervision of exams and special arrangements for students. Reading and writing with students and helping with all forms of equipment used in lessons, e.g. word processors. Participating in INSET when possible and attending meetings when needed. Assisting in the general administrative needs of the Learning Support Faculty. Accompanying students and teachers to visits out of school. Caring for physically disabled students and helping them by, for example, carrying equipment or helping them move about the campus. Tracking students between lessons. Helping with the preparation of files for other professionals, such as Educational Psychologists, maintaining the special needs register and helping with the preparation of Individual Education Plans.
Figure 13.2: Learning Support Assistants: a typical job description
appropriate and accessible to the student. . . the core skills of communication and the ability to create the relationships required for the tasks of teaching, counselling, advocacy, assertiveness and conciliation' (Bradley and Roaf 1995, p. 96). Although the role of the LSA is not that of a counsellor, there are some skills in common, and LSAs will share, and act on, some of the assumptions made by counsellors (Figure 13.3). Advocacy and assertiveness will also be a core skill for many LSAs, reflecting their personal commitment to the young people they support (Figure 13.4).
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Effective communication is based partly on: what is said; how it is said (i.e. listening for the feelings behind the words). Some assumptions about counselling are: talking helps - so does listening; children have internal resources to address their difficulties; there is no short cut to effective communication; we can do things with people, but not for them; they must take responsibility for their learning; brief interviews can be as effective as long ones; qualities of warmth, trust, sincerity and empathy are essential.
Figure 13.3: Counselling skills relevant to the LSA role
An • • • •
assertive approach to support is based on: having qualities of self-confidence and self-respect; behaving rationally and stating one's views directly; having an honest, positive and straightforward approach to life; understanding and respecting the rights of others and oneself e.g. the right: • to ask for what we want or don't want; • to be listened to and be respected; • not to know about something and not to understand; • to make mistakes; • to change our minds.
Figure 13.4: Assertiveness skills relevant to the LSA role
In relation to individuals with particular disabilities or difficulties, sensory impairments, physical disabilities, language difficulties or behavioural problems, LSAs also bring specialist skills for which they will have been specifically trained. These will complement their general ability to work with the teacher and the whole class as circumstances allow. A closer look at communication skills used by LSAs in the classroom suggests that they use communication skills to: help pupils deal with their learning difficulties; enhance their self-esteem by offering them respect;
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create interest in the subject by helping pupils see the personal relevance of a topic; maintain students' interest in the lesson by creating a rapport; explain the views of other students or teachers; remind pupils of school and classroom conventions; clarify the expectations of the school; explain the reasons for school codes of conduct; increase their motivation by appropriate rewards and encouragement; interpret the language of the classroom into more familiar terms. When asked what they bring, LSAs stress their role as listener and observer: 'Another pair of eyes, ears, hands' (Figure 13.5).
Strengths Seeing other people's point of view A sense of humour Able to spell Giving praise Liking and enjoying working with children Patience Working in a team Communicate and listen Using initiative Offering stability/continuity Being observant Structured approach
Weaknesses Shyness (sometimes) Too involved Lack of confidence with some children Nagging Writing/spelling Teaching some lessons Humour - at the wrong time Challenging what you are not happy with Lacking assertiveness Using stereotypes
Opportunities Learn about other people and their reactions Looking for other ways of being involved with children Further training Extending your interest in the child and family Care more for the disadvantaged Sharing knowledge and experience
Threats Lack of time Family commitments Trying to do too much Not knowing everything I need to know
Figure 13.5: Learning Support Assistants: SWOT analysis
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In practice, the presence of another adult in the room often has an indefinable benefit. The atmosphere is calmer, tensions are dispersed more easily and the classroom organization progresses more smoothly. This is not surprising, as many classroom conflicts arise from competition between children for the teacher's attention, and patterns of rivalry and teasing learned at home are acted out in the class. The LSA can respond quickly to the practical need for pencils and other equipment, thus reducing the need for movement around the class. Their presence near a child or group is likely to turn off-task behaviour into more purposeful work. LSAs can repeat instructions, remind and redirect children to their work without interrupting the flow of the lesson. Their most valuable contribution is their ability to maintain children's attention and motivation by friendly remarks and frequent praise for good work. The LSA role often places them at the side of the child, rather than in front with the class teacher. This is a central difference as they literally learn alongside the child. As they understand more of the curriculum, they learn to play the parts which are most effective in supporting the child's learning. By examining regularly and formally what they have learned about the support situation, successes can be recognized and the most useful approaches generalized to other situations. Conversely, if approaches are not useful they can be dropped or used later. Only in this way can inappropriate teaching approaches be discarded and new ones evolved and applied. Any difficulties can be quickly identified and addressed without fear of revealing personal inadequacies. THE TEACHER'S ROLE IN RELATION TO THE LSA It follows that the teacher's role in relation to the LSA again emphasizes communication. For you, as a teacher new to the class, it is likely that you will have met the LSA working with you before you start teaching that class. It is vital to find time to talk to the LSA beforehand, however briefly, introduce them to the class, and keep them informed of your plans and changes of mind. Give them as much advance information about the course you are teaching as you possibly can. LSAs will understand the pressures upon you and will be keen to help and to put their knowledge of the school and the pupils at your disposal. Equally, they will appreciate knowing where to find your resources, how you like to organize your work and classroom, and how you would like them to support you - particularly in relation to issues such as behaviour and homework. They will expect you to be familiar with
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the lEPs for your students on the special needs register, to set appropriate targets for these students, to adhere to any management strategies they suggest, and to discuss and revise these in the light of experience. Once you have established a co-operative relationship, you will find that sharing your planning with an LSA, and making use of their skills, information and experience makes a significant difference to your enjoyment of the class and your achievement as a teacher. LSAs need to feel they can talk to you about the child's learning style, strengths and weaknesses. For example, a child who likes to draw will learn better in science by using diagrams and labels rather than accounts of what is done. In another context, the LSA may have detailed knowledge of the pressures on a child, possibly from home or from a medical condition. Children who are receiving medication, e.g. for Attention Deficit (Hyperactivity) Disorder (AD(H)D), may have particular times of the day when they are more receptive to written information. The LSA can also be sensitive to the child's strengths and weaknesses from observations in other curriculum areas and can thus bridge the gap between the curriculum and the child. Some of the ways through which LSAs consider they can achieve improvements in communication are listed in Figure 13.6. Regular meetings with SENCO. Regular meetings with SEN team. Liaison with class teacher. Being informed in advance of lesson plans. Availability of SENCO. Attend annual reviews. Contribute to reviews. Contribute to IEP planning and preparation. Meetings with parents, formal, informal and by telephone. Informal contact wth child. Other role in school, e.g. lunchtime supervisor, homework club, first aid duties. Figure 13.6: Organizational arrangements which support effective communication
Finally, on a more practical note, LSAs will expect you to be aware that their role does not allow them to take responsibility for the supervision of a class, nor does it exonerate the teacher from full responsibility for the curriculum and its differentiation.
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WHEN AND WHERE TO SEEK GUIDANCE Not all lessons and relationships go as planned. Where teachers experience difficulty in their work with LSAs, this may stem from many sources such as: failure of communication; subject matter which the LSA finds difficult; a breakdown in your own, or the LSA's, relationship with a child. Help will normally be available from a number of sources, such as the SENCO, your head of department, head of year or school counsellor. On more general matters concerning the overall management of LSAs time, resources and training, there is a growing literature, some of which is included in the bibliography for this chapter. LSAs' views of the advantages of regular discussion about their work in class are that this: relieves immediate pressure: a problem shared is a problem halved; clarifies our own views and 'helps us see the wood for the trees'; 'objectifies a problem': helps us deal with the emotions involved; reminds us of past difficulties and their solutions; helps us to recycle old approaches; helps us to recognize that there are no blueprints to solving problems. LSAs IN ACTION Getting off to a good start There may not be time for detailed discussions, but if the LSA has some lesson outlines or the plan for the literacy or numeracy hour, they can decide how to support the children. Frequently they need to remind the child of previous work. If this can be done while the other children are entering the room or while settling them, it provides the basis for the new material you are teaching. LSAs use informal opportunities in school life to get to know the student and build a friendly relationship. They use knowledge of the students in class to relate their interests and experiences to the material to be studied. LSA insights and creativity can be used to feed into whole-class work. LSAs build children's confidence, and the class's view of them as positive school students, by helping them share personalized work with the class.
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Many teachers agree a strategy with the LSA for general monitoring of the class. For instance, when the teacher is giving out instructions or teaching from the front, they may move quietly around the class, calming children by proximity control (Walker 1975), helping them to find correct pages and cueing them in to the tasks. Helping children who have poor short-term memory to deal with instructions and get started is often a key piece of work while the teacher is helping the majority of children address the task. However, once the LSA has helped named children get started, they may be left to work independently for some minutes while the LSA helps others get under way. These activities should not undermine the authority of the teacher, and LSAs become highly skilled at using their knowledge and understanding of the child to key them into the lesson without interfering with the direct line of authority between the teacher and the child (Figure 13.7).
The teacher is addressing the class at the beginning of some work, but the pupil is not paying attention and is chatting to a friend. LSA: What will happen if the teacher asks you a question now? Pupil: I was telling him . . . LSA: But, what if it is something that you are interested in? Pupil: I was j u s t . . . LSA: What would you do next? Because you could not tell her all you know about it. Pupil: Yeah. What can I do? LSA: I'm not sure. Let's look at it together. Pupil: Thanks. (Dorian Bradshaw, LSA Luton Education Department) When the teacher is talking to the whole class, the pupil does not initially realize that he is also being addressed. Once he is helped to engage, the teacher supports the pupil's interest and responsibility. The LSA avoids policing the child's behaviour as the teacher needs direct control over the child's conduct in class.
Figure 13.7: Tuning in: the 'What if?' approach to listening to the teacher
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If the teacher becomes engaged with a small group, the LSA can again move around the class, on patrol, to deal with queries about the tasks, encourage the children to share equipment, offer praise and keep them on task. They may look for opportunities to include the particular child or children they are supporting in the work or social activity of other groups. For many children, their concentration and motivation difficulties make getting started on work their central problem. Figure 13.8 shows how a pupil with very poor self-esteem and no relationship with a new English teacher was helped to produce a good piece of work. The LSA used humour to turn a sensitive topic about a conflict into a good LSA: These are guidelines in a story. You have to write a story. It's about someone who has done something bad. Pupil: Miss must have thought about me! LSA: You're not bad! LSA and Pupil: (together) Noooo! LSA: She didn't have you in mind, definitely! This is about someone who has done something bad. Then they change their character. How are we going to do this? Pupil: . . . (giggles) LSA: Do you just want to put some rough notes down? Pupil: Yes. LSA: What do you want to write about? Pupil: Shoplifting or stealing. LSA: You like football don't you? Pupil: Yes, how do you spell Manchester United? Later: The pupil is telling the group what he wrote and receives recognition for this Pupil: (to group) I've written about Eric Cantona. Pupil (to LSA): It's good isn't it? LSA: Yes, it's a nice bit of work isn't it? Pupil: You've just helped me with the capitals and spelling. LSA: Yes, these are your thoughts. It's your story.
Figure 13.8: LSAs at work: motivating pupils
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dramatic piece of work. He drew upon the child's interest and knowledge of sport to set the scene in a context the child could relate to. The child then used the LSA to support his spelling and was encouraged to learn some dictionary skills. The child was keen to display his success to his friends and the tutor. The teacher's outline for the work provided sufficient flexibility to let the pupil build on his existing knowledge and gradually move from the familiar to the imaginary. The LSA could not have had this supportive conversation without a clear outline of his own strategy and priority for the child's behaviour and literacy skills. The teacher provided a settled classroom setting, but complete silence would not have enabled the child to talk about his ideas and order his thoughts. Motivating and maintaining interest Children with learning difficulties are likely to need lots of repetition and over-learning. This needs lightening up by the LSA, who will be able to gauge the child's concentration and should give breaks or informal activity to provide a change of scene. With younger, very active children, they may need a brief period of movement - perhaps by carrying a message to another class. A simple routine task, such as checking readings for a weather chart, may be used as a constructive task to be carried out when the child needs a break. Using LSAs to develop materials for the class as a whole, or a particular child, can enhance work-sheets and help the child feel valued. Ordinary work-sheets are often too crowded with information for children with attention problems and specific learning difficulties. LSAs can use IT skills to print material in larger fonts, simplify texts, highlight key words or enhance standard worksheets with appropriate graphics. Most materials produced in this way prove useful to many children in the class. If topics are repeated, then materials can be catalogued and used later. LSAs frequently use 'spare' time sessions, for example during assemblies or tutor group sessions, to build use useful banks of materials. It is always worth asking the LSA how they think the work can be stretched or made more accessible for students with special needs. Looking back for success: reviewing pupils' work Pupils with difficulties need to develop their social confidence and self-esteem. They are likely to compare themselves with, or be criticized by, other pupils who are their most natural reference group. As they are unlikely to be 'catching up' with their peers, such comparisons will usually place them at a disadvantage. It is better to provide
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baseline assessments of their own performance and measure their progress by improvements from there. By becoming aware of their own progress and achievement, they can tune in to their own learning strengths and gradually develop learning strategies which work for them. Staff, by showing appreciation of their pupils' improvement, help them increase in confidence and self-esteem. Looking forward positively The partnership between the teacher and LSA can provide a threeway conversation in which the child can explain their learning strategies, and the teacher can recognize their progress and relate it to the objectives of the lesson. Informal feedback to the teacher provides the opportunity, not only to draw out the specific learning that has been attained, but also to emphasize the way the child has used thinking strategies to achieve it. For instance, if a child has been learning to spell key words with the LSA, he/she can demonstrate his/her success to the teacher and explain how he/she might use the Look, Cover, Write, Check approach to practise again at home. This talking about learning can help the child generalize his/her learning to other settings and emphasizes his/her responsibility for his/her learning. Review, retain, rest and return Sports coach Sandy Gordon (Butler 1996) calls these the 'four Rs' of post-game analysis. According to Butler, 'with some adaptation this format is acknowledged as a fruitful means of conducting a de-brief which seeks to use the experience of the latest performance to help in preparing for the next performance' (p. 131). A similar approach can be used in class. On the other hand, not all children can make recognizable progress. Some teachers will have children with degenerative diseases, which may make the retention of knowledge very difficult. However, after each educational effort children can be encouraged to rest, to take some time to recover and return to their tasks with support and a renewed positive attitude. Children who have undergone treatments or who have had severe accidents may need to be helped to deal with the losses they have experienced. There are some children also, for whom future participation in 'normal' adult life may be limited. They may appear to be making little progress, yet these young people derive immense satisfaction as active observers of the social scene going on around them in school. For them, each week or term is a 'plus', which gives them valuable experience of participating as a class member, whatever the future holds.
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Family bereavements and losses of family members by separation or family break-up can have a devastating effect on a child's progress. At such times they are unlikely to look forward to the future with confidence. There is no substitute for waiting for time to pass and acceptance of the stress they are experiencing. However, the familiarity and structure which the educational setting offers can have a supportive and helpful effect which can assist in the recovery process. LSAs help in both the planning processes of looking back and looking forward in reviews and planning of lEPs. This may be done informally in conversation with the SENCO, or more formally in reporting to parents and through the formal annual review for children on Statements. Children are involved in reviews, but in formal situations can find it hard to articulate their views. Individual tutorials allow children to discuss their progress in the context of the actual work they have completed and can help to incorporate their views in reviews. Figure 13.9 provides an example of an interview schedule designed to take pupils through the stages of: affirmation of current strengths; looking ahead assertively; looking back positively; considering improvements, obstacles and solutions; looking forward realistically; setting targets; communicating success. LSAs and inclusion Inclusion will provide the environment for all children to learn together and the context which encourages people to value one another and which enriches the school and community and helps to develop a more understanding and accepting society. (Webster 1999, p. 4) As the range and numbers of children with difficulties has been extended in mainstream schools, the complexity of the task of supporting them has been increased. Webster (1999) suggests that the changes necessary for their successful inclusion are as much concerned with the attitudes of the whole school as with the technicalities of their educational support. The challenge for the school is not to mould one into the other but to provide the educational context with which new images of success
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Individual Education Plan (student comments) Guidance for those assisting students. Encourage the student to fill in the sheet him/herself - but check for detail or talk it through and act as scribe. Things I am really good at: Aim for at least three My plans for the future (this year, next year, when I leave school...): You don't need an idea for each one: short- or long-term plans are all worth recording How I think I've done over the past term: Try to get two or three areas. You may need to probe a bit to find areas of success - may not be 'academic'
Things I could do better at: Again, probe a bit - may be in areas of friendship/home/homework/writing/behaviour
etc.
Things that make school work difficult for me: May be in areas of homework - why? Teacher's 'nagging'? What sort? Teaching style - What kinds? Writing? Listening? Other students - What do they do? The sorts of things that help me with this: Probe for details: Who? What ? Where? How? The answers to these questions should suggest the management strategies to go on the IEP The lessons I really want to do well in: Aim for three. If students say 'all' pick three best. If students say none - find another area of school life, e.g. sports team, club My targets for next term are: a) Relate to the successes/difficulties. Be very specific, for example: Do at least half an hour of homework a week (rather than just 'work harder'. If students say this is what they'll do ask them how, what strategies) Concentrate on the teacher whenever they are talking to the class rather than 'Listen more carefully'. b) Relate the targets to plans for the future - may be something to do with work experience, GCSE grade, skills to be worked on Who will I tell (or who will know) when I've done well? Maybe someone at home, school, a friend Signed: Date: Meeting held with: Remember to add your signature and the date.
Review date: As appropriate, e.g. Parent's Evening, next month/term
Figure 13.9: Individual Education Plan (student comments) Source: Lord Williams School, Oxfordshire LEA
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can be forged. These are likely to comprise valuing variety as the spice of life and respecting different perspectives on the world. The richness of solutions to problems and innovation will be prized rather than progress towards pre-determined outcomes. Teachers will create new settings and methods that spring from a response to the learners' view of the world, rather than from approaches based on measurements against pre-determined performance criteria. Children who are most at risk of social and school exclusion appear to pose the greatest challenge to the teacher's ability to educate them. The LSA is often the bridge between two potentially different worlds of experience. Where there appears to be a gulf in values and understanding, the LSA can provide the first step by helping the child make a first positive movement. Having one or two clear aims for the session with clearly related strategies often helps the LSA to identify which of the child's many needs to address and what positive outcomes to look for. With these in mind the LSA can draw on his/her knowledge of the child's learning strengths, interests and background. Children with different learning difficulties may share common learning weaknesses. Children with specific learning difficulties (dyslexia) and attention problems share a poor short-term aural memory. They will benefit from similar approaches to structure their work in small chunks, to limit instructions to one step at a time, to provide visual backup for verbal instructions, or reference material to use when they get lost following a sequence. The preparation of such organizers and planners can be a useful collaborative task for the LSA and the child at times when they are not participating in a whole-class activity. Younger children with severe communication disorders find a whole lesson too long for their concentration span. The teacher might suggest that the LSA work to prepare a visual timetable for the lesson, the whole day or the week. Such activities can easily be linked back into the curriculum by work on time, sequencing activities, or on language work on words related to sequences and the structure of written work, such as the beginnings, middles and ends of stories. Whenever there is individual or small-group work to support the child's literacy or language, the teacher will need to agree with the LSA how he/she will reintegrate the child into the rest of the class's work. For instance, a pupil with co-ordination problems, which made his reading and writing slow, was helped by the LSA to prepare an exercise about the opening of the story of Anne Frank. The class took one lesson on this but this pupil needed extra sessions to write and word-process his work. He thereby missed the next two chapters and
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risked falling behind his class and becoming demoralized. The teacher prepared a synopsis of the two chapters and the LSA read over the text with the pupil during a break, which raised his confidence and future performance. The outline the teacher prepared proved a useful resource for other pupils who were absent or had different learning needs. In this way it was possible for the pupil to get back in step with the rest of the class. Conversely, children with apparently similar difficulties may need different approaches. Children with attention control problems and behavioural difficulties are likely to have problems complying with instructions and may get into trouble in unstructured social situations. For some children, following a fast-moving, complex language situation will prove too much and they will act inappropriately. They may need patient explanation and teaching about the meaning of the event. Other pupils are well aware of the social situation and need firm reinforcement of the rule they have been pushing. Keeping up staff morale is a crucial element in teaching children with learning difficulties. Every member of the team can feel frustration with slow progress. But it is often when it seems that every avenue has been tried that perseverance pays off and a learning breakthrough is achieved. We need to value our own achievements in teaching and supporting children and to become aware of how we have accomplished them. Review strategies of the kind illustrated in Figure 13.9 can be as helpful and affirming for teachers and LSAs as they are for students. Schools have often developed supportive social traditions, such as remembering birthdays, school festivities or sharing cream cakes after school on a Friday! Such informal meetings often provide safety valves to relieve pressures from the situation, and to share the amusing sides of the job which make the difficult times bearable. Beginning teachers need to develop the pattern of support which works for them and cultivate the opportunities to talk over difficulties with experienced staff who have time to lend a listening ear. This person may very well be an LSA.
14
Special needs and the beginning teacher PETER BENTON
INTRODUCTION This chapter is different from the majority of chapters in this book in that it does not focus on a specific area of special educational need. First, it aims to provide an introduction to the book as a whole by describing how it originated in the presentations to trainee teachers (interns) on the Oxford University PGCE Internship Scheme (Benton 1990). Second, it aims to set those presentations in the context of a range of other special needs opportunities and experiences offered on the Oxford course. In so doing, it suggests a possible model for special needs education in PGCE courses that may be of interest both to beginning teachers and to those who train them. Fundamental to the course is a belief that teachers need to recognize early on that special needs education is not about Statemented children only; that all teachers are teachers of children with special educational needs and that many will be surprised by the range of need with which they are faced daily in their mainstream classrooms. Equally fundamental is the belief that beginning teachers require the knowledge and understanding to help them see the child as an individual with a learning difficulty that may be addressed through appropriate teaching; that they can, over time, learn many of the teaching skills and strategies to help them reach out to those in need and meet the challenge of inclusiveness, and that they should recognize that there are demanding intellectual as well as practical questions raised by working with children who have special needs. The various chapters of this book are written by contributors to the Oxford course. The wide-ranging programme involves contributions from a number of specialists from other institutions, practising teachers from schools, and advisers from the local authority who have particular knowledge and expertise. It is recognized that, given the
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range and complexity of special needs education, it can be extremely difficult for any one lecturer to be sufficiently expert in all aspects of the topic - children with emotional and behavioural problems; children with specific learning difficulties; the physically, visually or hearing impaired; the very able child; working productively with Learning Support teachers in one's own classroom, and so on. Most importantly, many of these writers bring with them not only a strong theoretical knowledge but also the freshness and the experience gained from daily contact with the children and the issues they are talking about. The range of topics covered has varied but there is a clear core of concerns which all beginning teachers share, and the chapters of this book reflect this range. Inevitably, this book cannot hope to do justice to the richness of the presentations themselves, but each contributor has striven to capture something of those key elements of their work likely to be of most immediate use, and offered a starting point to the beginning teacher. THE BACKGROUND TO SPECIAL NEEDS IN THE OXFORD COURSE History The Oxford Internship Scheme, launched in 1987, was one of the first PGCE schemes to be intensively school-based. It differs from many other schemes in that interns are attached to local comprehensive schools in groups of typically eight or more (four or five subject pairs) within daily commuting distance of the university for the greater part of the year. The course begins in late September with a school attachment of two days each week and continues on a five-day-a-week basis from shortly after Christmas until the summer half-term. Thus the interns not only become very much a part of the subject departments to which they are attached, but are very largely accepted as members of staff in one school for the equivalent of some twenty weeks. It is during the twelve or so weeks before the interns are full-time in their attachment schools that all of them attend a series of lecture presentations on special educational needs. This is over and above the element of special needs included in the main professional development programme and curriculum programmes at the university and in the weekly seminars at the schools to which they are attached. The impetus for giving special educational needs a higher priority than it received in many courses was undoubtedly the presence in the University Department in 1987, when the course was restructured, of
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a Special Needs Research Team funded by the Rayne Foundation. The work of Beverley Davies, James Gray, Ann Hackney, Keith Postlethwaite and Bridie Raban (see, for example, Postlethwaite and Hackney 1988; Raban and Postlethwaite 1988) was a major influence in keeping special needs at the forefront of departmental thinking as the new course developed. This focus was unusual despite the view of Warnock (DES 1978) that all teachers should consider themselves to be teachers of special educational needs. Whatever good intentions there might have been, many teacher training departments found that new responsibilities claimed course time and there was often not the expertise available in university departments to develop appropriate programmes. From what were relatively small beginnings, the special needs element of the Oxford course grew steadily and it rapidly became clear that it was a highly popular option which was meeting a real need for beginning teachers; so much so that most interns voluntarily attended. They recognized from the outset that they were encountering children about whose needs they knew little and needed to know a lot more. There was, after some years, pressure from the interns themselves to make the series a compulsory part of their programme, and visiting HMI commented on its value. The course is now an integral part of the main PGCE programme. The considerable growth of the special needs programme since its inception a decade or more ago means that it may now develop as a substantial special needs core with options for those who wish to take their knowledge further. It was unusual to devote so much time in a PGCE programme to special needs when the course began, and it is unusual even now. The pressures on time are intense, with all PGCE programmes being much more complex and requiring close involvement with schools as well as increasing amounts of time on curriculum subjects, especially as a result of the National Curriculum, a National Curriculum for ITT, and a new National Curriculum for Teacher Training in certain key subjects. At the time of writing, each presentation in the series (which has ranged in number from twelve to fourteen sessions in different years) is, at 90 minutes, much longer than the normal lecture. The intention was that speakers would have sufficient time to develop their ideas, to engage their audience in activities and to take questions from what was a relatively small group, either as the presentation progressed and/or at the end. It is hardly surprising that interns were clear in their course evaluations that listening for 90 minutes is not desirable but that where the speaker made space for questions, activities and
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group discussion, the longer session was valuable. As one intern remarked: 'It's most effective when the lecturer allows you to "get inside the learner's head" and not just show us how those with EBD or learning difficulties think and feel but provides effective strategies for coping.' Although the programme is not perfect and it would be inappropriate for it to attempt to cover all aspects of special needs, it goes a long way towards meeting the proposals made by the Special Educational Needs Training Consortium Report Professional Development to Meet Special Educational Needs (SENTC 1996). A further reason for the importance of special needs in the programme is partly that it was perceived from the outset that, although much of what might be called special needs expertise - differentiation for example - was quite properly catered for at one level in all curriculum areas - Maths, English or whatever - there were areas where the students felt under-prepared and where curriculum tutors felt a lack of knowledge. For example, differentiation within a particular subject and across one part of the spectrum of need is one thing; differentiation when one is coping with learning and behavioural difficulties is another. Whilst acknowledging the interaction between content and behaviour, this approach enables the interns to analyse if it is primarily the curriculum content or the pupil behaviour which hinders learning, and whether it is generic rather than subjectspecific. The integration of children with special needs into mainstream classrooms has gathered pace over the past twenty years and it is probably true to say that there are now in many classrooms children who present challenges where both the tutor and the trainee teacher feel a need for expert guidance. It is probably also true to say that teachers are more ready to recognize problems and to try to match their teaching to interact with the pupil's need. Lack of understanding of pupils' difficulties can make trainee teachers lack confidence in coping with certain situations with certain pupils, and either a sense of their own inadequacy or even a sense of fear can give rise to inappropriate responses which perpetuate or significantly worsen their difficulties. There is a rich source of specialized skill and knowledge not just about teaching children with special educational needs but about teaching itself available through teachers who specialize in special needs, and it is important for beginning teachers to tap in to this. A concern for the individual as a person, an understanding of the nature of particular conceptual, behavioural, or physical difficulties, a willingness to find appropriate strategies to help the individual succeed,
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are not solely the province of the special needs teacher. Good special needs practice means responding to individual learning needs and is likely to mean good teaching at whatever level. Special needs are rightly every teacher's concern and the programme seeks to underline this. Thus, whilst it is fairly clear how pupils' behavioural difficulties will sooner or later affect every teacher's classroom practice and that all beginning teachers should have as much information as possible about these, it was also felt to be just as important that mathematicians and scientists should attend sessions on reading and spelling difficulties and that English and History specialists should understand some of the difficulties that face children with numeracy problems. An interesting and valuable sideeffect of this has been that interns comment frequently that they have often, for the first time in many years, been put in the position of a student with special needs themselves by the presenters. This has been particularly true of say, arts-based interns being asked to get their heads around a mathematical concept in an activity-based session, or a maths intern wrestling with a spelling problem. EVALUATION OF THE LECTURE PROGRAMME The programme has been regularly evaluated over a number of years, and whilst it would not be appropriate to give a detailed breakdown of views here, it may be useful to give a flavour of interns' main responses. Whilst they are not uncritical of the lecture programme particularly of any sessions which were long and provided little activity - responses have been overwhelmingly positive. As one note in an evaluation at the end of the sessions: 'It has increased my awareness ten-fold. Having had little or no contact with people with disabilities or learning difficulties, I found it very interesting and will definitely try to incorporate some aspects into my teaching.' Another intern remarked, The lecture series made me aware of the issues and more secure (not totally!) about children with special needs in my classes.' In terms of raising awareness and boosting confidence, the value of such a programme to beginning teachers can be immense. The overwhelming majority of interns feel the sessions are valuable in giving them the necessary confidence, not just to cope with eventualities in their mainstream teaching, but to think more broadly about individual pupils' needs rather than to focus on the content of their subject specialism. As one student comments: 'It has shown me what a range of special needs there is. It's challenged me to think about how we can
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cater for these and the responsibility every teacher has to be involved - not just leaving it to extra help via LSAs/ Another adds: 'The course highlighted several issues which had not occurred to me. Personally I found that the lectures raised many issues which I need to consider. They really helped me focus my thoughts and suggested some excellent strategies for use in the classroom/ The interplay of theory and practice during the lecture series, when the students are in both school and university every week, helps to root what the presenter is saying in the reality of the comprehensive schools to which the students are attached. As one student remarked at the beginning of the first block practice, after the lecture series was complete: 'I think the programme has been extremely valuable although it is only really this term when we will be solo teaching, that we will have to be working more closely with Learning Support Assistants and Special Needs departments. As we begin to build relationships with individual pupils we can draw on some of the techniques we have heard about/ Later that term, another agrees, saying, 'aspects of special needs advice given earlier in the course fit slowly into place'. And there are, more often than one might have expected, more specific gains in terms of interns recognizing a cause of learning difficulty which had previously gone unnoticed. For example, a modern-languages intern commented: 'I noticed that a highly disruptive pupil seemed to have a visual problem. It turned out that he was very short sighted. This I feel must have affected his behaviour and it was looking out for this that the lectures had taught me. No one else in three years had noticed or knew about his problem/ Researching interns' responses to the series, it comes as no surprise that the two presentations on working with EBD children are the sessions interns across all curriculum areas consistently rate highly, with over 95 per cent giving them the highest ratings for both interest and value and nobody rating them low. In large part this is attributable to the quality of the presentations ('Well presented by a showman with flair!' as one intern enthusiastically commented), but it is also an indicator that classroom management is at the forefront of their concerns as beginning teachers and, most obviously, relates to worries about their ability to maintain order, to cope without confrontation and to teach what they hope to teach. Understanding behaviour difficulties and developing appropriate management strategies is, without any doubt, the major concern of beginning teachers; they know that if they cannot get that right then all else is wasted. Of course, curriculum tutors do spend much time with their
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students on class management, as do mentors in schools, but none has to deal with quite the range of unpredictable behaviours quite as frequently as the teacher in an EBD school. It appears from student comments that the behaviour management skills in frequent use in the EBD context carry over entirely into the mainstream secondary classroom. Comments such as The techniques I have learned for managing difficult children have been invaluable . . . and influenced my teaching with regard to being non-confrontational and recognizing secondary behaviour' are common in evaluations. Interns recognized them as'... sessions with lots of first-hand examples and practical advice' and frequently commented to the effect that 'Much of this was broadly applicable to all pupils so consequently very useful.' Above all, students want to hear from those who are working successfully in the areas they find most challenging and they want practical advice they can apply in their own classrooms. It would be a mistake, however, to think that the word 'practical' means such advice is given purely on a 'tips for teachers' basis; here, as elsewhere in the course, the need to establish a theoretical underpinning for action is essential. It is understanding behaviour which is the key, and such understanding does not come through the mechanical application of a particular set of rules in all circumstances. Although understanding behavioural difficulties and responding appropriately to them could be expected to be the most urgent aspect of the course in the eyes of the interns, it is perhaps less predictable that when asked what was the main area they felt was omitted from the series, interns responded strongly that they wanted something on how to work more productively with Learning Support Assistants in their own classrooms. They were motivated by the fact that they knew there was a valuable resource that they were under-using and that one of the reasons they were under-using it was their own slightly equivocal position as student teachers. There was also, of course, a realization that getting this aspect of their work right could have a significant effect on their classroom management. The addition of a further session with a head of a learning support unit and one of the school's LSAs was valuable in giving interns more confidence in this area.
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SPECIAL NEEDS IN THE WIDER INTERNSHIP SCHEME The lecture series is far from being the totality of the special needs component of the Oxford course. From the outset, the underlying principle of the Internship Scheme has been that it is not a 'theory into practice' model but a model of integration and partnership and it was on this basis that the special needs component of the course was developed. To complement the theoretical base and the practical examples offered by speakers in the series, it was felt necessary to offer as much practical involvement with the Special Needs and Learning Support departments of the schools as possible. Thus, although the Oxford PGCE is concerned primarily with the teaching of specific subjects at secondary level, all interns have contact with the special needs or learning support departments of their attachment schools from an early stage in the year and a schoolbased seminar on the work of the department is linked to the work on special needs in the university. In addition to working in their mainstream subject departments, many interns will spend some time each week working on a regular basis with children in a special needs/learning support context throughout the period of their attachment to their school. Interns make the point that the programme encourages them to become actively engaged with offering learning support in their own schools: I have become actively involved with the Learning Support Department primarily as a result of the Special Educational Needs programme. Working with individual pupils in the Learning Support, I have particularly concentrated on Life Skills engaging students in creating their own CVs and in mock interviews. I have enjoyed working in a lunch time homework club run by Learning Support. Worked in the 'drop-in clinic' which offers extra help. The engagement with SEN becomes a significant part of these interns7 teaching lives and many are drawn to a closer involvement as they realize the important truth that here is, as one intern put it, 'An intellectually challenging subject and a department with strategies like any other subject/ It is clear from many interns' responses that
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this recognition of the intellectual challenge offered by special needs is an important turning point in the way they view it. Initially, many tend to look for 'tips for teachers' but the more perceptive soon see that there are fundamental questions about behaviour, motivation, learning and the workings of the brain that underlie all aspects of special needs work. A significant number of interns choose to develop their dissertation in the area of special needs and work on it continuously throughout the year. INTENSIVE WORK IN SPECIAL NEEDS SETTINGS (THE 'ALTERNATIVE EXPERIENCE' WEEKS) In the course of the spring term the interns, in conjunction with their tutors, negotiate what is known as an Alternative Experience (AEA placement in another school for the last month of the year. This placement was intended not to be 'more of the same' but to offer those who wanted it an experience that would relate as closely as possible to their perceptions of what they needed and what would be of most use to them in their future careers. So, for example, an English student with a strong drama interest could work intensively with a good drama department for a month and, more importantly for our purposes, somebody who had developed a strong interest in special needs education could work exclusively with the staff and pupils of a special school or a learning support unit within a mainstream sc Each year some 20 to 30 interns at Oxford opt to be attached not only to good special needs/learning support units in mainstream schools but also to more specialist settings as diverse as the main LEA unit for autistic children, a city tutorial unit, schools for children with emotional and behavioural difficulties, a unit which integrates physically disabled children into mainstream school, and a variety of others. As far as is known, this is a distinctive feature and unique to the Oxford scheme. Thus, we now have a course model which looks like that shown in Figure 14.1. THE SPECIAL NEEDS PROGRAMME AND EXTENSIONS IN THE OXFORD INTERNSHIP SCHEME Not unusually, interns taking this option will have been particularly engaged by the special needs series of lectures in their first term and more closely involved than most in the special needs departments of their schools during their mainstream teaching attachment. They frequently, though by no means exclusively, have previous experience o
Special needs and the beginning teacher During up to fourteen joint school/university weeks attached two days per week to school, three days in university
Weekly 90-minute presentation on an aspect of SEN Seminar in school from SENCO and introduction to SEN/ learning support department
201
During up to fifteen weeks full-time attachment to same school
During four 'alternative experience' weeks
i
1\
^ Opportunities to work with SEN/learning support teachers and SEN pupils as well as on mainstream subject teaching
Opportunity to work full time with SEN pupils in a variety of specialist departments/ units
Opportunity to develop research-based dissertation on an aspect of SEN at attachment school Figure 14.1: The Special Needs programme and extensions in the Oxford Internship Scheme
working with children who have special needs. Sometimes they have done so as sixth-formers when they were themselves at school; sometimes they have worked with voluntary groups when at university; sometimes their route into teaching has been as mature students who have previously been learning support assistants in schools; and surprisingly often they are parents whose child has learning difficulties or students with a sibling who has special educational needs. Apart from the immediate value it seems that there is great potential value in offering sixth-formers and undergraduates the opportunity to work with children who have special needs. One of the key elements of internship is that interns in their mainstream school experience should, in Donald Mclntyre's words, be placed in: secure learning environments with learning tasks (especially those of teaching in schools) being carefully graduated in a flexible way so that interns are not overwhelmed by the complexity or other anxiety provoking characteristics of the tasks, but can instead approach them in a calm, rational, analytic way. (Mclntyre in Benton 1990)
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Interns will have completed twenty weeks in comprehensive schools before they are engaged in this close involvement with specialist schools or units and so they are, by now, fairly confident about their basic competence in the classroom. Nonetheless, it is important that just prior to the summer half-term these interns spend three days in the school to which they will be attached, working out the way in which they will be involved and how their particular expertise may best be utilized. They learn about the particular school and its children, seeing what resources are available and how they are used by the specialist teachers so that, when they begin working with the children after half-term, they are reasonably well-informed and confident. As with their previous mainstream teaching experience, it has to be a secure learning environment for the beginning teachers, and the engagement with the children has to be gradual. Similarly, every effort is made to place interns in pairs at the very least: one EBD school regularly takes six interns, concentrating particularly on Science and Maths specialists who bring a valued expertise. In some cases, the presenters of the lecture programme in the university and the contributors to this book are heads of the units to which some of the interns may be attached for their Alternative Experience. It is often the possibility of working with these speakers on their home ground that inspires the interns to ask for a placement in their unit. Again, another central tenet of Internship, namely a belief in integration and partnership, underlies this arrangement. The evaluation of the AE weeks special needs experience by interns over a number of years has been very positive. When asked what they had learned, one group of interns variously commented: I have learned the need for positive affirmation of pupils and their performance, for pre-empting discipline problems and averting potential problems and crises; that discipline is a positive thing when used carefully and how to handle pupils with emotional problems. (Intern at EBD school) I have learned a great deal about the range and variety of individual pupils' needs in the classroom. I was supporting several pupils with physical handicaps and now have some small insight into their needs and possible ways of dealing with them as a classroom teacher communicating effectively with support staff. (Intern at a specialist unit which integrates physically disabled children into the mainstream school)
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I have learned the value of patience, of valuing children as individuals; of seeing people as people rather than as 'patients' with 'symptoms'; the importance of a warm, 'human' atmosphere in order to develop the pupil's confidence and trust; the importance of valuing the individual. (Intern at a unit for autistic children) I have gained valuable insights into dealing with students who have emotional and behavioural difficulties and into dealing with individual students within mainstream schooling and my experience has helped me to focus on teaching strategies in a whole-class situation. (Intern at a tutorial unit for children excluded from their mainstream schools) The message from these and from many other similar assessments of the value of the attachment to a specialist school or unit seems clear. Interns learn to see the children as individuals as never before. They begin to understand and empathize with their difficulties; they see the importance of developing relationships, and they see the relevance of this experience to their teaching, not only of special needs children in their mainstream classrooms, but to their work with all the children they teach.
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Index
ability and achievement 75 advocacy 178-9 algebra 160 assertiveness 179 attendance 61 attention problems 190,191 attitudes to special needs 17 Barber, Michael 31-2 behaviour 65-6, 69-71 see also emotional and behavioural difficulties behaviour policy 60 behaviour targets 60-1 body language 63 bottom-up approach to teaching reading 117 braille 104,106 bubble model 146-8 calculators 165 cerebral palsy, and high ability 81-3 classroom management 50,197-8 for deaf pupils 96-7 for emotional and behavioural difficulties 62-72,197-8 for visually impaired pupils 103-8 Clay, Marie, Reading Recovery programme 118 Cloze activities 121-2 Code of Practice for the Identification and Assessment of Special Educational Needs 1,7-11,16,28,29-31,85-6 revision of 31-2 colour deficiency 107-8 common needs 4-5,19 communication 138,178-80
with deaf pupils 95-6 with visually impaired pupils 107 computers 124,145 concept maps 120 concepts, mathematical 155-6,168 critical reading 123 cross-over children 76-84 identification 84-5 provision for 85-7 curriculum 9-10,62 and differentiation 14-15,16-17,20 DARTs (Directed Activities Related to Texts) 121-2 deafness see hearing impairment definition of special needs 2-5 detention 61 differentiation, inclusive 12-27 discipline 202 double meanings 157-8 dyslexia, and high ability 77-8,190 Education Act 1944 2 Education Act 1981 2,3,171 Education (Handicapped Children) Act 1970 171 educational psychologists 7,85 emotional and behavioural difficulties 3-4,57-9,191 management 60-72,197-8 emotional differentiation 26-7 English, teaching of 47 English as an additional language (EAL) pupils 45,47,49-51,53-5 and mathematics 161-2 escalation of behaviour 69-72
212
Index
estimation 166-7 exclusion 16,61,190 failure, feelings of 141-2 family, emotional and behavioural difficulties and 58-9 feedback 143,176 fiction/non-fiction, and reading skills 113-14 finger tracing 135 fluency of writing 139 formulae, mathematical 159-60 graphs 162 'handicapping categories' 2 handwriting 139-41,133 hearing aids 90-3,96 hearing impairment 88-90,93-4 identifying problems 97-8 high-ability pupils, with special needs 4, 74-87 100-word test 119-20 incidental learning 127 in-class support 6 see also Learning Support Assistants inclusion 3,10,16,34,36-7,171 Learning Support Assistants and 188, 190-1 Individual Education Plans (IEPS) 8, 28-44,119,175,189 for cross-over children 86,87 and visual impairment 80,81 Individual Learning Promise (ILP) 32 individual needs 4,18,19-20,33,34,58,203 model 38-9 intelligence 74-5 interventions 66-8,177 IT 84,87,104 keyboards, use of for poor writers 141,145 language acquisition for deaf children 94,96 of mathematics 157-61 problems 45,47,142 learning for beginning teachers 20-2 difficulties 2-3,4,10,19
environment 19,47 model 21-6 needs 15,18-20,119 styles and strategies 20 Learning Support Assistants 6,125,138, 171-81 and high-ability pupils 82,83,84,86 and teachers 181-7 letter formation 140-1 letter strings 131 look, cover, write' 130-1 mainstream education 2,3,5-6,10,16, 171 mathematical grammar 158-60 mathematics 151,152,154,161 fear of 151,152,154 see also numeracy problems measuring 166-7 medical problems, and high-ability 79-80 mixed ability 16 mnemonics 134-5 monitoring 184 moral values 59 motivation 130,181,185,186 National Curriculum 9,10,16,47-8 needs, hierarchy of 38 see also individual needs; special needs non-fiction texts 113-14,120-1 Norwich, B. 4,18-19 note-taking 121,145,148 numeracy problems 151-70 Numeracy Strategy 152,161 nystagmus 101 O'Brien,!. 33 oral skills 141,143 organizing teaching writing 144-6 'outclusion' 34-6,37 outlines 145 outside agencies 7,8,174 Oxford University PGCE Internship Scheme 192-203 paragraphing 147,148 parents 7,11,48-9 partial sight 101,104,106 pastoral care 54 pedagogy, differentiation by 17-18
Index
213
percentages 165-6 PGCE programmes, special needs element 192-203 phonetics 93,117,118,131-2 physical disability, and high ability 83-4 plan-do-review model 40-2 potential levels of learning 20-1 prefixes/suffixes, in spelling 133-4 primary schools 53,119,137 process of learning 21-6 proportion 165-6 provision of special needs education 5-8
special needs 9-10,173-4,192 Oxford PGCE Internship Scheme 192-203 special schools 5 spelling 126-36,142 lists 126-7 strategies 129-36 staff morale 191 Statement of Special Needs 8,10,173 streaming 16 subtraction 164-5 symbols 158-9
ratio 165-6 readability of teaching materials 119-20, 123-4 reading 113-18,120-2 difficulties 111-25 for visually impaired pupils 105-6 schemes 117,118 relationship matrix 64 review, retain, rest and return 187-8 reviewing work 186-8 rewards 63,65,86,202 rules for learning spelling 128
teamwork 102-3,125 texts 123-5 top-down approach to teaching reading 116-17,118 transparency 42-3 triggers of challenging behaviours 69, 70-1
secondary schools, reading and writing in 112-14,119,138 self-esteem 127,118,186-7 SENCO (Special Educational Needs Coordinator) 6,8,86,98,119,173, 174,176 sentence writers 148-9 sequencing writing 144,149 Service for Hearing Impaired Pupils 95, 98 setting 16 skills of Learning Support Assistants 172, 173,176,177-81 of teachers 66,169 social difficulties 82 society, and emotional and behavioural difficulties 58-9 Special Educational Needs (Warnock Report) 2,4,7,11,171
understanding
121-2
visual impairment 100-1,103-8 high-ability 80-1 identification 102 Visual Impairment Service 102,104,109 vocabulary 123,142,144 voice, use of 63 volunteer helpers 6 Vygotsky, L. S. 20-1 Warnock Report 2,4,7,11,171 word processors 124,144-5 words within words 133 work-sheets 186 writing 137-50 frames 145-6 legibility 123 practice 138 and spelling 128,129,130,135 for visually impaired pupils 106 Zone of Proximal Development 21
