Singing and Communicating in English
In Memory of Maestro Luigi Ricci, my illuminator and mentor To my husband, Gary, and my children, Eric, Meredith, and Megan; your love and support have kept me balanced.
OXJFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS Oxford University Press, Inc., publishes works that further Oxford University's objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education. Oxford New York Auckland Cape Town Dar es Salaam Hong Kong Karachi Kuala Lumpur Madrid Melbourne Mexico City Nairobi New Delhi Shanghai Taipei Toronto With offices in Argentina Austria Brazil Chile Czech Republic France Greece Guatemala Hungary Italy Japan Poland Portugal Singapore South Korea Switzerland Thailand Turkey Ukraine Vietnam
Copyright © 2008 by Oxford University Press, Inc. Published by Oxford University Press, Inc. 198 Madison Avenue, New York, New York 10016 www.oup.com Oxford is a registered trademark of Oxford University Press All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior permission of Oxford University Press. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Singing and communicating in English : a singer's guide to English diction / Kathryn LaBouff. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-19-531138-9; 978-0-19-531139-6 (pbk.) 1. Singing—Diction. 2. English language—Phonetics. MT833.L132007 783'.043—dc22 2006030318
I. Title.
Recorded audio tracks (marked in text with and an exercise guide are available online at www.oup.com/us/singinginenglish; access with username Music5 and password Book 1745.
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SINGING and Communicating in
ENGLISH A Singer's Guideto English Diction
Kathryn LaBouff
OXFORD 2008
FOREWORD Renée Fleming
Kathryn LaBouff has developed an approach to singing in the English language which is wonderfully user-friendly, and which has surely saved much wear and tear on my voice. It is a technique that has empowered me with the knowledge and skills to bring a text to life and to be able to negotiate all of the sounds of the language with the least amount of effort. I have found her clever and creative use of substitute consonants or combinations of consonants in diction utterly delightful because they are surprising and because they work. These techniques have been equally useful when singing in foreign languages. I now apply these concepts to every language I sing in. We sopranos are not usually known to have good diction, particularly in our high range. I found that working with Kathryn improved my ability to be understood by an enormous percentage of the audience and caused me much less vocal fatigue than I would have experienced if left to my own devices. My artistic relationship with Kathryn LaBouff began while I was a student in the Juilliard Opera Center. She prepared the diction for Gian Carlo Menotti's opera Tamu, Tamu in which I sang the soprano role. Over the years I have worked with her on several other projects as well. She coached me in the roles of Rosina, in the premiere of The Ghosts of Versailles, and Ellen Orford, in Peter Grimes at the Metropolitan Opera. Kathryn prepared the diction and dialects for the arias on my CD / Want Magic, and was a supportive presence and advisor during the recording sessions. Her work with me and the rest of the cast of Andre Previn's A Streetcar Named Desire created an unusually positive response from members of the audience regarding our ability to be understood, an important aspect in any opera in English but most especially in a premiere. I have often told my colleagues enthusiastically of her interesting solutions to the frustrating problems of diction. I am thrilled that her techniques are now in print for all to benefit. Enjoy and be understood!
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PREFACE
Terrence MacNally, the wonderful playwright and librettist for the Broadway musical Master Class and the opera Dead Man Walking, gave the commencement address at the -milliard School in 1998. In his speech to the graduates he said: "Words on a page only exist in two dimensions, as do notes in a score. The arts we're talking about this morning— theater, music, dance—exist, happily, in three dimensions. We need you to bring them to life. I know I am not William Shakespeare, but a good actor, an honest actor, an artist, can make me sound like good McNally. And I'm very grateful." That is our fundamental job description as artists, isn't it—to make them grateful. Who are They? Not only the poet and the composer whose art our job is to re-create but the listeners in the audience whose hearts and souls we hope to touch; the arts administrators whose years of planning can come to fruition in a turn of a phrase; the producers and creative team whose collective visions are dependent upon your skills. By bringing the music and the texts to life and "into the third dimension" as Mr. McNally so brilliantly states, we serve the poet, we serve the composer, we serve the art, we create the art. Without us it is merely ink on a page. And when They are grateful, the art that is created will be sustained. The audience will return again and again for their sustenance. As fundamental and simple as this concept is, it is a daunting and illusive task. Why do even our best and most emotionally commited performances sometimes not reach past the footlights? Technique! Art is all about discipline and technique. Without it, the art can only be a fraction of what it could have been. Singing is such a stylized art form. Like ballet is to walking, singing is to talking. In essence it is a cultivated scream. And while one is screaming (beautifully), the thoughts expressed in the text need to be transmitted in slow motion. So that's what this book is about. It is about technique: the technique involved in working with this stylized art form in which texts need to be sustained over long phrases in extreme ranges and extreme volumes. It is about the technique of how to maneuver around all of the consonant-laden English language with its non-Italianate vowels and still
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PREFACE
sing it with real, honest vowel sounds beautifully. It is about the technique of transfering to the lyric line the nuances and expressive cadence of the language that is so instinctively expressed by native English speakers in everyday speech, but often sounds bland and emotionally detached in the performance of a song. In addition to offering techniques for "getting it across," I hope to offer an approach to singing in English that is singer-friendly and vocally beneficial. To my mind, there is no point in using an approach that ties you up in knots. My years as a singer and a voice teacher leave me with a mission to make the singer sing well in English. From my twenty years of work with professional singers in opera productions and my students at the Juilliard School, the Manhattan School of Music, and the Curtis Institute of Music, I have been able to try out my ideas on thousands of singers. If I asked something of them that vocally tied them up in knots, I immediately scrapped that idea and found some other way to get the text clear, expressive, and well sung. I spent three years in Rome in the studio of the belcanto opera coach Maestro Luigi Ricci, where I worked on my own roles as well as sat in on his coaching as a translator. Many of his approaches to phrasal doublings, legato connection, and technique of "Appoggio," which I have called "pulsing the phrase," I have transferred to the treatment of the English language. From my collaborative work on productions and recitals, I have concluded that there seem to be three specific English dialects that are most frequently requested by conductors and stage directors. They are American Standard, known in the American theater as Theatre Standard, used for North American repertoire; British Received Pronunciation, used for British works; and the hybrid dialect, Mid-Atlantic pronunciation, used for works of European origin that are not specifically British. Because a proficiency in these three dialects is most useful to singers, these are the three dialects I have focused on in this book. So—let's get on with the business of making Them grateful!
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I want to thank my wonderful students over the years for allowing me to try my ideas out on them. Having a full-year course to build a diction technique with them and then working with them throughout their professional careers has been one of my greatest joys. I want to thank all of the conductors, coaches, and singers who have been so supportive of my work and encouraged me to make this book a reality. I also want to thank my colleagues, Linda Jones at the Cleveland Institute of Music, Renée Santer at the Mannes College of Music, and Allison Voth at Boston University for their feedback after having taught from the manuscript of this book. I also want to thank Dawn Kasprow Wolski, Camille Zamora, and Stephen Paul Spears for their generous help with proofreading and editing the early manuscript versions. For this final version, I thank Alexander Sartakov for inputting all the musical examples into Sibelius, and Mateusz Wolski for technical support. Thanks to Dr. Catherine Sangster of the BBC for her guidance on usage of RP versus BBC English in current broadcast speech in the United Kingdom. Special thanks to dialect coaches Terry Besson and Gillian Lane-Plescia for their guidance on the English regional dialects. Thanks to Abe Jacobs, director of sound for the New York City Opera, for his guidance on microphone technique, and to Bob Taibbi, recording engineer at the Juilliard School, for his expertise in recording the texts, and to Barry Banks, Richard Suart, and Sir Thomas Allen for repertoire suggestions and applications from the United Kingdom. Special thanks to Marti Newland for guidance on source information for Gullah dialect. I thank the team at Oxford University Press: executive editor Suzanne Ryan, assistant editor Norm Hirschy, senior production editor Bob Milks, and Lynn Childress for copyediting and Jade Myers for preparing the illustrations. And finally I thank Dawn Wolski, my amazing assistant on this project. As a voice student at Manhattan School, she volunteered to edit the earlier manuscript for me. For this edition, she obtained all the publisher permissions, copyedited, formatted, edited, and inputted all the phonetics into the musical examples.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
To the many composers that I have contacted and worked with in developing lists of their works, I thank you for all of your valuable input. The repertoire lists have grown too large to be included in this book. They have led to a second book project focusing on the repertoires lists themselves. Though you are not included now, I know you will have even greater visibility in the near future.
CREDITS
I wish to thank the following publishers for their kind permission to reprint excerpts of their copyrighted works: "A Minor Bird" from The Poetry of Robert Frost, edited by Edward Connery Lathem. Copyright © 1928, 1969 by Henry Holt and Company. Copyright © 1956 by Robert Frost. Reprinted by permission of Henry Holt and Company, LLC. "Buddy on the Nightshift" by Oscar Hammerstein II and Kurt Weill. Copyright © 1981 by Coda Publishing (administered by European American Music Corp.) and Bambalina Music Publishing Company (administered by Williamson Music). International Copyright Secured. All Rights Reserved. Used By Permission. "Do You Know the Land?" from Little Women by Mark Adamo. Copyright © 1998 by G. Schirmir, Inc. (ASCAP). International Copyright Secured. All Rights Reserved. Reprinted by permission. "Every Ranch Hand I Ever Knew" from Of Mice and Men by Carlisle Floyd. © Copyright 1971 by Carlisle Floyd. Copyright renewed. Boosey & Hawkes, Inc., Sole Agent. Reprinted by permission of Boosey & Hawkes, Inc. "Green Finch and Linnet Bird" from Sweeney Todd. Words and music by Stephen Sondheim. © 1978 Rilting Music, Inc. All Rights Administered by WB Music Corp. All Rights Reserved. Used by Permission of Alfred Publishing Co., Inc. Laurie's Aria from The Tender Land by Aaron Copland. © Copyright 1954, 1956 by the Aaron Copland Fund for Music, Inc. Copyright renewed. Boosey & Hawkes, Inc., Sole Publisher & Licensee. Reprinted by permission of Boosey and Hawkes, Inc. "Love Too Frequently Betrayed" from The Rake's Progress by Igor Stravinsky. © Copyright 1951 by Boosey & Son (London) Ltd. Copyright Renewed. Reprinted by permission of Boosey & Hawkes, Inc. Lucretia's Aria from Rape of Lucretia by Benjamin Britten. © Copyright 1946,1947 by Hawkes and Son (London) Ltd. Copyright renewed. Reprinted by permission of Boosey & Hawkes, Inc. "Lullaby" from The Consul by Gian Carlo Menotti. Copyright © 1950 (Renewed) by G. Schirmir, Inc. (ASCAP). International Copyright Secured. All Rights Reserved. Text reprinted by permission. "Lullaby" by Thomas Pasatieri. © by James Agee, permission of The Wiley Agency.
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CREDITS
"Manhattan Joy Ride" by Paul Sargent. Copyright ©1946 (Renewed) by G. Schirmir, Inc. (ASCAP) International. Copyright Secured. All Rights Reserved. Reprinted by permission. "Must the Winter Come So Soon?" From Vanessa by Samuel Barber and Gian Carlo Menotti. Copyright © 1957 (Renewed) by G. Schirmir, Inc. (ASCAP) International Copyright Secured. All Rights Reserved. Text reprinted by kind permission. "No Word from Tom" from The Rake's Progress by Igor Stravinsky. © Copyright 1951 by Boosey & Son (London) Ltd. Copyright Renewed. Reprinted by permission of Boosey & Hawkes, Inc. "Oh, Lady Be Good!" Music and Lyrics by George Gershwin and Ira Gershwin. © 1924 WBMusic Corp. (Renewed) Gershwin®, George Gershwin® and Ira Gershwin™ are trademarks of Gershwin Enterprises. All Rights Reserved Used By Permission. "See How They Love Me" by Ned Rorem. Copyright © 1958 by Henmar Press. Used By Permission. All Rights Reserved. "Somewhere" from West Side Story by Leonard Bernstein, Stephen Sondheim. © 1957, copyright renewed, Leonard Bernstein Music Publishing, LLC. All rights administered by UniversalPolyGram International Publishing, Inc. / ASCAP. Used By Permission. All Rights Reserved. "Sure on This Shining Night" by Samuel Barber. © by James Agee, permission of The Wiley Agency. "The Black Swan" from The Medium by Gian Carlo Menotti. Copyright © 1947 (Renewed) by G. Schirmir, Inc. (ASCAP). International Copyright Secured. All Rights Reserved. Text reprinted by kind permission. "The Crucifixion" by Samuel Barber. From The Romanesque Lyric: Studies in its Background and Development from Petronius to the Cambridge Songs, 50-1050 by Philip Schuyler Allen. Copyright © 1928 by the University of North Carolina Press. Used by permission of its publisher. "The Idle Gift" from Five Songs for Tenor and Piano by Gian Carlo Menotti. Copyright © 1983 by G. Schirmir, Inc. (ASCAP) International Copyright Secured. All Rights Reserved. Reprinted by permission. "There Is a Garden" from Trouble in Tahiti by Leonard Bernstein. © 1957, copyright renewed, Leonard Bernstein Music Publishing, LLC. All right administered by Universal-PolyGram International Publishing, Inc. / ASCAP Used By Permission. All Rights Reserved. "Things Change" from Little Women by Mark Adamo. Copyright © 1998 by G. Schirmir, Inc. (ASCAP) International Copyright Secured. All Rights Reserved. Reprinted by permission. "Tom Rakewell's Aria" from The Rake's Progress by Igor Stravinsky. © Copyright 1951 by Boosey & Son (London) Ltd. Copyright Renewed. Reprinted by permission of Boosey & Hawkes, Inc. "What's the Use of Wondrin'" by Richard Rodgers and Oscar Hammerstein II. Copyright © 1945 by Williamson Music. Copyright Renewed. International Copyright Secured. All Rights Reserved. Used By Permission. "Where the Music Comes From" from 13 Songs by Lee Hoiby. Copyright © 1990 by G. Schirmir, Inc. (ASCAP) International Copyright Secured. All Rights Reserved. Reprinted by permission. "Who Is There to Love Me?" from A Hand of Bridge by Samuel Barber and Gian Carlo Menotti. Copyright ©1959 (Renewed) by G. Schirmir, Inc. (ASCAP). International Copyright Secured. All Rights Reserved. Reprinted by permission. Tom Sails Away by Charles Ives. Copyright 1935, Merion Music, Inc. Bryn Mawr, PA 19010. Text reprinted by kind permission of Carl Fischer, LLC, on behalf of Merion Music, Inc.
CONTENTS
Foreword by Renée Fleming v CHAPTER 1
Introduction to Diction
Diction: What Is It?
3
3
Why Do Native English Speakers Need English Diction Study? 3 What Is the Ultimate Goal of English Lyric Diction Study? Why Is This Goal Often Not Realized?
4
Expectations of the English-Speaking Audience What Is Neutral English?
5
6
References for English Pronunciation Approach to English Diction Study
7 8
Introduction to the International Phonetic Alphabet How to Use This Book
9
10
The International Phonetic Alphabet for American English Exercises CHAPTER 2
14
Communicating the Thought
17
Communication through Appropriate Stress Syllabic Stress within Words
18
Stress/Sense within the English Phrase The Hierarchy of Stress
21
Stress versus Interpretation The Division of Syllables
25 26
Exercises 27 CHAPTER 3
Introduction to Vowels
31
Preparation for Vowel Production The Vowel Chart
35
4
31
20
17
11
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CONTENTS
Eliminating Glottal Attacks
36
Exercise Drills for Glottal Attack Elimination Easy Onset Exercises CHAPTER 4
38
The Fronting Vowels
[i] Production Exercises
45
[i] Production Exercises
43
43 47
49
[e] Production 50 Exercises
52
[æ] Production Exercises
53
55
Review of Front Vowels 55 [a] Production 56 Exercises CHAPTER 5
57
The Backing Vowels
[u]/[ju] Production Exercises
65 66
69
[D] Production CHAPTER 6
63
64
[o] Production [o] Production Exercises
59
61
[u] Production Exercises
70
The Mixed Vowels [A]/[9] Production Exercises
59
71
71
74
|>]/[e] Production 75 Exercises CHAPTER 7
77
Diphthongs
79
[ai] Production 81 Drill 83 Exercises
83
[ei] Production 84 Exercises
85
[01] Production Exercises
87
86
38
XV
CONTENTS
[ou] Production Exercises
89
90
[au] Production Exercises
91
92
The R-Colored Diphthongs Exercises
94
Triphthongs Exercises CHAPTER 8
93
96
97
The Three Semi-Vowel Glides
Vowels or Consonants? [w] Production
99
99
102
[j] Production
103
[j] Production
105
Drill for Alleviating Trilled R's 108 Exercises CHAPTER 9
109
Introduction to Consonants The English Consonants Exercises
CHAPTER 10
115
11 7
The Plosives
119
[b]/[p] Production Exercises
11 3
120
122
[d]/[t] Production
123
Practice Drill 125 Exercises
126
[g]/[k] Production Exercises
Implosions
126
130
131
[d3][tf] Production Exercises
133
134
Save Breath for Shadow Vowels Exercises CHAPTER 11
138
The Fricatives
141
Merges: The Legato Builder [v]/[f] Production Exercises
135
141
143
145
[z]/[s] Production
146
Drills for Overcoming Lisping S and Z
148
CONTENTS
XVI
Expressive Doublings of the Fricatives Exercises
[3]/[f] Production Exercises
154
155
[a]/ [6] Production Exercises
CHAPTER 12
157
159
[h]/[m] Production Exercises
149
151
160
164
The Nasal Consonants Plus the Lyrical L
[m] Production
167
167
Drill 168 [n] Production Drill
169
170
[rj] Production Drill
172
Drill
174
Exercises
1 71
177
Sing through and Resonate the Nasal Consonants [1] Production
1 79
179
Drill 181 Exercises CHAPTER 13
182
The Owner's Manual: Connecting the Dots
The Legato Connection: Connect It Up! Implosions and Merges Exercises
187
190
Expressive Doublings: Get It Off the Printed Page! Pulsing the Phrase 202 Exercises CHAPTER 14
185
185
192
203
Singing in the British Dialect: "The Rain in Spain"
International Phonetic Alphabet for British Received Pronunciation IPA Drill
208
211
British Received versus American Standard Rules for British Received Pronunciation Exercises
216
214 215
207
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contents
[D] Production Exercises
218
[ou] versus [su] Exercises
21 7 219
220
The Reduced R Colourings Exercises
222
Shall We D-ah-nce? Exercises
221
223
226
Usage of the "Liquid U" in Historic versus Modern RP Unstressed Words and Syllables Stress Patterns
231
234
Articulating the Letter T in RP Exercises CHAPTER 15
236
237
The Mid-Atlantic Dialect
The Default Dialect [a]
229
229
Trilled and Flipped R's Exercise
228
241
241
242
The Mid-Atlantic Dialect Overview
243
Repertoire Suggestions for Mid-Atlantic Pronunciation Rules for Mid-Atlantic Pronunciation Exercises
244
245
246
[a] Production
247
Exercise Drills 248 Exercises
250
Afterword: The Finesse Factor A Final Cautionary Note
255
255
A Word about Interdependence
256
Strive for the Third Dimension
256
APPENDIX 1
The International Phonetic Alphabet for English
APPENDIX 2
Three-Dialect Overview
APPENDIX 3
Regional Dialects Found in Vocal Repertoire Glossary
263
291
Music Publishers Guide
305
265
259
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SINGING AND COMMUNICATING IN ENGLISH
Selected Bibliography and Resources Index of Song Texts General Index
309
315
319
Exercise Guide
Available online at www.oup.com/us/singinginenglish
Singing and Communicating in English: A Singer's Guide to English Diction is an Oxford Web Music title, and this icon indicates examples for which companion audio files are available online at www.oup.com/ us/singinginenglish. For more information on Oxford Web Music, visit www.oxfordwebmusic.com.
Singing and Communicating in English
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CHAPTER ONE Introduction to Diction
Diction: What Is It? "Diction," according to Webster's International Dictionary, is the execution of text with regard to pronunciation, enunciation, and expression. The study of sung speech may be separated into these three distinct areas: Pronunciation: The cultivation of sung speech that is free from regionalisms and is easily understood by the audience. Enunciation: The study of the physiology of speech sounds in order to deliver the vocal text with ease, clarity, and minimal tension. Expression: The communication of the meaning and emotion of a vocal text within the parameters of the musical setting given to us by the composer. Before we begin to tackle all of this, it is important to answer several questions that many whose native language is English may have.
Why Do Native English Speakers Need English Diction Study? If we are native speakers, we tend to be very careless with our language. Since English is easy for us to speak and understand, we assume our facility with it will automatically be transferred to our singing in English. As native speakers, we focus usually on the ideas that we are trying to communicate, not on the specific sounds that make up the words we are using to express ourselves. For most of us, little time is spent analyzing the specific vowel sounds and consonant sounds. If we are to sing effectively in English, we must treat
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the English language with as much care and precision as we give the foreign languages in which we sing. The distinct vowels, of which there are 16, must be very clear and precise when they are sustained in music. In everyday speech, vowel precision is not a requirement for intelligibility. But when a word must be sustained musically in slow motion, it is very important that the vowel sound is precise or else no one will know what we are singing about!
What Is the Ultimate Goal of English Lyric Diction Study? The principal goal of lyric diction is communication. For an English-speaking public, operas performed in their vernacular, whether the original language or in translation, can be profoundly moving. With effective English diction, we have the unique opportunity to have an immediate communicative connection with the audience that is not possible with works in foreign languages.
Why Is This Coal Often Not Realized? There are many factors involved. The absolute essentials of effective communication are: 1. You must be heard. 2. You must be understood. If either of these two does not occur, much of the connection with the audience is lost. If the voice does not carry over the orchestra because of heavy orchestration, problems with staging, or positioning on the stage, the singer will not be heard well enough to be an effective communicator. These are some of the many factors creating problems in reaching the goal of effective communication. However, some of these are beyond the control of the singer. Assuming that we can be heard, there are still many things to consider that impede our communication of the text with our audience. Perhaps the fault of non-communication lies with one of the following: 1. An overwhelming concern on the singer's part for producing beautiful tones and little concern for the projection of the text. Of course, the voice needs to be the number one concern for a classical singer, but beautiful singing with muddy diction is not as exciting for the listener as beautiful singing in which the text is also
CHAPTER ONE Introduction to Diction
clear. Actually, muddy diction can result in muddy singing. The techniques of beautiful singing and good diction need to go hand in hand. Rarely does a singer sing only vowel sounds. In every language, singing almost always involves negotiating around the consonants. 2. The transference of foreign pronunciations into the English language rather than singing English vowels. This is called "singerese." This has consciously or unconsciously slipped into the English diction of almost all singers at one time or another, whether out of habit or choice. Even if vowels need to be modified for vocal reasons, the modifications should not be detectable to the audience. English vowels must always "read" as real and honest to the listener. 3. A gross inconsistency among performers in any kind of standard pronunciation of the same text within the same cast and production. Often, some singers will be singing in several different regional American dialects while the others are singing in a British dialect. 4. An almost cavalier assumption on the part of some performers and administrators of musical organizations that since this is the vernacular, English speakers already have an "inborn skill and sensitivity to singing in English" and therefore need give no further attention to its communicative delivery. This would never be the case for classically trained actors. Sadly, this is often the case with singers.
Expectations of the English-Speaking Audience The English-speaking audience has a very different expectation for the musical performances it hears in English from a performance in a foreign language. They expect and want to understand most of the text on first hearing. Not all of the audience members have grown up listening to opera and therefore come to a classical music performance with very little background in the work, its text, and its plot. If we hope to forge a connection with the younger generation, maintain, and even build opera and concert attendance, the text needs to be clear and communicative. Our fast-paced, stressful modern lifestyle is partly to blame. Rarely do we have the time or energy to come prepared to a concert or opera by having previously read the libretto and familiarized ourselves with the music. For these reasons, we need the musical exposure to classical music performances to be very accessible and "audience-friendly." The text must be clear and intelligible on first hearing. Of course, 100 percent intelligibility of the text is virtually impossible. With heavy orchestration and words set in extremely high and low vocal ranges, some of the words will
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SINGING AND COMMUNICATING IN ENGLISH
inevitably be lost. But 90 to 95 percent of the text clarity is realistic and definitely possible for singers trained with good diction knowledge and technique. In this book, we will strive to achieve 90 to 95 percent intelligibility in English lyric diction. To that end, we must consider these things. 1. Neutral Pronunciation: The standardization of English pronunciation for communication with the majority of the audience. This is accomplished through the study and knowledge of neutral pronunciation of American English and British English, one that is free of regionalisms and that conforms to the norms of the theatrical stage and public usage—that is, the pronunciation of news broadcasters, television actors, and national mass media performers. 2. Physiological Clarification: The clarification physiologically of the production of the speech sounds of the English language and the release of tensions of everyday speech that will aid in freer vocalism. 3. Study of the English Cadence: The innate accents of inflection of the English language, which leads not only to communication but also to expressive delivery of the language.
What Is Neutral English? Neutral English in North America is called American Standard, or AS. It is a pronunciation of North American English that is most recognizable and understandable to the majority of North Americans. Neutral English in the United Kingdom is known as Received Pronunciation, or RP. Historic forms of RP are used in classical theater and eighteenth- and nineteenth-century opera. Modern RP is used by the broadcasters on BBC 1 and 2 and has been determined to be the most easily accessible to the listening public. The current trend in the United Kingdom seems to be use of RP colored with and inclusive of some of the regional pronunciation of the broadcaster. The far-reaching influence of the mass media has resulted in instant communication of news and world events to all parts of the English-speaking world. Even with some inclusion of regionalism, news broadcasters and other public speakers have cultivated a neutral speech pronunciation that bridges regional speech barriers and facilitates easier communication with this broad area of population. This is not to imply that neutral pronunciation has greater merit than any of the regional dialects. It is also a dialect, but one without any regionalisms. It is, however, the dialect that is used by trained speakers and performers for public usage. The way we speak
CHAPTER ONE Introduction to Diction
English regionally is part of our personal identity. It is something that should be used and maintained in our everyday speech. However, when we are speaking or performing in a public forum, neutral English should be used, so as to erase regional barriers and communicate most effectively with the most people. In this book, we will focus on three dialects that are most readily used by professional singers. 1. American Standard: used for North American repertoire. 2. Received Pronunciation: both the historic and modern forms of RP that are used for repertoire by composers from the British Isles. 3. Mid-Atlantic Dialect: a hybrid of North American and British pronunciation that blends the two dialects. It is frequently used in oratorio and works of European origin that are not specifically British.
References for English Pronunciation American Standard Pronunciation The Pronouncing Dictionary of American English, John S. Kenyon and Thomas A. Knott, editors. All entries are listed in IPA. The preferred pronunciation for American Standard, AS, is listed first, followed by variant regional differences. The NBC Handbook of Pronunciation, revised and updated by Eugene Ehrlich and Raymond Hand, Jr. Used as a reference book by broadcasters, this is an excellent reference for current words and foreign words found in English. Unfortunately, it has no listings in IPA. Longman Dictionary of American English, edited by J. C. Wells. This is an excellent teaching dictionary for English as a foreign language. Listings are in General American. Excellent quick reference guides are scattered throughout. Oxford Dictionary of Pronunciation for Current English, edited by Clive Upton, William A. Kretzshmar, Jr., and Rafal Konopka. This is excellent for both American and British current pronunciation. Good for the General American Dialect, colloquial American usage.
British Received Pronunciation The Cambridge English Pronouncing Dictionary, edited by Peter Roach and James Hartman. This is the new seventeenth edition of the original dictionary listed below. It is an excellent dictionary for British Received Pronunciation. It lists both RP and American pronunciations; however, it is not a clear guide for American Standard pronunciation. The determination of what is considered American Standard is far clearer in the Kenyon and Knott Pronouncing Dictionary listed above. It comes with an interactive CD-ROM.
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Everyman's English Pronouncing Dictionary, edited by Daniel Jones. The basis for the Cambridge Dictionary listed above, it is an excellent source of historic British Received Pronunciation. It is very helpful for the Baroque and Classical repertoire. Unfortunately, it is out of print. Longman Pronouncing Dictionary, edited by J. C. Wells. Developed as a teaching tool for English as a foreign language programs, this is a very clear dictionary with excellent informational guides scattered throughout. It has an accompanying CD-ROM. Oxford Dictionary for Pronunciation for Current English, edited by Clive Upton, William A. Kretzschmar, Jr., and Fafal Konopka. It is an excellent source for modern RP and colloquial American English.
Mid-Atlantic Pronunciation The vowel sounds for Mid-Atlantic pronunciation are generally American vowels with the r-colorings lessened. Use of flipped and rolled R's is also frequent. The use of the sources for both the American Standard and British Received Pronunciations will be helpful. Since Mid-Atlantic is not a spoken dialect but rather a hybrid pronunciation used to blend AS and RP, no dictionaries are found for this pronunciation.
Approach to English Diction Study Most people learn a language through imitation by trial and error. A more accurate way to learn pronunciation of a language is through phonetics, the scientific study of speech sounds and their formation. Ear training is important; we first must be able to hear the sounds within ourselves correctly. But it is not enough to drill the sounds through rote imitation. Minute exactness is required in lyric diction because the sounds are sustained for a much longer time than when spoken. They must be absolutely correctly produced for communicative clarity and to avoid vocal tension. Many singers find singing in English the most stressful vocally. This is often the fault of transference of improper speech production into their singing. As a general characteristic, we are laconic, tense-jawed speakers with little tongue and lip independence when producing the speech sounds. Before we begin in depth, we must familiarize ourselves with the actual sounds we will be dealing with. The most efficient way to do this is through knowledge of the International Phonetic Alphabet.
CHAPTER ONE Introduction to Diction
Introduction to the International Phonetic Alphabet All spoken languages are made up of sounds. Most languages have unphonetic characteristics, that is, the words are not pronounced the way they are spelled. This is especially true of English. For example, the words, "rough," "dough," and "through" are all spelled with the same vowel combination but are pronounced with three different vowel sounds. This poem sums up just how difficult English can be to learn and pronounce! When the English tongue we speak, Why is break not rhymed with freak? Will you tell me why it's true We say sew but likewise few; And the maker of a verse Cannot cap his horse with worse ? Beard sounds not the same as heard; Cord is different from word. Cow is cow but low is low;
Shoe is never rhymed with foe. Think of hose and dose and lose; And think of goose and yet of choose. Think of comb and tomb and bomb; Doll and roll and home and some; And since pay is rhymed with say, Why not paid with said, I pray? We have blood and food and good; Mould is not pronounced like could. Wherefore done but gone and lone ? Is there any reason known? And, in short, it seems to me Sounds and letters disagree. (Anonymous, "Our Queer Language")
The International Phonetic Alphabet, known as the IPA, is a pronouncing alphabet that indicates the exact sounds of all languages regardless of their spelling. It was devised in 1888 by a group of European scientists and linguists.
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1. It is made up of conventional letters from the Roman alphabet plus some new symbols. 2. Each letter of the alphabet equals one sound and always the same sound. 3. All letters are enclosed in brackets [ ] to distinguish them from normal language spellings. 4. The IPA, or the International Phonetic Alphabet, is a key to all languages and is therefore a perfect tool for singers who must be able to switch easily back and forth between the pronunciations of several languages. For example, the same [u] "oo" vowel sound in the words "food," "jewel," and "wound" is the same sound as in the words "ruhe" in German, "luce" in Italian, and "douce" in French. 5. Here is a vowel comparison for English, German, Italian, and French. All four languages use the Roman alphabet and have the same five vowel letters: "a," "e," "i," "o," "u." However, the same five vowel letters represent a different number of vowel sounds in each language: Italian has 7 vowels using these letters. German has 14 vowels, including unlauts and open and closed vowels. French has 14 vowels, including nasals and mixed vowels. English has 16 vowels, including diphthongs.
How to Use This Book This book focuses on three different dialects: American Standard (AS), Received Pronunciation (RP), and Mid-Atlantic (MA) pronunciation. You may choose to work with AS at the beginning of the book and continue straight on through, or start directly with RP or MA found at the end of the book. For the purpose of clarity, these three dialects have been dealt with separately throughout the book. Although the book begins with American Standard pronunciation, it is not necessary to focus on this pronunciation first. The chapters in the middle of this text, chapters 2 through 13, focus on the production of consonants and vowels and are applicable to all three dialects. The treatment of the text within the context of the musical setting for expression and musicality again applies to all three pronunciations. The specifics of British Received Pronunciation and Mid-Atlantic pronunciation are found in chapters 14 and 15 at the end of the book. If you are a British or British Commonwealth speaker, you may want to familiarize yourself first with the International Phonetic Alphabet as it applies to the British Received Pronunciation. It is found in chapter 14 on page 208. Once you have gone through chap-
CHAPTER ONE Introduction to Diction
ter 14, continue on with chapter 2. Chapters 2 through 13 will contain applications and texts for both American and British English. Throughout all the chapters, American texts are treated in American Standard and the British texts are treated in Received Pronunciation and Mid-Atlantic pronunciation. If you are a North American English speaker, just continue on in chapter 1 to learn the IPA as it applies to American English speech sounds. Chapters 2-13 will contain applications and texts for both American and British English. The American texts are treated in American Standard pronunciation and the British texts are treated in Received Pronunciation and Mid-Atlantic pronunciation. An Exercise Guide with phonetic transcriptions and applications for all the exercises and drills can be found on the companion website.
IT'S DECISION TIME!! FOR
IPA for American English
IPA for British English
Continue below
Go to page 208
On to the IPA .. . !!
The International Phonetic Alphabet for American English Consonants The following symbols are identical to the letters of our English (Roman) alphabet:
[b], [d], [f], [g], [h], [k], [1], [m], [n], [p], [s], [t], [v], [w], [z]
The symbols below are new symbols added because no corresponding symbols exist in the Roman alphabet: Symbol
Key Words
[rj]
(ng)
in
sing, think
[6]
(th)
in
thin, thirst
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Symbol
Key Words (th) (hw)
in
thine, this
in
whisper, when
in
y_ou, y_es
(sh)
in
she, sure
(ch)
in
choose, church
in
vision, 'azure*
in
George, joy
in
red, remember, every (the burred r)
Vowels Symbol
Key Words
(ah)
in
father, hot
(eh)
in
wed, many, bury
(ih) (ee)
in
hit, been, busy
in
me, chief, feat, receive
(ee)
in
pretty_, lovely_
in
cat, marry, ask, charity
in
too, wound, blue, juice
in
view, beautiful, usual, tune
in
book, bosom, cushion, full
(oo)
(oh) (aw) (er)
in
obey, desolate, melody (unstressed syllables only)
in
awful, call, daughter, sought
in
learn, burn, rehearse, journey (stressed syllables only)
(er)
in
father, doctor, vulgar, elixir (unstressed syllables only)
(uh) (uh)
in
hum, blood, trouble, judge (stressed syllables)
in
sofa, heaven, nation, joyous (unstressed syllables)
* See alternate pronunciation and stress pattern in RP. ** The use of rolled [R] and flipped R's [r] is found in the British RP and Mid-Atlantic dialects. They should not be used in American Standard pronunciation. t
[3-] and [a--] are the r-colored vowels characteristic of American Standard pronunciation, AS.
CHAPTER ONE Introduction to Diction
Diphthongs Symbol
Key Words in
night, buy, sky_
in
day, break, reign
in
boy, voice, toil
in
no, slow, reproach
in
now, about, doubt
in
air, care, there
in
ear, dear, here, tier
in
pour, four, soar, o'er
in
sure, tour, poor
in
are, heart, garden
Triphthongs Symbol
Key Words in
fire, choir, admire
in
our, flower, tower
Listed below are some frequently used words that are transcribed into the International Phonetic Alphabet; American Standard pronunciations are listed. sing
song
singer
word
would
wonder
walk
war
whisper
jaw church
judge
joyous
choose
children
this
thou
thine
bear
beard
burden
dawn
double
darkness
new
nuisance
numerous
Now give these exercises a try. (Note that the phonetic characters in exercises and text throughout the book are in different fonts and some appear slightly different from each other in the two fonts.)
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EXERCISES IPA Drill 1. Change the following words in IPA symbols into English spellings:
2. Change the following English words into corresponding IPA symbols: charm
zephyr
pensive
earth
flood
anoint
CHAPTER ONE Introduction to Diction
bought
vision
winter
once
hatch
giant
absurd
year
passion
enough
usage
difficult
younger
languish
beautiful
pronounce
worthy
technical
3. Write your name in IPA symbols 4. Find a short paragraph from a newspaper or magazine and transcribe it into phonetics.
5. Change the following texts in IPA into English spellings: American Standard pronunciation:
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2.
CHAPTER TWO Communicating the Thought
Through my years of working with singers, I have found that the singing of exact vowels and correct pronunciation is of the utmost importance; however, in order to communicate the text to the audience, of even greater importance is the correct application of the natural stress and inflection patterns of the English language. If you have had the experience of trying to understand a person speaking to you with a thick foreign accent, you have probably dealt with the difficulties about to be described. If a non-native English speaker speaks to us and most of the grammatically stressed words are properly emphasized, we can understand them. However, if they speak with almost exact vowels but their "emPHAsis is on the wrong syLLAble," we have to re-translate, putting the syllabic accents right before we comprehend what they are saying. The adherence to the correct stress and inflection patterns of English, both syllabically within the words and within phrases, seems to be primary to language clarity and communication. For this reason, I will discuss appropriate stress first.
Communication through Appropriate Stress For native English speakers, it is second nature to communicate clearly and effectively in conversational speech. Unless we mumble or drop the ends of our phrases, usually we can be understood. Because it is second nature to us, we probably have never analyzed just how we communicate through our language. If we hope to successfully transfer our abilities in
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spoken English to sung English, we need to take the time to understand how we communicate, listen to, and process text. The study and understanding of the innate cadence or inflection patterns of the English language is imperative for effective lyric communication. Rarely as listeners do we listen to every word that a speaker is saying. Instead, we instinctively listen for key words and phrases in order to exact the meaning of the person's speech. Our ears are so tuned to listening for the stressed syllables within a single word as well as the stressed words within a phrase that if the syllabic or phrasal stress is incorrect, we often have to re-process the words, mentally adding the correct stresses in order to comprehend the meaning. When a person with a thick foreign accent speaks, if the cadence or stress patterns are correct, we will still easily understand him regardless of his inaccurate vowels or consonants. However, if the vowels and consonants are accurate but the stress and inflection are wrong, it will be very difficult for us to comprehend. Let's analyze the stress patterns of English.
Syllabic Stress within Words The weak and strong pulses within words in English are an integral part of the language. When all the syllables are stressed (or conversely, unstressed) within a word, even if the pronunciation is precise, the words are often not understood. A syllable can be an entire word (sing) or a subdivision of a word with a single vowel sound (re-hearse). The listener does not listen to individual speech sounds but rather recognizes the syllabic stress within a word. Stress can occur in all positions in English words. There can always be found a primary stress, sometimes a secondary stress also, and occasionally a word will contain a double primary stress. Primary stress is indicated by an accent mark above and before the stressed syllable ('), while secondary stress is indicated by an accent mark before and below the syllable (,). Primary Stress
Primary + Secondary Stress
Double Stress
'mu-sic
,ad-ver-'tise-ment (AS)
'sun-'rise
re-'mem-ber
,re-cog-'ni-tion
'rose-'bud
in-'flec-tion
,cha-rac-te-'ris-tic
'diph-'thong
In general, the majority of words have only one primary stress. The predominance of a weak/strong stress pattern within English words is what makes English unique among the lyric languages.
CHAPTER TWO Communicating the Thought
The Unstressed Neutral Vowel In order to energize the strongly accented syllables with sufficient stress, strength must be taken away from weak syllables. We do this by shortening and neutralizing the weak syllables by the use of the [9] schwa vowel. For example, with the word "problem," we would pronounce the second syllable with a [9] vowel [piabtam] in AS or [paobbm] in RP rather than with an [e] vowel [pja/oblem]. If it were pronounced like the second version, "problem" would sound to our ears like a double stressed word and sound like the German "kein pro'blem" rather than English. This neutralizing of the weak vowel does not occur in the Romance languages and appears only in a limited fashion in German with the neutral schwa occurring in weak final syllables. EXAMPLES
English
Italian
'aria
'aria [aria]
a'merican
a'merican
Though unstressed, the Italian vowels do not become weaker and neutralized. The Italian vowels remain pure and full while the English vowels shift to the reduced schwa vowel to accommodate the stressed syllable.
RULE The unstressed syllables »n English should be pronounced with a neutral schwa [0] vowel or one of the possible substitutions
EXAMPLES
heaven motion melody
or possible or possible or possible
for schwa. for schwa. for schwa.
In other words, as singers we have several vowels choices when singing the unstressed syllables of English.
DIAGRAM 2.1
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In many instances, the [a] vowel may seem like too dark or dull a vowel color for certain syllables. In this case, [i], [u], [e], or [o] may be substituted. The bottom line is tha it must sound natural and normal.
RULE When there are two adjacent unstressed syllables in a word, the use of a [a] vowel as well as one of the substitute vowels is preferable to two adjacent [a] vowels.
For example, beautiful, [bjutiful] or [bjutifal], when sustained with any duration, would command the listener's attention more than [bjutafal] because of the variety of adjacent vowel sounds. The choice of the substitute vowel will depend on the individual preference of the artist and the vocal ease of certain vowels in specific ranges. For example, in the higher tessitura, the more closed and rounded vowel substitutions [i] or [u] would perhaps be easier to negotiate. No matter which schwa substitution you choose, remember that it must sound normal to the listener's ear. If it sounds modified or distorted, it will only confuse the listener and sabotage your efforts.
Tips for Vocal Ease
In the passaggio, try using [u] for the schwa substitute as in a word like "heav[u]n." The lip rounding adds more head resonance and comfort. In the lower register, try using [i] or [e] as a schwa substitute for more point and resonance.
Stress/Sense within the English Phrase Similar to the strong/weak patterns of individual words in English, a strong/weak pattern strongly exists within the English phrase or sentence. In order for the listener's ear to be directed to the relevant ideas of a sentence or phrase, the strong word-types must be energized and highlighted. Without this highlighting, the phrase or sentence will make little to no sense. In daily speech, native speakers respond almost instinctively to proper word stress of a sentence or phrase in order to communicate their ideas. But, because the natu ral speech rhythm is stretched and slowed down when English is set to music, singers cannot immediately transfer what they would instinctively in speech. A conscious grasp of English grammatical structure is very helpful for the singer to understand how a listener receives the ideas of his lyric text.
CHAPTER TWO Communicating the Thought
Telegram the Message! Before the advent of email, people would send telegrams in emergencies. Telegrams were charged by the number of words sent over the wire. So, it was important to be brief in order to cut down on the cost. If we were to send a telegram home, we would have little trouble determining the important words that must be sent in order to convey our message. Rather than writing, "My flight from Rome has been canceled. I will be arriving in New York Thursday at 4 p.m." we would send "FLIGHT CANCELED. ARRIVING NEW YORK THURSDAY 4 P.M." We would choose just the words necessary to convey the message and nothing more. Essentially, we would choose the strong word-types to convey our message—the nouns, active verbs, adverbs, and adjectives. This same principle needs to be used when "telegramming" our musical texts. For example: Come away, come away, death, And in sad cypress let me be laid. Fly away, fly away, breath, I am slain by a fair, cruel maid. (William Shakespeare, Twelfth Night, act 2, scene 4)
In telegramming this text by Shakespeare, we would choose "Come death, cypress laid, fly breath, slain maid" to transmit the thought. We have chosen the nouns and active verbs. For greater depth of meaning, we might also include the adverbs "away" and perhaps the adjectives "sad, fair, and cruel." Let's look at this in a more organized, coherent fashion.
The Hierarchy of Stress The strong/weak word-types are listed below: Stressed Words
Unstressed Words
Nouns
Articles (the, a, an)
Active Verbs
Prepositions (in, through)
Adjectives
Conjunctions (and, or, but)
Adverbs
Pronouns (me, I, he, she)
Negatives Interrogative pronouns
Auxiliary/linking verbs
(who, what, where, when, why, how)
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HIERARCHY OF STRESS
DIAGRAM 2.2
There is hierarchy of stress among the list of stress word-types. The primary stress should be placed on the nouns and the active verbs, with secondary stress placed on the words that modify them—the adjectives, adverbs, and negatives. Usually the articles, prepositions, conjunctions, and auxiliary/linking verbs are not stressed. There will occasionally be exceptions to this rule. In the sentence, "John went under not over the bridge," a comparison is made between the prepositions "under" and "over." In this instance, these prepositions need to be stressed. Pronouns, even if they function as the subject of the sentence, are usually not stressed. Like the prepositions above, they should be stressed only when there is a comparison between them. For example: "/ went to class, YOU did not!" Care should be taken not to inflate the modifiers over the words they modify. In the Shakespeare text above, if the adjectives "fair" and "cruel" are stressed more than the noun they modify—"maid"—then the listener is confused as to what is fair and cruel. To serve as a memory aid, let's notate the hierarchy of stress by circling the primary stress words and underlining the words with secondary stress. (Come) away (come) away, (death/) And in sad (cypress) let me be (TaidT) (FlyJ away, (fly) away, (breath) I am (slain) by a fair, cruel (maid) The words that are (circled) are the nouns and the verbs. These transmit the thought to the listener. They must be treated with great care and should always be stressed. The words that are underlined are their modifiers—the adjectives, adverbs, interrogative pro-
CHAPTER TWO Communicating the Thought
nouns, and negatives—which add greater depth to the transmitted thought. In order to communicate with your listener, you must always stress the circled words, but you may choose which of the underlined words you would like to stress.
To Be or Not To Be? The Question Is "Is the Verb 'to be' Stressed?"
RUii Do not stress any forms of the verb "to-be"- unless they are in the subjunc•%
Wve mood or conditional tense. Only the subjunctive mood, which is contrary to fact or the conditional tense should stressed. The verb "to be" is a weak, nonactive, intransitive verb form. Its modifiers, the predicate nominative or predicate adjective that follow the vertv should receive primary stress.
Let's see how this applies to a line of poetry. Is she (kind) as she is (fair?) (William Shakespeare, "Who Is Sylvia?") from Two Gentlemen of Verona, act 4, scene 2 The verb "is" does not need be stressed. Rather "kind" and "fair," the adjectives that follow "is," should be stressed. They are predicate adjectives. They were adjectives but now have become part of the verb or predicate and now function as predicate adjectives. "Is" in essence, now functions as the auxiliary verb and therefore does not need to be stressed. For the grammarphobes, a short grammar review is found in the glossary! Let's try another example. (Rose leaves) when the (rose) is (dead/) Are (heaped) for the beloved's (bed;) (Percy Bysshe Shelley, "Music When Soft Voices Die") Here the forms to the verb "to be" ("is" and "are") do not need to be stressed. Like the Shakespeare example above, the adjective "dead" takes on primary stress because it functions as a predicate adjective and becomes part of the verb phrase. "Heaped" is passive tense and receives primary stress because "are" in this case functions merely as an auxiliary verb.
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And for the brave of heart, let's try another example. Flowers alone are chaste. For their beauty is so brief. . . . Years are their love,
and time's their thief. (Benjamin Britten, "Lucretia's Aria" from The Rape ofLucretid) In the first two lines of "Lucretia's Aria," "chaste" and "brief1 function as predicate adjectives. In the second two lines, "love" and "thief," which were already nouns, have become part of the verb and function as predicate nominatives (nominative = noun).
Pulsing the Phrase English is a Germanic stop-language. It does not have an innate legato and words are often punched when we want to emphasize them. To sing well in English, English must be treated as though it were Italian; we must swell on the stressed vowel sounds rather than punching them.
RULE On the stressed syllable of the stressed word types, swell on the vowel sound and relax the sounds down into the body. This is called pulsing the phrase.
It should feel like you are sighing or moaning on these stressed syllables. Deepen the body connection with the tone and use a full sound that relaxes down into the center of the body. Pulsing the phrase refers to singing into and opening up the voice on the stressed syllables of the stressed words. If the stressed syllables are pulsed and sung into, the important words will be targeted vocally and musically for the listener. The unstressed syllables will be in balance when the stressed words and syllables are pulsed. The pulses are notated with an arrow:
Come away, come away, Death. And in sad cypress let me be laid.
Fly away, fly away, Breath. I am slain by a fair, cruel maid.
CHAPTER TWO Communicating the Thought
Imitate "The Count"! For those of you who grew up watching Sesame Street, it helps to remember the speech pattern of the Dracula character, "The Count," who taught all the children to count their numbers. "The Count" had a thick Hungarian accent and would "SWEEEELL on the Vowel Sounds"! Rather than punching at words like English speakers do, he spoke with in a very "sing-songy" voice and would count "Ooooone! Twoooooo! ThRRRRreeeeeee! Ha! Ha! Ha!" Though trying to imitate "The Count" may seem ridiculous, it can be a helpful aid
to feel what it is like to swell on the stressed vowel. English speakers need to be able to "override" the habit of punching, which is inherent in English speech patterns. Actually, a good intermediate step before singing a text is to intone the text and swell on the stressed vowels. Then try to transfer the sensation of "the swell" or "the pulse" into your singing.
Now let's apply this technique to the Roger Quilter setting of "Come away, Death." Find a copy of the music and do the following: 1. First say the words in rhythm. Then intone them in rhythm. 2. Now do it again and remember to imitate "The Count"! (It helps to say "Ha! Ha! Ha!" after each phrase.) 3. Now try singing the musical phrases and make sure to swell on, not punch, the stressed vowel sounds.
Stress versus Interpretation The stress/inflection patterns of English are the groundwork for artistic interpretation, which is something that needs to be very personal and individual for each singer. For basic communication, the nouns and active verbs must be stressed. After that, it is the individual artist's personal choice as to which of the modifiers he or she would like to emphasize. In the example above, a singer might choose to emphasize the fairness rather than the cruelty of the maid or vice versa, or choose to stress neither of the adjectives. This is their artistic license and the element of an artistic performance that makes it interesting and unique.
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Now that we know what ought to be stressed, how do we give stress vocally with the musical phrase? By putting an overlay of the stress and inflection pattern upon every musical text setting that we sing. In other words, all musical and vocal stresses must correspond with the stress of the text. This will be dealt with in chapter 13 on expressive singing. Before we begin to tackle the individual speech sounds of English, it is necessary to look at one more aspect of the language: how the division of syllables is affected when the words are sung rather than spoken.
The Division of Syllables The conventional division of words into syllables in most dictionaries, or often in musical scores, does not always coincide with the division of syllables needed in song for clarity and vocal legato. In print, words are divided structurally. This will be dealt with in depth as we work with the specific consonants. But for now, in singing, consonants are shifted over to begin the next syllable. For example, the word "diction" would be divided in the dictionary as "dic-tion." For singing, we would divide it "di-ction." This is done in order to allow the singer more time to sing and swell on the stressed vowel sound. By shifting the consonants over to begin the next syllable, more vocal time can be allowed to elongate the vowels and thereby avoid the choppiness that is characteristic of spoken English. It is often this choppiness or lack of inherent legato in the English language that causes many singers to feel more vocal tension while singing in English than while singing in any of the Romance languages. EXAMPLES
Syllables in Print
Treatment in Song
A-mer-i-can
A-me-ri-can
char-i-ty
cha-ri-ty
good-will
goo-dwill
dif-fer-ence
di-ffe-rence
wis-dom
wi-sdom
ex-cel-lent
e-xce-llent
heart-break
hear-tbreak
in-no-cent
i-nno-cent
doubt-ful
dou-btful
CHAPTER TWO Communicating the Thought
EXERCISES 1. Transcribe the following words into the IPA, divide them syllabically for singing legato, and indicate the stress: repertoire
poverty
sensitivity
dazzled
withdraw
theater
interest
candidate
important
dictionary
extremes
characters
presumptuous
approval
2. Transcribe the following text into the IPA and indicate the stressed word-types by circling the nouns and verbs, and underlining their modifiers: In the scented bud of the morning O, When the windy grass went rippling far! I saw my dear one walking slow In the field where the daisies are. We did not laugh and we did not speak, As we wandered happ'ly to and fro, I kissed my dear on either cheek, In the bud of the morning O! A lark sang up, from the breezy land; A lark sang down, from a cloud afar; As she and I went hand in hand, In the field where the daisies are. (James Stephens / Samuel Barber, "The Daisies")
3. Get a copy of Barber's song "The Daisies." Practice intoning and swelling on the stressed syllables of the words. See if you can maintain the swell when you sing it.
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4. Transcribe the following texts into I PA* and indicate the stressed words by circling the nouns and verbs and underlining the modifiers: She walks in beauty, like the night Of cloudless climes and starry skies, And all that's best of dark and bright Meet in her aspect and her eyes; Thus mellow'd to that tender light Which heaven to gaudy day denies. One shade the more, one ray the less, Had half impair'd the nameless grace Which waves in every raven tress Or softly lightens o'er her face, Where thoughts serenely sweet express How pure, how dear their dwelling-place. And on that cheek and o'er that brow So soft, so calm, yet eloquent, The smiles that win, the tints that glow But tell of days in goodness spent, A mind at peace with all below, A heart whose love is innocent. (Lord Byron, "She Walks in Beauty")
Shall I compare thee to a summer's day? Thou art more lovely and more temperate: Rough winds do shake the darling buds of May, And summer's lease hath all too short a date; Sometime too hot the eye of heaven shines, And often is his gold complexion dimm'd; And every fair from fair sometime declines, By chance or nature's hanging course untrimm'd: But thy eternal summer shall not fade Nor lose possession of that fair thou ow'st;
* Ideally these two British poems should be transcribed into RP or Mid-Atlantic. However, for the purpose of focusing on the grammatically stressed words, use whichever dialect is most familiar to you.
CHAPTER TWO Communicating the Thought
Nor shall Death brag thou wand'rest in his shade, When in eternal lines to time thou grow'st; So long as men can breathe or eyes can see, So long lives this and this gives life to thee. (William Shakespeare, Sonnet 18)
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CHAPTER THREE Introduction to Vowels
Preparation for Vowel Production Before we begin our work on producing specific vowels correctly, we must concern ourselves with body awareness and relaxation. Throughout the day, many develop tensions that must be released. Let's concentrate on isolated areas of the body. The entire body works better when it is aligned properly. The muscles surrounding the articulators—the jaw, lips, tongue, teeth, lips, soft palate, and hard palate—must not be tense. The diaphragm must be soft and pliable. Here are some exercises to release the tension in these areas. 1. Alignment of Spine: Concentrate on sitting or standing tall, with both feet on the floor and knees unlocked. Feel the neck elongated upward. When the head is aligned on the vertebrae of the neck, the jaw will drop easily and the tongue will function efficiently. 2. Facial Massage: Massage the hollows of the cheeks, upper lip, lower lip, temples and forehead. 3. Tongue/Neck Massage: Massage the tendons on the side of neck, walking your fingers upward toward your jaw. Walk your fingers along the lower jawbone toward the chin. The soft muscle under the chin is the base of the tongue. Push up gently with your thumbs, softening this muscle if it is tight. 4. Lip Buzz: Blow air lightly through your closed lips and let them flap on the air. 5. Tongue Stretch: Stick your tongue out as far as is comfortable. Point your tongue toward your left cheek, right cheek, chin and nose. Repeat this several times.
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6. Cud Chew: Chew slowly and deliberately, moving your tongue all around your mouth. Pause to count "one" in an exaggerated fashion and continue chewing as you count to ten. When you are finished, the tip of the tongue should rest easily against the inside of the lower front teeth. The jaw should feel like it is hanging lower and is more released. The facial muscles should feel more pliable. 7. Neck Stretches: Tilt your head slightly forward, diagonally forward, and to the sides, holding in each for ten seconds. Be careful not to push head down in these positions, but rather let it hang from its own weight. 8. Shoulder Rolls: Roll shoulders one at a time forward and backward ten times each. Roll both shoulders together ten times forward and ten times backward. 9. Diaphragm Massage: Massage the diaphragm muscle with your fist in a circular motion. It is relaxed when it is soft enough that you press your fingers in under your rib cage to your second knuckle. Many hold tensions there. When one is angry, nervous, upset or tense, our diaphragm muscle is usually very rigid. 10. Puff Exercise: Take a full breath, purse your lips, and exhale the air with five puffs. The diaphragm should remain relaxed while you tuck in slightly for each puff. 11. Soft Palate Stretch: Encourage yourself to yawn several times. Lift and lower the soft palate by alternating the sounds [rj] and [a]. Hopefully by now the articulators and the muscles directly involved with producing sound feel relaxed and activated. We need to be in a state of active relaxation. Inactive, flaccid muscles do not respond well to our brain impulses and tense muscles cannot respond well either. This is the state of relaxation we need before beginning the vowel drill work. When the tongue is relaxed, the tip stays easily in contact with the lower front teeth, the front and back of the tongue will adjust easily to the required position of the specific vowels. Also, the throat will remain open since it is not crowded by a bulky, tense tongue. These exercises should be included in your vocal warm-up routine everyday. With your diaphragm, shoulders, neck, facial muscles, and the articulators in a state of active relaxation, your singing and speaking voice will respond much quicker to your vocal warm-up exercises. Although the native English speaker can make most of the tongue adjustments for various vowels almost automatically, it is often with stress or tension. It is hoped that studying the detailed analysis of the production of each vowel will help each singer to discover any problems with production that they individually carry over from their speech. The detailed vowel descriptions should also be very helpful to the non-native English singer who is perhaps approaching the study of English diction for the first time.
CHAPTER THREE Introduction to Vowels
The Organs of Speech Before we move on to vowel production, let's discuss some specifics about the articulators that we have been working with.
FIGURE 3.1 1 Lips (Labia) 2 Teeth (Denies) 3 Gum Ridge (Alveolar Ridge) 4 Hard Palate 5 Soft Palate (Velum) 6 Uvula a. relaxed b. raised 7 Nasal Passage 8 Mouth (Oral Passage) 9 Tongue (Lingua) 10 Tip of the Tongue 11 Blade of the Tongue 12 Front of the Tongue 13 Middle of the Tongue 14 Back of the Tongue 15 Throat (Pharynx) 16 Epiglottis 17 Voice Box (Larynx) 18 Vocal Folds and Glottis 19 Wind Pipe (Trachea) 20 Food Passage or Gullet (Esophagus)
What Are the Essential Articulators? They are:
The jaw The lips The teeth The tongue The hard palate The soft palate
What Do the Articulators Do? The articulators move in very precise coordination to form the consonants and vowel sounds that we speak and sing.
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How Do They Work? The Jaw
The jaw closes by contracting the jaw muscles. When you release the jaw muscles, the jaw will drop open. You do not need to pull the jaw open; gravity will do the work for you. The Lips The upper and lower lips are muscles that can work together to form a smile, a frown, a pucker, a whistle position, or work independently. The Teeth The teeth are connected to the jaw and are positioned closer or further apart by opening or closing the jaw. The Tongue The tongue is a flexible muscle that can be moved in many ways. The front can be lifted to touch the upper gum ridge or the teeth. The middle can be arched to bring it closer to the hard palate. The back can lift up closer to the soft palate. The entire tongue can move forward out of the mouth or can be drawn back and bunched in the back of the mouth. The tongue is a very long muscle and is problematic for many singers. The base of the tongue actually attaches just above the larynx or voice box, and if it is tense, it can distort the vocal quality. The Hard Palate The hard palate, or roof of the mouth, is actually bone cartilage and cannot be moved. The Soft Palate The soft palate is soft muscle tissue that is attached to the back of the hard palate. It can be raised and lowered to open or close off the passage from the throat into the nasal space. As children, we learned to use our speech articulators by experimenting and imitating the speech of the people around us. It took several years to learn how to talk. We imitated our parents and picked up both their good speech habits and often also their tensions. As we become aware of the specific control we have over the articulators, we will be able to release negative tensions and produce more optimal vocal sounds. Now let's look briefly at an overview of how the English vowels are produced.
CHAPTER THREE Introduction to Vowels
The Vowel Chart
DIAGRAM 3.1
The Fronting Vowels: These require the fronting of the tongue. The middle of the tongue slides forward and rises toward the hard palate. The tip of the tongue should be in contact with the lower front teeth. The vowel [i] has the highest tongue arch; [ae] has the most relaxed arching of the tongue. Lips are spread.
The Backing Vowels: The arch of the tongue is raised toward the soft palate; the tip of the tongue touches the lower front teeth. Lips are rounded. The vowel [u] has the highest tongue arch; [D], the lowest.
[a] The tongue is in the lowest position—neither front nor back. The tongue is still slightly arched but in a relaxed, neutral position. Lips are relaxed and neutral.
The Mixed Vowels: The mixed vowels have characteristics of both the fronting and backing vowels. They require the tongue position of one of the fronting vowels plus the lip position of the backing vowels. These will be described in depth later on.
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A Word of Caution The backing of the tongue in no way refers to pulling the tongue backward and bunching it in the throat. It refers to the forward arching of the tongue that, in relation to the soft palate, is slightly further in "back" of the hard palate. In any case, the tongue should always be felt in contact with the lower front teeth.
Tips for Vocal Ease In general, when singing in the upper register or the passaggio, try shifting the vowel up toward the next closed vowel on the vowel chart for more vocal comfort. For difficulty in the passaggio with: Substitutions
Examples
try [e]
for "man" —> sing m[e]n
try [e] without second vowel
for "heaven" —> sing h[e]ven
in diphthong for "body" —> sing b[o]dy for "exalted" —>sing exh[o]lted For [i] and [i], try using the umlauted or mixed vowels from French or German. [i]
try [yj
for "dream" -»sing dr[y]m
[i]
try [Y]
for "hill" —> sing h[v]ll
A Word of Caution If a vowel is modified or substituted for greater vocal ease, it must be done in such a way that the vowel change is not discernible to the listener. The listener needs to hear real vowel sounds and should not have to struggle with a text sung in "singerese." Use the modifications only in the passaggio or the extreme ranges of the registers. In the middle range, always use precise and correct vowels. More suggestions for these vowel modifications can be found in the chapters for the specific vowel sounds.
Eliminating Glottal Attacks Before we speak or sing these vowels, let's discuss the way they should be initiated for optimal vocal health. The initiation of a vowel is called an attack or an onset. In other
CHAPTER THREE Introduction to Vowels
words, the attack or onset is the way in which the vowel is started in your throat and mouth.
RULE AH vowels should be initiated with breath pulses or breath lifts, rather than by glottal attacks.
When glottal attacks occur, the breath below the opening of the vocal folds does not escape evenly because of tension at the vocal folds. Most English speakers initiate all words beginning with a vowel with a glottal attack. To isolate the feeling of the tension of the glottal attack, bring the vocal folds together as though beginning to cough. Habitual use of harsh glottal attacks may lead to severe vocal problems. In singing, the glottal attack should be used rarely and purposefully with great caution. In order to give stress to key words that begin with vowel sounds, breath lifts may be used to effectively separate the stressed word from the word that precedes it. A breath lift requires a tuck in at the diaphragm that results in the release of a small jet of air helping to initiate the separated vowel. One way to easily find the sensation of the breath lift is to insert the [h] consonant before initial vowels. For example, "earth" would be sounded as "h-earth." Of course, starting vowels with a breathy [h] sound is not the ultimate goal. But we do want to initiate vowels with the sensation of the release of breath that accompanies the beginning of phonation. For now, however, we need to insert the [h] in order to break the ingrained habit of harsh glottal attacks.
RULE Break the legato line and use a breath lift only when a primary stressed word begins with a vowel. Do not break the legato line with a breath lift on unstressed words, such as prepositions, conjunctions or pronouns that begin with a vowel.
EXAMPLES
Break:
My [']only hope
Connect:
Getting —> and spending we lay waste —> our powers
Her languid ['jeyes
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Modera
As they low-ered the bright
'awn - ing
At the
'out- door ca -
fe
("Early in the Morning," Ned Rorem)
EXERCISE DRILLS FOR GLOTTAL ATTACK ELIMINATION 1. Count slowly to twenty. Concentrate on beginning number 8 and number 18 with breath lifts rather than glottal attacks. 2. Read across the columns, adding a glottal attack [?] to the first column and an [h] to the words in the second column. Then try to duplicate the sensation of vocal relaxation in the third column, silencing the [h] and instead using a breath lift [']. ? aim
^ aim
'aim
? owe
[ti] OWe
'owe
? unto
^ unto
'unto
?out
^ out
'out
?eye
[h] gyg
'eye
? under
[h]
under
'under
? awful
w awful
'awful
? always
[h]
'always
always
[?] = glottal attack ['] = breath lift
EASY ONSET EXERCISES In the field of speech therapy, glottal attacks are referred to as hard onsets. In other words, when you start a vowel with a glottal attack you have a hard onset of the vowel. If you start a vowel on the impulse or lift of the breath, you have an easy onset of the vowel. Practice using easy onsets on the stressed words. Final consonants may be shifted over to an unstressed vowel to avoid glottals on words that are unstressed.
CHAPTER THREE Introduction to Vowels
'Eat_an 'apple 'every day.
'Oliver^and 'Audrey were 'unruly.
'Enjoy the 'opera!
'It was_an 'awful 'accident.
Go 'outside^and smell the 'orchids.
Get 'out^of my sight!
'Under 'eye 'ointments^are 'oily.
'Eggs with 'olives taste 'awful.
' Honesty^and 'integrity _are 'admirable.
'An 'Astin Martin^or^a Bentley would be 'awfully nice!
Determining Your Optimum Pitch Another very harmful speech habit a lot of singers have is speaking too far above or below their optimum pitch. The great American baritone Jerome Hines wrote about vocal fatigue in his book, Great Singers on Great Singing. He found that his own vocal fatigue was not from his opera performances but from speaking improperly. His work with a speech therapist led him to interview his colleagues and discuss their personal approach to classical vocal technique. Singers are trained ideally to have a three-octave range of optimum pitches when they sing. But when they speak, there is a fairly narrow optimum pitch range that is best for their speaking voice. An optimum pitch is a pitch at which the speaker is most physically comfortable and the voice resonates and projects most easily. Most of us learned to speak by imitating our parents and caregivers. It is not a coincidence that when visiting our childhood home, we answer our parent's telephones and the person on the other end exclaims, "Oh, you sound just like your Father/Mother!" Unfortunately, imitating our parents does not mean that we are speaking in the pitch range that is best for our own voices. Part of it is also cultural influence. Girls are often encouraged to sound "ladylike" and have soft, high-pitched voices; boys are encouraged to sound "masculine" and macho. Often classically trained singers are encouraged to speak in their singing range rather than their optimum speaking range. I call it the '"Hi, I'm a tenor' syndrome." So, how do you find where your optimum pitch for speaking is? Gather around the piano with some friends or colleagues and listen to each other speak. Ladies: Start out at middle C. At medium volume repeat a phrase like "Hi! How are you?" on several pitches. Make sure you are speaking on these pitches and not singing on them. First try middle C, then go up or down by half steps. Listeners, listen for the pitch that sounds the most resonant and brings out the most unique quality to their speaking voice. For most sopranos, the optimum pitch is somewhere between B-flat and D. For a high
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coloratura, it might be an E. For most mezzos, the optimum pitch range is often between middle A-flat and C. There may be one or two pitches that seem correct. After a week or so of using the voice in that range, the speaker will settle in on the one that seems most natural and comfortable. Gentlemen: Start your search around the D below Middle C. Again, repeat a phrase like "Hi, how are you?" on several pitches. Remember to speak on the pitches; don't sing on them. Go up and down by half step and listen to the feedback of your listeners. When the voice seems to resonate naturally and the partials seem to come into the vocal color, then you are close to the optimum pitch. For tenors, the range is often somewhere between D and F. For baritones, the range is often between B and D. For basses, A and C. Again, if it is a toss up between two notes one half step apart, give it a week and see which one ends up being the best fit for you.
Speaking at Your Optimum Pitch Range Once you have determined approximately what is your optimum pitch, use a short memorized text to practice with. It could be a speech or prayer or anything that you have by rote memory. Play your optimum pitch on the piano and start every phrase of your memorized text on that pitch. Try to stay within an interval of a third on either side of your determined optimum pitch. That way, when you naturally inflect your voice you will stay only a note or two above or below it. Many singers make the mistake of trying to speak with a wide range. The optimum pitch range is only the range of a perfect fifth or a sixth. If you begin using your optimum pitch range regularly, you will find that you will have less vocal fatigue and that you will not have to push your voice to be heard. It is especially important to use it when speaking on stage or in the midst of a crowd.
Here are some more exercises to work with eliminating glottal attacks while using your optimum pitch range.
1. Go through the vowels of the Vowel Chart on page 35 in order. Initiate each vowel with a breath lift. Be careful not to use glottal attacks. EXAMPLES
Tongue vowels: Lip vowels: Mixed vowels:
Now go through all the same vowels above, instead alternating between [m] and a breath lift ['] before each vowel. Concentrate on staying near your optimum pitch.
CHAPTER THREE Introduction to Vowels
EXAMPLES
2. Try alternating between breath lifts and glottal attacks on Lady MacBeth's desperate cry in her sleepwalking scene: 'Out damn'd spot! 'Out I say! vs. ?Out darnn'd spot! ?Out I say! Lines this dramatic are much more effective with glottal attacks. This is an example where a breath lift would not be expressive enough. In singing, try to use glottal attacks only when the dramatic intensity requires it. Otherwise, always substitute breath lifts to maintain healthier vocalism. 3. Look for five examples in your own repertoire where breath lifts could be substituted for glottal attacks on stressed word-types beginning with a vowel. 4. Prepare the following poem for dramatic reading. Indicate the stressed wordtypes. Practice initiating the stressed words that begin with vowels with breath lifts. (Note that the breath lifts on the stressed words have been indicated. The unstressed words should not have glottal attacks.) Thus Dullness, the safe 'opiate_of the mind, The last kind refuge weary Wit can find, Fit for 'all stations, andjn 'each content, Is satisfied, secure, and 'innocent. No painsjt takes, and no offencejt gives: 'Unfeared, 'unhated, 'undisturbedJt lives. And if 'each writing 'author's best pretence Be but to teach the 'ignorant more sense, Then Dullness was the cause they wrote before, As 'tis at last the cause they write no more, So Wit, which most to scorn Jt does pretend, With Dullness first began, in Dullness last must 'end. (Alexander Pope, "On Dullness")
Breath lifts were added before each of the stressed words that begin with a vowel. All unstressed words that begin with vowels should be initiated with breath lifts if they are at the beginning of a line, as is the natural onset in a healthy singing technique. Unstressed vowels that begin words in the middle of the line should be connected with a liaison (_) to the word preceding them.
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CHAPTER FOUR The Fronting Vowels
[i] Production The international vowel sound [i], also found in German, Italian, and French, is the highest and most forward of the English vowels. It is found in words such as: he, she, need, peace, scene, people, feat, and receive. The vowel [i] occurs only in stressed syllables.
FIGURE 4.1 [i]
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Action Tongue
tip on lower front teeth front of tongue arched forward toward hard palate sides of tongue touching upper molars
Jaw
lower jaw released, loose no teeth clenching drop as if yawning teeth most closed together but must practice producing [i] with teeth further apart for passaggio and high notes
Lips/Facial Muscles
lips horizontal, soft, relaxed energize cheek muscles surrounding lips and cheek bone area
Pitfalls to Avoid No glottal attacks. No "on-off glides." For example, "steal"- stea-(uh)-!, which occurs when [1] is anticipated. Be careful not to tense throat muscles, flatten tongue, or grin by pulling lips back at corners of the mouth. Avoid nasality when [i] is adjacent to [m] and [n].
Tips for Vocal Ease In the passaggio or the extremes of the register, try modifying [i] to the umlauted or mixed vowel [y] for greater vocal ease and more point and focus on the lower notes.
[y]
Wil - low,
if
he
once
should
be
re
-
turn
- ing
("Willow Song" from The Ballad of Baby Doe, Douglas Moore)
The Lowered [i] Vowel In Standard American Speech for the Stage and British Received, there is a lowered [i] vowel used for final unstressed "y" endings as in the words "pretty" and "only." This sound
CHAPTER FOUR The Fronting Vowels
is halfway between [i] and [i]. The [i] symbol is used in the IPA for an unstressed mixed vowel. It was chosen in this book because it is the best visual reminder to de-intensify an unstressed final "y" ending.
RULE Final unstressed "y" and its plural("-les" endings) should always be sung as[i].
EXAMPLES
daisy [deizi]
daisies [deiztz]
beauty [bjuti]
beauties [bjutiz]
duty [djuti]
duties [djuttz]
carry [kaejt]
carries [kaejtz]
EXERCISES 1. Practice intoning and singing the following words:
me
read
deceive*
achieve
he
weep
believe*
pleasing
she
creed
release*
people
we
queen
relieve*
eagles
seal**
shield**
reveal**
yield**
2. Transcribe the following words into IPA observing the rules above: merrily
mysteries
joyfully
only
very
visionaries
sunny
journey
melodies
3. Practice examples from vocal texts: He shall speak peace unto the heathen. (C. F. Handel, Messiah)
The unstressed prefixes in the third column above should be pronounced with [i] (rule, p. 48). ** Avoid off-glides with the letter I.
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0 sleep, why dost thou leave me? (G. F. Handel, Semele) Over the ripening peach
Buzzes the bee Splash on the billowy beach Tumbles the sea But the peach And the beach They are each Nothing to me! (W. S. Gilbert, Ruddigore) 4. Transcribe the following text and intone/sing it: 1 shall find for you shells and stars, I shall swim for you river and sea. Sleep, my love, sleep for me, My sleep is old. I shall feed for you lamb and dove. I shall buy for you sugar and bread. Sleep, my love, sleep for me My sleep is dead. Rain will fall but Baby won't know, He laughs alone in orchards of gold. Tears will fall but Baby won't know, His laughter is blind. Sleep, my love, for sleep is kind. Sleep is kind when sleep is young. Sleep for me, sleep for me. I shall build for you planes and boats. I shall catch for you cricket and bee. Let the old ones watch your sleep. Only death will watch the old. Sleep. (Gian Carlo Menotti, "Lullaby" from The Consuf)
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[i] Production
FIGURE 4.2 [i]
The international vowel sound [i] is also found in German, but not in Italian or French. It is found in both stressed and unstressed syllables. Compared to [i], the [i] vowel sound is generally shorter in duration. It is found in stressed positions in words such as: it, been,* build, women, sing, think. It can be found in unstressed positions such as: beautiful, individual, and all "ing" endings such as: singing, going, and loving. It is also frequently used as a substitution for the unstressed [3] schwa vowel, for example, musical, delicate.
Action Tongue
tip behind lower front teeth front arched slightly less toward hard palate sides touching upper molars
Lips
horizontal, relaxed cheek muscles energized
Jaw
dropped slightly more open
*AS and weak form in RP/MA [bin].
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Pitfalls to Avoid Avoid singing substitution of [i] for [i]. EXAMPLE
I love h[i]m not h[i]m [i] [i] [i] ['] She bid me take life easy
Do not let sound fall back in throat. Do not keep jaw too wide. Do not keep tongue too slack or arched too low. Avoid regional substitutions of [e] for [i]. EXAMPLES
[him] not [hem] [pin] not [pm]
been [bin] not Ben [bm] Avoid southern off-glides. EXAMPLES
him since
Tips for Vocal Ease In the passaggio and register extremes, try modifying [i] to the mixed German or French vowel [Y] for greater vocal ease.
Y
Dream - ing
y
as
I watch it
gleam,
("The Silver Aria" from The Ballad of Baby Doe, Douglas Moore)
RULE The unstressed prefixs or syllables spelled're-','be-','se-','de-','e-', and 'e' plus a consonant as in the words recive,beleve,select,deceive,elect, and escape as well as 'Im-' and 'in-'should be sung with[I].The suffixes
'-ing'and '-ic' use [I] as well.
CHAPTER FOUR The Fronting Vowels
lidPTI0N S
49
1. When the unstressed syllable Is elongated or at a very slow tempo, use a full vowel sound, either [I] or [t] as jqdpropifatte 2* The stressed 're-' pref ix, stressing that an action is perfoiwtfed again, also uses [i]. For example, words like-revisljif "reconnect"
EXAMPLES
[i]
[I]
[I]
[I]
[I]
[I]
[I]
remember
delight
excite
secure
important
include singing
Since this vowel sound is found only in the lyric repertoire in English and German, it often poses difficulties for native speakers of the Romance and Asian Languages. Great care must be taken to drill and differentiate between the [i] and [i] vowel sounds. The following is a list for non-native speakers. They are the most frequently found words that are pronounced with [i]. Memorizing this list should greatly decrease the mistaken substitution of [i] for the [i] vowel in at least the most common usages. Always [i] it, is, him, with, which, this, since, been,* slip, sing, live, sick, sin, bid, sit, will, lips, ship, still, win, wing, hit, winter, pity, wither, whither, miss, lit, lids, give, city, kiss, whisper, pity, riches. * In RP, "been" has two pronunciations: sf [i] wf [i].
EXERCISES 1. Read aloud the following words alternating, between the [i] and [i] columns:
[I]
[i]
[i]
[i]
itch
each
hitting
heating
slip
sleep
filling
feeling
rid
read
bitter
beater
mill
meal
dipper
deeper
been
bean
riches
reaches
sin
seen
living
leaving
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2. Transcribe the following song text into IPA using care to differentiate between the [i] and [i] vowels. Then read and sing it aloud: Down by the Sally Gardens my love and I did meet, She passed the Sally Gardens with little snow white feet. She bid me take love easy, as the leaves grow on the tree But I being young and foolish with her did not agree. In a field by the river, my love and I did stand, And on my leaning shoulder she laid her snow white hand; She bid me take life easy as the grass grows on the weirs, But I was young and foolish and, now am full of tears. (W. B. Yeats, Traditional)
3. Transcribe the following words into IPA observing the prefix rules above: decision
deserve
delightful
restore
rejoice
respond
begun
belittle
behavior
secure
seduce
seclusion
erode
event
elusive
enjoy
enhance
exaggerate
4. Transcribe the following text in IPA and practice speaking/singing it using care to differentiate the [i] and [i] vowels: "If with all your hearts ye truly seek me, Ye shall ever surely find me," Thus saith our God. Oh! that I knew where I might find Him, That I might even come before His presence! (Felix Mendelssohn, Elijah)
[s] Production The international vowel [e] appears in varied versions in Italian, German, and French. It is found in stressed syllables like in the words: wed, many, bury, friend, head, guest, any, says, said, and saith (saith is archaic form of said, the past tense of "to say" and is pronounced as [se0]). It is also a frequent substitute for the unstressed [a] vowel.
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CHAPTER FOUR The Fronting Vowels
FIGURE 4.3 [e]
Action Tongue
tip in contact with lower front teeth front of tongue less arched toward soft palate lowest of lip vowels to still have contact with upper molars
Lips
relaxed, slightly spread
Jaw
cheeks still energized lower than for [i] or [ei] diphthong
Pitfalls to Avoid Avoid tense tongue, lips, or mouth. Avoid glottal attacks. Avoid off-glides: [heed] for head [hed]. Avoid nasal Midwestern twang. EXAMPLES
many—not [mini] but [mmt] any—not [int] but [eni]
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Avoid American Southern substitution of [i] for [e]. EXAMPLES
pencil—not
but
forget—not
but
Tips for Vocal Ease If the [e] spreads in the passaggio, try closing to a more closed [e], as in the first vowel of the diphthong [ei]. Be careful to just sing [e] and not add the second [i] vowel. Larghetto e piano
[e
He shall
feed His flock like
a
shep -
("He Shall Feed His Flock" from Messiah, G. F. Handel)
EXERCISES 1 . Practice intoning/singing the following words: wed
bed
head
guest
met
let
next
send
gentle
well
tell
quell
quest
bury
said
saith
says
fetch
weather
death
breath
bells
heaven
whether
get
2. Transcribe and practice reading the following text: I attempt from Love's sickness to fly in vain, Since I am myself my own fever and pain, No more now, no more now, Fond heart, with pride no more swell: Thou canst not raise forces enough to rebel (Henry Purcell, from The Indian Queen)
-
- herd
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CHAPTER FOUR The Fronting Vowels
3. Transcribe the following song text into IPA and practice with care the [t] vowel sounds: Low as the singer lies In a field of heather, Songs of his fashion bring the swains together. And when the west is red With the sunset embers, The lover lingers and sings, And the maid remembers. (Robert Louis Stevenson / Ralph Vaughan Williams, "Bright Is the Ring of Words")
[ae] Production The vowel [ae] is a distinctively English vowel that is not found in German, Italian, or French. A long vowel sound in duration, it is the most common stressed vowel in English. In American Standard pronunciation, all [ae] vowels are pronounced alike.
FIGURE 4.4 [ae]
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SINGING AND COMMUNICATING IN ENGLISH
Because the [ae] vowel does not exist in the other lyric languages, it is often overlooked and seldom vocalized. A well produced [ae] can be a very beautiful sound.
Action Tongue
tip in contact with lower front teeth front arched less than for [e] sides of tongue aligned with lower molars first vowel to be in contact with lower teeth
Lips
released, not spread cheeks still energized
Jaw
more open than for [e]
Pitfalls to Avoid Do not stretch lips against teeth. Do not pull back corners of mouth. Do not tighten tongue muscles under chin. Do not nasalize by directing vowel through nose. Do not substitute [a] for [ae] vowel—it sounds affected EXAMPLES
hand: man:
not [hand] not [man]
Be careful not to produce flat, nasal sound when adjacent to nasal consonants. EXAMPLES
hands, lands, sang, dance
Avoid Midwestern regional substitution of [e] for [ae] EXAMPLES
tarry marry
not terry not merry
Tips for Vocal Ease For greater comfort in the passaggio and high range, modify [ae] to [e]. Be sure to really sing a true [ae] in the middle range, or else the listener can hear that the vowel has been modified and your diction will sound artificial.
CHAPTER FOUR The Fronting Vowels
EXERCISES 1. Practice intoning/singing the following words, avoiding nasality: cat
hand
land
passion
hat
man
stand
matter
sad
valley
happy
balance
than
lamb
capture
rapture
bag
magic
hallowed
understand
2. If you find that you are tempted to substitute [E] for [ae], which is common pronunciation for many people who live in areas of North America, practice the following words using the correct [ae] pronunciation: arrow
carry
charity
embarrass
marry
marriage
narrow
paradise
Arab
Carol
Harry
Paris
3. Practice maintaining an [a?] vowel without nasalization when in close proximity with nasal consonants: Repeat: had/had/hand
bad/bad/band
sad/sad/sand
cad/cad/candy
lad/lad/land
mad/mad/mandate
glad/glad/gland
gad/gad/gander
Review of Front Vowels Repeat the following words, carefully differentiating between the various vowel sounds:
[i]
[i]
[ei]
bean
been
bane
read
Pete
rid fist sit pit
peel keen
feast seat
raid
Ben red
[a] ban rad
faced
fest
fast
sate pate
set pet
pill
pail
Pell
kin
cane
Ken
sat pat pal can
[E]
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SINGING AND COMMUNICATING IN ENGLISH
If you experience difficulty in finding the [ae] vowel easily, practice drilling back and forth between the adjacent vowels on the vowel chart:
The same approach can be helpful with finding the mouth position for [i]:
[i] . .. [i] , . . [e] or [e] ... [i] ... [i] Although [a] is neither considered a fronting nor a backing vowel, it will be included here because of the physiological sequence of the vowel chart.
[a] Production The [a] vowel is the most favored sound in singing internationally. It is found in various forms in Italian, French, German, Russian, and so on. It is the most open of all English vowels. In American Standard, it is found in words such as: father, God, calm, hot, and doctor. In RP and MA, the words spelled with "o," God, not, honour, are pronounced with [D]. See page 217.
FIGURE 4.5 [a]
CHAPTER FOUR The Fronting Vowels
It is a long vowel in duration. In the United States, [o] is often substituted in areas of Germanic immigration; and [D] is often heard in New England and the Eastern seaboard.
Action Tongue
tip on lower front teeth body of tongue lying in lowest position front of tongue fiat, middle still slightly arched
Lips
relaxed, no specifications no protrusion toward [o] cheeks still lifted and energized
Jaw
most relaxed, lowest vertical drop
Pitfalls to Avoid No pressure under chin. Do not press tongue down. Do not protrude lips—results in [o] vowel. No lip rounding or tensing lips. No off-glides to [9] vowel—for example, calm not [ko(9)m]. Avoid [a] or [D] substitutions in AS.
Tips for Vocal Ease Try singing [a] with [Y] placement if the [a] poses problems in the passaggio. Again, to the listener, this vowel must always sound exact and not Italianate or artificial.
EXERCISES 1. Intone/sing the following words focusing on [a] for AS pronunciation: body
John
bomb
accomplish
doctor
box
shock
possibility
got
common
Tom
problem
Robert
collar
motto
popcorn
Psalm*
calm*
palm*
balmy*
not
upon
on
God
*While many regionalisms may pronounce the letter "I," it is in fact silent in all neutral pronunciations (AS, RP, and MA).
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If the [a] pronunciation on these "o" spellings seems very foreign to your regional pronunciation, keep a list of [a] words for frequent reference. 2. Transcribe the following text into American Standard Pronunciation IPA and practice intoning/singing it: Sure on this shining night Of star made shadows round, Kindness must watch for me This side the ground. The late year lies down the north. All is healed, All is health. High summer holds the earth. Hearts all whole. Sure on this shining night I weep for wonder. Wand'ring far alone Of shadows on the stars. (James Agee / Samuel Barber, "Sure on This Shining Night")
CHAPTER FIVE The Backing Vowels
[u]/[ju] Production The vowel sounds [u] and [ju] are related in English. The vowel [u] appears in German, Italian, and French, though the European version has more intensity. The vowel [ju] is found only in English. The vowel [u] is found in the words: too, wound, blue, juice; [ju] in the words: view, beautiful, usual, music.
FIGURE 5.1 [u]/[ju]
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Action Tongue
tip touching lower front teeth back of tongue arched toward soft palate sides of tongue in contact with upper molars for [ju]-movement begins with [j] glide position— sides in contact with inner surface of upper teeth, then glides forward as it merges with [u]
Lips
round, smallest circular shape lip rounding essential to accurate production the rounder the lip contour, the higher the tongue arch
Jaw
mouth opening and jaw very small vertically wide opening in center of mouth between tongue and hard palate
Pitfalls to Avoid Do not arch tongue too high in back. Do not hold tongue/jaw too stiffly—muffles sound. Do not nasalize [u] when adjacent to m, n—moon, fume. Do not form vowel in throat—squeezed and guttural. Avoid regional substitution of [o] for [u]. EXAMPLES
roof:
not
root:
not
Avoid off-glides with 1. EXAMPLES
fool [ful] not school [skul] not
[ju] PRONUNCIATION: THE LIQUID U Certain words often spelled "u" or "ew" can have two different pronunciations— either [u] or [ju]. The words "duty" and "duke" can be pronounced either [dutt] or [djuti], [duk] or [djuk]. The second pronunciation, commonly called the Liquid U, is considered preferable when singing art song, oratorio, and opera and is the only pronunciation for RP and MA. Of course, there are exceptional circumstances. In North American songs with a juvenile text or colloquial flavor, the [ju] sounds too stuffy.
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CHAPTER FIVE The Backing Vowels
The words with two possible pronunciations usually contain the English spellings "u," "ew," "eu," or "ue" and are preceded by one of the following consonants: d, n, I, s, t, or th. Below is a list of the most commonly used of these words: d
duty, duly, due, dew, duke, endure, induce, duplicate
n
new, knew, renew, news, nuisance, numerous, nuclear*
I
lute, alluring, illusion, elude, prelude, interlude
s
suitor, pursuit, assume, consume, presume, resume
t
tune, Tuesday, tumult, student, stupid, gratitude, multitude, astute, tutor
th
enthuse, enthusiasm
Exceptions to these spellings are words that should be pronounced with [u] only: blue, blew, clue, include, exclude, flute, flew, flue, glue, plume, slew, and words spelled with "u" but that have an [A] pronunciation: dumb, numb, lung, sung, tumble, thunder, and so on. [ju] only: There are some words not listed that always use the [ju] pronunciation. The most common of them are: music, amuse, huge, few, cure, imbued, human, Hugh, humility, humorous, excuse, calculate, refute, future, beautiful, mute, value, hue, unison, university, unit, usurp, community * Nuclear is often mispronounced in the United States as dard pronunciation is or
The American Stan-
EXERCISES 1. Practice intoning/singing the following words containing [u] vowel: too
cool
blue
blew
through
lose
who
whom
fruit
moon
noon
flute
roof
choose
glue
flew
gloom
soothe
tomb
wounded
June
bruise
peruse
recruit
school*
fool*
tool*
cool*
* Avoid off-glide [9] by not anticipating [1].
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SINGING AND COMMUNICATING IN ENGLISH
2. Practice making the distinction between [u] and [ju] in the following words: stoop —> stupid
noon -> new
two -> tune
do -» dew
pooh —» pew
who —> hue
coo -> cue
flute -»lute*
3. Transcribe and recite the following text: I have wished a bird would fly away And not sing round my house all day. I have clapped my hands at him from the door When it seemed as if I could bear no more. The fault must partly have been in me, The bird was not to blame for his key. And besides there must be something wrong In wanting to silence any song. (Robert Frost / Celius Dougherty, "A Minor Bird")**
4. Transcribe the following song text: Slowly, silently, now the moon Walks the night in her silver shoon; This way, and that, she peers, and sees Silver fruit upon silver trees; And moveless fish in the water gleam, By silver reeds in a silver stream. (Walter de la Mare / John Duke, "Silver")
5. Transcribe the following song text: See how they love me, Green leaf, gold grass, Swearing my blue wrists Tick and are timeless. See how it woos me,
*ln AS and Historic RP/MA, [ljut], in Modern RP/MA, [lut]. **From "A Minor Bird" in The Poetry of Robert Frost, edited by Edward Connery Lathem. Copyright 1928, 1969 by Henry Holt and Company. Copyright 1956 by Robert Frost. Reprinted by permission of Henry Holt and Company, LLC.
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CHAPTER FIVE The Backing Vowels
Old sea, blue sea, Curving a half moon Round to surround me. Yet you rebuke me, O love, I only pursue, See how they love me. (Howard Moss / Ned Rorem, "See How They Love Me")
[u] Production The vowel [u] is a very characteristic vowel in English that is considered short in duration. It appears in German, but not in Italian or French. In English, it can be found in stressed words such as: good, could, book, full, bosom, cushion; or in unstressed positions as a substitute for [9]: fulfill, joyful, supreme, today.
FIGURE 5.2
[u]
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SINGING AND COMMUNICATING IN ENGLISH
Action Tongue
tip behind lower front teeth
Lips
back of tongue arched toward soft palate but lower than for [u] rounded but less firm than [u] cheeks energized
Jaw
slightly dropped from [u] position
Pitfalls to Avoid Avoid pushing from throat with guttural sound. Avoid drawled, off-glides: putpull Avoid substitution of [u] for [u]—sounds foreign EXAMPLES
put:
not [put]
pull:
not [pul]
look:
not [luk]
The vowel [u] is frequently difficult for singers because it is rarely vocalized and therefore is often distorted or substituted with [u]. As with the [ae] vowel, [u] must be drilled and vocalized in order to easily produce the beautiful English vowel it can be.
EXERCISES 1. Practice alternating between the [u] and [u] sounds in the words listed below:
[o] pull
[u]
stood
stewed
could
cooed
would
wooed
full
fool
should
shoed
cook
kook
hood
who'd
pool
CHAPTER FIVE The Backing Vowels
2. Practice speaking/intoning the following words: full
wood
good
look
put
book
stood
would
push
foot
crooked
wolf
fulfill
wool
forsook
woman
3. Transcribe and intone the following text: Oh, sweet and lovely lady, be good! Oh, lady be good to me! I am so awf'ly misunderstood, So lady, be good to me. Oh, please have some pity, I'm all alone in this big city, I tell you I'm just a lonesome babe in the wood, So lady be good to me! (Ira Gershwin and George Gershwin, "Oh, Lady Be Good!")*
*OH, Lady Be GOOD! Music and Lyrics by George Gershwin and Ira Gershwin. © 1924 WBMusic Corp. (Renewed) Gershwin®, George Gershwin® and Ira Gershwin™ are trademarks of Gershwin Enterprises. All Rights Reserved. Used by kind permission.
[o] Production The sound [o] represents the vowel in an unstressed syllable like in the word "obey." When it is found in a stressed position, it becomes the diphthong [ou]. This single pure vowel appears in German, Italian, and French; the diphthong does not.
Action Tongue
tip on contact with lower front teeth back arched halfway between [u] and [o]
Lips
rounded, with larger circle than for [u]
Mouth
quite open jaw released cheeks lifted and energized
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SINGING AND COMMUNICATING IN ENGLISH
FIGURE 5.3 [o]
More detail will be given on this vowel as it appears within the diphthong [ou] later in this text. Listed below are words that contain the unstressed [o] vowel as a [9] substitute. obey omit police polite
provide protect profound pronounce
melody desolate indolent omnipotent
[D] Production A characteristic, long English vowel, [o] also appears in Italian, German, and French in shorter versions. For singing, it should be a very long "aw"-shaped vowel, as opposed to the shorter versions of the European languages. It is found in words such as: saw, caught, daughter, broad, office, walking, call, and sought.
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CHAPTER FIVE The Backing Vowels
The English spellings for [o] in American Standard pronunciation are: al
as in
all, call
aw
as in
awe, awful
augh
as in
caught, daughter
ough
as in
bought, thought
ong
as in
song, long
off/of
as in
off, often*, soft
OSS
as in
cross, loss
ost
as in
lost, cost
In RP, the [o] is actually a more closed, raised vowel than its AS counterpart. To notate the difference in this vowel, it will be written as [c]. See chapter 14 for the production of [c].
FIGURE 5.4
* The "t" in "often" is not sounded in AS, RP, or MA. It is, however, sounded in several regional dialects.
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SINGING AND COMMUNICATING IN ENGLISH
Action Tongue
Lips Jaw
tip in contact with lower front teeth back arch slightly lower than for [o] lowest arch of all the lip vowels sides of tongue in contact with lower molars protruded forward lips far apart, narrowed at corners dropped as much as for [a]
Pitfalls to Avoid Do not change lip shape during production. Do not tense back of tongue. Do not substitute [a] for [o] — a common U.S. regionalism. EXAMPLES
water
not
thought
not
broad
not
Do not substitute the RP vowel—[c] for EXAMPLES
water
not
thought broad
not not
Do not substitute a Brooklyn accent EXAMPLES
dog
office
for
not not
Tips for Vocal Ease The vowel [o] can be closed to [o] in the passaggio and for melismatic settings of this vowel. It keeps the vowel from spreading in the passaggio. It also conserves breath, which makes it easier to negotiate the run.
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CHAPTER FIVE The Backing Vowels
[o
shall be ex - alt o -
lted]
ed ("Ev'ry Valley" from Messiah, G. F. Handel)
EXERCISES 1. Practice intoning/singing the following words with [D] for AS or [c] for RP: all
because
awe
daughter
exalt
applaud
jaw
aught
walk
autumn
awful
taught
always
exhaust
awning
withdraw
Paul
Saul
caution
water
2. Transcribe and practice the following song text in AS: Sleep falls, with limpid drops of rain, Upon the steep cliffs of the town. Sleep falls; men are at peace again While the small drops fall softly down. The bright drops ring like bells of glass Thinned by the wind and lightly blown; Sleep cannot fall on peaceful grass So softly as it falls on stone. Peace falls unheeded on the dead Asleep; they have had peace to drink; Upon a live man's bloody head It falls most tenderly, I think (Elinor Wylie / John Duke, "Bells in the Rain")
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SINGING AND COMMUNICATING IN ENGLISH
3. Practice the following text in Historic RP: Unlearned he in aught Save that which love has taught. . . I am the lowliest tar That sails the water, And you, proud maiden, are The captain's daughter. (W. S. Gilbert / Arthur Sullivan, From H.M.S. Pinafore)
[D] Production The vowel [D] is a short open o vowel. This vowel is found in words with an "o" spelling, as in "honest," "on," "upon," "not," "opera" in RP and is heard regionally throughout North America. It is the lowest of the tongue vowel sounds that has lip rounding. The vowel sound is halfway between [a] and [D]. The position is most easily found by saying [a] while slightly rounding the lips. This vowel is heard on the Eastern Seaboard and several parts of North America, influenced historically by British immigration patterns. It is somewhat controversial as to whether this vowel usage is considered standard for neutral American speech. Since this vowel is not used in American broadcast speech, it will not be used in this book for American Standard pronunciation. Details about its production and use can be found in chapters 14 and 15.
CHAPTER SIX The Mixed Vowels
Production The vowels [A] and [9] are stressed and unstressed counterparts of the same vowel. A distinctly neutral English vowel sound, [A] and [9] do not appear in German, Italian, or French. The [A] sound is always heard in stressed syllables of strong word-types, while [9], the weaker form, is heard in unstressed syllables and weak word-types. The vowel po-
FIGURE6.1
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SINGING AND COMMUNICATING IN ENGLISH
sition (stressed or unstressed) determines the IPA symbol, but the only difference in sound is the amount of intensity given to each vowel. They are considered mixed vowels because their physiological formation employs elements of both the lip and tongue vowels. The vowel [A] is found in the stressed syllable of words such as: love, hum, blood, trouble, covet, judge, among, humble, summer, and sudden. The vowel [9] is found in the unstressed syllable of words such as: alone, attempt, among, sofa, heaven, nation, joyous, sudden, and maiden.
Action Tongue
tip touching lower front teeth central in mouth tongue slightly arched in same position as [o]
Lips
neutral without rounding no spread of lips as with [a]
Jaw
released, vertical drop same position and drop for [o] and [ae]
Pitfalls to Avoid Do not open jaw too wide—becomes I Do not round lips—becomes
I
you.*
you.
Do not tighten muscles under chin. Do not permit vowel to lodge in throat. Avoid starting with throaty, hard glottal attack. Avoid regional substitution of [i] or [e] for EXAMPLES
just
not
or
Tips for Vocal Ease If the [A] falls back in placement, try modifying it more toward [a]. Again, the listener must hear a real [A] vowel and not an Italianate version of it. Remember the four substitutions for the unstressed schwa [a] vowel are [i], [o], [u], and [e]. Depending upon the vocal setting, experiment with these substitute vowels to find the one that sings the best. Remember, it must sound natural and not artificial.
* Although the RP variant of [A] is more frontal and in the placement of [a], it should never be discerned as a fully pronounced [a]. See chapter 14.
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CHAPTER SIX The Mixed Vowels
The "Un-" Prefix When the stressed prefix "un-" is found in words, it denies and reverses the meaning of the word, for example, undo, unsung, unkind, and so on. Therefore, [A] is used phonetically to encourage the singer to give this prefix its due stress and hence make it a doublestressed word.
RULE Use for all stressed "un" prefixes.
EXAMPLES
unkind
unloved
unhappy
undone
In unstressed "un-" spellings, as in the words "until" and "unless," use the schwa [9]. The versus The versus The
RU LI The word "the" should be sung [89] before an unvoiced consonant, [6*4 before a voiced consonant, and [6i] before a vowel.
the thought
the sense
the form
the men
the lake
the depths
[i] the earth
W
D3
the interest
the awe
ra EXAMPLE
The vowels of the text should be supported with the air flow.
Exception: When the word "the" is set on an elongated note, do not use [o] but only [a] before a word beginning with a consonant andfj] before a word beginning with a vowel.
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SINGING AND COMMUNICATING IN ENGLISH
EXERCISES 1. Write the following words in IPA and practice singing/intoning them: just
mother
love
money
much
blood
come
young
won
such
us
punish
cup
brother
some
touch
sun
was
utterly
judgment
2. The following words contain both [A] and [9]; transcribe them into IPA and practice singing/intoning them, giving each its appropriate intensity: husband
above
onion
hubbub
ruffian
abutment
among
judgment
cultivate
shovel
loveliest
trouble
3. Transcribe the following song text into IPA: The sun has fallen and it lies in blood. The moon is weaving bandages of gold. O black swan, where is my lover gone? Torn and tattered is my bridal gown, And my lamp is lost. With silver needles and with silver thread, The stars stitch a shroud for the dying sun. O black swan, where has my lover gone? (Gian Carlo Menotti, "The Black Swan" from The Medium) 4. Transcribe the following song text into IPA in colloquial American (see glossary,
p. 292): What's the use of wondrin if he's good or if he's bad, Or if you like the way he wears his hat? He's your feller and you love him. That's all there is to that. (Richard Rodgers and Oscar Hammerstein, "What's the Use of Wond'rin'" from Carousel)
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CHAPTER SIX The Mixed Vowels
Production are distinctly American Standard vowels. They do not appear in French, The vowels German, or Italian, or in RP or Mid-Atlantic dialects. Although related to the "r" consonant,
are considered r-colored vowels. The vowel
is always used in a stressed
syllable or word-type and is found in words such as: girl, verse, surge, journey, learn, and rehearse. The vowel
is used for unstressed syllables and is often found at the ends of
words such as: father, doctor, vulgar, over, and vapor. As with the
vowels, the only
audible difference is in the intensity of the vowel.
FIGURE 6.2
Many singers are very hesitant to use this vowel in their English repertoire. When produced correctly, it is a very beautiful vowel sound similar to the [os] in French and the [0] in German. Since it is part of the American Standard English pronunciation, it is very much an integral sound of the language and therefore should be used. The vowels the reduced r-colored variants used in RP and Mid-Atlantic dialects, will be discussed in chapter 14.
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SINGING AND COMMUNICATING IN ENGLISH
Action Tongue
like all other vowels, tip remains down in contact with lower front teeth if tongue rises, curls backwards, and inverts toward throat, a mangled sound is produced
Lip Jaw
middle of tongue arches similar to [e] position sides in contact with upper molars rounded but not tense rounding similar to [o] position relaxed, steady does not move during execution
Pitfalls to Avoid Do not initiate vowel with tongue-tip raised. Do not permit tongue to curl backward. Do not trill r's: very foreign-sounding, not American English. Do not twang r's: commonly heard in Pennsylvania and the Western United States. Do not reduce r colors: New England/British pronunciation—bird [b3rd] the sub-standard New York pronunciation—bird [boid] retroflex r twang—bird: "brrrrrd"
Tips for Vocal Ease If the [3^] vowels feel constricted, sing [e] and focus on the [e] tongue arch position without rounding the lips. It is half of the position that produces these vowels. It also helps to try singing [ce], which is the slightly more open French equivalent of these vowels.
EXAMPLE
Shall we gather by the river.
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CHAPTER SIX The Mixed Vowels
EXERCISES 1. Transcribe the following words into IPA and practice the appropriate pronunciation: earth
heard
surge
work
girl
mercy
err
rehearse
berth
diverse
third
iron
ever
mother
ledger
misery
perhaps
master
actor
comfortable
2. Transcribe the following bi-syllabic words containing both merger
murmur
Herbert
learner
murder
worker
server
burner
perverted
fervor
3. Transcribe the following aria in AS or modern MA: Things change, Jo: Things change. You're a babe at the breast, You're a daughter by the fire, You have all the love you think you could desire, Still, Things change, Jo, And, oh, what happens when they do? Your heart, Jo, your heart. It's a bird in the nest with its head beneath its wing, Half asleep, it cannot know it wants a thing, Still, Your heart, Jo, I know will dream of something new: Something that blurred, that broke within me, A secret word, who was it? spoke within me: She loves her mother, loves her father, Her sisters of course, But wants her John.
and
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SINGING AND COMMUNICATING IN ENGLISH
You're a rosebud in the night, You're a blossom in the morn, You're unmade by that light, yet reborn: Things change, And oh! One day, my Jo, I wish only that things change the same way for you. (Mark Adamo, "Things Change" from Little Women) 4. Transcribe and intone/sing the following song text in AS: At the cry of the first bird They began to crucify Thee, O swan! Never shall lament cease because of that, It was like the parting of day from night. Ah! sore was the suffering born, By the body of Mary's Son, But sorer still to Him was the grief That for his sake came upon His mother. (Samuel Barber, "The Crucifixion" from The Hermit Songs')
CHAPTER SEVEN Diphthongs
A diphthong, pronounced [difGorj], is a sound composed of two consecutive vowels in the same syllable. It comes from the Greek word di, meaning "two," andphthongos, meaning "sounds." Since the majority of words in English contain diphthongs, it is very important that we learn to treat them correctly. The pronunciation of the diphthongs varies a great deal in the various regional dialects. Therefore, our first task is to standardize the pronunciation of them. Even if singers may pronounce them accurately in speech, they often distort the vowels or drop the second vowel when singing. In every diphthong, the first vowel must be sustained, and the second vowel added at the very last moment. Even when the diphthong is to be sung over several notes, the first vowel is sung on all the notes and the second vowel is sung at the end of the very last note.
GENERAL RULES FOR DIPHTHONGS 1. There should be no break between the two vowels. After the first vowel is sustained, it blends Into the second vowel, 2. The change from one vowel to the next should be almost imperceptible. 3. There should be very little movement of the articulators during the production of the compound vowel, 4. The first vowel is sustained with the second sung at the very last moment 5. When the diphthong is sung on more than one note, the firstvowel Is sustained on all the notes, with the second vowel added at the very end. 6. There is a tendency to lose pitch during the glide to the second vowel, Work to achieve level pitch with added support for second vowel,
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SINGING AND COMMUNICATING IN ENGLISH
The diphthongs of American Standard are listed below: night, buy day, break joy, voice no, go, slow
air, care, there* ear, fear, here* pour, soar, o'er* sure, poor, tour*
now, doubt, about
are, heart, garden*
The phonetic spellings of the diphthongs listed above may seem different from the way they are pronounced in spoken English, particularly spoken regional American English. There is good reason for this. The initial primary vowels have been purposely opened for easier articulation when singing. In speech, the secondary vowels of the first list of diphthongs are also pronounced [i] and [u]. These have been opened to [i] and [u] in order to facilitate less movement of the lips and jaw when singing. Similarly, [i] and [u] are used in speech as the initial vowel of the diphthongs with "r colorings." The initial primary vowels may seem more open than in colloquial American speech. EXAMPLE
Singing them as written makes it easier to articulate both adjacent vowel sounds and not anticipate and twang on the r coloring. They have been opened so that they are more relaxed, and also closer physiologically on the vowel chart to the secondary vowel, which makes them easier to produce with less vocal tension.
Tips for Vocal Ease For all the diphthongs, check the tips section for each individual vowel for suggestions. It is very important to be very precise with the shape of the first vowel. The [o] vowel of [ou] should not spread to [o]. If it does, "no" could sound like "now" and be very confusing for the listener. It should also never be sung [QU] as in spoken RP, except in Gilbert and
*The r-colored diphthongs in the second column above are unique to American Standard pronunciation. The reduced r-colored diphthongs used in RP and MA pronunciation are listed below:
These are discussed in depth on page 221.
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CHAPTER SEVEN Diphthongs
Sullivan or some musicals requiring it. The [e] of [ei] must be closed. All the diphthongs are easier to sing if you really sing the vowels as precisely as they are written in IPA. The second vowel has been purposely opened up, [i] and [u]; to make it closer in position to the first vowel. Be sure to sustain the first vowel and sound the second only as you are phrasing off the note. Also note that the first vowel of the r-colored diphthongs has been opened up in order to avoid anticipating and twanging on the r coloring.
[ai] Production The diphthong [ai] is found in the English words: light, smile, delight, silence, divine, beguile, aisle, isle. It is spelled with a bright [a] symbol that is not found in English as a single stressed vowel sound. As a single vowel, only [a] exists in English. The vowel [a] is used because of its adjacency to [i], making the "a" vowel brighter and with a higher tongue arch.
FIGURE 7.1 [ai]
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SINGING AND COMMUNICATING IN ENGLISH
Action Tongue
sides of tongue against lower molars tongue moves upward and forward toward the upper molars for [i]
Lips
released minimal movement
Mouth
mouth contour does not change when going to [i]
Pitfalls to Avoid Do not add [i] instead of [i] for second vowel. Avoid regionalisms • Eastern/British: sky [skai] not [skoi] or [skAi] Modern RP • Southern: substituting [9] or [e] for [i] EXAMPLE
spite [spait]
not
or
dropping [i] altogether EXAMPLES
fine [fain]
not [fa:n]
blind [blaind]
not [bla:nd]
• avoid nasality when diphthong is followed by a nasal consonant EXAMPLES
mine, time, find, sign, rhyme, and so on
Remember always to sustain the first vowel in a diphthong and put the second vowel on
at the end. Moderately Slow ( J1 = 76) mp
Where the rock threw back the bil-low
[a - - - - ai 3
Bright
("Long Time Ago" from Old American Songs, Aaron Copland)
rit.
er
a tempo
than
snow
CHAPTER SEVEN Diphthongs
DRILL Practice the following words, taking care not to allow the diphthongs followed by nasal consonants to become nasal.
my
my
mine
tie
tie
time
fie
fie
find
sigh
sigh
sign
die
die
dine
kite
kite
kind
lie
lie
lime
buy
buy
bind
EXERCISES 1. Transcribe and drill the following words: sigh
mile
finite
island
right
pile
subside
daylight
twice
I'm
diary
license
rise
beguile
certify
diamond
guide
triumph
bicycle
biography
2. Transcribe and intone the following song text in Historic RP or MA: Drink to me only with thine eyes, And I will pledge with mine; Or leave a kiss but in the cup And I'll not look for wine. The thirst that from the soul doth rise Doth ask a drink divine; But might I of Jove's nectar sup, I would not change for thine. (Ben jonson, arr. Roger Quilter, "Drink to Me Only with Thine Eyes" ) 3. Transcribe and intone the following text in colloquial American: Buddy on the nightshift! I hope you slept all day, Until the moon came out and woke you up and sent you away. Hello there buddy on the nightshift, I hope you feel fine! I left a lot of work for you to do on the assembly line. (Kurt Weill, "Buddy on the Nightshift" from Lunchtime Follies)
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SINGING AND COMMUNICATING IN ENGLISH
[ei] Production The diphthong [ei] is found in the words: fate, day, ancient, afraid, proclaim, and so on. Often this diphthong is written phonetically as [ei]. It is preferable to use the closed vowel [e] in singing. When the open [e] is sung, it often causes a spread and diffused vocal tone. The [e] is especially helpful when singing in the upper register and passaggio.
FIGURE 7.2 [ei]
Action Tongue
front arched—sides aligned with upper molars
Lips
unrounded—horizontal throughout entire production
Mouth
do not change mouth opening or jaw while enunciating vowels
sides of tongue rise and front arches for [i]
Pitfalls to Avoid Use care not to spread the first vowel; [e] can easily incorrectly modify to [e] or [ae]. This vowel seems to open more in Modern RP, toward [ei]; keep it [e] in singing. EXAMPLE
save [seiv]
not [SEIV]
CHAPTER SEVEN Diphthongs
The vowel [e] should be produced with relaxed tongue base. Do not anticipate an [1] by switching [9] for [ij. EXAMPLE
fail [feil]
not [feal]
Don't close [e] so much that it sounds like [i]. EXAMPLE
fate [feit]
not feet [fit]
say [sei]
not see [si]
EXERCISES 1. Drill the following words: fate
rage
vain
reign
day
great
maid
obey
lace
face
disdain
grateful
betray
they
radiant
proclaim
2. Transcribe and intone the following song text in Historic RP: The sun whose rays are all ablaze in ever living glory, Does not deny his majesty but scorns to tell a story. He won't exclaim "I blush for shame" so kindly be indulgent. But fierce and bold in fiery gold he glories all effulgent. (W. S. Gilbert / Arthur Sullivan, "The Sun Whose Rays" from The Mikado) 3. Transcribe and intone the following text in AS: Quaint name—Ann Street. Width of same—Ten feet. Barnum's mob—Ann Street, Far from obsolete. Narrow, yes. Ann Street But business, Both feet. Sun just hits Ann Street, Then it quits—Some greet! Rather short, Ann Street. . . (Maurice Morris/Charles Ives, "Ann Street")
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[DI] Production The diphthong [01] is found in the words: joy, voice, avoid, boisterous.
FIGURE 7.3 [01]
Action Tongue
back arched toward soft palate arches gradually toward hard palate or [i]
Lips
oval shape
Mouth
open vertically
minimal movement jaw remains flexible and steady
Pitfalls to Avoid Do not protrude lips too much for [o] or spread sides of mouth excessively for [i]. Do not separate two vowels—it should be a continuous sound.
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CHAPTER SEVEN Diphthongs
Do not let pitch fluctuate during diphthong pattern—keep support firm. Do not omit second vowel. EXAMPLE
joy[d3Di]
notjaw[d3D]
Do not substitute [a] for [o]. EXAMPLE
boys [bDiz]
not buys [baiz]
Tips for Vocal Ease In the passaggio and with [01] vowels set melismatically, close the vowel down to [o]. [o
re- joice.
ois]
great- ly, ("Rejoice Greatly" from Messiah, G. F. Handel)
EXERCISES 1. Transcribe and drill the following words: joy
voice
rejoice
destroy
toil
noise
royal
employ
choice
join
embroil
poignant
enjoy
oyster
sirloin
disappoint
2. Transcribe and practice the following text in Historic RP: When first my old, old love I knew, My bosom welled with joy;
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My riches at her feet I threw— I was a love-sick boy! No terms seemed too extravagant Upon her to employ— I used to mope, and sigh, and pant, just like a love-sick boy! (W. S. Gilbert / Arthur Sullivan, From Trial by jury)
3. Transcribe and practice the following text in Historic RP or MA: Rejoice greatly, O daughter of Zion, Shout, O daughter of Jerusalem: Behold thy King cometh unto thee: He is the righteous Saviour, And He shall speak peace unto the heathen. (G. F. Handel, "Rejoice Greatly" from Messiah}
4. Transcribe the following text in AS: On the lake where droop'd the willow, Long time ago Where the rock drew back the billow, Brighter than snow. Dwelt a maid beloved and cherish'd, By high and low. But with autumn leaf she perish'd, Long time ago. Rock and tree and flowing water, Long time ago. Bird and bee and blossom taught her Love's spell to know. While to my fond words she listen'd, Murmuring low. Tenderly her blue eyes glisten'd, Long time ago. (Aaron Copland, "Long Time Ago" from Old American Songs)
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CHAPTER SEVEN Diphthongs
[ou] Production The [ou] vowel is found in such English words as: no, oh, role, though, shoulder, roam, and reproach. It is found in all stressed words and syllables pronounced with the "o" vowel sound and in the unstressed final syllables as in window, piano, sorrow, and so on. As a schwa substitute in all other unstressed positions, the monophong [o] is used.
FIGURE 7.4 [ou]
RULE Always diphthongize "o" spellings in: 1. Words or exclamations of one syllable. EXAMPLE
Oh! O, no, go, road
2, Words of more than one syllable where the V EXAMPLE
devotion, suppose, open, sotdier
syllable receives stress.
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Action Tongue
back raised in [o] position
Lips
minimal movement when gliding to [u] rounded
Mouth
outer contour should not change for [u] jaw released no movement during production
Pitfalls to Avoid Avoid regional habit of modifying [ou] to [ou] or [su]* EXAMPLE
know:
not [riDu] or [nau]* but [nou]
woeful:
not [wDuful] or [wauful]* but [wouful]
[90] is used in speech for RP, but for lyric diction this diphthong should be sung as [ou]. See chapter 14.
EXERCISES 1. Practice speaking the following words using care to differentiate between [au], [ou] and [u]: [D] ->
[OU]
pause
pose
bowl
bull
walk
woke
showed
should
shawl
shoal
pole
pull
chalk
choke
stowed
stood
saw
sew
code
could
2. Transcribe and intone the following text in RP: Away in the shadows a lone bird is singing, The wind whispers low in a sighing refrain; Their music makes memory's voices go winging: The Ash Grove in beauty I see once again;
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CHAPTER SEVEN Diphthongs
How little we knew, as we laughed there so lightly, And time seemed to us to stretch endless away, The hopes that then shone like a vision so brightly Could fade as a dream at the coming of day! (Excerpt from "The Ash Grove"—Old Welsh Melody) 3. Transcribe and intone the text in Historic RP or MA: O, be still, be still, unquiet thoughts, and rest on love's adventer. Go no more astray, my wanton eyes, but keep within your center. Delight not yourselves for to stand and gaze On the alluring looks of a beautyous face For love is like to an endless maze, More hard to get than to enter. (Thomas Campion / Peter Warlock, "The Lover's Maze")
[au] Production
FIGURE 7.5 [au]
SINGING AND COMMUNICATING IN ENGLISH
92
The diphthong [au] is found in words such as: shout, now, doubt, house, and vow. Regionally, this diphthong has two different highly prevalent pronunciations: [aeu] and [au]. The latter is much preferred for singing. Action Tongue Lips Mouth
flat in mouth—as moves toward [u] back rises higher adjustment should be minimal unrounded, rounds gently for [u] opening for [a] closes smoothly for [u] released jaw follows with little movement
Pitfalls to Avoid Do not mouth or exaggerate movement between the two vowel positions. Be careful not to substitute [aeu] for [au]. EXAMPLES
bound [bound] not [baeund] vow [vau] not [vaeu]
EXERCISES 1. Drill correctly and incorrectly the pronunciation of this diphthong: now [nau] —» [naeu] —> [nau] count [kaunt] -> [kaeunt] -> [kaunt] howl [haul] -» [haeul] -> [haul] 2. Transcribe and drill the following words: thou
owl
foul
ourselves
shout
sound
scowl
mountains
mouth
ground
devout
doubtful
frown
thousand
resound
boundary
3. Transcribe and intone the following text in Historic RP: He who doubts from what he sees, Will ne'er believe, so what you please, If the Sun and Moon should doubt, They'd immediately go out. (William Blake, "Auguries of Innocence" )
CHAPTER SEVEN Diphthongs
4. Transcribe the following song text: Come away, come away, death, And in sad cypress let me be laid; Fly away, fly away, breath; I am slain by a fair cruel maid. My shroud of white, stuck all with yew, O, prepare it! My part of death, no one so true Did share it. Not a flower, not a flower, sweet, On my black coffin let there be strown; Not a friend, not a friend greet My poor corpse, where my bones shall be thrown: A thousand, thousand sighs to save, Lay me, O. where Sad true lover never find my grave, To weep there! (William Shakespeare, "Come Away, Death")
The R-Colored Diphthongs Since all the individual vowel sounds that make up the r-colored diphthongs have previously been discussed earlier in the text, they will not be dealt with individually but all together as a group. They are listed together as the r-colored vowels of the American Standard and reduced r-colored vowels of RP and Mid-Atlantic dialects below. R-Colored
R-Reduced as in
air, care, there
as in
ear, dear, we're
as in
pour, four, o'er
as in
sure, tour, poor
as in
are, heart, garden
Please note once again, the initial vowel sounds of each of these diphthongs have been opened to facilitate easier vocal production. In speech, these vowels are usually more closed.
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SINGING AND COMMUNICATING IN ENGLISH
Acoustically, the substitution of the more opened counterparts cannot be discerned. The more opened initial vowels encourage less mouthing and exaggeration of the mouth and lips and decrease the amount of movement required to produce these diphthongs. As with all stressed and unstressed r-colored vowels, care should be taken not to pull back and arch the tongue tip, producing instead the characteristically constricted colloquial American "r" vowel. Like all other vowels in English, the r-colored diphthongs must be produced with the tip of the tongue forward and in contact with the back of the lower front teeth. Like the other diphthongs of English, the first vowel of the r-colored diphthongs should be sustained; with the secondary vowel sound, the r coloring, added at the very last moment.
RULE Lifee the other diphthongs of English, the first vowel of tine r-colored diphthongs should be sustained; the secondary vowel sound, th€ r coloring, is added at the very last moment.
EXERCISES 1. Practice alternating the r-colored and r-reduced diphthongs below:
air
dear
o'er
sure
are
hair
mere
yore
poor
heart
despair
we're
pour
moor
charm
rare
weir
adore
tour
depart
prepare
cheer
before
*endure
garden
e'er
revere
implore
*secure
partner
ensnare
sincere
restore
*obscure
marvelous
The [uaVuar] diphthongs are found only in stressed syllables. All "ure" spellings in UNstressed positions should be pronounced [&/3r].
*These words contain the [j] glide preceding the [uWsr] diphthongs. Others like this include: pure, cure, lure, demure, allure, and so on.
CHAPTER SEVEN Diphthongs
RULE The [u^/uar] diphthongs are found only in stressed syllablei, AH "are" spellings in UNstressed positions should be pronounced t>] in AS and {»r] In RP
and MA.
EXAMPLES
pleasure
not
treasure
not
The unstressed [uaVar] pronunciations sound affected and dated. 2. Transcribe and sing the correct pronunciation of the following words with "ure" endings: measure
leisure
treasure
pleasure
nature
stature
verdure
rapture
capture
3. Transcribe the following text in Historic RP or MA: Endless pleasure, endless love, Semele enjoys above, On her bosom Jove reclining, Useless now his thunder lies, To her arms his bolts resigning, And his lightning to her eyes. (G. F. Handel, from Semele) 4. Transcribe the following text in AS: I was standing in a garden, A garden gone to seed, Choked with every kind of weed. There were twisted trees around me, All black against the sky; Black and bare and dead and dry, My father called: "Come out of this place." I wanted to go, but there was no way: No sign, no path, to show me the way: Then another voice was calling: It barely could be heard.
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I remember ev'ry word: "There is a garden: Come with me, come with me: A shining garden: Come and see There love will teach us Harmony and grace, Then love will lead us To a quiet place." (Leonard Bernstein, "There Is a Garden" from Trouble in Tahiti)
Triphthongs A triphthong is the combination of three vowels within the same syllable. Like the diphthong, the first vowel is sustained vocally with the remaining two vowels added at the very end. The General Rules for Diphthongs on page 79 refer also to triphthongs.
RULI When singing a triphthong on two or more notes, sing the first vowel on all the notes, adding the last two vowels at the very end of the last note.
[a
And the de - sire
of ("Thus Saith the Lord" from Messiah, G. F. Handel)
The two principal triphthongs of English are: as in lyre, fire, choir as in our, flower, power
all na - tions shall come.
CHAPTER SEVEN Diphthongs
RV LE Sing all threfc vowels In triphthongs.
In Modern RP especially, triphthongs seem to be dissolving into diphthongs or even single vowels. For example, the word "choir" has become [kwa9r] or even [kwa]. Words become unintelligible when the vowels are dropped. Make sure to sing all three vowel sounds in triphthongs.
EXERCISES 1. Transcribe and drill the following triphthongs and practice singing them on one or more notes:
lyre
our
ire
hour
choir
dower
tire
flower
desire
power
inspire
shower
conspire
tower
admire
devour
2. Transcribe the following song texts into phonetics and practice the diphthongs and triphthongs in their musical settings in Historic RP or MA: Oh had I Jubal's lyre, Or Miriam's tuneful voice To sounds like his I would aspire To songs like her rejoice! My humble strains but faintly show How much to Heaven and thee I owe. (G. F. Handel, From Joshua) But who may abide the day of His coming? and who shall stand when he appeareth? For He is like a refiner's fire, (G. F. Handel, From Messiah)
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3. Transcribe and practice the following text in AS or Modern RP: Beloved, thou hast brought me many flow'rs Plucked in the garden, all the summer through (And winter), and it seemed as if they grew. In this close room, nor missed the sun and show'rs So, in the like name of that love of ours, Take back these thoughts which here are unfolded, too, And which on warm and cold days I withdrew From my heart's ground. Indeed, those beds and bowers Be overgrown with bitter weeds and rue. And wait thy weeding: Yet here's eglantine, Here's ivy! Take them, as I used to do Thy flowers, and keep them where they shall not pine. Instruct thine eyes to keep their colors true, And tell thy soul their roots are left in mine. (Elizabeth Barrett Browning / Libby Larsen, "Beloved, Thou Hast Brought Me Many Flowers")
CHAPTER EIGHT The Three Semi-Vowel Glides
The three consonants [w], [j], and [J/R] are considered semi-vowel glides in English. They are also known as semi-consonants or semi-vowels. It is because they are organically related to the vowel sounds [u], [i], and [a\|, respectively. (u) -> [w]
(i) -> [j]
(*) -> [J/R]
Vowels or Consonants? A semi-vowel glide is a consonant that is produced during the movement from its initial articulatory position to another position that is formed by the oncoming vowel. In other words, it is the action of gliding from the related vowel sound to another vowel following that causes the consonant to be created and sounded. The initial consonants of the words "wed," "yes," and "red" are produced by gliding from their respective related vowel sounds to the vowel that follows. As in the case of "wed," [u] glides to [e] and in the process the [wj is sounded. For "yes" and "red," [i] and [a-] glide to [e], producing [j] and [j/R/r]. [u (w) e d] = wed [i (j) e s] = yes [> (J/R) e d] = red
Feel the difference between intoning these three words with and without their related vowel sounds. First, consciously initiate each with the related vowel; then, consciously omit the related vowel and stress the initial consonant/glide only.
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You most probably noticed that there is far less subvocal tension when the vowel begins these words rather than the consonants. This is an especially helpful tool when articulating similar words in the passaggio and extreme high range of the voice. The semi-vowels [w], [j], and [J/R] can either occur as initial consonants, part of initial consonant clusters, or beginning a new syllable in the middle of a word. When these glide consonants are found alone or as part of a consonant cluster in the stressed syllables of stressed word-types, their respective related vowel sounds may be added before [w], [j], and [J/R] in order to vocally stress the stressed word-types. Hopefully, the examples below will clarify this concept. Initial and medial [w], [j], [J/R] as single consonants in stressed positions:
[w]
U]
M*
wonder [(u)WAnda-/9r]**
yearning [(l)J3-/3rmrj]
rhyme [(at)jaim]
worthy [(u)w3V3r5i]
Yankee [(l)jaenki]
really [^jili]
(u)
r
(l)
beware [bi wea-/9 ]
unusual [An ju3U9l]
erase [i(a<)jeis]
awake [9(u)weik]
resume [jiz(l)jum]
arrive [9(3l)jaiv]
Initial and medial consonant clusters in stressed positions:
[w]
Ul (u)
r
choir [k wai^/3 ] (u)
M* (l)
beauty [b juti] (l)
strong [st^jorj]
quest [k west]
music [m juzik]
great [g^lieit]
inquire [mk(u)waia^/3r]
community [k9m(l)jumti]
untruth [Ant(3°ju6]
unquiet [Ank(u)wai9t]
illusion [il(l)ju39n]
impress [imp(3t)jes]
RULi Related glide vowels should be added only to the stressed syllable of the primary or secondary stressed word. To add this extra vowel rhythmically, add a grace note pick-up before the beat on which the stressed word or syllable falls. In order to do this, you need to rob time from the note or rest preceding it,
* For clarity, the burred r symbol, used in all three dialects (AS, RP, and MA), is being used exclusively in these exercises. For other options in RP and MA, see rules for use of rolled and flipped r's on pp. 232-33. ** |>/3r] and [>/3r] are written to accommodate r-color pronunciations in both AS and RP. In each case, AS pronunciation appears first, followed by the RP reduced r-color.
101
CHAPTER EIGHT The Three Semi-Vowel Glides
Musical Application When adding the grace note pick-up for the related glide vowel, you inherently must always rob time from the preceding note; this way, the consonant preparation is before the beat and the vowel will not be late. The related vowel could be sung on the pitch of the preceding note or on the note of the stressed word that follows it. It usually works best, however, to sing the related vowel on whichever is the lowest pitch. When the preparation grace note is on the lower pitch, it functions as a springboard for the stressed vowel and helps the voice to swell or bloom into the stressed word. Note the grace note placements in the following example.
We wrow a - (u) wake to (l)you
We (^row a - (u)wake to (l) you (Grace note placements)
However, for the words with initial consonant clusters in which the second consonant is either [w], [j], or [a] such as "music" [mjuzik], always sing the grace note pick-up on the actual pitch of the stressed syllable. That way, it will be subtle and not obtrusive.
We g^row "to quake": to k(u\vake re-f^'Vise
We g row
to k wake re-f^use
(Grace note placements)
Take a look at a few examples from the repertoire: (Quasi recit. Slowly and freely) (P)
S(u)weet ("Sweeter Than Roses," Henry Purcell)
er than
(3v)
ro -
ses,
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SINGING AND COMMUNICATING IN ENGLISH
Moving forward (J = 96)
Now
the time has g * rown so short;
the " world has g rown so wide.
("Laurie's Song" from The Tender Land, Aaron Copland)
For further discussion of musical application, see chapter 13. Tips for Vocal Ease Initiate the [w] with its related glide vowel [u] to avoid lip and subvocal or subglottic tension. To accommodate the glide vowel rhythmically, add a grace note pick-up before the word beginning with [w]. It is the quick release of the [u] into the primary vowel that stresses the word and makes it expressive. As stated above, these three semi-vowel/semi-consonants are produced by the gliding action of the preceding related vowel sound. However, a little more detail on the position of the articulators for each of these semi-vowels is necessary.
[w] Production
FIGURE 8.1
[w]
CHAPTER EIGHT The Three Semi-Vowel Glides
Action The bilabial voiced [w] is made with a gliding movement of the lips that is similar to the pursed position of [u]. In English, [w] is found only before a vowel. Beginning position:
Tongue
tip down, back up
Lips
closely rounded for [u]
Position changes immediately as the lips glide to next vowel.
Pitfalls to Avoid Lazy lips or thick tongues make for dull, shapeless glides. Avoid intrusive glides that incorrectly produce two-syllable words. EXAMPLE
flower
and power
should be triphthongs
and
fill In the passaggio and above, when a word ending in a [u] or [a] Is followed by a stressed word-type beginning with a vowel, the two words may be discreetly connected with a [w] to strengthen the legato line. Because of the high tessitura, this would be far preferable to breaking the line with a breath tift to stress the subsequent word.
EXAMPLE
From Dido and Aeneas by Henry Purcell: Fear no danger to (w)ensure
Word of Caution An inserted [w] glide should be approached with subtlety and should not be apparent to the listener. Used properly, this technique can provide a springboard to help open the voice up and swell on the stressed vowel in the passaggio.
[j] Production This vowel is produced by the lingual palatal gliding movement of the tongue. As with the [w], [j] is found in English only when it precedes a vowel.
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FIGURE 8.2 [j]
Action Tongue
high in mouth sides in contact with upper molars tongue tip down as for the [i] vowel tongue glides forward for next vowel sound
Lips
unrounded
Pitfalls to Avoid Avoid intrusive glides: Popeye the Sailor's famous quote "I (j)am what I (j)am" (This may be used in the passaggio to help the legato, but must be used discreetly and should not be heard by the listener.)
Tips for Vocal Ease Use the related [i] vowel before the [j] to avoid subvocal tension. Add a grace note pickup before the word beginning with [j] to accommodate this extra vowel rhythmically. It is the quick release from the [i] into the primary vowel that stresses the word and makes it expressive.
CHAPTER EIGHT The Three Semi-Vowel Glides
RULE to the passaggto arid above, when a word ending in an [i| [it Of [4] fcfollowed by a stressed woidNtypt beginning with a vowel, the two words may'-toe discreetly connectedwitha fjl to strengthen the legato line, Because of tht high tessitura, this would be far more preferable than stopping the line with a bieftth Itfttostnesstheswb^eqywtword,
EXAMPLE
From Dido and Aeneas by Henry Purcell: Away, [j]away! Belinda, I [flam prest.
A Word of Caution The inserted [j] should not be discernible to the listener. If it can be heard, then it needs to be softer in its connection. Used properly, this technique can provide a springboard to help the singer open the voice and swell on the stressed vowel in the passaggio.
[j] Production
FIGURE 8.3 [j]
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SINGING AND COMMUNICATING IN ENGLISH
The symbol for the burred r is [j], which is always used in American Standard and in Modern British Received speech. In singing, the burred r [j] is always used in North American repertoire. For repertoire from the United Kingdom, burred r's [j] are interspersed with flipped and trilled r's. R usage for British repertoire will be discussed in greater length in chapter 14. The burred r [j] is lingua-palatal gliding movement of the lips and tongue.
Action Tongue
body of tongue released tip down behind lower front teeth for [a-] sides of tongue arched and in contact with upper molars as with position with [e] vowel
Lips
rounded in [o] position
As the gliding occurs, the [j] consonant is formed with the slight elevation of the tongue tip toward the hard palate. The tongue glides downward when the [j] glides to next vowel.
RULE for R as a Consonant or a Vowel R is sounded as a consonant when it is followed by a vowel. EXAMPLES
red
remember
righteous
R is sounded as an r-colored vowel when it, is followed by a consonant or is final. EXAMPLES
work
learn
never
far
Pitfalls to Avoid Do not allow tongue to tip too much toward hard palate, resulting in the characteristically Midwestern heavy retroflex r (remedy: bring tongue tip further forward). Avoid intrusive r's—characteristic of New Englander and certain British dialects, in which an r is added at the end of words or when linking words. EXAMPLE
Barbara (j) is going.
CHAPTER EIGHT The Three Semi-Vowel Glides Tips for Vocal Ease Use the related r-colored schwa [a-] before the r to avoid tongue bunching and constriction. Add a grace note pick-up before the word beginning with [j] to accommodate this extra vowel rhythmically. Remember, it is the quick release of the glide vowel into the primary vowel that forms the consonant r and makes the word stressed and expressive.
RULE In the passaggio and above, when a word ending in a|9>Af] is foltpwed by a stressed word-type beginning with a vowel, botfo words can be discreetly connected with a consonant r. In Neutral American Standard, it would be a burred r [j]. In historic British Received and Mid-Atlantic pronunciations^ ft WoWd be connected with a flipped r [r]. This strengthens th6 legato and is far mom preferable than breaking the tine in the passaggi o with a breath lift*
EXAMPLE
RP: Mine with storms of care [r]opprest Grief shall ne'er [r]approach the fair. (Henry Purcell, Dido and Aeneas) AS: To view a murder [j] or [j] a carnival reflected in the window of my mirror. (Dominic Argento, "The Mirror Aria" from Postcard from Morocco)
A Word of Caution Once again, this must be done with subtlety and taste. The listener must not think that a new word "ropprest" or "rapproach" or "roar" has been formed. When this is applied with subtlety, this can be a wonderful technique and can provide a springboard to help the singer open up the voice and swell on the vowel.
General Application for Types of R's
RULi Only burred r's [j] should be used in music by North American composers with North American texts.
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Since North American English speech does not contain any trilled r's [R] or flipped r's [r], they should not be used in song or opera from North America. Only the burred r consonant [j] used in the United States and Canada should be sung in this repertoire.
RULE For oratorio and repertoire originating from the British Isles, British Received Pronunciation, or the hybrid dialect, Mid-Atlantic, is appropriate, In these pronunciations, tried r's [sj and Intervocalic flipped r's [r] could be used. See chapters 14 and 15 for RULES for their usage,
RULE If a North American $tm§ or opera has a text by an English poet, either American Standard, British Received, or Mid-Atlantic pronunciation would be appropriate. One consideration rrrtght be which dialect would be most intelligible for the venue or the sophistication of the audience. In opera, often the directors or conductors make the decision based on the production style and values.
For Non-Native English Speakers For non-native English singers or native English speakers who regularly use trilled and rolled r's in their speech, here is a drill to gain control over the r choices you use in your vocal repertoire.
DRILL FOR A L L E V I A T I N G TRILLED R's In order to alleviate the habit of trilling the r's, practice exaggerating the duration of the related [a-] vowel before the [j] and concentrate on not allowing the tongue to make contact with the gum ridge while the r is executed. Remember the lips must be rounded to produce an exact [j] sound. Since [j] does not appear in many of the world languages, it is often particularly problematic for foreign singers. The muscle memory is so strong for trilling r's that there is often great difficulty refraining from using trilled r's in their singing of American Standard English. Unfortunately, trilled and flipped r's do not exist in Neutral American English and are therefore inappropriate.
CHAPTER EIGHT The Three Semi-Vowel Glides
Tony the Tiger on the Frosted Flakes commercials had the right idea! G (» ->) reat!!!!! EXAMPLES
right
rain
really
EXERCISES 1. Practice saying the following words with both initial burred r's [j] and trilled r's [R]:
[J]
[R]
rose
rose
[J] rose
wrong
wrong
wrong
cry
cry
cry
breath
breath
breath
thread
thread
thread
2. Transcribe and drill the following words. Use care to initiate them with their related vowel sounds: Semi-vowel [j] yes
yellow
young
yawn
year
yore
yonder
yearn
yet
yacht
yams
Yankee
Ye
York
Europe
yesterday
Semi-vowel [w] world
walk
wonder
worthy
wife
wash
woman
wisdom
worm
weigh
would
weather
witty
wishes
witch
whether
Semi-vowel [J/R] ripe
proud
brown
drum
cream
really
pray
bright
draw
crowd
rough
print
bring
dream
craft
rhyme
pretty
brother
dreary
crown
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3. Transcribe the following text and add related vowel sounds to the stressed semivowel glide consonants. Practice intoning the entire text, and then apply it to the first eight measures of the music as it appears below: When green as a river was the barley, Green as the river the rye. I waded deep and began to parley With a youth whom I heard sigh. "I seek," said he, "a lovely lady, A nymph as bright as a queen. Like a tree that drips with pearls her shady Locks of hair were seen; And all the rivers became her flocks Though their wool you cannot shear. Because of the love of her flowing locks The kingly sun like a swain Came strong, unheeding of her scorn. Wading in deeps where she has lain, Sleeping upon her river lawn And chasing her starry satyr train, She fled, and changed into a tree— That lovely fair-haired lady . . ." And now I seek through the sere summer Where no trees are shady! (William Walton,* "Daphne" from Three Poems of Edith Sitwell)
* This poem is by the British poet Edith Sitwell. It should be sung in British Received or MidAtlantic pronunciation. But for the purposes of this exercise, it could be done also in American Standard.
Andante ( J = I04c.) p espress.
When g(>)reen
Gr reen as a
ri
- ver the
rye,
as a
(
^ri
-
ver
I
was
(u)
wad
-
the bar
-
ed
and be-
deep
ley,
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CHAPTER EIGHT The Three Semi-Vowel Glides
gan
to par-ley With a
(l)
youth
whom I
heard
sigh.
("Daphne" from Three Poems of Edith Sitwell, William Walton)
4. Transcribe the following text into colloquial American, adding related glide vowels and breath lifts on stressed words: There's a place for us, Somewhere a place for us. Peace and quiet and open air, Wait for us, Somewhere. There's a time for us, Someday a time for us, Time together with time to spare, Time to learn, time to care, Someday, Somewhere, We'll find a new way of living, We'll find a way of forgiving, Somewhere. There's a place for us, A time and place for us. Hold my hand and we're half way there, Hold my hand and I'll take you there. Somehow, Someday, Somewhere. (Leonard Bernstein / Steven Sondheim, "Somewhere" from West Side Story)
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CHAPTER NINE Introduction to Consonants
The study of English lyric diction cannot be complete without an in-depth focus on the consonant speech sounds of the language. Many singers find that it is the delivery of the consonant sounds that causes them the most difficulty when singing in English. Unlike the Romance languages found in the lyric repertoire, the ratio of consonant to vowel in English is very high. Since the consonants are so much more prevalent in English than in the other languages, it is therefore important that we learn how to produce them properly and how to treat them expressively. There are two main reasons why the consonants of English pose problems for the lyric singer. The first is the fault of lax and careless colloquial delivery; the second is lack of concentration on the production of the consonants within the vocal studio. The study of the lyric treatment of the English consonants in singing is a muchneglected subject. As students of singing, a great deal of time and attention is spent on the vocal production of the various vowel sounds and practically no time is spent on the correct production of the consonants that precede, follow, and surround the vowel sounds. Taking into account the difficulty of learning to sing well and the number of years required to learn this skill, it is completely understandable that the thrust of the work in the vocal studio is on perfecting the vowels with little time left over for the consonants. For many years in North America, at least, secondary schools have not offered and encouraged verse recitation of any kind. Elocution courses have been taken out of the curricula. The oral tradition of recitation has been eclipsed by more technological pursuits. Worldwide, the computer age has left us with less time than previous generations to interact socially and converse in our daily lives. Communication seems to be done mostly by email, text messaging, and mobile phone usage. Admitting that there are deficiencies in this area, let us begin our work!
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First we need to develop a positive mindset regarding consonants. Consonants are not the enemy of legato singing. They are the connective tissue that sustains the legato and propels it forward. When released and handled properly, the consonants help maintain the forward placement of the vowels and help the voice to achieve its bloom. Except for a few songs composed as vocalises on a single vowel, the vast majority of vocal repertory has text. Text means words, and words have consonants. Without the consonants, we have no words. Without the words, we have no concrete thoughts being transmitted. If we hope to communicate the thoughts and intentions of a piece of literature as set to music, we will need to be armed with an arsenal of techniques for dealing successfully with the challenges of the consonants. It is very important to learn to produce the consonants well and to savor them. Here are some general rules to consider.
GENERAL RULES FOR CONSONANTS 1. The consonants make the word intelligible. 2. There are no ugly consonants, only the inept execution of them that causes them to be unattractive at times. 3. The dynamic level of the consonants must be brought into balance with that of the vowels, 4. The consonants must be sustained vocally as part of the vocal line. 5. Doubling or tripling the duration of the initial sustaining consonant of the stressed syllable of the words receiving stress helps to highlight the key words for the listener. This is accomplished by robbing time from the vowel of the word preceding the stressed consonant. This will be dealt with in detail in chapter 13. EXAM PLES
I Illove you
If with all your hhhearts you truly ssseek me
The stop-plosive consonants [d], [t], and [g] are doubled or tripled by stopping down on the consonant before its release. This is treated the same as a double stop-plosive in Italian. EXAMPLES
Oh! My g;goodnessl
drdeath invades me
6. The preparation or anticipation of the consonant must be done without tension and distortion of the vowel. 7. The objective should be to keep the base of the tongue from hardening. This is accomplished in part by striving to maintain a flexibility and pliability of the jaw
/
lips, and tongue muscles,
CHAPTER NINE Introduction to Consonants
8; /4fl consonants not begrnnfng stressed words that are followed %-¥»w«js sttbuttf, tescvmfed with the vowels that follow them, IX AMPLE
wai'-»ting fo -4 rus
The English Consonants The English language contains twenty-five consonants. Fifteen of them are voiced consonants and ten are unvoiced consonants. A voiced consonant is a consonant that involves the vibration of the vocal chords in its production. A voiceless or unvoiced consonant does not. Note the list of the English consonants with their voiced and unvoiced cognates below.
ENGLISH CONSONANTS Voiced
Unvoiced Cognates
b
P
d
•t
9
k
v
-f
z
s
3
•\
5
e
d3
>tj
M<
h*
Voiced Consonants—No Cognates m, n, n, I, w, j, j/R/r Not true cognates but related consonants
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Cognate pairs are two consonant sounds, one voiced and one unvoiced, that are produced by the same articulatory adjustments. In the voiced cognate, the vocal chords vibrate while the consonant sound is produced, while in the unvoiced cognate, only the release of air produces the consonant sound. A voiced consonant can be sung on a pitch while the unvoiced cannot. Familiarity with the groupings of the cognate pairs can offer singers opportunities to use the voicing and unvoicing properties of the consonants to their vocal advantage. Certain consonants are difficult to produce and project in the upper register and other consonants are difficult to get past the foot lights period. Here are some preliminary suggestions to consider. Tips for Vocal Ease
Within the cognate consonant pairs, substitutions can be made for vocal ease or easier projection. 1. If a word with an initial "g" like "God" is set on a high note, try substituting an Italian g or k, which places the consonant further forward and prevents it from being guttural. 2. The final [f] and the unvoiced th [6] can be projected better if you begin with the [f] or [6], but switch to their voiced cognates of [v] and [5] at the last second. See pages 144 and 158. 3. The [dsl of the word "rejoice" can be switched to [tj] in "Rejoice greatly" from Handel's Messiah in order to conserve air in the melismas and make the "j" project better over the orchestra. 4. To project over thick orchestration, [tj] may be substituted for final [t]. With distance, it sounds the same acoustically.
RULE The substitution of consonants for vocal ease and projection must be done In such a way that it is not apparent to the audience, Past the orchestra pit the consonants must sound real and correct. What you are singing on stage may be different, but acoustically it must sound authentic in the house.
Listed below are all of the various categories of English consonants with their cognates. These will be discussed in-depth in the following chapters. The Plosives: The Fricatives:
[b/p], [d/t], [g/k] [v/f], [z/s], [3/J], [5/6]
CHAPTER NINE Introduction to Consonants
The Affricates: The Aspirants: The Nasal Consonants:
[ds/tj] [Wh] [m], [n], [rj]
The Lateral Consonants:
[1]
Before digging in, we will spend some time developing our awareness of voiced versus unvoiced consonants. Habitual colloquial speech habits do not help us much. Many of us are fairly lazy in articulating final and medial consonants. Often the voiced consonants are only partially voiced or dropped. For example, in words like "good," "night," "straight," and "word," we often do not sound or project the final consonant. In American English, in words like "letter" and "water," the aspirated the medial [t] and often sound a flapped [r] instead. This can be used for certain colloquial pieces or characters but it often does not project well enough through thick accompaniment. In British English, though the medial t's are aspirated, there seems to be a current fashion for changing all the final d's to t's. English without final d's sounds like German, not English. Final d's need to remain voiced. So, let's get to work!
EXERCISES 1. Pronounce the following words, making sure to buzz the final voiced consonants; all final s's in these words should be sounded as [z]:* word, words
stage, stages
leave, leaves
require, requires
girl, girls
stab, stabs
hum, hums
man, mans
hang, hangs
bathe, bathes
English is a very unphonetic language. In other words, it is seldom spelled the way it is sounded. In order to easily identify the voiced consonants, it is helpful to write out all words in phonetics so that you are not misled by the English spellings. 2. Transcribe the following words and underline the voiced consonants: celebration
majestic
surprise
increase
remember
evening
intentionally
advocate
kissed
precious
procession
miraculous
pageant
choir
exact
See chapter 11 for the related rule.
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3. Transcribe text in AS and underline voiced consonants: Look down, fair moon, and bathe this scene, Pour softly down night's nimbus floods in faces ghastly, swollen purple, on the dead on their backs with arms toss'd wide, pour down your unstinted nimbus, sacred moon. (Walt Whitman/Ned Rorem, "Look Down, Fair Moon")
4. Transcribe text in AS/RP and underline voiced consonants: Come to me in the silence of the night; Come in the speaking silence of a dream; Come with soft rounded cheeks and eyes as bright as sunlight on a stream; Come back in tears, o Memory, hope, love of finished years. Oh dream how sweet, too sweet, too bitter sweet whose wakening should be in paradise, Where souls brimfull of love abide and meet; Where thirsting longing eyes watch the slow door that opening, letting in, lets out no more. Yet come to me in dreams, that I may live my very life again though cold in death: Come back to me in dreams, that I may give Pulse for pulse, breath for breath: As long ago, my love, how long ago. (Christina Rossetti / Lee Gannon, "Echo")
CHAPTER TEN The Plosives
A plosive sound is a sound in which breath is stopped by the articulators and is released in a small puff of air when the articulators are relaxed. Known also as stop-plosives, there are eight plosive consonants in four cognate pairs: [b/p], [d/t], [g/k], and [d3/tj].
OVERVIEW OF THE PLOSIVE CONSONANTS 1. The plosive consonants should be produced precisely and with no pressure. 2. Tension can be defined as non-motion. The facial muscles, throat, and jaw should be energized and pliable, never frozen into any position. A reaction in the jaw from the spring-like action of the plosive consonants must be allowed for. 3. The voiced plosives should be sung on the pitch of the adjacent vowel and voiced immediately. 4. There should be neither explosion nor compression of air. Excessive air wreaks havoc on the vocal line and is unnecessary for the projection of these consonants. 5. For recordings and performances with mikes, be careful with explosive p's, b's, t's, and d's. If they are too aspirated, they will pop the microphone.
[b/p] are bilabial. They are produced with the two lips together, [d/t] are lingua-alveolar. They are produced with tip of the tongue in contact with the alveolar ridge. 119
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[g/k] are lingua-velar. They are produced with back of the tongue in contact with the velum. [d3/tj] are lingua-alveolar and lingua-palatal. They are produced by the tongue against the front and sides of the palate. They are also affricatives. [b]/[p] Production A bilabial stop-plosive.
FIGURE 10.1 [b]/[p]
Action Tongue
should be inactive
Lips
come together without pressure and spring apart as vocal chords vibrate for [b] and air is released for [p] firm but flexible lips no air compression behind lips
CHAPTER TEN The Plosives
Pitfalls to Avoid Avoid immobile mouth—the American prototype of tight-mouthed and the British stiff-upper-lipped, laconic speakers. Let the muscles go. Avoid an extra vowel sound formed when connecting two consonants.
Aids for Projection 1. In stressed consonant clusters such as pi, bl, pr, and br, the initial consonants may be elongated by the insertion of a brief [a] vowel in 1 clusters and [a-] in r clusters. EXAMPLES
please [p^liz] (ai)
proud [p jciud]
blood [b^Ud] bright [b(ai)jait]
2. Before a rest, final p's can be made more audible by producing a [p] but immediately converting it to [b] with the cutoff. This can make this unvoiced consonant more easily projected. EXAMPLES
hope [houp -» b]
cup [kAp -> b]
trip [tJip —> b]
worship [wy-/3rjip -» b]
3. Initial p's can be projected more easily by substituting the unaspirated Italian [p] as in the word "pace." It is partially voiced and has different lip pressure. Drill alternating English p's and Italian p's in words below. Concentrate on no air flow on Italian p and a lip sensation similar to a [b]. pain
pain
power
power
poor public
poor public
pale passion
pale passion
Tips for Vocal Ease Substituting an Italian [p] and even a [b] for a final [p] can be used to strengthen the legato and be much more vocally soothing. When a word ending with a [p] is followed by a vowel, try connecting the two words with an Italian [p] when the phrase is accompanied by piano, or a [b] when accompanied by thick orchestra.
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And my lamp
is
lost,
and
my lamp
is
lost.
("The Black Swan" from The Medium, Gian Carlo Menotti)
EXAMPLE
with piano accompaniment "and my lam -> [it. p] is lost" with heavily orchestrated accompaniment "and my lam -> [b] is lost"
Microphone Alert Exploded, popped [p]s are the most problematic of all the consonants when singing with a microphone.
EXERCISES 1. Practice articulating p's and b's in various positions: Initial
Medial
Final
beauty
trouble
grab
bounty
slumber
stub
beggar
abide
sob
peace
apple
hope
pray
rapture
sleep
patience
repair
clasp
2. Practice singing and intoning the following words. Use the partially voiced p -> b cutoffs: weep
creep
sleep
hope
help
drop
slip
lamp
grasp
up
trip
grope
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CHAPTER TEN The Plosives
[d]/[t] Production Lingua-alveolar consonants.
FIGURE 10.2 [d]/[t]
Action Tongue
Lips Jaw
sides of tongue in contact with upper molars tongue tip securely placed on gum ridge behind center of the upper teeth tip releases with spring-like action to below lower front teeth as cords vibrate for [d] or breath releases for [t] tongue tip very energized inactive no action of jaw necessary in release of consonant
Pitfalls to Avoid Avoid dental t's and d's as in Italian. They must be aspirated for English (the only dental consonants that exist in English are [5] and [6]). Avoid slack d's, caused by thick tongue contacting too broad an area of gum ridge. Only tongue tip in the center of the gum ridge is needed.
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SINGING AND COMMUNICATING IN ENGLISH
Avoid over-aspirated medial consonants—use softer attack when medial consonants begin unstressed syllables.
RU11S for W endings* 1. When the "ed" ending;($preceded by a vo/earf consonant, the d b soynded a$[d]. ....EXAMPLE
troubled | crowne
2. When the "ed" ending!; preceded by an unvQlcetf--consonant, the d is sounded as [t]. EXAMPLE
kissed [kist| talked
Aids for Projection Plosives are the consonants most prevalently found in English words. If good projection technique is acquired for the plosive consonants, much of the intelligibility battle can be won. Besides being most prevalent, the plosive consonants can be the most problematical vocally and acoustically with any microphone enhancement. With this is mind, it is important to know which type of plosive consonants are needed for specific circumstances.
With Thick Instrumental Accompaniments,
Use Wet T's and D's 1. With thick accompaniment or orchestration, use a wet t/d to project. A wet t or d has a forward-placed vowel released with it. Release final t's with a whispered [i] vowel following it. A final d is released with an [i] following it. EXAMPLE
night [nait®]
This final wet t sounds similar to the percussion instrument, the high hat. 2. With instrumental accompaniment, initial d's may be replaced by an aspirated partial [t] for easier projection. The symbol for this kind of "half d-t" sound is [d]. It almost sounds like a [dz], but with less voicing.
CHAPTER TEN The Plosives
Drill alternating the words "town" and "down" releasing the [d] with the same frontal position and aspiration as the [t]. EXAMPLE
[taun] -> [daun] -> [taun] -»[daun]
3. The tr and dr consonant clusters are often mispronounced colloquially as [tjj] and [d;y]. This pronunciation, though incorrect, does project better over an orchestra and takes less air to produce. Actually, it alleviates subvocal pressure to substitute [tjj] for tr spellings. Therefore, substitute these whenever the tessitura is difficult or the orchestration is heavy. EXAMPLES
dream
truth
tree
tremble
try
trust
4. Double t and d spellings are only sounded as one consonant. Use light aspiration on the medial t's. EXAMPLES
better, pretty, matter, wedding, adding, ladder
With Light Accompaniments and Microphones,
Use Dry T's and D's Use dry t's and d's when singing and speaking with a microphone or light accompaniment. A dry d or t is released with a vowel [9], which releases downward. If you hold the palm of your hand two or three inches in front of your mouth and release a dry d or t, you should not feel a puff of air against your palm. A dry d or t should not have any forward release of breath that would "pop" the mike.
PRACTICE DRILL Say or sing the following words with dry t's and d's. Hold your palm in front of your mouth and make sure you do not feel any puff of air. Wept / wed
paint / pained
bet / bed
helped / held
Tell / dale
tot / dot
Tom / Don
tear / dare
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EXERCISES 1. Practice t's and d's in the various positions. Alternate between wet and dry t's and d's:
Initial
Medial
Final
touch
letter
night
tree
bitter
sweet
twenty
winter
blessed
divine
under
find
dagger
sudden
beside
daughter
riddle
confide
2. Practice intoning/singing the following with no intrusive vowels between the consonant clusters. If the [sts] cluster is difficult, first say the [s] followed by the [ts]:
[sts] beasts
mists
guests
ghosts
lasts
tastes
hosts
casts
texts
t plus various consonants
do not go
great joy
set forth
sweet dream
sent me
let none
night prayer
thou art good
bright vision
secret sorrow
lost souls
first song
[g]/[k] Production The consonants [g] and [k] are lingua-velar stop-plosives. Their articulatory adjustment involves the back of the tongue and the velum.
127
CHAPTER TEN The Plosives
FIGURE 10.3 [g]/[k]
Action Mouth
open
Tongue
tip behind lower front teeth middle of tongue in contact with hard palate (they can be produced with soft palate, but a more forward production is recommended);
Lips Jaw
tongue springs away as cords vibrate for [g] or air puff for [k] inactive no movement necessary in release of consonant; the tongue does all the work in release
Pitfalls to Avoid Avoid guttural, gulpy g's produced in back of throat. Avoid faulty k's—croaking k's against soft palate; must be further forward. Avoid pull back production in anticipation of the [1] in [gl] combinations—gleam, glimpse, glade.
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SINGING AND COMMUNICATING IN ENGLISH
RULfS for [i)+g] or [nj atone; 1. [rj] is sounded alone when the root of the word Is a verb, EXAMPLE
singer longing
2. [rj+g] is sounded when .the stem of the word does not form a verb, EXAMPLE
• finger anguish
Exceptions: the comparative acfjective forms EXAMPLE
long longer longest
young younger youngest
Aids for Projection 1. Take care not to release an explosion of air from behind tongue. Air should be released no further back than from the hard palate. 2. Potentially throaty consonants—do not let them go back like they do colloquially. Again, remember to use the plosive consonants appropriately to the musical circumstance.
With Thick Accompaniment Use Wet K's and G's As with wet t's and d's, use wet k's and g's to cut through thick accompaniment or orchestration. For a wet g or k, to aid the forward release, think of the tongue in the [i] position for the cutoff of final k's and [i] for the cutoff of final g's. EXAMPLES
back [bae -^ k®] look [lu ^ k«] big [bi -> gW]
plague [plei -> g(l)]
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CHAPTER TEN The Plosives
For initial wet k's and g's, anticipate the consonants by preparing tongue for [i] vowel. EXAMPLES
keep = (i) -> [kip]
cast = (i) -> [kaest]
go = (i) -> [gou]
guide = (i) -> [gaid]
With Light Accompaniment and Microphones Use Dry G's and K's
Use dry g's and k's for light accompaniment and with microphones. For a dry g or k, remember to avoid a forward release of the consonant with a puff of air. Drill the following consonants using dry g's and k's. Say these word groups, making sure you release the g's and k's with a final [9] with cutoff. pig—pick
egg—ache
brogue—broke
lug—luck
gape—cape
girl—curl
good—could
God—cod
For the initial consonant clusters kr, gr, kw, kl, and gl, insert a very quick [&•], [u], or [3] vowel between the consonants to elongate the beginning of a stressed word or stressed syllable of a stressed word. EXAMPLES
cross
great
choir
cloud
glance
Word of Caution Never insert a schwa [9] unless in a consonant cluster with an 1. For the semi-glide consonants in clusters, only their related vowel can be inserted. This applies to all consonant clusters with glide consonants, not just those with k's and g's. In other words: Insert [u] only when [w] is in an initial cluster EXAMPLE
queen [k< u >win]
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SINGING AND COMMUNICATING IN ENGLISH
[i] only when [j] is in an initial stressed cluster EXAMPLE
music [m^juzik]
[a^] only when [J/R] is in initial stressed cluster EXAMPLE
green [g<*>jin]
[9] only when [1] is in initial stressed cluster EXAMPLE
blow [b
Tips for Vocal Ease
For difficult settings of words with an initial [g], substitute the Italian [k] as in the word "caro." This will place the g further forward and keep it from being too guttural. Be careful, however, not to aspirate the [k] or else "God" will sound like "cod"! Many singers find that using an [i] rather than a [9] as a final shadow vowel keeps the voice placed higher and more forward. Also, the frontal release of the initial d's and k's help the vowel placement. See pages 136-37 for further details on shadow vowels.
EXERCISES 1. Practice articulating both wet and dry g's and k's in the various positions: Initial
Medial
Final
care
become
drink
count
murky
music
king
waken
invoke
gift
begin
beg
guess
forget
vague
guard
tiger
intrigue
2. Transcribe the following words, inserting the correct extra vowel into the consonant clusters. [ki/R]
[gj/R]
[kw]
[kl]
[gl]
crow
grow
quick
clear
glad
cruel
grew
quaint
clasp
glide
Christ
grab
quiet
classify
glutton
crash
green
question
climb
glimpse
CHAPTER TEN The Plosives
IMPLOSION RULE When final the cognate pairs of the stop^ptosives, [b/p], [d/t], [gjk] are found back to back at a fast or moderate tempo, hold or irrtpfode the first consonant and sourtd only the second one.
Implosions An implosion occurs when two plosive cognate consonants are back to back in adjacent words. Because these consonants are stop-plosives, we link them by holding or stopping down on the first consonant in our mouth and then sounding only the second consonant. In other words, the implosion occurs when two plosive consonants appear adjacent to each other as final and initial consonants. The plosive cognates are as follows. p&b
d&t
g&k
Implosions occur only with texts that are set musically at fast or moderate tempi. Implosions are a very useful aid in cleaning up the legato line. Within a phonetic transcription, an implosion should be notated: [ /_ ] The sensation of imploding a plosive consonant is very similar to the doubling of the stop double consonants in Italian. For example, the doubling in the word "tut:to" in Italian, feels similar to the word phrase "want to" in English. Try the following words and phrases in Italian and English to get used to the sensation: Italian
English p&b
lab:bro
sleej^peacefully cu^_brings stee^bank d&t
at:to dilet:to
ligh^_touch ha^_done hea<^tone g&k
leg:go
do^goes drink^cold milk backgammon
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SINGING AND COMMUNICATING IN ENGLISH
Notice how the legato is improved by the use of implosions in the musical examples below: Tis the gifO° be simple Quietly flowing (J = 72) i ,
mp
legato, simply
Tis the
gif/v
Jo
be sim-ple 'tis the
gif/
to
be free
("Simple Gifts" from Old American Songs, Aaron Copland)
On my black^coffin let there be strown
On
my blacV cof -
fin
let
there
be
strown;
("Dirge" from Six Elizabethan Songs, Dominick Argento)
Even in some musical settings when there is a rest between the two plosive consonants, an implosion can be more appropriate than sounding the consonants separately. Consider this example, also from Dominick Argento's Six Elizabethan Songs:
And mill/
comes
fro
-
zen home
in
pail;
("Winter" from Six Elizabethan Songs, Dominick Argento)
At this brisk tempo, sounding two [k]'s is almost comical; if "Milk" and "comes" are not imploded, you might sound like you have a speech impediment (or at least supply your own rhythm section)! Exception: The only exception to this rule occurs with verbs with "ed" endings in past tense followed by a word beginning with a [tj. When the "ed" is imploded, the verb sounds like it is in present tense. For "ed" endings, make sure not to implode the final consonant in order to keep the correct verb tense.
133
CHAPTER TEN The Plosives
If imploded: EXAMPLES
"asked to be" sounds like "ask to be" "desired to go" sounds like "desire to go" "judged truthful" sounds like "judge truthful'
[d3]/[tj] Production The consonants [d?>] and [tj] are cognate pairs that are lingua-alveolar and lingua-palatal involving the tongue against the front and sides of the palate.
FIGURE 10.4 [ds]/[tj]
Action Tongue
sides of tongue against upper molars, flattened tip on gum ridge, and front section of hard palate sound is produced when air escapes while the tip releases with spring-like movement forming a groove in the tongue [d] and [3] blend simultaneously
Lips
inactive
Jaw
no required involvement
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SINGING AND COMMUNICATING IN ENGLISH
Pitfalls to Avoid Avoid mushy [ds] caused by escape of air over sides of tongue rather than over the tip. This problem is called lateralization. To correct lateralization, make sure sides of tongue are in contact with the molars. Avoid unintentional exchanging of [tj] for [ds]. Drill the following pairs: perch—purge
batch—badge
etch—edge
These affricates are particularly difficult for non-native speakers. Because many languages do not contain [tj] and [03], many non-native speakers sometimes substitute [J] and [3] or [ts] and [dz].
Aids for Projection 1. No compression or explosion of air. It destroys the legato. 2. Substitute [tj] for [ds] in vocally difficult settings. The consonant [tj] is easier to project and the substitution cannot be aurally discerned over an instrumental accompaniment. EXAMPLE
From The Crucible by Robert Ward: "I do not judge you, John" sn
' g [trj -» [tJ01"1] rather than [d3an]
1UL1 [ds| and [tf] cannot be Imploded, Both must be pronounced in alt tempi. EXAMPLE
orange jj futce
large || gem
each I) child
such jj Joy
EXERCISES 1. Practice articulating these consonants in various positions: Initial
Medial
Final
charm
nature
witch
cherish
butcher
match
CHAPTER TEN The Plosives
champion
furniture
beach
childlike
teacher
sandwich
joy
major
merge
jelly
rejoice
besiege
George
Egypt
marriage
judah
imagination
courage
2. Practice separating the following words phrases: such || generosity
purge || jealousy
sage || judgment
George || jests
marriage || choice
judge || judiciously
Save Breath for Shadow Vowels One of the biggest impediments to transmitting a complete thought to the listener is the unintentional practice of not saving enough breath to fully finish the last word of a phrase. This is not only a problem that singers have. Start listening to sermons and lectures and notice how many speakers drop off the final word of their sentences. It is often a very frustrating experience for the listener. In English sentence structure, the last word of a sentence is usually a stressed word. If we lose the last word, we have often lost the entire thought. Let's analyze the following text: Weep you no more, sad fountains; What need you flow so fast? Look how the snowy mountains Heaven's sun doth gently waste! But my sun's heavenly eyes View not your weeping, That now lies sleeping Softly now, softly lies sleeping. (Anonymous, "Weep You No More, Sad Fountains" from John Dowland's Third Book of Songs)
Notice what happens when every word at the end of the poetic line is dropped.
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136
SINGING AND COMMUNICATING IN ENGLISH
Weep you no more sad
?
What need you flow so
?
Look how the snowy Heaven's sun doth gently
? ?
After four or five phrases like that, the listener usually stops listening. Their mind starts to wander; they might start thinking about what will be offered at the coffee bar during the interval! The way to prevent this major disconnect is to make sure the entire thought is transmitted to them. To do that, the final word of the phrase must be well supported and finished fully. Other non-communicative things can potentially occur in the next part: But my sun's heavenly (ice) View not your weepy While she lies sleepy Softly now, softly lies sleepy This happens because the final consonant of the final word is not projected. It is always unintentional. No one really plans on changing "sleeping" to "sleepy" or "weeping" to "weepy." If the support is dropped before the final consonant is projected, then it is lost. This frequently happens in singing because the pedagogical focus is always on singing through the vowel sounds and the final consonants are left to their own devices. To eliminate this problem, sing a shadow vowel: a short vowel with the release of the final consonant. The preferred vowel to sing would be a short "ih" vowel [i] rather than a schwa [9], which makes English start to sound very Italianate. EXAMPLE
Thy hand(l) Belinda, darkness shades me, More I would(l), but death invades me. (Henry Purcell, "When I am Laid in Earth" from Dido and Aeneas)
Here are some rules to consider regarding shadow vowels.
RULES FOR SHADOW VOWiiS In this chapter, the use of shadow vowels after the final voiced plosive consonants [b], [d], and [g] has been discussed. Actually all final voiced consonants
CHAPTER TEN The Plosives
137
that are followed by a rest or punctuation should be projected by use of a shadow vowel on the cut-off. Below are some parameters for their use. 1. The preferred shadow vowel is an [i] vowel. If a [a] is used, the tfext begins to sound very Italianate.
2. Shadow vowels are used at the end of a phrase to keep the test word of the phrase supported and projected. 3. They also can be used to project a final [b], [d], or [g] of a stressed worcf-type when It is followed by a consonant. If a shadow vowel is inserted in the rWddle of the line/ it should be sung on the pitch of the word following It And are up-gathere ~»d(1) now like sleeping flowers*
EXAMPLE
4. A shadow vowel should be very short, roughly the length of a 16th notfe 5. A shadow vowel at the end of a phrase should be loud enough to be heard over the accompaniment but softer than the primary vowel of the word it finishes. In other words, a shadow vowel is there to serve the projected of the text but should not draw attention away from the stressed words of thfi phrase, 6. for microphones: If you are singing with a body mike, you will only need to put shadow vowels on final [b], [d], or [g]f Just sing through the final nasal and fricative consonants and they will be sufficiently projected by the mike. * More detailed applications can be found in chapter 13.
Observe shadow vowels in the following two musical examples: Andante
Sure
50
on
this shin - ing night
Of
("Sure on This Shining Night," Samuel Barber)
star - made shad-ows rou
-
ndw
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SINGING AND COMMUNICATING IN ENGLISH
Some - times
I
Some-times a
hear
a
dis - tant
stair - case
creak -
ing,
tel - e - phone.
.n(I)
("Lonely House" from Street Scene, Kurt Weill)
EXERCISES Transcribe the following texts in IPA, indicate implosions to improve the legato, and insert shadow vowels to project the final voice consonants:
AS I want to be where the music comes from. Where the clock stops, where it's now. I want to be with the friends around me, Who have found me, who show me how. I want to sing to the early morning, See the sunlight melt the snow; And oh, I want to grow. I want to wake to the living spirit Here inside me, where it lies. I want to listen til' I can hear it, Let it guide me, and realize That I can go with the flow unending, That is bending, that is real; And oh, I want to feel. I want to walk in the earthly garden, Far from cities, far from fear. I want to talk to the growing garden,
CHAPTER TEN The Plosives
To the devas*, to the deer, And to be one with the river flowing, Breezes blowing, sky above; And oh, I want to love. (Lee Hoiby, "Where the Music Comes From")
AS
Do not despise the rose because its beauty is manifest, Do not decry the thistle for its elusive grace, I love what must be searched as well as read'ly offered, If joy or pain accompany the gift. Your easy words and kisses neither burned nor stung. You left me at dawn on a dreamless bed. (Gian Carlo Menotti, The Idle Gift)
* devas [deivas]: nature spirits.
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CHAPTER ELEVEN The Fricatives
A fricative is a speech sound in which breath passes through the articulators so as to create frictional noises. Most fricatives occur as cognate pairs. There are ten fricative consonants in English in four cognate pairs: [v]/[f], [z]/[s], [sMJ], [9]/[6], and [Av]/[h]. The consonants [z], [s], [3], [J] are also called sibilants. A sibilant is a speech sound in which breath passes through the articulators so as to create a hissing sound. With the exception of the stop-plosives, all other consonants in English are continuants and can be sustained. [v]/[f] are labio-dental. They are produced with contact between the lower lip and upper teeth. [z]/[s] are lingua-dental. They are produced with the tongue between the upper and lower teeth. [sMJ] are lingua-palatal. They are produced with the tongue against the sides and front of teeth. [5]/[9] are lingua-dental. They are produced with the tongue in contact with the upper front teeth. [h] is glottal. The sound is articulated in the glottis or throat. [M] is a bilabial consonant glide.
Merges: The Legato Builder In the previous chapter, I focused on a technique for improving the legato line with the plosive consonants: the use of an implosion of the cognate pairs [b]/[p], [d]/[t], [g]/[k]
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SINGING AND COMMUNICATING IN ENGLISH
AN OVERVIEW OF THE FRICATIVE CONSONANTS 1. In the production of all the fricatives, always keep the exterior facial muscles and throat uninvolved. 2. Never blow breath. There should be no sensation of air, only resonance. 3. Except for special circumstances, immediately voice the voiced consonants with prompt vocal vibration. Do not initiate with the voiceless cognates. It destroys the legato. EXAMPLE
divine [divain] not [dif>vain]
4. Only adequate duration conveys these consonants to the audience, not air pressure. 5. Keep time value of the duration of the stressed consonants consistent with the English stress patterns. As in the word "velvet," the initial [v] would be tripled while the second [v] that begins the unstressed syllable would be short. 6. Any intentional substitutions of consonant cognates for projection purposes must not be discernible to the audience. 7. The unvoiced consonants must be heard long enough to be recognized. They must be held longer than their voiced counterparts. 8. Like the plosive consonants, the fricatives need as much abdominal support as the vowels require. Plosive consonants implode when the cognate pairs are back to back; fricative consonants merge when they are back to back.
when they are adjacent to each other in a vocal line. A similar principle can be applied to fricative consonants [v]/[f], [z]/[s], b]/[J], [9]/[6], and [MJ/[h] when they are adjacent to each other in a vocal line. Since the fricatives are sustaining consonants, rather than stop consonants like the plosives, they can be sustained together without any stop of tone. This sustained connection of one fricative consonant to another is called a merge.
RULE A Merge is the seamless sustaining of two adjacent consonants |o as to not allow an intrusive vowel to accidentally occur between them, thereby disturbing the textual line. If the articulators are dropped for even a split second while adjusting for the position of the next consonant a schwa or lorne other weakened vowel sound will be heard between the two consonants.
143
CHAPTER ELEVEN The Fricatives
The symbol for a merge is: [_]. Throughout this chapter, there will be discussions about the merging of the fricative consonants.
All Fricatives Can Merge Although each of the cognate pairs of the fricative consonants have been discussed separately, in actuality, all fricative consonants can merge when they are adjacent to each other in a vocal line. In other words, any combination of the fricative consonants back to back can form a merge. In reality, any combination of fricatives can merge with any other sustaining consonants. See chapter 13. EXAMPLES
|TJ[f]
[v][8]
[z] [0]
[3]
Rushorward
oOhis
doesthirst
mirage^vanishes
[v]
[v]/[f] Production The sounds [v] / [f] are labio-dental fricatives involving the lower lip and upper teeth. These sounds are made by bringing up the inner edges of the lower lip against the upper teeth. The sounds are produced when the breath [f] or the voice [v] escapes through a narrow opening between the upper teeth and lower lip.
FIGURE 11.1 [v]/[f]
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SINGING AND COMMUNICATING IN ENGLISH
Action Tongue
relaxed, low in mouth
Teeth
slightly apart cutting edge of upper teeth rests lightly inside lower lip
Lips
relaxed and apart Very little air required
Pitfalls to Avoid Do not UNintentionally exchange [f] for [v]. EXAMPLES
of: [av] not [af] I have to go: [haev tu] not [haef tu]
Do not overblow—easy air flow, no breath pressure. Do not omit the [f] before the [6] in words like fifth or twelfth.
Aids for Projection and Legato 1. To avoid an intrusive schwa [a] after [v] as in the word "love," wait for the vibration of [v] to cease and then move the articulators. 2. With instrumental accompaniment, use a shadow vowel [i] after final v and a whispered [i] after final [f] followed by a rest or pause in order to better project. EXAMPLES
dove[dAV«]
grief [gjif(l)]
3. With thick orchestral accompaniment, final f's that end a phrase may be projected easier if [f] is switched to [v] on the release. EXAMPLES
life [laif -> v«]
belief [bilif -> v«]
RULE Merge final [v/f] followed by an initial [v/f} with one continuous sound.
EXAMPLES
live^vitally
live^forever
life^varies
griePfalls
CHAPTER ELEVEN The Fricatives
EXERCISES 1. Practice articulating v's and f's in the various positions: Initial
Medial
Final
fame
infamous
grief
photo
coffee
laugh
friend
suffer
leaf
fortune
coffin
strife
fury
offer
nymph
voice
evil
love
Venus
avoid
eve
virtue
divine
shelve
valley
Savior
groove
villain
invade
move
2. Transcribe the following text and intone it. Where applicable, use glide vowels and breath lifts to treat the stressed words, and add shadow vowels to project the final voiced consonant before punctuation or a breath and merges for legato. Music when soft voices die, Vibrates in the memory; Odours when sweet violets sicken, Live within the sense they quicken. Rose leaves when the rose is dead, Are heaped for the beloved's bed; And so thy thoughts, when thou art gone, Love itself, shall slumber on (Percy Bysshe Shelley / Ernest Gold, "Music When Soft Voices Die")
3. Transcribe the following aria into IPA. Where applicable, use glide vowels and breath lifts to treat the stressed words. Add shadow vowels to project the final voiced consonants before punctuation or a breath. Green finch and linnet bird, nightingale, blackbird, How is it you sing? How can you jubilate, sitting in cages, Never taking wing?
145
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SINGING AND COMMUNICATING IN ENGLISH
Outside the sky waits, beckoning, Just beyond the bars. How can you remain, staring at the rain, maddened by the stars? How is it you sing anything? How is it you sing? Whence comes this melody constantly flowing? Is it rejoicing or merely hallowing? Are you discussing or fussing or simply dreaming? Are you crowing? Are you screaming? Ringdove and robinet, is it for wages, Singing to be sold? Have you decided it's safer in cages, Singing when you're told? My cage has many rooms, damask and dark. Nothing there sings, not even my lark. Larks never will, you know, when they're captive. Teach me to be more adaptive. Ah, Green finch and linnet bird, nightingale, blackbird, Teach me how you sing. If I cannot fly let me sing. (Stephen Sondheim, "Green Finch and Linnet Bird" from Sweeney Todd)
[z]/[s] Production The consonants [z]/[s] are lingua-alveolar fricatives involving the blade of the tongue contacting the alveolar ridge.
Action Teeth
slightly apart
Tongue
sides of tongue press against upper back teeth, sealing off breath point tip of tongue toward exact center of upper front teeth
Lips
keep lips symmetrical
Vibration occurs between tip of tongue and the gum ridge
147
CHAPTER ELEVEN The Fricatives
FIGURE 11.2 [ z ] / [ s ]
Pitfalls to Avoid Avoid dull sound, which occurs if tongue tip is down; there is more resonance with tongue tip up by gum ridge. Avoid lisping s's.
LISPING S 1. Frontal lisp: substituting [0] for [s] and [9] for [z] caused by tongue touching gum ridge. 2. Lateral lisp: aspirated [I] position substituted for [s] or [z] caused by sides of tongue not in contact with upper teeth. 3. Effeminate s caused by top and bottom teeth together and tongue groove too narrow. 4. Whistling s caused by tongue tip too far back or by tongue tip against lower gum or teeth.
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SINGING AND COMMUNICATING IN ENGLISH
DRILLS FOR OVERCOMING LISPING S AND Z For S's Practice ts/s alternation: EXAMPLES
tsee/see, tsay/say, tsaw/saw, tsew/sew, tsoon/soon
Practice ns/s alternation: EXAMPLES
nsun/sun, nso/so, nsaid/said, nsign/sign, nseal/seal
For Z's Practice dz/z alternation: EXAMPLES
dzone/zone, dzoo/zoo, dzip/zip, dzeal/zeal
Practice nz/z alternation: EXAMPLES
nzone/zone, nzoo/zoo, nzip/zip, nzeal/zeal
Aids for Projection and Legato 1. There should be no shadow vowel needed on final [z] when the piano accompaniment is very light. Drill the following words, saying them with an exaggerated shadow vowel; then say them ending only with the buzz of the fricative consonant: comes
[kAinz(i)]
tells
[kAm —> z]
lives
[telz(l)]
please
[pliz(l)]
leaves
[livz(l)]
[tel —> z]
[livz(i)]
loves
[liv -» z]
[Lwz(i)]
[pli -> z]
[Lvv -» z]
[liv —> z]
2. With instrumental accompaniment, add a whispered [i] for final [s] followed by a rest or pause, and a shadow vowel [i] after a final [z] followed by a rest or pause. weeks [wiks(I)] (l)
pause [poz ]
laughs [laefs(1)] (l)
eyes [aiz ]
sets [sets(I)] rose [J/ROUZ(I)]
3. For final [s] / [z] followed by initial [s] / [z], merge the consonants into one continuous sound without any intervening vowels. EXAMPLES
less^sweet
yes,~sir
for Mistake
life's^zest
his~zeal
says^Zeus
CHAPTER ELEVEN The Fricatives
149
Expressive Doublings of the Fricatives
RULE To bring out the expressive qualities of the text, double and triple the initial consonants of the stressed words and syllables of important words. This is called an expressive doubling. This can be accommodated rhythmically by inserting a voiced or unvoiced grace note before the beat.
EXAMPLE
Voiced grace note: v:voice
Unvoiced grace note: s:sun
This will be discussed in depth in chapter 13.
Because the fricative consonants are sustaining consonants, they can be doubled and tripled to bring out and heighten the stressed words in a vocal line. Let's look at an excerpt from the Finzi setting of the Shakespeare song "Fear No More the Heat of the Sun." Try reading the text first without the music and experiment with doubling the initial consonants of the words you want to stress. The consonant doublings can transform a text reading from bland to captivating when we begin to use fricative consonants in this way. Fear no more the heat o' the sun, Nor the furious winter's rages Thou thy worldly task is done Home art gone, and ta'en thy wages; (William Shakespeare / Gerald Finzi, "Fear No More the Heat o' the Sun" from Let Us Garlands Bring)
Now try it in the musical setting. To notate a consonant doubling in a text, merely write two consonants and insert a colon between them, that is [f:f], [h:h], [s:s] and so on. Grave
Fifear
c. 42
no
more
the
("Fear No More the Heat o' the Sun," Gerald Finzi)
h:heat
o'
the
s:sun
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SINGING AND COMMUNICATING IN ENGLISH
Now let's try out this technique on some Wordsworth. Recite the following text using glides, breath lifts, shadow vowels, merges, and expressive doublings: The world is too much with us; late and soon, Getting and spending, we lay waste our powers; Little we see in Nature that is ours; We have given our hearts a way, a sordid boon! The sea that bares her bosom to the moon; The winds that will be howling at all hours, And are up-gathered now like sleeping flowers; For this, for everything, we are out of tune; It moves us not. — (William Wordsworth, excerpt from "The World Is Too Much with Us")
The stressed words that begin with consonant clusters may be stressed by adding the related vowel sounds the consonant clusters si, str, skr, skw, and spr in order to highlight them in a musical phrase: EXAMPLES
sleep
strong
scream
squeeze
spring
RULES FOR FINAL S PRONUNCIATION 1 » Pronounce [s] if s is preceded by an w/tvo/ced consonant. EXAMPLE
mists [mists]
lasts [Jaests]
2. Pronounce [i] if s Is preceded by a voiced consonant or vowel. EXAMPLE
sounds [sawdz] voices
3. For plurals, the same principle applies: [s] is preceded by a voiceless consonant; [z] is preceded by a voiced consonant or vowel EXAMPLE
ships [fipsj
tracks [fciaeks]
musicians [mjuzijanz]
memories
CHAPTER ELEVEN The Fricatives
151
• 4. Th£ same ai$0''»pH^s for possessive prooOyns. EXAMPLE'
Settfs
Tom's
5. All *«?.
' ".f>|yste:
theirs
or
kisses [kis£/iz]
EXERCISES 1. Practice articulating [s] and [z] in the various positions. Initial
Medial
Final
sound
answer
nice
sweet
useful
voice
circle
mystery
rejoice
suddenly
excellent
morose
Sunday
hospital
release
zoo
lazy
trees
zeal
razor
stars
zither
buzzing
prize
zephyr
Thursday
surprise
Zion
desire
breathes
2. Transcribe and intone the following text. Treat the stressed words with glides, breath lifts, merges, and doubled consonants (expressive doublings). Use shadow vowels to project the final voiced consonants: Sleep, child, lie quiet, let be: Now like a still wind, a great tree, Night upon this city moves, Like leaves, our hungers and our loves. Sleep, rest easy, while you may. Soon it is day. And elsewhere likewise love is stirred; Elsewhere the speechless song is heard: Wherever children sleep, or wake, Souls are lifted, hearts break, Sleep, be careless while you can.
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Soon you are man. And ev'rywhere good men contrive Good reasons not to be alive. And even should they build their best No man could bear tell you the rest. Sleep, child, for your parent's sake. Soon you must wake. (James Agee / Thomas Pasatieri, "A Lullaby")
3. Transcribe and intone the following text. Indicate the expressive doubling of the stressed words and treat as in 2. Oh sleep! Oh sleep why dost thou leave me? Why thy visionary joys remove? Oh sleep, again deceive me, To my arms restore my wand'ring love. (G. F. Handel, from Semele)
4. Transcribe and intone the following text. Indicate the expressive doubling of the stressed words and treat as in 2. Scenes from my childhood are with me, I'm in the lot behind our house upon the hill, a spring day's sun is setting, Mother with Tom in her arms is coming towards the garden; the lettuce rows are showing green. Thinner grows the smoke o'er the town, stronger comes the breeze from the ridge, Tis after six, the whistles have blown, The milk train's gone down the valley. Daddy is coming up the hill from the mill, We run down the lane to meet him. But today! In freedom's cause Tom sailed away for over there! Scenes from my childhood are floating before my eyes. (Charles Ives, "Tom Sails Away")
CHAPTER ELEVEN The Fricatives
153
5. Practice the opening to "Tom Sails Away," sounding or preparing all consonants of stressed words (voiced or unvoiced, sustaining or unsustaining) in the time of a grace note before the beat. First speak in rhythm, then intone it, and finally sing it on the actual pitches.
slowly and quietly
Scenes from my
in
the
lot 1:1
child
be - hind
hood
our
with
are
house up h:h
on
me,
the
I'm
hill, h:h
("Tom Sails Away," Charles Ives)
Note: You have the artistic license to voice consonants longer or sooner than the grace note value indicated, but you should form the habit early of reserving lengthy consonant production for occasional emphasis; most consonants should be sounded or prepared in the rhythm of a grace note.
Tips for Vocal Ease
Merging one sustaining consonant to another greatly improves the legato line and guards against the accidental insertion of an intrusive [9] when connecting two consonants back to back, for example, "Sure on [9] this shining [a] night." When these extra vowels are added, it destroys the legato and draws attention away from the stressed word-types that need to be targeted for the listener. In this chapter, only the fricative cognates [v/f],
[s/z], and [J/j] are shown
merging together. Remember that any combination of the sustaining consonants should be merged together when they are back to back. A detailed discussion of this can be found in chapter 13.
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[3]/[f] Production Lingua-palatal fricative consonants involve the tongue and the hard palate.
FIGURE 11.3 [ 3 ]/[J]
Action Tongue
entire tongue further back than for [z/s] tongue surface flat, middle arched sides of tongue against upper molars blade of tongue almost touches palate just behind gum ridge
Lips
lips slightly rounded, pursed forward When breath or voice is forced through tongue groove and narrow aperture between upper and lower teeth this frictional sound results
Pitfalls to Avoid
Many of the same problems arise as with [s] / [z] and [tj] / [ds], including lateralization, whistling, and lower lip action.
CHAPTER ELEVEN The Fricatives
155
If there is difficulty forming [3] but not [J], drill back and forth between the cognates: EXAMPLE
(fl-» [3]-» [fl-> [3]
Avoid lisped [J] caused by flaccid tongue. The air must be sealed off with the tongue against upper molars. Use both tip and blade of tongue pointed toward hard palate. Drill: EXAMPLE
whispered
This keeps tongue high enough.
Aids for Projection and Legato 1. Lip rounding is essential and helps project consonant. 2. For [JJ, feel unpressured, voiceless breath over tongue; easy, almost resonant air. 3. Only adequate duration conveys these consonants to audience, not pressure. 4. No intrusive vowels should be added between initial or final [3] or [J] when they are preceded or followed by a word beginning or ending with another fricative consonant. Merge the final and initial consonants together in one continuous sound. EXAMPLES
rushPforth
mirage~vanished
beige^fountain
this^shining
hushTceased
RULE Merge initial + final [3] and [f] into one continuous sound with no intervening vowel. EXAMPLES
freshCshowers
blush^shyly
EXERCISES 1. Practice articulating [3] and [f] in the various positions: Initial
Medial
Final
sure
fishing
flush
ship
precious
dish
shame
ocean
mash
Chicago
patient
leash
shackles
motion
crash
wasr£shirt
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(No English
treasure
beige
words begin
vision
corsage
with [3].)
casual
mirage
confusion
camouflage
azure
garage*
2. Transcribe the following texts into RP or MA. Indicate any merges, implosions, and expressive doublings of stressed words. The people that walked in darkness have seen a great light: they that dwell in the land of the shadow of death, upon them hath the light shined. He shall feed his flock like a shepherd: he shall gather the lambs with his arm, and gently lead those that are with young. (G. F. Handel, From Messiah)
3. Transcribe into colloquial American** and treat the stressed words as indicated in the exercise above: Ev'ry ranch hand I ever knew has had a dream of settlin' down. We've all had dreams of buyin' a home. but none of us had ever made it come true. I don't know why it doesn't come true. I just know it never does. Maybe we're just born to wander; maybe we're just born to live alone. Maybe we'd be unhappy any other way. Who knows? Who can say? I don't know why we're the way we are but this much I know: Ranch-hands die in a bare, cold bunkhouse: Ranch-hands die with empty hands;
* Garage has two acceptable pronunciations with final [3] or final [d3]. ** See the glossary p. 293 for the discussion on coloquial American pronunciation.
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CHAPTER ELEVEN The Fricatives
Ranch-hands die alone: strangers to the world. (Carlisle Floyd, "Slim's Aria" from Of Mice and Men)
[d]/[6] Production The consonants [5]/[0] are lingua-dental consonants involving the tongue and the upper and lower teeth. These cognate pairs are produced with the tip of the tongue lightly placed between the teeth.
FIGURE 11.4
Action Tongue
tongue tip makes light, firm contact with lower and upper teeth tingling sensation on tongue tip
Lips
lips relaxed and apart very little breath used breath or voice escapes through the space between tongue and teeth, which causes frictional noise
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SINGING AND COMMUNICATING IN ENGLISH
Pitfalls to Avoid Avoid substitution of d or t for [5] or [0]; street talk "Ya bedda go wid me!" Avoid omitting [5] and [0] completely as in words like "widths," "baths," "sixths," and "clothes." These sounds are problematic for non-native speakers. [9] and [0] do not exist in German, French, Italian, Chinese, and Spanish. Native speakers of these languages usually substitute [t/d] or [s/z]. Be careful also not to substitute [f] for [0] when in a final position.
With versus With RULE Pronounce "with" with a voiced th [8] if it is followed by a word beginning with a vowel or voiced consonant Pronounce "wMi" with an anvpteed *fh* [9] if it is followed by a word beginning with an unvoiced consonant EXAMPLE
with this
withasonf
within
without
but
with thirst
with fire
Aids for Projection and Legato EXAMPLE
all your hearts ye truly seek me
If with
1. In passages with thick orchestral accompaniment, final unvoiced th [0] may be released with sung shadow vowel or a quick switch to its voiced cognate [5] with the cut off. EXAMPLES
earth-
healthdeath2. Final
initial
should be MERGED into one continuous sound
with no intervening vowel. EXAMPLE
witrTthis
withTthirst
CHAPTER ELEVEN The Fricatives
EXERCISES 1. Practice articulating each of the English vowel sounds with [5] and [6] preceding them. Work the cheeks and jaw and try to leave tongue tip relaxed over front teeth. Legato
2. Practice articulating
and
in the various positions.
Initial
Medial
Final
theme
youthful
wrath
think
nothing
mouth
thought
mythical
oath
thanks
lengthen
hearth
thistle
paths
breath
them
father
with
those
either
lithe
that
leather
breathe
though
gather
soothe
there
brother
tithe
3. Drill the following words whose voiceless singular endings become voiced when plural. Unvoiced
Voiced*
bath
baths
cloth
cloths
mouth
mouths
path
paths
oath
oaths
*For the words youth, truth, sheath (noun), and wreath (noun) both the unvoiced and voiced endings in the plural are correct. Use whichever ending you prefer.
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4. Drill the following words, making sure to articulate all the consonants in the final consonant clusters. Unvoiced
Voiced
myth, myths
breathe, breathes
earth, earths
writhe, writhes
depth, depths
lathe, lathes
width, widths
clothe, clothes
length, lengths
teethe, teethes
5. Transcribe the following text into AS and treat the stressed words as indicated in the previous exercises: Do you know the land where the lemon trees bloom? And oranges like gold amid the leafy gloom? A gentle wind from bluest heaven blows. The myrtle green, and high the laurel grows? Do you know that land? 'Tis there, Ah! 'tis there! O my beloved, Ah, 'tis there I dream we would go. (Mark Adamo, "Do You Know the Land?" from Little Women)
[h]/[/v\] Production The consonant [h] is a glottal fricative that takes on the articulatory characteristics of the sound that follows.
Action Tongue
no specific tongue action for [h]
Lips
no specific lip action for [h]
Before [h] is heard, articulators take on the position of the vowel that follows. The glottis (space between vocal cords) is open as breath of [h] passes through. The cords close with phonation of oncoming vowel.
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CHAPTER ELEVEN The Fricatives
FIGURE 11.5
[h]
Pitfalls to Avoid Do not produce [h] too far back. In everyday speech [h] is guttural and back. Remedy: prepare the vowel that follows and release [h] in the forward resonance of the vowel. The consonant [M] is a bilabial fricative consonant involving the two lips. It is made up of the two sounds [h] and [w], articulated simultaneously. The consonant [M] is sounded in words that begin with a "wh" spelling, as in the words "what," "where," "when," "why," "whether," "whistle," and "whither." Action Tongue
tongue tip behind lower front teeth back of tongue raised
Lips
rounded for [u]
Articulate [h] simultaneously with [w] glide Pitfalls to Avoid Do not substitute [w] for [A\] in words that begin with a "wh" spelling. In colloquial speech, [w] is regularly substituted for [A\]. For good speech and for singing, [h] should be sounded. There should be a difference between the following words:
[M] [w] [M] [w] [M] [w] "which" and "witch" "whether" and "weather" "whine" and "wine"
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FIGURE 11.6 [M]
Aids for Projection and Legato 1. The consonant [h] is very difficult to project over instrumental accompaniment. Whenever possible substitute the German phoneme [cj in its place. The phoneme [9] exists already in English in the words human, humanity, and the name, Hubert. It can be easily substituted in words where [h] is followed by [i], [i], or [ei]. EXAMPLES
heal
hill
Hear
hate
him
2. For [h] with all the open vowel sounds, you must just simply use a regular elongated [h]. Any kind of substitution for an h followed by an open vowel in English turns the [h] into an [x] as in the Scottish word "loch." An initial [x] in at the front of an English word would make it sound Slavic, which would only confuse the listener. The best solution is to merely elongate the initial [h] of a stressed word as air and support permits. Admittedly, this coordination is difficult to
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CHAPTER ELEVEN The Fricatives
master. The ideal is that it still sound like an English [h] but with a very frontal placement. The substitution of [5] for [h] on the words with [i], [i], or [ei] is very easy to accomplish without much practice. Adagio.
Hear
80
Is - ra - el!
ye,
Hear what the Lord
speak - eth:
("Hear Ye, Israel!" from Elijah, Felix Mendelssohn)
Note This substitution should only be used with instrumental accompaniment or for textual settings in the passaggio and high range. Be very careful that the [9] not begin to sound like [J] or a lisping lateral s. 3. The consonant [M] can be easily and expressively projected by inserting a [u] between the [h] and [w]. It is notated phonetically EXAMPLES
Allegro molto
What [h(u)wAt]
what
where
why
when
(U)
[A\].
144
a mov - ie!
What a ter - ri - ble, aw - ful mov - ie!
("What a Movie!" from Trouble in Tahiti, Leonard Bernstein)
RULE The related glide vowel should be added on stressed words only —in other words, nouns, active verbs, and modifiers. Whin the tpterr^Wve pronouns "what/' "where/ "when," and "wh^begfej $ tpeistlojt ffe^ 3*6 stressed. In otiier positions, they atfe imilHy'not strtsltdv
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EXERCISES 1. Transcribe the following text into RP and MA. Treat the text and make appropriate substitutions for [h]: Closely let me hold thy hand, Storms are sweeping sea and land; Love alone will stand. Closely cling, for waves beat fast, Foam flakes cloud the hurrying blast. Love alone will last, Kiss my lips, and softly say, "Joy sea-swept, may fade today. Love alone will stay." (Edward Elgar, "In Haven" from Sea Pictures')
2. Transcribe the following text into RP and MA. Treat the text and make appropriate substitutions for [h]: Queen and Huntress, Chaste and fair, Now the sun is laid to sleep, Seated in thy silver chair State in wonted manner keep: Hesperus entreats thy light, Goddess excellently bright. Earth, let not thy envious shade Dare itself to interpose; Cynthia's shining orb was made Heaven to clear when day did close: Bless us then, with wished sight, Goddess excellently bright. Lay thy bow of pearl apart, And thy crystal shining quiver; Give unto the flying hart, Space to breathe, how short so ever: Thou that mak'st a day of night, Goddess, excellently bright! (Ben Jonson / Dominick Argento, "Hymn" from Six Elizabethan Songs)
CHAPTER ELEVEN The Fricatives
3. Drill the following word groups alternating the [w] and [M] sounds. witch / which
wile / while
wet / whet
woe / whoa
were / whir
wail / whale
wine / whine
way / whey
wit / whit
we'll / wheel
wear / where
weather / whether
world / whirled
word / whirred
wither / whither
4. Transcribe the following text into IPA, using the [c] where applicable. Hear ye, Israel! Hear what the Lord speaketh: "Oh hadst thou heeded my commandments?" Who hath believed our report? To whom is the arm of the Lord revealed? Thus saith* the Lord, the Redeemer of Israel and his Holy One, to Him oppressed by Tyrants; Thus saith the Lord: "I am He that comforteth; Be not afraid, for I am thy God; I will strengthen thee! Say who art thou? that thou art afraid of a man that shall die; and forgettest the Lord thy Maker, who hath stretched forth the heavens, and laid the earth's foundations. Say who art thou? I am He that comforteth; Be not afraid, for I thy God will strengthen thee." (Felix Mendelssohn, From Elijah)
RUil The unstressed poetic -ec( and -eth endings as in "speafecth* and "believed" are pronounced as an additional syllable and should be sung as with a Slight
coloration.
* "Saith" is the old form of "said" and should be pronounced with the same [t] vowel. For example, [st6], [std].
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EXAMPLES
[spik
[biliv
RULE In the words "comfort" and ^comforteth/' the second syllable should never be sung with an [o9*/»f] diphthong It sounds very old-fashioned and affected. It should be sung as it is spoken with either the r-colored schwa, j>] for AS or reduced r coloration [arj for Rl* and MA, For British pronunciation, see chapter 14.
EXAMPLES
AS comfort
comforteth
RP, MA comfort
comforteth
Although not applicable to this text, another archaic holdover oratorio performance practice is the pronunciation of the word "evil." It sounds very affected to pronounce it [ivil]. Preferred would be [a] or [u] for the second syllable. Also "angel" sounds affected when the second syllable is pronounced with [t]: [eind3£l]. Again, preferred would be [B] or [u]: [eind^al] or [eind3ul]. As a memory aid, remember there is no "ill" in evil, no "fort" in "comfort" and no "gel" in "angel." 5. Transcribe the following text into AS and substitute [c] for [h] where possible: Must the winter come so soon? Night after night I hear the hungry deer wander weeping in the woods, And from his house of brittle bark hoots the frozen owl. Must the winter come so soon? Here in this forest neither dawn nor sunset marks the passing of the days. It is a long winter here. Must the winter come so soon? (Gian Carlo Menotti / Samuel Barber, "Must the Winter Come So Soon?" from Vanessa)
CHAPTER TWELVE The Nasal Consonants Plus the Lyrical L
A nasal consonant is a speech sound that is produced by the vibration of breath that escapes through the nose when the velum (soft palate) is relaxed. The three nasal sounds are [m], [n], and [rj]. The consonant [m] is a bilabial consonant; [n] is a lingua-alveolar consonant; [rj] is lingua-velar (the back of the tongue against the velum). The velar-valve reflex is an action common to all the nasal consonants. The relaxed velum (soft palate) drops like a valve, enabling these sounds along with the breath to enter the nasal passages.
[m] Production The consonant [m] is a bilabial voiced nasal consonant made by closing the lips.
Action Tongue Lips
flatin [a] position together lips open with the formation of the next vowel or consonant
Teeth
space between teeth
Jaw
released
The consonant [m] is produced by closing the lips and relaxing the velum. When the velum or soft palate is actively lowered, it allows the vibrating breath to escape through the nasal cavity and out the nose.
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SINGING AND COMMUNICATING IN ENGLISH
FIGURE 12.1 [m]
DRILL 1. Intone or sing the vowel chart below, elongating the [m:] preceding each vowel:*
See note on page 1 71.
CHAPTER TWELVE The Nasal Consonants Plus the Lyrical L
2. Intone or sing the words below, elongating the [m]'s: Initial
Medial
Final
moon
demean
groom
many
umbrella
autumn
month
comedic
form
march
similar
game
middle
demolish
climb
myth
diminish
phlegm
humanity
column
murder
3. Recite the following text, taking care with the [m]s: It was many and many a year ago, In a kingdom by the sea, That a maiden there lived whom you may know By the name of Annabel Lee; And this maiden she lived with no other thought Than to love and be loved by me. I was a child and she was a child, In this kingdom by the sea. But we loved with a love that was more than love— I and my Annabel Lee— With a love that the winged seraphs of heaven Coveted her and me. (Edgar Allan Poe, "Annabel Lee")
[n] Production The consonant [n] is a voiced nasal sound made by the closure created by the tongue tip touching the alveolar ridge. The relaxed velum allows the breath to escape through the nose.
Action Tongue
tip against gum ridge
Jaw
released
The consonant [n] is completed when tongue tip descends for the next consonant/vowel link.
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FIGURE 12.2
[n]
DRILL 1. Go through all vowels on the vowel chart with an exaggerated [n:] preceding them:
CHAPTER TWELVE The Nasal Consonants Plus the Lyrical L
2. Intone and sing the elongated n's in the words below:* seen burn grin sun fan
tender gentle handsome frantic * This is an exercise to feel the sensation of singing through the nasal final or medial consonants. Though they should be resonated, they should not be doubled in a song text. The doubled consonants should be reserved for the beginnings of stressed word-types only.
[q] Production The consonant [q] is a voiced nasal sound made with strong contact between the middle of the tongue and the hard palate. The velum is relaxed, allowing the sound to resonate through the nose.** It appears frequently in German, infrequently in Italian, and not at all in French. In English, [rj] is found in words such as sing, king, strong, yearning, among, linger, and languish.
Action Tongue
middle of tongue raised toward hard palate tongue tip down sides of tongue in contact with upper molars
Jaw
released
Lips
in position of following vowel
The action is finished when tongue shifts to accommodate the next vowel or consonant.
** Although colloquially [rj] is usually produced further back with the mid tongue raising toward the soft palate, greater resonance can be produced when this consonant is produced further forward using the hard palate. The more frontal production can also aid in relieving any sub-vocal tension that might occur from this inherently "throaty" consonant.
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FIGURE 12.3
[rj]
DRILL 1. Intone and sing the following words, elongating the [nj: strong
sank
anchor
anger
thank
linger
length
strength
larynx
English
tongue
elongate
languish
meringue
distinguish
monkey
penguin
ankle
bingo
young
sing
VERSUS Sometimes in English, the "ng" spellings are pronounced [rj] as in the words "sing" and "strong" and other times they are pronounced as [rj] + [g] as in the words "linger" and "languish." Hopefully the rules below will help clarify when the "g" should be sounded in words with "ng" spellings:
CHAPTER TWELVE The Nasal Consonants Plus the Lyrical L
[rj] only when the root of the word forms a verb; the [g] is not sounded EXAMPLE
sing
singer
long
longing
hang
hanger
when the first syllable or root does not form a verb; sound both consonants EXAMPLE
finger languor extinguish
E X C E P T I O N The comparative adjective forms use [q+g] pronunciation EXAMPLE
long
longer
longest
young
younger
youngest
strong
stronger
strongest
Pitfalls to Avoid for Nasal Consonants Avoid hypernasality—a vocal quality that can occur when too much of the vowel sound following the nasal consonants is resonated in the nose. Hypernasality Check 1. Place a tissue on a piece of cardboard and hold it under your nose, above your upper lip. 2. Say out loud several times: [t], [d], [s], and [z]. The tissue should not move because the air is escaping through the mouth. 3. Now say [m], [n] and [rj]. The tissue ought to move because the air should escape through the nose. If the tissue does not move, the air is trapped in the nasal passages and there is too much nasal resonance.
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Avoid denasality—insufficient nasal resonance. The vibrations escape through the mouth rather than the nose. The "cold in the head" quality that most people have with nasal congestion is a similar sensation to when there is a lack of air. Because of the lack of air escaping through the nose on these consonants, [m], [n], and [rj] become different sounds: [m] becomes [b] [n] becomes [d] [n] becomes [g] Exception: Although denasality is generally to be avoided, it does help with negotiating words with nasal consonants set in the extreme ranges of the voice. See Aids for Projection and Vocal Ease below.
DRILL 1. While holding your nose to minimize nasal resonance, read the following poem. You have produced denasality! O mistress mine, where are you roaming? O stay and hear your true love's coming, That can sing both high and low. Trip no further pretty sweeting, journey's end in lover's meeting, Ev'ry wise man's son doth know. (William Shakespeare, "O Mistress Mine, Where Are You Roaming?")
Aids for Projection and Vocal Ease As noted above, denasalizing the nasal consonants can help free up the voice in the extreme upper register. Use denasality for high notes and dramatic effect. Denasality can be very useful in projecting notes that are set in the passaggio or extreme high range where singing true nasal consonants can close up the voice. It can also be helpful in cutting through thick
CHAPTER TWELVE The Nasal Consonants Plus the Lyrical L
accompaniment or orchestration, and can help intensify dramatic outbursts like "No!' "Never!" "Mother!" To use denasality effectively, begin with the correct consonant and then denasalize it just before releasing into the vowel. Remember:
a denasalized [m] turns into a [b]. a denasalized [n] turns into a [d]. a denasalized [rj] turns into a [g].
How to Access Denasalized Consonants First, start with one of the mainstays of the vocal warm-up.
THE FIVE NOTE ASCENDING AND DESCENDING SCALES 1. Sing a five note ascending and descending scale on meeee [mi:]: • Start in the mid-range and repeat up by half steps until you are in the passaggio. • When it becomes less comfortable to sing a fully nasalized [m], change it slightly to more of a [b]. By switching it to a slight [b], you can keep the throat open as you go into the high range. • Now try the same scale releasing the [m]'s into more open vowels: [mo], [ma], and so on, followed by switching the [m]'s to [b]'s. 2. Now repeat the five-note scale in the same range on nee [mi] and ngee [rji:]: • As you approach the passaggio, start to switch to a partial [d] after the [n] and a partial [g] after the ng [nj. • Now try the scale with the open vowel: [no], [na], and so on, followed by switching to [d]'s and [g]'s. • Remember to only use partial b's, d's, and g's! It should feel more like a percussive release into the vowel with the full plosives rather then the nasals. 3. Now try some sustained tones on [m], [n], and [rj]: • In mid-range, sing: "me." • Hum [m] and then release into [bi:] mmmmmmmmmmmmbi:. It should feel like a a more percussive release into the vowel than when you release only into
an [m]. • Now hum on [n] and release into [di] nnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnndi: • Now hum on [rj] and release into [g]: Cot it???
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4. Try these examples: For "No!" sing For "mother" sing Final nasal releases at the ends of phrases are hard to negotiate. They can really clamp down on the voice. Try changing them to the related plosive: EXAMPLE
"thing" can be released
A Word of Caution Make sure that "No!" does not sound as if you are singing "doe." Use a dentalized [d] rather than an aspirated [d] after the [n]. For "mother" use a soft [b] sound rather than a strong plosive [b] after the [m]. This will take some practice to get the right amount of [d] and [b], but once mastered, this can greatly free up singing the nasal consonants and make them very dramatic and expressive. Here is a phrase from Carlisle Floyd's Susannah where I have found the denasalization has helped a lot of sopranos.
When I've seen
what's be - yond them mount-ains.
("Trees on the Mountains" from Susannah, Carlisle Floyd)
On the release of "when I've seen," change the [n] to a soft [d]. In the following phrase, "what's beyond them mountains," start with an [m] to finish "them" and release it as a soft, partial [b] as you sing the high B-flat on "mountains." Also, to keep the voice from closing down on the final [ns] of "mountains," leave off the [n]'s completely. In other words, sing "mou-tets" but with a soft [b] at the beginning. There is a full brass section to cut through and denazalizing the nasal consonants helps to keep the throat open and maximize the singer's volume. As you are vocally climbing up the mountain at the end of "Climb Every Mountain" from The Sound of Music, try:
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CHAPTER TWELVE The Nasal Consonants Plus the Lyrical L
(breath!) your
find
you Til It works!! Another difficult passage that has tied up quite a few mezzos is the final section of Dido's Lament.
re - member me, but ah! [ji mbe mbar mbi]
for - get
my— fate.
("Dido's Lament" from Dido and Aeneas, Henry Purcell) Put the first [m] of "remember" on the D, but release to a loose-lipped [b] for both [m]'s on the high G's. It sings something like: [urn bem bsr mbi]. Just finesse the [b] so that it does not sound too much like an actual [b]. Again, a word of caution -.finesse and subtlety are the name of the game! None of these consonant substitutions should ever be discernible to the audience. It is part of the operatic illusion that needs to seem "real" out in the house. Your colleagues on the stage may be able to tell you have switched a consonant, but then again, if you do it with enough finesse and bravura . . . maybe not!
EXERCISES 1. Practice denasalizing the following words: Initial
Initial
[n:d-]
[m:b-]
none
night
neighbor
man
more
majesty
nasal
nimble
natural
mob
money
mashed
final
final
fan
ran
can
loom
tomb
womb
fine
dine
sign
lamb
gram
ham
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2. Transcribe the following text in RP, treat all the stressed words, and employ denasalization on the stressed nasal consonants: When I am laid in earth, May my wrongs create No trouble in thy breast. Remember me, But ah! forget my fate. (Henry Purcell, from Dido and Aeneas)
3. Transcribe the following text in AS, treat the stressed words, and employ denasalization on the stressed nasal consonants: What was he thinking of that he plays so distractedly? Surely not of his wife, the long discarded Queen; Surely not of me whose foot he no longer seeks under the card table. Who is there to love me? Who is there for me to love? Not he, the foolish knave of hearts, not my father's faded photograph, not my stock market husband, nor my football son. Only my mother could have loved me had I but let her!
But there she lies in her pain, cocooned in her illness, an indiff rent stranger. hatching for herself the black wings of death. Do not die, Mother,
do not die, yet. Let me see your pleading eyes once more. Now that at last, I am learning to love you. (Samuel Barber, "Who Is There to Love Me?" from A Hand of Bridge)
CHAPTER TWELVE The Nasal Consonants Plus the Lyrical L
179
Sing through and Resonate the Nasal Consonants As singers we all know that a good voice must contain an appropriate amount of resonance in the nasal cavities. To maintain the resonance throughout a vocal phrase, make sure to sing and vibrate through the nasal consonants and let them help you. The medial nasal consonants, as in "gentle" or "sometime" are frequently ignored and abandoned by English speakers. The native speakers of the Romance languages always take much more care with their nasal consonants than we as English speakers do. Singing through the medial nasal consonants can greatly aid the legato line. Remember that when we syllabify words for singing we shift the final consonant of the first syllable to begin the following syllable. Musically, this means that if these words are set on two different pitches, sing the medial nasal consonant on the lower of the pitches. If set on the same note, sing it with the second syllable as noted below.
ge
title
te
nder
si
-mple
Now see if you can maintain the same legato feel on a musical excerpt with a larger leap.
It
falls most
te
nder-ly,
I
think.
("Bells in the Rain," John Duke)
Tips for Vocal Ease By shifting the nasal consonants to the lower of two pitches, the nasal consonant is easier to resonate and the vowel of the stressed syllable is elongated.
[I] Production The consonant [1] is a voiced lateral consonant.
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FIGURE 12.4 [1]
Action Tongue
tip lightly touches the upper gum ridge not tense or pressed hard against ridge middle of tongue drops so that there is space between tongue and upper molars feel vibration on tip the sound escapes over sides of tongue after sounded, tongue relaxes back to floor of mouth
Jaw
released and open
Lips
relaxed and open
Pitfalls to Avoid Avoid the back or dark [1]. Colloquially, there are two types of [l]'s used in speech: the light and clear [1] and the dark and back [1]. The light and clear [1] is used at the beginnin of a word. The dark and back [1] is formed farther back and is made by raising the middl of the tongue toward the roof of the mouth with the tongue tip not in contact with the gum ridge. The dark and back [1] is never used in standard stage speech and should not be use in singing.
CHAPTER TWELVE The Nasal Consonants Plus the Lyrical L
RULI Use only the front andkcbar [if in tinging.
Do not let the tongue pull back and bunch when singing or saying medial and final [1]. It is a speech characteristic that is very common among North Americans.
RULE Never anticipate medial and final {1] souftcfe.
Remain on the preceding vowel sound as long as is notated musically and put on the [1] as late as possible. If the tongue pulls back in anticipation of the [1], the preceding vowel becomes contaminated with the tongue tension and becomes dark and muffled.
DRILL Practice the following words, using only clear and light [l]'s. Initial
Medial
Final
light
alone
feel
late
alas
all
learn
believe
cruel
love
below
Hell
Tips for Vocal Ease If it is difficult to avoid pulling the tongue back, try inserting a brief [u] vowel before sounding the [1]. This will help keep the tongue forward. Be careful not to insert a [e], however, which will constrict the tongue. For example: while smile kneel
fill yield melt
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fKIJJ InilW flf$ t^at;l^p|liip|^l^t^;siress^l w«
llov«you:
'a-little;fl0^|
For more detailed application of this rule, see chapter 13.
EXERCISES 1. Practice speaking the following text in RP, concentrating on producing light and clear [l]'s: Lo, in the orient when the gracious light Lifts up his burning head, each under eye Doth homage to his new-appearing sight, Serving with looks his sacred majesty; And having climbed the steep-up heav'nly hill, Resembling strong youth in his middle age, Yet mortal looks adore his beauty still, Attending on his golden pilgrimage. But when from high most pitch, with weary car, Like feeble age he reeleth from the day, The eyes ('fore duteous) now converted are From his low tract and look another way. So thou, thyself outgoing in thy noon, Unlocked on diest unless thou get a son. (Shakespeare, Sonnet 7)
2. Transcribe in AS, treat the text, and intone the following: Loveliest of trees, the cherry now Is hung with bloom along the bough, And stands along the woodland ride Wearing white for Eastertide.
CHAPTER TWELVE The Nasal Consonants Plus the Lyrical L
Now of my threescore years and ten, Twenty will not come again, And take from seventy springs a score, It only leaves me fifty more. And since to look at things in bloom Fifty springs are little room. About the woodland I shall go To see the cherry hung with snow. (A. E. Housman / John Duke, "Loveliest of Trees")
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CHAPTER THIRTEEN The Owner's Manual: Connecting the Dots
We have now dealt with all the speech sounds in English—it is time integrate them all together. We have touched on stress and inflection of the English language, the production of all the vowels and consonants, and some of the techniques for negotiating vocally around all of those consonants. We still have further work to do on creating an Englishsinging legato and to focus on the "how to" aspect of bringing the text and the music off the printed page and into the hearts and souls of the audience.
The Legato Connection: Connect It Up! Because the English language is a Germanic stop language, it does not by definition have a legato flow to it. Its words do not naturally flow and connect one to another. Instead, most of the individual words are slightly separated from each other during normal conversational speech delivery. Because of these brief separations and the high ratio of consonant to vowel, the final consonants of one word do not easily connect to the initial consonant of the word that follows. From our discussion of syllabification in chapter 2, recall that medial consonants are shifted over wherever possible to begin the next syllable so as to aid the legato line. For example, in the word "assembled," the syllabification for singing would be: [9 —> se —> mbgld]. In other words, the [s] should begin the second syllable and would be sung with the [e] vowel. Likewise, the [mb] should shift over to the third syllable and be sung on the pitch of [9ld]. This allows more time for singing on the vowel sounds of each syllable, and alleviates the choppy "stop quality" that is inherent in the English language. This same
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SINGING AND COMMUNICATING IN ENGLISH
principle also applies to the connection of consonants from word to word within a phrase or sentence.
RULE All final consonants of words within a single phrase or sentence musst be shifted in order to begin the word that follows them.
Hopefully, the treatment of "Laurie's Aria" from The Tender Land by Aaron Copland will clarify these concepts. In the excerpt below, observe how this rule is applied. Once
Tall
Time
But
be
I
thought I'd
as
this
fence.
dragged
heavy
April
fore
came
I
And little
And
how
ne
as
I
fast
and
and
knew just
by
August
what
time
I
I
grow
slow.
little
grew
the
- ver
came
could
they
went
meant,
grew.
to
know
go.
* Final t's and d's are dropped and glottalized because this is colloquial American. The symbol for a glottalized consonant is [?]. **Note that between [a-] plus a vowel and [u] plus a vowel the related glide semi-consonants [a] and [w] have been added. This also aids in the legato connection.
CHAPTER THIRTEEN The Owner's Manual: Connecting the Dots
As we intone the text with the consonant shifts, the vowels become longer and more singable. Along with these shifts come new consonant clusters or groupings that we are not accustomed to articulating. Observe the three unusual groupings from the last line of the text. EXAMPLES
[st9a]
[mku]
[dgigou]
These new consonant groupings feel foreign to our tongues as though we were working with a foreign language rather than English! However, they are very necessary in the creation of a legato English line and must be mastered. Repetitive practice is required in order to maneuver easily through these new consonant groupings until they seem more natural. Two other techniques need to be employed in order to further facilitate the legato connection of English. They have been previously discussed in chapters 10 and 11. They are the merges and implosions.
Implosions and Merges Implosions To review: An implosion occurs when two plosive cognate consonants are back to back in adjacent words. Because these consonants are stop-plosives, we link them by holding or stopping down on the first consonant in our mouth and sounding only the second consonant.
HERE ARE THE PLOSIVE COGNATES WITH EXAMPLES OF IMPLOSIONS p and b
d and t
g and k
soa$_bubble
har^ljjmes
big^crash
distur$_privacy
stun](jdouble
blac^Corvette
dee^prayer
ba^diction
fak^Gucci
gra^bag
hijHune
dig^gold
Implosions occur only with texts that are set musically at fast or moderate tempi. Implosions are a very useful aid to cut down on the "consonant spatter stream" and clean up the legato line. Within a phonetic transcription, an implosion should be notated: [/J. See page 131 for an overview of the implosions.
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Merges All sustaining consonants can merge. To review: the merging of consonants involves any combination of adjacent final and initial fricative and nasal consonants plus the lateral 1. Unlike the implosions, which occur only at fast or moderate tempi, merges occur in all musical settings whether at a fast or slow tempo. Let's see how merging can increase the legato. If the connection between the adjacent sustaining consonants is not seamless, then the first two lines of Samuel Barber's "Sure on this shining night" might sound like this: Sure on (9) this (9) shining (9) night, Of (9) star made (9) shadows (9) round, We have a case of impending "intrusive schwa contamination"!! It sounds more like a Neapolitan song than an American art song! Not only does it sound very foreign to us, but the extra vowels are distracting and interfere with the transmission of the text. Few singers would purposely choose to allow extra vowels to contaminate their vocal line, but it happens frequently whenever the position of the connective consonant is dropped too early. The intrusive schwa [9] occurs most frequently when going from a final voiced sustaining consonant to another consonant. In the case of an unvoiced final consonant, the intrusive schwa is not heard, but instead the consonant intensity is compromised if the connective consonant is not adequately sustained and supported. In order to avoid both of these, great care must be taken to seamlessly meld or merge consonants together so that the articulatory position of the first consonant is maintained until the next consonant begins. Let's look at the Barber text again and see how and where this merging technique can be applied. Merges are notated in the text by this symbol: [_]. Sure onj;his_shining^night Of^star-made shadows round, Kindnessjnust watch for me This^side the ground. The late year lies down^the north. All isjiealed, All isjiealth. High summer holdsjhe earth.
CHAPTER THIRTEEN The Owner's Manual: Connecting the Dots
Hearts alMvhole. Sure onj:his_shining_night I weep for wonder wand'ringjfar alone Of^shadows on^the stars. (James Agee / Samuel Barber, "Sure on This Shining Night")
When sustaining consonants are merged together seamlessly, the integrity of the legato line is maintained. The connected consonants propel the breath and support forward from vowel to vowel. It all goes hand in hand with healthy singing technique. Remember, all the sustaining consonants can be merged.
AN OVERVIEW OF THE MERGING CONSONANTS The fricative consonants can be merged: [v/f], [z/s], [3/J], [9/0], [h/M] The nasal consonants can be merged: [ml [n], [Q]
The lateral consonant [I] may also be merged. Any combination of any of these consonants may be merged.
In other words, you may merge: a fricative + a fricative a fricative + a nasal a fricative + an [1] a nasal + a nasal a nasal + a fricative a nasal + an [1] an [1] + a fricative an [1] + a nasal an [1] + an [1]
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It is often easier to look at which conditions do not create a merge.
DO NOT MERGE 1. Through punctuation or a rest 2. With a plosive consonant: [b/p], [d/t], [g/k], [ds/tf] 3. With a semi-vowel glide consonant: [w], [j], [J/R] 4. With a vowel
Here are some texts on which to practice the merges.
EXERCISES Transcribe the texts below and merge the appropriate consonants for legato connections: As one who hangs down-bending from the side Of a slow-moving boat, upon the breast Of a still water, solacing himself With such discov'ries as his eye can make Beneath him in the bottom of the deep, Sees many beauteous sights—weeds, fishes, flowers, Grots, pebbles, roots of trees, and fancies more, Yet often is perplexed and cannot part The shadow from the substance, rocks and sky, Mountains and clouds, reflected in the depth Of a clear flood, from things which there abide In their true dwelling; now is crossed by gleam Of his own image, by a sunbeam now, And wav'ring motions sent he knows not whence, Impediments that make his tack more sweet; Such pleasant office have I long pursued Incumbent o'er the surface of past time. (William Wordsworth / Dominick Argento, "Prologue: Shadow and Substance" from To Be Sung upon the Water)
O glide, fair stream! for ever so, Thy quiet soul on all bestowing,
CHAPTER THIRTEEN The Owner's Manual: Connecting the Dots
Till all our minds for ever flow As thy deep waters now are flowing. Vain thought!—Yet be as now thou art, That in thy waters may be seen The image of a poet's heart, How bright, how solemn, how serene! Now let us, as we float along, For him suspend the dashing oar; And pray that never child of song May know that Poet's sorrows more. How calm! how still! the only sound, The dripping of the oar suspended! (William Wordsworth / Dominick Argento, "In Remembrance of Schubert" from To Be Sung upon the Water)
Nobody knows this little rose, It might a pilgrim be. Did I not take it from the ways And lift it up to thee. Only a bee will miss it, Only a butterfly, Hastening from far journey On its breast to lie. Only a bird will wonder, Only a breeze will sigh, Ah, little rose, how easy For such as thee to die! (Emily Dickinson / William Roy, "This Little Rose")
The stars are out, The night is fine, We sit within the traffic line. The light is changed, The signals set, Now off we go, No! No! not yet.
The brakes are on, We move an inch,
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We stop again, The cop will pinch The next offender who would dare to speed upon this thoroughfare. I look at you, You look ahead, A thousand things you might have said to make this drive a pure delight, But you must watch the traffic light. Chugging motors purr and whine, Waiting in the traffic line. Grinding gears, escaping gas, Must we let that fellow pass Open roads and country air, Breezes blowing through your hair, Hot dog stands and painted bills Cluttering up the fields and hills. A mile or two, Then home again, The traffic jam, the crowd, the strain. The wistful heart, unsatisfied. Goodnight, my dear, A lovely ride! (Louise Richardson Dodd / Paul Sargent, "Manhattan joy Ride")
Expressive Doublings: Get It Off the Printed Page! Singing expressively in English is often a difficult and elusive task for even the singer whose native language is English. Even though the text may be understood and felt in depth, projecting that depth of feeling and understanding takes more than desire; it takes technique and knowledge of how to do it. We have all experienced performances by English-speaking singers who sound as if they are detached from the words and even uninvolved. Inside the singer feels very involved and emotionally committed, but that commitment is not being projected. Let's look at why this happens.
CHAPTER THIRTEEN The Owner's Manual: Connecting the Dots
When we express ourselves verbally, we do it by word stress and the pitched rise and fall of words within a phrase. Often the word that we want to stress the most is given the highest pitch in the phrase or sentence. In everyday speech, we rely greatly on the rise and fall of the words within the phrase to convey meaning and intensity of feeling. This question might be spoken: do How
could you
that to him? or you
do that to him? How could or even How
him? could you do that to
The emphasis in this last reading focuses on the action upon the person, whereas the first reading of the line stresses how one is capable of doing such a thing to this person. When we speak, we pitch various words of a phrase spontaneously in order to correspond with our meaning and emotional intention. Most of us are fairly comfortable with changing the inflection to accommodate our intention. The problem arises when the question is set to music. However, if it were music, it might sound like this: Hiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiim!!! Hooooow Couuuld yooooou dooooooooooooooo that to (Yes, I know, keep my day job.) The natural speech rhythm and inflection pattern has been taken away. All of a sudden, the composer has asked us deliver that text in slow motion and on pitches that are in the stratosphere and very far away from our own speech range. We can no longer function in "real time"; our new reality is the Land of the M-u-s-i-c-a-l S-t-r-e-t-c-h, where time slows down, the sequence of events may come to a halt, and thoughts are transmitted v-e-r-y s-1-o-w-l-y. In this land, the vowels are now perhaps four beats long and the complete thought is stretched out over three musical phrases. Our job is as re-creative artists
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is to take what the composer has given us, apply as much of the natural speech inflection on to it, and deliver the thought. Our job is also to hold the audience's attention span and make them travel with us in our journey.
The Thought Transmission Race Have you ever noticed how tempting it is to interrupt someone or complete their sentences for them? Why are we tempted? Because the mind can think and finish a thought ten times faster than a person can express the thought in words. This disparity not only causes rude behavior socially; it poses one of the biggest problems for interpreters of vocal literature. Just think how much this disparity between mental and verbal thought transmission is magnified when we are working with a text setting in the "Land of the Musical Stretch "!! By the time a singer actually gets to the end of the phrase, the listener has had time to think five other thoughts. It can potentially be the makings of an audience attention deficit disorder!
Attention, Please! One of the greatest accolades a musical or stage performance can receive is when it is described as "riveting," "spell-binding,"or keeping an audience "glued to their seats." It implies that the production or concert held the audience's attention. One of the best ways to do this is through . . . expressive doublings! Let's recall that an expressive doubling is elongation of the initial consonant of the stressed syllable of a stressed word. When we speak, we almost unconsciously double or triple the stressed consonants regularly. The same practice must be transferred to the vocal line in order for the language to sound expressive, but we need more knowledge of technique.
Doubling Technique Let's look at the phrase below: "The race was delayed because of the rain." The stressed words are: "race," "delayed," and "rain." Remember that we do not stress "was," a form of the verb "to be," but instead we stress "delayed," which is the predicate adjective. If we add expressive doublings to this sentence, it would look like this:
CHAPTER THIRTEEN The Owner's Manual: Connecting the Dots
The (a^)race was del:layed because of the (a^)rain.
Arrows (<—>) are used to notate the Expressive Doublings. An arrow to the left means that the consonant should be sounded before the beat so that it may be elongated without dragging behind the beat. An arrow to the right means that the consonant should be released on the beat but with emphasis. This will be further expanded later in this chapter. The related vowels have been added to the glide r consonants. Remember that the three semi-consonant glides [w], [j], and [j] are stressed by anticipating and elongating their related vowels. To review: with an expressive doubling, the stressed consonant is doubled or tripled by coming in early and elongating it. In order to find the time to elongate the stressed consonant, time must be robbed from the note value of the word that precedes it. Any consonant that can be sustained can be doubled regardless of whether it is voiced or unvoiced. So far we have had general discussions on doubling the stressed consonants and notating them by putting two consonants with a colon between them. For example, [nin], [sis], and so on. This, however, is not musically specific enough for our purposes. Just because we double our consonants in everyday heightened speech does not mean that there is an immediate and easy transfer of this technique to our singing. First of all, some preparation exercises are needed to ensure your success.
Preparation for Consonant Doublings Feeling and Transmitting the Beat One of the most difficult things for singers, and I am one of them, is communicating the sense of beat to the other musicians with whom we are collaborating. Singing is a solo art form, yes, but it is 99 percent of the time done in collaboration with other musicians. Because of the collaborative aspect of the vocal performance art, singers find themselves in the position artistically of having never had the experience of being 100 percent musically responsible for their own music making. They are not responsible for when the music starts, they are not fully responsible for the ebbs and flows of the line, and they seldom are responsible for when it ends. Singers spend their musical lives "being accompanied" by another musician or perhaps one hundred of them at a time. From the first experience in the vocal studio with a pianist until the end of their professional career, a singer is never in the position of the musical "authority figure." This is as it should be; the role of a singer is to collaborate musically and dramatically with other musicians and artists. It is merely that there is often a "hole" in the experiential
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training of a singer that needs filling. Unless you sing an unaccompanied song, it is always in collaboration with another musician. Perceptually, there always seems to be a "great divide" between "singers" and "musicians." It is true that at the music school level, singers often get a late start and are playing catch up with musicianship skills. However, on a professional level, it is the singer's sense of line and musicality that instrumentalists seek to imitate. So, for the nuts and bolts of it, instrumentalists are initially ahead of the game; for the artistry and musicality of it, instrumentalists often draw their source of inspiration from a beautifully sung vocal line. Ultimately, musical collaboration is one of the great joys of a singing career. It is very important for the singer to take the time to fill in the "gap" in their musical experience so that they can become an equally responsible party in the musical collaboration. How do you take on musical responsibility? Conduct!
It is time to be a musical grown-up. The first time you put a song or aria together with a pianist, conduct it. It does not have to be the most artful three- or four-beat pattern you have ever seen, but you need to feel the beats in your body. One of the best ways for doing this is to conduct the entire song from the upbeat of the first note to the cut off of the last chord. Spend some time going through very simple songs with a pianist. Conducting every single measure helps you "feel" internally where the beats fall and where the notes you are singing fall in relation to the musical beat. If the singer does not give an upbeat for the pianist's initial downbeat, the pianist should not come in. If the singer gets distracted vocally and starts conducting erratically, the pianist should stop playing. If there is rubato or stretching of a measure, the singer needs to be able to conduct it. It is amazing how after just a few sessions of this, singers are transported musically to be on a level playing field with the other musicians. Finally, when they can internalize the sense of the beat, they are ready to try inserting these expressive doublings into their vocal lines. A Great By-Product
Once you have internalized the beat, it is time to learn how to project it to the other musicians you are collaborating with. This is where the double consonants come in.
RULI After you have doubled a consonant or opened a consonant cluster; the firm release into the vyfal provides an ayral signal that you have arrived on the beat The doubling of tfife-'consonant not only brings the text to life, it helps the conductor or pianist $o be in sync with you when you arrive at the beat.
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CHAPTER THIRTEEN The Owner's Manual: Connecting the Dots
112 - 108
Qui
et
ly
night
[k(u)wa:
art]
("Quietly, Night" from The Rake's Progress, Igor Stravinsky)
Inserting and anticipating the [u] glide vowel in "quietly" will help coordinate the establishment of the tempo of this aria. The doubling of the [n] on "night" followed by a firm release of the [ai] on the downbeat will continue to stabilize the tempo. So, now hopefully you are convinced that all this is worth the effort. Let's look more closely at the direction the consonants can be doubled:
[v,f,z,s,3,j,a,e,h,/w]
[b,p,g,k,d,t]
[m,n,n,ji,l]
[ds,tj]
[w,j,r]
DIAGRAM 13.1
In English all consonants except the plosives [b/p], [d/t], and [g/k] and the affricatives [ds] and [tj] can be sustained. Therefore the consonants that can be doubled to the left are: the fricatives [v/f], [z/s], [j/J], [9/6], and [h/M]; the nasals [m], [n], and [rj]; the semi-vowel glides [w], [j], and [r]; and the lateral [1]. An arrow going (<—) means that the consonants will be sounded early and the vowel will be released on the beat. In other words, all consonants but the plosives, [b/p], [d/t], and [g/k]; and [dj] and [tj] have the potential of going early. The plosives must be doubled to the right because they cannot be sustained and therefore their release cannot come early. An arrow going (—») means that the consonants will not be sounded early but on the beat. Since they cannot be elongated, they will be stressed by volume or intensity of the consonant. The only part that still comes early is the preparation for the unsustaining consonant. For example, while you cannot sustain a [t] or [d] early, you may stop on the consonant just before the beat, [t:t]/[d:d]. Similarly, with the sounds [tj] and [ds], you may stop early on the unsustaining consonant [t:tf]/[d:d3]. But again, the arrow goes to the right because the consonant is released on, not before, the beat.
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How to Double: Single Consonants If the stressed consonant begins the phrase and is preceded by a rest or musical accompaniment only, it must be elongated on the pitch on which it is set. Note doublings below:
Lit-tie
Dostthou know
Lamb,
who
who
made
thee?
made thee?
("The Lamb," Ralph Vaughan Williams, from Ten Blake Songs)
Notice that the "1" of "little" begins on the actual pitch whereas the "1" for "lamb" and the "m" for "made" are placed on the lower pitch before. Largo
why
thy
vis - io - na - ry
joys re - move?
("Sleep, Why Dost Thou Leave Me?" from Semele, G. F. Handel)
Plosive Clusters with Glides If the plosive consonants are in a consonant cluster with one of the glides or lateral 1, they may be treated two ways: they can be sounded on the beat (—») or they may come early (<—) by adding the related vowel sound between the plosive and the semi-vowel glide consonant. With a plosive in a cluster with [1], a [9] vowel may be added in order for the consonant to come early. EXAMPLES
queen
either [kwin] or [k(u)win] —> <—
drink
either [djirjk] or [d(^)jirjk]
CHAPTER THIRTEEN The Owner's Manual: Connecting the Dots
beautiful
either [bjutiful] or [b(i)jutrful]
glade
either [gleid] or [g(9)leid]
This does not mean to imply that every stressed word with a consonant that has duration must be doubled. Expressive doubling is a wonderful interpretive tool that needs to be used in moderation and with taste. It is the singer's decision where these doublings are used. To be most effective, there should be no more than one or two doubled stressed consonants per phrase. Expressive doubling is merely one of the interpretive choices available to a singer. However, for the purpose of acquainting ourselves better with this technique, let's study the following text in which all stressed consonants that can be sustained have been doubled. (huw)What is this c(*)rying that I hear in the (u)wind? Is it the 'old sorrow and the 'old g(^rief? Or is it a n(l)ew thing coming, a (huw) whirling leafAbout the gray hair of me who am (u)weary and blind? I know not what it is, but a moor on the shore— There is a stone which the purple nets of heather bind, And thereon is (3t)writ: "She will return no more." O b(a)lown, (huw>whirling leaf, And the 'old g(3t)rief,
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And the (u)wind curving to me who am 'old and b(9)lind! (Fiona MacLeod / Charles T. Griffes, "The Lament of Ian the Proud") Remember that when there is a word containing a plosive plus a glide consonant within one consonant cluster, the singer may choose to follow either the (<-) rule or the (—») rule of consonant stress. That is, the singer may treat the cluster as a plosive and create the stress with the volume or intensity of the consonant on the beat (—>), or the singer may insert the related vowel of that semi-glide consonant and create stress with the anticipation and elongation of the consonant cluster before the beat (<—). Let's look again at the rule from chapter 8.
RULE Related glide voweb should be added only to the stressed syllable of the primary or secondary stressed word. T<J add this extra yowei rh^mteally, add a grace note pick-up before the beat on which the streiMd word or syllable falls. In order to do this; you need to rob timfe from the note or rest preceding it.
Remember: when adding the grace note pick-up for the related glide vowel, you inherently must always rob time from the preceding note; this way, the consonant preparation is before the beat and the vowel will not be late. The related vowel could be sung on the pitch of the preceding note or on the note of the stressed word that follows it. It usually works best, however, to sing the related vowel on whichever is the lowest pitch; when the preparation grace note is on the lower pitch, it functions as a springboard for the stressed vowel and helps the voice to swell or bloom into the stressed word. No crooning please! Note the grace note placements below: Version 1: it's easy to "Croon" on "so brief " when the cluster is sung over two notes.
(From The Rape ofLucretia, Benjamin Britten)
CHAPTER THIRTEEN The Owner's Manual: Connecting the Dots
Version 2: it is more subtle and stylistically correct when "brief is sung on one pitch.
(From The Rape ofLucretia, Benjamin Britten)
Now let's look at a phrase from Barber's Nocturne:
("Nocturne," Frederic Prokosch/Samuel Barber)
The placement of the "1" of "love" on the 6th below provides a nice springboard for swelling into the vowel of "love" at a fairly fast clip. With a wide interval leap like this one, be careful to put only the consonant on low note, not the vowel. A Word of Caution No yodeling please! When singers first try to put consonants on the lower pitch before, they often mistakenly start the following vowel down there as well. This creates a "yodeling" effect that is not at all what is wanted. Instead: Sing the doubled consonant on low pitch and then quickly sing the vowel on the next pitch. Now that you have a better grasp on the techniques of expressive doublings, we have one more technique to incorporate, the final piece of the puzzle.
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Pulsing the Phrase Pulsing the phrase, to my mind, is one of the universal truths of singing. Regardless of the technical approach, of which there are as many as there are days in the year; this concept is one of the most simple but profound concepts of singing. If singing is defined as a "cultivated yawn or scream," then it is the ability to access the yawn or scream sensation that truly makes singing exciting and emotional cathartic for the listener. I am convinced that it is the "singing from the gut" sensation that an audience hears from trained singers that causes them to leave their comfortable homes on a cold winter night and come to the opera. I am also convinced that it is the one common trait I hear in many professional singers and the one common trait that I find missing in a lot of aspiring singers. With it, the aural experience of listening to a singer is transporting; without it, it is a cheat. This concept has been touched on briefly in chapter 2 and in the discussion on "Pulsing the Phrase." It is the ability to direct energy and spin the vocal tone by swelling and opening down into the body. It in not applied to every note, for if it were, the energy would be negated.
Play the Pipe If you think of the voice as a wind instrument, it is helpful to use the image of the other woodwind instruments in order to access this sensation. Visualize the windpipe and notice it is the same shape as a flute, a clarinet, or bassoon. Open up the pipe inside and play it when you sing. It is this "playing of the pipe" sensation that I am describing. Pulsing the phrase is how the "playing of the pipe" sensation is applied musically. Just as every word is not equally stressed when we speak, every note is not pulsed when we sing. A pianist or a violinist does not play each note in a phrase exactly the same. That would be monotonous and colorless. He or she leans into or pushes down on the keys or string on certain notes in order to give the phrase line and direction. Singers do not have keys or strings to push down; they have a pipe to open. Because singers are always dealing with text, it is helpful to integrate the text and the music and apply the vocal "opening" to the key words in the phrase. On the stressed wordtypes, open the voice up with a full tone that connects to the center of the body. Interestingly, many vocal problems seem to be improved or disappear when the phrase is pulsed vocally. By anchoring and opening the tone in the center of the body on key places, the tone remains buoyant and the support is reinforced with every pulse. In chapter 2, arrows were used to notate the downward connection of the pulse on the stressed words of the phrase. Now apply them to The Lament of Ian the Proud. It should look somewhat like this:
CHAPTER THIRTEEN The Owner's Manual: Connecting the Dots
What is this crying
But a moor on the shore -
that I hear in the wind?
There is a stone which
Is it the old sorrow
The purple nets of heather bind,
and the old grief?
And thereon is writ:
Or is it a new thing coming,
"She will return no more,"
a whirling leaf -
O blown, whirling leaf,
About the grey hair of me
And the old grief,
who am weary and blind?
And the wind crying to me
I know not what it is,
Who am old and blind!
Notice that not all the stress word-types are pulsed. Artistic choices were made. Each artist should make his or her own personal choices. Remember, the primary stress words—the nouns and verbs—must be pulsed. The secondary stressed—the adjectives, adverbs, negatives and interrogative pronouns—may be pulsed according to the individual artist's taste. By doubling the consonants and pulsing the vowels of the stressed word-types, the text will come to life and become "three-dimensional"—the goal of all art. Here are some texts to apply the pulsing technique.
EXERCISES Transcribe the following texts, putting consonant doublings and pulses on all the stressed word-types and related vowel sounds as needed. Notate any merges, implosions, and breath lifts when appropriate.
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An omnibus across the bridge Crawls like a yellow butterfly, And, here and there, a passerby Shows like a restless little midge. Big barges full of yellow hay, Are moved against the shadowy wharf, And like a yellow silken scarf, The thick fog hangs along the quay. The yellow leaves begin to fade, And flutter from the temple elms, And at my feet the pale green Thames Lies like a rod of ripples jade. (Oscar Wilde / Charles T. Griffes, "Symphony in Yellow") Why do they shut me out of Heaven Did I sing too loud? But I can sing a little minor, Timid as a bird. Wouldn't the angels try me just once more Just see if I troubled them But don't shut the door, don't shut the door. Oh if I were the gentlemen in the white robes and they were the little hand that knocked, Could I forbid, could I forbid, could I forbid? Why do they shut me out of Heaven Did I sing too loud? (Emily Dickinson / Aaron Copland, "Why Do They Shut Me Out of Heaven?" from Twelve Poems of Emily Dickinson) Time does not bring relief: you all have lied who told me time would ease me of my pain! I miss him in the weeping of the rain; I want him at the shrinking of the tide; The old snows melt from ev'ry mountainside, And last year's leaves are smoke in every lane; But last year's bitter loving must remain Heaped on my heart and my old thoughts abide.
CHAPTER THIRTEEN The Owner's Manual: Connecting the Dots
There are a hundred places where I fear To go, so with his memory they brim. And entering with relief some quiet place where never fell his foot or shone his face. I say "There is no mem'ry of him here," And so stand stricken, so remembering him. (Edna St. Vincent Millay / Judith Zaimont, "Soliloquy")
Here's a first-rate opportunity To get married with impunity, And indulge in the felicity Of unbounded domesticity. You shall quickly be parsonified, Conjugally matrimonified, By a doctor of divinity, Who resides in this vicinity. (W. S. Gilbert and Arthur Sullivan, From Pirates ofPenzance)
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CHAPTER FOURTEEN Singing in the British Dialect: "The Rain in Spain"
Thus far we have discussed the correct production of all of the consonants and vowels of English, exclusive of the characteristic British sounds, as well as worked with the legato treatment of the English language and its expressive doublings. All of the techniques with which we have worked apply to singing English in all dialects. In addition to American Standard, the two most commonly used dialects for singing in English are British Received Pronunciation and Mid-Atlantic pronunciation. Mid-Atlantic will be discussed in the next chapter. British Received Pronunciation, known as RP, is standard upper-class English. It is a pronunciation that historically was used by graduates of Oxford and Cambridge, the aristocracy, and the upper class. Received originates from the phrase "received in the best society." RP is an accent that is learned and used in the English Public Schools. The term "Public School" does not have the same meaning it has in North America. Public Schools in the United Kingdom are elite, boarding, preparatory feeder schools for universities such as Oxford and Cambridge. British Received Pronunciation was named and codified by the British phonetician Daniel Jones in his English Pronouncing Dictionary, 1926. Daniel Jones, a founding member of the International Phonetic Association, was instrumental in the development of the International Phonetic Alphabet. Daniel Jones's research and linguistic activities provided George Bernard Shaw with the basis for his fictional character in Pygmalion. So, he was the real-life Henry Higgins! In his English Pronouncing Dictionary, Daniel Jones defines RP as "the everyday speech of families of Southern English persons whose menfolk were educated in the great public boarding schools." It was standard practice until the 1950s for university students to adjust their regional accents to be closer to RP. RP was traditionally used on stage, for public speaking, and by the well educated. In the 1950s, RP was used by
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the BBC as a broadcast standard and was referred to as BBC English. Since the 1970s, the BBC English label has been dropped and RP has slowly been more inclusive of regional influences throughout the United Kingdom. By the turn of the twenty-first century RP was spoken by only 3 percent of the population. Today BBC broadcasters do not use Received Pronunciation, which actually today now sounds out of place; they use a neutralized version of their own regional accents that is intelligible to all listeners. For the purposes of singing and stage performance, Received Pronunciation is very appropriate for much of the classical vocal literature and theatre of the British Isles. There is a vast pool of repertoire and literature that was written before 1970 when the tastes for using RP as the spoken standard shifted. So, in this chapter we will study two types of Received Pronunciation. Historic RP that is appropriate for repertoire written before the mid1970s and Modern RP, a modern pronunciation that works very well for the repertoire of the last quarter of the twentieth and early twenty-first centuries. Although there are many distinct dialects found throughout the British Isles, the British Received Pronunciation is the performance standard for most classical vocal literature. Some of the other regional dialects will be discussed in the appendices. An excellent reference source for Historic RP is Daniel Jones's original publication, Everyman's English Pronouncing Dictionary. The fourteenth edition of it was published in 1986 by J M Dent & Sons LTD, London. It is unfortunately out of print, but worth the effort to search for a copy of it. Daniel Jones's original work has been edited and updated in The English Pronouncing Dictionary, 17th edition, edited by Peter Roach and James Hartman, published by Cambridge University Press. This new edition covers both British Received and American pronunciations. Also available is the Longman English Pronunciation Dictionary. Written for teaching English as a Foreign Language, this dictionary is very thorough and has wonderful informational sections throughout. An excellent source for Modern RP is the Oxford Dictionary of Pronunciation for Current English, edited by Clive Upton, William A. Kretzschmar, Jr., and Rafal Konopka. So, let's get started. Below is the alphabet for British Received Pronunciation.
International Phonetic Alphabet for British Received Pronunciation
Consonants The following symbols are identical to the letters of the English (Roman) alphabet:
[b], [d], [f], [g], [h], [k], [1], [m], [n], [p], [s], [t], [v], [w], [z]
CHAPTER FOURTEEN Singing in the British Dialect: "The Rain in Spain"
The symbols below are new symbols added because no corresponding symbols exist in the Roman alphabet: Symbol (ng) (th) (th) (wh)
(sh) (ch)
(burred) (rolled) (flipped)
in in in in in in in in in in in in
Key Words sing, think thin, thirst thine, this, thou whisper, when, why y_ou, y_es, yonder she,sure choose, church, Charles vision, azure* George, joy, judge remember, rehearse, already Prince, great, throne very, forever, far away
in in in in in in in in in in in in in in in
Key Words father, dance, Ask List words wed, many, bury, bend hit, busy, give, bliss, been (wf) me, chief, receive, been (sf) cat, marry, charity, Hand List words too, wound, blue, slew beauty, tune, enthuse book, bosom, good, full obey, desolate, melody (unstressed syllables only) on, not, honest, God, honour all, daughter, lost, often learn, burn, journey (stressed syllables only) father, doctor, vulgar, elixir (unstressed syllables only) hum, blood, trouble, must (stressed syllables only) sofa, evil, heaven, joyous (unstressed syllables only)
Vowels Symbol (ah) (eh) (in) (ee) (00)
(oh) (short o) (er) (er) (uh) (uh)
* In historical or archaic ['vizi3n]/[vizJ9n]/[9'zju9r], Modern RP wf = weak form sf = strong form
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Diphthongs Symbol
Key Words
in in in in in in in in in in
night, buy day, break, reign boy, voice, toil no, slow, reproach now, about, doubt air, care, there ear, dear, here, tier pour, four, soar, o'er sure, tour, poor* are, heart, garden
Triphthongs Symbol
Key Words in
fire, choir, admire, desire
in
our, power, flower, flow'r
Commonly Used Words
all been want of what from an
doth
again
issue
was
very
schedule
truth
dream
bright
nature
sure
duet
cannot
* Modern RP is [ogr]. ** See "r" rules on pages 233-34.
love dance know because vision celestial
CHAPTER FOURTEEN Singing in the British Dialect: "The Rain in Spain"
sf = strong form
wf = weak form
Mod. = modern
Hist. = historic
sp = spoken
s = sung
Now try working in the IPA.
IPA DRILL 1. Change the following words in IPA symbols into English spellings:
In Historic RP, a stressed r can be rolled [R] or burred [j]. An r between vowels is flipped [r] in Historic and burred [j] in Modern.
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2. Change the following English words into corresponding IPA symbols: charm
zephyr
pensive
earth
flood
anoint
bought
vision
winter
once
hatch
giant
absurd
year
passion
enough
usage
difficult
younger
languish
beautiful
pronounce
worthy
technical
3. Write your name in IPA symbols 4. Find a short paragraph from a newspaper or magazine and transcribe it into phonetics.
5. Change the following texts in IPA symbols into English spellings:
CHAPTER FOURTEEN Singing in the British Dialect: "The Rain in Spain"
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Now that you have familiarized yourself with the IPA, you may continue on with British Received pronunciation and learn the applications of it for lyric singing or proceed to chapter 2 to study the stress and inflection patterns of the English language as a whole.
British Received versus American Standard Let's examine the differences between British Received and American Standard pronunciation. There are twelve primary differences. 1. The vowels and consonants are produced further forward in the mouth with the lips in a more rounded position. The lips vowels, consequently, shift to the next darkest vowel on the vowel chart. 2. The use of short O [D] for most stressed "o" spellings as in "hot," "not," "got," see page 217. The more closed and more forward open o vowel [o], see page 218. 3. Use of [9u] for spoken O diphthongs as in "No, don't go!" see page 219. 4. Lessening of "r" colourations in diphthongs, triphthongs, and single vowels. 5. The use of [a] for ask list spellings, see pages 223-24. EXAMPLES
dance[dans]
glass [glas]
6. The consistent use of liquid u [ju] pronunciations, see page 228. 7. Unstressed syllables: differing vowel preferences for suffixes, prefixes, and the additional schwa substitute for unstressed syllables, see page 229. 8. The -ary, -ery, -ory, -bury, -berry, and -mony word endings are pronuced [9rJ/ri] in RP. In AS they are pronounced [asii] when the preceding syllable is stressed and are pronounced with a full vowel when the preceding syllable is unstressed. RP
AS r
'secretary ['sekiit9 ri] or [sekiitii] Historic
'secretary ['sekis.teji]
r
[sekjit9 ji] or ['sekiiUi] Modern 9. The "ile" word endings in unstressed syllables and the suffix "ine" are pronounced [ai] in RP and [i] or [9] or [i] in AS. RP
AS
agile [aedsail] philistine [filistam]
[asdsil] [asdjgl] [fibstin]
10. The use of trilled and flipped r's in Historic RP.
CHAPTER FOURTEEN Singing in the British Dialect: "The Rain in Spain"
11. The t's are aspirated and elided in Historic RP. Final t's are sometimes glottlalized [?] in Modern RP speech. 12. Syllabic stress a. For loanwords from French, the first syllable is stressed in RP vs. the second syllable in AS. RP
AS
RP
AS
RP
AS
'ballet
ballet
'cafe
cafe
'matinee
mati'nee
b. Compound words—in RP, stress is placed on either the noun or both words equally. In AS, stress is usually on the adjective or both words equally. RP
AS
polar 'bear
'polar bear
week 'end
'week 'end
Rules for British Received Pronunciation
RULE From American Standard, the stressed lip vowels shift to the next darkest adjacent vowel on the vowel chart for RP.
DIAGRAM 14.1
In general, RP is produced further forward in the mouth than AS and has lip rounding. The lip vowels are [a], [o], [o], [o], [u] and [u]. The pronunciation differences between AS and RP pronunciations involve primarily the first three of the lip vowels. In RP, the words with stressed syllables that would ordinarily be pronounced [a] in AS are now pronounced [D]. The words with "o" spellings that in AS are [a] or [o] are in RP [o]. For example, the word "hot," which is sounded [hat] in AS, is sounded [hot] in RP. The same holds true for [o] in AS. The RP counterpart is [o]; a more closed version of the open o vowel of AS. For example, "call" [kol] in AS is pronounced [kol] in RP. AS
RP
AS
RP
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Since AS does not use [D] as a standard vowel pronunciation, there is not a direct shift from [D] to [D]. Note the vowel shifts in the texts below:
AS
RP
Let me wander not unseen,
Let me wander not unseen,
By hedgerow elms on hillocks green.
By hedgerow elms on hillocks green.
[D]
(G. F. Handel, L'Allegro)
EXERCISES 1. Drill the following vowel shifts:
45
RP
not
God
hot
honest
AS
RP
call
walk
all
daughter
AS
RP
AS
RP
2. Recite the following text, paying attention to the vowel shifts:
To sit in solemn silence in a dull, dark, dock,
In a pestilential prison, with a life-long lock,
Awaiting the sensation of a short, sharp shock,
From a cheap and chippy chopper on a big, black block. (W. S. Gilbert / Arthur Sullivan, From The Mikado)
CHAPTER FOURTEEN Singing in the British Dialect: "The Rain in Spain"
RULE Stressed "o" spellings in RP, as in the words hot, not, got, are pronounced with "short o"
[D] Production The vowel [D] is the lowest of the tongue vowels that has lip rounding. It is called the short o vowel. It is halfway between [a] and [o] in RP and, though not considered standard in AS, is halfway between [a] and [o]. It can be found by saying an [a] while slightly rounding your lips. It is found in words that have "o" spellings, such as "hot," "on," and "sorry." It is also the vowel for several words with "a" spellings such as "what," "want," "was."
FIGURE 14.1
Action Tongue
slight arch, almost flat in mouth
Lips
rounded in shape of a large circle
Jaw
wide open, as low as for [a]
[D]
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Pitfalls to Avoid Avoid tense tongue, lips, mouth. Avoid glottal attacks on initial vowels.
Common Words That Use [D] from
horror
want
bomb
oracle
wash
box
John
what
long
coffee
wander
mock
modern
wasp
upon
song
was
God
of
water*
story*
somber
want
RULE The RP variant couterpart is AS
is further forward and more closed than the " opne o" See
production, pp, 66–68
*In Historic RP, many of the "o" spelling and "a" spellings are pronounced [g]. Always refer to the English Pronouncing Dictionary to check for Historic RP. In Modern RP, all the words above are pronounced short o [D].
EXERCISES Transcribe the following texts into RP, concentrating on the short and open o's: What passion cannot Music raise and quell? When Jubal struck the chorded shell, His list'ning brethren stood around, And, wond'ring, on the faces fell, To worship celestial sound: Less than a god they thought there could not dwell Within the hollow of that shell, That spoke so sweetly and so well, What passion cannot music quell?
CHAPTER FOURTEEN Singing in the British Dialect: "The Rain in Spain"
The soft complaining flute In dying notes discovers The woes of hopeless lovers Whose dirge is whisper'd, Whisper'd by the warbling lute. (C. F. Handel, "Ode on St. Cecilia's Day")
What if I never speed? Shall I straight yield to despair, And still on sorrow feed That can no loss repair? Or shall I change my love? For I find pow'r to depart, And in my reason prove, I can command my heart. But if she will pity my desire and my love requite, Then ever shall she live my dear delight! Come, while I have a heart to desire thee, Come, for either I will love or admire thee. (John Dowland / poet anonymous, "What If I Never Speed")
[oo] versus [au] In spoken RP English, the stressed o diphthong in "no" is pronounced [90]. The first vowel is a schwa [9] followed by a [u] vowel.* This [su] diphthong is very characteristic of spoken RP but is a difficult sound to produce vocally and easily "spreads." Therefore it is standard performance practice to sing a pure "o" [ou] in classical vocal music. The [su] diphthong could be used in singing the Gilbert and Sullivan operettas in fast-moving recitative passages. It should never be sung on any melismatic or sustained passage.
RULE Use the
diphthong only in musical theatre, operetta, and spoken
dialogue, For classical singing, always use
* See chapter 6 for the description of the [a] vowel.
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NOTE OF CAUTION Be careful that the [au] diphthong is not pronounced as [eu]. This sounds affected and exaggerated. Practice slowly to make sure that the first vowel in this diphthong is [9].
EXERCISES 1. Drill the following words alternating between both [ou] and [au]
no
gold
moan
flow
code
low
whole
woe
alone
open
soul
Apollo
2. Transcribe the following texts using [au] and recite them: In vain to us you plead— Don't go! Your prayers we do not heed— Don't go! It's true we sigh, But don't suppose A tearful eye Forgiveness shows. Oh, no! (W. S. Gilbert / Arthur Sullivan, From lolanthe)
Old King Cole Was a merry old soul, And a merry old soul was he, He called for his pipe, And he called for his bowl, And he called for his fiddlers three. (Anonymous)
Sweet and low, sweet and low, Wind of the western sea, Low, low, breathe and blow, Wind of the western sea!
CHAPTER FOURTEEN Singing in the British Dialect: "The Rain in Spain"
Over the rolling waters go, Come from the dying moon, and blow, Blow him again to me. (Alfred, Lord Tennyson, "Sweet and Low")
Jupiter, Mars and Apollo, Have quitted the dwellings of men; The other gods quickly will follow, And what will become of us then. Oh, pardon us, Jove and Apollo, Pardon us, Jupiter and Mars; Oh, see us in misery wallow, Cursing our terrible stars. (W. S. Gilbert / Arthur Sullivan, From Thespis)
Reduced R Colourings
RULE "R" colourings are reduced in diphthongs, triphthings, adn single stressed r-coloured vowels
In British Received Pronunciation (RP), the r colouring is reduced in the r-coloured schwa at the end of the diphthongs and triphthongs. Note the changes in phonetic spelling below:
AS
RP hear fair sure
for are
fire flower
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EXERCISE 1. Transcribe and drill diphthongs and triphthongs in RP: fear
your
heart
sure*
forth
flower
acquire
iron
hair
desire
afar
pure
mourn
ensnare
power
dear
*ln Modern RP this diphthong is pronounced
RULE R-cGlpured vowels, both stressed and unstressed, have less lip rounding and are more open.
Words that have r-coloured vowels in a stressed syllable (learn, bird, virtue), as well as unstressed syllables (father, wonder, honour), are all more open variations of the AS r-coloured vowels. The RP r colours still have r colouring in them, but with less lip rounding. The tongue still remains arched in an [e] position, while the lips are less rounded and protruded. The reduced r coloured vowels are sounds are similar to [oe] in French. Phonetically, they are written [3r] for a stressed syllable and [9r] for an unstressed syllable. Practice drilling all of the r-coloured vowels:
EXAMPLES
AS
FR
RP
FR
AS
fur
fleur
fur
fleur
fur
EXERCISES 1. Transcribe and drill the following words containing lessened RP r colourings:
yearn
burn
search
thirst
journey
virtue
her
verdict
mercy
rehearse
perfect
earth
CHAPTER FOURTEEN Singing in the British Dialect: "The Rain in Spain"
sister
brother
number
colour
savor
ever
after
valour
perhaps
pursue
comfort
survive
2. Write in IPA the following texts and recite: The flowers appear on the earth; the time of the singing of birds is come, and the voice of the turtle in our land. (From Ecclesiastes)
For anything so overdone is from the purpose of playing, whose end, both at the first and now, was and is to hold as 'twere the mirror up to Nature. (William Shakespeare, Hamlet)
O'er the season vernal, Time may cast a shade; Sunshine, if eternal, Makes the roses fade! (W. S. Gilbert / Arthur Sullivan, Trial by Jury)
Shall We D-ah-nce? One of the most idiomatic pronunciation practices of RP is the use of the [a] vowel in many of the words that in AS would be pronounced [ae]. In the phrase "We danced on the grass until the night passed!" all of the stressed "a" vowels are pronounced with [a]. In order to be proficient in the RP dialect, it is imperative to know when to pronounce an [ae] or an [a] vowel. It is often the true test of a well-versed traveler as to whether they have their [ae] and [a] vowels straight. For British readers, this will seem unnecessary.
Ask Words versus Hand Words In her book Speak with Distinction, Edith Skinner used the terms "Ask-List Words" and "Hand-List Words" to distinguish the lists of words that have vowel variants from [ae] in AS to [a] in RP and those that do not. Although she coined these terms, they have become part
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of the language canon of the theater world. The words in which the vowels are changed from [ae] to [a] will be categorized as the "Ask-List Words" and the words in which the [ae] vowel remains the same from AS to RP will be classified as "Hand-List Words." There are no spelling or phonetic rules for determining which ones change; however, the stressed "a" vowel in the ask words are all followed by certain consonant sounds. Since this is a living language and changes over time, always check the dictionary for Modern RP usage of these spellings. Below is a partial listing of most common ask words, grouped according to the consonant sounds that follow them. ASK WORDS
[a] Letter "a"
Exceptions
followed by: [f] laugh, draught, calf, half, after, draft,
[ae] baffle, daffodil, graphic, traffic, riff-raff fancy, romance, cancel,
[ns]
shaft, craft, staff, chaff, quaff dance, chance, glance, prance, trance, advance, answer, trans*- (prefix), France, chancellor, Frances
[ntj] [s]
branch, blanch, avalanche brass, class, grass, pass, castle, fasten, Passover
circumstance, finance, stance, expanse, transit, rancid franchise classic, lass, gas, morass, passive, passenger, crass, mass** drastic, chastise, plastic, sarcastic, castigate, bombast, hast, fantastic, pasta
[st]
aghast, blast, cast, disaster, fast, ghastly, master, vast, pastor, past, passed, repast
[sk]
ask, bask, cask, flask, mask, task, rascal
[sp]
clasp, gasp, grasp, rasp
aspect
bathroom, path, wrath
hath, maths
rather, lath, paths, baths example, sample, sampler
gather, fathom
[mpl]
Note: Can't [kant] is pronounced with ah [a], while can [kasn] and cannot [kaenot] are pronounced with [ae]. All forms to the verb "to have" are pronounced [ae]. * There seems to be a lot of variability in the pronunciation of "trans"—-always check dictionary. ** "Mass" meaning a religious service is pronounced both [maes] and [mas] "Mass" as in "mass media" is [maes].
CHAPTER FOURTEEN Singing in the British Dialect: "The Rain in Spain"
HAND WORDS
Exceptions
Letter a followed by:
[b] c[k] ck[k] [d]
[g/j [dsl [g] [1] [m] [n] [nd]
[a]
stab, rabble, cabin accent, act back, attack, lack, taco glad, sad, shadow, mad, had magic, majesty dagger, wagon valley, shall, shallow am, lamb, gram, lamp man, can, cannot, vanish hand, grand, land, stand
command, demand, slander reprimand, countermand
ng [rjg] nk [rjk]
languish, sang, language thank, drank, sank
[nt]
ant, rant
[p] [r/i] sh[J] ss[J]
happy, capture, rapture marry, charity, carry clash, dash, fashion, flash passion, compassion
[t] tch [tj]
cat, matter, that catch, latch, match have, ravage, lavish
[v]
x[ks] [z]
can't, shan't, chant, grant, plant, slant, advantage, aunt, enchant
wax, relax, axe dazzle, hazard
Words that may be pronounced either [ae] or [a]:
asp
enhance exasperate
aspen
masquerade
blaspheme
plantation
elastic
ranch
ant
* salve: ointment = [a]
salve: soothe, anoint = [ae]
salve*, calve, halve (silent "1" spellings) raspberry
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Memory Aids
Memorizing the Ask and Hand Lists can be overwhelming. Here are some memory aids my students have supplied over the years. ASK LIST I can't laugh and dance with a mask made of branches. The master of the castle asked me to take a bath. For example, rather, I clasped his raspberry calves. The cast went fast which enhanced the chance to end it at last with a draught. HAND LIST I'm glad that scallywag stabbed me in the back with a dagger. The man's magic hands happily lavished languishing lamentations over the land. The cad, full of passion, married his match in the valley. I have to wax my dazzling legs in a flash!
EXERCISES 1. [ae] / [a] Transcribe and drill the correct vowel sounds: galaxy
half
lamp
stand
trance
salad
mango
plaster
diagram
manic
lamb
band
dance
telegram
glass
answer
rash
hand
clash
man
lather
sham
after
mask
bombast
stagger
rapt
rather
bandit
passion
2. Transcribe the correct vowel sounds: nasty taskmasters
sweet charity
vast expanses
pastoral duty
bad habit
screeching bagpipe
last chance
murderous dagger
waxen beauty
avaricious scavenger
rather bland
past rapture
CHAPTER FOURTEEN Singing in the British Dialect: "The Rain in Spain"
3. Recite with the correct vowels: Ghastly, ghastly! When man, sorrowful, Firstly, lastly, Of tomorrow full, After tarrying, Yields to harrying— Goes a-marrying— Ghastly, ghastly! (W. S. Gilbert / Arthur Sullivan, The Yeomen of the Guard)
There was an old man of Madras, Who rode on a cream-coloured ass; But the length of his ears, So prompted his fears, That it killed the Old Man of Madras. (Edward Lear, The Complete Nonsense) Now try a Sonnet:
When in disgrace with fortune and men's eyes, I all alone beweep my outcast state, And trouble deaf heav'n with my bootless cries, And look upon myself and curse my fate, Wishing me like to one more rich in hope, Featured like him, like him with friends possessed, Desiring this man's art, and that man's scope, With what I most enjoy contented least; Yet in these thoughts myself almost despising, Haply I think on thee, and then my state, (Like to the lark at break of day arising) From sullen earth, sings hymns at heaven's gate; For thy sweet love rememb'red such wealth brings, That then I scorn to change my state with kings. (William Shakespeare, Sonnet 29)
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Usage of the "Liquid U" in Historic versus Modern RP
RULE Use the " LiquidU" ceded by
in all "u," "ue," "eu,"
and "ew" spellings pre-
Sagj exceptions on p&ges eO~6T
The use of "Liquid U" [ju] after: [n]
Always use fj]. EXAMPLES
[d] and [t]
new [nju], nuclear [njuklisr] In Historic RP, always use [j].
EXAMPLES [dj] and [tj]
due [dju], duty [djuti] In Modern RP, many of the Liquid U's [ju] change to [ds] and [tj].
duke
Historic [djuk]
Modern [dsuk]
tune
[tjun]
[tjun]
Tuesday
[tjuzdei]
[tjuzdei]
[6] [1]
In Historic RP, always use [j].
EXAMPLES
allude [aljud], enthused [mGjuzd]
Note: The word "absolutely" is pronounced with or without the [j], EXAMPLE
[eebsoljutli] or [aebsolutli]
In Modern RP, drop the [j]. EXAMPLES [s] [z]
allude [alud], enthused [m8uzd], absolutely [sebsalutli]
In Historic RP, use or drop [j].
EXAMPLES
assume: [as(j)um], superb: [s(j)up3rb], suicide: [s(j)uisaid]
In Modern RP, the []] is usually dropped, but instead an on-glide pre-vowel(i) is pronounced before the [u]. It does not sound like the American counterpart, which is pronounced with a pure [u].
CHAPTER FOURTEEN Singing in the British Dialect: "The Rain in Spain"
EXAMPLES
Modern RP
sue
suit
AS
sue
suit
Note: However, always refer to the dictionary for [s]/[z] spellings in Modern RP.
Unstressed Words and Syllables 1. In RP, there is more use of the schwa vowel [9] in unstressed words than in AS. EXAMPLE
You^nl
Who can know?
2. Use [i] in the unstressed prefixes "im-" and "in-", as well as in "-ing" endings. 3. Schwa substitutes: • In RP, there is a new schwa substitute: [D] is a schwa substitute for unstressed "o" spellings. For example, confess [kon'fess]. • While there is no general preferred schwa substitute in AS (it depends often on the singer, the range, or the specific word), [i] is preferred overall much more often as a schwa substitute in RP. For example, "heaven" in AS could easily use [9], [e], [i], or [u]. In spoken RP, more often than not one would lean toward [i]. 4. Final unstressed "y" was pronounced [i] in late nineteenth-century RP, instead of [i] in Modern RP and AS. EXAMPLE
Historic RP
very [vm]
Modern RP
very [VEJ+]
Stress Patterns 1. For two-syllable loanwords from French, the first syllable is stressed in RP versus the second syllable in AS. Drill:
RP 'ballet 'cafe 'matinee 'debut 'garage
AS ballet cafe matinee de'but garage
RP 'chauffeur Monet 'baton 'cliche 'gourmet
AS chauffeur Mo'net ba'ton cli'che gourmet
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2. For three-syllable loanwords from French, the second syllable in stressed in RP versus the third syllable in AS.
RP attache Fiance*
AS atta'che fiance
RP De'bussy denouement*
AS Debussy denoue'ment
3. Other French loanwords with different stress:
RP a'ddress(n.) limo'sine advertisement
AS ,address(n.) limo'sine advertisement
RP ciga'rette Re'naissance es'cargot
AS , cigarette 'Renaissance ^scar'got
4. Compound word stress—in RP, stress is placed on either the noun or both words equally. In AS, stress is usually on the adjective or both words equally. RP
orange juice ice 'cream open 'wound New 'Year weekend
AS
'orange juice 'ice cream 'open 'wound 'New 'Year 'weekend
i(JII The -ary, ~ery, -ojy, *b^ *^err^ -mooy in unstressed word endings are •'pfOJiowritced
in Historic j^iW
in; Modtern 8P: -mow becomes
5. In RP, the unstressed -ary, -ery, -ory, -bury, and -berry endings are pronounced in Historic RP [grn/i]** and Modern RP [9rii].** Unstressed -mony endings are pronounced [msni]. Also, while in AS the first syllable is a full vowel sound, often the first syllable in RP is elided and pronounced [ai] or [ji], respectively.
* Sounded with French nasal vowel [a]. Note: Final unstressed y in late nineteenth-century RP was pronounced [i]. See point 4 under "Unstressed Words and Syllables" above. ** Alternate spelling. Note: For rules on flipped [r] versus burred [a] r's, see page 232.
CHAPTER FOURTEEN Singing in the British Dialect: "The Rain in Spain"
AS 'pri,mary 'repertory 'Canterbury raspberry 'alimony 'secretary
RP 'primary 'repertory 'Canterbury 'raspberry 'alimony secretary
5. The word endings "ile" and "ine"—typically an unstressed monothong in AS— are pronounced with the full [ai] diphthong in RP. [ail] EXAMPLES
docile, fertile, futile, missile, sterile, virile, volatile, tactile
[am] EXAMPLES
carbine, adamantine, labyrinthine, serpentine
EXCEPTIONS
sometimes [in] or [i]
EXAMPLES
medicine ['medsin], morphine
6. In verbs and adjectives with the endings "-ate" and "-atory," the ending is stressed in RP. -ate EXAMPLES
do'nate, frustrate, na'rrate, ro'tate, spec'tate, translate, va'cate, vi'brate
-atory EXAMPLE
regulatory
EXCEPTION
laboratory
Trilled and Flipped R's In current day Modern RP, rolled and flipped r's are never used. That was not the case when British Received Pronunciation was codified in the 1920s. In the usage of the upper class of the 1920s, the r's were frequently trilled and flipped. British English is a living language with adaptive usage that changes and modifies with the passage of time. Therefore, it is important that our application of the pronunciation of RP reflects the appropriate diction usage of the time in which the music was written.
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Since we are applying RP to British vocal repertoire that spans three centuries, the application of the consonant r usage needs to be adapted to the usage of the time period. The IPA symbols for the three types of r's are: [R] rolled
[r] flipped
[j] burred
RULE Use rolled mitral r'$ [R] tor stressed word-types and intervocalic flipped r% [r] in music of the Baroque, Classical, Romantic, and early twentteth-centoty periods. But use predominantly burred•rt [j j for stressed word-types jind intervocalic r's in middle and late Mentieth*century literature Rolled r usafe should be used only for special emphasis and treated as if it were an ornament.
The use of stressed rolled r's and intervocalic flipped r's when singing in RP should be used exclusively in Baroque (Dowland, Campion, Rosseter, Purcell, Handel), Classical (Haydn, Arne), and Romantic music (Butterworth, Elgar, Hoist, Ireland, Finzi). In the late twentieth-century literature, intervocalic flipped r's should not be used, because their usage sounds too dated and affected. Rolled r's are best used for colour or dramatic effect, but should be used sparingly. Here are some general parameters for use of consonant r's.
RULES FOR R'S 1. Use burred or rolled initial r's in stressed syllables that begin grammatically stressed words.
EXAMPLES
righteousness
realm
Rise up!
2. Flip all intervocalic r's within a single word or in an adj^tntog phrase in Baroque, Classical, and Romantic;repertoire. Burr all fttteivdcaltc r^wttMn a single word or in an adjoining phrase in late twentfeth-centyfy and'early twenty-first-century repertoire,
EXAMPLES
spirit
arise
faraway
yoyareaH
CHAPTER FOURTEEN Singing in the British Dialect: "The Rain in Spain"
3. Do not roll r's in unstressed prefixes or unstressed words.
EXAMPLES
refrain
remember
reprehensible
4. Use caution when roiling r's for dr or tr combinations so as tdnolso^ttd Slavic,
EX-AMP LES
true
dream
dread
trust
One of the unique qualities of British English is the consistent usage of aspirated t's and d's. In a consonant cluster tr, if the r is rolled, it is very difficult to aspirate the t. It can become a dentalized t when accommodating the position needed for the rolled r. The same happens in dr clusters. The d can become dentalized when a rolled r follows it. Dentalized d's and t's sound very foreign in English and should be avoided. That is why burred r's are preferable for tr and dr combinations. A Compromise If a singer, conductor, or coach really feels strongly that the r must be trilled in a particular tr or dr cluster, here is a compromise: [t3R-]
or
[daR-]
Insert a schwa vowel [9] between the 't' and 'r' or 'd' and 'r.' By inserting the schwa, there is time for the t or d to be aspirated and not dentalized.
Technique for Rolling R's Native English speakers frequently are not good at rolling r's. Unlike speakers who come from a Romance language base, English speakers do not grow up using rolled r's and consequently, their tongues often produce flaccid and flappy rolls. 1. Practice starting rolls with an [oe] vowel. This helps to place it further forward. (OB) —» RRRRRRRRRRRRRRR
2. Listen to the speed of the roll. It should be clean and fast. RRRRRRRRRRRRRRR
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Musical Application for R's 1. The rolled r should be initiated before the beat so that the vowel can be on the beat. It should be approached like a grace note to the primary pitch. When the roll begins on the beat, the vowel is compromised and obscured. EXAMPLES
great
[gRRRRRRRert]
praise
[PRRRRRRCIZ]
2. With this same approach, if the word before the rolled r is on a lower pitch, initiate the rolled r on the pitch before. EXAMPLE
And the dead shall be[RR] raised inco[RR] uptible
3. Since r's add a foreign element to the British Received English, use short rolls. EXAMPLE
B[RRR]ight is the [RRR]ing of words not
B[RRR]ight is the [RRRJing of words
4. Additionally, if there are several stressed words in a single phrase that begin with an r (or a cluster containing an r), pick and choose which r's you want to roll; if there are too many in a row, it can take away from the text and, again, sound more foreign. Note the musical example below. Allegro con ruoco
[RRR]Rome is now [RRR]ruled by the
E - t[RRR]rus - can up - start:
(From The Rape ofLucretia, Benjamin Britten)
Rolling all three words—"Rome," "ruled," and "Etruscan"—is too much. In this case, rolling two out of three would be a better choice.
EXERCISE 1. Transcribe the following texts into RP, concentrating on the treatment of the r's. Bright is the ring of words When the right man rings them, Fair the fall of songs When the singer sings them,
CHAPTER FOURTEEN Singing in the British Dialect: "The Rain in Spain"
Still they are carolled and said— On wings they are carried— After the singer is dead And the maker buried. Low as the singer lies In the field of heather, Songs of his fashion bring The swains together. And when the west is red With the sunset embers, The lover lingers and sings And the maid remembers. (Robert Louis Stevenson / Ralph Vaughan Williams, "Bright is the Ring of Words" from Songs of Travel)
I will make you brooches and toys for your delight Of bird-song at morning and star-shine at night, I will make a palace fit for you and me Of green days in forests, and blue days at sea. I will make my kitchen, and you shall keep your room, Where white flows the river and bright blows the broom; And you shall wash your linen and keep your body white In rainfall at morning and dewfall at night. And this shall be for music when no one else is near, The fine song for singing, the rare song to hear! That only I remember, that only you admire, Of the broad road that stretches and the roadside fire. (Robert Louis Stevenson / Ralph Vaughan Williams, "The Roadside Fire" from Songs of Travel)
Ah! Belinda, I am press'd With torment not to be confess'd; Peace and I are strangers grown: I languish till my grief is known, Yet would not have it guess'd. (Henry Purcell, "Dido's Lament" from Dido and Aeneas)
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Articulating the Letter T in RP
RIRf All t's must be adulated0s^ i^ardless of their position wMi a word;
In AS and several British regional dialects, the articulation of t's is more relaxed and colloquially often lazy. Medial t's are often flapped [r]* or imploded and final t's are often dropped or globalized [?]. EXAMPLE:
"Goodnight!" is colloquially pronounced [gu?nart].
When singing AS well, initial and final t's should be articulated and aspirated, while medial t's should have no aspiration. For example, in the words "twilight," both t's would be well aspirated to match the volume level of the vowels. But in the word "letter," the medial t's should be sounded as t's (not d's) but with no aspiration. In RP, all t's are wellarticulated and aspirated in initial, final, and medial positions. There is one crucial exception: Do not aspirate a final t if it is followed by a word beginning with an unstressed vowel. EXAMPLE:
"that I" with an aspirated t mistakenly creates the word "tie"
Such phrases would best be connected with a very soft unaspirated t or the legato connection broken with a breath lift. There are two idiomatic phrases in British dialect in which the t's are always connected strongly: "It is" is sounded as [i -> tiz] and "Not at all" is sounded [no -> ts -> tol]. Practice saying "not at all" and "it is" several times.
[th]
The aspiration of a consonant should be notated phonetically by using [th]. Since for projection, all t's need to be aspirated in AS, RP, and MA, the symbol [t] alone will imply aspiration. Only in colloquial American will the characteristic American flapped t be used. It is notated [r].
See glossary page 294 for discussion of flapped t's [r].
CHAPTER FOURTEEN Singing in the British Dialect: "The Rain in Spain"
EXERCISES 1. Transcribe the following words in British dialect and drill them: touch
little
polite
tree
better
quiet
tongue
lately
clapped
tell
central
kissed
teeth
pretty
delight
2. Practice reciting the following texts concentrating on aspirated T's: I am the very model of a modern Major-General, I've information vegetable, animal and mineral. I know the kings of England, and I quote the fights historical, From Marathon to Waterloo, in order categorical; I'm very well acquainted too with matters mathematical. I understand equations, both simple and quadratical, About binomial theorem I'm teeming with a lot o' news— With many cheerful facts about the square of the hypotenuse. I'm very good at integral and differential calculus, I know the scientific names of being animalculus; In short, in matters vegetable, animal and mineral, I am the very model of a modern Major-General. (W. S. Gilbert / Arthur Sullivan, from Pirates of Penzance)
There is beauty in the bellow of the blast, There is grandeur in the growling of the gale, There is eloquent out-pouring When the lion is a-roaring, And the tiger is a-lashing of his tail! Yes, I like to see a tiger From the Congo or the Niger, And especially the lashing of his tail! (W. S. Gilbert / Arthur Sullivan, from The Mikado)
3. Transcribe the following texts: Your hands lie open in the long fresh grass,— The finger-points look through like rosy blooms: Your eyes smile peace. The pasture gleams and glooms
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'Neath billowing skies that scatter and amass. All round our nest, far as the eye can pass, Are golden kingcup fields with silver edge Where the cow-parsley skirts the hawthorn hedge. Tis visible silence, still as the hour glass. Deep in the sun-searched growths the dragon-fly Hangs like a blue thread loosened from the sky:— So this winged hour is dropt to us from above. Oh! clasp we to our hearts, for deathless dower, This close-companioned inarticulate hour When twofold silence was the song of love. (Ralph Vaughan Williams, "Silent Noon" from The House of Life)
Come, sleep, and with thy sweet deceiving Lock me in delight awhile; Let some pleasing dreams beguile All my fancies, that from hence There may steal an influence, All my powers of care bereaving. Tho' but a shadow, but a sliding, Let me know some little joy. We, that suffer long annoy, Are contented with a thought Thro' an idle fancy wrought: O let my joys have some abiding. (John Fletcher/ Peter Warlock, Sleep)
The fountains mingle with the River And the Rivers with the Ocean, The winds of Heaven mix for ever With a sweet emotion; Nothing in the world is single; All things by a law divine In one another's being mingle. Why not I with thine? See the mountains kiss high Heaven And the waves clasp one another; No sister-flower would be forgiven If it disdained its brother;
CHAPTER FOURTEEN Singing in the British Dialect: "The Rain in Spain"
And the sunlight clasps the earth And the moonbeams kiss the sea: What are all these kissings worth If thou kiss not me? (Percy Bysshe Shelley / Roger Quilter, "Love's Philosophy") Spring, the sweet Spring, is the year's pleasant king; Then blooms each thing, then maids dance in a ring, Cold doth not sting, the pretty birds do sing, Cuckoo, jug-jug, pu-we, to-witta-woo! The palm and may make country houses gay, Lambs frisk and play, the shepherds pipe all day, And we hear aye birds tune this merry lay, Cuckoo, jug-jug, pu-we, to-witta-woo! The fields breathe sweet, the daisies kiss our feet, Young lovers meet, old wives a-sunning sit, In every street these tunes our ears do greet, Cuckoo, jug-jug, pu-we, to-witta-woo! Spring! The sweet Spring! (Thomas Nashe / Ivor Gurney, "Spring," from Summer's Last Will and Testament) When fishes flew and forests walked and figs grew upon thorn, Some moment when the moon was blood Then surely I was born. With montrous head and sickening cry And ears like errant wings, The devil's walking parody on all four-footed things. The tattered outlaw of the earth of ancient crooked will; Starve, scourge, deride me: I am dumb, I keep my secret still. Fools! For I also had my hour; One far fierce hour and sweet: There was a shout about my ears, And palms before my feet. ("The Donkey," G. K. Chesterton / Rebecca Clarke)
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In summertime on Bredon The bells they sound so clear; Round both the shires they ring them In steeples far and near, A happy noise to hear. Here of a Sunday morning My love and I would lie, And see the coloured counties, And hear the larks so high About us in the sky. The bells would ring to call her In valleys miles away; "Come all to church, good people; Good people come and pray." But here my love would stay. And I would turn and answer Among the springing thyme, "Oh, peal upon our wedding, And we will hear the chime, And come to church in time." But when the snows at Christmas On Bredon top were strown, My love rose up so early And stole out unbeknown And went to church alone. They tolled the one bell only, Groom there was none to see, The mourners followed after, And so to church went she, And would not wait for me. The bells they sound on Bredon, And still the steeples hum, "Come all to church, good people." 0 noisy bells, be dumb; 1 hear you, I will come. (A. E. Housman / Sir Arthur Somervell, "In Summertome on Bredon," from A Shropshire Lad)
Many other British texts can be found in chapters 2-13.
CHAPTER FIFTEEN The Mid-Atlantic Dialect
The Default Dialect The Mid-Atlantic English is a version of the English language that tries to be neither predominantly American nor British. Mid-Atlantic English, also known as Transatlantic pronunciation, is a type of accent formerly cultivated by American and Canadian actors for use in theater and by North American news announcers for war correspondence. Its aim was mutual intelligibility across the Atlantic. Generally based on the educated Bostonian speech of the 1920s, it was essentially North American speech with some adopted features of British pronunciation. In theater, it was used in stage productions of Shakespeare and other works from the British Isles and frequently in film until the post-World War II era. This form of "stage British" is not used today as much as it once was. In current North American theater, the practice is to use a more American sounding Theater Standard. It is what in this book is referred to as AS. Sadly, today, even Shakespeare is rarely performed in the United States with any sort of British dialect. The codification of Mid-Atlantic pronunciation in written form is credited to Edith Warman Skinner in the 1930s. Sir Tyrone Guthrie had established an acting troupe that was made up of British, American, and Canadian actors. He became frustrated with the distraction of the "ping-pong" fluctuation of all the pronunciation variants he heard in the dialogue of his actors, and enlisted the help of Edith Skinner to regulate a hybrid pronunciation for English that would blend the vowel variants and the language usage. The pronunciation that Edith Skinner codified led to the writing of her book Speak with Distinction, which has become one of the principal texts for stage speech used by acting schools throughout the English-speaking world.
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Good examples of exemplary Mid-Atlantic can be found in the films of the Americanborn but British-trained Vincent Price, the ex-pat Gary Grant, the Canadian Christopher Plummer, and the American actor James Earl Jones. One good way to become attuned to this pronunciation is to spend some time watching the black and white Hollywood movies of the 1930s and 1940s. All the starlets of the American Motion Picture studio system were trained to speak in Mid-Atlantic. Listen to the old movies of Betty Davis, Katherine Hepburn, and Humphrey Bogart. The list of stars is long. Even in the 1960s, Mid-Atlantic was used in The Sound of Music to blend the North American accents of the actors playing the nuns and the von Trapp family with British pronunciation of Maria played by Dame Julie Andrews. Although Mid-Atlantic is not used as much today, it still can be heard in a more modern form in the speech of such American television characters as Frasier and Niles on Frasier, and the parents on Will and Grace and Gilmore Girls. Mid-Atlantic dialect is often used to define a character who is highly educated or upper class. It can be used to help establish the relationships between the characters of a work. Even Princess Leia, Queen Amidala, and of course Darth Vader of the Star Wars film series speak in a modern MidAtlantic to establish their relationships to the authority figures of the Force and the Dark Side. In 2007, The Illusionist, a film set in Vienna, used dialogue in Mid-Atlantic For singers today, knowledge and fluency in the Mid-Atlantic dialect is a very useful skill. In North America, it is often the requested pronunciation by many conductors and directors for vocal works that are not specifically of North American origin. Oratorio and European opera in English translation are frequently presented in Mid-Atlantic rather than RP or AS. In the rest of the English-speaking world, it would potentially be an excellent guide for an international English that could be used for any European or English Commonwealth works not specific to the British Isles. In North America, there is sometimes a concern that the use of RP with its darkened vowels will lower the text intelligibility for North American audiences. Often RP is not used in a stage production of a British work unless supertitles are employed as a safety net. If this is a concern, or supertitles are not being used, then Mid-Atlantic pronunciation is an excellent solution. In Mid-Atlantic, the vowels are generally pronounced the same as in American Standard. The biggest distinctions between Mid-Atlantic and AS are found with the lessened "r" colorations in [sr] and [sr] and in the diphthongs and triphthongs, as well as the optional use of rolled and flipped "r's" in historic MA.
[a] The chief difference between British Received and Mid-Atlantic, besides the lack of vowel shifts, is the use of the intermediate [a] instead of [a] for the "Ask List" words. By lessen-
CHAPTER FIFTEEN The Mid-Atlantic Dialect
ing the "r" colorations and using the more open [a] vowel for the "Ask List" words, MidAtlantic takes on a "Continental" flare to the language and does not register as a North American pronunciation. It is the dialect that is used in the Madeleine Marshall book, To Sing in English. Let's have a look at more specifics of this pronunciation.
The Mid-Atlantic Dialect Overview A little of this . . . A little of that. . . 1. Mid-Atlantic dialect is generally made up of AS vowels with British "r" treatments. 2. The use of [M] always in words with "wh" spellings such as "what," "wherefore," "why," and "whether." 3. Like AS and RP, the Prefix Rule applies, see page 48. 4. The "Ask List" words now are pronounced with [a], see list on page 224. 5. For unstressed "o" spellings, the [o] schwa substitute is preferred. 6. Like RP, the [D], as in "honest," is used for words with "o" spellings. 7. The parameters for rolled and flipped r's and r-colored vowels are the same as RP, see chapter 14, p. 234. 8. Use [9r] in the second to last syllables of polysyllabic words with the endings "ory," "-ery," "-ary," and "-berry," see page 230. 9. T's are aspirated as in RP. See page 236. 10. Use burred r's [j] only for r's in Modern MA. In Historic MA, use burred or rolled [J]/[R] r's for initial r's or r's in initial consonant clusters, and flipped r's [r] between vowels. Historic MA
EXAMPLES
arise truth forever royal
Modern MA
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SINGING AND COMMUNICATING IN ENGLISH
Repertoire Suggestions for Mid-Atlantic Pronunciation In North America
In Europe / British Commonwealth
Oratorio of European origin
Oratorio of European Origin
Handel's Messiah
Mendelssohn's Elijah
Mendelssohn's Elijah
Bach Cantatas
Bach Cantatas Opera Any U.K. Opera where intelligibility is a concern Opera in English translation The Magic Flute
Opera in English translation The Magic Flute Die Fledermaus The Merry Widow
Die Fledermaus The Merry Widow European Operetta
European Operetta
Offenbach, Romberg
Offenbach, Romberg
British Art Songs (if intelligibility is concern) Quilter, Finzi, Purcell, and so on
The Intelligibility Factor The type of venue and the sophistication of the audience should be considered when determining which dialect will be intelligible and communicative. For a professional concert in a major city such as London or New York, the audience should be able to understand RP or AS without the default compromise of using MA. You, the artist, must make the final decision about what is best.
Note: I prefer that all British repertoire be performed in Historic or Modern RP or an appropriate regional U.K. accent where required, and all North American repertoire be performed in AS or an appropriate colloquial/regional accent where required. Mid-Atlantic is the default pronunciation to be used if the repertoire is not specifically American or British, is European repertoire done in English translation, or there is concern about intelligibility.
CHAPTER FIFTEEN The Mid-Atlantic Dialect
Rules for Mid-Atlantic Pronunciation
RULf Always use [M] for atl stressed words beginnings with "wh" sellings: that is, whether, when, where, which, and so on, ' ..; T '•
This is no different from RP. For British and Mid-Atlantic dialects, the [h] should be much more exaggerated than in Neutral North American. Be sure to insert the related [u] vowel between h and w to stress and highlight these interrogative pronouns. EXAMPLES
Why? [h(u)wai]
Where? [h(u)w£ar]
When? [h(u)wm]
Remember that a few words spelled with "wh" are sounded with [h] only: EXAMPLES
who, whom, whose, whole, wholly, whore,
Ry Li Always use the liquid u [ju] in words that are spelled V or'-ew" and begin with the consonants d, n, s, I, t, and tit, See page 61 /
When these spellings occur in a stressed position in a stressed word, as in "tune" or "pursue," add the [i] related glide vowel to help stress and exaggerate this pronunciation. EXAMPLES
tune [t^jun]
pursue
When they occur in positions of only secondary stress, as in "interlude" or "gratitude," do not add the related [i] vowel. EXAMPLES
interlude ['intarljud] gratitude ['gR
For a more complete list of examples of these words, see page 61.
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EXERCISES Drill the following sentences, using [ju] appropriately: The stupid pupil was confused about latitudes and platitudes.
Nuclear fusion renews confusion.
The youth endured puberty with humor.
Students must studiously study their etudes.
Eunice was amused by their new attitude.
Please try to duplicate the numerous nuances of beautiful elocution!
Allusion and illusion are infused with collusion.
The Muse was imbued with dubious acumen.
RULI UseJa]for"AslcUst*spellings.
The vowel [a] as in "Ask" is often referred to as the intermediate "A" because it is a vowel sound between [ae] as in "cat" and [a] as in "father."
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CHAPTER FIFTEEN The Mid-Atlantic Dialect
[a] Production
FIGURE 15.1 [a]
Action Jaw
wide relaxed
Lips
spread lightly in smile
Tongue
tip behind lower front teeth arch slightly lower than for [ae]
The vowel [a] is the first vowel in the diphthong [ai] as in the word "my." One way to find the correct Intermediate "A" vowel is to sustain the first vowel of "my"—[maaaaaa] and kinesthetically feel and hear this vowel sound. Here is an overview of the three vowel variants for the Ask List spellings.
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SINGING AND COMMUNICATING IN ENGLISH
ASK LIST VARIANTS
RP
MA
AS
after
[a] [aft9r]
[a] [aftsr]
[a] [asft
bath
[ba6]
[baG]
[baeG]
class
[klas]
[klas]
[klaes]
demand
[dimand]
[dimand]
[dimaend]
enchant
[intrant]
[mtjant]
[intjaent]
fast
[fast]
[fast]
[f33St]
glance
[glans]
[glans]
[glasns]
[half
[haf]
[haf]
[haef]
implant
[implant]
[inplant]
[implaent]
laugh master
[laf] [mast9r]
[laf] [mast9r]
[laef] [massif]
nasty
[nasti/i]
[nasti]
[naesti]
outlast
[outlast]
[outlast]
[outlaest]
paragraph
[paej/ragj/Raf]*
[paej/rsgj/Raf]*
[paejggjasf]
reprimand
[jepjmand]
[jepjimand]
[jepjimasnd]
sample
[sampsl]
[sampgl]
[saempsl]
task
[task]
[task]
[t33Sk]
r
r
unsurpassed
[Ans9 past]
[Ans9 past]
vantage
[vantids]
[vantidj]
[vaentadj]
wrath
[J/R06]
[j/Ra0]
[iae0]
[Ansa-paest]
* Reminder: Rolled or burred r's are used for stressed syllables in Historic RP and flipped r's are used between vowels. In Modern MA only burred r's are used.
EXERCISE DRILLS 1. Alternately sing and say the following words: [ma:i] ->
[maaaaaa] ->
[maaaaast] ->
[mast]
[ma:i] ->
[maaaaaa] -»
[maaaask] ->
[mask]
[a:i] ->
[aaaaaaaa] -->
[aaaaask] -»
[ask]
[a:i] -»
[bjaaaaa] ->
[braaaaas] ->
[brass]
CHAPTER FIFTEEN The Mid-Atlantic Dialect
2. Drill the following words. Be careful not to nasalize the [a] vowels in words containing nasal consonants. ask
blast
clasp
dance
answer
pass
fast
trance
glass
after
bath
demand
laugh
nasty
basket
can't
master
example
plant
advantage
RU Li In Historic MA, always use [oj as the j» substitute vowel ift unstressed; syllables spelledwith "o." This sounds a bit dated, but is af^rofuriate for Historic MA. For Modtrn MA, use schwa {«],
Drill the following words using the [o] vowel: solution Olivia police opinion
offense oppress proceed obsolete
obey produce official overtly
revolution profound domestic occasion
ftyili Consenant r'$ may be rolled, flipped, or lsurred> ajid followtheisafee rute ofijspDeafidn- as British Eri^isH. (See-^aps 221-211n chipter 14.);, '
RULE; :y^;%e:n€!ubpat' [9rJ vowfHritbe iinstMed- itc^4-to«lail-$yllabte''^f /, p^ys^labl<: endtngst ^ary/' "-ery," "-ory," "-bury/' find^berry^ or-iisti thfe:filAS strep pstt«mrwteh would give it a full vowel soy nd;
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In RP and Mid-Atlantic speech, this syllable is frequently dropped completely: [tit] and [bj+]
'blueberry 'military
Historic MA
Modern MA
['blub9rri]/[blubjij [rmlit3rri]/[miliUi]
['blub9rji]/[blubji] or [blubeji] [milit9rri]/[militii] or ['militeji]
or Use the AS stress pattern:
'blueberry
Historic MA ['bluberi]
Modern MA ['blubeai]
'military
['militeni]
['militeii]
RULE The raised open O vowel from ftp
Is now pronounced as the AS
The Open O is pronounced with the AS vowel.
RP
MA
AS
all walk
daughter law
EXERCISES 1. Write out the following words and practice drilling the [ar] in the penultimate syllables but also with the AS stress pattern. For example, 'repertory. repertory
tributary
secretary
raspberry
January
ordinary
dictionary
cranberry
legendary
visionary
honorary
February
CHAPTER FIFTEEN The Mid-Atlantic Dialect
2. Transcribe and drill the following texts: No longer mourn for me when I am dead Then you shall hear the surly sullen bell Give warning to the world that I am fled From this vile world, with vilest worms to dwell. Nay, if you read this line, remember not The hand that writ it; for I love you so That I in your sweet thoughts would be forgot If thinking on me then should make you woe. Oh if, I say, you look upon this verse When I perhaps compounded am with clay, Do not so much as my poor name rehearse, But let your love even with my life decay, Lest the wise world should look into your moan And mock you with me after I am gone. (William Shakespeare, Sonnet 71)
No word from Tom. Has love no voice, Can love not keep A Maytime vow in cities? Fades it as the rose Cut for a rich display? Forgot! But no, to weep is not enough. He needs my help. Love hears, Love knows, Love answers him across the silent miles, and goes. Quietly night, O find him and caress, And may thou quiet find His heart, although it be unkind, Nor may its beat confess. Although I weep, it knows of loneliness. Guide me, O moon, chastely when I depart,
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And warmly be the same He watches without grief or shame; It cannot be thou art A colder moon upon a colder heart. (W. H. Auden / Igor Stravinsky, "Ann Truelove's Aria" from The Rake's Progress)*
Love, too frequently betrayed, For some plausible desire, Or the world's enchanted fire, Still thy traitor in his sleep. Renews the vow he did not keep, Weeping, Weeping, He kneels before thy wounded shade. Love, my sorrow and my shame, Though thou daily be forgot, Goddess, O forget me not. Lest I perish, O be nigh In my darkest hour that I, Dying, dying, May call upon thy sacred name. (W. H. Auden / Igor Stravinsky, "Love, Too Frequently Betrayed" from The Rake's Progress)**
It is enough, 0 Lord, now take away my life, for I am not better than my fathers! 1 desire to live no longer; now let me die,
for my days are but vanity! I have been very jealous for the Lord,
*THE RAKE'S PROGRESS © Copyright 1951 by Hawkes & Son (London) Ltd. Copyright Renewed. Reprinted by permission of Boosey & Hawkes, Inc. **THE RAKE'S PROGRESS © Copyright 1951 by Hawkes & Son (London) Ltd. Copyright Renewed. Reprinted by permission of Boosey & Hawkes, Inc.
CHAPTER FIFTEEN The Mid-Atlantic Dialect
for the Lord God of Hosts, and I, even I only am left; and they seek my life, to take it away. It is enough! (Felix Mendelssohn, From Elijah)
Woe unto them who forsake Him! Destruction shall fall upon them: For they have transgressed against Him. Though they are by Him redeemed, Yet they have spoken falsely against Him. Even from Him have they fled. (Felix Mendelssohn, From Elijah)
O Isis and Osiris, hear me and grant your grace to this new pair! You who protect each wand'ring stranger, shield them in danger and despair! May we with joy as victors name them; but if they fail, and death should claim them, then for their virtue, truth and love, lead them to dwell with you above! (W. A. Mozart / Andrew Porter [translation], "Sarastro's Aria" from The Magic Flute)
Behold, I tell you a mystery: We shall not all sleep, But we shall all be chang'd, In a moment, in the twinkling of an eye, At the last trumpet. The trumpet shall sound, And the dead shall be raised incorruptible, And we shall be changed. For this corruptible must put on incorruption. And this mortal must put on immortality. (G. F. Handel, "The Trumpet Shall Sound" from Messiah)
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Orpheus with his lute made trees, And the mountain tops that freeze, Bow themselves when he did sing. To his music plants and flow'rs, Ever sprung, as sun and show'rs, There had made a lasting spring. Ev'ry thing that heard him play, Even the billows of the sea, Hung their heads and then lay by. In sweet music is such art, Killing care and grief of heart. Fall asleep, or hearing, die. (William Shakespeare / William Schuman, "Orpheus with His Lute," from Henry VIII)
Note: Many of the British texts throughout the book have been transcribed in MA in the exercise key on the companion website.
Afterword: The Finesse Factor
A Final Cautionary Note All the techniques in this book are just that. They are techniques. They are tools that may hopefully help to free you up vocally and to empower you to breathe life into the text. The standard mantra I hear repeated by musical theater directors is "Sing the character!" "Tell me the story!" "Don't show me your technique!" The same holds true in classical singing. I want you to use the techniques found in this book to get the text across, to get the intention of the text across, but I do not want you to "show anyone your technique." The techniques are not an end unto themselves. They are there to serve the musical setting of the text. The general rule of thumb is, if the audience is aware of them, then you have overdone them. None of these techniques should be apparent to the audience. They are there to serve the word, the text, the clear transmission of thought. They should not draw attention to themselves and consequently rob focus away from the musical text setting. If the audience is aware that you have added glide vowels, for example, to consonant clusters or they hear exaggerated shadow vowels at the ends of your phrases, then you have overdone it and distracted them from the text. You have sabatoged the very thing you were trying to accomplish. As with any kind of technique, if you do overdo or apply it slightly incorrectly, it is wrong. As most singers have discovered in their quests for vocal excellence and freedom, good technique applied incorrectly turns into bad technique. So it is with diction technique. Many singers are very intuitive. Some of these approaches may be too technical for them. If so, consider all of these ideas and then process them in your own way. The rules are just parameters that I have found to work for the majority of works and styles. But they are rules and the nature of rules is that they provide structure in a learning environment.
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Rules are not meant to be observed 100 percent of the time. They are meant to be considered and bent or even broken if the artistic situation and taste warrants it. They are strong guidelines. Coaches and voice teachers are wonderful resources. It is important to consider the ideas and suggestions being offered, try them on for size, and take away what works for you. So it is with this book. Use what you can, keep some of the ideas on the back burner for future application when the time is right, and discard whatever does not work for you. Not all techniques and ideas work equally well for all singers. That has always been the challenge for me: to discover an approach that will work with each singer's creative process and vocal approach. Throughout your career, you may find that the consonants do not serve you anymore. I have found that many professional singers need a consonant "tune up" in their midcareer. The voice deepens, darkens, increases in size, and the fledgling consonants are left floundering behind. Remember that the consonants must match your vowels in volume and intensity. If your voice changes and evolves, make sure that you take time to rework the consonants so that they are current with your developed vocal state. The bottom line is that you must sing beautifully, be musical, transmit the text, and do it all with finesse and artistry.
A Word about Interdependence Although the techniques in this book can arm singers, coaches, and conductors with a knowledge of technique to make the text expressive and communicative, the reality is that many more elements need to be in place for the diction and intelligibility to be a success. In a stage work, the blocking must be considered. If the set is open with no side walls to bounce the voice off of, or the singer is in profile too much, the connection with the audience is compromised. If orchestral balance is too heavy in certain passages and the text is enveloped in orchestral texture, the connection with the audience is compromised. The timing of the supertitles must accommodate the length of the audience's collective attention span. In other words, the success of text intelligibility is interdependent on all the elements.
Strive for the Third Dimension From Terrance McNally's quote in the preface: "I know I am not William Shakespeare, but a good actor, an honest actor, an artist, can make me sound like very good McNally. And I'm very grateful."
Afterword: The Finesse Factor
I hope the techniques found in this book have inspired and empowered you to bring your English songs and arias to life—to make them three-dimensional. The composer and librettist have given us a score with pitches, time values, and text. It is up to you, the artist, to breathe life into them, to make musical phrases out of them, and to transmit complete thoughts behind the words. That is the way the music is served, the text is served, and art is created. And . . . the world will be very grateful!
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APPENDIX 1 The International Phonetic Alphabet for English An Overview of All the Sounds Found in American Standard (AS), British Received (RP), and Mid-Atlantic (MA) Pronunciations
Consonants The following symbols are identical to the letters of our English (Roman) alphabet: [b], [d], [f], [g], [h], [k], [1], [m], [n], [p], [s], [t], [v], [w], [z]
The symbols below are new symbols added because no corresponding symbols exist in the Roman alphabet: Symbol (ng) (th) (th) (hw) (sh) (ch)
Key in in in in in in in
Words sing, think thin, thirst thine, this whisper, when
in in in in in
vision, azure George, joy
you, v_es
she, sure choose, church
red, remember, every (the burred r) righteousness, great, realm (rolled r* ) very, far away, forever (flipped r used between vowels*)
*Rolled and flipped R's are used in the British RP and Mid-Atlantic dialect. They should not be used in American Standard dialect.
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SINGING AND COMMUNICATING IN ENGLISH
Vowels Symbol
Key Words
(ah) (eh) (ih) (ee) (ee)
(oo)
(oh) (short o)
(aw) (er) (er) (er) (er) (uh)
in in in in in in in in in in in in in in in in in in
father, hot ("o" spellings in AS only) wed, many, bury hit, been, busy me, chief, feat, receive pretty_, lovely cat, marry, ask,* charity ask, dance, class ( MA only) too, wound, blue, juice view, beautiful, usual, tune book, bosom, cushion, full obey, desolate, melody (unstressed syllables c on, not, honest, God (RP and MA only)** awful, call, daughter, sought learn, burn, rehearse, journey (AS only)* learn, burn, rehearse, journey (RP and MA)* father, doctor, vulgar, elixir (AS only) father, doctor, vulgar, elixir (RP and MA)* hum, blood, trouble, judge (stressed syllables)
in
(uh)
sofa, heaven, nation, joyous (unstressed syllables)
Diphthongs Symbol
Key Words
[ai]
in
night, buy, sky
[ei]
in
day, break, reign
*"Ask" has different vowel variants for RP and MA pronunciation. See chapters 14 and 15. ** [D] is an intermediate short open o that is used in British English and in some parts of North America in words with stressed "o" spellings. The preferred pronunciation for American Standard is [a]. See chapters 14 and 15 for use of the [D] in British Received and Mid-Atlantic pronunciations. f
[3^] and [a*-] are the r colored vowels characteristic of American Standard pronunciation.
* [3r] and [sr] are the reduced r colored vowels found in British Received and Mid-Atlantic pronunciations.
APPENDIX 1 The International Phonetic Alphabet for English
in in in in in in in in
boy, voice, toil no, slow, reproach now, about, doubt air, care, there ear, dear, here, tier pour, four, soar, o'er sure, tour, poor are, heart, garden
Triphthongs Symbol
Key Words in fire, choir, admire in our, flower, tower
The IPA is a wonderful tool for singers to use and master. When texts are transcribed into phonetics, it greatly clarifies the vowels to be sung mentally for the singer, as well as facilitates the shift back and forth between repertoire in various languages. It is shorthand for mental concepts of the speech sounds as well as an easy memory aid for the vowels to be produced. Listed below are some frequently used words that are transcribed into the International Phonetic Alphabet. Both American Standard and British Received Pronunciation variants are listed as AS/RP. sing word walk jaw church this bear
song would war judge choose
dawn new
double nuisance
thou beard
* [su] in spoken RP only. ** [eu] in spoken modern RP.
singer wonder whisper joyous children thine burden darkness numerous
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APPENDIX 2 Three-Dialect Overview
Here is a chart to help clarify the differences in the pronunciation and treatment of commonly used words in American Standard, Received Pronunciation, and Mid-Atlantic. (Abbreviations: col = colloquial sp = spoken s = sung h = historic m = modern wf = weak form) Word
AS
RP
MA
ask care dance dream earth father fire for from further God grant growths hand hono(u)r love
* In RP and MA, the r's in"tr" and "dr" combinations should not be rolled. See detailed rules in chapter 14.
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SINGING AND COMMUNICATING IN ENGLISH
man must nature not of on owe rapture shall sure true upon very want was when
* In RP and MA, the r's in"tr" and "dr" combinations should not be rolled. See detailed rules in chapter 14.
APPENDIX 3 Regional Dialects Found in Vocal Repertoire
Technique for Singing in Dialects Increasingly, singers are required to sing in regional dialects. With the number of internationally televised performances, it is very important that any dialect work not be treated generically but with authenticity. Singing in regional dialects is a wonderful and worthwhile challenge. It can help to establish a character or a locale as much as the technical aspects of the production can. It is very important to take the vowel variants listed either here or on dialect tapes and CDs and then apply all the diction techniques you have learned from this book. Changing the vowels to accommodate new variants and usage should be like changing a light gel on a theatrical light. The basic shape inside the mouth used for tone production should not change as you move from dialect to dialect—only the color of the "gel" on top of it changes. In the United States, there have been hundreds of productions of Carlisle Floyd's Susannah. Set in Appalachia, it should be sung in Appalachian dialect. Jake Heggie's Dead Man Walking has received many productions in the United States and recently had its European premiere in Dresden as well as productions in Australia, Sweden, and Austria. It is set in New Orleans and requires several different New Orleans dialects as well as other Southern accents. George Gershwin's Porgy and Bess has been produced and toured internationally and requires the Gullah dialect. In the United Kingdom, the standard performance practice for operas in English seems to be the sole use of British Received Pronunciation. In Great Britain, where each city and village has its own distinguishing accent, and of course in Wales, Scotland, and Ireland, locale-specific dialects are found in abundance. The folksongs of Wales, Scotland, and Ireland would come to life with at least a flavoring of the regional dialects, but
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there are locale-specific operas that could be illuminated by full usage of local dialects. Benjamin Britten's operas, for example, are locale specific and would seem to offer opportunities for regional dialect use. Albert Herring, set in Suffolk, is an opera filled with shopkeepers and townspeople that could be in local accents. Though Albert Herring has been performed at Glyndebourne with a regional Suffolk accent, it is most often sung in standard RP. Other characters in Britten operas that offer opportunities for the use of regional dialects might be the rude mechanicals in Midsummer Night's Dream and the crew members of Billy Budd. Ralph Vaughan Williams's Riders to the Sea would come to life if it were sung in an Irish dialect. Listed below are some of the dialects suggested for frequently performed vocal works. An application of the dialect to specific texts from the works or possible repertoire suggestions is also included. Remember that intelligibility is the highest priority in any dialect work. Often it is best to use only a few of the characteristics of a dialect and give a "flavor" of it rather than every single characteristic and lose intelligibility.
U.S. Dialects General Southern General Southern (GS) is a range of dialects found in the Confederate states that seceded from the United States during the Civil War and adjoining border states. The American South was mostly settled by English from the West Midlands and the West Country. Southern dialects can be found chiefly in the states of Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky, Maryland, North Carolina, South Carolina, Tennessee, Virginia, West Virginia, Texas, Arkansas, Mississippi, Louisiana, and the Ozarks of Missouri. Also, some of the southernmost rural counties of Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois have strong Southern influences. Although initially non-rhotic (reduced r colorations), today the only areas that do not use r colors are Savannah, New Orleans, Mobile, and Norfolk. General Characteristics
The diphthong [ai] becomes [a:].
my fine like
AS [mai] [fain] [laik]
GS [ma:]
[fam] [lade]
Tip: Sing [a:e] to keep it from spreading or tightening.
APPENDIX 3 Regional Dialects Found in Vocal Repertoire
The diphthong [au] becomes
GS
AS down sound now
Tip: If this spreads, modify it to The diphthong [ei] becomes
GS
AS say
rain are pronounced
The vowels [a] and
GS
AS pond dog
The vowels
switch or merge to one sound when followed by nasal consonant.
and
GS
AS pin pen win
when sing think The diphthong
followed by
AS
becomes
or
GS
fail
fell = fail
wail
well = wail
available Tip: For better intelligibility try *Tip: Take care to not let it spread to
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SINGING AND COMMUNICATING IN ENGLISH
On-glides occur before stressed [i] and [u] vowels.
AS me
[mi]
you
[ju]
GS
Tip: Glide quickly to the primary vowel or else it may lose intelligibility. The single vowels
add an off-glide
after them.
This makes the characteristic drawl.
AS
GS
pat pet pit him
them Tip: Do not chew on these or add If so, it borders on caricature. Final unstressed y's are pronounced [i] when elongated and [i] when short.
AS
GS short
valley ready
short short
lovely Tip: Use [i] only for fast speech-like rhythms. The liquid U [ju] is pronounced [m]. AS
GS
new due
Tip: Go quickly through the on-glide to the primary vowel.
APPENDIX 3 Regional Dialects Found in Vocal Repertoire
The consonant [z] becomes a [d] before [n].
AS
GS
wasn't hasn't business Tip: Only partial d's are sounded. The g's in "ing" endings are dropped.
GS
AS doing singing meeting
Medial t's are flapped or glottalized:
AS
GS
pretty plenty ain't night [r] is the phonetic symbol for a flapped t [?] is the phonetic symbol for a glottalized consonant Tip: Final glottalized t's and flapped t's can only be used with light orchestration. With thick orchestration sound aspirated t's. The "wh" in wh spellings is always pronounced.
AS
GS
when where
*Tip: With thick orchestration, the t may need to be sounded for clarity.
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SINGING AND COMMUNICATING IN ENGLISH
"You" is pronounced
or
when stressed and
when unstressed.
and
"Your" and "yourself is pronounced
or
"Myself" is pronounced "Get" is pronounced "Again" is pronounced
Appalachian Appalachian (AP) dialect is spoken in the Appalachian mountain range that spans southern West Virginia, Southeastern Ohio, Eastern Kentucky, Shenandoah Valleys of Virginia, East Tennessee, and Western North Carolina. Settlers of this area came from West Anglia, the Scottish Highlands, Wales, Ireland, and Scotland via Ireland. Consequently, Appalachian English has very prominent r colorings. The most frequently performed vocal repertoire that uses this accent is Susannah by Carlisle Floyd. All of the general characteristics for General Southern listed above apply. Here are the sounds that are unique to Appalachian. "The" does not change to
before a vowel.
AP
AS the earth the air
the elders The vowel
is pronounced
AS
in stressed words and syllables.
AP
love justice
fun The length of r coloring in diphthongs and triphthongs is elongated.
AS
AP
heart here warmin: Words ending in "ere" spellings pronounced
I in AS become
APPENDIX 3 Regional Dialects Found in Vocal Repertoire
pronounced in AS becomes
The
AS
AP
there here sere This is an exception.
Intrusive r's are found between words.
Law
and order
Here are a few common words with characteristic pronunciations. wash is pronounced sure is pronounced poor is pronounced creek is pronounced hollow is pronounced greasy is pronounced woman is pronounced naked is pronounced The principal repertoire set in this dialect would be Carlisle Floyd's opera Susannah. Also lovely in this dialect are John Jacob Miles' Folk Songs Settings, and the Blue Mountain Ballads of Paul Bowles. Here are some key words and phrases from the Susannah score. Susannah
Little Bat
Reverand Blitch
Sam Polk
The elders
Square dance
"naked as a jay bird"
"washed in the blood of the Lamb"
"Come, sinner tonight's the night"
is the symbol for a flapped t. It is produced by the flapping of the tongue against the gum ridge.
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SINGING AND COMMUNICATING IN ENGLISH
just A Flavor
Singing in any regional dialect is a slippery slope. It is very tempting to exaggerate and overdo it. When that happens, it become a caricature and is offensive. It is actually best to put just a flavor of the accent in and err on the side of caution. Singing in this dialect can add so much to bring the characters and setting of Susannah to life. It is very important that these vowel and pronunciation variants be sung with full, beautiful vowels. Since this dialect is associated with country and western music, it is very important to not let the characteristic "twang" of country and western close down or whiten out the voice. Carlisle Floyd's Susannah must be sung like grand opera, not Grand OF Opry! Excellent examples of this accent in film can be found in The Song Catcher and Nell.
New Orleans Sir Andre Previn's Streetcar Named Desire and Jake Heggie's Dead Man Walking use New Orleans dialects as well as have characters from other southern locales. New Orleans is a French, Cajun, and Creole city. The accent is similar to Northern Atlantic coast cities such as New York, Philadelphia, and Baltimore but is non-rhotic and has reduced r colorings. It has been compared to the accent of Hoboken, New Jersey. Here are some of the specific characteristics of the New Orleans accent. Like General Southern, [ai] becomes [a:]. EXAMPLE
A real good time
In lower class characters, [3-] sometimes becomes EXAMPLES
work
third
learn
Words with "ar" spellings are pronounced EXAMPLES
party
heart
or
Mardi Gras
Final "ow" spellings are pronounced EXAMPLES
yellow
fellow
Tip: When the last syllable is elongated musically sing
The schwa
only be used on words set in speech rhythm and on notes of short duration.
ending can
APPENDIX 3 Regional Dialects Found in Vocal Repertoire
The "ed" endings are pronounced [id]. EXAMPLE
married
The substitution of [d] for voiced "th" EXAMPLES
EXAMPLE
think
through
In Cajun the final "ch"
and [t] for unvoiced "th" these
them
sounds are often pronounced as
church
Phrases from A Streetcar Named Desire "Hiyah, sweetheart."
"I don't go in for stuff like that".
"I was common as dirt."
"Whatsa matter, baby?"
"I want magic!"
"Don't turn on that light!"
Phrases from Dead Man Walking Joseph De Rocher
"God lets bad things happen, and they happen all the time."
"Sorry to let you down, Sister."
"But I ask you to hate the crime and not the criminal."
"We're De Rochers and we only cry when we run out a beer."
"It is the decision of the pardon board that the appeal of Joseph De Rocher be denied and execution be carried out."
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SINGING AND COMMUNICATING IN ENGLISH
Gullah Gullah is the dialect for George Gershwin's opera, Porgy and Bess. Gullah, sometimes called Geechee, originated with African American slaves on the coastal areas and islands of Georgia and South Carolina. Gullah is an African American accent found around Charleston, South Carolina. It is said to take its name from a pronunciation of the native slaves from Angola. Many of the words in Gullah are actually anglicized Bantu vocabulary. An excellent resource on this dialect is The African Heritage of American English by Joseph E. Holloway and Winifred K. Vass (Indiana University Press, 1977). Gullah is a southern dialect and uses most of the characteristics of General Southern listed above. Here are some of its particular characteristics. Dropped r colored vowels. EXAMPLE
Porgy live here
Final unstressed y's are pronounced EXAMPLE
family
Initial th's both voiced and unvoiced are pronounced [d]. EXAMPLES
there
the
that
The folks with plenty of plenty
A slight "h" is added before vowels. EXAMPLE
I don't know
Prefixes and final consonants and consonant clusters are dropped. EXAMPLES
I expect so Don't suppose so The Promised Land
Initial "st" combinations are pronounced "sht" EXAMPLES
street
stranger
history
or
APPENDIX 3 Regional Dialects Found in Vocal Repertoire
The "tr" combinations are pronounced EXAMPLE
The
and
EXAMPLES
that's true
combinations are pronounced
and
don't you did you
Words with "v" are sometimes pronounced [b]. EXAMPLE
Calvary
Phrases from the Porgy and Bess score "A woman is a sometime thing."
"Oh yo' daddy's rich an' yo' ma is good lookin."
"Yes, de Lawd will meet you at the courthouse do'."
"What die on Calvary."
"There, there Bess, you don' need to be afraid no more."
"Oh, Hev'nly Father, hab mercy on we"
George Gershwin's notation of this accent in the opera libretto is inconsistent. Sometimes he writes "the," the next time "de," and so on. It is important for artists to go through their role and make it consistently in the dialect. An excellent video for hearing Gullah is Family Across the Sea, SCETV (South Carolina Educational TV), 1991. An excellent cultural center on Gullah Culture is www .penncenter.com.
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SINGING AND COMMUNICATING IN ENGLISH
The British Isles and Ireland As noted above, for many years, the performance practice has been to perform all vocal repertoire from the United Kingdom, the Republic of Ireland, an t the British Commonwealth in British Received Pronunciation. Though this does standardize the pronunciation, it tends to neutralize and erase the geographic origin or setting of the works and negate the educational background and class of the characters. With the wealth of regional accents found in the United Kingdom, it seems a shame that, at the very least, the flavors of these dialectical variants are not used in the cannon of classical repertoire. Here are the general characteristics of Scots, Irish, Welsh, and some of the regional dialects of England followed by specific repertoire suggestions for their application.
Scots The Scots accent has many variations. Scottish accents can be divided into three large groups: Northern accents of Western and Middle Highlands; Southern border and the Lothian accents of the Lowlands, which includes Edinburgh and Glasgow; and Central, Ayrshire, or Scottish Midlands accents from what is considered Robert Burns country. Each of these general groups of accents will be discussed below. For specifics, be sure to listen and drill with dialect tapes that are specific to the locale needed. Here are some overall general characteristics for all Scottish accents. General Characteristics Vowel Changes The vowel EXAMPLES
becomes
Often colored with
as in the French word "lune."
"pool" = "pull" "fool" = "full"
Ask List words and Hand List words all use [a]. EXAMPLE
[a] [a] [a] [a] The man and Sam would be daft to not dance.
"O" spellings as in "God, not, upon" and words that use nounced
in AS and
in RP are pro-
APPENDIX 3 Regional Dialects Found in Vocal Repertoire
EXAMPLE
[o]
[o]
[o]
He caught the dog in the shop.
The vowel
is pronounced [e] and is longer in duration [e:] on stressed words and
syllables. EXAMPLE
[e:]
[e]
[e:]
He fajled when he fell.
Several diphthongs become monothongs. The diphthong EXAMPLE
becomes [e:].
[ei]
[ei]
[e:]
Today the rain might spoil the parade.
The diphthong EXAMPLE
becomes [01] [o:]
[01]
It's but a slow boat ride home.
The diphthong
becomes
in the words "now, out, about, house."
EXAMPLE Get out of the house now!
Tip: If it decreases intelligibility, do not use this vowel but use
the diphthong variant
below. EXAMPLE He came down from the town to show you around.
The diphthong [ai] as in "night, buy" is pronounced closer to [ei] as in "day." EXAMPLE It was a fine night filled with light.
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SINGING AND COMMUNICATING IN ENGLISH
The vowel
is often pronounced almost as schwa
EXAMPLE
He was a little bit tired of it.
The "er" and "ear" spellings are pronounced EXAMPLES
heard
learn
certain
perfect
The "ur" and "or" spellings are pronounced EXAMPLES
further
word
The diphthong
is pronounced [ir]. [ir]
EXAMPLE
[ir]
He lives very near here. Consonant Changes
Consonant r's are flipped or rolled. EXAMPLE
w
DarkL
[r]
[r] [r] The roses are for Mary and Margaret.
The final consonant EXAMPLE
[r] [r]
is often sounded as [n].
Singing and dancing and playing.
is used in all positions. It is a very distinctive sound that adds authenticity.
EXAMPLE
He fell down and landed in the loch.
The "ch" is pronounced as [x] in words that are spelled with "ch," "ough," and "augh." EXAMPLES
loch
daughter
bought
APPENDIX 3 Regional Dialects Found in Vocal Repertoire
Suggested Works to Be Sung in Scottish Accents
Benjamin Britten: The Scottish songs in the Folk Songs of the British Isles : A Birthday Hansel: Soprano, harp Eric Gross: Five Burns Settings John McCabe: Weaving Song, arrangement of Scottish folk songs Thea Musgrave: A Suite O' Bairnsangs; Sir Patrick Spens; Songs for a Winter's Evening Francis George Scott: Scottish Lyrics, Books I-V; R. Vaughan Williams: Songs of Travel (Robert Louis Stevenson) Judith Weir: Scotch Minstrelsy (settings of five Scottish ballads) Malcolm Wilkinson: From a Child's Garden (Robert Louis Stevenson) Note: Listen to the OUP website for a reading of "Bright is the Ring of Words" from The Songs of Travel by Robert Louis Stevenson in Scots.
Irish Irish accents differ greatly from locale to locale. The Northern accents are very different from the Southern ones. It is very important to know specifically the locale and origin of the text and then study and listen to tapes and CDs of native speakers from that locale. Each of the cities and the counties has different variants. Here are some general characteristics. General Characteristics Vowel Changes
Ask Words are pronounced with RP EXAMPLES
pass[pas]
half[haf]
Hand Words are pronounced with [a]. EXAMPLES
back[bak]
had [had]
that
and
Stressed "O" spellings as in "God not upon" are pronounced [a]. EXAMPLES
God [gad]
not [nat]
upon
stop
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SINGING AND COMMUNICATING IN ENGLISH
The
spellings as in "ought, caught, all" are close to [a]. ought[at]
EXAMPLES
The vowel
caugh [kat]
all[al]
as in "Dublin, love, up, young" is pronounced
EXAMPLES
Dublin
up
love
The vowel [u] as in "food, too, you" is pronounced EXAMPLES
food
too
Dublin Vowel Changes
The diphthong EXAMPLES
becomes
The diphthong EXAMPLES
eight
day
becomes no
stone
Western Ireland Vowel Changes
The diphthong EXAMPLES
The diphthong EXAMPLES
becomes eight
day
becomes no [no:]
stone
Old spellings as in "auld" are pronounced EXAMPLE
Auld lang syne
* [«] is a mixed vowel most similar to [y].
you
young
with no lip rounding.
APPENDIX 3 Regional Dialects Found in Vocal Repertoire
The diphthong EXAMPLES
is pronounced house
about
down
Suffixes and prefixes and unstressed syllables are pronounced EXAMPLE
rabbit
Consonant Changes (All Irish Dialects)
The g's in "ing" endings are dropped. EXAMPLES
singin'
Coin'
askin'
The "wh" is sounded as EXAMPLES
where
and
The consonants EXAMPLES
thin
when
are pronounced as a dental [t]. faith
The consonants [d] and [t] before an r are EXAMPLES
try
and
dress
R Colorings
In Northern Ireland r colors are non-rhotic and are reduced: In the South, the r colorings are very heavy and elongated: Note of Caution
There are many different Irish accents. You must modify all of the above to the specific locale. Research your role and listen to dialect tapes of native speakers from the proper locale. Suggested Works to Be Sung in Irish Accents
Arnold Bax: Across the Door, Five Irish Songs, Cape Anne Sir Rodney Bennet: Crazy Jane (W. B. Yeats)
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SINGING AND COMMUNICATING IN ENGLISH
Gilbert and Sullivan: The Emerald Isle John McCabe: Irish Songbook Charles Villiers Stanford: Shamus O'Brien, selected songs Sir John Taverner: A Mini Song Cycle for Gina (W. B. Yeats) R. Vaughan Williams: Two Poems by Seamus O'Sullivan; Riders to the Sea (J. M. Synge) Note: Listen to the accompanying recording on the OUP website for a reading of the text of Maura's aria from Riders to the Sea and "Down by the Sally Gardens."
Welsh The primary accent variants in Welsh are found in the differences between North and South Wales. As noted about all the other regional dialects, it is very important to determine the specific locale and the unique characteristics of that locale. Then listen to dialect tapes with speakers from that locale. Below are the general features for Welsh accents. General Characteristics Vowel Changes The Ask List spellings are pronounced [a]. EXAMPLES
draft [draft]
branch
fast [fast]
The Hand List spellings are also pronounced [a]. EXAMPLES
The
glad [glad]
of father as well as the
EXAMPLES
father
and [and]
that
dipthong are pronounced with start
dark
darlin'
Reduced or dropped r colorings: Like RP, the r colored vowels are reduced and, at a fast tempo, the diphthongs have the r' colors dropped. EXAMPLES
bird
worker
learn
sort
APPENDIX 3 Regional Dialects Found in Vocal Repertoire
Like RP, stressed "o" spellings are pronounced [D]. EXAMPLES
not
upon
God
Like RP, the raised open o [o] is pronounced for aw, al, augh, ough spellings. EXAMPLES
law
all
caught
thought
The [i] in peace and [u] in food are pure vowels without British on glides. EXAMPLES
peace
not
not
The diphthong [ou] is sounded as a pure [01] vowel. EXAMPLES
know
go
alone
The diphthong [ei] is pronounced as a pure [e:] vowel. EXAMPLES
late
pay
same
The diphthong [au] is pronounced [eu]. EXAMPLES
sound
around
house
The unstressed syllables are pronounced with full vowel sounds rather than a schwa [9]. EXAMPLES
breakfast
moment
complete
Some Welsh accents pronounce words with liquid U's in RP as [m]. EXAMPLES
new
tune
threw
Consonant Changes
Words with "wh" spellings are pronounced only with [w]. EXAMPLES
what
when
why
Medial consonants in stressed words are elongated. EXAMPLES
whisper
twenty
wherever
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SINGING AND COMMUNICATING IN ENGLISH
The g is dropped in "ing" endings and pronounced [in]. EXAMPLES
walkin'
sinqin'
even in'
Initial r's and r's between vowels are flipped [r]. EXAMPLES
carry
very
right
red
The consonant 1's are very light in South Wales [1] and in North Wales the dark 1 [1] is used in the beginning and middle of words. In Northern Wales: The consonants [3] and [z] are sounded as [J] and [s]. EXAMPLES
decision
vision
is
prison
was
Initial stressed r's are rolled extensively. The name "Jesu" is pronounced In Cardiff: The voiced consonants [b], [d], [g], [v] are pronounced unvoiced as [p], [t], [k], [fj. EXAMPLES
better
Dad
good
voice
Word of Caution: There is a wide range of regional accents within Wales. Even within a very short distance, there are significant accent differences. It is very important to know the specifics of the origin and locale of the Welsh texts that you are singing. Recommendations for dialect tapes/CDs can be found in the bibliography. Suggested Works to Be Sung in Welsh Accents
Milton Babbit: Vision and Prayer (Dylan Thomas) Samuel Barber: Despite and Still (Robert Graves) Ivor Gurney: "Goodnight to the Meadow," "Hawk and Buckle," "Nine of the Clock" Alun Hoddinott: Six Welsh Folksongs Robin Holloway: "Where We May Be" (Robert Graves) David Matthews: The Sleeping Lord (David Jones) William Mathias: Fields of Praise (Dylan Thomas)
APPENDIX 3 Regional Dialects Found in Vocal Repertoire
: Vision of Time and Eternity (Henry Vaughan) Edmund Rubbra: Out in Dark Weather (Edward Thomas) Sir Michael Tippett: "Compassion," "The Dancer," "Song" from The Heart's Assurance (Alun Lewis) Ralph Vaughan Williams: Five Mystical Songs (George Herbert) Hugh Wood: Robert Graves Songs, Sets I, II, III Listen to the reading of " The Ashgrove" in a Welsh accent in the accompanying recording on the OUP website.
East Anglia East Anglia is made up of the two counties Norfolk and Suffolk located along the east coast of England. The Norfolk and Suffolk accents are said to be closest to American accents. The early settlers in New England were from East Anglia, but they differ greatly from American accents of modern day. The accent notes below apply to both counties. General Characteristics Vowel Changes The Ask List and Hand List words are pronounced with [a] and [ae] respectively, like RP. EXAMPLES
ask
laugh
dance
hand
that
back
The diphthong [ai] changes to approximately EXAMPLES
night
sky
pie
The diphthong [ei] changes to [e:] in words such as "cake" and "face." They are spelled as "air" or "ear" in these dialects. EXAMPLES
'cake' is spelled "cairke" or "cearke" 'face' is spelled "fairce" or "fearce"
Otherwise, the diphthong [ei] changes to [aei] in words with "ai,"ay","ei", and "ey" spellings. EXAMPLES
day
train
rein
they
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SINGING AND COMMUNICATING IN ENGLISH
The diphthong [ou] is pronounced closer to EXAMPLES
toe
whole
boat
suppose
Be careful that these vowel changes don't end up sounding like the monothong [u] "two' who'll" and "boot". Words that are pronounced in RP with the diphthong EXAMPLES
The vowel EXAMPLES
The vowel EXAMPLES
cheer = chair
beer = bear
here = hair
ear = air
are pronounced
found in "o" spellings in RP is now pronounced not
God
on
fun
judge
like in AS.
upon
changes to love
but
The "oo" spellings as in "roof and "hoof are pronounced Like AS, an "o" spelling followed by the consonants f, ff, gh, or th as in "often," "off," "cough," "cloth" are pronounced with The vowel EXAMPLES
is pronounced [a]. learn
her
girl
church
Consonant Changes
Yod Dropping: Liquid U [ju] is dropped after all consonants. EXAMPLES
beautiful
due
few
huge
new
tune
"Ing" endings are sounded as [in]. EXAMPLES
being
going
talking
word
APPENDIX 3 Regional Dialects Found in Vocal Repertoire
Medial and final t's are glottaled [?] but a medial t is sounded if they begin a stressed syllable. EXAMPLES
Medial and final t's: Stressed syllables:
getting
little
night
got
determine
retry
Final d's are unvoiced and sound as t's. EXAMPLE
Dark 1's
land
warned
hundred
are not found in these dialects, only clear light 1's
EXAMPLES
hill
are sounded in all positions.
lack
The spelling "thr" is pronounced [tr]. EXAMPLES
three
thread
throng
Initial v's are sounded as [w]. EXAMPLES
village
vicar
voice
The consonant [h] is sounded at the beginning of stressed words and dropped in unstressed words. EXAMPLE
happy to see him
Note: These are general characteristics for East Anglian dialects. Be sure to listen to tapes of native Suffolk and Norfolk speakers to learn the subtle differences between the two accents. Excellent examples of the Suffolk dialect can be heard on channel 4's reality program Rock School, the second series, which is set in Suffolk. Another excellent example is the Singing Postman, a.k.a. Allan Smethurst.
Suggested Repertoire to Be Sung in East Anglian Dialects
Benjamin Britten: the rude mechanicals in Midsummer Nights Dream.
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SINGING AND COMMUNICATING IN ENGLISH
The West Country Dialects The southwestern part of England is known as the West Country. This region includes the counties of Devon, Cornwall, Sommerset, Avon, Gloustershire, Dorset, and Wiltshire as well as Hampshire, Hereford, Worcester, and Shropshire. All the accents are rhotic with r colored vowels similar to Ireland and most of North America. The West Country accents are probably most identified in North America as "pirate speech." Cartoonesque phrases like "Ooh arr, me 'earties!" are very close to these accents. This may be because of the seafaring and fishing tradition of the West Country. Edward Teach (Blackboard) was a native of Bristol, and privateer Sir Francis Drake was from Tavistock in Devon. Two of Gilbert and Sullivan's operettas are set in West Country: The Pirates of Penzance is set in Cornwall and The Sorcerer is set in the fictional village of Ploverleigh in Somerset. The 1950 Disney film Treasure Island is filled with examples of these accents. Because of the picturesque aspects of these accents it is very important to learn the specifics of each locale and not slip into stereotype or into caricature. General Characteristics Vowel Changes from RP
The Ask/ Hand lists are pronounced, like AS, all with EXAMPLES
grass
ask
gas
Bath
crash
The vowels with r colorations correspond with most of Ireland and North America. EXAMPLE
heart
The diphthong EXAMPLE
garden
thirst
is more opened toward day
make
The diphthong [ai] sounds more toward EXAMPLES
fly
buy
Consonant Changes
Consonant r's can be burred EXAMPLES
real
or flipped very
sigh
further
APPENDIX 3 Regional Dialects Found in Vocal Repertoire
Final d's and t's are glottalized. EXAMPLES
The initial fricative consonants EXAMPLES
bet
hard
not
far
cord
can be sounded as voiced see
thought
shot
Medial and final "ing" is always [in]. EXAMPLES
being
talking
betting
Inital and medial h's are frequently dropped. EXAMPLES
him
behave
Consonant 1's are very dark EXAMPLES
lot
in all positions. falling
hill
Some changes for rural areas: "Thr" spellings are sounded as EXAMPLES
The consonant EXAMPLES
three
thread
cutthroat
is sounded as [f]. think
thought
The consonant [k] is sounded as [g] (very rural west country). EXAMPLES
comical
cart
Suggested Repertoire to Be Sung in West Country Dialects
Benjamin Britten: Billy Budd—Redburn, Dansker
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290
SINGING AND COMMUNICATING IN ENGLISH Gilbert and Sullivan: The Sorcerer—some dialogue and choruses; Mrs Partlet could have a flavoring of West Country. : The Pirates ofPenzance—Ruth and some of the pirate crew could have a flavoring of the accents. Note: Resources for tapes and CDs of native speakers speaking all of the accents listed above can be found in the bibliography.
GLOSSARY
Accent: The manner in which someone speaks a foreign language, a second language, or any language that is not their native language. Affricate consonant: A combined consonant sound made up of a stop-plosive and a fricative consonant that are sounded together simultaneously. There are two affricate consonant blends found in English: [tj] chill
[dj] Jill
Alphabet: Any set of written symbols or letters with which the sounds of a language are written. The Greek alphabet, the Roman alphabet, and so on. See the Roman alphabet and International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). Alveolar consonant: A consonant made with the tongue tip touching the alveolar ridge. The alveolar consonants are: [t] two
[d] do
[n] no
[1] low
[tj] chew
[d3] jaw
Alveolar ridge: Also called the gum ridge or teeth ridge, it is the part of the roof of the mouth that lies just above the upper front teeth. American Standard: Notated as AS, it is a neutralized form of General American (GAM). Based on a Midwestern American pronunciation with the regionalisms removed, AS is the American dialect used as a performance standard in this text. Articulators: The parts of the body used to form speech sounds. The articulators that move are the lips, lower jaw, tongue, and soft palate. The articulators that do not move are the teeth, gum ridge, hard palate, and the glottis. Ask List: Named by Edith Skinner in her book Speak with Distinction, it is a list of words and spellings, such as "ask," that have three different vowel variants for the stressed
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292
GLOSSARY
"a" vowel. The words in the Ask List are pronounced as follows for the dialects listed below: EXAMPLE
Laugh
in American Standard [ae] in Received Pronunciation [a] in Mid-Atlantic pronunciation [a]
Aspirant consonant: A consonant sound composed predominantly of breath. The only pure aspirant sound in English is [h]. It is non-vibrated breath released through a mouth shape of the vowel that follows it. [m] is also an aspirant. It is a combination of [h] and
[w]. Aspiration: An explosion or puff of air with the release of one of the unvoiced stopplosive consonants. It is notated in the IPA by a superscript h [h] following a stop-plosive consonant. night [naith]
pick [pikh]
hope [houph]
Back placement: A vowel or consonant that is produced in the back of the throat and sounds constricted or trapped. Back vowel: A vowel sound made with the back of the tongue arched toward the soft palate. The six back vowels in English are: [u] shoe
should
[o] obey
all
honest
father
Bilabial: A term used for consonant articulated with both lips. The five bilabial consonants in English are: [p] punch
[b] bunch
[m] me
[w] were
whir
Blade of the tongue: The forward part of the tongue. Breath lift: The practice of initiating the sound with a pulse of the breath. It is an alternate means for stressing an operative word in English with an easy onset rather than a glottal attack. Classic texts: A catch-all phrase for: 1. Non-contemporary texts in prose or verse that require elegance and eloquence of style in performance. • Non-contemporary texts that do not require specific accents • Foreign works translated into English 2. Works set in imaginary times and places.
293
GLOSSARY
Close vowel: A vowel produced with a closed jaw position and a high tongue arch. The four close vowels in English are:
[i]he
[i] him
[u] who
Cluster: A group of consonants. The initial consonant clusters are often opened in singing to stress musically and vocally an operative or key word. Cognate pairs: Pairs of consonants that are made in the same position and place of the articulators. One of the consonants in the pair is voiced. The other is unvoiced. The cognate pairs in English are:
[b/p]
[g/k]
[d/t]
[f/v]
[z/s]
Colloquial American: Relaxed, informal day-to-day speech. It is characterized by dropped and glottalized final consonants with Midwestern vowel variants. Consonant sound: A sound made with the expulsion of air. The breath is either stopped, impeded, or interrupted by the articulators. Continuants: A consonant that can be sustained or elongated as long as the breath lasts. In English the nasal, lateral, and fricative consonants are all continuants. Dark "L": A variety of a consonant "1" that employs the arching of the back of the tongue toward the soft palate giving it a characteristic "dark" sound. The phonetic symbol for the dark 1 is [1]. In most dialects of North American English the "1" tends to be dark in the following positions: When followed by another consonant: "milk" When it is final: "bell" When it is syllabic: "bottle" Denasalization: The act of diminishing some of the nasal resonance from a nasal consonant in order to aid projection and vocal ease. Dental consonants: Consonants made with the tip on the tongue in contact with the upper front teeth. English has two dental consonants: thine
thigh
Diacritical marks: Diacritical marks are used in this text to show syllabic stress. ['] placed before the primary stressed syllable; and [J placed before the syllable with secondary stress. EXAMPLE
, undeveloped
Dialect: The general pronunciation practiced by a social or economic class or in a particular region by people who speak the same native tongue.
294
GLOSSARY
Diphthongization: The sound produced when the articulators move from one vowel to another in the same syllable. Unintentional diphthongization of pure vowels is an error in AS, RP, and MA English. Diphthong sound [difGDrj]: A combination of two vowels within one syllable. One of the vowels has more emphasis and is longer. Easy onset: The starting of a vowel smoothly on the breath without a hard glottal attack (hard onset). A technique used in voice therapy to alleviate vocal abuse. See easy onset exercises in chapter 3, pp. 38-41. Flapped t: A "t" consonant that is produced by the flapping of the tongue against the gum ridge. It is very characteristic of medial t's and connective t's in General American and some of the southern American dialects. The IPA symbol for a flapped t is [r]. EXAMPLE
AS
Better
GAM
Forward placement: An easy, frontal placement in which the vowels and consonants are resonated in the mask, the front of the face. Fricative consonant: A consonant in which breath passes through a specific shape of the articulators so as to produce frictional noises. The ten fricative consonants in English are: [v] vine [s] soon
this show
[f] fine [3] genre
[z] zoom [hlhe
[ml when
Front vowel: A vowel produced by the front of the tongue arching toward the hard palate. The six fronting vowels in English are: [i] keen
ken
[i] kin
[e(i)] cage
cat
[a] calf
General American: A dialect of American English based on the speech patterns of the Midwestern States. General American, with some of the regionalisms removed, is the basis for Broadcast Speech and American Standard pronunciation. Glide consonant: A glide consonant, also called a semi-vowel glide, is a consonant that is formed when the articulators glide quickly from its preceding related vowel to the sound that follows it. The three glides in English are: yes
[w] wed
red
Glide vowel: A glide vowel, also called a related glide vowel, is the vowel that precedes and is related organically to a semi-vowel glide consonant. The three related vowels and their glide consonants in English are: [u]
[w]
[i]
GLOSSARY
Glottal attack: A hard explosive stop and release of the breath in the glottis when initiating a vowel. It is also known as hard onset. It is not healthy and desirable in spoken or sung English. Rather it is important to substitute a breath lift for an easy onset to an initial vowel of a stressed word. The phonetic symbol for a glottal attack is [?]. See breath lift. Glottal sound: A sound that is made in the throat or glottis. The one glottal sound in English is:
[h]he Glottis: The space found inside the larynx between the vocal folds. Good Speech: Dialect name used in Edith Skinner's Speak with Distinction. It is a North American dialect that is similar to modern Mid-Atlantic pronunciation. Grammar mini review: A Noun is a person, place, thing, state of being, or proper name. Nouns can function as the subject or the object of a sentence or phrase. A Verb connotes actions or feelings. An Adverb modifies the verb. It tells how, where, or something about the verb. An Adjective modifies the noun. A Predicate Adjective is an adjective that has now become part of the verb. It follows a form of the verb "to be" and takes on primary stress. "She is fine." A Predicate Nominative is a noun that has become part of the verb. It follows the form of the verb "to be" and takes on primary stress. "Life is bliss." Subjunctive case is contrary to fact. "If I were a rich man." Conditional case implies a condition. "If you build it, they will come." Imperative is a command form. "Go! Get up!" A Phrasal Verb is a verb that is made up of a verb plus a preposition. The preposition becomes part of the verb and receives primary stress along with the verb. "Turn off the light!" Gum ridge: Another term for the alveolar ridge. Hand List: Named by Edith Skinner in her book Speak with Distinction, it is a list of words and spellings, such as "hand," that are pronounced [ae] for the stressed "a" vowel. The words in the Hand List are pronounced as follows for the dialects listed below: EXAMPLE
Happy
in American Standard [ae] in Received Pronunciation [ae] in Mid-Atlantic pronunciation [ae].
Hard onset: See glottal attack.
295
296
GLOSSARY
Hard palate: The first third of the roof of the mouth. It is backed by cartilage causing it to have a hard surface. Hard "R": An R-colored vowel with too much tongue tension causing it to have a hard or tense quality, which is characteristic of a regional Midwestern accent. Though in AS an R-colored vowel is characteristic, it must not sound tense or hard. Implosion: An implosion occurs when two stop-plosive cognates are sounded back to back. When an implosion occurs, the first consonant is held and released with the explosion of the second stop-plosive. Implosions occur with the following combinations: b+p Boj^jprays
p+b tof^billing
p+p toj^price
b+b Boj^breaks
d+t har^Jlme
t+d si^down
t+t hi)(j;une
d+d bayl^diction
g+k le^cramps
k+g look^good
g +g ba^groceries
k+k speak^quickly
Inflection: Also called intonation, is the pattern of movement, pitch, or speed that occurs within a stressed operative word in a phrase or a syllable. Intermediate "A": The front vowel [a], which is found on the vowel chart to be an intermediate vowel between the [a] of "father" and the [ae] of "cat." It is the vowel variant used for stressed "A" vowels in Ask List Spellings. It is also the first element in the diphthong [ai] as in "night." Intermediate "O": The back vowel [D], which is found on the vowel chart to be an intermediate vowel between the [a] of "father" and the [o] of "all." It is the vowel used for stressed "O" spellings in Received Pronunciation and Mid-Atlantic dialects. It is used in certain regional accent of American English but not considered part of American Standard pronunciation. International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA): The IPA was developed and first published by the International Phonetic Association in 1888. Each sound of all the world languages was given a single specific symbol. It uses the letters of the Roman alphabet plus many non-Roman letters. Intrusive "R": A consonant "R" that is mistakenly added to the ends of words or within word phrases where then is no "R." It is characteristic of some regional British dialects but should be avoided in RP and MA. EXAMPLE
Paula (r) is arriving—Law (r) and Order—Barbara(r)
GLOSSARY
297
IPA: See the International Phonetic Alphabet. Labio-dental consonant: A type of consonant articulated by the lower lip in contact with the upper teeth. The two labio-dental consonants in English are: [f]
fine
[v] vine
Larynx [laejirjks]: Often mispronounced, is another name for the voice box. Located at the top of the trachea, it houses the vocal folds. Lateral consonant: A lateral consonant is produced with the tip of the tongue against the alveolar ridge and sides of the tongue free from contact. In this position, the breath passes over the sides of the tongue to produce the consonant sound. The only one lateral consonant in English is [1] as in "light." Linking "R": When a word with a final "R" is followed in the same phrase by another word beginning with a vowel, the two words are linked together by a consonant "R." In AS and Modern RP and MA, they are linked with a burred r [j]. In Historic RP and MA they are linked with a flipped r [r]. EXAMPLE
AS, Modern RP, and MA
Historic RP and MA
far (j)_away
far (r)_away
Liquid "U": A popular name for the [ju] combination that is pronounced in words such as: music, beauty, tune, duke, cue, knew, new. Lisp: An incorrectly produced sibilant [s]. Low vowel: A vowel produced with the tongue arch low in the mouth and the jaw in an open position. See vowel chart, p. 35. Merge: This occurs when a word with a final continuant consonant is followed by a word with an initial continuant consonant in the same phrase. When these consonants are back to back they should be sustained and merged seamlessly one into the next consonant. The symbol for a merge is: [J.
EXAMPLE
with this
sae man
beige shoes
of them
Mid-Atlantic pronunciation: A hybrid pronunciation that strives to be neither American nor British but is equally intelligible on both sides of the Atlantic. It uses the vowel sounds of American English with the reduced "R colors" and "R" treatments of British English. It is recommended for use with musical works that are not specifically American or British.
298
GLOSSARY
Mid vowel: A vowel sound that is produced with the middle of the tongue arching toward the place where the soft and hard palates meet. The four mid vowels in English are: [3r] learn
father
amass
love
Nasal consonant: A nasal consonant is a consonant in which the vibrating air escapes through the nose because the soft palate or velum is relaxed. The three nasal consonants in English are: [m] me
sing
[n] no
Nasalization: The production of a sound in which the air escapes through the mouth and the nose because the soft palate is relaxed. Although there are several nasal sounds in French, in English nasal sounds should be avoided. Naso-pharyngeal space: The space behind the soft palate at the top of the windpipe. Neutral vowel: The weak vowel [a] often found in unstressed syllables in English. Also called a schwa. Non-rhotic: A term used to describe a dialect or accent that does not have "R" coloring in its vowels, diphthongs, and triphthongs spelled with an "r." AS is rhotic, while RP and MA are non-rhotic. Off-glide: An extra weak vowel sounded after a primary vowel that is characteristic of certain regional dialects, especially Southern American. EXAMPLE
man
him
On-glide: An extra pre-vowel that is sounded before the primary vowel in certain regional American and British dialects. EXAMPLE
me[m(i)i]
you
Onset: The beginning or start of a sound. Open vowel: A vowel made with a low jaw and a low tongue arch. The six open vowels in English are: cat
[a] cast*
cup
con**
[a] father
law
Palato-alveolar consonant: A consonant produced with the tip of the tongue pointing toward the alveolar ridge. The two alveolar-palatal consonants in English are: shine * The vowel variant for MA dialect. ** RP and MA only.
genre
GLOSSARY
299
Passaggio: The point of transition between the vocal registers. Pharynx: The tube of the vocal tract. Phonetic alphabet: See International Phonetic Alphabet.
Phrase: A musical passage or rhythmic thought group that is done without interruption in one breath. Placement: A term used in theater and by teachers of voice, speech, and dialects to describe the areas in the head, neck, or mouth from which the speech sounds resonate. Plosive consonant: Also known as a stop-plosive, it is a consonant that is produced when the released breath is stopped by the articulators. There are eight plosives in English: [b] boy [p] pie
[d] dew [t] two
[g] go [k] kite
[tj] church [ds] germ
Primary stress: The syllable that receives the strongest stress in a word when spoken. It is notated with the symbol ['] before the beginning of the stressed syllable. EXAMPLE
'hidden
a'gree
'never
di'scern
Pure vowel: A vowel in which the articulators hold the position throughout the entire length of the sound. In AS, RP, and MA all vowels should be pure vowels without unintended diphthongs or on-glides and off-glides. R-coloring: This term refers to the rhotic vowel that is sounded in certain dialects where there are R spellings found in the middle or end of the word. The presence of r-coloring is very characteristic and widely prevalent in AS and General American dialects. Received Pronunciation: Know as RP, this term refers to a pronunciation and usage of British English that was cultivated in the well-educated upper-class in Southern England. It is the performance standard for music compositions from the United Kingdom that do not require a specific regional dialect. See chapter 14 for a full discussion. Resonance: The process that amplifies and modifies the intensity of a sound. In speech sounds, amplification occurs primarily in the mouth, nose, and throat. The fundamental tone is produced in the vocal folds and is "resonated" within these spaces. Resonators: The chambers of the body that amplify and intensify the tone produced by the vocal folds. The primary resonators are the pharynx, the mouth, and the nose. Other resonators include the upper chest, the sinuses, and even the skeletal structure of the chest and head.
300
GLOSSARY Retroflexion: Another term for the "R" coloring of a vowel. Rhotic: Another term for "R" coloring. Roman alphabet: The alphabet for written English and other European languages. It was the model for the IPA. "R" spellings—vowel or consonant?
RULE An "R" is sounded as a consonant when it is followed by a vowel, "R" consonants are found in three positions: at the beginning of a wotd, as part of an initial consonant cluster, or as an intervocalic "R* between two vowels*
1. At the beginning of the word:
AS
RP/MA
ru
2. As part of an initial consonant cluster: AS
RP/MA
trouble 3. Or, as an intervocalic R between two vowels. AS
RP/MA
charity
RULE An "Rw is sounded as an "IT colored vowel when it is followed by a consonant or is the final sound in the word.
1. When it is followed by a consonant: AS
RP/MA
card 2. When it is the final sound in the word: AS devour
RP/MA
GLOSSARY
301
Schwa: The unstressed neutral [a] vowel. Secondary stress: The lesser amount of intensity given to the syllable of a word in which two syllables receive stress. It is notated with the [,] symbol before the syllable that has secondary stress. Semi-vowel: See glide vowel. Shadow vowel: A short, volume-reduced vowel added to a final voiced consonant that occurs at the end of a phrase where there is punctuation or a breath. It is a technique for maintaining support and projection of the final voiced consonants through the accompaniment. The preferred vowel for a shadow vowel is [i] "ih" as opposed to [a] "uh," which sounds very Italianate. EXAMPLE
"Above the warless world«"
Sibilant: A speech sound characterized by hissing or buzzing. The six sibilants in English are: [z] zoo
[3] genre
[dj] Jane
[s] sue
[J] shoe
[tj] chain
Singer-ese: Also known as "uni-vowel" singing. It is an artificial, old-fashioned pronunciation made up of Italianate or modified vowels that is too frequently heard in the sung English of classical singers. It is to be avoided. In this day and age of mass media and international telecasts, it is important that the English sounds "read" with the listener as honest, accurate, and real. Of course vowels need to be modified in order to maneuver around an extreme range text setting and for vocal ease, but these modifications must be done with subtlety and finesse and the listener should never be aware of them. Soft palate: The smooth, soft back part of the roof of the mouth. It is also called the velum. Spelling pronunciation: An incorrect pronunciation based on the spelling of English. It is often mispronounced and sounds affected or pedantic. Incorrect AS
RP/MA
Correct AS
RP/MA
labor Standard of pronunciation: In the United States there is no standard of pronunciation. However, General American (GAM) based on the dialects of the Midwestern and Western states, is considered accent-less and most easy to understand. General American is used for broadcast speech on American radio and television. American Standard, AS, is
302
GLOSSARY
the pronunciation studied in this text as a neutralized version of General American. In the United Kingdom, Received Pronunciation, RP, was considered the broadcast standard. Since the mid-twentieth century, a more modern version of RP that is inclusive of the regional dialects is used in broadcast speech. To reflect this change, the terms Historic RP and Modern RP are used in this text. Stop-plosive: Another term for a plosive consonant. Stressed syllable: A syllable that has a stronger degree of intensity or volume in relation to the other syllables of a word. English words have three possible stressed syllable patterns: Primary Stress 'anger
Primary and Secondary Stress .vulnerability
Double Stress 'rainbow
The diacritical mark ['] is used above and in front of a syllable to show primary stress and [] below and in front of a syllable to show secondary stress. Strong form (sf): The strong form of a word—articles, prepositions, conjunctions, auxiliary verbs—when in a stressed position in a phrase uses a full vowel sound. See weak form (wf).
EXAMPLE
If you CAN.
Sub-lingual pressure: Air pressure at the base of the tongue that can constrict the tone. Sub-vocal pressure: Also known as sub-glottal pressure, it is the pressure of air beneath the vocal folds. Sub-glottal pressure causes the vocal folds to open and vibrate. Excessive pressure can cause breathiness and vocal abuse. Syllabic consonant: A syllabic consonant occurs when an unstressed syllable is sounded with the final consonant only, omitting the unstressed vowel. In English the three syllabic consonants are final m, n, or 1, notated as EXAMPLE
chasm
heaven
little
An unstressed syllable that is sounded with only a syllabic consonant can be used in speech, musical theatre, and pop music but not in classical singing. In classical singing, a vowel sound is needed to sing through a syllable. Syllabification: The division of a word into syllables. Often, the division of a word in a dictionary is not how it is sounded when spoken or sung. For example, dic-tion-ar-y in the dictionary; di-ctio-na-ry when sung.
303
GLOSSARY
Tessitura: The general range of a musical composition. Theater standard: Another term for American Standard. Tip of the tongue: The point of the tongue, immediately in front of the top flat surface of the tongue, which is called the blade. Trachea: The windpipe. The tube located between the throat and the bronchial tubes. Transcription: The phonetic notation of the sounds of a language. The transcriptions in this text are in Broad Transcription, an accurate but not overly detailed notation that is accessible to a non-linguistically trained musical community. Triphthong sound [LufODrj]: Often mispronounced, a triphthong is a syllable that is sounded with three vowels. Even if set musically on two notes, it can be sung as one syllable or as two syllables. The two triphthongs in English are: [ai9r] (RP/MA) or [aia-] (AS) as in "fire" and [au9r] (RP/MA) or [aua-] (AS) as in "flower." Unaspirated: A term that refers to the nonrelease of air of a plosive consonant in certain positions or in foreign languages. The unaspirated plosives from Italian, for example, can be substituted for the aspirated English "p" when great projection is needed or to avoid "popping" the mike when using a microphone. Unstressed syllable: A weak syllable that has no syllabic stress. It can be sung with a [sjschwa vowel or, where appropriate, one of the schwa substitutes [e],[i],[u],[o]. See chapter 2. Unvoiced: Another term for voiceless. Velar: A term used to describe a sound that is formed with the back of the tongue and the soft palate or velum. The three velar consonants in English are: [k] key
[g] go
[n] sing
Velum: Another name for the soft palate. Vibrated: Another term for voiced. Vocal cords: Another term for vocal folds. Vocal folds: Folds of muscle located within the larynx that, when closed by sub-glottal air pressure, cause most of the speech sounds. Vocal fry: A vocal fry is a breathy, creaky, scratchy sound produced when the speaker or singer runs out of breath before finishing the phrase. It characteristically sounds like the
304
GLOSSARY
"creaky door" sound that is associated with Halloween or horror films. This is a very common stylistic technique used in pop music. When the singer or speaker runs out of breath before finishing the phrase, excessive tension builds at the vocal folds. Excessive vocal fry can cause vocal damage. Voice box: Another term for larynx. Voiced consonant: A consonant that is produced by the vibration of the vocal folds. The sixteen voiced consonants in English are: [d] do [j] you
[b] boy [w] were
[g]g_o /R] red
[v] vine [m] me
thine [n] no
[z] zoo song
[3] genre [1] law
id3]join wheel
Voiceless consonant: Another term for unvoiced consonants. A consonant that is produced with no vibration of the vocal folds. The ten unvoiced consonants in English are: [p] pie
[t] two
[k] key
[f] fine
thigh
[s] so
shine
heel
[tj] church
Vowel sound: A speech sound in which the flow of breath is free and unobstructed by the articulators. In English, all vowels are voiced and should be produced with the soft palate raised. Weak form (wf): A weak form of a word is unstressed, has a weak [9] vowel sound, and is used only when a set with a very short note value occurs at a fast tempo.
EXAMPLE
"I can see that now!"
MUSIC PUBLISHERS GUIDE
Music Publishers Here is contact information for publishers of musical works cited in this book, as well as national organizations on music in various English-speaking countries. American Composers Alliance, 648 Broadway, Room 803, New York, NY 10012. Tel. (212)3628900. www.com.posers.com. Bardic Editionfax crescent, Aylesbury, Bucks HP20 2ES. Tel. 01296 28609. www.bardic-music.com. Bayley & Ferguson, www.bmic.org. Boosey & Hawkes Music Publishers Ltd. 295 Regent Street, London WIN 9AE. Tel. 0171 580 2060 / Boosey & Hawks, Inc., 35 East 21st Street, New York, NY 10010. Tel. (212)358-5300. www.boosey.com. Breitkopf & Hartel. Castle House, Ivychurch, Romney Marsh, Kent TN29 OAL. Tel. 01797 344011/ Breitkopf & Hartel. Walkmuehlstrasse 52 D65195 Wiesbaden DE www.breitkopf.com. Carl Fischer. 65 Bleecker Street, New York, NY 10012. Tel. (212) 777-0900. www.carlfischer.com. Peters Edition Ltd. 19-21 Baches Street, London Nl 6DN, Tel. 0171 253 1683. C.F. Peters Corp. 70-30 80th Street, Glendale, NY 11385 Tel. +1 (0) (718) 416-7800. www.cfpeters-ny.com. Warner Chappell Music Ltd. 129 Park Street, London WIY 3FA Tel. 0171 629 7600. www.warnerchappell.com. Chester Music. Hire and Distribution, Newmarket Road, Bury St Edmonds, Suffolk IP33 3YB. Tel. 01284 702600. www.chester-novello.com. Curwen (J) & Sons Ltd. Some of the archive held by Robertson and some by William Elkin. Classical Vocal Reprints. 3253 Cambridge Ave, Bronx, NY 10463-3618. Tel. (800)298-7474. www.classisicalvocalrep.com. Dunvagen Music available in US: www.schirmir.com.. In Europe: www.chester-novello.com. Edward B. Marks Music Company. Carlin America, Inc. 126 East 38th Street, New York, NY 10016. Tel. (212) 779-7977. www.carlinamerica.com. ECS Publishing, 138 Ipswich Street, Boston, MA 02215-3534. Tel. (617) 236-1935. www .ecspublishing.com. Elkin. The Elkin catalogue is now held by Novello. www.elkinmusic.com.
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MUSIC PUBLISHERS GU
Edwin F. Kalmus & Company Inc. P.O. 5011, Boca Raton, FL 33431-0811. Tel. (561) 241-6340. www.kalmus-music.com. Elkin-Vogel. Elkin Music International, Inc., 94 Merrills Chase, Asheville, NC 28803. Tel. (800)367-3554. www.elkinmusic.com. Faber Music Ltd. 3 Queen Square, London WCIN 3AU. Tel. 0171 278 7436. www.fabermusic.com. Faberprint. See Faber Music Ltd. Galahad Music Inc, 250 West 57th Street, New York, NY 10019 Tel. (212) 581-1388. Galaxy Music. See ECS Publishing, www.escpublishing.com. G. Schirmir, Inc. 257 Park Avenue South, 20th Floor; New York, NY 10010. Tel. (212) 254-2100. www.schirmir.com. Henry Carl Music, 7588 Middle Ridge Road, Madison, OH. 45057. E-mail [email protected]. Highgate Press. See ECS Publishing, www.escpublishing.com. Hal Leonard Corp, 7777 W. Bluemound Rd, Milwaukee, WI. 53213. [email protected]. International Music Publications. Woodford Trading Estate, Southend Road, Woodford Green, Essex IG8 8HN. Tel. 0181 551 6131. Acquired by Faber.www.fabermusic.com. Alfred A. Kalmus Ltd. 38 Eldon Way, paddock Wood, Kent TN12 6BE. Tel. 01892 833422. www.kalmus-music.com. MMB Music, Inc. 3524 Washington Ave. St. Louis, MO 63103. Tel. (314)531-9635. www.mmb music.com. Novello & Co. Hire and Distribution, Newmarket Road, Bury St. Edmonds, Suffolk IP33 3YB. Tel. 01284 702600. www.chester-novello.com. Oxford University Press Music Department. Walton Street, Oxford OX2 6DP Tel. 01865 556767. Oxford University Press. 198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016-4314. Tel. (212) 726-6000 x. 6048. www.oup-uk.org www.oup-usa.org. Peermusic Classical. 870 7th Ave, New York, NY 10019. Tel. (212) 265-3910. www.peermusic .com./classical. Theodore Presser Company, 558 No. Gulph Road, King of Prussia, PA 19406. www.presser.com. Schott & Co, Led. Marketing and Sales Department, Brunswick Road, Ashford, Kent TN23 1DX Tel. 01233 628987. Schott Music International/European American Music. 35 East 21st Street, 8th Floor, New York, NY 10010-6212. Tel. +1(0) (212) 358-4999, (212)871-0210. www.schottmusic.com. tainer & Bell Ltd. PO Box 110, Victoria House, 23 Gruneisen Road, London N3 1DZ. Tel. 0181 343 3303. Southern Music Company. P.O. Box 329, San Antonio, TX 78292. Tel. (210) 226-8167. www .southernmusic.com. Thames Publishing. 14 Barlby Road, London W10 6AR. Tel. 0181 969 3579. Distributor William Elkin. Universal. See Kalmus. Josef Weinberger, Ltd. 12-14 Mortimer Street, London WIN 7RD. Williamson Music Co. 1065 Avenue of the Americas, New York, NY 10018. Tel. (212) 541-6968. www.williamsonmusic.com.
MUSIC PUBLISHERS GIDE
Self-Publishing Libby Larsen: www.libbylarsen.com. Alan Smith: [email protected]. Judith Zaimont: [email protected].
National Music Information Centers American Music Center: Suite 1001, 30 W. 26th Street, Suite 1001, New York, NU 10010-12011. www.amc.net; e-mail [email protected]. Australian Music Centre (SOUNZ Australia): PO Box N690, AU-Grosvenor Place NSW 1220 Australia. www.amcoz.com.au; e-mail [email protected]. British Music Information Centre: 75 Westminster Bridge Road, GB-London SE1 7HS. www.bmic .co.uk; e-rnail [email protected]. Canadian Music Centre: National Office, Chalmers House, 20 St. Joseph Street, CA-Toronto, Ontario M4Y 1J9. www.musiccentre.ca; e-mail [email protected]. (Ireland) The Contemporary Music Centre: 19, Fishamble Street, Temple Bar, IE-Dublin 8. www .cmc.ie; e-mail [email protected]. New Zealand Music Centre (SOUNZ New Zealand): PO Box 10 042, Wellington, New Zealand. www.sounz.org.nz; e-mail [email protected]. Scottish Music Information Centre: City Halls, Candleriggs, GB-Glasgow Gl 1NQ UK. www .scottishmusiccentre.com; e-mail [email protected]. Welsh Music Information Centre: Wales Millennium Centre, GB-Cardiff CF10 SAL UK. www .wmic.org; e-mail [email protected].
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SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY AND RESOURCES
Dialects Books Blumenfeld, Robert. Accents: A Manual for Actors. New York: Limelight Editions, 2002. Blunt, Jerry. Stage Dialects. Woodstock, Illinois: Dramatic Publishing Company, 1980. . More Stage Dialects. Woodstock, Illinois: Dramatic Publishing, 1980. Hughes, Arthur, Peter Trudgill, and Dominic Watt. English Accents and Dialects. London: Arnold; New York: Oxford University Press, 1996. Turner, Lorenzo Dow, Katherine Wyly Mille, and Michael B. Montgomery. Africanisms in Gullah Dialect. Columbia, S.C.: University of South Carolina Press, 1969. Upton, Clive, and J. D. A. Widdowson. An Atlas of English Dialects. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996. Wells, J. C. Accents of English. 3 vols. 1: Introduction; 2: The British Isles; 3: Beyond the British Isles. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982.
Video and Audio Recordings Records English with an Accent, BBC 22166 (23 accents). English with a Dialect, BBC 22173 (British Isles accents). Great Actors of the Past, compiled by Robert Bebb, Argo Records, SW510. Cassettes and CDs About a Hundred Years: The History of Sound Recording, Symposium CD 1222. East Barnet, Hertfordshire, England: symposium records, 1997. Voices of Arthur Conan Doyle, Sarah Bernhardt, Thomas Alva Edison, Johannes Brahms, Mahatma Gandhi, Field Marshall von Hindenburg, Neville Chamberlain, Winston Churchill, Leon Tolstoy, and others. Accents for Actors. Terry Besson. [email protected]. Single dialect booklets/CDs of the dialects of the British Isles.
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SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY AD RESOURCES Accents and Dialects for Stage and Screen. Paul Meier Dialect Services, www.paulmeier.com. Single dialect booklets/CDs of 24 different dialects. Accents for Actors: Ireland, Wales, Scotland, and England, compiled and directed by Christopher Casson, with commentary by Joseph D. Pheiffer. Cassette SAC 1027. New Rochelle, NY: Spoken Arts, 1983. Recordings by native speakers. The Art of the Savoyard, Pearl, Gemm CD 9991, Wadhurst, East Sussex, England: Pavilion Records, 1993. Victorian English: Voices of singers who worked with Gilbert and Sullivan themselves in their comic operas. Includes the voices of Richard Temple, who was the first Mikado and Pirate King, and of Sir Arthur Sullivan. Dialects for Actors. Gillian Lane-Plescia. The Dialect Resource, www.dialectresouce.com. A series of CDs and tapes of primary source speakers. Great Shakespeareans, Pearl, Gemm CD 9465. Wadhurst, East Sussex, England: Pavilion Records, 1990. Voices of Edwin Booth, Sir Herbert Beerbohm Tree, Arthur Bourchier, Lewis Waller, Ben Greet, John Barrymore, Sir Johnston Forbes-Robertson, Sir John Gielgud, Henry Ainley, and Maurice Evans. International Dialects of English Archive (IDEA), Paul Meier, founder and director. Online at http://www.ku.edu/~idea/. Hundreds of downloadable mp3 recordings of native speakers from around the world speaking English in their native English dialect or foreign language accent. International Phonetic Alphabet demonstrated. Online at http://www.yorku.ca/earmstro/ipa/ and http://www.paulmeier.com/ipa/charts.html. Eric Armstrong and Paul Meier have designed an online, interactive animation, providing the student of phonetics a chance to hear and compare all the sounds of the IPA. Also available as a CD-ROM. In Their Own Voices: The U.S. Presidential Elections of 1908 and 1912, Marston CD 52028-2. Marston Records, 2000. Voices of William Jennings Bryan, William H. Taft, Theodore Roosevelt, and Woodrow Wilson. Skinner, Edith. Speak with Distinction, ed. Lilene Mansell (accompanying cassette). New York: Applause Books Publishers, 1990. Videotape PBS television series. The Story of English, videotape, host: Robert MacNeil. 1986. This series traces the origins and changes in English pronunciation throughout the world.
Acting / Text Analysis Berry, Cecily. The Actor and the Text. New York: Applause Books, 1992. Bradley, Ian. The Complete Annotated Gilbert & Sullivan. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996. Crystal, David. Pronouncing Shakespeare: The Globe Experiment. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005. Crystal, David, and Ben Crystal. Shakespeare's Words; A Glossary and Language Companion. London: Penguin Books, 2003. Rodenburg, Patsy. Speaking Shakespeare. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, London: Methuen, 2002.
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY AND RESOURCES
Song Analysis Emmons, Shirlee, and Wilber Watkins, Jr. Researching the Song: A Lexicon. New York: Oxford University Press, 2005 Mabry, Sharon. Exploring Twentieth Century Vocal Music: A Practical Guide to Innovations in Performance and Repertoire. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002. Manning, Jane. New Vocal Repertory, 2 vols. Oxford: Clarendon Press; Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992, 1998.
Speech and Voice Books Berry, Cecily. Voice and the Actor. New York: Wiley, 1973. Crannell, Kenneth C. Voice and Articulation. Belmont, Calif.: Wadsworth, 1991. Lessac, Arthur. The Use and Training of the Human Voice. New York: Drama Book Specialists, 1967. Linklater, Kristin. Freeing the Natural Voice. New York: Drama Book Publishers, 1976. Rodenburg, Patsy. The Actor Speaks: Voice and the Performer. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2002; London: Methuen Drama, 1997. . The Need for Words. New York: Theatre Arts Books, Routledge, 2001. . The Right to Speak: Working with the Voice. New York: Routledge, 1992. Skinner, Edith. Speak with Distinction, ed. Lilene Mansell. New York: Applause Theatre Book Publishers, 1990.
Singing and Singer's Diction Coffin, Berton. Sounds of Singing: Principles and Applications of Vocal Techniques with Chromatic Vowel Chan, 2nd edn. Lanham, Md.: Scarecrow Press, 1987, 2002. Kayes, Gillyanne. Singing and the Actor, 2nd edn. New York: Routledge, 2004; London: A & C Black, 2004. Marshall, Madeleine. The Singer's Manual of English Diction. New York: Schirmir Books, 1953. Uris, Dorothy. To Sing in English. New York and London: Boosey and Hawks, 1971.
Pronouncing Dictionaries Colloiani, Louis. Shakespeare's Names: A New Pronouncing Dictionary. New York: Drama Publishers, 1999. Ehlich, Eugene, and Raymond Hand, Jr., revised and updated by. NBC Handbook of Pronunciation, 4th edn. New York: Harper and Row, 1984.
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SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY AD RESOURCES
Ellis, Alexander J. On Early English Pronunciation with Special Reference to Shakespeare and Chaucer, in three volumes "on the Pronunciation of the XlVth, XVIth , XVIIth andXVIIIth Centuries." London: Asher, 1869 (reprinted 1929). Greet, W. Cabell. World Words: Recommended Pronunciations, 2nd edn. New York: Columbia University Press, by arrangement with the Columbia Broadcasting System, 1948. Jones, Daniel. Everyman's English Pronouncing Dictionary, 14th edn. J. M. Dent & Sons, London, 1989. Out of print—still is the clearest presentation of Historic British Received Pronunciation. . The Pronunciation of English, definitive edition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992. . English Pronouncing Dictionary, 17th edn., ed. Peter Roach and James Hartman. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006. This dictionary lists RP and American pronunciations. Several American pronunciation variants are listed making it difficult to determine what is General American Pronunciation. The accompanying CR-Rom has interactive exercises to drill RP and American pronunciation. Kenyon, John S., and Thomas A. Knott, eds. A Pronouncing Dictionary of American English. Springfield, Mass.: Merriam-Webster Inc., 1953. My preferred source for American Standard pronunciation. Kokeritz, Helge. A Guide to Chaucer's Pronunciation. New York: Holt, Rhinehart and Winston, 1962. . Shakespeare's Names: A Pronouncing Dictionary. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1977. . Shakespeare's Pronunciation. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1953. Pointon, G. E., ed. and transcriber. BBC Pronouncing Dictionary of British Names. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990. This dictionary includes English, Scottish, Irish, and Welsh names of people and places. Upton, Clive, William A. Kretzschmar, Jr., and Rafal Kokopka, eds. Oxford Dictionary of Pronunciation for Current English. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003. This is a thorough pronunciation dictionary of contemporary British and American English—excellent for modern RP and AS. Wells, J. C. Longman Pronouncing Dictionary. Harlow, U.K.: Pearson Education, 2004.
Books on the English Language, Grammar, and Phonetics Bryson, Bill. Made in America: An Informal History of the English Language in the United States. New York: Avon Books, 1994. Humorous and wonderfully informative. . The Mother Tongue: English and How It Got That Way. New York: Avon Books, 1990. Crystal, David. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995. Graham, William. The Scots Word Book, 3rd rev. edn. Edinburgh: Ramsay Head Press, 1980. McArthur, Tom. The Oxford Companion to the English Language. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1986.
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY AND RESOURCES
McCrum, Robert, William Cran, and Robert MacNeil. The Story of English, a companion to the PBS television series. New York: Elizabeth Sifton Books, Viking, 1986. O'Connor, Patricia T. Woe Is I: The Grammarphobe 's Guide to Better English in Plain English. New York: Riverhead Books, a division of Penguin Putnam Books, 1996. Pullum, Geoffrey K., and William A. Ladusaw. Phonetic Symbol Guide. Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1986. Zimmerman, J. E. Dictionary of Classical Mythology, 18th printing. Toronto: Bantam Books, 1985.
Other Dictionaries Giffel, Margaret Ross, and Adrienne Fried Block. Operas in English: A Dictionary. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1999. Hall, Joan Houston, ed. Dictionary of American Regional English, Vols. 1-4. Boston: Harvard University Press, 1986-2002. Mugglestone, Lynda, ed. The Oxford History of English. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005. Simpson, John, and Edmund Weiner, eds. Oxford English Dictionary, 20 vols. Oxford: Clarendon Press; Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989.
Recommended Recordings American Anthem. Nathan Gunn, baritone, Kevin Murphy, piano. EMI Records, Ltd., 1990. French & English Songs. Sir Thomas Allen, baritone, Geoffrey Parsons / Roger Vignoles, piano. London: EMI Records, Ltd /Virgin Classics, 2002. / Want Magic! Renee Fleming, soprano; James Levine, conductor, The Metropolitan Opera Orchestra. London: Decca Record Company, 1998. My Native Land: A Collection of American Songs. Jennifer Larmore, mezzo-soprano, Antoine Palloc, piano. Hamburg, Germany: Teldec Classics International, 1997. Songs of America. Thomas Hampson, baritone. Music from the Library of Congress. New York: Angel Records, 2005. A Treasury of English Song. London: Hyperion Records, 2004. The Deepest Desire. Joyce di Donate, mezzo-soprano, David Zobel, piano, Frances Shelly, flute. Paris: Eloquentia EL 0504, 2005.
Bibliographies and Reference Works Art-Song in the United States, An Annotated Bibliography. National Association of Teachers of Singing, N.A.T.S. Banfield, Stephen. Sensibility and English Song: Critical Studies of the Early Twentieth Century. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985.
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SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY AND RESOURCES
Carman, Judith, et al. Art Song in the U.S. 1759-1999: An Annotated Bibliography. Metuchen, NJ: Scarecrow Press, 2000. Clark, Mark Ross. Guide to the Aria Repertoire. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2006. Coffin, Berton. Singer's Repertoire, Vols. 1-5. Metuchen, N.J.: Scarecrow Press, 1973. Friedberg, Ruth C. American Art Songs and American Poetry. Metuchen, N.J.: Scarecrow Press, 1987. Elliot, Martha. Singing in Style. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2006. Emmons, Shirlee, and Wilbur Watkin Lewis. Researching the Song. New York: Oxford University Press, 2006. Emmons, Shirlee, and Stanley Sonntag. The Art of the Song Recital. Long Grove, 111.: Waveland Press, 2001. Espina, Noni. Repertoire for the Solo Voice. Vols. 1-2. Metuchen, N.J.: Scarecrow Press, 1977. Giffel, Margaret Ross, and Adrienne Fried Block. Operas in English: A Dictionary. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1999. Kagen, Sergius. Music for the Voice. Rev. edn. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1968. Kimball, Carol. Song: A Guide to Style and Literature. Redmond, Wash.: P s s t . . . Inc., 1966. Manning, Jane. New Vocal Repertory, 2 vols. Oxford: Clarendon Press; Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992, 1998. Nagy, Gloria Jean. A Singer's Overview: Contemporary Canadian Literature, 1940-1997. Ottawa: Nepean, 1994; rev. ed. Montreal: N.A.T.S., 1997. Available from the Canadian Music Centre. Pilkington, Michael. British Solo Song. London: Thames/Elkin Publications, 2003. Villamil, Victoria Etnier. A Singer's Guide to the American Art Song, 1870-1980. Metuchen, NJ. : Scarecrow Press, 1993.
Helpful Websites Opera Base Professional or Opera Europa: www.operabase.com Aria Database: www.ariadatabase.com British Song Fa la la la la: http://cfaonline.cfa.asu.edu/hoffer/ Canadian Art Song website: www.canadianartsong.com Diction Domain: www.scaredofthat.com The IPA Source: www.ipasource.com Transcriptions and word for word translations of songs and arias. The Lied and Art Song Text Page: www.recmusic.org The Living Composer Project: www.composers21.com Opera Glass: www.opera.stanford.edu The Poetry Archive: www.poetryarchive.org
INDEX OF POETRY AND SONG TEXTS
"A Lullaby" (Agee/Pasatieri), 152 "A Minor Bird" (Frost/Dougherty), 62 "Annabel Lee" (Poe), 169 "Ann Street" (Morris/Ives), 85 "Ann Truelove's Aria" from The Rake's Progress (Auden/Stravinsky), 197,251-252 "Auguries of Innocence" (Blake), 92
"Bells" (Edgar Allan Poe), 16 "Bells in the Rain" (Wylie/Duke), 69, 179 ''Beloved, Thou Hast Brought Me Many Flowers" (Browning/Larsen), 98 ''Bright is the Ring of Words" from Songs of Travel (Stevenson/Vaughan Williams), 234-235 ''Buddy on the Nightshift" from Lunchtime Follies (Weill), 83 ''But who may abide" from Messiah (Handel), 97
''Climb Every Mountain" from The Sound of Music (Rodgers/Hammerstein), 176-177 "Come away, Death" (Shakespeare), 21, 22, 24, 93, 239
"Daphne" (Walton), 110 "Dido's Lament" from Dido and Aeneas (Purcell), 177, 178, 235 "Dirge" from Six Elizabethan Songs (Argento), 132 "Do You Know the Land?" from Little Women (Adamo), 160 "Down By the Sally Gardens" (Yeats), 50 "Drink to Me Only with Thine Eyes" (Jonson), 83
"Echo" (Rossetti/Gannon), 118 ''Endless Pleasure, Endless Love" from Semele (Handel), 95
'Fear No More the Heat o' the Sun" (Shakespeare/Finzi), 149
"Ghastly! Ghastly!" from The Yeoman of the Guard (Gilbert & Sullivan), 227 "Green Finch and Linnet Bird" from Sweeney Todd (Sondheim), 146
'Hear ye, Israel" from Elijah (Mendelssohn), 163,165 'Here's a First-Rate Opportunity" from The Pirates ofPenzance (Gilbert & Sullivan), 205 'He shall feed his flock" from Messiah (Handel), 156 'Hymn" from Six Elizabethan Songs (Argento), 164
"I Attempt from Love's Sickness" from The Indian Queen (Purcell), 52 "If with All Your Hearts" from Elijah (Mendelssohn), 50 "In Haven" from Sea Pictures (Elgar), 164 "In Remembrance of Schubert" from To Be Sung Upon the Water (Wordsworth/Argento), 190-191 "In Summertime on Bredon" (Housman/Somervell), 240 "It is Enough" from Elijah (Mendelssohn), 252-253
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INDEX OF POETRY AND SONG TEXTS
"Laurie's Song" from The Tender Land (Copland), 102, 186 "Lonely House" from Street Scene (Weill), 138 "Long Time Ago" from Old American Songs (Copland), 88 "Look Down, Fair Moon" (Whitman/Rorem), 118 "Loveliest of Trees" (Housman/Duke), 182-183 "Love's Philosophy" (Shelley/Quilter), 238-239 "Love Too Frequently Betrayed" from The Rake's Progress (Auden/Stravinsky), 252 "Lucretia's Aria" from The Rape ofLucretia (Britten), 24
"Soliloquy" (Millay/Zaimont), 205 "Somewhere" from West Side Story (Sondheim/Bernstein), 111 "Sonnet?" (Shakespeare), 182 "Sonnet 18" (Shakespeare), 28-29 "Sonnet 29" (Shakespeare), 227 "Sonnet 71" (Shakespeare), 251 "Spring" (Nashe/Gurney), 234-235 "Sure on this Shining Night" (Agee/Barber), 58, 137 "Sweeter than Roses" (Purcell), 101 "Symphony in Yellow" (Wilde/Griffes), 204
"Manhattan Joy Ride" (Dodd/Sargent), 191-192 "Music When Soft Voices Die" (Shelley), 23, 145 "My Riches at her Feet I Threw" from Trial by Jury (Gilbert & Sullivan), 88
"The Ash Grove" (Old Welsh Melody), 91 "The Black Swan" from The Medium (Menotti), 74,122 "The Daisies" (Stephens/Barber), 27 "The Donkey" (Chesterton/Clarke), 239-240 "The Flowers Appeareth on the Earth" from Ecclesiastes, 223 "The Lament of Ian the Proud" (MacLeod/Griffes), 199-200, 203 "The Lover's Maze" (Campion/Warlock), 91 "The People that Walked in Darkness" from Messiah (Handel), 156 "There is a Garden" from Trouble in Tahiti (Bernstein), 96 "There was an Old Man from Madras" from The Complete Nonsense (Lear), 227 "The Roadside Fire" from Songs of Travel (Stevenson/Vaughan Williams), 235 "The Silver Aria" from The Ballad of Baby Doe (Moore), 48 "The Soft Complaining Flute" from Ode to St. Cecilia's Day (Handel), 219 "The Sun whose Rays" from The Mikado (Gilbert & Sullivan), 85 "The Trees on the Mountains" from Susannah (Floyd), 176 "The Trumpet Shall Sound" from Messiah (Handel), 253 "The World Is Too Much with Us" (Wordsworth), 150 "Things Change, Jo" from Little Women (Adamo), 77-78 "This Little Rose" (Dickinson/Roy), 191 "Thus Saith the Lord" from Messiah (Handel), 96 "Tom Sails Away" (Ives), 152-153 "To Sit in Solemn Silence in a Dull, Dark, Dock" from The Mikado (Gilbert & Sullivan), 216
"O had I Jubal's Lyre" from Joshua (Handel), 97 "Oh, Lady be Good!" from Lunchtime Follies (Gershwin), 65 "O Isis and Osiris, hear me" from The Magic Flute (Porter, trans/Mozart), 253 "O Mistress Mine, Where are you Roaming?" (Shakespeare), 174 "On Dullness" (Pope), 41 "Orpheus with His Lute" (Shakespeare/ Schuman), 254 "O Sleep, why dost thou leave me" from Semele (Handel), 45, 153 "Over the Ripening Peach" from Ruddigore (Gilbert & Sullivan), 46
"Passing By" (Anonymous), 213 "Prologue: Shadow and Substance" from To Be Sung Upon the Water (Wordsworth/Argento), 190
"She walks in Beauty"(Lord Byron), 28 "Silent Noon" from The House of Life (Rossetti/ Vaughan Williams), 238 "Silver" (de la Mare/Duke), 62 "Simple Gifts" from Old American Songs (Copland), 132 "Sleep" (Fletcher/Warlock), 238 "Slim's Aria" from Of Mice and Men (Floyd), 156-157
INDEX OF POETRY AND SONG TEXTS
"Weep you No More Sad Fountains" (Dowland), 135-136 "What a Movie!" from Trouble in Tahiti (Bernstein), 163 "What If I Never Speed" (Dowland), 219 "What Passion Cannot Music Raise and Quell" from Ode to St. Cecilia's Day (Handel), 218 "What's the Use of Wondrin'" from Carousel (Rodgers & Hammerstein), 74 "When my First Old, Old Love I Knew" from Trial By Jury (Gilbert & Sullivan), 87-88 "Where the Music Comes From" (Hoiby), 139 "Who is Sylvia?" (Shakespeare), 23
'Who is There to Love me?" from A Hand of Bridge (Barber), 178 'Why Do They Shut Me Out of Heaven?" (Dickinson/Copland), 204 'Willow Song" from The Ballad of Baby Doe (Moore), 44 ''Winter" from Six Elizabethan Songs (Argento), 132 ''Woe Unto Them Who Forsake Him" from Elijah (Mendelssohn), 253 "Youth, Day, Old Age, and Night" (Whitman), 15-16
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GENERAL INDEX
African Heritage of American English, The (Holloway/Vass), 274 Agee, James, 58, 137, 151-152, 188-189 Adamo, Mark, 160 "Do You Know the Land?" from Little Women, 160 "Things Change, Jo" from Little Women, 77-78 Affricates, 117, 119, 133-135 A Hand of Bridge (Barber), 178 Aids for projection and legato, 121, 124, 128, 134, 144, 148, 155, 158, 162, 174 Alignment of spine, 31 Alleviating trilled "r's," 108 Alveolar ridge, 33 American Standard Pronunciation (AS), 6-7, 214-215 Andrews, Dame Julie, 242 Appalachian dialect, 270-272 application to Susannah (Floyd), 271-272 general characteristics, 270-271 Argento, Dominick "Dirge" from Six Elizabethan Songs, 132 "In Remembrance of Schubert" from To Be Sung upon the Water (Wordsworth), 190-191 "Prologue: Shadow and Substance" from To Be Sung upon the Water (Wordsworth), 190 Arrows. See Expressive doublings Articulators, 31, 33-34 AS. See American Standard Pronunciation Ask Word List, 224, 226 variants in three dialects, 248 Ask Words versus Hand Words, 223-227 Aspirants, 117, 160-163
Auden, W. H., 197, 251-252 Audience expectations, 5
[b]\[p] production aids for projection, 121 microphone alert, 122 tips for vocal ease, 121 Backing vowels, 35, 59-70 Barber, Samuel "Must the Winter Come So Soon?" from Vanessa (Menotti), 166 "Nocturne" (Prokosch), 201 "Sure on this Shining Night" (Agee), 58, 137, 188-189 "The Daisies" (Stephens), 27 "Who Is There to Love Me?" from A Hand of Bridge, 178 BBC, 1, 2, 6 BBC English, 208 Bernstein, Leonard "Somewhere" from West Side Story, 111 "There is a Garden" from Trouble in Tahiti, 95-96 "What a Movie!" from Trouble in Tahiti, 163 Bilabial consonant, 141 Blake, William, 198 "Auguries of Innocence," 92 British Received Pronunciation (RP), 7-8, 10-11, 28,207-208, 214-215, 241-243, 248, 250 articulating the letter "t," 236 commonly used words, 210 international phonetic alphabet for, 208-210 rolling "r's", technique for, 233 rules for "r's," 231-233
319
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GENERAL INDEX
British Received Pronunciation (RP)—continued, stress patterns, 229-230 unstressed -ary, -ery, -ory, -bury, -berry, -mony, 230-231 unstressed words and syllables, 229 usuage of Liquid U in historic versus modern, 228 versus American Standard, 214-215 Britten, Benjamin "Wasteful. So brief is beauty," excerpt from The Rape ofLucretia, 200-201 "Lucretia's Aria" from The Rape ofLucretia, 24 Bronte, Emily, 213 Browning, Elizabeth Barrett, 98 Byron, Lord, 28
[o] substitution for [h], 162-163 Cadence, 18 Campion, Thomas, 91 Carousel (Rodgers/Hammerstein), 74 Chesterton, G. K, 239-240 Clarke, Rebecca "The Donkey," 239-240 Clear [1], 180-182 drills, 181 rules for using, 181 "Comfort'V'comforteth" pronunciation, 166 Consonants cognate pairs, 115 general rules for, 114 types, 116-117 See also Fricatives, fricative consonants; Nasal consonants; Plosive consonants Consul, The (Menotti), 46 Copland, Aaron "Laurie's Song" from The Tender Land, 102, 186 "Long Time Ago" from Old American Songs, y> So QQ o/, "Simple Gifts" from Old American Songs, 132 "Why Do They Shut Me Out of Heaven?" from Twelve Emily Dickinson Songs, 204 Crooning, 200-201 Cud chew, 32
[d]\[t] production aids for projection, 124 dry "t's" and "d's," 125
wet "t's" and "d's," 124 Dark[l], 180, 181 avoiding, 181 Dead Man Walking (McNally/Heggie), 273 De la Mare, Walter, 62 Denasality, 174-176 avoiding, 174 how to access denasalized consonants, 175-176 Dentes, 33 Dickinson, Emily, 191,204 Diction, 3 Dictionaries, 7-8 American The African Heritage of American English, 274 Longman Dictionary of American English, 1 The NBC Handbook of Pronunciation, 1 Oxford Dictionary of Pronunciation for Current English, 1 The Pronouncing Dictionary of American English, 1 British The Cambridge English Pronouncing Dictionary, 1 Everyman's English Pronouncing Dictionary, 8 Longman English Pronouncing Dictionary, 8 Oxford Dictionary of Pronunciation for Current English, 8 Dido and Aeneas (Purcell), 177, 178, 235 Diphthongs, 79-96 definition, 79 general rules, 79 Dodd, Louise Richardson, 191-192 Doublings. See Expressive doublings Dougherty, Celius "A Minor Bird" (Frost), 62 Dowland, John "What If I Never Speed," 219 Duke, John "Bells in the Rain" (Wylie), 69, 179 "Loveliest of Trees" (Housman), 182-183 "Silver" (de la Mare), 62
Easy onset, 38 exercises, 38, 39 Ecclesiastes, 223 "ed" endings, rules, 124 "ed," "eth" endings, poetic, 165
GENERAL INDEX
Elgar, Edward "In Haven" from Sea Pictures, 164 Elijah (Mendelssohn), 50, 163, 165, 252-253 Elocution courses, 113 English consonants chart, 115 English dialects American Standard (AS), 6-7, 214-215 British Received Pronunciation (RP), 7, 207-208, 214-215 Mid-Atlantic Pronunciation (MA), 7, 8, 241-243 English Pronouncing Dictionary, The, 207-208 Enunciation, 3 Epiglottis, 33 Esophagus, 33 "Ev'ry Valley" from Messiah (Handel), 69 Expression, 3 Expressive doublings, 149, 192-201 doubling technique, 194 feeling and transmitting the beat, 195 of fricatives, 149 how to double single consonants, plosive clusters with glides, 198 notation with arrows, 197-201 preparation for consonant doublings, 195
Family Across the Sea, SCETV, 275 Feeling and transmitting the beat, 195 conducting the song, 196 Flapped "t" [r], 236 Fletcher, John, 238 Final "s" pronunciation, 150 Final unstressed "y" rule, 45 Finesse factor, 255-256 Finzi, Gerald "Come Away, Death" (Shakespeare), 21, 22, 24, 93,239 "Fear No More the Heat o' the Sun" from Let Us Garlands Bring (Shakespeare), 149 Floyd, Carlisle "Slim's Aria" from Of Mice and Men, 156-157 "The Trees on the Mountains" from Susannah, 176 Frasier, 242 Fricatives, 141-166 definition, 141 expressive doublings of, 149 overview of fricative consonants, 141-142
Fronting vowels, the, 35, 43-55 description, 35 review of, 55 Frost, Robert, 62
[g]\[k] production aids for projection, 128 dry "k's" and "g's," 129 tips for vocal ease, 130 wet "k's" and "g's," 128-129 Gannon, Lee "Echo" (Rossetti), 118 Gershwin, George "Oh, Lady be Good!" (Gershwin), 65 Porgy and Bess, 275 Gershwin, Ira "Oh, Lady be Good!" (Gershwin), 65 Gilbert, W. S. and Sullivan, Arthur "Ghastly! Ghastly!" from The Yeoman of the Guard, 227 "Here's a First-Rate Opportunity" from The Pirates ofPenzance, 205 "I am the Very Model of a Modern MajorGeneral" from The Pirates ofPenzance, 237 "My Riches at Her Feet" from Trial by Jury, 88 "Over the Ripening Peach" from Ruddigore, 46 "There is Beauty in the Bellow of the Blast" from The Mikado, 237 "The Sun Whose Rays" from The Mikado, 85 "Unlearned He in Aught" from H.M.S. Pinafore, 70 "When my First Old, Old Love I Knew" from Trial By Jury, 87-88 Gilmore Girls, 242 Glide vowels, as related to semi-vowel glides, 99 Glottal attacks drills for eliminating, 38 rule for eliminating, 36-37 See also Hard onset Globalized consonant, 186, 236 Glottis, 33 Gold, Ernest "Music when soft voices die" (Shelley), 23,145 Grace note placements, 101 Griffes, Charles T. "Symphony in Yellow" (Wilde), 204 "The Lament of Ian the Proud" (MacLeod), 199-200, 203 Gullah culture, 274-275
321
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GENERAL INDEX
Gullet, 33 Gum ridge (alveolar ridge), 33 Gurney, Ivor "Spring" (Nashe), 239 Guthrie, Sir Tyrone, 241
IPA for American English, 11-13 IPA for British English, 208-210 Ives, Charles "Ann Street," 85 "Tom Sails Away," 152-153
[h]\[Av] production aids for projection and legato, 162 [o] substitution for [h], 162-163 Halloway, Joseph E., 274 Hammerstein, Oscar. See Rodgers, Richard, and Oscar Hammerstein Handel, G. F. "But Who May Abide" from Messiah, 97 "Endless Pleasure, Endless Love" from Semele, 95 "Ev'ry Valley" from Messiah, 69 "He Shall Feed His Flock" from Messiah, 52, 156 "O had I Jubal's Lyre" from Joshua, 97 "O Sleep, Why Dost Thou Leave Me?" from Semele, 46, 152, 198 "Rejoice Greatly" from Messiah, 87-88 "The People that Walked in Darkness" from Messiah, 156 "The Soft Complaining Flute" from Ode to St Cecilia's Day, 219 "The Trumpet Shall Sound" from Messiah, 253 "Thus Saith the Lord" from Messiah, 96 "What Passion Cannot Music Raise and Quell?" from Ode to St Cecilia's Day, 218 Hand Word List, 225, 226 Hard onset, 38 Hard palate, 33, 34 Heggie, Jake, 273 Hierarchy of stress, 22 Hoiby, Lee "Where the Music Comes From," 138-139 Housman, Alfred Edward, 182-183, 240 H.M.S. Pinafore (Gilbert & Sullivan), 70 Hypernasality, 173 hypernasality check, 173-174
Jaw, 33, 34 Jones, Daniel, 8, 207 Jorison, Ben, 83, 164
Implosions, 131-132, 187 overview of implosions, 131 review, 187 Interdependence, 256 International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), 9
[1] production clear [1], 181-182 drills, 181 rules for using, 181 dark[l], 180, 181 avoiding, 181 tips for vocal ease, 181-182 Labia, 33 Labio-dental consonant, 141 Larsen, Libby, 98 Larynx, 33 Lear, Edward, 227 Legato connection, the, 185-190 Lingua. See Tongue Lingua-alveolar consonant, 167 Lingua-dental consonant, 141 Lingua-palatal consonant, 141 Lingua-velar consonant, 167 Lip buzz, 31 Lips. See Labia Liquid U, 60-61 spellings that use, 61 use in historic versus modern RP, 228 use in MA, 245 Lisping "s," 147 drills for overcoming, 148 Little Women (Adamo), 77-78, 160 Longman English Pronouncing Dictionary, 1, 208 Lowered [i] vowel, 44-45 Lunchtime Follies (Weill), 83
[m] production aids for projection and vocal ease, 174-177 accessing denasalized consonants, 175-177 avoiding denasality, 174 avoiding hypernasality, 173 MA. See Mid-Atlantic Pronunciation MacLeod, Fiona, 199-200, 203
GENERAL INDEX
Massage diaphragm, 32 facial, 31 tongue/neck massage, 31 McNally, Terrence, 273 Mendelssohn, Felix "Hear Ye, Israel" from Elijah, 163, 165 "If with All Your Hearts" from Elijah, 50 "It is Enough" from Elijah, 252-253 "Woe unto Them who Forsake Him" from Elijah, 253 Menotti, Gian Carlo, 166 "Lullaby" from The Consul, 46 "The Black Swan" from The Medium, 74, 122 "The Idle Gift" (Menotti), 139 Merges, 142-143, 144, 148, 155, 158, 188-190 definition and rule, 142 overview of merging consonants, 189 Messiah, 52, 69, 87-88, 96, 97, 156 Microphones, singing with, 122, 125, 129 Mid-Atlantic Pronunciation (MA), 241-253 overview of Mid-Atlantic dialect, 243 polysyllabic word endings, 249-250 repertoire suggestions for, 244 rules for, 245 use of [o], 249 use of [D], 250 Millay, Edna St. Vincent, 205 Mixed vowels, 35, 71-78 Moore, Douglas "The Silver Aria" from The Ballad of Baby Doe, 48 "Willow Song" from The Ballad of Baby Doe, 44 Moss, Howard, 62-63 Mouth (oral passage), 33 Mozart, W. A. "O Isis and Osiris, Hear Me" (Porter, trans), 253
[n] production avoiding denasality, 174 avoiding hypernasality, 173 [n] versus [q]+[g], 172-173 Nasal consonants, 117, 167-183 singing through/musical application, 179 Nasalization, 5 avoiding when followed by nasal consonants, 54,55 See also Denasality; Hypernasality Nasal passage, 33
Nashe, Thomas, 239 Neutral English, 6 "No Word from Tom." See Stravinsky, Igor: "Ann Truelove's Aria" from The Rake's Progress
[o] production, spellings for [o], 67 [o] production, British variant of [o], 67 [o] as RP variant, 218 [D] production, common words that use, 218 Ode to St. Cecilia's Day (Handel), 218, 219 Off glides, 51,57,60, 64, 268 Of Mice and Men (Floyd), 156-157 "Often" pronunciation variant, 67 Old American Songs (Copland), 82, 88, 132 On-glides, 68 Optimum pitch, 39-41 determining, 39 exercises for, 40, 41 Oral passage, 33
Pasatieri, Thomas "A Lullaby" (Agee), 151-152 Passaggio. See Tips for Vocal Ease Pharynx, 33 Phonetics. See International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) Plosive consonants, 117, 119-138 doubling of plosives, 198 overview of, 119 See also [b]\[p] production; [d]\[t] production; [g]\[k] production Poe, Edgar Allan, 16, 169 Pope, Alexander "On Dullness," 41 Porgy and Bess (Gershwin), 274-275 Prefix rule, 48 Previn, Sir Andre, 272-273 Pronunciation, 3 Puff exercise, 31 Pulsing the phrase, 24, 202-203 notation with arrows, 202-203 play the pipe, 202 Purcell, Henry "Dido's Lament," 177, 178, 235 "I Attempt from Love's Sickness" from The Indian Queen, 52 "Sweeter than Roses," 101 Pygmalion (Shaw), 207
323
324
GENERAL INDEX
Quilter, Roger "Love's Philosophy" (Shelley), 238-239
"R" as a consonant or a vowel, 106 "R's," general application, 107-108 Reduced "r" colorings, 75, 93, 221-223 Regional dialects. See U.K. and Ireland regional dialects; U.S. regional dialects "Rejoice Greatly" from Messiah (Handel), 87, 88 Rodgers, Richard, and Oscar Hammerstein, 74, 176-177, 242 "Climb Every Mountain" from The Sound of Music, 176-177 "What's the Use of Wondrin'" from Carousel, 74 Rolled "r's," 107-109 alleviating rolled "r's," 107-109 musical application for, 234 rules for when to use, 108, 232-233 technique for, 233 Rorem, Ned, 61 "Look Down, Fair Moon" (Whitman), 118 "See How They Love Me" (Moss), 62 Rossetti, Christina, 118 Rossetti, Dante Gabriel, 238 Roy, William "This Little Rose" (Dickinson), 191 RP. See British Received Pronunciation Ruddigore (Gilbert & Sullivan), 46
Sargent, Paul "Manhattan Joy Ride" (Dodd), 191-192 Schuman, William "Orpheus with His Lute" from Henry VIII (Shakespeare), 254 Schwa substitutes, 19, 20 Sea Pictures (Elgar), 164 "See How They Love Me" (Moss/Rorem), 62 Semele (Handel), 46, 95, 152, 198 Semi-vowel glides, 99-111 musical application, 101 Sesame Street, 25 Shadow vowels, 135-138 musical excerpts, 137-138 rules for, 136-137 Shakespeare, William "Come Away, Death," 21, 22, 93 "Fear No More the Heat o' the Sun," (Finzi), 149
"O Mistress Mine, Where are you Roaming?" 174 "Orpheus with His Lute" (Schuman), 254 "Sonnet 7," 182 "Sonnet 18," 28-29 "Sonnet 29," 227 "Sonnet 71,"251 "Who is Sylvia?" 23 Shaw, George Bernard, 207 Shelley, Percy Bysshe, 23, 145, 238-239 Short "o" vowel, 70, 214, 217-218 Shoulder rolls, 31 Silent "1" pronunciations, 57 Singerese, 5 Six Elizabethan Songs (Argento), 132, 164 Skinner, Edith Warman, 223, 241 Soft palate (velum), 33, 34 Somervell, Sir Arthur "In Summertime on Bredon" (Housman), 240 Sondheim, Stephen "Green Finch and Linnet Bird" from Sweeney Todd, 146 "Somewhere" from West Side Story (Bernstein), 111 "There is a Garden" from Trouble in Tahiti (Bernstein), 95-96 "What a Movie!" from Trouble in Tahiti (Bernstein), 163 Songs of Travel (Stevenson/Vaughan Williams), 234-235 Speak with Distinction (Edith Skinner), 223, 241 Star Wars, 242 Stephens, James, 27 Stevenson, Robert Louis, 53, 234-235 Stravinsky, Igor "Ann Truelove's Aria" from The Rake's Progress (Auden), 197, 251-252 "Love, Too Frequently Betrayed" from The Rake's Progress (Auden), 252 Streetcar Named Desire (Williams/Previn), 272 Street Scene (Weill), 138 Stretches neck, 32 soft palate, 32 tongue, 31 Stress patterns, 18 in RP, 229-230 RP stress patterns versus AS, 229-230 Sullivan, Arthur. See Gilbert, W. S., and Sullivan, Arthur Susannah (Floyd), 176, 270-271
GENERAL INDEX
[8]\[6] production, 157-159 aids for projection and legato, 158 merging rule, 158 Teeth (denies), 33, 34 Ten Blake Songs (Vaughan Williams), 198 "The," pronunciation rule, 73 The Ballad of Baby Doe (Moore), 44, 48 The Complete Nonsense (Lear), 227 The Consul (Menotti), 46 "The Count" from Sesame Street, 25 The House of Life (Rossetti/Vaughan Williams), 238 The Illusionist, 242 The Indian Queen (Purcell), 52 The Pirates ofPenzance (Gilbert & Sullivan), 205, 237 The Rake's Progress (Stravinsky), 197, 251-252 The Rape ofLucretia (Britten), 24, 234 The Sound of Music (Rodgers/Hammerstein), 176-177,242 The Tender Land (Copland), 102, 186 The Yeoman of the Guard (Gilbert & Sullivan), 227 Third dimension, the, 256-257 Three dialect overview, 263-264 Three Poems of Edith Sitwell (Walton), 110 Thought transmission race, 194 Throat (pharynx), 33 Tips for Vocal Ease, 36, 44, 48, 54, 57, 68, 80, 87,102,104,107,116,121,130,153, 174, 179, 181-182 "To be," rule for stressing, 23 Tongue, 31-33, 34-35 Transatlantic pronunciation, 241 Trial By Jury (Gilbert & Sullivan), 87, 88 Triphthongs, 96-97 Trouble in Tahiti (Sondheim/Bernstein), 96, 163 Twelve Poems of Emily Dickinson (Copland), 204
U.K. and Ireland regional dialects, 276-290 East Anglia, 285-287 general characteristics, 288 suggested repertoire for use, 287 Irish, 279-282 Dublin, 280 general characteristics, 279 suggested repertoire for use, 281-282 Western Ireland, 280-281 Scots, 276-279 general characteristics, 276-278
suggested repertoire for, 279 Welsh, 282-284 Cardiff, 284 general characteristics, 282-284 Northern Wales, 284 suggested repertoire for use, 284 West Country, 288-290 general characteristics, 288-290 suggested repertoire for use, 289-290 Unstressed neutral vowel, 19 Unstressed prefix rule, 48 Unstressed "y" rule, 45 U.S. regional dialects, 266-275 Appalachian, 270-272 application to Susannah (Floyd), 271 general characteristics, 270-271 General Southern, 266-270 Gullah, 274-275 application to Porgy and Bess (Gershwin), 275 general characteristics, 274-275 New Orleans, 272-273 application to Dead Man Walking (McNally/Heggie), 273 application to Streetcar Named Desire (Previn), 273 general characteristics, 272-273 Uvula, 33
[v]\[f] production aids for projection and legato, 144 rule for merging, 144 Vanessa (Menotti/Barber), 166 Vaughan Williams, Ralph "Bright is the Ring of Words" from Songs of Travel (Stevenson), 234-235 "The Lamb" from Ten Blake Songs (Blake), 198 "The Roadside Fire" from Songs of Travel (Stevenson), 235 Vass, Winifred, 274 Velar valve reflex, 167 Velum, 33 Vocal folds, 33 Voice box (larynx), 33
[M] production use in AS, 162 use in MA, 245
325
326
GENERAL INDEX
Walton, William "Daphne" from Three Poems of Edith Sitwell, 110 Warlock, Peter "Sleep" (John Fletcher), 238 "The Lover's Maze" (Campion), 91 Weill, Kurt, 83, 138 West Side Story (Sondheim/Bernstein), 111 Whistling "s," 147 Whitman, Walt, 15-16, 118 Wilde, Oscar, 204 Will and Grace, 242 Williams, Tennessee, 272-273 Wind pipe (trachea), 33 "With" pronunciation rule, 158
Wordsworth, William, 150, 190-191 Wylie, Elinor, 69, 179
Yodeling, 201
[z]\[s] production aids for projection and legato, 148 tips for vocal ease, 153 b]\[J] production aids for projection and legato, 155 lateralization, 154 Zaimont, Judith "Soliloquy" (Millay), 204-205
