Quetzalcoatl and Guadalupe
Jacques Lafaye
Quetzalcoatl and Guadalupe The Formation of Mexican National Consciousness ...
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Quetzalcoatl and Guadalupe
Jacques Lafaye
Quetzalcoatl and Guadalupe The Formation of Mexican National Consciousness 1531-1813 W i t h a F o r e w o r d by Octavio Paz T r a n s l a t e d by BENJAMIN KEEN
T h e University of Chicago Press Chicago and London
Originally published as Quetzalcoatl et Guadalupe, © 1974 Editions Gallimard
The University of Chicago Press, Chicago 60637 The University of Chicago Press, Ltd., London © 1976 by The University of Chicago All rights reserved. Published 1976 Paperback edition 1987 Printed in the United States of America 96 95 94
654
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Lafaye, Jacques. Quetzalcoatl and Guadalupe. Translation of Quetzalcoatl et Guadalupe. Includes bibliographical references and index. 1. Mexico—Civilization—History. 2. Mexico— Religion. 3. Guadalupe, Nuestra Senora de. 4. Quetzalcoatl. I. Title. F1210.L313 972 75-20889 ISBN 0-226-46788-0
T o m y wife, Simonne and children, Etienne, Jean-Jacques, and
Olivier
Contents
Foreword by Octavio Paz A cknowledgments Chronology xxv
ix
A Historian's Profession of Faith
1
P a r t 1. N e w S p a i n f r o m t h e C o n q u e s t t o
Independence
(1521-1821) 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
Brothers a n d Enemies: Spaniards a n d Creoles 7 Irreconcilable E n e m i e s : I n d i a n s , Mestizos, Mulattoes 12 T h e Inquisition a n d the Pagan U n d e r g r o u n d 18 T h e Indian, a Spiritual Problem (1524-1648) 30 T h e Creole U t o p i a of t h e " I n d i a n S p r i n g " ( 1 6 0 4 - 1 7 0 0 ) 51 T h e Spiritual Emancipation (1728-1759) 77 T h e Holy War (1767-1821) 99
P a r t 2. Q u e t z a l c o a t l , o r t h e P h o e n i x B i r d 8. 9. 10. 11.
T h e First Franciscans 139 T h e Genesis of the Creole Myth 149 Saint T h o m a s - Q u e t z a l c o a t l , Apostle of Mexico 177 Epilogue: T h e "Four H u n d r e d " M o d e r n Quetzalcoatls
Part 3. G u a d a l u p e , or the N e w 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. Notes Index
207
Epiphany
Holy Mary a n d Tonantzin 211 T h e Infancy of G u a d a l u p e 231 T h e Dispute of the Apparitions 254 Guadalupe, a Mexican National E m b l e m Epilogue: Guadalupe Today 299 Perspectives 301
274
313 333 vii
Foreword
The Flight of Quetzalcoatl and the Quest
I m a g i n a t i o n is t h e faculty t h a t r e v e a l s t h e h i d d e n r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n t h i n g s . I t d o e s n o t m a t t e r t h a t in t h e p o e t it w o r k s u p o n p h e n o m e n a w h i c h r e l a t e t o t h e w o r l d o f sensibility, in t h e scientist u p o n n a t u r a l facts a n d p r o c e s s e s , a n d in t h e h i s t o r i a n u p o n t h e e v e n t s a n d p e r s o n a g e s o f societies o f t h e p a s t . I n all t h r e e cases, t h e d i s c o v e r y o f s e c r e t affinities a n d r e p u l s i o n s m a k e s visible w h a t w a s invisible. P o e t s , scientists, a n d h i s t o r i a n s s h o w u s t h e o t h e r s i d e o f t h i n g s , t h e h i d d e n face of l a n g u a g e , n a t u r e , o r the past. B u t their results a r e different: t h e p o e t p r o d u c e s m e t a p h o r s , t h e scientist n a t u r a l laws, a n d t h e historian—-just w h a t d o e s t h e h i s t o r i a n p r o d u c e ? T h e p o e t a s p i r e s t o a u n i q u e i m a g e w h i c h will r e s o l v e i n t o its u n i t y a n d singularity t h e multiple richness of t h e world. Poetic images a r e like t h e a n g e l s o f C a t h o l i c i s m : e a c h is a s p e c i e s in itself. T h e y a r e u n i q u e a n d u n i v e r s a l . A t t h e o t h e r e x t r e m e , t h e scientist r e d u c e s i n d i v i d u a l s t o s e r i e s , c h a n g e s t o t e n d e n c i e s , a n d t e n d e n c i e s t o laws. F o r p o e t r y , r e p e t i t i o n spells i m p o v e r i s h m e n t ; f o r s c i e n c e , r e p e t i t i o n is t h e r e g u l a r i t y t h a t c o n f i r m s h y p o t h e s e s . T h e e x c e p t i o n is t h e p o e t ' s r e w a r d a n d t h e scientist's p u n i s h m e n t . T h e h i s t o r i a n s t a n d s b e t w e e n t h e p o e t a n d t h e scientist. H i s k i n g d o m , like t h a t o f t h e p o e t , is t h e k i n g d o m o f p a r t i c u l a r c a s e s a n d facts w h i c h a r e n o t r e p e a t e d ; a t t h e s a m e t i m e , like t h e scientist b e f o r e n a t u r a l p h e n o m e n a , t h e h i s t o r i a n o p e r a t e s o n series of events which h e tries to r e d u c e , n o t to species a n d families, b u t t o t e n d e n c i e s a n d c u r r e n t s . H i s t o r i c a l e v e n t s a r e n o t r u l e d b y laws, o r , a t least, t h e s e laws h a v e n o t b e e n d i s c o v e r e d . T h e N e w t o n s a n d E i n s t e i n s o f h i s t o r y a r e still t o b e b o r n . Yet it is p e r f e c t l y c l e a r t h a t e a c h society, e a c h e p o c h , is s o m e t h i n g m o r e t h a n a n e n s e m b l e o f d i s p a r a t e facts, p e r s o n s , r e a l i t i e s , a n d i d e a s . A u n i t y a r i s e n f r o m t h e collision o f c o n t r a d i c t o r y t e n d e n c i e s a n d f o r c e s , e a c h e p o c h is a c o m m u n i t y o f t a s t e s , n e e d s , p r i n c i p l e s , institutions, a n d techniques. T h e historian searches for historical c o h e r e n c e — a m o d e s t equivalent of t h e o r d e r of n a t u r e — a n d this s e a r c h r e l a t e s h i m to t h e scientist. B u t t h e f o r m t h a t t h i s c o h e r e n c e a s s u m e s is t h a t o f t h e p o e t i c f a b l e : n o v e l , d r a m a , e p i c p o e m . H i s t o r i c a l ix
x
FOREWORD
e v e n t s r h y m e w i t h e a c h o t h e r , a n d t h e logic t h a t g o v e r n s t h e i r d e v e l o p m e n t d o e s n o t e v o k e a x i o m s b u t a s p a c e in w h i c h e c h o e s a n d correspondences combine and separate. H i s t o r y is o n e w i t h s c i e n c e in its m e t h o d s a n d w i t h p o e t r y i n its v i s i o n . L i k e s c i e n c e , it is a d i s c o v e r y ; like p o e t r y , a n e w c r e a t i o n . By contrast with science a n d poetry, history d o e s n o t invent o r e x p l o r e w o r l d s ; it r e c o n s t r u c t s , r e f a s h i o n s t h e w o r l d o f t h e p a s t . I t s k n o w l e d g e is n o t a k n o w l e d g e t h a t t r a n s c e n d s itself; I m e a n t o say t h a t h i s t o r y d o e s n o t i n c l u d e a n y m e t a h i s t o r y , like t h a t w h i c h is o f f e r e d b y t h o s e chimerical systems which certain m e n of genius, a M a r x o r a Saint A u g u s t i n e , c o n c e i v e f r o m t i m e t o t i m e . N o r is it k n o w l e d g e i n t h e strict s e n s e o f t h e w o r d . S i t u a t e d b e t w e e n e t h n o l o g y ( d e s c r i p t i o n o f societies) a n d p o e t r y ( i m a g i n a t i o n ) , h i s t o r y is e m p i r i c a l r i g o r a n d a e s t h e t i c s y m p a t h y , a m i x t u r e o f pity a n d i r o n y . R a t h e r t h a n b e i n g k n o w l e d g e , it is w i s d o m . T h a t is t h e t r u e h i s t o r i c a l t r a d i t i o n o f t h e West, f r o m H e r o d o t u s t o M i c h e l e t , f r o m T a c i t u s t o H e n r y A d a m s . T o that tradition belongs the r e m a r k a b l e book of Jacques Lafaye about two myths of New Spain: Quetzalcoatl-Saint T h o m a s and Tonantzin-Guadalupe. Lafaye's study belongs to t h e history of ideas or, m o r e precisely, to t h a t of beliefs. O r t e g a y Gasset t h o u g h t t h a t t h e s u b s t a n c e of history, its m a r r o w , w a s n o t t h e i d e a s b u t r a t h e r w h a t t h e i d e a s c o v e r e d u p : b e l i e f s . A m a n is b e t t e r d e f i n e d b y his beliefs t h a n b y his i d e a s . O t h e r h i s t o r i a n s p r e f e r t o d e f i n e societies b y t h e i r t e c h n i q u e s . T h a t is t h e i r r i g h t , b u t it r e m a i n s t r u e t h a t t e c h n i q u e s , like i d e a s , c h a n g e m o r e r a p i d l y t h a n beliefs. T h e t r a c t o r h a s r e p l a c e d t h e c a r t a n d M a r x i s m has r e p l a c e d scholasticism, b u t t h e magic of t h e Neolithic a n d t h e a s t r o l o g y o f B a b y l o n still f l o u r i s h in N e w York, P a r i s , a n d M o s c o w . L a f a y e ' s b o o k is a n a d m i r a b l e d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e beliefs o f N e w S p a i n d u r i n g t h e t h r e e c e n t u r i e s o f its e x i s t e n c e . C o m p l e x b e l i e f s i n w h i c h two syncretisms blend: Spanish Catholicism a n d the Aztec religion. T h e first, m a r k e d b y its a g e l o n g c o e x i s t e n c e w i t h I s l a m , by its c r u s a d i n g s p i r i t a n d o b s e s s i o n w i t h t h e e n d o f t h e w o r l d ; t h e s e c o n d , likewise t h e m i l i t a n t r e l i g i o n o f a c h o s e n p e o p l e . T h e m a s s o f b e l i e v e r s w a s as c o m p l e x as t h e i r b e l i e f s : t h e I n d i a n p e o p l e s ( e a c h w i t h its o w n l a n g u a g e a n d t r a d i t i o n ) , t h e S p a n i a r d s (also d i v i d e d in r a c e a n d l a n g u a g e ) , t h e Creoles, t h e m e s t i z o s , t h e m u l a t t o e s . A g a i n s t t h i s flamb o y a n t b a c k g r o u n d unfold t h e two m y t h s studied by Lafaye. B o t h w e r e b o r n in t h e p r e - H i s p a n i c w o r l d a n d r e f a s h i o n e d in t h e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y by m i n d s w h o j o i n e d n a s c e n t m o d e r n t h o u g h t w i t h medieval tradition (Descartes a n d T h o m a s Aquinas). T h e two myths, a n d especially t h a t of G u a d a l u p e , w e r e t r a n s f o r m e d into symbols a n d b a n n e r s of the War of I n d e p e n d e n c e a n d have c o m e d o w n to o u r o w n
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Foreword
d a y n o t as t h e s p e c u l a t i o n s o f t h e o l o g i a n s o r i d e o l o g u e s b u t as i m a g e s a r i s e n f r o m t h e collective c o n s c i o u s n e s s . T h e M e x i c a n p e o p l e , a f t e r m o r e t h a n two c e n t u r i e s of e x p e r i m e n t s a n d defeats, have faith only in t h e V i r g i n o f G u a d a l u p e a n d t h e N a t i o n a l L o t t e r y . H i s t o r i c a l r e c o n s t r u c t i o n s a r e also a r c h a e o l o g i c a l d i g s in t h e h i s t o r i cal subsoil. A society is c o m p o s e d o f its i n s t i t u t i o n s , its i n t e l l e c t u a l a n d artistic c r e a t i o n s , its t e c h n i q u e s , its m a t e r i a l a n d s p i r i t u a l life. I t also i n c l u d e s all t h a t is f o u n d b e h i n d o r b e l o w t h o s e t h i n g s . T h e m e t a p h o r which d e s i g n a t e s this h i d d e n reality c h a n g e s a c c o r d i n g to t h e schools, g e n e r a t i o n s , a n d h i s t o r i a n s : h i s t o r i c a l f a c t o r s , r o o t s , cells, i n f r a s t r u c tures, foundations, s t r a t a . . . . Metaphors borrowed from agriculture, b i o l o g y , g e o l o g y , a r c h i t e c t u r e , all t h e s e n a m e s e v o k e a h i d d e n reality, m a s k e d by a p p e a r a n c e s . H i s t o r i c a l r e a l i t y h a s m a n y w a y s o f c o n c e a l i n g itself. A m o s t effective w a y c o n s i s t s in d i s p l a y i n g itself in t h e full view o f all. L a f a y e ' s b o o k is a m a g n i f i c e n t e x a m p l e o f m y p o i n t : t h e w o r l d t h a t it r e v e a l s t o u s — t h e society o f t h e v i c e r o y a l t y o f M e x i c o i n t h e s e v e n t e e n t h a n d e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s — i s a w o r l d w h i c h w e all k n e w b u t w h i c h n o o n e h a d yet s e e n . S t u d i e s o f t h e s u b j e c t a b o u n d , y e t n o n e h a d s h o w n u s t h a t w o r l d in all its u n i q u e n e s s . L a f a y e r e v e a l s t o u s a n u n k n o w n w o r l d , u n k n o w n n o t b e c a u s e it r e m a i n e d h i d d e n f r o m u s b u t , o n t h e c o n t r a r y , b e c a u s e its visibility b l i n d e d u s . H i s b o o k obliges us to r u b o u r eyes a n d a d m i t to ourselves t h a t we have b e e n v i c t i m s o f a s t r a n g e h i s t o r i c a l o p t i c a l illusion. N e w S p a i n : t h a t n a m e d e s c r i b e s a s i n g u l a r society a n d a n o less s i n g u l a r d e s t i n y . It w a s a society t h a t p a s s i o n a t e l y d e n i e d its a n t e c e d e n t s a n d its a n c e s t o r s — t h e I n d i a n w o r l d a n d t h e S p a n i s h w o r l d — a n d a t t h e s a m e t i m e f o r m e d a m b i g u o u s l i n k s w i t h b o t h ; in its t u r n , t h a t society w a s t o b e d e n i e d b y m o d e r n M e x i c o . M e x i c o w o u l d n o t b e w h a t it is w i t h o u t N e w S p a i n , b u t M e x i c o is n o t N e w S p a i n ; i n d e e d , it is its n e g a t i o n . T h e society o f N e w S p a i n w a s a w o r l d w h i c h w a s b o r n , g r e w , a n d t h e n e x p i r e d t h e m o m e n t it r e a c h e d its m a t u r i t y . M e x i c o killed it. T h e h i s t o r i c a l o p t i c a l illusion is n e i t h e r f o r t u i t o u s n o r i n n o c e n t . W e d o n o t see N e w S p a i n b e c a u s e , if w e saw it as it r e a l l y is, w e w o u l d s e e all t h a t w e n e i t h e r c o u l d n o r w i s h e d t o b e . T h a t w h i c h w e could not b e — a universal e m p i r e ; that which we did not w a n t to b e — a h i e r a r c h i c a l society g o v e r n e d b y a c h u r c h - s t a t e . Most historians offer us a conventional image of N e w Spain: a n i n t e r m e d i a t e stage b e t w e e n I n d i a n Mexico a n d m o d e r n Mexico, conc e i v e d as a s t a g e o f f o r m a t i o n a n d g e s t a t i o n . T h i s l i n e a r p e r s p e c t i v e distorts t h e historical reality; N e w Spain was m o r e t h a n a p a u s e o r a period of transition between the Aztec world a n d i n d e p e n d e n t M e x i c o . T h e official h i s t o r y p r e s e n t s it in a n e v e n m o r e n e g a t i v e l i g h t : N e w Spain was a n i n t e r r e g n u m , a stage of u s u r p a t i o n a n d oppression,
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a p e r i o d o f h i s t o r i c a l illegitimacy. I n d e p e n d e n c e c l o s e d t h i s p a r enthesis a n d reestablished the continuity of the historical discourse, i n t e r r u p t e d by t h r e e c e n t u r i e s of colonization. I n d e p e n d e n c e was a restoration. O u r d e f e c t i v e vision o f N e w S p a i n ' s h i s t o r i c a l r e a l i t y is a t last e x p l a i n e d : n o t m y o p i a b u t a n e c l i p s e c o n c e a l e d it f r o m o u r view. L a f a y e ' s b o o k f o r c e s u s t o d i s i n t e r t h e c o r p s e w h i c h w e b u r i e d in o u r backyard. N e w S p a i n is t h e p o i n t o f o r i g i n o f m o d e r n M e x i c o , b u t t h e r e is a b r e a k b e t w e e n t h e t w o . M e x i c o d o e s n o t c o n t i n u e t h e society o f t h e s e v e n t e e n t h a n d e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s ; it c o n t r a d i c t s t h a t society, it is a d i f f e r e n t society. A l t h o u g h t h i s i d e a d o e s n o t explicitly a p p e a r i n L a f a y e ' s b o o k , it is a c o n c l u s i o n t h a t c a n p r o p e r l y b e i n f e r r e d f r o m m a n y o f his p a g e s . V i c e r e g a l society w a s n o t o n l y a u n i q u e society b u t felt t h e n e e d t o a f f i r m its p a r t i c u l a r i t y . N o t c o n t e n t w i t h b e i n g a n d f e e l i n g d i f f e r e n t f r o m S p a i n , it i n v e n t e d a u n i v e r s a l d e s t i n y w i t h w h i c h it c o n f r o n t e d a n d c o u n t e r e d S p a n i s h u n i v e r s a l i s m . N e w S p a i n wished to be t h e O t h e r Spain: a n e m p i r e , t h e R o m e of A m e r i c a . A contradictory proposition: N e w Spain wished to be the realization of O l d S p a i n , a n d this i m p l i e d t h e n e g a t i o n o f t h e l a t t e r . I n o r d e r t o c o n s u m m a t e O l d S p a i n , t h e N e w n e g a t e d it a n d b e c a m e a n o t h e r S p a i n . T h e i m a g e o f t h e p h o e n i x a p p e a r s c o n s t a n t l y in t h e l i t e r a t u r e o f t h e s e v e n t e e n t h a n d e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s : S i g i i e n z a y G o n g o r a calls S a i n t T h o m a s - Q u e t z a l c o a t l t h e P h o e n i x o f t h e West, t h a t is, t h e A m e r i c a n P h o e n i x . T h e A p o s t l e is b o r n f r o m t h e p y r e o n w h i c h t h e I n d i a n g o d c o n s u m e d himself, a n d N e w S p a i n s p r i n g s u p f r o m t h e a s h e s o f O l d S p a i n . A n u n f a t h o m a b l e m y s t e r y : it is o t h e r , yet t h e s a m e . T h i s m y s t e r y gives it life b u t c o n t a i n s a c o n t r a d i c t i o n w h i c h it c a n n o t r e s o l v e w i t h o u t c e a s i n g t o b e ; in o r d e r t o b e other it m u s t d i e , it must negate both the Old a n d the New Spain. T h e contradiction w h i c h d e f i n e d it p o s s e s s e s t h e a m b i g u o u s c h a r a c t e r o f o r i g i n a l sin. B u t by contrast with the " h a p p y e r r o r " of Saint A u g u s t i n e , N e w Spain is c o n d e m n e d : t h e r e a s o n o f h e r b e i n g is t h e c a u s e o f h e r d e a t h . L a f a y e finds in t h e s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y a d e s i r e f o r a t o t a l b r e a k w i t h t h e p r e - H i s p a n i c civilization. T h e C o n q u e s t is f o l l o w e d b y t h e e x t e r m i n a t i o n of t h e native sacerdotal caste, t h e repository of t h e ancient r e l i g i o u s , m a g i c a l , a n d political p o w e r ; t h e s u b j e c t i o n o f t h e I n d i a n s w a s f o l l o w e d b y t h e i r e v a n g e l i z a t i o n . T h e first F r a n c i s c a n s — i n s p i r e d b y t h e p r o p h e c i e s o f J o a c h i m o f F l o r i s — r e j e c t e d all c o m p r o m i s e w i t h p r e - H i s p a n i c religions a n d beliefs. N o n e of t h e c e r e m o n i e s , n o n e of the rites described by S a h a g i i n — d e s p i t e their t r o u b l i n g r e s e m b l a n c e to confession, c o m m u n i o n , baptism, a n d o t h e r Christian practices a n d s a c r a m e n t s — w a s c o n s i d e r e d a " s i g n " t h a t c o u l d h a v e s e r v e d as a b r i d g e between the old religion a n d the Christian religion. Syncretism
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a p p e a r e d o n l y a t t h e b a s e o f t h e social p y r a m i d : t h e I n d i a n s w e r e converted to Christianity a n d simultaneously converted the angels a n d s a i n t s i n t o p r e h i s p a n i c g o d s . S y n c r e t i s m , as a d e l i b e r a t e s p e c u l a t i o n d e s i g n e d t o r o o t C h r i s t i a n i t y in t h e soil o f A n a h u a c a n d u p r o o t t h e S p a n i a r d s , o n l y a p p e a r s l a t e r , in t h e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y , a n d d o e s n o t r e a c h its a p o g e e , m a s t e r f u l l y d e s c r i b e d by L a f a y e , u n t i l t h e eighteenth century. T h e r e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e p r e - H i s p a n i c h i s t o r i e s a n d m y t h s in t h e l i g h t o f f a n t a s t i c glosses o f t h e O l d a n d t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t s c o i n c i d e d w i t h t h e g r o w i n g i m p o r t a n c e o f t w o g r o u p s w i t h a n a m b i v a l e n t att i t u d e t o w a r d t h e I n d i a n a n d t h e S p a n i s h w o r l d s : t h e Creoles a n d t h e m e s t i z o s . T h e c h a n g e in t h e e t h n i c a n d social c o m p o s i t i o n o f t h e c o u n t r y coincided with a decline of t h e Franciscans, replaced by t h e J e s u i t s . T h e J e s u i t s b e c a m e t h e s p o k e s m e n o f t h e Creoles, v o i c i n g their r e s e n t m e n t s , t h e i r aspirations, a n d their h o p e s of t r a n s f o r m i n g N e w Spain into t h e o t h e r Spain. T h e consciousness of N e w Spain's u n i q u e n e s s a p p e a r e d very early, the day after t h e C o n q u e s t ; t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f t h i s c o n s c i o u s n e s s i n t o t h e will t o c r e a t e a n o t h e r S p a i n t o o k m o r e t h a n a c e n t u r y . It first f o u n d e x p r e s s i o n in artistic c r e a t i o n s a n d s p e c u l a t i o n s a b o u t s a c r e d h i s t o r y , a n d still l a t e r in political b r i e f s , like t h e f a m o u s s e r m o n o f F r a y S e r v a n d o T e r e s a d e M i e r in t h e basilica o f G u a d a l u p e , i n w h i c h h e a f f i r m e d , as o n e f o u n d a t i o n o f the Mexican right to i n d e p e n d e n c e , the identity of Quetzalcoatl with the apostle Saint T h o m a s . H i s t o r i a n s h a v e i n t e r p r e t e d all t h i s as a s o r t o f p r e f i g u r a t i o n o f M e x i c a n n a t i o n a l i s m . L a f a y e h i m s e l f a p p e a r s t o a c c e p t t h i s l i n e a r vis i o n o f t h e h i s t o r y o f M e x i c o . F r o m this p o i n t o f view, t h e J e s u i t s , S i g u e n z a y G o n g o r a , a n d S o r J u a n a d e I n e s d e la C r u z h e r s e l f w e r e " p r e c u r s o r s " of Mexican i n d e p e n d e n c e . To m a k e a nationalist a u t h o r o u t o f a b a r o q u e p o e t e s s is n o less e x t r a v a g a n t a n i d e a t h a n t o d i s c o v e r t h e f o r e b e a r o f m o d e r n M e x i c o in t h e last A z t e c tlatoani, C u a u h t e m o c . C r i t i c s as p e r s p i c a c i o u s as A l f o n s o R e y e s a n d P e d r o H e n r i q u e z U r e n a h a v e e v e n d i s c o v e r e d in t h e c o m e d i e s o f R u i z d e A l a r c o n a n d t h e s o n n e t s a n d d i z a i n s o f S o r J u a n a c e r t a i n typical M e x i c a n a c c e n t s . I t is u n d e n i a b l e — o n e ' s eyes a n d e a r s a l o n e confirm it—that t h e p o e t r y of N e w S p a i n d u r i n g t h e b a r o q u e p e r i o d is c l e a r l y d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h a t o f t h e p e n i n s u l a r m o d e l s . T h a t is p a r t i c u l a r l y t r u e o f S o r J u a n a ' s p o e m s , despite t h e echoes of C a l d e r o n , G o n g o r a , a n d o t h e r poets that o n e finds in h e r w r i t i n g s . T h e s a m e c a n b e said, g r a n t e d t h e y a r e m i n o r poets, of Sandoval a n d Zapata a n d Carlos d e Siguenza y G o n g o r a . We find t h e s a m e p h e n o m e n o n in t h e field o f a r c h i t e c t u r e : t h e b a r o q u e o f N e w S p a i n is n o t r e d u c i b l e to t h e S p a n i s h b a r o q u e , a l t h o u g h stylistically it d e p e n d s o n t h e l a t t e r . W e h a v e h e r e n o t artistic n a t i o n a l i s m — a
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r o m a n t i c n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y i n v e n t i o n — b u t a rich a n d original vari a n t o f t h e styles d o m i n a n t i n S p a i n a t t h e e n d o f t h e e i g h t e e n t h century. T h e a r t o f N e w S p a i n , like t h e v e r y society w h i c h c r e a t e d it, d i d n o t w a n t t o b e new, it w a n t e d t o b e another. T h i s a m b i t i o n t i e d it e v e n m o r e firmly t o its p e n i n s u l a r m o d e l : t h e b a r o q u e a e s t h e t i c s o u g h t t o s u r p r i s e , d a z z l e , g o b e y o n d . T h e a r t o f N e w S p a i n is n o t a n a r t o f i n v e n tion b u t of free u s e — m o r e precisely: of freer u s e — o f t h e f u n d a m e n tal e l e m e n t s o f i m p o r t e d styles. It is a n a r t t h a t c o m b i n e s a n d m i x e s m o t i f s a n d m a n n e r s . T h a t is w h y , in h e r g r e a t p o e m , "El S u e n o " ( " T h e D r e a m " ) , S o r J u a n a c o m b i n e s t h e visual a n d plastic style o f G o n g o r a w i t h c o n c e p t i s m , a n d b o t h w i t h scientific e r u d i t i o n a n d n e o s c h o l a s t i c i s m . S o r J u a n a ' s o r i g i n a l i t y d o e s n o t c o n s i s t in t h e r a t h e r u n c o m m o n c o m b i n a t i o n of d i s p a r a t e e l e m e n t s b u t in t h e very subject o f h e r p o e m : t h e d r e a m o f k n o w l e d g e a n d k n o w l e d g e as d r e a m . N o t a s i n g l e p o e m in t h e w h o l e h i s t o r y o f S p a n i s h p o e t r y , f r o m its b e g i n n i n g s t o t h e p r e s e n t , h a s t h a t s u b j e c t f o r its t h e m e . A l t h o u g h S o r J u a n a was probably t h e most intelligent p o e t of h e r age, with t h e e x c e p t i o n o f C a l d e r o n , it is n o t h e r i n t e l l i g e n c e t h a t d i s t i n g u i s h e s h e r from h e r c o n t e m p o r a r i e s b u t h e r intellectual vocation. I n o r d e r to find t h e like, w e m u s t g o t o a t r a d i t i o n u n k n o w n to S o r J u a n a : t h a t o f t h e English "metaphysical" poets, with their m i x t u r e of brilliant ima g e s , s u b t l e c o n c e p t s , a n d scientific p r e o c c u p a t i o n s . J o h n D o n n e a n d S o r J u a n a a r e b o t h f a s c i n a t e d b y scientific a p p a r a t u s , p h y s i o l o g i c a l processes, a s t r o n o m y a n d physics. Science a n d magic: b o t h believed t h a t t h e s t a r s r u l e d o u r p a s s i o n s — a l t h o u g h , t o tell t h e t r u t h , S o r J u a n a ' s e x p e r i e n c e with passion, c o m p a r e d with that of D o n n e , was r a t h e r p o o r . T h e E n g l i s h p o e t is i n c o m p a r a b l y r i c h e r , m o r e a g i l e , f r e e r a n d m o r e s e n s u a l t h a n S o r J u a n a , b u t I say w i t h o u t h e s i t a t i o n t h a t h e was n e i t h e r m o r e intelligent n o r m o r e subtle. As a poet, Sor J u a n a m a r k s n o advance over h e r epoch, a n d h e r w o r k , e v e n in its e x c e s s e s , r e m a i n s f a i t h f u l t o t h e p o e t i c s y n t a x o f t h e S p a n i s h s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y . W h a t d i s t i n g u i s h e s it, I r e p e a t , is its i n t e l l e c t u a l v i s i o n : s h e d o e s n o t s e e t h e w o r l d as a n o b j e c t o f r e l i g i o u s conversion, of m o r a l m e d i t a t i o n , o r of heroic a c t i o n — t h e ways of S p a n i s h p o e t r y — b u t as a n o b j e c t o f k n o w l e d g e . A t t h e e n d o f h e r life s h e w a s h a r a s s e d b y h e r c o n f e s s o r (for t w o y e a r s h e d e n i e d h e r a b solution) a n d t o r m e n t e d by t h e powerful a n d n e u r o t i c a r c h b i s h o p of M e x i c o City. T h i s p e r s o n a g e d e t e s t e d w o m e n as m u c h as h e r e t i c s , as if t h e f o r m e r w e r e a h e r e s y o f n a t u r e . O v e r c o m e by i s o l a t i o n a n d illness, S o r J u a n a s u r r e n d e r e d . S h e r e n o u n c e d l i t e r a t u r e a n d l e a r n i n g as o t h e r p e o p l e r e n o u n c e t h e p a s s i o n s o f t h e s e n s e s . S h e g a v e h e r s e l f u p t o d e v o u t e x e r c i s e s , s o l d h e r b o o k s a n d m u s i c a l i n s t r u m e n t s , fell
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s i l e n t — a n d d i e d . H e r s i l e n c e e x p r e s s e d t h e i n s o l u b l e conflict w h i c h c o n f r o n t e d t h a t society. T h e c o n t r a d i c t i o n o f N e w S p a i n is r e c o r d e d in S o r J u a n a ' s s i l e n c e . I t is n o t difficult t o d e c i p h e r its m e a n i n g . T h e i m p o s s i b i l i t y o f c r e a t i n g a n e w poetic l a n g u a g e was b u t o n e aspect of a g r e a t e r impossibility: that of creating—with the intellectual premises of Spain a n d h e r possessions as o n e ' s p o i n t o f d e p a r t u r e — a n e w t h o u g h t . A t t h e m o m e n t w h e n E u r o p e o p e n e d its d o o r s t o t h e critical, p h i l o s o p h i c a l , scientific, a n d political d o c t r i n e s t h a t w e r e p r e p a r i n g t h e m o d e r n w o r l d , S p a i n c l o i s t e r e d h e r s e l f a n d i m p r i s o n e d h e r finest m i n d s in t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l p r i s o n s o f n e o - s c h o l a s t i c i s m . We H i s p a n i c p e o p l e s h a v e n e v e r b e c o m e t r u l y m o d e r n b e c a u s e , by c o n t r a s t w i t h o t h e r W e s t e r n p e o p l e s , w e n e v e r k n e w a n a g e o f c r i t i c i s m . N e w S p a i n w a s y o u n g a n d full o f i n t e l l e c t u a l v i g o r , as S o r J u a n a a n d S i g u e n z a y G o n g o r a p r o v e , b u t it c o u l d n e v e r i n v e n t a n y t h i n g o r t h i n k f o r itself, g i v e n t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l p r e m i s e s o n w h i c h N e w S p a i n ' s society r e s t e d . T h e s o l u t i o n w o u l d h a v e b e e n t o criticize t h o s e p r e m i s e s . B u t t h e r e w a s a n i n s u r m o u n t a b l e o b s t a c l e : it w a s f o r b i d d e n t o criticize. M o r e o v e r , this c r i t i q u e w o u l d h a v e l e d t o t h e n e g a t i o n o f N e w S p a i n , as h a p p e n e d in t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y . T h i s w a s t h e p r e d i c a m e n t in w h i c h F r a y S e r v a n d o Teresa d e M i e r f o u n d himself. His a r g u m e n t a t i o n , b a s e d o n sacred history (and b o r r o w e d f r o m Siguenza y G o n g o r a ) , relative to Quetzalcoatl-Saint T h o m a s justified n o t only secession f r o m O l d S p a i n b u t t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f N e w S p a i n . T h e society o f i n d e p e n d e n t Mexico deliberately b r o k e with N e w Spain a n d a d o p t e d antagonistic f o r e i g n p r i n c i p l e s as its f o u n d a t i o n : t h e d e m o c r a t i c l i b e r a l i s m o f France and England. I n t h e field o f r e l i g i o n p r o p e r , t h e s i t u a t i o n w a s t h e s a m e : t h e C a t h o l i c i s m o f N e w S p a i n was t h a t o f t h e C o u n t e r - R e f o r m a t i o n , a r e l i g i o n o n t h e d e f e n s i v e w h i c h h a d e x h a u s t e d its c r e a t i v e e n e r g y . H e r e was a n aesthetic, intellectual, a n d religious contradiction: the principles o n which New Spain had been f o u n d e d — t h e double universalism of the Catholic C o u n t e r - R e f o r m a t i o n a n d the Spanish m o n a r c h y — h a d b e c o m e i m p e d i m e n t s w h i c h w e r e c h o k i n g it. T h e g e n e r a t i o n s w h i c h f o l l o w e d S o r J u a n a t r i e d t o p i e r c e t h e wall o f h i s t o r y : t h e y s o u g h t t o r o o t C a t h o l i c i s m in t h e soil o f A n a h u a c b y m e a n s of syncretic speculation a n d to t r a n s f o r m N e w Spain into t h e O t h e r Spain, Mexico-Tenochtitlan—capital of the Aztec e m p i r e — i n t o t h e R o m e o f N o r t h A m e r i c a . T h e i r p r o j e c t c u l m i n a t e d in i n d e p e n d e n c e , but i n d e p e n d e n c e reduced those d r e a m s a n d the m e n w h o wove t h e m t o n o t h i n g n e s s : M e x i c o w a s n o t Creole b u t m e s t i z o , n o t a n e m p i r e b u t a r e p u b l i c . I n 1 8 4 7 t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s flag w a s p l a n t e d o n t h e p a l a c e o f M o c t e z u m a I l h u i c a m i n a a n d t h e viceroys. T h e d r e a m of a Mexican
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e m p i r e was dispelled; t h e t r u e e m p i r e was a n o t h e r e m p i r e . Mexico b e c a m e p o o r e r b u t n o t wiser; a c e n t u r y after the war with t h e N o r t h A m e r i c a n s w e still ask o u r s e l v e s w h o w e a r e a n d w h a t w e w a n t . We m e s t i z o s h a v e d e s t r o y e d t h e m a j o r i t y o f t h e Creole w o r k s , a n d t o d a y w e a r e u p r o o t e d b e i n g s a m o n g t h e r u i n s . H o w shall w e r e c o n c i l e ourselves with o u r past? T h e c o n t r a d i c t i o n o f N e w S p a i n a p p e a r s in all fields a n d o n all levels, f r o m p o e t r y t o t h e e c o n o m y a n d f r o m t h e o l o g y t o t h e e t h n i c h i e r a r c h i e s . T h e a m b i g u i t y o f N e w S p a i n vis-a-vis t h e I n d i a n w o r l d a n d t h e S p a n i s h world was t h e ambiguity of t h e two g r o u p s that c o m p o s e d t h e m a s s o f its p o p u l a t i o n : t h e Creoles a n d t h e m e s t i z o s . T h e Creoles w e r e a n d w e r e n o t S p a n i a r d s ; like t h e I n d i a n s , t h e y w e r e b o r n in A m e r i c a a n d , u s u a l l y u n a w a r e o f t h e fact, s h a r e d m a n y o f t h e I n d i a n beliefs. T h e Creoles s c o r n e d a n d d e t e s t e d t h e I n d i a n s as viol e n t l y as t h e y e n v i e d a n d h a t e d t h e S p a n i a r d s . T h e a m b i g u i t y o f t h e m e s t i z o w a s twice as g r e a t as t h a t o f t h e c r e o l e b u t n e g a t e d t h e Creole a m b i g u i t y in t h e last a n a l y s i s . L i k e t h e c r e o l e , t h e m e s t i z o is n e i t h e r S p a n i s h n o r I n d i a n , n o r is h e a E u r o p e a n w h o s e e k s t o p u t r o o t s d o w n i n t o t h e A m e r i c a n soil; h e is a p r o d u c t o f t h a t soil, a n e w m a n . T h e c r e o l e strives t o p u t d o w n r o o t s b y m e a n s o f a r e l i g i o u s a n d h i s t o r i c a l s y n c r e t i s m , b u t it is t h e m e s t i z o w h o a c h i e v e s it in a n e x i s t e n t i a l a n d c o n c r e t e f o r m . Socially t h e m e s t i z o is a m a r g i n a l b e i n g , r e j e c t e d b y I n d i a n s , S p a n i a r d s , a n d Creoles; historically, h e is t h e i n c a r n a t i o n o f t h e c r e o l e d r e a m . H i s s i t u a t i o n vis-a-vis t h e I n d i a n s reflects t h e s a m e a m b i v a l e n c e ; h e is t h e i r h a n g m a n a n d t h e i r a v e n g e r . I n N e w S p a i n h e is a b a n d i t a n d a p o l i c e m a n , i n t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y h e b e c o m e s a g u e r r i l l a a n d a caudillo, in t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y a b a n k e r a n d a t r a d e u n i o n l e a d e r . I n M e x i c a n h i s t o r y his a s c e n t signifies t h e sway o f v i o l e n c e ; h i s s i l h o u e t t e e m b o d i e s e n d e m i c civil w a r . All t h a t t h e c r e o l e p r o j e c t e d a n d d r e a m e d of, t h e m e s t i z o t u r n e d i n t o r e a l i t y b u t in t h e f o r m of a violence that until 1910 lacked t h e mestizo's o w n historical d e s i g n . F o r m o r e t h a n a c e n t u r y we mestizos lived off t h e c r u m b s of the intellectual b a n q u e t of the E u r o p e a n s a n d N o r t h Americans. I n t h e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y t h e Creoles d i s c o v e r e d t h a t t h e y h a d a patria, a f a t h e r l a n d . T h e w o r d a p p e a r s b o t h in t h e w r i t i n g s o f S o r J u a n a a n d t h o s e o f S i g u e n z a , a n d in b o t h i n v a r i a b l y d e s i g n a t e s N e w S p a i n . C r e o l e p a t r i o t i s m d i d n o t c o n t r a d i c t t h e i r loyalty t o t h e e m p i r e a n d t h e c h u r c h : it w a s a q u e s t i o n o f t w o d i f f e r e n t o r d e r s o f loyalty. A l t h o u g h t h e s e v e n t e e n t h - c e n t u r y Creoles felt i n t e n s e l y a n t i - S p a n i s h , theirs was n o t a nationalism in t h e m o d e r n sense of t h e w o r d . T h e y w e r e g o o d vassals o f t h e k i n g a n d , w i t h o u t t h e s l i g h t e s t c o n t r a d i c t i o n , g o o d p a t r i o t s o f A n a h u a c . A c e n t u r y a n d a h a l f later, e v e n as t h e y d e m a n d e d i n d e p e n d e n c e , t h e Creoles still w a n t e d t o b e governed b y a
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p r i n c e o f t h e r o y a l S p a n i s h l i n e . I n t h e t h e a t e r o f S o r J u a n a a n d in h e r religious p o e m s , I n d i a n s a n d blacks, whites a n d mestizos, speak a n d s i n g e a c h in his o w n f a s h i o n . T h e u n i v e r s a l i t y o f t h e e m p i r e e x t e n d e d its p r o t e c t i o n o v e r a p l u r a l i t y o f t o n g u e s a n d p e o p l e s . T h e p a t r i o t i s m o f N e w S p a i n a n d t h e r e c o g n i t i o n o f its a e s t h e t i c o r i g i n a l i t y d i d n o t contradict this universalism: By m e a n s o f w h a t m a g i c h e r b s Have the Indians of my country C a s t t h e i r spell O v e r my writings? T h e contradiction a p p e a r e d later, a b o u t 1730, notes Lafaye. As t h e y e a r s p a s s , t h e d i s c o r d g r o w s e v e r s h a r p e r , a n d by t h e m o m e n t of i n d e p e n d e n c e it h a s b e c o m e i n s o l u b l e . A n i n c i d e n t d r a m a t i c a l l y illust r a t e s t h i s c o n t r a d i c t i o n : t h e q u a r r e l b e t w e e n t h e t w o l e a d e r s of t h e movement for i n d e p e n d e n c e , H i d a l g o a n d A l l e n d e , t h e former t h e l e a d e r of I n d i a n s a n d m e s t i z o s , t h e latter t h e l e a d e r of t h e Creoles. T h e n e e d t o s i n k r o o t s in A m e r i c a a n d t o d i s p u t e t h e S p a n i s h titles t o d o m i n a t i o n l e d t h e Creoles t o e x a l t t h e I n d i a n p a s t . T h i s e x a l t a t i o n was simultaneously a transfiguration. Lafaye perspicuously describes t h e m e a n i n g of this o p e r a t i o n : "It abolished t h e b r e a k with t h e American past that the Conquest represented and thereby e n d o w e d A m e r i c a w i t h a s p i r i t u a l s t a t u s ( a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y a political a n d j u r i d ical s t a t u s ) t h a t p u t h e r o n a f o o t i n g o f e q u a l i t y w i t h t h e t u t e l a r y power, Spain." W h e n Siguenza y G o n g o r a d e c i d e d to take the Aztec e m p e r o r s as t h e t h e m e o f t h e t r i u m p h a l a r c h t h a t was b u i l t t o r e c e i v e t h e viceroy, t h e C o u n t of P a r e d e s (1680), h e i n t r o d u c e d his text with t h i s p r e f a t o r y s t a t e m e n t : " T h e a t e r o f t h e Political V i r t u e s t h a t C o n s t i t u t e a P r i n c e , O b s e r v e d in t h e A n c i e n t M o n a r c h s o f t h e M e x i c a n E m p i r e , w i t h W h o s e Effigies t h e T r i u m p h a l A r c h R a i s e d b y t h e V e r y N o b l e a n d I m p e r i a l City o f M e x i c o Was O r n a m e n t e d . . . . " S i g u e n z a y G o n g o r a p r o p o s e d t o t h e S p a n i s h v i c e r o y , as a n e x a m p l e o f g o o d g o v e r n m e n t , n o t t h e e m p e r o r s o f classical a n t i q u i t y , m o d e l s o f political w i s d o m , b u t t h e A z t e c s o v e r e i g n s . N o t e w o r t h y , t o o , is t h e f r e q u e n c y w i t h w h i c h , in all t h e t e x t s o f t h i s p e r i o d , t h e r e a p p e a r s t h e adjective "imperial," a p p l i e d indifferently to t h e Aztec state a n d M e x i c o City. T h e exaltation of the d e a d I n d i a n past coexisted with hate a n d fear for t h e living I n d i a n . T h e s a m e S i g u e n z a y G o n g o r a relates that, w h e n a c a n a l o f t h e city w a s b e i n g c l e a n e d , t h e r e w a s f o u n d " a c o n s i d e r a b l e n u m b e r o f s m a l l fetish o b j e c t s . . . , m a n y clay figurines a n d d o l l s , all r e p r e s e n t i n g S p a n i a r d s a n d p i e r c e d w i t h l a n c e s o r k n i v e s o f t h e s a m e m a t e r i a l , w i t h n e c k s p a i n t e d r e d as if t h e i r t h r o a t s h a d b e e n
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c u t . . . , irrefutable p r o o f of the h a t r e d that the I n d i a n s have for us a n d t h e fate t h e y w i s h f o r t h e S p a n i a r d s . " S i g u e n z a y G o n g o r a e m p h a s i z e d t h a t t h e c a n a l in w h i c h t h e s e objects o f b l a c k m a g i c w e r e f o u n d w a s t h e o n e in w h i c h m a n y S p a n i a r d s h a d p e r i s h e d d u r i n g t h e Noche Triste. A d m i r a t i o n , h a t r e d , f e a r — a n d f r i e n d s h i p . A m o n g t h e g r e a t friends of Siguenza y G o n g o r a was a p u r e - b l o o d e d I n d i a n , D o n J u a n d e Alva Ixtlilxochitl, a d e s c e n d a n t of t h e a n c i e n t kings of Texcoco. T h e y w e r e such g o o d friends t h a t Ixtlilxochitl, w h o h a d n o h e i r s , b e q u e a t h e d t o S i g u e n z a his r i c h c o l l e c t i o n o f I n d i a n c h r o n i c l e s , d o c u m e n t s , a n d a n t i q u i t i e s . We recall t h e c o m m e n t o f G i d e , w h o w r o t e : " O n l y s i m p l e m i n d s c a n say t h a t t h e r e a r e s i m p l e f e e l i n g s . " F r o m the second half of t h e sixteenth c e n t u r y to the e n d of the e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y N e w S p a i n was a stable, peaceful, a n d p r o s p e r o u s society. T h e r e w e r e e p i d e m i c s , a t t a c k s b y p i r a t e s , s h o r t a g e s o f m a i z e , r i s i n g s o f n o m a d i c I n d i a n s in t h e N o r t h , b u t N e w S p a i n a l s o k n e w a b u n d a n c e , p e a c e , a n d f r e q u e n t l y g o o d g o v e r n m e n t . N o t t h a t all t h e v i c e r o y s w e r e g o o d , a l t h o u g h s o m e w e r e , b u t b e c a u s e t h e s y s t e m was, in effect, o n e o f a b a l a n c e o f p o w e r s . T h e a u t h o r i t y o f t h e s t a t e w a s l i m i t e d b y t h a t o f t h e c h u r c h . T h e v i c e r o y ' s p o w e r was b a l a n c e d b y t h a t of t h e A u d i e n c i a , while t h e a r c h b i s h o p ' s p o w e r was c o u n t e r e d by that of the religious orders. A l t h o u g h the masses exercised only an i n d i r e c t i n f l u e n c e in this h i e r a r c h i c a l s y s t e m , t h e d i v i s i o n o f p o w e r s a n d t h e plurality of j u r i s d i c t i o n s obliged t h e g o v e r n m e n t to seek a sort o f p u b l i c c o n s e n s u s . I n this s e n s e , t h e s y s t e m o f N e w S p a i n w a s m o r e flexible t h a n t h e p r e s e n t p r e s i d e n t i a l r e g i m e . U n d e r t h e m a s k o f d e m o c r a c y , o u r p r e s i d e n t s a r e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l d i c t a t o r s in t h e R o m a n style. T h e o n l y d i f f e r e n c e is t h a t t h e R o m a n d i c t a t o r s h i p l a s t e d six m o n t h s , w h i l e o u r s lasts six y e a r s . N e w S p a i n w a s i n c a p a b l e o f c r e a t i n g a s c i e n c e o r a p h i l o s o p h y , b u t its artistic c r e a t i o n s , p a r t i c u l a r l y in t h e fields o f p o e t r y , u r b a n i s m , a n d a r c h i t e c t u r e , a r e a d m i r a b l e . I n 1 6 0 4 , B e r n a r d o d e B a l b u e n a p u b l i s h e d a l o n g p o e m o n M e x i c o City a n d e n t i t l e d it La Grandeza Mexicana ( " T h e M e x i c a n G r a n d e u r " ) . T h e p h r a s e m a y s e e m hyperbolic, especially w h e n we recall t h e a u t h e n t i c g r a n d e u r o f T e o t i h u a c a n , a t h o u s a n d y e a r s b e f o r e , b u t n o t if w e c o n s i d e r t h e d i s a s t e r t h a t t h e m o d e r n M e x i c o City r e p r e s e n t s o n t h e u r b a n , social, a n d a e s t h e t i c leyels. T h e m o s t c o m p l e x a n d original c r e a t i o n of N e w S p a i n was n o t i n d i v i d u a l b u t collective, n o t a n artistic b u t a r e l i g i o u s c r e a t i o n : t h e c u l t o f t h e V i r g i n o f G u a d a l u p e . I f t h e f e c u n d i t y o f a society is m e a s u r e d b y t h e r i c h n e s s o f its m y t h i c a l i m a g e s , N e w S p a i n w a s v e r y fecund; the identification of Quetzalcoatl with the apostle Saint T h o m a s w a s n o less p r o d i g i o u s a n i n v e n t i o n t h a n t h e c r e a t i o n o f T o n a n t z i n - G u a d a l u p e . Lafaye's study of the birth a n d evolution of
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t h e s e t w o m y t h s is a m o d e l o f its k i n d . I t w o u l d b e difficult f o r m e t o a d d a n y t h i n g t o it, so I will o f f e r o n l y s o m e m a r g i n a l r e m a r k s . T h e m y t h of Quetzalcoatl-Saint T h o m a s was n e v e r truly p o p u l a r . F r o m t h e first, it r e p r e s e n t e d a n e f f o r t a t h i s t o r i c a l a n d t h e o l o g i c a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n r a t h e r t h a n a r e l i g i o u s m y s t e r y . T h a t is w h y it p r e o c c u p i e d historians, jurists, a n d ideologists. T o n a n t z i n - G u a d a l u p e , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , c o n q u e r e d t h e h e a r t a n d t h e i m a g i n a t i o n o f all. S h e w a s a t r u e a p p a r i t i o n , in t h e s e n s e o f t h e d i v i n e numen: a c o n s t e l l a t i o n o f s i g n s c o m e f r o m all t h e skies a n d all t h e m y t h o l o g i e s , f r o m t h e Apocalypse to p r e - C o l u m b i a n manuscripts, a n d from M e d i t e r r a n e a n Catholicism to t h e p r e - C h r i s t i a n I b e r i a n world. I n this constellation e a c h e p o c h a n d e a c h M e x i c a n h a s r e a d his d e s t i n y , f r o m t h e p e a s a n t t o t h e guerrillero Z a p a t a , f r o m t h e b a r o q u e p o e t t o t h e m o d e r n p o e t w h o exalts t h e Virgin with a sort of sacrilegious passion, f r o m t h e s e v e n t e e n t h - c e n t u r y scholar to t h e r e v o l u t i o n a r y H i d a l g o . T h e Virgin was t h e s t a n d a r d o f t h e I n d i a n s a n d m e s t i z o s w h o f o u g h t in 1 8 1 0 against the Spaniards, and a century later she became the b a n n e r of t h e p e a s a n t a r m i e s o f Z a p a t a . S h e is t h e o b j e c t o f a p r i v a t e , p u b l i c , r e g i o n a l , a n d n a t i o n a l cult. T h e feast d a y o f G u a d a l u p e , D e c e m b e r 12, is still t h e feast d a y p a r e x c e l l e n c e , t h e c e n t r a l d a t e in t h e e m o tional c a l e n d a r of the Mexican people. M o t h e r of g o d s a n d m e n , of stars a n d ants, of maize a n d agave, T o n a n t z i n - G u a d a l u p e was the i m a g i n a r y c o m p e n s a t i o n of t h e I n d i a n s for t h e state of o r p h a n a g e to which t h e C o n q u e s t h a d r e d u c e d t h e m . T h e Indians, w h o h a d seen the massacre of their priests a n d the d e s t r u c t i o n o f t h e i r idols, w h o s e ties w i t h t h e i r p a s t a n d t h e i r s u p e r n a t u r a l w o r l d h a d b e e n s e v e r e d , t o o k r e f u g e in t h e l a p o f T o n a n t z i n - G u a d a l u p e , t h e lap of t h e m o t h e r - m o u n t a i n , t h e m o t h e r water. T h e a m b i g u o u s situation of N e w Spain led to a similar react i o n : t h e Creoles f o u n d in t h e b o s o m o f T o n a n t z i n - G u a d a l u p e t h e i r true mother. A natural a n d supernatural mother, composed of A m e r i c a n e a r t h a n d E u r o p e a n t h e o l o g y . F o r t h e Creoles, t h e b r o w n V i r g i n r e p r e s e n t e d t h e possibility o f s t r i k i n g r o o t s in t h e soil o f A n a h u a c . S h e w a s b o t h w o m b a n d g r a v e : t o s t r i k e r o o t is t o b u r y o n e s e l f in t h e e a r t h . I n t h e c r e o l e c u l t o f t h e V i r g i n t h e r e is t h e f a s c i n a t i o n w i t h d e a t h a n d t h e v a g u e h o p e t h a t this d e a t h will b e a transfiguration: to be the Virgin's children may m e a n to obtain A m e r i c a n naturalization. In t h e mestizos t h e sense of b e i n g o r p h a n e d w a s a n d is m o r e t o t a l a n d p r o f o u n d . F o r t h e m e s t i z o s t h e q u e s t i o n o f o r i g i n s is t h e p r i m o r d i a l q u e s t i o n , a q u e s t i o n o f life a n d d e a t h . I n t h e i m a g i n a t i o n of t h e mestizos, T o n a n t z i n - G u a d a l u p e was h e r infernal r e p l i c a : la Chingada. O n t h e o n e h a n d , t h e v i o l a t e d m o t h e r e x p o s e d t o t h e o u t s i d e world, r a v a g e d by t h e C o n q u e s t ; o n t h e o t h e r , t h e V i r g i n
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M o t h e r , i n t a c t , i n v u l n e r a b l e , w h o c a r r i e s a c h i l d in h e r w o m b . T h e s e c r e t life o f t h e m e s t i z o oscillates b e t w e e n la Chingada and Tonantzin-Guadalupe. Like t h e p h o e n i x of t h e b a r o q u e p o e t Sandoval y Zapata, Quetzalc o a t l is " t h e w i n g e d e t e r n i t y o f t h e w i n d . " H i s n a m e is N a h u a t l b u t h e is a v e r y a n c i e n t g o d , e a r l i e r t h a n t h e n a m e u n d e r w h i c h w e k n o w h i m . H e w a s a c o a s t a l d i v i n i t y , a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e sea a n d w i n d , w h o r e a c h e d t h e c e n t r a l p l a t e a u , e s t a b l i s h e d h i m s e l f a t T e o t i h u a c a n as a g r e a t g o d , t h e n , a f t e r t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f t h e city, r e a p p e a r e d a t T u l a centuries later, h e n c e f o r t h b e a r i n g the n a m e that h e b e a r s today. At Tula h e d u p l i c a t e d himself: h e was t h e c r e a t o r a n d c u l t u r e g o d Q u e t zalcoatl, w h o m t h e p e o p l e o f T u l a i n h e r i t e d o r stole f r o m T e o t i h u a c a n , b u t h e w a s also a p r i e s t - k i n g w h o s e r i t u a l n a m e is t h a t o f t h e g o d (Topiltzin-Quetzalcoatl). Tula was d e v a s t a t e d by a religious w a r w h i c h w a s also a m y t h i c a l c o m b a t b e t w e e n t h e w a r l i k e d i v i n i t i e s o f t h e nomads and the culture god from Teotihuacan. Quetzalcoatl—the god o r t h e priest-king?—flees a n d d i s a p p e a r s to the place " w h e r e the w a t e r j o i n s t h e sky": t h e m a r i n e h o r i z o n o n w h i c h E v e n i n g S t a r a n d M o r n i n g Star alternately appear. T h e date of the disappearance a n d t r a n s f i g u r a t i o n o f Q u e t z a l c o a t l i n t o t h e m o r n i n g s t a r w a s a y e a r ce acatl ( o n e r e e d ) . T h e y e a r o f his r e t u r n , said t h e p r o p h e c y , w o u l d also b e ce acatl. T h e fall o f T u l a a n d t h e flight o f Q u e t z a l c o a t l u s h e r e d i n a n i n t e r r e g n u m in A n a h u a c . C e n t u r i e s l a t e r t h e A z t e c s t a t e a r o s e , c r e a t e d like t h a t o f T u l a b y n e w l y civilized b a r b a r i a n s . T h e A z t e c s f o u n d e d M e x i c o - T e n o c h t i t l a n in t h e i m a g e o f T u l a , w h i c h h a d b e e n f o u n d e d in t h e i m a g e o f T e o t i h u a c a n . I n a n c i e n t M e x i c o , l e g i t i m a c y h a d a relig i o u s c h a r a c t e r . I t is n o t s u r p r i s i n g , t h e r e f o r e , t h a t t h e A z t e c s , w i s h ing to establish the legitimacy of their rule over the o t h e r I n d i a n peoples, proclaimed themselves t h e direct heirs of Tula. T h e Mexican tlatoani g o v e r n e d in t h e n a m e o f T u l a . T h e a p p e a r a n c e o f C o r t e s o n t h e G u l f s h o r e p r e c i s e l y in a ce acatl y e a r s e e m e d t o close t h e i n t e r r e g n u m : Q u e t z a l c o a t l h a d r e t u r n e d , T u l a h a d r e c l a i m e d its h e r i t a g e . W h e n t h e Aztecs, o r a fraction of their r u l i n g caste, discovered t h a t t h e S p a n i a r d s w e r e n o t t h e e n v o y s o f T u l a , it w a s t o o l a t e . T h e h i s t o r i a n s w h o m i n i m i z e this e p i s o d e d o n o t p e r c e i v e its t r u e s i g n i f i c a n c e : t h e arrival of t h e S p a n i a r d s d e m o n s t r a t e d t h e falseness of t h e Aztec c l a i m s . E v e n b e f o r e t h e walls o f M e x i c o - T e n o c h t i t l a n c r u m b l e d , t h e r e l i g i o u s f o u n d a t i o n o f its h e g e m o n y h a d c o l l a p s e d . Quetzalcoatl, o r legitimacy: by d e m o n s t r a t i n g with every kind of p r o o f the identity of Quetzalcoatl a n d the apostle Saint T h o m a s , D o n Carlos d e Siguenza y G o n g o r a a n d the Jesuit M a n u e l D u a r t e only r e p e a t e d t h e o p e r a t i o n of religious legitimation p e r f o r m e d by t h e
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A z t e c s s e v e r a l c e n t u r i e s b e f o r e . A s L a f a y e says: " I f t h e A m e r i c a n patria w a s t o t a k e r o o t in its o w n soil, it m u s t d e v e l o p a s e n s e o f its i d e n t i t y , a n d it c o u l d o n l y find t h e f o u n d a t i o n s it s o u g h t in t h e g r a c e o f G o d , n o t in t h e d i s a s t e r o f a C o n q u e s t t h a t s t r o n g l y r e s e m b l e d Apocalypse. F o r Mexicans Quetzalcoatl was t h e i n s t r u m e n t of a c h a n g e in spiritual status." Quetzalcoatl d i s a p p e a r e d f r o m t h e historical h o r i z o n of t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , e x c e p t in t h e c a s e o f t h o s e w r i t e r s a n d a r t i s t s w h o , w i t h o u t m u c h success, c h o s e h i m as t h e s u b j e c t f o r t h e i r w o r k s . H e d i s a p p e a r e d b u t d i d n o t die; h e was n o l o n g e r god o r apostle b u t a national h e r o . H e was called H i d a l g o , J u a r e z , C a r r a n z a : t h e q u e s t for legitimacy has c o n t i n u e d d o w n to o u r o w n time. Each of the great official f i g u r e s o f i n d e p e n d e n t M e x i c o , a n d e a c h o f t h e c a p i t a l m o m e n t s o f its h i s t o r y , h a v e b e e n m a n i f e s t a t i o n s o f this a s p i r a t i o n , e v e r r e n e w e d . For t h e majority of Mexicans, I n d e p e n d e n c e was a restorat i o n , t h a t is, a n e v e n t w h i c h c l o s e d t h e i n t e r r e g n u m e s t a b l i s h e d b y t h e C o n q u e s t . A c u r i o u s c o n c e p t i o n , this, w h i c h m a d e N e w S p a i n little m o r e t h a n a p a r e n t h e s i s . J u a r e z , i n his t u r n , r e p r e s e n t e d t h e n a t i o n a l l e g i t i m a c y a g a i n s t M a x i m i l i a n , significantly d u b b e d el Intruso ( t h e I n t r u d e r ) ; M a x i m i l i a n ' s e m p i r e is a n o t h e r h i s t o r i c a l p a r e n t h e s i s . Finally, t h e v i c t o r i o u s p a r t y in t h e M e x i c a n R e v o l u t i o n t o o k t h e n a m e o f "Constitutionalist" a n d rose against the u s u r p i n g reactionary general H u e r t a . I n d e p e n d e n c e , the liberal r e v o l u t i o n of 1857, t h e p o p u l a r r e v o l u t i o n o f 1 9 1 0 : all t h e s e m o v e m e n t s , so r a n t h e c u r r e n t i n t e r p r e tation, h a d reestablished legitimacy. B u t t h e q u e s t for this legitimacy c o n t i n u e s , a n d for s o m e even t h e r e g i m e which has g o v e r n e d us for half a c e n t u r y has u s u r p e d t h e Mexican revolutionary legitimacy. T h e i n t e r r e g n u m o p e n e d b y t h e flight o f Q u e t z a l c o a t l in 9 8 7 h a s n o t yet ended. F o r a M e x i c a n it is a n e x t r a o r d i n a r y i n t e l l e c t u a l a d v e n t u r e t o follow J a c q u e s L a f a y e in t h e analysis o f t h e s e t w o m y t h s , i n t h e e x p o s i t i o n o f t h e h i s t o r i c a l logic w h i c h g o v e r n e d t h e i r e v o l u t i o n , a n d t o c o n t e m p l a t e his r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e beliefs o n w h i c h t h e y w e r e g r a f t e d . At t h e e n d of this j o u r n e y , t h e r e a d e r c o n f r o n t s two constants of t h e h i s t o r y o f t h e M e x i c a n p e o p l e : its o b s e s s i o n w i t h l e g i t i m a c y a n d its feeling of b e i n g a n o r p h a n e d people. Do we n o t have h e r e two m a n i festations of a single historical a n d psychic p r o b l e m ? T h e m y t h s of N e w S p a i n a n d t h o s e o f m o d e r n M e x i c o , like all t h e g r e a t m y t h s , a r e e f f o r t s t o a n s w e r t h e q u e s t i o n o f o r i g i n s . F r o m t h i s p o i n t o f view, t h e y a r e n o t the exclusive p r o p e r t y of Mexicans: the s e n t i m e n t of b e i n g o r p h a n e d a n d the search for legitimacy a p p e a r , u n d e r o t h e r n a m e s , in all h u m a n societies a n d in all e p o c h s . L a f a y e ' s b o o k s h o w s u s t h e t w o faces o f h i s t o r y : h e d e s c r i b e s u n i v e r s a l s i t u a t i o n s w h i c h a r e a t t h e
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s a m e time particular a n d irreducible to others. Levi-Strauss thinks t h a t m y t h s , b y c o n t r a s t w i t h p o e m s , a r e t r a n s l a t a b l e . T h e y a r e , in fact, b u t e a c h o f t h e s e t r a n s l a t i o n s , like t h a t o f a p o e m , is also a t r a n s u b s t a n t i a t i o n : Q u e t z a l c o a t l - S a i n t T h o m a s is n o t T o p i l t z i n - Q u e t z a l coatl. E a c h h i s t o r i c a l s i t u a t i o n is u n i q u e a n d e a c h is t h e m e t a p h o r o f t h a t u n i v e r s a l fact t h a t c o n s i s t s in t h e fact o f b e i n g m e n . I n L a f a y e ' s w o r k — t h e work of an ethnologist, a poet, a t h i n k e r — t h e r e appears t h e a m b i g u i t y o f h i s t o r y , w h i c h a l w a y s oscillates b e t w e e n t h e r e l a t i v e a n d t h e a b s o l u t e , t h e p a r t i c u l a r a n d t h e u n i v e r s a l . If it is n o l o n g e r metaphysics b u t history that defines m a n , t h e n we m u s t p u t at the c e n t e r o f o u r m e d i t a t i o n s , in p l a c e o f t h e k e y w o r d to be, t h e k e y w o r d between. M a n b e t w e e n h e a v e n a n d e a r t h , b e t w e e n w a t e r a n d fire; b e t w e e n t h e plants a n d t h e a n i m a l s ; at t h e c e n t e r of time, b e t w e e n t h e p a s t a n d t h e f u t u r e ; b e t w e e n his m y t h s a n d his acts. All t h i s c o m e s d o w n to a single p r o p o s i t i o n : m a n a m o n g m e n . Octavio Paz
Acknowledgments
A s a c h i l d , I w a s t a k e n b y m y m o t h e r t o s e e a film b a s e d o n t h e h e r o i c life o f P a n c h o Villa. It w a s m y first c o n t a c t w i t h M e x i c o , a n d I w a s simultaneously fascinated a n d terrified. To this d a y m y feelings tow a r d t h a t c o u n t r y b e a r t h e s t a m p o f t h a t initial a m b i g u i t y . M u c h later, two meetings d e c i d e d m y t u r n toward Mexico. A meeting with Marcel Bataillon convinced m e that the course I h a d chosen w a s t h e r i g h t o n e f o r m e . I n 1 9 5 2 I b e g a n m y first M e x i c a n s t u d y u n d e r t h e d i r e c t i o n o f a t e a c h e r w h o s e w o r k I c o n t i n u e t o r e g a r d as a m o d e l — a m o d e l as f r u i t f u l as it is i n i m i t a b l e . M y s e c o n d d e c i s i v e m e e t i n g w a s w i t h P a u l Rivet, w h o s e a c q u a i n t a n c e I m a d e t h r o u g h M a r c e l d e C o p p e t . T h a n k s t o Rivet, w h o o p e n e d u p t o m e his l i b r a r y a n d t h e i m m e n s e t r e a s u r y o f his k n o w l e d g e a n d m e m o r i e s , a n d w h o invited m e to c o m e S u n d a y a f t e r n o o n s to t h a t " r o o f o f A m e r i c a " t h a t w a s h i s a p a r t m e n t in t h e M u s e e d e l ' H o m m e , I h a d m y first l i v i n g c o n t a c t w i t h t h e N e w W o r l d w i t h o u t l e a v i n g P a r i s . T h e n a m e o f Rivet, w h o g u i d e d m y first s t e p s as a n A m e r i c a n i s t , s i m u l t a n e o u s l y g a v e m e access t o t h e m e n a n d b o o k s w i t h o u t w h i c h my study of Mexico would have r e m a i n e d a youthful d r e a m . R o b e r t R i c a r d a n d J a c q u e s S o u s t e l l e , b o t h P a u l Rivet's d i s c i p l e s , l a t e r g a v e m e a masterful p r e p a r a t i o n for u n d e r t a k i n g the research which res u l t e d in t h i s b o o k . I could n o t have c o m p l e t e d this b o o k without the h e l p of institut i o n s , b o t h F r e n c h a n d f o r e i g n , w h i c h m a d e it p o s s i b l e f o r m e t o visit repositories of books a n d archives a n d b e c o m e acquainted with the Mexican geographical a n d h u m a n milieu, a n d which gave m e the leisure n e e d e d for research a n d writing. T h i s book could not have s e e n t h e l i g h t w i t h o u t t h e h e l p o f t h e C e n t r e N a t i o n a l d e la R e c h e r c h e Scientifique (C.N.R.S.); t h e Institut des H a u t e s E t u d e s d e l ' A m e r i q u e Latine of t h e University of Paris; t h e Direction G e n e r a t e d e s Affaires Culturelles et Techniques of t h e F r e n c h Ministry of Foreign Affairs; the Universidad Nacional A u t o n o m a d e Mexico; the Consejo S u p e r i o r d e I n v e s t i g a c i o n e s Cientificas ( C . S . I . C . ) o f M a d r i d ; a n d , last b u t n o t least, t h e C a s a d e V e l a z q u e z ( E c o l e F r a n c a i s e d e s H a u t e s XXlll
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E t u d e s H i s p a n i q u e s ) in M a d r i d . I e x p r e s s m y s i n c e r e g r a t i t u d e t o officials o f t h o s e i n s t i t u t i o n s f o r t h e i r e f f o r t s in m y b e h a l f . I m u s t also a c k n o w l e d g e m y d e b t t o all t h o s e p e r s o n s w h o s e p e r s o n a l a s s i s t a n c e l i g h t e n e d m y l a b o r s , a n d first o f all t o a r c h i v i s t s a n d librarians: the p e r s o n n e l of t h e Bibliotheque Nationale d e Paris, t h e Musee d e l'Homme, the Institut des Hautes Etudes d e l'Amerique Latine, t h e Bibliotheque Nationale et Universitaire d e Strasbourg. T h e Institut des Hautes Etudes de l'Amerique Latine and the Musee d e l ' H o m m e were my workshops. T h e steady a n d friendly s u p p o r t of the director of the Institute, Pierre Monbeig, Directeur des S c i e n c e s H u m a i n e s a t t h e C e n t r e N a t i o n a l e d e la R e c h e r c h e S c i e n tifique, p r o v e d invaluable. A t t h e Casa d e Velazquez, Francois C h e v a l i e r , its d i r e c t o r , p l a c e d h i s p e r s o n a l l i b r a r y o f M e x i c a n h i s t o r i cal w o r k s a t m y d i s p o s a l ; t h e l i b r a r i a n o f t h e C a s a , M i l e F r a n c o i s e C o t t o n , a s s i s t e d m e daily. M y c o l l e a g u e , M i l e M . C. G e r b e r t , a n d M m e M . A . S a u v e h e l p e d m e in t h e last s t a g e s o f t h e b o o k ' s p r e p a r a t i o n , t h e f o r m e r as p a l e o g r a p h e r , t h e l a t t e r as c a r t o g r a p h e r . I r e c a l l w i t h s p e cial g r a t i t u d e t h e p e r s o n s in c h a r g e o f o t h e r g r e a t A m e r i c a n i s t l i b r a r ies i n E u r o p e , L a t i n A m e r i c a , a n d t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s : E . d e la T o r r e Villar, G u a s t a v i n o , J . d e la P e n a , R. P. Egafia, L. V a z q u e z d e P a r g a , t h e l a t e H o w a r d F. C l i n e , D o n a M a t i l d e L o p e z - S e r r a n o , T h o m a s R. A d a m s , N . L. B e n s o n , A. P o m p a y P o m p a . I cite t h e s e n a m e s as t h e y c o m e t o m i n d . T h e list c o u l d b e m u c h l o n g e r ; t o all I e x p r e s s m y thanks. L e t m e say t h a t I h a v e l e a r n e d f r o m d i s c u s s i o n s as m u c h as f r o m b o o k s . I m u s t n o t fail t o m e n t i o n t h e n a m e s o f t h e l a t e D r . A n g e l M a r i a G a r i b a y K., W i g b e r t o J i m e n e z M o r e n o , R. P. Z u b i l l a g a , J . P. B e r t h e , E r n e s t J . B u r r u s , Silvio Zavala. Finally, I a c k n o w l e d g e a s p e c i a l d e b t to G u y S t r e s s e r - P e a n ; his c o u r s e s a n d his i n c o m p a r a b l y r i c h l i b r a r y in P a r i s , his h o s p i t a l i t y a t t h e M i s s i o n A r c h e o l o g i q u e e t E t h n o l o g i q u e F r a n c a i s e in M e x i c o , greatly e n r i c h e d m y k n o w l e d g e of p r e - C o l u m b i a n Mexico, t h e historical b a c k g r o u n d o f t h e p e r i o d s t u d i e d in t h i s b o o k .
A Summary Chronology of Mexican History
c. 9 0 0 987 1156 1325 1502 1517 1518 1520 1521
1522 1523 1527 1528
1530 1531
1535 1536 1537
1542
F o u n d a t i o n of Tula (Central Mexico). Exile of Quetzalcoatl Topiltzin, h i g h priest of Tula. Fall o f T u l a . F o u n d a t i o n of M e x i c o - T e n o c h t i t l a n . Accession of M o c t e z u m a II Xocoyotzin, at Tenochtitlan. Accession of Charles V to t h e t h r o n e of Spain, u n d e r t h e n a m e o f C h a r l e s I. Grijalva discovers t h e Gulf coast of Mexico. A r r i v a l o f C o r t e s in T e n o c h t i t l a n . L u t h e r ' s schism. C u a u h t e m o c assumes l e a d e r s h i p of t h e Aztec resistance. Cortes besieges a n d c o n q u e r s Tenochtitlan. C u a u h t e m o c is m a d e p r i s o n e r . Charles V names Cortes "Captain General and Governor" of New Spain. " T h e T w e l v e " (first F r a n c i s c a n m i s s i o n a r i e s ) l a n d a t Veracruz. E s t a b l i s h m e n t o f t h e first a u d i e n c i a o f M e x i c o City. T h e Franciscan Fray J u a n d e Z u m a r r a g a becomes bishop (later a r c h b i s h o p ) of Mexico City a n d " P r o t e c t o r of t h e Indians." F o u n d a t i o n o f P u e b l a (La P u e b l a d e los A n g e l e s ) . A p p a r i t i o n s of O u r L a d y of G u a d a l u p e to t h e I n d i a n J u a n D i e g o a n d t o t h e a r c h b i s h o p o f M e x i c o City, J u a n d e Z u m a r r a g a , according to the pious tradition. I n s t a l l a t i o n o f t h e first v i c e r o y o f N e w S p a i n , A n t o n i o d e Mendoza. I n a u g u r a t i o n of the I n d i a n college of Santa C r u z d e Tlalt e l o l c o by t h e F r a n c i s c a n s . Vasco d e Q u i r o g a b e c o m e s b i s h o p o f M i c h o a c a n . Trial of the cacique of Texcoco for idolatry. I n t r o d u c t i o n o f t h e p r i n t i n g p r e s s in M e x i c o City. P u b l i c a t i o n in N e w S p a i n o f t h e N e w L a w s o f t h e I n d i e s . xxv
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1544 1545 1550 1553 1555 1556
1565 1566 1568 1571 1572
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1576-79 1585 1592 1598 1607 1609 1615
1624 1642
1644
1647
T h e D o m i n i c a n Fray B a r t o l o m e d e Las Casas b e c o m e s bishop of Chiapas. First g r e a t e p i d e m i c (cocoliztli). I n s t a l l a t i o n o f V i c e r o y L u i s d e Velasco. S o l e m n o p e n i n g o f t h e R o y a l a n d Pontifical U n i v e r s i t y o f M e x i c o City. F o u n d a t i o n o f t h e first basilica o f O u r L a d y o f G u a d a l u p e o f T e p e y a c by A r c h b i s h o p M o n t u f a r . A c c e s s i o n o f P h i l i p I I in S p a i n . I n q u i r y of A r c h b i s h o p M o n t u f a r into t h e cult a n d pious tradition of O u r Lady of G u a d a l u p e . Meeting of the Second Mexican Council. S e p a r a t i s t c o n s p i r a c y o f t h e s e c o n d M a r q u e s d e l Valle, Martin Cortes. L a n d i n g of t h e English corsairs D r a k e a n d H a w k i n s at San J u a n d e Ulloa. E s t a b l i s h m e n t o f t h e first t r i b u n a l o f t h e I n q u i s i t i o n o f M e x i c o City. A r r i v a l a t M e x i c o City o f t h e first J e s u i t s in N e w S p a i n . P e d r o Moya d e C o n t r e r a s becomes archbishop of Mexico City. I n a u g u r a t i o n of t h e J e s u i t college of San P e d r o y San Pablo. Beginning of construction of the cathedral of Mexico City, El Z o c a l o . Great epidemics. Meeting of the T h i r d Mexican Council. Peopling of m i n i n g c e n t e r of San Luis Potosi. Great epidemic. I n s t a l l a t i o n o f V i c e r o y L u i s d e Velasco t h e Y o u n g e r . C o n s t r u c t i o n o f first basilica in s t o n e o f O u r L a d y o f Guadalupe of Tepeyac. E n f o r c e m e n t in N e w S p a i n o f t h e r o y a l c e d u l a o f 1 6 0 3 c o n f e r r i n g o n b i s h o p s t h e " r i g h t o f visit" f o r t h e r e l i g i o u s o r d e r s of their dioceses. R i o t in M e x i c o City, c a u s e d b y f o o d s h o r t a g e s . I n q u i s i t o r i a l trial o f G u i l l e n d e L a m p a r t , a m e m b e r o f t h e viceroy's r e t i n u e , w h o h a d h a t c h e d a r e v o l u t i o n a r y separatist plot. Petition of t h e A y u n t a m i e n t o of Mexico City to t h e king, seeking a b a n o n t h e f o u n d a t i o n of n e w c o n v e n t s a n d limits o n t h e e x p a n s i o n o f t h e l a n d h o l d i n g s o f c o n v e n t s . E x c o m m u n i c a t i o n of t h e Jesuits of Puebla by B i s h o p Palafox.
xxvii
1666 1669 1681 1692 1693 1725-28 1729 1730 1735 1736
1737 1746 1747 1748 1752
1753 1754 1758 1759 1762 1766
1767
1768
Chronology
I n q u i r y of t h e c h a p t e r of t h e c a t h e d r a l of Mexico City into t h e pious tradition of O u r L a d y of G u a d a l u p e . F i r s t c o n v e r s i o n o f S o r J u a n a I n e s d e la C r u z . Manifiesto filosofico contra los cometas o f C a r l o s S i g u e n z a y Gongora. R i o t in M e x i c o City, c a u s e d by f o o d s h o r t a g e s . P u b l i c a t i o n o f t h e first M e x i c a n p e r i o d i c a l , t h e Mercurio volante o f C a r l o s d e S i g u e n z a y G o n g o r a . Epidemic of measles. C o n s t r u c t i o n o f a m i n t ( R e a l C a s a d e m o n e d a s ) in M e x i c o City. A. d e V i z a r r o n y E g u i a r r e t a , creole a r c h b i s h o p of Mexico City, is i n s t a l l e d in his d i o c e s e . Inquisitorial edict issued against M a n u e l d e B a h a m o n , a s e d i t i o u s a n d i l l u m i n i s t n a v a l officer ( F e b r u a r y 2 6 ) . Epidemic. Construction of a new a n d imposing tribunal of the Inq u i s i t i o n in M e x i c o City. O u r L a d y o f G u a d a l u p e is s o l e m n l y s w o r n " p r i n c i p a l P a t r o n e s s " o f M e x i c o City. Installation of Viceroy Revillagigedo. E d i c t o f t h e I n q u i s i t i o n o f M e x i c o City c o n f i s c a t i n g all l i c e n s e s to r e a d b o o k s o n t h e I n d e x o f f o r b i d d e n w o r k s . T h e p r i n t i n g press of t h e J e s u i t college of San Ildefonso o f M e x i c o City b e g i n s t o o p e r a t e . T h e council of professors of the University of Mexico City t a k e s a s o l e m n o a t h o f a l l e g i a n c e t o its n e w p a t r o n , Saint Luis d e Gonzaga. T h e p r i n t i n g press of the Bibliotheca m e x i c a n a of J. J. d e E g u i a r a y E g u r e n b e g i n s t o f u n c t i o n in M e x i c o City. B u l l o f P o p e B e n e d i c t X I V ( A p r i l 24) r e c o g n i z i n g t h e M e x i c a n G u a d a l u p a n t r a d i t i o n by a c a n o n i c a l office. E r u p t i o n of the volcano of Jorullo. A c c e s s i o n o f C h a r l e s I I I in S p a i n . T a k i n g of H a v a n a by t h e English. O p e n l e t t e r f r o m t h e I n q u i s i t o r s o f M e x i c o City d e n o u n c ing the revolutionary ideas that circulated a m o n g soldiers of foreign origin. T h e d e c r e e o f C h a r l e s I I I , e x p e l l i n g t h e J e s u i t s f r o m his s t a t e s in E u r o p e a n d A m e r i c a , is p u t i n t o effect in N e w Spain, J u n e 25. R i o t s a t M e x i c o City, G u a n a j u a t o , P a t z c u a r o , S a n L u i s P o t o s i , etc., in s u p p o r t o f t h e e x p e l l e d J e s u i t s . E d i c t s o f t h e I n q u i s i t i o n o f M e x i c o City ( M a y 2 0 a n d J u n e
xxviii
1770 1770-78 1778 1780 1782 1791 1792 1794
1795 1800 1804
1805 1808 1810
1811
1812
CHRONOLOGY
15) o r d e r i n g t h e s e i z u r e o f libels a g a i n s t t h e k i n g , w r i t t e n in s u p p o r t o f t h e J e s u i t s a n d t h e i m a g e o f S a i n t J o s a p h a t . C o d i f i c a t i o n o f m i l i t a r y p r i v i l e g e s (fuero militar) in N e w Spain. C o n v o c a t i o n by A r c h b i s h o p L o r e n z a n a o f t h e F o u r t h Mexican Council. Crisis o f t h e " C o m m u n a l L i f e , " b r i n g i n g t h e v i c e r o y i n t o conflict w i t h t h e r e l i g i o u s o r d e r s (especially in P u e b l a ) . Crisis o f ecclesiastical p r i v i l e g e (fuero eclesiastico) in t h e internal provinces of New Spain. P r o c l a m a t i o n o f m a r t i a l law (estado de guerra) in N e w Spain. T h e congregation of O u r Lady of G u a d a l u p e a d o p t s new constitutions a n d new rules. R e v o l t o f t h e b l a c k slaves in S a n t o D o m i n g o . I n a u g u r a t i o n of t h e Royal School of Mines (Escuela d e M i n a s ) o f M e x i c o City. S e r m o n of the Dominican Fray S e r v a n d o Teresa d e Mier ( D e c e m b e r 12) in t h e c o l l e g i a t e c h u r c h o f O u r L a d y o f G u a d a l u p e , criticizing t h e pious tradition a n d associating the "prodigious i m a g e " with the evangelization of the Mexicans by the apostle Saint T h o m a s - Q u e t z a l c o a t l . I n q u i s i t o r i a l trial o f F r a y S e r v a n d o T e r e s a d e M i e r . Trial o f t h e c r e o l e c o n s p i r a t o r s (Los Guadalupes) o f M e x i c o City. Royal o r d e r r e g a r d i n g the alienation of the p r o p e r t y of pious foundations (Cedula d e consolidation), with the p r o c e e d s to be t r a n s f e r r e d to Spain. P u b l i c a t i o n o f t h e first M e x i c a n daily, El Diario de Mexico. Rising of the p e o p l e of M a d r i d against t h e a r m y of N a p o l e o n (Dos de mayo). H i d a l g o launches an appeal for Mexican i n d e p e n d e n c e (grito de Dolores) a n d rallies t h e i n s u r g e n t s a b o u t t h e b a n n e r o f G u a d a l u p e ( S e p t e m b e r 16). T h e bishop of Michoacan, A b a d y Q u e i p o , e x c o m m u n i cates t h e parish priest H i d a l g o . H i d a l g o , c a p t u r e d b y t h e r e g u l a r a r m y , is t r i e d b y t h e court of the Inquisition a n d e x e c u t e d (July 30). V i c e r o y V e n e g a s s u s p e n d s ecclesiastical i m m u n i t y (fuero eclesiastico) ( J u n e 2 5 ) , r e q u i s i t i o n s t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f Mexico City a n d t h e c o n v e n t s for q u a r t e r i n g t r o o p s a n d s u s p e n d s t h e e x e m p t i o n f r o m military service for students.
xxix
1813
1814
1815 1817
1821
1822
1823
Chronology
Publication of an o r d i n a n c e establishing f r e e d o m of the press. E s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a c o n s t i t u t i o n a l m o n a r c h y in S p a i n b y t h e cortes of Cadiz. P r o c l a m a t i o n b y M o r e l o s o f The Sentiments of the Nation a n d t h e o r d e r r e q u i r i n g all M e x i c a n p a t r i o t s t o w e a r t h e e m b l e m of G u a d a l u p e . P r o c l a m a t i o n o f I n d e p e n d e n c e by t h e C o n g r e s s o f C h i l p a n c i n g o ( N o v e m b e r 6). A b o l i t i o n o f t h e I n q u i s i t i o n in S p a i n b y t h e c o r t e s o f Cadiz. P u b l i c a t i o n a t L o n d o n o f t h e Historia de la Revolucion de la Espaiia o f S. T. d e M i e r , in e x i l e ( t h e w o r k i n c l u d e s a l o n g a p p e n d i x designed to prove the evangelization of Mexico by Saint T h o m a s Quetzalcoatl). P r o m u l g a t i o n by t h e M e x i c a n C o n g r e s s o f t h e C o n s t i t u tion of A p a t z i n g a n (October 22). R e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f t h e I n q u i s i t i o n in S p a i n by a d e c r e e o f Ferdinand VII. M o r e l o s , c a p t u r e d b y t h e r e g u l a r a r m y , is t r i e d b y t h e c o u r t of t h e Inquisition a n d e x e c u t e d ( D e c e m b e r 22). Francisco Javier Mina, a Spanish revolutionary, disemb a r k s in M e x i c o in t h e c o m p a n y o f S. T. d e M i e r ; a f t e r a b r i l l i a n t f o r a y h e is c a p t u r e d b y t h e r e g u l a r a r m y a n d e x e c u t e d ( N o v e m b e r 11). Historic m e e t i n g between the revolutionary chief Vicente G u e r r e r o a n d General Iturbide and proclamation of the "Plan of t h e T h r e e G u a r a n t e e s " ( I n d e p e n d e n c e , U n i o n , a n d Religion) (February 24). E n t r y i n t o M e x i c o City o f t h e " A r m y o f t h e T h r e e G u a r a n t e e s , " achieving Mexican i n d e p e n d e n c e (Sept e m b e r 27, I n d e p e n d e n c e Day). D e a t h o f J u a n O ' D o n o j u , last v i c e r o y o f N e w S p a i n . G e n e r a l I t u r b i d e proclaims himself e m p e r o r with the n a m e " A g u s t i n I " ( M a y 18), a n d dissolves t h e C o n s t i t u e n t Congress. D e c r e e o f A g u s t i n I, c r e a t i n g t h e n a t i o n a l O r d e r o f G u a d a l u p e a n d the imperial O r d e r of the Aztec Eagle. Pronunciamiento in s u p p o r t o f C o n g r e s s by G e n e r a l s L o p e z d e Santa A n n a a n d G u a d a l u p e Victoria. A b d i c a t i o n o f I t u r b i d e ( M a r c h 19) a n d p r o c l a m a t i o n o f the Republic. Apotheosis of the martyrs of Mexican I n d e p e n d e n c e
xxx
CHRONOLOGY
( S e p t e m b e r 16) c e l e b r a t e d e s p e c i a l l y a t t h e c o l l e g i a t e c h u r c h of O u r Lady of G u a d a l u p e of Tepeyac. I t u r b i d e , o u t l a w e d b y C o n g r e s s , is c a p t u r e d a n d e x e c u t e d ( J u l y 19). R e p r e s e n t a t i o n to t h e C o n s t i t u e n t C o n g r e s s by t h e c h a p ter of the collegiate c h u r c h of O u r L a d y of G u a d a l u p e . Solemn celebrations (processions, poetic games) of the tricentenary of the apparitions of the Virgin of G u a d a l u p e of Mexico.
1824
1831
Some Statistical 1519
Estimates
25 million I n d i a n s (approximately) 1 , 5 0 0 , 0 0 0 in t h e valley o f M e x i c o .
in
Mexico,
with
A p p r o x i m a t e l y 7 0 , 0 0 0 I n d i a n s u r v i v o r s in t h e valley o f Mexico. 1 0 , 0 0 0 S p a n i a r d s , Creoles, a n d i m m i g r a n t s o f E u r o p e a n stock. 1545 1736
8 0 0 , 0 0 0 I n d i a n s d i e d in t h e c o u r s e o f t h e e p i d e m i c . ( 4 0 , 0 0 0 d e a d in M e x i c o City ) 5 0 , 0 0 0 d e a d in P u e b l a I \ 2 0 , 0 0 0 d e a d in Q u e r e t a r o {
. . , in t h e c o u r s e o f t h e e p i d e m i c (peste). c
)
I n t h e c o u r s e of t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y t w e n t y - t h r e e viceroys gove r n e d in N e w S p a i n . In t h e course of the colonial p e r i o d t h e r e w e r e eight great epidemics; five g r e a t e a r t h q u a k e s o r v o l c a n i c e r u p t i o n s ; n i n e t e e n i m p o r t a n t r e volts (in t h e n o r t h e r n p a r t o f t h e c o u n t r y ) .
A Historian's Profession of Faith
T o s e a r c h f o r t h e m e a n i n g o f t h e c u l t o f G u a d a l u p e a n d t h e b e l i e f in S a i n t T h o m a s - Q u e t z a l c o a t l , p r e a c h e r o f t h e G o s p e l in M e x i c o , is p r i marily to seek an a n s w e r to t h e q u e s t i o n — a historical q u e s t i o n — p o s e d b y t h e e v o l u t i o n o f c u l t u r e in M e x i c o ( N e w S p a i n ) b e t w e e n t h e first q u a r t e r o f t h e s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y a n d t o d a y . As W i l h e l m M u h l m a n n has s h o w n , significant analogies a n d c o r r e l a t i o n s c e r t a i n l y exist b e t w e e n r e l i g i o u s a n d political m a n i f e s t a t i o n s ( c o n t e m p o r a r y a n d p a s t ) in d i f f e r e n t p a r t s o f t h e w o r l d . B u t m y a i m is m o r e l i m i t e d : t o s h e d l i g h t o n t h e f o r m a t i o n o f M e x i c a n n a t i o n a l c o n s c i o u s n e s s w i t h t h e a i d o f its r e l i g i o u s c o m p o n e n t s . T h e c o n v e r g e n c e of t h e eschatological h o p e s of t h e Aztecs, exp r e s s e d in t h e h o p e f o r a r e t u r n o f Q u e t z a l c o a t l , a n d t h e m i l l e n a r i a n i s m of t h e Catholic missionaries, b e c a m e o n e of the roots of t h e creole national mystique. T h a t mystique assumed the features of the V i r g i n o f G u a d a l u p e b e f o r e it f o u n d s e c u l a r e x p r e s s i o n in t h e d e v i c e o f a p e o p l e w h o , like t h e A z t e c s , c a m e t o b e l i e v e t h a t t h e y w e r e a c h o s e n p e o p l e : " N o c o u n t r y c a n c o m p a r e w i t h M e x i c o " (Como Mexico no hay dos). W h e n M a r c e l B a t a i l l o n , w h o h a d d e a l t w i t h Q u e t z a l c o a t l as o n e o f t h e o r i g i n a l m a n i f e s t a t i o n s o f t h e c r e o l e m i n d in t h e N e w W o r l d in a course h e t a u g h t at the College d e France, suggested that I u n d e r t a k e a s t u d y o f t h e g o d ' s t r a c e s , it w a s u n d e r s t o o d t h a t I w o u l d limit m y r e s e a r c h t o t h e Q u e t z a l c o a t l m y t h in H i s p a n o - M e x i c a n m i s s i o n a r y literature. T h i s i n t r i g u i n g quest, which was to lead m e f r o m t h e Olmecs to t h e s o u r c e s of t h e Bible, g r a d u a l l y revealed to m e t h e link connecting the Quetzalcoatl m y t h to the d e v e l o p m e n t of the Mexican national consciousness. Marcel Bataillon h a d already perceived that link, j u s t as h e h a d g r a s p e d t h e c e n t r a l r o l e o f t h e c u l t o f G u a d a l u p e , first r e v e a l e d b y t h e l a t e F r a n c i s c o d e la M a z a in his f a m o u s essay El guadalupanismo mexicano. A s m y r e s e a r c h p r o g r e s s e d , it b e c a m e e v e r m o r e a p p a r e n t t h a t a dialectical relation existed b e t w e e n a series of questions which today seem alien to each o t h e r because they b e l o n g to different disciplines: physical a n t h r o p o l o g y , history, n a t u r a l theology. 1
2
1
2
A HISTORIAN'S PROFESSION OF FAITH
T h e questions of the origin of t h e I n d i a n s , of t h e evangelization of A m e r i c a by a n a p o s t l e o f C h r i s t , a n d t h e f o r e k n o w l e d g e o f G o d b y t h e gentiles of t h e N e w World w e r e , in t h e sixteenth c e n t u r y , t h e c o m p l e m e n t a r y facets o f a s i n g l e a g o n i z i n g p r o b l e m , t h a t o f t h e s u p e r n a t u r a l destiny of m a n k i n d . T h e s e concerns with r e g a r d to the native peoples of a n A m e r i c a t h a t h a d b e e n recently d i s c o v e r e d by t h e E u r o p e a n s c o r r e s p o n d e d to a first p h a s e in t h e f o r m a t i o n o f a n A m e r i c a n c o n s c i o u s n e s s ; t h e y w e r e inseparable f r o m t h e search for a way of spiritual salvation for the Indians. T h e protection of the Indians against the abuses and violence of c o n q u i s t a d o r s , colonists, slave-hunters, d e p e n d e d o n t h e j u r i d i c a l status g r a n t e d to t h e m , a n d that status flowed f r o m t h e place t h e y s h o u l d b e a s s i g n e d in t h e e c o n o m y o f s a l v a t i o n . T h e i d e n t i f i c a tion of the h e r o - g o d Quetzalcoatl (the p l u m e d serpent) with the apostle S a i n t T h o m a s , e v a n g e l i z e r o f t h e I n d i e s , w a s o n e o f t h e p r i n c i p a l m e a n s of the spiritual r e d e m p t i o n of the Indians a n d consequently of a c h i e v i n g r e c o g n i t i o n o f t h e i r full h u m a n i t y . M e a n w h i l e t h e f a v o r d i s p e n s e d to Mexico by t h e p r o d i g i o u s a p p e a r a n c e to a n I n d i a n conv e r t o f t h e V i r g i n M a r y in h e r i m a g e o f G u a d a l u p e a t T e p e y a c o f f e r e d n e w h o p e of I n d i a n salvation. T h e effort of t h e D o m i n i c a n M i e r at the e n d of t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y to m e r g e into o n e royal r o a d to national i n d e p e n d e n c e these two ways of liberation accented t h e funct i o n a l l i n k b e t w e e n Q u e t z a l c o a t l - S a i n t T h o m a s , t h e first sally o f t h e M e x i c a n n a t i o n a l c o n s c i o u s n e s s , a n d T o n a n t z i n - G u a d a l u p e , its d e c i sive s o r t i e . T h i s j o i n i n g by t h e c r e o l e i n t e l l e c t o f N e w S p a i n o f t h e m y t h i c a l figures o f Q u e t z a l c o a t l ( t h e " g o o d j i n n i " o f t h e I n d i a n s ) a n d T o n a n t z i n ( t h e i r m o t h e r - g o d d e s s ) is all t h e m o r e r e m a r k a b l e b e c a u s e the couple Quetzalcoatl-Tonantzin a p p e a r s to have b e e n o n e of the a v a t a r s o f t h e u n i v e r s a l d u a l p r i n c i p l e , O m e t e o t l , in t h e A z t e c t h e o g o n y . H o w e v e r , only t h e late m e t a m o r p h o s e s of t h e old I n d i a n b e l i e f s in t h e c r e o l e t h o u g h t o f c o l o n i a l M e x i c o i n t e r e s t u s h e r e . I n view o f t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l s t r a n g e n e s s o f t h e r e g i o n w h i c h m y r e a d e r s m u s t t r a v e r s e , t h e y s h o u l d a t least k n o w m y p o i n t s o f d e p a r t u r e . G r a n t e d t h a t h i s t o r y is u n i t a r y , I n e v e r t h e l e s s a g r e e w i t h M a r c Bloch w h e n he writes that t h e historian m u s t "frankly a d m i t the subo r d i n a t i o n of t h e perspective to t h e angle of t h e i n q u i r y . " Ideas a n d beliefs a r e r e l a t e d t o all t h e o t h e r m a n i f e s t a t i o n s o f t h e c u l t u r a l a n d m a t e r i a l life o f a society. T h e g e o g r a p h i c m i l i e u , t h e e c o n o m i c i n f r a structure, the d e m o g r a p h i c evolution, and the administrative organization of colonial Mexico influenced t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of millenarian h o p e s a n d m e s s i a n i c m o v e m e n t s . T h e s e beliefs a n d t h e i r m a n i f e s t a t i o n s in t u r n m o d i f i e d e t h n i c a n d social r e l a t i o n s a n d c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e u n l e a s h i n g o f t h e political crisis w h i c h g a v e b i r t h t o 3
3
A Historians
Profession
of Faith
i n d e p e n d e n c e — a n i n d e p e n d e n c e w h i c h in its t u r n g e n e r a t e d i m p o r t a n t s o c i o e c o n o m i c a n d political t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s . H o w e v e r , f o r t h e s t u d y o f m y t h s , t h e w e i g h t o f s e c u l a r , a g e - o l d t r a d i t i o n s is r e l a t i v e l y s u p e r i o r t o t h a t o f e c o n o m i c a n d political f a c t o r s . T h e h i s t o r y o f s t a t e s o f m i n d h a s its o w n r h y t h m ; in t h e society w h i c h i n t e r e s t s u s h e r e , t h a t h i s t o r y h a s k n o w n significant moments—moments which are not h o m o g e n e o u s a m o n g themselves. T h e m e t a m o r p h o s i s of ideas a n d beliefs t a k e s p l a c e o v e r p e r i o d s o f t i m e t h a t a r e d e a d a n d o t h e r s t h a t a r e q u i c k w i t h life; f r o m t h i s p o i n t o f view t h e r e a r e l o n g a n d s h o r t generations. T h e s e r e m a r k s r e q u i r e a revision of the customary use of chronolo g y in h i s t o r y . I h a v e d e l i b e r a t e l y c h o s e n a " f a l s e " d a t e , 1 5 3 1 , as t h e point of d e p a r t u r e of my study of G u a d a l u p e . T h i s d a t e does n o t c o r r e s p o n d t o a n y e s t a b l i s h e d fact in a n o b j e c t i v e c h r o n o l o g y ; it a p p e a r s f o r t h e first t i m e in a w o r k p u b l i s h e d in S p a n i s h in 1 6 4 8 ; t h i s work seems to have b o r r o w e d the date from a Nahuatl manuscript w h o s e a u t h e n t i c i t y is d o u b t f u l , b u t w h i c h w a s p r o b a b l y w r i t t e n b e tween 1558 a n d 1572. According to a pious tradition which goes back to 1648, e x t r a o r d i n a r y a p p e a r a n c e s of the Virgin of G u a d a l u p e took p l a c e in 1 5 3 1 . V i e w e d f r o m t h e p e r s p e c t i v e o f t h e h i s t o r y o f b e l i e f s , w h e t h e r t h e d a t e 1 5 3 1 is c o r r e c t o r n o t is less i m p o r t a n t t h a n its r e t r o s p e c t i v e " t r u t h " in t h e m i n d s o f its d e v o t e e s o f G u a d a l u p e b e g i n n i n g i n 1 6 4 8 . I n v e r s e l y , t h e fact t h a t t h e p i o u s l e g e n d t o o k s h a p e i n 1 6 4 8 allows u s t o c o n s i d e r t h e l a t t e r d a t e as t h a t o f t h e r e a l " a p p e a r a n c e " of t h e Mexican cult of G u a d a l u p e . At t h e o t h e r e n d of t h e c h r o n o l o g i c a l s e q u e n c e t h a t I h a v e c h o s e n as m y field o f s t u d y , t h e d a t e 1813 d o e s n o t m a r k t h e e n d of t h e evolution of t h e m y t h s of Q u e t z a l c o a t l a n d G u a d a l u p e ( t h e l a t t e r still lives in p r e s e n t - d a y M e x i c o ) , b u t it d a t e s t h e i r last a v a t a r , t h e i r p a t r i o t i c s e c u l a r i z a t i o n . I n 1 8 1 3 t h e c r e o l e D o m i n i c a n M i e r p u b l i s h e d in L o n d o n his Historia de la revolucion de Nueva Espana antiguamente Anahuac. In a long appendix, t h e a u t h o r s u m m e d u p t h e a r g u m e n t s h e h a d a d v a n c e d in his f a m o u s s e r m o n of 1794, which revised t h e G u a d a l u p e tradition by associating t h e Virgin of G u a d a l u p e with Saint T h o m a s , called Quetzalcoatl by t h e I n d i a n s , t h e first C h r i s t i a n m i s s i o n a r y in M e x i c o . T h a t s a m e y e a r , t h e liberator Morelos l a u n c h e d f r o m his c a m p of O m e t e p e c a proclam a t i o n in w h i c h h e d e n o u n c e d as t r a i t o r s t o t h e n a t i o n all t h o s e w h o failed t o w e a r a c o c k a d e w i t h t h e c o l o r s o f t h e V i r g i n o r w h o d i d n o t p e r f o r m t h e c u s t o m a r y d e v o t i o n s t o t h e V i r g i n . W e recall t h a t t h e p r e v i o u s y e a r H i d a l g o h a d c h o s e n t h e b a n n e r o f t h e V i r g i n as t h e e m b l e m o f t h e i n s u r g e n t s . C o n s e q u e n t l y it s e e m s a p p r o p r i a t e t o r e g a r d t h i s d a t e o f 1 8 1 3 as m a r k i n g t h e last s t e p in t h e e v o l u t i o n o f beliefs w h i c h b l e n d with t h e M e x i c a n n a t i o n a l consciousness. 4
5
4
A H I S T O R I A N S PROFESSION OF FAITH
T h e two great mythical figures of Quetzalcoatl a n d G u a d a l u p e w o u l d b e i n c o m p r e h e n s i b l e o u t s i d e t h e society in w h i c h t h e y d e v e l o p e d , itself p a r t o f a v a s t e r w h o l e , t h e S p a n i s h E m p i r e , t h e last f o r m o f political u n i t y o f t h e C h r i s t i a n West. We a r e n o t d e a l i n g h e r e w i t h a p a r a l l e l e v o l u t i o n o f M e x i c a n c r e o l e society a n d its m y t h s b u t w i t h a u n i q u e g r o w t h w h o s e d i f f e r e n t facets i l l u m i n a t e e a c h o t h e r as in a s e t o f m i r r o r s . E v e n as I f o c u s a t t e n t i o n o n t h e h i s t o r i c a l f u n c t i o n o f t h o s e m y t h s in t h e c o m i n g - t o - b e o f t h e M e x i c a n n a t i o n , I h o p e t o m a k e m y r e a d e r s vividly a w a r e o f t h e p r e s e n c e o f t h e M e x i c a n n a t i o n in t h a t p r o c e s s . T h e f u n c t i o n I a s s i g n t o t h e m y t h s h a s n o t h i n g t o d o w i t h a " f u n c t i o n a l i s m " t h a t s t a n d s o p p o s e d t o a " s t r u c t u r a l i s m " ; this f u n c t i o n f o r m s p a r t o f a d y n a m i c t h a t e v o l v e d t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e society w h o s e a s p i r a t i o n s o v e r t i m e it e x p r e s s e d . " L i s t e n i n g t o t h e t e x t s , " in t h e h a p p y p h r a s e o f M a r c e l B a t a i l l o n , d e l i b e r a t e l y e f f a c i n g m y s e l f so as t o allow m y m e n t a l i m a g e s o f t h e m e n o f t h e p a s t a n d t h e i r m o d e o f t h o u g h t a n d b e i n g , t h e i r vividura, as A m e r i c o C a s t r o w o u l d say, t o e m e r g e m o r e c l e a r l y , I h a v e a d o p t e d a p h e n o m e n o l o g i cal p o s t u r e . T h i s c h o i c e d o e s n o t i m p l y a n u n c r i t i c a l a t t i t u d e t o w a r d sources. 6
7
8
9
M y b o o k will give a b e t t e r i d e a o f m y c o n c e p t i o n o f h i s t o r y t h a n a l o n g t h e o r e t i c a l e x p o s i t i o n c o u l d d o . T h e i n t e n t o f this essay o n Q u e t zalcoatl a n d G u a d a l u p e is t o s h o w t h e m o v e m e n t i n p r o g r e s s , t o d e m o n s t r a t e t h a t t o d a y ' s h i s t o r y is n o t c o n d e m n e d t o t h e a l t e r n a t i v e s o f e v a p o r a t i n g into abstraction ("structuralist" history) o r relapsing into chronicle (the history of "events"). Serial a n d quantitative m e t h o d s will n e v e r b e a n y t h i n g m o r e t h a n a i d s ; v a l u a b l e t h o u g h t h e y m a y b e , t h e r e will a l w a y s b e s o m e t h i n g m o r e . T h a t " m o r e " I r e g a r d as t h e e s s e n t i a l t h i n g i n t h e h i s t o r y o f beliefs; it c o r r e s p o n d s t o w h a t M a r c B l o c h o n c e d e f i n e d as t h e " h u m a n c l i m a t e . " If t h e n o t i o n s o f " s p i r i t u a l m o m e n t " a n d " h u m a n c l i m a t e " a c q u i r e in t h e c o u r s e o f t h e p a g e s t h a t follow s o m e solidity a n d a p p e a r b e t t e r a d a p t e d t o t h e s t u d y of states of m i n d a n d of that "intra-history" w h o s e riches Miguel d e U n a m u n o foresaw t h a n the notions (borrowed from the economic sciences) o f " s t r u c t u r e " a n d " c o n j u n c t u r e , " m y t i m e shall h a v e b e e n well s p e n t . 1 0
1 1
T h e r e a r e historical topics which t h e p r e s e n t quickens a n d o t h e r s w h i c h it l e a v e s t o t h e i r s l e e p . H i s t o r y , M a r c B l o c h w r o t e in a c r u e l time, " m u s t endlessly j o i n t h e study of t h e d e a d to t h a t of t h e living." T h e w o r k w h i c h I o f f e r m y r e a d e r s is n e v e r f r e e f r o m c o n c e r n w i t h the present, t h e present of Mexico a n d of m a n k i n d . 1 2
Part 1
New Spain from the Conquest to Independence 1521-1821
1
Brothers and Enemies: Spaniards and Creoles
T h e political life o f N e w S p a i n w a s in t h e h a n d s o f a w h i t e m i n o r i t y o f E u r o p e a n origin. This minority included others than Spaniards and d e s c e n d a n t s o f S p a n i a r d s . F r o m t h e first d a y s o f t h e C o n q u e s t , d e spite restrictive m e a s u r e s , p e r s o n s w h o w e r e n o t subjects of t h e states r u l e d by t h e Castilian m o n a r c h y passed over to t h e Indies. A m o n g t h e m i s s i o n a r i e s w e find F l e m i n g s , I t a l i a n s , a n d , l a t e r , C z e c h s . J o h n H . P a r r y notes t h e p r e s e n c e of Italian l a y m e n at Zacatecas f r o m t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y . R o b e r t R i c a r d calls a t t e n t i o n t o t h e p r e s e n c e o f P o r t u g u e s e in t h e v i c e r e g a l c o u r t a n d in M e x i c o City. M a n y o f t h e P o r t u g u e s e w e r e J e w i s h c o n v e r t s w h o fled t h e r i g o r s o f t h e Inquisition w h e n Portugal was u n i t e d to Spain (1580). Castilian J e w s h a d a l r e a d y p r e c e d e d t h e m . F r e n c h n a m e s also o c c a s i o n a l l y a p p e a r in t h e r e c o r d s o f t h e I n q u i s i t i o n o f N e w S p a i n as b l a s p h e m e r s o r f r e e t h i n k e r s . It s e e m s t h a t a s i d e f r o m t h e E n g l i s h a n d t h e D u t c h , excessively s u s p e c t o f h e r e s y , E u r o p e a n s f r o m all c o u n t r i e s c o u l d est a b l i s h t h e m s e l v e s in N e w S p a i n b u t w e r e n e v e r n u m e r o u s o r p o w e r ful e n o u g h t o p l a y a significant r o l e i n M e x i c a n life in g e n e r a l . T h e m i n o r i t y o f E u r o p e a n stock, t h e n , w a s r e l a t i v e l y h o m o g e n e o u s b y v i r t u e o f its H i s p a n i c o r i g i n . O n e o f t h e internal t e n s i o n s o f t h i s ruling c l a s s — a t e n s i o n w h i c h e m e r g e s w h e n e v e r o n e a t t e m p t s t o g r a s p t h e m e a n i n g o f a political e p i s o d e in N e w S p a i n — i s t h e o p p o s i t i o n b e t w e e n S p a n i a r d s a n d Creoles, c a l l e d respectively espaholes a n d espaholes americanos. I n p r a c tice, t h e t e r m s americanos a n d criollos d e s i g n a t e d t h e l a t t e r , w h i l e t h e Spaniards were given the perjorative or d o w n r i g h t insulting n i c k n a m e gachupines ( t h e o r i g i n o f t h e t e r m h a s n o t y e t b e e n e x p l a i n e d ) . T h e c r e o l e - S p a n i s h a n t a g o n i s m a p p e a r e d f r o m t h e first y e a r s o f t h e C o n q u e s t , m e r g i n g w i t h t h e hostility felt b y t h e c o n q u e r o r s toward t h e licenciados (lawyers) s e n t b y S p a i n t o i m p o s e o v e r t h e m a p o w e r w h i c h f r o m t h e first t h e y r e g a r d e d as a l i e n . T h e " c r e o l e s p i r i t " p r e c e d e d t h e b i r t h o f t h e first t r u e c r e o l e ; c o n s e q u e n t l y w e will s e e " c r e o l i z e d " S p a n i a r d s , c o m e f r o m t h e P e n i n s u l a , w h o allied t h e m selves w i t h c r e o l e families, i d e n t i f i e d m e n t a l l y w i t h M e x i c a n c r e o l e 7
8
N E W SPAIN FROM THE CONQUEST TO INDEPENDENCE
society, a n d e s p o u s e d its local loyalties a n d e v e n its h a t r e d f o r t h e gachupines. I t w a s k n o w l e d g e o f t h e c o u n t r y a n d , a b o v e all, loyalty t o t h e c o l o n i a l e t h i c o f c r e o l e society, r a t h e r t h a n p l a c e o f b i r t h , t h a t d e f i n e d t h e criollo. I n practice, t h e s u p r e m e p o w e r , that of t h e viceroy, was virtually a l w a y s e n t r u s t e d to a p e n i n s u l a r S p a n i a r d , b u t s o m e v i c e r o y s , y i e l d i n g to t h e country's p u l l , " m e x i c a n i z e d " t h e m s e l v e s to a c o n s i d e r a b l e d e gree. W h e r e a s t h e viceroys w e r e S p a n i a r d s , t h e a r c h b i s h o p s of M e x i c o w e r e o f t e n Creoles; i n a n y case, the long duration o f their m i n i s t r y facilitated the p r o c e s s o f n a t u r a l i z a t i o n . A m o n g the r e l i g i o u s o r d e r s , whose relative i m p o r t a n c e (numerical, spiritual, a n d e c o n o m i c ) i n society m a y a p p e a r t o m o d e r n e y e s o v e r w h e l m i n g , the r i v a l r y b e t w e e n Creoles a n d S p a n i a r d s e a r l y a t t a i n e d a t r o u b l i n g s h a r p n e s s . E f f o r t s w e r e m a d e t o r e d u c e this t e n s i o n b y i n s t i t u t i n g a s y s t e m o f " a l t e r n a t i o n " o r ternas i n t h e s e l e c t i o n o f p r i o r s o f c o n v e n t s a n d in t h e r e c r u i t m e n t of religious. U n d e r t h e system o f "alternation," t h e p r i o r was alternately a S p a n i a r d a n d a creole; in t h e system o f ternas, a d i s t i n c t i o n w a s m a d e b e t w e e n S p a n i a r d s , o n t h e o n e h a n d , S p a n i a r d s w h o h a d taken t h e habit in N e w Spain, o n t h e other, a n d finally b e t w e e n t h e s e a n d n a t i v e s o f N e w S p a i n ; this l a t t e r s y s t e m
allowed t h e "real" Creoles t o govern t w o y e a r s o u t o f t h r e e . H i g h e r p o s t s i n t h e civil a d m i n i s t r a t i o n w e r e r e s e r v e d a l m o s t e x c l u s i v e l y t o S p a n i a r d s , totally i n t h e a r m y . T h e c r e o l e elite f o r m e d i n t h e U n i v e r sity o f M e x i c o ( w h o s e s t u d e n t b o d y w a s a l m o s t e n t i r e l y c r e o l e f r o m a n e a r l y d a t e ) a n d in t h e c o l l e g e s o f t h e C o m p a n y o f J e s u s w a s t h u s deprived of j o b opportunities o r restricted to inferior employment. F o r m a n y y o u n g M e x i c a n s o f w e a l t h y family, e x c l u s i o n f r o m p u b l i c e m p l o y m e n t d i d n o t signify e c o n o m i c m i s e r y ; b u t t h e b a r t o official h o n o r s inflicted a d e e p w o u n d , c o n t i n u a l l y r e o p e n e d , o n t h e n a s c e n t national consciousness. F r o m a v e r y early d a t e t h e S p a n i a r d s w h o c a m e f r o m t h e P e n i n s u l a a f f i r m e d t h e i r s u p e r i o r i t y o v e r t h e Creoles a n d d i s p l a y e d d i s t r u s t o f them. I n l a w , t h e Creoles w e r e r e g a r d e d a s S p a n i a r d s w i t h o u t a n y q u a l ification. I n t h e a u t h o r i t a t i v e w o r k o n s u c h m a t t e r s , t h e Politica Indiana, t h e r o y a l c o u n c i l o r S o l o r z a n o w r o t e o f t h e Creoles: " T h e r e c a n b e n o d o u b t t h a t t h e y a r e t r u e S p a n i a r d s , a n d b y t h i s title t h e y s h o u l d enjoy t h e rights, h o n o r s , a n d privileges of S p a n i a r d s a n d b e j u d g e d like t h e m . " I n p r a c t i c e , t h e Creoles w e r e d e n i e d p u b l i c p o s t s i n t h e P e n i n s u l a a s well a s i n t h e I n d i e s , a n d , t w e n t y y e a r s a f t e r t h e a p p e a r ance of Solorzano Pereira's work, o n e of t h e m wrote a memorial "in favor of t h e S p a n i a r d s w h o a r e b o r n in t h e I n d i e s " ; t h e m e m o r i a l b r o u g h t t o g e t h e r a n d e x p r e s s e d f o r t h e first t i m e t h e c o m p l a i n t s o f 1
2
9
Brothers and Enemies:
Spaniards
and Creoles
A m e r i c a n Creoles a g a i n s t t h e discrimination to w h i c h t h e y w e r e s u b j e c t e d . T h e c h a r g e s a n d c o u n t e r c h a r g e s o n this s u b j e c t w e r e e n d l e s s ; in reality t h e q u a r r e l involved m o r e t h a n a s i m p l e q u e s t i o n o f i n t e r e s t o r ambition. It a p p e a r s t h a t in o n e area, a b o u t which t h e d o c u m e n t s a r e i n e v i t a b l y r e t i c e n t , t h e r e w a s a vital rivalry b e t w e e n Creoles a n d
gachupines.
I f w e m a y b e l i e v e foreign w i t n e s s e s , t h e creole w o m e n
( r e v e a l i n g a t r a i t o f malinchismo o f c o n s i d e r a b l e i n t e r e s t f o r t h e h i s t o r i a n o f a t t i t u d e s ) preferred t o m a r r y a gachupin r a t h e r t h a n a c r e o l e , p r o v o k i n g t h e j e a l o u s h a t r e d o f t h e latter. T h i s rivalry o n all levels q u i c k e n e d a s t h e Creoles b e c a m e n u m e r i cally a n d e c o n o m i c a l l y preponderant, a n d i n t h e e i g h t e e n t h century t h e y p a s s e d over t o t h e o f f e n s i v e . T h e Representation vindicatoria o f t h e M e x i c a n Creoles i n 1 7 7 1 , i n a n a d d r e s s t o t h e k i n g , s o u g h t t o p r o v e p o i n t b y p o i n t t h a t t h e A m e r i c a n Creoles w e r e i n n o r e s p e c t inferior to p e n i n s u l a r S p a n i a r d s . B e g i n n i n g in t h e sixteenth c e n t u r y , the dispute assumed the character of an anthropological question. D o c t o r J u a n d e C a r d e n a s w a s t h e first t o r a i s e t h e i s s u e , d e s t i n e d t o h a v e a g r e a t f u t u r e , i n h i s b o o k Problemas y secretos maravillosos de las Indias, w h i c h a p p e a r e d i n M e x i c o C i t y i n 1 5 9 1 . A l t h o u g h b o r n i n Spain, C a r d e n a s d i d n o t hesitate to write: "in what concerns capacity t o u n d e r s t a n d a n d e x p l a i n , it s e e m s t o m e t h a t t h e y [ t h e Creoles] s u r p a s s u s i n all t h a t t h e y a t t e m p t t o d o , " a n d h e a d d e d , i n t h e style o f t h e A r a b p h y s i c i a n s , t h a t t h e Creoles w e r e o f " s a n g u i n e choleric" h u m o r , t h e m o s t f a v o r a b l e o f t h e n i n e p o s s i b l e h u m o r s . A l l t h e criticisms a n d d e f e n s e s w i t h r e g a r d t o t h e Creoles i n v o k e d a r g u m e n t s o f this kind, s t r e s s i n g t h e effects o f t h e A m e r i c a n c l i m a t e o n m e n o f E u r o p e a n stock. 3
In t h e e i g h t e e n t h century, in connection with t h e publication of C o r n e l i u s d e P a u w ' s Recherches philosophiques sur les Americains a n d t h e p o l e m i c w h i c h f o l l o w e d its a p p e a r a n c e i n E u r o p e , t h e Creoles f o u n d a b r i l l i a n t c h a m p i o n i n a M e x i c a n J e s u i t w h o h a d b e e n e x i l e d t o Italy, F r a n c i s c o J a v i e r C l a v i g e r o . C l a v i g e r o p u b l i s h e d i n I t a l i a n a Storia antica del Messico t o w h i c h h e j o i n e d a s e r i e s o f " D i s s e r t a t i o n s " d e s i g n e d t o r e h a b i l i t a t e t h e A m e r i c a n s i n all r e s p e c t s . T h e c l i m a t e , t h e fauna, t h e I n d i a n , t h e creole, w e r e each in t u r n f o u n d i n n o c e n t of t h e a c c u s a t i o n s m a d e w i t h o u t m u c h basis b y d e P a u w , w h o h a d b o r r o w e d them from Buffon. T h e Creoles, however, d i d not present a u n i t e d front. B e t w e e n the ricos hombres, the m i n e o w n e r s o r hacendados of the " p r o v i n c i a s intern a s , " a n d the f r i a r s of the t o w n s ; b e t w e e n the l a t t e r a n d the r e l i g i o u s of the m i s s i o n s ; b e t w e e n the d o c t o r s of the U n i v e r s i t y of M e x i c o City a n d the artisans o r p e t t y m u n i c i p a l officials e x i s t e d p r o f o u n d diff e r e n c e s . C r e o l e s f r o m n o b l e a n d wealthy families who d r e a m e d o f
10
N E W SPAIN FROM THE CONQUEST TO INDEPENDENCE
f o r m i n g alliances with families of S p a n i s h g r a n d e e s , o r e v e n with h i g h gachupin officials, d i s p l a y e d a s i n c e r e loyalist a t t i t u d e a n d a d j u s t e d t o t h e i r p o s i t i o n . T h e viceregal c o u r t d i v i d e d t h e Creoles i n t o c a m p s , t h e privileged Creoles w h o w e r e a d m i t t e d t h e r e , a n d t h e o t h e r s . O n e of the most striking aspects of the mentality which Spain h a d t r a n s m i t t e d t o N e w S p a i n w a s its p a r o c h i a l spirit. If a M e x i c a n n a t i o n a l c o n s c i o u s n e s s d i d n o t a r i s e e a r l i e r , it w a s p a r t l y b e c a u s e o f t h e e x c l u s i v e a n d a l m o s t m y s t i c a l a t t a c h m e n t to o n e ' s local " f a t h e r l a n d " (patria chica). D o u b t l e s s t h e m o s t significant e x a m p l e o f t h i s spirit, t h r o u g h o u t t h e c o l o n i a l p e r i o d , w a s t h e r i v a l r y b e t w e e n M e x i c o City a n d Puebla. A l t h o u g h Puebla h a d only o n e - f o u r t h t h e p o p u l a t i o n of M e x i c o City a n d t h e l a t t e r w a s t h e s e a t o f t h e v i c e r o y s , P u e b l a w a s o n e o f t h e s e c o n d a r y c e n t e r s o f N e w S p a i n ' s life; t o i g n o r e t h i s fact is t o m i s r e a d Mexico's colonial history. Puebla was, to b e g i n with, a s p i r i t u a l c e n t e r , f o r P u e b l a d e los A n g e l e s w a s a b o v e all o t h e r s a S p a n i s h town, f o u n d e d in t h e T l a x c a l a n r e g i o n at t h e r e q u e s t of F r a n c i s c a n r e l i g i o u s in o r d e r t o r e l i e v e p r e s s u r e o n M e x i c o City, w h i c h w a s b e c o m i n g o v e r p o p u l a t e d b y E u r o p e a n s , if w e m a y b e l i e v e Fray Agustin d e Vetancurt. Different traditions r e p o r t the marvelous e v e n t s t h a t a t t e n d e d t h e city's f o u n d i n g : a c c o r d i n g t o o n e s u c h t r a d i t i o n , t h e b i s h o p o f T l a x c a l a h a d a vision in w h i c h a n g e l s d e f i n e d f o r h i m t h e b o u n d a r i e s o f t h e f u t u r e city; o t h e r s a t t r i b u t e d t h i s d r e a m t o I s a b e l l a t h e C a t h o l i c . I t is c e r t a i n t h a t o n e o f t h e m o s t v e n e r a t e d e a r l y m i s s i o n a r i e s , F r a y T o r i b i o d e M o t o l i n i a , said t h e first m a s s i n P u e b l a . A c c o r d i n g t o o n e t r a d i t i o n , d o u b t l e s s o f l a t e r o r i g i n , it w a s in 1 5 3 1 ( t h e s a m e y e a r in w h i c h , a c c o r d i n g t o a n o t h e r t r a d i t i o n , t h e m i r a c u lous image of G u a d a l u p e a p p e a r e d ) , that the archangel Saint Michael a p p e a r e d t o a n I n d i a n in a r e m o t e s p o t b e t w e e n P u e b l a a n d T l a x c a l a . T h e b i s h o p r i c e s t a b l i s h e d i n P u e b l a in 1 5 2 6 , its n u m e r o u s a n d i m p o r tant convents, the prestige of a n origin linked to the Franciscan p i o n e e r s , t h e r o l e w h i c h t h e J e s u i t s l a t e r p l a y e d t h e r e (in V e t a n c u r t ' s t i m e t h e y a l r e a d y h a d t h r e e colleges), t h e brilliant c a r e e r a n d m e m o r y o f B i s h o p P a l a f o x , in t h e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y , all e n d o w e d P u e b l a w i t h a m o r a l g r a n d e u r w h i c h e n a b l e d it t o c h a l l e n g e t h e c a p i t a l . T h e t o w n itself, a t t h e e n d o f t h e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y , w a s s u p e r i o r t o M e x i c o C i t y ( t h e n a n o b j e c t o f m u c h b r a g g i n g ) in s y m m e t r y a n d a p p e a r a n c e , a c c o r d i n g t o G e m e l l i C a r r e r i , w h o w r o t e : " a l m o s t all t h e b u i l d i n g s t h e r e a r e b u i l t o f s t o n e a n d l i m e a n d a r e n o t a t all i n f e r i o r t o t h o s e o f M e x i c o City. A l t h o u g h t h e s t r e e t s a r e n o t p a v e d , t h e y a r e m u c h c l e a n e r . . . . T h e s q u a r e o f t h e C a t h e d r a l o f P u e b l a is m u c h m o r e beautiful t h a n that of Mexico City." Agustin d e Vetancurt a d d e d : " P e r s o n s b o r n in t h i s city a r e r e s o l u t e in c h a r a c t e r . . . ; t h o s e w h o a p p l y themselves to s t u d y h a v e subtle intellects a n d , i n s p i r e d by a 4
11
Brothers and Enemies:
Spaniards
and
Creoles
p r a i s e w o r t h y zeal, b e c o m e l e a r n e d m e n . T h e t o w n is i n h a b i t e d b y m a n y g e n t l e m e n of r e c o g n i z e d nobility, a n d s o m e a r e m e m b e r s of t h e g r e a t m i l i t a r y o r d e r s ; t h e r e a r e c o a c h e s a n d r i d i n g h o r s e s a n d (alt h o u g h it h a s n o v i c e r e g a l c o u r t ) b o t h m e n a n d w o m e n d i s p l a y a courtly elegance a n d refinement." H u m b o l d t tells u s t h a t in his t i m e , " P u e b l a d e los A n g e l e s [was] m o r e thickly p o p u l a t e d t h a n L i m a , Q u i t o , S a n t a Fe d e B o g o t a , a n d Caracas," a n d , with the exception of the m i n i n g c o m p l e x of G u a n a j u a t o ( w h i c h h a d m o r e t h a n 7 0 , 0 0 0 i n h a b i t a n t s ) , P u e b l a w i t h its 6 7 , 0 0 0 i n h a b i t a n t s w a s f a r a h e a d o f all t h e o t h e r t o w n s o f M e x i c o ( e x c e p t f o r M e x i c o City). G u a d a l a j a r a , A n t e q u e r a d e O a x a c a , V a lladolid d e Michoacan h a d a b o u t 20,000 inhabitants each, while Vera Cruz, D u r a n g o , M e r i d a d e Yucatan h a d populations of between 12,000 a n d 15,000 inhabitants. N e w Spain, o r Mexico, then, possessed a n " i m p e r i a l " c a p i t a l ( w h e r e t h e m a j o r i t y o f t h e S p a n i a r d s lived), a n d a s e r i e s o f t o w n s o f m i d d l i n g i m p o r t a n c e , e a c h o f w h i c h r e g a r d e d its bell t o w e r w i t h p r i d e ; t h a t o f t h e c a t h e d r a l o f P u e b l a w a s n o t q u i t e a s h i g h as t h e t o w e r s o f t h e c a t h e d r a l o f M e x i c o C i t y ; o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e b i s h o p o f P u e b l a , as G e m e l l i C a r r e r i r e c a l l e d , d i d n o t h a v e t o s h a r e h o n o r s w i t h t h e v i c e r o y . E a c h o f t h e s e cities w a s t h e c e n t e r o f a d i o c e s e , a n d e a c h d i o c e s e w a s a c i t a d e l o f M e x i c a n criollismo. 5
Irreconcilable Enemies: Indians, Mestizos, Mulattoes
T h e o p p o s i t i o n b e t w e e n S p a n i a r d s a n d Creoles w a s a fratricidal struggle, b u t b o t h g r o u p s f o r m e d a r u l i n g caste t h a t d o m i n a t e d t h e r e a l M e x i c o , w h o s e p o p u l a t i o n a t t h e b e g i n n i n g of t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y w a s still I n d i a n i n its g r e a t m a j o r i t y . T h e m a k e u p o f M e x i c a n society, a s c a l c u l a t e d b y A l e x a n d e r v o n H u m b o l d t at that time, offers a g o o d point of d e p a r t u r e for reflecting on the evolution of New Spain: Natives, o r I n d i a n s Whites, o r Spaniards Creoles 1,025,000 Peninsulars 70,000 African blacks Castes of mixed blood Total
2,500,000 1,095,000
6,100 1,231,000 4,832,100 inhabitants
O u t of a total p o p u l a t i o n of a b o u t 5 million inhabitants (note t h e very weak density p e r s q u a r e mile), one-half was c o m p o s e d of I n dians, o n e - q u a r t e r of various mixed-bloods, a n d o n e - q u a r t e r of w h i t e s ( c r e o l e s i n t h e vast m a j o r i t y ) . T h e s e facts s u g g e s t t h a t a f t e r t h r e e centuries of Hispanic colonization t h e population was indeed " M e x i c a n . " I n effect, o n l y t h e 7 0 , 0 0 0 S p a n i a r d s born i n S p a i n a n d t h e 6 , 1 0 0 A f r i c a n slaves w e r e a l i e n to t h e country. K e e p i n m i n d , too, t h a t
o f t h e Creoles d e s c r i b e d as " w h i t e s " a certain n u m b e r , difficult to e s t i m a t e b u t c e r t a i n l y h i g h , w e r e biologically m i x e d - b l o o d s . T h e r o l e o f t h e m e s t i z o s i n M e x i c a n society v e r y e a r l y b e c a m e a s o u r c e o f instability; t h e y b e g a n t o m u l t i p l y f r o m t h e first d a y s a f t e r t h e C o n q u e s t , b e c o m i n g a s o u r c e o f c o n c e r n t o t h e political a u t h o r i t i e s . T h e s e first m e s t i z o s , b o r n o f S p a n i s h f a t h e r s a n d I n d i a n m o t h e r s , h a d n o h o m e , n o d e f i n i t e p l a c e i n t h e society o f t h e i r t i m e . T h e M e x i c a n picaro t y p e , t h e lepero w h o s e t r a i t s J . J . F e r n a n d e z L i z a r d i c a p t u r e d i n The Itching Parrot i n t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , h a d a p p e a r e d by t h e m i d d l e of t h e sixteenth c e n t u r y : t h e mestizo rejected by t h e I n d i a n w o r l d a n d b y S p a n i s h society. Hijos de la chingada, f r u i t s 12
13
Irreconcilable
Enemies:
Indians,
Mestizos,
Mulattoes
of t h e violation of I n d i a n w o m e n by E u r o p e a n s , their aspect soon a c q u i r e d n e w tints, especially d u e to t h e N e g r o i d c o n t r i b u t i o n after t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f A f r i c a n slaves i n t o M e x i c o . A s e r i e s o f p i c t u r e s f r o m t h e c o l o n i a l p e r i o d p r e s e n t all k n o w n f o r m s o f m i x t u r e ( f r o m t h e lightest to the darkest), t o g e t h e r with their n a m e s ; s o m e of these, like t h e saltatrds, a r e t r u l y p i c t u r e s q u e . T h e t o t a l i t y o f t h e s e m i x e d - b l o o d s c o n s t i t u t e d t h e castas. G e m e l l i C a r r e r i , w h o p r o b a b l y e c h o e d i d e a s t h e n w i d e l y h e l d in c o n t e m p o r a r y M e x i c o , e x p l a i n s t h e o r i g i n o f s o m e m i x e d - b l o o d s in t h i s w a y : b e c a u s e creole w o m e n p r e f e r r e d Spanish men, he writes, creole males " f o r m e d unions with mulatto w o m e n , their nurses, w h o together with t h e i r m i l k p a s s e d o n t o t h e m t h e i r evil c u s t o m s . " T h e w i d e s p r e a d u s e o f m u l a t t o n u r s e s in c r e o l e h o u s e h o l d s n o d o u b t g a v e t h i s n u m e r i c a l l y negligible g r o u p a very real influence. T h e children b o r n of creole m e n a n d m u l a t t o w o m e n s e e m t o h a v e b e e n left t o f e n d f o r t h e m selves (by c o n t r a s t w i t h w h a t h a p p e n e d u n d e r t h e B r a z i l i a n r u r a l patriarchate, for example). T h e s a m e observer writes that "Mexico City m a y h a v e o n e h u n d r e d t h o u s a n d i n h a b i t a n t s , b u t t h e majority a r e b l a c k s a n d m u l a t t o e s . " T h e vision o f M e x i c o City in t h e w r i t i n g s o f S o r J u a n a I n e s d e la C r u z , G e m e l l i C a r r e r i ' s c o n t e m p o r a r y , t e n d s to confirm t h e Neapolitan traveler's observation. 1
2
T h e c o u n t r y s i d e p r e s e n t e d a v e r y d i f f e r e n t a s p e c t . S a v e in t h e h o t l a n d s (tierra caliente), w h e r e a n e f f o r t w a s m a d e t o e s t a b l i s h t r o p i c a l m o n o c u l t u r e ( s u g a r c a n e ) , t h e b l a c k e l e m e n t in t h e p o p u l a t i o n w a s u n i m p o r t a n t . As a result of t h e collapse of t h e native o r g a n i z a t i o n p r o d u c e d by the Conquest, a n d the subsequent ravages of epidemics, I n d i a n communities often disintegrated, setting the u p r o o t e d Indians in m o t i o n . T h e s e I n d i a n s , j o i n e d b y v e t e r a n s o f t h e C o n q u e s t r u i n e d by g a m b l i n g o r o t h e r circumstances a n d by E u r o p e a n a d v e n t u r e r s of l a t e r a r r i v a l ( u n e m p l o y e d s o l d i e r s , d e f r o c k e d f r i a r s o r false r e l i g i o u s , e s c a p e d c r i m i n a l s ) , c o m p o s e d f r o m t h e first h a l f o f t h e s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y t h e M e x i c a n e m b r y o o f S p a i n ' s hampa, t h a t m i l i e u o f r o g u e s d e s c r i b e d b y C e r v a n t e s in Rinconete y Cortadillo. N a t u r a l l y , t h e s e m a r g i n a l g r o u p s o f t h e n a s c e n t c o l o n i a l society w e r e ideally s u i t e d f o r b i o l o g i c a l a n d c u l t u r a l m i x t u r e a t its l o w e s t level. D e s p i t e t h e p r o h i b i tion " t h a t n o M o o r , J e w , p e r s o n c o n d e m n e d by the Inquisition, son o r g r a n d s o n o f a n i n d i v i d u a l s e n t t o t h e s t a k e by t h e H o l y Office m a y d e p a r t f o r t h e I n d i e s , " a m i n g l i n g o f r a c e s a n d beliefs t o o k p l a c e in A m e r i c a f r o m t h e first. T h r o u g h o u t t h e M e x i c a n c o l o n i a l p e r i o d s u c cessive d e c r e e s f o r b a d e S p a n i a r d s ( o t h e r t h a n officials r e q u i r e d t o r e s i d e in I n d i a n pueblos), b l a c k s , a n d o t h e r p e r s o n s fitting t h e l e g a l d e f i n i t i o n o f castas, t o r e s i d e in I n d i a n villages o r " e v e n t o b e s e e n i n t h e c o m p a n y o f I n d i a n s " — b u t in v a i n . 3
14
N E W SPAIN FROM THE CONQUEST TO INDEPENDENCE
F r o m t h e first d e c a d e s o f N e w S p a i n , t h e I n d i a n w a s v i c t i m i z e d b y t h e m i x e d - b l o o d . T h e climate of violence which to this d a y r e m a i n s o n e o f t h e m o s t s t r i k i n g a s p e c t s o f H i s p a n i c - A m e r i c a n life, h a d its o r i g i n in t h i s fact. C a s t e f e e l i n g , i n h e r i t e d f r o m t h e S p a n i s h p a s s i o n f o r " p u r i t y o f b l o o d " a n d v e r y s t r o n g a m o n g t h e Creoles, w a s n o less p o w e r f u l a m o n g t h e I n d i a n s ; t h e m i x e d - b l o o d was rejected alike by t h e Creoles a n d t h e I n d i a n s . T h u s t h e r e a r o s e a f l o a t i n g , c h a o t i c society; t h e fact t h a t its r e l a t i v e i m p o r t a n c e s t e a d i l y g r e w m a d e it a s e r i o u s t h r e a t t o t h e e q u i l i b r i u m o f a social b o d y t h a t w a s itself c o m p o s i t e a n d d i s p e r s e d in g e o g r a p h i c s p a c e . N e w S p a i n h a d a social frontier which could not be traced on a m a p but whose importance w a s n e v e r t h e l e s s d e c i s i v e . I n t h e l o n g r u n t h i s social f r o n t i e r w a s t o prove m o r e of a threat t h a n t h e n o r t h e r n "frontier." W h e r e a s m u c h w a s s a i d in N e w S p a i n a b o u t t h e A p a c h e p e r i l , n o t e n o u g h w a s m a d e o f t h e d a n g e r p o s e d b y t h e pardos (a t e r m o r i g i n a l l y a p p l i e d t o m i x t u r e s o f b l a c k s a n d I n d i a n s , b u t e v e n t u a l l y a s y n o n y m f o r t h e castas); t h e i r i n c o r p o r a t i o n in t h e a r m y , b e g i n n i n g in t h e r e i g n o f C h a r l e s I I I , was to m a k e t h e m arbiters of t h e n a t i o n a l destiny d u r i n g t h e Wars of I n d e p e n d e n c e . T h e w h o l e h i s t o r y o f M e x i c o is a h i s t o r y o f t h e g r o w i n g r o l e o f t h e castas, w h o , b e f o r e t h e i r a s s i m i l a t i o n i n t o a society t h a t h a d a c h i e v e d a n e w e q u i l i b r i u m , c o u l d o n l y e x p r e s s t h e m s e l v e s in violence that p l u n g e d the country into interminable convulsions a n d h a n d e d it o v e r t o t h e caudillos w h o e m e r g e d f r o m t h e a n a r c h y . T h e h i s t o r y o f t h e p r o g r e s s i v e i n s e r t i o n o f t h e leperos i n t o a n e v o l v i n g society, w h e t h e r in t h e p r i v a t e militias o f t h e hacendados, in t h e a r m y , o r as p r o f e s s i o n a l g a m b l e r s (tahures, " t r i c k s t e r s " ) , o r as pistoleros (ins t r u m e n t s o f political o r p e r s o n a l v e n g e a n c e ) , is a h i s t o r y o f m a n y o b s c u r e b u t far f r o m insignificant aspects of M e x i c a n reality. T h e I n d i a n s h a v e always b e e n M e x i c o ' s v a n q u i s h e d ; as s u c h t h e y h a v e b e e n p e r m a n e n t v i c t i m s o f a s y s t e m t h a t e x p l o i t s t h e i r l a b o r . We m u s t first n o t e t h e g r e a t d i v e r s i t y o f t h e I n d i a n c o n d i t i o n i n N e w Spain. I n this c o n n e c t i o n , we m u s t distinguish b e t w e e n t h e "useful Mexico" a n d t h e zones r o a m e d by n o m a d s . T h e latter clearly constituted a m u c h greater surface area, b u t t h e density of the population w a s m u c h w e a k e r t h e r e , s i n c e in g e n e r a l it c o n s i s t e d o f s t e p p e s o r d e s e r t s ( C h i h u a h u a ) o r t r o p i c a l f o r e s t s difficult t o p e n e t r a t e ( t h e H u a s t e c a ) . T h e I n d i a n s of t h e s e regions h a d e s c a p e d conquest b y t h e A z t e c s ; a g a i n s t t h e frontiers of t h e sedentary Creoles t h e y continued t h e w a r of h a r a s s m e n t t h e y h a d c o n d u c t e d in t h e p a s t . W h e r e a s t h e A z t e c s h a d only s o u g h t t o d i s c o u r a g e t h e i r i n c u r s i o n s , t h e S p a n i a r d s t r i e d t o r e d u c e t h e m t o s e d e n t a r y life in o r d e r t o p r o t e c t t h e i r l i n e s o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n a n d to convert t h e m — i n short, to integrate t h e m into N e w Spain. T h e s e two enterprises, defense of the frontiers a n d
15
Irreconcilable
Enemies:
Indians,
Mestizos,
Mulattoes
e x p a n s i o n o f t h e f a i t h , w e r e c a r r i e d o n in a p a r a l l e l w a y o n t h e milit a r y level by c o l o n i z i n g t h e f r o n t i e r a r e a s w i t h s o l d i e r s (presidios), a n d in t h e m i s s i o n a r y r e a l m by t h e m e n d i c a n t o r d e r s , l a t e r by t h e J e s u i t s . B o t h e n t e r p r i s e s s u f f e r e d a p a r t i a l f a i l u r e , o n t h e m i l i t a r y level b e cause the authority of the caciques w h o submitted or a g r e e d to m a k e a treaty did not extend over an entire region, a n d from the missionary p o i n t o f view b e c a u s e t h e c o n v e r t s w e r e r a r e l y d i v o r c e d f r o m t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e p r i e s t s ( s h a m a n s ) o f t h e i r a n c i e n t p o l y t h e i s t i c relig i o n . T h e l a t t e r , c a l l e d dogmatizadores i n t h e t e c h n i c a l l a n g u a g e o f t h e s t r u g g l e a g a i n s t i d o l a t r y , p e r i o d i c a l l y i n c i t e d I n d i a n r e v o l t s . T h e Historia o f A l e g r e a b o u n d s in tales o f J e s u i t s m a r t y r e d in t h e P i m e r i a , i n t h e T a r a h u m a r a r e g i o n , in L o w e r California. I n these I n d i a n s , t h e n c a l l e d " s a v a g e s " (bravos), w e p e r c e i v e a s t u b b o r n d e t e r m i n a t i o n t o d e f e n d their territories f r o m e n c r o a c h e r s a n d to m a i n t a i n their cultural identity. H o w e v e r , t h e missionary effort, carried o u t systematically, left e n d u r i n g t r a c e s in t h e c u l t u r e s o f n u m e r o u s p e o p l e s in t h e n o r t h a n d t h e west of Mexico. M o d e r n ethnological researches, even a m o n g peoples w h o h a d a m i n i m u m contact with Christian influence, a l w a y s r e v e a l a s y n c r e t i c r e l i g i o u s reality. We k n o w m u c h m o r e a b o u t t h e fate of t h e s e d e n t a r y I n d i a n s , O t o m i o r N a h u a f a r m e r s of C e n t r a l Mexico, f o r m e r subjects of t h e lords of Mexico-Tenochtitlan o r of Tlaxcala. O n the o t h e r h a n d , m u c h obscurity s u r r o u n d s t h e fate of M i c h o a c a n , O a x a c a , t h e Huasteca, transitional areas whose peoples were sometimes tributaries of the Aztecs b u t not assimilated into their e m p i r e . Each regional l i n g u i s t i c g r o u p w a s in r e a l i t y u n i q u e , b o t h f r o m t h e p o i n t o f view o f its c u l t u r a l h e r i t a g e a n d w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e f o r m s o f its i n t e g r a t i o n i n t o t h e c o l o n i a l r e g i m e . T h e M e x i c a n I n d i a n s e x p e r i e n c e d in c o m m o n t h e shock of military conquest, b u t this was t h e blow they w e r e b e s t p r e p a r e d t o w i t h s t a n d , h a v i n g a p a s t full o f w a r s . T h e t r u e t r a u m a w a s t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f t h e t r a d i t i o n a l social o r g a n i z a t i o n a n d t h e e r a d i c a t i o n o f t h e r e l i g i o u s beliefs w h i c h f o r m e d its f o u n d a t i o n . T h e pillage of Axayacatl's t r e a s u r e by C o r t e s ' c o m r a d e s , t h e distribut i o n (repartimiento) o f t h e c o m m o n e r s (macehuales) a m o n g S p a n i s h m a s t e r s (encomenderos), w e r e t h e i m m e d i a t e r e s u l t s o f t h e C o n q u e s t f o r t h e I n d i a n s . T h e i m a g e o f t h e A p o c a l y p s e is t h e m o r e r e l e v a n t b e c a u s e t h e I n d i a n s b e l i e v e d i n g r e a t p e r i o d i c c a t a s t r o p h e s in w h i c h h u m a n i t y p e r i s h e d ; t h e year 1519 coincided precisely with t h e e n d of one such era or "Sun." O t h e r disasters struck t h e I n d i a n s of central Mexico, notably a s e r i e s o f e p i d e m i c s (pestes). A t least s o m e o f t h e s e , c a l l e d cocoliztli i n Nahuatl, were smallpox. Between the Conquest a n d the e n d of the s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y t h e p o p u l a t i o n o f t h e valley o f M e x i c o fell,
16
N E W SPAIN FROM THE CONQUEST TO INDEPENDENCE
a c c o r d i n g t o t h e e s t i m a t e s o f W o o d r o w B o r a h a n d Lesley S i m p s o n , f r o m a b o u t 1,500,000 I n d i a n s to 70,000. T h e chronicles of t h e F r a n ciscan p i o n e e r s a r e r e p l e t e w i t h l a m e n t a t i o n s a b o u t t h e " d i s a p p e a r a n c e " of the I n d i a n s . T h e principal cause of t h e drastic d e m o g r a p h i c d e c l i n e was t h e e p i d e m i c s ; o t h e r s w e r e t h e d i s o r g a n i z a t i o n o f t h e p r e c o n q u e s t r e g i m e o f w a t e r u s e i n t h e valley o f M e x i c o by t h e e n t e r prises of the conquerors-colonists a n d the o v e r t h r o w of t h e native s y s t e m o f l a b o r . C h a r l e s G i b s o n h a s s t u d i e d t h e s e a s p e c t s in The Aztecs under Spanish Rule; h e r e I o n l y w i s h t o s k e t c h t h e m a i n lines of historical d e v e l o p m e n t w h i c h m a d e possible t h e spiritual p h e n o m e n a t o b e d i s c u s s e d in t h i s b o o k . T h e s y s t e m o f t h e encomienda * b o r r o w e d f r o m S p a i n a n d f r o m t h e first i m p o s e d o n t h e I n d i a n s , w a s g r a d u a l l y l i q u i d a t e d by l e g a l r e straints (the N e w Laws) a n d by t h e n u m e r i c a l decline of t h e I n d i a n s g i v e n in encomienda. T h e n a t i v e l a b o r f o r c e , t h e t a r g e t o f t h e c o n q u i s t a d o r s ' g r e e d o n c e b o o t y in t h e f o r m o f p r e c i o u s m e t a l s h a d b e c o m e e x h a u s t e d , consequently suffered such a decline that the colonists h a d t o s e e k n e w s o u r c e s o f w e a l t h . T h e first w a s t h e l a n d itself, w h i c h t h e y b e g a n to o c c u p y a n d exploit; a corollary of this process was t h e exp r o p r i a t i o n o f I n d i a n a g r a r i a n c o m m u n i t i e s . B e g i n n i n g in t h e m i d d l e o f t h e s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y , t h e I n d i a n w h o w a s d e p r i v e d o f his l a n d o r fled f r o m his encomendero o f t e n b e c a m e a p e o n , t i e d t o a h a c e n d a d o n o t o n l y by h i s d e b t s b u t by t h e s e c u r i t y t h a t t h e h a c i e n d a o f f e r e d h i m in a c h a o t i c w o r l d . A t t h e s a m e t i m e t h e " n a t u r a l l o r d s " ( t h e o l d n a t i v e aristocracy), whose prerogatives h a d b e e n preserved a n d w h o m the n e w r u l e r s u t i l i z e d , e s p e c i a l l y as t r i b u t e c o l l e c t o r s , s u f f e r e d e v e n worse impoverishment than the c o m m o n e r s . B u r d e n e d with debts, f o r c e d t o m a k e g o o d t h e t r i b u t e deficits o f t h e i r s u b j e c t s , w h o h a d b e e n d r a i n e d dry, t h e only solution for t h e I n d i a n caciques was to become functionaries u n d e r the new order; appointed "governors," they hastened the integration of the Indian world whose masters they h a d b e e n into t h e system of colonial exploitation. T h e discovery of silver m i n e s in t h e N o r t h , w i t h its n e w l a b o r d e m a n d s , l e d t o n e w u p r o o t i n g s of I n d i a n s w h o were t o r n away from their traditional c o m m u n i t i e s . T h i s p h e n o m e n o n probably affected the I n d i a n s of t h e valley o f M e x i c o less t h a n t h e w o r k levies r e q u i r e d b y t h e d r a i n i n g o f the lagoons. Gradually, about the middle of the sixteenth century, there arose a repressive administrative-fiscal organization which, with some c h a n g e s in n a m e , c o n t i n u e d u n t i l I n d e p e n d e n c e . T h e S p a n i s h s y s t e m o f t h e cabecera ( c h i e f t o w n o f a d i s t r i c t ) w i t h a corregidor a t its h e a d a n d *Grant to a Spaniard of an allotment of Indians who were to serve him with tribute or labor. (Tr.)
17
Irreconcilable
Enemies:
Indians,
Mestizos,
Mulattoes
a c u r a t e as its s p i r i t u a l l e a d e r , w a s t h e b a s e o f I n d i a n a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . T h e p a r i s h a n d t h e religious b r o t h e r h o o d d e v o t e d to t h e cult of a t u t e l a r y saint, o n t h e o n e h a n d , a n d t h e caja de comunidad ( c o m m u n i t y treasury), o n the other, were the socioeconomic a n d spiritual expressions of I n d i a n reality in N e w Spain. I n b o t h cases we observe a d a p t a t i o n s o f a n c i e n t t r a d i t i o n a l i n s t i t u t i o n s . T h e comunidad ( w h i c h r e m a i n s t o this d a y t h e cell o f I n d i a n society) w a s a d e g r a d e d f o r m o f t h e calpulli; t h e S p a n i s h c o r r e g i d o r w a s t h e c o l o n i a l h e i r o f t h e t r a d i t i o n a l cacique. I n t h e c o u r s e o f t h r e e c o l o n i a l c e n t u r i e s S p a i n ' s I n d i a n policy, like t h e p r o s p e r i t y o f t h e m i n i n g d i s t r i c t s , w a s s u b j e c t t o f l u c t u a t i o n s ; in t h e c o u r s e o f t h o s e c e n t u r i e s , also, t h e d e m o g r a p h i c d e c l i n e o f t h e first h a l f - c e n t u r y w a s r e v e r s e d . T h e r e c o v e r y b e g a n slowly a t t h e e n d o f t h e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y , t h e n a c c e l e r a t e d in t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n tury, b u t at the e n d of the colonial p e r i o d t h e I n d i a n p o p u l a t i o n of t h e valley o f M e x i c o ( a c c o r d i n g t o C h a r l e s G i b s o n ) w a s still o n l y a b o u t 275,000. T h e process of recovery f r o m t h e disasters of the terrible t h r e e d e c a d e s that followed the C o n q u e s t seems to have b e e n very slow. T h e S p a n i s h a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , especially u n d e r t h e influence of t h e religious, a d o p t e d n u m e r o u s m e a s u r e s to protect t h e I n d i a n s . T h e m a j o r i t y o f t h e s e m e a s u r e s t e n d e d t o e s t a b l i s h a legal s e g r e g a t i o n , s e e m i n g l y t h e o n l y p r a c t i c a b l e c o u r s e . A n e f f o r t w a s also m a d e t o f o s t e r t h e r i s e o f a n I n d i a n elite in c o n f o r m i t y w i t h t h e p r e v a i l i n g aristocratic criteria of c o n t e m p o r a r y E u r o p e . T h i s effort led to t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f c o l l e g e s a n d c o n v e n t s d e s i g n e d t o a d m i t a n d t r a i n in a n assimilative spirit t h e d e s c e n d a n t s of t h e I n d i a n aristocracy. I n t h e l i n g u i s t i c field, t h e w o r k o f t h e e a r l y m e n d i c a n t m i s s i o n a r i e s c o n t r i b u t e d t o d i f f u s i o n o f t h e N a h u a t l l a n g u a g e , u s e d as a v e h i c l e o f C h r i s t i a n d o c t r i n e . T h e C r o w n also a p p r o v e d e f f o r t s t o s t i m u l a t e a n d m a k e g e n e r a l t h e t e a c h i n g o f S p a n i s h t o t h e I n d i a n s , w i t h s m a l l success. T h e c o n t r a d i c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e policy o f s e g r e g a t i o n , r e n d e r e d necessary by t h e n e e d to protect t h e surviving I n d i a n s against t h e a g g r e s s i o n s o f S p a n i s h society, o n t h e o n e h a n d , a n d a policy o f assimilation which envisioned the c o m p l e t e integration of the I n d i a n a r i s t o c r a c y , o n t h e o t h e r , was a m a j o r c a u s e o f t h e f a i l u r e o f S p a i n ' s I n d i a n policy as a w h o l e . T h e m a t e r i a l a n d c u l t u r a l c o n d i t i o n o f t h e I n d i a n s o f N e w S p a i n r a p i d l y fell t o t h e l o w e s t p o s s i b l e level. T h e o c c u p a t i o n of I n d i a n c o m m u n i t y l a n d s by h a c e n d a d o s , t h e forced l a b o r s i m p o s e d b y local f u n c t i o n a r i e s ( c o r r e g i d o r e s ) , t h e a b u s e s — fiscal, civil, a n d ecclesiastic ( t i t h e s ) — t h e v i o l e n c e a n d o u t r a g e s inflicted b y t h e m i x e d - b l o o d s : t h e s e w e r e t h e d a i l y lot o f t h e f o r m e r m a s t e r s of A n a h u a c . For t h e rest, t h e spiritual climate of a n I n d i a n society c o m p l e t e l y a d r i f t h a r d l y f a v o r e d a t h o r o u g h C h r i s t i a n i z a t i o n .
3
The Inquisition and the Pagan Underground
T h e spiritual a t m o s p h e r e of New Spain u n d e r w e n t profound c h a n g e s in t h e c o u r s e o f its h i s t o r y , c h a n g e s w h i c h r e f l e c t e d t h e c o n c e r n s a n d a s p i r a t i o n s o f society. S o m e p r e l i m i n a r y r e m a r k s a r e in o r d e r . T h e first, o f a g e n e r a l n a t u r e , is t h a t t h e r e is u s u a l l y a l a g i n r e s p o n s e t o s t r u c t u r a l crisis, a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y t h e s p i r i t u a l r e s t l e s s n e s s w h i c h is t h e r e s u l t o f s u c h crisis f i n d s its i d e o l o g i c a l o r r e l i g i o u s e x p r e s s i o n w i t h a c e r t a i n d e l a y . T h e s e c o n d o b s e r v a t i o n is t h a t e a c h o f the ethnic g r o u p s whose coexistence was to lead to the f o r m a t i o n of the M e x i c a n n a t i o n w a s a b e a r e r o f o r i g i n a l b e l i e f s i n t i m a t e l y t i e d t o its h i s t o r y . Finally, g i v e n t h e h i s t o r i c a l c o n d i t i o n s s u m m a r i z e d a b o v e — conquest, epidemics, forced l a b o r — n o n e of these spiritual heritages could be transmitted to succeeding generations without i m p o r t a n t a l t e r a t i o n s . I b e r i a n C h r i s t i a n i t y , t h e official r e l i g i o n , m e t h o d i c a l l y i n t r o d u c e d to t h e n a t i v e p e o p l e s b y t h e m e n d i c a n t o r d e r s , m a i n t a i n e d in c r e o l e society b y t h e s e c u l a r c l e r g y a n d t h e f r i a r s , a n d p r o t e c t e d in its o r t h o d o x y by a t r i b u n a l o f t h e I n q u i s i t i o n a n d all t h e r e p r e s s i v e a p p a r a t u s at t h e disposal of the viceroys, did n o t f o r m a n e x c e p t i o n to t h i s r u l e . J u s t as it b e c a m e i m p o s s i b l e t o u n r a v e l t h e c o m p l i c a t e d s k e i n o f b i o l o g i c a l m i x t u r e , so it is o f t e n difficult t o e s t a b l i s h t h e o r i g i n o f a r i t e o r s u p e r s t i t i o n a m i d t h e s y n c r e t i c j u m b l e o f beliefs. With these reservations, one can nevertheless distinguish constants a n d t e n d e n c i e s — m o r e precisely, a constant t e n d e n c y t o w a r d hete r o d o x y . T h e p h e n o m e n o n is b y n o m e a n s o r i g i n a l ; S p a i n h e r s e l f o f f e r s a n e x a m p l e , b u t in t h e c a s e o f N e w S p a i n t h i s p h e n o m e n o n m e r i t s e m p h a s i s , f o r t h e r e it c o r r e s p o n d e d t o a p a r t i c u l a r s p i r i t u a l c l i m a t e . I n M e x i c o , a c o u n t r y w h e r e t h e p r i n t i n g p r e s s r e m a i n e d in its i n f a n c y a n d in t h e h a n d s o f t h e t e m p o r a l a n d s p i r i t u a l p o w e r s , h e t e r o d o x w r i t i n g s w e r e n o t p u b l i s h e d b e f o r e t h e C o r t e s o f C a d i z in t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y . We k n o w t h a t at t h a t p e r i o d t h e w o r k of t h e C h i l e a n e x - J e s u i t L a c u n z a , La venida del Mesias en gloria y majestad, already diffused t h r o u g h m a n u s c r i p t copies which circulated clandest i n e l y , h a d a g r e a t s u c c e s s in N e w S p a i n . T h e w o r k r e p r e s e n t e d a belated r e s u r g e n c e of the millenarianism of the p i o n e e r missionaries a n d a n audacious effort to reconcile J u d a i s m a n d Christianity. 18
19
The Inquisition
and the Pagan
Underground
T h e b e g i n n i n g s o f h e t e r o d o x y in N e w S p a i n t o o k p l a c e o n a m u c h m o r e m o d e s t level, as i n d i c a t e d b y t h e a r c h i v e s o f t h e t r i b u n a l o f t h e I n q u i s i t i o n o f M e x i c o City, officially e s t a b l i s h e d in 1 5 7 0 , t h a t is, a h a l f - c e n t u r y a f t e r t h e C o n q u e s t . B u t i n q u i s i t o r i a l activity w a s n o t n e g l e c t e d b e f o r e t h a t d a t e ; o n e c o u l d e v e n a r g u e t h a t it w a s e v e r o n e s i d e of a m e d a l w h o s e o t h e r side was t h e "spiritual C o n q u e s t . " T h e struggle a g a i n s t i d o l a t r o u s s u r v i v a l s o r t h e i r r e v i v a l r e s e m b l e d in its e n d s a n d m e t h o d s t h e c o m b a t w a g e d by t h e inquisitors of t h e P e n i n s u l a a g a i n s t h e r e s y . T h e first b i s h o p o f M e x i c o , t h e F r a n c i s c a n F r a y J u a n d e Z u m a r r a g a , s e e m s t o h a v e g i v e n p r i o r i t y t o his t a s k as i n q u i s i t o r ; h e r e g a r d e d it as a n e c e s s a r y c o m p l e m e n t t o his w o r k in f a v o r o f t h e Indians. At the same time that he created the Colegio de Santa Cruz d e T l a t e l o l c o t o i n s t r u c t t h e s o n s o f I n d i a n c a c i q u e s in C h r i s t i a n d o c trine and E u r o p e a n knowledge, Zumarraga prosecuted apostate caciques w h o h a d relapsed after baptism into their native idolatry. T h a n k s t o t h i s fact, w e p o s s e s s t h e official r e c o r d o f t h e d e c l a r a t i o n s o f I n d i a n s a c c u s e d b y this first t r i b u n a l o f t h e I n q u i s i t i o n , w h i c h b e g a n t o f u n c t i o n in 1 5 3 6 . T h e faith o f t h e I n d i a n n e o p h y t e s a n d their observance of the c o m m a n d m e n t s of the c h u r c h were suspect. B u t Z u m a r r a g a ' s zeal i n s p i r e d e x c e s s e s w h i c h c a u s e d , a f t e r h e s e n t t o t h e s t a k e t h e c a c i q u e o f T e x c o c o in 1 5 3 9 a n d t h a t o f Y a n h u i t l a n i n 1545, t h e d i s a p p e a r a n c e of t h e tribunal until 1570. T h e instructions of the inquisitor general to the second tribunal e x p r e s s l y p r o v i d e d : "You m u s t n o t i n s t i t u t e suits a g a i n s t I n d i a n s . " T h e historian thus has a space of a b o u t ten years, coinciding with Z u m a r r a g a ' s m i n i s t r y , f o r t h e s t u d y o f t h e m o r e o r less c l a n d e s t i n e m a n i f e s t a t i o n s o f M e x i c a n p o l y t h e i s m in N e w S p a i n . F o r t h e l o n g p e r i o d t h a t follows, w e a r e r e d u c e d t o h y p o t h e s e s b a s e d o n o c c a s i o n a l literary testimony, o n the writings of missionaries, o r o n the clues p r o v i d e d by m o d e r n ethnological a n d folkloric r e s e a r c h . H o w e v e r , t h e p e r i o d o f activity o f t h e first t r i b u n a l o f t h e M e x i c a n I n q u i s i t i o n s e e m s t o h a v e c o i n c i d e d w i t h a d e c i s i v e m o m e n t in t h e s p i r i t u a l a n d t h e g e n e r a l h i s t o r y o f c o l o n i a l society; t h e f a t e o f t h e I n d i a n s w a s decided about the middle of the sixteenth century. T h u s the records o f t h e first i n q u i s i t o r i a l trials o f I n d i a n s a r e e s p e c i a l l y v a l u a b l e d o c u m e n t s . L e t u s e x a m i n e s o m e typical e x a m p l e s . 1
T h e accusations inquisitors leveled against t h e I n d i a n s (generally caciques) w e r e usually multiple b u t boiled d o w n to two principal c h a r g e s : i n f r a c t i o n s o f t h e c o m m a n d m e n t s o f t h e c h u r c h a n d fidelity to ancestral divinities, j o i n e d with anti-Christian p r o p a g a n d a . I n o r d e r to u n d e r s t a n d this state of affairs, we m u s t recall t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s o f t h e C o n q u e s t a n d its c r u s a d i n g spirit. I t s e e m s t h a t C o r t e s ' first a c t i o n a f t e r h e r e a c h e d t h e s u m m i t o f t h e g r e a t t e m p l e o f T e nochtitlan was to o v e r t h r o w t h e idols. After t h e military victory of t h e
20
N E W SPAIN FROM THE CONQUEST TO INDEPENDENCE
S p a n i a r d s t h e A z t e c p r i e s t s , if n o t e x t e r m i n a t e d , w e r e a n n i h i l a t e d as a n o r g a n i z e d b o d y . T h e idols w e r e b u r n e d in s o l e m n a u t o s - d a - f e by Bishop Z u m a r r a g a ; the temples b e c a m e quarries used for the construction of the cathedral, the churches, a n d the houses of the new M e x i c o City. T h e I n d i a n s , e s p e c i a l l y t h e c a c i q u e s a n d t h e i r c h i l d r e n , w e r e hastily b a p t i z e d a n d r e c e i v e d s u m m a r y r e l i g i o u s i n s t r u c t i o n f r o m t h e few F r a n c i s c a n r e l i g i o u s w h o w e r e o n h a n d . It is n o t s u r p r i s i n g , t h e r e f o r e , t h a t s o m e t e n y e a r s l a t e r a n i n c i p i e n t renaissance of the ancestral polytheism b e c a m e evident. Because of t h e s u r v e i l l a n c e o f t h e m i s s i o n a r i e s , it o f t e n t o o k t h e f o r m o f f u r t i v e , c l a n d e s t i n e activities, s u c h as t h e sacrifices m a d e e v e r y t w e n t y d a y s to c e l e b r a t e t h e n e w m o n t h , s t a g e d in f o r e s t s a n d m o u n t a i n s . T h e vacu u m c r e a t e d by t h e d i s a p p e a r a n c e o f t h e M e x i c a n p r i e s t l y class allowed d e g r a d e d forms of the old polytheism, c o m b i n e d with p o p u l a r s u p e r s t i t i o n s , t o e m e r g e a n d p a s s t h e m s e l v e s off as t h e s p i r i t u a l h e r i t a g e o f t h e past. T h i s c i r c u m s t a n c e , a d i r e c t c o n s e q u e n c e o f t h e C o n q u e s t a n d t h e p r o c e s s o f c o n v e r s i o n , is e s s e n t i a l f o r a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e Mexican religious sentiment. T h e elimination of t h e Aztec p r i e s t s left t h e field to s o r c e r e r s (nigromdnticos) w h o c o u l d p r o f e s s t o e x p r e s s t h e t r a d i t i o n a l beliefs safe f r o m t h e possibility o f a n a u t h o r i t a tive d i s a v o w a l . S u c h was t h e c a s e o f a n I n d i a n n a m e d M a r t i n O c e l o t l o f T e x c o c o , b a p t i z e d in 1 5 2 5 b y t h e f a m o u s T w e l v e ( t h e p i o n e e r s o f t h e F r a n c i s c a n m i s s i o n a r y a r m y in N e w S p a i n ) , a n d t r i e d b y t h e I n q u i s i t i o n in 1 5 3 6 f o r a s e r i e s o f o f f e n s e s i n v o l v i n g i d o l a t r y a n d s o r c e r y . T h e s e t w o t e r m s c o v e r e d s o m e v e r y d i v e r s e activities. M a r t i n O c e l o t l w a s a c c u s e d o f p o l y g a m y (amancebamiento, t h a t is, c o n c u b i n a g e ) , a l t h o u g h h e h a d b e e n p u b l i c l y m a r r i e d in a c h u r c h in t h e p r e s e n c e of t h e g u a r d i a n of t h e Franciscan c o n v e n t of Texcoco, w h o h a d r e c e i v e d his c o n f e s s i o n a n d r e c o r d e d his s i n c e r e r e p e n t a n c e . H e was accused, o n t h e t e s t i m o n y of several witnesses of T e p e a c a a n d A c a c i n g o , o f h a v i n g s u m m o n e d all t h e c a c i q u e s o f t h e r e g i o n to c e l e b r a t e p r o p i t i a t o r y r i t e s f o r C a m a x t l i , in o r d e r t o c o m b a t a d r o u g h t that threatened famine. Finally, t h e f o r m e r g o v e r n o r o f T e x c o c o , C r i s t o b a l d e C i s n e r o s , d e c l a r e d " t h a t h e h a d h e a r d t w o r e l i g i o u s say t h e y h e l d it c e r t a i n t h a t t h e said M a r t i n w a s a s e r i o u s o b s t a c l e t o t h e c o n v e r s i o n o f t h e I n dians." T h e s e d i f f e r e n t a c c u s a t i o n s w e r e c o m b i n e d in t h e d e p o s i t i o n o f t h e above-cited Franciscan witness: " H e r e g a r d e d this M a r t i n " — a n a m e g i v e n in N a h u a t l as T e l p u c l e — " a s a d e m o n , t h e g r e a t e s t d e m o n a d o r e d by t h e I n d i a n s ; this M a r t i n was a s o r c e r e r a n d foretold t h e f u t u r e , t r a n s f o r m e d h i m s e l f i n t o a cat a n d a t i g e r , i n c i t e d t h e I n d i a n s t o r e v o l t , a n d i n d u c e d h a l l u c i n a t i o n s a n d o t h e r effects o f his 2
21
The Inquisition
and the Pagan
Underground
i d o l a t r o u s p r a c t i c e s in t h e m ; m o r e o v e r , h e h a d a g r e a t n u m b e r o f c o n c u b i n e s . " F o r t h e h i s t o r i a n , t h e i n t e r e s t o f t h i s local s o r c e r e r c o n s i s t s in t h e fact t h a t h e w a s o n e o f t h e first o f t h o s e p e t t y n a t i v e m e s s i a h s w h o s p o r a d i c a l l y a p p e a r e d in t h e c o u r s e o f t h e c o l o n i a l c e n t u r i e s a n d e v e n l a t e r . M a r t i n O c e l o t l a l r e a d y p r e s e n t s t h e typical t r a i t s o f t h e I n d i a n m e s s i a h , a m i x t u r e o f skillful i m p o s t o r a n d s a v i o r i n s p i r e d b y an i m p o v e r i s h e d religious heritage, that assimilated elements borr o w e d f r o m t h e v i c t o r i o u s f a i t h o f t h e E u r o p e a n s . I n effect, M a r t i n O c e l o t l , by t h e t e s t i m o n y o f t h e I n d i a n principal of Huaxtepec, c l a i m e d t o b e o n e o f t h o s e d i v i n e r s w h o visited M o c t e z u m a b e f o r e t h e a p p e a r a n c e o f t h e E u r o p e a n s in M e x i c o t o w a r n h i m p r o p h e t i c a l l y o f their coming. After such disturbing revelations, Moctezuma supp o s e d l y h a d p u t t h e s e s o r c e r e r s in a c a g e ; t h e o t h e r d i v i n e r s d i e d in that dismal condition, only M a r t i n Ocelotl h a v i n g m a n a g e d to escape. 3
Q u e s t i o n e d o n t h i s subject, t h e a c c u s e d d e n i e d t h a t h e h a d c l a i m e d to h a v e r e t u r n e d t o life a f t e r b e i n g c u t in p i e c e s o n M o c t e z u m a ' s o r d e r s , b u t c o n f i r m e d t h a t h e h a d t r a n s m i t t e d t o t h e M e x i c a n tlatoani a p r o p h e c y o f t h e C o n q u e s t , m a d e by a l o r d o f C h i n a n t l a w h o h a d seen "signs." We have h e r e t h e r e c o r d of t h e a p p e a r a n c e of o n e of t h e g r e a t s y n c r e t i c H i s p a n o - M e x i c a n l e g e n d s , p r e s e n t e d b y all t h e h i s t o r i a n s o f N e w S p a i n , C o r t e s first o f all, as a h i s t o r i c a l fact. W h a t c r e d i t c a n o n e r e a l l y a s s i g n t o t h e a c c o u n t s o f M a r t i n O c e l o t l a n d t h e witn e s s e s o f t h i s i n q u i s i t o r i a l trial in 1 5 3 6 ? W o n d e r s s u r r o u n d t h e w h o l e affair. O n e w i t n e s s r e l a t e d " t h a t o n e d a y t h e p e o p l e o f T e x c o c o h a d t r a p p e d t h i s M a r t i n , b u t w h i l e t h e y w e r e p r e p a r i n g to c u t h i m i n pieces h e h a d escaped f r o m their h a n d s a n d later r e a p p e a r e d n e a r b y t o m o c k t h e m . " J u s t as c e r t a i n s o r c e r e r s a s s i g n e d t o t h e m s e l v e s t h e a t t r i b u t e s o f C a t h o l i c p r i e s t s in t h e h o p e o f c a p t u r i n g t h e s u p e r n a t u r a l p o w e r of t h e priest of the victorious religion, Martin Ocelotl k n e w e n o u g h C a t h o l i c d o c t r i n e t o t r y t o m a k e t h e A p o s t l e s p l a y his g a m e : " H e a l s o t o l d t h e m t o say t o D o n L u i s , t h e i r l o r d , t h a t r e c e n t l y t w o a p o s t l e s , s e n t by G o d , h a d a r r i v e d , t h a t t h e y h a d l o n g claws a n d great fangs a n d o t h e r frightful features, a n d that the missionaries w o u l d b e r e d u c e d t o pulp—chichemicli—a v e r y h o r r i b l e d e v i l i s h thing." T h u s , less t h a n t w e n t y y e a r s a f t e r t h e c a p t u r e o f T e n o c h t i t l a n b y t h e S p a n i a r d s , t e n y e a r s a f t e r t h e c o n v e r s i o n o f t h e I n d i a n s o f t h e valley of Mexico, anaclitic r e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s of t h e Christian tradition h a d already e m e r g e d . Clearly, t h e Apostles of Christ, with w h o m the Franciscan religious h a d identified themselves, w e r e assimilated by M a r t i n O c e l o t l t o t h o s e d e v o u r i n g m o n s t e r s w h i c h , in t h e M e x i c a n c o s m o g o n y , cyclically a n n i h i l a t e d h u m a n i t y a t t h e e n d o f e a c h e r a o r " S u n . " W h a t M a r t i n O c e l o t l h a d a n n o u n c e d t o M o c t e z u m a was t h e 4
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e n d of t h e Aztec " S u n " ; w h a t h e n o w a n n o u n c e d to t h e peoples of A n a h u a c was t h e e n d of t h e Franciscan " S u n . " T h i s o b s c u r e T e x c o c a n m e s s i a h , u n k n o w n t o himself, w a s a s o r t o f J o a c h i m o f F l o r i s in r e v e r s e ; f a i t h f u l t o t h e cyclical a n d a p o c a l y p t i c c o n c e p t i o n o f t h e M e x i c a n r e l i g i o n , h e s o u g h t t o i n t e g r a t e w i t h i n it t w o A p o s t l e s o f C h r i s t (unfortunately we d o n o t k n o w which ones, for that i n f o r m a t i o n could directly illuminate the origins of Saint Thomas-Quetzalcoatl), b u t in o r d e r to m a k e t h e m m o r e familiar to t h e I n d i a n s h e vested t h e m w i t h t h e a t t r i b u t e s o f t r a d i t i o n a l d i v i n i t i e s , w i t h claws a n d f a n g s , like t h e j a g u a r - g o d , his t o t e m i c n a m e (ocelotl). O v e r t h e c e n t u r i e s t h a t followed, t h e I n d i a n eschatological h o p e was n o u r i s h e d by m e m o r i e s o f a c o s m o g o n y in w h i c h a p o c a l y p s e , t h e final c a t a s t r o p h e o f a n e r a , h a d always c o n s t i t u t e d t h e h u m a n h o r i z o n . T h a t e x p l a i n s , a t least in part, the enthusiastic a d h e r e n c e of the Indians to the cult of the Virgin of G u a d a l u p e , protectress a n d g u a r a n t o r of salvation. T w o b r o t h e r s o f M a r t i n O c e l o t l , especially o n e n a m e d A n d r e s M i x coatl, w e r e d e n o u n c e d to t h e Inquisition t h e n e x t year, 1537. T h i s m a n w e n t f r o m village t o village, a n d p r e t e n d e d t o b e a g o d ; a w i t n e s s r e l a t e d t h a t A n d r e s h a d a h o m o l o g u e , n a m e d Uiztly, in a n e a r b y region. W h a t did they do? T h e y preached: "This A n d r e s passed t h r o u g h the w a r d of Atliztaca a n d asked t h e I n d i a n s for incense a n d p a p e r t o p r e p a r e sacrifices a n d r i t e s o f s o r c e r y , a n d t h e y g a v e h i m t h e s e t h i n g s a t o n c e ; t h e n , in t h e e v e n i n g , h e s u m m o n e d all t h e p e o p l e , p r e a c h e d t o t h e m , a n d s a i d : ' H a v e n o f e a r , y o u r m a i z e will n o t frost; all t h a t y o u h a v e s o w n will c o m e u p well.' T h e r e f o r e all t h e I n d i a n s [maceguales] h a d f a i t h in h i m , f o r h e h a d m a d e h i s c o n j u r a tions a n d h a d p r e a c h e d . " In o t h e r words, h e h a d gained the Indians' s u p p o r t b e c a u s e h e m a d e r i t u a l sacrifices t o T l a l o c t o b r i n g t h e f r u i t ful r a i n . I n e x c h a n g e t h e f a i t h f u l h a d g i v e n h i m t h e c u s t o m a r y t r i b u t e o f m a n t l e s (mantas) a n d t h e h a l l u c i n o g e n i c m u s h r o o m s w h o s e i n g e s t i o n i n d u c e d p r o p h e t i c visions. M o r e o v e r , h i s b r o t h e r M a r t i n O c e l o t l h a d c h a r g e d A n d r e s Mixcoatl with collecting 3,600 a r r o w h e a d s to fight t h e " C h r i s t i a n s , " as t h e y c a l l e d t h e m s e l v e s , r a t h e r t h a n t h e S p a n i a r d s . T h e last e f f o r t s a t a r m e d r e s i s t a n c e b y A n a h u a c , fifteen y e a r s a f t e r t h e fall o f T e n o c h t i t l a n , w e r e a m a g i c w a r l e d b y s o r c e r e r s like O c e l o t l a n d M i x c o a t l . S u c h m e n c o n s t i t u t e d a s o r t o f n e t w o r k w h i c h w a s b r o k e n u p b y t h e a r r e s t o f t h e m o s t visible l e a d e r s , a n d t h e i r p u n i s h m e n t w a s e x e m p l a r y . L e d o n m u l e b a c k in i g n o m i n i o u s a t t i r e , w h i p p e d in p u b l i c in t h e s q u a r e s o f t h e villages w h e r e t h e y h a d " d o g m a t i z e d , " shaved o f their hair, a n d , in t h e case of M a r t i n Ocelotl, finally s e n t t o t h e I n q u i s i t o r s o f Seville f o r final d i s p o s i t i o n o f his p e r s o n — i n a w o r d , a s s i m i l a t e d t o t h e s o r c e r e r s (hechiceros) o f t h e P e n i n s u l a — t h e s e M e x i c a n p a t r i o t s w e r e e l i m i n a t e d as h e r e t i c s . 6
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After t h e m , the polygamists, the blasphemers, a n d the healers cont i n u e d t o p r o l i f e r a t e i n t h e valley o f M e x i c o , b u t t h e l i v i n g m e m o r y o f Aztec power receded toward a horizon that became ever m o r e mythical, a n d t h e h o p e o f a m i l i t a r y r e v e n g e w a s r e p r e s s e d i n t o t h e d e e p r e c e s s e s o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s , w h e n c e it w o u l d e m e r g e solely in t h e f o r m o f gritos, " c r i e s , " o n t h e o c c a s i o n o f r i o t s like t h e o n e w h i c h t o o k p l a c e in M e x i c o C i t y in 1 6 9 2 . Pitiless r e p r e s s i o n d i d n o t p r e v e n t t h e o l d beliefs a n d t r a d i t i o n a l r i t e s f r o m s u r v i v i n g a n d b l e n d i n g w i t h t h e C h r i s t i a n religion, especially b e c a u s e i n d o c t r i n a t i o n h a d b e e n very r a p i d a n d t h e n u m b e r of priests was always i n a d e q u a t e to e n s u r e c o n t r o l o f I n d i a n o r t h o d o x y , e v e n in t h e r e g i o n m o s t f a v o r e d in t h a t respect, A n a h u a c . In t h e o t h e r regions of N e w Spain, m o r e r e m o t e f r o m t h e c e n t r a l a u t h o r i t y a n d e v e n m o r e scantily p r o v i d e d w i t h religious a n d priests, native messiahs a p p e a r e d frequently; we d o not k n o w t h e m all. T h e a n c i e n t beliefs d i d n o t lose t h e i r s t r e n g t h as r e g a r d s t h e i r m o s t essential aspect, t h a t of p r o p i t i a t o r y a g r a r i a n rites. It is s u g g e s t i v e t h a t , i n o r d e r t o d i s c r e d i t C h r i s t i a n i t y , A n d r e s M i x c o a t l a c c u s e d t h e m i s s i o n a r i e s o f l a c k i n g p o w e r t o b r i n g t h e r a i n . It w a s o n this t e r r a i n t h a t t h e m i s s i o n a r i e s h a d t o s t r u g g l e , a n d w e shall s e e t h e V i r g e n d e los R e m e d i o s r e p l a c i n g T l a l o c in t h i s specific r o l e , w h i l e t h e V i r g i n o f G u a d a l u p e will b e a s s i g n e d t h e c o m p l e m e n t a r y r o l e o f g u a r d i n g a g a i n s t floods. T h i s last p o i n t t u r n s o u r a t t e n t i o n t o a n i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t o f t h e Mexican spiritual climate. If the Indians, w h o preserved their ancient r e l i g i o n o n t h e r o u t i n e level o f r i t u a l a n d i n t h e d e g r e e t h a t it g u a r a n t e e d t h e i r s u b s i s t e n c e , w e r e p e r s u a d e d t o b o r r o w f r o m t h e n e w relig i o n its s y m b o l s a n d s u p p o s e d m a g i c efficacy, C h r i s t i a n i t y in its t u r n w a s also c o n t a m i n a t e d , a b o v e all in t h e r e a l m o f m o r a l i t y . T h e r e a r e s o m e s t a r t l i n g i n d i v i d u a l cases, like t h a t p a r i s h p r i e s t o f O c u y t u c o , n a m e d D i e g o Diaz, t r i e d by t h e t r i b u n a l o f t h e I n q u i s i t i o n in 1 5 4 2 f o r having h a d intercourse with some twenty I n d i a n w o m e n , of w h o m h a l f w e r e m a r r i e d , o n e b e i n g t h e wife o f t h e c a c i q u e . M o r e o v e r , h e h a d m u r d e r e d t h e s o n o f a n I n d i a n principal o r n o b l e w h o s e b o d y h e h a d b u r i e d u n d e r t h e s t a i r c a s e o f h i s r e c t o r y . H e h a d also t o r t u r e d m a n y Indians, over the protests of a Franciscan n a m e d Fray J o r g e . T h i s p r i e s t , a n a t i v e o f t h e r e g i o n o f C a l a h o r r a in S p a i n , o r d a i n e d in L o g r o r i o , s p o n s o r e d in M e x i c o by n o less a f i g u r e t h a n F r a y J u l i a n G a r c e s , w a s finally c o n d e m n e d t o p e r p e t u a l i m p r i s o n m e n t . T h i s e x a m p l e , e v e n if r e g a r d e d as e x t r e m e , is i l l u m i n a t i n g ; it w a s n o t a n isolated case. O n e of the reasons why the Jesuits refused to station missionaries a m o n g t h e I n d i a n s was t h e i r fear t h a t t h e priests m i g h t a b a n d o n t h e i r c o n v e n t u a l w a y o f life. T h e c u r a t e s o f I n d i a n s , in N e w S p a i n as
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e l s e w h e r e in t h e I n d i e s , w e r e l a r g e l y a s s i m i l a t e d b y t h e i r m i l i e u . S o m e c l o s e d t h e i r e y e s t o i d o l a t r o u s p r a c t i c e s in e x c h a n g e f o r a s u p p l e m e n t a r y t r i b u t e ; o t h e r s , f e e l i n g p o w e r l e s s t o o p p o s e it, a g r e e d t o s p r i n k l e holy w a t e r o n offerings p r e s e n t e d by their p a r i s h i o n e r s to t h e a g r a r i a n divinities. If this could h a p p e n to t h e secular clergy, o n e can i m a g i n e w h a t m i g h t h a p p e n t o l a y m e n , m o r e o r less i s o l a t e d a m i d a n I n d i a n society s t u b b o r n l y f a i t h f u l t o its c u s t o m s a n d a n c e s t r a l b e l i e f s . A c u r i o u s e x a m p l e is t h a t o f t h e s o n o f t h e c h r o n i c l e r B e r n a l D i a z d e l C a s tillo, w h o in his c a p a c i t y o f c o r r e g i d o r o f a village in G u a t e m a l a w a s accused, in 1568, of e n c o u r a g i n g t h e I n d i a n s w h o m h e a d m i n i s t e r e d t o allow t h e c h u r c h e s t o fall i n t o r u i n , t o s c o r n t h e p o p e a n d t h e a r c h b i s h o p s , to mistreat t h e p r i e s t s . . . ! T h e anticlericalism of t h e c o l o n i s t s c u l m i n a t e d in a few c a s e s in a t h e i s m , p u r e a n d s i m p l e ; i n d i r e c t l y it c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e s u r v i v a l o f beliefs w h i c h t h e c h u r c h a t first s o u g h t t o e x t i r p a t e , b u t w h i c h e v e n t u a l l y , i n t h e m o s t difficult cases, she h a d to assimilate. A n I n d i a n by t h e n a m e of D o n Balthazar, cacique of C u l u a c a n , q u e s t i o n e d by t h e t r i b u n a l of t h e Inquisition, in 1539, r e v e a l e d t h a t i d o l s w e r e b u r i e d in all t h e villages o f t h e r e g i o n : " i n a c o u r t c a l l e d P u x t l a n is b u r i e d a n i d o l n a m e d M a c u i l M a s i c i u a l . . . a n d in a p l a c e c a l l e d Y l u y c a t i t l a n is b u r i e d t h e s t a t u e o f a n o t h e r d e m o n n a m e d Y z m a i n — t h i s p l a c e is s i t u a t e d n e a r S u c h i t l a n ; a n d i n a n o t h e r p l a c e c a l l e d T e t e n m a p a n a r e i m m e r s e d f o u r d e m o n s ; a n d in a p l a c e c a l l e d T e c a n a l c a n g o a r e b u r i e d o t h e r idols called C h a l m e c a t l a n d Ecinacatl; a n d in a n o t h e r p l a c e c a l l e d Y l u y c a t i t l a n is f o u n d t h e H e a r t o f H e a v e n ; a n d a t E c a n a g o is b u r i e d t h e s t a t u e o f t h e w i n d ; a n d a t S u c h i c a l c o t h e r e is M a c u y l T u n a l , w h o is five d e m o n s ; n e a r b y is a c a v e w h e r e is t h e h e a r t o f t h e d e m o n ; a n d a t T l a c h i c o is b u r i e d t h e s t a t u e o f O c h i l o b o s a n d t h a t o f Q u e t z a l c o a t l ; a n d h e h a s h e a r d it s a i d t h a t in t h e p y r a m i d o f U c h i n a b a l is a g o l d e n d r u m a n d s t o n e t r u m p e t s t h a t b e l o n g to the d e m o n s . " Despite the p i c t u r e s q u e d e f o r m a t i o n s to which t h e i n t e r p r e t e r subjected the Aztec t o p o n y m y a n d t h e n a m e s of t h e d i v i n i t i e s , w e r e c o g n i z e t h e p r i n c i p a l figures o f t h e M e x i c a n p a n t h e o n : Macuilxochitl, Chachalmecatl, Ehecatl, Huitzilopochtli, Q u e t z a l c o a t l , as well as t h e a c c e s s o r i e s o f t h e r i t u a l festivals, t h e d r u m (it is u n c e r t a i n w h e t h e r t h e r e f e r e n c e is t o a huehuetl o r a teponaxtli) a n d t h e shell t r u m p e t s . T h e g o d s m i s s i n g f r o m t h i s roll call m u s t h a v e b e e n p r e s e r v e d in t h a t s e a l e d g r o t t o w h i c h t h e i n q u i s i t o r s i m p r u d e n t l y c a u s e d t o b e o p e n e d in o r d e r t o i n v e n t o r y its c o n t e n t s . F r o m this c a v e o f A e o l u s ( a n d a n u m b e r o f o t h e r s ) e s c a p e d t h e " d e m o n s " o f t h e a n c i e n t beliefs, d e m o n s w h o s e b r e a t h s e n t w i n d s o f m e s s i a n i c r e v o l t b l o w i n g t h r o u g h o u t N e w S p a i n , a m o v e m e n t as m e s s i a n i c as t h e s t o r m o f I n d e p e n d e n c e itself w o u l d b e . 7
The
I n d i a n s , e v e n t h o s e o f t h e valley o f M e x i c o , w e r e
never
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t h o r o u g h l y Christianized. As c o n c e r n s the o t h e r ethnic e l e m e n t s of N e w Spain, to w h o s e diversity I h a v e called attention, t h e situation m a y a p p e a r m u c h m o r e favorable, a t least a m o n g t h e urban Creoles. T h e number o f c l e r g y a m o n g t h e m , r e g u l a r a n d s e c u l a r was t r u l y r e m a r k a b l e . Nevertheless, a n inspection of t h e r e c o r d s of t h e t r i b u n a l o f t h e I n q u i s i t i o n o f M e x i c o City, a f t e r 1 5 7 0 ( t h e d a t e w h e n t h e H o l y Office c e a s e d t o h a v e j u r i s d i c t i o n o v e r t h e I n d i a n s ) , i n s p i r e s s t r o n g d o u b t s c o n c e r n i n g t h e o r t h o d o x y o f a p o p u l a t i o n w h i c h i n c l u d e d so m a n y friars. Limiting o u r inquiry, for reasons of convenience, to t h e first p e r i o d o f t h e t r i b u n a l , w h i c h e x t e n d e d f r o m 1 5 7 3 t o 1 6 0 0 a n d c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e Libro primero de votos de la Inquisition de Mexico, w e o b s e r v e t h a t t h e m a j o r i t y o f c a s e s t r i e d by t h e i n q u i s i t o r s fall i n t o t h e following categories. C o m m o n e r s c h a r g e d w i t h b i g a m y o r l i v i n g in c o n c u b i n a g e ; f o r n i c a t o r s o r b l a s p h e m e r s ( t h e m a j o r i t y o f t h e s e w e r e b l a c k slaves o r mulattoes). P r i e s t s a n d e s p e c i a l l y r e l i g i o u s ( m o s t l y F r a n c i s c a n s in t h i s p e r i o d ) ; c o n f e s s o r s (solicitantes) a c c u s e d o f h a v i n g s e d u c e d p e n i t e n t s . Portuguese Judaizers. F r e n c h o r F l e m i s h a r t i s a n s ; E n g l i s h p i r a t e s cast a w a y o n M e x i c a n coasts a n d accused of L u t h e r a n heresy. T h e t r e a t m e n t a c c o r d e d by t h e t r i b u n a l to t h e various types of o f f e n d e r s differed greatly. Individuals of h u m b l e b a c k g r o u n d w e r e c o n d e m n e d t o d o p e n a n c e (reconciliados) in a c o n v e n t , t h e n w e r e set f r e e w i t h a t h r e a t o f h e a v i e r p e n a l t i e s in t h e c a s e o f r e l a p s e . U n b a p t i z e d h e r e t i c s , E n g l i s h o r F r e n c h , w e r e r e e d u c a t e d in t h e C a t h o l i c faith; t h e s a m e was d o n e with t h e blacks. O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e i n q u i s i t o r s w e r e pitiless t o w a r d u n w o r t h y c o n f e s s o r s a n d J u d a i z e r s . T w o d a t e s , 1 5 8 9 a n d 1 6 0 0 , a r e n o t e w o r t h y in this r e s p e c t . T h e first m a r k s the trial of a J u d a i z e r , Luis d e Carvajal, a native of M o g o d o r i o , o n the b o r d e r s of Spain a n d Portugal (near Benavente, h o m e of Motolinia), a n d at the time g o v e r n o r of t h e province of N u e v o L e o n ( M o n t e r r e y ) . B e c a u s e of t h e accused m a n ' s position, t h e affair c a u s e d a g r e a t stir. T o g e t h e r w i t h his b r o t h e r G a s p a r , w h o w a s a D o m i n i c a n , a n d w i t h t h e r e s t o f h i s family, m e n a n d w o m e n , h e w a s p u t t o t h e rack; s o m e w e r e reconciled, o t h e r s w e r e h a n d e d over to t h e secular a r m . T h e s e n t e n c e o f t h e g o v e r n o r w a s as follows: " I n t h e c o u r s e o f a p u b l i c a u t o - d a - f e let it b e d e c l a r e d t h a t h e h a s i n c u r r e d t h e p e n a l t y o f m a j o r e x c o m m u n i c a t i o n , a n d h e will h a v e t h e s e n t e n c e r e a d t o h i m , w h i c h s e n t e n c e h e will h e a r as a p e n i t e n t , c a n d l e in h a n d , a n d h e will a b j u r e his e r r o r s de vehementi, a n d shall b e e x i l e d f r o m t h e I n d i e s f o r six y e a r s . " T h e c a s e o f C a r v a j a l w a s t h e m o s t c e l e b r a t e d , b u t it w a s n o t u n i q u e . T h e r e was t h e a f f a i r o f a r a b b i by t h e n a m e o f A n t o n i o M a c h a d o , w h o clandestinely celebrated Jewish religious ceremonies; 8
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a n d t h e r e w e r e m a n y o t h e r s whose n a m e s of A n d r a d a , Almeida, Matos, Paiva (most of t h e m w e r e relatives of Carvajal), leave n o d o u b t c o n c e r n i n g the P o r t u g u e s e origin of these Mexican J u d a i z e r s . As conc e r n s t h e f o r m s o f t h i s J u d a i s m , o n e m a y safely c o n c l u d e , i n t h e l i g h t o f w h a t is k n o w n a b o u t I b e r i a n c r y p t o - J u d a i s m in g e n e r a l , t h a t it w a s a r e l i g i o n w h i c h d e r i v e d its m a i n t r a i t s f r o m t h e c a b a l i s m o f I s a a c L u r i a . If t h e J u d a i z e r s of N e w S p a i n p r e s e n t e d special features, they probably reflected a relative doctrinal i m p o v e r i s h m e n t caused by their isolation f r o m t h e living sources of E u r o p e a n J u d a i s m . I n 1 6 0 0 t h e r e t o o k p l a c e t h e trial o f a priest-solicitante that has an i n t e r e s t f a r b e y o n d t h e m o r a l a s p e c t s o f t h e affair. T h e a c c u s e d , n a m e d J u a n d e la P l a t a , w a s c h a p l a i n o f t h e n u n n e r y o f S a n t a C a t e r i n a d e Siena, at Puebla; his offense was m u c h m o r e serious t h a n that of the m a n y d e b a u c h e d priests w h o m the tribunal h a d p u n i s h e d b e f o r e h i m , n o t t o c o u n t t h e m a n y w h o s e act h a d n e v e r c o m e t o l i g h t . J u a n d e la P l a t a m i g h t h a v e b e e n o n e o f t h e l a t t e r g r o u p , g i v e n his p r i v i l e g e d p o s i t i o n , if h e h a d n o t s e d u c e d a v i s i o n a r y n u n , A g u s t i n a d e S a n t a Clara. F o r this pair of religious their c a r n a l i n t e r c o u r s e was a s o u r c e o f r e v e l a t i o n s , as w e g a t h e r f r o m t h i s c o m m e n t o f t h e i n quisitors: "We have not r e p o r t e d c o n c e r n i n g t h e offense that h e c o m m i t t e d b y s e d u c i n g in t h e c o u r s e o f c o n f e s s i o n , b e f o r e a n d a f t e r t h e c o n f e s s i o n ( b u t v e r y close t o t h e m o m e n t o f t h e c o n f e s s i o n ) , A g u s tina d e Santa Clara, a professed n u n of t h e m o n a s t e r y of Santa C a t e r i n a d e S i e n a " ; a n d f r o m t h e s e n t e n c e itself, w h i c h s t i p u l a t e d t h a t " h e n c e f o r t h h e will h a v e n o t h i n g t o d o w i t h a n y k i n d o f r e v e l a t i o n s . " T h e n u n ' s s e n t e n c e c o n t a i n e d , a m o n g o t h e r p e n a l t i e s , a simil a r p r o h i b i t i o n : " S h e m u s t n o t d i s c u s s r e v e l a t i o n s , e i t h e r in w r i t i n g o r o r a l l y . " A l t h o u g h r a r e r t h a n c a s e s o f pviests-solicitantes, instances of n u n s o r beatas w h o i n f r i n g e d t h e v o w o f c h a s t i t y w e r e n o t u n u s u a l . T h e s e r i o u s n e s s o f t h e affair c o n s i s t e d n o t in t h i s b u t in t h e " r e v e l a t i o n s . " W e w o u l d like t o k n o w m o r e a b o u t t h e i r n a t u r e , f o r t h e a t m o s p h e r e t h a t s u r r o u n d s t h e m s t r a n g e l y recalls t h e c a s e o f a P e r u v i a n r e l i g i o u s , F r a y F r a n c i s c o d e la C r u z , t r i e d in L i m a a d e c a d e e a r l i e r . F r a y F r a n c i s c o p r o f e s s e d t o b e b o t h a r e l i g i o u s a n d political m e s s i a h ; it s e e m s t h a t J u a n d e la P l a t a w a s m o r e m o d e s t . O n e o f his c o l l e a g u e s , also a solicitante, r e v i s e d d o g m a t o s u i t his p l e a s u r e b y c a s t i n g d o u b t o n the virginity of the Virgin Mary. 9
1 0
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W h a t e v e r t h e n a t u r e of o u r n u n ' s "revelations," h e r case a n d t h a t of h e r c o n f e s s o r s h e d a t r o u b l i n g l i g h t o n M e x i c a n c o n v e n t life a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y . N o d o u b t s o m e saintly m e n a n d w o m e n lived t h e r e . W h a t c a n safely b e said is t h a t i l l u m i n i s t t e n d e n c i e s w e r e as s t r o n g t h e r e as in S p a i n o f t h e p r e v i o u s c e n t u r y . Given the p r e p o n d e r a n t influence of religious o n t h e a p p e a r a n c e a n d d e v e l o p m e n t o f p i o u s t r a d i t i o n s in N e w S p a i n a n d t h e fact t h a t t h e
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c o n v e r g e n c e o f t h e s e t r a d i t i o n s w a s t h e focal p o i n t o f t h e n a t i o n a l consciousness, the religious deserve m o r e study t h a n they have rec e i v e d . T h e c o n v e n t s o f N e w S p a i n w e r e t h e p r i n c i p a l sites o f s p i r i t u a l activity w i t h i n t h e f r a m e w o r k o f C a t h o l i c o r t h o d o x y . T h e i m p a c t o f t h e f r i a r s o n society, t h e i r g e o g r a p h i c a l a n d social o r i g i n s , t h e i r f a m i l y ties, t h e i r life o u t s i d e t h e c o n v e n t , h a v e n o t y e t b e e n s t u d i e d s y s t e m a t ically. W e k n o w t h e m chiefly t h r o u g h t h e m e n o l o g i e s c o n t a i n e d i n t h e official h i s t o r i e s o f t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e r e l i g i o u s p r o v i n c e s , i n d i s p e n s a b l e sources, to be sure, b u t suspicious o n account of their h a g i o g r a p h i c s p i r i t . Yet t h a t v e r y s p i r i t is a d o c u m e n t t h a t i l l u m i n a t e s t h e s p i r i t u a l climate of New Spain. We c a n n o t completely divorce f r o m t h e Mexican spiritual f e r m e n t — a f e r m e n t t h a t h a d t o b e political as well in a society like t h a t o f N e w S p a i n — a n e p i s o d e t h a t t o o k p l a c e in 1 6 4 2 , t h e i n q u i s i t o r i a l trial o f D o n G u i l l e n d e L a m p a r t . T h i s i n d i v i d u a l h a d a r r i v e d i n M e x i c o t w o y e a r s e a r l i e r in t h e r e t i n u e o f t h e v i c e r o y E s c a l o n a ( w h o , s u s p e c t e d o f d i s l o y a l t y to t h e k i n g , w a s a r r e s t e d a n d r e p l a c e d b y B i s h o p Palafox). L a m p a r t h a d h a t c h e d a plot which a i m e d at t h e i n d e p e n d e n c e of N e w Spain. It was t h e s e c o n d g r e a t plot of this kind, t h e first b e i n g t h a t o f M a r t i n C o r t e s in 1 5 6 6 . L a m p a r t w a s a r r e s t e d t o o s o o n f o r u s t o k n o w w h e t h e r his p r o j e c t h a d n u m e r o u s a c c o m p l i c e s in t h e c o u n t r y , o r w h o t h e y w e r e . B u t h i s g o v e r n m e n t a l a n d r e f o r m p r o g r a m is h i g h l y r e v e a l i n g o f t h e i n n e r t e n s i o n s o f M e x i c a n society in t h e m i d d l e o f t h e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y ; I d o n o t find it so " e x t r a v a g a n t " as d o e s J o s e T o r i b i o M e d i n a . W e m u s t n o t e , t o b e g i n w i t h , t h a t his p r o j e c t h a d its o r i g i n in t h e c o n v i c t i o n , d e r i v e d f r o m r e a d i n g t h e Scriptures, t h a t t h e r u l e r s of Spain w e r e illegitimate possessors of t h e Indies. L a m p a r t r e d i s c o v e r e d t h e a r g u m e n t s of t h e o p p o n e n t s of t h e bulls of P o p e A l e x a n d e r , a n d i n v o k e d t h e i r claim that the popes had no temporal power. Disregarding certain extravag a n c e s , w e m u s t c e n t e r a t t e n t i o n o n t h e f o l l o w i n g p o i n t s o f his p r o gram: 1. 2. 3. 4.
S u p p r e s s i o n of tributes a n d taxes. F r e e d o m f o r all slaves. P r e f e r e n c e to be given to d e s c e n d a n t s of conquistadors. P r o m i s e of habits of the military o r d e r s to I n d i a n s w h o r a l l i e d t o his c a u s e . 5. R e s t i t u t i o n o f I n d i a n p a r i s h e s t o t h e r e l i g i o u s , i n p e r petuity. 6. A s s i g n m e n t o f r e v e n u e s t o t h e c o n v e n t s . 1 2
To s h a k e off t h e S p a n i s h yoke was clearly t h e c r o w n i n g p o i n t of L a m p a r t ' s d e m a g o g i c p r o g r a m . T h i s p r e t e n d e r to the Mexican c r o w n , p r o c l a i m i n g t h e g r e a t service that h e r e n d e r e d to G o d ,
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c l a i m e d f o r h i m s e l f t h e p a t r o n a g e o f all t h e c o n v e n t s o f t h e c o u n t r y , t h e r i g h t o f p r e s e n t a t i o n o f b i s h o p s , t h e g r a n t o f ecclesiastical p r e b e n d s a n d benefices. Evidently t h e r a n c o r of the despoiled conquist a d o r s ( o r r a t h e r , a t t h i s d a t e , o f t h e i r d e s c e n d a n t s ) w a s still s t r o n g e n o u g h f o r L a m p a r t t o u s e as a t r u m p c a r d in his s e p a r a t i s t g a m e . I t is e v e n c l e a r e r t h a t h e r e g a r d e d t h e clergy, t h e c a n o n s , a n d especially t h e r e l i g i o u s as i n d i s p e n s a b l e allies in h i s e n t e r p r i s e . L a m p a r t t h e r e f o r e s p a r e d n o t h i n g to a s s u r e t h e c o o p e r a t i o n of t h e religious; t h e essential t h i n g was to p r o m i s e t h e m t h e restitution of t h e I n d i a n p a r i s h e s , a n o p e n w o u n d in t h e s i d e o f t h e r e l i g i o u s f o r t h e p a s t h a l f - c e n t u r y . (We s h o u l d n o t e t h a t t h e e c o n o m i c s i t u a t i o n o f m a n y c r o w d e d c o n v e n t s w a s p o o r , s o m e t i m e s tragic.) Finally, L a m p a r t h i m self w o u l d p r e s e n t t h e b i s h o p s , a p r o p o s a l t h a t o f f e r e d a n a d d i t i o n a l g u a r a n t e e against r e t u r n of t h e disliked secular bishops, exemplified b y t h e b i s h o p o f P u e b l a , P a l a f o x (at t h a t p r e c i s e m o m e n t visitador a n d i n t e r i m v i c e r o y , l a t e r i n v e s t e d w i t h full p o w e r s ) . T o t h e Creoles w h o s h o u l d h e l p h i m t o t a k e p o w e r , L a m p a r t o f f e r e d titles o f n o b i l i t y a n d t h e c r e a t i o n o f M e x i c a n g r a n d e e s . A l t h o u g h his p r o g r a m m a y a p p e a r Utopian in c e r t a i n r e s p e c t s , it w a s p e r f e c t l y c o h e r e n t . I t c o r r e s p o n d e d t o t h e a s p i r a t i o n s o f t h e m o s t d i s c o n t e n t e d e l e m e n t s o f society: t h e f r i a r s , t h e c r e o l e a r i s t o c r a c y , t h e slaves, a n d t h e I n d i a n c a c i q u e s . T h e M e x i c a n n a t i o n is a l r e a d y p r e s e n t in L a m p a r t ' s p r o g r a m ; t h e p r o g r a m o f I n d e p e n d e n c e a l r e a d y exists t h e r e in o u t l i n e f o r m . Less t h a n a c e n t u r y after L a m p a r t , t h e r e d i s e m b a r k e d at V e r a c r u z a c a p t a i n of a frigate of t h e royal navy, by t h e n a m e of M a n u e l d e B a h a m o n , w h o was soon a r r e s t e d a n d b r o u g h t b e f o r e t h e t r i b u n a l of t h e I n q u i s i t i o n "as a s e d i t i o u s p e r s o n , as h a r m f u l t o t h e s p i r i t u a l g o v e r n m e n t a n d c o n s c i e n c e o f t h e f a i t h f u l as h e w a s t o t h e t e m p o r a l g o v e r n m e n t . " T h i s mystic h a d a n n o u n c e d t h e b i r t h of t h e Antichrist a n d p r o p h e s i e d t h e e a r l y c o m i n g o f t h e L a s t J u d g m e n t . First, h o w ever, t h e r e m u s t take place a radical revolution which would p u t an e n d t o t h e K i n g d o m o f Evil a n d install t h e R e i g n o f J u s t i c e . W e r e c o g n i z e h e r e t h e o l d m i l l e n a r i a n d r e a m , w h i c h in N e w S p a i n c o u l d always d r a w f o r s u p p o r t o n n o s t a l g i c m e m o r i e s o f t h e first g r e a t m i s s i o n a r y c r u s a d e a n d t h e e a r l y Iglesia Indiana. W h e n t h e h o u r s t r u c k f o r t h e first r e v o l u t i o n o f I n d e p e n d e n c e , H i d a l g o a n d M o r e l o s (two p r i e s t s , w e r e c a l l ) a p p e a r e d t o t h e i r f o l l o w e r s as m e s s i a h s , o r a t least as p r o v i d e n t i a l m e n . T h e r o y a l i s t a u t h o r i t i e s r e g a r d e d t h e m in t h e s a m e l i g h t ; after their c a p t u r e they were t u r n e d over to t h e tribunal of t h e Inquisi t i o n , H i d a l g o in 1 8 1 1 , M o r e l o s in 1 8 1 5 . A c c u s e d o f h e r e s y a n d a p o s tasy, t h e t w o l i b e r a t o r s c o n s i s t e n t l y p r o t e s t e d t h e i r s u b m i s s i o n t o t h e R o m a n , Apostolic, Catholic C h u r c h . 1 3
T h e few s o u n d i n g s I h a v e m a d e b y w a y o f e x a m p l e s i n t o t h e s p i r i t u a l history of N e w Spain suggest, I believe, the following conclusions.
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and the Pagan
Underground
1. Beliefs i n N e w S p a i n w e r e t h e u n s t a b l e p r o d u c t o f h e t e r o g e n e o u s r e l i g i o u s c o n t r i b u t i o n s , m a d e by e t h n i c g r o u p s o f u n e q u a l i m p o r tance a n d influence. 2. A s a r e s u l t o f p r o l o n g e d c o n t a c t w i t h o t h e r r e l i g i o n s , t h e r e l i g i o n o f e a c h m i n o r i t y g r o u p u n d e r w e n t i m p o r t a n t c h a n g e s (losses, b o r r o w ings, substitutions). 3 . By c o n t r a s t w i t h C a t h o l i c i s m , t h e official r e l i g i o n , t h e o t h e r religions of New Spain (Judaism, Mexican polytheism, African animism) h a d a residual c h a r a c t e r d u e to their r e m o t e n e s s f r o m their spiritual h o m e s a n d t h e p r e s s u r e of Catholic o r t h o d o x y (persecutions, prohibitions). 4. I n the I n d i a n c o m m u n i t i e s of t h e c o u n t r y s i d e , in the convents in c r e o l e society, in t h e m i l i e u o f t h e slaves a n d t h e castas in t h e t o w n s , t h e r e s e e m t o h a v e a p p e a r e d s y n c r e t i c beliefs t h a t w e r e specifically Mexican, t o g e t h e r with magical practices. 5. M e s s i a n i c h o p e a n d a n a p o c a l y p t i c c o n c e p t i o n o f h i s t o r y w e r e t h e c o m m o n d e n o m i n a t o r of these religions. 6. T o r e t i e t h e b r o k e n t h r e a d o f a s u p e r n a t u r a l h i s t o r y w a s a c o m m o n a s p i r a t i o n o f I n d i a n s , J e w s , a n d C h r i s t i a n s , h e i r s o f t h e first F r a n c i s c a n m i s s i o n a r i e s . ( L e t u s n o t f o r g e t t h a t at t h e t i m e o f t h e C o n q u e s t Spain h a d k n o w n m o r e than ten centuries of coexistence of Christians, Jews, and Moslems). 7. T h e e n c o u n t e r b e t w e e n t h e d i v i n i t i e s o f t h e M e x i c a n p a n t h e o n , e a c h w i t h its d e f i n e d r o l e , a n d t h e c u l t o f local t u t e l a r y s a i n t s , so vital in S p a n i s h society, g a v e rise t o s u b s t i t u t i o n s a n d a s s i m i l a t i o n s . 8. A l t h o u g h o n l y t h e f r i a r s a n d b i s h o p s c o u l d officially give a s p i r i t u a l i m p u l s e t o t h e society o f N e w S p a i n , t h e m a j o r i t y o f t h e r u r a l p o p u l a t i o n ( t h e I n d i a n s ) a n d t h e u r b a n p o p u l a t i o n ( t h e castas) w e r e a t t a c h e d t o t h e i r o w n beliefs. T h e f r i a r s e l a b o r a t e d p i o u s l e g e n d s , m o r e o r less c o m p a t i b l e w i t h o r t h o d o x y , b u t it w a s t h e castas a n d t h e I n d i a n s w h o m a d e t h e m live o r let t h e m d i e . T h e d o m i n a n t c r e o l e m i n o r i t y n e e d e d t h e d e c i s i v e s u p p o r t o f t h e r e s t o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n in o r d e r t o f r e e itself f r o m S p a n i s h t u t e l a g e ; it h a d t o e l a b o r a t e a n i d e o l o g y c a p a b l e o f i n t e g r a t i n g t h e s u b j u g a t e d e t h n i c g r o u p s , first u t i l i z e d as a l a b o r f o r c e , l a t e r as a c o m b a t force. T h e o p p r e s s e d state of the majority of the n a t i o n — a m a j o r i t y c o m p o s e d o f t h e I n d i a n s a n d t h e castas—created a propitious t e r r a i n for t h e continual a p p e a r a n c e of messianic m o v e m e n t s of s p i r i t u a l , political, a n d social l i b e r a t i o n . A s m y t h i c a l r e s p o n s e s d e s t i n e d t o fulfill t h e s e a s p i r a t i o n s , t h e r e a p p e a r e d a n d d e v e l o p e d t h e beliefs in a p r i s t i n e e v a n g e l i z a t i o n o f M e x i c o b y t h e a p o s t l e S a i n t T h o m a s , u n d e r t h e n a m e o f Q u e t z a l c o a t l , a n d in t h e m i r a c u l o u s a p p a r i t i o n o f t h e V i r g i n M a r y o f G u a d a l u p e o n t h e hill o f T e p e y a c , t h e f o r m e r s a n c t u a r y of T o n a n t z i n , m o t h e r - g o d d e s s of t h e Aztecs.
4
The Indian: A Spiritual Problem (1524-1648)
The Providential
Faith and the Millenarian
Hope
T h e fortunes of the messianic m y t h of Quetzalcoatl a n d the flowering of t h e cult of t h e Virgin M a r y in t h e f o r m of t h e m i r a c u l o u s i m a g e of G u a d a l u p e will b e c o m e c o m p r e h e n s i b l e o n l y if w e c a n r e c a p t u r e t h e g r e a t m o m e n t s in N e w S p a i n ' s s p i r i t u a l h i s t o r y . T h e first m o m e n t still b e l o n g s l a r g e l y to o l d S p a i n ; t h e O l d W o r l d p r o j e c t e d its m i l l e n a r i a n h o p e u p o n t h e N e w in t h e first h a l f - c e n t u r y w h i c h f o l l o w e d t h e c o n q u e s t o f M e x i c o by C o r t e s a n d his c o m r a d e s - i n - a r m s . T h a t m o m e n t c o r r e s p o n d s a l m o s t e x a c t l y in ecclesiastical a n d m i s s i o n a r y h i s t o r y t o t h e p e r i o d s t u d i e d b y R o b e r t R i c a r d in a b o o k w i t h t h e s u g g e s t i v e title La Conquete spirituelle du Mexique, a p e r i o d w h i c h t h e s u b t i t l e d e f i n e d m o r e p r e c i s e l y as " t h e m i s s i o n a r y a p o s t o l a t e o f t h e m e n d i c a n t o r d e r s . " W i t h o u t e x a g g e r a t i o n , o n e m a y say t h a t t h i s first m i s s i o n a r y wave was d o m i n a t e d by t h e spirit of t h e r e f o r m e d Franciscans, o r F r i a r s M i n o r . T h u s it is p o s s i b l e t o a s s i g n c h r o n o l o g i c a l limits t o this p h a s e , w h i c h o p e n e d w i t h t h e a r r i v a l in M e x i c o o f t h e " T w e l v e , " t h e first F r a n c i s c a n s s e n t by C h a r l e s V a t t h e r e q u e s t o f C o r t e s , i n 1 5 2 4 . T h e passage to a d i f f e r e n t spiritual situation coincides almost exactly w i t h t h e a r r i v a l o f t h e first J e s u i t m i s s i o n a r i e s in 1 5 7 2 , a y e a r m a r k e d by a n o t h e r e v e n t decisive for t h e evolution of t h e M e x i c a n c h u r c h , t h e s t a r t o f t h e l o n g a n d active s p i r i t u a l m a g i s t r a c y o f D o n P e d r o M o y a d e C o n t r e r a s , a r c h b i s h o p of Mexico, later viceroy. 1
T h i s c h r o n o l o g y , let m e n o t e , c a n b e d i s p u t e d . I follow R o b e r t R i c a r d in t h i n k i n g t h a t t h e d a t e o f 1 5 7 2 is t h e t u r n i n g p o i n t , b u t i n his s t u d y o f The Millenial Kingdom of the Franciscans in the New World, J o h n L e d d y P h e l a n a s s i g n s t h e d a t e o f 1 5 6 4 as t h e e n d o f t h e G o l d e n A g e o f t h e I n d i a n c h u r c h . T h e q u e s t i o n is u n i m p o r t a n t as c o n c e r n s t h e essential point, o n which historians are a g r e e d ; namely, t h e existence a m o n g t h e first F r a n c i s c a n m i s s i o n a r i e s o f M e x i c o o f a m i l l e n a r i a n h o p e , i n h e r i t e d t h r o u g h S a i n t F r a n c i s o f Assisi f r o m J o a c h i m o f F l o r i s . I t is r e m a r k a b l e t h a t t h e p r o p h e t i c w o r k o f J o a c h i m , a C a l a b r e s e m o n k o f t h e t w e l f t h c e n t u r y , Divini abbatis Joachim Concordie Novi 30
31
The Indian,
A Spiritual
Problem
(1524-1648)
ac Veteris Testamenti, w a s first p u b l i s h e d in V e n i c e in 1 5 1 9 , t h e s a m e year that H e r n a n Cortes l a n d e d o n the s h o r e of the Mexican land h e was t o c o n q u e r . S i n c e M e x i c o was t h e first g r e a t c o n t i n e n t a l c o n q u e s t in t h e N e w W o r l d , a n d t h e s c e n e o f t h e first c o n t a c t b e t w e e n S p a n i s h c o n q u e r o r s a n d a large native population, the event m a d e a large i m p a c t o n p e n i n s u l a r o p i n i o n , as s h o w n b y t h e e n t h u s i a s t i c c r o w d s t h a t g r e e t e d C o r t e s o n his r e t u r n t o S p a i n . F o r c o n t e m p o r a r y h i s t o r i a n s , n o t a b l y f o r t h e F r a n c i s c a n F r a y J e r o n i m o d e M e n d i e t a in his Historia eclesidstica Indiana, it w a s H e r n a n C o r t e s ( a n d n o t C h r i s t o p h e r C o l u m b u s , t r a d i t i o n a l l y so r e g a r d e d ) w h o w a s a t r u l y p r o v i d e n t i a l m a n a s s i g n e d by t h e L o r d t o this g r e a t m i s s i o n o f d i s c o v e r y o f t h e New World. T h i s notion suggests that the most i m p o r t a n t aspect of t h e d i s c o v e r y w a s n o t t h e finding o f n e w l a n d s b u t t h e r e v e l a t i o n o r unveiling of a n e w p a r t of h u m a n i t y , t h e p r o m i s e of a rich harvest of s o u l s t o r e w a r d t h e zeal o f t h e m i s s i o n a r i e s . I n effect, a l t h o u g h t h e g r e a t A m e r i c a n d i s c o v e r i e s t r a n s f o r m e d g e o g r a p h y , this r e s u l t , so i m p o r t a n t in o u r m o d e r n e y e s , s e e m e d m u c h less significant a t t h a t time t h a n the s u p p o r t they gave to eschatological h o p e s for t h e c o m ing of t h e K i n g d o m . In the genesis of those h o p e s the ideas of J o a c h i m of Floris, d e a r to t h e Franciscans, played a g r e a t role. J o a c h i m ' s t h e o r y , t h e first t h e o r y o f h i s t o r y d e v e l o p e d in t h e M i d d l e A g e s , n o t o n l y g a v e its full m e a n i n g t o t h e c o n c e p t o f a " m i d d l e a g e " b u t a l l o w e d f o r a n a d v a n c e b e y o n d it. 2
F o r J o a c h i m o f F l o r i s , t h e s u p e r n a t u r a l d e s t i n y o f m a n k i n d , its h i s t o r y , was d i v i d e d i n t o t h r e e successive s t a g e s : " t h e t i m e o f t h e l e t t e r of the Old Testament, t h e time of the letter of the N e w Testament, the time of spiritual u n d e r s t a n d i n g . " In t h e "book of the c o n c o r d a n c e , " h e shows the precise c o r r e s p o n d e n c e between the events of the t h r e e successive s t a g e s o f m a n k i n d as it a d v a n c e d t o w a r d its g o a l . E a c h s t a g e in t u r n d i v i d e s i n t o p e r i o d s , e a c h h a v i n g its c o u n t e r p a r t in t h e t w o o t h e r s t a g e s ; t h e s e p e r i o d s b e a r t h e n a m e o f " s e a l s . " T h e seals o f h i s t o r y a r e s e v e n in n u m b e r . It is s i g n i f i c a n t t h a t J o a c h i m , s p e a k i n g o f t h e fifth seal, w r o t e : " B a b y l o n w a s m e n t i o n e d f o r t h e first t i m e . T h u s in o u r d a y s a m u l t i t u d e o f C h r i s t i a n s w h o o n c e t h o u g h t t h a t t h e c h u r c h , by r e a s o n o f all t h e g o o d s h e h a s d o n e , h a d s o m e r i g h t t o b e c a l l e d J e r u s a l e m , n o w b e l i e v e t h a t b e c a u s e o f all t h e evils s h e h a s c a u s e d she s h o u l d be called B a b y l o n . " 3
4
I m a g i n e t h e s e n s a t i o n t h a t r e f l e c t i o n s o f this k i n d , p u b l i s h e d in 1519, j u s t before the c o n s u m m a t i o n of the L u t h e r a n schism, could create. I n d e e d , the L u t h e r a n s shared with J o a c h i m the preoccupation with t h e Antichrist, w h o s e c o m i n g was s u p p o s e d to p r e c e d e t h a t of t h e " L o r d i n t h e g l o r y o f H i s F a t h e r , e s c o r t e d by all t h e S a i n t s . " T h e heretics did n o t hesitate to identify the Antichrist with t h e p o p e 5
32
N E W SPAIN FROM THE CONQUEST TO INDEPENDENCE
himself, w h i l e t h e J u d a i c t r a d i t i o n calls h i m G o g . We r e c o g n i z e h e r e a v e r s e o f t h e B o o k o f R e v e l a t i o n . It was o n a n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f R e v e l a t i o n o f J u d a i c o r i g i n t h a t J o a c h i m f o u n d e d h i s m i l l e n a r i a n t h e o r y , as s h o w n b y t h i s p a s s a g e f r o m t h e Liber in expositionem in Apocalipsim: " T h e t h i r d [stage] w a s e s t a b l i s h e d b y S a i n t B e n e d i c t , w h o s e e x c e l l e n c e will n o t b e fully u n d e r s t o o d u n t i l a l m o s t t h e e n d o f t i m e , w h e n Elijah will r e a p p e a r a n d t h e u n b e l i e v i n g J e w i s h p e o p l e will r e t u r n t o G o d . T h e n t h e H o l y S p i r i t will a r i s e a n d will c l a m o r w i t h a l o u d v o i c e : ' T h e F a t h e r a n d t h e S o n h a v e a c t e d u n t i l n o w . A n d n o w , I will a c t . ' " T h o s e last d a y s — t h e d a y s o f t h e H o l y S p i r i t — c o r r e s p o n d t o t h e e t e r nal Gospel, a t e r m which r e m a i n s a t t a c h e d to t h e d o c t r i n e of J o a c h i m o f F l o r i s : " A n d w h a t is this G o s p e l ? T h a t o f w h i c h J e s u s s p e a k s in R e v e l a t i o n : T saw a n a n g e l flying in t h e m i d s t o f h e a v e n , a n d h e h a d t h e e t e r n a l G o s p e l . A n d w h a t is in this G o s p e l ? All t h a t g o e s b e y o n d t h e G o s p e l o f C h r i s t . F o r t h e l e t t e r kills a n d t h e s p i r i t gives life.' " It is at t h e o u t e r b o u n d s o f C h r i s t i a n i t y , o r e v e n b e y o n d it, t h a t t h e r e n o v a t i o n o f s p i r i t u a l life in t h e s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y m a n i f e s t e d itself, n o t a b l y in t h e m e n d i c a n t o r d e r s , c a l l e d b y t h e p r o p h e t J o a c h i m t o a b o l i s h t h e c a r n a l c h u r c h a n d p r e p a r e a n e w r e v e l a t i o n . T h e political c o r o l l a r i e s o f t h e wait f o r t h e m i l l e n n i u m w e r e p o r t e n t o u s : " U n d e r t h e s i x t h seal o f t h e s e c o n d s t a g e t h e N e w B a b y l o n will b e d e s t r o y e d . A n d j u s t as in this s a m e p e r i o d o f t h e first s t a g e t h e A s s y r i a n s a n d t h e M a c e d o n i a n s a t t a c k e d t h e J e w s , so t o d a y w e s e e t h e S a r a c e n s a t t a c k i n g C h r i s t e n d o m , a n d s o o n w e shall s e e t h e rise o f false p r o p h e t s . . . . O n c e t h e s e tests h a v e e n d e d , t h e f a i t h f u l shall see G o d face t o face. T h i s will b e t h e t h i r d stage, reserved for the reign of the Holy Spirit." T h e T u r k ish v i c t o r i e s in E u r o p e , t h e d e c a d e n c e o f t h e R o m a n c h u r c h , t h e a p p e a r a n c e o f t h e false p r o p h e t L u t h e r ( r e g a r d e d b y s o m e as t h e A n t i c h r i s t ) , t h e s p i r i t u a l h a r v e s t p r o m i s e d a n d , it s e e m e d , r e s e r v e d b y p r o v i d e n c e for the Franciscan p i o n e e r s of the conversion of the N e w W o r l d , w e r e so m a n y c o n v e r g i n g s i g n s o f t h e a p p r o a c h o f t h e m i l l e n n i u m a n d the accomplishment of the prophecies of the abbot J o a c h i m . T h e r e f o r e w e see t h e F r a n c i s c a n s o f N e w S p a i n t r y i n g t o f o u n d t h e 1glesia Indiana, t h e " I n d i a n C h u r c h , " b e l o n g i n g t o t h e t h i r d s t a g e in w h i c h t h e f r i a r s w e r e t o p l a y a p r e e m i n e n t r o l e . 6
7
8
I n this climate of p r o v i d e n t i a l exaltation a n d messianic e x p e c t a t i o n was b o r n a Franciscan c u r r e n t w h i c h n o u r i s h e d t h e creole m e n t a l i t y of N e w Spain. I n t h e c o n c e p t i o n of the Franciscan pioneers, this N e w S p a i n w a s t o b e as r a d i c a l l y n e w in r e l a t i o n t o t r a d i t i o n a l S p a i n as t h e n e w c h u r c h w a s t o b e in r e s p e c t o f t h e R o m a n c h u r c h . T h e first m i s s i o n a r i e s o f M e x i c o w e r e c e r t a i n l y " c r e o l e s " in t h e m e a s u r e t h a t they w a n t e d to create a new world, which implied a r u p t u r e with the O l d . F o r t h e r e s t , m o r e t h a n o n e o f t h e i r n u m b e r g a v e lyrical
33
The Indian,
A Spiritual
Problem
(1524-1648)
e x p r e s s i o n w i t h his p e n t o t h e i r a t t a c h m e n t to t h e A m e r i c a n e a r t h a n d t h e i r a f f e c t i o n f o r its p e o p l e s . T h e w a i t f o r t h e m i l l e n n i u m ( n o passive w a i t b u t a f e v e r i s h l y active p r e p a r a t i o n o n t h e p a r t o f t h e e v a n g e l i z e r s o f M e x i c o ) was t h e first manifestation of t h e creole spirit of A m e r i c a , for t h e missionary imp u l s e n o u r i s h e d a n d p l a c e d a n i n d e l i b l e s t a m p u p o n t h a t spirit. W e note the very extensive privileges c o n f e r r e d o n the Franciscan m i s s i o n a r i e s b y successive p o p e s — L e o n X I in 1 5 2 1 , t h e n A d r i a n V I i n 1 5 2 2 ; p r i v i l e g e s t h a t in effect e n t r u s t e d t h e d e s t i n y o f t h e n e w c h u r c h t o t h e i r h a n d s . T h e f e e l i n g p r e v a i l e d i n R o m e , as in A m e r i c a , t h a t t h e c h u r c h w a s a t a critical m o m e n t o f h e r e x i s t e n c e a n d t h a t its g r e a t o p p o r t u n i t y c o n s i s t e d in t h e r e s e r v e o f N e w W o r l d s o u l s , r e a d y f o r conversion. A c c o r d i n g to the conceptions of that time, such a n i m p o r t a n t m o m e n t in h i s t o r y m u s t b e a n n o u n c e d in S c r i p t u r e , s o u r c e o f all t r u t h ; t h i s g a v e rise t o e f f o r t s a t s c r i p t u r a l e x e g e s i s d e s i g n e d t o e l u c i d a t e o b s c u r e a s p e c t s o f this e v e n t a n d t o j u s t i f y t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e Iglesia Indiana. T h i s c h u r c h , w h o s e first f a i t h f u l w e r e S p a n i s h f r i a r s , w a s t h e first i d e a l m o d e l o f a p o s s i b l e c r e o l e society. W e h a v e h e r e a Utopia, closely r e l a t e d in its i n s p i r a t i o n t o t h e U t o p i a o f T h o m a s M o r e , w h i c h a b i s h o p o f M e x i c o , D o n Vasco d e Q u i r o g a ( p e r c e p t i v e l y s t u d i e d b y Silvio Z a v a l a ) , t r i e d t o r e a l i z e w i t h i m p e r f e c t success. T h r o u g h o u t t h e l o n g colonial centuries, c o n t i n u i n g d o w n to t h e p r e s e n t , t h e A m e r i c a n societies ( n o t a b l y t h a t o f M e x i c o ) w e r e t o b e a r t h e seal o f t h e m i l l e n a r i a n h o p e a n d o r i g i n a l g r a c e w h i c h p r e s i d e d o v e r t h e i r b i r t h . T h e N e w W o r l d w a s first c o n c e i v e d as a w o r l d f r e e f r o m t h e t a r e s o f t h e O l d ; it w a s b o r n u n d e r t h e s i g n o f t h e H o l y S p i r i t a n d t h e W o m a n o f Revelation " c l o t h e d w i t h t h e s u n , h a v i n g t h e m o o n u n d e r h e r feet." D i v i n e l y i n s p i r e d w o r k e r s in t h e v i n e y a r d , t h e Franciscan missionaries of N e w Spain described the conquistador Cortes, w h o h a d c l e a r e d t h e w a y f o r t h e i r c o m i n g , as a " n e w M o s e s , " in c o n f o r m i t y w i t h t h e s y s t e m o f c o n c o r d a n c e s o f J o a c h i m o f Floris. T h e y r e g a r d e d t h e n a t i v e beliefs w h i c h t h e y s o u g h t t o e x t i r p a t e as i d o l a t r o u s . F a i t h f u l t o a biblical a n d J e w i s h t r a d i t i o n , t h e y v i e w e d t h e n a t i v e d i v i n i t i e s as d e m o n s ; F r a y B e r n a r d i n o d e S a h a g i i n calls t h e m " d e v i l s " in his Historia general de las cosas de la Nueva Espana. T h i s c o n v i c t i o n o f t h e missionaries caused t h e m to reject a n y c o m p r o m i s e with t h e ancient beliefs, i n s p i r e d t h e i r d e t e r m i n a t i o n t o w i p e t h e slate c l e a n , a policy w h i c h R o b e r t R i c a r d d e s c r i b e s as " t h e policy o f r u p t u r e . " O n t h e q u e s t i o n o f h o w t o i n t e r p r e t S c r i p t u r e a n d J e s u s ' p r e c e p t t o his A p o s tles t o g o p r e a c h t h e g o s p e l t o all t h e p e o p l e s , S a h a g i i n t a k e s a n implicit position w h e n h e cries o u t : " W h y , L o r d G o d , h a v e you p e r m i t t e d t h e E n e m y o f m a n k i n d t o r u l e so l o n g o v e r t h i s p o o r h e l p l e s s
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p e o p l e ? . . . . I p r a y y o u r D i v i n e M a j e s t y t o s e e t o it t h a t t h e r e , w h e r e crime and darkness abounded, Grace and Light may abound." This is t o i n t e r p r e t C h r i s t e n d o m as history. I n effect, t a k e n literally, t h e v e r s e c a n b e u n d e r s t o o d as a m i s s i o n g i v e n t o t h e A p o s t l e s t o p r e a c h t h e G o s p e l d u r i n g t h e i r o w n l i f e t i m e s t o all t h e p e o p l e s o f t h e w o r l d . S i n c e this w a s n o t d o n e , t h e F r a n c i s c a n T w e l v e w h o a r r i v e d in M e x i c o in 1 5 2 4 c o u l d j u s t as l e g i t i m a t e l y as t h e c o m p a n i o n s o f J e s u s b e c a l l e d " A p o s t l e s " ; t o t h e m fell t h e t a s k o f p r e a c h i n g t h e f a i t h t o t h e last p e o p l e s n o t yet r e a c h e d b y t h e W o r d . 9
C o r r e s p o n d i n g l y , it w a s t h e m e n d i c a n t o r d e r s t h a t w e r e p r e p a r i n g t h e a d v e n t o f C h r i s t b y s e e i n g t o t h e c o n v e r s i o n o f t h e last g e n t i l e s — t h e last, t h a t is, save f o r t h e " h i d d e n J e w s " w h o s e c o n v e r s i o n w a s t o p r e c e d e by a little s p a c e t h e c o m i n g o f t h e n e w M e s s i a h , Elijah. H o w , asks S a h a g i i n , c a n o n e e x p l a i n t h e injustice (la injuria, h e w r i t e s ) d o n e by G o d t o s u c h a n u m e r o u s ( i n d e e d , t h e m o s t n u m e r o u s , h e b e l i e v e d ) p o r t i o n o f m a n k i n d , h a n d e d o v e r t o S a t a n f o r fifteen c e n t u r i e s ? H e r e the A u g u s t i n i a n spirit c o n f r o n t e d t h e i m p e n e t r a b l e mysteries of G o d . T h e F r a n c i s c a n p i o n e e r s t h u s e x p r e s s e d t h e i r love f o r t h e I n d i a n s o f the New World t h r o u g h their fervent prayers that God should make g r a c e a b o u n d a n d a b o v e all b y t h e i r a p o s t o l i c zeal, a zeal w h i c h d r e w inspiration f r o m the African missions of the f o u r t e e n t h a n d fifteenth c e n t u r i e s . A u g u s t i n i a n s o n t h i s p o i n t , t h e f r i a r s c o n t r a d i c t e d in o t h e r r e s p e c t s t h e a u t h o r o f The City of God, for, as N o r m a n C o h n h a s j u s t l y r e m a r k e d , A u g u s t i n e b e l i e v e d this city h a d a l r e a d y b e e n f o u n d e d , w h i l e f o r J o a c h i m o f F l o r i s a n d his e p i g o n e s its c o m i n g m u s t still b e p r e p a r e d . T h e s e examples indicate that the eschatological h o p e for the c o m i n g of the K i n g d o m was n o t free f r o m d o u b t s a n d u n c e r t a i n ties; t h e t e m p o r a l p r e e m i n e n c e o f t h e f r i a r s w a s s o o n t h r e a t e n e d b y the secular prelates, a n d the Golden Age of the mendicant orders e v a p o r a t e d w i t h t h e first g e n e r a t i o n , t h a t o f t h e T w e l v e . A s f o r t h e m i l l e n n i u m , t h a t h o p e w a s d e f e r r e d as a r e s u l t o f t h e r i s e o f a n e w spiritual climate, to be discussed below; that climate constitutes the s e c o n d s p i r i t u a l m o m e n t o f M e x i c a n c r e o l e society in p r o c e s s o f gestation. T h e m i l l e n a r i a n h o p e t h u s i m p l i e d a c e r t a i n vision o f t h e d i s c o v e r y o f t h e N e w W o r l d a n d o f t h e p r o v i d e n t i a l m i s s i o n o f its S p a n i s h c o n q u i s t a d o r s . T h i s s e n s e o f m i s s i o n is e x p r e s s e d in t h e g r e a t h i s t o r i o g r a p h i c w o r k s o f t h e C o n q u e s t , w o r k s w h i c h reflect t h e s p i r i t o f t h e S p a n i s h Reconquista. I n t h e d e d i c a t i o n t o C h a r l e s V w h i c h p r e c e d e s his Historia general de las Indias, G o m a r a , C o r t e s ' c h a p l a i n , w r o t e t h a t " t h e C o n q u e s t of the I n d i a n s b e g a n w h e n the conquest of the M o o r s h a d e n d e d , in o r d e r t h a t S p a n i a r d s m a y always w a r against t h e infidels." N o d o u b t t h i s c o m m e n t faithfully e x p r e s s e d t h e C o n q u e r o r ' s o w n 10
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f e e l i n g . T h e i n t e r v e n t i o n o f p r o v i d e n c e in t h e h i s t o r y o f S p a i n , o r r a t h e r o f S p a n i a r d s w h o r e g a r d e d t h e m s e l v e s as t h e a r m o f C h r i s t e n d o m in its s t r u g g l e a g a i n s t h e r e t i c s , J e w s , a n d M o s l e m s , w a s n o t n e w ; it w a s n o t b o r n w i t h t h e c o n q u e s t o f t h e N e w W o r l d . A n u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e m i r a c u l o u s a p p e a r a n c e s o f t h e V i r g i n , w i t h w h i c h I shall deal at length, r e q u i r e s that they be viewed against the s a m e charismatic b a c k g r o u n d . T h e a n o n y m o u s M e r c e d e r i a n w h o c o m p o s e d o n e o f t h e first h i s t o r i e s o f t h e a p p e a r a n c e o f t h e V i r g i n o f G u a d a l u p e o f E s t r e m a d u r a w r o t e as e a r l y as 1 4 4 0 : " A f t e r t h e M o o r i s h d a g g e r h a d p a s s e d t h r o u g h a l m o s t t h e w h o l e b o d y o f S p a i n , it p l e a s e d o u r L o r d G o d t o c o n s o l e t h e h e a r t s o f t h e C h r i s t i a n s , t h a t t h e y m i g h t find t h e s t r e n g t h w h i c h t h e y h a d lost. T h a t is w h y t h e a p p e a r a n c e o f t h e V i r gin gave t h e m such great c o m f o r t . " 1 1
T h e a p p a r e n t c o n f u s i o n o f t h e w o r l d s o f r e l i g i o n a n d politics flowed n a t u r a l l y f r o m t h e e s c h a t o l o g i c a l c o n c e p t i o n o f h i s t o r y w h i c h h a d p r e v a i l e d f o r c e n t u r i e s in E u r o p e a n d w h i c h D a n t e h a d d e f i n e d w i t h s p e c i a l clarity. F o r t h e a v e r a g e m a n , b r o a d l y s p e a k i n g , h u m a n i t y included t h e Christians, the Jews, the Moslems, a n d the gentiles. T h e Christians p a r excellence were the Spaniards, a new Chosen People, w h o s e mission was to c o n q u e r t h e Moslems, c o n v e r t t h e gentiles, a n d lead the straying Jews back into the b o s o m of the c h u r c h . T h e n Christ i a n i t y w o u l d b e c o m e a t last t r u l y Catholic, t h a t is, u n i v e r s a l , a n d t h e M e s s i a h w o u l d c o m e in g l o r y , s u r r o u n d e d b y all t h e s a i n t s , t o r e i g n o v e r t h e w o r l d . T h e " s o l d i e r s o f C h r i s t " w e r e in t h e first p l a c e t h e m i s s i o n a r y f r i a r s , w h o c o u l d also b e i n q u i s i t o r s like Z u m a r r a g a o r even c o m b a t a n t s . T h e u n f o l d i n g of history a c c o r d i n g to the imp e n e t r a b l e d e s i g n s o f G o d c o u l d b e d e c i p h e r e d in S c r i p t u r e , p a r t i c u larly in t h e P r o p h e t s a n d in Revelation. Undoubtedly no one ever c a r r i e d as f a r as J o a c h i m o f Floris t h e t a s k o f e l u c i d a t i n g S c r i p t u r e in t h e sense of an interpretation of medieval history, c o r r e s p o n d i n g e n d to e n d to ancient history. Nevertheless, a l t h o u g h large use was m a d e of the P r o p h e t s a n d the O l d T e s t a m e n t in g e n e r a l , t h e a p o c a l y p t i c c o n c e p t i o n o f h i s t o r y w h i c h prevailed in medieval a n d Renaissance E u r o p e deviated f r o m t h e J u d a i c t r a d i t i o n a n d p r e s e n t e d typically P a u l i n e t r a i t s . T h e h i s t o r y o f h u m a n i t y m e r g e d w i t h t h e h i s t o r y o f sin, o f a w o r l d d e l i v e r e d t o S a t a n ( w h e n c e a r o s e a M a n i c h e a n vision in w h i c h t h e f o r c e s o f G o o d o p p o s e d t h o s e o f Evil w i t h o u t a c h i e v i n g v i c t o r y o v e r t h e l a t t e r ) ; t h i s h i s t o r y w o u l d e x t e n d till t h e last d a y s , t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f t h e r e i g n of G o d . T h e task of t h e Christians was to h a s t e n t h e c o m i n g of this " r e i g n . " It w a s t h e will o f G o d t h a t w h e r e sin a b o u n d e d , g r a c e s h o u l d a b o u n d . C h r i s t e n d o m was periodically seized with a m i l l e n a r i a n fever. Saint H i p p o l y t u s h a d calculated t h a t t h e m i l l e n n i u m w o u l d
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c o m e i n 6 0 0 A . D . ; J o a c h i m o f F l o r i s t h o u g h t it w o u l d b e i n 1 2 6 0 . B u t e a c h t i m e t h e wait h a d to be r e s u m e d . I n this respect t h e Franciscans f o r m e d n o exception. Despite t h e multiplication of anticipatory signs—the d e c a d e n c e of t h e R o m a n c h u r c h , t h e M o s l e m victories, t h e rise o f t h e L u t h e r a n h e r e s y in n o r t h e r n E u r o p e , t h e m a s s c o n v e r s i o n o f t h e A m e r i c a n g e n t i l e s — t h e w a i t w a s in v a i n . O n e m i g h t well c o n c l u d e t h a t t h e J o a c h i m i t e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f R e velation, capable of reconciling the J u d a i c Messiah a n d the Christian M e s s i a h , h a d e n c o u n t e r e d r e s i s t a n c e . F o r C h r i s t e n d o m ( t h a t is, m a n k i n d , f r o m t h e v i e w p o i n t o f c o n t e m p o r a r y E u r o p e a n t h i n k e r s ) , it w a s a question of k n o w i n g w h e t h e r the Middle Ages, that long period i n t e r v e n i n g b e t w e e n t h e r e s u r r e c t i o n of J e s u s after the Passion a n d his r e t u r n in g l o r y , w a s t o e n d . T h e s p r i n g t i m e o f t h e w o r l d , w h o s e flowering was a n n o u n c e d e a c h t i m e t h a t c o n d i t i o n s b e c a m e intolera b l e o n a c c o u n t o f w a r s o r e p i d e m i c s , a p p e a r e d t o all t h e o p p r e s s e d as a s o r t o f final r e v e n g e . T o t h e d a m n a t i o n o f t h e e a r t h w o u l d s u c c e e d t h e r e i g n o f j u s t i c e . T h e t e m p o r a l p o w e r s a n d t h e c h u r c h as well h a d always viewed t h e m i l l e n n i u m with reserve. E v e n t h e advocates of m i l l e n a r i a n i s m e n c o u n t e r e d i n t e r n a l difficulties a t e a c h s t e p . I n t h e p r e s e n t i n s t a n c e , s e v e r a l difficulties a p p e a r e d i n r e l a t i o n t o a c o m p l e x of p r o b l e m s w h o s e solution w o u l d e i t h e r confirm o r w e a k e n t h e millenarian hope. T h e s u d d e n irruption of an u n k n o w n b u t n u m e r o u s portion of m a n k i n d into a world o r g a n i z e d according to the c o s m o g r a p h y of H e l l e n i c a n t i q u i t y , w h i c h t h e C h u r c h h a d d o n e little t o r e v i s e , inevitably p r o v o k e d s e r i o u s q u e s t i o n s . I n t h e m i n d s o f t h e m i s s i o n a r i e s o f t h a t t i m e , w h o r e p r e s e n t e d t h e m o s t a d v a n c e d t e n d e n c y in t h e S p a n i s h c h u r c h , t h e s e a r c h f o r t r u t h m u s t i n t h e first p l a c e b e a n effort at exegesis. C o n s e q u e n t l y m e n b e g a n to scrutinize Revelation a n d t h e P r o p h e t s , in t h e h o p e o f finding t h e r e t h e a n n o u n c e m e n t o f the discovery of the New World, of which G o m a r a wrote: " T h e g r e a t e s t e v e n t s i n c e t h e c r e a t i o n o f t h e w o r l d (if w e e x c e p t t h e i n c a r n a t i o n a n d d e a t h o f H i m w h o c r e a t e d it) is t h e d i s c o v e r y o f t h e I n d i e s ; t h a t is w h y t h e y a r e c a l l e d t h e N e w W o r l d . " T h i s s e n t e n c e ( t h e first in t h e d e d i c a t i o n to C h a r l e s V w h i c h I c i t e d a b o v e ) c o n v e y s p e r f e c t l y t h e m e a n i n g which c o n t e m p o r a r i e s assign to t h e discovery of A m e r i c a a n d t o t h e e x p r e s s i o n " N e w W o r l d . " T h i s w o r l d , t h a t is t o say, its i n h a b i t a n t s , a b o v e all, w a s a n e w s t a g e in t h e h i s t o r y o f C h r i s t e n d o m as t h a t h i s t o r y m o v e d t o w a r d its g o a l . T h e t a s k o f t h e o l o g i a n s , t h e n , was t o i n t e r p r e t c o r r e c t l y , in t h e l i g h t o f S c r i p t u r e , t h i s e v e n t , w h i c h i n view o f its e s c h a t o l o g i c a l i m p o r t a n c e , m u s t b e written i n t h e s a c r e d texts. T h e prevailing idea t h a t t h e history of h u m a n i t y was cryptically (en cifra) w r i t t e n in h o l y S c r i p t u r e , p e r m i t t e d t h e m o s t a u d a c i o u s 1 2
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h y p o t h e s e s . Was n o t C o l u m b u s f o r e t o l d in t h e O l d T e s t a m e n t , a n d w a s n o t his g i v e n n a m e " C h r i s t o f o r o " ( t h e C h r i s t - b e a r e r ) a s i g n o f t h e designs that p r o v i d e n c e h a d for h i m ? M o d e r n rationalists may smile at such explanations, b u t for m i n d s i m p r e g n a t e d with t h e esoteric d o c t r i n e s of sixteenth-century E u r o p e a n s , this was b u t o n e m o r e sign of the designs of God.
The Question of the Origin of the
Indians
U p o n t h e r e s p o n s e given to this q u e s t i o n d e p e n d e d w h e t h e r t h e c o m ing of t h e m i l l e n n i u m was n e a r o r distant, w h e t h e r J e w s a n d Christians w o u l d o r would not be reconciled, w h e t h e r C h r i s t e n d o m was solvent o r b a n k r u p t , a n d w h e t h e r t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of S c r i p t u r e m u s t be drastically o v e r h a u l e d . H e r e was cause for p e r m a n e n t disq u i e t o n t h e p a r t o f t h e t e m p o r a l a n d s p i r i t u a l p o w e r s at a t i m e w h e n I s l a m was in full p r o c e s s o f e x p a n s i o n a n d w h e n t h e L u t h e r a n h e r e s y was g r o w i n g ; at stake was t h e p r e s e r v a t i o n of m a n k i n d , t h e c h u r c h , a n d t h e e m p i r e . Since m a n ' s n a t u r a l rights w e r e of t r a n s c e n d e n t imp o r t a n c e , a n d since S p a i n ' s sole t r u e title t o A m e r i c a r e s t e d o n t h e bulls o f P o p e A l e x a n d e r V I , w h i c h g r a n t e d S p a i n t h e r i g h t t o r u l e o v e r t h e I n d i e s a n d levy t r i b u t e f r o m t h e i r p e o p l e s in r e t u r n f o r t h e e x p e n s e s b o r n e b y t h e C a s t i l i a n m o n a r c h y f o r t h e i r c o n v e r s i o n , it w a s n e c e s s a r y t o p r o v e t h e validity o f this e n t e r p r i s e . We m u s t n o t f o r g e t t h a t p a p a l infallibility d i d n o t b e c o m e d o g m a u n t i l t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y ( a n d a p p l i e s o n l y t o p o i n t s o f faith, in p a r t i c u l a r c i r c u m stances) a n d that theologians a n d jurists of the sixteenth a n d sevent e e n t h c e n t u r i e s c o u l d c o n t e s t , w i t h o u t i n c u r r i n g ecclesiastical s a n c t i o n s , t h e validity o f t h e A l e x a n d r i n e b u l l s . A c e r t a i n r e g a l i s t t r a d i t i o n of t h e Castilian m o n a r c h y soon e n c o u r a g e d t h e m to d o this; since t h e F r e n c h k i n g s , in p a r t i c u l a r , h a d d e c l a r e d t h e bulls n u l l a n d v o i d , it w a s i m p o r t a n t t o lay a m o r e solid f o u n d a t i o n f o r S p a n i s h r u l e in t h e N e w W o r l d . T h i s w a s t h e s p e c i a l i n t e n t o f t h e Relectiones de Indis, t h e l e c t u r e s o n t h e I n d i e s p r e s e n t e d by F r a n c i s c o d e V i t o r i a a t t h e U n i versity o f S a l a m a n c a . M o d e r n rationalism, of Kantian origin, has invalidated p r o b l e m s of origins a n d ultimate ends, relegating t h e m to metaphysics a n d conc e n t r a t i n g all its e f f o r t s o n p r o b l e m s o f c a u s e a n d r e l a t i o n ; t h a t is, w e a r e at the a n t i p o d e s f r o m t h e religious m e n a n d w o m e n of t h e Renaissance, for w h o m that renaissance was primarily o n e of eschatological aspiration. Since t h e s u p e r n a t u r a l destiny of m a n k i n d was a seamless robe, t h e fate of Christianity d e p e n d e d o n that of the I n d i a n s , a n d t h e f a t e o f t h e I n d i a n s m u s t h a v e b e e n w r i t t e n f o r all e t e r n i t y . T h e p r o b lem, t h e n , was o n e of identifying t h e inhabitants of t h e N e w W o r l d
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with t h e d e s c e n d a n t s of o n e of t h e p a t r i a r c h s of t h e Bible, of s o m e h o w j o i n i n g t h e m t o t h e l i n e o f A d a m (or, c o n t r a r i w i s e , o f e x c l u d i n g t h e m f r o m t h a t l i n e , a possiblity w h i c h was also e n v i s a g e d ) . H e r e , a g a i n , o u r s u r p r i s e is d u e t o t h e w e i g h t o f a R o u s s e a u i s t i c t r a d i t i o n o f which we m o d e r n s are only half-conscious. For m e n of the Spanish sixteenth century, nourished on medieval marvels, antique h u m a n i s m , a n d J u d a i z i n g exegesis, the radical novelty of A m e r i c a o f f e r e d a n i n v i t i n g field o f a c t i o n . T h e s e a r c h f o r A m a z o n s , C y c l o p s , Sirens, o r d e s c e n d a n t s of t h e J e w s exiled by K i n g S a l m a n a z a r was q u i t e f r e q u e n t in t h e t i m e o f t h e c o n t e s t o f A m e r i c a . We n e e d n o t b e s u r p r i s e d if w e recall t h a t m e d i e v a l h u m a n i t y , r e s t r i c t e d t o t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n b a s i n a n d its G e r m a n i c a n d N o r t h A f r i c a n m a r c h e s , r e g a r d e d itself as c o m p l e t e a n d finished (with t h e e x c e p t i o n o f a v a g u e E a s t whose marvelous image the accounts of Marco Polo h a d diffused). As E d m u n d o O ' G o r m a n has shown, the contemporary world comp r e h e n d e d t h r e e c o n t i n e n t s — a symbolic correlation with t h e Holy T r i n i t y a n d t h e t h r e e c r o w n s o f t h e pontifical t i a r a . T h e r e w a s n o p l a c e , literally s p e a k i n g , f o r t h i s f o u r t h a n d n e w world, c o m e too late into a c o s m o l o g y i n h e r i t e d f r o m P t o l e m y a n d i n c o r p o r a t e d into d o g m a by t h e c h u r c h . M e n d i d n o t k n o w w h a t to d o with the Indians, of w h o m C o l u m b u s h a d written that they were n e i t h e r N e g r o e s n o r C a n a r y I s l a n d e r s . I f Vasco d e Q u i r o g a saw in t h e m t h e h a p p y s u b j e c t s o f S a t u r n t o l d o f b y L u c a n , o t h e r s m i g h t find it as e c o n o m i c a l a n d r e a s s u r i n g t o c u t t h e m o f f f r o m h u m a n i t y a n d identify t h e m with those " m o n s t e r s " with which t h e ancient legends w e r e filled a n d w h i c h n o o n e h a d h i t h e r t o f o u n d . C e r t a i n e n g r a v i n g s f r o m t h e e n d o f t h e fifteenth c e n t u r y , a n d e v e n l a t e r , g r a p h i c a l l y c o n v e y this i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . S u c h a p o s t u r e p o s e d t h e d a n g e r o f m a k i n g v a i n all e f f o r t s a t c o n v e r s i o n , a d a n g e r well u n d e r s t o o d b y t h e m i s s i o n a r i e s , fishers o f s o u l s w h o b e c a m e c h a m p i o n s o f t h e " h u m a n ity" o f t h e I n d i a n s . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e c o n q u i s t a d o r s saw in t h i s p o s i t i o n t h e possibility o f j u s t i f y i n g a pitiless e x p l o i t a t i o n o f t h e i n habitants of the N e w World. T h e p r o b l e m of t h e n a t u r e of t h e I n d i a n s was o n e b a t t l e g r o u n d of t h e c o n f r o n t a t i o n w h i c h took place, especially d u r i n g t h e first g e n e r a t i o n , b e t w e e n r e l i g i o u s a n d c o l o n i s t s . T h i s d e b a t e t r a n s c e n d e d t h e conflict b e t w e e n c o n q u i s t a d o r s a n d religious for control of t h e N e w World, for the m o n a r c h y took a n official p o s i t i o n , s o o n f o l l o w e d b y P o p e P a u l I I I . T h e b r i e f Cardinali toletono, a d d r e s s e d t o t h e p r i m a t e o f t h e S p a i n s , f o l l o w e d b y t h e b u l l Sublimis Deus, d a t e s , h o w e v e r , f r o m 1 5 3 7 ; t h a t is, t h e s e t e x t s c a m e a f t e r t h e g r e a t c o n t i n e n t a l c o n q u e s t s o f M e x i c o a n d P e r u . A s l o n g as the I n d i a n s a p p p e a r e d u n d e r the aspect of the n o m a d i c h u n t e r s a n d c o l l e c t o r s o f D a r i e n , E u r o p e c o u l d still b e l i e v e t h e r e w e r e C y c l o p s a n d
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The Indian,
A Spiritual
Problem
(1524-1648)
A m a z o n s a m o n g t h e m ; b u t this b e c a m e i m p r o b a b l e after C o r t e s ' revelations a b o u t the Aztec e m p i r e a n d those of Pizarro a b o u t the Incas. T h e N e w L a w s o f t h e I n d i e s , in effect s u m m e d u p , five y e a r s l a t e r , t h e i d e a s e x p r e s s e d b y t h e R o m a n p o n t i f f in t h e b u l l Sublimis Deus. W e recall, h o w e v e r , t h a t as e a r l y as t h e e n d o f t h e fifteenth c e n t u r y Isabella the Catholic h a d liberated t h e I n d i a n s b r o u g h t by C o l u m b u s as slaves t o t h e P e n i n s u l a a n d h a d d e m a n d e d t h e i r r e p a t r i a t i o n ; t h e y o u n g B a r t o l o m e d e Las Casas was a direct witness of this i n t e r v e n t i o n , f o r his f a t h e r p o s s e s s e d a slave b r o u g h t f r o m E s p a n o l a . W h a t ever doubts some may have entertained about the humanity of the I n d i a n s , t h e S p a n i s h m o n a r c h s n e v e r a p p e a r t o h a v e q u e s t i o n e d it. R e c o g n i t i o n o f t h e h u m a n i t y o f t h e I n d i a n s m a d e t h e m fellow c r e a t u r e s , souls capable of salvation. T h e g r a n t of a h u m a n n a t u r e to t h e I n d i a n s w a s a p r e r e q u i s i t e o f d e c i s i v e i m p o r t a n c e , b u t it o p e n e d u p a n e w b a t t l e g r o u n d , o n e o n which exegetes a n d historians w e r e to clash f o r m o r e t h a n t w o c e n t u r i e s . T o s u m m a r i z e h e r e , o n e by o n e , t h e different positions, would be to c o m p o s e a b o r i n g catalogue; besides, this t a s k w a s a c c o m p l i s h e d a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y by a D o m i n i c a n , F r a y G r e g o r i o G a r c i a , in a b o o k p u b l i s h e d i n V a l e n c i a , Origen de los Indios del Nuevo Mundo e Indias Occidentales ( 1 6 0 7 ) . T h e g e n e s i s o f t h e b o o k , a n d h o w G a r c i a w e n t a b o u t w r i t i n g it, a r e revealing. H a v i n g originally p l a n n e d to write a history of ancient P e r u ( t h a t is, o f t h e I n c a e m p i r e ) , h e t e m p o r a r i l y g a v e u p t h e i d e a as a r e s u l t o f a stay in N e w S p a i n , w h e r e h e a c q u i r e d a c o n s i d e r a b l e m a s s of i n f o r m a t i o n o n p r e - C o l u m b i a n Mesoamerica. Since the p r o b l e m of the origin of the I n d i a n s was a m a t t e r of " o p i n i o n " r a t h e r t h a n inform a t i o n , h e c h o s e t o p u b l i s h first w h a t w a s t o h a v e b e e n t h e s e c o n d p a r t o f a t r i p t y c h (I shall s p e a k a t m o r e l e n g t h o f t h e t h i r d p a r t i n t h e n e x t c h a p t e r ) . F r a y G r e g o r i o r e m e m b e r e d in t h e n i c k o f t i m e , a t t h e v e r y b e g i n n i n g o f t h e first c h a p t e r , t h a t " t h e first f o u n d a t i o n is a n a r t i c l e o f faith, n a m e l y , t h a t all t h e m e n a n d w o m e n w h o h a v e lived since t h e b e g i n n i n g of t h e w o r l d d e s c e n d a n d take t h e i r origins f r o m o u r first f o r e b e a r s , A d a m a n d E v e . " 1 3
T h i s s t a t e m e n t o f o r t h o d o x y is i m p o r t a n t ; t o t h e b e s t o f m y k n o w l e d g e , all t h e s i x t e e n t h - c e n t u r y a u t h o r s w h o e x p r e s s e d h y p o t h e s e s r e g a r d i n g t h e o r i g i n o f t h e I n d i a n s a c c e p t e d it, a n d o n e m u s t w a i t u n t i l t h e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y t o find I s a a c L a P e y r e r e c o m i n g o u t w i t h t h e hypothesis that the I n d i a n s were "preadamites," e x e m p t from origin a l sin (a h y p o t h e s i s v i g o r o u s l y c o m b a t t e d b y t h e B e n e d i c t i n e f r i a r J e r o n i m o d e Feijoo). H o w e v e r , e v e n g r a n t i n g t h e l i n k o f t h e i n h a b i t ants of the N e w World to A d a m ' s line, m a n y d i v e r g e n t o p i n i o n s r e m a i n e d possible. Let us n o t e h e r e t h e second g r e a t principle of G r e g o r i o G a r c i a : " T h e s e c o n d f o u n d a t i o n w h i c h w e m u s t p o s t u l a t e is t h a t
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t h e p e o p l e s o f t h e I n d i e s , w h o m w e call I n d i a n s , c a m e t h e r e f r o m o n e o f t h e t h r e e p a r t s o f t h e k n o w n w o r l d : E u r o p e , Asia, a n d A f r i c a . " T h e i d e a , still l a r g e l y a c c e p t e d b y m o d e r n p a l e o n t o l o g i s t s , t h a t A m e r i c a h a d n o n a t i v e p o p u l a t i o n a n d t h a t all its p e o p l e s h a d a f o r e i g n o r i g i n , g o e s b a c k t o t h e s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y ; it m a y b e r e g a r d e d as relic o f a p r i m i t i v e a n t h r o p o l o g y a n d a n a b a n d o n e d c o s m o l o g y . T h e s e t w o p r i n c i p l e s left a w i d e m a r g i n f o r h y p o t h e s e s , all c o m p a t ible w i t h C a t h o l i c o r t h o d o x y , r e l a t i n g to t h e o r i g i n o f t h e I n d i a n s . I shall call a t t e n t i o n h e r e o n l y t o s e v e r a l o f t h e m o r e significant e x a m ples. I n reality, all t h e s o l u t i o n s p r o p o s e d f o r t h e q u e s t i o n o f t h e origin of t h e I n d i a n s d e r i v e d f r o m two sources: t h e p a g a n science of R o m a n a n d Greek antiquity, o n the o n e h a n d , a n d the J u d e o C h r i s t i a n t r a d i t i o n , o n t h e o t h e r . I n t h e t h i r d c h a p t e r o f t h e first b o o k o f his w o r k , G r e g o r i o G a r c i a r e f e r s t o A r i s t o t l e , w h o "in a b o o k w h i c h he wrote o n the marvels of n a t u r e , r e p o r t s the voyage of a C a r t h a g i n i a n s h i p , w h i c h d e p a r t i n g f r o m t h e pillars o f H e r c u l e s ( t h a t is, Gib r a l t a r ) , o r f r o m C a d i z , a n d d r i v e n b y a s t r o n g w i n d f r o m t h e east, t o u c h e d a t a h i t h e r t o u n k n o w n i s l a n d . T h i s i s l a n d , j u d g i n g by h i s d e s c r i p t i o n was d o u b t l e s s t h e i s l a n d o f E s p a n o l a d i s c o v e r e d b y C o l u m b u s . . . . It m a y b e , h o w e v e r , as s o m e h a v e o b s e r v e d , t h a t this l a n d d i s c o v e r e d by t h e C a r t h a g i n i a n s w a s w h a t is n o w c a l l e d T i e r r a F i r m e , which they took for a n i s l a n d . " I n the n e x t c h a p t e r , Fray G r e g o r i o refers to Seneca: "Of the Prophecies of Seneca about the I n d i e s . " 1 4
1 5
1 6
M o s t i n t e r e s t i n g o f all is t h e e x e g e t i c e f f o r t w h i c h a p p e a r s in t h e s i x t h c h a p t e r o f t h e s a m e first b o o k , e n t i t l e d : " T h a t M e n t i o n is M a d e o f t h e I n d i e s in H o l y S c r i p t u r e . " I shall cite a s o m e w h a t l o n g p a s s a g e that reveals the m o d e of t h o u g h t of the missionaries of the N e w World: " T h e P r o p h e t Isaiah, according to the version of the Septuag i n t , says: 'Woe to t h e l a n d w h i c h s e n d s s h i p s b e y o n d E t h i o p i a ' ( I s a i a h 18). T h i s w h o l e c h a p t e r is a p p l i e d t o t h e I n d i e s b y g r a v e a n d k n o w l e d g e a b l e a u t h o r s , in p a r t i c u l a r by M a s t e r F r a y L u i s d e L e o n , w h o w i t h t h e a i d o f t h i s c h a p t e r a n d t h e P r o p h e t O b a d i a h (in t h e c o n c l u s i o n o f his p r o p h e c y ) , p r o v e s t h a t t h e c o n v e r s i o n o f t h e I n d i a n s by t h e S p a n i a r d s h a d b e e n f o r e t o l d m a n y y e a r s a g o by t h e s e P r o p h e t s . ( L u i s d e L e o n , Commentary on Obadiah and the Song of Songs, c h a p . 8.)" H e r e t h e o v e r l a p b e t w e e n s e v e r a l q u e s t i o n s w h i c h w e n o w r e g a r d as d i s tinct, b u t t h e n w e r e i n s e p a r a b l e , is c l e a r ; t h o s e q u e s t i o n s a r e t h e k n o w l e d g e o f A m e r i c a by t h e a n c i e n t s , t h e p e o p l i n g o f A m e r i c a by i m m i g r a n t s c o m e from o n e of the t h r e e regions of the k n o w n world, t h e c o n v e r s i o n o f t h e I n d i a n s t o C h r i s t i a n i t y , a n d a b o v e all t h e e x p l i c a t i o n o f t h e c o n t e n t o f biblical p r o p h e c i e s by t h e c o u r s e o f h i s t o r y . It was i m p o r t a n t to a c c u m u l a t e t h e greatest possible n u m b e r of a u thorities o n each of these points; consequently t h e seventh c h a p t e r
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The Indian,
A Spiritual
Problem
(1524-1648)
deals with "the opinion of O r i g e n a n d Saint J e r o m e about the New World," w h e r e the a u t h o r r e m i n d s us that " C l e m e n t of Alexandria, d i s c i p l e o f t h e A p o s t l e s , also m e n t i o n s t h e p e o p l e s t h a t t h e G r e e k s call t h e A n t i p o d e s . " T h e c o n v e r g e n c e o f t e s t i m o n y t a k e n f r o m classic G r e e k philosophers, P r o p h e t s of the Old Testament, Fathers of the C h u r c h — t e s t i m o n y t h a t w a s o f t e n c r y p t i c (especially t h a t o f t h e P r o p h e t s ) — w e i g h e d m o r e in t h e m a t t e r o f p r o o f t h a n o b s e r v a t i o n s m a d e o n t h e s p o t by m i s s i o n a r i e s o r a d m i n i s t r a t o r s . H o w e v e r , a p p e a l t o t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f t h e N e w W o r l d a n d its p e o p l e s w a s n o t r e j e c t e d , as w e see i n t h e s e c o n d b o o k , w h e r e t h e a u t h o r i t y o f A r i s t o t l e c o n c u r s w i t h t h e vision o f A m e r i c a t o s u p p o r t the Carthaginian hypothesis: "Of the Fourth Foundation, W h e r e M e n t i o n Is M a d e o f A n c i e n t a n d M o n u m e n t a l R u i n s W h i c h A p p e a r to Be the Work of C a r t h a g i n i a n s . " T h e cyclopean ruins of h i g h l a n d P e r u r e m i n d e d t h e S p a n i a r d s of the r a m p a r t s of C a r t h a g e . We see h e r e f o r t h e first t i m e m e n t i o n o f p r e - C o l u m b i a n a n t i q u i t i e s (antiguallas)\ t h e y w e r e t o play a n e v e r i n c r e a s i n g r o l e in t h e A m e r i c a n c o n sciousness. Anthropological data w e r e n o b a r r i e r to the j o i n t authority of the ancients, the Prophets, the church Fathers, a n d m o d e r n doctors of the c h u r c h ; " a n d the opinion of the Indians that these peoples were different from them does not prevent them from having been C a r t h a g i n i a n s , t h e first c o l o n i z e r s o f t h i s c o u n t r y . . . , f o r t h e c o l o r o f t h e i r s k i n a n d t h e i r p h y s i c a l s t r u c t u r e c h a n g e d in t h i s f o r e i g n l a n d , b e c o m i n g those of the present I n d i a n s . " T h e a u t h o r m o v e d without difficulty f r o m M e x i c o t o P e r u , f r o m Y u c a t a n t o T i a h u a n a c o , w h e r e m o r e "Carthaginian" ruins had been found that the Indians assigned t o " o t h e r b e a r d e d p e o p l e s w i t h w h i t e s k i n like o u r s . " 1 7
1 8
1 9
With the same conviction a n d honesty which h e b r o u g h t to t h e d e f e n s e of t h e thesis of t h e C a r t h a g i n i a n origin of t h e I n d i a n s , Fray G r e g o r i o G a r c i a n o w u n d e r t o o k t o c o m b a t it: " O f t h e F i r s t D o u b t Relative to T h i s O p i n i o n . " H e r e h e d e v e l o p e d t h e linguistic a r g u m e n t : "If the Indians descended from the Carthaginians they would speak their language . . ., b u t instead we confront a multitude of lang u a g e s . " T h i s o b j e c t i o n i n s p i r e s a n o t h e r in r e p l y , n a m e l y , t h a t " t h e Devil, w h o is so s h r e w d , k n e w by c o n j e c t u r e t h a t t h e e v a n g e l i c a l L a w w o u l d b e p r e a c h e d in t h e s e k i n g d o m s , a n d t h e r e f o r e p e r s u a d e d t h e I n d i a n s to invent n e w l a n g u a g e s . " We s h o u l d n o t be s u r p r i s e d by use o f a r g u m e n t s o f t h i s k i n d b y a S p a n i s h f r i a r f o r m e d in t h e s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y , for w h o m t h e history of h u m a n i t y was e x p l a i n e d by t h e incessant struggle between the r e d e e m i n g designs of Providence a n d t h e p e r v e r s e e f f o r t s o f t h e E n e m y . T h e Apologetica historia de las Indias of the D o m i n i c a n Las Casas includes a considerable n u m b e r of c h a p ters d e v o t e d to t h e e n t e r p r i s e s of t h e Fiend, a n d Las Casas seems 2 0
2 1
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N E W SPAIN FROM THE CONQUEST TO INDEPENDENCE
obsessed with damnation, both of the Indians a n d the Conquistadors. T h e w o r k o f t h e J e s u i t J o s e d e A c o s t a reflects s i m i l a r c o n c e r n s . T h e h i s t o r y o f A m e r i c a ' s p a s t c o u l d o n l y b e c o n c e i v e d as a n e p i s o d e in t h e s t r u g g l e which, ever since t h e r e s u r r e c t i o n of Christ, h a d locked in b a t t l e G o d a n d t h e Devil, in t h a t i n t e r m e d i a t e a g e w h i c h w a s t o e n d with the millennium. We m u s t not be deceived, therefore, by the a p p a r e n t c o n f u s i o n i n w o r k s w h i c h a t first g l a n c e s e e m a j u m b l e o f f a n t a s t i c l u c u b r a t i o n s b a s e d o n a p l e t h o r a o f p a t r i s t i c a n d classical c i t a t i o n s . I n r e a l i t y w e h a v e in t h e s e w o r k s a c o h e r e n t c o n c e p t i o n o f t h e h i s t o r y o f m a n k i n d , a h i s t o r y i n t o w h i c h it w a s n e c e s s a r y t o i n t e grate t h e inhabitants of t h e N e w World. T h e i r novelty, their strangen e s s , m u s t b e a s s i m i l a t e d i n t o a t r u t h w h i c h , if it h a d n o t b e e n m a d e totally c l e a r , h a d in a n y c a s e b e e n l o n g b e f o r e r e v e a l e d b y S c r i p t u r e . O n e of t h e most interesting h y p o t h e s e s with r e g a r d to t h e origins of t h e I n d i a n s is set f o r t h b y G r e g o r i o G a r c i a in t h e t h i r d b o o k o f h i s w o r k , w h o s e first c h a p t e r is e n t i t l e d ; " O f t h e Fifth O p i n i o n , W h e r e i n I t Is P r o v e d T h a t t h e I n d i a n s A r e t h e D e s c e n d a n t s o f t h e H e b r e w s o f t h e T e n L o s t T r i b e s . " T h i s t h e s i s c o u l d h a r d l y h a v e c a u s e d a stir in t h e S p a i n o f P h i l i p I I I , also r u l e r o f P o r t u g a l . G r e g o r i o G a r c i a , l i k e Menasseh b e n Israel after him, only r e p e a t e d traditions which went b a c k t o t h e first d i s c o v e r i e s in t h e N e w W o r l d . A n d r e N e h e r i n f o r m s us t h a t t h e a p p e a r a n c e at F e r r a r a of a certain R e u b e n i , c o m e f r o m t h e I n d i e s , h a d i n s p i r e d a m e s s i a n i c m o v e m e n t , d e s c r i b e d in 1 5 2 4 b y A b r a h a m F a r i s o l . T h i s a u t h o r gives a f a n t a s t i c d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e t e n "lost t r i b e s , " f o u n d b y R e u b e n i in " I n d i a . " O n e n a t u r a l l y a s k s , w h a t "India," or what "Indies"? In Spain, meanwhile, the Inquisition p e r s e c u t e d t h e c o n v e r t e d J e w s accused of c r y p t o - J u d a i s m ; we recall t h e trial of J u a n d e Carvajal, g o v e r n o r of N u e v o L e o n , in N e w Spain itself. N u m e r o u s J e w s h a d g o n e t o P e r u a n d N e w S p a i n d e s p i t e t h e legal o b s t a c l e s t o s e t t l e m e n t in t h e N e w W o r l d o f i n d i v i d u a l s w h o w e r e n o t " O l d Christians." If t h e J u d a i z e r s of t h e O l d W o r l d s h o u l d find t h e i r b r e t h r e n in t h e N e w , m i g h t t h e y n o t j o i n t o g e t h e r t o o r g a n i z e a secessionist m o v e m e n t ? If t h e m e n d i c a n t o r d e r s c o n t i n u e d to b r i n g in their h a r v e s t of souls, w o u l d n o t t h e massive c o n v e r s i o n of t h e I n dians, d e s c e n d a n t s of the Jews, be t h e p r e l u d e to t h e A d v e n t ann o u n c e d as n e a r by J o a c h i m o f F l o r i s a n d a w a i t e d b y h i s F r a n c i s c a n disciples? T h e s e c i r c u m s t a n c e s suffice t o s h o w t h a t t h e p r o b l e m o f t h e o r i g i n of t h e I n d i a n s was n o t a p e d a n t i c p r o b l e m , a sterile q u e s t i o n of p a l e o n t o l o g y , a t a t i m e w h e n t h a t s c i e n c e w a s n o t e v e n in its i n f a n c y . I t involved, I repeat, a grave eschatological p r o b l e m which could have political i m p l i c a t i o n s , as t h e o p e n i n g o f G r e g o r i o G a r c i a ' s first c h a p t e r s u g g e s t s : " I t is a v e r y w i d e l y h e l d o p i n i o n , a n d t h e S p a n i a r d s o f t h e
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c o m m o n s o r t w h o live in t h e I n d i e s a r e c o n v i n c e d o f it, t h a t t h e I n d i a n s d e s c e n d f r o m t h e t e n J e w i s h t r i b e s lost a t t h e t i m e o f t h e c a p t i v i t y , u n d e r t h e A s s y r i a n k i n g S a l m a n a z a r . T h e basis o f this o p i n i o n is t h e c h a r a c t e r , t h e n a t u r e , a n d t h e c u s t o m s w h i c h t h e y o b s e r v e a m o n g those I n d i a n s a n d which a r e very similar to those of the H e b r e w s . " I will n o t d i s c u s s t h e frailty o f s u c h a r g u m e n t s , f o r m y r o l e is not to j u d g e b u t to u n d e r s t a n d a n d explain. 2 2
We n o t e h e r e t h e dialectical r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e eschatological c o n c e r n s of t h e clergy a n d t h e daily e x p e r i e n c e of t h e c o m m o n m a n , t h e gente vulgar. T h e s o l d i e r s o f C o r t e s , a c c o r d i n g t o t h e t e s t i m o n y o f B e r n a l D i a z d e l Castillo, similarly a n d s p o n t a n e o u s l y d e s c r i b e d t h e M e x i c a n t e m p l e s as m o s q u e s (mezquitas), t h u s a s s i m i l a t i n g all n o n Christian religions to each o t h e r a n d reviving the a r d o r of the wars of t h e R e c o n q u i s t a to c o m b a t t h e p a g a n s of t h e N e w World. By m e a n s of a similar simplification, the A m e r i c a n colonists w e r e p e r s u a d e d t h a t the Indians were Jews, discovering the same pattern of conduct which t h e y h a d a s s i g n e d t o t h e J e w s o f C a s t i l e o r A r a g o n . I n b o t h cases, it was a m a t t e r of o v e r c o m i n g t h e s t r a n g e n e s s of t h e N e w W o r l d by a s s i m i l a t i n g its p e o p l e s a n d t h e i r c u l t u r e t o o t h e r s , m o r e f a m i l i a r t o S p a n i a r d s t h r o u g h contact a n d historical tradition. Fray G r e g o r i o inf o r m s u s in t h e n e x t c h a p t e r s o f t h e t r a i t s t h a t t h e S p a n i a r d s o f t h e Indies assigned to b o t h J e w s a n d I n d i a n s , traits w h o s e similarity cons t i t u t e d " t h e s e c o n d f o u n d a t i o n o f t h e fifth o p i n i o n . " H e r e is t h e c o m m o n o p i n i o n : "All t h o s e w h o h a v e lived o r live t o d a y a m o n g t h o s e I n d i a n s b e l i e v e t h a t t h e y a r e t i m i d a n d f e a r f u l , c e r e m o n i o u s , intellig e n t , liars, a n d i n c l i n e d t o i d o l a t r y , all t h e s e b e i n g J e w i s h t r a i t s . " N a t u r a l l y , in t h e last s e n t e n c e t h e cleric c o m e s t o t h e s u p p o r t o f p o p u lar o p i n i o n to confirm the c o m m o n idolatrous t e n d e n c y of J e w s a n d I n d i a n s ; the Mexicans a d o r e d several serpents, t h e Xiuhcoatl a n d the Q u e t z a l c o a t l , especially, w i t h w h i c h I shall p r e s e n t l y d e a l a t l e n g t h . 2 3
2 4
A t e x t o f t h i s k i n d , w e a k as c o n c e r n s its " p r o o f s , " n e v e r t h e l e s s s h o w s u s h o w in t h e m o m e n t o f f o r m a t i o n o f M e x i c a n c r e o l e society t h e a n t i s e m i t i c s e n t i m e n t s o f t h e " O l d C h r i s t i a n " society o f t h e P e n i n sula w e r e t r a n s f e r r e d to t h e I n d i a n s , to their d e t r i m e n t . T h e script u r a l f o u n d a t i o n of this a t t i t u d e was t h u s partly responsible for t h e s y s t e m o f castas w h i c h n o n e d r e a m e d o f q u e s t i o n i n g b e f o r e t h e n i n e t e e n t h century, a n d which constituted an adaptation to A m e r i c a n c r e o l e society o f t h e p r i n c i p l e o f " p u r i t y o f b l o o d , " d o m i n a n t in S p a i n a t t h e t i m e o f t h e A m e r i c a n c o n q u e s t s . S i m i l a r l y , w e s e e in t h e t h i r d c h a p t e r of t h e s a m e b o o k of G r e g o r i o Garcia h o w t h e Aztec t r a d i t i o n of ancient m i g r a t i o n s reinforced Spanish-creole prejudices a n d corr o b o r a t e d t h e O l d T e s t a m e n t : " W h o c a n d e n y that this d e p a r t u r e a n d this t r i b u l a t i o n o f t h e M e x i c a n s r e s e m b l e s t h e flight i n t o E g y p t ? " 2 5
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N E W SPAIN FROM THE CONQUEST TO INDEPENDENCE
The Apostolic Evangelization
and the Foreknowledge
of God
In conjunction with the p r e c e d i n g question (that of the origin of the Indians) t h e r e a p p e a r e d the p r o b l e m of the evangelization of the I n d i a n s b y t h e A p o s t l e s . It is n o t e w o r t h y t h a t t h e D o m i n i c a n G r e g o r i o Garcia, w h o s e study o n t h e origin of t h e I n d i a n s I h a v e j u s t cited, c o n s i d e r e d that an e x a m i n a t i o n of the hypotheses relative to apostolic evangelization was a c o m p l e m e n t a r y question. T h i s t h e o l o g i a n w r o t e : " B u t t h e r e a r e t h r e e points in particular which h a v e interested m e m o r e t h a n o t h e r s . T h e first is: w h i c h k i n g s h a v e g o v e r n e d t h i s r e a l m , w h a t wars have they waged, a n d w h o were their successors until the c o m i n g o f t h e S p a n i a r d s . T h e s e c o n d p o i n t is t h e q u e s t i o n o f w h e n c e c a m e t h e first i n h a b i t a n t s o f t h i s l a n d a n d o t h e r r e g i o n s o f t h e I n d i e s . T h e t h i r d p o i n t is t h e q u e s t i o n w h e t h e r t h e G o s p e l h a s b e e n p r e a c h e d in t h e s e c o u n t r i e s in t h e t i m e o f t h e A p o s t l e s . I f o r m e d t h e p r o j e c t o f w r i t i n g t h r e e b o o k s j o i n e d i n t o o n e v o l u m e a b o u t all t h i s . " T h e v e r y i d e a o f j o i n i n g t h e t h r e e w o r k s in a s i n g l e v o l u m e c a n n o t b e d u e t o c h a n c e a n d e m p h a s i z e s t h e u n i t y o f t h e t h r e e s u b j e c t s in t h e m i n d o f t h e a u t h o r . I n d e e d , it is p e r f e c t l y c l e a r t h a t n o h i s t o r i a n o f t h e I n d i e s in t h e s i x t e e n t h a n d s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s a t t e m p t e d t o e v a d e a n y o f t h e s e q u e s t i o n s : t h e political h i s t o r y o f t h e p r e - C o l u m b i a n p e r i o d (poliza y modo de gobierno), t h e biblical c o n n e c t i o n , b e g i n n i n g w i t h t h e p a t r i a r c h s (prigen de los indios), t h e e v a n g e l i z a t i o n b y t h e a p o s t l e s o r in t h e t i m e o f t h e a p o s t l e s (viviendo los Apostoles). T h e I n d i a n p a s t h a d t o flow f r o m t h e n a t u r e o f t h e I n d i a n s a n d f r o m t h e d e s t i n y w h i c h G o d h a d r e s e r v e d f o r t h e m in t h i s w o r l d a n d t h e n e x t . T h e e v i d e n c e o f a political life a n d o f r e m a r k a b l e a r c h i t e c t u r a l a n d artistic a c h i e v e m e n t s led quite naturally to c o m p a r i s o n with t h e most d e v e l o p e d peoples of p a g a n a n t i q u i t y o f t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n b a s i n , s u c h as t h e P h o e n i c i a n s a n d t h e C a r t h a g i n i a n s . B u t t h e p r a c t i c e o f h u m a n sacrifice a n d o t h e r barbaric customs suggested that the Indians of the N e w World descended from E u r o p e a n barbarians, from the Iberians, for example. T h i s last h y p o t h e s i s o f f e r e d s o m e political a d v a n t a g e s t o t h e C a s t i l i a n Crown. 2 6
G e n e r a l l y s p e a k i n g , t h e c o n t r a s t b e t w e e n a n efficient political a n d social o r g a n i z a t i o n , o n t h e o n e h a n d , a n d t h e p r a c t i c e o f s a n g u i n a r y rites, o n t h e other, disconcerted the missionaries a n d t h e theologians. M e n s o u g h t explanations for this a p p a r e n t contradiction. T h e s i m p l e s t s o l u t i o n c o n s i s t e d in r e c a l l i n g t h e e x a m p l e o f t h e G r e e k s , s i m u l t a n e o u s l y "civilized," h a v i n g p r o d u c e d i n t e l l e c t s like A r i s t o t l e , a n d y e t p a g a n s , b e c a u s e G o d , m y s t e r i o u s l y , h a d d e c i d e d it s h o u l d b e so. T h u s , t h e I n d i a n s c o u l d b e g e n t i l e s like t h e G r e e k s a n d R o m a n s in t h e t i m e of Saint Paul. B u t t h e p r o b l e m was different, for J e s u s h a d
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A Spiritual
Problem
(1524-1648)
s e n t his a p o s t l e s t o p r e a c h t h e G o s p e l t h r o u g h o u t t h e w h o l e w o r l d ; this c o u l d b e i n t e r p r e t e d as a m i s s i o n t h e y h a d t o a c c o m p l i s h d u r i n g t h e i r l i f e t i m e s . T h e o b s t a c l e o f o c e a n i c d i s t a n c e w a s n o t r e a l , f o r (acc o r d i n g to A u g u s t i n e ) t h e apostles could h a v e b e e n t r a n s p o r t e d to t h e N e w World o n the wings of angels. T h e question t h u s b e c a m e o n e of i n t e r p r e t i n g a v e r s e o f t h e B i b l e literally o r a l l e g o r i c a l l y . I n t h e first case t h e m e a n i n g w a s c l e a r a n d in t h e s e c o n d it m u s t m e a n t h a t t h e a p o s t l e s o f C h r i s t , t h a t is, t h e a p o s t l e s o r t h e i r s p i r i t u a l s o n s ( w h i c h could refer to the sixteenth-century Franciscans) must carry e v e r y w h e r e t h e W o r d o f G o d . I n t e r p r e t e d literally, t h e m i s s i o n e n t r u s t e d t o t h e a p o s t l e s i m p l i e d t h a t o n e o f t h e m a t least h a d e v a n g e l i z e d a m o n g t h e I n d i a n s a b o u t fifteen c e n t u r i e s b e f o r e t h e S p a n i a r d s . T h i s gave rise to several q u e s t i o n s : W h o was t h e Apostle of t h e I n d i e s ? W h a t t r a c e s h a d t h i s p r i s t i n e e v a n g e l i z a t i o n left? H o w h a d t h e I n d i a n s d e f o r m e d t h e d i v i n e m e s s a g e ? T h e first q u e s t i o n w a s s i m u l t a n e o u s l y o n e o f e x e g e s i s a n d a r c h a e o l o g y . I m u s t d e a l w i t h it a t l e n g t h in c o n n e c t i o n w i t h Q u e t z a l c o a t l ; c o n s e q u e n t l y h e r e I shall c o n s i d e r t h e t w o o t h e r s . I shall o n l y n o t e h e r e t h a t s e v e r a l n a t i v e d i v i n i t i e s of ancient A m e r i c a have b e e n identified with the apostle T h o m a s . T o find t h e a p o s t l e w a s in t h e last analysis a m a t t e r o f p l a y i n g t h e d e t e c t i v e , o f s c r u t i n i z i n g t h e beliefs o f t h e I n d i a n s in o r d e r t o find t h e r e the traces of an ancient m o n o t h e i s m or of the Holy Trinity. T h i s s e a r c h w a s t h e w o r k o f a l i f e t i m e f o r r e l i g i o u s like t h e F r a n c i s c a n J u a n d e T o r q u e m a d a . T h e r e was g e n e r a l a g r e e m e n t , h o w e v e r , t h a t in those cases w h e r e i m a g e s of t h e L o r d o r of t h e V i r g i n M a r y h a d b e e n claimed to be f o u n d , they were f o u n d disfigured. T h e religious practices o f t h e I n d i a n s , especially t h e h u m a n sacrifices u s e d b y t h e A z t e c s , w h i c h t h e first F r a n c i s c a n s c o u l d still w i t n e s s , l e d t h o s e r e l i g i o u s t o b e l i e v e t h a t t h e W o r d h a d n e v e r r e s o u n d e d in t h o s e r e g i o n s . " W e k n o w f o r c e r t a i n t h a t o u r L o r d G o d b y d e s i g n k e p t this h a l f o f t h e w o r l d h i d d e n u n t i l o u r t i m e , a n d t h a t by a d e c r e e o f H i s d i v i n e p r o v i d e n c e h e h a s d e i g n e d t o u n v e i l it t o t h e R o m a n C a t h o l i c C h u r c h , so that the I n d i a n s may receive the Light amid the d a r k n e s s of the idolatry in which they h a v e l i v e d . " We see h e r e o n e of t h e e x p r e s s i o n s o f t h e " p o l i c y o f r u p t u r e , " o r o f tabula rasa, p r a c t i c e d b y t h e r e f o r m e d F r a n c i s c a n s in t h e i r m i s s i o n a r y w o r k . S a h a g i i n a n d h i s c o m p a n i o n s i n t e r p r e t e d C h r i s t i a n i t y as h i s t o r y ; t h e y h a d c o m e t o t h e I n d i e s t o fulfill t h e W o r d a n d t h u s a c h i e v e t h e p r e l u d e t o t h e last d a y s . I n e e d h a r d l y p o i n t o u t t h a t this b e l i e f w a s p e r f e c t l y c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e m i l l e n a r i a n e x p e c t a t i o n discussed above. I n t h e eyes of t h e Twelve, they themselves were t h e t r u e apostles of t h e I n d i a n s . In their e y e s , e v e r y t h i n g in t h e I n d i a n beliefs t h a t h a d a d i s t a n t r e s e m b l a n c e to t h e t r u e f a i t h was a d e v i l i s h p a r o d y , i n v e n t e d by t h e E n e m y in 27
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o r d e r to further lead astray the Indians; thus they r e g a r d e d the Ind i a n s as g e n t i l e s o f t h e s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y . To c h o o s e t h e solution of a p r i o r evangelization of t h e I n d i a n s by o n e of t h e apostles, o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , inevitably t e n d e d to m o d e r a t e t h e m i l l e n a r i a n f e v e r o f t h e F r a n c i s c a n s . T h a t s o l u t i o n , h o w e v e r , all o w e d o f a m o r e r a t i o n a l e x p l a n a t i o n f o r a fact w h i c h w a s difficult t o s q u a r e with t h e mysterious designs of the L o r d . T h e Peruvian A u g u s t i n i a n f r i a r A n t o n i o d e la C a l a n c h a , o n e o f t h e firmest a d h e r e n t s o f t h e t h e o r y of t h e evangelization of t h e I n d i a n s by a n apostle, recalled a v e r s e o f t h e V u l g a t e : " A n d t h i s G o s p e l o f t h e k i n g d o m shall b e p r e a c h e d in all t h e w o r l d f o r a w i t n e s s u n t o all n a t i o n s ; a n d t h e n shall t h e e n d c o m e " (Matt. 2 4 ) . A g a i n s t t h e o p i n i o n o f O r i g e n a n d in a g r e e m e n t with "scores of holy a n d grave doctors," C a l a n c h a maint a i n e d t h a t t h e consummation s h o u l d b e u n d e r s t o o d t o b e " n o t t h e e n d of t h e world, b u t the destruction of J e r u s a l e m , which took place seventy-two years after the birth of C h r i s t . " J o h n C h r y s o s t o m a n d J e r o m e attested to this, a n d t h e universal evangelization h a d b e e n v e r y r a p i d , if t h e G o s p e l o f M a r k c o u l d b e b e l i e v e d : " F r o m t h e w o r d s o f t h e last c h a p t e r . . . it is c l e a r t h a t t h e p r e a c h i n g o f t h e A p o s t l e s w a s u n i v e r s a l a n d t h a t t h e G o s p e l o f O u r L o r d w a s p r e a c h e d in o u r Weste r n Indies before the destruction of J e r u s a l e m . " To s u p p o s e that G o d c o u l d h a v e left t h e I n d i a n s w i t h o u t his l i g h t d u r i n g t h e m a n y centuries that separated the c o m i n g of Christ from the dispatch of S p a n i s h missionaries to t h e N e w World "violates t h e n a t u r a l , divine, a n d p o s i t i v e laws, a n d is a n i n s u l t t o t h e m e r c y a n d j u s t i c e o f G o d . " It is c l e a r h e r e t h a t C a l a n c h a ' s i n t e l l e c t u a l p o i n t o f d e p a r t u r e is t h e r e a l m o f m o r a l t h e o l o g y , w h e n c e flows his i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f M a t t h e w ; in a t h i r d a n d final p h a s e , t h e s e a r c h b e g i n s f o r t h e s i g n s , t h e m a t e r i a l a n d ritual traces, of the original evangelization. 2 8
2 9
3 0
If t h e G o s p e l h a d b e e n p r e a c h e d to t h e I n d i a n s in a p o s t o l i c t i m e s , it b e c a m e e a s y t o e x p l a i n b y its l i g h t t h o s e a s p e c t s o f I n d i a n c u l t u r e w h i c h t h e missionaries r e g a r d e d with favor, a n d by t h e suggestion of t h e Devil all t h o s e w h i c h a p p e a r e d p e r v e r s e . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e r o l e o f t h e m i s s i o n a r i e s s e n t in t h e s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y by t h e S p a n i s h m o n a r c h s c o u l d t h e r e b y s u f f e r a c o n s i d e r a b l e d i m i n u t i o n , at least f r o m t h e e s c h a t o l o g i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e , w h i c h was t h a t o f t h e F r i a r s M i n o r . A c c o r d i n g l y , at t h e s a m e t i m e as t h e y p u t off i n d e f i n i t e l y t h e c o m i n g of the millennium, t h e partisans of the apostolic evangelizat i o n o f t h e I n d i e s figured o u t a n o t h e r m e a n s o f s a v i n g t h e p r o v i d e n tial m i s s i o n o f t h e n e w a p o s t l e s o f t h e I n d i e s . A m o n g t h e p r o p h e c i e s a t t r i b u t e d to t h e p s e u d o - S a i n t T h o m a s of America, was o n e of t h e c o m i n g of a second wave of evangelizers; t h e vagueness of t h e d e s c r i p t i o n p e r m i t t e d t h e m t o b e i d e n t i f i e d n o w as D o m i n i c a n s , n o w as
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The Indian,
A Spiritual
Problem
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A u g u s t i n i a n s , n o w as J e s u i t s . T h u s w e find t h a t F r a n c i s c o d e V e r a , e x p r e s s i n g h i s o p i n i o n (parecer) as c e n s o r o n t h e v e r y official a n d classic Historia de la Compania de Jesus de la Nueva Espana o f F r a n c i s c o d e Florencia, did not hesitate to offer a d a r i n g interpretation of J o s h u a ; let t h e r e a d e r j u d g e f o r h i m s e l f : " W h e r e i n it a p p e a r s c l e a r l y i n d i c a t e d that the holy d u k e Saint Francis Borgia, t h e J o s h u a of o u r C o m p a n y of J e s u s . . . delivered t h e land of t h e N e w World to the Caleb w h o e x p l o r e d a n d c o n q u e r e d it. Hebron, as a p p e a r s f r o m a r e a d i n g o f S a i n t J e r o m e a n d f r o m the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e H e b r e w s which a r e at the e n d o f t h e B i b l e , signifies society, t h e C o m p a n y ; in o t h e r w o r d s : h e e n t r u s t e d t h e I n d i e s t o t h e c a r e o f t h e first p r o v i n c i a l , F a t h e r a n d D o c t o r P e d r o S a n c h e z , r e c t o r o f Alcala, a n e w C a l e b . " 3 1
T h i s m u s t n o t b e r e g a r d e d as m e r e l y a r h e t o c i a l g a m e ; r a t h e r is it a n o t h e r e x a m p l e o f t h e t e n d e n c y ( a l r e a d y o b s e r v e d in J o a c h i m o f F l o r i s a n d still w i d e s p r e a d in t h e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y a m o n g t h e relig i o u s ) t o d e c i p h e r S c r i p t u r e , to find s i g n s e v e r y w h e r e , t o e s t a b l i s h c o r r e s p o n d e n c e s b e t w e e n t h e historical ages. For the early chroniclers a n d h i s t o r i a n s o f t h e N e w W o r l d biblical a n a l o g i e s a r e n o t stylistic o r n a m e n t s o r s c h o l a r l y r e m i n i s c e n c e s ; t h e y e x p r e s s a f e e l i n g o f reliving a n t i q u e exploits o r m o m e n t s of t h e history of Israel. Prophecies are invoked, a n d Father Florencia proclaims that "the entrance of the Society o f J e s u s i n t o I n d i a w a s p r o p h e s i e d a t M y l a p o r e by t h e a p o s t l e S a i n t T h o m a s ; it w a s h e , also, a c c o r d i n g t o t h e s i g n w h i c h h e g a v e thereof, w h o p r o p h e s i e d the e n t r a n c e of the apostolic sons of the C o m p a n y i n t o P a r a g u a y . " I n t h i s w a y a c o n n e c t i n g b r i d g e w a s laid b e t w e e n the apostolic evangelization a n d t h e n e w evangelization by the Jesuits. 3 2
I n this g r e a t d e b a t e , n o u r i s h e d with b o r r o w i n g s f r o m t h e P r o p h e t s a n d the Gospels, in which F a t h e r s of t h e c h u r c h w e r e s o m e t i m e s cited against e a c h o t h e r a c c o r d i n g to t h e n e e d s of t h e case, t h e Jesuits firmly d i s s e n t e d f r o m t h e F r a n c i s c a n s o n o n e e s s e n t i a l p o i n t . W h e r e a s for the Franciscans the I n d i a n s h a d b e e n d e p r i v e d of grace a n d kept in d a r k n e s s f o r l o n g c e n t u r i e s in o r d e r t o b e a t last e n l i g h t e n e d o n a day chosen by the Lord, the Jesuit theologians h a d a different u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e m a t t e r . I n t h e view o f t h e m a j o r i t y o f t h e s e t h e o l o g i a n s , a n i n v i n c i b l e i g n o r a n c e o f G o d was i m p o s s i b l e o r v e r y r a r e ; this o p t i m i s t i c b e l i e f w a s p e r f e c t l y c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e n o t i o n t h a t I n d i a n i d o l a t r o u s beliefs w e r e , so t o s p e a k , " t e e t h i n g r i n g s " o f t h e t r u e f a i t h . T h i s is t h e e x a c t o p p o s i t e o f t h e F r a n c i s c a n d o c t r i n e o f t h e tabula rasa. W e n o t e t h a t t h e J e s u i t s e n t e r e d t h e m i s s i o n a r y field l a t e r t h a n t h e o t h e r s ; it w o u l d b e i n t e r e s t i n g t o a t t e m p t t o e x p l a i n t h e g e n e s i s o f t h i s d r a s t i c shift in m i s s i o n a r y d o c t r i n e , c o m i n g a f t e r t h e first g r e a t A m e r i c a n m i s s i o n a r y e f f o r t s .
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If t h e r e is n o t i n v i n c i b l e i g n o r a n c e o f G o d a m o n g t h e g e n t i l e s ( a n d particularly a m o n g the I n d i a n s of the New World), resort to a n origin a l a p o s t o l i c e v a n g e l i z a t i o n b e c o m e s u n n e c e s s a r y , f o r g r a c e h a s alr e a d y r e v e a l e d itself; it is i n n a t e . S u c h , at least, c o u l d b e t h e c o n c l u s i o n d r a w n f r o m a b r o a d i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f v e r s e s 18 t o 2 3 o f t h e E p i s t l e t o t h e R o m a n s . O n t h i s last p o i n t t h e l e a d i n g t h e o l o g i a n s o f t h e Society of J e s u s w e r e divided; s o m e believed t h a t n o p h i l o s o p h e r could have a n invincible i g n o r a n c e of G o d ; o t h e r s t h o u g h t t h a t Paul's w o r d s a p p l i e d also t o t h e c o m m o n p e o p l e . F a t h e r P e d r o d e A c h i i t e g u i h a s c a l l e d a t t e n t i o n to a r e m a r k a b l e e x a m p l e o f e v o l u t i o n in t h e c a s e o f S u a r e z , w h o s e t h o u g h t o n t h e subject, m o r e p a r t i c u l a r l y u n d e r t h e influence of J o s e d e Acosta a n d his A m e r i c a n missionary e x p e r i e n c e , s e e m s t o h a v e w a v e r e d . A c c o r d i n g to F a t h e r A c h i i t e g u i , S u a r e z affirms o n t h e o n e h a n d that m a n y w e r e i g n o r a n t of G o d , a n d o n t h e o t h e r t h a t t h e m o r e n o r m a l c a s e ifrequentius) w a s k n o w l e d g e o f G o d w i t h o u t t h e aid of evangelization. T h i s w a v e r i n g o n t h e p a r t of o n e of t h e greatest J e s u i t theologians ( r e f e r r i n g h e r e expressly to t h e Brazili a n I n d i a n s ) s u g g e s t s t h e oscillations in t h e s p i r i t u a l s t a t u s o f t h e I n d i a n (with c o r r e s p o n d i n g f l u c t u a t i o n s in his social a n d j u r i d i c i a l s t a t u s ) in t h e S p a n i s h E m p i r e in A m e r i c a . T h e passionate s t a n d s a s s u m e d by a Las Casas o r a Sepiilveda, a n d t h e m o r e m o d e r a t e p o s t u r e o f V i t o r i a , a r e also i n s e p a r a b l e f r o m t h e r e p l i e s m a d e t o t h e q u e s t i o n s t h a t I h a v e briefly set f o r t h — q u e s t i o n s w h o s e s o l u t i o n s w e r e s o u g h t in biblical e x e g e s i s ( s o u r c e o f all o r t h o d o x t r u t h ) r a t h e r t h a n in m i s s i o n a r y e x p e r i e n c e o r in o b s e r v a t i o n of I n d i a n s . I n t h e controversies relating to t h e n a t u r e , origin, history, a n d evangelization of the Indies, divergent interpretations of Script u r e , t h a t is, d i f f e r e n t p h i l o s o p h i e s , c o n f r o n t e d e a c h o t h e r . A t s t a k e , in t h e t i m e o f C h a r l e s V, w a s t h e d e s t i n y o f C h r i s t e n d o m , a n d m o r e immediately the welfare of the R o m a n c h u r c h a n d that of the Spanish m o n a r c h y , united u n d e r o n e h e a d with the Holy R o m a n E m p i r e . In this d e b a t e t h e I n d i a n o n l y p l a y e d t h e r o l e o f object, a s i g n o f conflict, a n i n t r u d e r w h o h a d n o t b e e n f o r e s e e n in t h e o r g a n o n o f J u d e o Hellenic k n o w l e d g e . A s o u r c e of e m b a r r a s s m e n t by virtue of t h e intellectual p r o b l e m s which h e posed, t h e I n d i a n was nevertheless a p r e c i o u s p r i z e f o r t h e fishers o f souls, w h o v i e d w i t h e a c h o t h e r in s h o w o f zeal a n d d i s p u t e d his e t e r n a l w e l f a r e . I n t h e t e m p o r a l o r d e r , t h e m i s s i o n a r i e s s t r u g g l e d w i t h little success t o p r o t e c t t h e i r I n d i a n c o n verts against slave-hunters a n d colonists, a n d e v e n against parish priests. To w h a t d e g r e e did theological a n d exegetic reflection influence the d a i l y p r a c t i c e o f t h e m i s s i o n a r i e s ? It is difficult t o m e a s u r e . F a t h e r A c h i i t e g u i w r i t e s : " T h e fact t h a t t h e m a j o r i t y o f o u r t h e o l o g i a n s w e r e
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The Indian,
A Spiritual
Problem
(1524-1648)
p a r t i s a n s o f t h e i m p o s s i b i l i t y o f i n v i n c i b l e i g n o r a n c e o f G o d is d u e p r i n c i p a l l y to t h e i r s i n c e r e a d h e r e n c e t o t h e d o c t r i n e o f S a i n t T h o m a s A q u i n a s . B u t t h e fact t h a t t h i r t e e n o u t o f n i n e t e e n o f t h e m d i d n o t h e s i t a t e t o c o n c e d e a t least a l i m i t e d possibility o f i n v i n c i b l e i g n o r a n c e , is d u e , I b e l i e v e , t o t h e a t t e n t i o n t h e y p a i d t o m i s s i o n a r y e x p e r i e n c e . " I t is c e r t a i n , in a n y c a s e , t h a t t h e l e g i s l a t i o n o f t h e I n d i e s w a s s t r o n g l y i n f l u e n c e d by t h e r e p o r t s o f r e l i g i o u s to t h e i r s u p e r i o r s . T h e i m a g e o f t h e I n d i a n , his a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l s t a t u s , d e p e n d e d o n t h e p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f t h e i n h a b i t a n t s o f t h e N e w W o r l d in r e v e l a t i o n a n d t h e i r r o l e in t h e c o m p l e t i o n o f C h r i s t e n d o m ; t h e y w e r e d e f i n e d acc o r d i n g l y . T h e d i v e r g e n c e s o f j u r i s t s in t h e s e m a t t e r s w e r e b a s e d o n e x e g e t i c d i s p u t e s . T h e p l a c e finally a s s i g n e d t o t h e I n d i a n in t h e O l d W o r l d , so a b r u p t l y e n l a r g e d t o its p r e s e n t limits, w a s a p r o d u c t o f t h e religious disquiet of t h e E u r o p e a n sixteenth century. It was t h e n e e d to resolve theological p r o b l e m s t h a t s o m e t i m e s led religious t h i n k e r s o f this p e r i o d to a s s i g n to t h e I n d i a n ( a n d s o m e t i m e s to his o r i g i n , p a s t , a n d beliefs) a s p i r i t u a l w o r t h w h i c h , d e s p i t e all t h e evils, g u a r a n t e e d his s u r v i v a l in t h e c o l o n i a l society o f t h e I n d i e s o v e r t h r e e c e n turies. 3 3
T h e w o r k o f J u a n S o l o r z a n o P e r e i r a , Politica Indiana, w h i c h m a y b e r e g a r d e d as t h e official s y n t h e s i s o f t h e m o s t a u t h o r i t a t i v e views o n t h e I n d i e s in t h e first q u a r t e r o f t h e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y , reflects all t h e a s p e c t s w h i c h I h a v e j u s t d i s c u s s e d . A p a r t o f t h e first b o o k o f t h i s t r e a t i s e o n c o l o n i a l law a n d a d m i n i s t r a t i o n is d e v o t e d t o t h e p r o b l e m o f t h e o r i g i n o f t h e I n d i a n s ( c h a p . 5), a n d t o t h e p r o p h e c i e s o f t h e d i s c o v e r y o f t h e N e w W o r l d a n d t o t h e possibility o f a n a p o s t o l i c evangelization of t h e I n d i a n s (chap. 6). T h e positions t a k e n o n these issues b y S o l o r z a n o P e r e i r a ( w h o w a s b o t h a m e m b e r o f t h e C o u n c i l o f Castile a n d t h e C o u n c i l o f t h e I n d i e s ) , r e v e a l t h e political i m p o r t a n c e of these metaphysical problems. T h e councilor expresses surprise that g r e a t c o n t e m p o r a r y m i n d s c o u l d e n t e r t a i n a b e l i e f in t h e J u d a i c o r i g i n o f t h e I n d i a n s : " I t is a s t o u n d i n g t o s e e s u c h g r e a t m i n d s t a k e f o r c e r t a i n w h a t is so d o u b t f u l . " H e m a i n t a i n e d o n t h e c o n t r a r y t h a t m o s t o f t h e I n d i a n s h a d t h e i r o r i g i n in E a s t e r n I n d i a , as w a s c l a i m e d b y Arias M o n t a n o . H e e x p r e s s e d t h e s a m e surprise at t h e belief t h a t t h e J e w s o f t h e t w e l v e t r i b e s " a r e t o d a y in t h e s a m e c a p t i v i t y as b e f o r e , a n d will r e m a i n t h e r e till t h e e n d o f t h e w o r l d . " 3 4
W e shall e n c o u n t e r a g a i n , a t a b e n d in t h e r o a d t a k e n b y t h e A m e r i c a n creole consciousness, this d e b a t e i n s p i r e d by t h e infiltration of J u d a i c m e s s i a n i s m i n t o C h r i s t i a n t h o u g h t . A s c o n c e r n s t h e will o f providence, Solorzano b r e a k s o u t with a p r o v o k i n g assurance: "I have said, a n d I r e p e a t , t h a t t h i s p r e a c h i n g a n d this c o n v e r s i o n o f t h e I n d i a n s were reserved for o u r time, for o u r sovereigns, for their
50
N E W SPAIN FROM THE CONQUEST TO INDEPENDENCE
ministers, a n d for their v a s s a l s . . . . Before o u r entry, the holy Gospel h a d n o t p e n e t r a t e d t h e N e w W o r l d . " F r o m t h e s e c e r t a i n t i e s h e easily d e d u c e d a C a s t i l i a n policy f o r t h e I n d i e s . " L e t u s m a r c h full o f c o u r a g e a n d w i t h a n a s s u r e d s t e p in t h i s e n t e r p r i s e o f c o n v e r s i o n , f o r w e see t h a t G o d a n n o u n c e d a n d r e s e r v e d it f o r u s , a n d w e s h o u l d let t h e Indians know t h i s . " H e r e the e m i n e n t right of the Spaniards to A m e r i c a a p p e a r s n o t as a r e s u l t o f t h e A l e x a n d r i n e b u l l s b u t as a d i v i n e g r a c e , a g r a c e w h i c h p r o m i s e s t h e a p p r o a c h o f s a l v a t i o n f o r all m a n k i n d t h r o u g h t h e i n s t r u m e n t a l i t y o f t h e Reyes Catolicos, r i g h t l y so n a m e d , for their e m p i r e was universal. T h e S p a n i a r d s , writes Solorz a n o , " a s s a v i o r s a n d a n n o u n c e r s o f t h e G o s p e l will b e c o m e m a s t e r s o f t h e cities o f t h e West, w h i c h a r e t h o s e o f t h e N e w W o r l d . . . , a n d t h u s , once the Gospel has been p r e a c h e d t h r o u g h o u t the earth, the Day of J u d g m e n t will c o m e , G o d h a v i n g p l a c e d his t h r o n e o n t h e m o u n t a i n s a n d b e i n g s u r r o u n d e d by the s a v i o r s . " 3 5
3 6
3 7
H e r e t h e S p a n i a r d s c l e a r l y a p p e a r as t h e n e w c h o s e n p e o p l e , a c c o r d i n g to t h e N e w C o v e n a n t ; w e will p r e s e n t l y see M e x i c a n Creoles o f t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y a n n e x i n g this p r o p h e t i c c e r t i t u d e a n d a p p l y i n g it t o t h e i r o w n n a t i o n a l a d v a n t a g e . W h a t i m p o r t a n c e s h o u l d b e a s s i g n e d t o t h e political a m b i t i o n s o f t h e C a s t i l i a n C r o w n , a n d e s p e cially o f t h e E m p e r o r C h a r l e s V, i n t h e s o l u t i o n s i m p o s e d u p o n t h e spiritual a n d anthropological problems described above? W h a t part d i d political c a l c u l a t i o n , r e l i g i o u s faith, a n d e s c h a t o l o g i c a l c o n c e r n s p l a y in t h e t h i n k i n g o f t h e e m p e r o r a n d his s p o k e s m e n ? M y o n l y i n t e n t i o n h a s b e e n to show t h e interplay b e t w e e n exegesis, science, t h e o l o g y , law, a n d politics. I n o t h e r w o r d s , n o n e o f t h e p r o b l e m s raised by t h e discovery of t h e A m e r i c a n I n d i a n a n d f o r m u l a t e d in spiritual t e r m s was g r a t u i t o u s . O n e of t h e g u i d i n g t h r e a d s t h a t h e l p s u s s e e t h e c o n n e c t i o n s b e t w e e n m i s s i o n a r y policy, t h e laws o f t h e I n d i e s , a n d c o l o n i a l e x p l o i t a t i o n — a t h r e a d t h a t also i l l u m i n a t e s t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y h i s t o r i o g r a p h y — i s t h e a n x i o u s e x p e c t a t i o n o f t h e last d a y s . I n t h i s c l i m a t e t h e I n d i a n a p p e a r e d p r i m a r i l y as a s p i r i t u a l q u e s t i o n . H e w a s s o o n t o a p p e a r as a n e l e m e n t in t h e a n s w e r — k n o w n , a c c o r d i n g to t h e D o m i n i c a n M a l u e n d a , o n e of t h e g r e a t authorities of t h e t i m e , o n l y to " G o d t h e F a t h e r H i m s e l f " — t o t h e m o s t d e c i s i v e q u e s t i o n o f all; t h a t q u e s t i o n w a s t h e d a t e a n d t h e h o u r o f t h e c o m i n g o f t h e M e s s i a h in g l o r y t o d e l i v e r t h e w o r l d a n d install t h e m i l l e n n i a l K i n g d o m . I n t h e p r e c i s e m e a s u r e t h a t this q u e s t i o n o n c e a g a i n c a m e to b e r e g a r d e d as m e a n i n g f u l a n d t h e last d a y s i m m i n e n t , t h e t e r m s in w h i c h A m e r i c a n q u e s t i o n s w e r e f o r m u l a t e d in t h e first h a l f o f t h e sixteenth c e n t u r y r e g a i n e d their relevance at the e n d of t h e Mexican colonial e r a in t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y .
5
The Creole Utopia of the "Indian Spring 1604-1700
The "Grandeur of Mexico" According to Bernardo de Balbuena
(1562[?]-1627)
T h e y e a r 1 6 0 4 is a b e a c o n f o r t h e h i s t o r i a n w h o w i s h e s to find his w a y in t h a t l o n g M e x i c a n s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y d u r i n g w h i c h , t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y b e l i e v e d , n o t h i n g h a d h a p p e n e d . F r o m this o b s c u r i t y o n l y e p h e m e r a l profiles, c a r d b o a r d a r c h e s o f t r i u m p h , a n d catafalques e r e c t e d o n t h e occasion of t h e arrival of a viceroy o r t h e d e a t h o f a p r i n c e s e e m to e m e r g e . I n reality, it was t h a n k s t o a l o n g p e r i o d o f p e a c e (at least in t h e c a p i t a l a n d t h e l a r g e t o w n s o f N e w S p a i n ) t h a t t h e v a l u e s a n d beliefs a r o u n d w h i c h t h e M e x i c a n n a t i o n w a s t o rally i n t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , w h e n t h e h o u r o f I n d e p e n d e n c e s t r u c k , a s s u m e d c o n s i s t e n t f o r m . S u c h a s p i r a t i o n s w e r e still r e m o t e at t h e b e g i n n i n g of the s e v e n t e e n t h century, w h e n the Mexic a n Creoles, h a v i n g d i s s i p a t e d t h e o d o r s o f t h e b i v o u a c a n d r e p l a c e d t h e A z t e c r u i n s w i t h p a l a c e s o f R e n a i s s a n c e style, l u x u r i a t e d in t h e r e f i n e d p l e a s u r e s o f t h o s e p o s t w a r y e a r s . S u c h , a t least, is t h e t a b l e a u of t h e " G r a n d e u r of Mexico" t h a t t h e p o e t B e r n a r d o d e B a l b u e n a , b o r n in t h e P e n i n s u l a b u t spiritually a creole b e y o n d t h e s h a d o w of a d o u b t , o f f e r s u s . W r i t t e n t w o y e a r s e a r l i e r , t h e b o o k w a s p u b l i s h e d in M e x i c o City in 1 6 0 4 . T h e e v e n t c o i n c i d e d w i t h t h e p a s s i n g o f a F r a n ciscan r e l i g i o u s , F r a y J e r o n i m o d e M e n d i e t a , w h o h a d b e e n a c h a m p i o n o f t h e m i l l e n a r i a n Utopia a n d h a d d i e d w i t h o u t h a v i n g b e e n a b l e t o p u b l i s h h i s l i f e w o r k , t h e Historia eclesiastica indiana. H e w a s t h e last survivor of the pioneers of evangelization (although he h a d c o m e after the Twelve); with h i m d i s a p p e a r e d o n e of the great f o u n d e r s of a m i l i t a n t , e v a n g e l i c a l N e w S p a i n . I h a v e a l r e a d y n o t e d t h e c h a n g e , if n o t a n i m m e d i a t e d r a s t i c shift o f d i r e c t i o n , w h i c h t h e a r r i v a l o f t h e first J e s u i t s , f o l l o w e d b y t h a t o f A r c h b i s h o p M o y a d e C o n t r e r a s , signified i n t h i s r e s p e c t . B u t by 1 6 0 4 t h a t r e v i s i o n o f m i s s i o n a r y policy also b e l o n g e d t o t h e p a s t . A f t e r t h e w o u n d s o f t h e g r e a t e p i d e m i c (matlatzauatl) o f t h e y e a r s 1 5 7 6 t o 1 5 7 9 h a d b e e n h e a l e d , M e x i c o City b l o s s o m e d a m i d fiestas w h o s e l u x u r y r e f l e c t e d t h e b u r g e o n i n g w e a l t h 1
51
52
N E W SPAIN FROM THE CONQUEST TO INDEPENDENCE
o f t h e silver m i n e s , a l u x u r y d i s p l a y e d w i t h o u t r e s t r a i n t b y t h e h o r s e m e n ( t h e i m a g e o f t h e charro d a t e s f r o m this p e r i o d ) t o w h o m B e r n a r d o d e B a l b u e n a d e v o t e s a l m o s t a h u n d r e d v e r s e s in o c t a v e s : S p i r i t e d b r a v e h o r s e s frisky a n d p r o u d ; H o u s e s w i t h h a u g h t y f a c a d e s in s u m p t u o u s s t r e e t s ; A t h o u s a n d riders, light of h a n d a n d foot; S p o r t i n g r i c h h a r n e s s e s a n d costly liveries, E m b r o i d e r e d with pearls, with gold, a n d precious stones, A r e c o m m o n s i g h t s in o u r city's s q u a r e s . 2
T h e c o m p a c t d e s c r i p t i o n e v o k e s a society w h o s e t a s t e s a n d a s p i r a t i o n s h a d n o t h i n g in c o m m o n w i t h t h e m i l i t a n t a s c e t i c i s m o f a M o t o l i n i a o r his i d e a l o f c h a r i t y . A g e n e r a t i o n w i t h o u t w a r s o r epidemics, the prosperity of t h e mines, a n d t h e u r b a n d e v e l o p m e n t h a d m i g h t i l y c o n t r i b u t e d to t h i s r e v o l u t i o n in m a n n e r s , w h i c h d e serves a m o r e careful examination. I n t h i s n e w F l o r e n c e ( s o m e w o u l d call it V e n i c e o n a c c o u n t o f its c a n a l s ) , l i t e r a r y c u l t u r e d i d n o t l a g b e h i n d , if o n e m a y b e l i e v e t h e d e s c r i p t i o n s o f B e r n a r d o d e B a l b u e n a in his Grandeza Mexicana a n d in t h e Siglo de Oro en las selvas de Erifile, t w o titles t h a t s u g g e s t t h e a u t h o r ' s e n t h u s i a s t i c m o o d . O n e c o u l d say o f B a l b u e n a t h a t h e w a s " t h e a n t i G u e v a r a , " i m i t a t i n g t h e a u t h o r o f Menosprecio de Corte y alabanza de aldea in r e v e r s e , f o r his p o e t i c l e t t e r " d e s c r i b i n g t h e f a m o u s city o f M e x i c o a n d its s p l e n d o r s " is a e u l o g y o f t h e city. Yet t h e Siglo de oro en las selvas de Erifile is a p a s t o r a l in t h e p u r e s t t r a d i t i o n o f t h e I t a l i a n R e n a i s s a n c e . T h e Grandeza Mexicana itself, a w o r k s o m e t i m e s p o n d e r o u s w i t h classical a l l u s i o n s , r e a c h e s its p i n n a c l e in c h a p t e r 6, e n t i r e l y d e v o t e d to singing the praises of n a t u r e : H e r e one hears a pheasant, there a nightingale s n a r e d in t h e foliage o f a n a l d e r t r e e , B a t h e s t h e t r e m u l o u s a i r w i t h its s w e e t s o u n d s .
3
O n e m i g h t t h i n k h e is l i s t e n i n g t o G a r c i l a s o . It m a y b e m o r e fitting, h o w e v e r , t o s p e a k o f L o p e d e V e g a , w h o also l o v e d a city, M a d r i d , w h o s e p r a i s e s h e p r e f e r r e d to s i n g in p r e f e r e n c e t o all g a r d e n s . T h e r e is n o c o n t r a d i c t i o n , t h e r e f o r e , b e t w e e n i m i t a t i o n o f t h e p a s t o r a l in M e x i c o in t h e m a n n e r o f M o n t e m a y o r a n d love f o r a city w h o s e c h a r m c o n s i s t e d in its w a l k s (paseos), n o t a b l y la Alameda ( w h i c h still exists), t h e paseo de Jamaica, w h i c h t h e N e a p o l i t a n t r a v e l e r G e m e l l i C a r r e r i d e s c r i b e d at t h e e n d of t h e c e n t u r y , a n d t h e flowery s u b u r b s , w h i c h w e d a r e n o t call M e x i c a n cigarrales—the n a m e given to t h e g a r d e n s o f T o l e d o . Yet t h o s e flowery floating g a r d e n s (chinampas) o f X o c h i m i l c o w e r e as e v o c a t i v e o f t h e T o l e d o o f T i r s o d e M o l i n a as o f the M a d r i d of L o p e d e Vega.
53
The Creole Utopia of the "Indian
Spring"
(1604-1700)
T h u s was Spain r e b o r n in N e w Spain, a l t h o u g h t h e latter h a d b e e n e s t a b l i s h e d a s a Utopian S p a i n w h i c h w o u l d b r e a k w i t h t h e vices o f t h e old Spain. T h e Franciscan missionaries h a d r e p r e s e n t e d a n evangelical c u r r e n t , a t r u e s p i r i t u a l d i s s i d e n t m o v e m e n t w h i c h e m e r g e d a f t e r the liquidation of Erasmianism. T h e great n u m b e r of convents in M e x i c o City d o e s n o t p r o v e t h a t it w a s d o m i n a t e d b y a m o n a s t i c s p i r i t . T h e s p i r i t u a l d i s t a n c e b e t w e e n t h e r e l i g i o u s w h o lived i n t h e u r b a n c o n v e n t s o f M e x i c o City d u r i n g t h e first y e a r s o f t h e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y a n d their predecessors in t h e m o n a s t e r i e s of A c t o p a n , Tzintzuntzan, o r even of Santiago Tlatelolco, was very great. T h e h u m a n e n v i r o n m e n t w a s totally d i f f e r e n t , a n d t h e s e c o n v e n t s w e r e w i d e o p e n t o t h e o u t e r w o r l d . S o r J u a n a I n e s d e la C r u z ( h a l f a c e n t u r y l a t e r ) f o u n d it n e c e s s a r y t o i m p o s e a l i m i t o n visits b e c a u s e M e x i c a n c o n v e n t u a l life w a s c l u t t e r e d w i t h p a r t i e s , c o n c e r t s , a n d t h e like. H u m a n i s t i c c u l t u r e , w i t h its t r a i n o f r e f e r e n c e s t o H e l l e n i c p o l y t h e i s m , w a s a field c u l t i v a t e d , i n d e e d a l m o s t exclusively, b y ecclesiastics ( r e g u l a r as well as s e c u l a r c l e r g y ) . B e r n a r d o d e B a l b u e n a is a n o t a b l e e x a m p l e o f t h e c o n f u s i o n b e t w e e n t h e lay a n d t h e ecclesiastical s t a t e i n M e x i c o . H i s c a s e recalls t h e s i m i l a r cases o f L o p e d e V e g a a n d T i r s o d e M o l i n a ( t h e f o r m e r e s p e cially) in c o n t e m p o r a r y S p a i n . B a l b u e n a a d d r e s s e d h i s g r e a t lyric p o e m , t h e Grandeza Mexicana, as a n " e p i s t l e " (carta) t o a l a d y o f illust r i o u s family, D o n a I s a b e l d e T o v a r y G u z m a n . T h e h i s t o r y o f love affairs s o m e t i m e s i l l u m i n a t e s h i s t o r y , e s p e c i a l l y w h e n w e s e e k t o r e c r e a t e t h e a t m o s p h e r e o f a n e p o c h . W h e n h e w r o t e t h e Grandeza Mexicana, B a l b u e n a w a s j u s t f o r t y y e a r s o l d . A s t u d e n t o f t h e o l o g y , h e h a d a l r e a d y w o n s o m e p o e t i c c o m p e t i t i o n s in M e x i c o City; o r d a i n e d , t h e n provided with a p r e b e n d , chaplain of t h e Audiencia of Guadalaj a r a , h e s e e m s n o t t o h a v e s p e n t m u c h t i m e in N u e v a Galicia, p r e f e r r i n g t h e c h a r m s of t h e capital. It was in a r e m o t e town of his administrative province, Culiacan, however, that h e m a d e t h e acquaintance of the addressee of the "Letter Concerning the Splendors of Mexico C i t y . " I t is c e r t a i n t h a t B a l b u e n a l o v e d I s a b e l d e T o v a r w i t h a v e r y h u m a n love; lovers of p o e t r y m u s t rejoice t h a t Isabela's e n t r y into a c o n v e n t a l l o w e d B a l b u e n a t o p u b l i s h t h e Grandeza Mexicana. I t s lyric i s m gives B a l b u e n a a w a y ; it w a s w i t h a w o m a n , n o t a city, t h a t h e w a s smitten. This did not prevent h i m from dedicating the p o e m to the a r c h b i s h o p of Mexico in t h e h o p e of o b t a i n i n g s o m e a d v a n t a g e , which h e s o o n w a s g i v e n , b e c o m i n g a n a b b o t in J a m a i c a b e f o r e b e i n g p r o m o t e d t o b i s h o p o f P u e r t o Rico. T h e p r o f a n e life a n d s a c e r d o t a l career of B e r n a r d o d e B a l b u e n a seem to t h u m b their noses at t h e f o u n d e r s of t h e Mexican church. E c o n o m i c p r o s p e r i t y , which c a u s e d t h e eclipse of t h e evangelical Utopia o f t h e m e n d i c a n t o r d e r s , a n d t h e a d v e n t o f a l i t e r a r y
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r e n a i s s a n c e f a v o r e d b y p e a c e , p l a y e d a m o r e decisive p a r t t h a n t h e m u t e d repression of t h e writings of Sahagiin, Mendieta, a n d D u r a n in t r a n s f o r m i n g t h e M e x i c a n s p i r i t u a l c l i m a t e . T h e Grandeza Mexicana reflects this t r a n s f o r m a t i o n i n all its a s p e c t s . T h e I n d i a n , t h e c e n t r a l f i g u r e i n t h e w r i t i n g s o f t h e first m i s s i o n a r i e s , is a b s e n t f r o m t h e p o e m . I n M e x i c o City, in 1 6 0 2 , t h e I n d i a n was n e i t h e r a w a r r i o r t o b e f e a r e d n o r a soul to b e saved; h e was simply i g n o r e d , a l t h o u g h his physical presence could n o t pass u n p e r c e i v e d a m o n g t h e mulattoes a n d mestizos w h o lived in t h e c a p i t a l . T h e r u b b l e o f t h e g r e a t t e m p l e o f Mexico-Tenochtitlan h a d served to build an imposing cathedral. A E u r o p e a n city h a d b e e n f o u n d e d o n t h e r u i n s o f t h e A z t e c c a p i t a l ; it w a s a n e n t i r e l y n e w city, i n t h e style o f t h e I t a l i a n R e n a i s s a n c e , a s o r t o f S a l a m a n c a o f t h e N e w W o r l d . B a l b u e n a ' s e n t h u s i a s m f o r its a r c h i t e c t u r e is o n e w i t h his a d m i r a t i o n f o r t h e city's society, w h i c h h e f o u n d c o m p l e t e l y w o r t h y o f its s p l e n d i d m i l i e u . T h e b e a u t y o f t h e w o m e n , t h e wit of t h e m e n , t h e e l e g a n t s p e e c h of b o t h , i n s p i r e d in t h e p o e t s o m e o f h i s b e s t v e r s e s , s u c h as t h i s : I n d i e s o f this w o r l d , H e a v e n o n e a r t h
4
I n this w o r k , p e r v a d e d w i t h a m o r o u s lyricism, t h e i m i t a t i o n o f n a t u r e in t h e t r a d i t i o n o f H o r a c e d o e s n o t fully e x p l a i n a p e c u l i a r l y Mexican e l e m e n t of t h e marvelous, a n e l e m e n t which suggests to m e o n e o f t h e first "sallies" (in t h e Q u i x o t i c s e n s e ) o f t h e M e x i c a n n a t i o n a l consciousness. W h e n B a l b u e n a e n t i t l e d c h a p t e r 6 o f t h e Grandeza Mexicana " E t e r n a l S p r i n g a n d I t s S i g n s , " h e explicitly laid t h e f o u n d a t i o n s o f a n e w M e x i c a n Utopia, called t o r e p l a c e t h e e v a n g e l i c a l Utopia o f t h e Iglesia Indiana, w h i c h h a d c o l l a p s e d . T h e S p a n i s h f r i a r s o f t h e p r e c e d i n g century h a d projected their eschatological h o p e s u p o n their I n d i a n flock; t h e M e x i c a n Creoles w o u l d n o w e x h u m e t h e E d e n i c m y t h i n o r d e r t o a p p l y it t o t h e i r A m e r i c a n patria. W h a t t h i s i n v o l v e d , t o b e sure, was n o t really e x h u m a t i o n b u t r a t h e r a n e w b o r r o w i n g f r o m S c r i p t u r e , n o t f r o m t h e a p o c a l y p t i c t e x t s this t i m e , b u t f r o m G e n e s i s . A d o p t i o n o f t h e E d e n i c t h e m e c o u l d also i m p l y a p a t r i o t i c r e b u f f t o those w h o claimed to recognize in t h e design of t h e lagoons o f Mexico the Beast of t h e Apocalypse, identified with t h e ancient Aztec dynasty. G e m e l l i C a r r e r i , w r i t i n g i n t h e last y e a r s o f t h e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y , m e n t i o n s this a l l e g o r i c a l h y p o t h e s i s . W h a t I h a v e called " t h e c r e o l e Utopia o f t h e I n d i a n S p r i n g " f o u n d its f i n i s h e d e x p r e s s i o n i n t h e Grandeza Mexicana, w r i t t e n m o r e t h a n half a c e n t u r y before t h e f a m o u s works of Carlos d e Siguenza y G o n g o r a , w h i c h m a r k e d t h a t Utopia's flowering. R e a d i n g B a l b u e n a ' s Eternal Spring, o n e c a n n o t h e l p c o m p a r i n g it w i t h t h e Indian Spring, a
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(1604-1700)
"sacred-historical p o e m " dedicated to the Virgin of G u a d a l u p e a n d p u b l i s h e d s i x t y - f o u r y e a r s l a t e r b y S i g u e n z a y G o n g o r a . If w e reflect o n the Spanish literary tradition, o n t h e mysticism of Boscan, o n t h e t e c h n i q u e o f s a c r e d e x e g e s i s a p p l i e d b y J u a n d e la C r u z t o p o e t r y o f p u r e l y e r o t i c a s p e c t in t h e t r a d i t i o n o f t h e S o n g o f S o n g s ( t r a n s l a t e d a n d g l o s s e d a t t h e s a m e p e r i o d by L u i s d e L e o n ) , t h e d i f f e r e n c e s between the two p o e m s should cause n o surprise. Balbuena, a belated c o n t i n u a t o r o f P e t r a r c h , s i n g s t h e u n a t t a i n a b l e love o f a L a u r a f o u n d in C u l i a c a n ; S i g u e n z a y G o n g o r a (a v e r y d i f f e r e n t s o r t o f m a n , incid e n t a l l y ) sees in t h e w i n t e r m i r a c l e o f t h e r o s e s o f T e p e y a c " t h e p o w e r f u l a r m " o f G o d . P r o f a n e p o e s y in B a l b u e n a , s a c r e d p o e s y in Siguenza y Gongora, one may conclude; but the problem does not l e n d itself t o s u c h s i m p l e s o l u t i o n s . By way of S p a i n of t h e past c e n t u r y , to which N a v a g e r o h a d b r o u g h t t h e v o g u e o f P e t r a r c h a n d S a n n a z a r o , N e w S p a i n (I s p e a k o f t h e e d u c a t e d class) h a d a s s i m i l a t e d a p o e t i c h e r i t a g e c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y a c o n s t a n t e x c h a n g e b e t w e e n a m o r o u s lyricism a n d s p i r i t u a l p o e t r y , a h e r i t a g e w h o s e c o m m o n d e n o m i n a t o r w a s its P e t r a r c h i a n v o c a b u l a r y a n d m e t a p h o r s , b o r r o w e d especially f r o m G a r c i l a s o , M o n t e m a y o r , a n d Gil P o l o . R e a d i n g t h e Eternal Spring o f B e r n a r d o d e B a l b u e n a , J . Rojas G a r c i d u e f i a s h a s o b s e r v e d , t h e m o d e r n r e a d e r e x p e r i e n c e s t h e s a m e i m p r e s s i o n t h a t h e r e c e i v e s o n l o o k i n g a t Botticelli's Primavera. I n d e e d , t h e c a p i t a l o f N e w S p a i n i n t h e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y w a s t h e scene of c u l t u r a l p h e n o m e n a which recall a s t o u n d i n g l y t h e Florence of the Quattrocento. O n e might almost think that the E u r o p e a n s , o r r a t h e r t h e i r c r e o l e d e s c e n d a n t s , h a v i n g failed t o a c h i e v e in N e w S p a i n t h e i r a s p i r a t i o n s o f a m y s t i c a l t e n d e n c y ( e m b o d i e d in F l o r e n c e b y S a v o n a r o l a , in N e w S p a i n b y M e n d i e t a ) h a d d e l i b e r a t e l y c h o sen an aesthetic derivative. T h i s e x p l a n a t i o n , h o w e v e r , o v e r l o o k s t h e a b s e n c e o f d e s i g n in s u c h g r e a t collective c h o i c e s . W e m u s t r e t u r n t o a m o r e p r o s a i c level o f e x p l a n a t i o n a n d reaffirm that peace, following a p e r i o d of wars a n d e p i d e m i c s , w a s p r o p i t i o u s t o t h e rise o f a s y b a r i t i c c l i m a t e in M e x i c o in t h e last q u a r t e r o f t h e s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y . T h e w a i t f o r t h e last d a y s , m a i n t a i n e d for half a century, could n o t be p r o l o n g e d indefinitely. T h i s t e n s i o n s o u g h t r e l e a s e ; a n d as t h e p r o m i s e of t h e K i n g d o m r e ceded to an ever m o r e indefinite future the attitude of expectancy i n e v i t a b l y w o r e off. T h e I t a l i a n R e n a i s s a n c e w a s in its b e g i n n i n g a d o u b l e c u r r e n t : a r e n o v a t i o n of evangelical spirituality o n t h e o n e h a n d , a r e s u r g e n c e of the ancient culture, Greek a n d Latin, o n the o t h e r . I n view o f t h e e p i c c l i m a t e o f t h e initial M e x i c a n d e c a d e s a n d t h e t r a n s c e n d e n t r o l e o f c o n v e r s i o n , it was t h e first a s p e c t of t h e R e n a i s s a n c e t h a t first m a n i f e s t e d itself i n N e w S p a i n . S a v o n a r o l a , m e d i a t e d b y C o r t e s a n d h i s F r a n c i s c a n i n s p i r e r s ; E r a s m u s , m e d i a t e d b y t h e first
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b i s h o p of Mexico, Z u m a r r a g a ; later T h o m a s M o r e , i n t e r p r e t e d by Vasco d e Q u i r o g a , g a v e t o t h e R e n a i s s a n c e i n N e w S p a i n its o r i g i n a l aspect. T h e o t h e r aspect, t h e imitation of t h e Ancients, which r e q u i r e d stability a n d t r a d i t i o n , t o o k t h r e e - q u a r t e r s o f a c e n t u r y t o e s t a b l i s h itself. T h e L a t i n Dialogues o f a p r o f e s s o r o f r h e t o r i c , C e r v a n t e s d e S a l a z a r , p u b l i s h e d in 1 5 5 4 , r e p r e s e n t a first f a l t e r i n g e f f o r t t o c r e a t e P l a t o n i c d i a l o g u e o n t h e p l a t e a u o f A n a h u a c . It w o u l d b e i n t e r e s t i n g t o k n o w e x a c t l y w h e n t h e first c o p y o f t h e Cortigiano r e a c h e d M e x i c o , if it w a s n o t p r e c e d e d t h e r e b y t h e Dialoghi a 'Amove o f L e o n H e b r e o in t h e t r a n s l a t i o n o f a n i l l u s t r i o u s s o n o f Creole c u l t u r e , t h e I n c a G a r cilaso d e la V e g a . I n N e w S p a i n , t h e r e n a i s s a n c e o f classic c u l t u r e m a k e s its first a p p e a r a n c e in t h e w o r k o f B e r n a r d o d e B a l b u e n a . E v e n t h a t w o r k gives o n l y a p a s t o r a l a n d m y t h o l o g i c a l r e f l e c t i o n o f t h e classic h e r i t a g e a s s i m i l a t e d t h r o u g h t h e m e d i u m o f I t a l i a n l i t e r a t u r e a n d its p r o l o n g a t i o n s in t h e I b e r i a n p e n i n s u l a . 1
T h e works of Leon H e b r e o a n d Balthazar Castiglione probably b e c a m e k n o w n in M e x i c o in t h e first d e c a d e o f t h e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y . T h e q u e s t i o n o f w h e n t h e Dialoghi cVAmore a n d t h e Cortigiano first a p p e a r e d i n t h e M e x i c a n b o o k t r a d e o r a t least in s o m e p r i v a t e l i b r a r i e s is n o t a n i d l e q u e s t i o n ; t h e s p i r i t o f N e w S p a i n c e r t a i n l y c h a n g e d t o g e t h e r w i t h its r e a d i n g t a s t e s . A t t h a t p e r i o d t h e p r i n t e d w o r d was s u r r o u n d e d with a prestige a n d a n a u t h o r i t y c o m p a r a b l e to t h o s e o f H o l y S c r i p t u r e itself ( t h a t is w h y C e r v a n t e s a t t a c k e d t h e r o m a n c e s o f c h i v a l r y ) . T h r o u g h o u t t h e c o l o n i a l e r a o f M e x i c a n hist o r y , S c r i p t u r e a n d t h e v a r i o u s c a t e c h i s m s r e m a i n e d t h e v e r y basis o f culture, oral a n d written, the p e r m a n e n t frame of reference which shed a n ultimate light o n t h e past, t h e present, a n d t h e individual a n d collective f u t u r e . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , belles l e t t r e s — t h e b o o k s o n e r e a d f o r p l e a s u r e — u n d e r w e n t i m p o r t a n t c h a n g e s in t h e c o u r s e o f successive g e n e r a t i o n s . T h a n k s t o I r v i n g L e o n a r d ' s s p l e n d i d s t u d y o f The Books of the Brave, w e k n o w a b o u t t h e a t m o s p h e r e o f f a n t a s y in w h i c h t h e e x p e d i t i o n s o f a n O r e l l a n a in q u e s t o f t h e A m a z o n s o r t h a t of P o n c e d e L e o n in search of t h e F o u n t a i n of Youth could b e u n d e r t a k e n . E n r i q u e d e G a n d i a h a s c a t a l o g u e d all t h o s e f a s c i n a t i n g m y t h s o f t h e C o n q u e s t . It is safe t o say t h a t f r o m t h e t i m e o f t h e v e r y first d i s c o v e r i e s in t h e N e w W o r l d , t h e p a g a n s e n s e o f t h e m a r v e l o u s , a h e r i t a g e o f classic a n t i q u i t y , w a s p r e s e n t . I r v i n g L e o n a r d ' s statistical i n v e n t o r i e s , h o w e v e r , r e v e a l a m a s s i v e d o m i n a t i o n o f r e a d i n g tastes b y r o m a n c e s of chivalry. T h e chronicler of t h e c o n q u e s t of Mexico, Ber n a l D i a z d e l Castillo, r e l a t e d in his o l d a g e h o w t h e first vision o f T e n o c h t i t l a n a p p e a r e d t o C o r t e s ' c o m r a d e s like t h e " e n c h a n t e d palaces of the book of Amadis."
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Spring"
(1604-1700)
T h e medieval literature of the marvelous, which had h a u n t e d the d r e a m s o f t h e first d i s c o v e r e r s , w a s r a p i d l y s u c c e e d e d b y a C h r i s t i a n literature of t h e marvelous, a p r o d u c t of t h e millenarian fever which i n s p i r e d t h e revival of t h e missionary e n t e r p r i s e . We n o t e a systematic d i s t r u s t o f r e p o r t s o f m i r a c l e s o n t h e p a r t o f t h e first m e n d i c a n t c h r o n i c l e r s . H o w e v e r , p r o d i g i o u s e v e n t s w h i c h w e r e r e g a r d e d as c o n f i r m i n g t h e s a i n t l i n e s s o f c e r t a i n r e l i g i o u s ( t o n g u e s o f fire, r a i n s o f b l o o d , a n d t h e like) w e r e r e a d i l y a c c e p t e d . T h e m o s t i n c r e d u l o u s friars with r e g a r d to miracles a n d prodigies u n d o u b t e d l y w e r e t h e Franciscans. T h e Augustinians, o n t h e contrary, seem to have contributed f r o m t h e very b e g i n n i n g s of t h e missionary m o v e m e n t to t h e d i f f u s i o n o f p i o u s t r a d i t i o n s . W i t h t h e a r r i v a l o f t h e first J e s u i t s i n M e x i c o , in 1 5 7 2 , a n e w m e n t a l i t y a r o s e t h a t w a s q u i t e f a v o r a b l e t o a s s i m i l a t i o n s — s o m e t i m e s q u i t e d a r i n g — o f local p o l y t h e i s t i c beliefs w i t h S c r i p t u r a l t r a d i t i o n s . T h e J e s u i t s also i n t r o d u c e d i n t o t h e i r coll e g e s p r o f a n e L a t i n a u t h o r s : O v i d , H o r a c e , V i r g i l , w h o s e r v e d as v e hicles o f t h e a n c i e n t m y t h o l o g y . T h u s t h e m a r v e l o u s e l e m e n t s f o u n d in 1 6 0 4 in a b o o k as s e c u l a r as t h e Grandeza Mexicana o f B a l b u e n a , were n o t particularly novel. M e n k n e w w h e n c e they c a m e ; only after t h e p a s s a g e o f sixty y e a r s w o u l d t h e i r u l t i m a t e d r i f t b e c o m e c l e a r . A p u r e l y a e s t h e t i c c o m m e n t a r y o n t h e Eternal Spring ( c h a p . 6 o f t h e Grandeza Mexicana) w o u l d l e a v e u s in t h e d a r k a b o u t its e s s e n t i a l c o n tent. B e r n a r d o de Balbuena, having wreathed vernal garlands about s e v e r a l figures o f H e l l e n i c m y t h o l o g y in t h e first o c t a v e , w e n t o n t o e v o k e M e x i c o City in t h e s e t e r m s : A l t h o u g h in g e n e r a l t h e w o r l d b e s u c h , I n this M e x i c a n p a r a d i s e it is, T h a t v e r d u r e h a s p l a c e d its s e a t a n d c o u r t .
5
T h e n o t i o n o f a " M e x i c a n p a r a d i s e , " a p p e a r i n g h e r e f o r t h e first t i m e s i n c e its m e n t i o n in t h e Apologetica historia o f L a s C a s a s , d i r e c t l y p r e f i g u r e s t h e Paraiso Occidental o f S i g u e n z a y G o n g o r a . T h e i d e a t h a t " v e r d u r e " h a s p l a c e d h e r e "its s e a t a n d c o u r t " a c q u i r e s s p e c i a l f o r c e i n t h e l i g h t o f t h e v e r s e s t h a t d i r e c t l y follow: H e r e , Sefiora, H e a v e n w i t h H i s o w n h a n d , It seems, has chosen h a n g i n g g a r d e n s , W h o s e g a r d e n e r H e H i m s e l f w i s h e d to b e .
6
G o d himself, w h o "wished to b e t h e g a r d e n e r " of this n e w E d e n — a n E d e n w h i c h d i m i n i s h e d t h e luster of t h a t Vale of T e m p e v a u n t e d b y t h e a n c i e n t s — s p r e a d A p r i l f l o w e r s in p r o f u s i o n o v e r A n a h u a c :
58
N E W SPAIN FROM THE CONQUEST TO INDEPENDENCE
H e r e are a thousand beauties and advantages, All t h e s e t h e s o v e r e i g n h a n d d i s p e n s e d , H e r e is H i s seat, a n d t h e s e H i s fallow fields, A n d t h i s is t h e e t e r n a l M e x i c a n s p r i n g . 7
T h e e t e r n a l M e x i c a n s p r i n g , w h i c h f o u n d in B a l b u e n a ' s w o r k its first p o e t i c e x p r e s s i o n , a l r e a d y a p p e a r s t h e r e w i t h its t r a n s c e n d e n t correlatives: the identification of A n a h u a c with t h e terrestrial P a r a d i s e a n d t h e e l e c t i o n o f A n a h u a c as t h e d i v i n e a b o d e . L i t e r a r y h i s t o r i a n s c o u l d d o u b t l e s s find t h e a n c i e n t o r p e n i n s u l a r l i t e r a r y s o u r c e s o f t h e s e i m a g e s , b u t I see m o r e h e r e t h a n e l e g a n t stylistic figures. E v e n t o d a y o n e n e e d o n l y l o o k a b o u t h i m t o c o n f i r m t h e floral l u x u r i a n c e o f t h e valley o f M e x i c o a n d t h e a d m i r a b l e o r n a m e n t a l u s e t h a t t h e I n d i a n s ( o r t h e i r m e s t i z o d e s c e n d a n t s ) m a k e o f t h e flowers. T h e t h e m e o f t h e flowery s p r i n g in B a l b u e n a is a f a i t h f u l r e n d e r i n g o f M e x i c a n reality. T h e halo of t h e m a r v e l o u s w h i c h rings t h e descript i o n i n t h e Grandeza Mexicana d i r e c t l y p r e p a r e s t h e w a y f o r t h e t r a n s m u t a t i o n " i n t o t h e d i v i n e " w h i c h t h e i n s p i r e d p e n o f t h e "first e v a n g e l i s t " o f G u a d a l u p e w a s t o a c c o m p l i s h in 1 6 4 8 . B a l b u e n a , u n k n o w n t o himself, t o b e s u r e , h a d c r e a t e d t h e m a r v e l o u s u n i v e r s e n e e d e d for the prodigious a p p e a r a n c e of the Virgin of G u a d a l u p e . T o c o m p l e t e t h e p l e n i t u d e o f t h i s E d e n i c l a n d s c a p e t h e seal o f t h e m i r a c l e w a s r e q u i r e d , t h e sign w h i c h s h o u l d c o n f i r m t h e d i v i n e elect i o n o f t h e valley o f M e x i c o ; G u a d a l u p e , t h e a n c i e n t m o t h e r - g o d d e s s of t h e I n d i a n s (herself t r a n s m u t e d into " O u r Lady" was to be that sign. O f course, t h e alliance of t h e divine (or divinized) w o m a n a n d t h e city w a s n o t n e w ; c o m i n g a f t e r V i r g i l a n d J o a c h i m d u Bellay, w h o sang: La berecynthienne c o u r o n n e e d e tours, B a l b u e n a c o u l d p r e s e n t M e x i c o City as a n o f f e r i n g t o his " l a d y " w i t h o u t a n y p o e t i c l i c e n s e . I f w e c o n s i d e r t h e m a t t e r m o r e closely, h o w e v e r , w e p e r c e i v e t h e i n t i m a t e b o n d l i n k i n g M e x i c o City a n d its w o m e n in t h e sensibility o f t h e p o e t : T h e least p a r t o f t h e i r b e i n g is t h e i r b e a u t y , A b e a u t y w h i c h V e n u s m i g h t well e n v y . 8
I s h o u l d r e a l l y cite t h e w h o l e p a s s a g e , b u t will o n l y q u o t e t h e s e additional verses: A s m a n y r o s e s h a s A p r i l , as m a n y s t a r s t h e sky, C y p r u s , w h i t e lilies, a n d s u m m e r , f l o w e r s , S o m a n y lovely w o m e n a r e b o r n a n d a d m i r e d h e r e .
9
59
The Creole Utopia of the "Indian
Spring"
(1604-1700)
L e t m e p a s s q u i c k l y o v e r t h e g r a c e o f t h e first o c t a v e , a l t o g e t h e r r e m i n i s c e n t of L o p e d e Vega, n o t i n g only that t h e roses f r o m w h i c h G u a d a l u p e will b e c r e a t e d a n d t h e s t a r s o f h e r m a n t l e a r e a l r e a d y r e l a t e d h e r e t o t h e w o m e n o f M e x i c o City. D o u b t l e s s t h e p o e t i c a r r a n g e m e n t o f t h e s e n o t i o n s is d i f f e r e n t , b u t o n l y t h e s p a r k o f t h e " m i r a c l e , " w h i c h t r a n s m u t e s e v e r y t h i n g , will b e n e e d e d t o t r a n s f o r m t h e M e x i c a n b e a u t y f r o m a rival o f V e n u s i n t o t h e n e w E v e , M a r y . B a l b u e n a w a s t h e first M e x i c a n w r i t e r t o a s s o c i a t e e x a l t a t i o n o f M e x i c o City w i t h a d o r a t i o n o f t h e M e x i c a n w o m a n w h e n h e w r o t e , a f t e r t h e m a n n e r o f t h e S p a n i a r d S a n c h e z d e B a d a j o z : " I t is a n e w R o m e in its c o u r t l y m a n n e r s a n d s h a p e l y figure." After an e n u m e r a t i o n w h i c h recalls t h a t I n d i a p r o d u c e d ivory, P e r u silver, a n d J a p a n silk, h e c o n c l u d e s : 10
Mexico produces beauties rare, A n d b r i l l i a n t m i n d s o f s o a r i n g flight By r e a s o n o f t h e s t a r s o r by s o m e v i r t u e d i v i n e . I n fine, if b e a u t y is a p a r t o f h e a v e n , T h e n M e x i c o is t h e h e a v e n o f this w o r l d , For h e r e grows the greatest beauty that the world has seen.
1 1
T h e s e f o u r last d i s t i c h s r e v e a l t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e n e o - P l a t o n i c ideal (probably transmitted t h r o u g h t h e poets of the Q u a t t r o c e n t o ) o n B a l b u e n a , b u t a n e w a s p e c t , d e s t i n e d t o p l a y a g r e a t r o l e in t h e M e x i c a n c r e o l e m e n t a l i t y , is t h e " d i v i n e v i r t u e " d i s p e n s e d t o M e x i c o by its grace of beauty, a n d the hyperbolic description " h e a v e n of the world" a p p l i e d t o M e x i c o City. H o w e v e r , it is still a p r o f a n e g r a c e t h a t is a c c o r d e d t o M e x i c o in B a l b u e n a ' s p o e m , w h i c h w e l e a v e r e g r e t f u l l y : Here, amid winding limpid streams, T h e s p r i n g h e r t r e a s u r e s d o e s enjoy, H e r b e a u t y t i m e c a n n e v e r efface, A r o u n d h e r skirts all p l e a s u r e s s p o r t , A n d in t h e w a t e r y c u r r e n t s c l e a r , T h a t are her mirrors, she renews her youth. A n d t h i s is t h e M e x i c a n s p r i n g .
A Mexican Petrarch, Don Carlos de Siguenza y Gongora
1 2
(1645-1700)
T h e c e n t u r y which h a d o p e n e d with t h e gallant pastorals of Bern a r d o d e B a l b u e n a r e v e a l e d its t r u e face d u r i n g its last f o u r d e c a d e s .
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NEW SPAIN FROM THE CONQUEST TO INDEPENDENCE
T w o personalities d o m i n a t e this p e r i o d : Carlos d e Siguenza y G o n g o r a , p r o f e s s o r o f m a t h e m a t i c s at t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f M e x i c o , a n d a J e r o n y m i t e n u n , S o r J u a n a I n e s d e la C r u z . D o n C a r l o s d e S i g u e n z a is linked m o r e directly t h a n Sor J u a n a to the questions I pose. His u n i v e r s a l c u r i o s i t y h a s l e d his b i o g r a p h e r , I r v i n g L e o n a r d , t o c o m p a r e h i m with Petrarch, with w h o m he s h a r e d the distinction of n e v e r h a v i n g o f f e n d e d o r t h o d o x y . T h i s c i r c u m s t a n c e , o c c u r r i n g at t h e e n d o f t h e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y , a c e n t u r y w h i c h saw a crisis o f E u r o p e a n culture, may seem to confirm t h e traditional j u d g m e n t which portrays t h e c o l o n i a l c u l t u r e o f N e w S p a i n as " p r o v i n c i a l . " N o d o u b t g e o g r a p h i c a l r e m o t e n e s s c a u s e d a c e r t a i n l a g in t h e e v o l u t i o n o f t h o u g h t in M e x i c o . H o w e v e r , w e m u s t r e v i s e t h e c o m m o n n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y view t h a t t h e b a n o n E u r o p e a n b o o k s , a n d t h e activity o f t h e I n q u i s i t i o n , h a d literally a s p h y x i a t e d H i s p a n i c A m e r i c a . O p p r e s s i v e r e g u l a t i o n s c e r t a i n l y e x i s t e d , b u t t h e thesis t h a t t h o s e r u l e s w e r e r i g o r o u s l y a p p l i e d is n o l o n g e r tenable. We s h o u l d n o t e , to begin with, t h e dispensations a n d e x e m p t i o n s e n j o y e d by c e r t a i n i n d i v i d u a l s b y r e a s o n o f t h e i r official o r r e l i g i o u s c a p a c i t i e s , specifically by t h e f r i a r s , t h e i d e o l o g i c a l g u i d e s o f t h a t society. I n c i d e n t a l l y , w h e n I s p e a k of society, t h e e x p r e s s i o n h a s a v e r y r e s t r i c t e d m e a n i n g . T h e lovely l a d i e s a n d b r i l l i a n t intellects o f w h o m B a l b u e n a b r a g s c a m e f r o m s o m e t e n s o f n o b l e families a n d t h o s e o f t h e i r m e m b e r s w h o h a d c h o s e n t h e c h u r c h o r university teaching (the two were generally t h e same) for their c a r e e r s . W i t h i n t h i s society t h e r e g r a d u a l l y t o o k f o r m a M e x i c a n n a t i o n a l c o n s c i o u s n e s s w h o s e c o m p o n e n t s , it s e e m s , S i g u e n z a y G o n g o r a first b r o u g h t t o g e t h e r in his w r i t i n g s . N e p h e w o n his m o t h e r s s i d e o f t h e g r e a t A n d a l u s i a n p o e t G o n g o r a , t h r o u g h his f a t h e r h e w a s c o n n e c t e d t o a family o f officials a n d g r e a t servants of t h e m o n a r c h y ; his f a t h e r himself h a d b e e n t u t o r of t h e p r i n c e B a l t h a z a r C a r l o s . S i g u e n z a y G o n g o r a e n t e r e d t h e Society o f J e s u s a n d t o o k h i s first vows, a t T e p o t z l a n , a t t h e a g e o f s e v e n t e e n ; p e r h a p s b e c a u s e o f u n c e r t a i n t y a b o u t his v o c a t i o n h e w a s " d i s m i s s e d " (despedido, o r expeditus) a t t h e e n d o f s e v e n y e a r s , f o r r e a s o n s t h a t r e m a i n o b s c u r e . B u t his u n s u c c e s s f u l e f f o r t s in 1 6 6 8 t o b e r e a d m i t t e d t o t h e Society s u g g e s t , a t least, t h a t his t h o u g h t , h o w e v e r o r i g i n a l , d i d n o t d e v i a t e t o o far f r o m t h e J e s u i t m e n t a l i t y , w h i c h t h e n d o m i n a t e d New Spain. T h e Jesuits did not achieve their supremacy immediately; indeed, their beginnings were very modest. B u t I cannot agree with Wigberto J i m e n e z M o r e n o w h e n h e writes t h a t t h e spirit of t h e m e n d i c a n t ord e r s d o m i n a t e d New Spain until 1624. T h e Mexican scholar rightly d r a w s attention to t h e a p p e a r a n c e at that d a t e of a n a r c h i t e c t u r e of
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The Creole Utopia of the "Indian
Spring"
(1604-1700)
H e r r e r e s q u e style, o n t h e initiative o f B i s h o p P a l a f o x ; t h e r e i n h e sees t h e s i g n o f t h e t r i u m p h o f s e c u l a r - m i n d e d b i s h o p s . It is a r e v e a l i n g indication, to be sure, b u t not conclusive testimony, a n d I prefer to follow J i m e n e z M o r e n o w h e n h e calls a t t e n t i o n t o t h e r o l e o f B i s h o p M o n t u f a r in t h e first M e x i c a n c o u n c i l o f 1 5 5 5 . F o r t h e r e s t , w e k n o w t h a t t h e last q u a r t e r o f t h e s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y saw t h e a p p e a r a n c e , i n large p a r t u n d e r J e s u i t inspiration, of aspects of cultural revival h i t h e r t o u n k n o w n in N e w S p a i n . T h e L a t i n Dialogues o f F r a n c i s c o C e r v a n t e s d e S a l a z a r a l r e a d y testify t o i m i t a t i o n , o n a fairly s c h o o l b o y i s h level, t o b e s u r e , o f t h e A n c i e n t s . A m o r e i m p o r t a n t h a p p e n i n g in t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l h i s t o r y o f t h e first h a l f o f t h e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y in N e w S p a i n , f r o m t h e p o i n t o f view t h a t c o n c e r n s u s h e r e , is t h e floweri n g in M e x i c a n sensibility a n d l i t e r a r y e x p r e s s i o n o f t h e " A m e r i c a n m a r v e l o u s . " We saw its d u a l o r i g i n , a n a n t i q u e p a g a n i s m i n h e r i t e d f r o m t h e Italian Renaissance, o n the o n e h a n d , a n d the physical reality o f t h e valley o f M e x i c o , o n t h e o t h e r , in B a l b u e n a ' s Grandeza Mexicana. T h e o t h e r aspect of the creole sense of the marvelous—an aspect w h i c h was t o flower in t h e c o u r s e o f t h e s e c o n d h a l f o f t h e c e n t u r y — w a s as a m b i g u o u s as t h e p r e c e d i n g o n e ; it r e s u l t e d f r o m t h e confluence of the Christian sense of t h e marvelous with ancient Ind i a n beliefs. B e c a u s e t h e m e n d i c a n t o r d e r s h a d failed t o e r a d i c a t e idolatry, a half-century later Christian images h a d b e e n substituted f o r I n d i a n i d o l s a t t h e sites t o w h i c h I n d i a n p i l g r i m a g e s w e r e m a d e . A l o n g with these material substitutions t h e r e d e v e l o p e d syncretic beliefs a n d p i o u s l e g e n d s . J i m e n e z M o r e n o h a s c a l l e d a t t e n t i o n t o t h e rise of n e w c e n t e r s of pilgrimages a n d t h e a t t a c h m e n t of t h e mestizo a n d c r e o l e e l e m e n t s , as well as t h e I n d i a n s , t o t h e s e c u l t s . T h e n e w cults, i n c l u d i n g t h a t of the Virgin of G u a d a l u p e at Tepeyac, t h u s took s h a p e in a n a t m o s p h e r e o f u n a n i m o u s h o p e , a n a m a l g a m o f Creoles, I n d i a n s , a n d t h e castas. T h e n a t i o n a l ( o r m o r e f r e q u e n t l y r e g i o n a l ) c h a r a c t e r o f t h e i m a g e s g e n e r a l l y r e g a r d e d as m i r a c u l o u s h a s t e n e d f o r m a t i o n o f a c o n s c i o u s n e s s o f t h e A m e r i c a n patria chica ("little fatherland"). O n a b r o a d base of p o p u l a r s u p p o r t , the clergy were to elaborate a new ideology that b r o k e not with the ancient I n d i a n beliefs b u t w i t h t h o s e o f t h e first m i s s i o n a r i e s . A m a n w h o p l a y e d a k e y r o l e in t h i s s p i r i t u a l r e v o l u t i o n , w h i c h a t t h e t i m e a p p e a r e d so i n n o c u o u s f r o m t h e v i e w p o i n t o f b o t h political a n d r e l i g i o u s o r t h o d o x y , w a s Siguenza y Gongora. T h e political-religious messianism of the missionaries h a d m a d e Spain, r e p r e s e n t e d by t h e friars, t h e h o m e of a C h o s e n People a n d t h e I n d i a n s a n object of spiritual salvation. T h e wealth a n d p o w e r of t h e Creoles, c o n f i r m e d by t h e s p l e n d o r o f a c a p i t a l w h i c h v i e d w i t h t h a t o f
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N E W SPAIN FROM THE CONQUEST TO INDEPENDENCE
Spain, soon m a d e t h e m r e g a r d t h e spiritual tutelage of the g a c h u p i n e s as i n t o l e r a b l e . E v e r y a s s e r t i o n o f n a t i o n a l d i g n i t y o n t h e p a r t o f N e w S p a i n ' s Creoles i m p l i e d t h e n e e d t o r e v i s e t h e i r s t a t u s o f spiritual d e p e n d e n c e . Consequently the Spanish historiography of the Indies, f o u n d e d o n the postulate of a providential mission, triump h a n t l y e x p r e s s e d by S o l o r z a n o Pereira, h a d to b e attacked. Since S p a i n ' s e v a n g e l i c a l m i s s i o n h a d b e e n j u s t i f i e d by r e f e r e n c e t o t h e I n d i a n i d o l a t r y , it b e c a m e n e c e s s a r y , in t h e first p l a c e , t o c l e a n s e t h e I n d i a n s o f t h e g r a v e s t o f sins. T h e n a s c e n t c r e o l e c u l t u r e ( w h i c h i n c l u d e d , i n its s e c o n d p h a s e , a m y t h o l o g y b o r r o w e d f r o m H e l l e n i c a n t i q u i t y ) w a s in all r e s p e c t s , i n its v a l u e s a n d t h e i r m e a n s o f e x p r e s s i o n , t h e r e s u l t o f w h a t t o d a y w e call " t r a n s c u l t u r a t i o n . " T h e f o r m s o f life, t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , t h e c h u r c h , a n d t h e faith itself w e r e i m p o r t e d p r o d u c t s ; t h e A m e r i c a n w o r l d , o n w h i c h creole eyes h a d j u s t b e g u n to gaze with w o n d e r , was d e n i e d . S u c h a lack o f c u l t u r a l a u t h e n t i c i t y c o u l d n o t l o n g r e m a i n v i a b l e , p a r t i c u l a r l y in a c o u n t r y w h o s e f a s c i n a t i n g b e a u t y t u r n e d a g o o d C a s tilian in a few y e a r s i n t o a c r e o l e i n s p i r i t . T h e p r o c e s s o f " M e x i c a n i z a t i o n " ( o n e is t e m p t e d t o w r i t e " r e - M e x i c a n i z a t i o n " ) o f N e w S p a i n , t h a n k s to a d e v o u t c o n s e n s u s w h i c h d e v e l o p e d in a s y n c r e t i c c l i m a t e o f t h e m a r v e l o u s , h a d a l r e a d y w o n o v e r all t h e s t r a t a o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n w h e n S i g u e n z a b e g a n his s t u d i e s o f a n c i e n t M e x i c o in 1 6 6 8 . T h a t s a m e y e a r h e p u b l i s h e d t h e Primavera Indiana. Poema sacro-historico, idea de Maria Santissima de Guadalupe. T h e v a s t o u t p u t of t h i s p o l y g r a p h , a p p a r e n t l y dispersed, in large p a r t u n p u b l i s h e d a n d today lost, is e s s e n t i a l l y h o m o g e n e o u s . W i t h a s u r e sense of t h e spiritual p r o b l e m s t h a t u n d e r l a y t h e controversies relative to the ancient history of t h e Mexican I n d i a n s , S i g u e n z a y G o n g o r a c o n c e n t r a t e d o n t w o g r e a t M e x i c a n beliefs, Quetzalcoatl a n d G u a d a l u p e . Like an a u g u r , Siguenza scrutinized the t h r o b b i n g e n t r a i l s o f his i n j u r e d f a t h e r l a n d , b u t h i s v i s i o n was n o t d i m m e d . W h e n S i g u e n z a w r o t e his Poema sacro-historico o n t h e V i r g i n of T e p e y a c , j u s t twenty years h a d passed since Miguel Sanchez w r o t e w h a t F r a n c i s c o d e la M a z a h a d felicitously called " t h e first G o s p e l o f G u a d a l u p e . " I h a v e a l r e a d y c a l l e d a t t e n t i o n , in c o n n e c t i o n w i t h B a l b u e n a , to the p h r a s e " I n d i a n S p r i n g , " o r m o r e precisely, t h e "eternal s p r i n g " of A n a h u a c , which S i g u e n z a y G o n g o r a revived; this p h r a s e , d e r i v e d f r o m a n t i q u e p a s t o r a l s b y B a l b u e n a , w h o was still a p r i s o n e r o f his l i t e r a r y s o u r c e s , w a s t o a c q u i r e a t h o r o u g h l y n a t i v e r i n g in Siguenza. T h e a d j e c t i v e " I n d i a n " (indiana) is r i c h in i m p l i c a t i o n s . W e find it in t h e title o f a w o r k by M e n d i e t a w h i c h d i d n o t see t h e l i g h t u n t i l l o n g a f t e r t h e a c h i e v e m e n t o f M e x i c a n i n d e p e n d e n c e . T h u s its u s e b y
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S i g u e n z a , w h o k n e w well t h e o l d h i s t o r i e s o f M e x i c o , w h o h a d a n n o tated T o r q u e m a d a (who b o r r o w e d extensively from Mendieta), cann o t b e e x p l a i n e d b y s i m p l e c h a n c e . A t this p e r i o d t h e n a m e indio o r , p a t r o n i z i n g l y indito (a n a m e still u s e d in t h e m a j o r i t y o f M e x i c o ' s r u r a l a r e a s ) , was a p p l i e d t o I n d i a n s , w h i l e t h e n a m e Indiano w a s r e s e r v e d (in S p a i n ) f o r t h e c r e o l e . F o r t h e s e r e a s o n s I see in S i g i i e n z a ' s u s e o f it a r e s u r g e n c e of the early aspirations of a M e n d i e t a . B u t with Siguenza t h e c o n t e n t c h a n g e s ; it is n o l o n g e r a q u e s t i o n o f e r e c t i n g a n e w c h u r c h , b u t o f r e c o g n i z i n g its e x i s t e n c e . A l t h o u g h t h e s e c o n d c o m i n g w a s still d e f e r r e d , t h e " w a i t " h a d b e e n r e w a r d e d by t h e " p r o d i g i o u s " a p p e a r a n c e o f t h e V i r g i n M a r y a t T e p e y a c . T h e Primavera Indiana o f S i g u e n z a y G o n g o r a was n o n e o t h e r t h a n t h e " s p r i n g t i m e of t h e w o r l d , " a n x i o u s l y a w a i t e d f o r c e n t u r i e s by m i l l e n a r i a n s . T h u s t h e b r o k e n J o a c h i m i t e t h r e a d of t h e Franciscan missionaries was secretly r e k n i t . T h e fact is t h a t t h e M e x i c a n a t m o s p h e r e , c h a r g e d w i t h a s p i r i t u a l fluid o f h i g h t e n s i o n , c a l l e d f o r t h e c o m i n g o f G u a d a l u p e . I t was Miguel S a n c h e z w h o l a u n c h e d the f e c u n d idea of a b o n d b e t w e e n the i m a g e of Tepeyac a n d the W o m a n of Revelation, b u t to Siguenza y G o n g o r a m u s t be given credit for h a v i n g grafted the new cult o n t h e living old t r u n k of millenarianism: If a m o n g t h e c r a g s was f o u n d t h e s a c r e d f a t h e r l a n d of this p r o d i g y of b o t h w o r l d s All o f a s p r i n g t i m e t h e lovely i m a g e e x p r e s s e d on that coarse cloak. 1 3
B e n e a t h the G o n g o r e s q u e inversions surges the Mexican patriotic s p r i n g , b a t h e d in a s u p e r n a t u a l l i g h t w h i c h will a u r e o l e it l o n g a f t e r t h e c o m i n g of I n d e p e n d e n c e . T h e r e d e m p t i v e design of t h e M e x i c a n patria, r e d e e m e d f r o m t h e d a r k n e s s o f i d o l a t r y a n d m a d e by d i v i n e g r a c e t h e b e a r e r o f m a n k i n d ' s h o p e f o r s a l v a t i o n , a p p e a r s in o n e o f t h e loveliest o c t a v e s o f t h e p o e m : I a m Mary, of o m n i p o t e n t G o d the h u m b l e Mother, Virgin sovereign, A torch whose eternal light is t h e s p l e n d i d N o r t h S t a r o f m a n k i n d ' s h o p e : L e t a p e r f u m e d a l t a r in a h o l y t e m p l e b e i n s t a l l e d f o r m e in M e x i c o , o n c e P l u t o ' s profane dwelling, whose h o r r o r s m y f o o t d i s p e l l s in a s t o r m o f f l o w e r s . 14
We still feel t h e s p i r i t u a l w e i g h t o f t h e p h r a s e " N o r t h S t a r , " w h i c h t h e J e s u i t F l o r e n c i a w a s to u s e t w e n t y y e a r s l a t e r in t h e title o f a b o o k
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w h i c h strongly influenced t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of t h e Mexican cult of G u a d a l u p e : La estrella del Norte de Mexico, historia de la milagrosa Imagen de Maria Stma. de Guadelupe. I f t h e Primavera indiana w a s a c r e o l e manifestation of the "springtime of the world," the " N o r t h Star," the s p i r i t u a l p o l e o f M e x i c a n n a t i o n a l c o n s c i o u s n e s s in s e a r c h o f itself, was G u a d a l u p e . At t h e very s o u r c e of t h e k e y w o r d s of t h e cult of G u a d a l u p e stands Carlos de Siguenza y Gongora. T h e s u b t i t l e , poema sacro-historico, m a y s u r p r i s e a m o d e r n r e a d e r ; a t first g l a n c e w e p e r c e i v e o n l y its c h a r a c t e r o f a s a c r e d p o e m . I n t h e l i g h t o f w h a t w e a l r e a d y k n o w , h o w e v e r , it is c l e a r t h a t it is a h i s t o r i c a l p r o b l e m a b o v e all w i t h w h i c h t h e p o e m d e a l s , in t h e first p l a c e b e c a u s e h i s t o r y m e r g e s w i t h t h e h i s t o r y o f t h e s a l v a t i o n o f m a n k i n d , in w h o s e u n f o l d i n g t h e a p p a r i t i o n o f T e p e y a c w a s a sign o f t h e first i m p o r t a n c e . M o r e especially, t h e p o e t is c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e s a l v a t i o n o f t h e I n d i a n a n d t h e d i v i n e e l e c t i o n o f his c o u n t r y , w h i c h is p r o m i s e d a r e d e m p t i v e historical destiny: May t h e crystalline dwelling place of light glorify t h e e , b e c a u s e w i t h love t h o u rises, O Mexico, to be the p r e e m i n e n t t h r o n e gilded by t h e rays of a r d e n t L o v e . 1 5
T h e h i s t o r y o f t h e M e x i c a n p e o p l e a p p e a r s sanctified b y t h e r a y s o f d i v i n e love w h i c h gild its d w e l l i n g p l a c e . T h e M e x i c a n " p r e e m i n e n c e " is a n o t i o n w h i c h is f o r m a l l y d u e to t h e p e n o f S i g u e n z a y G o n g o r a ; it will b e c o m e o n e o f t h e d o m i n a n t i d e a s o f M e x i c a n r e l i g i o u s - p a t r i o t i c faith in t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y . We shall h a v e t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o c o n s i d e r in m o r e d e t a i l S i g i i e n z a ' s b o o k , Fenix del Occidente, San Thomas Apostol, hallado con el nombre de Quetzalcoatl entre las cenizas de antiguas tradiciones conservadas en piedras, en teomoxtles tultecos y en cantares teochichimecbs y mexicanos. H e r e I shall o n l y o b s e r v e t h a t t h e logical r e q u i r e m e n t o f a p r o j e c t f o r t h e r e d e m p t i o n o f t h e M e x i c a n p e o p l e m a d e t h e figure o f S a i n t T h o m a s - Q u e t z a l coatl, a l r e a d y s k e t c h e d by t h e D o m i n i c a n c h r o n i c l e r D i e g o D u r a n , as i n d i s p e n s a b l e t o S i g u e n z a y G o n g o r a as t h e p r o d i g i o u s i m a g e o f T e p e y a c . T h e l a t t e r p r o m i s e d a f u t u r e of d i v i n e e l e c t i o n ; t h e f o r m e r w a s h e d f r o m t h e p a s t t h e sin o f i d o l a t r y . T h a t is w h y D o n C a r l o s d e S i g u e n z a diligently assembled notes o n t h e subject of Quetzalcoatl; h e did this n o t with any Machiavellian design b u t with the s c r u p u l o u s care of a scholar a n d the humility of a Christian—a humility which inspired this exclamation: "May G o d g r a n t that t h e hypothetical p r e a c h i n g o f S a i n t T h o m a s in M e x i c o really t o o k p l a c e . " S i g i i e n z a ' s s i n c e r e p a t r i o t i s m d i d n o t c l o u d his critical s e n s e b u t i n s p i r e d r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t s all o f w h i c h c o n v e r g e d t o w a r d e x a l t a t i o n o f N e w S p a i n ' s p a s t .
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A s c h o l a r w i t h a p r o f o u n d k n o w l e d g e o f M e x i c a n h i s t o r y h a s writt e n : " I n 1 6 8 0 , w h e n — o n t h e initiative o f S i g u e n z a y G o n g o r a — t h e r e a p p e a r e d f o r t h e first t i m e o v e r t h e t r i u m p h a l a r c h e s w h i c h g r e e t e d t h e a r r i v a l o f a n e w v i c e r o y figures d r a w n f r o m p r e - H i s p a n i c h i s t o r y i n s t e a d o f t h e t r a d i t i o n a l figures t a k e n f r o m classical m y t h o l o g y , it b e c a m e c l e a r t h a t t h e I n d i a n p a s t h a d c o n q u e r e d t h e Creoles." I n effect, it w a s in c o n n e c t i o n w i t h p r e p a r a t i o n s f o r r e c e i v i n g t h e C o n d e d e P a r e d e s t h a t D o n C a r l o s w r o t e t h e Teatro de virtudes politicas que constituyen a un Principe: advertidas en los monarcas antiguos del Mexicano Imperio, con cuyas efigies se hermosed el arco triunfal que la muy noble, imperial Ciudad de Mexico erigio . . . , I t w a s n o t h i n g less t h a n a r e v o l u tion to substitute for t h e traditional a n d quasi-sacred Greco-Latin mythology t h e mythology of t h e Mexican Indians. W h a t was m o r e , S i g u e n z a offered t h e Aztec e m p e r o r s as m o d e l s to t h e n e w viceroy w h o h a d j u s t a r r i v e d f r o m S p a i n . C o n s i d e r e d i n its c o n t e x t , t h i s c r e o l e initiative c o u l d b e r e g a r d e d as a c h a l l e n g e . A f t e r t h e t h e o r e t i c a l j o u s t s in w h i c h E r a s m u s , R i b a d e n e y r a , a n d S a a v e d r a F a j a r d o h a d d i s p u t e d how to define the virtues of a "Christian prince," the entrance o n t h e s c e n e o f u n i n v i t e d " b a r b a r i a n p r i n c e s " o f a n c i e n t M e x i c o m i g h t well have p r o v o k e d a viceroy's protests. I n t h e sequel, h e d i d n o t protest, f o r t h e c o m m e n t a r y o n t h e t r i u m p h a l a r c h , w r i t t e n by S i g u e n z a y G o n g o r a , w a s p u b l i s h e d in M e x i c o City s o o n a f t e r . 16
1 7
T h e a l l e g o r i c a l a u d a c i t y o f D o n C a r l o s a n d t h e v i c e r o y ' s silence a r e e q u a l l y e l o q u e n t . I f M e x i c a n Creoles b e g a n t o d i s p l a y i n t e r e s t a f t e r 1650 in t h e I n d i a n past, in t h e e x e m p l a r y virtues of Aztec rulers, a n d in t h e l i t e r a r y d i g n i f i c a t i o n o f t h e d i v i n i t i e s o f a n c i e n t M e x i c o , t h i s w a s d u e to several r e a s o n s . We a r e struck, to b e g i n with, by t h e s u d d e n a p p e a r a n c e , t o g e t h e r with D o n Carlos's work, o f w h a t m a y b e called "indigenist sentiment." T h e Indian, we noted, was remarkably absent, t h r e e - q u a r t e r s o f a c e n t u r y e a r l i e r , f r o m t h e Primavera Mexicana o f Balbuena, that Arcadia transposed almost u n c h a n g e d from Greece to M e x i c o . I n 1 6 0 4 t h e Creoles e n j o y e d a n e w f o u n d p e a c e ; t h e y s a w a r e f l e c t i o n o f t h e i r o w n p r o s p e r i t y in t h e b r i l l i a n t a d v a n c e o f t h e i r c a p i t a l city. T h e I n d i a n s h a d o c c u p i e d a n e s s e n t i a l p l a c e i n t h e life o f New Spain. N o w that they were truly c o n q u e r e d , m o r e t h a n decim a t e d , a n d c a t e c h i z e d o n l y i n a r o u t i n e m a n n e r , t h e Creoles o f B a l b u e n a ' s time t e n d e d to dismiss t h e m from their minds. T h e I n d i a n w h o was r e b o r n in 1680 t h a n k s to D o n Carlos' p e n was n o t t h e I n d i a n o f S a h a g i i n a n d M o t o l i n i a — a soul t o b e s a v e d , a m a n t o b e t a u g h t a n d f e a r e d . S i g i i e n z a ' s I n d i a n is a d e a d I n d i a n ; w e c o u l d e v e n say t h a t D o n C a r l o s ' w o r k is a c e r t i f i e d r e p o r t o f t h e d e c e a s e o f t h e A z t e c e m p i r e . I f it w a s p o s s i b l e t o e r e c t effigies o f t h e e m p e r o r s o f A n a h u a c a l o n g t h e r o u t e o f t h e v i c e r o y ' s p r o c e s s i o n , it w a s b e c a u s e t h e s e g i a n t s
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n o l o n g e r i n s p i r e d f e a r ; t h e y h a d g o n e t o j o i n t h o s e Mows w h o w e r e b r o u g h t o u t at t h e S p a n i s h fiestas o f " M o o r s a n d C h r i s t i a n s . " A n e w e r a h a d o p e n e d in w h i c h t h e I n d i a n p a s t a n d t h e I n d i a n beliefs h a d lost all t h e i r s u b v e r s i v e p o t e n t i a l in M e x i c o City; t h e t i m e w a s r i p e f o r a p r o c e s s o f m y t h i f i c a t i o n o f t h e I n d i a n past. I n M e x i c o , it w a s l o n g b e l i e v e d t h a t C l a v i j e r o was t h e first to c o m p a r e t h e A z t e c r u l e r w i t h R o m a n e m p e r o r s ; in reality h e o n l y r e v i v e d t h e i d e a s o f S i g u e n z a y G o n g o r a , w h o s e w o r k h e h a d r e a d c a r e f u l l y . A g a i n w e find S i g u e n z a b l a z i n g o n e o f t h e p a t h s a l o n g w h i c h M e x i c a n Creoles w o u l d m a r c h t o w a r d t h e goal of spiritual e m a n c i p a t i o n . T h e C o n d e d e P a r e d e s w o u l d h a v e h a d to p o s s e s s e x c e p t i o n a l p e r s p i c a c i t y a n d political s e n s e t o d i s c e r n t h e t r u e m e a n i n g o f t h o s e c a r d b o a r d e m p e r o r s t h a t h a d b e e n e r e c t e d f o r his r e c e p t i o n . N e w S p a i n w a s p e a c e f u l save f o r s p o r a d i c I n d i a n u p r i s i n g s ; t h e r e w a s a b s o l u t e l y n o r e a s o n to f e a r t h e r e s t o r a t i o n o f a n A z t e c e m p i r e . T h e vicer o y (a n e w c o m e r , b e s i d e s ) h a d n o r e a s o n t o s u s p e c t t h e s u b v e r s i v e protential that creole a n n e x a t i o n of the I n d i a n past a n d a literary r e s t o r a t i o n of t h e A z t e c e m p i r e m i g h t s o m e d a y h a v e . D o n C a r l o s h i m s e l f w a s a loyal subject, a s s i d u o u s l y a t t e n d a n t u p o n v i c e r o y s , a n d a harmless scholar, besides. T h e c o n s t a n c y w i t h w h i c h t h i s s c h o l a r l a b o r e d t o e n d o w his c o u n t r y w i t h a p a s t w o r t h y o f t h e gift o f e l e c t i o n t h a t t h e a p p a r i t i o n o f t h e V i r g i n a t T e p e y a c h a d c o n f e r r e d u p o n it, his e f f o r t s as p o e t a n d writer to achieve for Mexican m y t h o l o g y the literary dignity of H e l l e n i c m y t h o l o g y , w e r e t h e v e r y e x p r e s s i o n o f c r e o l e society's will t o p o w e r . S i g i i e n z a ' s g l o r i f i c a t i o n o f t h e c o n q u i s t a d o r C o r t e s in La piedad heroyca de Don Fernando Cortes, w h i c h h e w r o t e a d o z e n y e a r s l a t e r , o n l y a p p e a r s t o c o n t r a d i c t his e u l o g y o f t h e A z t e c e m p e r o r s ; t h e b o o k d e a l s w i t h C o r t e s as f o u n d e r o f t h e H o s p i t a l d e l A m o r d e Dios, w h i c h g a v e t h e a u t h o r t h e o p p o r t u n i t y to w r i t e a h i s t o r y o f M e x i c o City since t h e c o n q u e s t . W e s h o u l d n o t b e s u r p r i s e d by s u c h d i g r e s s i o n s as t h e f o l l o w i n g : " a n d this o f f e r s m e t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o tell w h e r e t h e i m a g e o f t h e s a i n t e d M a r y o f G u a d a l u p e a p p e a r e d to t h e i l l u s t r i o u s B i s h o p D o n F r a y J u a n d e Z u m a r r a g a . M a y this d i g r e s s i o n b e p e r m i t t e d t o a m a n w h o s e o n l y a i m i n his w r i t i n g s h a s b e e n t o glorify h i s country." 1 8
D o n C a r l o s o p e n l y p r e s e n t s h i m s e l f as a M e x i c a n p a t r i o t . H e m a k e s n o e f f o r t t o h i d e it, f o r h e h a r b o r s n o h i d d e n t h o u g h t s o f political s e p a r a t i o n . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , like his c o n t e m p o r a r i e s — M i g u e l S a n c h e z , F l o r e n c i a , S i l e s — h e w a s fully c o n s c i o u s o f t h e r i v a l r y w i t h o l d S p a i n o n t h e level o f d i v i n e g r a c e , a n d h i s c h a m p i o n i n g o f t h e p r e e m i n e n c e (solio preeminente) o f M e x i c o City w a s d e l i b e r a t e . T h e
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p r o c e s s o f r o o t i n g c o l o n i a l society in t h e A m e r i c a n soil, l a n d s c a p e , a n d historico-mythical b a c k g r o u n d accelerated from the m o m e n t the I n d i a n c e a s e d t o a p p e a r as a vital t h r e a t to c r e o l e society. I n t o x i c a t e d w i t h its d e v e l o p m e n t , t h a t society c o u l d i n d u l g e w i t h i m p u n i t y in d r e a m s of victory w h o s e d o m i n a n t n o t e e m e r g e s f r o m a simple e n u m e r a t i o n o f t h e titles o f S i g i i e n z a ' s w r i t i n g s : " T h e I n d i a n S p r i n g , " "Glories of Q u e r e t a r o , " " P a r t h e n i c T r i u m p h , " "Western Paradise," " H e r o i c Piety," " T r o p h y o f J u s t i c e , " " P h o e n i x o f t h e West." All M e x i c a n l i t e r a t u r e o f t h e s e c o n d h a l f o f t h e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y (we shall s e e t h i s c l i m a t e c o n t i n u i n g well i n t o t h e e i g h t e e n t h , u n t i l t h e e x p u l s i o n o f t h e J e s u i t s ) gives t h e i m p r e s s i o n o f a n i n t e r m i n a b l e t h a n k s g i v ing, a u n a n i m o u s hosanna. T h e great alchemist who presided over the mythological and historiographic transmutations that p r o d u c e d a new mentality, the m e n t a l i t y o f a c o l o n i a l m i n o r i t y p r o u d o f its n e w f o u n d r o o t s in t h e M e x i c a n soil, was D o n C a r l o s S i g u e n z a y G o n g o r a . T h a n k s t o t h e r i s e o f t h e c u l t o f G u a d a l u p e , e s p e c i a l l y , a n d t o t h o s e w h o , like D o n C a r l o s , g a v e it a l i t e r a r y e x p r e s s i o n , t h e M e x i c a n Creoles w e r e a b l e t o a c h i e v e t h e i r h i s t o r i c a l , if n o t t h e i r e t e r n a l , s a l v a t i o n . I n c a p a b l e o f e s t a b l i s h i n g a m i x t u r e of the races o n viable socio-juridical bases, incapable of c r e a t i n g an I n d i a n clergy, they achieved with t h e h e l p of S i g u e n z a y G o n g o r a ( a m o n g others) a spiritual hybridization without which they m u s t h a v e r e m a i n e d a g r o u p o f exiles in a c o u n t r y w h i c h r e j e c t e d t h e m . U n a b l e to d i s c o v e r o r r e c o g n i z e t h e A m e r i c a w h i c h h a d o p e n e d u p b e f o r e t h e m , t h e Creoles h a d to i n v e n t it a n e w a f t e r t h e y h a d f r i g h t f u l l y m u t i l a t e d it. I n c o u n t e r p o i n t , t h e t w o faces o f D o n C a r l o s ' h i s t o r i c a l w o r k e v o k e t h e m a r v e l o u s m i l i e u a n d its r e v e r s e : M e x i c o C i t y : a t r u l y g l o r i o u s city, w h i c h r i c h l y m e r i t s t h a t t h e s o u n d o f its f a m e s h o u l d r e a c h t h e m o s t r e m o t e limits o f t h e u n i v e r s e , n o t so m u c h f o r t h e d e l i g h t f u l a m e n i t y o f its s i t u a t i o n , t h e i n c o m p a r a b l e b e a u t y o f its s p a c i o u s s t r e e t s , t h e w e a l t h a n d c o u r a g e o f its a n c i e n t k i n g s , t h e n u m b e r a n d t h e g r a v i t y o f its t r i b u n a l s , t h e q u a l i t i e s w h i c h H e a v e n h a s d i s p e n s e d t o its i l l u s t r i o u s c h i l d r e n , t h e p r i v i l e g e s w h i c h e v e r s i n c e its C h r i s t i a n i z a t i o n h a v e m a d e it t h e c a p i t a l a n d m e t r o p o l i s o f A m e r i c a , n o t o n a c c o u n t o f all t h a t , b u t b e c a u s e o n e m i g h t well c o n f o u n d it w i t h t h e Empyrean. A l o n g t h e street w h e r e I was c a m e b a n d s of m e n , jostling e a c h other. T h e Spaniards had d r a w n their swords and, seeing the spectacle t h a t h e l d m y a t t e n t i o n , also s t o p p e d ; b u t t h e blacks, t h e m u l a t t o e s , a n d all t h e p l e b e i a n r a b b l e y e l l e d : " D e a t h t o t h e V i c e r o y 1 9
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a n d all w h o w o u l d d e f e n d h i m ! " A n d t h e I n d i a n s c r i e d o u t : " D e a t h t o t h e S p a n i a r d s a n d t h e g a c h u p i n e s ( t h e n a m e t h e y give to those w h o c o m e f r o m Spain), for they eat o u r maize!". . . . " C o m e , l a d i e s , " s a i d t h e I n d i a n w o m e n t o e a c h o t h e r in t h e i r l a n g u a g e , "let u s g l a d l y j o i n this w a r , f o r as l o n g as e v e r y last S p a n i a r d is killed it d o e s n o t m a t t e r if w e d i e w i t h c o n f e s s i o n . Is n o t this o u r l a n d ? T h e n w h a t a r e t h e S p a n i a r d s d o i n g h e r e ? "
2 0
A n d D o n C a r l o s c o n c l u d e d : " I h a d t h e f e e l i n g I h a d n o t h i n g to g a i n by s t a y i n g t h e r e . " T h e s e t w o t e x t s o f S i g u e n z a y G o n g o r a ( w r i t t e n o n l y a few y e a r s a p a r t ) give u s a n e x a c t m e a s u r e o f t h e d i s t a n c e s e p a r a t i n g t h e c r e o l e s e n s e o f t h e m a r v e l o u s f r o m M e x i c a n reality; t h e y a f f o r d a g l i m p s e i n t o t h e abyss t h a t s e p a r a t e d t h e b e r i b b o n e d I n d i a n s p e r c h e d o n t h e baroque triumphal arches from the hungry Indians who stoned the a r c h b i s h o p a n d t h e H o l y S a c r a m e n t b e f o r e they b u r n e d t h e viceroy's p a l a c e . W i t h a lack o f p e r s p i c a c i t y t h a t is r e m a r k a b l e in t h a t g r e a t i n t e l lect, D o n C a r l o s (his c a s e is typical) i d e n t i f i e d h i m s e l f totally w i t h t h e a n t i - I n d i a n p r e j u d i c e s o f his social m i l i e u , a t t r i b u t e d all t h e t r o u b l e to t h e effects o f p u l q u e (a l i q u o r m a d e f r o m t h e a g a v e c a c t u s ) , a n d t h o u g h t t h a t n e w r i o t s c o u l d b e effectively p r e v e n t e d b y a n a b s o l u t e p r o h i b i t i o n o f p u l q u e in N e w S p a i n . T h i s l e a r n e d m a n , so c o m p e t e n t in r e v i v i n g t h e I n d i a n s o f t h e p a s t , p r e f e r r e d to t u r n his e y e s f r o m t h e I n d i a n o f his o w n t i m e s . P e r h a p s t h e c r e o l e U t o p i a o f t h e " I n d i a n S p r i n g " w a s a d r e a m y flight f r o m t h e daily s p e c t a c l e o f t h e " I n d i a n hell," a n d the "miraculous roses" of Tepeyac a m e t a m o r p h o s i s of that "bed of roses" which C u a u h t e m o c , m a r t y r e d o n the o r d e r s of Cortes, had evoked with a bitter derision. 2 1
Sor Juana Inks de La Cruz, the New Phoenix of Mexico
(1648-95)
T h e u n r e a l l i g h t o f Botticelli a g a i n c o m e s t o m i n d w h e n w e t h i n k o f Sor J u a n a . T h e d i a p h a n o u s light of the " I n d i a n S p r i n g " r e n d e r e d b e i n g s o f flesh a n d b l o o d e v a n e s c e n t in t h o s e c l o s i n g y e a r s o f t h e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y , a n d t h e r e v e r e n d M o t h e r J u a n a I n e s d e la C r u z d i d n o t e s c a p e this p r o c e s s o f " s p o n t a n e o u s d e m a t e r i a l i z a t i o n . " T h i s y o u n g w o m a n , unquestionably a genius, b e c a m e a m y t h (today we w o u l d say a " s a c r e d m o n s t e r " ) t o h e r c o u n t r y m e n in h e r o w n l i f e t i m e . T h e n a m e of " p h o e n i x " which m e n gave h e r links h e r to h e r p r e d e cessor, t h e S p a n i s h p o e t L o p e d e Vega, called t h e " P h o e n i x of intellects," b u t w e p e r c e i v e i m m e d i a t e l y t h a t t h e t w o e x a m p l e s a r e n o t r e d u c i b l e t o e a c h o t h e r . J u a n a d e A s b a j e , b o r n in t h e valley o f M e x i c o , h a v i n g s p e n t h e r a d o l e s c e n t y e a r s in t h e e n t o u r a g e o f t h e v i c e r o y , t h e M a r q u e s d e M a n c e r a , was t h e P h o e n i x of America, a n d t h e r e f o r e a b o v e all o n e m o r e flower in t h e c r o w n o f t h e t r i u m p h a n t c r e o l e . W e
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recall t h e e n t h u s i a s t i c e u l o g y t h a t B e r n a r d o d e B a l b u e n a h a d m a d e a t t h e b e g i n n i n g of t h e c e n t u r y of t h e intellect of M e x i c a n w o m e n ; t h u s Sor J u a n a was foreseen, e x p e c t e d . W h a t was m o r e , she a p p e a r e d to dazzle t h e c o u r t a n d t h e university, a n d h e r glory quickly s p r e a d to E u r o p e . If G u a d a l u p e , t h e m i r a c u l o u s V i r g i n o f T e p e y a c , w a s M e x i can, Sor J u a n a was reciprocally divine, o r almost divinized by t h e idolatrous admiration of h e r Mexican c o n t e m p o r a r i e s . Between the " P h o e n i x o f t h e West," S a i n t T h o m a s - Q u e t z a l c o a t l , w h o m S i g u e n z a y G o n g o r a t r i e d to r e f l o a t , a n d t h e " P h o e n i x o f A m e r i c a , " o r " o f M e x i c o , " as S o r J u a n a was d e s c r i b e d , t h e d i f f e r e n c e is slight. T h e collective v e r b a l d e b a u c h t o w h i c h t h e arte de ingenio t e n d e d , a d e b a u c h t o w h i c h t h e M e x i c a n Creoles g a v e t h e m s e l v e s u p in t h o s e last decades of the seventeenth century, erased the b o u n d a r i e s between d r e a m a n d r e a l i t y . It is t e m p t i n g t o find c o n f i r m a t i o n o f this a s s e r t i o n in t h e fact t h a t w h a t is p e r h a p s S o r J u a n a ' s m o s t o r i g i n a l w o r k , t h e only o n e w h i c h was n o t d o n e to o r d e r a n d w h o s e richness has frust r a t e d all e f f o r t s a t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , w a s p r e c i s e l y a " d r e a m . " N o w t h e Sueno, w h i c h b e l o n g s t o t h e A l e x a n d r i n e t r a d i t i o n , also c o n s t i t u t e s a n e f f o r t , n e w a t t h a t p e r i o d , t o e l u c i d a t e d r e a m life. I n t h e p o e m it is only a step f r o m t h e d r e a m of sleep to t h e w a k i n g reverie. I n n e i t h e r case, h o w e v e r , is t h e r e a n y s u g g e s t i o n o f t h e collective c r e o l e d r e a m , p r o j e c t i n g t o w a r d t h e e m p y r e a n t h e e x a l t e d i m a g e o f t h e i r patria. I n this e r u d i t e w o r k (a silva in f o r m ) , i n s p i r e d stylistically by G o n g o r a , t h e d i v i n i t i e s o f classical a n t i q u i t y a r e p r e s e n t e v e r y w h e r e ; a r e a d e r m i g h t t h i n k t h a t h e h a s r e t u r n e d to t h e t i m e s o f B e r n a r d o d e B a l b u e n a , t o t h a t r e n a i s s a n c e o f a n t i q u e p a g a n i s m w h o s e p r e s e n c e in t h e Grandeza Mexicana I h a v e n o t e d . T h e a b s e n c e , j u s t l y r e m a r k e d b y R o b e r t R i c a r d in his c o m m e n t a r y o n t h e Sueno, o f r e f e r e n c e s t o G o d , t h e s a i n t s , a n d t h e c h u r c h f a t h e r s , c o r r e s p o n d s to t h e e x c e s s o f Greco-Latin mythology. Of Mexican mythology, which Siguenza had j u s t e l e v a t e d t o a p o s i t i o n o f h o n o r , t h e r e is n o t r a c e . P e r h a p s as a r e s u l t o f t h e s e o b s e r v a t i o n s , a l i t e r a r y h i s t o r i a n w h o s e vision h a s also b e e n c l o u d e d b y w h a t m u s t a p p e a r t o a m o d e r n r e a d e r as a m e r e a c a d e m i c e x e r c i s e ( t h e i m i t a t i o n o f t h e a n c i e n t s a n d t h e b o r r o w i n g f r o m their mythology), has claimed that Sor J u a n a was a b o v e all a p o e t e s s o f t h e S p a n i s h G o l d e n A g e a n d t h a t M e x i c o left n o t r a c e in h e r w o r k o r in h e r sensibility. T h e r e a l i t y is v e r y d i f f e r e n t . O t h e r w i s e it w o u l d b e v e r y difficult t o e x p l a i n t h e d e v o t i o n t h a t h e r c o u n t r y m e n felt f o r S o r J u a n a , a d e v o t i o n t o w h i c h s h e h e r s e l f r e f e r s in h e r s p r i g h t l y w a y : I was t h e object of w o r s h i p o f all m y c o u n t r y . T h e popular superstition
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reached such a pitch t h a t t h e y a d o r e d as a g o d d e s s t h e idol t h e y h a d m a d e w i t h t h e i r o w n h a n d s .
2 2
I t w a s n o t m o d e s t y a l o n e t h a t d i c t a t e d t h e last t w o l i n e s ; t h e " P h o e n i x of M e x i c o " (alone a m o n g t h e Mexican writers of h e r time, to my knowledge) grasped the "mythopoetic" tendency of the Mexicans, w h e t h e r Creoles, m e s t i z o s , o r I n d i a n s . F r o m t h e a d o r a t i o n ( e r o t i c r a t h e r t h a n P e t r a r c h a n ) o f t h e c r e o l e w o m a n as e x p r e s s e d by B e r n a r d o d e B a l b u e n a to t h e divinization of J u a n a d e Asbaje, t h e n to t h e c u l t o f t h e p r o d i g i o u s i m a g e o f a n I n d i a n V i r g i n , t h e r e is a l o n g process of sacred transmutation, a progressive sublimation of the M e x i c a n patria i n c a r n a t e d in a M e x i c a n w o m a n . F r o m t h i s p o i n t o f view, S o r J u a n a w a s a s o r t o f r e l a y ; a w o m a n o f g e n i u s r e p u t e d s u p e r h u m a n , I see h e r as a h u m a n r e p l i c a o f t h e i m a g e o f T e p e y a c ; like t h e l a t t e r s h e w a s t h e o b j e c t o f a n e n t h u s i a s t i c M e x i c a n cult, a n d h e r r e n o w n l e a p e d o v e r frontiers, achieving a r e c o n q u e s t of S p a i n by N e w Spain, a magic r e v e n g e of t h e creole consciousness u p o n the t u t e l a r y n a t i o n . A p o s t h u m o u s h o m a g e , p u b l i s h e d in M a d r i d in 1 7 1 4 t h r o u g h t h e efforts of Dr. C a s t o r e n a y Ursiia, consecrated the creole s u c c e s s a n d i n v o l u n t a r i l y r e c a l l e d in its title t h e i n t i m a t e b o n d l i n k i n g t h e t w o g l o r i e s o f N e w S p a i n , t w o t u t e l a r y w o m e n , in t h e p u b l i c c o n s c i o u s n e s s : The Fame and Posthumous Works of the Phoenix of Mexico, the Tenth Muse, the American Poetess, Sor Juana Ines de la Cruz, a Professed Nun of the Convent of Saint Jerome of the Imperial City of Mexico. . . . Dedicated to the Sovereign Empress of Heaven and Earth, Mary Our Lady. Alt h o u g h t h e V i r g i n m e n t i o n e d h e r e is n o t e x p r e s s l y t h e o n e o f G u a d a l u p e , it suffices t o r e f e r t o t h e l i t e r a t u r e o f t h e G u a d a l u p e c u l t t o satisfy o n e s e l f t h a t s h e is m o s t o f t e n d e s c r i b e d as " e m p r e s s " a n d " q u e e n " o f t h e M e x i c a n s . I n t h e title g i v e n a b o v e , E m p r e s s M a r y is c l e a r l y c o r r e l a t e d w i t h t h e " i m p e r i a l city," M e x i c o City; w e b e h o l d h e r e a M e x i c a n i m p e r i a l i s m , a n i m p e r i a l i s m w h i c h c a n b e d e s c r i b e d as "magical" o r simply "spiritual" b u t which c a n n o t be i g n o r e d without d e p r i v i n g M e x i c a n i n d e p e n d e n c e o f o n e o f its e s s e n t i a l d r i v i n g f o r c e s . In the degree that h e r person, a n d later h e r m e m o r y , became the o b j e c t o f M e x i c a n n a t i o n a l p r i d e , w i t h its c r e a t i v e i m p l i c a t i o n s o f t u t e l a r y m y t h s , S o r J u a n a I n e s d e la C r u z w a s fully M e x i c a n . A s I h a v e s h o w n , s h e w a s also c o n s c i o u s o f t h i s fact. I n a n o c c a s i o n a l w o r k d e d i c a t e d t o Dona Maria de Guadalupe Alencastre, la unica maravilla de nuestros siglos, t h e g r e a t p o e t e s s e x p r e s s e d in six s p r i g h t l y q u a t r a i n s a v i s i o n o f h e r c o u n t r y t h a t c o u l d h a v e b e e n b o r r o w e d f r o m t h e Grandeza Mexicana, b u t was spiced with the r o g u i s h spirit characteristic of t h e " T e n t h M u s e " :
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Seriora, I was b o r n in A m e r i c a , l a n d o f p l e n t y , G o l d is m y c o m p a t r i o t , and the precious metals my comrades. Here's a land where sustenance is a l m o s t freely g i v e n , to n o o t h e r land o n e a r t h is M o t h e r E a r t h so g e n e r o u s . F r o m the c o m m o n curse of m a n its s o n s a p p e a r t o b e b o r n f r e e , F o r h e r e t h e i r daily b r e a d costs b u t little s w e a t o f l a b o r . E u r o p e k n o w s this b e s t o f all for these m a n y years, insatiable, She has bled the a b u n d a n t veins of America's rich m i n e s . 2 3
T h e p r e c e d i n g v e r s e s suffice t o s h o w t h a t S o r J u a n a ' s w o r k reflects all a s p e c t s o f t h e M e x i c a n n a t i o n a l c o n s c i o u s n e s s o f h e r a g e . L e t m e r e v i e w t h e m i n t h e o r d e r i n w h i c h t h e y a p p e a r a b o v e o r , b e t t e r still, let m e p r e s e n t t h e m i n t h e i r p r o p e r o r d e r . T h e e a r t h - m o t h e r ( c r e o l e r e v i v a l o f t h e a n c i e n t Chicomecoatlf), identified w i t h A m e r i c a ( t h a t is, " N o r t h A m e r i c a " o r M e x i c o ) , is p r e s e n t e d as g e n e r o u s a n d s u s t a i n i n g ; s h e w a s , in fact, t h e t e l l u r i c a n d m y t h i c a l support of the "Western Paradise." A l t h o u g h Sor J u a n a does not borr o w this e x p r e s s i o n f r o m h e r c o n t e m p o r a r y , S i g u e n z a y G o n g o r a , t h e n o t i o n o f E d e n is i m p l i e d b y t h e e v o c a t i o n o f a M e x i c a n p e o p l e e x e m p t f r o m o r i g i n a l sin (la comun maldicion), in o t h e r w o r d s " I m m a c u l a t e " — l i k e the Virgin M a r y herself! T h i s notion, h e t e r o d o x , t o say t h e least, was b o u n d t o m a k e e a s i e r t h e " n a t u r a l i z a t i o n " o f M a r y in h e r i m a g e o f T e p e y a c . T h e b e l i e f in t h e d i v i n e e l e c t i o n o f M e x i c o a n d h e r p e o p l e h a d as its c o r o l l a r y a f e e l i n g o f h u m i l i a t i o n a n d injustice, o f r a n c o r a g a i n s t t h e g r e e d y E u r o p e a n s w h o e x h a u s t e d t h e n a t i o n ' s silver m i n e s . B u t in t h e c l o s i n g l i n e s o f t h e p o e m it is t h e w o m a n w h o s p e a k s — t h e f a s c i n a t i n g w o m a n that Sor J u a n a m u s t have b e e n — e v o k i n g the seductive traits ( w h i c h B e r n a r d o d e B a l b u e n a h a d a l r e a d y r e c o u n t e d in m o r e d e t a i l ) to which the g a c h u p i n e s s u c c u m b e d :
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F o r in all t h o s e w h o h a v e s e e n h e r clearly s h e i n s p i r e s p a s s i o n s : L o v e in all t h e m e n w h o stay h e r e , d e s p a i r in all t h o s e w h o m u s t l e a v e .
2 4
A b o u t the time of t h e Mexican poetess's p r e m a t u r e d e a t h , the N e a p o l i t a n t r a v e l e r G e m e l l i C a r r e r i d e s c r i b e d M e x i c o City in t h e s e t e r m s : " I n its b u i l d i n g s a n d t h e p o m p o f its c h u r c h e s M e x i c o City c o m p a r e s w i t h t h e finest t h a t I t a l y c a n s h o w ; b u t its s u r p a s s e s Italy w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e b e a u t y o f its w o m e n . " S o r J u a n a t h u s explicitly s h a r e d t h e s e n t i m e n t s o f h e r c o u n t r y m e n , w h o r i g h t l y r e c o g n i z e d in h e r o n e o f t h e first g r e a t voices o f " t h e i r A m e r i c a . " F o r t h e r e s t , A m e r i c a is e v e r y w h e r e p r e s e n t in t h e e x t e n s i v e a n d v a r i e d b o d y o f S o r J u a n a ' s w r i t i n g s . We m u s t n o t b e d a z z l e d o r p u t off b y t h e e x c e s s o f classical r e m i n i s c e n c e s a n d t h e c o n c e p t i s m o f c e r t a i n poetic compositions. T h e majority of the writings of h e r Mexican contemporaries are forgotten because they were nothing m o r e than artifice, i n g e n i o u s plays o n w o r d s . S o r J u a n a ' s sensitivity a n d vivacity, a d d e d t o t h e e a s y flow o f h e r w r i t i n g , d o u b t l e s s s a v e d h e r w o r k s f r o m t h a t m i s f o r t u n e , b u t t h e i r specific n a t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r also d e s e r v e s o u r a t t e n t i o n . A m e r i c a a p p e a r s e s p e c i a l l y in t h e loas, a t r a d i t i o n a l S p a n i s h g e n r e w h i c h S o r J u a n a u t i l i z e d as a p r e l u d e t o t h e s a c r a m e n t a l autos, d i r e c t l y i n s p i r e d b y t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y S p a n i s h t h e a t e r in w h i c h t h e g r e a t C a l d e r o n d e la B a r c a t h e n s h o n e . T h e c u r t a i n t o El Divino Narciso rises o n this v i s i o n : 2 5
Scene I Enters Occident, a h a n d s o m e Indian, with crown, a n d America, a t his s i d e , d r e s s e d as a lovely I n d i a n w o m a n . . . . O n b o t h sides o f t h e stage, I n d i a n m e n a n d w o m e n d a n c e , with feathers a n d rattles i n t h e i r h a n d s , t h e c u s t o m a r y w a y o f d a n c i n g t h e tocotin, a n d w h i l e they dance the music plays. 2 6
We recognize the I n d i a n s of the theater, the same I n d i a n s that o r n a m e n t e d t h e t r i u m p h a l arches invented by Siguenza y G o n g o r a . I n t h e w o r k o f S o r J u a n a , as in t h a t o f h e r i l l u s t r i o u s c o n t e m p o r a r y , these I n d i a n s could only arise f r o m the ashes of t h e real I n d i a n , e x t e r m i n a t e d physically o r p u s h e d aside by t h e e m e r g i n g national c o m m u n i t y . A m e r i c a a p p e a r s h e r e o n l y in a l l e g o r i c a l f o r m , in a n edifying d i a l o g u e in which, t o g e t h e r with Occident, she o p p o s e s t h e t r u e f a i t h . I n s e v e r a l s c e n e s t h e m e e t i n g o f t w o civilizations, t h a t o f t h e g r e a t g o d o f s e e d s a n d t h a t o f C h r i s t i a n i t y , is p r e s e n t e d in stylized form. C o n s i d e r i n g the limitations of the g e n r e , Sor J u a n a ' s A m e r i c a n loa p r o c e e d s a t a b r i s k p a c e . T h e s c e n i c u s e o f t h e tocotin, a folk d a n c e w h i c h t h e little J u a n a d e A s b a j e m a y h a v e s e e n in a s e t t i n g q u i t e
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different f r o m t h a t of t h e viceroy's court, d u r i n g h e r c h i l d h o o d at A m e c a m e c a , i n t r o d u c e d t h e reality of c o n t e m p o r a r y Mexico into t h e conventional dialogue. It is in t r a d i t i o n a l l y p o p u l a r v e r s e f o r m s , a b o v e all, t h a t S o r J u a n a p o r t r a y s c o n t e m p o r a r y M e x i c a n society, n o t a b l y in t h e r e l i g i o u s villancicos a n d i n a s p e c i a l v a r i a n t o f t h e villancico c a l l e d ensaladilla. I n these verses she depicts with genius the ethnic medley of the Mexican c a p i t a l in t h e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y . I n h e r " l i n g u i s t i c s a l a d s " in t h e f o r m o f villancicos, S o r J u a n a lets e a c h o f t h e castas s p e a k in t u r n ; listen as s h e e v o k e s a n a n t i c i p a t i o n o f t h e o a t h t o t h e V i r g i n o f G u a d a l u p e , i n s t a l l i n g h e r as P r o t e c t r e s s o f t h e M e x i c a n f a t h e r l a n d ; the Indians sing: Gaily t h e M e x i c a n s e n t e r a c c o r d i n g to t h e i r c u s t o m s a n d in t h e t e n d e r p h r a s e s of the Mexican language, I n a s o n o r o u s Tocotin t h e y say w i t h g e n t l e voices Tocotin T l a ya t i m o h u i c a totlazo zuapilli maca ammo, Tonantzin titechmoilcahuiliz. Sor J u a n a , herself a musician, appreciated the discreet music of the N a h u a t l l a n g u a g e , a n d in t h e c h o r u s o f M e x i c a n M a r i a n d e v o t i o n s h e g a v e a p l a c e t o e a c h o f t h e c h o r a l m a s s e s o f M e x i c a n society: Creoles, mestizos, mulattoes, Indians. T h e n e x t year, 1677, o n the occasion of t h e festival o f S a i n t P e t e r N o l a s c o , t h e p o e t e s s c o m p o s e d a n o t h e r tocotin in a p i d g i n S p a n i s h - N a h u a t l w h i c h c e r t a i n l y r e f l e c t e d t h e p r e vailing linguistic reality. E n d i n g a b u r l e s q u e d i a l o g u e b e t w e e n a b l a c k a n d a s t u d e n t w h o s h o w s off his a t r o c i o u s latinity, s h e m a k e s a n I n d i a n i n t e r v e n e a n d h a v e t h e last word—-just as r a c e m i x t u r e w a s t o h a v e t h e last w o r d in M e x i c a n h i s t o r y : 27
T h e y w e r e reconciled by an I n d i a n who, accompanying himself on a guitar with discordant sounds, S a n g a tocotin, a m i x t u r e of Spanish a n d M e x i c a n . 2 8
I c a n n o t i m p r o v e o n Robert Ricard's c o m m e n t : "A rapid look at h e r w o r k m a y l e a d t o t h e i d e a t h a t S o r J u a n a is o n l y a c r e o l e . . . . B u t t h i s
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i d e a r u n s t h e risk o f superficiality, f o r h e r criollismo is n o t e x c l u s i v e . By r e a s o n of the role that she assigns to t h e I n d i a n s , t h e mestizos, the b l a c k s , a n d t o t h e N a h u a t l l a n g u a g e , S o r J u a n a is a M e x i c a n , in t h e l a r g e s t s e n s e o f t h e w o r d , a n d h e r w o r k r e p r e s e n t s a n e s s e n t i a l l i n k in t h e p r o g r e s s i v e f o r m a t i o n of M e x i c a n national c o n s c i o u s n e s s . " I c o u l d m u t l i p l y e x a m p l e s , b u t o n e will suffice. C o l u m b u s a p p e a r s in a loa w h i c h s e r v e s t o i n t r o d u c e a n auto d e a l i n g w i t h S a i n t H e r m e n e g i l d , a n d t h e h e r o e x c l a i m s : " T h e r e a r e o t h e r w o r l d s , t h e r e is a plus ultra" T h e r e is a n o t h e r , specifically M e x i c a n a s p e c t o f t h e p o e t i c c o r p u s o f Sor J u a n a to which I wish to t u r n m y attention, t h a t of t h e cult of t h e V i r g i n , p a r t i c u l a r l y in h e r i m a g e o f T e p e y a c . I t w a s o n l y in 1 6 4 8 , t h e y e a r o f J u a n a ' s b i r t h , t h a t t h e c u l t o f O u r L a d y o f G u a d a l u p e really a r o s e a m o n g t h e Creoles o f M e x i c o City, t h a n k s t o t h e p u b l i c a t i o n o f M i g u e l S a n c h e z ' b o o k . It s h o u l d c a u s e n o s u r p r i s e , t h e r e f o r e , t h a t a b o d y o f p o e t i c a l w o r k as a b u n d a n t as t h a t o f S o r J u a n a c o n t a i n s o n l y o n e s o n n e t e x p r e s s l y d e v o t e d t o G u a d a l u p e . It is a n o c c a s i o n a l c o m position, d e s i g n e d to celebrate t h e "poetic genius of F a t h e r Francisco d e Castro of the C o m p a n y of J e s u s , " w h o h a d written a heroic p o e m a b o u t t h e a p p e a r a n c e of t h e p r o d i g i o u s image. T h e w o r k r e m a i n i n g u n p u b l i s h e d , S o r J u a n a h o p e d t o i n t e r e s t s o m e M a e c e n a s in b r i n g i n g it t o l i g h t . T h i s u n p r e t e n t i o u s s o n n e t r e v e a l s t h e n a t u r e o f t h e M e x i can cult of G u a d a l u p e after the publication of Miguel Sanchez' work, at t h e b e g i n n i n g of the second half of the s e v e n t e e n t h century, before t h e p h e n o m e n o n h a d a t t a i n e d its full d e v e l o p m e n t ( t o w a r d t h e m i d dle of the eighteenth century.) 29
30
T h i s M a r v e l c o m p o s e d o f flowers, Divine A m e r i c a n protectress w h o f r o m a rose of Castile, is t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o a M e x i c a n r o s e ; S h e w h o s e p r o u d foot m a d e t h e d r a g o n h u m b l y b e n d his n e c k a t P a t m o s . . . . 3 1
I n e e d n o t q u o t e t h e s o n n e t ' s c l o s i n g lines d e v o t e d t o p r a i s i n g t h e talent of t h e Jesuit, w h o s e heroic p o e m was p r o c l a i m e d a second m i r a c l e o f G u a d a l u p e ! W h a t is w o r t h y o f n o t e is t h a t S o r J u a n a , like F a t h e r Francisco d e C a s t r o a n d Sanchez, identifies t h e p r o d i g i o u s i m a g e o f T e p e y a c w i t h t h e vision o f S a i n t J o h n a t P a t m o s . G u a d a l u p e is t h e W o m a n o f t h e A p o c a l y p s e , s h e w h o t r a m p l e s o n t h e D r a g o n ( o r t h e Beast of the Apocalypse) a n d t h u s p r o m i s e s salvation to h u m a n i t y . We shall p r e s e n t l y see t h e s p i r i t u a l i m p l i c a t i o n s o f t h i s p r o p h e t i c f o u n d a t i o n of the Mexican cult of G u a d a l u p e . T h e first q u a t r a i n is i n t e r e s t i n g b e c a u s e o f its i n t i m a t e f u s i o n o f
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c o n c e p t i s m a n d a s y m b o l i s m o f flowers w h i c h is u s e d t o w o r k a t r u e t r a n s u b s t a n t i a t i o n . T h e V i r g i n o f G u a d a l u p e is a m a r v e l c o m p o s e d o f f l o w e r s ; o n e c a n n o t h e l p t h i n k i n g o f a field f l o w e r t h a t a b o u n d s i n M e x i c o a n d t h a t is literally a " m a r v e l " ( t h e mirabilis jalapa). T h e associa t i o n is all t h e m o r e t e m p t i n g b e c a u s e t h e I n d i a n s h a d a n d still h a v e t h e c u s t o m o f c o m p o s i n g p i o u s t a b l e a u x o r i m a g e s w i t h flowers. I n a village o f t h e m o d e r n s t a t e o f H i d a l g o t h e r e exists t h e t r a d i t i o n of a " L o r d o f M a r v e l s " ; a c c o r d i n g t o t h e t r a d i t i o n this C h r i s t s a v e d a n a d u l t e r o u s w o m a n f r o m t h e v e n g e a n c e o f h e r h u s b a n d by m i r a c u l o u s t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of t h e food t h a t she was c a r r y i n g to h e r lover into flowers, m a k i n g h e r a rival o f S a i n t E l i z a b e t h o f H u n g a r y . I n t h e l i g h t o f t h i s l e g e n d ( d i d it p r e c e d e t h e a p p a r i t i o n o f T e p e y a c ? It s e e m s o f l a t e r o r i g i n ) , t h e w o r d Maravilla in t h e s o n n e t a p p e a r s c h a r g e d w i t h a d o u b l e s e n s e . T h e s a m e is t r u e o f a l a t e r w o r k a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e G u a d a l u p e c u l t , by t h e p a i n t e r M i g u e l C a b r e r a , The American Marvel and Collection of Rare Marvels 32
I n this " s o n n e t o f flowers" o f S o r J u a n a w e o b s e r v e a n o t h e r t r a n substantiation, t h a t of roses, which t h e I n d i a n s called "flowers of Castile" (castilan xochitl), i n t o M e x i c a n flowers; t h e i m a g e c o n v e y s m o s t forcibly t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f S p a n i a r d i n t o c r e o l e . T h e s y m b o l i c richness of this q u a t r a i n , a cryptic e x p r e s s i o n of t h e "mystery" of G u a d a l u p e , a t h e o l o g i c a l m y s t e r y , p e r h a p s , b u t also a c r u c i b l e o f t h e M e x i c a n s o u l , r e p r e s e n t s a climactic a c h i e v e m e n t . T h e e x p r e s s i o n Protector a Americana w h i c h S o r J u a n a a p p l i e s to t h e V i r g i n o f G u a d a l u p e a n t i c i p a t e d b y a c e n t u r y t h e official o a t h a c k n o w l e d g i n g t h e V i r g i n as P r o t e c t r e s s o f M e x i c o . T h e v e r s e s t h a t t h e g r e a t M e x i c a n p o e t e s s d e v o t e d to t h e A s s u m p t i o n l e n t d e f i n i t e s u p p o r t to t h e c u l t o f G u a d a l u p e , w h e t h e r t h e y b e p o p u l a r p o e m s in t h e f o r m o f tocotin, t h r o u g h which Sor J u a n a indirectly revealed the religious solidarity of d i f f e r e n t e t h n i c a n d social g r o u p s , o r L a t i n p o e m s like t h i s r e f r a i n c o m p o s e d in 1 6 7 6 f o r t h e feast o f t h e A s s u m p t i o n : Quae est Ista? Quae est Ista, quae de deserto ascendit sicut virga, Stellis, Sole, Luna pulehior?-Maria! ( W h o is s h e ? W h o is s h e , W h o rises f r o m t h e d e s e r t like a flowering b r a n c h , Lovelier t h a n t h e stars, t h e s u n , o r m o o n ? — M a r y !
3 3
O n t h e occasion of Sor J u a n a ' s d e a t h a k n i g h t of t h e O r d e r of Santiago w r o t e a sonnet: " O n the I n c o m p r e h e n s i b l e Elevation of t h e M i r a c u l o u s G e n i u s a n d U n i q u e M u s e , S o r J u a n a I n e s d e la C r u z . " I s e e m o r e h e r e t h a n a h y p e r b o l e in t h e style o f t h e t i m e . S o r J u a n a g a v e l u c i d t e s t i m o n y , w i t h m a t c h l e s s sensitivity a n d l i t e r a r y g r a c e , 3 4
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about the Mexico that s u r r o u n d e d her. M o r e profoundly, she k n e a d e d t h e s y m b o l i c d o u g h w h i c h w o u l d s o o n rise i n t o a h y b r i d national consciousness. I n h e r w o r k t h e alliance of t h e eagle of P a t m o s a n d t h a t in t h e M e x i c a n c o a t o f a r m s , t h e r o s e s o f C a s t i l e c h a n g e d i n t o Mexican roses, the m e t a m o r p h o s i s of the "Divine Narcissus" (which doubtless owes a debt to Ovid), are a literary transposition of the m e t a m o r p h o s e s o f M e x i c a n society itself. I n t h e m e a s u r e t h a t t h i s b i r t h o f a n a t i o n w a s in t h e first p l a c e a Utopian r e n a i s s a n c e o f t h e I n d i a n p a s t a n d t h e p r o p h e t i c s p i r i t o f t h e first m i s s i o n a r i e s , o n e c a n say, e v e n t o d a y , t h a t S o r J u a n a I n e s d e la C r u z w a s " t h e P h o e n i x " o f Mexico.
6
The Generation
The Spiritual Emancipation 1728-1759
of 1730 and Its Books
T h e spiritual ambience a n d the intellectual interests of a g e n e r a t i o n result from the interplay of a c o m m o n education a n d a c o m m o n e x p e r i e n c e . T h e M e x i c a n Creoles b o r n a b o u t 1 7 0 0 , w h o e m b r a c e d a p r o f e s s o r i a l c a r e e r o r t o o k vows in a r e l i g i o u s o r d e r ( t h e t w o c a r e e r s o f t e n w e n t h a n d in h a n d ) , o r w h o j o i n e d t h e r a n k s o f t h e s e c u l a r clergy, f o r m e d a r e m a r k a b l y h o m o g e n e o u s g r o u p . T o the e x t e n t t h a t o n e c a n s p e a k o f a collective c o n s c i o u s n e s s a n d o p i n i o n in a society so different from ours, that consciousness a n d that opinion f o u n d exp r e s s i o n in t h e i r p r o n o u n c e m e n t s a n d w r i t i n g s . T h e i r e s c h a t o l o g i c a l u n r e s t , their d e v o u t fervor, their patriotic aspirations achieved a hist o r i c a l t r i u m p h less t h a n a c e n t u r y l a t e r . T h i s c r e o l e elite m a r c h e d in u n i s o n w i t h t h e M e x i c a n n a t i o n , if by " n a t i o n " w e m e a n t h a t s i l e n t m u l t i t u d e w h i c h e x p r e s s e d itself in its p i l g r i m a g e s , its g r e a t f e a r s , a n d its s o l e m n r e j o i c i n g s . M o r e t h a n two c e n t u r i e s of ineffective creole efforts to achieve t h e i r a s p i r a t i o n s p r e c e d e d t h e t h i r t y y e a r s t h a t e n d e d in t h e s p i r i t u a l e m a n c i p a t i o n o f N e w S p a i n a n d its official c o n s e c r a t i o n . N o u p h e a v a l , n o s h a r p b r e a k with t h e past, separates those years f r o m those that w e n t b e f o r e . O n t h e c o n t r a r y , w e o b s e r v e a p e r f e c t c o n t i n u i t y w i t h a p a s t in w h i c h t h e r e slowly g e r m i n a t e d a M e x i c a n n a t i o n a l c o n s c i o u s n e s s . T h e years b e t w e e n 1730 a n d 1760 p r e c e d e the impact of the Enlightenm e n t o n the traditional ideology of t h e Hispanic realms; they c o r r e s p o n d t o t h e m a t u r e y e a r s o f m e n e d u c a t e d in t h e first q u a r t e r o f t h e c e n t u r y . T h e s e clerics basically h a d t h e s a m e i n t e l l e c t u a l f o r m a t i o n as t h e i r s e n i o r s o f t h e p r e v i o u s c e n t u r y ; t h e y cite t h e s a m e a u t h o r s , t a k e p a r t in t h e s a m e S c h o l a s t i c d i s p u t e s , s h a r e t h e s a m e a s p i r a t i o n s . D e s p i t e t h e sway o f t r a d i t i o n in basic p r i n c i p l e s , t h e r e w e r e i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r s m a k i n g f o r s p i r i t u a l instability, f a c t o r s t h a t s h a r p e n e d t h e Creoles' d e v o u t f e r v o r a n d r e v i v e d t h e e s c h a t o l o g i c a l u n r e s t o f t h e " A m e r i c a n s , " as, f o l l o w i n g t h e e x a m p l e o f F r a y B e n i t o Feijoo, t h e y l i k e d t o call t h e m s e l v e s t o d i s t i n g u i s h t h e m s e l v e s f r o m the 77
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" S p a n i a r d s " o r , m o r e p e j o r a t i v e l y , t h e gachupines. T h e v a c a n c y in t h e a r c h i e p i s c o p a l see o f M e x i c o City in 1 7 2 8 , f o l l o w e d b y t h e a p p o i n t m e n t as t h e n e w a r c h b i s h o p o f a M e x i c a n c r e o l e , a f o r m e r s t u d e n t o f t h e J e s u i t C o l e g i o d e S a n I l d e f o n s o , t h e gala r e c e p t i o n a c c o r d e d t o h i m by t h e city a u t h o r i t i e s a n d b y t h e p e o p l e , t h e l o n g d u r a t i o n o f his s p i r i t u a l m a g i s t r a c y ( s e v e n t e e n y e a r s , i n c l u d i n g six d u r i n g w h i c h h e s u b s t i t u t e d f o r t h e v i c e r o y ) , w e r e all c i r c u m s t a n c e s w h i c h g a v e a c e r tain unity to the years 1730 to 1747. T h e p e r i o d o p e n e d with t h e s e t t i n g u p o f t r i u m p h a l a r c h e s ( o n e in f r o n t o f t h e J e s u i t c h u r c h , t h e o t h e r in f r o n t o f t h e c a t h e d r a l ) ; u n d e r t h e s e a r c h e s t h e n e w p r e l a t e , d r e s s e d in his c o p e , p a s s e d , f o l l o w e d by a b r i l l i a n t p r o c e s s i o n , a m i d the c h e e r s of the crowd. T h i s b a r o q u e decor, indispensable accomp a n i m e n t o f s u c h a n e v e n t in N e w S p a i n , o n l y m e r i t s o u r a t t e n t i o n b e c a u s e it s y m b o l i z e d t h e e n t r a n c e o n t h e s c e n e o f a t r i u m p h a n t n e w generation. T h e d e a t h of the creole a r c h b i s h o p J u a n A n t o n i o Vizarr o n y E g u i a r r e t a in 1 7 4 7 d i d n o t c h e c k t h a t g e n e r a t i o n ' s e l a n , f o r his Castilian successor, M a n u e l R u b i o y Salinas, took to h e a r t creole spiritual interests, caused t h e n e w collegiate c h u r c h of G u a d a l u p e to b e built, a n d i n t e r c e d e d with t h e Holy See to obtain p a p a l a p p r o v a l of the p a t r o n a g e of O u r Lady of G u a d a l u p e over N o r t h America. P o p e Benedict X I V a p p r o v e d the "universal p a t r o n a g e " of G u a d a l u p e in 1 7 5 7 , a n d t h e a r c h b i s h o p d i e d in 1 7 6 5 , s i x t e e n y e a r s a f t e r his consecration. T h e spiritual consensus a n d apostolic peace to which I r e f e r r e d a b o v e w e r e occasionally t r o u b l e d by violent Scholastic d i s p u t e s , n o tably by d i s p u t e s o v e r t h e p r o b l e m o f g r a c e . I n t h e s e d e b a t e s t h e D o m i n i c a n s a n d t h e A u g u s t i n i a n s , c h a m p i o n s o f efficacious g r a c e , o p p o s e d t h e J e s u i t s , p a r t i s a n s o f t h e scientia media*. I shall n o t d w e l l o n t h i s a s p e c t o f t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l a n d s p i r i t u a l life, t h o u g h w e m u s t n o t u n d e r e s t i m a t e its i m p o r t a n c e . G i v e n t h e p e r s p e c t i v e I h a v e c h o s e n — t h e s t u d y o f m a n i f e s t a t i o n s o f f a i t h in t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p t o t h e g r o w t h of a national consciousness—I attach m o r e i m p o r t a n c e to t h e elan of a g e n e r a t i o n d e s t i n e d t o f r e e its M e x i c a n patria f r o m s p i r i t u a l d e p e n d e n c e o n Spain. W h a t e v e r their Scholastic disputes, t h e creole religious w e r e r e a d y t o s i n g in u n i s o n t h e s u p e r n a t u r a l g l o r i e s o f " t h e i r A m e r i c a , " N o r t h A m e r i c a ; t h e y w e r e u n i t e d by a c o m m o n aspiration f o r a n i m m e d i a t e g r a c e w h i c h s h o u l d f r e e t h e i r p e o p l e f r o m sin a n d d e s t i n e t h e m to b e a C h o s e n P e o p l e . T o o b t a i n p a p a l a n d r o y a l r e c o g nition of h e a v e n ' s favor for t h e Mexicans, a n e w C h o s e n People, was *Saentia Media ("Middle Knowledge"). A concept originated by the Spanish Jesuit theologian Molina (1535-1600) and usually defined as that knowledge by which God, without any predetermining decree, knows from all eternity what each and every creature endowed with free will would do in any determined circumstance. (Tr.)
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The Spiritual
Emancipation
(1728-1759)
the aim of t h e creole g e n e r a t i o n with which we are c o n c e r n e d ; that r e c o g n i t i o n w o u l d b e t h e i r t r i u m p h . T h i s v i c t o r y was d e c i s i v e f o r t h e s u b s e q u e n t political h i s t o r y o f M e x i c o a n d a b o v e all f o r its i n d e p e n d e n c e . I shall a t t e m p t t o r e c r e a t e t h e s t a g e s o f t h i s v i c t o r y a n d t o set t h e m within t h e spiritual a t m o s p h e r e of that historical " m o m e n t . " W h e n c e r t a i n h i s t o r i a n s say t h a t t h e h i s t o r y o f i d e a s h a s n o t y e t f o u n d its m e t h o d o l o g y , w h a t t h e y m e a n is t h a t i d e a s a r e n o t yet s u b ject to quantitative m e a s u r e m e n t . Certainly "quantitative a p p r o a c h e s " will l o n g r e m a i n a c r u d e i n s t r u m e n t f o r a s s e s s i n g d e v o u t f e r v o r o r p a t r i o t i c e n t h u s i a s m . T h e spiritual moment, o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , c a n b e i d e n t i f i e d w i t h t h e aid o f c e r t a i n t o u c h s t o n e s , a l t h o u g h o n e c a n n e v e r g r a s p it e n t i r e . W e c a n c a p t u r e a r e f l e c t i o n o f t h e i d e a s a n d a s p i r a t i o n o f encomienda I n d i a n s o r t h e i n d e p e n d e n t I n d i a n s o f t h e n o r t h e r n p a r t o f t h e c o u n t r y o n l y t h r o u g h t h e i r collective c o n d u c t (flights, u p r i s i n g s , m a s s a c r e s o f m i s s i o n a r i e s ) . T h e castas, c o m p o s e d o f d i f f e r e n t m i x t u r e s of whites a n d I n d i a n s , with a black e l e m e n t that was relatively u n i m p o r t a n t in m o s t r e g i o n s o f N e w S p a i n (save f o r V e r a c r u z ) , a r e n o t m u c h e a s i e r t o k n o w f r o m this p o i n t o f view. T o b e s u r e , t r a c e s in m o d e r n f o l k l o r e , a d m i n i s t r a t i v e a n d p a r i s h r e c o r d s , a n d t h e a r c h i v e s o f t h e I n q u i s i t i o n a b o v e all, w h e r e t h e y exist, c a n give u s r e v e a l i n g g l i m p s e s o f t h e collective a s p e c t o f t h e m e n a n d w o m e n w h o r e p r e s e n t e d in fact " t h e p o p u l a t i o n " o f N e w S p a i n . If I h a v e p r e f e r r e d t o s t u d y t h e s p i r i t u a l life a t t h e s u m m i t o f t h e social p y r a m i d , it was n o t f r o m s c o r n o r i g n o r a n c e o f its b a s e , m u c h less o f t h e i m p o r tance of that base. My choice was based o n several considerations: first, t h e fact t h a t s o u r c e s o f i n f o r m a t i o n r e g a r d i n g t h e Creoles, o r a t least t h e i r g u i d e s , t h e c l e r g y , a r e a b u n d a n t ; s e c o n d , t h e r i c h n e s s o f t h e subject-matter; third, these topics have n o t h i t h e r t o h a d the attent i o n t h a t t h e y d e s e r v e . B u t t h e decisive f a c t o r w a s t h e p r i m o r d i a l r o l e o f t h e c r e o l e r e l i g i o u s , b e g i n n i n g in t h e s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y a n d c o n t i n u i n g t h r o u g h o u t t h e h i s t o r y o f N e w S p a i n , in t h e e v o l u t i o n w h i c h w a s t o l e a d t h e M e x i c a n p e o p l e t o its s p i r i t u a l e m a n c i p a t i o n , t h e p r e l u d e t o political i n d e p e n d e n c e . T o b e s u r e , t h e M e x i c a n p a t r i o t s o f t h e y e a r s 1 7 3 0 to 1 7 6 0 n e v e r d r e a m e d o f w i n n i n g by f o r c e o f a r m s t h e political i n d e p e n d e n c e o f a c o u n t r y w h o s e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e a u t o n o m y t h e y s o u g h t t o a c h i e v e by all m e a n s in t h e i r p o w e r . M a n y c l e r g y a s p i r e d t o a c o m p l e t e a d m i n i s t r a tive a u t o n o m y w i t h r e s p e c t t o S p a i n , t o w h i c h N e w S p a i n s h o u l d b e l i n k e d o n l y b y c o m m o n loyalty to t h e s a m e m o n a r c h . O t h e r s , m o r e t i m i d , d o u b t l e s s o n l y s o u g h t t h e a p p o i n t m e n t o f Creoles t o h a l f t h e d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g p o s t s in t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , t h e a r m y , a n d t h e c h u r c h of t h e viceroyalty (the o t h e r half to g o to t h e E u r o p e a n S p a n i a r d s ) . F o r t h e r e s t , t h e i d e a o f a " f a t h e r l a n d , " w h i c h is o u r
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u n c o n s c i o u s m o d e r n f r a m e of r e f e r e n c e , was a p r o d u c t of t h e F r e n c h R e v o l u t i o n a n d t h e a w a k e n i n g o f n a t i o n a l i t i e s in n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y E u r o p e a n d L a t i n A m e r i c a ; c o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e n o t i o n is i r r e l e v a n t f o r a study dealing with e i g h t e e n t h - c e n t u r y Mexico. T h e Mexican Creoles, a n d m o s t n o t a b l y t h e clerics (ecclesiastics, r e l i g i o u s , p r o f e s sors) c l e a r l y e x p r e s s e d in t h e i r w r i t i n g s , as e v e n a s u p e r f i c i a l r e a d i n g o f t h e i r t e x t s r e v e a l s , t h e i m a g e o f t h e M e x i c a n patria t h a t t h e y c a r r i e d in t h e i r h e a r t s . I h a v e m a d e e v e r y e f f o r t t o c o l l a t e t h e s e t e x t s a n d b r i n g o u t all t h e i r m e a n i n g f r o m t h e p o i n t o f view t h a t I h a v e c h o s e n , b u t I h a v e a b s t a i n e d f r o m all i n t e r p o l a t i o n s t h a t m i g h t t e n d t o p e r f e c t t h e u n f i n i s h e d i m a g e o f a patria t h a t o n l y t h e f u t u r e c o u l d c o m p l e t e . P r i n t e d texts alone—books, gazettes, regulations, proclamations, a n d t h e l i k e — c a n n o t give u s a t o t a l a c c o u n t o f t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l a n d s p i r i t u a l life o f a society; b u t t h e i r i n f o r m a t i v e v a l u e is n e v e r t h e l e s s o f t h e first o r d e r . P r i v a t e d i a r i e s , l e d g e r s , a n d o t h e r a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l m a t e r i a l s , i n w h i c h c e r t a i n p e r i o d s a r e r i c h , a r e n o t a v a i l a b l e for N e w S p a i n o f t h a t e p o c h , o r else h a v e d i s a p p e a r e d d o u b t l e s s f o r g o o d . I n this a r e a , o n l y t h e s e c r e t c o r r e s p o n d e n c e o f t h e v i c e r o y s , t h e s e c r e t instructions of those viceroys to their successors, t h e secret m e m o r i a l s a d d r e s s e d b y s o m e b i s h o p s t o t h e k i n g , o r t o t h e p o p e by t h e s u p e r i o r s o f c o n v e n t s , all b e i n g r e l a t i v e l y r a r e d o c u m e n t s , c o m p l e m e n t o r r e f u t e ( d e p e n d i n g o n t h e g i v e n case) t h e p u b l i s h e d s o u r c e s . I n d i r e c t l y , the a c c o u n t books of vestries o r c o n g r e g a t i o n s , the i n c o m e s of canons, t e s t a m e n t a r y l e g a c i e s , a n d t h e like, r e v e a l i n g t h e p e n u r y o r p r o s p e r i t y o f p i o u s f o u n d a t i o n s , cast s o m e l i g h t o n g r o u p b e h a v i o r . T h e m a s s o f Mexican published works, principally works of devotion, which Jose T o r i b i o M e d i n a i n v e n t o r i e d , a p p e a r e d t o p r o v i d e a sufficiently l a r g e d o c u m e n t a r y b a s e f o r a n e f f o r t t o s k e t c h t h e s p i r i t u a l life o f N e w S p a i n a n d , m o r e especially, to illuminate those aspects which b e a r o n the g r o w t h of national consciousness. C l e a r l y , it is i m p o s s i b l e w i t h i n t h e s p a c e o f this c h a p t e r , t o a n a l y z e , e v e n t a k i n g a p e r i o d o f o n l y t h i r t y y e a r s , all t h e b o o k s listed b y J o s e T o r i b i o M e d i n a i n his classic w o r k , La Imprenta en Mexico. I h a v e t h e r e f o r e l i m i t e d m y a t t e n t i o n to t h o s e w o r k s w h o s e r e l a t i o n s h i p to p a t r i o t i c f e e l i n g , especially as e x p r e s s e d in t h e c u l t o f a p i o u s i m a g e , is p a t e n t f r o m t h e title. E v e n w i t h this r e s t r i c t i o n , t h e field r e m a i n s i m m e n s e . Accordingly, I have cited for p u r p o s e s of illustration only s o m e of t h e m o s t r e p r e s e n t a t i v e w o r k s at m y disposal. L e t m e first settle t h e q u e s t i o n o f h o w r e p r e s e n t a t i v e a r e w o r k s w h i c h w e r e s u b j e c t e d t o f o u r o r five c e n s o r s h i p s b e f o r e t h e i r p u b l i c a t i o n a n d d i f f u s i o n a n d w h i c h e v e n a f t e r w a r d s r a n t h e r i s k o f confiscation. T w o c o m m e n t s c o m e to m i n d , o n e general a n d the o t h e r based o n t h e r e s u l t s o f r e s e a r c h i n t o t h e f u n c t i o n i n g o f t h e c e n s o r s h i p in
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N e w S p a i n d u r i n g t h e y e a r s u n d e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n . It is well k n o w n t h a t o u r a g e h a s h i g h l y p e r f e c t e d t h e m e a n s o f r e p r e s s i n g t h o u g h t , yet i d e a s r e g a r d e d as m o s t s u b v e r s i v e by v e r y d i c t a t o r i a l g o v e r n m e n t s h a v e a l w a y s m a n a g e d t o find e x p r e s s i o n in p r i n t e d f o r m . I t is t r u e t h a t p r i n t i n g e s t a b l i s h m e n t s w e r e m u c h f e w e r , a n d t h e cost o f b o o k s r e l a t i v e l y m u c h h i g h e r , i n N e w S p a i n in t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y t h a n in a m o d e r n i n d u s t r i a l c o u n t r y , b u t c o n t r o l s , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , w e r e a p p r e c i a b l y less r i g o r o u s . T h e e x i s t e n c e o f a c e n s o r s h i p a c c u s t o m s a u t h o r s t o e n g a g e in p r e v i o u s s e l f - c e n s o r s h i p , t o a d o p t a c o d e , a n d accustoms r e a d e r s to a r o u t i n e d e c o d i n g . In the p r e s e n t instance, t h e h i s t o r i a n h a s n o n e e d t o e n g a g e in t h e e v e r d a n g e r o u s e x e r c i s e o f d e c o d i n g (all t h e m o r e d a n g e r o u s if d o n e t w o c e n t u r i e s a f t e r t h e t e x t u n d e r s t u d y w a s w r i t t e n ) . I n effect, t h e Creoles d i s p l a y e d t h e i r p a t r i otic a s p i r a t i o n s in b r o a d d a y l i g h t , v e i l e d o n l y b y e x u b e r a n t r h e t o r i c a n d t h e a b u s e o f biblical c i t a t i o n s a n d p a r a b l e s . I find n o e v i d e n c e o f systematic dissimulation of patriotic fervor o n the p a r t of Mexican a u t h o r s of t h e thirty years u n d e r study. T h i s s t a t e m e n t m a y raise q u e s t i o n s ; let m e limit m y s e l f f o r t h e m o m e n t t o t h e o b j e c t i v e c o n d i t i o n s o f p u b l i s h i n g in N e w S p a i n d u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d . T h e p r i n t i n g p r e s s w a s i n t r o d u c e d i n t o N e w S p a i n as e a r l y as 1 5 4 2 , a t least. W e m a y t h e r e f o r e say, w i t h o u t risk o f e r r o r , t h a t t w o c e n t u r i e s l a t e r it e n j o y e d t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f a l o n g t r a d i t i o n . H o w e v e r , t w o i m p o r t a n t o b s t a c l e s h i n d e r e d its f l o w e r i n g : first, t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a printing establishment required previous authorization from the k i n g t h r o u g h his C o u n c i l o f t h e I n d i e s ; s e c o n d , p r i n t i n g costs w e r e so h i g h t h a t t h e m a r k e t f o r b o o k s in N e w S p a i n w a s n e c e s s a r i l y v e r y s m a l l , w h i l e t h e i r sale in S p a i n o r o t h e r A m e r i c a n v i c e r o y a l t i e s w a s a l m o s t i m p o s s i b l e . F o r t h e s e r e a s o n s , t h e r e w e r e v e r y few p r i n t e r s in New Spain. I n 1730 t h e r e were only two printers w h o published regularly a n d h a d a r e s p e c t a b l e v o l u m e o f p u b l i c a t i o n s : J o s e p h B e r n a r d o d e H o g a l , a n d t h e w i d o w ( s u c c e e d e d b y h e r h e i r s ) o f M i g u e l d e Rivera, D o n a Maria d e Rivera. In 1748 arose the p r i n t i n g s h o p of the C o l e g i o d e S a n I l d e f o n s o , w h o s e o u t p u t g r e w in 1 7 5 5 a n d a g a i n a b o u t 1 7 6 0 , m a k i n g it a n i m p o r t a n t i n s t r u m e n t o f J e s u i t i n f l u e n c e . I n 1 7 5 3 Don J u a n Jose d e Eguiara y E g u r e n established the "New Printing P r e s s , " w h i c h i s s u e d t w o y e a r s l a t e r t h e first a n d o n l y p u b l i s h e d volu m e o f t h e Bibliotheca Mexicana (in L a t i n ) ; it h a d b e e n p r e c e d e d b y a pious exercise celebrating t h e mystery of t h e conception of M a r y a n d t h e Stupendous Miracle of Her Prodigious Apparition in Her Sovereign and Divine Image of Guadalupe, in This Fortunate Kingdom of New Spain. T h u s t h e thirty years u n d e r study w e r e m a r k e d by a n impressive d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e p r i n t i n g p r e s s in M e x i c o ; b y 1 7 5 3 t h e r e w e r e f o u r l a r g e p r i n t i n g s h o p s i n s t e a d o f t h e t w o t h a t e x i s t e d in 1 7 2 7 .
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W e m u s t b e c a u t i o u s in e s t i m a t i n g t h e size o f e d i t i o n s . M e d i n a i n f o r m s u s t h a t t h e f a m o u s essay o f C a y e t a n o C a b r e r a y Q u i n t e r o , Coat of Arms of Mexico City: Celestial Protection. . . Very Holy Mary, in Her Prodigious Image of the Mexican Guadalupe, published by t h e widow of J . B . d e H o g a l in 1 7 4 6 , h a d a p r i n t i n g o f 9 0 0 c o p i e s . T h i s was c e r t a i n l y a m a x i m u m f i g u r e , e x p l a i n e d b y t w o facts: C a b r e r a h a d w r i t t e n his b o o k o n t h e o r d e r o f his b i s h o p ; a n d t h e m u n i c i p a l c o u n c i l o f M e x i c o City h a d a s s u m e d t h e costs o f p r i n t i n g t h e w o r k , w h i c h w a s d e d i c a t e d to t h e k i n g . T h e s t o c k m u s t h a v e b e e n d i s p o s e d o f p a r t l y b y giving copies away, t h e rest t h r o u g h obligatory p u r c h a s e of copies by t h e l i b r a r i e s o f c o n v e n t s a n d c o l l e g e s a n d b y civil s e r v a n t s . D e s p i t e t h e b o o k ' s subject, o f l a r g e i n t e r e s t to m a n y c o n t e m p o r a r i e s , it is difficult t o j u d g e its " s u c c e s s " o n t h e basis o f t h e facts a t o u r d i s p o s a l . F r o m a c o m m e r c i a l p o i n t o f view, t h e q u e s t i o n is m e a n i n g l e s s . 1
M a n y of the works which claim o u r attention w e r e published u n d e r s i m i l a r c o n d i t i o n s : t h e size o f t h e i r e d i t i o n s is g e n e r a l l y u n k n o w n ; t h e i r p r i n t i n g costs w e r e b o r n e by a r e l i g i o u s b r o t h e r h o o d o r s o m e p r i v a t e p a t r o n . It is safe to say t h a t t h e s e p u b l i c a t i o n s h a d t o e n j o y l a r g e official f a v o r . B e f o r e a b o o k c o u l d b e p u b l i s h e d it h a d t o b e a p p r o v e d by t w o o r t h r e e r e l i g i o u s c e n s o r s b e l o n g i n g t o d i f f e r e n t o r d e r s ( h e n c e t o d i f f e r e n t s c h o o l s o f t h o u g h t ) , by t h e civil a u t h o r i t i e s , by t h e o r d i n a r y , a n d finally b y t h e o r d e r t o w h i c h t h e a u t h o r o f t e n b e l o n g e d . T h e p a t r o n , in t h e c a s e o f p r i v a t e i n d i v i d u a l s , w a s g e n e r a l l y a m i n e - o w n e r (minero), a l a n d o w n e r , a l o r d , s o m e t i m e s a n official. F o r t h e h i s t o r i a n , t h e d o n o r ' s g e s t u r e s y m b o l i z e s t h e a p p r o v a l o f civil society f o r t h e i d e a s t h e clerics d e v e l o p e d in t h e i r b o o k s . I f t h e p a t r o n is a n ecclesiastical c h a p t e r , a c o n v e n t , o r a lay b r o t h e r h o o d , t h e p o i n t is e v e n m o r e o b v i o u s . A d i f f e r e n t p r o b l e m , b u t o n e r e l a t e d to t h e p r o b l e m o f t h e size o f first e d i t i o n s , is t h a t o f r e p r i n t s o r p o s t h u m o u s p u b l i c a t i o n s . L e a v i n g a s i d e c o m m e r c i a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s (in n u m e r o u s c a s e s t h e p r i n t e r t u r n e d o v e r t h e finished b o o k s t o t h e p a t r o n w h o w a s f o o t i n g t h e bill), it is difficult t o c o n c e i v e , in t h e c a s e o f b o o k s f o r w h i c h t h e d e m a n d m u s t h a v e b e e n relatively s m a l l , t h a t a r e p r i n t w a s u n d e r t a k e n b e f o r e t h e initial p r i n t i n g h a d b e e n e x h a u s t e d . A r e p r i n t m a y b e e x p l a i n e d b y a v e r y s m a l l first e d i t i o n , d i c t a t e d b y c a u t i o n o r lack o f m e a n s . I n o t h e r c a s e s t h e r e p r i n t s w e r e b o o k s o r i g i n a l l y p u b l i s h e d in a p r o v i n cial c a p i t a l ( P u e b l a , as a r u l e ) o r a n o t h e r v i c e r o y a l t y o r c a p t a i n c y g e n e r a l ( S a n t i a g o d e G u a t e m a l a , H a v a n a , a n d t h e like; o r e v e n in S p a i n o r R o m e ) a n d r e p r i n t e d in M e x i c o City in o r d e r t o m a k e t h e b o o k s a v a i l a b l e m o r e r a p i d l y o r in g r e a t e r q u a n t i t y (if n o t m o r e c h e a p l y ) t o t h e r e a d e r s o f t h e " I m p e r i a l City." B y w a y o f e x a m p l e , I cite t h e d e v o t i o n a l t r a c t o f A l o n s o A. d e V e l a s c o , The Self Renovation of the Sovereign Image of Our Crucified Lord
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Jesus of Itzmiquilpan, w h o s e fifth e d i t i o n a p p e a r e d in M e x i c o City i n 1729. T h e Christ of I t z m i q u i l p a n was t h e object of a g r e a t cult a m o n g e d u c a t e d Mexicans of t h e g e n e r a t i o n u n d e r study h e r e . B u y e r s a n d r e a d e r s o f t h e b o o k m u s t in t h e first p l a c e h a v e b e e n t h e r e l i g i o u s (convent libraries) a n d t h e families of t h e m i n i n g , l a n d e d , a n d adm i n i s t r a t i v e a r i s t o c r a c y . W e a l r e a d y k n o w t h e i m p o r t a n c e a s s i g n e d by c r e o l e r e l i g i o u s f e e l i n g t o all s i g n s o f d i v i n e g r a c e b e s t o w e d o n t h e M e x i c a n patria. T h e " p r o d i g i o u s r e n o v a t i o n " of t h e Christ of I t z m i q u i l p a n was o n e of those pious traditions t h a t w e r e t r a n s m i t t e d f r o m g e n e r a t i o n t o g e n e r a t i o n a n d s e r v e d to i n t e n s i f y t h e c r e o l e charismatic sentiment. I t w a s n o a c c i d e n t t h a t in 1 7 3 3 t h e r e w e r e r e p r i n t e d a n o v e n a In Honor Of The Very Miraculous Image of Holy Mary, Our Lady of Zapopan; in 1 7 3 8 a n Exercise to Increase Devotion to the Miraculous Image of Lloly Christ Venerated in the Parish of the Holy True Cross of Mexico City w a s r e p r i n t e d by J . B. d e H o g a l . I n 1743 a s e r m o n by t h e f o r m e r r e c t o r of t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f M e x i c o City, J . F e r n a n d e z d e P a l o s , e n t i t l e d Obsidional Triumph . . . By Means of the Virgin Mary, Our Lady, in tier Prodigious Image of Guadalupe,* first p r i n t e d by D o n a M a r i a d e R i v e r a , w a s r e p r i n t e d by t h e widow of J. B. d e H o g a l . T h r e e years later a m i n o r p r i n t e r , J o s e p h A m b r o s i o d e L i m a , r e p r i n t e d a n o v e n a To the Great Mother of God and Sovereign Queen, Our Lady of Salvation, of the Town of Pdtzcuaro. I n 1749, t h e p r i n t i n g e s t a b l i s h m e n t of D o n a M a r i a d e Rivera issued (without indication of a p a t r o n , a n d t h e r e f o r e with exp e c t a t i o n s o f sufficient sales t o c o v e r p r i n t i n g costs a n d yield a p r o f i t ) t h e s e c o n d e d i t i o n o f a b o o k b y t h e p r i e s t J u a n J o s e M. M o n t u f a r , The Marvel of Prodigies and the Flower of Miracles, Which Appeared at Guadalupe, Giving A Clear Witness of the Conception in Grace and of the Glory of Mary Our Lady. (Its title a l o n e d e s e r v e s a t h e o l o g i c a l c o m m e n tary, b u t h e r e I w a n t only to show t h e taste of Mexican r e a d e r s for m i r a c u l o u s t r a d i t i o n s a n d p r o d i g i o u s i m a g e s . ) I n 1 7 5 0 t h e History of the Very Miraculous Image of Our Lady of Ocotlan Which Is Venerated Outside the Walls of Tlaxcala, w r i t t e n (as w a s u s u a l l y t h e case) by t h e c h a p l a i n of t h e sanctuary, was r e p r i n t e d by t h e widow of J. B. d e H o g a l ; the s a m e publisher issued the following year a r e p r i n t of t h e Novena in Honor of the Very Miraculous Image of Holy Mary, Our Lady of San Juan, Situated in the Valle de los Lagos, of the Bishopric of Guadalaxara; a t h i r d e d i t i o n a p p e a r e d t h r e e y e a r s l a t e r , i n 1 7 5 4 , p u b l i s h e d b y t h e s a m e h o u s e . S h o u l d w e c o n c l u d e t h a t it t o o k l o n g e r t h a n t w o y e a r s t o sell o u t t h e s e c o n d e d i t i o n ? O r w a s t h e d e l a y c a u s e d by s l o w n e s s i n s e c u r i n g p e r m i s s i o n to r e p r i n t ? It is difficult t o say. T h e s a m e n o v e n a w a s o n e o f t h e first w o r k s p r i n t e d t h e f o l l o w i n g y e a r , 1 7 5 5 , o n t h e presses of t h e Bibliotheca Mexicana. 3
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C o n t i n u i n g o u r i n v e n t o r y o f r e p r i n t s , w e n o t e t h e a p p e a r a n c e in
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1 7 5 3 o f a n o v e n a a n d Brief Relation of the Origin of the Miraculous Image of Our Lady of Consolation, Which Is Venerated in the Sacrarium of the Convent of the Recollects of Our Lloly Father St. Francis, Called Saint Cosmae, Outside the Walls of this Imperial City of Mexico, issued by D o n a Maria d e Rivera. In 1755 the new p r i n t i n g h o u s e of the Bibliotheca M e x i c a n a r e p r i n t e d a n o t h e r n o v e n a in h o n o r o f t h e H o l y C r o s s o f Queretaro. T h e same publisher, Don J u a n Jose de Eguiara y Eguren, whose d e v o u t spirit we already know, published a second edition of t h e w o r k o f t h e J e s u i t E s c o b a r y M e n d o z a , New Jerusalem, Our Lady Mary, A Heroic Poem .. . ; yet a n o t h e r e d i t i o n w a s p u b l i s h e d by t h e B i b l i o t h e c a M e x i c a n a in 1 7 5 9 . I n 1 7 5 8 f r o m t h e p r e s s e s o f t h e J e s u i t C o l e g i o d e S a n I l d e f o n s o i s s u e d a n o v e n a c o m p o s e d by a r e l i g i o u s t o celebrate the mystery of the I m m a c u l a t e Conception. 10
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H o w c a n o n e d e n y a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e c h a r a c t e r to these pious writings, r e p r i n t e d s e v e r a l t i m e s at i n t e r v a l s o f a few y e a r s , o r s e v e r a l y e a r s in s u c c e s s i o n ? I n t h e case o f titles w h i c h d o n o t c a r r y t h e n a m e o f a p a t r o n (if t h e r e was a p a t r o n h e w a s a n x i o u s t o see his a r m s a p p e a r o n t h e c o v e r a n d his n a m e o v e r t h e c o l o p h o n ) , w e a r e d e a l i n g w i t h b o o k s w h i c h w e r e sold o u t in a s h o r t t i m e . T h e i r titles a l o n e o f f e r v a l u a b l e i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e society o f t h a t t i m e . T h e p r a c t i c e o f n o v e n a s w a s f r e q u e n t , a fact w h i c h c a n b e easily p r o v e n f r o m o t h e r s o u r c e s . A b o v e all, t h e t a s t e f o r t h e m a r v e l o u s , t h e p a s s i o n f o r m i r a c u l o u s t r a d i t i o n s c o n c e r n i n g h o l y i m a g e s , so c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h e M e x i c a n p e o p l e , e m e r g e f r o m t h e s e w o r k s as e s s e n t i a l a s p e c t s o f c r e o l e d e v o t i o n , so t h a t w e see t h e d i f f e r e n t p r o v i n c e s o f N e w S p a i n p a s s s u c c e s sively b e f o r e o u r e y e s , e a c h w i t h its o w n " p r o d i g i o u s p r o t e c t i v e i m a g e . " I n this r e s p e c t , t h e V i r g i n M a r y e n j o y e d p a r t i c u l a r f a v o r , foll o w e d by t h e C h r i s t s o f Q u e r e t a r o a n d I t z m i q u i l p a n . A m o n g r e p r i n t e d w o r k s which d e s e r v e m e n t i o n because of their significance for t h e s p i r i t u a l h i s t o r y o f N e w S p a i n , let m e m e n t i o n a n o t h e r n o v e n a , a w o r k o f F a t h e r A n t o n i o d e P a r e d e s o f t h e C o m p a n y o f J e s u s in N e w S p a i n , w h o s e title e v o k e s t h e c l i m a t e o f t h o s e d e c i s i v e y e a r s o f t h e m i d d l e o f t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y : Novena of the Triumphant Company of Jesus, Saint Ignatius Loyola and His Fortunate Sons ( r e p r i n t e d a t t h e C o l e g i o d e S a n I l d e f o n s o in 1 7 5 6 ) . 1 2
T h e publication a n d n u m e r o u s r e p r i n t s of n o v e n a s d e d i c a t e d to local c u l t s is a fact o f c a p i t a l i m p o r t a n c e . B u t its full s i g n i f i c a n c e b e c o m e s c l e a r w h e n w e c o n s i d e r t h e p u b l i s h i n g r e c o r d o f N e w S p a i n as a w h o l e . T h e l e a d i n g p l a c e a m o n g p u b l i s h e d w o r k s is h e l d b y d e v o t i o n a l t r a c t s a n d p a n e g y r i c a l s e r m o n s ; t h e l a t t e r give u s t h e a u t h e n t i c flavor o f s a c r e d e l o q u e n c e , o n e o f t h e p r i n c i p a l a s p e c t s o f p u b l i c life
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in N e w S p a i n . I t w a s f r o m t h e p u l p i t , a g e n u i n e t r i b u n e , t h a t i d e a s a n d news most frequently e m a n a t e d a n d were diffused a m o n g the p o p u l a t i o n . A b r e a k d o w n o f t h e a u t h o r s listed b y B e r i s t a i n gives t h e following results: Mendicant orders Secular clergy Jesuits T o t a l n u m b e r of ecclesiastics
925 900 375 2,351
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829 470
T o t a l n u m b e r of laymen
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T h e s e p r o p o r t i o n s , established for t h e e n t i r e history of t h e viceroyalty, p r o b a b l y h o l d f o r t h e p e r i o d u n d e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n . W e s h o u l d note that a n u m b e r of the a n o n y m o u s writers were religious, includi n g s o m e w o m e n , like S o r J u a n a I n e s d e la C r u z . T h e c o m p l e m e n t a r y g e n r e o f t h e f u n e r a l o r a t i o n , u s u a l l y o f edifyi n g t e n d e n c y , also o c c u p i e d a fairly l a r g e p l a c e in c o n t e m p o r a r y p u b l i s h i n g . T h e p u b l i c life o f N e w S p a i n w a s p u n c t u a t e d by fiestas, funerals, and preachings. T h e s e events h a d their respective counterp a r t s in p u b l i s h i n g : d e s c r i p t i o n s o f t h e t r i u m p h a l a r c h e s a n d s p e e c h e s of greetings to t h e new authorities, funeral orations, a n d s e r m o n s . T h e celebration of the p a t r o n saint o r f o u n d e r of a religious o r d e r , of t h e m i r a c u l o u s i m a g e o f a p a r i s h o r a city, w a s a t t e n d e d b y s o l e m n i t i e s w h o s e m e m o r y w a s k e p t alive t h e f o l l o w i n g y e a r by p u b l i c a t i o n o f a book or pamphlet, once the necessary authorizations had been obtained. I n this p e r i o d s e r m o n s a n d d e v o u t exercises w e r e most freq u e n t l y d e v o t e d t o t h e V i r g i n M a r y , in h e r i m a g e s o f O u r L a d y o f L i g h t , o f C a r m e n , o f G u a d a l u p e , o f L o s R e m e d i o s , a n d t h e like, a n d also to O u r L a d y o f L o r e t o . T h e c u l t s o f O u r L a d y o f L o r e t o a n d O u r L a d y o f L i g h t w e r e p r o m o t e d by t h e J e s u i t s ; t h e s a m e w a s t r u e o f t h e c u l t o f t h e r o s a r y ( D o m i n i c a n in o r i g i n ) a n d t h e c u l t o f t h e S a c r e d H e a r t o f J e s u s . T h e s a m e m a y b e said o f t h e c u l t o f t h e V i r g i n i n g e n e r a l a n d of h e r I m m a c u l a t e C o n c e p t i o n , b u t t h e cult of t h e I m m a c u l a t e C o n c e p t i o n (originally Franciscan, p r o p e r l y speaking) was s h a r e d by t h e w h o l e H i s p a n i c w o r l d , in w h i c h it h a d b e c o m e a n a r t i c l e o f faith l o n g b e f o r e t h e p r o m u l g a t i o n o f t h e d o g m a by t h e H o l y S e e . S a i n t I g n a t i u s o f L o y o l a , f o u n d e r o f t h e Society o f J e s u s ; S a i n t Francis Xavier, t h e missionary; a n d Saint Aloysius G o n z a g a , t h e stud e n t , f r e q u e n t l y a p p e a r as t h e t h e m e s o f s e r m o n s o r s p i r i t u a l e x e r cises. T i t l e s like t h a t o f a s e r m o n p r e a c h e d a t P u e b l a o n t h e feast d a y o f S a i n t I g n a t i u s , " H e a v e n P l a c e d in O u r H a n d s b y t h e H a n d s o f I g n a t i u s a n d H i s C o m p a n y , " a r e in t h e m s e l v e s e l o q u e n t ; t h e s e r m o n w a s f o l l o w e d b y a pontifical m a s s c e l e b r a t e d b y t h e a u x i l i a r y b i s h o p o f Puebla. W e see t h a t times h a d c h a n g e d considerably since t h e q u a r r e l 1 3
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o f B i s h o p P a l a f o x w i t h t h e J e s u i t s o f his d i o c e s e . O n l y t h e l i g h t n i n g t h a t in 1 7 4 7 twice s t r u c k t h e c h a p e l o f S a i n t I g n a t i u s o f L o y o l a in t h e c a t h e d r a l gave a p o r t e n t of the expulsion of the C o m p a n y . I n 1752, t h e r o y a l a n d pontifical U n i v e r s i t y o f M e x i c o City a c k n o w l e d g e d S a i n t A l o y s i u s G o n z a g a as its p a t r o n b y a p u b l i c o a t h o f a l l e g i a n c e ; this a c t i o n w a s v e r y significant, f o r it m e a n t t h a t t h e J e s u i t s h a d f o r g e d a h e a d o f t h e D o m i n i c a n s a n d F r a n c i s c a n s in h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n ; t h e y n o w h a d a m a j o r i t y in t h e " c o l l e g e " o f t h e p r o f e s s o r s . Besides the cult of the Virgin u n d e r h e r various invocations, a n d t h a t o f t h e n e w J e s u i t s a i n t s , w e n o t e t h e special p l a c e h e l d b y t h e c u l t s of t h e Holy Trinity, the apostle Peter, a n d Saint J o s e p h (the latter linked to the M a r i a n cult). Saints B e r n a r d , Francis, a n d J o h n of the C r o s s w e r e r e g a r d e d w i t h s p e c i a l f e r v o r by t h e i r o w n r e l i g i o u s o r d e r s ; o t h e r l e a d i n g cults w e r e t h o s e o f S a i n t J e r o m e a n d S a i n t P h i l i p N e r i ( t h e l a t t e r was e s p e c i a l l y c h e r i s h e d by t h e O r a t o r i a n s ) . P o p u l a r d e v o tion to Saint J a m e s , a h e r i t a g e of the c o n q u i s t a d o r s , s e e m s to have b e e n c o n s t a n t . Finally, t h e c u l t s o f S a i n t G e r t r u d e a n d S a i n t C a t h e r i n e of Siena deserve m e n t i o n . B u t the i n f o r m a t i o n we possess c o n c e r n i n g t h e n u m b e r o f titles, r e p r i n t s , a n d t h e size o f p r i n t i n g s e s t a b l i s h e s t h e p r i m a c y o f t h e c u l t o f t h e V i r g i n M a r y a n d o f h e r M e x i c a n i m a g e s in particular. A m o n g these, t h e " p r o d i g i o u s i m a g e " of G u a d a l u p e c l e a r l y w o n first p l a c e in t h e c o u r s e o f t h o s e t h i r t y y e a r s . T h e causes of the belated flowering of the G u a d a l u p e cult (tradition a s s i g n s t h e a p p a r i t i o n t o 1 5 3 1 , a n d its b i c e n t e n a r y w a s b r i l l i a n t l y c e l e b r a t e d in 1732) a r e c o m p l e x , b u t t h e s t a g e s o f its r i s e a r e v e r y c l e a r . I n this r e s p e c t , t h e d a t e o f 1 7 3 7 is v e r y i m p o r t a n t ; a n e p i d e m i c (peste) r a v a g e d t h e c o u n t r y a n d t h e p e o p l e o f M e x i c o City d e c i d e d t o c a r r y in procession the image of O u r Lady of Loreto, w h o h a d c o n q u e r e d the m e a s l e s (sarampibn) t e n y e a r s b e f o r e . T h i s act o f d e v o t i o n h a d n o effect, a n d a p p e a l w a s m a d e t o N u e s t r a S e f i o r a d e los R e m e d i o s , t h e n t o all t h e h o l y i m a g e s o f t h e city in t u r n , b u t t h e s u p p l i c a t i o n s a d d r e s s e d to t h e m w e r e equally unsuccessful. " H o w e v e r , t h e L o r d res e r v e d t h i s g l o r y f o r H i s V e r y H o l y M o t h e r , in h e r m i r a c u l o u s i m a g e of G u a d a l u p e , u n d e r whose protection H e wished the whole k i n g d o m to b e placed." N o s o o n e r was t h e decision t a k e n to a c k n o w l e d g e by a s o l e m n o a t h t h e p a t r o n a g e of t h e Virgin of G u a d a l u p e at Tepeyac, a d d s the chronicler of the C o m p a n y , t h a n " o n e m i g h t think that the e x t e r m i n a t i n g a n g e l o n l y w a i t e d f o r this d e c i s i o n t o s h e a t h his s w o r d . " O u r L a d y o f G u a d a l u p e t h u s g a i n e d a firm a d v a n t a g e in t h e pious competition which r a n g e d the different prodigious images (not only those of the Virgin b u t those of t h e Christs) against each other. L a t e r , S a n L u i s P o t o s i , f o l l o w e d by t h e city o f V a l l a d o l i d in M i c h o a c a n , i n s t a l l e d G u a d a l u p e as t h e p r i n c i p a l p r o t e c t r e s s a g a i n s t epidemics. 1 4
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H o w e v e r , a d i s s e n t i n g voice w a s r a i s e d . W e find e v i d e n c e o f this in a t r a c t w h o s e a u t h o r p r e f e r r e d to r e m a i n a n o n y m o u s , b u t w h i c h s o u g h t t o r e f u t e t h e o p i n i o n o f a n a d v e r s a r y o f G u a d a l u p e . I n 1741 t h e p r i n t i n g e s t a b l i s h m e n t of M a r i a d e R i v e r a p u b l i s h e d The Patronage Contested, Apologetical Dissertation in Favor of the Vow, the Election, and the Oath of Allegiance to Holy Mary, Venerated in Her Image of Guadalupe of Mexico City; this p a m p h l e t was d i r e c t e d against t h e m a s t e r o f c e r e m o n i e s o f t h e c a t h e d r a l of P u e b l a , w h o r e f u s e d t o d r a w t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s o f t h e p a t r o n a g e o f G u a d a l u p e in t h e services a n d g a v e g r e a t p u b l i c i t y t o his d e c i s i o n . W e a r e n o t s u r p r i s e d to h e a r a d i s s e n t i n g voice r a i s e d in P u e b l a , r a t h e r t h a n in a n y o t h e r M e x i c a n city, a g a i n s t t h e p a t r o n a g e o f G u a d a l u p e o f T e p e y a c , w h i c h c o n s e c r a t e d o n a t r a n s c e n d e n t level t h e s u p r e m a c y of t h e " I m p e r i a l City o f M e x i c o " in N e w S p a i n . B u t this was a r e a r g u a r d action, a n d t h e s a m e p u b l i s h e r issued t h e n e x t y e a r a s e r m o n p r o n o u n c e d in t h e s a n c t u a r y o f G u a d a l u p e d e V a l l a d o l i d o f M i c h o a c a n by a n A u g s t i n i a n r e l i g i o u s , Eclipse of the Divine Sun, Causd by the Interposition of Our Lady, Immaculate Mary, Venerated in Her Holy Image of Guadalupe. T h i s title is t h e b a p t i s m a l act, so t o s p e a k , o f t h e M e x i c a n c u l t o f t h e V i r g i n M a r y . T h e s u n is G o d himself, a n d M a r y , i d e n t i f i e d by c o n t e m p o r a r y e x e g e t e s w i t h t h e W o m a n o f t h e R e v e l a t i o n , o f w h o m t h e i m a g e o f T e p e y a c is a r e p l i c a , is h e i r e s s t o t h e G r e c o - R o m a n l u n a r t r a d i t i o n , r e i n f o r c e d in t h e p r e s e n t i n s t a n c e by a t r a d i t i o n h a v i n g its d i s t a n t o r i g i n in Q u m r a n b u t t r a n s m i t t e d t h r o u g h t h e O l d T e s t a m e n t . T h e t w o p y r a m i d s of t h e a n c i e n t h o l y city o f T e o t i h u a c a n ( t h e t w o l a r g e s t in t h e n e w W o r l d w i t h t h e exception of that of Cholula), the Pyramid of the S u n (Tonatiuh) a n d t h e P y r a m i d o f t h e M o o n ( T e t e o i n n a n ) , still testify t o t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e s u n a n d t h e m o o n in t h e a n c i e n t M e x i c a n p a n t h e o n . F a t h e r S a h a g i i n i n f o r m s u s t h a t in t h e t i m e o f t h e A z t e c e m p i r e , t h e g o d d e s s Toci, d o u b l e o f T e t e o i n n a n , h a d a s a n c t u a r y o n M o u n t T e p e y a c (only s e v e r a l l e a g u e s f r o m T e o t i h u a c a n ) w h e r e t h e I n d i a n s c a m e o n pilg r i m a g e s in g r e a t n u m b e r s . T h e i m a g e o f O u r L a d y o f G u a d a l u p e o f M o u n t T e p e y a c t h u s c o n c e n t r a t e d in itself a v a r i e t y o f b e l i e f s , s o m e derived from the Judeo-Christian tradition and the others from Mexican polytheism. T h i s varied c o n t e n t of t h e i m a g e of G u a d a l u p e was t o e n d o w it w i t h a s p i r i t u a l r a d i a n c e t h a t w o u l d s o o n e c l i p s e all t h e other "miraculous" images. 15
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T h i s last a v a t a r o f t h e o l d T o c i o f t h e A z t e c s casts a c u r i o u s l i g h t o n the spiritual universe of the Mexican eighteenth century. T h e Virgin M a r y in h e r i m a g e o f G u a d a l u p e , w h o first a p p e a r e d t o t h e n a t i v e Mexicans r e p r e s e n t e d by a h u m b l e I n d i a n convert, h a d e n d o w e d t h e " A m e r i c a n s " with c h a r i s m a . T h e identification of M a r y with t h e W o m a n o f R e v e l a t i o n m a d e it p o s s i b l e b y r e f e r e n c e t o p r o p h e c i e s
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a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e a p o s t l e S a i n t J o h n t o see in t h e M a r i a n cult o f T e p e y a c t h e a n n o u n c e m e n t o f t h e last t i m e s , o r a t least t h e e n d o f t h e c h u r c h o f C h r i s t , t o b e r e p l a c e d b y t h e c h u r c h o f M a r y , t h e c h u r c h o f t h e last d a y s . J u s t as G o d h a d c h o s e n t h e H e b r e w s in o r d e r to i n c a r n a t e h i m self in C h r i s t his s o n , so M a r y , t h e r e d e e m e r o f t h e last t i m e s , s h e w h o was to t r i u m p h o v e r Antichrist, h a d c h o s e n t h e Mexicans. T h i s last i d e a finds u n e q u i v o c a l e x p r e s s i o n in a s e r m o n p r o n o u n c e d D e c e m b e r 12, 1 7 4 9 , a n d e n t i t l e d " T h e C e l e s t i a l C o n c e p t i o n a n d t h e Mexican Birth of the I m a g e of G u a d a l u p e . " Guadalupe, t h a t is, t h e V i r g i n M a r y , m o t h e r o f C h r i s t , is M e x i c a n . O n e o f t h e g r e a t d e f e n d e r s of G u a d a l u p e , t h e maestro I t a y P a r r a , c o u l d e x p l a i n in t h e c a t h e d r a l o f M e x i c o City, in t h e p r e s e n c e o f t h e B l e s s e d S a c r a m e n t , t h e viceroy, t h e audiencia, t h e c h a p t e r , t h e tribunals, a n d the o r d e r s : " I n this r e s p e c t , t h e A m e r i c a n p e o p l e [pueblo indiano] s u r p a s ses n o t o n l y I s r a e l b u t all t h e p e o p l e s [naciones] o f t h e w o r l d a n d l e a v e s t h e m f a r b e h i n d " ; t h e t e r m indiano s h o u l d n o t b e u n d e r s t o o d h e r e in its e t h n i c s e n s e b u t in t h e t r a n s c e n d e n t m e a n i n g w h i c h it h a d in t h e e x p r e s s i o n Iglesia Indiana, a l r e a d y u s e d in t h e s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y b y t h e F r a n c i s c a n J e r o n i m o d e M e n d i e t a . I n reality, t h e o l d e s c h a t o l o g i c a l h o p e of the p i o n e e r s of t h e "spiritual conquest," t h e J o a c h i m i t e F r a n c i s c a n s , a c h i e v e d a b e l a t e d t r i u m p h in t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y u n d e r t h e a s p e c t o f t h e c u l t o f G u a d a l u p e , so e n e r g e t i c a l l y f o u g h t in its b e g i n n i n g s by t h e s e s a m e F r a n c i s c a n s . T h e " I n d i a n c h u r c h " ( r e a d " c r e o l e " f o r " I n d i a n " ) w a s a c h u r c h in w h i c h t h e c u l t o f G u a d a l u p e eclipsed that of Jesus. W h e r e , then, were the feared inquisitors a n d w h a t w e r e t h e y d o i n g ? T h e y w e r e in a c c o r d w i t h t h e c o m m o n d e v o t i o n ; I t a y P a r r a w a s h i m s e l f a c e n s o r o f t h e H o l y Office, a n d t h e c e n s o r s o f s e r m o n s s h a r e d fully t h e p a t r i o t i c e n t h u s i a s m o f t h e b o l d p r e a c h e r s for G u a d a l u p e . 1 7
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B i s h o p s a n d v i c e r o y s p u s h e d o n by t h e c l e r g y , p r o f e s s o r s , c o n f e s s o r s , c r e o l e p r e a c h e r s , e n c o u r a g e d in t h e i r c o u r s e b y a n u n a n i m o u s p o p u l a r s u p p o r t t h a t u n i t e d I n d i a n s , castas, a n d Creoles, p a i d t r i b u t e t o G u a d a l u p e . I n 1 7 5 0 a n e w c o l l e g i a t e c h u r c h w a s f o u n d e d at T e p e y a c , a n d in 1 7 5 4 t h e initiatives o f t h e a r c h b i s h o p o f M e x i c o a n d t h e c a m p a i g n w a g e d b y t h e J e s u i t s a t t h e H o l y S e e c u l m i n a t e d in p o n tifical r e c o g n i t i o n o f t h e p a t r o n a g e o f G u a d a l u p e o v e r N e w S p a i n o r , as it t h e n w a s o f t e n c a l l e d , " N o r t h A m e r i c a . " A n office o f t h e first class o f D e c e m b e r 12 t r a n s l a t e d i n t o c a n o n i c a l t e r m s t h e f a m o u s r e f e r e n c e t o P s a l m 1 4 7 , w h i c h w o u l d r e m a i n a t t a c h e d like a legend t o t h e i m a g e o f G u a d a l u p e : Non fecit taliter omni nationi ( H e h a s n o t d o n e t h e like for a n y o t h e r nation). L e a v i n g a s i d e f o r t h e m o m e n t t h e figure o f G u a d a l u p e a n d its e s c h a t o l o g i c a l i m p l i c a t i o n s , I s h o u l d like t o s t r e s s t h e p a t r i o t i c sign i f i c a n c e w h i c h is o n e o f its e s s e n t i a l a s p e c t s . T h e " t r a n s l a t i o n " o f t h e
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V i r g i n M a r y in h e r a s p e c t o f t h e i m a g e o f T e p e y a c , " n o t f r o m N a z a r e t h to J u d a , b u t f r o m t h e E m p y r e a n itself t o t h i s f o r t u n a t e p l a c e [ T e p e y a c ] , " was t h e t r a n s c e n d e n t g u a r a n t e e of t h e Mexican national a s p i r a t i o n s . I w o u l d e v e n say m o r e p r e c i s e l y t h a t t h e a p p a r i t i o n o f t h e V i r g i n M a r y o f G u a d a l u p e a t T e p e y a c was a c r e o l e response t o t h e t r a n s l a t i o n o f t h e V i r g i n M a r y t o P i l a r d e Z a r a g o z a (this w o u l d b e u n d e r s t o o d in t h e sense of A m e r i c o Castro's writing t h a t t h e S p a n i s h cult of Saint J a m e s M a t a m o r o s was a r e s p o n s e to M o h a m e d ) . T h e s u b j e c t o f t h e " t r a n s l a t i o n " s e e m s to h a v e b e e n a s t e r e o t y p e ; in a d e v o u t t r a c t p u b l i s h e d in M e x i c o in 1 7 3 1 w e r e a d t h a t t h e p o p e h a d granted a plenary indulgence "the day when o u r Holy Mother C h u r c h celebrates the descent of the Very Holy Virgin Mary from the skies t o f o u n d o n e a r t h h e r o r d e r o f t h e R e d e e m e r s [ t h e M e r c e d a r i a n s ] , u n d e r t h e i n v o c a t i o n o f t h e V i r g e n M a r i a d e la M e r c e d . " T h e r i v a l r y in t h e q u e s t f o r g r a c e b e t w e e n S p a i n a n d N e w S p a i n d u r i n g t h e y e a r s u n d e r s t u d y is a s s o c i a t e d w i t h c e r t a i n n a m e s : t h e creole Franciscan Agustin d e B e n g o c h e a , cited above; Ita y Parra, professor of sacred theology at the University of Mexico; a n d m a n y o t h e r M e x i c a n p r e a c h e r s . A g a i n s t t h e s e c h a m p i o n s a solitary voice w a s r a i s e d , t h a t o f a C a t a l a n D o m i n i c a n , in t h e n a m e o f t h e c o n g r e g a t i o n o f P i l a r d e Z a r a g o z a ; h e h a d a f o r e r u n n e r in t h e A u g u s t i n i a n F r a y P e d r o d e S a n F r a n c i s c o , w h o h a d p r e a c h e d a t M e x i c o City a panegyrical s e r m o n o n " T h e Q u e e n of A m e r i c a , O u r L a d y of Pilar de Zaragoza." B u t t h a t w a s in 1 7 3 9 , a n d t h e c e l e s t i a l - t e r r e s t r i a l rule of G u a d a l u p e over N o r t h A m e r i c a h a d n o t yet b e e n indisputably established. 1 9
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W h e n P o p e B e n e d i c t X I V yielded to creole p r e s s u r e in 1754, t h e Mexican cult of G u a d a l u p e gained new p o w e r a n d audacity. N o t cont e n t w i t h h a v i n g f r e e d t h e i r patria f r o m its s p i r i t u a l d e b t t o S p a i n ( " A m e r i c a n o l o n g e r f e a r s t h a t h e r i d o l a t r y will b e t h r o w n u p t o h e r , " I t a y P a r r a p r e a c h e d as e a r l y as 1 7 4 7 ) , t h e c r e o l e r e l i g i o u s t r a n s f o r m e d their devotion into a victorious messianism. T h e Jesuit Carr a n z a , o n e o f t h e g r e a t a r t i s a n s o f t h e G u a d a l u p e cult, h a d n o t e v e n waited for t h e p a p a l benediction to p r o p h e s y "the translation of t h e C h u r c h to G u a d a l u p e . " N o t h i n g b u t t h a t consecration was lacking to fulfill t h e g l o r y o f M e x i c o City; o n l y " t h e t h r o n e o f S a i n t P e t e r a t Mexico C i t y , " t h e subject of a s e r m o n p r o n o u n c e d by a n a r c h d e a c o n o f t h e c a t h e d r a l o f M e x i c o City, c o u l d m a k e t h e i m p e r i a l city " a n e w R o m e . " T h e transfer of the capital of C h r i s t e n d o m f r o m R o m e to Mexico would not only assure New Spain's spiritual p r e e m i n e n c e over t h e P e n i n s u l a b u t h a d as a c o r o l l a r y t h e p a t r o n a g e o f G u a d a l u p e (with N e w S p a i n as m e d i a t o r ) o v e r S p a i n h e r s e l f . T h e c r e o l e F r a n c i s c a n F r a y J o a q u i n d e O s u n a e x p r e s s e d this i d e a in 1 7 4 4 in his a p o l o g e t i c a l s e r m o n , " T h e Celestial Iris of t h e Catholic Spains, t h e A p p a r i t i o n a n d 2 2
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t h e P a t r o n a g e o f O u r L a d y o f G u a d a l u p e . " A s t h e s e few e x a m p l e s s h o w (I c o u l d cite m a n y o t h e r s ) , t h e i s s u e was n o t h i n g less t h a n a t o t a l r e v e r s a l o f N e w S p a i n ' s d e p e n d e n t s p i r i t u a l s t a t u s in r e l a t i o n t o S p a i n , a s t a t u s g o i n g b a c k to t h e " s p i r i t u a l c o n q u e s t " o f M e x i c o b y t h e m e n d i c a n t o r d e r s in t h e s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y . T h i s a s p e c t o f t h e m a t t e r d i d not pass unnoticed, a n d the D o m i n i c a n J u n c o s a , m e n t i o n e d above, e n t i t l e d his a p o l o g e t i c a l s e r m o n o n O u r L a d y o f Pilar d e Z a r a g o z a " T h e T r i u m p h o f t h e F a i t h in O l d a n d N e w S p a i n . " B u t by 1 7 5 8 " O l d S p a i n " h a d a l r e a d y v i r t u a l l y lost t h e g a m e . 2 6
All a r g u m e n t s , w h e t h e r d e r i v e d f r o m S c r i p t u r e o r n o t , w e r e grist f o r t h e mill o f t h e M e x i c a n p r e a c h e r s as t h e y s t r o v e t o p r o v e t h a t M a r y h a d c h o s e n t h e i r c o u n t r y to b e t h e s t a g e w h e r e t h e last act o f t h e h i s t o r y o f C h r i s t e n d o m as it m o v e d t o w a r d its c o n s u m m a t i o n s h o u l d b e p l a y e d o u t . It w a s t o flee t h e p e r s e c u t i o n s o f A n t i c h r i s t t h a t t h e c h u r c h w o u l d s e e k a s y l u m a t T e p e y a c in t h e last t i m e s . T h e identificat i o n o f t h e i m a g e o f G u a d a l u p e w i t h t h e W o m a n o f Revelation a n d t h e c r y p t i c m e a n i n g o f Revelation 12 f u r n i s h t h e key t o t h i s c l a i m , w h i c h t h e J e s u i t C a r r a n z a s u m m e d u p as follows: " T h e i m a g e o f G u a d a l u p e will finally b e t h e p a t r o n e s s o f t h e u n i v e r s a l C h u r c h , b e c a u s e it will b e t o t h e s a n c t u a r y o f G u a d a l u p e t h a t t h e t h r o n e o f S a i n t P e t e r will c o m e in s e a r c h o f r e f u g e in t h e last t i m e s . . . . A v e M a r i a . " S u c h o p i n i o n s c o u l d p e r s u a d e r e a d e r s o n l y if t h e "last t i m e s " s e e m e d close. Alt h o u g h t h e y m a y n o t h a v e o p e n l y e x p r e s s e d this belief, I t h i n k it w a s in t h e h e a r t s o f c r e o l e r e l i g i o u s w h o f r e q u e n t l y r e f e r r e d to a D o m i n i can of the previous century, Fray T o m a s Maluenda. 2 7
I n his b o o k On the Antichrist, w h i c h a p p e a r e d in R o m e in 1 6 0 4 a n d w a s d e d i c a t e d t o P o p e I n n o c e n t X, M a l u e n d a d e v o t e d c o n s i d e r a b l e s p a c e t o t h e s p i r i t u a l p r o b l e m s p o s e d by t h e d i s c o v e r y o f t h e p e o p l e s of the New W o r l d . In connection with the i m p o r t a n t question of the d a t e o f t h e c o m i n g o f A n t i c h r i s t , h e a f f i r m e d t h a t , in p r i n c i p l e , G o d alone k n e w the answer. B u t M a l u e n d a s h a r e d the c o m m o n belief that this e v e n t c o u l d n o t t a k e p l a c e u n t i l t h e G o s p e l h a d b e e n p r e a c h e d t h r o u g h o u t t h e world. Now, a d d e d M a l u e n d a , this m o m e n t has not yet c o m e (in 1 6 0 4 ) , f o r m a n y i s l a n d s a n d l a n d s r e m a i n e d t o b e d i s c o v e r e d , especially in t h e I n d i e s ; h e c i t e d specifically t h e v a s t r e g i o n s situated to the n o r t h of N e w Spain, Florida a n d Virginia. 2 8
H a l f a century later, the e x p a n s i o n of the missionary e n t e r p r i s e f r o m N e w S p a i n , w h i c h h a d r e s u l t e d in t h e c r e a t i o n o f t h e J e s u i t a n d Franciscan missions of California, the Pimeria, a n d t h e T a r a h u m a r a , may have suggested to i n f o r m e d m i n d s that the conditions for the c o m i n g o f A n t i c h r i s t w o u l d s h o r t l y b e satisfied. W i t h o u t this b a c k g r o u n d of eschatological anxiety, t h e predicted translation of the c h u r c h to G u a d a l u p e w o u l d h a v e h a d little m e a n i n g . I n t h a t m y s t i c a l
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a t m o s p h e r e t h e J e s u i t J o a q u i n R o d r i g u e z C a l a d o , prefect of studies at t h e C o l e g i o d e S a n P e d r o y S a n P a b l o o f M e x i c o City, c o u l d p r o p h e s y t h a t t h e r e w o u l d arise at T e p e y a c " t h e e m p i r e of t h e holy C h u r c h a n d t h e t h r o n e o f S a i n t P e t e r , w h e n t h a t C h u r c h will b e p e r s e c u t e d by A n t i c h r i s t a n d c o m p e l l e d t o l e a v e t h e h o l y city o f R o m e . " T h e s a m e eschatological perspective explains why o n e of t h e censors of " T h e T r a n s l a t i o n . . .," c a r r i e d a w a y by his e n t h u s i a s m f o r G u a d a l u p e , w r o t e : " T h o u , m y Q u e e n a n d L a d y , a r t o u r h o p e , spes nostra, a n d I m i g h t e v e n call y o u m y G o d d e s s , O I m m a c u l a t e Virgin." G u a d a l u p e , M o t h e r o f t h e I n d i a n s , Q u e e n o f t h e M e x i c a n s , was t r u l y t h e t u t e l a r y g o d d e s s (diosa) o f t h e p a t r i o t i c r e l i g i o u s , a l t h o u g h f e a r o f falling i n t o h e r e s y p l a c e d s o m e r e i n o n t h e e u h e m e r i s t i c u s e o f m e m e n t o s o f classical a n t i q u i t y . T h e d a n g e r o f a false s t e p was e q u a l l y g r e a t w i t h r e s p e c t to t h e I n d i a n beliefs, as s h o w n by c o n t e m p o r a r y efforts at Christian i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of primitive Mexican symbolism. 2 9
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I n fact, a l t h o u g h t h e e x a m p l e o f t h e c u l t o f O u r L a d y o f G u a d a l u p e is m o s t r e m a r k a b l e a n d t h e r e f o r e c o m m a n d s o u r p r i n c i p a l a t t e n t i o n , t o d i v o r c e it f r o m o t h e r c o m p a r a b l e p h e n o m e n a is t o d i s t o r t its sign i f i c a n c e . I n a d d i t i o n to G u a d a l u p e , w h i c h t h e F r a n c i s c a n F r a y J o s e d e A r l e g u i d e s c r i b e d as " T h e S a c r e d P a l l a d i u m o f t h e A m e r i c a n W o r l d , " Mexico claimed t h e protection of the apostle Saint Peter, h a i l e d in a s e r m o n by t h e D o m i n i c a n F r a y A n t o n i o C. d e Villegas as " T h e S t o n e o f t h e E a g l e o f M e x i c o City. T h e P r i n c e o f t h e A p o s t l e s a n d F a t h e r of t h e Universal C h u r c h , My L o r d Saint P e t e r . " For t h e r e s t , w e k n o w t h e u s e m a d e in t h o s e s a m e y e a r s o f t h e p r e s e n c e o f a n e a g l e ( b o l d l y a s s i m i l a t e d t o t h e A z t e c e a g l e ) u n d e r t h e feet o f t h e W o m a n in R e v e l a t i o n 12. T h e a l l e g o r i c a l e x e g e s i s , w i t h c l e a r r e f e r e n c e to G u a d a l u p e , of t h e major symbol of t h e Aztec coat of a r m s , w e n t h a n d in h a n d with a u d a c i o u s semantic r e a d i n g s which suggested s u c h s y l l o g i s m s as t h e s e : " A n d all this is f o u n d in S c r i p t u r e : P e t e r asks t o b e a l l o w e d to j o i n C h r i s t o n t h e w a t e r s : C h r i s t is M e x i c o City: h e n c e P e t e r a s k e d to g o to Mexico C i t y . " If S c r i p t u r e , a c c o r d i n g to t h e c r e o l e e x e g e t e s , a t t e s t e d t o t h e e l e c t i o n o f M e x i c o City by t h e V i r g i n M a r y a n d t h e p r e f e r e n c e o f t h e a p o s t l e P e t e r f o r A n a h u a c , this d i d n o t e x c l u d e b o l d i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s of t h e symbol of t h e cross a n d a j o i n t a l l u s i o n t o t h e H o l y C r o s s o f Q u e r e t a r o a n d t h e M a y a T r e e o f Life, " T h e C h e r u b i m G u a r d i a n o f t h e T r e e o f Life, t h e H o l y C r o s s o f Q u e r e t a r o . " A l t h o u g h t h e r e f e r e n c e t o t h e T r e e o f Life m a y h a v e its o r i g i n in t h e s y m b o l i c e x e g e s i s w h i c h i d e n t i f i e s t h e T r e e o f P a r a d i s e a n d t h e r e d e e m i n g c r o s s , t h e c o i n c i d e n c e w i t h a n c i e n t I n d i a n beliefs does not seem a fortuitous one. T h e favor that the Mexican past e n j o y e d , e s p e c i a l l y as a r e s u l t o f t h e w o r k o f D o n C a r l o s d e S i g u e n z a y G o n g o r a in t h e p r e v i o u s c e n t u r y , fully e x p l a i n s w h y t h e g r e a t figures 3 1
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of a n c i e n t Mexican m y t h o l o g y w e r e a d d e d to t h e r a n k s of Hellenic h e r o e s in o r d e r to i n c r e a s e o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r a l l e g o r i c a l e x e g e s i s a n d e u h e m e r i s t i c c o m p a r i s o n . W e n e e d n o t b e s u r p r i s e d , t h e r e f o r e , by t h e title o f a s e r m o n w h i c h r e a d s : " T h e M o s t E x a c t R e p l i c a o f t h e Divine Hercules, a n d the Sacred M a r s of the C h u r c h , the Glorious A r c h a n g e l S a i n t M i c h a e l , a t t h e S a c r e d F e e t o f M a r y O u r L a d y in H e r I m a g e of G u a d a l u p e , W h i c h Miraculously A p p e a r e d for the Protection of O u r New Mexican W o r l d . " 3 5
N e w Spain, m o r e c o m m o n l y called "Mexico" by t h e creole a u t h o r s , t h u s h a d a n a r m o r y filled t o o v e r f l o w i n g . G u a d a l u p e a p p e a r e d t h e r e s u r r o u n d e d by a c h o r u s o f o t h e r M a r i a n i m a g e s : T h e V i r g e n d e O c o t l a n , t h e V i r g e n d e la L u z , t h e V i r g e n d e S a n J u a n d e los L a g o s , t h e V i r g e n d e M a c a n a , t h e V i r g e n d e los R e m e d i o s , t h e V i r g e n d e l C a r m e n , t h e V i r g e n d e los D o l o r e s . E a c h w a s a t t a c h e d t o a city, a c o n v e n t , o r a c h u r c h o f N e w S p a i n . E a c h o f t h e s e local c u l t s s o u g h t t o j u s t i f y itself b y a m i r a c u l o u s t r a d i t i o n , w h o s e f o u n d a t i o n s w e r e as solid ( o r fragile) as t h e t r a d i t i o n o f G u a d a l u p e . All t h e s e p i o u s t r a d i tions c o n v e r g e d unknowingly toward the same great e n d : to p u r g e M e x i c o o f t h e a n c i e n t sin o f p a g a n i s m a n d i d o l a t r y . T h e e x e g e t i c e f f o r t w h i c h I h a v e briefly d e s c r i b e d was o n e a s p e c t of t h e e n t e r p r i s e o f s p i r i t u a l e m a n c i p a t i o n w h i c h I d o n o t h e s i t a t e to call " n a t i o n a l . " T h e g r e a t m u l t i t u d e v a l i d a t e d t h e m i r a c u l o u s t r a d i t i o n s by its p i l g r i m a g e s : m e a n w h i l e t h e clerical elite s c r u t i n i z e d t h e p r o p h e t i c b o o k s , t h e A p o c a l y p s e o f I s a i a h a n d t h e so-called A p o c a l y p s e o f J o h n , to discover t h e a n n o u n c e m e n t of a s u p e r n a t u r a l destiny w i t h o u t p e e r : " N o N a t i o n C o m p a r e s w i t h M e x i c o , " in t h e w o r d s o f a p o p u l a r s o n g . It r e m a i n e d t o d e m o n s t r a t e t h i s w i t h h i s t o r i c a l a n d s c r i p t u r a l p r o o f s , b u t s i n c e all w e r e a l r e a d y p e r s u a d e d ( t h e i n q u i s i t o r s c h a r g e d w i t h w a t c h i n g o v e r o r t h o d o x y w e r e as c o n v i n c e d as t h e r e s t ) , t h e task was n o t t o o difficult. We find a n a i v e a v o w a l o f this c o m p l a c e n c e , t h e r e s u l t o f a collective i l l u m i n i s m , in t h e c o m m e n t o f a C a r m e l i t e c e n s o r : " I f this is n o t s u p p o r t e d by c l e a r p r o p h e c i e s , o n e c o u l d a t least d e d u c e it from ambiguous prophecies." Argumentation, even when pres e n t e d in t h e f o r m o f syllogisms, w a s o f s e c o n d a r y i m p o r t a n c e ; r i g o r o u s logic w a s n o t n e c e s s a r y , f o r w h a t w a s i m p o r t a n t in t h e last analysis d e p e n d e d o n a n act o f faith, p a t r i o t i c r a t h e r t h a n r e l i g i o u s faith. 3 6
3 7
Mexico City, The New
Jerusalem
G u a d a l u p e , o n c e f o u g h t by t h e F r a n c i s c a n s , b e c a m e t h e o b j e c t o f a g r o w i n g p o p u l a r cult a n d gained almost the u n a n i m o u s s u p p o r t of t h e r e l i g i o u s o r d e r s , so d i v i d e d in o t h e r r e s p e c t s . T e p e y a c was n e a r M e x i c o City, a n d t h e i n h a b i t a n t s o f t h e c a p i t a l h a d f a v o r e d t h e s a n c t u a r y as a p l a c e f o r p r o m e n a d e s since t h e s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y . I f
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h e a v e n h a d s h o w n its g r a c e t o M e x i c o , t h a t g r a c e s h o u l d m a n i f e s t itself a b o v e all in M e x i c o City (we r e c a l l t h a t it w a s in M e x i c o City t h a t t h e flowery i m a g e o f M a r y h a d a p p e a r e d o n t h e tilma, o r cloak, o f t h e I n d i a n J u a n D i e g o ) . L o c a l p a t r i o t i s m , in N e w as in O l d S p a i n , h a d p r e c e d e n c e o v e r t h e still v a g u e n a t i o n a l spirit. T o t h e d e g r e e t h a t o n e c a n g r a p h f e e l i n g s , it s e e m s t h a t t h e a s p i r a t i o n t o m a k e M e x i c o City a n e w R o m e p l a y e d a d e c i s i v e r o l e . O t h e r c a u s e s , w h i c h w e r e n o t t h e r e s u l t o f c h o i c e b u t flowed f r o m t h e city's p o w e r a n d its v i r t u a l m o n o p o l y o f t h e p r i n t i n g p r e s s t e n d e d in t h e s a m e d i r e c t i o n . I n p a r t i c u l a r , t h e G u a d a l u p a n f e r v o r o f t h e J e s u i t s , w h o m a d e u s e at a strategic m o m e n t of the presses of the Colegio d e San Ildefonso, a n d the fervor of Eguiara y E g u r e n , w h o established the printing press of the Bibliotheca Mexicana d u r i n g those years, contributed appreciably to t h e s p r e a d of t h e G u a d a l u p a n apologetical tradition. F r o m t h e p o i n t o f view o f t h e M e x i c a n n a t i o n a l m y s t i q u e , t h e c h o i c e by t h e V i r g i n M a r y o f t h e valley o f M e x i c o as h e r r e s i d e n c e , o r r a t h e r " T h e Celestial C o n c e p t i o n a n d t h e Mexican Birth of the I m a g e of G u a d a l u p e , " w a s i n s e p a r a b l e f r o m M e x i c o City's i m p e r i a l d e s t i n y . H i s t o r y , as c o n c e i v e d b y M e x i c a n r e l i g i o u s o f t h e m i d - e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y , n o u r i s h e d o n J u d e o - C h r i s t i a n p r o p h e c i e s , a p p e a r e d as a t e r r e s t r i a l p r o j e c t i o n o f t h e m y s t e r i o u s d e s i g n s o f p r o v i d e n c e , i n s c r i b e d in c r y p t i c f o r m in t h e p r o p h e t i c b o o k s o f t h e O l d T e s t a m e n t a n d also r e v e a l e d by miracles. Miracles a n d prodigies m u s t a c c o m p a n y t h e evangelization of the New World a n d the foundation of a new c h u r c h i n a w o r l d c a l l e d " n e w " n o t so m u c h f o r g e o g r a p h i c a l as f o r e s chatological reasons. T h e new c h u r c h would be the c h u r c h of Mary, c e r t a i n l y t h e M o t h e r o f G o d , b u t a b o v e all s h e w h o in t h e R e v e l a t i o n of J o h n r o u t e d the d r a g o n , symbol of Antichrist. A n d the new R o m e o f this n e w c h u r c h m u s t b e M e x i c o City. W i t h a n i m p r e s s i v e insist e n c e , c o n t e m p o r a r y a u t h o r s give M e x i c o City t h e n a m e o f " I m p e r i a l C i t y " a n d u s u a l l y c o m p a r e it t o R o m e , f o r r e a s o n s t h a t a r e n o w p e r fectly c l e a r . 3 8
C o m p a r i s o n o f M e x i c o City w i t h a n c i e n t T r o y a t first g l a n c e a p p e a r s less c o n v i n c i n g , b u t h e r e is t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o n e c e n s o r p l a c e d u p o n it: " M i n e r v a e m i g r a t e d f r o m H e a v e n t o t h e city o f T r o y . . . . M a r y w i s h e d t h e e a r t h t o c e l e b r a t e this t r o p h y a n d s h e d e s c e n d e d f r o m H e a v e n , a p p a r e n t l y by m e a n s o f a s u p e r n a t u r a l t r a n s l a t i o n , t o f o r t u n a t e M e x i c o City, rival o f a n c i e n t T r o y . " T h i s is t h e r e a s o n i n g o f a M e r c e d a r i a n friar, t h e n r e c t o r of t h e Colegio d e San R a i m u n d o N o n a t o , in M e x i c o City. T h e f r i a r d i d n o t r e c a l l t h e s i e g e a n d c o n q u e s t o f T r o y t o j u s t i f y t h e c o m p a r i s o n w i t h M e x i c o City, b u t in t h e spiritual climate that I have a t t e m p t e d to c a p t u r e m e n m u s t have involuntarily r e m e m b e r e d t h e siege of T e n o c h t i t l a n - M e x i c o by C o r t e s 3 9
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a n d t h e d e s p e r a t e r e s i s t a n c e o f C u a u h t e m o c , last e m p e r o r o f t h a t " M e x i c a n e m p i r e " w h o s e m e m o r y w a s i n s e p a r a b l e f r o m t h e title " i m p e r i a l " g e n e r o u s l y d i s p e n s e d t o t h e c a p i t a l o f N e w S p a i n b y C h a r l e s V. A halo of Greco-Roman a n d Mexican mythology, a Christian aur e o l e , g a v e a r a d i a n t glow t o t h e b u r g e o n i n g c a p i t a l o f M e x i c o in t h e eyes o f its c r e o l e a p o l o g i s t s . T h e y w e r e i n t o x i c a t e d w i t h w h a t t o d a y w e w o u l d call t h e " d e v e l o p m e n t " o f t h e i r c o u n t r y , e s p e c i a l l y s i n c e t h e y r e g a r d e d its e c o n o m i c p r o s p e r i t y as a m a r k o f d i v i n e f a v o r . T h e f l o u r i s h i n g s t a t e o f t h e silver m i n e s a p p e a r e d t o s u p p o r t t h e a s s u r a n c e s o f biblical e x e g e s i s c o n c e r n i n g t h e g l o r i o u s d e s t i n y o f t h e M e x i can nation. Like t h e p e o p l e of M a d r i d a c e n t u r y a n d a half before, t h e p e o p l e o f M e x i c o City p r o j e c t e d t h e i r m e g a l o m a n i a c d r e a m s o n t h e i r i m p e r i a l c a p i t a l . T h e e m p i r e o v e r w h i c h it p r e s i d e d w a s t h e I n d i e s ; c o n t e m p o r a r y b o o k titles a n d i c o n o g r a p h y alike c o n f i r m a b i c e p h a l i c c o n c e p t i o n o f t h e p o s s e s s i o n s o f t h e C r o w n o f S p a i n — t h e k i n g is d e s i g n a t e d as k i n g o f t h e S p a i n s a n d e m p e r o r o f t h e I n d i e s (a title w h i c h w e n t b a c k t o P h i l i p I I ) . E x c e p t in this s t e r e o t y p e , h o w e v e r , t h e p h r a s e " t h e I n d i e s " w a s n o t u s e d as f r e q u e n t l y as " N o r t h A m e r i c a " o r " O u r A m e r i c a . " C r e o l e a u t h o r s , it s e e m s , d e l i b e r a t e l y a v o i d e d a n y allusion to M a d r i d which m i g h t cause t h e capital o f Spain to suffer by comparison. Meanwhile, u n d e r t h e protective cover of devotion a n d e s p e c i a l l y o f t h e M a r i a n cult, t h e M e x i c a n Creoles c o u l d freely w e a v e t h e m o s t e x t r a v a g a n t nationalist d r e a m s d u r i n g those thirty decisive years. W h a t w e r e t h e objective material f o u n d a t i o n s of t h e M e x i c a n patriotic visions? T h e d i s c o v e r y o f n e w silver d e p o s i t s a t S a n L u i s (called P o t o s i b y c o m p a r i s o n w i t h t h e f a m o u s Potosi o f S o u t h A m e r i c a ) n o t o n l y l e d t o t h e r a p i d d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h a t city b u t h a d r e p e r c u s s i o n s f o r t h e c a p i t a l , M e x i c o City. O n t h e s p i r i t u a l level, t h e Creoles reflected that t h e tardy revelation of these i m m e n s e riches m u s t have b e e n p r o v i d e n t i a l l y r e s e r v e d f o r t h e i r t i m e ; this fact c o u l d b e l i n k e d t o t h e r e v i v a l o f m i s s i o n a r y activity, t h e w a r a g a i n s t t h e E n g l i s h h e r e t i c s , and t h e papal consecration of t h e patronage of G u a d a l u p e . Simultaneously the generalization of certain amalgamation processes ( t r e a t i s e s o n this q u e s t i o n w e r e p u b l i s h e d d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d u n d e r s t u d y ) p e r m i t t e d m o r e s y s t e m a t i c e x p l o i t a t i o n o f t h e silver m i n e s . T h e possession of a potentially inexhaustible source of precious metal at a t i m e w h e n m e r c a n t i l i s t t h e o r i e s p r o c l a i m e d it t h e p r i m e f o r m o f w e a l t h c o n f i r m e d t h e Creoles i n t h e c o n v i c t i o n t h a t t h e y w e r e a n e w " c h o s e n p e o p l e . " T h e v e r y a s p e c t o f M e x i c o City c h a n g e d . G r e a t c o n s t r u c t i o n p r o j e c t s w e r e u n d e r t a k e n , s u c h as t h e b u i l d i n g o f t h e C a s a d e M o n e d a , b e g u n in 1729 by t h e viceroy, t h e M a r q u e s d e Casaf u e r t e , a n d c o m p l e t e d i n t h e y e a r o f h i s d e a t h , 1 7 3 4 ; less t h a n t h i r t y
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y e a r s l a t e r it h a d t o b e e n l a r g e d t o p r o v i d e f o r t h e s w e l l i n g influx o f p r e c i o u s m e t a l . T h e Gaceta de Mexico, f o u n d e d in i m i t a t i o n o f t h a t o f M a d r i d , i n f o r m s u s t h a t t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f this s i n g l e b u i l d i n g a l o n e h a d cost a c o n s i d e r a b l e s u m . A c u s t o m s h o u s e w a s b u i l t a t t h e s a m e t i m e . T h e S c h o o l o f M i n e s p l a y e d a l a r g e r o l e in t h e life o f t h e city; f r o m t i m e t o t i m e it figured a m o n g t h e s u b j e c t s o f p o e t i c c o m p e t i t i o n s . A n y d o u b t s c o n c e r n i n g t h e c o n n e c t i o n in c r e o l e m i n d s b e t w e e n M e x i c o ' s m a t e r i a l w e a l t h a n d its p r o v i d e n t i a l d e s t i n y m u s t b e d i s pelled w h e n o n e r e a d s the following: " T h e Mine of the Virgin, H i d d e n in N a z a r e t h a n d R e v e a l e d o n t h e Hill o f T e p e y a c , to B e c o m e t h e Universal P a t r o n e s s of t h e A m e r i c a n s a n d Especially of t h e M i n e r s ; a n d , B e c a u s e S h e Is a G o l d M i n e , o f t h e M i n e r s o f Potosi. P a n e g y r i c a l O r a t i o n . . . , " a s e r m o n p r o n o u n c e d by a religious of t h e Visitation in 1 7 5 7 . T h e o t h e r g r e a t s o u r c e o f n a t i o n a l w e a l t h , t h e l a n d , s e e m e d comparatively e x h a u s t e d , a n d t h e l a n d o w n e r s offered n o v e n a s at G u a d a l u p e in t h e h o p e of s e c u r i n g rain. 4 0
H o w e v e r , it w a s t h e b u r g e o n i n g o f M e x i c o City a n d o t h e r cities o f New Spain that inspired Mexican self-admiration. W h e n the Jesuit C a r r a n z a calls M e x i c o City " T h e R o m e o f t h e N e w W o r l d , " w e m a y b e t e m p t e d t o a t t r i b u t e his vision t o p a t r i o t i c e n t h u s i a s m ; b u t t h e p r e a c h e r d e f e n d e d himself against such a c h a r g e : "Let this n o t be r e g a r d e d as a h y p e r b o l i c e x a g g e r a t i o n . " A n o t h e r r e l i g i o u s , a M e r c e d a r i a n , a f f i r m e d : " T r a n s p o r t e d by love o f c o u n t r y , I t a k e d e l i g h t in d e p i c t i n g M e x i c o C i t y . " Yet t h e B a r o n v o n H u m b o l d t , h a l f a c e n t u r y l a t e r , saw M e x i c o City w i t h t h e s a m e e y e s : " N o city o f t h e n e w c o n t i n e n t , n o t even e x c e p t i n g those of t h e U n i t e d States, can display s u c h g r e a t a n d solid scientific e s t a b l i s h m e n t s as t h e c a p i t a l o f M e x i c o . . . . W h a t a n u m b e r o f b e a u t i f u l edifices a r e t o b e s e e n at M e x i c o City! N a y , e v e n in p r o v i n c i a l t o w n s like G u a n a j u a t o a n d Q u e r e t a r o ! T h e s e m o n u m e n t s , w h i c h f r e q u e n t l y cost a m i l l i o n o r a m i l l i o n a n d a h a l f f r a n c s , w o u l d a p p e a r t o a d v a n t a g e in t h e finest streets of Paris, Berlin, a n d P e t e r s b u r g . " W h e n the Spanish king d e c i d e d in 1 7 4 0 t o f o u n d a b r o t h e r h o o d o f G u a d a l u p e a t M a d r i d , w i t h h i m s e l f as p r o t e c t o r , h e a c t e d n o t f r o m d e v o t i o n b u t r a t h e r , as F r a y S e r v a n d o T e r e s a d e M i e r l a t e r c r u d e l y w r o t e , " f r o m love o f h a r d c a s h [pesos duros]" T h e h o p e o f financial a i d a n d legacies also m a y h a v e i n f l u e n c e d t h e a t t i t u d e o f t h e H o l y S e e , w h i c h in p r e v i o u s d e c ades had displayed an unfriendly attitude toward the Mexican G u a d a l u p a n tradition. 41
4 2
43
B e t h a t as it m a y , w e o b s e r v e t h a t t h e c u l t o f G u a d a l u p e , w h i c h w a s t w o c e n t u r i e s o l d in 1 7 3 1 , h a d t o wait t w e n t y - t h r e e y e a r s l o n g e r b e fore o b t a i n i n g canonical a p p r o v a l . E v e n t h a t a p p r o v a l was given with r e s e r v a t i o n s , as s h o w n b y t h e e x p r e s s i o n fertur (it is r e p o r t e d ) in
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r e g a r d to the miraculous tradition. T h e reversal of N e w Spain's traditional status of spiritual d e p e n d e n c e o n Spain took place precisely d u r i n g t h e y e a r s in w h i c h S p a i n r e l i e d e v e r m o r e h e a v i l y o n financial a s s i s t a n c e f r o m t h e M e x i c a n m i n e o w n e r s t o c a r r y o n its E u r o p e a n w a r s , so t h a t O l d S p a i n a p p e a r e d t o h a v e b e c o m e a t r i b u t a r y o f t h e N e w . I n t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l r e a l m , t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f M e x i c o City a n d t h e J e s u i t c o l l e g e s a s s u r e d t h e c r e o l e elite o f a f o r m a t i o n w h i c h m a n y gachupines c o u l d well e n v y , if o n e c a n c r e d i t c o n t e m p o r a r y w i t n e s s e s , w i t h d u e a l l o w a n c e f o r e x a g g e r a t i o n . A tactless c r i t i c i s m o f t h e A m e r i c a n i n t e l l e c t by t h e S p a n i s h d e a n M a r t i p r o v i d e d t h e M e x i c a n c a n o n E g u i a r a y E g u r e n with a p r e t e x t to request permission to establish a p r i n t i n g s h o p , i m p o r t t h e n e e d e d e q u i p m e n t f r o m E u r o p e , a n d publish a m o n u m e n t to t h e glory of creole writers, a Mexican national P a r n a s s u s . We n e e d n o t t a k e t h e p r e t e x t t o o s e r i o u s l y ; t h i s g e n e r a t i o n of creole apologists doubtless h a d n e e d of camouflages a n d r e a s s u r i n g pretexts but hardly of a goad or spur. T h e Creoles' e n t h u s i a s m f o r t h e i r c o u n t r y w a s so c o n t a g i o u s t h a t t h e Milanese chevalier Lorenzo Boturini Benaducci u n d e r t o o k to rewrite t h e h i s t o r y o f N e w S p a i n , o r o f its M e x i c a n a n t i q u i t i e s . T h i s e f f o r t c u l m i n a t e d in t h e p u b l i c a t i o n in 1 7 4 6 o f t h e Idea de una nueva Historia general de la America Septentrional, a c c o m p a n i e d b y a c a t a l o g o f m a n u scripts a n d codices which h e h a d collected. Boturini's project was b r u s q u e l y i n t e r r u p t e d a n d his l i b r a r y c o n f i s c a t e d b y t h e S p a n i s h a u thorities, ever j e a l o u s of any i n f r i n g e m e n t o n t h e royal p r e r o g a t i v e in ecclesiastical affairs, f o r h e h a d f o r m e d t h e p r o j e c t o f o f f e r i n g a c r o w n t o t h e V i r g i n o f G u a d a l u p e , a n d t o this e n d h e b e g a n c o l l e c t i n g f u n d s , a p p e a l i n g to t h e liberality of t h e pious. T h e a t t i t u d e of B o t u r i n i , w h o d e c i d e d t o w r i t e a Historia general a f t e r h e h a d a s s e m b l e d n u m e r o u s d o c u m e n t s with whose aid h e p r o p o s e d to provide a historical f o u n d a t i o n f o r t h e G u a d a l u p a n t r a d i t i o n , is s u g g e s t i v e . E g u i a r a y E g u r e n also w a s a d e v o t e e o f G u a d a l u p e a n d a n a p o l o g i s t f o r t h e c r e o l e patria a n d f o r h i s c o u n t r y m e n . C e r t a i n r e m a r k s i n h i s Bibliotheca Mexicana r e v e a l a r a n c o r d i r e c t e d n o t j u s t a t d e a n M a r t i b u t a t S p a i n h e r s e l f . T h e Creoles f o u g h t o n all f r o n t s t o f r e e t h e m s e l v e s f r o m t h e t u t e l a g e o f t h e gachupines. A l t h o u g h it is a l w a y s risky f o r a h i s t o r i a n t o m a k e s e d u c t i v e i n f e r e n c e s , I m a y a t least r a i s e c e r t a i n q u e s t i o n s w h o s e s i g n i f i c a n c e t r a n scends t h e events in question. I have sketched with b r o a d strokes a p i c t u r e o f t r i u m p h a n t c r e o l e a d v a n c e in t h e m i d - e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y . I h a v e s u g g e s t e d t h a t it w a s b a s e d o n a p r o u d c o n s c i o u s n e s s o f N e w Spain's wealth, o f t h e u r b a n b u r g e o n i n g , of a real o r s u p p o s e d intellectual s u p r e m a c y , a n d o n t h e charismatic feeling of a c h o s e n people. But t h e spiritual c o m b a t waged by t h e Mexicans for their emancipation
97
The Spiritual
Emancipation
{1728-1759)
t o o k p l a c e w i t h i n t h e H i s p a n i c m o d e o f t h o u g h t a n d b e i n g ; in t h i s r e s p e c t t h e p r i n c i p a l b a t t l e g r o u n d , t h e c u l t o f t h e V i r g i n , is especially revealing. Since t h e u l t i m a t e f o u n d a t i o n s of Spain's d o m i n a t i o n o v e r N e w Spain w e r e of a t r a n s c e n d e n t , missionary character, only w h e n N e w S p a i n in h e r t u r n b e c a m e t h e s p r i n g b o a r d o f a n e w m i s s i o n a r y expansion could she free herself from Spanish tutelage. B u t that r u p t u r e i m p l i e d a p r o f o u n d loyalty t o S p a n i s h i d e a l s : t h e c o m p e t i t i o n in t h e q u e s t f o r t h e g r a c e o f M a r y recalls t h e S p a n i s h M i d d l e A g e s , w h e n O u r L a d y o f C o v a d o n g a , t h e V i r g i n o f Pilar, a n d O u r L a d y o f G u a d a l u p e herself, t h e V i r g i n o f E s t r e m a d u r a , c o m p e t e d f o r t h e fervor of the Spanish Christians. H o w c a n w e f o r g e t t h a t t h e G u a d a l u p e d e las V i l l u e r c a s (in t h e p r o v i n c e o f C a c e r e s ) , a c c o r d i n g to h e r e a r l i e s t c h r o n i c l e r , a p p e a r e d in o r d e r t o " c o m f o r t t h e h e a r t s o f t h e C h r i s t i a n s , in o r d e r t h a t t h e y m i g h t r e c o v e r t h e s t r e n g t h t h a t t h e y h a d lost. T h u s t h e y r e g a i n e d t h e i r c o u r a g e . " H e r M e x i c a n rival, G u a d a l u p e o f T e p e y a c , p l a y e d t h e s a m e r o l e a m o n g t h e I n d i a n c o n v e r t s , d e c i m a t e d by g r e a t e p i d e m i c s a n d e x c e s s i v e f o r c e d l a b o r , a n d left a d r i f t b y t h e c o l l a p s e o f n a t i v e society. T h e f e e l i n g o f e i g h t e e n t h - c e n t u r y M e x i c a n s t h a t t h e w o r l d , like S c r i p t u r e , w a s a tissue o f s i g n s t h a t h a d to b e d e c i p h e r e d , e n c o u r a g e d a n a n x i o u s w a i t f o r t h e last t i m e s . I n effect, a t r a g i c a m b i g u i t y m a r k e d t h o s e d e c i s i v e y e a r s . C o n t i n u i t y o f office in t h e ecclesiastical r e a l m c o n t r a s t e d w i t h t h e u n s t a b l e t e n u r e o f v i c e r o y s ; b u t it w a s g r e a t seism i c p h e n o m e n a — c o m e t s , a n d a b o v e all, e p i d e m i c s — t h a t w e r e i n t e r p r e t e d as s u p e r n a t u r a l signs. A l e g r e s p e a k s o f t h e g r e a t " p e s t s " o f 1 7 2 5 a n d 1 7 3 6 in a c c e n t s o f t e r r o r ; w e r e c a l l t h a t t h e p a t r o n a g e o f G u a d a l u p e was a c o n s e q u e n c e of t h e second of these p l a g u e s . T h e s o l a r e c l i p s e s o f 1 7 5 2 , f o l l o w e d six y e a r s l a t e r by t h e e r u p t i o n o f t h e v o l c a n o o f J o r u l l o , t h e c o m e t o f 1 7 4 2 , t h e e a r t h q u a k e in G u a t e m a l a in 1751, caused great disquiet. T h e m a r t y r d o m of n u m e r o u s miss i o n a r i e s in t h e n o r t h e r n p r o v i n c e s r a v a g e d by I n d i a n u p r i s i n g s , t h e h a g i o g r a p h y t h a t k e p t alive t h e m e m o r y o f s u c h m a r t y r s as t h e F r a n ciscan A n t o n i o Margil d e J e s u s a n d several J e s u i t p i o n e e r s of t h e California missions, r e m i n d e d m e n of t h e Revelation of Isaiah a n d t h a t o f J o h n . C o n s e q u e n t l y , it w a s t h e p r o s p e c t o f t h e last d a y s , m o r e t h a n t h e p r o s p e r o u s p r e s e n t , t h a t f a s c i n a t e d t h e M e x i c a n Creoles. A c c o r d i n g to a n inspired Jesuit, " T h e w i s d o m of G o d inserted t h e d e l i c a t e weft o f t h e h i g h e s t s e c r e t s o f t h e p r e d e s t i n a t i o n o f t h i s N e w World into t h a t divine fabric, t h e i m a g e of T e p e y a c . " Carranza c l a i m e d t h a t if R o m e s h o u l d r e t u r n t o p a g a n i s m a n d t h e sacrifice o f the mass should disappear from the world, the mass would continue to b e c e l e b r a t e d at T e p e y a c . T h e Mexicans w e r e t h e n e w c h o s e n 4 4
4 5
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p e o p l e a n d M e x i c o City w a s n o t o n l y t h e n e w R o m e b u t t h e n e w J e r u s a l e m . T h e c r e o l e C a r r a n z a b a s e d this c o n v i c t i o n o n e x e g e s i s o f t h e S o n g o f S o n g s a n d R e v e l a t i o n 12. M e x i c a n e x p a n s i o n i s t m e s s i a n i s m o f t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y , in a sense the w o r k of a h a n d f u l of m e n w h o h a d k n o w n each o t h e r o n t h e benches of the Colegio d e San Ildefonso a n d w h o m the m i n e o w n e r s s u p p o r t e d with their economic power, h a d p r o p h e t i c g u a r a n t e e s . Biblical e x e g e s i s a n d d i s p l a y o f f a i t h in d u b i o u s m i r a c u l o u s t r a d i t i o n s , f a r f r o m b e i n g o n l y a n o b l i g a t o r y style b o r r o w e d f r o m t h e d o m i n a n t n a t i o n , o r a f a s h i o n a b l e d r e s s f o r n a t i o n a l a s p i r a t i o n s in s e a r c h o f t h e i r o w n l a n g u a g e , w e r e i n s e p a r a b l e f r o m t h o s e a s p i r a t i o n s . Relig i o u s f a i t h a n d n a t i o n a l f a i t h b l e n d e d ; t h e f o r m e r s e r v e d t h e l a t t e r as a metaphysical g u a r a n t e e , t h e latter was t h e b r e a t h t h a t i n s p i r e d t h e f o r m e r . T h e religion of t h e d o m i n a n t nation could not truly strike r o o t i n M e x i c o u n t i l it h a d b e e n a s s i m i l a t e d , M e x i c a n i z e d . I f M e x i c o w e r e t o b e c o m e in t h e a p p r o a c h i n g last d a y s t h e patria o f all t h e C h r i s t i a n s o f t h e w o r l d , r e f u g e e s in T e p e y a c , g a t h e r e d in t h e folds o f the starry mantle of G u a d a l u p e , t h e n the d e p e n d e n t Mexicans, t h r e a t e n e d b y E n g l i s h h e r e t i c s , t e r r o r i z e d b y s c o u r g e s a n d by t h e elements, could regain courage. New Spain's p r e e m i n e n c e over Old S p a i n in t h e key s e c t o r o f m e t a l l i c w e a l t h in t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y , j o i n e d to the charismatic certitude based o n a n e w e p i p h a n y (the " i n c a r n a t i o n " of t h e V i r g i n M a r y at Tepeyac), p e r m i t t e d t h e M e x i c a n s to escape f r o m t h e original stain of p a g a n i s m a n d b a r b a r i s m .
7
The Expulsion
The Holy War 1767-1821
of the Jesuits
(1767-70)
" T h e R e v e r e n d Jesuit Fathers t h r o w themselves at Your Excellency's feet a n d b e g h i m t o g r a n t t h e m p e r m i s s i o n t o c o m m e n d t h e m s e l v e s t o O u r Lady of G u a d a l u p e a n d bid farewell to that divine Lady w h e n t h e y p a s s by h e r s a n c t u a r y . " T h i s final p r a y e r , a d d r e s s e d t o t h e M a r q u e s d e C r o i x , v i c e r o y o f N e w S p a i n , b y o n e o f t h e last g r o u p s o f J e s u i t s t o t a k e t h e r o a d t o e x i l e , sets t h e t o n e o f t h a t h i s t o r i c a l m o m e n t . We recall t h e role played by t h e Jesuits in t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of t h e cult of G u a d a l u p e a n d , later, in t h e recognition of t h e tradition by t h e C o n g r e g a t i o n of Rites. T h e t r i u m p h a n t a d v a n c e of t h e e i g h t e e n t h - c e n t u r y M e x i c a n Creoles m e r g e d w i t h t h e a p o t h e o s i s o f t h e Society; t h i s fact clearly e m e r g e s f r o m d e v o t i o n a l l i t e r a t u r e . W e r e c a l l t h e s e e l o q u e n t titles o f s e r m o n s a n d n o v e n a s : " N o v e n a o f t h e T r i u m p h a n t C o m p a n y of J e s u s , " o r " H e a v e n Placed in O u r H a n d s by the H a n d s of Ignatius a n d His C o m p a n y . " C o n d i t i o n s following t h e expulsion of t h e Jesuits from N e w Spain were optimal for t h e a p p e a r ance a n d d e v e l o p m e n t of a myth of t h e Jesuit G o l d e n A g e . T h i s historical accident, t h e expulsion, h a d b e e n p r e c e d e d twenty years e a r l i e r b y " s i g n s " ; i n 1 7 4 7 l i g h t n i n g h a d twice s t r u c k t h e c h a p e l o f Saint I g n a t i u s Loyola, in t h e c a t h e d r a l of Puebla, o n e of t h e centers of t h e J e s u i t r a d i a n c e a n d t h e t h e a t e r o f t h e first e p i s o d e in t h e s t r u g g l e o f t h e Society a g a i n s t t h e s e c u l a r b i s h o p s . T h e official l i g h t n i n g w h i c h s t r u c k t h e J e s u i t s o f M e x i c o City o n t h e m o r n i n g o f J u n e 2 5 , 1 7 6 7 , w a s all t h e m o r e s t u p e f y i n g in its effects b e c a u s e it c a m e o u t o f a c l e a r b l u e sky. T w o y e a r s e a r l i e r t h e s o v e r e i g n p o n t i f f h a d c o n f i r m e d t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n s o f t h e Society b y t h e b r i e f Apostolicus pascendi; t h e safety o f t h e Society, i n s t a l l e d in t h e m o s t C a t h o l i c o f m o n a r c h i e s , r e v e r e d by a society as p i o u s as t h a t o f t h e M e x i c a n Creoles i n t h e e i g h t e e n t h century, s e e m e d assured. T h e r e were t h e n nearly seven h u n d r e d Jesuits in N e w Spain, a n d m a n y of t h e m o c c u p i e d e m i n e n t positions in society. N u m e r o u s d o c u m e n t s testify t h a t N e w S p a i n w a s s t r u c k with stupor. Despite t h e very great precautions that h a d b e e n taken, 1
2
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t h e d e p a r t u r e o f t h e J e s u i t s w a s a t t e n d e d by e m o t i o n a l d i s p l a y s in t h e m a j o r i t y o f cities a n d m i s s i o n s . T h e g r e a t d i s t a n c e s , t h e s l o w n e s s o f t r a v e l , t h e wait f o r f a v o r a b l e w i n d s b e f o r e t h e s h i p s t h a t w e r e to t a k e t h e r e l i g i o u s to E u r o p e c o u l d g e t u n d e r sail, t h e c r o s s i n g o f t h e c o u n t r y by J e s u i t s ( a t t a c h e d t o t h e p r o v i n c e o f M e x i c o ) w h o w e r e r e p a t r i a t e d f r o m t h e P h i l i p p i n e s , w e r e r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e fact t h a t m o r e t h a n t h r e e y e a r s a f t e r t h e a r r i v a l o f t h e d e c r e e o f e x p u l s i o n in N e w S p a i n , g r o u p s o f J e s u i t s , s u r r o u n d e d b y s o l d i e r s , still w e r e t r a v e r s i n g the country. T h e climate of those t h r e e years, decisive for t h e destiny of the M e x i c a n n a t i o n , e m e r g e s f r o m trial p r o c e e d i n g s , travel diaries, a n d p a m p h l e t s . T h e situation p r o v o k e d a wide variety of p o p u l a r react i o n s . T h e m o s t v i o l e n t c a m e f r o m t h e I n d i a n s ; a t S a n L u i s d e la Paz, in S o n o r a , t h e I n d i a n s p r e v e n t e d "by m a i n f o r c e t h e e x p u l s i o n a n d d e p a r t u r e of the Jesuits from the colegio that they h a d t h e r e u n d e r t h e n a m e o f m i s s i o n . " I t is a s t r i k i n g e x a m p l e o f J e s u i t i n f l u e n c e in t h e i r m i s s i o n s . S u c h c o m m o t i o n s w e r e n o t r a r e in N e w S p a i n ; s i m i l a r e p i s o d e s h a d t a k e n p l a c e in m i s s i o n t e r r i t o r i e s since t h e s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y . I n g e n e r a l , I n d i a n u p r i s i n g s w e r e f r e q u e n t . W h a t was to s o m e d e g r e e s p e c i a l a b o u t this a f f a i r w a s t h e b r u t a l i t y o f t h e r e p r e s sion a n d its swiftness. Less t h a n a m o n t h a f t e r t h e r i s i n g , t h e s e n t e n c e s of t h e guilty parties w e r e h a n d e d d o w n : "As m e r i t e d c h a s t i s e m e n t a n d a s a l u t a r y w a r n i n g t o t h e o t h e r s , I find t h a t I m u s t c o n d e m n a n d I d o c o n d e m n to d e a t h A n a M a r i a G o a t e m a l a , a n I n d i a n w i d o w ; J u l i a n Martinez Serrano; Vicente Ferral Rangel and Marcos Perez de Leon, b e c a u s e it is said t h a t h e is t h e p r i n c i p a l d e s c e n d a n t o f a c a c i q u e , t o b e s h o t by a firing s q u a d as a t r a i t o r ; a n d o n t h e p l a c e o f e x e c u t i o n t h e i r h e a d s will b e s e p a r a t e d f r o m t h e i r b o d i e s a n d p l a c e d o n p i k e s w h e r e t h e y shall r e m a i n u n t i l t i m e c o n s u m e s t h e m . " 3
4
T h o s e rotting heads that time consumed doubtless inspired the salutary fear that, the Visitador h o p e d , would p r e v e n t new convuls i o n s . B u t t h e y also p r o l o n g e d t h e s h o c k o f t h e J e s u i t e x p u l s i o n ; t h o s e Indian martyrs transformed what might have been an ephemeral e p i s o d e into a decisive h o u r for t h e history of Mexico. T o die for t h e J e s u i t s p r o v e d t o h a v e m o r e e x e m p l a r y v a l u e t h a n t o live a c c o r d i n g to J e s u i t models. C o m p a r a b l e to the eviction of the Franciscans f r o m t h e i r m i s s i o n s , t h e e x p u l s i o n o f t h e J e s u i t s c o u l d b e r e g a r d e d as a b e l a t e d r e v e n g e o f t h e F r i a r s M i n o r , f o r to t h e m w e r e e n t r u s t e d t h e majority of the f o r m e r J e s u i t missions. B u t t h e r e was n o l o n g e r any hostility b e t w e e n J e s u i t s a n d F r a n c i s c a n s in N e w S p a i n . A c o m p a r i s o n of the Franciscan expulsion a n d that of the Jesuits f r o m t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e p r o v i n c e s is i l l u m i n a t i n g chiefly b e c a u s e it brings out the differences between the two events. T h e a b a n d o n m e n t
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o f t h e F r a n c i s c a n m i s s i o n s , b e g u n in t h e last q u a r t e r o f t h e s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y , w a s a n e n t e r p r i s e c a r r i e d o u t b y s t a g e s ; it w a s n o t y e t c o m p l e t e in t h e m i d d l e o f t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y . T h e o c c a s i o n a l r i o t s t o which the d e p a r t u r e of the Franciscans or the arrival of the curates w h o w e r e t o r e p l a c e t h e m g a v e rise w e r e local e p i s o d e s , d i s p e r s e d in s p a c e a n d in t i m e . M o r e o v e r , t h e F r i a r s M i n o r w e r e n o t e x p e l l e d f r o m N e w Spain; they w e r e sent to o t h e r mission areas o r r e g r o u p e d in c o n v e n t s . T h e i r d i s p o s s e s s i o n was n o t p r e s e n t e d as a p u n i s h m e n t o r b a n i s h m e n t . T h e progressive a b a n d o n m e n t of the Franciscan missions h a d b e e n p r e c e d e d by a n u n d e n i a b l e decline of missionary zeal a m o n g t h e m e n d i c a n t o r d e r s in g e n e r a l . T h e e x p u l s i o n o f t h e J e s u i t s , o n t h e c o n t r a r y , in t h a t s e c o n d h a l f o f t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y w h i c h m a y rightly b e called t h e "Jesuit a g e " of N e w S p a i n — a s t h e s p l e n d o r o f t h e r e l i g i o u s a r c h i t e c t u r e o f N e w S p a i n still a t t e s t s — h a d the aspect of a s h a r p break. This aspect requires emphasis. T o b e g i n w i t h , its s u d d e n n e s s : f r o m o n e d a y t o t h e n e x t a b o d y o f m e n w h o o c c u p i e d a m o s t i m p o r t a n t p l a c e in t h e life o f N e w S p a i n a n d a m o n g all t h e social a n d e t h n i c g r o u p s t h a t c o m p o s e d its p o p u l a t i o n w a s t o r n a w a y in a m o v e so r a d i c a l t h a t n o n e c o u l d h a v e f o r e s e e n it. T h e J e s u i t s h a d a c h i e v e d a m o r a l l e a d e r s h i p , a n i n f l u e n c e o v e r t h e c r e o l e elite, t h a t I n d i a n s , a n d t h e castas, c o m p a r a b l e o n l y t o t h a t o f t h e F r a n c i s c a n p i o n e e r s in t h e t w e n t y y e a r s t h a t f o l l o w e d t h e a r r i v a l o f t h e T w e l v e in 1 5 2 4 . T h e y w e r e e x p e l l e d at t h e p e a k o f t h e i r p o w e r , a f t e r t h e y h a d led t h e n a t i o n a l - r e l i g i o u s c a u s e o f G u a d a l u p e t o t r i u m p h , after they h a d c h e c k e d t h e p o w e r of the viceroy over their missions, after they h a d defeated the secularizing bishops over the i s s u e o f b e a t i f i c a t i o n f o r P a l a f o x . T h i s last v i c t o r y c a m e s h o r t l y b e f o r e t h e e x p u l s i o n o f t h e Society; it was, p e r h a p s , t h e o n l y p o r t e n t o f t h i n g s t o c o m e f o r m i n d s sensitive t o s u b t l e i n d i c a t i o n s o f a c h a n g e in p a p a l policy. A n essential f e a t u r e of t h e e x p u l s i o n was t h e s i m u l t a n e o u s t i m i n g of t h e o r d e r s for e x p u l s i o n ; f r o m o n e e n d to t h e o t h e r of t h e viceroyalty o f N e w S p a i n a n d o f t h e w h o l e i m m e n s e S p a n i s h e m p i r e in A m e r i c a , I n d i a n s a r o s e for t h e s a m e r e a s o n ; t h i s fact w a s u n p r e c e d e n t e d . E v e n t h e r i s i n g led by C u a u h t e m o c in t h e s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y h a d o n l y u n i t e d t h e A z t e c s o f t h e valley o f M e x i c o , w h e r e a s t h e I n d i a n s of t h e J e s u i t missions b e l o n g e d to e t h n i c g r o u p s widely separ a t e d f r o m e a c h o t h e r by d i s t a n c e a n d c u l t u r e . O n e c a n s p e a k h e r e , f o r t h e first t i m e , o f a n a t i o n a l m o v e m e n t , a l t h o u g h it w a s n o t r e g a r d e d as s u c h e i t h e r by its a c t o r s o r by t h e r e p r e s s i v e a u t h o r i t y . T h i s m o v e m e n t w a s n a t i o n a l , a b o v e all, b e c a u s e it w a s t h e s p o n t a n e o u s r e a c t i o n o f all t h e social, r e g i o n a l , a n d e t h n i c g r o u p s o f N e w S p a i n t o a b l o w w h o s e s h o c k all felt k e e n l y . F o r t h e first t i m e , p e r h a p s , t h e
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Creoles, t h e castas, a n d t h e I n d i a n s m a d e c o m m o n c a u s e f r o m o n e e n d of t h e c o u n t r y to t h e o t h e r against a c o m m o n e n e m y — a n e n e m y w h o w a s n o l o n g e r t h e a n o n y m o u s gachupin, t h e t r a d i t i o n a l rival o f t h e c r e o l e , b u t t h e k i n g himself. A political p o w e r b a s e d o n u n i t y o f faith h a d e n t e r e d i n t o o p e n conflict w i t h t h e m e n w h o a p p e a r e d t o b e t h e i n t e r p r e t e r s o f o r t h o d o x y i n N e w S p a i n , t h e J e s u i t s . I n fact t h e J e s u i t s w e r e t h e g u a r d i a n s o f t h e faith o f t h e M e x i c a n p e o p l e , w h o s e aspirations they rightly i n t e r p r e t e d w h e n they b e c a m e c h a m p i o n s of t h e M a r i a n cult, p a r t i c u l a r l y o f its G u a d a l u p a n e x p r e s s i o n . T h u s t h e " s t a t i o n " m a d e a t t h e s a n c t u a r y o f G u a d a l u p e by g r o u p s o f J e s u i t s o n t h a t way of the cross which was to lead t h e m f r o m f r o m their c o u n t r y (first t o C o r s i c a , t h e n c e t o Italy) h a d a n a t i o n a l s i g n i f i c a n c e o f c a p i t a l i m p o r t a n c e . M e x i c a n s o f all r a c e s h a d c o m m u n e d u n d e r t h e aegis o f t h e Society in a u n a n i m o u s d e v o t i o n t o t h e V i r g i n o f T e p e y a c ; h e n c e f o r t h M e x i c a n G u a d a l u p a n C h r i s t i a n i t y h a d its m a r t y r s a n d its m e morial. G r e a t p r e c a u t i o n s h a d b e e n t a k e n t o a v o i d all c o n t a c t b e t w e e n t h e J e s u i t s a n d t h e r u r a l p o p u l a t i o n . I n t h e cities, h o w e v e r , t e n s i o n was g r e a t , as i n d i c a t e d b y t h e j o u r n a l o f a P h i l i p p i n e J e s u i t w h o c r o s s e d N e w S p a i n w i t h his c o m r a d e s f r o m A c a p u l c o t o V e r a c r u z . T h e d a t e w a s F e b r u a r y 1 7 7 0 ; o n e m i g h t e x p e c t t h a t by t h e n t h e p a s s i o n s a r o u s e d b y a m e a s u r e d e c r e e d J u n e 2 5 , 1 7 6 7 , h a d s u b s i d e d . B u t t h i s is w h a t t h e J e s u i t w r i t e s : " B e c a u s e o f t h e r o a d s , it w a s n e c e s s a r y t o p a s s v e r y close t o P u e b l a , a n d f o r t h i s r e a s o n t h e y a d d e d as a n e s c o r t a p i c k e t o f m o u n t e d d r a g o o n s ; a n d d e s p i t e all t h e i r p r e c a u t i o n s , s u c h as m a k i n g u s p a s s t h r o u g h v e r y e a r l y in t h e m o r n i n g a n d a t a s m a r t pace, t h e r e were people t h e r e w h o threw themselves on o u r carriages a m o n g t h e s o l d i e r s a n d t r i e d at least t o kiss o u r h a n d s , a t t h e risk o f b e i n g c r u s h e d . " N e x t day, the Jesuits e n t e r e d Veracruz "in I n d i a n file, w i t h s o l d i e r s in f o r m a t i o n in f r o n t , in t h e r e a r a n d o n t h e flanks." Although the Mexican people, "the children of G u a d a l u p e , " w e r e q u i t e h e t e r o d o x in t h e i r C a t h o l i c faith, t h e y b e l i e v e d in it as firmly as t h e i n q u i s i t o r s ; yet, t h e y w e r e s u b j e c t t o b r u t a l r e l i g i o u s persecution o n the occasion of the Jesuit expulsion. O n e Jesuit, exp e l l e d f r o m t h e C a l i f o r n i a m i s s i o n , left a m o v i n g a c c o u n t o f t h e r e pression: "At t h e p o r t of San Bias we f o u n d a n u m b e r of I n d i a n s f r o m S a n L u i s P o t o s i a n d its e n v i r o n s , c o n d e m n e d f o r h a v i n g r e v o l t e d . T h e y h a d t a k e n to a r m s w h e n they l e a r n e d that their missionaries were b e i n g t a k e n away. . . . O n e o f u s was s u m m o n e d t o h e a r t h e c o n f e s s i o n o f o n e o f t h e s e u n f o r t u n a t e s : h e f o u n d h i m so l a c e r a t e d b y l a s h e s t h a t all t h a t o n e c o u l d s e e o f h i m w a s b l o o d a n d b o n e s ; yet t h e y c o n t i n u e d to lash h i m every day without pity." T h e blood of the I n d i a n s a n d the m e n a c i n g s h a d o w of t h e d r a g o o n s , f r o m n o r t h to south, f r o m east to 5
6
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west, in N e w S p a i n , t h e n s e a l e d as if by a s a c r a m e n t t h e u n i o n o f all Mexicans. T h e w o r k which t h e cult of G u a d a l u p e h a d b e g u n t h e m a r t y r s o f t h e J e s u i t G u a d a l u p a n faith c o m p l e t e d , a n d t h e r e s u l t , a p r o d u c t o f t h e t i m e a n d t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s , was t h e M e x i c a n f a t h e r l a n d itself. T h e e x p u l s i o n c a u s e d i r r e m e d i a b l e d a m a g e t o loyalty t o t h e S p a n i s h m o n a r c h y . D o u b t p e n e t r a t e d all m i n d s ; t h i s a d m i s s i o n o f t h e b i s h o p o f G u a d a l a j a r a , r e p o r t e d by t h e p r e v i o u s w i t n e s s , is a g o o d e x a m p l e : "We h a d h a r d l y left G u a d a l a j a r a w h e n t h e b i s h o p s e n t o n e o f his c a n o n s t o g r e e t u s in his n a m e a n d t o c o n g r a t u l a t e u s — t h e s e a r e his o w n w o r d s — f o r e n d u r i n g exile for t h e n a m e of J e s u s . " T h e rest of t h e j o u r n a l gives a s t r i k i n g i m p r e s s i o n o f t h e a t m o s p h e r e in w h i c h t h e J e s u i t s left N e w S p a i n . T h e v i o l e n t a c t i o n s o f t h e I n d i a n s a n d t h e castas w h o w i s h e d t o p r e v e n t t h e i r d e p a r t u r e f o u n d a n e c h o in t h e e f f o r t s o f t h e Creoles t o m i t i g a t e t h e i r s u f f e r i n g s . " I n t h e s m a l l t o w n o f Xeres," r e p o r t s the same Jesuit, "the n u n s would not rest until they h a d o b t a i n e d a g r e e m e n t t h a t m a s s s h o u l d b e said t h e n e x t d a y in e a c h c o n v e n t by o n e o f u s . T h e g e n t l e m e n o f t h e t o w n c o n d u c t e d u s t h e r e in t h e i r c a r r i a g e s . T h e c o n f e s s o r s o f t h e d i f f e r e n t m o n a s t e r i e s t o l d u s that the religious w e r e practicing such g r e a t austerities to obtain t h e r e t u r n o f t h e Society f r o m G o d , t h a t s o m e w o u l d h a v e lost t h e i r h e a l t h if t h e y [ t h e c o n f e s s o r s ] h a d n o t p u t a s t o p t o it." It m a y b e o b j e c t e d t h a t this t e s t i m o n y , like t h o s e w h i c h p r e c e d e d it, is s u s p e c t b e c a u s e it d e r i v e s f r o m e x i l e d J e s u i t s . N o d o u b t t h e s e J e s u i t s w i s h e d to a d d a p a r t i c u l a r l y e d i f y i n g last c h a p t e r t o t h e Lettres edifiantes, b u t t h e y d i d n o t i n v e n t t h e facts. T h e s u m m a r y j u d g m e n t s h a n d e d d o w n a g a i n s t the instigators of t h e I n d i a n uprisings, the creole p a m p h l e t s seized w i t h n o t a b l e lack o f alacrity by t h e i n q u i s i t o r s , c o n f i r m t h a t t h e J e s u i t e x p u l s i o n t o o k p l a c e in t h e a t m o s p h e r e t h a t t h e J e s u i t s t h e m s l e v e s d e s c r i b e d . T h e last p i e c e o f t e s t i m o n y c i t e d s h o w s t h e p r o - J e s u i t zeal of t h e n u n s a n d t h e mortifications to w h i c h t h e faithful subjected themselves. 8
9
We m u s t n o t f o r g e t t h a t J e s u i t s h a d c h a r g e o f t h e s p i r i t u a l d i r e c t i o n of n u m e r o u s n u n n e r i e s , a n d t h a t since t h e sixteenth c e n t u r y they h a d b e e n p r o m o t e r s o f t h e M a r i a n b r o t h e r h o o d s , w h i c h , like t h e i r colegios, w e r e a m o n g t h e m o s t effective i n s t r u m e n t s o f J e s u i t i n f l u e n c e a m o n g l a y m e n . G i v e n t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e M a r i a n b r o t h e r h o o d s in t h e life o f N e w S p a i n , w e m a y say t h a t t h e e x p u l s i o n o f t h e Society e l i m i n a t e d o n e o f t h e m o s t vital i n s t i t u t i o n s o f u r b a n a n d r u r a l relig i o u s life, its t r u e cell. T h u s t h e J e s u i t d e p a r t u r e f r o m t h e d i f f e r e n t towns a n d r e g i o n s of N e w S p a i n was a cultural c a t a s t r o p h e , c o m p a r a b l e in i m p o r t a n c e in N e w S p a i n ' s h i s t o r y t o t h e effect t h a t t h e d e p a r t u r e for exile n i n e centuries b e f o r e of the priest-king of Tula,
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Q u e t z a l c o a t l , h a d in t h e h i s t o r y o f a n c i e n t M e x i c o . I n d e e d , t h e stations of t h e cross of t h e Jesuits o n their way to V e r a c r u z m o r e t h a n o n c e recall t h e s t a t i o n s o f Q u e t z a l c o a t l , w h o p e r f o r m e d m i r a c l e s o n the r o a d a n d , before h e d i s a p p e a r e d a m i d the waves, p r o m i s e d to r e t u r n in t r i u m p h . T h e cyclical s c h e m e , i m p l y i n g t h e r e t u r n o f t h e M e s s i a h in g l o r y a f t e r t h e o r d e a l o f d e a t h o r e x i l e , a p p l i e s as well t o Q u e t z a l c o a t l as t o t h e J e s u i t s . I n d e p e n d e n c e , w o n u n d e r t h e b a n n e r o f G u a d a l u p e w h i c h t h e J e s u i t s h a d b e e n t h e first t o r a i s e h i g h , a m i d c r i e s o f " D e a t h to t h e gachupines!" ( t h e i r p e r s e c u t o r s ) w a s t o b r i n g t h e t r i u m p h a n t r e t u r n o f t h e Society. W h e t h e r o r n o t t h e m u l t i t u d e w a s a w a r e o f it, t h e s i m i l a r i t y w i t h t h e e x i l e o f Q u e t z a l c o a t l T o p i l t z i n w a s striking. Like t h a t exile, t h e J e s u i t e x p u l s i o n was a c c o m p a n i e d by m e s s i a n i c a n d mystical d e v e l o p m e n t s a n d b y s u p e r n a t u r a l s i g n s . T h e a n o n y m o u s J e s u i t o f C a l i f o r n i a left u s a n o t h e r p r e c i o u s bit o f t e s t i m o n y in t h i s r e g a r d : " W h i l e t h e s h i p w a s b e i n g m a d e r e a d y t o g e t u n d e r sail, A p r i l 4 , a b o u t t w e n t y m i n u t e s a f t e r six in t h e m o r n i n g , a n e a r t h q u a k e w a s felt w h i c h l a s t e d a b o u t s e v e n m i n u t e s . . . . I n t h e p u b lic s q u a r e s t h e p e o p l e p r o s t r a t e d t h e m s e l v e s o n t h e g r o u n d , w a i l i n g a n d b e g g i n g for divine m e r c y ; m a n y cried a l o u d t h a t h e a v e n clearly w a s b e g i n n i n g t o p u n i s h t h e e x p u l s i o n o f t h e J e s u i t s . " It w a s in a n a p o c a l y p t i c a t m o s p h e r e t h a t t h e s e m i s s i o n a r i e s sailed f r o m V e r a c r u z a b o a r d t h e Santa Ana, a r o t t e n s h i p w h i c h a l l e g e d l y c o u l d n o t h a v e survived the crossing without the "protection from on h i g h . " Some n u n s w h o h a d recently b e e n p u t u n d e r the spiritual direction of the Jesuits had "revelations" which a n n o u n c e d the approaching restorat i o n o f t h e Society a n d t h e r e t u r n o f t h e exiles. T h e o r d e r f o r b i d d i n g t h e J e s u i t s t o e n t e r M e x i c o C i t y w h i l e e n r o u t e to t h e i r e x i l e a p p e a r s p a t h e t i c in t h e l i g h t o f t h e s e facts. T h e y h a d p e n e t r a t e d t h e d e p t h s o f t h e collective c o n s c i o u s n e s s , a u r e o l e d w i t h t h e r e p u t a t i o n o f m a r t y r s . T h e J e s u i t m y t h , m o r e o r less c o n f o u n d e d w i t h t h a t o f t h e V i r g i n o f G u a d a l u p e , w a s to e n g e n d e r effects m u c h m o r e s e r i o u s f o r t h e f u t u r e of t h e S p a n i s h d o m i n a t i o n t h a n t h e riots which t h e authorities m a n a g e d t o p r e v e n t in t h e c a p i t a l . F r o m S a n A n t o n i o in T e x a s t o S a n Francisco, f r o m t h e sanctuary of T e p e y a c to t h e h o u s e h o l d altars w h i c h t h e m o d e s t I n d i a n h u t s (jacales) still d i s p l a y t o t h i s d a y , t h e image of G u a d a l u p e recalled the presence of the Jesuits a n d nourished the h o p e of their r e t u r n . 1 0
1 1
V i e w e d in t h a t light, t h e p a s s i o n a t e p o l e m i c — w i t h s p e c i a l r e f e r e n c e t o t h e P e r u v i a n J e s u i t V i z c a r d o , a u t h o r o f a n Open Letter to the Spaniards of America ( 1 7 9 1 ) — a b o u t t h e r o l e p l a y e d b y s o m e f o r m e r J e s u i t s in t h e i n d e p e n d e n c e m o v e m e n t s o f S p a n i s h A m e r i c a t o t h e close o f t h e e i g h t e e n t h a n d t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s , loses m u c h o f its i m p o r t a n c e . O n t h e i d e o l o g i c a l level, it is likely, as 1 2
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F a t h e r F u r l o n g h a s w r i t t e n in r e g a r d t o A r g e n t i n a , t h a t t h e " p o p u l i s t " d o c t r i n e o f t h e J e s u i t S u a r e z p r e p a r e d t h e soil f o r its p e n e t r a t i o n b y t h e n e w d e m o c r a t i c i d e a l s d i s s e m i n a t e d by R o u s s e a u a n d t h e i d e o l o g u e s o f t h e F r e n c h R e v o l u t i o n . B u t t h e " h i d d e n m i n e " left by t h e J e s u i t s in t h e I n d i e s a f t e r t h e i r e x p u l s i o n , a b o u t w h i c h t h e b i s h o p of B u e n o s Aires h a d a p r e s e n t i m e n t , was b u r i e d m o r e deeply. In N e w S p a i n , especially, it o w e d its e x p l o s i v e p o w e r t o t h e fact t h a t it s h o o k d e e p l a y e r s o f t h e collective c o n s c i o u s n e s s . T h e e x p u l s i o n o f t h e J e s u i t s w a s o r i g i n a l l y a h i s t o r i c a l a c c i d e n t t h a t i n s e r t e d itself i n t o t h e r e l i g i o u s c o n s c i o u s n e s s o n t h e level o f t h e m y t h - c r e a t i n g f a c u l t y . T h e " r e v e l a t i o n s " o f t h e beatas w i t h r e g a r d t o t h e r e t u r n o f t h e J e s u i t s w e r e t h e b e l a t e d r e s u r g e n c e , in t h i s a g e o f t h e E n l i g h t e n m e n t , o f t h e r e v e l a t i o n s o f o t h e r n u n s o f t h e s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y . We h a v e s e e n w i t h w h a t pitiless s e v e r i t y t h e I n q u i s i t i o n r e p r e s s e d t h o s e r e l i g i o u s . T h e M e x i c a n I n q u i s i t i o n d i s p l a y e d a n a s t o u n d i n g passivity in t h e face o f a p r o l i f e r a t i o n o f d e f a m a t o r y libels a g a i n s t t h e k i n g , a n d t o w a r d t h e i l l u m i n i s t ( a n d clearly h e t e r o d o x ) e x p r e s s i o n s o f M e x i c a n a t t a c h m e n t t o t h e Society. T h e c o n f e s s o r s w e r e e q u a l l y i n d u l g e n t w i t h t h o s e o f their peniten ts w h o accused themselves of desiring the d e a t h of a r u l e r as t y r a n n i c a l as C h a r l e s I I I , p l a i n l y d e s c r i b e d as a h e r e t i c i n p l a c a r d s p o s t e d o n t h e walls o f t h e cities o f N e w S p a i n . O n l y a f t e r it received a severe r e p r i m a n d from the m o n a r c h , did the tribunal resolve t o p r o s e c u t e p r i e s t s w h o , n o t c o n t e n t w i t h f a i l u r e to d e n o u n c e t h e p o t e n t i a l r e g i c i d e s , e n c o u r a g e d t h e m in t h e c o n f e s s i o n a l b o x . W e h a v e c o m e a l o n g way f r o m the confessor-seducers of the past; h e r e political p a s s i o n c o m e s e v e n w i t h t h e collective c o n s c i o u s n e s s . T h i s g r e a t c h a n g e was doubtless o n e of t h e m o s t serious s h o r t - t e r m conseq u e n c e s o f t h e e x p u l s i o n ; in a n y case, it w a s o n e o f its i m m e d i a t e effects. By c o m p a r i s o n w i t h its d e c i s i v e c o n t r i b u t i o n t o p r e c i p i t a t i o n (in t h e c h e m i c a l s e n s e — i n S p a n i s h o n e w o u l d say, ha venido a cuajar) o f t h e Mexican national consciousness, t h e o t h e r aspects of t h e Jesuit e x p u l s i o n w e r e o f s e c o n d a r y i m p o r t a n c e . T h e s e c u l a r i z a t i o n o f t h e Society's real estate a n d p e r s o n a l p r o p e r t y , to be s u r e , h a d a n i m p a c t o n t h e e c o n o m i c life o f N e w S p a i n . E v e n t h a t i m p a c t , h o w e v e r , s e e m e d t o h a v e a r e l i g i o u s a s p e c t ; w h e n e f f o r t s w e r e m a d e t o a p p l y t h e official i n s t r u c t i o n d i r e c t i n g t h e sale o f t h e Society's livestock, t h e y h a d t o b e a b a n d o n e d o n t h e local level, f o r t h e I n d i a n s r e g a r d e d t h e c a t t l e a n d h o r s e s o f t h e J e s u i t m i s s i o n s as s a c r e d a n i m a l s , p r o t e c t e d b y a t a b o o , a n d t o p u t t h e m u p f o r sale w o u l d h a v e p r o v o k e d n e w u p r i s i n g s . S o s a c r e d w a s all t h a t p e r t a i n e d t o t h e J e s u i t s , t h a t t h e s a c r e d p e r s o n o f t h e m o n a r c h s u f f e r e d in c o n s e q u e n c e a c o r r e s p o n d i n g i r r e m e d i a b l e d i m i n u t i o n . T h e S p a n i s h k i n g h a d w i s h e d t o c o n s o l i d a t e his p a t r o n a g e
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o v e r t h e c h u r c h o f t h e I n d i e s a n d m a n i f e s t his r o y a l p r e r o g a t i v e by e x p e l l i n g t h e Society; in s u c c e e d i n g y e a r s this m e a s u r e was followed by o t h e r s d e s i g n e d to m a k e religious o r d e r s d e p e n d i n g o n t h e P a t r o n a t o " k e e p to h e e l . " B u t , t h r o u g h fatal political e r r o r , it c a u s e d a c o m m o t i o n t h a t l i g h t e d t h e first s p a r k o f a h o l y w a r , a f l a m e n o t t o b e e x t i n g u i s h e d until the a c h i e v e m e n t of I n d e p e n d e n c e . P a t r o n a n d p r o t e c t o r o f t h e official c h u r c h , o f t h e s e c u l a r a n d r e g u l a r c l e r g y o f N e w Spain, t h e king was n e i t h e r t h e g u i d e n o r t h e p r e e m i n e n t h e a d o f t h e r e a l M e x i c a n c h u r c h , t h a t Iglesia Indiana w h i c h e v e r s i n c e t h e sixteenth c e n t u r y h a d b e e n t h e p e r s o n a l p r o p e r t y of t h e friars. After l o n g s u b t e r r a n e a n j o u r n e y s , a n e w a v a t a r of t h e Iglesia indiana of t h e Franciscan missionaries h a d arisen o n t h e h o r i z o n of the M e x i c a n c o n s c i o u s n e s s ; its e m b l e m was t h e V i r g i n o f G u a d a l u p e , its s a c e r d o t a l b o d y was c o m p o s e d a b o v e all o f J e s u i t s . T h e i r e x p u l s i o n w a s t h e f o u n d i n g act, a f t e r t w o a n d a h a l f c e n t u r i e s o f e v a n g e l i z a t i o n , of a truly national c h u r c h , which immediately a n d violently asserted its r i g h t s a g a i n s t t h e c h u r c h o f t h e c o l o n i z e r s . A c o m b a t i v e c h u r c h , f r o m t h e first it w a s i n s p i r e d by a g r e a t m e s s i a n i c a s p i r a t i o n t h a t implied the r e t u r n of t h e Jesuits. T h e d e p a r t u r e of the Jesuits from the mission territories often h a d disastrous consequences. T h e material absence of t h e spiritual supp o r t w h i c h t h e y h a d g i v e n t h e I n d i a n s w a s felt t h e d a y a f t e r t h e i r d e p a r t u r e , a n d m a n y m o n t h s frequently elapsed before the arrival of the Franciscan r e p l a c e m e n t s . I n places w h e r e secular clergy r e p l a c e d t h e J e s u i t s , as a r u l e t h e r e f o l l o w e d t h e s a m e s p i r i t u a l s h i p w r e c k which h a d a c c o m p a n i e d t h e r e p l a c e m e n t of t h e Franciscans by p a r i s h p r i e s t s in t h e p a s t . I n t h e e d u c a t i o n a l field, t h e u n i v e r s i t y c h a i r s vacated by Jesuits, w h o w e r e receptive to t h e a d v a n c e d E u r o p e a n k n o w l e d g e o f t h e i r t i m e , r a r e l y w e r e filled by t e a c h e r s o f c o m p a r a b l e b r i l l i a n c e . I n fine, t h e d e p a r t u r e o f t h e J e s u i t s c r e a t e d a s p i r i t u a l a n d i n t e l l e c t u a l v a c u u m in d i f f e r e n t g e o g r a p h i c a l r e g i o n s a n d in m a n y vital s e c t o r s o f t h e life o f t h e v i c e r o y a l t y — a v a c u u m t h a t c o u l d n o t b e filled. I n t o t h i s v a c u u m r u s h e d t h e E n l i g h t e n m e n t w i t h its t r a i n o f h e t e r o d o x ideas. T h e limited p r o g r e s s m a d e by d e i s m a n d e v e n a t h e i s m , b y r e v o l u t i o n a r y i d e a s t h a t p r e a c h e d o r at least a c c e p t e d r e g i c i d e in N e w S p a i n in t h e last q u a r t e r o f t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y , would have b e e n impossible without the spiritual disarray, the r a n c o r against the m o n a r c h y , a n d the disorganization of the educational p r o c e s s , c a u s e d by t h e b r u t a l J e s u i t e x p u l s i o n . H i s t o r i a n s h a v e a m p l y d i s c u s s e d t h e c a u s e s o f t h a t e v e n t , b u t t h e q u e s t i o n o f its r e s u l t s f o r m s a historical p r o b l e m of m u c h g r e a t e r significance. 13
I n t h e p r e c e d i n g pages, I h a v e called attention to t h e i m p o r t a n c e of
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t h e J e s u i t c o n t r i b u t i o n to t h e f o r m a t i o n o f a M e x i c a n n a t i o n a l c o n sciousness. T h a t brief survey of a very large topic would be incomp l e t e w i t h o u t s o m e m e n t i o n o f t h e r o l e o f t h e J e s u i t s in exile. I h a v e a l l u d e d t o t h o s e w h o t o o k a d i r e c t p a r t in t h e W a r s o f I n d e p e n d e n c e . T h e Letter to the American Spaniards o f t h e a b b o t V i z c a r d o , a n e x - J e s u i t f r o m P e r u , t h e activity o f a n o t h e r e x - J e s u i t o f T u c u m a n , F a t h e r D i e g o L e o n V i l l a f a n e , w h o r e t u r n e d t o t h e R i o d e la P l a t a a n d p a r t i c i p a t e d in t h e M a y R e v o l u t i o n in A r g e n t i n a , d e s e r v e m e n t i o n , a t least. It is o f i n t e r e s t t h a t n o t a s i n g l e M e x i c a n J e s u i t e x i l e t o o k a n active p a r t in t h e m o v e m e n t f o r I n d e p e n d e n c e . I n o r d e r t o assess p r o p e r l y t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n o f t h e J e s u i t r e f u g e e s in Italy ( m o s t o f t h e m u l t i m a t e l y sett l e d in C e s e n a ) t o t h e l i b e r a t i o n o f N e w S p a i n a n d t h e r e s t o r a t i o n o f a l a r g e l y m y t h i c a l M e x i c a n e m p i r e , w e m u s t f o r g e t r e v o l u t i o n a r y activity o f e v e r y k i n d . I n s e v e r a l m a s t e r f u l p a g e s F a t h e r B a t l l o r i h a s d i s posed of pseudo-historical legends a b o u t a s u p p o s e d Jesuit plot beh i n d the A m e r i c a n Wars of I n d e p e n d e n c e . Obsession with the Jesuits, w h e t h e r i n s p i r e d b y a d e n i g r a t i v e o r a n a p o l o g e t i c a l spirit, h a s l o n g b e e n d i s a s t r o u s t o h i s t o r y ; I n e e d n o t s t o p t o r e f u t e it. I p r e f e r t o cite a c o m m e n t of F a t h e r B a t l l o r i ' s t h a t m a k e s a g o o d p o i n t o f d e p a r t u r e . H e o b s e r v e s t h a t " t h e s e A m e r i c a n S p a n i a r d s [Espanoles americanos]—to use the t e r m i n o l o g y of Vizcardo, t h e most advanced thinker a m o n g them—were no longer pure Spaniards, but were n o t yet p u r e A m e r i c a n s ; they r e p r e s e n t a pre-national reg i o n a l i s t p h a s e in w h i c h t h e n o s t a l g i a o f t h e exiles p l a y e d t h e r o l e t h a t h i s t o r i c a l r o m a n t i c i s m was t o p l a y . . . in E u r o p e . " A m a j o r t h e s i s o f the p r e s e n t w o r k has b e e n that from t h e m i d d l e of t h e sixteenth cent u r y t h e M e x i c a n Creoles w e r e n o l o n g e r c o m p l e t e l y S p a n i a r d s ; t h e y felt t h e y w e r e subjects o f t h e S p a n i s h k i n g a n d d e s c e n d a n t s o f S p a n i a r d s , t o b e s u r e , b u t m a i n t a i n e d a n a t t i t u d e of o p p o s i t i o n , i n d e e d o f rejection, toward the latter. T h e t e r m " A m e r i c a n S p a n i a r d s " a p p e a r e d in t h e legal texts, b u t t h e s p o k e n l a n g u a g e (and often t h e written lang u a g e as well) r e t a i n e d o n l y t h e a d j e c t i v e " A m e r i c a n " o r t h a t o f " c r e o l e . " A t t h e close o f t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y t h e M e x i c a n s w e r e n o t , a n d h a d n o t b e e n f o r t w o c e n t u r i e s , " p u r e S p a n i a r d s " in a n y sense. Were they " p u r e Americans," then? F r a n c i s c o J a v i e r C l a v i j e r o , in t h e d e d i c a t i o n t o t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f M e x i c o City o f his hlistoria antigua de Mexico, d a t e d 1 7 8 0 , at B o l o g n a , b e t r a y s a n e x i s t e n t i a l a n g u i s h b y his s e m a n t i c u n c e r t a i n t y . H i s first w o r d s a r e : " A history of Mexico written by a Mexican," which s e e m s to r e v e a l a t h o r o u g h l y c o n s c i o u s p a t r i o t i c f e e l i n g a n d a p r i d e in t h a t f e e l i n g . I n less t h a n f o u r p a g e s h e m e n t i o n s his patria f o u r t i m e s , a n d p r e s e n t s his w o r k as " t e s t i m o n y o f m y m o s t s i n c e r e love f o r m y patria." T h e c o n t e x t l e a v e s n o r o o m f o r d o u b t as t o t h e i d e n t i t y o f t h i s c o u n t r y ; 1 4
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it is M e x i c o . H e a l s o w r i t e s , a d d r e s s i n g h i m s e l f t o t h e p r o f e s s o r s o f t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f M e x i c o C i t y : " t h e h i s t o r y o f o u r patria" R e f e r r i n g t o t h e M e x i c a n Creoles, h e w r i t e s " o u r c o m p a t r i o t s . " B u t w e o b s e r v e t h a t C l a v i j e r o , h a v i n g i d e n t i f i e d h i m s e l f as a " M e x i c a n , " a p p l i e s t h i s t e r m in t h e r e s t o f t h e b o o k o n l y t o t h e I n d i a n s o f a n c i e n t M e x i c o . H e r e is a n initial difficulty. S p e a k i n g o f t h e s o u r c e s f o r t h e h i s t o r y o f a n c i e n t M e x i c o , h e cites " t h e m i s s i o n a r i e s a n d o t h e r S p a n i a r d s o f t h e past" o n t h e o n e h a n d , a n d t h e Indians themselves o n t h e other. A l t h o u g h h e h a s d e s c r i b e d t h e Creoles o f t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f M e x i c o City a s h i s " c o m p a t r i o t s , " i n t h e p r o l o g u e t h a t follows h e w r i t e s " m y c o m p a t r i o t s [nacionales]" i n s p e a k i n g o f t h e S p a n i a r d s . 1 6
T h e c o n c e p t o f " n a t i o n " i n its classic s e n s e , b e f o r e t h e t r i u m p h o f the national m o v e m e n t s i n a u g u r a t e d by t h e French Revolution, bel o n g e d to t h e vocabulary of physical a n t h r o p o l o g y , a n a n t h r o p o l o g y t h a t w a s d e r i v e d , like all k n o w l e d g e , f r o m S c r i p t u r e . O r i g i n a l l y w e find t h e o p p o s i t i o n b e t w e e n I s r a e l a n d t h e " n a t i o n s . " T h i s t e r m w a s t h e n almost s y n o n y m o u s with "tribes" in t h e l a n g u a g e of m o d e r n a n t h r o p o l o g y . Clavijero called t h e S p a n i a r d s his c o m p a t r i o t s {nacionales) b e c a u s e h e w a s o f S p a n i s h stock. T h e r e b y h e d i s t i n g u i s h e d t h e m f r o m h i s " c o m p a t r i o t s , " t h e Creoles o f N e w S p a i n , w i t h w h o m h e s h a r e d i n c o m m o n a patria ( s h o u l d this b e u n d e r s t o o d in t h e p e n i n s u l a r s e n s e of patria chica?), t h a t is, a n a t i v e l a n d . " N a t i o n " e x p r e s s e d t h e b o n d s o f b l o o d a n d patria t e r r i t o r i a l b o n d s . W e also n o t e t h a t i n t h e d e t a i l e d a c c o u n t w h i c h h e gives o f t h e e p i s o d e s o f t h e C o n q u e s t Clavij e r o designates t h e I n d i a n s by t h e t e r m "Mexicans" a n d t h e S p a n i a r d s by t h e n a m e o f " S p a n i a r d s , " in t h e first c a s e e x c l u d i n g t h e t e r m " I n d i a n s , " w h i c h h e s e e m s t o r e s e r v e f o r t h e I n d i a n s o f his o w n t i m e , a n d in t h e s e c o n d s u c h t e r m s as " o u r f o r e b e a r s " o r " o u r f a t h e r s , " w h i c h h e a p p l i e d t o t h e M e x i c a n Creoles. T h e f o u n d e r o f t h e Real Congregacion de Na. Sra. de Guadalupe de Mexico, o f M a d r i d , h a d s u m m e d u p t h e a i m s o f this society i n 1 7 5 7 in the following t e r m s : " T h e h o n o r a n d glory of t h e nation; t h e benefit o f t h e n a t i o n a l s a n d o f t h o s e w h o h a v e ties w i t h t h e I n d i e s , t h e a d v a n t a g e o f t h e A m e r i c a s , a n d t h e p r i d e o f k n o w i n g t h a t t h e y a r e as w o r t h y as f o r e i g n n a t i o n s . " O b s e r v e t h e v a l u e o f t h e w o r d " n a t i o n " a n d t h e application of t h e t e r m "nationals" to t h e Mexicans; this u s e o f n e o l o g i s m s ( " n a t i o n " d o e s n o t h a v e h e r e its e t h n i c s e n s e o f " p e o p l e s , " d e r i v e d f r o m S c r i p t u r e ) is t h e m o r e i n t e r e s t i n g f o r t h e h i s t o r y o f M e x i c a n n a t i o n a l s e n t i m e n t b e c a u s e it is o p p o s e d t o " f o r e i g n n a t i o n s , " a n d i n t h e first p l a c e t o S p a i n . If w e c o m p a r e this text with t h a t o f Francisco J a v i e r Clavijero, which I have just analyzed, we get a clearer idea of t h e e m e r g e n c e of a M e x i c a n n a t i o n a l c o n s c i o u s n e s s o n t h e l i n g u i s t i c level a n d t h e 1 7
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a p p r o x i m a t e d a t e of that p h e n o m e n o n . We discover that each time w e m u s t p u s h f a r t h e r back in time t h e a p p e a r a n c e of a conscious sentim e n t o f n a t i o n a l i d e n t i t y c a p a b l e o f explicitly a s s e r t i n g its p r i m o r d i a l claim of dignity against t h e d o m i n a n t Spanish nation. A m i d these a p p a r e n t i n d e c i s i o n s , s e v e r a l facts s t a n d o u t : C l a v i j e r o gives t h e n a m e " M e x i c a n s " t o t h e I n d i a n s b e f o r e t h e i r d e f e a t , b u t also calls h i m s e l f a "Mexican"; a n d h e does n o t write "creoles" b u t " m y compatriots." C l a v i j e r o ' s h i s t o r y e n d s w i t h t h e e v o c a t i o n o f t h e siege o f T e n o c h t i t l a n - M e x i c o a n d its d e s t r u c t i o n b y t h e S p a n i a r d s , c o m p a r e d to t h e d e s t r u c t i o n of J e r u s a l e m by t h e R o m a n s . T h i s i m a g e m a k e s a m p l y c l e a r w h e r e t h e s y m p a t h i e s o f t h e i l l u s t r i o u s J e s u i t e x i l e lie; f o r t h e rest, h e m a k e s n o effort to conceal t h e m . " T h e k i n g o f Mexico, despite the grandiose promises of the Spanish general" (the circumlocution to designate Cortes reveals t h e r e p u d i a t i o n of t h e C o n q u e s t by t h e Creoles o n t h e e v e o f I n d e p e n d e n c e ) " w a s a few d a y s l a t e r i g n o m i n i o u s l y p u t t o t h e t o r t u r e . " C l a v i j e r o sees in t h e a b a n d o n e d s t a t e o f t h e Creoles as well a s o f " t h e vile A f r i c a n slaves a n d t h e i r d e s c e n d a n t s " a m o u r n f u l e x a m p l e o f d i v i n e j u s t i c e a n d t h e instability of k i n g d o m s . 1 8
T h e n o b l e title o f " M e x i c a n , " t h e n , C l a v i j e r o r e s e r v e s f o r I n d i a n s o f t h e p a s t , m a s t e r s o f t h e i r o w n c o u n t r y , a n d f o r t h e m o d e r n Creoles, w h o a s p i r e t o b e c o m e its m a s t e r s . T h e S p a n i a r d s in g e n e r a l a r e m e n t i o n e d as m e r e f o r e i g n e r s ; as f o r t h e c a s t e s , t h e y a r e r e l e g a t e d t o t h e i r servile c o n d i t i o n . By r e f u s i n g t o i n t e g r a t e m u l a t t o e s a n d o t h e r m i x e d - b l o o d s in his patria, C l a v i j e r o r e v e a l s h i s c r e o l e m e n t a l i t y ( h e is m o r e b a c k w a r d in this r e s p e c t t h a n S o r J u a n a I n e s d e la C r u z , w h o a n t e d a t e d h i m by a century). T h e innovative aspects of his t h o u g h t are t h e notable absence from his book of t h e expression " N e w S p a i n " — t h e o n l y official t i t l e — a n d , a b o v e all, t h e a m b i v a l e n c e o f t h e n a m e " M e x i c a n . " I t r e v e a l s a p o s t u r e a l r e a d y e v i d e n t in S i g u e n z a y G o n g o r a , t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n t o i n t e g r a t e t h e M e x i c a n p a s t in t h e c r e o l e patria, w h i l e e x c l u d i n g t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y I n d i a n . Clavijero was already a Mexican, highly conscious of b e i n g such. S h o u l d we c e n s u r e h i m for b e i n g u n a w a r e that his c o u n t r y could only a c h i e v e t r u e n a t i o n h o o d b y i n t e g r a t i n g all its e t h n i c g r o u p s , w h e n a s l a t e as a c e n t u r y a f t e r i n d e p e n d e n c e m a n y i n t e l l i g e n t M e x i c a n s c o n t i n u e d t o t h i n k like e i g h t e e n t h - c e n t u r y Creoles? W e m a y say t h a t Clavijero's patriotism corresponded to "a phase of prenational reg i o n a l i s m , " if b y " n a t i o n " w e m e a n a r e a l i t y sui generis, c h a r a c t e r i z e d precisely by t h e integration o f different ethnic c o m m u n i t i e s , u n i t e d b y v o l u n t a r y political b o n d s , b y c o m m o n i n t e r e s t s , a n d b y a c o m m o n affective h e r i t a g e . I t is o n e o f t h o s e i r o n i e s o f h i s t o r y , p e r h a p s , t h a t t h e M e x i c a n J e s u i t
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exiles in Italy, u n c o n s c i o u s m i d w i v e s o f t h e M e x i c a n " n a t i o n " ( n a t i o n in t h e m o d e r n s e n s e , t h i s t i m e ) , c u t off f r o m t h e daily r e a l i t y o f t h e i r patria, h a d n o i d e a o f t h e r e p e r c u s s i o n s o f t h e i r e x i l e o n t h e M e x i c a n collective c o n s c i o u s n e s s . T h e s e s o n s o f t h e c r e o l e b o u r g e o i s i e w h o s e e x p u l s i o n h a d b r o u g h t loss t o a l m o s t e v e r y p r o m i n e n t M e x i c a n f a m ily, r e d i s c o v e r e d t h e biblical t e r m " t r i b u l a t i o n " in o r d e r t o d e s c r i b e their exile a n d identified themselves half-consciously with t h e p e o p l e of I s r a e l , a n a n a l o g y c o n f i r m e d by c o m p a r i s o n o f M e x i c o T e n o c h t i t l a n w i t h a n c i e n t J e r u s a l e m . (We h a v e s e e n t h e c r e o l e preachers develop these themes.) To restore the T e m p l e , to e n d their e x i l e a n d first o f all t h a t s p i r i t u a l exile t h a t t h e c o l o n i a l c e n t u r i e s constituted, was t h e p r o f o u n d , c o n s t a n t aspiration of t h e creole patriots. T h e e r a s u r e o f t h e t e r m " N e w S p a i n " f r o m C l a v i j e r o ' s History is t h e p r e l u d e t o its r e p l a c e m e n t w i t h t h e w o r d " M e x i c o , " u s e d by t h e l i b e r a t o r s o f t h e n e x t g e n e r a t i o n t o d e s i g n a t e a patria w h o s e m a s t e r s t h e y h a d a t l a s t — a n e w , t h e y t h o u g h t — b e c o m e . I n s o f a r as C l a v i j e r o ' s History tacitly c o m p l e t e s t h e b r e a k o f t h e link t o S p a i n , h e s e e m s alr e a d y to merit the n a m e "Mexican," without any qualification. A d d t o this t h e fact t h a t C l a v i j e r o p l a y e d a s p e c i a l r o l e in t h e diffusion o f M e x i c a n c u l t u r e in E u r o p e . L e t m e e x p l a i n m y m e a n i n g . F a t h e r Batllori has c o m m e n t e d disparagingly a b o u t the "provincial" c h a r a c t e r of the intellectual p r o d u c t i o n of the A m e r i c a n Jesuit e x i l e s . A s c o n c e r n s t h e M e x i c a n J e s u i t s , to b e s u r e , C l a v i j e r o a n d A n d r e s C a v o w r o t e h i s t o r i e s o f M e x i c o , A l e g r e a h i s t o r y o f t h e Society o f J e s u s in N e w S p a i n , R a f a e l L a n d i v a r s a n g t h e Rusticatio mexicana, a n d M a n e i r o c e l e b r a t e d t h e i l l u s t r i o u s m e n o f M e x i c o . A d d t o this t h e fact t h a t A. D i e g o F u e n t e a n d C l a v i j e r o p u b l i s h e d s m a l l w o r k s d e v o t e d to t h e g l o r y o f t h e V i r g i n o f G u a d a l u p e , a n d w e m a y well c o n c l u d e t h a t t h e J e s u i t writings b r e a t h e a regionalist spirit. B u t o n e m a y also ask w h e t h e r a n y o t h e r s p i r i t e v e r p r e v a i l e d in 'the c o u n t r i e s o f t h e H i s p a n i c w o r l d in t h e m o d e r n p e r i o d , e x c e p t i n g o n l y t h e t r a n s i e n t i n t e r l u d e o f t h e E n l i g h t e n m e n t . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , it is c e r t a i n ( F a t h e r B a t l l o r i h a s d o n e a n o t a b l e s t u d y o f this a s p e c t f o r Italy) t h a t t h e M e x i c a n J e s u i t exiles in I t a l y h e l p e d to r e s c u e t h e p a s t , t h e n a t u r e , t h e c u l t u r e , a n d t h e i n t e l l e c t o f t h e i r c o u n t r y f r o m its " p r o vincialism"—a t e r m I p r e f e r to use h e r e instead of regionalism. T h e l u c u b r a t i o n s o f D e P a u w , in p a r t i c u l a r , by p r o v o k i n g t h e d e t a i l e d r e s p o n s e of a Clavijero, a r o u s e d E u r o p e a n curiosity a b o u t Mexico. 19
I n t h a t m i d d l e - c l a s s G e r m a n y in w h i c h t h e p r e c o c i o u s g e n i u s o f G o e t h e arose a n d w h e r e a passion for folklore, inspired by H e r d e r , filled m e n ' s m i n d s , a S c h i l l e r d i s p l a y e d e n t h u s i a s m f o r A m e r i c a . T h a n k s to t h e Jesuit nostalgia for their country, Mexico m a d e a triump h a n t e n t r y i n t o E n l i g h t e n m e n t E u r o p e b e f o r e s h e was a d m i t t e d
Ill
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as a n e q u a l i n t o t h e c o m m u n i t y o f n a t i o n s . I t w o u l d b e u n j u s t t o see in C l a v i j e r o o n l y a n o f f e n d e d p r o v i n c i a l d e f e n d i n g his patria chica. U s i n g a p r e s t i g i o u s t r i b u n e o f c o n t e m p o r a r y E u r o p e , t h e Teutsche Merkur, a j o u r n a l p u b l i s h e d in W e i m a r , t h e J e s u i t p r e s e n t e d his d i s t a n t f a t h e r l a n d t o r e a d e r s avidly i n t e r e s t e d in e x o t i c s u b j e c t s . T h e n u m b e r s for J u l y , A u g u s t , a n d O c t o b e r 1786 c o n t a i n e d a series of articles by C l a v i j e r o in G e r m a n t r a n s l a t i o n , " T r e a t i s e o n t h e N a t u r a l C o n d i t i o n s o f t h e K i n g d o m of M e x i c o " ; in t h e s a m e n u m b e r o f t h e j o u r n a l a p p e a r e d a r e v i e w o f J o s e d e A c o s t a ' s Historia natural y moral de las Indias by C o r n e l i u s d e P a u w . I s h o u l d n o t e t h a t M e x i c o was t h e n k n o w n in E u r o p e a l m o s t exclusively t h r o u g h t h e Historia de la Conquista de Mexico o f A n t o n i o Solis, w h i c h h a d b e e n f r e q u e n t l y r e p r i n t e d , a n d A c o s t a ' s Historia. A t t h a t p e r i o d n o m o d e r n w o r k by a w r i t e r in S p a n i s h h a d yet a p p e a r e d . T h e History of America ( 1 7 7 7 ) b y t h e Scot h i s t o r i a n W i l l i a m R o b e r t s o n c a m e t o fill this g a p b e f o r e t h e A c a d e m i a d e la H i s t o r i a d e E s p a r i a e n t r u s t e d to J u a n B a u t i s t a M u n o z t h e task o f w r i t i n g a g r e a t w o r k , Historia del Nuevo Mundo, w h i c h h e n e v e r b r o u g h t to c o m p l e t i o n . Clavijero's work, d e v o t e d to ancient Mexico, a n d t h e histories of N e w Spain of t h e Jesuits A l e g r e a n d C a v o g a v e E u r o p e a n s access t o a w h o l e c o r p u s o f e n c y c l o p e d i c k n o w l e d g e a b o u t M e x i c o — a c o r p u s w h i c h h e l p e d t o slake t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y c u r i o s i t y a b o u t e x o t i c l a n d s a n d p e o p l e s . It is f a s h i o n a b l e to p a y t r i b u t e to A l e x a n d e r v o n H u m b o l d t ' s i n c o m p a r a b l e Essai politique sur le royaume de la Nouvelle-Espagne, b u t little a t t e n t i o n h a s b e e n g i v e n t o t h e fact t h a t t h a t y o u n g g e n t l e m a n w a s o n l y s e v e n t e e n in 1 7 8 6 , a n d t h a t w e r e it n o t f o r t h e stir t h a t a r o s e in E n l i g h t e n m e n t circles w i t h r e g a r d t o M e x i c o a n d t h a t " D i s p u t e o f t h e N e w W o r l d " so ably s t u d i e d b y A n t o n e l l o Gerbi, H u m b o l d t m a y have n e v e r g o t t e n t h e idea of visiting t h e N e w W o r l d t o s t u d y its d i f f e r e n t r e g i o n s . T o b e m o r e explicit, let m e recall H u m b o l d t ' s d i s c r e e t h o m a g e t o C l a v i j e r o : " T h a t e m p i r e , if w e m a y b e l i e v e Solis, e x t e n d e d f r o m P a n a m a as f a r as N e w C a l i f o r n i a . B u t t h e l e a r n e d studies of a Mexican historian, t h e A b b e Clavijero, have taught us. . . ." 2 0
2 1
W i t h o u t t h e p r e s e n c e in Italy o f t h e M e x i c a n J e s u i t s , a n d m o r e especially o f C l a v i j e r o , w h o , t o g e t h e r w i t h C o r n e l i u s d e P a u w , w a s o n e o f t h e p r o t a g o n i s t s in t h a t g r e a t " D i s p u t e o f t h e N e w W o r l d , " t h e r e w o u l d h a v e b e e n n o p o l e m i c s r e l a t i n g t o A m e r i c a , o r else t h e y w o u l d n o t h a v e h a d s u c h e n d u r i n g r e p e r c u s s i o n s , r e a c h i n g to H e g e l a n d b e y o n d . T h a n k s to the publications a n d t h e p e r s o n a l contacts of t h e M e x i c a n J e s u i t exiles in Italy, M e x i c o t o o k its p l a c e a m o n g t h e n a t i o n s as a n a u t o n o m o u s g e o g r a p h i c a n d c u l t u r a l e n t i t y e n d o w e d w i t h a p r e s t i g i o u s p a s t a n d t h e p r o m i s e o f a r i c h f u t u r e . I n s o f a r as E u r o p e a n k n o w l e d g e o f M e x i c o ' s p a s t a n d p r e s e n t (as s e e n by C l a v i j e r o , t h i r t y
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years before H u m b o l d t ) b e c a m e a c o m p o n e n t of the E n l i g h t e n m e n t , Mexico e n t e r e d universal history at the e n d of t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y . T h i s was n o t a simple r e e n t r y ; creole Mexico, b r e a k i n g t h e cables t h a t h e l d it fast t o its c o l o n i a l p r o v i n c i a l i s m , h a d n o t h i n g in c o m m o n w i t h t h e Mexico d e s c r i b e d by C o r t e s e x c e p t a religious-national a t t a c h m e n t to a brilliant past r e c r e a t e d by a nostalgic h i s t o r i o g r a p h y . B u t t h e i r r u p t i o n , as s u d d e n as t h e e x i l e o f t h e J e s u i t s , o f M e x i c a n a n t i q u i t i e s i n t o t h e w o r l d o f t h e E n l i g h t e n m e n t — t h a t s e c o n d , m o r e critical E u r o p e a n Renaissance—achieved the incorporation of creole values ( t h r o u g h t h e c r e o l e vision o f t h e p a s t ) i n t o t h e n e w v a l u e s , s o o n t o t r i u m p h t h a n k s to t h e n a t i o n a l i s t m o v e m e n t s . T h i s o r i g i n a l M e x i c a n c o n t r i b u t i o n , f a v o r e d b y t h e a w a k e n i n g o f n a t i o n a l c o n s c i o u s n e s s in E u r o p e , w o u l d h a v e b e e n l a c k i n g , o r w o u l d h a v e c o m e t o o late, w i t h o u t t h e J e s u i t exiles. T r a v e l i n g in r e v e r s e t h e r o a d t a k e n b y t h e first t w e l v e J e s u i t s w h o h a d c o m e f r o m S p a i n in 1 5 7 2 t o f o u n d a c o l o n i a l c h u r c h s u p p o r t e d b y t h e S p a n i s h g o v e r n m e n t , t h e J e s u i t s e x p e l l e d in 1 7 6 7 f o u n d e d t h e M e x i c a n c h u r c h in t h e h e a r t s o f m e n . F r o m t h e i r Italian exile they diffused the message of that c h u r c h to t h e E u r o p e of the E n l i g h t e n m e n t , that new religion which the F r e n c h Revolution would soon transform into a religion of patriotism.
The Guerrilla Priests, Hidalgo and Morelos
(1810-15)
W h a t was t h e flag o f t h a t a r m y ? W h e n he passed t h r o u g h Atotoniclo the parish priest Hidalgo t o o k f r o m t h e c h u r c h a s t a n d a r d w i t h t h e effigy o f t h e V i r g i n o f G u a d a l u p e . H e h u n g t h e c l o t h , c h e r i s h e d a n d r e v e r e d by all M e x i c a n s , o n t h e staff o f a l a n c e a n d m a d e it t h e flag o f t h a t s t r a n g e and improvised army. W h a t was t h e w a r cry of t h a t a r m y ? " L o n g L i v e r e l i g i o n ! L o n g Live O u r V e r y H o l y M o t h e r o f G u a d a l u p e ! L o n g Live A m e r i c a a n d d o w n with t h e r o t t e n government!" I n t h e s e w o r d s , in a h i s t o r y t e x t f o r t h e u s e o f s t u d e n t s in t h e M e x i c a n public schools, t h e writer M a n u e l P a y n o e v o k e d t h e exploit o f H i d a l g o , p a r i s h p r i e s t o f D o l o r e s . We n o t e t h a t h e tells t h e s t o r y u s i n g a q u e s t i o n - a n d - a n s w e r f o r m , t o b e m e m o r i z e d like a civic catechism. T h e edition I used, t h a t of 1883, was t h e seventh, b u t t h e r e m u s t h a v e b e e n at least t h i r t e e n ; w e h a v e t o d o w i t h a s t e r e o t y p e t h a t l o n g a g o e n t e r e d t h e M e x i c a n collective c o n s c i o u s n e s s . T h e p l a s t e r saint i m a g e of H i d a l g o a n d the familiar slogans of t h e "Cry of Dol o r e s " c o n c e a l a c o m p l e x reality, t h a t o f t h e h i s t o r i c a l moment, t h e 2 2
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m o r n i n g o f S e p t e m b e r 16, 1 8 1 0 , w h e n t h e c r y o f t h e r e v o l u t i o n a r y p r i e s t a w o k e a p o w e r f u l e c h o in t h e p o p u l a r c o n s c i o u s n e s s . F o r alm o s t t h r e e c e n t u r i e s I n d i a n r e v o l t s , like seismic s h o c k s a n d j u s t as u n p r e d i c t a b l e , h a d s h a k e n t h e different r e g i o n s of N e w Spain; they w e r e d r o w n e d in b l o o d a n d a h e a v y c a l m r e t u r n e d f o r y e a r s o r d e c ades. T h e m o v e m e n t u n l e a s h e d by t h e priest of Dolores differed f r o m all p r e v i o u s o n e s in t w o w a y s : it i g n i t e d a t r a i n o f g u n p o w d e r t h a t r a n t h r o u g h o u t t h e v i c e r o y a l t y a n d it l a s t e d m o r e t h a n t e n y e a r s , n e v e r s u b s i d i n g u n t i l it h a d a c h i e v e d its e n d , I n d e p e n d e n c e . A c o n t e m p o r a r y S p a n i s h arbitrista o r " p r o j e c t - m o n g e r " w r o t e as follows c o n c e r n i n g t h e p r o g r e s s of Hidalgo's rebellion: " M e n of every condit i o n c a m e f r o m e v e r y w h e r e t o j o i n h i m , s o l d i e r s , ecclesiastics, o w n e r s o f haciendas a n d m i n e s , in fine, all his c o u n t r y m e n , w i t h v e r y few e x c e p t i o n s . . . ; s i n c e t h e m a j o r i t y o f t h e ecclesiastics a n d t h e p e o p l e w h o k n o w h o w to r e a d a n d write a n d have influence over t h e masses a r e Creoles, t h e y d i d n o t h i n g t o c o n t a i n t h e p e o p l e b u t r a t h e r i n c i t e d t h e m t o d i s o r d e r a n d r e b e l l i o n ; a n d if f o u r r a g a m u f f i n s c r i e d o u t in a t o w n w i t h t h o u s a n d s o f i n h a b i t a n t s : ' L o n g live O u r L a d y o f G u a d a l u p e a n d d e a t h t o t h e gachupines,' t h e w h o l e t o w n r e b e l l e d . " T h e a t m o s p h e r e of t h e m o v e m e n t , t h e n , was w h a t Luis Villoro h a s d e f i n e d as el instantaneismo, a r e v o l u t i o n a r y a t m o s p h e r e o f s p o n t a n e o u s a c t i o n s . H i d a l g o h i m s e l f said t o t h e j u d g e s o f t h e t r i b u n a l o f t h e I n q u i s i t i o n t h a t h e h a d a c t e d "by i n s t i n c t . " T w e n t y y e a r s l a t e r a n o t h e r p i o n e e r o f I n d e p e n d e n c e w r o t e o f H i d a l g o : " I t is c l e a r t h a t t h i s fam o u s l e a d e r d i d n o m o r e t h a n g r a s p a flag w i t h t h e effigy o f G u a d a l u p e a n d r u n a b o u t f r o m t o w n t o t o w n w i t h his m e n , w i t h o u t even m a k i n g k n o w n t h e kind of g o v e r n m e n t that h e p r o p o s e d to e s t a b l i s h . " O n e m i g h t a n s w e r L o r e n z o d e Z a v a l a t h a t t h e r e is a t i m e f o r e v e r y a c t i o n ; a r e v o l u t i o n is n o t m a d e w i t h c o n s t i t u t i o n a l p r o j e c t s , a n d w i t h o u t t h e h e r o i c initial l e a p o f t h e p a r i s h p r i e s t o f D o l o r e s , t h e Constitution of A p a t z i n g a n would not have a p p e a r e d two years later. Hidalgo h a d the makings of a revolutionary leader. L e a r n i n g that h e was a b o u t t o b e a r r e s t e d , w h i l e h e was d e l i b e r a t i n g w i t h o t h e r c o n s p i r a t o r s a b o u t t h e tactics t h e y s h o u l d a d o p t , h e m a d e t h e " i r r a t i o n a l " d e c i s i o n to p r e c i p i t a t e t h e c o u r s e o f e v e n t s . A c o n f e s s o r , h e k n e w t h e s o u l s o f his p a r i s h i o n e r s ; b e t t e r still, h e felt t h e m . H e k n e w t h a t a political p r o g r a m w a s p r e m a t u r e ; w h a t w a s n e e d e d w a s a flag a n d a n enemy. W h a t better symbol of p o p u l a r aspirations could he have f o u n d t h a n t h e Virgin of G u a d a l u p e ? W h a t e n e m y was closer a n d w e a k e r t h a n t h e few t h o u s a n d S p a n i a r d s w h o lived in N e w S p a i n ? T h e d o c t r i n e t h a t h e p r o c l a i m e d , t h e r e f o r e , w a s a s i m p l e o n e : "We know n o o t h e r religion t h a n the Catholic, R o m a n Apostolic F a i t h . . . . We will g l a d y sacrifice o u r lives in its d e f e n s e . . . . F o r t h e 2 3
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w e l f a r e o f t h e k i n g d o m it is n e c e s s a r y t o w r e s t c o m m a n d a n d p o w e r f r o m t h e h a n d s o f t h e E u r o p e a n s . . . . C o n s i d e r i n g , t h e r e f o r e , t h e sac r e d fire t h a t i n f l a m e s u s a n d t h e j u s t i c e o f o u r c a u s e , t a k e h e a r t , s o n s of t h e fatherland, for t h e d a y o f glory a n d h a p p i n e s s for A m e r i c a has arrived. . . . Arise, noble A m e r i c a n hearts, from t h e p r o f o u n d abasem e n t in w h i c h y o u h a v e b e e n b u r i e d . . . . O p e n y o u r e y e s : s e e h o w t h e E u r o p e a n s s e e k t o m a k e Creoles fight Creoles." T h e style o f this p r o c l a m a t i o n struck h o m e ; H i d a l g o raised t h e specter of fratricidal strife t o d i s s u a d e Creoles f r o m j o i n i n g t h e r a n k s o f a c o u n t e r revolutionary army. T h e ideological c o n t e n t a n d t h e revolutionary l a n g u a g e used h e r e by t h e f o r m e r s t u d e n t o f t h e J e s u i t C o l e g i o d e V a l l a d o l i d in M i c h o a c a n r e v e a l a p r o f o u n d i n t e l l e c t u a l e v o l u t i o n in N e w S p a i n . T h e " s a c r e d fire t h a t i n f l a m e s u s , " t h e " s o n s o f t h e f a t h e r l a n d , " t h e " d a y o f g l o r y , " all t e x t u a l b o r r o w i n g s f r o m a v e r s e o f t h e " M a r s e i l laise," a n n o u n c e d t h a t t h e i n s u r r e c t i o n t h a t h a d b e g u n was n e i t h e r a p e a s a n t r i s i n g n o r a p o g r o m ( a l t h o u g h it h a d t h o s e a s p e c t s ) b u t t h e regional manifestation of a world revolutionary process that received a l a r g e i m p e t u s f r o m t h e success o f t h e F r e n c h R e v o l u t i o n . I n t h e microcosm of t h e r u r a l parishes a n d I n d i a n c o m m u n i t i e s , however, t h e p a r i s h p r i e s t o f D o l o r e s a p p e a r e d as t h e last M e s s i a h . Loyalist p a m p h l e t e e r s , f o r t h e i r p a r t , p r e s e n t e d H i d a l g o as t h e D e m o n , t h e Antichrist, a n d the " N a p o l e o n of America." W h e r e a s the revolut i o n a r y l a n g u a g e w a s i n p r o c e s s o f c h a n g e , r i s i n g t o t h e level o f a l e a d e r w h o k n e w F r e n c h a n d h a d r e a d t h e classics o f t h e F r e n c h R e v o l u t i o n , p u b l i c c o n s c i o u s n e s s still t r a n s l a t e d political facts i n t o r e ligious t e r m s . 25
T h e r e p e r c u s s i o n s o f t h e " C r y o f D o l o r e s " ( t h a t first Thunder Over Mexico) a r e e x p l a i n e d b y all t h a t h a d h a p p e n e d in N e w S p a i n since t h e e x p u l s i o n o f t h e J e s u i t s in 1 7 6 7 a n d in S p a i n s i n c e t h e dos de mayo o f 1808, w h e n t h e people of M a d r i d rose u p against the F r e n c h troops. T h e c o m p l e x political h i s t o r y o f this t r o u b l e d p e r i o d r e v e a l s a r e l a tively s i m p l e l i n e o f d e v e l o p m e n t a n d s o m e c r i t i c a r m o m e n t s . T h e e m o t i o n inspired by t h e expulsion of t h e Jesuits h a d n o t yet died d o w n w h e n o t h e r a u t h o r i t a r i a n m e a s u r e s o f C h a r l e s I I I (less r a d i c a l , to b e sure) hit o t h e r religious o r d e r s . F r o m 1770 to a b o u t 1778, t h e n u n s o f N e w S p a i n , in p a r t i c u l a r t h o s e o f t h e c o n v e n t s o f P u e b l a , refused to submit to a royal d e c r e e which enjoined t h e m to r e t u r n to a " c o m m u n i t y life." I h a v e a l r e a d y d e s c r i b e d , in c o n n e c t i o n w i t h S o r J u a n a I n e s d e la C r u z , t h e m o d e o f life in s e v e n t e e n t h - c e n t u r y c o n v e n t s ; it will b e r e c a l l e d t h a t t h e n u n s l e d a s e c u l a r e x i s t e n c e a n d w e r e served by their personal maids. T h e Mexican convents t h u s resemb l e d r e s i d e n t i a l h o t e l s in w h i c h e a c h n u n lived h e r o w n life. M a n y
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t o o k in little girls w h o m t h e y p r o v i d e d w i t h a n e d u c a t i o n . T h e p r o p o s e d e v i c t i o n o f t h e s e c h i l d r e n was a f a c t o r in t h e p a s s i o n a t e resist a n c e o f f e r e d by t h e n u n s ; b u t t h e p r e s e n c e o f c h i l d r e n was c e r t a i n l y i n c o m p a t i b l e w i t h a r e t u r n t o t h e r u l e o f c o m m u n i t y life. T h e i s s u e w a s t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e C r o w n , in t h e n a m e o f its r o y a l p r e r o g a tive, to i m p o s e a r e f o r m o f t h e r e l i g i o u s o r d e r s t h a t w o u l d o v e r t h r o w c u s t o m s t h a t h a d b e e n e s t a b l i s h e d f o r t w o c e n t u r i e s . T h i s was a r e v o l u t i o n ; t h e c h u r c h bells r a n g a full p e a l ; t h e b i s h o p o f P u e b l a r e s i g n e d ; t h e c o r r e s p o n d e n c e o f t h e v i c e r o y B u c a r e l i w i t h t h e visitador G a l v e z is filled w i t h e p i s o d e s r e l a t i n g t o t h i s affair. N o t e t h a t it c a m e o n t h e h e e l s o f t h e crisis c a u s e d b y t h e e x p u l s i o n o f t h e J e s u i t s . I n a k i n g d o m w h e r e the religious h a d occupied a d o m i n a n t position s i n c e t h e c o m i n g o f t h e first m i s s i o n a r i e s , s u c h b r u t a l a t t a c k s o n t h e r e l i g i o u s c o m m u n i t i e s (by e x p u l s i o n , s u p p r e s s i o n , o r r e f o r m ) i n e v i t a bly s h o o k M e x i c a n society itself t o its f o u n d a t i o n s . L i k e t h e e x p u l s i o n o f t h e J e s u i t s , t h e affair o f " c o m m u n i t y life" w a s a political p r o b l e m which revealed or revived tensions; the interventions of the ayunt a m i e n t o o f P u e b l a a n d t h e a u d i e n c i a o f M e x i c o City l e a v e n o d o u b t on that score. T h e s e different measures, which were n o t h i n g m o r e t h a n a strict a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e p r e r o g a t i v e s o f t h e m o n a r c h by v i r t u e o f t h e r o y a l p a t r o n a g e , w e r e r e s e n t e d as t y r a n n i c a l a b u s e s o f p o w e r because they infringed o n the c u s t o m a r y a u t o n o m y of the religious o r d e r s . T h a t a u t o n o m y h a d b e e n d i m i n i s h e d in t h e p r e c e d i n g p e r i o d by t h e e x p a n s i o n o f t h e s e c u l a r c l e r g y u n d e r t h e l e a d e r s h i p o f elite b i s h o p s like M o y a d e C o n t r e r a s a n d P a l a f o x , b u t t h i s s t r u g g l e f o r c o n t r o l h a d b e e n , in t h e last analysis, a n i n t e r n a l q u e s t i o n o f t h e ecclesiastical e s t a t e . C h a r l e s I I , a n " e n l i g h t e n e d d e s p o t " s u r r o u n d e d by I t a l i a n c o u n s e l o r s a n d i n s p i r e d by F r e n c h p h i l o s o p h i c a l i d e a s , alt h o u g h p e r s o n a l l y a n i r r e p r o a c h a b l e C a t h o l i c , c a m e to b e r e g a r d e d as a h e r e t i c in N e w S p a i n as a r e s u l t o f t h e e x p u l s i o n o f t h e Society o f J e s u s . W h a t t h e m o n a r c h a n d his c o u n s e l o r s in M a d r i d h a d c o n c e i v e d as a r e s t o r a t i o n o f r o y a l a u t h o r i t y o v e r t h e r e g u l a r c l e r g y was r e s e n t e d in N e w S p a i n as a c r i m i n a l a t t a c k ( t h e n e w c r i m e of l e s e - r e l i g i o n ) o n the sacerdotal caste. T h e c o n s e q u e n c e s o f t h e a b a n d o n m e n t o f t h e m i s s i o n s by t h e J e s u i t s a n d t h e " r e c l a u s t r a t i o n " o f t h e r e l i g i o u s in t h e t o w n s w e r e in a s e n s e as g r a v e as t h e e l i m i n a t i o n o f its p r i e s t s h a d b e e n f o r M e x i c a n p o l y t h e i s m . D e p r i v e d o f its a r b i t e r s o f o r t h o d o x y , t h e b e a r e r s o f its faith, t h e f r i a r s , t h e M e x i c a n p e o p l e r e t r e a t e d t o its p a r i s h life a n d its essential cults. T h e Virgin of G u a d a l u p e , o n w h o m c o n v e r g e d t h e p r o f o u n d e s t h o p e s of salvation, b e c a m e even m o r e t h e m o t h e r g o d d e s s o f t h e M e x i c a n s . I n t h e c o u n t r y s i d e , p a r i s h p r i e s t s , less s u b j e c t to g o v e r n m e n t a l control, took over f r o m the d e p a r t e d religious.
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O n e m u s t u n d e r s t a n d t h e i m m e n s e r o l e o f t h e f r i a r s in N e w S p a i n ' s life t o r e a l i z e t h e e x t e n t o f t h e r e v o l u t i o n c a u s e d b y u n w i s e g o v e r n mental measures. At the same time that the religious, w h o had enjoyed an u n d i s p u t e d a u t o n o m y a n d p r e e m i n e n c e s i n c e t h e first h a l f o f t h e s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y , lost g r o u n d , t h e m i l i t a r y class r o s e f r o m o b s c u r i t y as a r e s u l t o f the w a r with E n g l a n d . In 1758 t h e a r m y of N e w Spain n u m b e r e d only 3,000 m e n , t h e majority o n t h e n o r t h e r n frontier, far f r o m the "useful M e x i c o / ' I n a d d i t i o n t h e r e w e r e t h e militias, r e c r u i t e d f r o m a m o n g t h e p o p u l a t i o n (with t h e e x c e p t i o n o f I n d i a n s ) , o f M e x i c o City a n d Puebla. In 1800 the r e g u l a r a r m y n u m b e r e d m o r e t h a n 6,000 m e n , b u t t h e u r b a n a n d c o a s t a l militias h a d g r o w n e v e n f a s t e r , r i s i n g f r o m s o m e 9 , 0 0 0 in 1 7 6 6 t o a l m o s t 4 0 , 0 0 0 in 1 7 8 4 . T h e n u m e r i c a l p r o g r e s s o f t h e m i l i t a r y class w o u l d h a v e sufficed to m a k e it a rival o f t h e r e l i g i o u s , b u t t h e " s t a t e o f w a r " e s t a b l i s h e d in t h e v i c e r o y a l t y in 1 7 6 1 , u n d e r V i c e r o y C r u i l l a s , h i m s e l f a m i l i t a r y m a n , a c c e n t u a t e d this evolution. T h e Seven Years' War, t h e c a p t u r e of H a v a n a by t h e E n g lish in 1 7 6 2 , w h i c h d i r e c t l y t h r e a t e n e d t h e G u l f c o a s t o f M e x i c o a n d c u t t h e m a r i t i m e r o u t e f r o m V e r a c r u z t o C a d i z (a vital l i n k b e t w e e n New Spain a n d the metropolis), s p u r r e d the d e v e l o p m e n t of the a r m y a n d a military spirit. Gradually military p a r a d e s c a m e to share with religious processions t h e f a v o r o f t h e M e x i c a n p e o p l e . W h e r e a s ecclesiastical p r i v i l e g e s (fueros) w e r e b r e a c h e d by n e w r o y a l m e a s u r e s , the fuero militar w a s c o d i f i e d a n e w by a v o l u m i n o u s c o d e in 1 7 6 8 . T h e m i l i t a r y w e r e m a d e c o m p l e t e l y e x e m p t f r o m civil j u r i s d i c t i o n ; this p r i v i l e g e w a s s p i c e d with various a d v a n t a g e s (including e x e m p t i o n s f r o m taxes) which m a d e t h e m i l i t a r y e q u a l s o f t h e r e l i g i o u s in p r i v i l e g e s . I n 1 7 8 4 t h e E n g l i s h W a r c a m e t o a n e n d , e n d i n g as well t h e e x t r a o r d i n a r y t a x e s (donativos), b u t t h e p r e s t i g e o f t h e a r m y d i d n o t c e a s e t o g r o w , e s p e cially a f t e r t h e a r r i v a l o r r a t h e r r e t u r n o f t h e v i c e r o y B e r n a r d o d e Galvez, a y o u n g g e n e r a l c o v e r e d with glory, in 1785. I n 1796, Spain, allied w i t h F r a n c e , a g a i n d e c l a r e d w a r o n E n g l a n d , r e v i v i n g t h e t h r e a t o f a n E n g l i s h l a n d i n g in t h e I n d i e s . N e w S p a i n was b u r d e n e d w i t h e x t r a o r d i n a r y t a x e s , w h i c h c o n t i n u e d t o b e levied u n t i l t h e c o m i n g o f I n d e p e n d e n c e . V i c e r o y I t u r r i g a r a y c o m p l a i n e d o f t h e n e e d to s e n d m o n e y a n d t r o o p s t o H a v a n a to g u a r d a g a i n s t a p o s s i b l e E n g l i s h a t t a c k . I n 1 8 0 7 t h e d e f e a t o f a n E n g l i s h e f f o r t to seize B u e n o s A i r e s , r e p o r t e d in t h e Diario de Mexico, c a u s e d a s e n s a t i o n in N e w S p a i n , e n h a n c i n g t h e bellicose c h a r a c t e r o f a n e w p a t r i o t i s m w h i c h j o i n e d r e l i g i o u s f e r v o r t o h a t r e d for h e r e s y . T h e b l e s s i n g o f b a t t a l i o n flags a n d o t h e r r e l i g i o u s c e r e m o n i e s w i t h w h i c h t h e m i l i t a r y willingly s u r r o u n d e d t h e i r activities c o n t r i b u t e d , f o r t h e r e s t , t o t h e t r a n s f e r o f t h e
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sacred ark (religion a n d the fatherland) from the h a n d s of t h e declining religious caste to those of t h e military caste. T h e state of war, d e j u r e o r d e facto, in w h i c h a g e n e r a t i o n o f M e x i c a n s h a d lived, e n s u r e d t h e p r e e m i n e n c e o f t h e m i l i t a r y . T h e i r legal i m m u n i t y b e c a m e a s h i e l d f o r a b u s e a n d t y r a n n y e v e n as t h e m i l i t a r y class c o n s o l i d a t e d its d o m i n a n t position. W h i l e this p r o f o u n d r e v o l u t i o n — t h e w o r k o f C h a r l e s I I I — w a s t a k i n g p l a c e in N e w S p a i n , E u r o p e e n t e r e d a n u n p r e c e d e n t e d p h a s e o f r e v o l u t i o n s i n s p i r e d by n a t i o n a l i s m a n d p a t r i o t i s m . T h e m o t h e r c o u n t r y d i d n o t e s c a p e t h e s e e v e n t s ; allied w i t h r e v o l u t i o n a r y F r a n c e a n d h e r i m p e r i a l h e i r , N a p o l e o n , S p a i n b e c a m e a c a p t i v e o f F r a n c e in 1808. T h e news of the rising of t h e people of M a d r i d o n the historic second of May against the French unleashed a great m o v e m e n t of s y m p a t h y in N e w S p a i n . T h e d e c l a r a t i o n o f w a r o n N a p o l e o n i c F r a n c e by S p a i n , A u g u s t 3 , w a s c e l e b r a t e d in n u m e r o u s t o w n s o f N e w Spain. A sort of patriotic d e l i r i u m m a d e m e n believe that t h e F r e n c h h a d b e e n r o u t e d a n d that F e r d i n a n d V I I h a d r e t u r n e d to Spain; h e b e c a m e a n i d o l , as t h e j o u r n a l s a n d p r i n t s o f t h o s e y e a r s p r o v e . S o o n it b e c a m e n e c e s s a r y t o s i n g a n o t h e r t u n e , a n d S p a i n a p p e a r e d in all h e r t r u e w e a k n e s s . T h e Creoles w e r e w e a r y o f p a y i n g t a x e s w h i c h w e r e n o l o n g e r e x c e p t i o n a l ; t h e sale o f c h u r c h p r o p e r t i e s t h r o u g h a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e A c t o f C o n s o l i d a t i o n o f 1 8 0 4 , w h i c h h a d r u n i n t o difficulties, d i d n o t p r o d u c e e n o u g h to r e l i e v e t h e m o t h e r c o u n t r y . T h e a c c u m u l a t e d r a n c o r o f t h e p a s t forty y e a r s a g a i n s t a m o n a r c h r e g a r d e d as t y r a n n i c a l , t h e a n c e s t r a l h a t r e d o f t h e gachupin, w e r e s t r o n g e r t h a n a s e n t i m e n t a l m o v e m e n t in f a v o r o f t h e m o t h e r c o u n t r y , victim o f t h e new Antichrist. C o m m u n i c a t i o n s with Spain w e r e severed. S i n c e S p a i n n o w h a d n o k i n g (for t h e r e c o u l d b e n o q u e s t i o n o f r e c o g n i z i n g J o s e p h B o n a p a r t e ) , a n d t h e h e i r a p p a r e n t was a p r i s o n e r in F r a n c e , t h e j u r i d i c a l tie b e t w e e n S p a i n a n d N e w S p a i n was a l s o c u t . N e i t h e r b e i n g subject to t h e o t h e r , s i n c e b o t h w e r e subject to t h e k i n g , w h o d e l e g a t e d his p o w e r t o a v i c e r o y , t h e l a t t e r lost his lawful s t a t u s . T h e Creoles w e r e q u i c k to see in this a n o p p o r t u n i t y t o a s s u m e t h o s e p o w e r s w h i c h h a d b e e n d e n i e d t h e m since t h e d e p o s i t i o n o f C o r t e s a n d t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f t h e first a u d i e n c i a . As s o o n as t h e m o u r n f u l t i d i n g s f r o m S p a i n b e c a m e k n o w n in M e x i c o City, a r e l i g i o u s by t h e n a m e of Fray M e l c h o r d e T a l a m a n t e s b e g a n to draft a constitution for an i n d e p e n d e n t Mexico, vested with a congress which should have legislative p o w e r " a n d w h i c h s h o u l d e n d o w t h e r e a l m o f N e w S p a i n with that c h a r a c t e r of dignity, g r a n d e u r , a n d elevation n e e d e d to m a k e it r e s p e c t a b l e a m o n g t h e civilized a n d i n d e p e n d e n t n a t i o n s o f America and Europe." T h e a p p e a l t o " t h e voice o f t h e n a t i o n , " r e p r e s e n t e d b y its n o t a b l e s , t o fill t h e v o i d left by t h e l a p s e o f t h e 2 6
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v i c e r o y a n d t h e a u d i e n c i a , t h e biblical r e f e r e n c e ( " T h i s voice, so r e s p e c t a b l e a n d so s o v e r e i g n t h a t it c o n s t r a i n e d G o d H i m s e l f t o c h a n g e t h e g o v e r n m e n t o f I s r a e l a n d g r a n t it t h e k i n g it s o u g h t , " sets t h e t o n e of these years, decisive for t h e Mexican national destiny. T h e b o r r o w i n g from t h e ideology of t h e F r e n c h Revolution of 1789—but w i t h i m p o r t a n t o m i s s i o n s — a n d loyalty t o t h e C h r i s t i a n h u m a n i s m o f S u a r e z (vox populi, vox del) w e r e t o b e t h e t w o faces o f H i d a l g o ' s i d e o l o g y t w o y e a r s l a t e r . H i d a l g o , like F r a y M e l c h o r , in p r i n c i p l e w i s h e d t o a v o i d t h e s p i l l i n g o f b l o o d , b u t it h a d b e c o m e i n e v i t a b l e . 2 7
F r a y M e l c h o r ' s p r o j e c t w a s i n s p i r e d by r e s e n t m e n t a g a i n s t a v e r i t a ble c o u p d ' e t a t p e r p e t r a t e d by a c a m a r i l l a t h a t i n c l u d e d officials o f t h e a u d i e n c i a a n d V e r a c r u z m e r c h a n t s , a n d t h a t m a n a g e d w i t h o u t striki n g a b l o w to seize t h e p e r s o n o f V i c e r o y I t u r r i g a r a y o n S e p t e m b e r 15, 1 8 1 0 . T h e c o u r s e o f this c o n s p i r a c y a n d its c a u s e s a r e d e s c r i b e d b y M i e r in his Historia de la revolucion de la Nueva Epana. H e r e I shall o n l y note that the preventive " c o u n t e r r e v o l u t i o n " of a h a n d f u l of gachupines h a d d e s t r o y e d all legality. T h e r e f o r e H i d a l g o c o u l d p r e s e n t his r i s i n g as a r e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f legality, t h e o n l y p o s s i b l e legality in t h e a b s e n c e o f t h e v i c e r o y n a m e d b y t h e k i n g : t h e n a t i o n a l s o v e r e i g n t y . T h e s i t u a t i o n c r e a t e d by t h e v i c e r o y ' s i m p r i s o n m e n t g a v e its full m e a n i n g t o t h e p h r a s e c i t e d a b o v e , in H i d a l g o ' s p r o c l a m a t i o n : " F o r t h e w e l f a r e o f t h e k i n g d o m it is n e c e s s a r y to w r e s t c o m m a n d a n d p o w e r f r o m t h e h a n d s of t h e E u r o p e a n s . " S p a n i s h large-scale comm e r c e , w h i c h h a d its c e n t e r in C a d i z a n d its p r o x i e s in V e r a c r u z , n o w h a d t h e u p p e r h a n d in N e w S p a i n , a s i t u a t i o n w h i c h p r o m i s e d n e w b u r d e n s for a c o u n t r y a l r e a d y in difficulties as a r e s u l t of t h e a u t h o r i t a r i a n m e a s u r e s a n d financial e x a c t i o n s d i s c u s s e d a b o v e . T h e w a r cry " D e a t h to t h e gachupines!" w a s d i r e c t e d in t h e first p l a c e a g a i n s t t h e u s u r p e r s o f p o w e r r e p r e s e n t e d in t h e c o u n t r y by t h e S p a n i s h m e r c h a n t s , b u t this d o e s n o t e x h a u s t its s i g n i f i c a n c e . " D e a t h t o t h e gachupines!" w a s t h e b e l a t e d a n d t h e r e f o r e all t h e m o r e i r r e pressible o u t b u r s t of an old hatred, inherited from the conquistadores t h e m s e l v e s , a g a i n s t S p a n i s h licenciados e a g e r t o d e s p o i l t h e Creoles as well as t h e I n d i a n s . A s o n o f t h e c r e o l e b o u r g e o i s i e , e d u c a t e d at t h e C o l e g i o d e S a n F r a n c i s c o J a v i e r o f V a l l a d o l i d in M i c h o a c a n , w i t h a d o c t o r a t e f r o m t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f M e x i c o City, a r e a d e r o f C l a v i j e r o a n d F r e n c h e i g h t e e n t h - c e n t u r y a u t h o r s (it s e e m s h e k n e w F r e n c h well), H i d a l g o b e c a m e a village p r i e s t , first in C o l i m a , l a t e r in t h e a r e a o f G u a n a j u a t o . W i t h his k n o w l e d g e a n d e x p e r i e n c e , M i g u e l H i d a l g o y Costilla h a d t o feel t h e a s p i r a t i o n s o f t h e c r e o l e b o u r g e o i s i e of t h e t o w n s as well as t h o s e o f t h e I n d i a n s o f t h e c o u n t r y s i d e . T h e " C r y o f D o l o r e s " was u t t e r e d at t h e r i g h t m o m e n t ; H i d a l g o k n e w w h a t h e d i d w h e n h e b r a n d i s h e d t h e b a n n e r o f G u a d a l u p e . It m a k e s n o s e n s e t o
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say, as d i d L o r e n z o d e Z a v a l a in his Ensayo histdrico de las ultimas revoluciones de Mexico ( w r i t t e n in P a r i s in 1 8 3 1 ) , t h a t " H i d a l g o a c t e d w i t h o u t a p l a n , s y s t e m , o r p r e c i s e a i m . ' L o n g live O u r L a d y o f G u a d a l u p e , ' was his sole b a s e o f o p e r a t i o n s ; t h e n a t i o n a l flag o n w h i c h h e r i m a g e w a s p a i n t e d c o n s t i t u t e d his c o d e a n d his i n s t i t u t i o n s . " H i d a l g o g a v e t h e M e x i c a n p e o p l e p r e c i s e l y w h a t it n e e d e d in t h a t h o u r o f t r u t h w h e n h e t o o k i n t o his h a n d s its h i s t o r i c d e s t i n y : a flag t h a t was also a s y m b o l . 28
W h e n h e w a s r e c t o r o f t h e C o l e g i o d e S a n N i c o l a s , in his t o w n o f V a l l a d o l i d in M i c h o a c a n , h e h a d a d i s c i p l e , J o s e M a r i a M o r e l o s y Pa v o n , w h o m h e m a d e his l i e u t e n a n t in 1 8 1 0 . M o r e l o s w a s also p r i e s t of a r u r a l parish, C a r a c u a r o . B u t t h e two m e n w e r e very different f r o m e a c h o t h e r . M o r e l o s was b o r n n e a r Valladolid into a p o o r m e s tizo family, h i s f a t h e r a c a r p e n t e r , h a l f - I n d i a n , his m o t h e r a c r e o l e . U n t i l 1 7 9 0 h e w o r k e d f o r his u n c l e as a c o w h a n d . A t t h e a g e o f twenty-five h e r e t u r n e d t o V a l l a d o l i d , w h e r e h e s t u d i e d j u s t e n o u g h t o be o r d a i n e d a priest. After a n interval of a year, h e o b t a i n e d t h e c u r a c y o f C a r a c u a r o . I n 1 8 1 0 , M o r e l o s w a s forty-five y e a r s o l d ; H i d a l g o was fifty-seven. H i d a l g o g a v e h i m s e l f t h e title o f " P r o t e c t o r o f t h e P a t r i a , " w h i c h r e c a l l e d t h e title " P r o t e c t o r o f t h e I n d i a n s , " w o r n b y L a s C a s a s a n d t h e first b i s h o p o f M i c h o a c a n , Vasco d e Q u i r o g a , w h o h a d t r i e d t o c r e a t e t h e r e t h e Utopia o f T h o m a s M o r e a n d w h o s e m e m o r y t h e I n d i a n s r e v e r e d u n d e r t h e n a m e o f lata Vasco. M o r e l o s , i n a g e s t u r e o f p i o u s h u m i l i t y t o w a r d a n e w d i v i n i t y , called h i m s e l f " S e r f [siervo] o f t h e N a t i o n , " a n e x p r e s s i o n m o d e l e d o n t h a t o f " s e r f o f G o d , " G o d ' s slave, a p p l i e d t o t h e r e l i g i o u s . T h e new gods w h o h a d just b r o k e n into the rich p a n t h e o n of the M e x i c a n p e o p l e w e r e as i n t o l e r a n t as t h e c h u r c h o f t h e i n q u i s i t o r s , a n d as t h i r s t y f o r b l o o d as t h e w a r g o d o f t h e A z t e c s , H u i t z i l o p o c h t l i . H i d a l g o , M o r e l o s , a n d o t h e r c u r a t e s like M a t a m o r o s , B e l l e z a , C o r r e a , V e r d u z c o , o r D r . Cos* all m e m b e r s o f t h e r e v o l u t i o n a r y g e n e r a l staff, p r e s i d e d o v e r t h o s e g r e a t h u m a n sacrifices o n t h e a l t a r s o f t h e f a t h e r land a n d t h e nation. Hidalgo, to be sure, constantly a p p e a l e d for c r e o l e u n i t y in o r d e r t o a v o i d s h e d d i n g b l o o d . M o r e l o s s o o n w a s t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o a g e n e r a l w h o flew f r o m v i c t o r y t o victory, w h o m t h e j o u r n a l s of Mexico called " t h e L i g h t n i n g of t h e S o u t h . " T h i s m a n was, as it w e r e , t h e e m a n a t i o n o f h i s p e o p l e ; t h e i n s p i r e d s p e e c h w h i c h h e g a v e a t t h e o p e n i n g session o f t h e C o n g r e s s o f C h i l p a n c i n g o n o t o n l y r o s e t o t h e h e i g h t o f t h a t g r e a t h i s t o r i c a l m o m e n t , it w a s also t h e b e s t t e s t i m o n y t o t h e c l i m a t e o f t h a t first M e x i c a n r e v o l u t i o n : T h i s o p p r e s s e d p e o p l e , so like t h e p e o p l e o f I s r a e l o v e r w h e l m e d b y P h a r a o h , w e a r y o f s u f f e r i n g , h a s s t r e t c h e d its h a n d s t o w a r d
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H e a v e n a n d m a d e its c r y h e a r d b e f o r e t h e t h r o n e o f t h e E t e r n a l , a n d t h e E t e r n a l , p i t y i n g its m i s f o r t u n e s , h a s o p e n e d H i s m o u t h a n d d e c r e e d t h e f r e e d o m o f A n a h u a c b e f o r e t h e c o u r t o f his s e r a p h i m . T h e Spirit w h o a n i m a t e d the e n o r m o u s a m o r p h o u s m a s s o f a n c i e n t C h a o s , w h o i n f u s e d life i n t o it w i t h a b r e a t h , a n d w h o c r e a t e d this m a r v e l o u s w o r l d , t h a t S p i r i t h a s n o w g i v e n a n e l e c t r i c s h o c k to o u r h e a r t s , h a s c a u s e d t h e b l i n d f o l d t o fall f r o m o u r e y e s , a n d h a s c h a n g e d t h e s h a m e f u l a p a t h y in w h i c h w e lay i n t o a t e r r i b l e a n d w a r l i k e f u r y . I t was in t h e village o f D o l o r e s t h a t this voice s o u n d e d , a v o i c e like u n t o t h u n d e r . 2 9
M o r e l o s , w h o p o s s e s s e d little c u l t u r e , h e r e s p o k e w i t h t r u e e l o q u e n c e , a s a c r e d e l o q u e n c e t h a t d i f f e r e d little f r o m t h e b a r o q u e serm o n s of t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y into which h e was b o r n . I n reality, t h e s a c r e d a r k o f t h e M e x i c a n patria h a d e s c a p e d f r o m t h e g r a s p o f t h e c r e o l e f r i a r s , t h e clerics o f t h e u n i v e r s i t y ; it h a d p a s s e d , as o n c e h a p p e n e d w i t h t h e idols o f a n c i e n t A n a h u a c , i n t o s t r o n g e r h a n d s in a t i m e o f a n a r c h y . T h e r e l i g i o n o f t h e c r e o l e elite h a d g i v e n p l a c e t o t h e f a i t h o f t h e p e o p l e , a faith t h a t h a d b e e n e l a b o r a t e d in r u r a l p a r i s h e s a n d w h o s e g u a r d i a n s w e r e c o u n t r y c u r a t e s ; t h e m o s t m o d e s t level o f s a c e r d o t a l c a s t e was n o w t o p l a y t h e r o l e o f k e e p e r o f t h e faith. T h e r e t u r n of p o w e r to t h e p e o p l e , t h e affirmation of national sovereignty as a c o n s e q u e n c e o f t h e r e p u d i a t i o n o f t h e v i c e r o y , w e r e t h e s e c u l a r e x p r e s s i o n s of this r e t u r n of t h e sacred religious-patriotic p a t r i m o n y t o t h e n a t i o n itself. M o r e l o s m u s t h a v e b e e n c o n f u s e d l y a w a r e o f t h i s fact, w h i c h h e e x p r e s s e d w i t h a biblical v o c a b u l a r y a n d biblical i m a g e s that were familiar to h i m a n d that constituted simultaneously the m a t e r i a l a n d t h e style o f his s e r m o n s . T h e t r a n s p o s i t i o n o f I n d e p e n d e n c e t o t h e s u p e r n a t u r a l level b y G o d ' s o w n h a n d is i m p r e s s i v e . T h e use of t h e w o r d " A n a h u a c " — " T h a t A n a h u a c b e c a m e free, by a d e c r e e of t h e E t e r n a l " — r e v e a l s t h a t M o r e l o s was a s p o k e s m a n for t h e creole Utopia, t h e u n c o n s c i o u s h e i r o f S i g u e n z a y G o n g o r a as well as o f Clavijero a n d the conceptist p r e a c h e r s of the e i g h t e e n t h century. I n Morelos the romanticism of revolutionary action replaces nostalgia for t h e I n d i a n past, b u t t h e r e f e r e n c e to t h e c h o s e n p e o p l e of Israel, t o A n a h u a c , a n d t o t h a t " m a r v e l o u s w o r l d , " w h i c h recalls t h e Indian Spring, l e a v e s n o d o u b t as to t h e c o n t i n u i t y o f c r e o l e i l l u m i n i s m . A s H i d a l g o h a d a n n o u n c e d , t h e "day of glory" h a d arrived f o r . . . t h e "Indian democracy"? T h e w h o l e a t m o s p h e r e o f t h e e p o c h is in M o r e l o s ' r e s o u n d i n g phrases. T h e divine breath which had organized chaos, has just c h a n g e d t h e M e x i c a n p e o p l e i n t o a f u r i o u s l i o n e s s ; a n e w G e n e s i s is a n n o u n c e d . B u t it is p r e c e e d e d b y " d e s o l a t i o n a n d d e a t h " ; it is t h u s that the Eternal must manifest himself before the millennium. T h e 3 0
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g r e a t voice o f t h e c u r a t e o f D o l o r e s is t h e e x a c t r e p l i c a o f t h a t g r e a t voice w h i c h o n t h e d a y o f t h e A p o c a l y p s e will c a u s e t h e e a r t h t o t r e m b l e . T h e first act o f t h e l i b e r a t i o n o f A n a h u a c was c o n c e i v e d a n d d e f i n e d by its p r i n c i p a l a c t o r as t h e dies irae, t h e D a y o f W r a t h . I n t h i s i n a u g u r a l a d d r e s s of a new era for Mexico, the mingling of the new a n d t h e old, of constitutional projects, eschatological h o p e , a n d m o d e r n science—that "electric shock" which kindles a revolution inspired by t h e E t e r n a l — c o n v e y s v e r y p r e c i s e l y t h e t o n e o f t h e r e v o l u t i o n o f I n d e p e n d e n c e . T h e final e v o c a t i o n o f t h e s p i r i t s o f t h e h e r o e s , t h o s e slain fighting f o r t h e i r patria, f o u n d e d t h e c u l t o f g r e a t m e n o n w h i c h t h e M e x i c a n p a t r i o t i c r e l i g i o n still r e s t s a n d w i t h o u t w h i c h n o political ideology can gain p o p u l a r acceptance: "Spirits of t h e d e a d of Las Cruces, Aculco, Guanajuato, a n d Calderon, Zitacuaro, a n d Cuautla, j o i n e d w i t h t h o s e o f H i d a l g o a n d A l l e n d e ! " M o r e l o s also i n v o k e s t h e I n d i a n a n c e s t o r s w h o w e r e v i c t i m s o f gachupin b a r b a r i t y : " S h a d e s o f Moctezuma, C a c a h m a , C u a u h t e m o c , Xicotencatl, a n d Caltzontzin, c o m e c e l e b r a t e a b o u t this a u g u s t a s s e m b l y , in a s a c r e d d a n c e — t h a t s a m e mitote d u r i n g w h i c h y o u w e r e a s s a i l e d b y A l v a r a d o ' s t r e a c h e r o u s s w o r d — t h e h a p p y day on which your illustrious sons have assembled t o a v e n g e y o u r s u f f e r i n g s a n d e s c a p e t h e claws o f t h e F r e e - M a s o n i c t y r a n n y w h i c h w a s a b o u t t o swallow t h e m f o r e v e r ! " 3 1
W h a t e v e r L o r e n z o d e Z a v a l a m a y say, H i d a l g o c e r t a i n l y h a d i d e a s for a constitution which the licentiate R a y o n expressed, with Hidalgo's c o n s e n t , at least, in his Elementos constitucionales—ideas which Morelos i n c o r p o r a t e d in t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n o f A p a t z i n g a n . T h e first a r t i c l e o f t h e Elementos p r o v i d e d : " T h e C a t h o l i c r e l i g i o n will b e t h e o n l y o n e , e x c l u d i n g e v e r y o t h e r r e l i g i o n . " A r t i c l e 3 : " D o g m a will b e d e f e n d e d b y t h e v i g i l a n c e o f t h e T r i b u n a l o f t h e F a i t h . " We s e e m t o b e d e a l i n g w i t h a r e l i g i o u s r a t h e r t h a n a political c o n s t i t u t i o n , o r a t least w i t h a political c o n s t i t u t i o n w h o s e p r i m a r y c o n c e r n s a r e t h e c h u r c h a n d C a t h o l i c o r t h o d o x y . U n i t y o f faith, t h e f o u n d a t i o n o f N e w S p a i n , w a s t o r e m a i n t h e b a s e o f a f r e e A n a h u a c . T h e Sentiments of the Nation, p u b l i s h e d b y M o r e l o s in 1 8 1 3 , r e s t a t e t h e s a m e p r i n c i p l e s : A r t i c l e 2 : " T h e C a t h o l i c r e l i g i o n shall b e t h e o n l y o n e , t o t h e e x c l u s i o n o f all o t h e r r e l i g i o n s . " A r t i c l e 3 : "All t h e m i n i s t e r s shall b e s u b s i d i z e d w i t h all t h e t i t h e s a n d firstfruits, a n d in n o o t h e r way, a n d t h e p e o p l e shall p a y n o o t h e r fees save t h e o f f e r i n g s i n s p i r e d by d e v o t i o n . " A r t i c l e 4 : " D o g m a shall b e d e f e n d e d b y t h e h i e r a r c h y o f t h e c h u r c h , t h a t is, b y the pope, the bishops, and the curates." 3 2
3 3
T h e first a r t i c l e p r o c l a i m e d I n d e p e n d e n c e , a n d o n l y a r t i c l e 5 d i r e c t e d its a t t e n t i o n t o a n e s s e n t i a l political a s p e c t , national s o v e r e i g n t y . A c a r e f u l r e a d i n g o f a r t i c l e s 2 a n d 4 m a k e s it c l e a r t h a t I n d e p e n d e n c e signified a b o v e all f o r its p r o m o t e r s a s t r e n g t h e n i n g o f
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t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e c h u r c h in t h e c o u n t r y , t h e a b o l i t i o n o f t h e t r i b u n a l of t h e Inquisition, whose role w o u l d b e a s s u m e d by t h e secular clergy, a n d t h e s u p p r e s s i o n o f p r e b e n d s ; i n a s e n s e , it w a s t h e last a c t i n t h e dispossession o f the r e g u l a r o r d e r s by t h e secularizing bishops. It was, m o r e o v e r , a n act of r e v e n g e u p o n t h e c a n o n s of t h e c a t h e d r a l s by t h e c o u n t r y c u r a t e s . Finally, f o r t h e p e o p l e it m e a n t t h e a b o l i t i o n o f ecclesiastical t i t h e s . T h e C o n s t i t u t i o n o f A p a t z i n g a n b r o u g h t t o g e t h e r a n d c o d i f i e d t h e s e d i f f e r e n t p o i n t s ; it m a d e t h e e l e c t o r a l a s s e m b l i e s o f t h e p a r i s h e s t h e official cells o f political life; it d e f i n e d t h e citizen w i t h t h e r i g h t t o v o t e as follows: " H e shall h a v e r e a c h e d t h e a g e o f e i g h t e e n , o r a t least shall b e a m a r r i e d m a n , a n d shall h a v e d e m o n s t r a t e d his loyalty t o o u r h o l y c a u s e . " T h i s s a c r e d c a u s e w a s i n d e e d t h e cause of t h e p e o p l e , t a k e n u p by c u r a t e s w h o h a d issued f r o m t h e p e o p l e a n d h a d n e v e r b r o k e n t h e i r ties w i t h t h e m . B y c o n t r a s t w i t h the missionary friars w h o h a d exercised a b e n e v o l e n t tutelage over t h e i r flocks, a p r o t e c t i v e m i s s i o n , M o r e l o s w a s o n t e r m s o f e q u a l i t y with p e o n s of haciendas a n d muleteers, h a v i n g b e e n o n e himself b u t a few y e a r s b e f o r e . W i t h M o r e l o s , t h e M e x i c a n c h u r c h m o v e s f r o m p a t e r n a l i s m t o f r a t e r n i t y ; this a s p e c t o f t h e r e v o l u t i o n o f I n d e p e n dence held the great promise for a democratic future. 3 4
S u c h u p h e a v a l s , w h i c h t h r e a t e n e d t h e a u t h o r i t y o f t h e ecclesiastical h i e r a r c h y a s well as its p r e b e n d s , i n e v i t a b l y p r o v o k e d a n i m m e d i a t e r e a c t i o n o n t h e p a r t o f t h e b i s h o p s . T h e first t o e x c o m m u n i c a t e Hidalgo, a n d later Morelos, was t h e bishop-designate (he was only designatus, n o t y e t c o n s e c r a t e d , a n d H i d a l g o u s e d t h i s as a n a r g u m e n t to scorn his a n a t h e m a ) o f Michoacan, A b a d y Q u e i p o , soon followed by t h e a r c h b i s h o p o f M e x i c o City, L i z a n a y B e a u m o n t . A b a d y Q u e i p o h a d a c l e a r vision o f t h e evils t h a t afflicted N e w S p a i n ; h e w a s less lucid in r e g a r d to t h e r e m e d i e s t h a t t h e situation r e q u i r e d . I n 1814 h e w r o t e t h e v i c e r o y Calleja a l e t t e r p r o p o s i n g a policy o f i n t e g r a t i o n , t h e g e n e r a l i z a t i o n o f t h e alternativa b e t w e e n S p a n i a r d s a n d Creoles, t h e n o m i n a t i o n o f m e r i t o r i o u s Creoles f o r t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e p o s t s in S p a i n , t h e g r a n t o f e q u a l r i g h t s w i t h E u r o p e a n S p a n i a r d s t o Creoles a n d I n d i a n s . T h e s e suggestions c a m e t o o late; they h a d b e e n overt a k e n by events. M o r e concrete w e r e his requests for t r o o p s "to assure the pacification a n d p r e s e r v a t i o n of t h e A m e r i c a s . " A t that d a t e , t h r e e years h a d passed since t h e e x e c u t i o n of H i d a l g o ; M o r e l o s was c a p t u r e d a n d s h o t i n h i s t u r n o n D e c e m b e r 2 2 , 1 8 1 5 . I n h i s last m o m e n t s M o r e l o s r e f u s e d t h e a s s i s t a n c e o f a f r i a r ; it w a s t h e c u r a t e o f S a n C r i s t o b a l w h o r e c e i v e d h i s last c o n f e s s i o n a n d b l e s s e d h i s temporary grave. 3 5
T h e r e c o r d s o f t h e i n q u i s i t o r i a l t r i a l w h i c h l e d t o this fatal a n d f o r e s e e a b l e o u t c o m e c o n f i r m t h a t a t t h i s p e r i o d political s u b v e r s i o n
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w a s still r e g a r d e d in N e w S p a i n as a p r o d u c t o f h e r e t i c a l i l l u m i n i s m . M o r e l o s was a c c u s e d o f h a v i n g d e s e r t e d " t h e p u r e a n d h o l y C h r i s t i a n flock" a n d j o i n e d " t h e i m p u r e a n d a b o m i n a b l e h o r d e o f t h e h e r e t i c s H o b b e s , H e l v e t i u s , V o l t a i r e , L u t h e r , a n d o t h e r p e s t i l e n t i a l , deist, m a terialist, a n d a t h e i s t a u t h o r s w h o m h e m u s t h a v e r e a d [que seguramente ha leido]" I n this p e l l - m e l l o f c o n t r a d i c t o r y a c c u s a t i o n s , l a c k i n g in p r o o f s , w e o b s e r v e t h e style a n d s t e r e o t y p e s o f t h e M e x i c a n inq u i s i t o r s o f t h e last d e c a d e s o f t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y . T h e y d i d n o t r e p r o a c h M o r e l o s as m u c h for h a v i n g h a d t h r e e c h i l d r e n by d i f f e r e n t m o t h e r s ( e v i d e n t l y c o n c e i v e d o u t s i d e t h e s a c r a m e n t o f m a r r i a g e ) , as f o r h a v i n g s e n t his e l d e s t s o n , a g e d t h i r t e e n , t o s t u d y in t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , r e g a r d e d by t h e i n q u i s i t o r s as a h e r e t i c a l a c t i o n . T o t h e t e n t h accusation against him, that he p e r s u a d e d the people "that the cause w h i c h h e d e f e n d e d was t h e c a u s e o f r e l i g i o n , u s i n g his s a c e r d o t a l s t a t e as a n a r g u m e n t i n his f a v o r , " M o r e l o s f r a n k l y r e p l i e d " t h a t h e h a d o f t e n u s e d his q u a l i t y o f p r i e s t a n d t h e c r e d i t w h i c h p r i e s t s e n j o y e d w i t h t h e p e o p l e , t o p e r s u a d e t h e m t h a t this w a r h a d a r e l i g i o u s c h a r a c t e r , f o r t h e E u r o p e a n s s o u g h t t o i m p o s e t h e g o v e r n m e n t of t h e F r e n c h , w h o m h e r e g a r d e d as h e r e t i c s . " 36
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H e r e w e p u t o u r fingers o n t h e vital c o n t r a d i c t i o n o f a n i n s u r r e c t i o n a r y m o v e m e n t t h a t w a s i n s p i r e d by t h e g r e a t p r i n c i p l e s o f t h e F r e n c h R e v o l u t i o n , in t h e first p l a c e t h e p r i n c i p l e o f n a t i o n a l s o v e r e i g n t y , yet set itself t h e g o a l o f d e f e n d i n g C a t h o l i c o r t h o d o x y . M o r e l o s , also a c c u s e d o f h a v i n g f o s t e r e d t h e l e g e n d o f a c h i l d w i t h mystic p o w e r s w h o t u r n e d o u t t o b e his o w n s o n , d e f e n d e d h i m s e l f a g a i n s t t h e c h a r g e (asegura que el no tuvo parte en ese error). W h a t m a t t e r s is n o t t h e strict t r u t h o f t h e c h a r g e , b u t t h e fact t h a t a l e g e n d o f t h e muchacho a quien llaman el adivino ( " t h e b o y w h o is called ' t h e d i v i n e r ' " ) h a d a c c o m p a n i e d t h e s e c o n d s o r t i e o f this " D o n Q u i x o t e o f Michoacan," w h o s e first i n c a r n a t i o n w a s t h e c u r a t e o f D o l o r e s . Clearly, we h a v e n o t yet e m e r g e d f r o m t h e religious a t m o s p h e r e that h a d c h a r a c t e r i z e d N e w S p a i n s i n c e its o r i g i n s , a n d t h a t I d e p i c t e d w i t h b r o a d strokes at t h e b e g i n n i n g of this b o o k with t h e h e l p of s o m e s a m p l i n g s f r o m t h e r e c o r d s o f i n q u i s i t o r i a l trials. T h i s d e s p i t e t h e agitation of some F r e n c h patriots a n d republicans, a n d the m o r e or less c l a n d e s t i n e influx, for t w e n t y y e a r s , o f r e v o l u t i o n a r y p u b l i c a t i o n s a n d t h e i r d i f f u s i o n in a v a r i e t y o f circles. D e s p i t e t h e a p p e a r a n c e , in a d d i t i o n to t h e p l a c a r d s o f y e s t e r y e a r , o f a n a u t h o r i z e d o r c l a n d e s t i n e press which served to s p r e a d the "new ideas" t h r o u g h o u t t h e c o u n t r y , the great revolutionary f e r m e n t r e m a i n e d the religious passion, w h o s e c o n t e n t w a s t r a n s f o r m e d in t h e c o u r s e o f t h o s e y e a r s w h i l e r e t a i n i n g its t r a d i t i o n a l p r o c e s s e s . 38
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W h e n , in 1 8 2 3 , t h e g o v e r n m e n t o f M e x i c o , t h a t E m p i r e o f A n a h u a c
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a t last set f r e e f r o m its c h a i n s , d e c i d e d t o r e n d e r s o l e m n h o m a g e to t h e h e r o e s o f its l i b e r a t i o n , it h a d a c a t a f a l q u e set u p in t h e c a t h e d r a l , w h e r e p o e m s written for the occasion were displayed. T h e times badly n e e d e d a S i g u e n z a y G o n g o r a , t o j u d g e b y this e l e g i a c o d e : Tremble, tyrants; tremble again, impious m e n ! F o r in t h e e n d H o l y P r o v i d e n c e r e m e m b e r s His own: be abashed by t h i s c a t a f a l q u e w h i c h H o n o r h a s r a i s e d 4 0
We o b s e r v e t h e r e a s s e r t i o n o f h o l i n e s s o f t h e c a u s e o f I n d e p e n d e n c e ; "tyranny a n d impiety" a r e associated a n d defied together. O n e thinks of the legend that has Saint J o s a p h a t ' s image c u r s i n g the e n e m i e s o f t h e Society o f J e s u s , d e s c r i b e d as " i m p i o u s . " T h e h o m a g e o f M e x i c a n c r e o l e society t o t h e d e a d h e r o e s w a s t h u s in t h e t r a d i t i o n o f f u n e r a l h o n o r s o f N e w S p a i n ; it p r e s e r v e d t h e c r e o l e c h a r i s m a t i c s p i r i t in t h e n e w political f r a m e w o r k o f i n d e p e n d e n t M e x i c o . As in t h e c a s e o f t h e c u l t o f G u a d a l u p e , h o w e v e r , it is p o p u l a r b e h a v i o r w h i c h m o s t clearly i l l u m i n a t e s t h e c u l t o f t h e n e w e s t M e x i c a n t u t e l a r y g o d s . T h e A z t e c s b e l i e v e d t h a t w a r r i o r s slain in b a t t l e w e n t to t h e l a n d o f T a m o a n c h a n , t h e p a r a d i s e o f T l a l o c . T h e n e w teules ( t h e t e r m d e s i g n a t e d b o t h t h e g o d s a n d t h e spirits of forebears) of t h e new A n a h u a c w e r e h o n o r e d in t h e t r a d i t i o n a l m a n n e r . C a r l o s M a r i a d e B u s t a m a n t e f o u n d j u s t t h e right t o n e with which to describe the "ret u r n o f t h e a s h e s " in his Diario historico de Mexico: L o o k a n d w r i t e , said t h e H o l y S p i r i t to S a i n t J o h n , in R e v e l a t i o n ; if I w e r e a P u r i t a n , I w o u l d t h i n k t h a t t h e voice o f m y c o u n t r y r e s o u n d e d in m y e a r a n d t o l d m e t h e s a m e t h i n g . Yesterday m o r n i n g t h e v e n e r a b l e r e m a i n s of M o r e l o s a r r i v e d at G u a d a l u p e ; it m a y h a v e b e e n h a l f p a s t twelve w h e n t h e y a r r i v e d in t h e city a n d w e r e d i s p l a y e d in f r o n t o f t h e c o l l e g i a t e c h u r c h . T h e y w e r e a c c o m p a n i e d by t h r e e I n d i a n musicians f r o m different villages, w h o i n s t e a d o f c a n t i c l e s a n d f u n e r a l m a r c h e s p l a y e d j o y o u s waltzes a n d s a r a b a n d s . 4 1
T h e basilica o f G u a d a l u p e , a p l a c e o f p i l g r i m a g e f o r M e x i c a n s b o t h h u m b l e a n d i l l u s t r i o u s s i n c e t h e 1 6 2 0 s a t least, h a d b e c o m e t h e t e m p l e o f t h e n a t i o n a l r e l i g i o n . T h e c o n t e n t o f t h e faith h a d h a r d l y c h a n g e d ; t h e I n d i a n areitos a n d mitotes t h a t M o t o l i n i a h a d d e s c r i b e d h a d b e e n a d a p t e d to the taste of t h e day. B u t t h e waltzes a n d s a r a b a n d s with which the I n d i a n s a c c o m p a n i e d the r e m a i n s of Morelos reflected a r i t u a l i s m w i t h r e g a r d t o t h e muertito t h a t h a d n o t c h a n g e d s i n c e t h e d a y s o f A z t e c p o l y t h e i s m . E v e n t o d a y t h e c u s t o m o f t h e velorio ( t h e f u n e r a l w a k e ) r e v e a l s a n a t t i t u d e t o w a r d m o u r n i n g t h a t is v e r y
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d i f f e r e n t f r o m o u r s . T h e h o m a g e o f t h e I n d i a n s , j o i n e d to t h e celestial m u s i c w h i c h , a c c o r d i n g to t h e c h r o n i c l e r , w a s t o lull t h e l i b e r a t o r t o s l e e p " i n t h e r e g i o n of p e a c e , " b e f o r e t h e c o l l e g i a t e c h u r c h o f G u a d a l u p e , w a s t h e first s t a t i o n o f a h e r o w h o w a s t o live f o r e v e r in t h e p o p u l a r c o n s c i o u s n e s s . M o r e l o s , like C u a u h t e m o c , h a d b e c o m e a " f o r e b e a r o f t h e c o u n t r y . " All t h e e f f o r t s o f t h e n a t i o n a l c o n s c i o u s n e s s t e n d e d t o w a r d e f f a c i n g t h e " M i d d l e A g e s " o f N e w S p a i n in o r d e r t o a c h i e v e t h e r e b i r t h o f t h e E m p i r e o f A n a h u a c f r o m its a s h e s . H e n c e the persistence with which t h e r e surged u p , again a n d again, the myth o f t h e p h o e n i x b i r d in N e w S p a i n . By n o a c c i d e n t , B u s t a m a n t e d i d n o t write " P a r a d i s e " o r "Glory" o r even "eternal peace," b u t r a t h e r "in t h e r e g i o n o f p e a c e , " a p h r a s e t h a t e v o k e d a t least as well t h e a n c i e n t T a m o a n c h a n a n d that prefigured "the most t r a n s p a r e n t region of t h e a i r " — t h a t A n a h u a c a s s i g n e d a n i d e a l p u r i t y by o n e o f t h e m o s t a u t h e n t i c M e x i c a n voices o f o u r c e n t u r y , t h e voice o f A l f o n s o R e y e s . T h e s e c o n d s t o p o f t h e f u n e r a r y u r n s was t h e c o n v e n t o f S a n t o D o m i n g o d e Mexico, w h e r e the heirs of the missionaries a n d the b a r o q u e p r e a c h e r s c o u l d in t h e i r t u r n , a n d in t h e i r o w n m a n n e r , p a y p o s t h u m o u s h o m a g e to Morelos. T h a t h o m a g e may have not been free f r o m reservations, for t h e a n t i p a t h y of the "Serf of t h e N a t i o n " t o w a r d t h e f r i a r s was well k n o w n . Finally, t h e d a y a f t e r t h i s S e p t e m b e r 16 a n n i v e r s a r y ( c e l e b r a t e d e v e r since as a n a t i o n a l h o l i d a y ) f o r m a t i o n s o f t h e a r m y c o n d u c t e d t h e r e m a i n s o f t h e h e r o e s (proceres) f r o m t h e c o n v e n t of S a n t o D o m i n g o to t h e c a t h e d r a l . I n a symbolic a m a l g a m o f t h e n e w n a t i o n a l o r d e r , t h e p r o c e s s i o n in w h i c h m i l i t a r y a n d ecclesiastics m i n g l e d , e s c o r t e d by a s q u a d r o n o f g r e n a d i e r s a n d b y t h e n a t i o n a l g u a r d (militia national), a c c o m p a n i e d t h e d e a d h e r o e s to the cathedral. A r o u n d t h e r e m a i n s of Hidalgo, Morelos, a n d their c o m r a d e s o f t h e first h o u r , t h e c h o r u s o f t h e M e x i c a n n a t i o n ( h a r d l y d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h a t w h i c h S o r J u a n a d e la C r u z d e s c r i b e d in t h e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y in h e r villancicos) s a n g t h e i r p r a i s e s in u n i s o n . T h e m e t a m o r p h o s e s o f faith a n d d e v o t i o n w e r e n o t t o e n d t h e r e , b u t t h e d i s c o r d a n t images of t h e d e a d h e r o e s would n o t p r o v e a n obstacle t o n a t i o n a l u n i t y , sanctified b y t h e b l o o d t h a t h a d b e e n s h e d . T h e intolerant concern of the f o u n d e r s of m o d e r n Mexico for Catholic o r t h o d o x y u n d o u b t e d l y r e f l e c t e d a b o v e all t h e i r f e a r o f a n a r c h y , a political a n a r c h y f l o w i n g f r o m a c h a o s o f beliefs. W i t h M o r e l o s t h i s i d e a w a s a n o b s e s s i o n . U n d e r a p r o c l a i m e d u n i t y o f faith, t h e specific spiritual content of each of the different ethnic g r o u p s m a k i n g u p the M e x i c a n n a t i o n c o n t i n u e d t o live o n . T h e M e x i c a n n a t i o n h a d a c h i e v e d political m a t u r i t y , h a d w o n its i n d e p e n d e n c e , b u t it w a s f a r from achieving a cultural integration, something which has not been completely realized to this day.
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An Inspired Friar and a Providential Mier against Iturbide (1821-23)
General:
I n n o o t h e r p a r t o f t h e w o r l d a r e d e a d h e r o e s so p r e s e n t a n d so active as in t h e l a n d s o f M i d d l e A m e r i c a ; t h a t is w h y I h a v e a v o i d e d s e p a r a t ing t h e historical role of H i d a l g o a n d Morelos from their p o s t h u m o u s d e s t i n y , w h i c h w a s , as it w e r e , t h e e m a n a t i o n a n d a c c o m p l i s h m e n t o f that role. Recalling that b o t h c a m e o u t of Michoacan, o n c e a rebel l a n d o n t h e m a r c h e s o f t h e A z t e c e m p i r e , I s e e in this fact a c l u e t o t h e t r u t h about the i n d e p e n d e n c e of Mexico. C o m i n g from t h e land of Utopia p a r e x c e l l e n c e , t h e b i s h o p r i c o f Vasco d e Q u i r o g a , t h e y inv o k e d t h e m e m o r y o f K i n g C a l t z o n t z i n , m a r t y r e d by t h e S p a n i s h c o n q u e r o r s . I n t h a t l a n d c r o s s e s s p r o u t e d like t h e g r a s s , t h e l i c e n t i a t e M a t i a s d e la M o t a P a d i l l a tells u s in h i s Historia de la conquista de la Nueva Galicia; t h e t r e e o f l i b e r t y , b y v i r t u e o f this s p o n t a n e o u s g e n e r a t i o n o f t h e T a r a s c a n l a n d , f l o u r i s h e d t h e r e as l u x u r i a n t l y as t h e m i r a c u l o u s cross of Tepic. T h e S p a n i s h C o n q u e s t , led by t h e sanguin a r y N u r i o d e G u z m a n , h a d b e e n m o r e c r u e l t h e r e t h a n in t h e A z t e c e m p i r e . B e t w e e n t h e s p i r i t o f Vasco d e Q u i r o g a a n d t h e d r e a d f u l s p i r i t o f N u n o d e G u z m a n — t h o s e t w o a s p e c t s (cara y cruz, t h e face o f s a l v a t i o n a n d t h e m a r t y r ' s cross) o f t h e E u r o p e a n p r e s e n c e — t h e I n dians of Michoacan h a d d o u b l e reason to avenge t h e d e a t h of C a l t z o n t i n a n d a c h i e v e t h e l o n g d e l a y e d Utopia o f t h e i r t u t e l a r y b i s h o p . T h e s e t w o h i g h goals c o n s t a n t l y a p p e a r in t h e s p e e c h e s , p r o c l a m a t i o n s , a n d c o n s t i t u t i o n a l p r o j e c t s o f t h e first R e v o l u t i o n o f I n d e p e n d e n c e , b e g u n in Valladolid d e Michoacan. H i d a l g o a n d Morelos w e r e d o u b t l e s s o f S p a n i s h stock, b u t b l o o d c o u n t s less h e r e t h a n t h e spiritual inspiration. I n this respect, b o t h w e r e sons of t h e T a r a s c a n c o u n t r y . I t w a s t h e r e t h a t t h e first fighters o f t h e w a r o f l i b e r a t i o n r e s p o n d e d t o t h e i r call. H u m b o l d t w r o t e in E u r o p e at t h e v e r y t i m e that the "Cry of Dolores" r e s o u n d e d t h r o u g h Mexico: " T h e whole s o u t h e r n p a r t o f t h e i n t e n d e n c y o f M i c h o a c a n is i n h a b i t e d b y I n d i a n s ; in t h e villages t h e o n l y w h i t e p e r s o n to b e f o u n d is t h e c u r a t e , w h o h i m s e l f is o f t e n I n d i a n o r m u l a t t o . T h e livings t h e r e a r e so p o o r t h a t t h e B i s h o p o f M i c h o a c a n h a s t h e g r e a t difficulty in finding c l e r g y w i l l i n g t o settle in a c o u n t r y w h e r e o n e a l m o s t n e v e r h e a r s S p a n i s h s p o k e n " H i d a l g o a n d M o r e l o s , t h e n , w e r e elite c u r a t e s in a l a n d w i t h a m i s s i o n , t h e i r f a t h e r l a n d . T h e r e c o n q u e s t o f M e x i c o s t a r t e d in w h a t was p e r h a p s t h e least h i s p a n i z e d r e g i o n o f N e w S p a i n , t h e r e g i o n w h e r e t h e leyenda negra, t h e " B l a c k L e g e n d , " was less o f a l e g e n d t h a n a n y w h e r e else. T h e d e c i s i v e m o m e n t s o f t h e W a r o f I n d e p e n d e n c e t o o k p l a c e i n M i c h o a c a n ; it w a s a t C h i l p a n c i n g o t h a t M o r e l o s 4 2
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s u m m o n e d t h e first c o n s t i t u t i o n a l c o n g r e s s a n d p r o c l a i m e d i n d e p e n d e n c e N o v e m b e r 6, 1 8 1 3 ; h e s u f f e r e d his first r e v e r s e b e c a u s e h e t r i e d t o install his g o v e r n m e n t at V a l l a d o l i d . T h e fact d e s e r v e s t h e m o r e e m p h a s i s b e c a u s e his c o n q u e r o r w a s a y o u n g officer, A g u s t i n d e I t u r b i d e , w h o t e n y e a r s l a t e r w o u l d e n t e r M e x i c o City as a l i b e r a t o r . A s w a s t h e c a s e in 1 8 7 4 w h e n S o c o r r o R e y e s r o s e u p w i t h t h e c r y o f "Religion y fueros," a n d a g a i n in t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y w i t h t h e r e b e l lion o f t h e cristeros, t h e r i s i n g o f M i c h o a c a n a p p e a r s in its i n c e p t i o n as t h e r e v o l t o f a r u r a l r e g i o n o n t h e m a r g i n s o f n a t i o n a l life a g a i n s t a r e m o t e c e n t r a l g o v e r n m e n t . T h i s fact d o e s n o t e x h a u s t t h e sign i f i c a n c e o f t h e c r u s a d e a g a i n s t t h e gachupines u n l e a s h e d by t h e c u r a t e s o f M i c h o a c a n , b u t it m a y e x p l a i n w h y H i d a l g o ' s a p p e a l s t o d e s e r t , m a d e w i t h p a t h e t i c i n s i s t e n c e t o t h e loyalist t r o o p s , w e n t u n h e a r d . T h i s was t h e p r i n c i p a l o b j e c t i v e r e a s o n f o r t h e d e f e a t o f a w a r f o r l i b e r a t i o n w h i c h s e e m e d to h a v e e n d e d a f t e r H i d a l g o a n d M o r e l o s h a d b e e n s h o t . T h e r e v o l u t i o n a r y w a v e h a d s t o p p e d at t h e g a t e s o f M e x i c o City, t h e n h a d r e c e d e d , as if H i d a l g o h a d b e e n i n t i m i d a t e d by t h e s i g h t o f t h e i m p e r i a l city. It was a fatal e r r o r , f o r I t u r b i d e ' s vict o r i e s o v e r t h e i n s u r g e n t s a n d t h e skill o f t h e n e w v i c e r o y , A p o d a c a , soon dispersed the revolutionaries a n d b r o k e their victorious elan. T h e c o n g r e s s h a d t o flee as far as A p a t z i n g a n , a n d t h e n c e f o r t h led a n o m a d i c life. O n D e c e m b e r 2 1 , 1 8 1 5 , M o r e l o s was e x e c u t e d as a t r a i t o r , a n d t h e d e f e a t o f t h e r e v o l u t i o n s e e m e d d e f i n i t i v e . It w o u l d b e a n e r r o r , h o w e v e r , to classify t h i s r i s i n g o f t h e I n d i a n s o f M i c h o a c a n , l e d by t h e i r c u r a t e s , as j u s t o n e m o r e o f t h e n u m e r o u s I n d i a n r e v o l t s w h i c h a g i t a t e d N e w S p a i n p e r i o d i c a l l y t h r o u g h o u t its h i s t o r y . T h e e v e n t s w h i c h u n f o l d e d b e t w e e n 1 8 1 0 a n d 1 8 1 5 in N e w S p a i n c o i n c i d e d w i t h o n e o f t h e m o s t t r o u b l e d p e r i o d s in t h e h i s t o r y o f S p a i n . A s e r i e s o f political a n d j u r i d i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t s h a d a d e c i s i v e i n f l u e n c e o n the c o u r s e of Mexican events. T h e vacant Spanish t h r o n e w e a k e n e d t h e p o w e r o f t h e v i c e r o y s , t h e c o u p d ' e t a t c a r r i e d o u t by t h e S p a n i a r d s against t h e viceroy I t u r r i g a r a y d e s t r o y e d an essential institution. Spain herself gave an e x a m p l e of a r m e d revolt against the foreign occupier; if it r e q u i r e d s o m e s t r e t c h i n g o f t h e t r u t h to p r o c l a i m t h e gachupines f o r e i g n e r s in M e x i c o , this c o u l d b e d o n e w i t h o u t difficulty. T h e c o r t e s of Cadiz discussed the abolition of t h e tribunal of the Inquisition a n d d e c i d e d u p o n it a t t h e m o m e n t w h e n t h e M e x i c a n I n q u i s i t i o n h a n d e d H i d a l g o o v e r to t h e s e c u l a r a r m , a n d d e c r e e d f r e e d o m o f t h e p r e s s j u s t w h e n r e v o l u t i o n a r y s h e e t s w e r e b e g i n n i n g to p r o l i f e r a t e in M e x i c o : The Centzontli, The American Awakening, The Mexican Eagle, w h o s e s y m b o l i c titles e v o k e d t h e p a s t e v e n m o r e t h a n t h e f u t u r e t h e y a n n o u n c e d . T h e confusion of new ideas a n d ancestral passions, the
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disarray of g o v e r n m e n t , t h e cruelty of the repression, t h e audacity of a p e o p l e w h i c h h a d j u s t d i s c o v e r e d its c a p a c i t y t o h o l d in c h e c k t h e r e g u l a r a r m y , t h e defeatism of the S p a n i a r d s , w e r e the factors that c o n v e r g e d toward a r e s u m p t i o n of the War of I n d e p e n d e n c e . T h e g r e a t n o v e l t y was t h e a p p e a r a n c e o n t h e political s c e n e o f a p e r s o n a g e w h o was t o p l a y a m a j o r r o l e o n t h e political s t a g e d o w n t o t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y , t h e guerrillero. F a i t h f u l t o its o w n d y n a m i c , which c o r r e s p o n d s to certain socio-psychological a n d g e o g r a p h i c c o n d i t i o n s , a n u p r i s i n g , o n c e l a u n c h e d , r e b o u n d s a n d c o n t i n u e s o n its c o u r s e d e s p i t e all e f f o r t s t o s t o p it. I n r e s p o n s e t o political f l u c t u a t i o n s , e n d e m i c social b a n d i t r y p r o d u c e s " c a u d i l l o s " w h o , o n c e victorious o n t h e side of t h e d o m i n a n t party, are t r a n s f o r m e d into liberating h e r o e s , o r , if d e f e a t e d t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e w e a k e r p a r t y , r e t u r n t o b a n d i t r y if t h e y m a n a g e to e s c a p e a v i o l e n t d e a t h . M e x i c a n Costumbrista writers of t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y have described this p h e n o m e n o n , b u t it w a s a t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y novelist, M a r i a n o A z u e l a , w h o c a p t u r e d its r e a l i t y in Los de abajo. J u s t as t h e W a r o f I n d e p e n d e n c e a p p e a r e d t o b e " f i n i s h e d , " it r e ceived an u n e x p e c t e d boost from Spain. Francisco Xavier Mina, a g u e r r i l l a l e a d e r in t h e S p a n i s h w a r o f l i b e r a t i o n a g a i n s t N a p o l e o n ' s a r m i e s , w a s , like H i d a l g o , a s o n o f a s t r o n g l y p a r t i c u l a r i s t p r o v i n c e , r e m o t e f r o m t h e capital; h e was f r o m N a v a r r e . R e p e l l e d by t h e restor a t i o n o f F e r d i n a n d V I I , w h o i m m e d i a t e l y b e g a n t o act like a t y r a n t , M i n a , h a v i n g failed in a n e f f o r t t o f o m e n t r e v o l u t i o n in S p a i n , fled to L o n d o n . T h e r e he met creole emigres from America, notably a Dominican from Monterrey who had gained considerable renown, Fray S e r v a n d o T e r e s a d e Mier. T h i s alliance b e t w e e n a friar a n d a g u e r r i l l e r o r e s u l t e d in t h e l a n d i n g o f a h a n d f u l o f m e n n e a r S o t o d e M a r i n a , o n t h e G u l f c o a s t o f M e x i c o , in A p r i l 1 8 1 7 . U n t i l O c t o b e r 2 7 , w h e n h e w a s c a p t u r e d a n d s h o t at V e n a d i t o , M i n a w a g e d a b r i l l i a n t m i l i t a r y c a m p a i g n , seized S a n F e l i p e , t h r e a t e n e d L e o n , a n d c a u s e d the g o v e r n m e n t m u c h anxiety, recreating the a t m o s p h e r e of fear that h a d a c c o m p a n i e d Morelos' victories s o m e years back. T h e defeat of Mina d i d n o t d e t e r o n e of Morelos' f o r m e r lieutenants, Vicente G u e r r e r o , f r o m r e s u m i n g t h e s t r u g g l e in t h e s o u t h a n d a c h i e v i n g a s e r i e s o f v i c t o r i e s in 1 8 1 9 . N o w t h e r e t o o k p l a c e a d r a m a t i c c o u p w h i c h p r e c i p i t a t e d t h e success o f t h e r e v o l u t i o n a r y a r m i e s ; G e n e r a l I t u r b i d e , s e n t by t h e v i c e r o y t o c r u s h t h e r e b e l l i o n o f G u e r r e r o as h e h a d c r u s h e d t h a t o f M o r e l o s , i n v i t e d t h e e n e m y l e a d e r t o a p e r s o n a l m e e t i n g at A c a t e m p a n . F r o m this m e e t i n g issued t h e Plan of Iguala. T h e defection of I t u r b i d e , w h o was n o w c o m m a n d e r - i n - c h i e f of t h e a r m i e s of I n d e p e n d e n c e , p r o v o k e d p a n i c in M e x i c o City. W h i l e this w a s g o i n g o n , a n e w v i c e r o y ,
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7-1821)
J u a n O ' D o n o j u , d i s e m b a r k e d at V e r a c r u z . T a k e n a b a c k by t h e n e w situation, h e a g r e e d to m e e t I t u r b i d e at C o r d o b a a n d signed a treaty in w h i c h h e a t t e m p t e d to s a l v a g e w h a t h e c o u l d for S p a i n . O ' D o n o j u w a s r e p u d i a t e d by t h e S p a n i s h g o v e r n m e n t , a n d for a d e c a d e M e x i c o w a s t o live u n d e r t h e t h r e a t o f a w a r o f r e c o n q u e s t . H o w e v e r , t h e A r m y of t h e T h r e e G u a r a n t e e s (religion, u n i o n , a n d i n d e p e n d e n c e ) e n t e r e d M e x i c o City in t r i u m p h o n S e p t e m b e r 2 7 , 1 8 2 1 . M e x i c o h a d finally a c h i e v e d its i n d e p e n d e n c e as a r e s u l t o f t h e c u m u l a t i v e effect o f t h e f a c t o r s I h a v e a t t e m p t e d t o i n d i c a t e , s o m e linked to r e c e n t vicissitudes of S p a n i s h history, o t h e r s t h e fruit of a slow r e g i o n a l m a t u r a t i o n . T h e a t m o s p h e r e in w h i c h M e x i c o b e g a n its i n d e p e n d e n t life h a s b e e n felicitously r e c r e a t e d by J a v i e r O c a m p o in Las ideas de un dia (El pueblo mexicano ante la consumacibn de su Independencia). " T h e i m a g e o f I t u r b i d e a p p e a r e d a t t h a t m o m e n t as t h e synt h e s i s o f t h e collective c o n s c i o u s n e s s i n its e n t h u s i a s m f o r I n d e p e n d e n c e . H i s figure e x p r e s s e d , a l t h o u g h v e r y t r a n s i e n t l y , t h e c h a r i s m a t i c d i m e n s i o n . " We h a v e f o l l o w e d t h e t r a j e c t o r y o f t h e c h a r i s m a t i c s e n t i m e n t a n d its m e t a m o r p h o s e s in N e w S p a i n f r o m t h e f o u n d a t i o n o f t h e first F r a n c i s c a n m i s s i o n in 1 5 2 4 . A f t e r H i d a l g o , t h a t c h a r i s m a t i c s e n t i m e n t was particularly p r e s e n t a r o u n d Morelos, investing h i m w i t h a n a u r e o l e . B u t in t h e c a s e o f I t u r b i d e , d e s c r i b e d in h i s t u r n as " F a t h e r o f H i s C o u n t r y , " " M a n o f G o d , " a n d , w h a t is m o r e i n t e r e s t ing, "Star of the N o r t h , " a new p h e n o m e n o n e m e r g e s . T h i s "poles t a r , " w h o recalls t h e V i r g i n o f G u a d a l u p e ( M e x i c o City's p o l e s t a r ) , f o r t h e first t i m e in t h e h i s t o r y o f w h a t h a d b e e n N e w S p a i n w a s a general. T o be sure, H i d a l g o h a d called himself "captain g e n e r a l , " t h e n "generalissimo," a n d Morelos h a d b e e n a great soldier, b u t both were incontrovertibly priests. I t u r b i d e , o n the contrary, h a d a d o p t e d t h e m i l i t a r y c a r e e r a t s i x t e e n a n d h a d n e v e r left it. H e w a s called t h e "new J o s h u a " ; M e n d i e t a h a d once given the same n a m e to Cortes. T h e r o a d to t h e M e x i c a n p r o m i s e d l a n d , h a d b e e n a h a r d , b i t t e r l y d i s p u t e d o n e . I n s t e a d o f t h e " h a p p i n e s s " a n n o u n c e d by H i d a l g o , t h e M e x i c a n p e o p l e fell i n t o t h e a n a r c h y t h a t M o r e l o s h a d f e a r e d . T h e t r i b u n a l o f t h e I n q u i s i t i o n h a d b a n n e d M i l t o n ' s Paradise Lost, b u t t h e M e x i c a n " W e s t e r n P a r a d i s e " also fell i n t o r u i n . T h e s e c u l a r s t r u g g l e o f a g o v e r n m e n t whose regalism h a d stiffened u n d e r C h a r l e s I I I a n d of t h e ecclesiastical h i e r a r c h y a g a i n s t t h e r e l i g i o u s o r d e r s h a d s a p p e d t h e socio-spiritual f o u n d a t i o n s of N e w Spain. T h e friars h a d struck their t e n t s o r h a d b e e n d r i v e n i n t o e x i l e , like t h e J e s u i t s ; t h e y h a d left b e h i n d t h e m , in t h e h a n d s o f n o v i c e s , a n i n f e r n a l m a c h i n e , t h e U t o pian aspiration a n d t h e charismatic certainty of t h e Mexican p e o p l e . T h a t m a c h i n e r a i n e d fire in all d i r e c t i o n s as a r e s u l t o f a c o n j u n c t i o n o f political e v e n t s t h a t g e n e r a t e d f e a r a n d d i s a r r a y , at a m o m e n t w h e n 4 3
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t h e l i b e r a l policies a d o p t e d by S p a i n h a d b r o u g h t d o w n t h e last b a r r i e r s o f political a n d r e l i g i o u s o r t h o d o x y . T h e figure o f t h e m i s s i o n a r y f r i a r h a d d o m i n a t e d N e w S p a i n ' s h a g i o g r a p h y since its b e g i n n i n g s ; t h e c r e o l e c h a r i s m a t i c s e n t i m e n t h a d b e e n d e v e l o p e d in t h e F r a n c i s c a n a n d A u g u s t i n i a n c o n v e n t s a n d d i f f u s e d f r o m t h e p u l p i t by t h e p r e a c h e r s , often Jesuits. Now, at t h e b e g i n n i n g of the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , w h e n l i g h t (so d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h e E n l i g h t e n m e n t ) c a m e f r o m t h e c u r a t e s o f I n d i a n p a r i s h e s in M i c h o a c a n , c r e o l e c h a r i s m a w a s d r o w n e d in a flood o f I n d i a n c u l t s , m a g n i f i c e n t l y r e p r e s e n t e d by t h e s t a n d a r d of G u a d a l u p e . I n t o d a y ' s r e v o l u t i o n a r y l a n g u a g e , w e w o u l d say t h a t s u p e r n a t u r a l inspiration h e n c e f o r t h would " c o m e from t h e base" instead of rem a i n i n g t h e p r i v i l e g e o f t h e c l e r g y . It w a s in this r e a l m t h a t t h e r e u n f o l d e d a d e m o c r a t i c r e v o l u t i o n t h a t h i s t o r i a n s h a v e h i t h e r t o failed t o p e r c e i v e . R a t h e r t h a n s p e a k o f a c o m p l e t e r e v o l u t i o n , o n e is t e m p t e d t o call it a " n e w e q u i l i b r i u m , " f o r t h e beliefs, t h e local cults, a n d t h e p i l g r i m a g e s h a d b e e n vital e x p r e s s i o n s o f p o p u l a r faith in N e w S p a i n since t h e first h a l f o f t h e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y . W h a t m o s t p r o f o u n d l y a f f e c t e d t h e M e x i c a n collective m e n t a l i t y d u r i n g t h e y e a r s o f t h e W a r f o r I n d e p e n d e n c e a n d d o w n to t h e g o v e r n m e n t o f t h e R e f o r m a was t h e effacement of t h e friar a n d t h e e m e r g e n c e of t h e military m a n . As a result of t h e Wars of I n d e p e n d e n c e ( c o m i n g after o r l e a d i n g t o a crisis o f ecclesiastical a n d u n i v e r s i t y fueros, o r i m munities), a p p e a r i n g at t h e e n d of almost a half c e n t u r y of a "state of w a r , " t h e figures o f t h e m i l i t a r y officer o r his a n t i t h e s i s , t h e guerrillero, polarized the nation about themselves. I t u r b i d e , w h o h a d d e s t r o y e d t h e forces of t h e c u r a t e Morelos, w h o h a d also c o m e o u t o f M i c h o a c a n , "like t h e e a g l e w h o s h o u l d s t r i k e d o w n t h e S p a n i s h lion w i t h his w i n g s , " t h e r e f o r e a p p e a r e d t o b e " t h e m a n s e n t by G o d " a n d " t h e f a t h e r o f his c o u n t r y " ; t h e political r e s u l t w a s his c o r o n a t i o n . E l e c t e d , u n d e r p o p u l a r p r e s s u r e , E m p e r o r o f A n a h u a c , w i t h t h e title o f A g u s t i n I, h e w a s t h o u g h t t o b e r e v i v i n g t h e Aztec e m p i r e (the Aztecs w e r e bitter e n e m i e s of t h e Tarascans, b u t t h a t d i d n o t m a t t e r ) . I t u r b i d e himself was of B a s q u e origin, b u t we k n o w h o w from the time of Siguenza y G o n g o r a t h e irreconcilable was reconciled for the g r e a t e r glory of Mexico. T h e day of I n d e p e n d e n c e was, as J a v i e r O c a m p o h a s well o b s e r v e d , " t h e i m p o s s i b l e b e c o m e d e e d " ; if t h e M e x i c a n s r e m a i n e d u n i t e d ( t h e o b s e s s i o n w i t h u n i t y , e x p r e s s e d in politics by t h e q u a r r e l b e t w e e n c e n t r a l i s t s a n d f e d e r a l i s t s , was to d o m i n a t e t h e history of Mexico after I n d e p e n d e n c e ) , Mexico City c o u l d b e c o m e " t h e c a p i t a l o f t h e g l o b e . " A r e l a t i v e s e c u l a r i z a tion of the religious c h a r i s m a of the e i g h t e e n t h a n d n i n e t e e n t h centuries, to which I have called a t t e n t i o n above, took place u n d e r t h e 4 4
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s h o c k o f t h e i d e o l o g y o f t h e E n l i g h t e n m e n t , w h i c h g a v e its l a n g u a g e t o t h e political r e v o l u t i o n . F r o m the e n d of t h e e i g h t e e n t h century, t h e d e m o g r a p h i c d e v e l o p m e n t o f M e x i c o City, t h e g r o w t h o f c o n s u m p t i o n , a n d t h e like, b e c a m e a s o u r c e o f c o n c e r n f o r S p a n i a r d s , w o r r i e d lest t h e c a p i t a l o f N e w Spain should be eclipsing M a d r i d . After the occupation of Mad r i d b y N a p o l e o n ' s t r o o p s , M e x i c o City a l o n e b o r e aloft t h e t o r c h o f w h a t w a s n o t yet c a l l e d Hispanidad, b u t w h i c h n e v e r t h e l e s s h a d a r i c h affective c o n t e n t . W h e n a d e p u t y o f t h e c o r t e s o f C a d i z e x c l a i m e d in t h a t a s s e m b l y : " N a t u r e h a s so u n i t e d t h e E u r o p e a n s a n d t h e Creoles t h a t e v e n if s h e w i s h e s , s h e c o u l d n o t s e p a r a t e t h e m , " o n e m i g h t conclude that events had h a n d e d him a stinging refutation, but on a c e r t a i n i n t e r i o r level h e w a s e n t i r e l y r i g h t . I n 1 8 2 8 , a n d a g a i n in 1 8 3 3 , e x p u l s i o n d e c r e e s s t r u c k a t t h e S p a n i a r d s w h o still lived in M e x i c o , t h u s n u l l i f y i n g in fact o n e o f t h e " t h r e e g u a r a n t e e s , " t h a t o f u n i o n , b u t t h e competition for grace b e t w e e n G u a d a l u p e a n d the Virgin of Pilar, b e t w e e n M e x i c o City a n d M a d r i d , w h i c h w a s a s e c u l a r e x p r e s sion o f t h e r i v a l r y o v e r l e a d e r s h i p , n o t o f H i s p a n i c l a n d s a l o n e , b u t o f t h e w o r l d — t h e f r a t r i c i d a l s t r u g g l e t r a n s p o s e d t o t h e level o f c h a r i s matic d r e a m — l o n g m a i n t a i n e d the spiritual b o n d s between the f o r m e r N e w S p a i n a n d O l d S p a i n in d e c l i n e . 4 5
Probably n o o t h e r work expresses with a richness c o m p a r a b l e to t h a t o f F r a y S e r v a n d o T e r e s a d e M i e r t h e vital a m b i g u i t y o f t h i s hist o r i c a l s i t u a t i o n o f s i m u l t a n e o u s r u p t u r e a n d loyalty b e t w e e n S p a i n a n d h e r A m e r i c a n projection, newly i n d e p e n d e n t Mexico. I n a sense t h i s D o m i n i c a n w a s t h e last o f t h o s e c r e o l e f r i a r s w h o f o r g e d t h e A m e r i c a n patria in t h e c o u r s e o f t h e c o l o n i a l c e n t u r i e s . B o r n in M o n t e r r e y , c a p i t a l o f N u e v o L e o n , h e b e l o n g e d to a n o b l e family w h i c h i n c l u d e d in its r a n k s a g o v e r n o r o f t h a t p r o v i n c e a n d a p r e s i d e n t o f t h e t r i b u n a l o f t h e I n q u i s i t i o n ; o n his m o t h e r ' s s i d e h e c l a i m e d t o d e s c e n d f r o m M o c t e z u m a . B u t his m a i n i n t e r e s t w a s in d e f e n d i n g t h e p r i v i l e g e s o f t h e c r e o l e nobility, s h u n t e d a w a y f r o m h o n o r s a n d j o b s . I n his Historia de la revolucibn de la Nueva Espaiia, t h e r e a s o n s h e a d vances to justify t h e i n d e p e n d e n c e of N e w Spain m e r g e with t h e "defense a n d explanation" of the Mexican aristocracy. T h e straightf o r w a r d claims of the creole apologists of previous d e c a d e s b e c a m e p a s s i o n a t e p o l e m i c s as r e p h r a s e d by F r a y S e r v a n d o , w h o w r o t e as a n e x i l e in L o n d o n , a f t e r h a v i n g fled f r o m S p a n i s h p r i s o n s . I n t h e first p l a c e , F r a y S e r v a n d o d i s p u t e d t h e validity o f t h e h i s t o r i c a l - p r o v i d e n t i a l f o u n d a t i o n s o f S p a i n ' s c l a i m s t o A m e r i c a . "We, t h e Creoles, d e c l a r e t h a t t h e r e l i g i o n n o w e x i s t i n g in A m e r i c a w a s n o t b r o u g h t by y o u S p a n i a r d s , b u t by u s t h r o u g h o u r f o r e b e a r s . " He a t t a c k s t h e alternativa i n t h e r e l i g i o u s o r d e r s , s h o w i n g t h a t t h e e x p e n s e s 4 6
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o f t h e c h u r c h i n N e w S p a i n w e r e b o r n e e n t i r e l y b y t h e Creoles. W r i t i n g a t t h e d a w n o f t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , h i s p e n still e x p r e s s e s the r a n c o r of the conquistadors against the m o n a r c h y a n d that of c r e o l e f r i a r s d e n i e d p r e l a t e s h i p s a n d t h e r i c h e s t livings. B e c a u s e h e h a d b e e n p e r s e c u t e d by A r c h b i s h o p H a r o y Peralta a n d t h e t r i b u n a l o f t h e I n q u i s i t i o n i n M e x i c o a s a r e s u l t o f a s e r m o n p r o n o u n c e d in 1 7 9 4 t h a t w a s r e g a r d e d as s u b v e r s i v e , in t h e c o u r s e o f h i s t r i b u l a t i o n s in t h e P e n i n s u l a h e c o n t r a c t e d a s o r t o f p e r s e c u t i o n m a n i a w h i c h Antonello Gerbi c o m p a r e s to that of J e a n Jacques Rousseau. Mier c o n s i d e r e d h i m s e l f a victim o f t h e d i s t r u s t felt by t h e gachupines f o r all Creoles e n d o w e d w i t h t a l e n t . B u t this s t a t e o f a f f a i r s , closely r e s e m b l i n g t h e p h e n o m e n o n of racial d i s c r i m i n a t i o n ( a l t h o u g h o n e c a n n o t p r o p e r l y s p e a k o f " r a c e " in t h i s c o n n e c t i o n ) d i d n o t l e a d h i m t o a s s e r t t h e principle of equality o r p r o p o s e t h e abolition of slavery a n d t h e s y s t e m o f castas. I n t h e s e m a t t e r s h e s h a r e d c r e o l e p r e j u d i c e s . W h a t M i e r d e m a n d e d , a b o v e all, w a s t h e strict a p p l i c a t i o n o f a b o d y o f a n c i e n t laws a n d m e a s u r e s w h i c h in t h e i r totality f o r m e d , a c c o r d i n g to h i m , t h e t r u e " A m e r i c a n constitution" within t h e f r a m e w o r k of t h e S p a n i s h m o n a r c h y . T h e j u r i d i c a l t i n g e o f his a r g u m e n t s r e v e a l e d t h e specialist in c a n o n law t h a t h e r e m a i n e d t h r o u g h o u t h i s s t o r m y life. N e w Spain h a d never b e e n free from t h e influence a n d t h e manifestations of Spanish juridical t h o u g h t . Fray S e r v a n d o represents the ext r e m e of w h a t m i g h t b e called Mexican revolutionary "legalism"; I h a v e c a l l e d a t t e n t i o n to its i m p o r t a n c e in t h e t h o u g h t o f H i d a l g o a n d t h e l i c e n t i a t e R a y o n . T h e Creoles, in p r i n c i p l e , d i d n o t r e j e c t all e g i a n c e t o F e r d i n a n d V I I , b u t p r o p o s e d t o install a c a r e t a k i n g r e g i m e d u r i n g his absence a n d , taking a d v a n t a g e of that absence, to s t r e n g t h e n t h e i r p r i v i l e g e s o f a r u l i n g c a s t e . M o r e l o s , t h e first c h a m p i o n o f p o p u l a r s o v e r e i g n t y , i n its b r o a d e s t d e m o c r a t i c s e n s e , h a d t o b r i n g p r e s s u r e o n R a y o n to erase t h e n a m e of F e r d i n a n d f r o m t h e first M e x i c a n c o n s t i t u t i o n . Mier, by contrast, d i s t r u s t e d t h e principle o f national sovereignty. " P o p u l a r sovereignty m e a n s n o t h i n g m o r e t h a n this: from t h e people e m a n a t e s t h e a u t h o r i t y w h i c h t h e p e o p l e m u s t o b e y , f o r t h e p e o p l e as a w h o l e c a n n o t r u l e . " W h e n h e w r o t e t h e f o l l o w i n g lines h i s m i n d w a s o n t h e e v e n t s o f t h e F r e n c h R e v o l u t i o n , s o m e o f w h i c h h e h a d witn e s s e d . " A s f o r t h e p r i n c i p l e o f e q u a l i t y , it c a n n o t i n a strict s e n s e exist a m o n g m e n , save in t h e m e a s u r e t h a t t h e y a r e p r o t e c t e d b y j u s t laws f r o m w h i c h n o n e is e x e m p t . . . . T h e F r e n c h h a v e d e d u c e d t h a t t h e y m u s t c u t e a c h o t h e r ' s t h r o a t s in o r d e r t o b e e q u a l in t h e g r a v e , t h e o n l y p l a c e w h e r e w e a r e all e q u a l . " I n fine, t h e m a n w h o w a s p e r s e c u t e d u n i n t e r r u p t e d l y f r o m 1 7 9 4 o n , first by t h e I n q u i s i t i o n a n d finally by I t u r b i d e , f o r h i s n o n c o n f o r m i s t s p i r i t a n d h i s r e v o l t a g a i n s t 4 7
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t h e political a n d s p i r i t u a l a u t h o r i t i e s , t a u g h t his c o u n t r y m e n , a t t h e height of Morelos' rebellion, counsels of m o d e r a t i o n : " T h e peoples h a v e n e v e r b e e n r u l e d save by c u s t o m s , p r e s c r i p t i o n s , a n d laws. T h a t is w h y I h a v e b e e n a t s u c h g r e a t p a i n s t o m a k e o u r s k n o w n . O u r laws m a k e u s i n d e p e n d e n t o f S p a i n a n d by v i r t u e o f t h o s e laws w e a r e j u s t i f i e d in b e c o m i n g c o m p l e t e l y i n d e p e n d e n t ; t h u s o t h e r n a t i o n s will r e s p e c t o u r s e p a r a t i o n f r o m S p a i n as in c o n f o r m i t y w i t h t h e law o f n a t i o n s , b u t all t h e A m e r i c a n s will r e m a i n u n i t e d . D o n o t m a k e n e w laws, m u c h less i n n o v a t i o n s in m a t t e r o f r e l i g i o n . " 4 8
T h e o b s e s s i o n w i t h civil w a r , o r , t o call it by its r i g h t n a m e , " f e a r o f r e v o l u t i o n , " m a d e M i e r t h e s p o k e s m a n at t h a t d a t e for a s t r o n g c u r r e n t o f c r e o l e t h o u g h t , t h a t c u r r e n t w h i c h w a s t o i m p o s e t h e first o f Iturbide's " T h r e e G u a r a n t e e s , " — " u n i o n " with S p a n i a r d s b u t indep e n d e n c e of Spain (that Spain of w h i c h Mier could n o t speak harshly e n o u g h in h i s Memoirs). H e c o u l d s t r i k e off t r e n c h a n t p h r a s e s t o e x p r e s s t h e t r a d i t i o n a l c r e o l e c o m p l a i n t s : " S p a i n lives o f f A m e r i c a t h e w a y R o m e lives off p a p a l b u l l s , " a n d a g a i n : " H o w e v e r , t h e r e is a v e r y great difference between the people of each k i n g d o m or province of S p a i n ; . . . t h e y h a v e n o t h i n g in c o m m o n save t h e i r b r u t a l i t y , t h e i r p r i d e , t h e i r i g n o r a n c e , a n d t h e i r s u p e r s t i t i o n s . A s c o n c e r n s this last point, I speak of t h e m u l t i t u d e , which includes t h e friars a n d t h e s o l d i e r s . A s f o r t h e o t h e r s , t h e y a r e in t h e s a m e s t a t e as t h e r e s t o f E u r o p e , d o m i n a t e d by d e i s m , a n d e v e n by a t h e i s m . " C l e a r l y , F r a y S e r v a n d o ' s s y m p a t h i e s a r e w i t h t h e d e f e n d e r s o f social o r d e r a n d religious o r t h o d o x y ; largely because of him, the revolution o f I n d e p e n d e n c e c a n b e v i e w e d as a " c o u n t e r r e v o l u t i o n . " It is t r u e t h a t M i e r p l a y e d o n l y s e c o n d a r y r o l e s in t h e r e v o l u t i o n , b u t t h i s d i d n o t k e e p h i m from b e i n g p r e s e n t e v e r y w h e r e . Exiled to a c o n v e n t in t h e M o n t a n a d e S a n t a n d e r by t h e M e x i c a n I n q u i s i t i o n , t w e n t y y e a r s b e f o r e t h e o u t b r e a k of t h e Wars of I n d e p e n d e n c e , h e was t h e only M e x i c a n w h o k n e w S p a i n a n d d e s c r i b e d it d u r i n g t h e y e a r s w h i c h p r e c e d e d t h e political s e p a r a t i o n . I n Italy h e k n e w t h e e x i l e d J e s u i t s a n d followed the course of the d i s p u t e which c o n f r o n t e d Clavijero w i t h d e P a u w a n d B u f f o n . I n t h e c o u r s e o f his s t o r m y c a r e e r h e m e t Clavijero, t h e abbe G r e g o i r e , a n d A l e x a n d e r von H u m b o l d t ( w h o m h e t r i e d t o w i n o v e r t o his i d e a s a b o u t a n e a r l y a p o s t o l i c e v a n g e l i z a t i o n o f A m e r i c a ) , a n d h e o b t a i n e d f r o m t h e A c a d e m i a d e la H i s t o r i a d e Espafia a n o p i n i o n o n t h e subject of t h e tradition of G u a d a l u p e . A t t h e t i m e o f t h e c o r t e s d e C a d i z h e e n g a g e d in a p o l e m i c w i t h t h e consulado o r m e r c h a n t g u i l d o f M e x i c o City, w h i c h s o u g h t t o r e s t r i c t t h e A m e r i c a n p a r l i a m e n t a r y d e l e g a t i o n . M a d e a m i l i t a r y c h a p l a i n in t h e S p a n i s h a r m i e s which f o u g h t against N a p o l e o n , h e was t a k e n p r i s o n e r by t h e F r e n c h . E s c a p i n g to L o n d o n , h e m o v e d in t h e c o n 4 9
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s p i r a t o r i a l circles f r o m w h i c h e m e r g e d V i z c a r d o a n d M i r a n d a . H e probably instigated the Mina expedition to Mexico b u t played a very m i n o r m i l i t a r y r o l e in t h a t affair; i m p r i s o n e d a s e c o n d t i m e by t h e I n q u i s i t i o n , h e w a s r e l e a s e d by t h e c o m i n g o f I n d e p e n d e n c e . A t t h e t i m e o f t h e e l e c t i o n o f t h e first M e x i c a n c o n s t i t u e n t c o n g r e s s , after the e n t r a n c e of t h e A r m y of t h e T h r e e G u a r a n t e e s into Mexico City, his c o u n t r y m e n o f M o n t e r r e y , w h o h a d f o r g o t t e n h i m d u r i n g his y e a r s o f e x i l e , w e r e h a p p y t o find in t h e i r m i d s t a g e n u i n e r e v o l u t i o n a r y t o r e p r e s e n t t h e m , a n d e l e c t e d h i m d e p u t y . H i s first s p e e c h in t h e c o n g r e s s d e v e l o p e d his f a m i l i a r a r g u m e n t s in f a v o r o f a r e v i s i o n o f t h e M e x i c a n t r a d i t i o n o f G u a d a l u p e . I n s u m , t h e y c o n s i s t e d in t h e s u g g e s t i o n t h a t t h e m i r a c u l o u s c l o t h h a d b e e n left as a relic f o r t h e a n c i e n t M e x i c a n s by t h e a p o s t l e S a i n t T h o m a s , t h e first m i s s i o n a r y in A n a h u a c , k n o w n in n a t i v e t r a d i t i o n s by t h e n a m e o f Q u e t z a l c o a t l . A s p e e c h o f this k i n d m a y s e e m u n t i m e l y in a r e v o l u t i o n a r y c o n g r e s s , b u t w e m u s t n o t lose s i g h t o f t h e n a t i o n a l e m b l e m , t h e b a n n e r o f G u a d a l u p e , w h i c h h a d l e d t h e " A m e r i c a n s " t o victory. A s t h e d e p u t y f r o m M o n t e r r e y r e c a l l e d , it w a s a q u e s t i o n o f p u r g i n g M e x i c o o f a n o r i g i n a l s t a i n : " T h e q u e s t i o n i n v o l v e s n o t h i n g less t h a n k n o w i n g w h e t h e r t h e greatest single p o r t i o n of m a n k i n d was u n w o r t h y of a c o m p a s s i o n a t e l o o k f r o m J e s u s C h r i s t a n d his M o t h e r u n t i l six t h o u s a n d y e a r s a f t e r t h e d e a t h o f t h e R e d e e m e r , o r if in fact it r e c e i v e d t h a t g r a c e a t t h e s a m e t i m e as t h e o t h e r c o n t i n e n t s . " I n t h e m i l l e n a r i a n a t m o s p h e r e in w h i c h t h e W a r s o f I n d e p e n d e n c e u n f o l d e d , t h e a s s e r t i o n o f a g r a c e s h a r e d by t h e M e x i c a n s w i t h o t h e r peoples from apostolic times r e p r e s e n t e d a necessary condition for the recognition of a new chosen p e o p l e with planetary ambitions. Despite n u m e r o u s contradictions, s o m e only a p p a r e n t , o t h e r s real, t h e political views a n d t h e r e l i g i o u s t h o u g h t o f M i e r w e r e c o h e r e n t . B o t h looked to t h e past with t h e aim of f o u n d i n g t h e r e a glorious p r e s e n t w h i c h in e s s e n c e w o u l d b e a r e s t o r a t i o n o f a g o l d e n a g e , b o t h legalist a n d c h a r i s m a t i c . T h e d u a l i n f l u e n c e o f m i l l e n a r i a n i s m , w i t h w h i c h h e h a d flirted in E u r o p e , a n d o f t h e I n d i a n m e s s i a n i c cycle, which p r o m i s e d the r e t u r n in glory of Quetzalcoatl, seems u n c o n sciously t o h a v e d o m i n a t e d his m i n d . 5 0
T h e t e r r i b l e i m p r e s s i o n left o n his m e m o r y by t h e e x c e s s e s o f t h e T e r r o r in F r a n c e m a d e h i m f e a r a l e a p i n t o c o n s t i t u t i o n a l a n d relig i o u s n o v e l t y , a b o v e all. T h a t is w h y h e s o u g h t s u p p o r t in t h e laws o f t h e I n d i e s , in S c r i p t u r e , a n d in t h e M e x i c a n h i e r o g l y p h i c a l a n d o r a l t r a d i t i o n in o r d e r t o f o u n d a n e w political o r d e r o n o l d p r i n c i p l e s . T o preserve the quasi-sacred u n i o n with the Spanish C r o w n a n d unity of f a i t h w e r e in h i s e y e s t h e m e a n s o f g u a r a n t e e i n g r e s p e c t f o r t h e laws a n d a v o i d i n g a n a r c h y . F r a y S e r v a n d o h a d n o w i s h to u n d e r m i n e a
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social o r d e r w h i c h w o u l d a s s u r e his circle ( t h e c r e o l e nobility) p r e e m i n e n c e j u s t as s o o n as the fueros ( t h e t r a d i t i o n a l p r i v i l e g e s ) w e r e p r o p erly i m p l e m e n t e d . His position coincided with that of m a n y Mexicans, i n c l u d i n g s o m e v e r y p r o m i n e n t m e n , at t h e t i m e o f I n d e p e n d e n c e . J o s e J o a q u i n F e r n a n d e z d e L i z a r d i , t h e Pensador Mexicano, h a d p r o t e s t e d a g a i n s t t h e s u s p e n s i o n o f ecclesiastical p r i v i l e g e a t t h e m o m e n t o f t h e o u t b r e a k o f t h e H i d a l g o r e v o l t ; t h i s p r o t e s t c a u s e d his i m p r i s o n m e n t . Still m o r e significant a r e t h e b o r r o w i n g s (it m a k e s n o s e n s e t o s p e a k o f p l a g i a r i s m at a t i m e w h e n t h i s i d e a h a d little m e a n i n g ) t h a t S i m o n B o l i v a r m a d e f r o m F r a y S e r v a n d o , as A n d r e S a i n t - L u h a s shown. In the famous "prophetic letter" of the Liberator, the juridical a r g u m e n t a t i o n r e l a t i v e to t h e L a w s o f t h e I n d i e s is c o p i e d e n t i r e l y , s o m e t i m e s t e x t u a l l y , f r o m M i e r ' s Historia de la revolution de Nueva Espaha, w h i c h h a d a p p e a r e d t w o y e a r s e a r l i e r ; t h e b o r r o w i n g i n c l u d e s M i e r ' s e u l o g y o f L a s C a s a s w h i c h e n d s t h e w o r k o f t h i s "last D o m i n i c a n of N e w S p a i n " — s o m e t h i n g F r a y S e r v a n d o r e a l l y w a s . T h e d e f e n s e M i e r m a d e o f his i l l u s t r i o u s f o r e r u n n e r p o s e s c e r t a i n difficulties w h e n h e d e s c r i b e s L a s C a s a s as "a h e a v e n l y m a n , w h o s t r u g g l e d so h a r d f o r t h e f r e e d o m o f t h e a n c i e n t A m e r i c a n s a g a i n s t the fury of the C o n q u e s t , o u r indefatigable advocate, o u r t r u e Apostle . . . , t h e tutelary genius of the A m e r i c a s . " S o m e t i m e s Mier d e m a n d s t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e laws o f t h e I n d i e s as d u e t o his a n c e s t o r s t h e c o n q u i s t a d o r s , s o m e t i m e s h e r e g a r d s h i m s e l f as a n h e i r o f t h e " a n c i e n t A m e r i c a n s , " t h e I n d i a n s , in o r d e r to p r o t e s t a g a i n s t S p a n i s h barbarity—forgetting that the barbarians were those same conquist a d o r s , Las C a s a s ' e n e m i e s . D i d h e p e r c e i v e t h e c o n t r a d i c t i o n ? T h e h y p o t h e s i s o f a cynical b a d faith is n o t c o n v i n c i n g . I n reality, t h e historiography of t h e Indies, which h a d b e e n a closed p r e s e r v e for three centuries, and whose providentialist orientation had g u a r a n t e e d t h e l e g i t i m a c y o f S p a n i s h p r e d o m i n a n c e , h a d to b e r e v i s e d in t h e h o u r o f I n d e p e n d e n c e . A w e a p o n u s e d by t h e m o n a r c h y t o j u s t i f y its d o m i n a t i o n m u s t b e c o m e a w e a p o n u s e d by Mexican patriots to p r o m o t e national liberation. Las Casas, w h o h a d supplied the original material for t h e "Black L e g e n d " o p p o s e d to the "providentialist l e g e n d , " h a d t o e m e r g e r e t r o s p e c t i v e l y as t h e a p o s t l e a n d p r e c u r s o r o f American liberation. T h e trilogy, " G u a d a l u p e — Q u e t z a l c o a t l — L a s Casas," d i s e m b a r rassed t h e cause of Mexican I n d e p e n d e n c e of w h a t could h a v e b e e n a s o u r c e o f difficulty f o r a " r e v o l u t i o n " w h o s e initial w a r c r y h a d b e e n " L o n g Live R e l i g i o n ! " a n d w h o s e c o n s t i t u t i o n h a d j u s t a c k n o w l e d g e d t h e h o l y R o m a n , A p o s t o l i c , C a t h o l i c r e l i g i o n as its first p r i n c i p l e . A m o d e r n r e a d e r m a y b e m o r e s u r p r i s e d t o find B o l i v a r e c h o i n g t h e ideas of Fray S e r v a n d o relative to an apostolic evangelization of 5 1
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A m e r i c a by Q u e t z a l c o a t l . T o m e it s u g g e s t s a t least t h a t this s o n o f M o n t e r r e y was n o t t h e " p o o r a n d i n c o h e r e n t " intellect t h a t A n t o n e l l o G e r b i sees in h i m ; I find j u s t e r , in t h e last analysis, t h e e u l o g y t h a t Mier's talented c o u n t r y m a n , Alfonso Reyes, bestowed u p o n h i m w h e n h e c a l l e d M i e r " t h e f o r e b e a r o f his c o u n t r y . " D e p u t y M i e r , i m p r e s s e d p e r h a p s by t h e r e s u l t s o f B o n a p a r t i s m , b r i l l i a n t l y f o u g h t t h e n a s c e n t C a e s a r i s m r e p r e s e n t e d b y I t u r b i d e , w h o m his p a r t i s a n s t h e n d e s c r i b e d as " t h e f a t h e r o f his c o u n t r y . " I n a l e t t e r t o a f r i e n d , F r a y S e r v a n d o r e c a l l e d w i t h a bit o f v a i n g l o r y t h e p o s t u r e w h i c h l e d t o his being imprisoned a second time: "Iturbide himself could not b e n d m e , even t h o u g h h e m a d e a t h o u s a n d promises of favors to m e a n d m y family, a n d t h e d a y I e n t e r e d C o n g r e s s I s p o k e as if I h a d a p e r s o n a l g u a r d o f fifty t h o u s a n d m e n at m y b a c k . " O n e o f t h e last v i c t i m s o f t h e I n q u i s i t i o n , o n e o f t h e first victims o f M e x i c a n m i l i t a r y caudillismo, a g r e a t a d a p t e r o f p i o u s t r a d i t i o n s a n d t h e n a t i o n a l hist o r i o g r a p h y w h o f u r n i s h e d constitutionalist ideology to a m o v e m e n t w i t h a vital n e e d t o r e c o n c i l e t r a d i t i o n a n d i n n o v a t i o n , a n i n s p i r e r o f S i m o n B o l i v a r , F r a y S e r v a n d o well d e s e r v e s h i s p l a c e in t h e p a n t h e o n of t h e "ancestors of the c o u n t r y . " 5 2
Part 2
Quetzalcoatl, or the Phoenix Bird
8
Fray Toribio de
The First Franciscans
Motolinia
O n e o f t h e first t w e l v e F r a n c i s c a n s w h o a r r i v e d in M e x i c o in 1 5 2 4 w a s T o r i b i o d e P a r e d e s , f r o m t h e S p a n i s h t o w n o f B e n a v e n t e . S e e i n g his t h r e a d b a r e g a r m e n t s , t h e I n d i a n s c a l l e d h i m motolinia ( " p o o r m a n " ) ; h e r e s o l v e d t o a d o p t t h i s n a m e a n d s i g n e d it t o his w r i t i n g s . A c t i v e as a m i s s i o n a r y in M e x i c o a n d Y u c a t a n , h e w a s g u a r d i a n a t d i f f e r e n t periods of t h e c o n v e n t of Texcoco a n d for a long time of the c o n v e n t o f T l a x c a l a . H e t o o k p a r t in t h e f o u n d i n g o f P u e b l a d e los A n g e l e s , n e a r T l a x c a l a , a n d p r e s i d e d o v e r t h e first m a s s c e l e b r a t e d in P u e b l a , in 1 5 3 0 . H e f o u n d e d t h e c o n v e n t o f A t l i x c o a n d w a s t h e s e v e n t h p r o v i n c i a l o f his o r d e r in N e w S p a i n . H e w o n a r e p u t a t i o n f o r c h a r i t y a m o n g b o t h I n d i a n s a n d S p a n i a r d s . A past master of t h e N a h u a t l l a n g u a g e , h e also k n e w o t h e r I n d i a n l a n g u a g e s . H i s p r o l o n g e d s o j o u r n in t h e T l a x c a l a - P u e b l a - C h o l u l a a r e a e n a b l e d h i m to g a t h e r at t h e s o u r c e , in t h e h o l y city o f Q u e t z a l c o a t l , t h e inf o r m a t i o n w h i c h h e left a b o u t t h a t d i v i n i t y a n d his c u l t as it w a s c e l e b r a t e d a t t h e a r r i v a l o f t h e T w e l v e . I n T l a x c a l a h e c o u l d also l e a r n a b o u t Quetzalcoatl's mythical d o u b l e , Camaxtli, w h o was w o r s h i p p e d in t h a t city. M o t o l i n i a ' s m o s t i m p o r t a n t w o r k is his Memoriales, p u b l i s h e d b y t h e s o n o f J . G a r c i a I c a z b a l c e t a in 1 9 0 3 ; R o b e r t R i c a r d h a s s t u d i e d M o t o l i n i a ' s successive r e v i s i o n s a n d r e a r r a n g e m e n t s o f t h e c h a p t e r s of this work. I n 1541 Motolinia a d d r e s s e d to the C o n d e d e B e n a v e n t e t h e d e d i c a t o r y e p i s t l e o f his Historia de los indios de la Nueva Espana. H e m a y t h e r e f o r e b e r e g a r d e d as t h e first w r i t e r o f a h i s t o r y of the I n d i a n s of Mexico. O n l y F a t h e r A n d r e s d e O l m o s ( a n o t h e r of t h e T w e l v e ) c o u l d d i s p u t e M o t o l i n i a ' s p r i o r i t y , b u t n o n e o f his w o r k s can be identified with certainty. S a h a g u n , w h o c a m e to Mexico shortly after Motolinia, w r o t e his g r e a t w o r k s o m e thirty years later t h a n Fray T o r i b i o . J o s e F e r n a n d o R a m i r e z w r o t e a b r i e f life o f M o t o l i n i a ; alt h o u g h t i m e h a s p a r t l y o u t d a t e d his b o o k , it c a n still b e c o n s u l t e d w i t h profit. M o t o l i n i a , last o f t h e T w e l v e , d i e d in 1 5 6 8 . B y c o n t r a s t w i t h S a h a g i i n ' s Historia,
we possess n o r o u g h drafts of
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Motolinia's work, a n d h e p r o v i d e s n o i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t his r e s e a r c h m e t h o d s o r his n a t i v e i n f o r m a n t s . M o t o l i n i a w a s g u a r d i a n o f t h e c o n v e n t o f T l a x c a l a a b o u t 1 5 3 6 , w h e n h e w a s w r i t i n g his Historia, a n d naturally assigned a p r o m i n e n t place to Quetzalcoatl, an i m p o r t a n t r e g i o n a l d i v i n i t y . I n c h a p t e r 2 4 o f t h e Memoriales, M o t o l i n i a i n f o r m s u s t h a t h e lived six y e a r s in t h e T l a x c a l a a r e a a n d t h a t t h e p r i n c i p a l g o d of Tlaxcala, H u e x o t z i n c o , a n d C h o l u l a was k n o w n by t h r e e n a m e s . " I n T l a x c a l a a n d H u e x o t z i n c o h e was chiefly c a l l e d C a m a x t l i , b u t w a s also c a l l e d Q u e t z a l c o a t l , a n d t h a t n a m e w a s m u c h u s e d in C h o l u l a ; t h e y also c a l l e d h i m M i x c o a t l . " T h e i d e n t i t y o f C a m a x t l i w i t h Q u e t z a l c o a t l is g e n e r a l l y r e c o g n i z e d , b u t t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h M i x c o a t l is p e r p l e x i n g . P e r h a p s t h e F r a n c i s c a n s u f f e r e d a l a p s e o f m e m o r y , f o r h e l a t e r w r i t e s : " T o tell t h e t r u t h , I d o n o t r e m e m b e r m a n y c e r e m o n i e s a n d cruelties very well." I believe that Motolinia, w h o claimed to h a v e baptized 4 0 0 , 0 0 0 I n d i a n s a n d to h a v e confessed a g r e a t n u m b e r o f n a t i v e s , reflects ( p e r h a p s m o r e t h a n S a h a g i i n , w h o s e i n f o r m a n t s w e r e elders o r priests of t h e old religion) the comm o n o p i n i o n , t h e p o p u l a r cult r a t h e r t h a n t h e esoteric t r u t h . If this i n t e r p r e t a t i o n is c o r r e c t , it w o u l d t e n d t o c o n f i r m m y view t h a t t h e Q u e t z a l c o a t l m y t h u n d e r w e n t p r o f o u n d c h a n g e s in t h e p e r i o d i m mediately before the Spanish Conquest. Motolinia agrees with Sahag i i n a n d all t h e c h r o n i c l e r s a b o u t t h e c h a r a c t e r o f t h e h o l y city o f C h o l u l a . " T h e y h e l d this C h o l o l l a to b e a g r e a t s a n c t u a r y , a n e w R o m e , a n d t h e r e w e r e m a n y t e m p l e s c o n s e c r a t e d t o t h e D e m o n . " We also l e a r n ( m o s t o f c h a p t e r 2 4 is d e v o t e d t o t h e subject) t h a t r i t u a l h u m a n sacrifices w e r e o f f e r e d in h o n o r o f Q u e t z a l c o a t l . T h i s fact proves t h e Aztecization of the cult of Quetzalcoatl, for t h e most imp o r t a n t l e g e n d s d e p i c t h i m as a n i r r e c o n c i l a b l e f o e o f h u m a n sacrifice. M o t o l i n i a w i t n e s s e d t h e last I n d i a n a v a t a r o f Q u e t z a l c o a t l . 1
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B u t it is t h e t r a d i t i o n a l Q u e t z a l c o a t l , h e o f t h e Leyenda de los Soles, o f w h o m M o t o l i n i a tells in t h e p r e f a t o r y e p i s t l e t h a t i n t r o d u c e s t h e Memoriales. " T h a t s a m e o l d m a n I t z a m i x c o a t l h . . . h a d a n o t h e r wife c a l l e d C h i m a l m a t l h , by w h o m h e h a d a son called Quetzalcoatlh. H e b e c a m e a c h a s t e a n d t e m p e r a t e m a n . H e b e g a n t h e p r a c t i c e o f p e n a n c e by f a s t i n g a n d d i s c i p l i n e , a n d it is said t h a t h e p r e a c h e d t h e n a t u r a l law. . . . T h e I n d i a n s o f N e w S p a i n r e g a r d e d t h i s Q u e t z a l c o a t l h as o n e of their principal g o d s ; they called h i m the G o d of Air, a n d built t e m p l e s t o h i m o n all s i d e s . " T h i s d e s c r i p t i o n , w h i c h a s s o c i a t e s Q u e t zalcoatl w i t h n a t u r a l law, s e e m s t o i m p l y a f o r e r u n n e r o f C h r i s t i a n i t y ; t h e s a m e i d e a is s u g g e s t e d b y t h i s r e m a r k : " I t is said t h a t Q u e t z a l c o a t l h b e g a n t h e sacrifice o f s c a r i f y i n g t h e e a r s a n d t o n g u e , n o t , it is c l a i m e d , t o s e r v e t h e D e m o n , b u t t o p e r f o r m p e n a n c e f o r t h e sins o f evil s p e e c h a n d h e a r i n g ; t h e D e m o n l a t e r t u r n e d t h e s e sacrifices t o t h e 4
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u s e o f his c u l t a n d s e r v i c e . " T h i s n o t i o n o f a n ascetic w h o s e p r e a c h i n g c o n f o r m e d to n a t u r a l morality, of a p u r e cult led astray a n d p e r v e r t e d by t h e d e m o n , m a y h a v e p r e p a r e d t h e g r o u n d f o r t h e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y l e g e n d of Quetzalcoatl-Saint T h o m a s . I n c h a p t e r 2 9 o f t h e Memoriales, M o t o l i n i a d e s c r i b e s t h e g r e a t feast h e l d e v e r y f o u r y e a r s f o r Q u e t z a l c o a t l in C h o l u l a ; it l a s t e d e i g h t y d a y s a n d was m a r k e d by fasting o n t h e p a r t of t h e priests. O n this occasion t h e g o d ' s s t a t u e w a s r i t u a l l y d e c o r a t e d " w i t h his special i n s i g n i a ; h e was a d o r n e d with p r e c i o u s stones a n d gold jewels a n d they offered h i m m a n y pheasants a n d rabbits a n d m u c h p a p e r a n d m a n y strings of e a r s o f m a i z e . " M o t o l i n i a a d d s t h a t " v e r y few p e r f o r m e d sacrifices d u r i n g t h i s f e s t i v a l . " I n c h a p t e r 2 4 , d e s c r i b i n g t h e festival o f C a m a x t l i at T l a x c a l a , M o t o l i n i a r e p o r t s t h a t "it w a s said t h a t t h i s Q u e t z a l c o a t l w a s t h e s o n o f C a m a x t l i . " We also l e a r n t h a t t h e T l a x c a l a n s w o r e Q u e t z a l c o a t l ' s d r e s s in o r d e r to "sacrifice t o t h e d e m o n " ; t h e s e c l o t h e s a n d i n s i g n i a w e r e b r o u g h t f r o m C h o l u l a f o r t h e occasion; t h e s a m e was d o n e at C h o l u l a with t h e insignia of C a m a x t l i . C l e a r l y , t h e l i n k b e t w e e n t h e t w o d i v i n i t i e s w a s e x t r e m e l y close. 6
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S p e a k i n g of the calendar, Motolinia t u r n s to discuss the star Lucifer, o r H e s p e r u s , a n d observes t h a t "Spain at o n e time was called H e s p e r i a " after this star's n a m e . T h e a n c i e n t M e x i c a n s " a d o r e d this s t a r m o r e t h a n a n y o t h e r save t h e s u n , a n d p e r f o r m e d m o r e r i t u a l sacrifices f o r it t h a n f o r a n y o t h e r c r e a t u r e , celestial o r t e r r e s t r i a l . " Motolinia recalled that the Mexican a s t r o n o m e r s had a very precise k n o w l e d g e o f t h e r e v o l u t i o n s o f this p l a n e t , V e n u s , a n d c o n c l u d e d : " T h e final r e a s o n w h y t h e i r c a l e n d a r w a s b a s e d o n t h i s s t a r , w h i c h t h e y g r e a t l y r e v e r e d a n d h o n o r e d w i t h sacrifices, w a s b e c a u s e t h e s e misguided people believed that w h e n o n e of their principal gods, c a l l e d T o p i l t z i n o r Q u e t z a l c o a t l , d i e d a n d left this w o r l d , h e w a s m e t a m o r p h o s e d into that radiant star." This c o m m e n t suggests the i m p o r t a n c e o f Q u e t z a l c o a t l in his a s p e c t o f T l a u i z c a l p a n t e c u h t l i a n d his r o l e in t h e c a l e n d a r , b u t it c o n f u s e s t h e h i s t o r i c a l T o p i l t z i n o f T u l a w i t h t h e o r i g i n a l Q u e t z a l c o a t l . I n fact, o n l y a f t e r his d e a t h d i d T o p i l t z i n b e c o m e a g o d . M o t o l i n i a also n o t e s t h a t t h e d e a d w e r e c a l l e d teotl fulano ( s u c h - a n d - s u c h a b l e s s e d o n e ) ; t h e w o r d teotl o r teul t h u s m e a n t " s p i r i t " o r " b l e s s e d o n e " as well as " g o d . " 8
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M o t o l i n i a also h e l p s t o e x p l a i n t h e c l a i m o f t h e s o v e r e i g n s (tlatoani) o f T e n o c h t i t l a n t h a t t h e y d e s c e n d e d f r o m Q u e t z a l c o a t l . I n the Historia de los indios h e r e l a t e s t h a t " a n I n d i a n n a m e d C h i c h i m e c a t l t i e d a r i b b o n o r l e a t h e r s t r a p to Quetzalcoatl's a r m n e a r t h e s h o u l d e r , a n d f o r t h i s feat h e w a s t h e n c e f o r t h c a l l e d A c o l h u a t l . It is said t h a t f r o m this m a n d e s c e n d t h e C o l h u a , M o t e u c z o m a ' s (sic) p r e d e c e s s o r s , t h e l o r d s of Mexico a n d C o l h u a c a n . " W h a t e v e r we m a y t h i n k of this 1 1
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i n g e n i o u s e x p l a n a t i o n , it c l e a r l y p o i n t s t o t h e d e g r a d a t i o n o f t h e Q u e t z a l c o a t l m y t h in t h e political a n d j u r i d i c a l i n t e r e s t s o f a d y n a s t y . F o r t h e r e s t , t h e Historia d u p l i c a t e s t h e Memoriales, w h i c h s e e m s t o b e a s o r t o f r o u g h d r a f t o r s k e t c h o f t h e Historia, a l m o s t w o r d f o r w o r d . We n o t e t h a t in t h e Historia, M o t o l i n i a d e s c r i b e s t h e p r i n c i p a l t e m p l e s o f M e x i c o a n d d e v o t e s a p a r a g r a p h t o t h e teocalli o f C h o l u l a ( t h e g r e a t t e m p l e o f Q u e t z a l c o a t l ) , w h i c h is h e r e f o r t h e first t i m e c o m p a r e d to t h e t o w e r o f B a b e l . T h e u n r e s t r a i n e d a m b i t i o n o f t h e C h o l u l a n s , like t h a t o f B a b e l , h a d b e e n p u n i s h e d by a s c o u r g e f r o m h e a v e n . I n fine, it s e e m s t h a t t h e d i f f e r e n t , d i s c o n n e c t e d a s p e c t s o f Q u e t z a l coatl p r e s e n t e d by M o t o l i n i a chiefly reflect t h e p o p u l a r r i t u a l a n d beliefs o f T l a x c a l a a n d C h o l u l a b u t also d e r i v e f r o m i m p o r t a n t writt e n s o u r c e s . We find h e r e Q u e t z a l c o a t l ' s m e t a m o r p h o s i s i n t o t h e M o r n i n g S t a r , w h i c h M o t o l i n i a a p p a r e n t l y e n c o u n t e r e d in N i c a r a g u a a n d is also r e p o r t e d by l a t e r a u t h o r s . M o t o l i n i a ' s c o n f u s i o n o f t h e d i f f e r e n t Q u e t z a l c o a t l s w a s n o t d u e , I b e l i e v e , t o a lack o f i n f o r m a t i o n b u t t o t h e d e g e n e r a t e s t a t e o f t h e s e d i f f e r e n t beliefs by t h e e n d o f t h e A z t e c p e r i o d . M o t o l i n i a h a s left u s a p r e c i s e d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e Q u e t zalcoatl m y t h s as t h e y w e r e p r e s e n t e d in M e x i c a n a n n a l s a n d s a c r e d b o o k s at t h e t i m e o f t h e S p a n i s h C o n q u e s t . 1 2
Fray Bernardino
de
Sahagiin
T h e m o s t i l l u s t r i o u s e a r l y h i s t o r i a n o f M e x i c o w a s also a F r a n c i s c a n a n d d e v o t e d a p a r t o f his life t o t h e C o l e g i o d e S a n t i a g o T l a t e l o l c o , established for the e d u c a t i o n of y o u n g Indians. H e c o m p o s e d the Historia General de las cosas de la Nueva Espana, also k n o w n as t h e Calepino, b e t w e e n 1 5 5 8 a n d 1 5 6 9 . T h i s w o r k , a k i n d o f e n c y c l o p e d i a o f a n c i e n t M e x i c o , is l a t e r t h a n t h e w r i t i n g s o f O l m o s a n d M o t o l i n i a , b u t S a h a g u n ' s r e s e a r c h m e t h o d s , w h i c h h e d e s c r i b e d , give his t e s t i m o n y a s p e c i a l v a l u e . I c a n n o t give a d e t a i l e d a c c o u n t o f t h o s e m e t h o d s ; t h e y m a r k h i m as a t r u e f o r e r u n n e r o f m o d e r n e t h n o l o g y . H e w a s a b l e t o s e p a r a t e t h e m i s s i o n a r y t h a t h e r e m a i n e d t o t h e last f r o m t h e indigenist t h a t h e h a d b e c o m e . His avowed p u r p o s e was to a r m S p a n i s h p r i e s t s w i t h k n o w l e d g e o f I n d i a n beliefs a n d s u p e r s t i t i o n s in o r d e r t o h e l p t h e m e x t i r p a t e i d o l a t r y . I n fact, S a h a g i i n h a d t h e c u r i o s i t y o f a n e t h n o l o g i s t , a n d his l o v e f o r I n d i a n c u l t u r e s h i n e s t h r o u g h his w r i t i n g s . T h e F r a n c i s c a n w a s as a n x i o u s t o p r e s e r v e t h e essence of t h e native culture—its crafts, w h o s e m a s t e r p i e c e s h e h a d s e e n , its f o l k l o r e ( i n s o f a r as it c o u l d b e d i v o r c e d f r o m t h e o l d r e l i g i o u s beliefs), a n d a b o v e all its l a n g u a g e , w h i c h h e s p o k e a n d t r a n s c r i b e d in alphabetic script—as h e was to extirpate p a g a n i s m . S i n c e Q u e t z a l c o a t l a n d his c u l t w e r e o n e o f t h e m o s t
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a s p e c t s of t h e o l d p a g a n beliefs o f M e x i c o , S a h a g i i n n a t u r a l l y w r o t e a b o u t t h i s d i v i n i t y a n d his l e g e n d m o r e t h a n o n c e . H e d e a l t w i t h Q u e t z a l c o a t l in p a r t i c u l a r d e t a i l in b o o k 3 o f t h e Flistoria, e n t i t l e d " O f the O r i g i n of the Gods"; c h a p t e r s 3 - 1 4 are d e v o t e d entirely to him. H e r e Quetzalcoatl a p p e a r s u n d e r the aspect of the high priest of Tula, w h o probably c a m e f r o m t h e Gulf coast. His pontificate coincided with the t e m p o r a l reign of H u e m a c a n d especially with t h e G o l d e n A g e , d e s c r i b e d by S a h a g i i n a t l e n g t h : " M o r e o v e r , t h i s Q u e t z a l c o a t l p o s s e s s e d all t h e r i c h e s o f this w o r l d , g o l d , silver, a n d g r e e n s t o n e s , . . . a n d t h e vassals of this Q u e t z a l c o a t l w e r e v e r y r i c h . " H e r e Q u e t zalcoatl a p p e a r s in t h e l i k e n e s s o f t h e S c a n d i n a v i a n N j o r d r a n d t h e " g o o d j i n n i " o f t h e A m e r i c a n I n d i a n m y t h o l o g i e s . Q u e t z a l c o a t l also a p p e a r s h e r e , briefly, as t h e i n i t i a t o r o f m o r t i f i c a t i o n . T h e n c o m e s a l o n g a c c o u n t o f t h e p e r s e c u t i o n w h i c h h e s u f f e r e d at t h e h a n d s o f t h e s o r c e r e r s (nigromanticos) a n d his e x i l e , w i t h t h e m i r a c l e s w h i c h a c c o m p a n i e d it. Q u e t z a l c o a t l c o n s t r u c t s his s u b t e r r a n e a n h o u s e , c a l l e d Mictlanalco. T l a p a l l a n , t h e g o a l o f his flight, is n a m e d b u t n o t o t h e r wise d e s c r i b e d ; t h e r e is n o m e n t i o n h e r e o f his m e t a m o r p h o s i s i n t o the M o r n i n g Star. H o w e v e r , Sahagiin h a d collected t h e tradition of a w o n d r o u s n a v i g a t i o n : " A r r i v i n g a t t h e sea s h o r e , h e c o n s t r u c t e d a r a f t o f s e r p e n t s , c a l l e d coatlapechtli; h e b o a r d e d t h e raft, sat d o w n as if in a c a n o e , a n d set off a c r o s s t h e sea; it is n o t k n o w n h o w h e a r r i v e d a t t h e place called T l a p a l l a n . " T h i s version s t r e n g t h e n s m y conviction t h a t Q u e t z a l c o a t l w a s a sea g o d , w h o c a m e f r o m t h e c o a s t a l r e g i o n ; associat i o n o f a g o d o f t h e w i n d s w i t h t h e sea g o d is a n a t u r a l o n e . 1 4
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I n c h a p t e r 5 o f b o o k 7, S a h a g i i n p r e s e n t s Q u e t z a l c o a t l as t h e g o d o f the four winds, blowing from the four cardinal points and imbued with their respective m o r a l a n d metaphysical qualities. In book 4, a p r o p o s o f t h e c a l e n d a r , h e d e v o t e s c h a p t e r 8 t o Ce acatl, t h e s i g n o f Q u e t z a l c o a t l , " t h e d a y o n w h i c h t h e n o b l e s m a d e m a n y sacrifices a n d o f f e r i n g s in h o n o r o f this g o d . " T h i s s t a t e m e n t c o n f i r m s t h a t o n t h e eve of t h e S p a n i s h C o n q u e s t Quetzalcoatl h a d b e c o m e t h e g o d of t h e r u l i n g class a n d t h e " T o l t e c " g u a r a n t e e o f t h e A z t e c d y n a s t y ; S a h a g i i n a d d s t h a t all w h o s p o k e N a h u a t l well w e r e d e s c e n d e d f r o m T o l t e c s w h o c o u l d n o t follow Q u e t z a l c o a t l i n t o e x i l e . E v e n m o r e i n t e r e s t i n g is t h e distinction that Sahagiin m a k e s b e t w e e n t h e historical Quetzalcoatl, h i g h p r i e s t o f T u l a , a n d t h e g o d Q u e t z a l c o a t l , w h e n d e s c r i b i n g t h e m o n o t h e i s t i c c h a r a c t e r o f his c u l t : " T h e y a d o r e d o n e l o r d o n l y w h o m t h e y b e l i e v e d to b e G o d ; t h e y c a l l e d h i m Q u e t z a l c o a t l a n d his p r i e s t b o r e t h e s a m e n a m e a n d was also called Q u e t z a l c o a t l . . . . T h i s priest told t h e m over a n d o v e r that t h e r e was b u t o n e god a n d lord w h o s e n a m e w a s Q u e t z a l c o a t l . " H e r e is o n e r e a s o n w h y o t h e r S p a n i s h r e l i g i o u s , a n t i c i p a t i n g s o m e m o d e r n h i s t o r i a n s , saw in Q u e t z a l c o a t l 1 6
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a n apostle of Christ o r a n Irish missionary. Sahagiin also p r e s e n t s t h e first Q u e t z a l c o a t l as a d i v i n i t y w i t h a l o n g face a n d a b e a r d ; t h e s e features c o n t r i b u t e d to t h e belief t h a t h e was a S p a n i a r d . I n c h a p t e r 5 o f b o o k 1, h o w e v e r , S a h a g i i n p u t s h i m s e l f o n r e c o r d against f u t u r e efforts to assimilate Quetzalcoatl into t h e Christian tradition. " A l t h o u g h this Quetzalcoatl was a m a n , " h e writes, "they [the I n d i a n s ] held h i m to be a g o d . " F a r t h e r o n h e says: " T h i s Quetzalcoatl, w h o was a m o r t a l a n d p e r i s h a b l e m a n , they called a god. A l t h o u g h h e h a d s o m e a p p e a r a n c e o f v i r t u e , j u d g i n g by w h a t t h e y say, h e w a s n e v e r t h e l e s s a g r e a t s o r c e r e r , a f r i e n d o f d e m o n s . . . a n d d e s e r v e d to b e assigned to t h e flames of Hell. . . . W h e n y o u r ancestors said t h a t this Q u e t z a l c o a t l w e n t t o T l a p a l l a n a n d w o u l d r e t u r n , t h a t y o u m u s t a w a i t his r e t u r n , t h e y lied, f o r w e k n o w t h a t h e is d e a d , t h a t his b o d y w a s r e d u c e d t o d u s t a n d t h a t O u r L o r d G o d h u r l e d his s o u l into Hell w h e r e h e suffers eternal t o r m e n t . " This expresses the policy o f " r u p t u r e " o f t h e first g e n e r a t i o n o f S p a n i s h m i s s i o n a r i e s in t h e N e w W o r l d . Sahagiin's assimilation of p a g a n divinities, even those w h o h a v e " s o m e a p p e a r a n c e o f v i r t u e , " to d e m o n s is o f special i n t e r est. T h e first m i s s i o n a r i e s w e r e a n x i o u s t o p r e v e n t t h e u s e o f a m e s sianic m o v e m e n t i n s p i r e d by p r o p h e c i e s o f t h e r e t u r n o f Q u e t z a l c o a t l . S a h a g i i n a n d his c o m r a d e s w e r e c l a i r v o y a n t , f o r s e v e r a l I n d i a n r i s i n g s of later d a t e w e r e i n s p i r e d by Quetzalcoatl's old p r o m i s e to c o m e a n d l i b e r a t e his p e o p l e . O p e n l y r e j e c t i n g t h e h y p o t h e s i s o f a n a n c i e n t e v a n g e l i z a t i o n , S a h a g i i n w r o t e : " I h a v e always h e l d t h a t t h e G o s p e l h a d n e v e r before b e e n p r e a c h e d to t h e m , for I n e v e r f o u n d a n y t h i n g t h a t s u g g e s t e d t h e C a t h o l i c faith, b u t j u s t t h e o p p o s i t e ; I f o u n d so m u c h i d o l a t r y t h a t I r e f u s e d to b e l i e v e t h a t t h e G o s p e l h a d b e e n p r e a c h e d to t h e m at a n y t i m e . " S a h a g i i n t h u s b e f o r e h a n d assigned to t h e category of fantasy t h e identification of Quetzalcoatl with t h e a p o s t l e S a i n t T h o m a s , a t h e s i s t h a t w o u l d find g e n e r a l a c c e p t a n c e s o m e f o r t y y e a r s l a t e r . T h e F r a n c i s c a n ' s p o s t u r e m a y b e c o m p a r e d to his o r d e r ' s h o s t i l e a t t i t u d e t o t h e c u l t w h i c h l a t e r d e v e l o p e d a b o u t t h e alleged m i r a c u l o u s i m a g e of t h e Virgin of G u a d a l u p e , n e a r Mexico City. S a h a g i i n ' s c a u t i o u s a n d s k e p t i c a l a t t i t u d e t o w a r d s y n c r e t i c p h e n o m e n a o r p r o d i g i e s w i t h o u t a d e q u a t e p r o o f s was c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h e first g e n e r a t i o n o f F r a n c i s c a n m i s s i o n a r i e s . Yet, f a r t h e r o n , S a h a g i i n contradicts himself. D i s c o u r a g e d by t h e failure of c o n v e r s i o n — a f a i l u r e w h i c h his f a t i g u e d o u b t l e s s e x a g g e r a t e d — S a h a g i i n w r o t e : "It seems to m e quite possible that they w e r e e v a n g e l i z e d a t s o m e t i m e in t h e p a s t , a n d t h a t a f t e r t h e d e a t h o f t h e i r p r e a c h e r s t h e y c o m p l e t e l y lost t h e faith t h a t h a d b e e n t a u g h t t h e m . . . . W h a t i n c l i n e s m e t o w a r d this c o n j e c t u r e is t h e g r e a t difficulty I h a v e h a d in p l a n t i n g t h e faith a m o n g t h e s e p e o p l e s d u r i n g 1 8
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t h e f o r t y y e a r s I h a v e p r e a c h e d in t h e s e r e g i o n s o f M e x i c o . . . . C o n s e q u e n t l y I a m s u r e t h a t if t h e y w e r e left t o t h e m s e l v e s , in less t h a n fifty y e a r s a f t e r t h e i r c o n v e r s i o n , e v e r y t r a c e o f t h e p r e a c h i n g t h a t h a d b e e n d o n e a m o n g t h e m would d i s a p p e a r . " In m o m e n t s of discoura g e m e n t , t h e r e f o r e , S a h a g i i n d i d n o t totally e x c l u d e a n e a r l y evangelization of Mexico, but he never suggested that Quetzalcoatl may have b e e n a missionary. O n the contrary, he took him for a sorcerer (nigromantico). 2 1
B e c a u s e o f its w e a l t h o f d e t a i l , its s o b e r t r a n s c r i p t i o n o f n a t i v e testimony, oral a n d written, a n d the clear separation of the i n f o r m a t i o n w h i c h h e c o l l e c t e d a n d c a r e f u l l y c r o s s - c h e c k e d f r o m his o p i n i o n s as a m i s s i o n a r y , S a h a g i i n ' s Flistoria m a y b e c o n s i d e r e d t h e m o s t f a i t h f u l v e r s i o n o f n a t i v e beliefs at t h e m o m e n t o f t h e C o n q u e s t , t h e m o s t a c c u r a t e r e f l e c t i o n o f t h e a n c i e n t M e x i c a n m y t h o l o g y . It is e n c o u r a g i n g t o find t h a t a r e a d i n g o f S a h a g i i n l e a d s t o t h e s a m e c o n c l u s i o n s w i t h r e g a r d t o t h e p r e - H i s p a n i c Q u e t z a l c o a t l as d o t h e m o s t r e c e n t works o n Mexican archaeology, history, a n d mythology.
The H i s t o y r e d u M e c h i q u e E d u a r d d e J o n g h e first p u b l i s h e d t h i s d o c u m e n t in 1 9 0 5 . It is a F r e n c h translation o r a d a p t a t i o n , a t t r i b u t e d to A n d r e T h e v e t , of a w r i t i n g by a S p a n i s h F r a n c i s c a n , a c o n t e m p o r a r y o f M o t o l i n i a , also a m i s s i o n a r y in M e x i c o , F a t h e r A n d r e s d e O l m o s . It a p p e a r s t o b e a f r a g m e n t o f a l a r g e r w o r k , t h e lost Memoriales o f F a t h e r O l m o s . F a t h e r O l m o s e m p l o y e d t h e m e t h o d s of w h a t retrospectively m i g h t be called t h e F r a n c i s c a n s c h o o l o f M e x i c o . T h e last p a r t , t h e o n l y o n e w h i c h c a n be attributed to Olmos, according to F a t h e r Garibay, a n d which comp r i s e s t h e t e n t h a n d last i n c o m p l e t e c h a p t e r o f t h e t e x t p u b l i s h e d b y J o n g h e , is e n t i t l e d : " O f a n I d o l N a m e d Q u e t z a l c o a t l , o f H i s O r i g i n a n d t h e T i m e o f H i s R u l e . " G a r i b a y a s s i g n e d it t o O l m o s b e c a u s e it reveals a n effort at synthesis of d i f f e r e n t native sources. O l m o s was a n o t h e r S a h a g i i n ; his w o r k h a s b e e n lost, b u t c h a p t e r 10 o f t h e Histoyre du Mechique m u s t b e a g o o d e x a m p l e o f his m e t h o d . A l t h o u g h t r u n c a t e d , c h a p t e r 10 h a s t h e i n t e r e s t o f a s y n t h e s i s a n d o f f e r s i n f o r m a t i o n n o t f o u n d in a n y o t h e r s o u r c e ; its a u t h e n t i c i t y is b e y o n d suspicion. A c c o r d i n g t o this d o c u m e n t , Q u e t z a l c o a t l w a s a s o n ( n o t t h e o n l y son) of C o m a c h t l i (Camaxtli) a n d C h i l m a l m a , which confirms the T l a x c a l a n l e g e n d s collected by Motolinia. His b r o t h e r s several times t r i e d t o kill h i m , b u t finally it w a s h e w h o killed t h e m t o a v e n g e t h e d e a t h o f his f a t h e r . H i s vassals, " w h o l o v e d h i m v e r y m u c h , l o o k e d f o r h i m in o r d e r t o h o n o r h i m , " a n d , a f t e r r e j o i c i n g o v e r t h e v i c t o r y , 2 2
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" t h e y w e n t t o t h e l a n d o f M e x i c o , a n d h e r e m a i n e d s o m e d a y s in a village c a l l e d T u l a c i n g o , a n d t h e n w e n t t o T u l a , w h e r e m e n d i d n o t yet k n o w h o w t o m a k e sacrifices, a n d b e c a u s e h e b r o u g h t t h e m this c u s t o m o f sacrifice t h e y h e l d h i m t o b e a g o d . " T h e w h o l e first p a r t o f this l e g e n d is k n o w n o n l y t h r o u g h t h e Histoyre du Mechique. W e s e e m t o h e a r in t h i s l e g e n d a n e c h o o f c o s m o g o n i c s t r u g g l e s b e t w e e n Q u e t z a l c o a t l , T e z c a t l i p o c a , a n d t h e o t h e r g o d s b o r n to t h e p r i m o r d i a l c o u p l e , the dual principle Ometeotl. O t h e r legends relate that Quetzalcoatl killed t h e s u n w i t h a r r o w s ; t h i s m u s t b e a s y m b o l i c a c c o u n t o f t h e s t r u g g l e b e t w e e n t h e g o d s . T h e n follows a n a c c o u n t o f t h e m i g r a t i o n o f t h e T o l t e c s f r o m T u l a n c i n g o t o T u l a ; t h e l e n g t h o f t h e i r stay is g i v e n as " s e v e r a l d a y s , " w h i c h p e r h a p s s h o u l d b e u n d e r s t o o d as " s e v e r a l y e a r s . " F a r t h e r o n , t h e a u t h o r w r i t e s t h a t t h e r e i g n o f Q u e t z a l c o a t l in T u l a l a s t e d o n e h u n d r e d a n d sixty y e a r s ; this m a y r e f e r t o t h r e e s u c c e s s i v e e r a s o f fifty-two y e a r s e a c h ( t h e M e x i c a n " c e n t u r y " ) , t h a t is, o n e h u n d r e d a n d fifty-six y e a r s . 2 3
C h a p t e r 11 is e n t i t l e d " O f t h e C o m i n g o f T e z c a t l i p u c a t o T u l a a n d H o w H e M a d e Quetzalcoatl Flee." H e r e t h e familiar t r a d i t i o n of t h e ruses e m p l o y e d by Tezcatlipoca to d e f e a t Quetzalcoatl a p p e a r s , b u t i n a s p e c i a l f o r m . T h e Histoyre c l e a r l y e x p r e s s e s t h e i d e a t h a t t h e p a g a n d i v i n i t i e s o f t h e a n c i e n t M e x i c a n s w e r e d e v i l s . "Devils b e i n g f o r m e r a n g e l s , a n d s o m e a n g e l s b e i n g g r e a t e r t h a n o t h e r s , so it is w i t h d e v i l s . " T h i s a n a l o g y , i m p l i e d t h r o u g h o u t t h e w r i t i n g s o f t h e missionaries, h a d certain c o n s e q u e n c e s : " N o w , this Quetzalcoatl was n o t as g r e a t as T e z c a t l i p o c a a n d t h e r e f o r e f e a r e d h i m . " T h e t r i c k s p l a y e d b y T e z c a t l i p o c a a r e g r o s s e r t h a n in o t h e r v e r s i o n s a n d c u l m i n a t e in t h e b r u t a l d e s t r u c t i o n o f t h e effigy o f Q u e t z a l c o a t l , w h o flees w i t h s o m e o f his s e r v a n t s . H e is p u r s u e d b y T e z c a t l i p o c a a n d his f o l l o w e r s ; this a g r e e s w i t h o t h e r k n o w n v e r s i o n s o f t h e l e g e n d . 2 4
A u n i q u e f e a t u r e o f t h e Histoyre du Mechique is its a c c o u n t o f t h e " s t a t i o n s " o f Q u e t z a l c o a t l o n h i s w a y t o exile a n d t h e i r d u r a t i o n . F i r s t h e stops for " s o m e t i m e " at Tenayuca a n d t h e n p r o c e e d s to C u l h u a c a n , " w h e r e h e r e m a i n e d a l o n g t i m e , it is n o t k n o w n h o w l o n g . " T h e n h e crosses the sierra a n d goes to Q u a u h q u e c h u l a (near H u e x o t z i n c o ) w h e r e h e " e r e c t e d a t e m p l e a n d a n a l t a r f o r himself, a n d w a s a d o r e d as g o d , a n d n o n e was t h e r e b u t h e , a n d h e r e m a i n e d t h e r e t w o h u n d r e d a n d n i n e t y y e a r s . " We h a v e h e r e a g a i n a n e v e n t of mythical d u r a t i o n . Quetzalcoatl t h e n d e p a r t s for C h o l u l a (after e n t r u s t i n g his p o w e r t o a l o r d n a m e d M a t l a c x o c h i t l ) , w h e r e h e r e m a i n s o n e h u n d r e d a n d sixty y e a r s ; a c c o r d i n g t o t h e Histoyre, h e b u i l t t h e r e t h e f a m o u s t e m p l e w h o s e vestiges r e m a i n e d , t h e w o r k of giants of w h o m n o t h i n g m o r e was k n o w n . Is this a r e c o r d o f T o l t e c m i g r a t i o n s a c r o s s M e x i c o , as s o m e w r i t e r s s u g g e s t ? F r o m C h o l u l a Q u e t z a l c o a t l 2 5
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g o e s t o C e m p o a l a a n d r e m a i n s t h e r e t w o h u n d r e d a n d sixty y e a r s , b u t T e z c a t l i p o c a ' s p e r s e c u t i o n finally c a u s e s h i m t o flee i n t o a d e s e r t w h e r e h e c o m m i t s s u i c i d e . Is this a s y m b o l i c a c c o u n t o f t h e a d v a n c e o f C h i c h i m e c i n v a d e r s ( t h e Aztecs?) o r o f b l o o d y cults w h i c h d e m a n d e d h u m a n sacrifices? I n a n y c a s e , t h e i n d i c a t i o n s of p l a c e a n d d u r a t i o n ( a l t h o u g h symbolic) a r e v a l u a b l e . T h e d e n o u e m e n t , a g r e e i n g w i t h t h a t o f o t h e r t r a d i t i o n s , is t h e h o l o c a u s t o f Q u e t z a l c o a t l ; i n c i n e r a t e d b y his c o m p a n i o n s , h e is m e t a m o r p h o s e d i n t o t h e p l a n e t H e s p e r o r V e s p e r ( V e n u s ) . T h e a u t h o r o f this c h a p t e r k n e w t h e f a m i l i a r v a r i a n t : " O t h e r s say t h a t w h e n h e w a s a b o u t t o d i e h e w e n t t o a n o t h e r p l a c e . . . . " T h e m a n u s c r i p t b r e a k s off a t this p o i n t , b u t w e m a y g u e s s t h a t it w e n t o n t o tell o f t h a t m y t h i c a l T l i l l a n T l a p a l l a n f r o m w h i c h Q u e t z a l c o a t l , p r o p h e s y i n g t h e e v e n t u a l r e s t o r a t i o n o f his k i n g d o m like a t r u e M e s s i a h , sailed e a s t w a r d o n a raft o f c o i l e d serpents. 2 7
T h e a b s e n c e o f o n e a s p e c t , t h a t o f Q u e t z a l c o a t l as E h e c a t l , is i n t e r e s t i n g . It is i m p l i e d in his cult at C h o l u l a , b u t if t h e a u t h o r h a d c o n s i d e r e d it e s s e n t i a l , h e w o u l d h a v e m e n t i o n e d it. T h e h e r o o f t h e Histoyre du Mechique is a Q u e t z a l c o a t l w h o m o s t closely r e s e m b l e s t h e m o r e o r less m y t h i c a l c h i e f o f o n e o f t h e C h i c h i m e c t r i b e s o f a n c i e n t Mexico. O f t h e different versions t h a t h a v e b e e n p r e s e r v e d of t h e Q u e t z a l c o a t l l e g e n d , it b e s t u n i t e s t h e h i s t o r i c Q u e t z a l c o a t l a n d t h e d i v i n e Q u e t z a l c o a t l . T h e l e g e n d is r o o t e d in g e o g r a p h y a n d c h r o n o l o g y . T h e s t o r y o f Q u e t z a l c o a t l ' s flight m a k e s it p o s s i b l e t o link t h e Quetzalcoatl of C h o l u l a to that of Tula, a n d t h e l e g e n d to the Toltec m i g r a t i o n s . T h e m e t a m o r p h o s i s i n t o V e n u s f o r m s a link to t h e M e x i c a n c a l e n d a r . T h e Histoyre du Mechique is t h e o n l y t e x t t h a t t a k e s acc o u n t o f all a s p e c t s o f Q u e t z a l c o a t l (with t h e e x c e p t i o n o f E h e c a t l ) , tying t h e m t o g e t h e r into a c o h e r e n t historic-mythical whole. C h a p t e r s 10 a n d 11 o f t h e Flistoyre s h e d l i g h t o n t h e Leyenda de los Soles a n d t h e Anales de Cuauhtitlan, e s o t e r i c single-level e x p o s i t i o n s o f t h e Q u e t z a l coatl c o m p l e x , a c o m p l e x t h a t is b o t h h i s t o r i c a l a n d m y t h o l o g i c a l . T h e Histoyre du Mechique p r e s e n t s Q u e t z a l c o a t l as t h e i n i t i a t o r o f p e n a n c e w h o m t h e I n d i a n s t h e r e f o r e a d o r e d as a g o d . H e r e is t h e t e x t u a l basis o f f u t u r e h y p o t h e s e s w h i c h t e n d e d t o a s s i m i l a t e h i m , first, to a S p a n i s h C h r i s t i a n m i s s i o n a r y , t h e n , m o r e d a r i n g l y , to t h e a p o s t l e S a i n t T h o m a s , a n d still l a t e r t o a n I r i s h m o n k o r a B u d d h i s t p r i e s t . I n a n y c a s e , t h e Flistoyre du Mechique leaves n o t t h e s l i g h t e s t d o u b t that Quetzalcoatl, son of a god a n d a goddess, h a d a h u m a n c a r e e r . I m a g i n e t h e p o w e r o f s u g g e s t i o n t h a t this m a n - g o d , w h o c a m e to r e s t o r e piety a m o n g m e n , m u s t h a v e exercised o n t h e m i n d s of sixteenth-century Spanish missionaries. But the Franciscans courageously rejected t h e t e m p t a t i o n of easy analogies which could have
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served their cause, a m o n g both Indians and Spaniards. Father O l m o s — i f h e was t h e a u t h o r of these c h a p t e r s — w a s c o n t e n t to establish a logical link b e t w e e n t h e d i f f e r e n t I n d i a n v e r s i o n s o f t h e Q u e t zalcoatl l e g e n d . T h e v e t , w h o j o i n e d t o g e t h e r p i e c e s o f S p a n i s h chronicles, p r e s e r v e d the sober spirit of the native legends transcribed by t h e F r a n c i s c a n s . F o r t h e s e r e a s o n s , a l t h o u g h t h e Histoyre du Mechique is less c o m p l e t e a n d d e t a i l e d t h a n S a h a g i i n ' s t e s t i m o n y , I c o n s i d e r it t h e p u r e s t s o u r c e (I a m n o t c o m p a r i n g it, n a t u r a l l y , w i t h t h e N a h u a t l cantares o r s o n g s ) o f t h e Q u e t z a l c o a t l l e g e n d . L a t e r h i s t o rians, w o r k i n g with m u c h t h e s a m e data, created the creole Quetzalcoatl w h o s e origins I n o w p r o p o s e to study.
9
The Indian Prophecies
The Genesis of the Creole Myth
and the Portents of the Conquest
T h e I n d i a n s generally believed that Quetzalcoatl would r e t u r n from e x i l e a n d r e s t o r e his k i n g d o m , w h i c h t h e y i d e n t i f i e d w i t h t h e G o l d e n A g e . T h e e f f o r t s o f t h e C a t h o l i c m i s s i o n a r i e s t o d i s c o u r a g e this m e s sianic h o p e i n d i r e c t l y testify t o its vitality: " W h e n y o u r a n c e s t o r s said t h a t this Q u e t z a l c o a t l w e n t t o T l a p a l l a n a n d w o u l d r e t u r n , t h a t y o u m u s t a w a i t his r e t u r n , t h e y lied, f o r w e k n o w t h a t h e is d e a d . " T h e g l o r i o u s r e t u r n o f m e s s i a h s is c o m m o n l y a n n o u n c e d b y p r o p h e c i e s . We recall t h e r e t u r n o f t h e H e r a c l i d e s in H e l l e n i c a n t i q u i t y ; e v e n m o r e s t r i k i n g is t h e r e s e m b l a n c e o f t h e Q u e t z a l c o a t l m y t h t o t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y m y t h o f t h e r e t u r n o f K i n g S e b a s t i a n o f P o r t u g a l . If a m y t h o f this k i n d , w h i c h c h a l l e n g e d C h r i s t i a n d o c t r i n e , c o u l d a r i s e in P o r t u g a l , in p r i n c i p l e a C a t h o l i c c o u n t r y , it is n o t s u r p r i s i n g t h a t a s i m i l a r m y t h d e v e l o p e d in A z t e c M e x i c o . Was this Q u e t z a l c o a t l w h o s e r e t u r n w a s a w a i t e d a m a n o r a g o d ? T h e q u e s t i o n s e e m s p o i n t l e s s , for, a c c o r d i n g t o M o t o l i n i a , t h e w o r d teotl d e s i g n a t e d t h e d e a d w h o w e r e a d m i t t e d to t h e p a r a d i s e o f T l a l o c . T h e c h r o n o l o g y o f t h e p r o p h e c y w a s v e r y p r e c i s e ; t h e h e r o w o u l d r e t u r n in t h e y e a r o f his c a l e n d r i c a l s i g n , O n e R e e d . N o w , t h e s i g n o f t h e y e a r 1 5 1 9 in w h i c h C o r t e s l a n d e d in M e x i c o was O n e R e e d . C o n s e q u e n t l y t h e r e w a s a first h i g h l y syncretic colonial avatar, Quetzalcoatl-Cortes. T h e belief t h a t J u a n d e Grijalva, first, a n d H e r n a n C o r t e s , l a t e r , was Q u e t z a l c o a t l o f T u l a , c o m i n g t o r e g a i n his t h r o n e a n d o u s t t h e A z t e c tlatoani o r r u l e r s ( w h o s e e m t o h a v e r e g a r d e d t h e m s e l v e s as his r e g e n t s ) , e v i d e n t l y was v e r y s t r o n g a m o n g the Aztecs. 1
T h i s b e l i e f was s h o r t - l i v e d . If M o c t e z u m a o r d e r e d t h e s a c r e d o r n a m e n t s o f Q u e t z a l c o a t l b r o u g h t t o C o r t e s — p e r h a p s in o r d e r to v e r ify his i d e n t i t y — h i s illusion was q u i c k l y d i s p e l l e d . B e r n a l Diaz, t h e m o s t r e l i a b l e c o n t e m p o r a r y w i t n e s s , says o n l y t h a t w h e n t h e c o n q u i s t a d o r s a r r i v e d in T e n o c h t i t l a n , M o c t e z u m a d e c l a r e d : " I t m u s t b e t h a t w e [ t h e S p a n i a r d s ] w e r e t h e m e n o f w h o m t h e i r a n c e s t o r s h a d said, a long time ago, that ' m e n c o m i n g from the direction of the rising sun
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QUETZALCOATL, OR THE PHOENIX BIRD
2
w o u l d c o m e to reign over these lands,' t h a t we m u s t b e t h o s e m e n . " L a u g h i n g as h e s p o k e , t h e A z t e c s o v e r e i g n d e c l a r e d t h a t h e h a d n e v e r t a k e n the strangers for gods w h o h u r l e d lightning, b u t for m e n of flesh a n d b o n e like himself. I n d i a n c o n f u s i o n o f t h e S p a n i a r d s w i t h the c o m r a d e s of Quetzalcoatl soon d i s a p p e a r e d . I n Cortes' o w n letters w e r e a d a v e r s i o n o f a s p e e c h by M o c t e z u m a t h a t s o u n d s as if it h a d b e e n w r i t t e n b y a classic L a t i n h i s t o r i a n ; it is t o o p o l i s h e d , t o o p e r f e c t . M o c t e z u m a is s u p p o s e d t o h a v e said to a n a s s e m b l y o f h i s l o r d s : "Quetzalcoatl d e p a r t e d , saying that he would r e t u r n , or send such a f o r c e t h a t t h e y w o u l d b e c o m p e l l e d t o s u b m i t . You also k n o w t h a t w e h a v e always e x p e c t e d h i m . A c c o r d i n g t o w h a t this c a p t a i n h a s t o l d o f the king a n d lord w h o sent h i m h e r e , a n d according to the direction w h e n c e h e says h e c o m e s , I h o l d it t o b e c e r t a i n , a n d y o u m u s t also h o l d it t h u s , t h a t this k i n g is t h e l o r d w e h a v e b e e n e x p e c t i n g , e s p e cially as t h e c a p t a i n says t h a t t h e y h a d i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t u s . S i n c e o u r p r e d e c e s s o r s failed t o act j u s t l y t o w a r d t h e i r s o v e r e i g n l o r d , let u s d o so, a n d let u s give t h a n k s t o o u r g o d s b e c a u s e t h a t w h i c h o u r a n c e s t o r s so l o n g e x p e c t e d h a s c o m e t o p a s s in o u r t i m e . " T h a t l o n g - a w a i t e d e v e n t was t h e r e t u r n of t h e G o l d e n A g e . B u t t h e m a s s a c r e of Cholula, t h e h o l y city o f Q u e t z a l c o a t l , t o g e t h e r w i t h o t h e r i n d i c a t i o n s , m u s t have dispelled that terrible misunderstanding. 3
Is C o r t e s ' t e x t a s u m m a r y v e r s i o n f o r t h e u s e o f C h a r l e s V o f D o n a M a r i n a ' s p a r a p h r a s e t r a n s l a t i o n o f M o c t e z u m a ' s w o r d s ? Is it a p u r e i n v e n t i o n o f t h e C o n q u e r o r ? C o r t e s ' r e p o r t was t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t s o u r c e u s e d b y m a n y l a t e r h i s t o r i a n s , n o t a b l y G o m a r a , w h o in t u r n b e c a m e the principal source of the majority of historians of the next century. M o c t e z u m a took Cortes a n d the Spaniards for d e s c e n d a n t s o f t h e Toltecs w h o h a d a c c o m p a n i e d Q u e t z a l c o a t l f r o m T u l a in his e x i l e — d e s c e n d a n t s w h o c a m e t o a c c o m p l i s h t h e p r o p h e c y by r e g a i n i n g by f o r c e t h e k i n g d o m o f t h e i r f o r e b e a r s . T h u s r e d u c e d t o h u m a n p r o p o r t i o n s , t h e h i s t o r i o g r a p h i c l e g e n d o f Q u e t z a l c o a t l - C o r t e s loses m u c h o f its m a r v e l o u s c h a r a c t e r . I n b o o k 12 o f his Historia General S a h a g i i n gives a N a h u a t l a c c o u n t o f t h e a r r i v a l o f t h e S p a n i a r d s in Mexico. T h i s account supports the idea that Moctezuma took Cortes f o r Q u e t z a l c o a t l , at least b e f o r e h e saw h i m a n d his w o r k s : " I t w a s as if h e t h o u g h t t h a t t h e n e w c o m e r w a s o u r p r i n c e Q u e t z a l c o a t l . " B u t this is a n I n d i a n p o s t - C o n q u e s t a c c o u n t ; o n e s u s p e c t s a d e s i g n t o save t h e h o n o r of M o c t e z u m a a n d t h e Mexicans, o r to reknit t h e b r o k e n t h r e a d o f M e x i c a n h i s t o r y . If t h e S p a n i a r d s h a d c o m e t o a c c o m p l i s h t h e p r o p h e c y o f t h e h i g h p r i e s t o f T u l a , t h e n t h e cyclical h i s t o r y o f a n c i e n t M e x i c o h a d s i m p l y e n t e r e d a n e w " s u n " (a n e w e r a o f Q u e t z a l coatl). Q u e t z a l c o a t l , it was k n o w n , h a d d e p a r t e d t o w a r d t h e E a s t f r o m t h e Gulf coast; a n d t h e S p a n i a r d s , c o m i n g from t h e East, h a d l a n d e d 4
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The Genesis of the Creole
Myth
o n t h e s a m e c o a s t in t h e y e a r o f t h e c a l e n d r i c a l s i g n O n e R e e d , s y m b o l of Quetzalcoatl. T h e p r o p h e c y o f Q u e t z a l c o a t l w a s a specific M e x i c a n i n s t a n c e o f a b e l i e f c o m m o n to t h e m a j o r i t y o f t h e I n d i a n p e o p l e s , t h e b e l i e f t h a t m e n f r o m t h e East w o u l d c o m e to d o m i n a t e t h e m . Alvar N u n e z C a b e z a d e Vaca h e a r d o f it d u r i n g h i s t r e k a c r o s s t h e S o u t h w e s t ; G o m a r a cites it f o r E s p a n o l a ; t h e C h i b c h a s , t h e T u p i o f B r a z i l , t h e G u a r a n i o f P a r a g u a y , h a d s i m i l a r beliefs. I n d i f f e r e n t r e g i o n s o f t h e N e w World t h e S p a n i a r d s were taken for " C h i l d r e n of the Sun." W h a t i n t e r e s t s u s is t h e m u t a t i o n this b e l i e f u n d e r w e n t . R e g a r d e d by t h e c o n q u i s t a d o r s as m e r e l y a political d e v i c e f o r c o n q u e s t o f t h e c o n t i n e n t , t h e p r o p h e c y soon b e c a m e a subject of reflection for t h e m i s s i o n a r i e s a n d p r e s e n t l y b e c a m e a t w o - e d g e d s w o r d w h o s e effects w e shall o b s e r v e . T h e p r o p h e c y a t t r i b u t e d to Quetzalcoatl was t h e principal r e a s o n , p e r h a p s , f o r his l a t e r i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h a m i s s i o n a r y . B u t a political l e a d e r d e p a r t i n g f o r e x i l e w o u l d n a t u r a l l y p r o m i s e t o r e t u r n in f o r c e t o r e g a i n t h e p o w e r h e h a d t e m p o r a r i l y lost. Q u e t z a l c o a t l ' s p r o p h e c y , w h i c h m a d e h i m a p p e a r to t h e I n d i a n s as a p r o p h e t o f t h e S p a n i s h c o n q u e s t , m e d i a t o r b e t w e e n t h e p a s t a n d t h e p r e s e n t , also p r o v i d e d the S p a n i a r d s with p r o o f of their providential role. Man, h e r o , god, o r n e c r o m a n c e r ( s h a m a n ) , this p e r s o n a g e s o o t h e d the consciences of b o t h I n d i a n s a n d S p a n i a r d s . T o t h e I n d i a n s h e w a s t h e sole m e t a p h y s ical c o m p e n s a t i o n f o r t h e c a t a c l y s m o f t h e C o n q u e s t ; f o r t h e S p a n i a r d s h e was G o d ' s seal u p o n a n i n c r e d i b l e a d v e n t u r e , a p r e c i o u s key t o t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f a n o t h e r w i s e i n s c r u t a b l e h i s t o r y . Quetzalcoatl alone could s p a n the historical a n d cultural c h a s m separating t h e N e w World from the Old. T h a n k s to Quetzalcoatl's prophecy, Indians and Spaniards found that they shared the same h i s t o r y . T h e p r o c e s s o f c r e a t i n g a collective g o d - h e r o r e a c h e s its logical c o n c l u s i o n in t h e title o f a c h a p t e r o f t h e Historia de las Indias o f t h e D o m i n i c a n D u r a n : " O f t h e I d o l C a l l e d Q u e t z a l c o a t l . . . W h o Was t h e F a t h e r of t h e Toltecs, a n d of t h e S p a n i a r d s B e c a u s e H e A n n o u n c e d T h e i r C o m i n g . " T h e l e g e n d t h r e w a b r i d g e over the gulf of metahist o r y a n d t h e j u r i d i c a l f a u l t o f t h e C o n q u e s t . J u s t as A z t e c s o v e r e i g n s h a d j u s t i f i e d t h e i r r u l e by a s u p p o s e d r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h t h e a n c i e n t Toltecs, so t h e S p a n i a r d s c o u l d c l a i m M e x i c o b y v i r t u e o f Q u e t z a l coatl's p r o p h e c y . N e i t h e r M e x i c a n s n o r S p a n i a r d s , it s e e m s , q u e s tioned that Quetzalcoatl h a d a n n o u n c e d the c o m i n g of the Spaniards. S a h a g i i n v a r i e s t h e a c c o u n t slightly: " T h e y t h o u g h t Grijalva w a s t h e god Quetzalcoatl r e t u r n i n g . " T h e c o m m e n t a t o r of the C o d e x Vaticanus 3 7 - 3 8 t h o u g h t t h e s u p p o s e d p r o d i g y was t h e result of c h a n c e a n d a t r i c k o f t h e Devil w h o w a n t e d t o p r e s e r v e his c r e d i t 5
6
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a m o n g t h e I n d i a n s by m a k i n g it a p p e a r t h a t h e h a d f o r e s e e n t h e i n v a s i o n : " H e t o l d t h e m this so t h a t if s o m e p e o p l e c o n q u e r e d t h e m h e w o u l d p r e s e r v e his c r e d i t by c l a i m i n g t o h a v e f o r e t o l d t h e e v e n t . " A r u s e o f t h e Evil O n e c o u l d e x p l a i n Q u e t z a l c o a t l ' s p r o p h e c y — a p r o p h e c y t h a t p l a y e d i n t o S p a n i s h h a n d s , e s p e c i a l l y in view o f t h e s t r i k i n g c o i n c i d e n c e o f d a t e s . B u t it w a s n o t t h e o n l y p o s s i b l e e x p l a n a t i o n . F r a y B a r t o l o m e d e L a s C a s a s d e v o t e s a c h a p t e r o f his Historia de las Indias t o t h e f o l l o w i n g t h e m e : " H o w D i v i n e P r o v i d e n c e N e v e r P e r m i t s I m p o r t a n t E v e n t s for t h e G o o d of t h e World, o r for Its C h a s t i s e m e n t , t o T a k e P l a c e B e f o r e t h e y H a d First B e e n A n n o u n c e d a n d P r e d i c t e d b y t h e S a i n t s , o r E v e n b y I n f i d e l s o r Evil P e r s o n s , a n d o n O c c a s i o n by D e m o n s . " L a s C a s a s d r e w his e x a m p l e s f r o m p a g a n w r i t e r s o f a n t i q u i t y a n d e s p e c i a l l y f r o m S e n e c a , w h o was s u p p o s e d t o h a v e p r o p h e s i e d t h e d i s c o v e r y o f t h e N e w W o r l d in his t r a g e d y Medea; that was n o t the i m p o r t a n t proof, however, b u t the a u t h o r i t y of Saint A u g u s t i n e , i n v o k e d b y L a s C a s a s in s u p p o r t o f h i s e x p l a n a t i o n . L a s Casas concluded that a merciful G o d h a d a n n o u n c e d the c o m i n g of t h e S p a n i s h m i s s i o n a r i e s t o t h e m i s g u i d e d p a g a n s t h r o u g h t h e lips o f a d e m o n , Q u e t z a l c o a t l . T h i s e x p l a n a t i o n , if valid, m a d e t h e p o r t e n t s which p r e c e d e d t h e arrival of t h e S p a n i a r d s c o m p a r a b l e to those w h i c h a n n o u n c e d t h e c o m i n g o f C h r i s t . S a h a g i i n d e v o t e d t h e first c h a p t e r o f his b o o k 12, " W h e r e i n is T o l d o f t h e C o n q u e s t o f M e x i c o , " to this t h e m e . H e e n u m e r a t e s eight o m e n s , i n c l u d i n g lightning, storm, m o n s t e r s , a n d c o m e t s — t h e whole c o n t e m p o r a r y g a m u t of prodigious events. 7
8
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B u t t h e F r a n c i s c a n d i d n o t say t h a t G o d h a d p r o d u c e d t h e s e o m e n s . N o w h e r e does Sahagiin claim that Quetzalcoatl h a d foretold the arrival o f t h e S p a n i a r d s ; h e s i m p l y says t h a t t h e p r o p h e c y o f Q u e t z a l coatl's r e t u r n m a d e t h e Mexicans t h i n k t h e S p a n i a r d s w e r e Q u e t z a l coatl's c o m r a d e s . L a s C a s a s also r e p o r t s t h e p r o p h e c y , e n r i c h i n g it in t h e p r o c e s s , w r i t i n g : " W h e n t h e y first saw t h e C h r i s t i a n s t h e y c a l l e d t h e m 'gods, sons, a n d b r o t h e r s of Quetzalcoatl,' b u t later, h a v i n g seen t h e i r w o r k s , t h e y c e a s e d t o c o n s i d e r t h e m celestial b e i n g s . " C e r t a i n l y t h e M e x i c a n s s o o n lost t h e i r illusions, as s h o w n b y t h e i r r e s i s t a n c e — C u a u h t e m o c ' s r e v o l t — a n d , m u c h later, by t h e Z a p o t e c revolt of 1550. " T h e r e a s o n they gave for the rising," writes the c o m m e n t a t o r of t h e C o d e x Vaticanus 3 7 - 3 8 , "was that their god, w h o would r e d e e m t h e m , had returned." T h u s the messianic m o v e m e n t linked to Quetzalc o a t l s u r v i v e d t h e C o n q u e s t a n d a c o n v e r s i o n w h i c h m a d e little o r n o c h a n g e in t h e I n d i a n m e n t a l i t y . C e r t a i n l y a s e n s e o f h i s t o r y , i n h e r i t e d by t h e S p a n i a r d s f r o m t h e J u d a i c p r o p h e t i c t r a d i t i o n , b y t h e I n d i a n s from their ancestral polytheism, gave Quetzalcoatl's p r o p h e c y an importance that m e r e calendrical coincidence could not have conferred 1 0
1 1
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u p o n it. B y a k i n d o f tacit a c c o r d , S p a n i a r d s a n d I n d i a n s t u r n e d t o t h e Q u e t z a l c o a t l l e g e n d t o e x t r i c a t e t h e m f r o m a s i t u a t i o n t h a t t h e i r religious conscience f o u n d intolerable, t h e situation of living a m o m e n t of h i s t o r y — h e n c e f o r t h to be t h e i r c o m m o n h i s t o r y — n o t foreseen by t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e p r o p h e t s . W h a t C o r t e s v i e w e d as a c l e v e r r u s e ( t a k i n g a d v a n t a g e o f a n A z t e c r e l i g i o u s t r a d i t i o n f o r political e n d s ) b e c a m e for missionaries a n d theologians t h e h a p p y solution to an exegetic difficulty.
The Cruciform
Signs and the Ritual
Analogies
I n d e p e n d e n t l y (at least a t first) o f t h e p r o p h e c y w h i c h w a s s u p p o s e d to h a v e a n n o u n c e d t h e i r c o m i n g to t h e N e w W o r l d , t h e c o n q u i s t a d o r s , f o l l o w e d b y t h e m i s s i o n a r i e s , f o u n d in t h e t e m p l e s , s a c r e d i m a g e s , a n d codices of t h e ancient Mexicans signs which they believed m u s t be o f C h r i s t i a n o r J u d a i c o r i g i n . T h e m o s t i m p r e s s i v e o f t h e s e finds w e r e t h e c r o s s e s . B e r n a l Diaz, w h o first r e p o r t e d s u c h a d i s c o v e r y , r e l a t e s w h a t h e saw in C a m p e c h e d u r i n g t h e Grijalva e x p e d i t i o n : " T h e r e w e r e m a n y p a i n t e d idols a n d b a s - r e l i e f s o f s e r p e n t s o n t h e walls . . . a n d w e saw t h e r e a k i n d o f c r o s s , p a i n t e d o n t h e I n d i a n s t a t u e s ; this a s t o n i s h e d u s , f o r w e h a d n e v e r s e e n s u c h a t h i n g b e f o r e . " B e r n a l Diaz's c h i e f r e a c t i o n w a s s u r p r i s e . B u t a c e n t u r y l a t e r t h e F r a n c i s c a n L o p e z C o g o l l u d o , c i t i n g B e r n a l Diaz, a d d e d : " I n t h e k i n g d o m o f Y u c a t a n w a s f o u n d a basis f o r this t h e o r y [of a p r e v i o u s evangelization of t h e I n d i e s by t h e Apostles] that gave t h e old a u t h o r s m u c h to t h i n k about. W h e n the S p a n i a r d s e n t e r e d that land they f o u n d c r o s s e s t h e r e , in p a r t i c u l a r a s t o n e c r o s s w i t h a n i m a g e o f C h r i s t t h e R e d e e m e r in r e l i e f (it is n o w i n o u r c o n v e n t in M e r i d a ) , a n d t h e Indians venerated it." 1 2
13
C r o s s e s w i t h r e l i g i o u s s i g n i f i c a n c e w e r e n u m e r o u s in a n c i e n t Mexico. O n e of t h e best k n o w n , that of P a l e n q u e , presents the Maya T r e e o f Life in stylized f o r m . T h e c r o s s t h a t Q u e t z a l c o a t l b o r e o n h i s h e a d , like t h a t o t h e r c r o s s o f t h e Codex Fejervary Meyer o n w h i c h is d r a w n a b e a r d e d p e r s o n a g e , was t h e symbol of t h e f o u r directions of s p a c e , o f t h e c a r d i n a l p o i n t s , as b e f i t t e d t h e g o d o f w i n d , Q u e t z a l coatl-Ehecatl. B u t t h e c o m p l i c a t e d religious symbolism of t h e a n c i e n t M e x i c a n s w a s i n c o m p r e h e n s i b l e t o t h e first S p a n i a r d s ; o r r a t h e r t h e y c o u l d u n d e r s t a n d it o n l y in t e r m s o f a n a l o g y . B e a r e r s o f a s t r o n g J u d e o - C h r i s t i a n tradition, they focused attention o n a symbol, the c r o s s , t h a t h a d significance f o r t h e m , b u t t h e y e x a g g e r a t e d its i m p o r t a n c e a n d g a v e it a n e r r o n e o u s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . C o m i n g f r o m a c l o s e d , exclusive spiritual world, they could not conceive that a cross could have a n origin o r m e a n i n g o t h e r t h a n that of the Christian cross.
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T h u s they c o m b i n e d a n d r e d u c e d the crosses of a n c i e n t Mexico, which differed greatly from each other, to their o w n cruciform patt e r n a n d i n t e r p r e t e d t h e m as s i g n s o f a p r e v i o u s e v a n g e l i z a t i o n . I n reality, t h e cross o n Quetzalcoatl's m a n t l e , a Saint A n d r e w ' s cross, symbolized the dual principle which h a d created both gods a n d men. A t t h e f o o t o f t h e t e m p l e o f E h e c a t l , a t C a l i x t l a h u a c a , is a f u n e r a r y m o n u m e n t w h o s e d e s i g n also is c r u c i f o r m . T h u s a k i n d o f law o f f r e q u e n c y b e g a n to o p e r a t e t h a t a s s o c i a t e d Q u e t z a l c o a t l a n d t h e c r o s s in S p a n i s h m i n d s . S e a r c h e r s for a providential e x p l a n a t i o n a n d a p r o p h e t i c ann o u n c e m e n t o f t h e S p a n i s h c o n q u e s t c o u l d n o t o v e r l o o k this p h e n o m e n o n . T h e p r o p h e c y attributed to Quetzalcoatl a n d t h e symbol o f t h e c r o s s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h h i m t o g e t h e r c o n s t i t u t e d a m y s t e r y . Again, t h e h e r o was a star, recalling t h e star of David. T h e n u m e r o u s r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s of Quetzalcoatl showed h i m w e a r i n g a conical b o n n e t w h i c h r e s e m b l e d t h e p a p a l t i a r a a n d c a r r y i n g a c u r v e d stick s h a p e d like a b i s h o p ' s c r o s i e r , a l t h o u g h s m a l l e r . Was h e n o t c a l l e d " P o p e " Quetzalcoatl? T h e s e formal resemblances greatly intrigued the m i s s i o n a r i e s . T h e r e was e v e n a p h y s i c a l t r a i t — t h e b e a r d w h i c h a l m o s t all t h e Q u e t z a l c o a t l s d i s p l a y e d — t h a t a p p e a r e d to m a k e h i m a n E u r o p e a n , o r at least a f o r e i g n e r a m o n g t h e b e a r d l e s s I n d i a n s . S a h a g i i n himself, d e s p i t e his g r e a t c a u t i o n , w r o t e : " I h a v e also h e a r d say t h a t a t C h a m p o t o n , o r in C a m p e c h e , t h e first r e l i g i o u s w h o w e n t t h e r e to p r e a c h to the I n d i a n s f o u n d m a n y things that alluded to the Catholic faith a n d t h e G o s p e l . If t h e r e w a s a n a p o s t o l i c p r e a c h i n g o f t h e G o s p e l in t h o s e t w o r e g i o n s , d o u b t l e s s it also h a p p e n e d in t h i s r e g i o n o f Mexico a n d the neighboring provinces and even t h r o u g h o u t New S p a i n . " H e also c a l l e d a t t e n t i o n t o t h i n g s t h a t s e e m e d t o s t r e n g t h e n the p r e s u m p t i o n of a previous evangelization: " I n 1570 o r t h e r e a b o u t s t w o r e l i g i o u s w o r t h y o f c r e d i t a s s u r e d m e t h a t t h e y saw in O a x a c a , w h i c h is a b o u t sixty l e a g u e s to t h e e a s t o f this city, s o m e v e r y old paintings o n d e e r skins which c o n t a i n e d m a n y r e f e r e n c e s to t h e p r e a c h i n g of the Gospel; o n e p a i n t i n g showed t h r e e w o m e n w e a r i n g I n d i a n d r e s s a n d h a i r d r e s s a n d s e a t e d in t h e m a n n e r o f I n d i a n w o m e n . T w o w e r e o n e i t h e r s i d e o f t h e t h i r d , w h o w a s s h o w n in t h e f o r e g r o u n d a n d h a d a w o o d e n cross a t t a c h e d to t h e plait of h e r hair. O n t h e g r o u n d b e f o r e t h e m w a s a n a k e d m a n w h o s e h a n d s a n d legs w e r e e x t e n d e d o n a c r o s s , w i t h his a n k l e s a n d w r i s t s t i e d t o t h e c r o s s by r o p e s . It s e e m s t o m e t h a t this r e f e r s t o O u r L a d y a n d h e r t w o sisters a n d to O u r L o r d , w h o m t h e I n d i a n s m u s t h a v e k n o w n as a r e s u l t o f a n a n c i e n t c o n v e r s i o n . " H e r e is a v e r y e x a c t a n d t r o u b l i n g r e p o r t , b y a s u p r e m e a u t h o r i t y ; u n f o r t u n a t e l y , S a h a g i i n ' s t e s t i m o n y is s e c o n d - h a n d ; h e h i m s e l f d i d n o t s e e t h e c o d e x w h i c h h e d e s c r i b e s so 1 4
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precisely. N o t e that S a h a g u n d o e s n o t claim any relation b e t w e e n Quetzalcoatl's p r o p h e c y a n d the preevangelization of Mexico. H e views Q u e t z a l c o a t l as a g r e a t n a t i v e s o r c e r e r , n o t as a p r e c u r s o r o f t h e missionaries. Nevertheless, the m u l t i t u d e of signs of a pristine evangelization inevitably inspired a search for an Apostle a m o n g t h e h e r o e s of ancient Mexico. Quetzalcoatl was a n e m i n e n t l y suitable c a n d i d a t e . A c h a s t e , ascetic foe o f h u m a n sacrifice, h e h a d i n i t i a t e d t h e p r a c t i c e o f m o r t i f i c a t i o n , p r o m o t e d b e l i e f in o n e g o d w h o c r e a t e d all t h i n g s , a n d p r o p h e s i e d the Conquest. Cast d o w n a n d persecuted, he h a d e n d e d his e x i s t e n c e by a s c e n d i n g t o h e a v e n a n d p r o m i s i n g t h e f u t u r e r e s t o r a t i o n o f his b e n i g n r u l e . T h e m a n y t r a i t s t h a t Q u e t z a l c o a t l s h a r e d with J e s u s w e r e b o u n d to p r o v o k e passionate disputes. A c c o r d i n g to c e r t a i n v e r s i o n s o f t h e l e g e n d , t h e h e r o was b o r n o f a v i r g i n , h a v i n g b e e n m i r a c u l o u s l y b e g o t t e n by a ball o f d o w n w h o s e l i g h t a n d airy c h a r a c t e r c o u l d well s y m b o l i z e t h e H o l y S p i r i t . T h e r i t u a l o f t h e a n cient Mexicans i n c l u d e d circumcision, oral confession, fasting, t h e tonsure, a n d the like—customs that Catholic missionaries t h o u g h t c o u l d o n l y d e r i v e f r o m t h e J u d e o - C h r i s t i a n t r a d i t i o n . It w a s t h e s a m e w i t h t h e b e l i e f in t h e D e l u g e , a n d t h e " t o w e r o f B a b e l " — w h i c h t h e ancient Mexicans h a d tried to build precisely at C h o l u l a , Q u e t z a l coatl's h o l y city. T h e c o m m e n t a t o r o f t h e Codex telleriano remensis writes c o n c e r n i n g this: " I n the year O n e R e e d they celebrated the o t h e r g r e a t festival a t C h o l u l a , t h e festival o f Q u e t z a l c o a t l , t h e first papa o r h i g h p r i e s t , w h o w a s s a v e d f r o m t h e D e l u g e . " Regarded f r o m t h i s a n g l e , Q u e t z a l c o a t l b e c a m e a n e w M o s e s . I t was a t e m p t a t i o n f o r t h e m i s s i o n a r i e s t o try t o p r o v e t h a t this I n d i a n m e s s i a h w a s the promise of the Light, of the Messiah Jesus Christ whose Word a n d T r u t h t h e S p a n i a r d s h a d b r o u g h t . B u t t h e r e w a s m o r e . I n his a s p e c t o f T l a u i z c a l p a n t e c u h t l i , g o d o f t h e d a w n , c r e a t e d b e f o r e t h e s u n acc o r d i n g to t h e c o m m e n t a t o r of t h e C o d e x Vaticanus 3 7 - 3 8 , Quetzalcoatl s u p p l i e d p r o o f of " t h e g r e a t k n o w l e d g e they have of Genesis, for ( d e s p i t e t h e D e m o n ' s e f f o r t s to m i x it w i t h m a n y e r r o r s ) t h e i r l y i n g fable so c o n f o r m s t o C a t h o l i c T r u t h t h a t o n e m i g h t well t h i n k t h e y h a d k n o w l e d g e of t h e Book of G e n e s i s . " Such a m u l t i t u d e of signs c l u s t e r e d a b o u t Q u e t z a l c o a t l ' s figure t h a t h e i n e v i t a b l y b e c a m e t h e center of h y p o t h e s e s relative to a previous evangelization. 1 5
1 6
A k n o w l e d g e of J u d e o - C h r i s t i a n ideas (or very similar notions) by the Mexicans before the arrival of the Spanish missionaries thus app e a r e d certain, b u t t h e r e w e r e two possible a n d o p p o s e d interpretat i o n s o f t h i s fact. O n e m i g h t b e c a l l e d " A u g u s t i n i a n " a n d w a s r e p r e s e n t e d b y L a s C a s a s , w h o saw in t h a t k n o w l e d g e t h e d e s i g n s o f a m e r c i f u l G o d w h o w i s h e d t o p r e p a r e t h e I n d i a n s to r e c e i v e t h e L i g h t
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(if n o t a c t u a l l y e n l i g h t e n t h e m ) by m e a n s o f t h e f o r m a l a n a l o g i e s b e t w e e n t h e i r a n c i e n t beliefs a n d t h e n e w faith. T h e n a m e o f t h e s a c r e d b o o k o f t h e M a y a , Chilam Balam, w a s b o l d l y c o m p a r e d w i t h t h e n a m e of t h e m a g u s Balaam w h o h a d p r e d i c t e d the c o m i n g of the M e s s i a h . S i n c e t h e figurative m e a n i n g o f t h e n a m e Q u e t z a l c o a t l was " p r e c i o u s t w i n , " it a p p e a r e d t o b e a s y n o n y m o f t h e G r e e k Thome, w h i c h also m e a n t " t w i n , " w h e n c e t h e t r a n s l a t i o n o f Q u e t z a l c o a t l by Santo Thome o r Thomas. W i t h p h i l o l o g y b u t t r e s s i n g r i t u a l , beliefs, a n d t h e p i c t o r i a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s in t h e o l d M e x i c a n p o l y t h e i s t i c r e l i g i o n , Q u e t z a l c o a t l s o o n p r e s e n t e d all t h e t r a i t s o f a n a p o s t l e o f C h r i s t o r a Spanish missionary; consequently he became the most important and i n t e r e s t i n g p e r s o n a g e o f a n c i e n t M e x i c o in S p a n i s h eyes a n d p a r t i c u larly in t h e eyes o f t h e m i s s i o n a r i e s . I n t h e last analysis this i n t e r e s t r e f l e c t e d t h e s p o n t a n e o u s e t h n o c e n trism of t h e S p a n i a r d s , unconsciously d r i v e n to seek familiar landm a r k s in t h e w i l d e r n e s s o f N e w W o r l d r e l i g i o u s p h e n o m e n a . F o r t h e r e s t , t h e v e r y n o t i o n o f c o n f r o n t i n g s o m e t h i n g r a d i c a l l y n e w was a b h o r r e n t f r o m t h e p o i n t o f view o f r e v e a l e d t r u t h . T h a t is w h y a h e r m e n e u t i c s o f a l l e g o r i c a l i n s p i r a t i o n d i s c o v e r e d in O l d T e s t a m e n t p r o p h e t s the cryptic m e a n i n g of passages which s e e m e d to foretell the v o y a g e o f C o l u m b u s to t h e N e w W o r l d , w h i c h t h e r e f o r e b e c a m e S p a i n ' s p r o p e r t y f o r e v e r a n d e v e r , b e c a u s e it h a d b e e n so written. We w o u l d b e w r o n g a n d m a l i c i o u s to see d i s h o n e s t y o r n a i v e t e in this position. Given the a priori rejection of novelty—which would have i m p l i e d a n i n t o l e r a b l e g a p in t h e totality o f r e v e a l e d t r u t h c l a i m e d f o r S c r i p t u r e — i t r e m a i n e d o n l y t o s e a r c h in t h e P r o p h e t s , o n t h e o n e h a n d , a n d in A m e r i c a , o n t h e o t h e r , f o r s i g n s l i n k i n g t h e N e w W o r l d t o r e v e l a t i o n . Q u e t z a l c o a t l a p p e a r e d t o c o m b i n e in h i m s e l f a n u m b e r o f l u m i n o u s s i g n s . T h e r e w a s o n l y o n e p r o b l e m . W h a t if, as S a h a g i i n t h o u g h t , Quetzalcoatl h a d b e e n a minister of the native religion, a s o r c e r e r ; w h a t if t h e a n a l o g i e s w i t h C h r i s t i a n i t y w e r e all a d e v i l i s h p a r o d y ? S o m e , c o n c e d i n g this, n e v e r t h e l e s s c o n c l u d e d t h a t G o d h a d u t i l i z e d t h i s d i a b o l i c a b e r r a t i o n as a k i n d o f p r e p a r a t i o n f o r o r initiat i o n in t h e t r u e faith. T h e i d e a w h i c h s o o n w o n o u t o v e r all o t h e r s w a s t h a t Q u e t z a l c o a t l w a s t h e a p o s t l e S a i n t T h o m a s , a n d t h a t all t h e a n a l o g i e s o f b e l i e f a n d ritual between ancient Mexico a n d Christianity resulted from a very ancient evangelization of America, with a later d e g r a d a t i o n of Christ i a n d o c t r i n e . T h i s i d e a w a s n o t a m e n t a l a b e r r a t i o n ; it w a s b a s e d o n t h e Acta Thomae (since r e c o g n i z e d as a p o c r y p h a l ) , w h i c h d e c l a r e d t h a t t h e A p o s t l e h a d e v a n g e l i z e d t h e I n d i e s supra Gangem ( b e y o n d t h e Ganges). T h e rediscovery by t h e Franciscan a n d Dominican m i s s i o n a r i e s o f " t h e C h r i s t i a n s o f S a i n t T h o m a s " in t h e r e g i o n o f M y l a p o r e in E a s t I n d i a g a v e s u p p o r t t o this h y p o t h e s i s . T h e initial
157
The Genesis of the Creole
Myth
g e o g r a p h i c a l confusion which caused A m e r i c a to be baptized with the n a m e "West I n d i e s " t e n d e d t o s t r e n g t h e n t h e " T h o m i s t " h y p o t h e s i s . A n o t h e r a r g u m e n t , essentially t h e o l o g i c a l , also e x e r t e d c o n s i d e r a b l e weight. T h e I n d i a n s s e e m e d i n n u m e r a b l e a n d t h e N e w World imm e n s e ; how could Christ have forgotten a portion of m a n k i n d , then b e l i e v e d t o b e t h e l a r g e s t p o r t i o n o f all a n d to o c c u p y t h e g r e a t e s t p a r t o f t h e w o r l d , in t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f m a n k i n d h e m a d e a m o n g his a p o s t l e s : he et docete omni creaturae ("Go a n d p r e a c h t o all m e n " ) ? Q u e t z a l c o a t l a l o n e w a s well e n o u g h k n o w n a n d sufficiently e n i g m a t i c t o p r o v i d e a s o l u t i o n t o t h e s e p e r p l e x i n g q u e s t i o n s . O n l y this p e r s p e c tive o f a m e t a p h y s i c a l r i d d l e t h a t h a d t o b e r e s o l v e d will e n a b l e u s t o u n d e r s t a n d the creole avatar of the ancient Mexican g o d - h e r o Q u e t zalcoatl, w h o , t o o u r m o d e r n way o f t h i n k i n g , b e a r s n o t t h e s l i g h t e s t r e s e m b l a n c e t o a n a p o s t l e o f C h r i s t . Q u e t z a l c o a t l was a p a r t i a l r e p l y to a m u l t i f o r m spiritual p r o b l e m , t h e A m e r i c a n p r o b l e m of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.
The Defenders
of an Apostolic Evangelization Fray Diego
of Mexico
Durdn
T h e D o m i n i c a n D u r a n w a s a l m o s t c o n t e m p o r a r y w i t h t h e first missionaries a n d exactly c o n t e m p o r a r y with S a h a g u n ; h e too k n e w well t h e last s u r v i v o r s o f t h e p r e h i s p a n i c A z t e c w o r l d . T h i s fact l e n d s a s p e c i a l i n t e r e s t t o his i m a g e o f Q u e t z a l c o a t l , c o m p a r e d w i t h t h o s e w e f o u n d in M o t o l i n i a , S a h a g u n , a n d t h e a u t h o r o f t h e Histoyre du Mechique. R e a d i n g D u r a n , o n e g e t s t h e i m p r e s s i o n t h a t y e a r s , e v e n decades, separate him from the pioneer missionaries. Unlike t h e m , h e d o e s n o t set h i m s e l f t h e t a s k o f w r i t i n g t h e h i s t o r y o f t h e a n c i e n t M e x i c a n s a n d t h e i r beliefs; h e is i n t e n t o n interpreting it as t h e h i s t o r y o f his a d o p t e d c o u n t r y . By n o a c c i d e n t , it is p r e c i s e l y in D u r a n t h a t w e e n c o u n t e r t h e first g r e a t l i t e r a r y m u t a t i o n o f t h e figure o f Q u e t z a l coatl. D u r a n p r e s e n t s his vision o f Q u e t z a l c o a t l in c h a p t e r 6 9 o f his Historia de las Indias de Nueva Espaiia. We s h o u l d n o t e t h a t this vision o f the h e r o forms part of a larger plan, a defense of ancient Mexico. At t h e v e r y o u t s e t o f t h e w o r k t h e a u t h o r a n n o u n c e s his d e s i g n : " M y w i s h h a s b e e n to m a k e it [ a n c i e n t M e x i c o ] live a g a i n , t o r e s c u e it f r o m t h e d e a t h a n d o b l i v i o n in w h i c h it lay, in o r d e r t o d i s a b u s e n e w c o m e r s a n d f o r e i g n e r s o f t h e evil a n d false o p i n i o n t h a t m a k e s t h e m c o n d e m n t h e s u p p o s e d b a r b a r i s m o f t h e M e x i c a n s . " I n t h e last p a r a g r a p h s o f c h a p t e r 7 8 , w h i c h i m m e d i a t e l y p r e c e d e s t h e c h a p t e r d e v o t e d to Q u e t zalcoatl, D u r a n d e p l o r e s t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f t h e a n c i e n t c o d i c e s : " T h e y w h o w i t h a fine zeal ( b u t v e r y little c o m m o n s e n s e ) o n t h e i r a r r i v a l 1 7
158
QUETZALCOATL, OR THE PHOENIX BIRD
b u r n e d a n d d e s t r o y e d all t h e I n d i a n p a i n t i n g s a n d a n t i q u i t i e s c o m m i t t e d a g r a v e e r r o r ; f o r t h e y left u s w i t h so little i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e i r beliefs t h a t t h e I n d i a n s c a n give t h e m s e l v e s u p t o i d o l a t r o u s p r a c t i c e s b e f o r e o u r v e r y e y e s , y e t w e see n o t h i n g . " F a t h e r D u r a n , a m i s s i o n a r y friar, t h u s h a s t h e s a m e o b j e c t i v e as S a h a g u n . B u t w h e r e a s S a h a g u n a p p l i e s u n d e v i a t i n g l y t h e d o c t r i n e o f tabula rasa, s h o w i n g n o m e r c y t o a n y d o c t r i n e o f t h e a n c i e n t M e x i c a n s , D u r a n t a k e s t h e first step t o w a r d acceptance of the hypothesis of preevangelization. T h e v e r y title o f c h a p t e r 7 9 a n n o u n c e s a n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n : " O f t h e P r o b a b l e I d e n t i t y o f a G r e a t M a n W h o L i v e d in T h i s C o u n t r y , N a m e d T o p i l t z i n a n d Also Called P o p e , W h o m t h e Mexicans Called H u e m a c a n d W h o L i v e d in T u l a . " O b s e r v e t h a t t h e n a m e Q u e t z a l c o a t l d o e s n o t figure in t h i s title a n d d o e s n o t a p p e a r in t h e c h a p t e r . D u r a n is s p e a k i n g h e r e o f " P o p e T o p i l t z i n " ; t h a t is, t h e h i s t o r i c a l Q u e t z a l c o a t l , h i g h p r i e s t o f T u l a , t h e m a n a n d n o t t h e g o d ; c o n s e q u e n t l y t h e r e is n o a l l u s i o n to his m e t a m o r p h o s i s i n t o t h e M o r n i n g S t a r . O n l y m u c h l a t e r in his b o o k d o e s D u r a n t r e a t " O f t h e I d o l C a l l e d Q u e t z a l c o a t l , G o d o f t h e C h o l u l a n s . " A l t h o u g h this i d o l is d e s c r i b e d as " f a t h e r o f t h e Toltecs, a n d o f t h e S p a n i a r d s b e c a u s e h e a n n o u n c e d t h e i r c o m i n g , " h e is n o w h e r e l i n k e d t o " P o p e T o p i l t z i n . " D u r a n t h u s d i v o r c e s t h e g o d o f the Cholulans, Quetzalcoatl-Ehecatl, from the historic Quetzalcoatl. M o r e o v e r , h e c o n f u s e s his " P o p e T o p i l t z i n " w i t h H u e m a c o f T l a x c a l a . C o n c e r n i n g " P o p e Topiltzin" D u r a n writes: " H e was a very v e n e r a b l e a n d religious p e r s o n w h o m the I n d i a n s greatly revered; they h o n o r e d h i m a n d felt as m u c h r e v e r e n c e f o r h i m as if h e w e r e a s a i n t . " 1 8
1 9
2 0
21
22
D u r a n h a d u t t e r e d a key w o r d , o n e t h a t h a d a g r e a t f u t u r e : " P o p e T o p i l t z i n " w a s a saint. D u r a n ' s d e s c r i p t i o n o f T o p i l t z i n ' s c o n d u c t a n d t h e h i s t o r y o f his life c o n f o r m e d t o his p r e s u m e d saintly c h a r a c t e r . D u r a n was n o t c o n t e n t w i t h f o r m a l a n a l o g i e s . F o r h i m t h e w o r d Papa h a d n o e t y m o l o g i c a l l i n k to t h e R o m a n c e l a n g u a g e s o f t h e O l d W o r l d ; it signified " t h e m a n w i t h l o n g h a i r , " t h a t is, a p r i e s t , f o r t h e p r i e s t s o f a n c i e n t M e x i c o let t h e i r h a i r g r o w l o n g . T h e a n a l o g i e s a r e m o r e s u b t l y s u g g e s t e d : " H e w a s always r e t i r e d in his cell, e n g a g e d in p r a y e r . . . . H e was a very a b s t e m i o u s m a n a n d fasted continually. . . . H e lived c h a s t e l y a n d p r a c t i c e d m u c h p e n a n c e ; h e h a d t h e c u s t o m o f b u i l d i n g altars a n d oratories e v e r y w h e r e , of placing pious images o n walls a n d a l t a r s , o f k n e e l i n g b e f o r e t h e m t o p r a y , a n d o f p r e a c h i n g . " H e also t a u g h t his d i s c i p l e s t o p r a y a n d p r e a c h . 2 3
T h e u s e o f a C h r i s t i a n v o c a b u l a r y t o d e p i c t T o p i l t z i n ' s p i e t y ("cell," " p r a y , " " p e n a n c e , " " o r a t o r y " ) , a n d t h e m e n t i o n o f t r a i t s s u c h as " a b s t e m i o u s , " " g i v e n to f a s t i n g , " " g e n u f l e c t i o n , " h a d t o i m p r e s s D u r a n ' s c o n t e m p o r a r y r e a d e r s . A d d his s t a t e m e n t t h a t " t h e e x p l o i t s a n d prodigies of Topiltzin" h a d "the a p p e a r e a n c e of miracles," a n d t h e picture of a Christian Topiltzin takes very clear s h a p e . 24
159
The Genesis of the Creole
Myth
D u r a n b a s e d his a r g u m e n t for t h e identity of " P o p e Topiltzin of Tula with an apostle of Christ o n theological reasons a n d on alleged facts. H e p r o t e s t e d his o r t h o d o x y : " I s u b j e c t m y s e l f in all t h i n g s t o t h e correction of the Holy Catholic C h u r c h . A l t h o u g h I a d h e r e to the Holy Gospel of Saint Mark, w h o states that G o d sent t h e Holy A p o s tles to all p a r t s o f t h e w o r l d t o p r e a c h t h e g o s p e l t o his c r e a t u r e s , p r o m i s i n g e t e r n a l life t o all b a p t i z e d b e l i e v e r s , I d a r e n o t d a r e a f f i r m t h a t T o p i l t z i n w a s o n e o f t h e b l e s s e d a p o s t l e s . N e v e r t h e l e s s . . . , since t h e n a t i v e s w e r e also G o d ' s c r e a t u r e s , r a t i o n a l a n d c a p a b l e o f salvat i o n , H e c a n n o t h a v e left t h e m w i t h o u t a p r e a c h e r o f t h e G o s p e l . If t h i s is t r u e , t h a t p r e a c h e r w a s T o p i l t z i n , w h o c a m e t o t h i s l a n d . A c c o r d i n g to t h e s t o r y , h e w a s a s c u l p t o r w h o c a r v e d a d m i r a b l e i m a g e s in s t o n e . We r e a d t h a t t h e g l o r i o u s a p o s t l e S a i n t T h o m a s w a s a m a s t e r c r a f t s m a n in t h e s a m e a r t . We also k n o w t h a t this a p o s t l e was a p r e a c h e r to the I n d i a n s . " 2 5
D u r a n t h u s laid t h e f o u n d a t i o n s f o r t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f T o p i l t z i n w i t h t h e a p o s t l e S a i n t T h o m a s . T h i s fact a l o n e i n v a l i d a t e s t h e hypothesis t h a t r e d u c e s D u r a n ' s role to o n e of simple translator of a n I n d i a n c h r o n i c l e c a l l e d Cronica X, for w a n t o f a b e t t e r n a m e . T o b e s u r e , D u r a n , like t h e F r a n c i s c a n s w h o m w e h a v e a l r e a d y s t u d i e d , h a d codices before h i m w h e n h e wrote a n d h a d knowledgeable natives gloss t h e s e c o d i c e s . Possibly o n e o f t h e s e c o d i c e s , n o l o n g e r e x t a n t , w a s his p r i n c i p a l s o u r c e . B u t D u r a n ' s vision o f T o p i l t z i n p r o v e s t h a t t h e D o m i n i c a n freely e l a b o r a t e d t h e m a t e r i a l in I n d i a n c h r o n i c l e s . L a t e r w r i t e r s w o u l d c o m p l e t e his p o r t r a i t o f a n a p o s t o l i c Q u e t z a l c o a t l . A n o t h e r D o m i n i c a n , L a s C a s a s , d e s c r i b e d h i m as follows: " H e was a w h i t e m a n , tall, w i t h a g r e a t f o r e h e a d a n d l a r g e e y e s , l o n g b r o w n h a i r , a n d a l o n g full b e a r d . " 2 6
T h e i n t e r e s t o f D u r a n ' s T o p i l t z i n c o n s i s t s in t h e fact t h a t it r e v e a l s t h e c h a i n o f i d e a s l e a d i n g to t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f T o p i l t z i n o f T u l a w i t h t h e apostle Saint T h o m a s . A n u m b e r of traits a t t r i b u t e d to Topiltzin by l e g e n d , a n d his " m i r a c u l o u s r e p u t a t i o n , " i n s p i r e t h e s u s p i c i o n t h a t h e was a C h r i s t i a n m i s s i o n a r y . A c c e p t a n c e — a f t e r c o n t r o v e r s i e s i n which Las Casas, Sepulveda, a n d Vitoria played t h e m a i n roles—that the I n d i a n s w e r e God's creatures, e n d o w e d with reason a n d capable of salvation, t o g e t h e r with a r e a d i n g of t h e Gospel of M a r k a n d t h e A c t s o f T h o m a s , led t o t h e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t t h e I n d i e s . h a d b e e n e v a n g e l i z e d b y a n a p o s t l e , m o r e p r e c i s e l y by S a i n t T h o m a s . A s e r i e s o f coincidences reinforced the analogies between the apostle a n d T o p i l t z i n : T o p i l t z i n h a d s c u l p t u r e d in s t o n e , so h a d T h o m a s , a n d so o n . T h e s e r e s e m b l a n c e s m i g h t h a v e g o n e u n n o t i c e d , h o w e v e r , w e r e it n o t f o r t h e t h e o l o g i c a l n e e d t o find t r a c e s in t h e N e w W o r l d o f a n e a r l y apostolic evangelization. 2 7
In
Duran's work
Topiltzin's p r o p h e c y
acquires a very
specific
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QUETZALCOATL, OR THE PHOENIX BIRD
c h a r a c t e r ; t h e description of t h e s t r a n g e r s to c o m e f r o m t h e East s o u n d s like a n a i v e d e p i c t i o n o f S p a n i a r d s , a n d t h e p r o p h e c y is g i v e n a new m e a n i n g that smacks of the Christian ethic: "God would send t h e m this p u n i s h m e n t for their m i s t r e a t m e n t of h i m [Topiltzin] a n d t h e a f f r o n t o f d r i v i n g h i m a w a y . " T o p i l t z i n n o w s p e a k s like S a i n t T h o m a s — o r r a t h e r as a s i x t e e n t h - c e n t u r y S p a n i s h r e l i g i o u s m i g h t i m a g i n e t h e a p o s t l e to h a v e s p o k e n . T h e r e w a s , o f c o u r s e , a w h o l e p a r t y t h a t justified t h e crimes of the S p a n i s h c o n q u e s t by p r o c l a i m i n g t h e y w e r e d i v i n e p u n i s h m e n t o f t h e I n d i a n s f o r t h e i r s t u b b o r n inc r e d u l i t y a n d t h e i r vices. D u r a n m a y h a v e i n v e n t e d t h e r e m a r k s h e a s s i g n e d t o T o p i l t z i n , p e r h a p s b e c a u s e h e t h o u g h t t h e y fitted t h e c h a r a c t e r of t h e p e r s o n a g e h e conceived h i m to be, namely, Saint T h o m a s . I n so d o i n g , F a t h e r D u r a n , like all h i s c o n t e m p o r a r i e s , o n l y f o l l o w e d t h e e x a m p l e o f p r e s t i g i o u s R o m a n h i s t o r i a n s like S a l l u s t a n d Livy. B u t it is also p o s s i b l e , t h o u g h less p r o b a b l e , t h a t t h e D o m i n i c a n o b t a i n e d t h i s v e r s i o n f r o m t h e lips o f a n a t i v e i n f o r m a n t . N o w , D u r a n , like all t h e S p a n i s h m i s s i o n a r i e s , k n e w h o w fragile s u c h a c c o u n t s w e r e a n d d i s t r u s t e d t h e m , f o r a few lines l a t e r h e w r i t e s : " W h e n I q u e s t i o n e d a n o t h e r o l d I n d i a n a b o u t Q u e t z a l c o a t l ' s e x i l e , h e b e g a n t o tell m e t h e c o n t e n t o f c h a p t e r 14 o f E x o d u s . . . . S e e i n g t h a t h e h a d g o n e t o t h e s a m e s o u r c e as I, a n d k n o w i n g w h e r e it w o u l d l e a d , I d i d n o t b o t h e r t o ask h i m o t h e r q u e s t i o n s . " If a n o l d I n d i a n r e c i t e d E x o d u s in t e l l i n g t h e s t o r y o f Q u e t z a l c o a t l ' s flight, o n e c a n i m a g i n e w h a t t h e a c c o u n t s o f y o u n g a c c u l t u r a t e d I n d i a n s m u s t h a v e b e e n like. 2 8
2 9
I n a n y case, e v e n b e f o r e D u r a n , t h e i m a g e o f Q u e t z a l c o a t l m u s t h a v e b e e n s t r o n g l y s y n c r e t i c . D u r a n r e p o r t s : " A n o l d I n d i a n also t o l d m e t h a t w h e n P a p a T o p i l t z i n p a s s e d t h r o u g h O c u i t u c o , h e left t h e m a l a r g e b o o k , a n d t h e I n d i a n s s w o r e t o m e t h a t six y e a r s b e f o r e t h e y h a d b u r n e d it b e c a u s e t h e y c o u l d n o t u n d e r s t a n d t h e w r i t i n g . . . . I w a s v e r y s o r r y t o h e a r t h i s , f o r this b o o k c o u l d h a v e s h e d l i g h t o n o u r s u s p i c i o n t h a t it m i g h t h a v e b e e n t h e H o l y G o s p e l in H e b r e w . " A simpler e x p l a n a t i o n m i g h t b e t h a t this o l d I n d i a n d i d n o t k n o w h o w t o r e a d t h e i d e o g r a p h i c writing of t h e codices o r that t h e b o o k was a Mixtec, M a y a , o r e v e n T o l t e c c o d e x , i n c o m p r e h e n s i b l e in Z a p o t e c c o u n t r y . N o t e the progression of ideas h e r e : with revealed t r u t h (the Gospel of M a r k a n d t h e A c t s o f T h o m a s ) , as his p o i n t o f d e p a r t u r e , D u r a n p r o c e e d s t o s e a r c h , n o t f o r f a c t u a l proofs, b u t f o r m a t e r i a l signs o f a past k n o w n t h r o u g h revelation. Sensing what t h e missionaries w a n t e d t h e m t o say, t h e I n d i a n a n t i c i p a t e d t h e i r w i s h e s ; w h e n this d e s i r e t o p l e a s e was t o o o b v i o u s (as in t h e c a s e o f E x o d u s , c i t e d a b o v e ) it f o o l e d n o o n e . B u t w h o could u n s c r a m b l e the subtle d e f o r m a t i o n s of the Q u e t z a l c o a t l l e g e n d t h a t by w a y o f successive t o u c h e s a n d r e t o u c h e s led t o a c o n f u s i o n b e t w e e n t h e M e x i c a n g o d - h e r o a n d t h e c u r r e n t 3 0
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conception of an apostle of Christ? T h e I n d i a n s h a d a n obvious interest in p e r s u a d i n g t h e m s e l v e s o f t h e i d e n t i t y ; it p r o v e d t h a t t h e i r p a s t w a s n o t e n v e l o p e d in d a r k n e s s , t h a t t h e i r p r e s e n t w a s n o t a l e a p i n t o n o t h i n g n e s s . T h e w o r d o f C h r i s t was infinitely c l o s e r to t h e m if it h a d b e e n p r o c l a i m e d by t h e lips o f Q u e t z a l c o a t l . T h e p r o - I n d i a n m i s s i o n a r i e s f o u n d in this C h r i s t i a n t r a d i t i o n o f t h e N e w W o r l d a sign o f G o d ' s g r a c e t o t h e I n d i e s a n d t h e i r p e o p l e s a n d , c o n s e q u e n t l y , as new metaphysical a m m u n i t i o n against the slave-hunters and executioners of the Conquest, against the d e f e n d e r s of colonization b y fire a n d s w o r d . T h e first Creoles saw in t h e a p o s t o l i c e v a n g e l i z a t i o n a sign that t h e L o r d h a d n o t rejected or forgotten their patria. 31
F r a y D i e g o D u r a n was n o t a c r e o l e , b u t h e was v e r y likely a converso, a d e s c e n d a n t of converted Jews. In the hotly d e b a t e d p r o b l e m of the origin of t h e I n d i a n s h e was o n e of t h o s e w h o t h o u g h t " t h a t they [the I n d i a n s ] a r e by n a t u r e J e w s a n d H e b r e w s " ; h e a d d e d , " I w a n t n o o t h e r p r o o f t h a n H o l y S c r i p t u r e , w h i c h clearly c o n f i r m s t h e t r u t h o f this o p i n i o n . " It is risky to t r y to p e n e t r a t e t h e h i d d e n m o t i v e s o f a s i x t e e n t h - c e n t u r y S p a n i s h r e l i g i o u s . If D u r a n w a s in fact a converso, h e m a y h a v e felt a call t o l e a d t h e " h i d d e n J e w s " o f w h o m t h e P r o p h e t s s p o k e to Christianity, this b e i n g a p r e l u d e to t h e c o m i n g of t h e Kingd o m . If this w a s in fact his m o t i v e t h e D o m i n i c a n r e v e a l s t h e p o w e r f u l i m p a c t of m i l l e n a r i a n t h o u g h t , w h o s e influence was n o t limited to t h e Franciscans. D u r a n p a s s i o n a t e l y p r o c l a i m e d his love f o r his M e x i c a n patria: " I n g o v e r n m e n t , polity, o b e d i e n c e , r e v e r e n c e , g r a n d e u r a n d a u t h o r i t y , c o u r a g e a n d s t r e n g t h , in will t o d i s t i n g u i s h itself in all t h i n g s so t h a t its m e m o r y m a y e n d u r e f o r e v e r , I find n o p e o p l e s u p e r i o r t o t h e M e x i c a n . " T h e s e w e r e qualities to which c o n t e m p o r a r y S p a n i s h r e a d e r s w e r e e s p e c i a l l y r e s p o n s i v e . T h e a n c i e n t M e x i c a n s h a d in c o m m o n with t h e c o n q u e r o r s the heroic ethic, a thirst for glory, fame, a n d h o n o r . T h i s passage shows that the identification of Quetzalcoatl with Saint T h o m a s f o r m e d p a r t of a general effort to o v e r c o m e the radical n o v e l t y o f t h e N e w W o r l d a n d t h e c u s t o m s o f its p e o p l e s . T h e I n d i a n s m u s t be a t t a c h e d to the only possible world, the J u d e o - C h r i s t i a n w o r l d , by p r o p h e c i e s , b y beliefs, by a s y s t e m o f v a l u e s . Q u e t z a l c o a t l w a s a t r u m p c a r d in t h e g a m e t h e m i s s i o n a r i e s p l a y e d a g a i n s t t h e conquistadors. In the relations of the latter, the I n d i a n s a p p e a r above all as c a n n i b a l i s t i c p a g a n s ; t h e r e l i g i o u s d e f e n d t h e m w i t h t h e s p i r i t u a l a r m s of the epoch. 3 2
3 3
Juan de Tovar T h e r e e x i s t a closely r e l a t e d g r o u p o f t e x t s : t h e Historia de las Indias o f F r a y D i e g o D u r a n , t h e Historia o f J u a n d e T o v a r , t h e Historia natural y
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moral (at least b o o k 7, d e a l i n g w i t h M e x i c o ) o f J o s e d e A c o s t a , a n d t h e Cronica mexicana o f H e r n a n d o T e z o z o m o c . T w o l e t t e r s , o n e f r o m F a t h e r A c o s t a t o F a t h e r T o v a r , t h e o t h e r T o v a r ' s r e p l y , h e l p t o clarify the relationship between these w o r k s . T h e manuscript of Tovar's Historia (called Tovar de Phillipps), p r o b a b l y a n a u t o g r a p h o f T o v a r , a p p e a r s t o b e a s u m m a r y o f a n e a r l i e r lost Historia b y h i m . T o v a r s e n t this s u m m a r y t o A c o s t a , w h o m a d e m a r g i n a l n o t e s in it w i t h his o w n h a n d . By T o v a r ' s o w n a d m i s s i o n , h e h a d u s e d a h i s t o r y by a D o m i n i c a n , w h o c o u l d h a v e b e e n n o o t h e r t h a n D i e g o D u r a n . T h u s t h e links between these works form the following chain: 3 4
D u r a n = Tovar I = Tovar II = Acosta T h e M e x i c a n s c h o l a r J o s e F. R a m i r e z d i s c o v e r e d in t h e c o n v e n t o f S a n F r a n c i s c o d e M e x i c o a d o c u m e n t c a l l e d e v e r since t h e Codex Ramirez. A d o l p h B a n d e l i e r e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t t h e Phillipps manuscript a n d t h e Codex Ramirez w e r e b y t h e s a m e a u t h o r . T h e u n d i s p u t e d i d e n t i t y o f t h e Phillipps manuscript w i t h t h e Codex Ramirez, t h e f o r m e r b e i n g a c o p y o f t h e l a t t e r , w i t h o n l y slight v a r i a t i o n s ; a n d t h e i d e n tification o f t h e s e t w o m a n u s c r i p t s w i t h a n o t h e r History b y T o v a r , w r i t t e n in 1 5 8 6 o r 1 5 8 7 , s u g g e s t t h e f o l l o w i n g c o n n e c t i o n s : D u r a n = Tovar d e Phillipps = Tovar Ramirez = Acosta = Tezozomoc George Kubler and Charles Gibson studied the various hypotheses a n d c o n c l u d e d t h a t D u r a n ' s Historia w a s t h e m o t h e r w o r k . M e a n w h i l e R o b e r t ' H . Barlow had offered an "indigenist hypothesis," suggesting t h a t a Cronica X, n o w lost, w a s t h e c o m m o n n a t i v e s o u r c e o f D u r a n a n d T e z o z o m o c . It is d o u b t f u l w h e t h e r Cronica X, if s u c h a w o r k e x i s t e d , will e v e r b e d i s c o v e r e d a n d i d e n t i f i e d . T h e p r o b l e m r e d u c e s itself t o t h e r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n D u r a n a n d T o v a r , t h e q u e s t i o n b e i n g w h e t h e r the latter s u m m a r i z e d the f o r m e r or w h e t h e r both m e n (and T e z o z o m o c ) u t i l i z e d a c o m m o n s o u r c e , t h e Cronica X. V i e w i n g t h e p r o b l e m f r o m t h e special a n g l e o f Q u e t z a l c o a t l , I shall t r y t o s h e d s o m e l i g h t u p o n it. I n t h e a b s e n c e o f t h e h y p o t h e t i c a l Cronica X, I b e g i n b y s t u d y i n g t h e i m a g e o f Q u e t z a l c o a t l in t h e T o v a r m a n u s c r i p t , b u t w i t h t h e p r e m i s e t h a t D u r a n ' s Historia is t h e r i c h e s t a n d e a r l i e s t o f t h e w o r k s u n d e r discussion, a n d probably the principal source of the Tovar m a n u s c r i p t a n d t h e Codex Ramirez. Tovar assigns Quetzalcoatl's p r o p h e c y to t h e time of t h e S p a n i s h c o n q u e s t a n d not to the m o m e n t w h e n the historical Quetzalcoatl d e p a r t e d i n t o exile. H e w r i t e s : " A t t h a t t i m e t h e i d o l Q u e t z a l c o a t l , g o d of t h e C h o l u l a n s , a n n o u n c e d that s t r a n g e r s w e r e c o m i n g to possess themselves of these r e a l m s . " T h e expression "at that t i m e " refers to t h e p e r i o d w h e n " s h i p s b e a r i n g s t r a n g e m e n a p p e a r e d in t h e h a r b o r s , " a n a l l u s i o n t o t h e a r r i v a l o f Grijalva in 1 5 1 8 , o r C o r t e s in 3 5
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1 5 1 9 . By c h a n g i n g t h e t i m e o f t h e p r o p h e c y , T o v a r m a d e p e r f e c t l y c l e a r t h a t it a n n o u n c e d t h e c o m i n g o f t h e S p a n i a r d s . A m o n g t h e o m e n s which p r e c e d e d t h e C o n q u e s t , Tovar relates t h e story of t h e p e a s a n t w h o w a s t r a n s p o r t e d by a n e a g l e t o a c a v e a n d s u m m o n e d b y G o d ' s voice t o b u r n M o c t e z u m a ' s t h i g h f o r " t h e t i m e h a s c o m e w h e n h e m u s t p a y f o r all t h e o f f e n s e s h e h a s d o n e t o G o d . " T h i s p r e s e n t s in slightly a l t e r e d f o r m D u r a n ' s i d e a o f t h e C o n q u e s t as a s c o u r g e s e n t by G o d to p u n i s h t h e I n d i a n s f o r t h e i r p a g a n i s m a n d vices. T h i s notion, which was very early u s e d to justify t h e atrocities of t h e C o n q u e s t , m u s t b e c o n s i d e r e d a S p a n i s h c r e a t i o n ; c e r t a i n l y it h a d n o t h i n g to d o with t h e native p r o p h e c i e s . 3 6
T h e s p i e s s e n t by M o c t e z u m a "said t h a t d o u b t l e s s t h e i r g r e a t e m p e r o r Q u e t z a l c o a t l h a d a r r i v e d , f o r h e h a d said t h a t h e w o u l d r e t u r n a t a c e r t a i n t i m e a n d t h a t w e m u s t g o t o r e c e i v e h i m . " T h i s recalls t h e only I n d i a n p r o p h e c y d o c u m e n t e d by t h e best sources, t h e p r o p h e c y of Quetzalcoatl-Topiltzin d e p a r t i n g for exile. T h e o t h e r p r o p h e c y , t h a t o f t h e idol o f t h e C h o l u l a n s , c o n t e m p o r a r y w i t h t h e C o n q u e s t , p r o b a b l y h a d its o r i g i n in t h e c o n f u s i o n e n g e n d e r e d b y t h e n a m e o f Q u e t z a l c o a t l . By i n c l u d i n g t h a t p r o p h e c y a m o n g t h e v a r i o u s o m e n s d e s c r i b e d by o t h e r chronicles, Tovar linked t h e Quetzalcoatl of t h e a n c i e n t M e x i c a n s m o r e closely t o t h e S p a n i a r d s . T o v a r w e n t o n t o say: " F o r a b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h i s , it m u s t b e r e m e m b e r e d t h a t l o n g a g o t h e r e lived in this c o u n t r y a m a n w h o , a c c o r d i n g t o t r a d i t i o n , w a s a g r e a t s a i n t a n d c a m e t o this l a n d t o a n n o u n c e t h e H o l y G o s p e l . " T o v a r was careful to a d d t h e qualifying p h r a s e " a c c o r d i n g to t r a d i t i o n " ; o n e w i s h e s t h a t h e h a d b e e n m o r e specific. If, as t h e r e is r e a s o n t o b e l i e v e , his s o u r c e w a s D u r a n ' s Historia, t h a t a c c o u n t is e v e n m o r e c a u t i o u s t h a n T o v a r ' s , f o r D u r a n w r o t e : " T h i s T o p i l t z i n was a very venerable a n d religious p e r s o n . . . a n d the I n d i a n s h o n o r e d him a n d r e v e r e d h i m as if h e w e r e a s a i n t . " T o v a r , s u m m a r i z i n g D u r a n ' s t e x t , t o o k his c o n d i t i o n a l s t a t e m e n t f o r a s t a t e m e n t o f fact, a f f i r m i n g t h a t Topiltzin was "a very holy m a n , " b u t i m m e d i a t e l y h e d g e d , a d d i n g , " m a n y p e r s o n s a f f i r m t h a t h e was o n e o f t h e s a i n t s . " Tovar o b v i o u s l y w a n t e d t o a d d w e i g h t t o his t e s t i m o n y by t h e r e f e r e n c e t o " m a n y p e r s o n s " b u t fails t o give t h e i r n a m e s . If t h e y w e r e n a t i v e i n f o r m a n t s , w e k n o w h o w s u s p e c t t h e i r t e s t i m o n y w a s ; if (as w a s alm o s t c e r t a i n l y t h e case) t h e s e n u m e r o u s w i t n e s s e s w e r e D u r a n a l o n e , we m u s t d e p l o r e Tovar's vague t u r n of phrase. Tovar a p p e a r s to be p a r a p h r a s i n g D u r a n , b u t in o r d e r t o h e i g h t e n t h e i m p r e s s i o n t h a t T o p i l t z i n w a s a m i s s i o n a r y h e a d d s d e t a i l s t h a t h a v e little in c o m m o n w i t h t h e I n d i a n c o n c e p t i o n o f Q u e t z a l c o a t l as it e m e r g e s f r o m t h e m o s t a u t h e n t i c sources. T h u s Tovar alludes to a "very ancient t a n n e d s k i n o n w h i c h w e r e s h o w n in M e x i c a n h i e r o g l y p h s all t h e m y s t e r i e s o f 3 7
3 8
39
4 0
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QUETZALCOATL, OR THE PHOENIX BIRD
o u r faith, t h o u g h m i x e d w i t h m a n y e r r o r s . " H e a d d s t h a t " t h e p e r s o n s m o s t c o n v i n c e d o f this [ t h a t Q u e t z a l c o a t l was a C h r i s t i a n m i s s i o n a r y ] a r e t h o s e w h o f o u n d a t a n n e d s k i n in a village o n t h e G u l f c o a s t . " T h e Jesuit's c r e d u l o u s attitude contrasts sharply with that of S a h a g u n w h o , c o n f r o n t e d with similar testimony, e x p r e s s e d surprise that h e h a d not d i s c o v e r e d s u c h a t h i n g in c e n t r a l M e x i c o . E n u m e r a t i n g t h e h e r o ' s d i f f e r e n t n a m e s , T o v a r w r i t e s : " T h e first w a s T o p i l t z i n , " w h i c h s u g g e s t s t h a t , like D u r a n , h e i d e n t i f i e d Q u e t z a l coatl with t h e historical Quetzalcoatl C e Acatl Topiltzin of Tula. C o m i n g t o t h e t h i r d n a m e , T o v a r n o t e d t h a t it w a s " p o p e , " " a n d s o m e o f his p a i n t i n g s s h o w h i m w e a r i n g a t i a r a w i t h t h r e e c r o w n s , like t h a t o f o u r Very Holy Father, the sovereign pontiff." T o v a r did not d r a w a n y c o n c l u s i o n f r o m t h e s e t w o facts, l e a v i n g it to t h e r e a d e r t o m a k e the connection between the n a m e of " p o p e " given to Topiltzin a n d the " t i a r a " w h i c h h e w e a r s in t h e I n d i a n c o d i c e s . T h e s e e x t e r n a l s i g n s o f C h r i s t i a n i t y r e i n f o r c e t h e i m p r e s s i o n p r o d u c e d b y t h e h e r o ' s ascetic i s m , piety, love o f v i r t u e , a n d m i r a c l e s . T o v a r d o e s n o t m e n t i o n t h a t t h e a n c i e n t M e x i c a n p r i e s t s w e r e c a l l e d papa b e c a u s e t h e y w o r e t h e i r h a i r l o n g . O m i s s i o n o f this d e t a i l , m e n t i o n o f w h i c h w o u l d h a v e sufficed t o d e s t r o y T o v a r ' s " C h r i s t i a n " a s s u m p t i o n s , m u s t h a v e b e e n intentional on the part of Tovar, w h o h a d an e x p e r t knowledge of the I n d i a n s a n d t h e N a h u a t l l a n g u a g e . D u r a n ' s e x p l a n a t i o n of t h e e t y m o l o g y o f t h e w o r d papa c l e a r l y p r o v e s t h a t in t h e e v o l u t i o n o f t h e m y t h which identified Quetzalcoatl with the apostle Saint T h o m a s h e r e p r e s e n t s a n e a r l i e r s t a g e o f t h e l e g e n d . T h i s fact by itself d o e s n o t p r o v e t h a t D u r a n was t h e s o u r c e of Tovar's w o r k ; but, a d d e d to t h e facts I h a v e i n d i c a t e d a b o v e , it r e v e a l s a g e n e r a l d e s i g n o n T o v a r ' s p a r t to s t r e n g t h e n the p r e s u m p t i o n of an evangelization of Mexico by S a i n t T h o m a s . By a s e r i e s o f r e v i s i o n s o f d e t a i l s o f D u r a n ' s t e s t i m o n y , s o m e t i m e s o m i t t i n g , s o m e t i m e s a d d i n g m a t e r i a l , by his u s e o f diff e r e n t w o r d s , T o v a r s e e k s t o p r e s e n t Q u e t z a l c o a t l as a n a p o s t l e o f C h r i s t . M y analysis o f t h e figure o f Q u e t z a l c o a t l T o p i l t z i n in D u r a n a n d T o v a r m a k e s it m o s t u n l i k e l y t h a t T o v a r w a s t h e s o u r c e o f D u r a n . I m a y a d d that, c o n t r a r y to t h e conjectures of R a m i r e z a n d C h a v e r o , t h e vision o f T o p i l t z i n in D u r a n a n d T o v a r o w e s v e r y little t o a n a n o n y m o u s I n d i a n a u t h o r , n o r , f o r t h a t m a t t e r , d o e s it o w e m u c h t o S a h a g u n o r M o t o l i n i a . T h e s a m e is n o t t r u e o f t h e idol Q u e t z a l c o a t l , g o d o f t h e C h o l u l a n s , t h e s u b j e c t o f c h a p t e r 4 o f t h e Codex Ramirez. H e is d e s c r i b e d in l a n g u a g e v e r y s i m i l a r t o t h a t o f S a h a g u n a n d is n o t l i n k e d a t all t o t h e h i s t o r i c a l Q u e t z a l c o a t l , c a l l e d also " P o p e T o p i l t z i n . " T h i s s e p a r a t i o n o f t h e v a r i o u s a s p e c t s o f t h e M e x i c a n d i v i n i t y in p a r t of t h e missionary l i t e r a t u r e s h o w that t h e effort of t h e religious to synthesize the I n d i a n pictographic a n d o t h e r sources reflected a 41
42
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g e n e r a l v i s i o n o f t h e I n d i a n w o r l d a n d its beliefs, a vision p r o f o u n d l y different f r o m that of the p r e - C o n q u e s t Indians. D u r a n a n d T o v a r r e n d e r c e r t a i n a s p e c t s o f t h e a n c i e n t r e l i g i o n m o r e faithfully, b u t t h e s t u d e n t m u s t l e a r n to recognize a n d distinguish these faithful r e n d e r i n g s f r o m invented material; t h e t r e a t m e n t of Quetzalcoatl, idol o f t h e C h o l u l a n s , is a c a s e in p o i n t . We see F a t h e r D u r a n e v e n p r e s e n t i n g Q u e t z a l c o a t l as a p e r s e c u t o r o f T o p i l t z i n , i n c l u d i n g h i m a m o n g the n e c r o m a n c e r s : Tezcatlipoca, Ilhuimecatl, a n d Quetzalcoatl. T h i s is a f a r cry f r o m M o t o l i n i a , S a h a g u n , a n d t h e N a h u a t l literature.
The Commentators
of the Rheims and Vatican
Codices
A l t h o u g h the written sources discussed above are the most important, they a r e fortunately s u p p l e m e n t e d a n d c o m p l e t e d by p i c t o g r a p h i c codices. It seems that t h e Jesuit J o s e d e Acosta, h a d already r e f e r r e d in his Historia natural t o t h e C o d e x V a t i c a n u s A, M e x i c a n m a n u s c r i p t nos. 3 7 - 3 8 of t h e Vatican Library, called C o d e x Rios. T h i s confirms t h a t t h e d o c u m e n t h a s b e e n in t h e V a t i c a n L i b r a r y since t h e e n d o f t h e sixteenth century. T h e Italian c o m m e n t a r y which accompanies the c o d e x s e e m s t o b e a c l u m s y t r a n s l a t i o n o f a n o r a l c o m m e n t a r y by a S p a n i s h D o m i n i c a n . A F a t h e r P e d r o d e los R i o s a p p e a r s t o h a v e b e e n a t t a c h e d t o t h e D o m i n i c a n m i s s i o n o f O a x a c a u n t i l a b o u t 1 5 6 6 . It is u n c e r t a i n w h e t h e r h e r e p r o d u c e d a Mexican c o d e x o r merely glossed its m e a n i n g . A c o s t a i n f o r m s u s t h a t a J e s u i t e x p l a i n e d t h e m e a n i n g o f t h e c o d e x to H i s H o l i n e s s ' s l i b r a r i a n , w h o c o u l d n o t m a k e h e a d o r tail o f i t . T h i s J e s u i t , p r o b a b l y I t a l i a n , m u s t h a v e t r a n s l a t e d F a t h e r Rios' Spanish commentary. 4 3
T h e r e exists a r e p l i c a o f t h e C o d e x V a t i c a n u s 3 7 - 3 8 ; it is a M e x i c a n c o d e x f r o m t h e collection of the B i s h o p of R h e i m s , Le Tellier, a n d for this r e a s o n it is called Codex Telleriano remensis. T h e e x e c u t i o n o f t h e d r a w i n g s o f t h e Telleriano remensis is m o r e finished a n d d e l i c a t e t h a n t h a t o f t h e V a t i c a n u s 3 7 - 3 8 , w h i c h c o u l d easily p a s s f o r a n i m p e r f e c t c o p y o f t h e o t h e r , p e r h a p s m a d e by F a t h e r Rios o r in a n y c a s e by a S p a n i a r d i g n o r a n t o f t h e s y m b o l i c o r h i e r o g l y p h i c significance o f c e r t a i n d e t a i l s . M o r e o v e r , t h e Telleriano remensis is a c c o m p a n i e d by a S p a n i s h m a n u s c r i p t c o m m e n t a r y which only partially c o r r e s p o n d s to the Italian c o m m e n t a r y of the Vaticanus 3 7 - 3 8 . I n t h e S p a n i s h c o m m e n t a r y o f t h e c o d e x Telleriano remensis, Q u e t zalcoatl a p p e a r s s e v e r a l t i m e s , first as o n e o f t h e signs o f t h e s e c o n d Tercena o r t h i r t e e n - d a y cycle o f t h e tonalamatl o r s a c r e d c a l e n d a r . T h e r a t h e r r a m b l i n g c o m m e n t a r y recalls t h e p r i n c i p a l t r a i t s o f t h e g o d h e r o : " H e was b o r n of t h e virgin n a m e d C h i m a l m a . . . . H e was saved
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from the D e l u g e . . . . H e seems to have p e r f o r m e d p e n a n c e . . . . T h e y say t h i s Q u e t z a l c o a t l w a s t h e c r e a t o r o f t h e w o r l d , a n d t h e y call h i m t h e L o r d o f t h e W i n d , f o r w h e n T o n a c a t e c u h t l i t h o u g h t it c o n v e n i e n t h e e n g e n d e r e d this Q u e t z a l c o a t l w i t h his b r e a t h . T h e y b u i l d c h u r c h e s for Quetzalcoatl that a r e entirely r o u n d , w i t h o u t any angles. . . . T h e I n d i a n s say t h a t h e c r e a t e d t h e first m a n . . . . L o n g a f t e r t h e D e l u g e , t h e y p r a c t i c e d p e n a n c e , b u t w i t h o u t h u m a n s a c r i f i c e s . " We also l e a r n t h a t Q u e t z a l c o a t l ' s t w i n , X o l o t l , w a s s a v e d f r o m t h e D e l u g e . T h e ass o c i a t i o n o f Q u e t z a l c o a t l w i t h t h e D e l u g e a p p e a r s p a r t i c u l a r l y c l e a r in t h e Telleriano remensis; it m a y h a v e b e e n a v e h i c l e f o r a s s i m i l a t i n g a n c i e n t beliefs a b o u t Q u e t z a l c o a t l i n t o t h e J u d e o - C h r i s t i a n t r a d i t i o n . T h e c o m m e n t a t o r also recalls t h a t h e w a s b o r n o f a v i r g i n a n d e n g e n d e r e d by t h e " b r e a t h " o r "spirit" of a god, i n d e e d of t h e " L o r d of G o d s , " Tonacatecuhtli. M e n t i o n of Quetzalcoatl's practice of p e n a n c e recalls t h e m o r t i f i c a t i o n s p r a c t i c e d by C h r i s t i a n ascetics. T h i s g r o u p o f t r a i t s , d i r e c t l y l i n k i n g Q u e t z a l c o a t l t o C h r i s t i a n i t y , d o e s n o t a p p e a r in t h e t r a d i t i o n s m o s t closely c o n f o r m i n g t o t h e I n d i a n s o u r c e s . 44
I n t h e c o m m e n t a r y o n t h e t h i r d tercena o f t h e r i t u a l c a l e n d a r , it is w r i t t e n t h a t "Topiltzin Quetzalcoatl was b o r n o n t h e d a y Seven R e e d a n d o n t h a t d a y a g r e a t festival w a s h e l d a t C h o l u l a . . . a n d a g r e a t festival w a s also h e l d t h e d a y O n e R e e d w h e n h e d e p a r t e d f o r e x i l e o r d i e d . " T h i s is a n i n t e r e s t i n g p a s s a g e ; it s h o w s t h a t t h e c o m m e n t a t o r o f t h e c o d e x Telleriano remensis ( u n l i k e D u r a n ) i d e n t i f i e d T o p i l t z i n with Quetzalcoatl a n d with t h e g r e a t god of C h o l u l a (the C a m a x t l i of the Tlaxcalans). T h e indecisiveness of t h e p h r a s e " d e p a r t e d for exile o r d i e d " reflects t h e c l e a v a g e in t h e Q u e t z a l c o a t l t r a d i t i o n s t o w h i c h I c a l l e d a t t e n t i o n a b o v e . I n his c o m m e n t a r y o n t h e n i n t h tercena, t h e a u t h o r w r i t e s : " T h i s l i g h t o r s t a r w a s c r e a t e d b e f o r e t h e S u n , a n d this T l a u i z c a l p a n t e c u h t l i o r t h e s t a r V e n u s is Q u e t z a l c o a t l — h e t o o k t h a t name when he departed or disappeared." This account evokes G e n e s i s a n d also r e c a l l s t h e s t a r in t h e E a s t w h i c h a n n o u n c e d t h e c o m i n g o f t h e M e s s i a h . T h e c o m m e n t a r y o n t h e f o u r t h tercena inf o r m s u s t h a t " t h e y f a s t e d t h e last f o u r d a y s in h o n o r o f Q u e t z a l c o a t l o f T u l a , w h o b o r r o w e d his n a m e f r o m t h e first Q u e t z a l c o a t l , w h o is n o w c a l l e d O n e R e e d a n d is t h e s t a r V e n u s . " T h e w r i t e r , c o m m e n t i n g o n t h e fifth tercena, a d d s : " O n t h i s d a y , O n e R e e d , t h e y c e l e b r a t e d a t C h o l u l a t h e o t h e r g r e a t festival o f Q u e t z a l c o a t l , t h e first p o p e o r p r i e s t . . . . H e w a s s a v e d f r o m t h e D e l u g e . " H e r e a c l e a r d i s t i n c t i o n is m a d e between the original god Quetzalcoatl and the Quetzalcoatl Ce A c a t l o f T u l a , w h o a p p e a r s as "first p o p e o r p r i e s t " o f t h e f o r m e r ; this s e c o n d Q u e t z a l c o a t l , w h o w a s s a v e d f r o m t h e D e l u g e , is o b v i o u s l y t h e i n i t i a t o r o f p e n a n c e . T h u s t h e c o d e x Telleriano remensis r e v e a l s t h e 4 5
4 6
4 7
4 8
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d i f f e r e n t faces o f Q u e t z a l c o a t l in t h e M e x i c a n t r a d i t i o n s , by m e a n s o f a s u m m a r y ( a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y a trifle i n c o h e r e n t ) a c c o u n t o f t h e p r i n cipal I n d i a n t r a d i t i o n s . A s p e c i a l r o l e is a s s i g n e d to t h e D e l u g e , w h i c h h e r e a p p e a r s to b e o f C h r i s t i a n o r i g i n , n o t b e c a u s e t h e D e l u g e is a b s e n t f r o m t h e M e x i c a n t r a d i t i o n s b u t b e c a u s e it is n o t t r a d i t i o n a l l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e Q u e t z a l c o a t l m y t h . If I a m c o r r e c t in d a t i n g t h e c o d e x Telleriano remensis as e a r l i e r t h a n t h e V a t i c a n u s 3 7 - 3 8 , w h i c h was p r o b a b l y c o p i e d f r o m a M e x i c a n o r i g i n a l ( p e r h a p s t h e Telleriano remensis itself) s o m e t i m e a f t e r 1 5 5 5 , w e m u s t r e g a r d t h e c o m m e n t a t o r o f t h e Telleriano remensis as o n e o f t h e first h i s t o r i a n s o f M e x i c o , at least as e a r l y as D u r a n a n d e a r l i e r t h a n T o v a r . T h e a n o n y m o u s a u t h o r s e e m s well i n f o r m e d o n t h e s u b j e c t o f Q u e t z a l c o a t l in t h e d i f f e r e n t n a t i v e t r a d i t i o n s a n d is m u c h m o r e c a u t i o u s t h a n D u r a n a n d T o v a r about establishing analogies between the Quetzalcoatl myth and the biblical t r a d i t i o n s . H e s e e m s d e t e r m i n e d n o t to b e l e d a s t r a y by m i s l e a d i n g s i m i l a r i t i e s . Was h e p r u d e n t f r o m f e a r o f t h e I n q u i s i t i o n o r was h e a n a d h e r e n t o f t h e tabula rasa s c h o o l ? T h e Italian J e s u i t c o m m e n t a t o r of t h e c o d e x Vaticanus 3 7 - 3 8 , w h o probably transcribed the oral c o m m e n t a r y of the D o m i n i c a n Fray P e d r o , lacks t h e c o n c i s e style o f t h e c o d e x Telleriano remensis. A l t h o u g h his t e x t is m o r e e l a b o r a t e , it is p o o r e r in c o n t e n t a n d n e g l e c t s i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t s o f t h e n a t i v e t r a d i t i o n s . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , it freely d e v e l o p s t h e J u d e o - C h r i s t i a n a n a l o g i e s . We s e e m t o h a v e h e r e a c a s e r e s e m b l i n g t h e D u r a n - T o v a r c o n n e c t i o n ; a J e s u i t , i n s p i r e d by a D o m i n i c a n , g o e s m u c h f a r t h e r t h a n his t e a c h e r in t h e w a y o f a c c o m m o d a t i n g p a g a n beliefs t o biblical t r a d i t i o n . ( T h e s e v e n t e e n t h - c e n t u r y d i s p u t e o v e r C h i n e s e rites was b u t t h e acute p h a s e of a d i v e r g e n c e t h a t g o e s b a c k t o t h e b e g i n n i n g s o f m i s s i o n a r y activity.) I n a r g u i n g against the u n c o m p r o m i s i n g rigor of o t h e r missionaries (the Francisc a n s in p a r t i c u l a r ) , t h e J e s u i t s h a d a g o o d a r g u m e n t ; t h e y c o u l d p o i n t t o t h e p a g a n s u r v i v a l s in C h r i s t i a n i t y . L i k e his c o r e l i g i o n i s t F a t h e r D u r a n , F a t h e r Rios ( w h o m a y also h a v e b e e n a converso, as his n a m e suggests) t h o u g h t that "these people d e s c e n d from the H e b r e w s , " a d d i n g " o n e o f t h e a r g u m e n t s t h a t p e r s u a d e m e is t h a t t h e y h a v e s u c h g r e a t k n o w l e d g e o f G e n e s i s . " T h i s k n o w l e d g e o f G e n e s i s is closely l i n k e d t o Q u e t z a l c o a t l , f o r F a t h e r Rios r e f e r s t o t h e b e l i e f t h a t T l a u i z calpantecuhtli, divinity of t h e d a w n , h a d b e e n created b e f o r e the sun. " H o w t h e y [ t h e I n d i a n s ] c a m e t o this c o u n t r y is n o t k n o w n . " T h e i m p l i c i t d i f f u s i o n i s m o f this l i n e o f t h o u g h t , e x p r e s s e d b y a E u r o p e a n at t h e e n d of t h e sixteenth c e n t u r y , s h o u l d occasion n o s u r p r i s e . 4 9
T o a r g u e , o n t h e basis, o f s u c h a n a l o g i e s , t h a t t h e a n c i e n t M e x i c a n s were the famous " h i d d e n J e w s " of the prophetic tradition a m o u n t e d
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to assigning a J u d a i c origin to Quetzalcoatl. Since H e b r e w piety was well k n o w n , t h e h e r o - p r i e s t Q u e t z a l c o a t l n a t u r a l l y a p p e a r e d as " t h e first to i n v o k e t h e g o d s a n d c e l e b r a t e t h e i r sacrifices, a n d t h e first to p e r f o r m p e n a n c e in o r d e r to a p p e a s e t h e g o d s . " Q u e t z a l c o a t l , t h e first b u i l d e r o f t e m p l e s , p r e s e n t s all t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f a H e b r a i c h e r o ; m o r e , h e is a n e w M o s e s w h o m y s t e r i o u s l y c r o s s e d t h e sea, f o r t h e w o r d T l a p a l l a n " m e a n s t h e s a m e t h i n g as ' R e d S e a . ' " T h e m e s sianic c h a r a c t e r o f Q u e t z a l c o a t l d i d n o t e s c a p e t h e c o m m e n t a t o r , w h o recalled the Zapotec rising of 1550: "For their god h a d come, w h o w o u l d r e d e e m t h e m . " Yet, d e s p i t e all t h e s e a n a l o g i e s , c o n t r a d i c t i n g his o w n t h e s i s o f t h e H e b r a i c o r i g i n o f t h e I n d i a n s , t h e a u t h o r w r i t e s a b o u t the p r o p h e c i e s of t h e r e t u r n of Quetzalcoatl: " O n e m u s t n o t i n f e r f r o m this t h a t t h e d e m o n , w h o i n v e n t e d all this b u s i n e s s , c o u l d f o r e t e l l t h e f u t u r e . " It w a s a s i m p l e t r i c k o f S a t a n d e s i g n e d t o p r e s e r v e his c r e d i t a m o n g t h e I n d i a n s ; t h e d e v i l c o u l d easily f o r e s e e t h a t s o m e day o r o t h e r an invasion m u s t come. 5 0
5 1
R e f e r r i n g , in t h e c o m m e n t a r y o n figure 14, t o t h e o r i g i n o f Q u e t zalcoatl, b o r n o f a v i r g i n a n d a d i v i n e spirit, t h a t o f C i t l a l t o n a l l i , F a t h e r Rios, ( o r his i n t e r p r e t e r ) o b j e c t s t o t h e a t t r i b u t i o n t o this d e m o n , Quetzalcoatl, of t h e p r o v i d e n t i a l role of J e s u s . "It was H e w h o f o u n d t h e w o r l d c o r r u p t e d a n d r e f o r m e d it by p e r f o r m i n g p e n a n c e a n d d y i n g o n t h e c r o s s f o r o u r sins, a n d n o t t h i s m i s e r a b l e Q u e t z a l c o a t l , to w h o m t h e s e u n h a p p y b e i n g s a s s i g n C h r i s t ' s w o r k s . " Here t h e Franciscan t h e m e of t h e devil's p a r o d y of Christianity r e a p p e a r s . I d o n o t k n o w w h e t h e r t o a t t r i b u t e it t o t h e D o m i n i c a n R i o s o r t o his i n t e r p r e t e r , t h e a n o n y m o u s J e s u i t . W h o e v e r it w a s , h e a p p a r e n t l y felt that the pictorial Christianization of the Quetzalcoatls of t h e c o d e x Vaticanus 3 7 - 3 8 n o l o n g e r h e l d any d a n g e r s for o r t h o d o x y . T h e aut h o r o f t h e d r a w i n g s in this c o d e x , s i m p l i f y i n g t h o s e o f Telleriano remensis, r e p l a c e d t h e c r e a t o r - g o d o r d u a l p r i n c i p l e o f t h e a n c i e n t Mexicans with Christian crosses o n the m a n t l e of a Quetzalcoatl walking o n t h e waters of T l a p a l l a n , " t h e R e d Sea." I n e e d n o t stress t h e suggestive value of these coincidences for o n e w h o wished to show that Quetzalcoatl belonged to the J u d a i c tradition. T h e c o m m e n t a r y o n c o d e x V a t i c a n u s 3 7 - 3 8 is i n t e r e s t i n g b e c a u s e its p o r t r a i t o f Q u e t zalcoatl a c c e n t s t h e r e s e m b l a n c e s t o J e s u s a n d t o J u d e o - C h r i s t i a n b e liefs in g e n e r a l , w h i l e o f f s e t t i n g t h e s e a n a l o g i e s b y its a f f i r m a t i o n o f a devilish p a r o d y . I n short, t h e origin of t h e efforts to assimilate Q u e t zalcoatl t o a figure o f t h e biblical t r a d i t i o n s e e m s t o b e D u r a n ' s Historia, c h r o n o l o g i c a l l y t h e first w o r k t o d e v i a t e f r o m t h e e a r l y F r a n c i s can histories (Sahagun, O l m o s , Motolinia) a n d from the D o m i n i c a n s c h o o l a s well ( h e r e r e p r e s e n t e d b y F a t h e r P e d r o d e los Rios). 5 2
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An Official Censor, The Jesuit Jose de Acosta T h e two letters (one from Father Tovar, the o t h e r from F a t h e r Acosta) p u b l i s h e d by J. Garcia Icazbalceta a n d r e p r o d u c e d by G e o r g e K u b l e r a n d C h a r l e s G i b s o n in t h e i r s t u d y o f t h e T o v a r m a n u s c r i p t p r o v e t h a t F a t h e r T o v a r ' s Historia (Tovar Manuscript-Codex Ramirez) w a s a l m o s t t h e o n l y s o u r c e u s e d b y A c o s t a in w r i t i n g t h e p a r t o f his Historia naturaly moral de las Indias t h a t d e a l t w i t h M e x i c o . T h e f a m o u s J e s u i t h a d a l o n g d i r e c t k n o w l e d g e o f P e r u , b u t in M e x i c a n m a t t e r s h e h a d to b e c o n t e n t with i n f o r m a t i o n s e c u r e d at second h a n d . His letter to F a t h e r T o v a r s h o w s h o w p a i n s t a k i n g l y h e e x a m i n e d this m a t e r i a l . It is i n t e r e s t i n g t o see h o w a m i n d like A c o s t a ' s r e c e i v e d T o v a r ' s suggestions about Quetzalcoatl. W i t h respect to the g e n e r a l p r o b l e m of t h e providential c h a r a c t e r of the discovery a n d the evangelization of the N e w World, Acosta s h a r e d t h e o p i n i o n o f all his c o n t e m p o r a r i e s . L i k e t h e m , h e t h o u g h t that the Prophets must have a n n o u n c e d such an i m p o r t a n t event: "It seems reasonable to assume that the Holy Scriptures m e n t i o n a m a t t e r o f s u c h i m p o r t a n c e . I s a i a h says: 'Woe u n t o t h e s h i p s t h a t g o b e y o n d Ethiopia.' L e a r n e d a u t h o r s w h o m I trust relate this whole c h a p t e r to the I n d i e s . " T h e vagueness of the p r o p h e c i e s a n d of ancient geogr a p h y , even of t h e g e o g r a p h y of t h e late sixteenth century, with reg a r d to A s i a a n d A m e r i c a , e x p l a i n s t h e o b v i o u s fragility o f t h i s i n terpretation. Moreover, Acosta takes shelter b e h i n d "learned aut h o r s " w h o m h e d o e s n o t n a m e a n d f o r w h o s e views h e d o e s n o t s e e m t o feel a n y e n t h u s i a s m . C o m m e n t i n g o n I s a i a h o n his o w n , t h e J e s u i t c o n t i n u e d : " T h e very i m p o r t a n t affirmation of the L o r d , according to w h i c h t h e G o s p e l will b e p r e a c h e d t h r o u g h o u t t h e w o r l d , a n d t h e n will c o m e t h e e n d o f t h e w o r l d , m a k e s p l a i n t h a t as l o n g as t h e w o r l d e n d u r e s t h e r e will yet b e p e o p l e s t o w h o m C h r i s t h a s n o t b e e n a n n o u n c e d . " T h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e Ite et docete omnes gentes o f t h e Vulgate (Matt. 24:14) makes plain Acosta's dissent from the millenarian c u r r e n t of the Franciscan p i o n e e r s of N e w Spain. Acosta's r e a d i n g of Christ's message did away with t h e n e e d for an early evangelization of t h e I n d i a n s a n d t h e n e e d to identify Quetzalcoatl with an apostle of Christ. 5 3
5 4
A c c o r d i n g l y w e find in A c o s t a a vision o f Q u e t z a l c o a t l p r o f o u n d l y d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h a t p r e s e n t e d by t h e T o v a r m a n u s c r i p t w h i c h h e h a d read and annotated. "At Cholula they a d o r e d Quetzalcoatl because, like a n o t h e r M a m m o n , o r a rival o f P l u t o , h e m a d e w e a l t h y t h o s e w h o l o v e d h i m . . . . T h e I n d i a n s c a l l e d h i m Q u e t z a l c o a t l , t h a t is, a s e r p e n t with brilliant plumes, a n i m a g e of the d e m o n of g r e e d , " wrote 5 5
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Acosta. T h i s i m a g e of Quetzalcoatl, which c o n f o r m s to w i d e s p r e a d I n d i a n b e l i e f in a " g o o d j i n n i , " s e e m s m o r e c o r r e c t t h a n t h a t o f T o v a r . W h e r e d i d A c o s t a o b t a i n this i n f o r m a t i o n ? P e r h a p s f r o m t h e F r a n c i s c a n s , m o r e likely by w o r d o f m o u t h f r o m o t h e r M e x i c a n J e s u i t s . T h e r e f e r e n c e t o M a m m o n is p a r t i c u l a r l y s t r i k i n g ; if " o n e c a n n o t s e r v e G o d a n d M a m m o n , " t h e Q u e t z a l c o a t l o f A c o s t a is t h e e x a c t o p p o s i t e of that of Tovar, Acosta's principal i n f o r m a n t . A n apostle to Tovar, Quetzalcoatl e m b o d i e s idolatry, diabolism, for Acosta. Acosta d o e s n o t d e n y t h e p r o p h e c y o f Q u e t z a l c o a t l ( " T h e idol o f t h e C h o l u l a n s , n a m e d Quetzalcoatl, a n n o u n c e d that strangers would take possession o f t h e s e r e a l m s " ) , b u t e x p l a i n s it in a d i f f e r e n t m a n n e r . I n s t e a d o f a t t r i b u t i n g t h e p r o p h e c y t o a m i s s i o n a r y , A c o s t a l i k e n s it t o t h a t o f Netzahualcoyotl, king of Texcoco. Netzahualcoyotl " w h o was a great m a g i c i a n a n d h a d a p a c t w i t h t h e devil, p a i d a visit to M o c t e z u m a at a n u n t i m e l y h o u r a n d a s s u r e d h i m t h a t his g o d s h a d t o l d h i m t h a t d i s a s t e r s a n d g r e a t o r d e a l s t h r e a t e n e d his p e r s o n a n d h i s k i n g d o m . M a n y s o r c e r e r s a n d e n c h a n t e r s c a m e to tell h i m t h e s a m e t h i n g . " The i n e v i t a b l e c o n c l u s i o n f o l l o w e d : " G o d w i s h e d to m a k e t h e d e m o n s give unwilling witness to the c o m i n g of the t r u e Law, of t h e p o w e r of C h r i s t a n d t h e t r i u m p h o f H i s c r o s s , as t h e p o r t e n t s a n d p r o p h e c i e s , t h e s i g n s a n d t h e p r o d i g i e s , c l e a r l y p r o v e . " A c o s t a m a d e special m e n t i o n o f t h e s u p e r n a t u r a l voice w h i c h a p e a s a n t h e a r d in his field a n d w h i c h a s s i g n e d h i m t h e m i s s i o n o f " a w a k i n g M o c t e z u m a f r o m his s l e e p " ; this voice h a d said, a m o n g o t h e r t h i n g s : " t h e t i m e h a s c o m e f o r h i m t o p a y f o r all t h e o f f e n s e s t h a t h e h a s d o n e to G o d . " We h a v e s e e n this p h r a s e , in a d i f f e r e n t c o n t e x t , in T o v a r , w h e r e it s e r v e d a d m i r a b l y to c o m p l e t e t h e i m a g e of an apostolic Quetzalcoatl. 5 6
5 7
5 8
A c o s t a , c o n s i s t e n t w i t h himself, e x p l a i n s t h e p r o d i g y in t h i s w a y : " I t is p o s s i b l e t h a t t h e p e a s a n t ' s s t o r y w a s t h e r e c o l l e c t i o n o f a n i m a g i n a r y vision. We m a y s u p p o s e t h a t G o d g a v e t h i s w a r n i n g t o t h e p e a s a n t ( a l t h o u g h a n infidel) t h r o u g h t h e a g e n c y o f a g o o d a n g e l o r e v e n p e r m i t t e d it t o b e g i v e n by a n evil a n g e l , f o r t h e c h a s t i s e m e n t o f t h e k i n g . F o r w e r e a d in d i v i n e S c r i p t u r e t h a t s u c h v i s i o n s w e r e g i v e n t o infidels a n d t o s i n n e r s , s u c h as N e b u c h a d n e z z a r , B a l a a m , a n d t h e pythoness of S a u l . " Acosta reveals h e r e his discreet a n d cautious c h a r a c t e r . By contrast w i t h t h e fiery T o v a r , A c o s t a , visitador o f t h e Society o f J e s u s in t h e I n d i e s , a d i p l o m a t , w o u l d n o t t a k e a firm s t a n d o n s u c h a c o n t r o v e r s i a l q u e s t i o n . H e k n e w t h e f e a r s o f t h e I n q u i s i t i o n in s u c h m a t t e r s , a n d its p o w e r f u l w e a p o n s . B u t it is i n t e r e s t i n g t o s e e w h e r e his p r e f e r e n c e s lie. T h e y a r e b a s e d o n s c r i p t u r a l a u t h o r i t y . T h e e a r l y h i s t o r i a n s o f A m e r i c a e x p l a i n e d t h e native p r o p h e c i e s by r e f e r e n c e to scriptural p r e c e d e n t s . A c o s t a , t a k i n g a p o s i t i o n t h a t h e l d n o political d a n g e r s f o r 5 9
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S p a i n a n d t h a t was t h e o l o g i c a l l y A u g u s t i n i a n , w o u l d l o n g r e p r e s e n t a certain o r t h o d o x p o s t u r e o n the p r o b l e m of apostolic evangelization o f t h e N e w W o r l d . N o d o u b t h e h a d b e e n officially e n t r u s t e d w i t h t h e task o f p u r i f y i n g t h e h i s t o r i o g r a p h y o f t h e I n d i e s . I n 1 5 7 1 a r o y a l o r d e r h a d d e f i n e d t h e tasks o f t h e r o y a l c o s m o g r a p h e r a n d h i s t o r i o g r a p h e r o f t h e I n d i e s : h e w a s to w r i t e a g e n e r a l a n d n a t u r a l h i s t o r y o f t h e I n d i e s . T h i s c o r r e s p o n d s a l m o s t w o r d f o r w o r d t o t h e title o f t h e Historia natural y moral de las Indias ( 1 5 9 0 ) o f J o s e d e A c o s t a . A c o s t a ' s position r e p r e s e n t s a r e t r e a t f r o m t h e stance of t h a t o t h e r A u g u s t i n ian, Las C a s a s , w h o r e g a r d e d t h e b e l a t e d r e v e l a t i o n o f t h e T r u t h t o t h e I n d i a n s as a s t r i k i n g m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f G o d ' s g r a c e . G o d h a d w i s h e d " t h a t H i s g r a c e b e t h e m o r e a b o u n d i n g , b e c a u s e it was less d e s e r v e d . " B u t Las Casas, w h o may have r e a d S a h a g u n , c o n s i d e r e d Quetzalcoatl a virtuous m a n after the m a n n e r of the philosophers of classical a n t i q u i t y : " T h e s e I n d i a n p e o p l e s w e r e s u p e r i o r t o t h e G r e e k s a n d R o m a n s in this r e s p e c t , t h a t t h e y d i d n o t c h o o s e f o r t h e i r g o d s d e p r a v e d , c r i m i n a l , o r i n f a m o u s m e n , b u t r a t h e r v i r t u o u s m e n (in t h e m e a s u r e that virtue can be f o u n d a m o n g peoples d e p r i v e d of the k n o w l e d g e o f t h e T r u e G o d , w h i c h m a y o n l y b e a t t a i n e d by f a i t h ) . Such a m a n was h e . . . w h o m they called Q u e t z a l c o a t l . " 6 0
6 1
6 2
Acosta t h u s offers t h e most u n f a v o r a b l e i m a g e of Quetzalcoatl since S a h a g u n . H e r e t u r n s to t h e tabula rasa d o c t r i n e o f t h e first m i s s i o n a r i e s a n d effectively u n d e r m i n e s t h e h y p o t h e s i s o f a Q u e t z a l coatl-Saint T h o m a s that Tovar h a d advanced. Acosta p r o p o s e d an e x p l a n a t i o n of the I n d i a n p r o p h e c i e s that was theologically acceptable a n d that m a d e vain a n d d a n g e r o u s t h e hypothesis of an early apostolic e v a n g e l i z a t i o n . N o t e v e n Las C a s a s , a p o l o g i s t p a r e x c e l l e n c e f o r the Indians, claimed any m o r e for Quetzalcoatl t h a n h a d Motolinia; h e w a s c o n t e n t t o d e s c r i b e h i m as a v i r t u o u s m a n f r o m t h e v i e w p o i n t o f n a t u r a l m o r a l i t y a n d by c o m p a r i s o n w i t h t h e g o d s o f classical a n tiquity. D u r a n ' s h y p o t h e s i s , a c c e p t e d b y T o v a r , o f a " P o p e T o p i l t z i n , " C h r i s t i a n m i s s i o n a r y , was t h e first c r e a t i o n o f t h e c r e o l e i n t e l l e c t visa-vis t h e s c o r n f u l gachupines.
A Demoniac Image of Quetzalcoatl
in Juan de
Torquemada
T h e Monarquia Indiana o f F r a y J u a n d e T o r q u e m a d a , p r o v i n c i a l o f t h e F r i a r s M i n o r in N e w S p a i n , b e l o n g s t o t h e e a r l y F r a n c i s c a n t r a d i t i o n . T h e Veinte y un libros rituales de la Monarquia Indiana w e r e c o m p o s e d d u r i n g t h e first y e a r s o f t h e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y , s e v e r a l d e c a d e s a f t e r D u r a n ' s Historia, t h e Tovar Manuscript, a n d A c o s t a ' s Historia, which derives from D u r a n a n d Tovar, but deviates from t h e m o n s o m e i m p o r t a n t p o i n t s . N o w , t h e Monarquia Indiana p r e s e n t s a p i c t u r e
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of Quetzalcoatl t h a t has n o t h i n g in c o m m o n with t h a t of D u r a n a n d T o v a r . M o r e f l u e n t t h a n his F r a n c i s c a n p r e d e c e s s o r s , w h o s e w r i t i n g s h e knew directly o r t h r o u g h Mendieta, T o r q u e m a d a h a d literary p r e tensions a n d , b e i n g closer to t h e written I n d i a n sources, elaborated m o r e a m p l y t h e n e w facts a t h i s d i s p o s a l . T o r q u e m a d a c o n s i d e r e d Q u e t z a l c o a t l a d e m o n , a d o r e d by t h e C h o l u l a n s , a n d as t h i r s t y f o r I n d i a n b l o o d as t h e o t h e r d i v i n i t i e s o f ancient Mexico, whereas T o r q u e m a d a ' s predecessors h a d absolved Q u e t z a l c o a t l o f this f a u l t . T o r q u e m a d a d e f i n e d his p o s i t i o n w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e p r o b l e m o f t h e t w o Q u e t z a l c o a t l s as follows: "We d o n o t k n o w w h e n c e c a m e this p e o p l e . . . ; t h e y b r o u g h t w i t h t h e m a p e r s o n age of very h i g h r a n k w h o g o v e r n e d t h e m a n d w h o m they called Q u e t z a l c o h u a t l ( l a t e r t h e C h o l u l a n s a d o r e d h i m as a g o d ) . " Torq u e m a d a t h u s r e g a r d s t h e g o d Q u e t z a l c o a t l as t h e a n c i e n t d i v i n i z e d c h i e f o f a n u n k n o w n p e o p l e w h o l a n d e d in M e x i c o in t h e r e g i o n o f P a n u c o , tried to establish themselves at Tula, a n d t h e n d i s p e r s e d bec a u s e o f difficulties w i t h t h e city's o l d o c c u p a n t s ; m o r e especially, s o m e established themselves at C h o l u l a . C h o l u l a "was t h e principal h e a r t h o f the superstitious religion of this N e w S p a i n . " For Torq u e m a d a , no doubts remained; Quetzalcoatl had been the s u p r e m e d i v i n i t y o f a p a g a n r e l i g i o n : " W h e n t h e y s w o r e a n o a t h t h e y said 'By O u r Lord,' m e a n i n g thereby Quetzalcoatl a n d no other g o d . " Torq u e m a d a e x p l a i n s t h e fall a n d flight o f t h e h i s t o r i c Q u e t z a l c o a t l o f T u l a as follows: " T h e r e a s o n w h y t h i s Q u e t z a l c o h u a t l a l l o w e d h i m s e l f t o b e so easily p e r s u a d e d b y T i t l a c a h u a w a s his p r o f o u n d d e s i r e t o become immortal." T o r q u e m a d a views Q u e t z a l c o a t l in t h e s a m e l i g h t as S a h a g u n d i d ; h e w a s a " g r e a t m a g i c i a n a n d n e c r o m a n c e r . " T o r q u e m a d a recalled how Franciscan p i o n e e r s h a d p l a n t e d the cross o n t h e g r e a t t e m p l e of Quetzalcoatl at C h o l u l a a n d built t h e r e a c h a p e l c o n s e c r a t e d t o O u r L a d y d e los R e m e d i o s . T h e o n l y a s p e c t o f t h e o l d I n d i a n b e l i e f in Q u e t z a l c o a t l t h a t f o u n d f a v o r in T o r q u e m a d a ' s e y e s was t h e r i t u a l e x h o r t a t i o n a d d r e s s e d t o t h e c h i l d r e n c o n s e c r a t e d t o Q u e t z a l c o a t l a n d s e n t t o t h e calmecac: "You m u s t k n o w t h a t t h e invisible g o d , c r e a t o r o f all t h i n g s , c a l l e d Q u e t z a l c o a t l , c r e a t e d y o u , a n d t h a t y o u h a v e c o m e i n t o t h e w o r l d b y his will." T h e r e follow c o u n s e l s o f a b s t i n e n c e a n d p e n i t e n c e w h i c h i n s p i r e this r e f l e c t i o n in T o r q u e m a d a : " I d o n o t k n o w h o w t h e s e I n d i a n s c a m e t o p r o f e s s this d o c t r i n e , w h i c h is in t h e v e r y l a n g u a g e o f S a i n t P a u l {Ad Ephes., Pareriese, 6 ) . " H e c o n t i n u e s : " I n t r u t h , I d o n o t k n o w w h a t m o r e C h r i s t i a n s c o u l d say t h a n w a s said by t h e s e m i s g u i d e d p e o p l e ; a n d I b e l i e v e t h a t t h e i r s p e e c h e s s h o u l d b e c a r e f u l l y p r e s e r v e d , f o r it d o e s n o t m a t t e r t h a t t h e y c o m e f r o m g e n t i l e s , s i n c e t h e i r t e n o r is C a t h o l i c ; as S a i n t A u g u s t i n e s a i d : " W h a t e v e r is g o o d in t h e s a y i n g s o f t h e g e n tiles w e s h o u l d t a k e a n d a p p l y t o t h e m a t t e r s o f o u r F a i t h . ' " 6 3
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H e r e is a n e w a t t i t u d e o n t h e p a r t o f t h e F r a n c i s c a n s , a n a t t i t u d e m o r e r e c e p t i v e t o t h e a n c i e n t M e x i c a n v a l u e s a n d civilization. T o view t h e A z t e c s like t h e a n c i e n t G r e e k s r e p r e s e n t e d a b o l d f o r w a r d s t e p , a l t h o u g h T o r q u e m a d a l a r g e l y offsets this c o n c e s s i o n b y r e j e c t i n g all t h e p a g a n beliefs. T h e F r a n c i s c a n ' s p o s t u r e r e m a i n s p r o f o u n d l y different from that of D u r a n a n d Tovar. For the latter, the n u m e r o u s analogies between Quetzalcoatl's conduct, aspect, a n d speeches a n d those of an apostle of Christ c o m p e l the conclusion that h e was a Christian missionary o r apostle. T o r q u e m a d a does not even entertain that hypothesis. F o r t h e F r a n c i s c a n , as f o r his p r e d e c e s s o r s , t h e p r o b l e m o f Q u e t z a l c o a t l is l i n k e d to t h a t o f t h e o r i g i n o f t h e I n d i a n s : " S o m e c l a i m t h a t t h e y w e r e R o m a n s o r C a r t h a g i n i a n s . . . . O t h e r s say t h a t t h e y w e r e I r i s h . I n this m a t t e r , o n p a i n o f g o i n g a s t r a y , w e m u s t l e a v e t h e m a t t e r t o G o d . " N o t e t h a t T o r q u e m a d a d o e s n o t e v e n s u g g e s t t h e possibility o f a J u d a i c o r i g i n f o r t h e I n d i a n s (by c o n t r a s t w i t h D u r a n a n d t h e c o m m e n t a t o r of t h e C o d e x Vaticanus 3 7 - 3 8 , b o t h of w h o m a d h e r e to that hypothesis). T o r q u e m a d a refuses to take a position o n such a d o u b t f u l p r o b l e m . H o w e v e r , h e gives s u p p o r t to t h e t h e s i s t h a t Q u e t zalcoatl w a s a w h i t e m a n : " I t is h e l d c e r t a i n t h a t h e w a s a v e r y fine looking m a n , white, blond, a n d b e a r d e d , a n d of very good charact e r . " T h e physical description depicts a Scandinavian o r a G e r m a n ; (it c o u l d fit C o r t e s ' l i e u t e n a n t , t h e c o n q u i s t a d o r P e d r o d e A l v a r a d o , w h o m t h e M e x i c a n I n d i a n s called T o n a t i u h , t h e n a m e o f t h e i r s o l a r god). T h i s description differs partly from a n o t h e r that T o r q u e m a d a gives o f t h e h i g h p r i e s t o f T u l a . " I t is Said t h a t h e w a s a tall w h i t e m a n , w i t h a l a r g e f o r e h e a d a n d l a r g e e y e s , l o n g b r o w n h a i r , a n d a g r e a t full b e a r d . " T h e p e r s o n a g e d e s c r i b e d h e r e c o u l d m o r e easily p a s s for a M e d i t e r r a n e a n type. However, T o r q u e m a d a reports the traditional physical descriptions of Quetzalcoatl w i t h o u t d r a w i n g any i n f e r e n c e as t o his p o s s i b l e o r i g i n . T h i s r e s t r a i n t m a y reflect T o r q u e m a d a ' s insistence o n t h e writing of truthful history, a subject which h e discusses a t l e n g t h in t h e p r o l o g u e t o b o o k 1. 7 0
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T o r q u e m a d a ' s m o s t o r i g i n a l c o n t r i b u t i o n w a s his i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e p r o p h e c y o f Q u e t z a l c o a t l ' s r e t u r n a n d its r o l e in facilitating t h e S p a n i s h c o n q u e s t . " I t w a s folly o n t h e I n d i a n s ' p a r t . . . t o b e l i e v e t h a t this e n c h a n t e r h a d g o n e t o j o i n t h e S u n , a n d w o u l d l a t e r r e t u r n t o reclaim the t e m p o r a l p o w e r which h e h a d a b a n d o n e d . I believe t h a t t h e d e v i l i n v e n t e d this lie a n d p e r f o r m e d t h i s t r i c k e r y t o l e a d t h e s e p e o p l e a s t r a y . G o d p e r m i t t e d it, n o t so t h a t t h e s e m i s g u i d e d b e i n g s s h o u l d p e r s e v e r e in t h e i r e r r o r , b u t in o r d e r t h a t t h e I n d i a n s m i g h t b e partly p r e p a r e d to receive His W o r d . . . w h e n t h e Christians a r r i v e d in t h e s e p a r t s w i t h H i s H o l y G o s p e l , a n d if t h e d e v i l h a d u n d e r s t o o d t h e m a t t e r well, h e w o u l d h a v e k n o w n t h a t this Q u e t z a l c o a t l , w h o m h e
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QUETZALCOATL, OR THE PHOENIX BIRD
falsely g a v e o u t to b e t h e k i n g a n d g o d o f t h e s e p e o p l e s , w a s n o t t h e t r u e G o d , k i n g a n d l o r d o f all c r e a t i o n . " H e r e T o r q u e m a d a p r o p o u n d s a subtle providentialism which comp l e m e n t s t h e t h e o r y t h a t t h e devil h a d p a r o d i e d t h e C h r i s t i a n r i t u a l in o r d e r t o l e a d t h e I n d i a n s a s t r a y . We k n o w t h a t a p r o v i d e n t i a l a t m o s p h e r e p e r v a d e d the discovery a n d conquest of America. C o m i n g after C o l u m b u s , a n o t h e r p r o v i d e n t i a l m a n , C o r t e s , w a s d e p i c t e d as h a v i n g b e e n c h o s e n b y G o d t o a c c o m p l i s h a m i s s i o n t h a t w a s m o r e esc h a t o l o g i c a l t h a n m i l i t a r y a n d political. I n T o r q u e m a d a t h e d e s i g n s o f G o d flow in t h e p r e d e s t i n e d m o l d o f p a g a n p r o p h e c i e s a n d d i a b o l i c a l beliefs. A w a r e o f o r f o r e s e e i n g t h e m e s s i a n i c s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e Q u e t zalcoatl m y t h , T o r q u e m a d a t r a n s f o r m e d t h e p r o p h e c y o f his r e t u r n into a providential a n n o u n c e m e n t of the Word of the t r u e Messiah. T h i s is n o t a c a s e o f i d e n t i t y , b u t r a t h e r o f a m y s t e r i o u s c o i n c i d e n c e b e t w e e n Quetzalcoatl a n d J e s u s . T h i s conception forms p a r t of a l a r g e r t h e o r y w h i c h t a u g h t t h a t t h e b e l i e f in t h e D e l u g e , t h e r i t e o f confession, the s a c r a m e n t of baptism, p e n a n c e , a n d o t h e r features of c e r t a i n I n d i a n r e l i g i o n s w e r e so m a n y s p i r i t u a l " t e e t h i n g r i n g s " g i v e n to t h e I n d i a n s in c o n f o r m i t y w i t h a d i v i n e p l a n o f p r e p a r i n g t h e m f o r C h r i s t i a n i t y . T h e I n c a G a r c i l a s o d e la Vega, c i t i n g t h e p r e c e n d e n t o f t h e R o m a n E m p i r e as i n t e r p r e t e d by S a i n t A u g u s t i n e , a p p l i e d a n d d e v e l o p e d this s a m e t h e s i s in r e f e r e n c e to I n c a r e l i g i o u s beliefs. 7 3
T o r q u e m a d a , it m a y b e s a i d , c o n t r i b u t e d a n e w i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e f o r m a l a n a l o g i e s b e t w e e n C h r i s t i a n i t y a n d t h e a n c i e n t I n d i a n religions, especially with r e s p e c t to Quetzalcoatl. D u r a n a n d Tovar, imp r e s s e d b y t h e n u m b e r a n d q u a l i t y o f t h e i r similarities, r e f u s e d t o r e d u c e t h e m to simple accidental resemblances. T h i s was a n a t u r a l a t t i t u d e o n t h e p a r t o f E u r o p e a n s a n d especially E u r o p e a n r e l i g i o u s o f t h e s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y , w h o saw t h e h i d d e n h a n d o f p r o v i d e n c e b e h i n d all a p p a r e n t c o i n c i d e n c e s , a f o r t i o r i b e h i n d t h e A m e r i c a n r e a l i t i e s , r e g a r d e d as r e v e l a t i o n s . T h e t h e o l o g i c a l r e a s o n s I h a v e m e n t i o n e d ( a p o s t o l i c p r e a c h i n g in omnibus partibus) h a d c o n v i n c e d t h e m t h a t these analogies w e r e traces of a n apostle of Christ, Saint T h o m a s , the apostle of the Indies. T o r q u e m a d a , m o r e stongly influenced t h a n t h e D o m i n i c a n s a n d t h e J e s u i t s b y his F r a n c i s c a n p r e d e c e s s o r s , c o u l d n o t o u t o f h a n d r e j e c t t h e i r d o c t r i n e o f t h e devil's p a r o d y . H i s o p t i m i s m f o u n d a c o m p r o m i s e s o l u t i o n in t h e n o t i o n o f a p r o v i d e n t i a l u s e o f t h e Evil O n e ' s d i a b o l i c a l d e s i g n s . H a d n o t a p a g a n p r o p h e c y , that of Balaam, involuntarily a n n o u n c e d the c o m i n g of Christianity a n d t h e u n i v e r s a l K i n g ? M o r e t h a n o n c e in h i s t o r y t h e m e a n i n g o f o b s c u r e p a g a n p r o p h e c i e s h a d n o t b e e n revealed until the passage of m a n y years. In E u r o p e , for e x a m p l e , Virgil h a d a n n o u n c e d t h e c o m i n g o f t h e M e s s i a h i n t e r m s t h a t w e r e i n s c r u t a b l e t o his c o n t e m p o r a r i e s . 7 4
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S e n e c a h a d a l s o a n n o u n c e d t h e p r o v i d e n t i a l v o y a g e of C o l u m b u s in a m y s t e r i o u s l a n g u a g e . F o r T o r q u e m a d a , Q u e t z a l c o a t l h a d p l a y e d a s i m i l a r h i s t o r i c a l r o l e . T o r q u e m a d a ' s classic c u l t u r e , his t a s t e f o r figures a n d images, impelled h i m to project u p o n t h e p a g a n past o f a n c i e n t M e x i c o t h e p r o v i d e n t i a l , p r o p h e t i c vision w h i c h i n s p i r e d all t h e h i s t o r i e s o f t h e C o n q u e s t o f his t i m e . B u t T o r q u e m a d a ' s p r o v i d e n t i a l i s m i n f l u e n c e d his t r e a t m e n t o f o n l y o n e a s p e c t o f Q u e t z a l c o a t l : t h e p r o p h e c y o f his r e t u r n . F o r t h e r e s t , T o r q u e m a d a ' s d e m o n i a c conception of t h e Mexican god resembles t h a t o f S a h a g u n . T o r q u e m a d a w r o t e : " T h e y said o f Q u e t z a l c o a t l t h a t h e w a s v e r y h u m a n e a n d m e r c i f u l . T h i s lie was u n q u e s t i o n a b l y b e lieved in t h o s e t i m e s . " T o r q u e m a d a t h u s d i s p u t e s e v e n Q u e t z a l coatl's m o r a l v i r t u e , w h i c h M o t o l i n i a h a d c o m p a r e d w i t h n a t u r a l m o r ality. Was T o r q u e m a d a o b e y i n g o r d e r s f r o m a b o v e ? All t h a t f a v o r e d t h e assimilation, survival, o r r e s u r g e n c e of native beliefs—and t h e r e b y m i g h t a w a k e i d e a s o f i n d e p e n d e n c e — h a d b e e n p r o s c r i b e d , as witness t h e confiscation of Sahagiin's m a n u s c r i p t s a n d t h e oblivion that engulfed Mendieta's manuscripts, T o r q u e m a d a ' s principal s o u r c e . T o r q u e m a d a ' s a s s i m i l a t i o n o f Q u e t z a l c o a t l to a d e m o n is c o m p l e t e . N o r d o e s h e d o u b t t h a t it w a s a s u p e r n a t u r a l b e i n g w h o s e voice s u m m o n e d t h e macehuales o f T z a t z i t e p e c , n e a r T u l a : " C l e a r l y t h i s c o u l d n o t h a v e b e e n a h u m a n voice, b u t m u s t h a v e b e e n a d e v i l i s h trick a n d i n v e n t i o n , " a d d i n g , " t h i s c a n b e h e l d f o r c e r t a i n . " Torq u e m a d a also m e n t i o n s a s i g n — t h e s u p p o s e d f o o t p r i n t s o f S a i n t T h o m a s — f o u n d in m a n y p l a c e s in t h e N e w W o r l d . F o r T o r q u e m a d a , h o w e v e r , t h e s e w e r e p r i n t s left by Q u e t z a l c o a t l ' s h a n d s o n a r o c k n e a r T l a l n e p a n t l a (close to M e x i c o City) " w h o s e t r a c e s a r e still v i s i b l e . " T h e a u t h o r d o e s n o t say if it w a s a d e v i l i s h p r o d i g y , b u t t h a t m a y b e inferred from the above. B e l i e f in t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e s t a r s o n m e n ' s lives was as w i d e s p r e a d in s i x t e e n t h - c e n t u r y E u r o p e as it was a m o n g t h e a n c i e n t M e x i c a n s . " T h e soul o f this Q u e t z a l c o a t l was m e t a m o r p h o s e d i n t o a s t a r . . . a n d this c o m e t o r t h i s s t a r h a s a p p e a r e d v a r i o u s t i m e s , a n d its a p p e a r a n c e h a s b e e n f o l l o w e d by e p i d e m i c s a m o n g t h e I n d i a n s , a n d o t h e r calamities." H e r e ancient Mexican paganism and European p a g a n i s m seem to j o i n h a n d s . W hereas Quetzalcoatl-Topiltzin was s i m p l y a w i c k e d d e m o n , T l a u i z c a l p a n t e c u h t l i is a c o m e t t h a t p o r t e n d s p l a g u e s . N o t e t h a t in T o r q u e m a d a ' s a c c o u n t Q u e t z a l c o a t l n e v e r a p p e a r s as a " m y t h . " I n d e e d , t h e v e r y i d e a o f m y t h w h i c h is so f a m i l i a r to u s was c o m p l e t e l y f o r e i g n t o s i x t e e n t h - c e n t u r y m e n . T h e r e w a s t h e t r u e faith, w h i c h o b v i o u s l y h a d n o t h i n g t o d o w i t h m y t h , b u t w a s a d h e r e n c e to t h e t r u t h , o r r a t h e r t h e grace of t r u t h . O p p o s e d to t h e t r u t h was n o n e n t i t y , f a l s e h o o d , a b s o l u t e evil, t h e Devil. T h e p a g a n 7 5
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QUETZALCOATL, OR THE PHOENIX BIRD
gods w e r e n o t creations of h u m a n imagination b u t inventions of t h e Devil a n d his l i e u t e n a n t s , t h a t is, o f d e m o n s . T o say t h a t Q u e t z a l c o a t l w a s a d e m o n w a s n o t t o d e n y his r e a l i t y b u t , o n t h e c o n t r a r y , fully t o a f f i r m it; Q u e t z a l c o a t l w a s a m e s s e n g e r o f t h e f o r c e s o f d a r k n e s s . S u c h w a s t h e F r a n c i s c a n c o n c e p t i o n o f Q u e t z a l c o a t l , o r at least t h a t o f S a h a g u n a n d T o r q u e m a d a . T h i s is t h e v e r y o p p o s i t e o f t h e " a p o s tolic" c o n c e p t i o n o f D u r a n a n d T o v a r . It w a s t h e l a t t e r , h o w e v e r , which prevailed a n d u n d e r w e n t a notable d e v e l o p m e n t d o w n to the e n d of the eighteenth century.
Saint ThomasQuetzalcoatl, Apostle of Mexico
Saint Thomas in East India, According
to Marco
Polo
T h e b e l i e f in a p r i s t i n e e v a n g e l i z a t i o n o f t h e N e w W o r l d b y t h e a p o s t l e S a i n t T h o m a s r e s u l t e d f r o m t h e c o l l a t i o n o f a s e r i e s o f biblical t e x t s a n d n e w facts w i t h a n c i e n t beliefs. A c c o r d i n g t o t h e Acta Thomae, t h i s a p o s t l e h a d p r e a c h e d t h e G o s p e l b e y o n d t h e G a n g e s (supra Gangem), t h a t is, in I n d i a . T h e F r a n c i s c a n s , w h o w e r e t h e first t o s e n d missionaries to the coast of Malabar, f o u n d t h e r e Nestorians w h o m t h e y called " C h r i s t i a n s o f S a i n t T h o m a s , " t h a t is, S a i n t T h o m a s o f Mylapore. A Spaniard, Fray Antonio Caballero d e Santa Maria, w r o t e : " T r a d i t i o n a f f i r m s t h a t S a i n t T h o m a s j o u r n e y e d in C h i n a , a n d then retired to India." A n o t h e r Franciscan, " P a d r e custodio Fray M a r t i n I g n a c i o , " a m i s s i o n a r y in C h i n a , w r o t e in his 1tinerario: " T h e r e are proofs certain that at o n e time they h a d direct knowledge of the Evangelical L a w . . . , t h a n k s to t h e p r e a c h i n g of the blessed apostle Saint T h o m a s , w h o passed t h r o u g h this k i n g d o m w h e n h e w e n t to I n d i a , a n d t h e n c e t o t h e city o f S a l a m i n e ( w h i c h in t h e i r l a n g u a g e is called M a l i p u r ) , w h e r e h e suffered m a r t y r d o m for t h e n a m e a n d faith o f C h r i s t ; t h e y say h e is still r e m e m b e r e d in t h a t k i n g d o m by a n c e s t r a l Tradition." I n his Viaggio delV Indie, F a t h e r G i o v a n n i B a t t i s t a Lucarelli of Pisauro r e p o r t s t h e conversion to R o m a n Catholicism of " M a r S i m e o n e , a C h a l d e a n b i s h o p , " in t h e s e t e r m s : " T h e g l o r i o u s a p o s t l e S a i n t T h o m a s , m y special a d v o c a t e , o b t a i n e d t h i s f a v o r a t t h e p r i c e o f his o w n b l o o d , i m i t a t i n g t h e o n l y s o n o f G o d b y f o u n d i n g t h e C h u r c h o f t h i s I n d i a o n t h e sacrifice o f h i s l i f e . " F o r h i s p a r t , F a t h e r G i o v a n n i d e M a r i g n o l l i w r i t e s in his Relatio: " T h e t h i r d p r o v i n c e o f I n d i a is c a l l e d M a l a b a r , a n d t h e r e is f o u n d t h e c h u r c h o f S a i n t T h o m a s , w h i c h t h e a p o s t l e b u i l t w i t h his o w n h a n d s . " T h e a p o s t l e is s u p p o s e d to h a v e t h r o w n a l o g i n t o t h e sea a n d said t o it: " G o a n d a w a i t u s in t h e p o r t o f t h e city o f M y l a p o r e . " D e s p i t e t h e e f f o r t s o f 1 0 , 0 0 0 m e n , t h e city's r u l e r c o u l d n o t g e t t h e l o g a s h o r e w i t h o u t t h e miraculous assistance of Saint T h o m a s . 1
2
3
4
T h e Jesuits c o r r o b o r a t e d the Franciscan discoveries, a n d the n a m e
177
178
QUETZALCOATL, OR THE PHOENIX BIRD
o f S a i n t F r a n c i s X a v i e r is a t t a c h e d t o t h e b e l i e f o f S a i n t T h o m a s o f M y l a p o r e . T h e g r e a t c e n t r a l i z a t i o n o f t h e Society o f J e s u s m a y h a v e b e e n a n i m p o r t a n t c a u s e o f t h e d i s c o v e r y o f t r a c e s o f S a i n t T h o m a s in B r a z i l a n d P a r a g u a y . B u t w h e r e a s t h e signs o f C h r i s t i a n i t y a t Mylap o r e h a v e w i t h s t o o d t h e p r o b i n g o f m o d e r n s c i e n c e , t h e s a m e is n o t t r u e of t h e s u p p o s e d traces of Saint T h o m a s of A m e r i c a . Saint T h o m a s of t h e East was n o t Saint T h o m a s the Major b u t a later missionary. T h e symbols t h e t h e Franciscans, followed by t h e Jesuits, i n t e r p r e t e d as C h r i s t i a n s y m b o l s w e r e r e a l l y s u c h — a t least s o m e o f t h e m were. T o u n d e r s t a n d the i m p o r t a n c e of the hypothesis of an e a r l y e v a n g e l i z a t i o n o f t h e " I n d i e s " by t h e a p o s t l e S a i n t T h o m a s , w e m u s t c o m p r e h e n d t h e s p i r i t u a l c l i m a t e o f t h e p e r i o d o f g r e a t discoveries a n d the missionary u p s u r g e that followed. T o b e g i n with, we m u s t r e m e m b e r t h a t t h e b e l i e f in a n e v a n g e l i z a t i o n o f t h e E a s t by t h e apostle Saint T h o m a s was a t r a d i t i o n i n h e r i t e d f r o m p r e v i o u s cent u r i e s . M a r c o P o l o h a d b r o u g h t b a c k a little e a r t h f r o m t h e p l a c e w h e r e , a c c o r d i n g to tradition, t h e apostle h a d suffered m a r t y r d o m : " T h e b o d y o f S a i n t T h o m a s t h e a p o s t l e is b u r i e d in t h e p r o v i n c e o f M a l a b a r , in a little t o w n . . . a n d I m u s t tell y o u t h a t all y e a r l o n g o t h e r miracles o c c u r t h e r e , especially t h e h e a l i n g of Christians w h o a r e c r i p p l e d o r i n j u r e d . " T h e g r e a t p o p u l a r i t y o f M a r c o P o l o ' s Description of the World, f r o m t h e last y e a r s o f t h e t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r y to t h e s e v e n t e e n t h , first in a L a t i n v e r s i o n , t h e n in t h e I t a l i a n v e r s i o n o f R a m u s i o ' s Navigazione e viaggi ( 1 5 5 9 ) , h e l p e d to d i f f u s e w i d e l y t h e t r a d i t i o n o f Saint T h o m a s of M y l a p o r e . T h e Italian Franciscan F r a G i o v a n n i d e M o n t e C o r v i n o h a d visited t h e s e p u l c h e r o f S a i n t T h o m a s a t M y l a p o r e , n o d o u b t in t h e s a m e y e a r as M a r c o P o l o , in 1 2 9 2 o r 1 2 9 3 . 5
6
T o this t r a d i t i o n , b u t t r e s s e d b y t h e a c c o u n t s o f M a r c o P o l o a n d t h e Franciscan missionaries, were a d d e d scriptural " p r o o f s " of the evang e l i z a t i o n o f t h e E a s t by t h e a p o s t l e S a i n t T h o m a s . N o w , a p a r t o f t h e A c t s o f t h e A p o s t l e s was l a t e r r e c o g n i z e d t o b e a p o c r y p h a l ; t h e Acta Tomae s e e m t o h a v e b e e n t h e l a t e r w o r k o f S a i n t G r e g o r y . B u t i n t h e sixt e e n t h c e n t u r y Catholic d o c t o r s did n o t question the authenticity of t h e De miraculis beati Thomae. A c c o r d i n g t o t h e t e x t , t h e a p o s t l e h a d been assigned the regions "beyond the Ganges." Ptolemy's geography, w h i c h w a s still, b r o a d l y s p e a k i n g , t h e g e o g r a p h y o f C h r i s t o p h e r C o l u m b u s a n d t h e m a j o r i t y o f his c o n t e m p o r a r i e s , a n d e v e n o f s e v e n t e e n t h - c e n t u r y E u r o p e a n s , m a d e it i m p o s s i b l e t o give m o r e p r e cise c o n t o u r s t o " I n d i a . " A f r i c a s o u t h o f t h e M a g h r e b w a s called E t h i o p i a t o t h e east, G u i n e a to t h e west. Asia, b e y o n d t h e e m p i r e o f t h e G r a n d T u r k , w a s I n d i a . It w a s v e r y difficult t o d e f i n e t h e b o u n d aries of India, Cathay (China), a n d C i p a n g o ( J a p a n ) . E v e n after t h e voyages of C o l u m b u s , of t h e f o r t u n a t e Florentine A m e r i g o Vespucci,
179
Saint Thomas-Ouetzalcoatl,
Apostle of Mexico
a n d of t h e S p a n i s h navigators h a d m a d e k n o w n t h e Antilles a n d t h e e a s t c o a s t o f t h e N e w W o r l d , a n d t h e e x i s t e n c e o f a vast c o n t i n e n t h a d little b y little b e e n r e v e a l e d , m e n c o n t i n u e d f o r a b o u t a c e n t u r y l o n g e r t o b e l i e v e t h a t this c o n t i n e n t w a s a n e x t e n s i o n o f Asia. O n l y l a t e r d i d t h e y b e c o m e a w a r e o f t h e i m m e n s i t y o f t h e Pacific o c e a n . A c c o r d ingly, t h e r e s e e m e d t o b e n o i n s u r m o u n t a b l e g e o g r a p h i c a l o b s t a c l e t o a m o r e o r less c o m p l e t e f u s i o n o f e a s t e r n I n d i a w i t h t h e w e s t e r n Indies, called simply " t h e Indies." C o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e tradition of Saint T h o m a s o f t h e E a s t s e e m e d a p p l i c a b l e t o t h e West. I n d e e d , t h e i d e a o f p r i s t i n e e v a n g e l i z a t i o n o f t h e I n d i a n s by t h e a p o s t l e was a r e a s s u r i n g t h o u g h t . J e s u s h a d s e n t his a p o s t l e t h r o u g h o u t t h e w o r l d , a n d S a i n t P a u l h a d c o n f i r m e d this u n i v e r s a l e v a n g e l i z a tion of apostolic times: " T h e i r s o u n d has g o n e t h r o u g h o u t the e a r t h a n d their w o r d s to t h e e n d s of t h e w o r l d . " Revealed t r u t h would n o t p e r m i t t h e newly discovered I n d i e s to be e x c l u d e d f r o m a grace disp e n s e d t o all m e n — u n l e s s t h e I n d i a n s w e r e also e x c l u d e d f r o m m a n k i n d . I n effect, s o m e S p a n i s h encomenderos s o u g h t t o r e d u c e t h e I n d i a n s t o t h e level o f " b e a s t s " so t h a t t h e y c o u l d e x p l o i t t h e m b e y o n d m e a s u r e . Catholic missionaries, theologians, a n d jurists were resolved t o b r i n g t h e I n d i a n s i n t o t h e b o s o m o f t h e C a t h o l i c c h u r c h by p r e a c h i n g , b u t t h e y m u s t first b e i n c l u d e d in t h e h i s t o r y o f m a n k i n d , w h i c h w a s o n e w i t h t h e h i s t o r y o f C h r i s t e n d o m m a r c h i n g t o w a r d its p r e o r d a i n e d goal. 7
We h a v e seen t h a t t h e ideas of J o a c h i m of Floris, which w e r e very influential at t h e b e g i n n i n g of t h e sixteenth c e n t u r y , a c e n t u r y r a c k e d by spiritual fever, p o s t p o n e d t h e e n d of t h e world until t h e c o n v e r s i o n o f t h e last g e n t i l e s . T h e e a r l y s u c c e s s e s o f c o n v e r s i o n in t h e N e w World, the great n u m b e r of the converts a n d their enthusiasm, m a d e t h e a c c o m p l i s h m e n t of t h e p r o p h e c y s e e m i m m i n e n t . A c c e p t a n c e of a n o r i g i n a l e v a n g e l i z a t i o n o f A m e r i c a by S a i n t T h o m a s inevitably t e n d e d t o r e d u c e t h e m i l l e n a r i a n f e v e r . T h e c a m p a i g n a g a i n s t all forms of p r o p h e t i s m a n d illuminism which followed the decline of E r a s m i a n i s m a n d e v a n g e l i s m in E u r o p e — a c a m p a i g n t h a t c o i n c i d e d with t h e m o v e m e n t s o m e w h a t c r u d e l y called t h e "CounterReformation"—benefitted f r o m t h e idea of an apostolic evangelizat i o n o f t h e I n d i e s . T h e l e a d i n g r o l e p l a y e d b y t h e J e s u i t s in t h e C o u n t e r - R e f o r m a t i o n m a y e x p l a i n w h y t h e y w e r e a m o n g t h e first t o d i s c o v e r t r a c e s o f S a i n t T h o m a s in t h e I n d i e s . I n a d d i t i o n to t h e c r u c i f o r m s i g n s f o u n d in t h e s y m b o l i s m o f a n c i e n t M e x i c o a n d e l s e w h e r e , s u c h m y t h o l o g i c a l c o i n c i d e n c e s as t h e b e l i e f in t h e D e l u g e , a n d s u c h r i t u a l c u s t o m s as f a s t i n g , t h e p r o b l e m s w h i c h t h e m i s s i o n a r i e s e n c o u n t e r e d in w o r k i n g w i t h t h e I n d i a n c o n v e r t s s o o n p r o v i d e d a n e w r e a s o n f o r b e l i e v i n g in t h e m i s s i o n a r y w o r k o f S a i n t
180
QUETZALCOATL, OR THE PHOENIX BIRD
T h o m a s . I n t h e partition of t h e world a m o n g the apostles, d o u b t i n g T h o m a s h a d r e c e i v e d t h e I n d i e s ; t h a t is, h e h a d b e e n a s s i g n e d t h e m o s t u n g r a t e f u l t a s k o f all: " S e n d m e w h e r e y o u will, O L o r d , b u t n o t a m o n g t h e I n d i a n s . " T h u s t h e I n d i e s e n t e r e d h i s t o r y as e a r l y as apostolic times, a n d n o t sixteen centuries later, a delay which would h a v e b e e n i n c o m p a t i b l e w i t h t h e d o c t r i n e o f g r a c e d i s p e n s e d t o all m a n k i n d . R a t i o n a l t h e o l o g y a n d S c r i p t u r e a i d e d e a c h o t h e r in t h e effort to establish that Saint T h o m a s the Major h a d b r o u g h t t h e Word t o t h e I n d i a n s b e f o r e t h e S p a n i s h F r a n c i s c a n s . It o n l y r e m a i n e d t o find t r a c e s in situ o f t h e a p o s t l e ' s p a s s a g e , b u t at a t i m e w h e n r e v e l a t i o n was m o r e i m p o r t a n t t h a n d i s c o v e r y t h e l a t t e r w a s a s e c o n d a r y aspect of t h e probative effort. 8
T h e g o o d w i l l o f t h e I n d i a n s , t h e i r e n t h u s i a s m as c o n v e r t s a n d t h e i r v e n e r a t i o n f o r t h e m i s s i o n a r i e s facilitated d i s c o v e r y o f v e s t i g e s o f t h e o r i g i n a l e v a n g e l i z a t i o n . T h e first d i s c o v e r e r s o f S a i n t T h o m a s ' s t r a c e s w e r e t h e A u g u s t i n i a n s o f P e r u , b u t it was J e s u i t w r i t i n g s , q u o t e d by v a r i o u s h i s t o r i a n s o f t h e N e w W o r l d in t h e s i x t e e n t h a n d s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s , w h i c h a b o v e all b o r e w i t n e s s t o t h e p r e s e n c e o f s u c h t r a c e s . T h e following passage f r o m a letter written by F a t h e r M a n u e l d a N o b r e g a , A p r i l 15, 1 5 4 9 , f r o m B a h i a , m a y b e c a l l e d his certified r e p o r t o f t h e p r e s e n c e o f S a i n t T h o m a s in A m e r i c a : " A p e r s o n w o r t h y o f f a i t h also t o l d m e t h a t t h e r o o t s [ m a n i o c ] f r o m w h i c h t h e b r e a d o f this c o u n t r y is m a d e w e r e a gift o f S a i n t T h o m a s , f o r p r e v i o u s l y t h e I n d i a n s h a d n o k i n d o f b r e a d a t all. T h i s is k n o w n t h r o u g h a n o r a l t r a d i t i o n t h a t is p r e s e r v e d a m o n g t h e m quia patres eorum nuntiaverunt eis [ b e c a u s e t h e i r p a r e n t s i n f o r m e d t h e m o f it]. N o t f a r f r o m h e r e a r e t r a c e s o f f o o t p r i n t s o n a r o c k , a n d e v e r y o n e says t h a t t h e s e a r e S a i n t T h o m a s ' footprints." 9
The Road of Saint Thomas in the Indies T h e s e f o o t p r i n t s o n a r o c k , s h o w e d by t h e T u p i n a m b a o f B r a z i l t o F a t h e r N o b r e g a , e v o k e m e m o r i e s o f t h e f o u n d e r o f t h e Society o f J e s u s , S a i n t I g n a t i u s L o y o l a . F a t h e r G o n c a l v e s d e C a m a r a , his b i o g r a p h e r , r e p o r t s that w h e n I g n a t i u s m a d e a p i l g r i m a g e to the holy places h e wished to r e t u r n to t h e M o u n t of Olives b e f o r e d e p a r t i n g , b e c a u s e " t h e r e is a s t o n e f r o m w h i c h O u r L o r d a s c e n d e d i n t o H e a v e n , w h i c h still b e a r s t h e visible i m p r i n t s o f his feet, a n d this is w h a t I g n a t i u s w i s h e d t o see a g a i n . " B r i b i n g t h e T u r k s w i t h s o m e trifling p r e s e n t s , I g n a t i u s o b t a i n e d p e r m i s s i o n t o e x a m i n e t h e s t o n e in o r d e r to verify " o n w h i c h s i d e w a s t h e r i g h t f o o t a n d o n w h i c h s i d e t h e left f o o t . " Like t h e f o u n d e r of t h e c o m p a n y , F a t h e r N o b r e g a w a n t e d to g e t t o t h e b o t t o m o f t h e m a t t e r : " S i n c e w e shall h a v e t o j o u r n e y a b o u t , 1 0
181
Saint Thomas-()uetzalc6atl,
Apostle of Mexico 1 1
w e shall g o t o s e e t h e m [ t h e f o o t p r i n t s ] " ; a n d t h e n e x t A u g u s t "I w e n t t o s e e t h e m t o b e a b s o l u t e l y c e r t a i n a n d saw w i t h m y o w n eyes f o u r f o o t p r i n t s , v e r y d i s t i n c t , w i t h t h e t o e s well m a r k e d " S i n c e t h e J e s u i t h a d confirmed the existence of the footprints, their apostolic origin c o u l d n o l o n g e r b e q u e s t i o n e d . T h i s h e r m e n e u t i c s , w h i c h w e m a y find s t a r t l i n g , is b a s e d o n t h e r e v e l a t i o n o f t h e p a s s a g e o f S a i n t T h o m a s t o t h e N e w World. T h e analogy of t h e apostles' traces with those of J e s u s o n t h e M o u n t o f Olives r e i n f o r c e d t h e i r p r o b a t i v e v a l u e . T h r e e y e a r s l a t e r w e find o t h e r J e s u i t s o n a p i l g r i m a g e t o t h e site o f t h e f o o t p r i n t s of Saint T h o m a s . T h e I n d i a n s a c c o m p a n i e d t h e m , crossing t h e m selves as t h e y w e n t . O n a r r i v a l at t h e site, t h e J e s u i t s w e r e h o s p i t a b l y r e c e i v e d b y t h e c h i e f o f t h e n e i g h b o r i n g village: " I n this village w e d a n c e d a n d s a n g in t h e i r f a s h i o n , s i n g i n g h y m n s in t h e i r l a n g u a g e , a n d t h e wife o f t h e p r i n c i p a l l o r d g o t u p a n d d a n c e d w i t h u s . . . . F r o m t h e r e w e w e n t in t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e f o o t p r i n t s , s i n g i n g C h r i s t i a n h y m n s , a n d t h e g e n t i l e s o f t h e village a c c o m p a n i e d u s . A t t h e site o f t h e f o o t p r i n t s w e s a n g a h y m n to t h e H o l y S p i r i t . " 1 2
1 3
T h i s r e m a r k a b l e t e s t i m o n y invites r e f l e c t i o n a b o u t t h e o r i g i n o f t h e l e g e n d o f S a i n t T h o m a s in A m e r i c a . W h o w e r e t h e d u p e s in this affair, t h e T u p i n a m b a o r t h e P o r t u g u e s e ? F a t h e r N o b r e g a o f f e r s a n i n t e r e s t i n g d e t a i l ; t h e T u p i n a m b a called T h o m a s Zume, w h i c h w a s t h e n a m e g i v e n b y this p e o p l e to all p r o p h e t s , s o r c e r e r s , s h a m a n s , c a l l e d Pay (was Pay Zume o r Zomi a local p r o p h e t ? ) . It w a s c e r t a i n l y a w i d e l y held belief a m o n g t h e T u p i n a m b a tribes, for the T u p i n a m b a chief of M a r a f i o n , I a p p y O u a s s o u , t o l d t h e F r e n c h C a p u c h i n s in 1 6 1 2 : " T h e p r o p h e t s (pay) s e e i n g t h a t t h e p e o p l e o f o u r n a t i o n w o u l d n o t b e l i e v e t h e m , flew o f f t o h e a v e n , l e a v i n g t h e m a r k s o f t h e i r b o d i e s a n d feet, as well as c r o s s e s , i m p r i n t e d o n t h e r o c k w h i c h is n e a r P o t y i o n . " W h a t w a s t h e o r i g i n o f t h e l e g e n d ? T h e fact t h a t w h e n C l a u d e D ' A b b e v i l l e w r o t e t h i s a c c o u n t t h e P o r t u g u e s e h a d m a i n t a i n e d close r e l a t i o n s w i t h the I n d i a n s for half a century suggests that I n d i a n mythology may have b e e n influenced by Christian messianism. A b o u t t h e s a m e time, an I n d i a n p r o p h e t seems to have b o r r o w e d s o m e traits from J e s u s . T h e close r e s e m b l a n c e o f t h e S a i n t T h o m a s o f t h e T u p i n a m b a t o t h e " g o o d J i n n i " o f A m e r i c a n m y t h o l o g y a r o u s e s s u s p i c i o n . T h i s m y t h is f o u n d t h r o u g h o u t t h e A m e r i c a n c o n t i n e n t ; its p e r m a n e n t e l e m e n t s are the prodigious prints and the wearing of the beard, the prophet's a t t r i b u t e s a r e t h o s e o f t h e b e n i g n I n d i a n h e r o . C a l l e d Pay Zume in Brazil a n d in P a r a g u a y , V i r a c o c h a in P e r u , B o c h i c a in E c u a d o r , t h e b e n e v o l e n t h e r o i d e n t i f i e d w i t h S a i n t T h o m a s is also f o u n d u n d e r other names a m o n g the Aymara, Chibcha, Tupi, and Guarani, and a m o n g the M a p u c h e of Chile. T h e glorious m a r t y r Nicolas Mascardi l e a r n e d " t h a t in t h e Valley o f t h e J a u r u a , in t h e p a m p a s , t h e r e was a 1 4
1 5
182
QUETZALCOATL, OR THE PHOENIX BIRD
peak which Saint T h o m a s or Saint B a r n a b a s h a d ascended to preach; o n a s t o n e t h e y left t r a c e s o f t h e i r feet a n d t h e i r staffs; w h a t is m o r e , t h e r e w e r e l e t t e r s e n g r a v e d o n t h e r o c k by t h e a p o s t l e s ' h a n d s , l e t t e r s w h i c h F a t h e r M a s c a r d i split o f f f r o m t h e r o c k a n d s e n t t o R o m e f o r i n s p e c t i o n . " T h e i n c i d e n t s h o w s h o w e x i g e n t w e r e t h e J e s u i t s in t h e m a t t e r o f p r o o f s ; F a t h e r M a s c a r d i ' s a c t i o n , in t h e s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y , in s e n d i n g a s t o n e f r o m C h i l e to R o m e , in o r d e r t o verify its a u t h e n t i c i t y , is w o r t h y o f a m o d e r n s c h o l a r . I h a v e e x p l a i n e d w h y n o d o u b t s c l o u d e d t h e belief in t h e p r i n t s . R e p e t i t i o n o f t h e s i g n s a n d a t t r i b u t e s o f t h e beneficial h e r o in d i f f e r e n t r e g i o n s o f A m e r i c a s e e m e d to confirm that e v e r y w h e r e they r e f e r r e d to the same p e r s o n a g e , whose j o u r n e y across the c o n t i n e n t they d o c u m e n t e d . 1 6
T h e p r e a m b l e of t h e celebrated w o r k of Fray G r e g o r i o Garcia, Origen de los Indios del Nuevo Mundo, e Indias Occidentales, r e v e a l s t h e i m p o r t a n c e of the alleged Saint T h o m a s of America. T h e Dominican, w e r e c a l l , w r o t e : " T h r e e q u e s t i o n s a b o v e all o t h e r s , h a v e c l a i m e d m y a t t e n t i o n . . . . T h e t h i r d q u e s t i o n is w h e t h e r t h e G o s p e l w a s p r e a c h e d in t h e s e r e g i o n s in t h e t i m e o f t h e A p o s t l e s . " T h e " I n d i e s " p o s e d before the E u r o p e a n s of the sixteenth a n d seventeenth centuries a historical (principally dynastic) p r o b l e m , an a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l p r o b l e m (the origin of the p e o p l i n g of America), a n d a theological p r o b l e m , that of the apostolic evangelization of t h e I n d i a n s . It involved n o t h i n g less t h a n t h e d o c t r i n e o f g r a c e a n d t h e C h r i s t i a n c o n c e p t i o n o f hist o r y . It w a s t h e o p t i o n s w i t h r e s p e c t to t h e s e t h e o l o g i c a l p r o b l e m s , a n d n o t t h e authenticity of t h e alleged vestiges of primitive Christianity d i s c o v e r e d in t h e I n d i e s , t h a t d i v i d e d t h e p a r t i s a n s a n d a d v e r s a r i e s o f Saint T h o m a s of America. 1 7
Proof that the idea of an apostolic evangelization of the N e w World h a d b e e n f o r m u l a t e d even before the hypothesis of Saint T h o m a s Q u e t z a l c o a t l a p p e a r s in t h e fact t h a t t h e r e h a d b e e n s p e c u l a t i o n o f m u c h t h e s a m e k i n d a b o u t o t h e r a p o s t l e s : S a i n t B a r n a b a s in s o u t h e r n C h i l e by F a t h e r M a s c a r d i , S a i n t M a t t h e w in N a y a r i t by F r a y F r a n c i s c o d e B u r g o a , a n d a g a i n S a i n t M a t t h e w in B r a z i l by t h e C a l v i n i s t J e a n d e Lery of Geneva, w h o wrote: "I d o n o t a p p r o v e the fabulous books w h i c h , g o i n g b e y o n d w h a t t h e W o r d o f G o d says o n t h e subject, tell o f the voyages a n d p e r e g r i n a t i o n s of the Apostles. However, N i c e p h o r u s , r e c o u n t i n g t h e h i s t o r y o f S a i n t M a t t h e w , says e x p r e s s l y t h a t h e p r e a c h e d t h e G o s p e l in t h e l a n d o f t h e C a n n i b a l s w h o e a t m e n , p e o p l e n o t v e r y d i f f e r e n t f r o m o u r A m e r i c a n B r a z i l i a n s . " H o w fragile w a s this p r o o f , h o w m u c h m o r e d e c i s i v e t h e b e l i e f in a u n i v e r s a l apostolic evangelization, becomes clear from Lery's next w o r d s : " B u t I m u c h p r e f e r to base myself o n a passage of Saint Paul, t a k e n f r o m P s a l m 19, n a m e l y : ' T h e i r s o u n d h a s g o n e t h r o u g h o u t t h e e a r t h , a n d
183
Saint Thomas-ihtetzalcoatl,
Apostle of Mexico
their words to t h e e n d s of t h e world,' a passage which certain sound c o m m e n t a t o r s a p p l y t o t h e A p o s t l e s . . . . B u t I will a f f i r m n o t h i n g m o r e t h a n this w i t h r e g a r d t o t h e a p o s t o l i c t i m e s . " Lery's cautious attitude contrasts with t h e decisiveness of a Spanish A u g u s t i n i a n o f P e r u , F r a y A n t o n i o d e la C a l a n c h a ( w r i t i n g a halfc e n t u r y l a t e r t h a n t h e G e n e v a n ) : " T h e y [ t h e E u r o p e a n s ] w h o will n o t a d m i t t h a t o n e o f t h e A p o s t l e s p r e a c h e d t h e G o s p e l in t h e N e w W o r l d o f f e n d t h e n a t u r a l , d i v i n e , a n d p o s i t i v e laws a n d d i m i n i s h G o d ' s m e r c y a n d j u s t i c e ; t h e y o f f e n d t h e n a t u r a l l a w , b e c a u s e t h e y wish f o r t h o s e countries t h e misfortune of n o t having been evangelized by an apostle, s o m e t h i n g t h e E u r o p e a n s w o u l d n o t a c c e p t f o r t h e m s e l v e s . " T h e y e a r is 1 6 3 9 , fifteen y e a r s a f t e r F r a y G r e g o r i o G a r c i a h a d critically e x a m i n e d all t h e h y p o t h e s e s r e l a t i v e t o t h e p r e a c h i n g o f t h e G o s p e l i n t h e N e w World d u r i n g t h e lifetime o f t h e a p o s t l e s . Calancha's e m o tional t o n e sharply contrasts with G r e g o r i o Garcia's s e r e n e attitude; d i f f e r e n c e s in t e m p e r a m e n t w e r e n o t t h e c a u s e o f this c o n t r a s t , o r n o t the m a i n cause, at a n y rate. 1 8
1 9
2 0
T h e f o c u s o f t h e d i s p u t e h a d s h i f t e d ; it w a s n o l o n g e r a q u e s t i o n o f t w o o p p o s e d h e r m e n e u t i c s , o r , if t h a t q u e s t i o n w a s r a i s e d , it w a s n o t t h e r e a l issue. W h a t a n g e r s t h e c r e o l e f r i a r C a l a n c h a is t h a t t h e E u r o peans wanted for t h e Indies what they would n o t accept for t h e m s e l v e s . B e l i e f in t h e a p o s t o l i c e v a n g e l i z a t i o n o f t h e N e w W o r l d is n o w n o t so m u c h a t h e o l o g i c a l q u e s t i o n as a q u e s t i o n o f n a t i o n a l p r i d e . F o r C a l a n c h a S a i n t T h o m a s o f A m e r i c a h a s b e c o m e a w a r - h o r s e in t h e c r e o l e c r u s a d e in f a v o r o f t h e i r d i g n i t y a n d e q u a l i t y w i t h t h e E u r o p e a n s . I n t h i s s a m e p e r i o d t h e r e t o o k p l a c e t h e flowering o f t h e M a r i a n cult, w h i l e m i r a c l e s a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e V i r g i n ( a l r e a d y r e c o r d e d b y t h e I n c a G a r c i l a s o d e la V e g a ) m u l t i p l i e d in t h e N e w W o r l d a n d a p p e a r e d in c r e o l e eyes t o b e a c l e a r s i g n o f h e a v e n ' s gift o f g r a c e t o t h e m a n d t h e i r A m e r i c a n patria. I t w o u l d all h a v e b e e n v e r y i n n o c u o u s if this r i s i n g c r e o l e s e l f - e s t e e m h a d n o t b e e n i n t i m a t e l y a s s o c i a t e d with feelings of r a n c o r against t h e S p a n i a r d s . T h e a t t a c h m e n t of t h e gachupines (called chapetones in P e r u ) t o t h e V i r g i n o f Pilar, w h o s e m i r a c l e s t h e Creoles r e l e g a t e d t o a s e c o n d a r y level, h a d as its c o r o l l a r y a n i n c r e d u l o u s a t t i t u d e t o w a r d t h e A m e r i c a n a p p a r i t i o n s . T h e Creoles naturally f o u n d a parallel between t h e Virgin of G u a d a l u p e a n d t h e Virgin of M o n t s e r r a t in Catalonia. A c o m p e t i t i o n arose b e t w e e n Saint T h o m a s , apostle of the Indies, a n d Saint J a m e s , apostle of Spain. T h e S a i n t J a m e s o f t h e c o n q u i s t a d o r s , s u p e r n a t u r a l ally o f t h e C o n q u e s t , b e c a m e t h e g o d o f t h u n d e r o f t h e I n d i a n s o f P e r u ; b u t t h e Creoles p r e f e r r e d S a i n t T h o m a s , w h o r e d e e m e d t h e i r A m e r i c a n patria f r o m t h e s t i g m a o f h a v i n g lain in d a r k n e s s f o r s i x t e e n c e n t u r i e s , i s o l a t e d from revelation. 21
184
QUETZALCOATL, OR THE PHOENIX BIRD
D e s p i t e his p a t r i o t i c c r e o l e p a s s i o n , C a l a n c h a g a v e a n e x c e l l e n t e x position of the p r o b l e m of Saint T h o m a s of America. T h e A u g u s t i n i a n s c i t e d S a i n t T h o m a s A q u i n a s , "in his prima secundae quaestio 106, art. 4, as well as o t h e r e x e g e t e s . " T h e p r o b l e m was w h e t h e r t h e w o r d i n g o f t h e V u l g a t e ( " T h e G o s p e l will b e p r e a c h e d t h r o u g h o u t t h e e a r t h . . . . a n d t h e n will c o m e t h e e n d o f t h e a g e s " ) r e f e r r e d t o t h e Apocalypse or to the destruction of Jerusalem. Calancha invoked the authority of Saint J o h n Chrysostom, Saint Mark, a n d Saint J e r o m e , a m o n g o t h e r s , in f a v o r o f t h e s e c o n d i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . I f t h e u n i v e r s a l e v a n g e l i z a t i o n was a c c o m p l i s h e d b e f o r e t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f J e r u s a l e m , t h e I n d i e s h a d b e e n e v a n g e l i z e d in t h e t i m e o f t h e A p o s t l e s . T h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , w h i c h m a y b e c a l l e d literal (it c o n s i d e r s t h e h i s t o r i c a l J e r u s a l e m a n d n o t , symbolically, t h e t e r r e s t r i a l J e r u s a l e m ) , in effect a n n i h i l a t e d t h e m i l l e n a r i a n h o p e s o f t h e first m i s s i o n a r i e s o f t h e N e w W o r l d . A g e o g r a p h i c a l a n d statistical a r g u m e n t e m p l o y e d b y C a l a n c h a t o b u t t r e s s his t h e s i s s u g g e s t s t h e s p i r i t u a l c o m m o t i o n p r o d u c e d by t h e discovery of t h e N e w World. "Since t h e apostles w e r e t w e l v e in n u m b e r , h o w c a n t h e y [ t h e E u r o p e a n s ] a r g u e t h a t G o d s e n t all t w e l v e t o t h e s m a l l e s t p a r t o f t h e w o r l d [ E u r o p e ] , a n d d i d n o t s e n d at least o n e t o a m u c h l a r g e r p a r t [ A m e r i c a ] ? " H e r e is a n e a r l y e f f o r t — G o m a r a h a d p i o n e e r e d i n this l i n e o f t h o u g h t — t o view t h e w o r l d , w i t h A m e r i c a as o n e o f its p a r t s , as a w h o l e a n d t o q u e s t i o n t h e validity o f E u r o c e n t r i s m , w h i c h h a d b e c o m e a d o g m a . 2 2
2 3
I n t h e last analysis, t h e d e b a t e r e v o l v e d a b o u t t h e q u e s t i o n w h e t h e r the p e o p l e of Israel would be t h e chosen p e o p l e until the e n d of time. T h i s was generally d e n i e d , b u t while t h e P o r t u g u e s e , t h r o u g h t h e m o u t h of t h e J e s u i t A n t o n i o Vieira, professed to be t h e n e w c h o s e n p e o p l e by v i r t u e of a n e w c o v e n a n t , t h e S p a n i s h i m p e r i a l d o c t r i n e ( O n e m o n a r c h , o n e e m p i r e , a n d o n e sword) claimed t h a t Spain was c h a r g e d w i t h a p r o v i d e n t i a l m i s s i o n . A b o u t t h e s a m e t i m e a p p e a r e d in A m s t e r d a m t h e f a m o u s b o o k of M e n a s s e h B e n Israel, a Jewish t h e o l o g i a n a n d p h i l o s o p h e r , b e a r i n g t h e significant title, Origin of the Americans, or, the Hope of Israel. A c c o r d i n g to t h e J e w i s h p h i l o s o p h e r , c e r t a i n t r i b e s o f T i e r r a F i r m e ( V e n e z u e l a ) w e r e t h e Judaei clausi, t h e h i d d e n J e w s d e s c e n d e d f r o m t h e lost t r i b e s o f I s r a e l a f t e r t h e g r e a t d i a s p o r a ; t h e i r d i s c o v e r y a n d e a r l y r e t u r n t o t h e p r o m i s e d l a n d in t h e r e i g n o f M e s s i a h , s o n o f D a v i d , as a r e s u l t o f t h e d i s c o v e r y o f t h e N e w World, w o u l d accomplish the J u d a i c p r o p h e c i e s . Given this spiritual climate, in which America's g e o g r a p h i c a l novelty inspired t h e wildest d r e a m s , w e s h o u l d n o t b e s u r p r i s e d t h a t t h e Creoles in t h e i r t u r n c a u g h t t h e i l l u m i n i s t f e v e r a n d c l a i m e d f o r t h e m s e l v e s a n d t h e i r patria the h o n o r of being the new chosen people. 24
S i n c e t h e t r a c e s o f t h e a p o s t l e S a i n t T h o m a s w e r e so m a n y s i g n s
185
Saint Thomas-Quetzalcoatl,
Apostle of Mexico
g i v e n b y G o d t o t h e A m e r i c a n Creoles, C a l a n c h a h a d n o difficulty in f i n d i n g t h e m in B r a z i l ( " w h e r e t h e t r a c e s b e g i n " ) , in P a r a g u a y , a n d in P e r u . D e s p i t e his c e r t a i n t y , C a l a n c h a felt a n u n e a s y n e e d t o pile u p a u t h o r i t i e s in f a v o r o f his t h e s i s , a s s u r i n g his r e a d e r s " t h a t I h a v e c o n s u l t e d all t h e b o o k s t h a t t r e a t o f t h i s q u e s t i o n , s o m e b y p e r s o n s w h o lived in this c o u n t r y a n d b y o r d e r o f t h e v i c e r o y s w r o t e r e p o r t s w h i c h w e r e l a t e r p u b l i s h e d , o t h e r s by a u t h o r s w h o g o t t h e i r i n f o r m a t i o n a t s e c o n d h a n d , a n d still o t h e r s by l i v i n g p e r s o n s w h o h a v e s e e n these things with their own e y e s . " T h e identification of Saint T h o m a s as t h e a p o s t o l i c m i s s i o n a r y o f t h e N e w W o r l d w a s b a s e d o n a n a p o c r y p h a l t e x t , t h e Acta Thomae. B u t t h e i d e n t i t y o f t h e a p o s t l e w a s basically u n i m p o r t a n t ; m e n s o u g h t t h e t r a c e s o f a n " a p o s t l e t y p e , " so to s p e a k . T h e E u r o p e a n vision o f a n a p o s t l e w a s t h a t o f a S e m i t e w i t h l o n g t h i c k h a i r a n d b e a r d , d r e s s e d in a l o n g w h i t e t u n i c , a n d h o l d i n g a n a p o s t o l i c staff in his h a n d . T h e a p o s t l e typically c o n d u c t e d h i m s e l f like a S p a n i s h m i s s i o n a r y o f t h e s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y , b u t — t h i s was a specific f e a t u r e — h e p r o v e d t h e t r u t h o f t h e r e l i g i o n h e p r e a c h e d b y prodigies a n d miracles. As m i g h t be e x p e c t e d , t h e principal Christian s y m b o l s , c r o s s e s in p a r t i c u l a r , w e r e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h his t r a c e s . 2 5
Instead of being surprised that A m e r i c a n I n d i a n "good jinnis," p r o v i d e r s o f e d i b l e p l a n t s , b o r n o f v i r g i n s u n d e r s u p e r n a t u r a l circ u m s t a n c e s , c a p a b l e of walking o n w a t e r a n d of d i s a p p e a r i n g w i t h o u t leaving a trace, should have passed for apostles of Christ, we should a d m i r e t h e c a u t i o n o f t h e m i s s i o n a r i e s , w h o r e f u s e d to see a p o s t l e s everywhere. C o n s i d e r the pull e x e r t e d o n the I n d i a n m i n d (tradit i o n a l l y r e c e p t i v e t o all m e s s i a n i c c u r r e n t s ) by t h e C h r i s t i a n r e l i g i o n , a n d their desire to anticipate t h e wishes of t h e missionaries a n d link t h e i r a n c e s t r a l beliefs t o t h e n e w f a i t h . T h e r e m o t e n e s s in t i m e o f t h e s u p p o s e d e v a n g e l i z a t i o n , a n d t h e devil's t r i c k s , p e r v e r t i n g t h e o r i g i n a l C h r i s t i a n i t y o f t h e I n d i e s , m a d e it s e e m n a t u r a l t h a t t h i s C h r i s t i a n i t y should have b e c o m e almost unrecognizable. T h e legends soon surr o u n d i n g the personalities of certain Spanish missionaries a m o n g the I n d i a n s s u g g e s t t h a t if a n i n q u i r y h a d b e e n m a d e h a l f a c e n t u r y l a t e r t h e y w o u l d h a v e r e c e d e d so f a r b a c k i n t o t h e I n d i a n m y t h i c a l p a s t t h a t they too could have b e e n taken for apostles. As concerns the doctrine t h e y t a u g h t , b y t h e a d m i s s i o n o f F a t h e r S a h a g u n , it t o o w o u l d h a v e b e c o m e unrecognizable. T h e I n d i a n s ' receptive attitude with r e g a r d t o e v e r y n e w r e v e l a t i o n h a d f o r its o b v e r s e a t e n d e n c y t o f o r g e t r a p i d l y . T h u s t h e I n d i a n " g o o d j i n n i s " t e n d e d little by little t o lose t h e i r traditional attributes of b e n e v o l e n t divinities o n t h e terrestrial p l a n e , b e c o m i n g p r o p h e t s always in a t t i t u d e s o f p r a y e r , living t h e life of hermits, while their clothing m o r e a n d m o r e resembled the sixteenth-century Spanish conception of t h e apostles.
186
QUETZALCOATL, OR THE PHOENIX BIRD
Since an evangelization of t h e Indies by Saint T h o m a s was certain, b e i n g a revelation, t h e only p r o b l e m was to identify t h e t r u e traces and tradition of Saint T h o m a s . To distinguish the t r u e Saint T h o m a s f r o m false a p o s t l e s w a s all t h e m o r e difficult a task b e c a u s e t h e I n d i a n s (like t h e S p a n i a r d s ) felt a b u r n i n g n e e d t o e x p l a i n t h e c a t a c l y s m t h r o u g h w h i c h t h e y h a d j u s t p a s s e d . It w a s as c r u c i a l f o r t h e m to r o o t t h e i r n e w c o n d i t i o n o f C h r i s t i a n n e o p h y t e s in t h e t r a d i t i o n t h e y h a d i n h e r i t e d f r o m t h e i r f o r e b e a r s as it w a s f o r E u r o p e a n s t o find in t h e Bible a p r o p h e s y of t h e discovery of t h e N e w World. T h u s , despite t h e reciprocal incomprehension of the two worlds that confronted each other, their respective spiritual aspirations impelled t h e m to bridge t h e g u l f o p e n e d u p by t h e C o n q u e s t , a m e t a p h y s i c a l g u l f w h i c h t h r e a t e n e d t o swallow b o t h . T h e I n d i a n s h a d j u s t s u f f e r e d a total m i l i t a r y a n d political d e f e a t ; t h e i r idols h a d b e e n r o u t e d , t h e i r p r i e s t s p e r s e c u t e d , t h e y f a c e d a v o i d . T h e y c o u l d o n l y r e c o v e r t h e i r full h u m a n c o n d i t i o n b y c o n v e r s i o n t o t h e faith o f t h e c o n q u e r o r s , b u t t h e y c o u l d m o r e easily i n t e r n a l i z e t h a t f a i t h if s o m e sign in t h e i r p a s t l i n k e d t h e m t o t h e n e w r e l i g i o n ; t h a t sign w a s t h e p r i s t i n e e v a n g e l i z a tion by Saint T h o m a s . As for t h e Spaniards, their world system, f o u n d e d o n r e v e l a t i o n , a n d t h e i r v e r y r e l i g i o n w o u l d c o l l a p s e if t h e B i b l e h a d lied o r s i m p l y o m i t t e d m e n t i o n o f A m e r i c a ; i g n o r a n c e , f o r g e t f u l n e s s , a n d injustice o n t h e p a r t o f G o d w e r e all e q u a l l y u n t e n a b l e . I f t h e r e e x i s t e d a positive t r u t h i n d e p e n d e n t o f r e v e a l e d t r u t h , all E u r o p e a n t h o u g h t , f r o m S a i n t A u g u s t i n e t o S u a r e z , m u s t g o o u t the window. T h u s t h e hypothesis of a n apostolic evangelization simultaneously s a v e d t h e I n d i a n s , by i n s e r t i n g t h e C o n q u e s t w i t h i n t h e cyclical m o v e m e n t of their history, a n d t h e Spaniards, w h o r e g a r d e d their r e l i g i o n as t h e i r u l t i m a t e g u a r a n t e e . T h e m e s t i z o s , m i x e d - b l o o d s b o r n of t h e u n i o n of t h e victorious S p a n i a r d s a n d I n d i a n w o m e n , inherited this d o u b l e a s p i r a t i o n . I n t h e case o f t h e Creoles—spiritual m e s t i z o s — this u n r e s t o f t h e I n d i a n s a n d S p a n i a r d s b e c a m e e v e n m o r e i n t e r n a l i z e d . T o link I n d i a n h i s t o r i c a l t r a d i t i o n a n d beliefs w i t h t h e B i b l e was a vital p r o b l e m f o r t h e A m e r i c a n Creoles; S a i n t T h o m a s , missionary to t h e Indies, was t h e u n e x p e c t e d way o u t of t h e impasse. A m o n g t h e various I n d i a n divinities identified with Saint T h o m a s , t h e m o s t r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f I n d i a n s p i r i t u a l i t y in its m o s t e v o l v e d f o r m s was t h e M e x i c a n g o d - h e r o C e A c a t l Q u e t z a l c o a t l - T o p i l t z i n , c a l l e d also Ehecatl, a n d identified with t h e M o r n i n g Star, Tlauizcalpantecuhtli. Q u e t z a l c o a t l - S a i n t T h o m a s is t h u s t h e m o s t o u t s t a n d i n g e x a m p l e o f syncretism between the cosmological myths of ancient America a n d Christianity, t h e e x t r e m e point of contact r e a c h e d by t h e two worlds in t h e i r a d v a n c e t o w a r d e a c h o t h e r . S a i n t T h o m a s o f A m e r i c a w a s also
187
Saint Thomas-(htetzalc6atl,
Apostle oj Mexico
o n e of t h e roots of t h e A m e r i c a n consciousness, a consciousness t h a t even now r e m a i n s c h a r g e d with charismatic certainty a n d messianic hope.
The Plumed
Serpent, New "Phoenix of the West"
I have m a d e a d e t o u r t h r o u g h the Peruvian Saint T h o m a s of C a l a n c h a , a specifically S o u t h A m e r i c a n v a r i a n t o f t h e a p o s t l e , b e cause h e r e p r e s e n t s an intermediate stage between the QuetzalcoatlSaint T h o m a s of Tovar a n d that of Siguenza y G o n g o r a . A r e a d i n g of C a l a n c h a m a k e s p e r f e c t l y c l e a r t h a t f o r t h e Creoles t h e I n d i a n t r a d i t i o n w a s n o t i m p o r t a n t in itself; w h a t m a t t e r e d was its u t i l i z a t i o n b y t h e c r e o l e i n t e l l e c t f o r its o w n e n d s . E v e r since T o v a r ' s t i m e t h e d a n g e r o f s u c h a s s i m i l a t i o n s h a d b e e n s e n s e d by t h e S p a n i s h C r o w n , which o r d e r e d the seizure of Sahagiin's m a n u s c r i p t s a n d f o r b a d e " a n y p e r s o n to w r i t e a b o u t a n y t h i n g r e l a t e d to t h e s u p e r s t i t i o n s a n d w a y o f life w h i c h t h e s e I n d i a n s h a d . " T h e " p o l i t i c a l " f u t u r e o f Q u e t zalcoatl w o u l d p r o v e h o w well f o u n d e d w e r e S p a n i s h f e a r s . Q u e t z a l c o a t l - S a i n t T h o m a s w a s to b e c o m e a m o s t effective i n s t r u m e n t u s e d b y t h e Creoles to p r y N e w S p a i n l o o s e f r o m O l d S p a i n w h i l e f o r g i n g a link with t h e glorious past of A n a h u a c . B u t t h a t p u r p o s e d o e s n o t yet a p p e a r in t h e w o r k o f t h a t u n i v e r s a l m a n S i g u e n z a y G o n g o r a , mathematician a n d historian, an ex-Jesuit banished from the Pueblo c o n v e n t a n d the best writer of colonial Mexico after Sor J u a n a Ines d e la C r u z . 2 6
T h e collection of writings relative to Quetzalcoatl a n d variously a t t r i b u t e d t o S i g u e n z a y G o n g o r a a n d t h e J e s u i t M a n u e l D u a r t e (I shall p r e s e n t l y d i s c u s s this p r o b l e m , w h i c h h a s little i m p o r t a n c e h e r e ) , s c a n t y f r a g m e n t s w h o s e o n l y c o n n e c t i o n is t h e i r r e f e r e n c e to t h e a p o s tolic e v a n g e l i z a t i o n o f A m e r i c a , a p p e a r s t o c o n s t i t u t e t h e first c o m plete "dossier" o n t h e subject. A b o u t 1675 t h e Mexican scholar S i g u e n z a y G o n g o r a b e c a m e i n t e r e s t e d in c o m p o s i n g a s y n t h e s i s o f t h e ideas circulating o n t h e subject of t h e p r e a c h i n g of Saint T h o m a s in t h e N e w W o r l d . T h e c o l l e c t i o n o f t e x t s , l o n g lost a n d t h e n r e d i s c o v e r e d b y R a m i r e z , is in t h e h a n d o f F a t h e r M a n u e l D u a r t e . T h e P o r t u g u e s e J e s u i t m u s t h a v e g i v e n his m a n u s c r i p t t o D o n C a r l o s , as h e h i m s e l f i n d i c a t e s : " I w r o t e t h e s e t h i n g s d o w n in a m a n u s c r i p t w h i c h I left w i t h t h e bachiller S i g u e n z a . " A n d a g a i n : " I n 1 6 8 0 , w h e n I r e t u r n e d t o t h e P h i l l i p i n e s , I left this m a n u s c r i p t , t o g e t h e r w i t h a m a n u s c r i p t n o t e b o o k o f m o r e t h a n fifty-two s h e e t s , c o n t a i n i n g i n f o r m a t i o n r e l a t i v e to t h e p r e a c h i n g o f t h e a p o s t l e S a i n t T h o m a s in N e w S p a i n , w i t h t h e bachiller D o n C a r l o s d e S i g u e n z a y G o n g o r a , p r o f e s s o r o f m a t h e m a t i c s . " R a m i r e z b a s e d his a t t r i b u t i o n o f t h e m a n u s c r i p t o n 2 7
2 8
188
QUETZALCOATL, OR THE PHOENIX BIRD
these statements. B u t Siguenza y G o n g o r a h a d r e f e r r e d , in t h e p r o l o g u e t o his b o o k Parayso Occidental, t o s o m e t h i n g h e h a d w r i t t e n t o p r o v e the p r e a c h i n g of Saint T h o m a s , a writing which h e wished to see p u b l i s h e d b e f o r e his d e a t h . D i s c u s s i n g t h e v a r i o u s p o i n t s o f view e x p r e s s e d o n t h i s p r o b l e m , t h e A m e r i c a n s c h o l a r I r v i n g L e o n a r d calls a t t e n t i o n to a p a s s a g e in t h e Catdlogo o f B o t u r i n i : " M o r e o v e r , I h a v e historical notes o n the p r e a c h i n g of the glorious apostle Saint T h o m a s in A m e r i c a . T h e y a r e c o n t a i n e d in t h i r t y - f o u r s h e e t s o f C h i n a p a p e r which, I s u p p o s e , w e r e u s e d by D o n Carlos d e Siguenza y G o n g o r a in w r i t i n g a w o r k o n t h e s a m e subject, e n t i t l e d Phoenix of the West, w h i c h I h a v e n o t b e e n a b l e to o b t a i n b e c a u s e it w a s n e v e r p u b l i s h e d . " T h e s e facts p e r s u a d e m e o f t h e i d e n t i t y o f t h e t e x t s r e d i s c o v e r e d b y R a m i r e z a n d p u b l i s h e d by Nicolas L e o n a n d those which B o t u r i n i possessed; t h e r e f e r e n c e t o " C h i n a p a p e r " is a n o t h e r i n d i c a t i o n t h a t t h e m a n u s c r i p t r e f e r r e d t o by B o t u r i n i w a s t h a t o f t h e J e s u i t f r o m t h e P h i l i p p i n e s , M a n u e l D u a r t e . T h e i n t e r n a l e v i d e n c e in f a v o r o f a s s i g n i n g t h e m a n u s c r i p t to D u a r t e is e v e n s t r o n g e r : 2 9
1. D u a r t e explicitly n a m e s h i m s e l f as t h e a u t h o r . 2. H e s p e a k s o n s e v e r a l o c c a s i o n s o f " T h e F a t h e r s o f O u r C o m pany." 3. T h e t r e a t i s e w h i c h S i g u e n z a y G o n g o r a c l a i m e d t o h a v e w r i t t e n w a s a c o m p l e t e essay, n o t a s i m p l e c o l l e c t i o n o f i n d e p e n d e n t d o c u ments. T h e last r e a s o n is e s p e c i a l l y c o n v i n c i n g t o o n e w h o k n o w s h o w t h e h i s t o r i a n s o f t h a t p e r i o d w o r k e d . T h e p r o c e s s is i l l u s t r a t e d b y Motolinia, Acosta, a n d others. D u a r t e copied from previous historians all t h a t r e l a t e d t o t h e p r e a c h i n g o f S a i n t T h o m a s a n d t h a t c o n s t i t u t e d a n a r g u m e n t in f a v o r o f t h i s p r e a c h i n g . H e t r a n s l a t e d i n t o C a s t i l i a n a n a t i v e h i s t o r y , t h a t is, t h e N a h u a t l c o m m e n t a r y o n a c o d e x , p r e p a r e d e i t h e r by a n I n d i a n s t u d e n t o f t h e m i s s i o n a r i e s o r by a f r i a r e x p e r t in N a h u a t l . D u a r t e t u r n e d o v e r t h e s e t e x t s , t o g e t h e r w i t h his e v a l u a t i o n s , t o D o n C a r l o s , w h o u s e d t h e m in w r i t i n g his s y n t h e s i s . T h i s w a s t h e m e t h o d u s e d by t h e majority of historians of M e x i c a n antiquities in t h e s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s . T h e f u t u r e m a y r e v e a l w h e t h e r t h e essay w r i t t e n b y S i g u e n z a y G o n g o r a w a s d e s t r o y e d o r h a s o n l y b e e n lost f o r more than three centuries. In my opinion, the fragments published u n d e r t h e title o f Pluma rica, nuevo Fenix de Occidente a r e m a t e r i a l s c o l l e c t e d b y M a n u e l D u a r t e a n d t u r n e d o v e r by h i m t o D o n C a r l o s , w h o u t i l i z e d t h e m t o w r i t e a n essay t h a t d i s a p p e a r e d l o n g a g o . T h e disertacion—this w o r d alone excludes any possible identity with t h e f r a g m e n t s t h a t w e p o s s e s s — o f S i g u e n z a y G o n g o r a is c i t e d b y S e b a s t i a n d e G u z m a n , by V e t a n c u r t , a n d b y B o t u r i n i ; w e k n o w t h e w o r k o n l y t h r o u g h t h e s e a l l u s i o n s , a n d t h e o l d a u t h o r s w h o m e n t i o n it h a d n o t t h e m s e l v e s s e e n it.
189
Saint Thomas-Quetzalcoatl,
Apostle of Mexico
F r o m t h e p o i n t o f view o f t h e h i s t o r y o f i d e a s in N e w S p a i n , it really m a t t e r s little w h o was t h e a u t h o r o f t h e Fenix de Occidente, o n c e w e k n o w its d a t e . T h e o n l y c a n d i d a t e s f o r its a u t h o r s h i p a r e D u a r t e a n d S i g u e n z a y G o n g o r a . D u a r t e was a Jesuit; Siguenza y G o n g o r a , exp e l l e d as a y o u t h f r o m t h e c o n v e n t o f t h e Society in P u e b l a , p a s s e d t h e last y e a r s o f his life in t r y i n g to r e e n t e r t h e Society o f J e s u s . B o t h o f t h e p o s s i b l e a u t h o r s t h u s r e p r e s e n t t h e M e x i c a n J e s u i t m e n t a l i t y . It a p p e a r s t h a t by 1 6 7 5 t h e h y p o t h e s i s o f a n a p o s t o l i c e v a n g e l i z a t i o n h a d m a t u r e d sufficiently t o j u s t i f y a s y s t e m a t i c r e v i e w o f t h e q u e s t i o n . H i t h e r t o t h e c h a m p i o n s of the evangelization of the N e w World by S a i n t T h o m a s , h e a d e d by t h e A u g u s t i n i a n C a l a n c h a , h a d a d v a n c e d t h e h y p o t h e s i s o n l y in t h e c o n t e x t o f a g e n e r a l h i s t o r y o f t h e I n d i a n past, t h e C o n q u e s t , a n d t h e missionary m o v e m e n t . I n D u a r t e ' s m a n u s c r i p t s , t h e e v a n g e l i z a t i o n o f t h e N e w W o r l d by S a i n t T h o m a s b e c a m e f o r t h e first t i m e t h e e x c l u s i v e o b j e c t o f a special i n q u i r y . T h i s fact itself i n d i c a t e s t h e i m p o r t a n c e a s s i g n e d to t h e p r o b l e m , w h i c h w e n t t o the very h e a r t of the spiritual disquiet of the New World, a n d t h e r e f o r e i n s p i r e d a g e n e r a l c h a l l e n g e to t h e p r e v i o u s h i s t o r i o g r a p h y o f t h e I n d i e s , " b e c a u s e t h e few a u t h o r s w h o h a v e w r i t t e n a b o u t t h e e v e n t s o f t h e I n d i e s d i d n o t k n o w t h e m . " H e r r e r a , t h e official r o y a l c h r o n i c l e r , is o f t e n q u o t e d , b u t is also t a k e n t o task. D u a r t e o p p o s e s t o " t h e p u r e a n d t r u e h i s t o r y " t h e h i s t o r y w r i t t e n by S p a n i a r d s w h o w e r e i g n o r a n t o f t h e subject. T h e n a t i v e a u t h o r s " k n e w t h e i r h i s t o r y well a n d w r o t e t h e h i s t o r y o f e v e n t s , a t first u s i n g t h e i r figures a n d h i e r o glyphs; later, w h e n they l e a r n e d to write in o u r script, s o m e scholarly m i n d s a m o n g t h e m w r o t e h i s t o r y . T h e s e h i s t o r i e s I h a v e in m y p o s s e s s i o n , a n d I a m filled w i t h j e a l o u s a d m i r a t i o n o f t h e l a n g u a g e a n d style in w h i c h t h e y a r e w r i t t e n , so t h a t I w i s h I c o u l d t r a n s l a t e t h e m i n t o C a s t i l i a n w i t h t h e e l e g a n c e a n d g r a c e t h e y h a v e in t h e i r M e x i c a n language." 3 0
T h e last q u a r t e r o f t h e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y sees t h e p o s t h u m o u s r e v e n g e o f S a h a g u n , i n v o k e d b y D u a r t e in t h e s a m e p a s s a g e as t h e g r e a t p r e c u r s o r w h o " k n e w all t h e s e c r e t s . " C r e o l e d i s t r u s t f o r t h e official S p a n i s h h i s t o r y g o e s h a n d in h a n d w i t h e x a l t a t i o n o f t h e n a t i v e histories a n d of t h e I n d i a n past. A m i d t h e j u m b l e of b o r r o w i n g s f r o m t h e Brazilian Jesuits ( N o b r e g a a n d Vasconcelos), from Calancha, Torq u e m a d a , Las Casas, a n d Solorzano Pereira, we can discern the b r o a d l i n e s o f w h a t t h e disertacion o f S i g u e n z a y G o n g o r a m u s t h a v e b e e n . T o begin with t h e failure of t h e apostles to evangelize t h e Indies w o u l d h a v e b e e n i n c o m p a t i b l e w i t h t h e c o m m a n d m e n t docete omni creaturae" in t h e G o s p e l s . T h e I n d i e s r e p r e s e n t e d a t h i r d o f m a n k i n d ; it w a s theologically impossible, therefore, that they should n o t have b e e n e v a n g e l i z e d b y a n a p o s t l e o f C h r i s t . N o w , w e k n o w t h e lives o f t h e Apostles. T h e only o n e w h o could have evangelized the Indies, from u
190
QUETZALCOATL, OR THE PHOENIX BIRD
w h a t w e k n o w o f his life, was t h e d o u b t i n g S a i n t T h o m a s . S p a n i a r d s w h o r e f u s e d t h e gift o f g r a c e t o t h e I n d i a n s w e r e t h e v e r y p e r s o n s i n t e r e s t e d in c o n s i g n i n g t h e m t o p e r d i t i o n . G r a n t e d t h a t t h e e v a n g e l i z a t i o n by S a i n t T h o m a s w a s a n i n t e g r a l p a r t o f r e v e l a t i o n , w h a t m a t e rial s i g n s h a v e w e o f S a i n t T h o m a s ' p a s s a g e t o t h e N e w W o r l d ? T h e i n d e l i b l e t r a c e s of his feet, t h e m i r a c u l o u s s p r i n g s a n d t h e c r o s s e s f o u n d h e r e a n d t h e r e f r o m B a h i a in Brazil to G u a t u l c o , w e r e c o n v i n c i n g s i g n s . T h e totality o f I n d i a n r i t e s t h a t v a g u e l y e v o k e d C h r i s t i a n i t y : c o n f e s s i o n , fasting, c i r c u m c i s i o n ; t h e b e l i e f in o n e c r e a t o r G o d , in a v i r g i n m i r a c u l o u s l y m a d e m o t h e r , in t h e u n i v e r s a l D e l u g e ; b o l d int e r p r e t a t i o n s of the c r u c i f o r m symbols of t h e t e m p l e s a n d t h e codices; d a r i n g philological analogies; t h e discovery of t o n s u r e d Indians—all t h e s e t h i n g s w e r e c l a i m e d to b e vestiges o f a C h r i s t i a n i t y d e g r a d e d over a long period of time. A p e r s o n a g e f o u n d e v e r y w h e r e in A m e r i c a , c a l l e d Z u m e in P a r a g u a y . n d Brazil, V i r a c o c h a in P e r u , B o c h i c a in C o l o m b i a , Q u e t zalcoatl in M e x i c o , C u c u l c a n a m o n g t h e M a y a , c o l l e c t e d a b o u t h i m s e l f t h e m a x i m u m n u m b e r o f C h r i s t i a n a n a l o g i e s . H i s h i s t o r y , his a p p e a r a n c e , as t o l d by t h e n a t i v e t r a d i t i o n s , facilitated his i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h a n a p o s t l e o f C h r i s t ; his r e m o t e n e s s in t i m e h e l p e d t o d i s s i p a t e l i n g e r i n g d o u b t s : h e m u s t really b e t h e a p o s t l e S a i n t T h o m a s . T h i s "demonstration" drew on convergent presumptions borrowed from chroniclers, a n d o n symbolic interpretations of Scripture a n d the M e x i c a n c o d i c e s . T h e s u g g e s t e d a n a l o g i e s s i m p l y reflect t h e c o m m o n b a c k g r o u n d o f all t h e g r e a t r e l i g i o n s ; t h e t r a n s l a t i o n s f r o m G r e e k i n t o T u p i fall b e f o r e t h e m o s t s u p e r f i c i a l l i n g u i s t i c e x a m i n a t i o n . If w e d i s c a r d t h i s r u d i m e n t a r y s c h o l a r l y a p p a r a t u s , w h a t r e m a i n s is a m o d e o f r e a s o n i n g t h a t h a s b e e n o b s o l e t e since t h e E n l i g h t e n m e n t . D u a r t e ' s w h o l e a r g u m e n t a t i o n r e s t s o n a n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f r e v e l a t i o n ; his o n l y task is to find its m a n i f e s t a t i o n s . T h e r e is n o s u b m i s s i o n of proofs in t h e m o d e r n s e n s e , b u t a s u m m a r y o f t h e signs o f t h e p a s s a g e o f S a i n t T h o m a s through America. L
D u a r t e is as selective in his c h o i c e o f a u t h o r s as o f t h e n a t i v e pict u r e s a n d b e l i e f s : h e cites o n l y t h o s e p a s s a g e s o f L a s C a s a s a n d T o r q u e m a d a which are favorable to an early evangelization. H e ignores o r p a s s e s o v e r in silence t h e d o u b t s o f S a h a g u n . A s p i r i t o f s y m p a t h y with the I n d i a n w o r l d — t h e heritage of S a h a g u n a n d Las Casas— p e r v a d e s D u a r t e ' s work. A c c e p t a n c e of t h e thesis of Saint T h o m a s of A m e r i c a b e c o m e s for D u a r t e t h e t o u c h s t o n e of a writer's willingness t o d o j u s t i c e t o t h e I n d i a n p a s t , a n d h e n c e to A m e r i c a a n d its m o d e r n c h i l d r e n , t h e Creoles. T h e e v a n g e l i z a t i o n o f S a i n t T h o m a s , s i g n o f G o d ' s g r a c e , is t h e f o r m t h a t t h e c r e o l e c l a i m o f s p i r i t u a l e q u a l i t y w i t h S p a i n , o f d i g n i t y vis-a-vis t h e O l d W o r l d , a s s u m e s a t this d a t e ( 1 6 7 5 ) .
191
Saint Thomas-()uetzalc6atl,
Apostle oj Mexico
B e c e r r a T a n c o u n d e r l i n e d this link b e t w e e n t h e I n d i a n p a s t a n d t h e A m e r i c a n colonial p r e s e n t w h e n h e linked Saint T h o m a s Quetzalcoatl with t h e m i r a c u l o u s virgin of G u a d a l u p e . " I n o r d e r that you m a y see t h a t h e was in N e w S p a i n , r e a d t h e a p p a r i t i o n o f t h e V i r g i n o f G u a d a l u p e , p r i n t e d in M e x i c o in 1 6 7 5 , C h a p . Verbe divin, fol. 7 6 . T h e r e y o u will see t h a t S a i n t T h o m a s w a s in T u l a , as is c l e a r l y s h o w n b y t h e bachiller B e c e r r a , p r o f e s s o r o f t h e M e x i c a n l a n g u a g e , w h o r e a d a b o u t it in t h e I n d i a n h i s t o r i e s w h i c h tell o f t h e p r o d i g i o u s w o r k s a n d t h e d o c t r i n e t a u g h t by this K e t z a l c o h u a t l . " T h e g r a c e c o n t i n u a l l y d i s p e n s e d t o A m e r i c a a n d its p e o p l e s i n c e a p o s t o l i c t i m e s , a n d t h e r e c a l l i n g o f it, w h i c h facilitated t h e w o r k o f c o n v e r s i o n by m a k i n g t h e I n d i a n s feel t h a t this was n o b r e a k w i t h t h e i r p a s t b u t t h e a c c o m p l i s h m e n t of their s u p e r n a t u r a l destiny, was t h e i n d i s p e n s a b l e s p i r i t u a l b a s e f o r c r e o l e a s s e r t i o n s o f t h e i r d i g n i t y in t h e s e v e n t e e n t h century. 31
T h e m o s t r e m a r k a b l e a s p e c t o f t h e m a t t e r is t h e m a n n e r in w h i c h t h e c r e o l e d e s c e n d a n t s o f S p a n i a r d s e x a l t e d a n d t o o k o v e r as t h e i r o w n p a t r i m o n y t h e I n d i a n p a s t r e c o r d e d in N a h u a t l s o u r c e s . T h e s e n t i m e n t o f t h e A m e r i c a n patria, w e h a v e s e e n , a r o s e in p a r t as a r e a c t i o n t o t h e s c o r n h e a p e d by E u r o p e a n s u p o n b o t h I n d i a n s a n d Creoles. S i n c e t h e Creoles w e r e , a f t e r all, A m e r i c a ' s f a v o r i t e c h i l d r e n , t h e y a p p r o p r i a t e d for t h e m s e l v e s A m e r i c a ' s p r e - C o l u m b i a n h i s t o r y , t e l l u r i c p r e d e s t i n a t i o n p r e v a i l i n g o v e r ties o f b l o o d . I n t h e last analysis, t h e q u e s t i o n was w h e t h e r t h e p e o p l e s o f A m e r i c a h a d s h a r e d t h e h u m a n c o n d i t i o n a n d its s u p e r n a t u r a l a d v e n t u r e since t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e C h r i s t i a n e r a o r if A m e r i c a h a d b e e n for s i x t e e n c e n t u r i e s a spiritual n o - m a n ' s - l a n d . T h e second hypothesis, based o n an int e r p r e t a t i o n o f C h r i s t e n d o m as a n a d v e n t u r e u n f o l d i n g in t i m e , played into the h a n d s of those w h o identified the " I n d i e s " with a B a b y l o n t h a t m e r i t e d t h e s c o u r g e s o f G o d . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , t o set a t i m e limit o f t h i r t y y e a r s f o r t h e a c c o m p l i s h m e n t o f J e s u s ' m i s s i o n a r y i n j u n c t i o n s t r i p p e d t h e c r i m e s o f t h e C o n q u e s t o f all p o s s i b l e j u s t i f i c a tion a n d c o n f e r r e d o n Spain's A m e r i c a n d e p e n d e n c i e s a n d their p o p u l a t i o n s , a n c i e n t a n d p r e s e n t , a d i g n i t y e q u a l to S p a i n ' s . D u a r t e , w h o h a d r e a d c a r e f u l l y t h e Apologetica Historia o f L a s C a s a s , r e c a l l e d all t h e s u p e r s t i t i o n s o f t h e G r e e k s , t h e R o m a n s , a n d t h e I b e r i a n s ; h e r e g a r d e d t h e m , like t h e I n d i a n s u p e r s t i t i o n s , as c r u d e a p p r o x i m a t i o n s o f t h e t r u e faith. T h e m e a n i n g of t h e e v i d e n c e g a t h e r e d b y D u a r t e f o r S i g u e n z a y G o n g o r a , t h e n , was t h a t it a b o l i s h e d t h e b r e a k with the A m e r i c a n past that the C o n q u e s t r e p r e s e n t e d a n d thereby e n d o w e d A m e r i c a with a spiritual status ( a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y a j u r i d i c a l a n d political status) t h a t p u t h e r o n a f o o t i n g o f e q u a l i t y w i t h t h e t u t e l a r y p o w e r , S p a i n . T h e skillful u s e o f biblical p r o p h e c i e s , M e x i c a n
192
QUETZALCOATL, OR THE PHOENIX BIRD
codices, a n d missionary accounts m a k e s D u a r t e ' s collection a t r u e d o s sier in s u p p o r t o f A m e r i c a ' s a p p l i c a t i o n f o r a d m i s s i o n i n t o a " s p i r i t u a l society o f n a t i o n s , " a society n o n e t h e less r e a l b e c a u s e it l a c k e d j u r i d i cal s t a t u s . I n o r d e r t o j o i n t h e c o m m u n i t y o f n a t i o n s , t h e A m e r i c a n lands m u s t show their apostolic "patent" p r o v i n g they w e r e "old Christians"; they m u s t p r o v e they h a d b e e n p a r t of C h r i s t e n d o m from its b e g i n n i n g s . B e t w e e n t h e c a t e g o r i e s o f C h r i s t i a n s (Catholics) a n d Moslems t h e r e was only an inferior a n d d e p e n d e n t status, that of newly Christianized barbarians. F r o m the status of spiritual d e p e n d e n c e i n e v i t a b l y flowed political a n d a d m i n i s t r a t i v e s u b j e c t i o n . If t h e A m e r i c a n patria w a s to t a k e r o o t in its o w n soil it m u s t d e v e l o p a s e n s e o f its i d e n t i t y ; a n d it c o u l d o n l y find t h e f o u n d a t i o n s it s o u g h t in t h e g r a c e o f G o d , n o t in t h e d i s a s t e r o f a C o n q u e s t t h a t s t r o n g l y r e s e m b l e d t h e A p o c a l y p s e . F o r M e x i c a n s Q u e t z a l c o a t l was t h e i n s t r u m e n t o f a c h a n g e in s p i r i t u a l s t a t u s , a c h a n g e t h a t i m p a r t e d t o t h e c r e o l e consciousness the e n e r g y necessary a century a n d a half later to throw off t h e c o l o n i a l y o k e a n d r e s t o r e politically t h a t " E m p i r e o f A n a h u a c " w h i c h c o n n o i s s e u r s o f " a n t i q u i t i e s " like S i g u e n z a y G o n g o r a h a d e a r lier b r o u g h t b a c k f r o m s p i r i t u a l d e a t h . If t h e y h a d n o t first a p p r o p r i a t e d t h e I n d i a n p a s t , t h e Creoles c o u l d n e v e r h a v e t a k e n t h e M e x i c a n nation's future into their own h a n d s .
The Dissertation on Saint Thomas-Quetzalcoatl of the Dominican Mier (1813) T h e political p o t e n t i a l o f S a i n t T h o m a s o f A m e r i c a o n l y b e c a m e c l e a r a c e n t u r y l a t e r in t h e w r i t i n g s o f t h e D o m i n i c a n o f M o n t e r r e y , F r a y S e r v a n d o T e r e s a d e M i e r . If S a i n t T h o m a s Q u e t z a l c o a t l a p p e a r e d in t h e second half of t h e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y to b e A m e r i c a ' s sheet a n c h o r , its b e s t a n d s u r e s t h o p e , t h e r e a s o n s w e r e still e s s e n t i a l l y s p i r i t u a l . T h e e s c h a t o l o g i c a l h o p e o f t h e first F r a n c i s c a n s , t h e m i l l e n a r i a n d r e a m o f a n Iglesia Indiana, e x p r e s s e d by F r a y J e r o n i m o d e M e n d i e t a , h a d v a n i s h e d by t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e r e i g n o f P h i l l i p I I I . L a c k i n g a n e x a l t e d f u t u r e , t h e " I n d i a n c h u r c h " m u s t find a g r e a t p a s t f o r itself; w h o c o u l d b e t t e r e n d o w it w i t h s u c h a p a s t t h a n a n a p o s t l e of Christ? T h u s w h e n D u a r t e a n d Siguenza y G o n g o r a b r o u g h t Saint T h o m a s - Q u e t z a l c o a t l b a c k t o life h e a p p e a r e d as a k i n d o f r e l a y h o r s e , d e s t i n e d t o give a f r e s h s t a r t t o N e w S p a i n ' s s p i r i t u a l life, totally e x h a u s t e d by a s t r e n u o u s c e n t u r y a n d a half of eschatological exaltat i o n . If t h e " I n d i a n c h u r c h " w a s n o t in fact t h e N e w E v a n g e l i c a l c h u r c h , like t h a t o f J e s u s a n d t h e a p o s t l e s , it s e e m e d n e c e s s a r y t o l i n k it t o t h e a p o s t o l i c c h u r c h in s o m e f a s h i o n . T h e a b a n d o n m e n t o f t h e first h y p o t h e s i s really left n o o t h e r logical a l t e r n a t i v e . T h e r o l e o f t h e i l l u m i n i s t f r i a r s , w h o h a d p l a y e d so g r e a t a p a r t in t h e f o r m a t i o n o f a n
193
Saint Thomas-ihietzakoatl,
Apostle of Mexico
A m e r i c a n c o n s c i o u s n e s s o n p r o p h e t i c f o u n d a t i o n s , r e m a i n e d vital in this s e c o n d s p i r i t u a l f e v e r . A l t h o u g h less a m b i t i o u s t h a n t h e p r e v i o u s o n e , its p r o g r e s s i v e laicization was t o m a k e it a l e a v e n o f political separatism. F r a y S e r v a n d o T e r e s a d e M i e r w a s b o r n i n t o t h e family o f a f o r m e r g o v e r n o r o f N u e v o L e o n a n d always i n s i s t e d o n b e i n g t r e a t e d w i t h t h e r e s p e c t d u e a m a n o f his q u a l i t y . T h r o u g h o u t his Memorias h e c l a i m s f o r h i m s e l f t h e b e n e f i t s a n d p r e r o g a t i v e s c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o his n o b l e s t a t e , t o his s t a t u s o f a d o c t o r o f t h e u n i v e r s i t y a n d a D o m i n i c a n friar. A n a c c i d e n t , t h e s e r m o n w h i c h h e d e l i v e r e d in 1 7 9 4 , t h e d a y o f t h e s o l e m n c e l e b r a t i o n o f t h e V i r g i n o f G u a d a l u p e , c h a n g e d his life a n d e n d e d his c a r e e r o f p r e a c h e r . L e a r n e d a n d q u i c k , h e p e r c e i v e d h o w fragile w e r e t h e p r o o f s of t h e m i r a c u l o u s a p p e a r a n c e of t h e Virgin a n d (so h e testified d u r i n g his trial) s o u g h t to find m o r e a n c i e n t f o u n d a t i o n s for t h e tradition. Mier d i d n o m o r e t h a n e x p o u n d t h e cloudy ideas of a c o n n o i s s e u r of Mexican antiquities, licentiate Ignacio B o r u n d a . Mier claimed that the a p p e a r a n c e of the Virgin o n t h e cloak of t h e I n d i a n J u a n Diego w h e n h e p r e s e n t e d himself to B i s h o p Z u m a r r a g a was a pious legend. A c c o r d i n g to the D o m i n i c a n , t h e cloak b e l o n g e d t o S a i n t T h o m a s o f M y l a p o r e ( n o t to t h e a p o s t l e S a i n t T h o m a s ) , w h o h a d evangelized Mexico a b o u t the sixth century. T h i s w a s c l e a r l y p r o v e d , M i e r i n s i s t e d , b y t h e beliefs, t h e r i t e s , a n d t h e codices of t h e ancient Mexicans. W i t h o u t d e n y i n g t h e miraculous trad i t i o n o f G u a d a l u p e , M i e r t h u s s n a t c h e d a w a y f r o m t h e S p a n i a r d s all its b e n e f i t s , c l a i m i n g t h a t t h e a r r i v a l o f t h e V i r g i n h a d p r e c e d e d t h e i r c o m i n g by t e n c e n t u r i e s . T h e V i r g i n o f G u a d a l u p e , p a t r o n e s s o f t h e I n d i a n s o f N e w S p a i n , was t r a d i t i o n a l l y o p p o s e d t o t h e V i r g e n d e los R e m e d i o s , i n v o k e d b y t h e r o u t e d C o n q u i s t a d o r s d u r i n g t h e Noche Triste; if M i e r ' s h y p o t h e s i s o f a p r e - H i s p a n i c e v a n g e l i z a t i o n w e r e a c c e p t e d , it w o u l d u n d e r m i n e t h e p r i n c i p a l — i n d e e d t h e only—-juridical f o u n d a t i o n of t h e C o n q u e s t , Spain's evangelical mission. Given t h e f e r v e n t loyalty o f M e x i c a n s ( c r e o l e s as well as I n d i a n s ) t o G u a d a l u p e a n d t h e i r h a t r e d f o r t h e gachupines, t h e c o m p l e t e s p i r i t u a l a u t o n o m y p r o m i s e d t h e m by M i e r ' s d u a l h y p o t h e s i s t h r e a t e n e d t o h e a t M e x i c a n m i n d s t o t h e p o i n t w h e r e t h e y m i g h t d e m a n d political a u t o n o m y . M i e r ' s d a r i n g t h e o r y u n d e r m i n e d t h e f o u n d a t i o n o f t h e S p a n i s h title t o A m e r i c a a n d s i m u l t a n e o u s l y a f f i r m e d G o d ' s special g r a c e to Mexico, thereby freeing h e r from Spanish messianic tutelage. M u c h l a t e r , in 1 8 2 2 , s u m m a r i z i n g w h a t h a d b e e n his i n t e n t t o t h e C o n s t i t u e n t C o n g r e s s in w h i c h h e sat as d e p u t y , M i e r d e c l a r e d : " I p r e a c h e d t h a t A m e r i c a , which was n o t a g r e a t e r s i n n e r t h a n t h e rest o f t h e w o r l d , h a d its p l a c e in t h e e c o n o m y o f t h e r e d e m p t i o n o f mankind." 3 2
M i e r h a d c o n s u l t e d all t h e a u t h o r s w h o d e a l t b e f o r e h i m w i t h t h e
194
QUETZALCOATL, OR THE PHOENIX BIRD
p r o b l e m of p r e - H i s p a n i c evangelization; h e cited t h e study of Siguenza y G o n g o r a (which h e h a d not read) a n d that "of a Port u g u e s e Jesuit of Manila" w h o was doubtless M a n u e l D u a r t e . (Fray S e r v a n d o ' s c o m m e n t s t e n d to confirm m y hypothesis t h a t S i g u e n z a y G o n g o r a ' s essay was lost a n d t h a t t h e t e x t s p u b l i s h e d by R a m i r e z w e r e m a t e r i a l s c o l l e c t e d b y D u a r t e . ) Significantly, M i e r p u b l i s h e d h i s Dissertation on the Preaching of the Evangel in America Before the Conquest as a n a p p e n d i x t o t h e Historia de la Revolution de Nueva Espana, antiguamente Anahuac p u b l i s h e d in L o n d o n ( w h e r e M i e r lived in exile) in 1 8 1 3 . Previous writings o n the subject h a d s p o k e n of t h e evangelization of A m e r i c a "in t h e time of t h e apostles." T h e new w o r d i n g reveals a different perspective. R e f e r e n c e to "the time of t h e apostles" placed t h e accent o n t h e mission e n t r u s t e d to t h e apostles by C h r i s t a n d t h e t h e o l o g i c a l difficulty o f e x c l u d i n g A m e r i c a f r o m t h a t o r i g i n a l evangelization. O n the o t h e r h a n d , Mier (who identified Quetzalcoatl, V i r a c o c h a , a n d t h e like w i t h a S a i n t T h o m a s o f t h e s i x t h c e n t u r y , a n d n o t with t h e apostle) r e f e r r e d to t h e C o n q u e s t , m e a n i n g t h a t for h i m t h e i m p o r t a n t p o i n t w a s t h a t t h e a n c i e n t M e x i c a n s , like t h e m o d e r n ones, h a d received the immediate grace of revelation a n d not a m e d i a t e d , t a r d y g r a c e w i t h t h e S p a n i a r d s a c t i n g as m e d i a t o r s , as t h e p e o p l e c h o s e n by G o d t o b r i n g t h e L i g h t to t h e g e n t i l e s o f t h e N e w W o r l d . T h e d a t e o f t h e first e v a n g e l i z a t i o n was u n i m p o r t a n t ; t h e i m p o r t a n t t h i n g w a s t h a t it t o o k p l a c e before the Conquest. 33
T h e thesis of the evangelization of N e w Spain "anciently A n a h u a c , " by S a i n t T h o m a s , w a s in p r e e s t a b l i s h e d h a r m o n y w i t h t h e u n c e r t a i n t y of the liberators of N e w Spain a b o u t the n a m e that their new c o u n t r y should bear; after having wavered between " A n a h u a c " a n d "Mexico," t h e y c h o s e t h e s e c o n d ; in b o t h cases t h e r e is a c l e a r w i s h t o r e k n i t t h e t h r e a d o f a h i s t o r y i n t e r r u p t e d by t h e C o n q u e s t . T h e Disertacion ( m o r e explicitly t h a n the Apologia del Dr. Mier, in w h i c h h e j u s t i f i e s h i s p o s i t i o n o n t h e c o n n e c t e d p r o b l e m o f G u a d a l u p e ) is c o m p o s e d o f a n i n t e r p r e t i v e p a r t a n d a critical p a r t ; t h e s e c o n d p a r t is t h e m o s t int e r e s t i n g . H i s m a j o r t h e s i s will n o t s t a n d u p u n d e r m o d e r n scientific e x a m i n a t i o n . It m a y b e s u m m e d u p w i t h this s t a t e m e n t o f t h e a u t h o r : " I t is a r e m a r k a b l e t h i n g t h a t all M e x i c a n m y t h o l o g y c a n b e e x p l a i n e d by its C h r i s t i a n f o u n d a t i o n , o n c e o n e h a s t r a n s l a t e d ' Q u e t z a l c o a t l ' by Saint T h o m a s . " A l t h o u g h Mier's use of linguistic a r g u m e n t s to p r o v e t h e i d e n t i t y o f t h e a n c i e n t M e x i c a n beliefs w i t h C h r i s t i a n i t y gives t h e a p p e a r a n c e o f n o v e l t y , h e h a d b o r r o w e d t h e m e t h o d in p a r t f r o m t h e l i c e n t i a t e I g n a c i o B o r u n d a , a u t h o r o f a Clave general de geroglificos americanos. We k n o w t h a t B o r u n d a i n s p i r e d M i e r ' s s e r m o n o f 1 7 9 4 o n G u a d a l u p e . By skillful s y m b o l i c i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f t h e Mexican codices a n d glyphs, Mier i n t r o d u c e d Christ, t h e Virgin, t h e 3 4
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Saint Thomas-ihietzalcoatl,
Apostle of Mexico
T r i n i t y , a n d all t h e s a i n t s o f P a r a d i s e ( a n d P a r a d i s e itself!) i n t o t h e Mexican a n d Maya religions. B o t u r i n i h a d already e m p l o y e d this i n t e r p r e t a t i o n w h e n h e w r o t e : " T h e glorious Apostle Saint T h o m a s , w h o m the Indians m e t a p h o r i cally call Q u e t z a l c o a t l , t h a t is, ' P l u m e d S e r p e n t ' " M i e r w e n t f a r t h e r a n d a t t r i b u t e d to S p a n i s h blindness t h e e r r o r of foisting o n t h e Mexic a n s t h e i d o l a t r o u s c u l t o f t h e s e r p e n t (with its C h r i s t i a n c o n n o t a t i o n o f a d i a b o l i c s y m b o l ) : " T h a t is w h y M e x i c o h a s b e e n m a d e t o a p p e a r t h e m o s t s e r p e n t i n e a n d s n a k y l a n d in t h e w o r l d . " H e d e v e l o p e d this c h a r g e : " I r e p e a t t h a t t h e S p a n i a r d s a n d t h e m i s s i o n a r i e s , w h o saw t h e devil e v e r y w h e r e , h a v e b e d e v i l e d e v e r y t h i n g u n c o n s c i o n a b l y ; s e e k i n g to collect t h e r i t e s a n d beliefs o f t h e d i f f e r e n t p r o v i n c e s a f t e r t h e y h a d b u r n e d the libraries, they got their information from the stupid mult i t u d e ( w h o t o d a y w o u l d also give a d i a b o l i c p i c t u r e o f o u r C a t h o l i c beliefs) a n d so c o n c o c t e d a n i n c r e d i b l e m i s h m a s h . " It is c l e a r w h a t F r a y S e r v a n d o , c r e o l e f r i a r a n d M e x i c a n a r i s t o c r a t , is a b o u t : h e is i n d i c t i n g t h e m e t h o d s o f t h e m i s s i o n a r i e s a n d s u b j e c t i n g t o critical r e v i s i o n t h e h i s t o r y o f t h e a n c i e n t M e x i c a n s as it h a d b e e n w r i t t e n b y t h e S p a n i s h r e l i g i o u s (gachupines) b e f o r e h i m . T w o c a u s e s h a d c o n t r i b u t e d to t h e f a i l u r e t o c o m p r e h e n d t h e e a r l y C h r i s t i a n i t y o f t h e M e x i c a n I n d i a n s : ill will a n d i g n o r a n c e . " T h e S p a n i a r d s w e r e i n t e n t o n c r e a t i n g devils a n d e v e n i n s i s t e d o n s e e i n g G r e e k a n d R o m a n g o d s in M e x i c o . " Mier n o w h e r e mentions Sahagun, who could be c h a r g e d w i t h t h i s o f f e n s e ; w a s h e a f r a i d to t a k e o n this f o r m i d a b l e a d v e r s a r y ? O r w a s h e i g n o r a n t o f his w o r k ? V e r y likely, b u t M i e r ' s dislike f o r t h e F r a n c i s c a n s r e p e a t e d l y m a n i f e s t s itself. O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , h e o f t e n e x a l t s t h e D o m i n i c a n s , his c o r e l i g i o n i s t s , a n d especially Las C a s a s . I n his d e f e n s e o f t h e I n d i a n s , a n d b y h i s c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e " B l a c k L e g e n d " o f t h e C o n q u e s t , M i e r a p p e a r s in s o m e r e s p e c t s a belated c o n t i n u a t o r of the w o r k of the b i s h o p of Chiapas. Curiously e n o u g h , this aristocrat, related to a colonial g o v e r n o r , exalts t h e I n dians o r r a t h e r the I n d i a n past; a D o m i n i c a n , h e indicts t h e Hispanic m i s s i o n a r y r e c o r d . T h e r e a s o n is t h a t M i e r ' s h a t r e d f o r t h e gachupines h a d c o m e to d o m i n a t e e v e r y o t h e r f e e l i n g . M i e r r e p r o a c h e d C l a v i j e r o f o r his lack o f b o l d n e s s a n d s i n c e r i t y o n t h e s u b j e c t o f p r e - H i s p a n i c evangelization, a thesis which Clavijero secretly a p p r o v e d , a c c o r d i n g t o M i e r . It s h o u l d b e n o t e d t h a t in t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y t h e Creoles c a m e to f o r m t h e o v e r w h e l m i n g m a j o r i t y in t h e A m e r i c a n r e l i g i o u s o r d e r s (this h a d b e e n t h e case w i t h t h e D o m i n i c a n s o f N e w S p a i n s i n c e the second half of the seventeenth century) a n d resented the rule w h i c h r e q u i r e d " a l t e r n a t i o n " w i t h t h e gachupines. 3 6
3 7
3 8
3 9
T h e conflict b e t w e e n S p a n i a r d s a n d A m e r i c a n S p a n i a r d s , w h i c h a r o s e t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e first c r e o l e g e n e r a t i o n a b o u t 1 5 5 0 , h a d b e c o m e
196
QUETZALCOATL, OR THE PHOENIX BIRD
a c u t e by t h e e n d of t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y , d u e to causes which I have already discussed. Mier, p e r s e c u t e d for p r o p o u n d i n g a historical h y p o t h e s i s w h i c h a p p e a r e d d a n g e r o u s t o S p a n i s h a u t h o r i t y ( s p e cifically t o A r c h b i s h o p H a r o y P e r a l t a ) , e x p r e s s e d t h e c r e o l e r e v o l t in h i s t o r i c a l t e r m s . H e d e n o u n c e d t h e falsification o f t h e p a s t o f his A m e r i c a n patria as t h e f r u i t o f r e a s o n s o f s t a t e a n d b a s e n e s s . R e v i e w i n g t h e h i s t o r y o f t h e q u e s t i o n , h e e x p l a i n e d t h e difficulties t h a t his c o r e l i g i o n i s t s , A n t o n i o d e R e m e s a l a n d A g u s t i n D a v i l a Padilla, h a d e n c o u n t e r e d in p u b l i s h i n g t h e i r w o r k s by t h e i r f a v o r a b l e p o s t u r e t o w a r d t h e t h e s i s of a n a p o s t o l i c e v a n g e l i z a t i o n o f M e x i c o . A s f o r t h e J e s u i t A c o s t a , " H e a t t r i b u t e s e v e r y t h i n g t o t h e t e a c h i n g o f t h e devil, w h o , h e says, w a n t e d t o a p e G o d . T h e devil, if y o u p l e a s e , h a d n o t h i n g better to d o t h a n m a k e crosses a n d teach t h e catechism!" For the r e s t , A c o s t a , in De procuranda Indorum salute, h a d s h o w n t h a t h e d i d n o t b e l i e v e all t h i s ; o p p o r t u n i s m m a d e h i m l a t e r p r e t e n d , in his Historia, t h a t h e s u p p o r t e d t h e t h e s i s o f " d i a b o l i c a l p a r o d y . " I n reality, a c c o r d i n g to M i e r , A c o s t a w a s c o n v i n c e d t h a t t h e M e x i c a n s h a d p r e s e r v e d t h e m e m o r y o f a n a n c i e n t e v a n g e l i z a t i o n , as s h o w n b y M o c t e z u m a ' s r e m a r k s to Cortes. " F o r this r e a s o n a n d m a n y o t h e r s , Acosta says a g a i n a n d a g a i n t h a t t h e w a y w a s o p e n f o r i n t r o d u c i n g t h e G o s p e l into A m e r i c a without effusion of b l o o d . " A p p a r e n t l y contradicting himself, b u t r e a l l y c o m p l e m e n t i n g w h a t w e n t b e f o r e , M i e r w r o t e : "All t h e r i t e s a n d all t h e h i s t o r y o f t h e M e x i c a n s so c l e a r l y a l l u d e to rites a n d to passages of the O l d a n d t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t that the Spanish a u t h o r s c o m m e n t o n it a t e v e r y s t e p . " W h a t follows is e v e n m o r e i n t e r e s t i n g : " T h e m i g r a t i o n o f t h e M e x i c a n s t o A n a h u a c is so i d e n t i c a l w i t h t h a t o f t h e p e o p l e o f I s r a e l in t h e d e s e r t t h a t i n t h e first e d i t i o n o f T o r q u e m a d a ' s w o r k this p a s s a g e w a s s u p p r e s s e d , a n d t h e e d i t o r o f t h e s e c o n d e d i t i o n h a d t o e n g a g e in all k i n d s o f c i r c u m l o c u t i o n s t o r e s t o r e it t o t h e s e c o n d e d i t i o n . " T h e facts s e e m to s u p p o r t F r a y S e r v a n d o h e r e , for t h e e d i t o r of t h e second edition of T o r q u e m a d a ' s work, after m a n y circumlocutions, published the chapter on " T h e J o u r n e y Made by t h e Mexican I n d i a n s , R e s e m b l i n g T h a t of t h e P e o p l e of Israel," b u t a s c r i b e d it t o F r a y G r e g o r i o G a r c i a , w h o h a d e x p r e s s e d " t h e s a m e idea, b u t m o r e briefly." 4 0
4 1
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T h e fear of creole heresies was n o t entirely unjustified at t h e e n d of t h e s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y a n d in t h e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y , as s h o w n by t h e trial o f F r a y F r a n c i s c o d e la C r u z in P e r u . F e a r f o r t e r r i t o r i a l s e c u r i t y p l a y e d a l a r g e p a r t in t h e s t r u g g l e a g a i n s t h e r e s y . L e t t e r s t o r o y a l confessors were filled with insinuations t h a t illuminist friars ( S p a n i a r d s a t first) m i g h t l a u n c h a n A m e r i c a n m e s s i a n i c m o v e m e n t (a " r e p l y " t o t h e S p a n i s h m e s s i a n i s m ) a n d incite t h e I n d i a n s a g a i n s t t h e S p a n i s h administration. L a t e r t h e illuminists b e c a m e fewer, b u t t h e
197
Saint Thomas-Quetzalcoatl,
Apostle of Mexico
p a t r i o t i c Creoles n e v e r c e a s e d t o t r o u b l e t h e S p a n i s h g o v e r n m e n t . E v e r y t h i n g in t h e I n d i a n p r e - C o n q u e s t p a s t t h a t m i g h t m a k e t h e I n dians a p p e a r a chosen people, m u s t be erased from the histories. H e n c e t h e s e i z u r e s o f m a n u s c r i p t s in t h e s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y a n d t h e p e r s e c u t i o n o f M i e r in t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y . M i e r , a c c u s e d o f h e r e s y , in r e a l i t y w a s f e a r e d b e c a u s e o f his A m e r i c a n p a t r i o t i s m . T o p r o c l a i m t h a t t h e separatists of t h e I n d i e s w e r e heretics, was a consist e n t S p a n i s h tactic. T h e i n s i s t e n c e o n s i l e n c e w a s g r e a t e r t h a n e v e r i n t h e twilight years of t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y w h e n t h e whole world was in r e v o l u t i o n ; t h e n a t i o n a l p a s t o f t h e A m e r i c a n v i c e r o y a l t i e s m u s t r e m a i n b u r i e d u n d e r the ashes. Mier has the virtue of d e n o u n c i n g official h y p o c r i s y , o f s h o w i n g in a political l i g h t a p r o b l e m t h a t t o s o m e e x t e n t h a d always b e e n a political o n e : " W h a t a pity t h a t f e a r p r e v e n t e d m e n f r o m g i v i n g p e r t i n e n t i n f o r m a t i o n o n this p o i n t t o t h e learned B a r o n d e H u m b o l d t , a n d that the Baron, who gave the world such a magnificent edition of the antiquities of Mexico a n d t h e history o f Q u e t z a l c o a t l , s h o u l d h a v e c o p i e d literally t h e m i s t a k e s o f t h e o l d m i s s i o n a r i e s a n d w a s t e d his s p l e n d i d e r u d i t i o n in l o o k i n g f o r a s n a k e - w o r s h i p i n g p e o p l e to c o m p a r e with t h e M e x i c a n s ! " Mier w r o t e his Disertacion t o r e d r e s s t h e w r o n g d o n e to t h e h i s t o r y o f his c o u n t r y . " I , w h o h a v e c a r e f u l l y s t u d i e d M e x i c a n m y t h o l o g y , find t h a t T o r q u e m a d a , like all t h e S p a n i s h a u t h o r s , talks n o n s e n s e . . . . T h e r e f o r e , I enter without fear the serpent's jaws that formed the entrance into t h e t e m p l e of Quetzalcoatl." Mier t a m e d t h e s e r p e n t a n d d e n o u n c e d the swindle that Spanish reasons of state h a d i m p o s e d for two a n d a half centuries. 4 5
4 6
S u c h , a t least, was F r a y S e r v a n d o ' s c o n c e p t i o n o f his r o l e . I h a v e said t h a t his t h e s i s c a n n o t s t a n d e x a m i n a t i o n . B u t g i v e n t h e w o r l d system of Fray S e r v a n d o — a world outlook which r e m a i n e d m e t a p h y s ically t h e s a m e as t h a t o f his f o r e r u n n e r s , t h e m i s s i o n a r y f r i a r s — h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f M e x i c a n m y t h o l o g y w a s j u s t as c o n s i s t e n t as t h e i r s . E i t h e r t h e I n d i a n s h a d b e e n i d o l a t e r s , as S a h a g u n h a d s e e n t h e m , a n d in t h a t c a s e t h e a n a l o g i e s w i t h C h r i s t i a n i t y w e r e d i a b o l i c a l p a r o d i e s ; o r they h a d b e e n converted before the arrival of the Spaniards, a n d their C h r i s t i a n i t y h a d l a t e r b e e n p e r v e r t e d . M i e r ' s r e s e a r c h , his s t u d i e s o f the O r i e n t a l J e w s which led h i m to identify Quetzalcoatl with a H e l l e n i z e d J e w , S a i n t T h o m a s o f M y l a p o r e , m a k e his t h e s i s a p p e a r m o r e c o h e r e n t (if n o t m o r e c o n v i n c i n g ) t h a n t h a t o f t h e e a r l y F r a n c i s c a n m i s s i o n a r i e s , c o n s i d e r e d in t h e l i g h t o f t h e i r c o m m o n s y s t e m o f i d e a s . T o d a y w e k n o w t h a t n e i t h e r o f t h e s e t h e s e s is t e n a b l e . B u t t h e o v e r l a p o f r e v e l a t i o n , S c r i p t u r e , a n d i m p e r i a l policy as late as t h e b e g i n n i n g o f the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y reveals the spiritual c h a s m that s e p a r a t e d Spain (even after Charles III) from c o n t e m p o r a r y E u r o p e . T h e whole
198
QUETZALCOATL, OR THE PHOENIX BIRD
H i s p a n i c w o r l d i n c l u d i n g A m e r i c a , w h i c h h a d j u s t b e g u n to r e a d R o u s s e a u a n d B e n t h a m , w a s still r e a d y t o d i s p u t e a b o u t t h e e x i l e o f t h e p e o p l e o f I s r a e l . F r o m t h e s e d i s p u t e s , p e r h a p s as m u c h as f r o m R o u s s e a u ' s Contrat Social, M e x i c a n i n d e p e n d e n c e , s y m b o l i z e d b y H i d a l g o b r a n d i s h i n g t h e b a n n e r o f G u a d a l u p e , w a s b o r n . T h e fact o f t h e j o i n t p u b l i c a t i o n o f t h e Revolution de la Nueva Espana a n d t h e Disertacion o n Q u e t z a l c o a t l is v e r y significant. T h e r e v o l u t i o n w a s n o t m a d e so m u c h in t h e n a m e o f " n e w i d e a s " as in t h a t o f o l d p r i n c i p l e s , like t h o s e o f t h a t " C o n s t i t u t i o n " o f c o l o n i a l M e x i c o w h o s e a p p l i c a t i o n M i e r d e m a n d e d , a n d which was c o n s t r u c t e d f r o m t h e Laws of the Indies. Since t h e Western world was f o u n d e d o n t h e Catholic religion, it w a s vital f o r t h e f l o w e r i n g o f M e x i c a n n a t i o n a l s e n t i m e n t ( a n d A m e r i c a n p a t r i o t i c f e e l i n g in g e n e r a l ) t h a t Q u e t z a l c o a t l s h o u l d h a v e b e e n a C h r i s t i a n m i s s i o n a r y — b u t n o t a S p a n i a r d . M i e r h a d t h e political i n t e l l i g e n c e t o feel t h i s n e c e s s i t y ; his p e r s e c u t o r s w e r e p e r c e p t i v e e n o u g h t o s e n s e t h e d a n g e r t h a t his views p o s e d t o S p a n i s h r u l e o v e r N e w S p a i n . T h e s e facts r e v e a l a c o n t i n u i t y b e t w e e n t h e first h y p o t h eses r e l a t i v e t o A m e r i c a ' s p a s t a n d t h e g r e a t n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y m o v e m e n t s of i n d e p e n d e n c e . T h e i m p o r t a n t t h i n g a b o u t those revol u t i o n s is n o t t h e i r i d e o l o g i c a l d r e s s b u t t h e i r atavistic p a s s i o n s . Q u e t zalcoatl w a s less f o r t u n a t e t h a n G u a d a l u p e (as B o l i v a r well u n d e r s t o o d ) ; like t h e " Q u e e n o f I n d e p e n d e n c e , " his n a m e c o u l d h a v e b e e n a rallying point for the soldiers of I n d e p e n d e n c e . Nevertheless, t h e h i s t o r y o f his p o l i t i c o - l i t e r a r y v i c i s s i t u d e s b l e n d s w i t h t h a t of' M e x i c a n a n d , in a l a r g e r s e n s e , A m e r i c a n p a t r i o t i c f e e l i n g f r o m t h e C o n q u e s t to I n d e p e n d e n c e a n d even b e y o n d , for t h e d r i v i n g forces a n d goals of Mexican national consciousness have r e m a i n e d fundamentally the same.
Saint James of Compostela
and Saint Thomas of the New
World
A m o n g t h e S p a n i s h c o n q u i s t a d o r s , s o m e , like B e r n a l Diaz d e l Castillo, h a d d e n i e d seeing the apostle Saint J a m e s galloping t h r o u g h the c l o u d s a n d b r a n d i s h i n g t h e f l a m i n g s w o r d t h a t p u t t h e I n d i a n s to r o u t . T h e w a r s o f C o n q u e s t in M e x i c o a n d e l s e w h e r e in A m e r i c a , like t h o s e o f t h e S p a n i s h Reconquista, t o o k p l a c e u n d e r t h e s i g n o f t h e " L o r d Saint J a m e s . " N o apostle was b e t t e r qualified to be p a t r o n of t h e m o s t a m b i t i o u s e n t e r p r i s e o f c o n v e r s i o n in t h e h i s t o r y o f C h r i s t e n d o m since apostolic times. I n a r e s p o n s e of J u l y 24, o n t h e eve of t h e "Day of t h e Apostle," P o p e Calixtus h a d written "in t h e second t o n e [of t h e p l a i n c h a n t ] , J e s u s called S a i n t J a m e s a n d S a i n t J o h n b y t h e n a m e o f B o a n e r g e s , w h i c h m e a n s ' s o n s o f t h e t h u n d e r . ' J u s t as a c l a p o f t h u n d e r m a k e s t h e w h o l e e a r t h s h a k e , so t h e w h o l e w o r l d t r e m b l e s a t t h e i r voices. . . . " 4 7
199
Saint Thomas-Quetzalcoatl,
Apostle of Mexico
T h e discoverers and conquerors of America were such devotees of the p a t r o n of Spain a n d of the Virgin M a r y that the Mexican I n d i a n s t o o k " S a n t i a g o y M a r i a " f o r t h e d u a l p r i n c i p l e o f t h e i r r e l i g i o n , Ome teotl. T h e D o m i n i c a n c h r o n i c l e r R e m e s a l w r o t e t h a t t h e I n d i a n s d i d n o t k n o w " w h e t h e r Saint J a m e s was a m a n o r w o m a n . " T h e syncretic a s p i r a t i o n w o r k e d t h r o u g h b o t h m e a n i n g s , a n d in t h e p r e s e n t c a s e it f a v o r e d t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e c u l t o f S a i n t J a m e s a m o n g t h e I n d i a n s . I n M e x i c o t h e a p o s t l e s e e m s t o h a v e a p p e a r e d in t h e first b a t t l e s f o u g h t in T a b a s c o by C o r t e s , if w e m a y b e l i e v e G o m a r a , C o r t e s ' s c h r o n i c l e r , w h o w r i t e s : "All said t h a t t h r i c e t h e y saw a g r a y s p o t t e d h o r s e fighting a t o u r s i d e a g a i n s t t h e I n d i a n s . . . . a n d t h a t it was S a i n t J a m e s , o u r p a t r o n . " S a i n t J a m e s a p p e a r s t o h a v e also i n t e r v e n e d in t h e b a t t l e o f O t u m b a in J a l i s c o t o a i d N u n o d e G u z m a n , at Q u e r e t a r o , in N e w M e x i c o at G u a d a l a j a r a , a n d ( w h a t is m o s t r e m a r k a b l e ) h e s e e m s to h a v e t a k e n p a r t in t h e f a m o u s m a s s a c r e a t t h e great t e m p l e of Mexico-Tenochtitlan, w h e n A l v a r a d o o r d e r e d the s l a u g h t e r o f t h e u n a r m e d M e x i c a n nobility, e n g a g e d in r i t u a l d a n c e s . If t h e m i l i t a r y i n t e r v e n t i o n o f S a i n t J a m e s a t first m a d e h i m a p p e a r t o t h e I n d i a n s as a t e r r i f y i n g d i v i n i t y , w i t h t h e r e t u r n o f p e a c e h e w a s i n c o r p o r a t e d in t h e p o p u l a r mitotes o r d a n c e s as a r e s u l t o f t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f t h e festivals o f " M o o r s a n d C h r i s t i a n s . " U n d o u b t e d l y o n e o f t h e m o s t o r i g i n a l m a n i f e s t a t i o n s o f t h e c u l t o f S a i n t J a m e s in M e x i c o is t h e d a n c e " o f t h e S a i n t s J a m e s . " R. H e l i o d o r o Valle a n d R o b e r t Ricard have shed light o n the syncretic religious p h e n o m e n a c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e a c c l i m a t i z a t i o n o f t h e festivals o f t h e " M o o r s a n d C h r i s t i a n s " in M e x i c o ; in t h e s e festivals t h e a p o s t l e S a i n t J a m e s p l a y s t h e r o l e o f p r o t a g o n i s t . Yet t h e w a r r i o r S a i n t J a m e s w a s c a p a b l e o f s u d d e n a w a k e n i n g f r o m his s l e e p w h e n h i s t o r i c a l c o n d i t i o n s w e r e p r o p i t i o u s . O n e of t h e m o s t significant military i n t e r v e n t i o n s of t h e saint, c i t e d b y H e l i o d o r e Valle, is t h a t a t J a n i t s i o , w h e r e t h e a p o s t l e c a m e t o t h e h e l p o f T a r a s c a n I n d i a n s b e s i e g e d b y loyalist t r o o p s d u r ing the battles of the War of I n d e p e n d e n c e . Recalling that Michoacan w a s t h e s t a r t i n g p o i n t o f H i d a l g o ' s r e b e l l i o n , w e m a y s e e in this e v e n t a symbol of spiritual liberation. T h e reversal of the role of Saint J a m e s , t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o a n ally o f t h e I n d i a n s in a w a r o f l i b e r a t i o n a g a i n s t t h e gachupines, is a s i g n o f t h e t r a n s f e r o f S p a i n ' s s a c r e d p o w e r t o N e w Spain. T h e spiritual r o o t i n g of t h e m o s t S p a n i s h of S p a n i s h saints in Mexico signals t h e c o m p l e t i o n of a g e n e r a l process of assimilation of the cultural values of the colonizing people. Decolonization b e c a m e possible t h e m o m e n t t h e principal tutelary divinities c h a n g e d resid e n c e , m a k i n g a d i v i n e m i g r a t i o n f r o m t h e o l d sites o f p i l g r i m a g e t o n e w o n e s . T h e " t r a n s l a t i o n " o f t h e V i r g i n M a r y t o t h e hill o f T e p e y a c is d o u b t l e s s r i c h e s t in n a t i o n a l i m p l i c a t i o n s b u t is f a r f r o m b e i n g t h e o n l y o n e . T h e I n d i a n w h o , d a n c i n g t o t h e s o u n d o f his r i t u a l A z t e c 4 8
4 9
200
QUETZALCOATL, OR THE PHOENIX BIRD
teponaxtli, i n c a r n a t e s t h e " L o r d S a i n t J a m e s " a t t h e f o o t o f t h e p y r a m i d s o f T e o t i h u a c a n , l e a d s a r e l i g i o u s life t h a t is n o t m a t e r i a l l y d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h a t o f his f o r e b e a r s , w h o o c c a s i o n a l l y i n c a r n a t e d Quetzalcoatl o r s o m e o t h e r divinity of the ancient Mexican p a n t h e o n . T h e r i t u a l d r e s s h a s c h a n g e d , b u t t h e N a h u a t l d i a l o g u e in its a m b i g u i t y a n d t h e o a t h — f r e e f r o m all a m b i g u i t y — r e v e a l a p e r m a n e n t s p i r i t u a l a t t i t u d e , w h i c h is t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t . If t h e cult o f S a i n t T h o m a s - Q u e t z a l c o a t l n e v e r b e c a m e t r u l y p o p u l a r in N e w S p a i n , t h e c o m p e t i n g c u l t o f S a i n t J a m e s was p a r t l y t h e cause. Writing about the alleged p r e a c h i n g of Saint T h o m a s , w h o m t h e I n d i a n s called Q u e t z a l c o a t l , F r a y S e r v a n d o T e r e s a d e M i e r c o m m e n t e d : " I was n o t s u r p r i s e d b y this p r e a c h i n g , f o r I h a d h e a r d a b o u t it f r o m i n f a n c y f r o m t h e m o u t h o f m y l e a r n e d f a t h e r . All t h a t I h a v e s i n c e l e a r n e d h a s c o n f i r m e d its e x i s t e n c e a n d I d o n o t b e l i e v e a s i n g l e c u l t u r e d A m e r i c a n d o e s n o t k n o w a b o u t it o r d o u b t s i t . " Mier's s t a t e m e n t s u g g e s t s t h a t it was a belief w i d e l y h e l d b y c u l t u r e d Creoles (sabios; instruidos), b u t t h a t it e n j o y e d little p o p u l a r i t y a m o n g t h e m a s s of t h e people. T h e controversy a b o u t the evangelization of A m e r i c a by t h e a p o s t l e S a i n t T h o m a s , b e g u n at t h e e n d o f t h e s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y by t h e t h e o l o g i a n s , was c o n t i n u e d by t h e h i s t o r i a n s a n d e v e n t u ally c a m e b e f o r e t h e s u p r e m e t r i b u n a l o f S p a n i s h a n d S p a n i s h A m e r i c a n h i s t o r i o g r a p h y , t h e R e a l A c a d e m i a d e la H i s t o r i a , a t t h e e n d o f t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y . T h i s , t o b e s u r e , was a n a c c i d e n t , t h e r e s u l t o f t h e i n q u i s i t o r i a l trial o f F r a y S e r v a n d o , w h i c h h a d t o d o w i t h t h e c u l t of G u a d a l u p e . T h e authorities m o v e d against Mier because he h a d tried to revise t h e G u a d a l u p a n tradition a n d c a r r i e d the d e b a t e to t h e p u b l i c in a s e r m o n t h a t h e p r e a c h e d in t h e c a t h e d r a l . W e n o t e t h a t t h e sensitive p o i n t w a s n o t S a i n t T h o m a s - Q u e t z a l c o a t l , w h o m M i e r h a d skillfully l i n k e d to t h e V i r g i n o f G u a d a l u p e in his a r g u m e n t a t i o n , b u t t h e V i r g i n a l o n e . H o w e v e r , it was in t h e f o r m o f a h y p o t h e s i s o f t h e e v a n g e l i z a t i o n o f M e x i c o by t h e a p o s t l e S a i n t T h o m a s t h a t M i e r b e s t e x p r e s s e d t h e Mexican claim of s u p e r n a t u r a l equality with Spain. I n his Apologia h e w r i t e s : " I saw t h a t t h e patria g a i n e d t h e r e b y a n a p o s t l e , a g l o r y t o w h i c h all l a n d s a s p i r e , especially S p a i n , w h i c h is b u t a h a n d f u l o f e a r t h , y e t m u s t h a v e n o less t h a n t h r e e a p o s t l e s o f t h e first class." (He refers to Saint J a m e s , Saint Paul, a n d Saint Peter.) H e r e t h e d e b a t e focuses o n t h e t r u e issue: t h e c a p t u r e of t h e sacred p o w e r f r o m w h o s e seats ( t h e sites o f a p p a r i t i o n s o r s a c r e d relics) r a d i a t e d a c h a r i s m a t i c p o w e r t h a t c o u l d b e t r a n s l a t e d i n t o m i l i t a r y a n d political p o w e r . Mier himself c o n f i r m e d this i n t e r p r e t a t i o n w h e n , s e e k i n g to w i n J . B . M u f i o z a n d T r a g g i a t o his s i d e , h e a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e l a t t e r t h i s c o m m e n t , a d d r e s s e d t o t h e A c a d e m i a d e la H i s t o r i a : " I a s s u r e y o u , g e n t l e m e n , t h a t if w e S p a n i a r d s c o u l d s u p p l y f o r t h e p r e a c h i n g of 50
51
201
Saint Thomas-(hietzalc6atl,
Apostle of Mexico
S a i n t J a m e s in S p a i n o n e - t e n t h o f t h e p r o o f s t h a t t h e A m e r i c a n s h a v e f o r t h e p r e a c h i n g o f S a i n t T h o m a s in A m e r i c a , w e w o u l d p r o c l a i m our victory." N a t i o n s , as M i e r also w r o t e , " d i s p u t e o v e r t h e i r a p o s t l e s , " a n d S p a i n , w h i c h c l a i m e d t h r e e a p o s t l e s f o r h e r s e l f a l o n e , r e f u s e d to g r a n t A m e r i c a (one-third of the world) a single apostle, t h e d o u b t i n g Saint T h o m a s ; this, for t h e D o m i n i c a n , was a m o s t revolting m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f gachupin injustice. T h e r e s e e m e d t o b e n o d a n g e r t o S p a i n in p r o m o t i n g t h e c u l t o f S a i n t J a m e s in A m e r i c a (this w a s o n l y a p p a r e n t l y so, as w e saw a b o v e ) , b u t t o allow t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f a n A m e r i c a n a p o s t l e p r o p e r , all t h e m o r e A m e r i c a n b e c a u s e in p o p u l a r b e l i e f h e m e r g e d with o n e of t h e most i m p o r t a n t divinities of t h e p a g a n p a n t h e o n , Q u e t z a l c o a t l , w o u l d h a v e b e e n a political m i s t a k e f o r t h e Spanish C r o w n . O n e of the most distinguished representatives of that C r o w n in N e w S p a i n , B i s h o p P a l a f o x , h a d o r d e r e d t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f t h e s u r v i v i n g s t a t u e s o f M e x i c a n d i v i n i t i e s in his d i o c e s e o f P u e b l a — a t o w n s i t u a t e d h a r d b y C h o l u l a , t h e h o l y city o f Q u e t z a l c o a t l ; h e h a d also o r d e r e d t h e r e m o v a l o f c o a t s o f a r m s b e a r i n g t h e A z t e c e a g l e . T h e p o s s e s s i o n o f a n a t i v e a p o s t l e , r o o t e d in S c r i p t u r e o n t h e o n e h a n d a n d in t h e l e g e n d a r y t r a d i t i o n o f t h e T o l t e c s o n t h e o t h e r , w o u l d h a v e b e e n a t r u m p c a r d in t h e h a n d s o f t h e h e r o e s w h o p l a y e d f o r t h e d e s t i n y o f r e n a s c e n t A n a h u a c , t h e N e w " P h o e n i x o f t h e West." F r a y S e r v a n d o was not, p r o p e r l y speaking, o n e of those illuminist friars w h i c h N e w S p a i n p r o d u c e d in s u c h p l e n t y , b u t h e m u s t h a v e s e n s e d t h e p o t e n t i a l v i r t u e s , e v e n in politics, w h i c h a fully M e x i c a n a p o s t l e like S a i n t T h o m a s - Q u e t z a l c o a t l m u s t h a v e . T h u s w e see e m e r g e u n d e r his p e n , like a r e s u r g e n c e o f t h e c o s m i c s t r u g g l e b e t w e e n Q u e t zalcoatl a n d T e x c a t l i p o c a , t h e s y m b o l i c c o m b a t o f t h e n a t i v e g o d s against the foreign gods: Saint J a m e s , c h a m p i o n of Spain, against Saint T h o m a s , c h a m p i o n of Mexico. 52
T h e Apologia del Dr. Mier, w h i c h b l e n d s in p a r t w i t h t h e a p o l o g i a f o r Saint T h o m a s - Q u e t z a l c o a t l , p r e s e n t s two principal aspects. O n e asp e c t d o e s n o t d i f f e r p e r c e p t i b l y f r o m t h e Dissertation, w h o s e a r g u m e n t s in f a v o r o f t h e e v a n g e l i z a t i o n o f M e x i c o b y t h e a p o s t l e it r e s t a t e s in m o r e d i f f u s e f a s h i o n . B u t its o t h e r a s p e c t , t h a t o f a c r i t i q u e o f t h e S p a n i s h p i o u s t r a d i t i o n s , m e r i t s o u r close a t t e n t i o n . I n P a r t 3 , I shall h a v e o c c a s i o n t o r e v i e w M i e r ' s c r i t i q u e o f t h e M a r i a n t r a d i t i o n s ; h e r e I c o n s i d e r o n l y w h a t h e h a s t o say c o n c e r n i n g t h e a p o s t l e S a i n t J a m e s . I n t h e Relation about What Happened in Europe to Dr. Mier, t h e D o m i n i c a n relates that t h e apparition of the Virgin to Saint J a m e s at Pilar d e Z a r a g o z a was only a belief of t h e A r a g o n e s e c o m m o n p e o p l e , a n d h e a d d s : " N o t o n l y w a s it d e n i e d b y B e n e d i c t X I V a n d by N a t a l A l e x a n d e r , a n d d i s p u t e d by F e r r a r a s a n d by t h e i n n u m e r a b l e a u t h o r s
202
QUETZALCOATL, OR THE PHOENIX BIRD
w h o d e n y t h e p r e a c h i n g of Saint J a m e s in Spain, b u t t h e academicians o f h i s t o r y tell m e t h a t it is a b s o l u t e l y u n t e n a b l e . T h a v e in m y p o s s e s s i o n , ' s a i d t o m e D o c t o r T r a g g i a , a n A r a g o n e s e a n d t h e ecclesiastical c h r o n i c l e r o f A r a g o n , ' t h e o l d e s t d o c u m e n t b e a r i n g o n t h e subject, a n d it d a t e s f r o m t h e f o u r t e e n t h c e n t u r y . ' " T o F r a y S e r v a n d o his a r g u m e n t s in f a v o r o f t h e e v a n g e l i z a t i o n o f A m e r i c a b y S a i n t T h o m a s s e e m e d all t h e s t r o n g e r b e c a u s e p r o o f s o f t h e e v a n g e l i z a t i o n o f S p a i n b y S a i n t J a m e s a p p e a r e d so w e a k . I f t h e l a t t e r w e r e c o n s i d e r e d sufficient f o r S p a i n , a f o r t i o r i t h e m u c h m o r e n u m e r o u s i n d i c a t i o n s o f S a i n t T h o m a s ' s p r e s e n c e in A m e r i c a ( t h e f a m o u s f o o t p r i n t s ) s h o u l d b e a d m i s s i b l e e v i d e n c e . I n t h e fragility o f o n e h a g i o g r a p h i c t r a d i t i o n , M i e r f o u n d p r o o f of t h e s t r e n g t h of a n o t h e r h a g i o g r a p h i c tradition w h i c h , in fact, w a s o n l y slightly w e a k e r . I n r e a l i t y t h e e s s e n c e o f t h e q u e s t i o n w a s t h e fact t h a t all n a t i o n s d i s p u t e d p o s s e s s s i o n o f t h e A p o s tles, a n d t h a t N e w S p a i n r e f u s e d t o a c c e p t t h e u n e q u a l d i v i s i o n w h i c h g a v e t h r e e t o O l d S p a i n ("a h a n d f u l o f e a r t h " ) a n d r e f u s e d e v e n o n e t o N e w S p a i n . T h e p a r t p l a y e d in t h e h i s t o r i o g r a p h y o f M e x i c o ( a n d o f t h e I n d i e s in g e n e r a l ) b y t h e t h e m e o f t h e e v a n g e l i z a t i o n o f S a i n t T h o m a s is a n i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t o f t h e d i a l o g u e w h i c h b e g a n in t h e first c o l o n i a l d e c a d e s b e t w e e n S p a i n a n d h e r A m e r i c a n v i c e r o y a l t i e s . W i t h M i e r , p r e c u r s o r o f a n d a c t o r in t h e M e x i c a n i n d e p e n d e n c e m o v e m e n t , t h e d i a l o g u e b e c o m e c l e a r l y v i n d i c a t o r y in t o n e ; t h e r e is a transition f r o m h a g i o g r a p h i c l e g e n d to polemic. B u t t h e continuity w i t h t h e p a s t — a p a s t t h a t g o e s b a c k well b e f o r e t h e C o n q u e s t — i s t o t a l . 5 3
T h e o b s t a c l e s to t h e a u t h e n t i c i t y o f t h e t r a d i t i o n o f S a i n t J a m e s in S p a i n a n d t h e c o n t r o v e r s i e s t h a t it i n s p i r e d p r e f i g u r e d t h e r e s i s t a n c e t o t h e t r a d i t i o n o f S a i n t T h o m a s in A m e r i c a . O n e h a s b u t t o r e a d t h e a p o l o g e t i c t r e a t i s e p u b l i s h e d in 1 6 0 9 b y t h e i l l u s t r i o u s J e s u i t h i s t o r i a n J u a n d e M a r i a n a , De adventu B. Jacobi Apostoli in Hispaniam, to be c o n v i n c e d o f t h e fact. T h e titles o f t h e c h a p t e r s a l o n e a r e e l o q u e n t : c h a p t e r 5 , " A r g u m e n t s against the C o m i n g of Saint J a m e s to Spain"; C h a p t e r 6, " T h e A b o v e A r g u m e n t s a r e B r e a c h e d . " F o r t h e a p o s t l e o f S p a i n , as f o r t h e a p o s t l e o f A m e r i c a , e x e g e t i c a n d t h e o l o g i c a l difficulties h a d a r i s e n . M a r i a n a h a d i n v o k e d t h e A c t s o f t h e A p o s t l e s in s u p p o r t o f a u n i v e r s a l e v a n g e l i z a t i o n d u r i n g t h e l i f e t i m e s o f t h e a p o s t l e s . O n e o b j e c t i o n t o t h e e v a n g e l i z a t i o n of S p a i n b y t h e a p o s t l e s e e m e d decisive, t h e a g e l o n g silence of historians d o w n to P o p e Calixt u s I I , w h o h a d w r i t t e n in t h e t e n t h c e n t u r y t h e o r i g i n a l Liber Sancti Jacobi. T o this a r g u m e n t , t h a t it w a s e x t r a o r d i n a r y t h a t a n e v e n t o f such i m p o r t a n c e s h o u l d h a v e b e e n passed o v e r in silence, M a r i a n a r e p l i e d t h a t d o u b t l e s s m e n h a d n o t p r e v i o u s l y k n o w n w h e r e t h e relics of t h e saint w e r e , t h a t this was n o t a u n i q u e case, t h a t m a n y cults w h i c h h a d o b s c u r e o r i g i n s l a t e r a t t a i n e d a g r e a t p o p u l a r i t y , as w i t n e s s 5 4
5 5
203
Saint Thomas-Quetzalcoatl,
Apostle of Mexico
t h e G u a d a l u p e o f E x t r e m a d u r a a n d t h e s a n c t u a r y o f M o n t s e r r a t in Catalonia. T h u s t h e J e s u i t claimed n o t to be s u r p r i s e d at a historiog r a p h i c s i l e n c e o f a l m o s t t e n c e n t u r i e s : " I a m n o t s u r p r i s e d t h a t silence s h o u l d have s u r r o u n d e d t h e c o m i n g of t h e apostle. . . . " We k n o w t h a t t h i s p h a s e o f o c c u l t a t i o n o f relics lasts a t least o n e c e n t u r y , o c c u r r i n g i n all k n o w n cases; w e m i g h t call it a law o f i n c u b a t i o n o f beliefs. I n t h e last analysis, t h e p r i n c i p a l a r g u m e n t s a d v a n c e d b y M a r i a n a in s u p p o r t o f t h e e v a n g e l i z a t i o n o f S a i n t J a m e s w e r e b a s e d o n a u t h o r i t y . T h r e e o r f o u r p o p e s (trium aut quator)—it was n o t k n o w n f o r s u r e — a c c e p t e d t h e t r a d i t i o n ; S a i n t B r a u l i u s a t t e s t e d t o it, a n d , finally, " t h e a u t h o r i t y o f S a i n t I s i d o r e [of Seville] c o n f i r m s i t . " 5 6
57
A creole of Lima, P e d r o d e Peralta y B a r n u e v o , restated the argum e n t s o f M a r i a n a w i t h m o r e c o n v i c t i o n in his History of Spain Vindicated, w h i c h a p p e a r e d in 1 7 3 0 . T h e y w e r e a c c o m p a n i e d b y r e f l e c t i o n s w h i c h I find v e r y i n f o r m a t i v e . T h e w o r k b e a r s t h e s u b t i t l e : Wherein is Established with Irrefutable Arguments the Coming of the Apostle Saint James, the Apparition of Our Lady to the Saint at Pilar de Zaragoza, and the Translation of His Holy Body. T h i s a p o l o g i s t f o r t h e h i s t o r y o f S p a i n ( t h e first o f a s e r i e s o f s u c h d e f e n d e r s in t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y ) n a i v e l y e x p l a i n s t o u s in his p r e f a c e h o w difficult is t h e t r a n s m u t a t i o n o f a d e v o u t belief into a rational proof. " B u t I d o not know w h e t h e r , s u b j e c t i n g t h e d e v o t i o n to s t u d y , t r u t h c a n b e m a d e p r o o f . " With this p r e l i m i n a r y w a r n i n g , w e c a n b e g i n to c o n s i d e r t h e " i r r e f u t a b l e " a r g u m e n t s o f t h e c o m i n g i n t o S p a i n o f " L o r d S a i n t J a m e s . " T h e first is t h i s : if n o t h i n g s e e m e d t o h a p p e n b e t w e e n t h e last C a n t a b r i a n W a r a n d t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f t h e G o t h i c e m p i r e , it w a s b e c a u s e " t h e F a i t h h a d t o b e a p r e l u d e t o E m p i r e , " f o r S p a i n " w a s a celestial m o n a r c h y before b e c o m i n g a terrestrial m o n a r c h y . " H e r e we have a p e n i n s u l a r m o d e l o f t h e Monarchia Indiana, t h e "celestial m o n a r c h y . " All n a tions a r e p r o u d of their illustrious m e n , asserts Peralta y B a r n u e v a ; t h e y s h o u l d b e all t h e p r o u d e r o f p o s s e s s i n g a n a p o s t l e o f C h r i s t . S p a i n w o u l d b e c o n t e n t w i t h p o s s e s s i n g S a i n t P a u l , if h e w e r e r e a l l y h e r o w n , b u t h e h a d p r e a c h e d a little in e v e r y p a r t o f t h e R o m a n E m p i r e , w h e r e a s Saint J a m e s was h e r exclusive possession. T h e p r o o f w a s in a M o z a r a b i c missal, i n s p i r e d b y S a i n t I s a d o r e o f Seville a n d d e c r e e d b y t h e F o u r t h C o u n c i l o f T o l e d o , w h e r e i n " S a i n t J a m e s is p l a c e d a t t h e r i g h t h a n d o f t h e L o r d , w i t h J o h n , r e p r e s e n t i n g Asia, o n t h e left, a n d S a i n t J a m e s r e p r e s e n t i n g S p a i n . " T o t h e a u t h o r i t y o f Saint Isidore, o n e can a d d with Peralta that of Saint J u l i a n of Toledo, of the Beatus of Liebana, of several venerable foreigners, a n d above all t h e g r e a t d e v o t i o n o f P o p e C a l i x t u s I I t o S a i n t J a m e s . C a l i x t u s i n f o r m s u s t h a t S a i n t J a m e s h a d c h o s e n s e v e n d i s c i p l e s i n Galicia t o a c c o m p a n y h i m t o J e r u s a l e m . T h i s is p r o b a b l y t h e o r i g i n o f t h e 58
5 9
6 0
6 1
204
QUETZALCOATL, OR THE PHOENIX BIRD
p o p u l a r l e g e n d o f " s e v e n b r o t h e r s a i n t s , " w h i c h still lives i n o u r t i m e . We m a y a l s o n o t e t h e t r a d i t i o n o f t h e p r o d i g i o u s i m p r i n t s o f S a i n t J a m e s ' staff, o f his t h i g h s , o r o f his feet, in t h e r e g i o n o f C a p e F i n i s t e r r e , at P a s t o r i z a . T h u s t h e vestiges of t h e passage of Saint J a m e s t h r o u g h S p a i n p r e f i g u r e t h e t r a c e s o f S a i n t T h o m a s in A m e r i c a . P e r a l t a y B a r n u e v o , a f a i t h f u l d i s c i p l e o f M a r i a n a , recalls t h e r e p l y o f his p r e d e c e s s o r to a m a j o r objection: t h e omission of Saint J a m e s by S p a n i s h c h r o n i c l e r s b e f o r e t h e t e n t h c e n t u r y . " S i n c e t h e fact w a s so well k n o w n , t h e y j u d g e d t h a t a n e v e n t w h i c h w a s o n e v e r y b o d y ' s lips h a d n o n e e d o f l i t e r a r y m o n u m e n t s . " T h u s all a r g u m e n t s w e r e g o o d to s u p p o r t the tradition of t h e evangelization of Saint J a m e s ; the s i l e n c e o f h i s t o r i a n s h a d little w e i g h t in t h e face o f t h e p o p u l a r faith, t h e m i r a c l e s p r o d u c e d b y t h e relics, a n d t h e a u t h o r i t y o f s a i n t s a n d popes. 6 2
6 3
P e r a l t a y B a r n u e v o m a d e a n a i v e a v o w a l o f t h e utility o f t h e c u l t o f S a i n t J a m e s . " B e c a u s e t h i s p r i v i l e g e incites t o d e v o t i o n a n d t h a t d e v o t i o n i n t u r n r e n d e r s t h e p a t r o n a g e e f f i c a c i o u s . . . . S p a i n p o s s e s s e s his h o l y b o d y a n d t h u s is c o n s c i o u s o f p o s s e s s i n g a p a r t o f H e a v e n , a n d t o g e t h e r w i t h his s e p u l c h e r it p o s s e s s e s a n u r n filled w i t h all t h e g r a c e s . " O n e could n o t b e t t e r describe this race for t h e s u p e r n a t u r a l t r e a s u r e , t h e " u r n filled w i t h all t h e g r a c e s , " t o w h i c h all t h e n a t i o n s o f the Hispanic world gave themselves u p . T h e evangelization of Spain b y S a i n t J a m e s ( a n d t h e a p o s t l e ' s relics, a b o v e all) a n d t h e e v a n g e l i z a t i o n o f A m e r i c a by S a i n t T h o m a s satisfied t h e collective a s p i r a t i o n t o possess "a p a r t of H e a v e n . " As A m e r i c o Castro has written: "While E u r o p e a n s r e f l e c t e d , S p a n i a r d s cast t h e m s e l v e s i n t o t h e abyss o f t h e i r f a i t h . . . . A n d all I b e r i a n A m e r i c a s h a r e s this s a m e m o d e o f existence." 6 4
6 5
T h e apologists for Saint T h o m a s of America, a n d Fray S e r v a n d o T e r e s a d e M i e r , in t h e first p l a c e , h a d o n l y t o s e a r c h t h e a p o l o g e t i c a l l i t e r a t u r e a b o u t S a i n t J a m e s o f C o m p o s t e l a t o find t h e a r g u m e n t s t h e y n e e d e d . T h e p h y s i c a l t r a c e s in t h e f o r m o f f o o t p r i n t s in s t o n e m a y h a v e c o m e f r o m t h e C e l t i c s u b s t r a t u m o f Galicia, o r p r o b a b l y f r o m e v e n m o r e d i s t a n t p o i n t s in t i m e a n d s p a c e . T h e a b s e n c e o f c o n t e m p o r a r y d o c u m e n t s was e x p l a i n e d by t h e systematic a n d t h o u g h t l e s s d e s t r u c t i o n o f n a t i v e c o d i c e s b y t h e first m i s s i o n a r i e s w h o , like Z u m a r r a g a in M e x i c o , " b e d e v i l e d e v e r y t h i n g . " A s f o r r e l i g i o u s a u thorities, F a t h e r Ruiz d e Montoya invoked that of Santo Toribio d e M o g r o v e j o , w h o h a d g o n e o n a p i l g r i m a g e in s e a r c h o f t r a c e s o f S a i n t T h o m a s in a village o f t h e p r o v i n c e o f C h a c h a p o y a s , i n P e r u . N o t o n l y were the apologetical problems a n d the hagiographic materials the s a m e , b u t t h e r e l i g i o u s - p a t r i o t i c c l i m a t e w a s t h e s a m e in S p a i n a n d N e w Spain. I n his reply to M a r m o n t e l a n d to C o r n e l i u s d e Pauw,
205
Saint Thomas-Quetzalcoatl,
Apostle of Mexico
Reflexiones imparciales, J u a n d e N u i x y P e r p i n a w r o t e in 1 7 8 3 : " T h e S p a n i s h m i s s i o n a r i e s w e r e t h e A p o s t l e s c h o s e n by t h e L o r d t o a n n o u n c e t h e G o s p e l in t h o s e u n k n o w n l a n d s . " T h e issue w a s w h i c h n a t i o n w a s t o b e t h e n e w c h o s e n p e o p l e , o r a t least h a d r e c e i v e d a m o r e a b u n d a n t g r a c e f r o m h e a v e n . N o t h i n g m o r e n a t u r a l t h a n that Fray S e r v a n d o , conscious of the competition with Spain, should have seen the a d v a n t a g e of e n r i c h i n g the defense of Saint T h o m a s - Q u e t z a l c o a t l with a M a r i a n e p i s o d e . T h e idea h e d e v e l o p e d i n his f a m o u s s e r m o n o f 1 7 9 4 , w h i c h m a d e t h e i m a g e o f G u a d a l u p e d a t e f r o m t h e time of the apostle Saint T h o m a s , was directly i n s p i r e d by t h e I b e r i a n m o d e l , w h i c h h a d associated t h e p r o d i g i o u s i m a g e o f M a r y v e n e r a t e d a t Pilar d e Z a r a g o z a w i t h t h e e v a n g e l i z a t i o n o f S a i n t J a m e s . If M i e r h a d b e e n a b l e t o p e r s u a d e his a u d i e n c e a n d t h e a r c h b i s h o p o f M e x i c o City, a b o v e all, t h e w a y w o u l d have b e e n o p e n e d for Mexico's c o n q u e s t of c o m p l e t e equality with S p a i n in d i v i n e g r a c e . T h e r e is a p r o f o u n d affinity b e t w e e n t h e r o l e p l a y e d b y t h e a p o s t l e o f Galicia in t h e f o r m a t i o n o f S p a n i s h n a t i o n a l c o n s c i o u s n e s s a n d t h a t o f S a i n t T h o m a s - Q u e t z a l c o a t l in t h e a w a k e n i n g o f M e x i c a n n a t i o n a l s e n t i m e n t . I t is e x p l a i n e d by t h e fact t h a t t h e l a t t e r w a s p a r t l y i n s p i r e d b y t h e f o r m e r ; b u t m o r e s e c r e t affinities u n i t e d t h e m . O n e is s u r p r i s e d t h a t a m a n like B o r u n d a , w i t h h i s esoteric k n o w l e d g e of the past, d i d n o t n o t e a n d gloat over t h e m . C o n t e m p l a t i n g t h e Milky Way a n d a s k i n g h i m s e l f w h a t its m y s t e r i o u s s i g n i f i c a n c e c o u l d b e , t h e E m p e r o r C h a r l e m a g n e h a d a vision o f t h e a p o s t l e S a i n t J a m e s , w h o said t o h i m : " T h e s t a r r y r o a d w h i c h y o u saw in t h e sky signifies t h a t y o u m u s t g o f r o m t h e s e l a n d s as f a r as Galicia with a great a r m y to liberate my r o a d a n d m y c o u n t r y . . . . After you all t h e p e o p l e s , f r o m s e a to sea, will g o o n p i l g r i m a g e . " N o w , o n e o f t h e M e x i c a n t r a d i t i o n s least o p e n t o t h e c h a r g e o f i n f l u e n c e b y I b e r i a n s y n c r e t i s m p r e s e n t e d Q u e t z a l c o a t l as t h e s o n o f a m a j o r d i v i n i t y o f t h e A z t e c p a n t h e o n , M i x c o a t l , t h e " S e r p e n t o f S t a r s " o r t h e Milky Way (a p a t e r n i t y w h i c h m a y h a v e s o m e r e l a t i o n w i t h t h e final m e t a m o r p h o s i s of Quetzalcoatl, t h e " L o r d of t h e Night," o r t h e M o r n i n g Star). Saint J a m e s a n d S a i n t T h o m a s , u n i t e d in t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t t r a d i t i o n a n d in t h e e v o l u t i o n o f t h e S p a n i s h a n d M e x i c a n n a t i o n a l c o n s c i o u s n e s s , a r e also a s s o c i a t e d o n t h e p r i m a r y level o f s t e l l a r s y m b o l i s m , t h e c o m m o n p r o p e r t y o f o u r c u l t u r e , b o r n in t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n N e a r East, a n d of Aztec c u l t u r e , h e i r to t h e O l m e c - M a y a astrology. 6 6
6 7
A creole of Lima, A n t o n i o d e L e o n Pinelo, offers an e x a m p l e of t h e p r e o c c u p a t i o n with p r o v i n g t h a t t h e West was t h e n e w "East." S e e k i n g t o r e c o n c i l e h i s f a i t h in a n " A m e r i c a n P a r a d i s e " w i t h r e v e a l e d t r u t h , h e recalled t h a t Moses h a d w r i t t e n his d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e earthly p a r a d i s e w h i l e h e w a s in e x i l e in t h e d e s e r t t o w h i c h h e h a d l e d t h e
206
QUETZALCOATL, OR THE PHOENIX BIRD
p e o p l e o f G o d . A l t h o u g h M o s e s h a d p l a c e d his p a r a d i s e in t h e East, L e o n P i n e l o d i d n o t r e g a r d t h i s s t a t e m e n t as i n c o m p a t i b l e w i t h his o w n c l a i m t h a t P a r a d i s e was in A m e r i c a ; it sufficed t o m a k e a s i m p l e c a l c u l a t i o n o f l o n g i t u d e : " O n e c a n s t a t e w i t h all g e o g r a p h i c p r e c i s i o n t h a t M e x i c o w a s in t h e e a s t e r n h e m i s p h e r e in r e l a t i o n to M o s e s w h e n h e w a s w r i t i n g in t h e S i n a i . " If t h e g r a s s w a s always g r e e n o n t h e " r o a d of Saint T h o m a s , " t h e A m e r i c a n p r o l o n g a t i o n of the " r o a d of S a i n t J a m e s , " it was b e c a u s e t h e s t a r w h i c h h a d a r i s e n in t h e E a s t o f t h e J u d a i c e s c h a t o l o g y h a d a c c o m p l i s h e d in s i x t e e n c e n t u r i e s its r e v o l u t i o n t o t h e West, t h e n e w " N o r t h S t a r " o f C h r i s t i a n h o p e . 6 8
6 9
11
Epilogue: The "Four Hundred" Modern Quetzalcoatls
T h e mentality which inspired the S p a n i s h missionaries to recognize t h e " h i d d e n J e w s " o f S c r i p t u r e in t h e I n d i a n s o f A m a z o n i a a n d C a r t h a g i n i a n m o n u m e n t s in t h e r u i n s o f T i a h u a n a c o r e m a i n e d t h e s a m e d u r i n g t h e n e x t t h r e e c e n t u r i e s . O n l y this c h a n g e d , t h a t w h e r e a s in t h e s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y t h e a s s i m i l a t i o n o f A m e r i c a n c u l t u r a l p h e n o m e n a t o t h e s p i r i t u a l p a t r i m o n y o f t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n West f o u n d its g u a r a n t e e in r e v e a l e d t r u t h , in t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y t h e b e g i n n i n g of studies o n t h e I n d o - E u r o p e a n s a n d t h e v o g u e of E g y p tology gave a pseudo-scientific dress to the traditional E u r o c e n t r i s m . U n d e r t h e title o f V i r a c o c h a , B o c h i c a , Q u e t z a l c o h u a l t , B r a s s e u r d e B o u r b o u r g revealed the analogies of the Inca, C o l o m b i a n , a n d Mexic a n g o d s a n d a s s i m i l a t e d all t h r e e t o t h e " h i e r o g l y p h i c a l p e r s o n a g e o f T h o t h w h o serves to express, according to Eckstein, t h e r u d i m e n t s of the literary c o r p u s of most ancient Egypt." T h e m o v e m e n t toward t h e I n d o - E u r o p e a n s o u r c e s is c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h e e n d o f t h e n i n e t e e n t h century. T h i s new m o d e of linking t h e N e w World to the O l d c o m p l e t e d a n d p r o l o n g e d the historical a n n e x a t i o n that followed t h e C o l u m b i a n d i s c o v e r y . T h e being o f A m e r i c a t h u s r e m a i n e d l i m i t e d t o its being for t h e E u r o p e a n s . T h e N e w W o r l d , e v e n in its a n c i e n t , p r e - C o l u m b i a n b e i n g , o w e d its c u l t u r e a n d its m o s t i m p o r t a n t beliefs to t h e O l d W o r l d . A l t h o u g h A m e r i c a h a d w o n its political i n d e p e n d e n c e at t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , it h a d n o t yet esc a p e d f r o m its c o l o n i a l s t a t u s . 1
2
All t h e s e h y p o t h e s e s , w h o s e scientific v a l u e it w o u l d b e v e r y e a s y t o criticize, r e v e a l t h e s a m e p e r m a n e n t t e n d e n c y o f t h e E u r o p e a n i n t e l lect to d e n y t h e a u t o c h t h o n o u s c h a r a c t e r o f t h e c u l t u r e s o f t h e N e w W o r l d . T h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f t h e p r i n c i p a l d i v i n e civilizer o f t h e I n d i a n s , Q u e t z a l c o a t l ( a n d his A m e r i c a n v a r i a n t s ) w i t h a n a p o s t l e o f C h r i s t , l a t e r w i t h a m e d i e v a l friar, w a s b u t o n e a s p e c t o f a g e n e r a l interpretation of the history of m a n k i n d which assigned a secondary place to A m e r i c a . Works t e n d i n g to p r o v e t h e e x o g e n o u s c h a r a c t e r of A m e r i c a n beliefs f r o m t h e m o s t r e m o t e t i m e s m u l t i p l i e d ; a f t e r t h e
207
208
QUETZALCOATL, OR THE PHOENIX BIRD
Histoire legendaire de la Nouvelle-Espagne rapprochee de la source indoeuropeenne ( 1 8 7 4 ) o f H . d e C h a r e n c e y , t h e r e a p p e a r e d in L o n d o n , in 1 8 8 2 , Indian Myths or Legends, Traditions, and Symbols of the Aborigines of America Compared with Those of Other Countries Including Hindostan, Egypt, Persia, Assyria and China, by R u s s e l - E m e r s o n . I n 1 8 9 6 E. B e a u v o i s p u b l i s h e d t h e Pratiques et institutions religieuses d'origine chretienne chez les Mexicains du Moyen Age. T e n y e a r s l a t e r C h a r e n c e y p u b l i s h e d a t C a e n Yama, Djemschid et Quetzalcoatl. 3
It m a y cause m o r e s u r p r i s e that new m e t a m o r p h o s e s of t h e pseudo-scientific m y t h of Quetzalcoatl c o n t i n u e to a p p e a r today. F r o m t h e essay o f J o s e Diaz B o l i o , La Serpiente emplumada, which r e v e a l s a d i s t u r b i n g o p h i d i a n m a n i a , t o t h a t o f D r . Diaz I n f a n t e , Quetzalcoatl (Ensayo psicoanalitico del mito nahua), in w h i c h t h e a u t h o r a n a l y z e s t h e p e r s o n a l i t y o f t h e h e r o "in t h e l i g h t o f t h e O e d i p u s C o m p l e x " ( p . 19), Q u e t z a l c o a t l h a s r e c e n t l y a s s u m e d t h e m o s t u n l i k e l y f o r m s . E v e n t h e i d e o l o g i c a l s e q u e l a e o f N a z i s m h a v e t o u c h e d h i m in a b o o k e n t i t l e d Ichfand den Weisen Gott, w h o s e a u t h o r p r e f e r r e d to h i d e his i d e n t i t y u n d e r a p s e u d o n y m . 4
5
6
I n M e x i c o City itself, a m i d t h e m e d i o c r e r u n o f b u i l d i n g s e r e c t e d w i t h t h e a s s i s t a n c e o f t h e Social S e c u r i t y A d m i n i s t r a t i o n , a s t a t u e o f m o n u m e n t a l p r o p o r t i o n s (vaguely i n s p i r e d by t h e m o n o l i t h p r e s e r v e d a t Castillo d e T e a y o , in t h e s t a t e o f V e r a c r u z ) officially a s s i g n s to Quetzalcoatl a role p r o m i s i n g a reign of justice a n d prosperity, a r o l e h e h a s n e v e r lost in t h e p o p u l a r m i n d . T h e s a m e a t t i t u d e i n s p i r e d the p r o p o s a l of a r e v o l u t i o n a r y minister to replace F a t h e r C h r i s t m a s ( w h o is t h e S a i n t N i c h o l a s o f G e r m a n i c l a n d s in M e x i c o ) w i t h his Mexican homologue, Quetzalcoatl. B u t t o g e t h e r with the P r o m e t h e a n Quetzalcoatl w h o gave the Ind i a n his life a n d his t e c h n i q u e s , t h e r e also e x i s t e d a Q u e t z a l c o a t l w h o was t h e g o d o f t h i e v e s , a n d h e , like t h e " f o u r h u n d r e d r a b b i t s " (centzon totochtin) o f t h e A z t e c l e g e n d , h a s m u l t i p l i e d a l m o s t e n d l e s s l y a n d c o n t i n u e s t o p i l l a g e t h e h u t s (jacales) o f t h e p e o n s ; s o m e d a y h i s t o r y will tell w h e t h e r t h o s e w h o t o d a y h i d e b e h i n d t h e effigy o f Q u e t z a l c o a t l still s t r i k e t w o b l o w s w i t h t h e f o r e a r m o f a w o m a n w h o d i e d in c h i l d b i r t h (as S a h a g u n i n f o r m s u s ) , o r if t h e y h a v e i n v e n t e d o t h e r n a r c o t i c s t o p u t t h e i r victims to s l e e p b e f o r e t h e y r o b t h e m . T h e s e c u l a r i m a g e o f a lost G o l d e n A g e , Q u e t z a l c o a t l r e m a i n s t h e a m b i g u ous symbol of the frustrated h o p e s of m o d e r n Mexico. 7
8
Part 3
Guadalupe, or the New Epiphany
Holy Mary and Tonantzin
Tonantzin,
Mother-Goddess
of the
Mexicans
I n t h e first b o o k o f his Historia general, w h i c h d e a l s w i t h t h e d i v i n i t i e s o f t h e a n c i e n t M e x i c a n s , S a h a g u n d e v o t e s c h a p t e r s 6 to 8 t o t h e g o d d e s s e s . H e d e v o t e s t h e first c h a p t e r to T o n a n t z i n b e c a u s e h e c o n s i d e r s h e r t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t o f all. " T h e first o f t h e s e g o d d e s s e s was c a l l e d C i h u a c o a t l , w h i c h m e a n s t h e wife o f t h e S e r p e n t ; t h e y also called h e r T o n a n t z i n , w h i c h m e a n s o u r m o t h e r . " S a h a g u n , so well i n f o r m e d a b o u t o t h e r d i v i n i t i e s , h a s little t o tell a b o u t T o n a n t z i n ' s a t t r i b u t e s . " T h e y [ t h e I n d i a n s ] said t h a t this g o d d e s s h a d a s i n i s t e r i n f l u e n c e , f o r s h e b r o u g h t p o v e r t y , a b a s e m e n t , a n d s u f f e r i n g . . . ; t h e y also said t h a t s h e h a d a c r a d l e o n h e r b a c k , as if s h e c a r r i e d h e r s o n in it." S a h a g u n also r e p o r t s t h a t t h e a n c i e n t M e x i c a n s h a d t h e c u s t o m o f c e l e b r a t i n g v e r y s o l e m n sacrifices a t t h r e e o r f o u r p l a c e s o n o r n e a r hills. H e f u r t h e r says t h a t " o n e o f t h o s e p l a c e s is h e r e in M e x i c o City, o n a hill called T e p e a c a c . . . , w h e r e they h a d a t e m p l e c o n s e c r a t e d to t h e m o t h e r of t h e gods, called T o n a n t z i n , which m e a n s ' o u r m o t h e r ' . . . a n d p e o p l e c a m e f r o m afar to celebrate these sacrifices." T h i s a c c o u n t is c o n f i r m e d ( o r b o r r o w e d f r o m S a h a g u n ) by F r a y J u a n d e T o r q u e m a d a , w h o writes: " I n a n o t h e r place, o n e league to the n o r t h o f M e x i c o City, t h e y [ t h e I n d i a n s ] c e l e b r a t e d a feast o f a n o t h e r g o d d e s s , c a l l e d Tonan, w h i c h m e a n s ' O u r M o t h e r . ' S h e w a s t h e d i v i n i t y f o r w h o m t h e y felt t h e g r e a t e s t d e v o t i o n w h e n o u r b r e t h r e n [ t h e F r a n c i s c a n s ] c a m e t o this c o u n t r y ; i n n u m e r a b l e c r o w d s c a m e f r o m a h u n d r e d l e a g u e s a r o u n d t o c e l e b r a t e t h e feast d a y s o f t h i s g o d d e s s . " I n t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y , t h e J e s u i t C l a v i j e r o , listing t h e d i v i n i t i e s o f t h e a n c i e n t M e x i c a n s , g a v e this i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t T o n a n t z i n : " H e r n a m e signifies ' O u r M o t h e r , ' a n d I d o n o t d o u b t t h a t s h e was t h e s a m e as t h e g o d d e s s Centeotl, of w h o m I have already told. T o n a n t z i n h a d a temp l e o n a hill o n e l e a g u e n o r t h o f M e x i c o City, a n d h e r feasts w e r e a t t e n d e d by a n i m m e n s e c o n c o u r s e o f p e o p l e a n d m a n y s a c r i f i c e s . " T h u s t h e m i s s i o n a r i e s a g r e e o n e s s e n t i a l p o i n t s : T o n a n t z i n was a m a j o r d i v i n i t y , h e r p r i n c i p a l s h r i n e w a s o n t h e hill o f T e p e y a c , o n e 1
2
3
4
5
211
212
GUADALUPE, OR THE N E W EPIPHANY
l e a g u e n o r t h o f M e x i c o City, a n d p e o p l e c a m e f r o m all p a r t s o f t h e c o u n t r y t o c e l e b r a t e h e r feasts. We n o t e , h o w e v e r , t h a t S a h a g u n identifies T o n a n t z i n with t h e g o d d e s s C i h u a c o a t l , w h i l e C l a v i j e r o a s s u r e s u s t h a t s h e w a s C e n t e o t l . Seve r a l r e a s o n s d i s p o s e m e in f a v o r o f S a h a g u n , a v e r y c a r e f u l i n v e s t i g a t o r c l o s e r in t i m e t o t h e p r e - H i s p a n i c p a s t . T h e d e c i s i v e r e a s o n is t h a t S a h a g u n i d e n t i f i e s C i h u a c o a t l as t h e p r i n c i p a l g o d d e s s o f t h e a n c i e n t M e x i c a n s a n d twice a f f i r m s " t h e y c a l l e d h e r T o n a n t z i n , " " O u r M o t h e r , " a n a m e e s p e c i a l l y fitting f o r t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t g o d d e s s . M o r e o v e r , t h e F r a n c i s c a n d e s c r i b e s T o n a n t z i n a n d specifies t h a t " t h e finery in w h i c h this w o m a n w a s d e c k e d w a s w h i t e , " w h i c h c o r r e s p o n d s e x a c t l y w i t h t h e d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e g o d d e s s C i h u a c o a t l in t h e h i s t o r y o f t h e D o m i n i c a n D u r a n : " T h e g o d d e s s C i h u a c o a t l w a s clad in w o m a n ' s g a r b — s k i r t , b l o u s e , a n d m a n t l e — t h a t w a s all w h i t e . " G i v e n t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f c o l o r s in t h e r e l i g i o u s s y m b o l i s m o f t h e a n c i e n t M e x i c a n s , it is m o s t u n l i k e l y t h a t t w o like b u t d i f f e r e n t d i v i n i t i e s w e r e b o t h d r e s s e d in w h i t e . Finally, since S a h a g u n a n d D u r a n r e p r e s e n t two different b u t equally i m p o r t a n t traditions in the historiography o f a n c i e n t M e x i c o , t h e c o n v e r g e n c e o f t h e i r t e s t i m o n y is a p o w e r f u l argument. 6
7
U n f o r t u n a t e l y , D u r a n d o e s n o t say t h a t C i h u a c o a t l w a s also c a l l e d T o n a n t z i n . S a h a g u n , h o w e v e r , gives t h e f o l l o w i n g d e t a i l s a b o u t C i h u a c o a t l - T o n a n t z i n : s h e w o u l d v a n i s h w h i l e in a c r o w d o f w o m e n , l e a v i n g b e h i n d t h e c r a d l e o f h e r c h i l d , l e a v i n g also " a p i e c e o f flint c a r v e d t o m a k e a s p e a r p o i n t w i t h w h i c h t h e y p u t to d e a t h t h e v i c t i m s of t h e i r sacrifices." T h i s c o r r e s p o n d s completely with w h a t D u r a n r e p o r t s : " T h e diabolical priests of this t e m p l e . . . , seeing that eight d a y s h a d p a s s e d w i t h o u t h u m a n sacrifices, l o o k e d f o r a c h i l d ' s c r a d l e a n d p l a c e d in it t h e s t o n e k n i f e w i t h w h i c h t h e y p e r f o r m e d t h e i r sacrifices a n d w h i c h t h e y c a l l e d ' t h e s o n o f C i h u a c o a t l . ' " D u r a n also w r i t e s t h a t t h e festival o f C i h u a c o a t l w a s huey tecuilhuitl, t h e n i n t h feast o f t h e c a l e n d a r , t h a t is, " t h e g r e a t feast o f t h e l o r d s " ; a n d t h a t " t h e y c a l l e d t h i s g o d d e s s C i h u a c o a t l , " t h e sister o f H u i t z i l o p o c h t l i , " t h e great god of Mexcio-Tenochtitlan." S a h a g u n tells c o n c e r n i n g t h e feast o f huey tecuilhuitl t h a t " t h e y c e l e b r a t e d this feast in h o n o r o f t h e g o d d e s s called X i l o n e n " ; a n d D u r a n explains: "Twenty days b e f o r e this feast t h e y b o u g h t a slave, p u r i f i e d h e r , a n d d r e s s e d h e r in t h e s a m e m a n n e r as t h e s t o n e i d o l ( C i h u a c o a t l ) — a l l in w h i t e w i t h h e r white mantle. T h u s dressed, she represented the goddess. .. . T h e I n d i a n s c a l l e d this w o m a n X i l o n e n f r o m t h e d a y o f h e r p u r i f i c a t i o n t o the day of h e r sacrifice." T h e name "Tonantzin" designated C i h u a c o a t l in t h e s a m e w a y t h a t " O u r L a d y " d e s i g n a t e s t h e V i r g i n M a r y i n t h e C h r i s t i a n r e l i g i o n ; X i l o n e n ( t h e g o d d e s s o f t h e Xilotes, t h e 8
9
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t e n d e r e a r s o f c o r n ) , w a s t h e n a m e o f t h e g o d d e s s C i h u a c o a t l in h e r p r o v i s i o n a l i n c a r n a t i o n , s o m e w h a t like J e s u s b e i n g t h e i n c a r n a t i o n o f o n e o f t h e e l e m e n t s o f t h e H o l y T r i n i t y , t h e S o n . We m a y t h e r e f o r e a c c e p t S a h a g i i n ' s s t a t e m e n t t h a t huey tecuilhuitl w a s t h e feast o f X i l o n e n . B u t w e also d i s c e r n h e r e , t h a n k s t o D u r a n , w h o r a i s e s a c o r n e r o f t h e veil, o n e o f t h e m y s t e r i e s o f t h e M e x i c a n r e l i g i o n . T h e g o d d e s s C i h u a c o a t l , " w h i c h m e a n s t h e wife o f t h e S e r p e n t , " is also c a l l e d T o n a n t z i n , a n d is i d e n t i f i e d w i t h X i l o n e n in a c e r t a i n c o n t e x t , t h e feast o f huey tecuilhuitl. S h e is also C e n t e o t l , a c c o r d i n g t o S a h a g u n ' s I n d i a n i n f o r m a n t s ; a c c o r d i n g to the s a m e sources, T e t e o i n a n , t h e m o t h e r o f t h e g o d s , o r o f t h e M e x i c a n s , also w o r e a w h i t e s h i r t . I t a p p e a r s , t o o , t h a t X i l o n e n w o r e t h e s a m e o r n a m e n t s as C h i c o m e c o a t l , g o d d e s s o f s u b s i s t e n c e , a n d w e n o t e t h e s i m i l a r r i t u a l finery o f C h a l m e c a c i h u a t l , p a t r o n e s s o f C h a l m a , sister o f Y a c t e c u h t l i ( o n e o f t h e invocations of Quetzalcoatl) a n d Tonantzin. A m o n g the fragmentary i n d i c a t i o n s p r o v i d e d by S a h a g u n ' s i n f o r m a n t s a b o u t t h e a t t r i b u t e s o f the divinities, we r e a d t h e following concise a n d categorical s t a t e m e n t : "Cihuacoatl: the m o t h e r of t h e gods; the m o t h e r of the gods, t h e s a m e t h i n g ; t h e w h i t e w o m a n , t h e s a m e t h i n g . " We c o u l d l e n g t h e n t h i s chain by a d d i n g Toci, m o t h e r of t h e gods, a n d Citlalicue, t h e g o d d e s s with the skirt of stars. 1 3
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As J a c q u e s Soustelle has shown, these divinities a r e simultaneously i d e n t i c a l a n d d i f f e r e n t , a n d t h e r e is "a r e c i p r o c a l i m b r i c a t i o n " o r o v e r lap of the different aspects of the m o t h e r - g o d d e s s . After J a c q u e s S o u s t e l l e ' s s t u d y , La pensee cosmologique des anciens Mexicains, t h e m o s t p e n e t r a t i n g a n a l y s i s o f t h e a n c i e n t M e x i c a n r e l i g i o n is M i g u e l L e o n Portilla's La fdosofia nahuatl estudiada en sus fuentes. I cite f r o m this w o r k a passage of capital i m p o r t a n c e to o u r subject: L i n e 18 ( f r o m t h e m a n u s c r i p t o f 1558) As soon as the divinity called Quilaztli—who is Cihuacoatl—arrived, she ground the men into paste and placed it in a precious bowl. Q u i l a z t l i , w h o (as t h e t e x t i n d i c a t e s ) is t h e s a m e as C i h u a c o a t l , a p p e a r s h e r e as t h e p a r t n e r o f Q u e t z a l c o a t l . . . . T h e p a i r Q u e t z a l c o a t l - C i h u a c o a t l , w h o i n v e n t e d m a n a t T a m o a n c h a n , is b u t a n e w a s p e c t o f O m e t e c u h t l i - O m e c i h u a t l , t h e c o u p l e t o w h i c h t h e title o f " i n v e n t o r of m e n " (Teyocayani) was g i v e n . 1 5
T h u s , according to Leon-Portilla, the couple Quetzalcoatl-Cihuacoatl was o n e of t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s of t h e d u a l principle O m e t e o t l , t h e s o u r c e o f life a n d all t h i n g s . T h i s d u a l p r i n c i p l e also f o u n d a r e f l e c t i o n in t h e i n s t i t u t i o n s o f a n c i e n t M e x i c o . " T h e i r T l a c a t e c u h t l i , o r k i n g , is t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f Q u e t z a l c o a t l , w h i l e his l i e u t e n a n t o r ' c o a d j u t o r , ' as t h e c h r o n i c l e r s call h i m , r e c e i v e d t h e title o f C i h u a c o a t l . " I n t h i s 1 6
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d e n s e forest of symbols, we m a k e o u t a continual r e g r o u p i n g of the d i f f e r e n t m o t h e r - g o d d e s s e s a n d g o d d e s s e s o f fertility a b o u t o n e o f t h e i r figures. T a k e T o n a n t z i n as t h e axis, a n d b e s i d e h e r a p p e a r s t h e figure ( o f t e n d o u b l e d a g a i n ) o f Q u e t z a l c o a t l . O n e o f t h e f u n d a m e n t a l couples of the Mexican p a n t h e o n , o r r a t h e r o n e of the d o m i n a n t e x p r e s s i o n s (especially in t h e m i n d s o f t h e r u l i n g elite) o f t h e u n i v e r sal c r e a t i v e p r i n c i p l e , is T o n a n t z i n - Q u e t z a l c o a t l , w h o s e c r e o l e a v a t a r s are equally inseparable. F r o m p r e - C o l u m b i a n times they a p p e a r l i n k e d t o g e t h e r as t h e t w o faces, m a l e a n d f e m a l e , o f t h e p r i m a r y creative principle. T h e fact t h a t D u r a n saw in C i h u a c o a t l t h e p a t r o n e s s o f X o c h i m i l c o n o m o r e affects t h e a r g u m e n t t h a n t h e p a t r o n a g e o f t h e V i r g i n o f Pilar o v e r Z a r a g o z a p r e v e n t s t h e V i r g i n M a r y a n d t h e I m m a c u l a t e C o n c e p t i o n from having an i m m e n s e spiritual i m p o r t a n c e for universal C h r i s t i a n i t y , a p a r t f r o m t h e i r m e a n i n g f o r t h e t o w n o f Z a r a g o z a . Even t h e most scholarly Spanish missionaries w e r e incapable of seeing t h e M e x i c a n r e l i g i o n e n t i r e , in its living u n i t y , f o r s e v e r a l f a c t o r s d a r k e n e d t h e i r vision. T o b e g i n w i t h , t h e i r i n f o r m a n t s a c c e n t e d t h e i r a c c o u n t s a c c o r d i n g t o t h e i r m e m b e r s h i p in a local c o m m u n i t y . M o r e o v e r , t h e classic c u l t u r e o f t h e f r i a r s m a d e t h e m view t h e a n t i q u e R o m a n m o d e l as t h e a r c h e t y p e o f e v e r y p o l y t h e i s t i c r e l i g i o n ; t h e i r a d h e r e n c e to C h r i s t i a n i t y a n d t h e s p i r i t u a l o p t i o n s t h a t t h a t a d h e r e n c e i m p l i e d m a d e it i m p o s s i b l e f o r t h e m t o s e e in a m u l t i t u d e o f i d o l a tries a c o h e r e n t r e l i g i o n c u l m i n a t i n g in a d i v i n e c r e a t i v e p r i n c i p l e . W h e n I say t h a t D u r a n m a y h a v e e r r e d in m a k i n g C i h u a c o a t l t h e p a r t i cular goddess of Xochimilco, I only m e a n that he may have b e e n partly w r o n g . N o d o u b t C i h u a c o a t l w a s , as t h e D o m i n i c a n t h o u g h t , t h e t u t e l a r y g o d d e s s o f t h e X o c h i m i l c o , b u t this is n o t t h e e s s e n t i a l t h i n g . Q u e t zalcoatl s i m i l a r l y a p p e a r e d t o t h e c h r o n i c l e r s as t h e p r o t e c t i v e d i v i n i t y o f C h o l u l a , b u t this local r o l e by n o m e a n s e x h a u s t e d his r e l i g i o u s significance. O n c e a g a i n t h e a n a l o g y w i t h t h e V i r g i n o f P i l a r o r a n y o t h e r H i s p a n i c cult c o m e s to m i n d ; t h e line of division b e t w e e n t h e highest s p i r i t u a l i t y a n d i d o l a t r y (in t h e strict s e n s e ) a p p e a r s in C h r i s t i a n i t y j u s t as in t h e M e x i c a n r e l i g i o n . T h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e s a n c t u a r i e s is p r i m o r d i a l ; o n t h e t o p o g r a p h i c b a s e o f t h e s a n c t u a r i e s , t h e p r o c e s s o f syncretism b e t w e e n t h e g r e a t divinities of a n c i e n t Mexico a n d t h e saints of C h r i s t i a n i t y w o r k e d itself o u t . T h e m o s t n o t a b l e e x a m p l e is p r e c i s e l y t h a t o f t h e hill o f T e p e y a c , first a p l a c e o f p i l g r i m a g e a n d s a n c t u a r y o f T o n a n t z i n - C i h u a c o a t l a n d later of O u r L a d y of G u a d a l u p e . J u s t as t h e C h r i s t i a n s b u i l t t h e i r first c h u r c h e s w i t h t h e r u b b l e a n d t h e c o l u m n s o f t h e a n c i e n t p a g a n t e m p l e s , so t h e y o f t e n b o r r o w e d p a g a n customs for their o w n cult p u r p o s e s . T h u s they p r e s e r v e d D r u i d o r I b e r i a n places of pilgrimage, substituting a Christian
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s a n c t u a r y f o r a p a g a n i m a g e . T h e m i s s i o n a r i e s o f M e x i c o e n g a g e d in a process of s p o n t a n e o u s r e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n with n u m e r o u s p r e c e d e n t s . L e t m e recall t h e c a s e o f t h e I b e r i a n M a r i a n cult, t h e e x a m p l e o f O u r Lady of Battles, t h e Virgin of C o v a d o n g a . W h e n the I n f a n t e Pelayo t o o k r e f u g e in t h e g r o t t o w h e r e h e was c o r n e r e d by t h e M o o r s , a s a n c t u a r y was already t h e r e , a n d we k n o w that t h e waters which g u s h f r o m this flow i n t o a r i v e r c a l l e d D e v a o r Diva, t h e n a m e o f t h e m o t h e r - g o d d e s s o f t h e C e l t s . If C o v a d o n g a d e r i v e s f r o m cova dominica, t h e i d e n t i t y o f t h e Domina ( " L a d y " ) o r i g i n a l l y m u s t h a v e b e e n as a m b i g u o u s as was t h a t o f T o n a n t z i n - G u a d a l u p e . T h e e v a n g e l i z a t i o n o f A m e r i c a a n d , in t h e p r e s e n t case, o f M e x i c o , c a r r i e d o n t h i s t r a d i t i o n . I n d e e d , in t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n s o f t h e first C o u n c i l o f L i m a , a s s e m b l e d in 1 5 5 2 , w e r e a d t h e f o l l o w i n g : "We o r d e r t h a t all t h e c u l t idols a n d edifices f o u n d in t h e villages w h e r e C h r i s t i a n I n d i a n s r e s i d e b e b u r n e d a n d d e s t r o y e d , a n d if t h e site is s u i t a b l e , a c h u r c h o r at l e a s t a c r o s s s h o u l d b e p l a n t e d t h e r e . " T h i s m i s s i o n a r y policy, g i v e n legislative f o r c e in L i m a , w a s also a p p l i e d in M e x i c o , as S a h a g u n a n d T o r q u e m a d a testify. T h e l a t t e r w r i t e s : " W i s h i n g t o r e m e d y this g r e a t evil, o u r b r e t h r e n , w h o w e r e t h e first t o g a t h e r in t h e g r a p e s o f t h e s e wild v i n e s a n d t o p r u n e t h e m . . . d e c i d e d t o b u i l d a c h u r c h in t h e p l a c e called T o n a n t z i n , n e a r M e x i c o City, a t e m p l e t o t h e v e r y H o l y V i r g i n , w h o is O u r L a d y a n d O u r M o t h e r . " The i n t e n t i o n o f t h e m i s s i o n a r i e s , as e x p r e s s e d b y T o r q u e m a d a , is p e r fectly c l e a r ; t h e y w a n t e d to s e n d t h e p i l g r i m s t o O u r L a d y , t h e V i r g i n " w h o is O u r L a d y a n d O u r M o t h e r , " t o s u b s t i t u t e C h r i s t ' s m o t h e r , m o t h e r of m a n k i n d , w h o s e r e d e m p t i o n she p e r m i t t e d , for t h e m o t h e r - g o d d e s s of the ancient Mexicans. 1 7
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If o n e r e m e m b e r s t h a t t h e V i r g i n M a r y w a s t r a d i t i o n a l l y d e s c r i b e d as t h e " n e w E v e , " S a h a g u n ' s c o m m e n t s b e c o m e e v e n m o r e s i g n i f i c a n t : " T h i s g o d d e s s is c a l l e d C i h u a c o a t l , w h i c h m e a n s , ' t h e wife o f t h e S e r p e n t , ' a n d they also called h e r T o n a n t z i n , which m e a n s ' O u r Lady.' " T h e s e t w o i n d i c a t i o n s s e e m t o r e v e a l t h a t this g o d d e s s is o u r M o t h e r Eve, w h o was misled by t h e S e r p e n t , a n d t h a t t h e I n d i a n s h a d a k n o w l e d g e of w h a t took place b e t w e e n M o t h e r Eve a n d the Serp e n t . " T h i s p r o f o u n d e r r o r of t h e m o s t illustrious historian of anc i e n t M e x i c o is d o u b l y i n s t r u c t i v e . It r e v e a l s a m i n d h e l d c a p t i v e b y biblical t r a d i t i o n , a m i n d t h a t c o u l d n o t i n t e r p r e t " O u r M o t h e r " as b e i n g o t h e r t h a n Eve a n d for which the s e r p e n t m u s t be a symbol of t h e Devil. T o t h e c o n t r a r y , w e k n o w , p a r t i c u l a r l y as a r e s u l t o f t h e r e d i s covery of N a h u a t l m a n u s c r i p t s , p u b l i s h e d a n d c o m m e n t e d by A. M. G a r i b a y a n d L e o n - P o r t i l l a , t h a t in a n c i e n t M e x i c o t h e s e r p e n t w a s a r e l i g i o u s s y m b o l . S a h a g u n ' s e r r o r is i n t e r e s t i n g f r o m a n o t h e r p o i n t o f 1 9
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view; it c o n t r a d i c t s his belief, w h i c h h e states u n e q u i v o c a l l y e l s e w h e r e in his w o r k , t h a t t h e a n c i e n t M e x i c a n s h a d n e v e r b e e n e v a n g e l i z e d b e f o r e t h e a r r i v a l o f t h e F r a n c i s c a n s . N o w , a b e l i e f in a p r i s t i n e a p o s tolic e v a n g e l i z a t i o n o f t h e I n d i a n s was all t h a t w a s n e e d e d t o i d e n t i f y T o n a n t z i n , not with the old, b u t with the new Eve, Mary. N o d o u b t such p h e n o m e n a a r e n o t t h e result of conscious, d e l i b e r a t e t h o u g h t processes, b u t they suggest o n e possible source of a f u t u r e syncretism. A n o t h e r , m o r e certain, s o u r c e indicated by S a h a g u n derives f r o m philology: " N o w that the C h u r c h of O u r Lady of G u a d a l u p e has b e e n b u i l t , t h e I n d i a n s also call h e r T o n a n t z i n , o n t h e p r e t e x t t h a t t h e p r e a c h e r s call O u r L a d y , t h e M o t h e r o f G o d , ' T o n a n t z i n ' . . . . T h i s is an a b u s e which should be s t o p p e d , for the t r u e n a m e of t h e M o t h e r of G o d , O u r L a d y , is n o t T o n a n t z i n b u t ' G o d ' a n d ' n a n t z i n ' (Dios-nantziri). T o m e t h i s l o o k s v e r y m u c h like a s a t a n i c i n v e n t i o n t o p a l l i a t e i d o l a t r y by p l a y i n g o n t h e a m b i g u i t y o f t h i s n a m e T o n a n t z i n . T h e I n d i a n s t o d a y , as in t h e o l d d a y s , c o m e f r o m a f a r t o visit t h i s T o n a n t z i n , a n d to m e this cult seems very suspect, for t h e r e a r e e v e r y w h e r e n u m e r o u s c h u r c h e s c o n s e c r a t e d to O u r Lady, b u t they d o n o t go t h e r e , preferr i n g t o c o m e f r o m a f a r t o this T o n a n t z i n , as in t h e p a s t . " T h e F r a n c i s c a n ' s l u c i d c o m m e n t c o n f i r m s t h e s i n c e r i t y o f his p r o f e s s e d d e s i g n : t o d e s c r i b e t h e a n c i e n t f o r m s o f t h e M e x i c a n r e l i g i o n in o r d e r t o assist in its e x t i r p a t i o n . 2 0
S a h a g u n ' s p o s i t i o n in this specific c a s e typifies t h e a t t i t u d e o f t h e first F r a n c i s c a n m i s s i o n a r i e s t o w a r d s y n c r e t i s m . S a h a g u n a d v o c a t e d a t o t a l b r e a k w i t h t h e p o l y t h e i s t beliefs, f o r h e b e l i e v e d t h a t all e f f o r t s a t a s s i m i l a t i o n i n t r o d u c e d a m b i g u i t i e s u t i l i z e d b y t h e Evil O n e f o r his o w n e n d s . I n a n a p p e n d i x d e v o t e d t o " s u p e r s t i t i o n s , " S a h a g u n cites o t h e r e x a m p l e s , s u c h as t h a t o f T o c i , " w h i c h m e a n s our g r a n d m o t h e r . . . . T h e y give t h i s n a m e t o S a i n t A n n e , w i t h this p r e t e x t : s i n c e t h e p r e a c h e r s say t h a t S a i n t A n n e is t h e g r a n d m o t h e r o f J e s u s C h r i s t , s h e m u s t b e t h e g r a n d m o t h e r o f all C h r i s t i a n s . " Here h e is d i s c u s s i n g a s a n c t u a r y n e a r T l a x c a l a , b u t t h e p r o c e s s is t h e s a m e , a n d S a h a g u n a d d s : " T h e p e o p l e w h o c o m e t o t h e feast o f T o c i , as in t h e o l d d a y s , c l a i m t h e y d o so f r o m d e v o t i o n f o r S a i n t A n n e , b u t s i n c e t h e n a m e o f T o c i is e q u i v o c a l a n d t h e I n d i a n s r e s p e c t t h e i r t r a d i t i o n s , t h e r e is g o o d r e a s o n t o b e l i e v e t h e y c o m e t o w o r s h i p t h e i r a n c i e n t T o c i , a n d n o t f r o m a f f e c t i o n f o r t h e n e w c u l t . " (A F r e n c h m a n inv o l u n t a r i l y recalls S a i n t A n n e d ' A u r a y , w h o s e s o l e m n feast a n t e d a t e d the Christianization of Britanny.) T h e u n c o m p r o m i s i n g severity of the Franciscan p i o n e e r s sheds a new light o n t h e origins of t h e cult of t h e V i r g i n o f T e p y a c ; it sets t h e p h e n o m e n o n w i t h i n a l a r g e r s y n c r e t i c f r a m e w o r k , in w h i c h t h e c u l t o f T e z c a t l i p o c a , a n o t h e r m a j o r d i v i n i t y o f t h e M e x i c a n p a n t h e o n (we r e c a l l his d u e l w i t h Q u e t z a l c o a t l , w i t h its 2 1
2 2
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c o s m i c s y m b o l i s m ) , h a d its o w n p l a c e , w i t h T e z c a t l i p o c a a s s i m i l a t e d t o Saint J o h n the Baptist. S a h a g u n , w h o h a d acquired a p r o f o u n d k n o w l e d g e o f t h e n a t i v e r e l i g i o n a n d t h e N a h u a t l l a n g u a g e , criticized n e w l y a r r i v e d c l e r g y (it is u n c e r t a i n w h e t h e r h e r e f e r r e d t o J e s u i t s o r secular clergy) for c o n t r i b u t i n g u n k n o w i n g l y to the r e b i r t h of idolatry. S a h a g u n w r o t e t h e a p p e n d i x o n " s u p e r s t i t i o n s " in 1 5 7 6 , f o u r y e a r s a f t e r t h e a r r i v a l o f t h e first J e s u i t s a n d t h e s t a r t o f t h e m a g i s t r a c y o f Archbishop Moya d e Contreras, who gradually transferred control of t h e I n d i a n m i s s i o n s f r o m t h e r e g u l a r t o t h e s e c u l a r c l e r g y . A t this d a t e S a h a g u n takes a d e c i d e d position with r e g a r d to t h e cult of G u a d a l u p e : " I t is c l e a r t h a t in t h e i r h e a r t s t h e c o m m o n p e o p l e w h o g o t h e r e o n p i l g r i m a g e s a r e m o v e d only by t h e i r a n c i e n t r e l i g i o n . " D e n y ing t h e cult's syncretic c h a r a c t e r , h e believes the I n d i a n show of Christ i a n p i e t y is all a s h a m . " T o m e this l o o k s v e r y m u c h like a s a t a n i c i n v e n t i o n t o p a l l i a t e i d o l a t r y b y p l a y i n g o n t h e a m b i g u i t y o f this n a m e Tonantzin." E a c h t e r m m u s t b e u n d e r s t o o d h e r e in its p r i m a r y sense: satanic "invention" m e a n s an invention of Satan a n d to "pall i a t e " m e a n s t o veil, as if w i t h a p a l l i u m ; " a m b i g u i t y " e x p r e s s e s t h e e q u i v o c a l ( o p p o s e d to " u n i v o c a l " ) c h a r a c t e r o f " T o n a n t z i n , " d e s i g n a t i n g " O u r M o t h e r " in t h e a n c i e n t r e l i g i o n a n d " O u r L a d y " in t h e n e w o n e . B u t a n a m e , o r a false m e a n i n g , d o e s n o t suffice t o e x p l a i n t h e s u r v i v a l o f a belief, n o r t h e f l o w e r i n g o f a n e w , i n d i s p u t a b l y s y n c r e t i c belief, t h e c u l t o f O u r L a d y o f G u a d a l u p e o f T e p e y a c . It is t i m e f o r m e to e v o k e O u r L a d y o f G u a d a l u p e o f E s t r e m a d u r a , w h o s e i m a g e t h e c o n q u i s t a d o r s o f M e x i c o a n d t h e i r chief, H e r n a n C o r t e s , a r d e n t l y v e n e r a t e d . C o r t e s himself, I m a y n o t e in p a s s i n g , w a s a n a t i v e o f M e d e l l i n , a t o w n o f E s t r e m a d u r a n e a r t h e s a n c t u a r y o f las V i l l u e r c a s . 23
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Our Lady of Guadalupe of Estremadura, Protectress of Iberian Christianity T h e n e w T o n a n t z i n o r , as S a h a g u n w o u l d h a v e said, " D i o s - n a n t z i n , " w o r s h i p p e d o n t h e hill o f T e p e y a c , w a s k n o w n t o S p a n i a r d s b y t h e m o r e f a m i l i a r n a m e o f G u a d a l u p e . C o n t r o v e r s y still s u r r o u n d s t h e o r i g i n a n d m e a n i n g o f this n a m e . S c h o l a r s g e n e r a l l y a g r e e , h o w e v e r , t h a t it c o n t a i n s t h e A r a b i c r a d i c a l quad, o f f r e q u e n t o c c u r r e n c e in p e n i n s u l a r t o p o n y m y ( G u a d a l q u i v i r , G u a d i a n a , G u a d a l e t e , etc.), u s e d t o d e s i g n a t e s t r e a m s a n d r i v e r s (oued); t h e r e is little d o u b t o n this p o i n t . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e suffix h a s l o n g b e e n i n t e r p r e t e d as o f L a t i n o r i g i n — l u p u m , t h e wolf, w h e n c e " r i v e r o f w o l v e s . " B u t t h e ass o c i a t i o n o f a n A r a b i c r a d i c a l a n d a l e a r n e d L a t i n suffix ( t h e n o r m a l d e v e l o p m e n t of Castilian p o p u l a r speech p r o d u c e d t h e m o d e r n f o r m
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lobo) a p p e a r s u n l i k e l y , a n d p h i l o l o g i c a l i n q u i r y (al is t h e A r a b i c article) a n d a q u i c k r e c o n n a i s a n c e o f t h e site p e r s u a d e d m e t h a t " q u a d al u p e " signifies r a t h e r rio oculto, t h a t is, a r i v e r f l o w i n g b e t w e e n h i g h b a n k s . In this instance, the Virgin received the n a m e of the sanctuary w h e r e s h e is v e n e r a t e d , in t h e h e a r t o f a n e a s t e r n s i e r r a o f E s t r e m a d u r a ( t h e s i e r r a o f V i l l u e r c a s ) ; a c c o r d i n g t o t r a d i t i o n , this s a n c t u a r y w a s f o u n d e d a f t e r a p r o d i g i o u s a p p a r i t i o n o f M a r y . T h i s t r a d i t i o n , is well e s t a b l i s h e d b y a series o f f o u r t e e n t h - a n d fifteenth-century accounts, w r i t t e n by J e r o n y m i t e r e l i g i o u s w h o h a d c h a r g e o f t h e s a n c t u a r y f r o m 1389 to 1835. Aside f r o m the intrinsic interest of t h e early chronicles o f G u a d a l u p e , w h i c h d e s e r v e t o b e p u b l i s h e d in t o t o (in t h e s a m e s p i r i t t h a t t h e B o l l a n d i s t s c o l l e c t e d t h e lives o f t h e s a i n t s , e v e n t h o u g h apocryphal) for the light that they shed o n t h e origins of t h e Maria n cult in Western E u r o p e , these chronicles c o n t r i b u t e to a b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e " p r o d i g i o u s a p p a r i t i o n o f M a r y " o n t h e hill o f Tepeyac. T h e s t u d i e s o f F r a y A r c a n g e l B a r r a d o M a n z a n o , in p a r t i c u l a r , h a v e saved m e a l o n g r e s e a r c h effort. T h e interested r e a d e r m a y consult t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n t o his e d i t i o n o f t h e Cronica del Monasterio de Guadalupe, t h e w o r k o f a J e r o n y m i t e m o n k w h o d i e d in 1 4 8 4 , F a t h e r A l o n s o d e la R a m b l a . T h a n k s t o t h e e x i s t e n c e o f a g r o u p o f a u t h e n t i c a n d r i c h l y i n f o r m a t i v e m a n u s c r i p t s , all a s p e c t s o f t h e m i r a c u l o u s t r a d i t i o n h a v e c o m e d o w n to u s . A l t h o u g h t h e classic w o r k is t h e Historia de Nra. Sra. de Guadalupe o f F a t h e r G e r m a n R u b i o , t h e m o s t i n t e n s i v e s t u d y , I b e l i e v e , is t h a t o f F a t h e r B a r r a d o M a n z a n o , Libro de la invention de Santa Maria de Guadalupe; 1 should note, however, that Father Rubio offers a m o d e r n i z e d version of the most ancient m a n u s c r i p t , which r e p o r t s the l e g e n d a r y history of "the d a r k lady of Villuercas," t h e i m a g e v e n e r a t e d at t h e s a n c t u a r y of G u a d a l u p e . L a t e r m a n u s c r i p t s d e r i v e f r o m this first m a n u s c r i p t o r r e p r o d u c e it. I b o r r o w f r o m F a t h e r B a r r a d o M. this chronological table of t h e sources: 25
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
Codex written before 1400, m i s s i n g . Codex 555 of the Archivo Histbrico National, w r i t t e n in 1 4 4 0 . Codex of Father Alonso de la Rambla ( 1 4 8 4 ) . Codex 344 of the Archivo Histbrico National, w r i t t e n i n 1 5 0 0 . Codex of Father Diego de Ecija ( d i e d 1 5 3 4 ) . Codex of Father Juan Herrera, in the Library of the Escorial, IV-a-10, w r i t t e n in 1 5 3 5 .
T h e t h i r d a n d fifth c o d i c e s w e r e p u b l i s h e d b y A . B a r r a d o M . ; t h e s i x t h w a s a n a l y z e d b y h i m in his e d i t i o n o f t h e fifth c o d e x , a n d t h e s e c o n d a n d t h i r d w e r e s t u d i e d in h i s i n t r o d u c t i o n to t h e t h i r d c o d e x , so t h a t all t h e m a n u s c r i p t s e x c e p t t h e m i s s i n g p r e - 1 4 0 0 c o d e x h a v e b e e n p u b l i s h e d o r c o m m e n t e d by F a t h e r B a r r a d o M.
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H a v i n g familiarized myself with the published manuscripts, I e x a m i n e d t h e u n p u b l i s h e d ones, particularly t h e oldest available text, t h a t o f 1 4 4 0 , a n d t h e f o u r t h c o d e x , t h a t o f 1 5 0 0 . T h e c o d e x o f 1 4 4 0 is a little p a r c h m e n t n o t e b o o k o f e i g h t y s h e e t s ; folios five to e i g h t a r e o f particular interest because they contain t h e essentials of t h e tradition. I shall i n d i c a t e b e l o w s o m e v a r i a n t s p r e s e n t e d b y Codex 344, w h i c h is clearly p o s t e r i o r ; these variants d o n o t f u n d a m e n t a l l y c h a n g e t h e trad i t i o n , b u t e m b e l l i s h it a c c o r d i n g t o a f a m i l i a r p a t t e r n . I n s t e a d o f s u m m a r i z i n g its c o n t e n t s , I p r e f e r t o give a p a r t i a l t r a n s l a t i o n o f t h e C o d e x of 1 4 4 0 w h i c h will p r e s e r v e t h e n a i v e flavor o f t h e o r i g i n a l a c c o u n t (fol. 6 r ) : " W h e r e i n is t o l d h o w O u r L a d y , t h e V i r g i n M a r y , a p p e a r e d t o a s h e p h e r d as h e w a t c h e d his c o w s a n d o r d e r e d h i m to g o h o m e , call t h e p r i e s t s a n d o t h e r p e o p l e , a n d r e t u r n t o d i g a t t h e p l a c e w h e r e s h e was, w h e r e t h e y w o u l d find a s t a t u e o f t h e V i r g i n . " A f t e r t h e s w o r d o f t h e M o o r h a d p a s s e d t h r o u g h a l m o s t all S p a i n , it p l e a s e d G o d , O u r L o r d , t o c o m f o r t t h e C h r i s t i a n s so t h e y m i g h t r e g a i n t h e c o u r a g e t h e y h a d lost. T h u s [ t h e a p p a r i t i o n o f t h e V i r g i n Mary] gave t h e m new c o u r a g e . " T h i s simple b e g i n n i n g transports us to the c u s t o m a r y milieu of these pious l e g e n d s : a pious image h i d d e n in t h e m o u n t a i n ; a n a p p a r i t i o n , w i t n e s s e d b y a s h e p h e r d , c o m i n g at a t i m e w h e n t h e C h r i s t i a n s w e r e in d i r e n e e d o f a m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f G o d a n d his s u p e r n a t u r a l g r a c e . T h e V i r g i n , m o t h e r o f J e s u s , a p p e a r s as intercessor b e t w e e n G o d a n d m e n . T h e n a r r a t o r goes o n to r e c o r d t h e m i r a c u l o u s e v e n t w i t h a d m i r a b l e simplicity (fol. 6v): " A t t h e time when King Alfonso reigned over Spain, O u r Lady, the Holy Virgin M a r y , a p p e a r e d to a s h e p h e r d in t h e m o u n t a i n s of G u a d a l u p e . . . . S h e s a i d to this s h e p h e r d : ' H a v e n o f e a r , f o r I a m t h e M o t h e r o f G o d , t h r o u g h w h o m m a n k i n d will b e r e d e e m e d . . .' (fol. 7v). T h e s h e p h e r d c a m e h o m e , f o u n d his wife in t e a r s , a n d said t o h e r : ' W h y d o y o u w e e p ? ' S h e r e p l i e d , ' Y o u r s o n is d e a d , ' a n d h e s a i d : ' H a v e n o care, for I d e d i c a t e h i m to H o l y M a r y of G u a d a l u p e , t h a t s h e m a y b r i n g h i m b a c k t o life a n d h e a l t h . ' . . . I m m e d i a t e l y t h e y o u n g m a n r o s e u p s o u n d a n d well; h e said t o his f a t h e r : ' F a t h e r , h a s t e n ; let u s g o t o H o l y M a r y o f G u a d a l u p e , " a t w h i c h all w h o w e r e p r e s e n t m a r v e l l e d . T h i s s h e p h e r d w e n t t o find t h e p r i e s t s a n d t o l d t h e m . . . t h a t t h e miracles to b e w o r k e d by t h e Virgin w o u l d cause m a n y pilgrims f r o m m a n y r e g i o n s to c o m e to h e r sanctuary, a n d t h a t a l a r g e village w o u l d a r i s e in t h a t g r e a t m o u n t a i n . As s o o n as t h e p r i e s t s a n d o t h e r p e o p l e h e a r d t h a t , t h e y set t o w o r k . " T h i s p i o u s l e g e n d is typical o f t h e l e g e n d s c i r c u l a t i n g in t h e m e d i e v a l West, e s p e cially in t h e I b e r i a n P e n i n s u l a . T h e V i r g i n ' s c h o i c e o f a h u m b l e s h e p h e r d t o b e t h e m e s s e n g e r o f h e r g r a c e is a n o b l i g a t o r y f e a t u r e o f t h e g e n r e . T h e resuscitated son, consecrated to the future sanctuary o f t h e V i r g i n , p l a c e s t h e seal o f a u t h e n t i c i t y o n t h e a p p a r i t i o n . T h e 2 6
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V i r g i n h e r s e l f p r o p h e t i c a l l y a n n o u n c e s t h e f u t u r e rise o f t h e village. I t o n l y r e m a i n e d f o r t h e p r i e s t s a n d l a y m e n o f C a c e r e s t o set o u t f o r t h e sierra of G u a d a l u p e a n d disinter t h e holy i m a g e , which they hasten to d o after h e a r i n g the blessed s h e p h e r d with the p r e d e s t i n e d n a m e , Gil C o r d e r o ( " l a m b " ) , a n d w i t n e s s i n g t h e r e s u r r e c t i o n o f his son. A c t u a l l y , it is d o u b t f u l w h e t h e r a p r o p h e t w a s n e e d e d t o f o r e s e e t h e flowering of t h e M a r i a n cult at G u a d a l u p e , t h e construction of an a b b e y w i t h a village g r o w i n g u p a b o u t it, a n d t h e o c c u r r e n c e o f m i r a cles o r a t least a b e l i e f in m i r a c l e s t h a t w o u l d a t t r a c t p i l g r i m s . O n e c o u l d cite n u m e r o u s e x a m p l e s o f p l a c e s o f p i l g r i m a g e w i t h s i m i l a r o r i g i n s w h i c h p r o s p e r e d f r o m t h e M i d d l e A g e s d o w n to t h e nineteenth century. T h e account I have just transcribed of the prod i g i o u s e v e n t — t h e o l d e s t a c c o u n t k n o w n — w a s c o m p o s e d a t least a c e n t u r y a f t e r t h e o r i g i n o f t h e s a n c t u a r y o f G u a d a l u p e . W h e n it was w r i t t e n by a J e r o n y m i t e r e l i g i o u s o f t h e c o n v e n t o f G u a d a l u p e , t h e t e m p l e , t h e c o n v e n t , t h e village, t h e m i r a c l e s , t h e p i l g r i m s w e r e n o l o n g e r a p r o p h e t i c vision b u t a daily reality, o r a t least a n i m a g e o f t h a t r e a l i t y c a p a b l e o f i n s p i r i n g p o p u l a r f e r v o r . T h a t is h o w this v e r s i o n o f the origins or the "invention" of Holy Mary of G u a d a l u p e — t o use the t e r m e m p l o y e d b y h e r fifth c h r o n i c l e r , F a t h e r Ecija, w h o d i e d in 1 5 3 4 — w a s p o p u l a r i z e d a n d e s t a b l i s h e d . F o r t h e rest, I b e l i e v e t h e C o d e x o f 1 4 4 0 s h o u l d b e r e g a r d e d as a p i e c e o f p i o u s p r o p a g a n d a . It is e n t i r e l y p o s s i b l e t h e s h e p h e r d Gil, s e a r c h i n g f o r a s t r a y c o w , accid e n t a l l y f o u n d a c a v e o b s t r u c t e d b y a r o c k a n d , h o p i n g t o find t r e a s u r e , m a d e his w a y i n s i d e w i t h t h e h e l p o f c o m r a d e s . T h i s r e q u i r e d n o m i r a c l e . Was t h e h o l y i m a g e a l r e a d y in t h e cave? Was it i n t r o d u c e d b y s o m e p i o u s h a n d in o r d e r t o b e d i s c o v e r e d s h o r t l y t h e r e a f t e r ? It w o u l d t a k e d a r i n g t o a t t e m p t t o solve t h e s e p r o b l e m s . A g a i n , p e r h a p s t h e s h e p h e r d Gil C o r d e r o n e v e r e x i s t e d . A c c o r d i n g to t h e s a m e C o d e x of 1440, the origin of t h e D a r k Virg i n , w i t h t h e c h i l d , w a s as follows (fol. 5v): " A t t h a t t i m e (in t h e e i g h t h c e n t u r y ) all t h e C h r i s t i a n s fled f r o m Seville. A m o n g t h e m w e r e s o m e saintly p r i e s t s w h o t o o k w i t h t h e m t h e s t a t u e o f O u r L a d y , H o l y M a r y . . . , a n d in t h e s e m o u n t a i n s t h e s e p r i e s t s d u g a c a v e t h a t t h e y s u r r o u n d e d with large gravestones; inside they placed the statue of O u r L a d y , H o l y M a r y , t o g e t h e r w i t h a s m a l l bell a n d a r e l i q u a r y c o n t a i n i n g a w r i t i n g w h i c h t o l d h o w this s t a t u e o f H o l y M a r y h a d b e e n o f f e r e d a t R o m e t o t h e A r c h b i s h o p o f Seville, S a i n t L e a n d e r , b y t h e D o c t o r o f t h e C h u r c h , S a i n t G r e g o r y . " C o d e x 3 4 4 p r e s e n t s a slight v a r i a t i o n f r o m t h e a b o v e a c c o u n t ; it r e l a t e s t h a t t h e relics o f S a i n t F u l g e n c i o w e r e also f o u n d in t h e c a v e a n d t h a t t h e bell o n l y s o u n d e d matins. 2 8
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H e r e , e v e n m o r e t h a n in t h e a c c o u n t o f t h e p r o d i g i e s , w e a r e s u r r o u n d e d b y l e g e n d s . It is e n t i r e l y p o s s i b l e t h a t Sevillian p r i e s t s , f l e e i n g t h e A l m o h a d e i n v a s i o n , d e c i d e d t o p r o t e c t c e r t a i n relics a g a i n s t p r o f a n a t i o n by t a k i n g t h e m in t h e i r flight a c r o s s t h e m o u n t a i n o u s p a r t o f e a s t e r n E s t r e m a d u r a . I n m o s t p i o u s t r a d i t i o n s o f t h e C h r i s t i a n West, relics a r e d i s c o v e r e d a f t e r a p e r i o d o f c o n c e a l m e n t d e s i g n e d t o save t h e m f r o m p r o f a n a t i o n . It is m o r e difficult t o b e l i e v e t h e s t o r y t h a t t h e Sevillian p r i e s t s d u g a c a v e i n s t e a d o f u t l i z i n g n a t u r a l r e c e s s e s a n d t h e n i n d i c a t e d t h e place to w o u l d - b e pillagers by laying d o w n g r e a t s t o n e s like " g r a v e s t o n e s . " A s f o r t h e s u p p o s e d d e p o s i t o f a m u s e o g r a p h i c n o t e , d e s c r i b i n g t h e o r i g i n o f t h e d a r k s t a t u e a n d its h i s t o r y f o r t h e u s e o f i n d i s c r e e t v i s i t o r s — t h i s s o u n d s like p u r e f a n t a s y . I c o n c l u d e t h a t if t h e h i s t o r i c a l n o t e in q u e s t i o n e v e r e x i s t e d , like t h e a c c o u n t o f t h e a p p a r i t i o n s , it w a s c o m p o s e d l a t e r by s o m e p i o u s J e r o n y m i t e o f t h e c o n v e n t o f G u a d a l u p e . A s f o r t h e bell w h i c h s o u n d e d m a t i n s o f itself, all I c a n say is t h a t t h e f o l k l o r e o f t h e P e n i n s u l a (especially o f Galicia) is r e p l e t e w i t h a n a l o g o u s e x a m p l e s d o w n t o t h e t w e n t i e t h century. E v e n b e f o r e its p r o d i g i o u s r e a p p a r i t i o n , t h e s t a t u e o f t h e V i r g i n w i t h c h i l d , n o t a b l e f o r its d a r k c o l o r — a " b l a c k V i r g i n " — a n d its B y z a n t i n e a s p e c t , h a d a h i s t o r y filled w i t h l e g e n d . I t w a s s u p p o s e d l y c a r v e d b y t h e e v a n g e l i s t S a i n t L u k e , b u r i e d in B y z a n t i u m ( d u r i n g its first d i s a p p e a r a n c e ) , a n d b r o u g h t t o R o m e by P o p e S a i n t G r e g o r y t h e G r e a t . T h e r e t h e V i r g i n — n o t yet t h e V i r g i n o f G u a d a l u p e — w a s c a r r i e d in p r o c e s s i o n a n d w o r k e d a m i r a c l e by e x p e l l i n g a p l a g u e . L a t e r , a n o t h e r e p i d e m i c having desolated t h e ancient Hispalis, P o p e Saint G r e g o r y p r e s e n t e d t h e sacred image to L e a n d e r , a r c h b i s h o p of Seville, w h o u s e d it to g a i n t h e s a m e relief. W h a t s h o u l d w e m a k e o f all this? I t is a l m o s t c e r t a i n t h a t t h e i m a g e is a B y z a n t i n e w o r k , p r o b ably o f t h e first c e n t u r i e s A . D . ( t h e r i c h o r n a m e n t s w i t h w h i c h it is d e c k e d o u t d o n o t allow a c o m p l e t e e x a m i n a t i o n ) . T h i s p r e s u m p t i o n , f o u n d e d o n a r t i s t i c c r i t e r i a , s e e m s to b e c o n f i r m e d b y r e c e n t analysis o f t h e m a t e r i a l , w h i c h is c e d a r , a w o o d w i d e l y u s e d in t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n w o r l d , b u t d o u b t l e s s m u c h r a r e r in W e s t e r n E u r o p e in t h e p e r i o d u n d e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n . T h e s a i n t ' s chisel, t h e s t a t u e ' s d i s a p p e a r a n c e in B y z a n t i u m , t h e b o n d s o f a m i t y b e t w e e n S a i n t G r e g o r y t h e G r e a t a n d A r c h b i s h o p S a i n t L e a n d e r , a r e so m a n y d u b i o u s c i r c u m s t a n c e s w h o s e r o l e in t h e t r a d i t i o n w a s t o r e i n f o r c e t h e s a c r e d p o w e r o f t h e h o l y i m a g e . I n t h e r a c e f o r relics a n d m i r a c l e s t o w h i c h medieval Christians devoted themselves, pious invention compens a t e d f o r t h e s h o r t a g e o f a u t h e n t i c relics. O n l y t h u s c o u l d e a c h r e g i o n b o a s t , like t h e p r o v i n c e o f C a c e r e s , o f h a v i n g r e c e i v e d a p r o d i g i o u s b o o n f r o m H e a v e n , a t a t i m e w h i c h m u s t h a v e s e e m e d so o p p o r t u n e
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to t h e later chronicler: "After the sword of the M o o r h a d passed t h r o u g h a l m o s t all S p a i n , it p l e a s e d G o d , O u r L o r d , t o c o m f o r t t h e Christians. . . . " S u b s e q u e n t l y , in 1 3 4 0 , p r e f i g u r i n g t h e a c t i o n o f P h i l i p I I w i t h r e g a r d to t h e E s c o r i a l , K i n g A l f o n s o X I o r d e r e d t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e G o t h i c c h u r c h a n d t h e p r i o r y as a t h a n k s g i v i n g f o r t h e v i c t o r y o f S a l a d o ; t h e n , in 1 3 8 9 , K i n g J u a n I a s s i g n e d t o t h e J e r o n y m i t e o r d e r the care of the sanctuary. After the cardinal-regent Cisneros, came Cortes, Pizarro, A n d r e a Doria, Francisco d e Borja, to p r o s t r a t e t h e m selves at t h e feet o f t h e V i r g i n o f G u a d a l u p e . A m o n g t h e m o n a s t e r y ' s relics a n d o r n a m e n t s o n e c a n still a d m i r e t h e g o l d e n s c o r p i o n w h i c h t h e c o n q u e r o r o f M e x i c o o f f e r e d t o t h e V i r g i n as a n e x - v o t o , a f t e r b e i n g healed of a scorpion's sting. Until the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y t h e m o n a s t e r y was o n e o f t h e r i c h e s t in E u r o p e ; c o n s e q u e n t l y m a n y Spaniards, religious o r laymen, simple devotees or historians, reg a r d e d O u r L a d y o f G u a d a l u p e o f M e x i c o as a c o p y (un transunto) o f t h e h o l y i m a g e o f E s t r e m a d u r a a n d n o t h i n g m o r e , s i n c e all w e n t b a c k t o t h e l e g e n d a r y h i s t o r y o f " t h e d a r k L a d y o f las V i l l u e r c a s , " t h e w o r k o f S a i n t L u k e ' s chisel. T h a t t r a d i t i o n , a t a n y r a t e , is c o n t a i n e d in a n a n o n y m o u s m a n u s c r i p t : " G r e g o r y the G r e a t sent Saint L e a n d e r this statue of t h e Virgin, M o t h e r of O u r L o r d a n d o u r Mother, which he k e p t in his o r a t o r y , b e c a u s e it w a s said t h a t it h a d b e e n c a r v e d b y S a i n t L u k e . " T h i s d e t a i l h a s its o w n i m p o r t a n c e , f o r it l i n k s t h e S p a n i s h G u a d a l u p e c u l t to t h e a p o s t o l i c cults w h i c h d e v e l o p e d in W e s t e r n E u r o p e , as A. D u p r o n t h a s s h o w n , in c o m p e t i t i o n w i t h t h e p i l g r i m a g e s t o J e r u s a l e m . T h e c a u s e s o f this g e o g r a p h i c a l shift, w h i c h r e q u i r e d a m i l l e n n i u m to complete, included the p r o b l e m of distance, t h e p r a c t i c a l difficulties o f t r a v e l t o a H o l y L a n d d o m i n a t e d b y t h e " T u r k s , " a n d t h e m e n a c e o f B a r b a r y p i r a t e s w h o s c o u r e d t h e seas. T h e g r e a t C r u s a d e s u l t i m a t e l y failed t o solve t h e p r o b l e m . B u t t h e d e c i s i v e r e a s o n f o r t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f c e n t e r s o f p i l g r i m a g e in S p a i n , a n d in E u r o p e g e n e r a l l y , w a s t h e p r o f o u n d t e n d e n c y o f t h e r e l i g i o u s c o n s c i o u s n e s s t o sink its c u l t r o o t s in n a t i v e soil. 2 9
3 0
T h e A r a b c h r o n i c l e r I b a n H a y y a n w r o t e in t h e e l e v e n t h c e n t u r y t h a t t h e s a n c t u a r y o f S a i n t J a m e s a t C o m p o s t e l a w a s as h o l y f o r t h e C h r i s t i a n s as t h e K a a b a a t M e c c a w a s f o r t h e M o s l e m s . B y t h e m i d d l e of t h e f o u r t e e n t h century, however, that situation h a d c h a n g e d . Saint J a m e s o f C o m p o s t e l a was p r o b a b l y t h e p r i n c i p a l c e n t e r o f s a c r a l g r a v ity o f t h a t s p i r i t u a l " H o l y E m p i r e " w h i c h s u r v i v e d t h e d i s m e m b e r m e n t of C h a r l e m a g n e ' s e m p i r e . But the progress of the Reconquista by t h e C h r i s t i a n k i n g d o m s o f t h e P e n i n s u l a b r o u g h t in its t r a i n a m i g r a t i o n o f c e n t e r s o f p i l g r i m a g e , so t h a t t h e p r i n c i p a l h e a r t h o f I b e r i a n religiosity t e n d e d t o d r a w n e a r t h e g e o g r a p h i c a l — o n e c o u l d
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e v e n say g e o m e t r i c a l — c e n t e r o f t h e P e n i n s u l a . I t h a s b e e n said t h a t " G u a d a l u p e is t h e h i s t o r y o f S p a i n f r o m t h e b a t t l e o f S a l a d o u n t i l t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of t h e E s c o r i a l " ; t h a t is, f r o m 1 3 4 0 t o 1 5 6 1 . T h e e r e c t i o n o f a specifically H i s p a n i c r e l i g i o u s h e a r t h was, so to s p e a k , t h e consecration of t h e g r e a t cleavage b e t w e e n Spain a n d t h e o t h e r reg i o n s o f W e s t e r n E u r o p e — a c l e a v a g e w h i c h w o u l d c u l m i n a t e in Spain's cultural isolation. 31
A m e r i c o C a s t r o has justly d r a w n attention to the historic i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e r o l e o f a typically S p a n i s h o r d e r , t h e J e r o n y m i t e s . T h e history of this o r d e r (poorly s t u d i e d f r o m a n o n m o n a s t i c p o i n t of view) a l m o s t b l e n d s w i t h t h a t o f t h e m o n a s t e r y o f G u a d a l u p e a n d , still l a t e r , w i t h t h a t o f S a n L o r e n z o o f t h e E s c o r i a l . I n his c a t a l o g o f t h e J e r o n y m i t e monasteries of Spain, t h e p r i o r of G u a d a l u p e , Fray G a b riel d e T a l a v e r a , w r i t i n g in 1 5 9 7 , s i n g l e d o u t f o u r f o r special c i t a t i o n : S a n B a r t o l o m e d e L u p i a n a , N u e s t r a S e n o r a d e G u a d a l u p e , Yuste, a n d S a n L o r e n z o el R e a l ( t h e E s c o r i a l ) , in t h e o r d e r o f t h e i r c r e a t i o n . N o t i n g t h a t t h e s e successive f o u n d a t i o n s t o o k p l a c e by a p r o c e s s o f b r e a k a w a y , since G u a d a l u p e w a s f o u n d e d by f r i a r s f r o m L u p i a n a , a n d t h e E s c o r i a l a n d Yuste by r e l i g i o u s f r o m G u a d a l u p e (with t h e p r i o r of G u a d a l u p e himself d e p a r t i n g for the Escorial), we perceive an u n d e r l y i n g spiritual continuity. A n o t h e r aspect attracts o u r attent i o n : t h e close link b e t w e e n S p a n i s h d y n a s t i c h i s t o r y a n d J e r o n y m i t e monastic history. O n O c t o b e r 29, 1389, King J u a n I f o u n d e d the J e r o n y m i t e p r i o r y of G u a d a l u p e , to which h e sent Fray F e r n a n d o Yafiez w i t h t h i r t y f r i a r s o f L u p i a n a . Yuste, t o w h i c h C h a r l e s V r e t i r e d in 1 5 5 7 , w a s f o u n d e d in 1 4 0 8 , a n d it was t h e J e r o n y m i t e s o f G u a d a l u p e w h o w e r e called u p o n to c r e a t e t h e new m o n a s t e r y . W h e n P h i l i p I I u n d e r t o o k t o fulfill t h e vow h e h a d m a d e a t t h e b a t t l e o f S a i n t Q u e n t i n t o b u i l d a m o n a s t e r y to S a i n t L o r e n z o t h e m a r t y r , it w a s to t h e f r i a r s o f G u a d a l u p e , a g a i n , t h a t h e t u r n e d f o r h e l p in b r i n g i n g his d e v o u t e n t e r p r i s e t o a successful c o n c l u s i o n . B u t G u a d a l u p e ( a n d l a t e r t h e Escorial) was n o t s i m p l y a k i n d o f small royal retreat. A m e r i c o Castro notes that cryptojudaic cerem o n i e s h a d b e e n c e l e b r a t e d in this p r i n c i p a l s a n c t u a r y o f S p a n i s h C a t h o l i c i s m . T h e h i s t o r y o f G u a d a l u p e is l i n k e d t o t h e h i s t o r y o f i n q u i s i t o r i a l p e r s e c u t i o n o f j u d a i z e r s . Its links w i t h political h i s t o r y a r e e v e n c l o s e r — o n e c o u l d e v e n call t h e m c o n s t i t u t i o n a l — f o r t h e p r i o r y w a s f o u n d e d as a t h a n k s g i v i n g for t h e v i c t o r y o f S a l a d o . I n t h i s c o n n e c t i o n , w e n o t e t h a t t h e c o p p e r l a m p b e l o n g i n g to t h e T u r k i s h a d m i r a l c a p t u r e d a t L e p a n t o still h a n g s in t h e n a v e o f G u a d a l u p e ' s c h u r c h . A m o n g t h e h o l y i m a g e ' s w o n d e r - w o r k i n g a c t i o n s , a statistically i m p o r t a n t p l a c e m u s t b e a s s i g n e d to cases o f m i r a c u l o u s l i b e r a t i o n o f C h r i s t i a n p r i s o n e r s o f t h e M o o r s a n d t h e r e s c u e o f sailors f r o m
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s h i p w r e c k . T h e c o u r s e o f t h e a l l i a n c e o f t h e m o n a s t e r y w i t h t h e Castilian d y n a s t y d i d n o t always r u n s m o o t h . I n t h e r e g e n c y of C a r d i n a l C i s n e r o s , w h o s o u g h t t o limit t h e m o n a s t e r y ' s t e r r i t o r i a l e x p a n s i o n , t h e J e r o n y m i t e s i n s t i t u t e d t w o suits a g a i n s t t h e g r e a t r e f o r m e r , w h o l e v i e d a n n u a l t a x e s o f a t h o u s a n d m a r a v e d i s u p o n t h e m in 1 5 0 8 . P e r h a p s t h e m o s t critical e v e n t in t h e r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n t h e f r i a r s a n d t h e m o n a r c h y w a s t h e g r e a t n a t i o n a l crisis o f t h e r e v o l t o f t h e C o m u n e r o s in 1 5 2 1 . A l t h o u g h w e k n o w m o r e a b o u t t h e r o l e o f a F r a n c i s c a n o f C a c e r e s , F r a y J u a n d e T o r r e s , in a C o m u n e r o m o v e m e n t in E s t r e m a d u r a , it s e e m s c e r t a i n t h a t t h e f r i a r s o f t h e G u a d a l u p e m o n a s tery r e g a r d e d with sympathy the m o v e m e n t of regional resistance to the claims of the y o u n g foreign sovereign Charles I of Spain (Charles V of the Holy R o m a n Empire). W h e n , a score of years later, C h r i s t o p h e r C o l u m b u s r e t u r n e d f r o m his first v o y a g e to t h e N e w W o r l d , t h e c u l t o f G u a d a l u p e w a s a t its zenith; h e r n a m e was given to o n e of t h e lesser Antilles ( G u a d a l u p e ) , a n d t h e first A m e r i c a n n a t i v e s t o set f o o t o n S p a n i s h soil w e r e b a p tized t h e r e u n d e r t h e auspices of royal g o d p a r e n t s . T h e severe b u t i n s t r u c t i v e j u d g m e n t o f t h e F r a n c i s c a n F a t h e r G e r m a n R u b i o in his classic h i s t o r y o f G u a d a l u p e calls a t t e n t i o n t o a n a s p e c t w h i c h is c e n tral to t h e p r o b l e m of the origins of the Mexican i m a g e of G u a d a l u p e : " A s a r e s u l t o f t h e u n i v e r s a l d e v o t i o n t o O u r L a d y , t h e r e a p p e a r e d in Spain, Portugal, A m e r i c a , a n d o t h e r places a great n u m b e r of sanctuaries erected in h e r h o n o r , a n d they w o u l d have multiplied infinitely if, m o v e d b y s o r d i d j e a l o u s y , t h e J e r o n y m i t e s o f G u a d a l u p e (in E s t r e m a d u r a ) h a d n o t o p p o s e d it w i t h all t h e i r p o w e r , f r o m f e a r o f the injury that these sanctuaries m i g h t d o the holy m o t h e r h o u s e , to w h i c h a l m s flowed in a c o n s t a n t s t r e a m . " 3 2
American
"Mariolatry"
F o r t h e M e x i c a n Creoles, t h e " p r o d i g i o u s i m a g e " o f T e p e y a c w a s a s u p r e m e f a v o r t h a t M a r y h a d d o n e t h e M e x i c a n p e o p l e , a n d Non fecit taliter omni nationi ( " H e d i d n o t d o t h e like f o r a n y o t h e r n a t i o n " ) . V i e w e d f r o m this p e r s p e c t i v e , O u r L a d y o f G u a d a l u p e is o n l y t h e p r o l o n g a t i o n of a Western, purely Christian tradition; she takes h e r place a m o n g a series of i m a g e s of t h e Virgin t h a t w e r e r e p u t e d to h a v e a c c o m p l i s h e d m i r a c l e s o r p r o d i g i e s in o t h e r A m e r i c a n l a n d s as well. T h e s t u d y o f R. V a r g a s U g a r t e , Historia del culto de Maria en Ibero-America, offers an almost complete catalog of the sanctuaries d e d i c a t e d t o t h e V i r g i n M a r y in L a t i n A m e r i c a , u n d e r h e r d i f f e r e n t i n v o c a t i o n s . T h i s a u t h o r cites a w o r k l i s t i n g f o r M e x i c o a l o n e 1,756 t o p o n y m s i n v o k i n g t h e V i r g i n M a r y . T h e a n a l y s i s is h e l p f u l f o r o u r 3 3
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Tonantzin
subject, f o r G u a d a l u p e c o m e s first, w i t h 2 5 6 i n v o c a t i o n s , as o p p o s e d t o o n l y 21 f o r R e m e d i o s . T h e t a s k o f a n a l y z i n g t h e s e figures w o u l d t a k e t o o l o n g a n d o f f e r s little i n t e r e s t ; e v e n if n o t r i g o r o u s l y c o r r e c t , t h e r e l a t i o n s t h e y e x p r e s s s p e a k for themselves. A m o n g t h e d i f f e r e n t invocations of t h e cult to t h e V i r g i n M a r y , G u a d a l u p e t o d a y is c l e a r l y t h e m o s t w i d e s p r e a d . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e V i r g i n o f t h e Noche Triste, R e m e d i o s , n o w a p p e a r s t o h a v e lost f a v o r , as befits t h e gachupina in a M e x i c o t h a t is s p i r i t u a l l y mestizo. A c c o r d i n g t o a p i o u s l e g e n d , t o l d by t h e J e s u i t F l o r e n c i a , in t h e last q u a r t e r of the seventeenth century the miraculously healed uncle of t h e I n d i a n J u a n D i e g o was c h a r g e d by t h e a p p a r i t i o n t o say t o B i s h o p Z u m a r r a g a "that w h e n h e ( Z u m a r r a g a ) built h e r t e m p l e a n d placed t h e r e h e r m i r a c u l o u s s t a t u e , h e s h o u l d call h e r H o l y M a r y V i r g i n o f G u a d a l u p e . " T h i s a p p e l l a t i o n is n o t i n c o m p a t i b l e w i t h t h e W o m a n of the Book of Revelation; medieval iconography already c o n f o u n d e d the two images. A l t h o u g h certain exegetes distinguished t h e o n e f r o m t h e o t h e r , o t h e r s , like J o a c h i m o f F l o r i s ( w h o s e i n f l u e n c e o n t h e m i s s i o n a r i e s o f M e x i c o w a s i m p o r t a n t , as w e k n o w ) d e l i b e r a t e l y i n t e r p r e t e d R e v e l a t i o n 12 in a n a m p h i b i o l o g i c a l m a n n e r : t h e W o m a n is t h e c h u r c h o f t h e h e r m i t s a n d t h e m o n k s , w h o will r e t u r n t o b u i l d t h e s p i r i t u a l c h u r c h , b u t s h e is also M a r y , m o t h e r o f C h r i s t , s y m b o l o f t h e c h u r c h , t h e m o t h e r o f all. M o d e r n e x e g e s i s t e n d s to r e j e c t t h e a s s i m i l a t i o n o f t h e W o m a n o f R e v e l a t i o n t o t h e V i r g i n M a r y . B u t it a p p e a r s t h a t t h i s a s s i m i l a t i o n w a s g e n e r a l in H i s p a n i c A m e r i c a , i n d e e d t h r o u g h o u t Western C h r i s t e n d o m . C o n s i d e r these a p o s t r o p h e s to the V i r g i n in a M a r i a n l i t a n y c i t e d by V a r g a s U g a r t e , a n d a t t r i b u t e d b y s o m e to Saint Toribio d e M o g r o v e j o : 3 4
Luminare coeli Pulchra ut luna ut sol electa [Light of H e a v e n B e a u t i f u l as t h e M o o n As u n i q u e as t h e S u n . ] T h e p h r a s e s could be applied to the i m a g e of Tepeyac w i t h o u t a n y difficulty. A t t h e s a m e t i m e , as t h e i m a g e o f t h e V i r g i n M a r y , G u a d a l u p e b e c a m e t h e o b j e c t o f official a n d p u b l i c d e v o t i o n in N e w Spain. U n d e r t h i s a s p e c t t h e c u l t o f G u a d a l u p e , so specifically M e x i c a n , f o r m e d p a r t o f a v a s t e r p h e n o m e n o n , t h e M a r i a n c u l t , o f w h i c h it r e p r e s e n t e d a p a r t i c u l a r r e g i o n a l e x a m p l e . It is n o t p o s s i b l e , w i t h i n
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t h e limits o f this b o o k , to u n d e r t a k e a g e n e r a l s t u d y o f t h e M a r i a n cult, e v e n l i m i t e d t o L a t i n A m e r i c a . W i t h i n t h o s e c o n t i n e n t a l limits, t h e w o r k o f V a r g a s U g a r t e p r o v i d e s all t h e i n f o r m a t i o n w e n e e d t o f o r m certain conclusions. To begin with, we n o t e the a m p l i t u d e of the p h e n o m e n o n in t h e l a n d s t h a t e m e r g e d f r o m t h e o l d S p a n i s h a n d P o r t u g u e s e e m p i r e s . E a c h c o u n t r y p l a c e d itself u n d e r t h e p r o t e c t i o n o f t h e n a t i o n a l i m a g e o f t h e V i r g i n : G u a d a l u p e in M e x i c o ; t h e V i r g i n o f L u j a n in A r g e n t i n a ; O u r L a d y o f G u a l p u l o in E c u a d o r ; O u r L a d y o f C o p a c a b a n a in o l d P e r u ( w h i c h i n c l u d e d p r e s e n t - d a y Bolivia); N u e s t r a S e h o r a d e las M e r c e d e s in m o d e r n P e r u ; N u e s t r a S e n o r a d e C a a c u p e in P a r a g u a y . I n fact, n u m e r o u s cities o f L a t i n A m e r i c a b e a r o n e of the n a m e s of t h e Virgin a n d are placed u n d e r h e r protection, f o r e x a m p l e , O u r L a d y o f L a Paz, c a p i t a l o f Bolivia. T h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e M a r i a n c u l t in A m e r i c a a p p e a r s t o h a v e s e v e r a l c a u s e s . D o u b t less t h e first h i s t o r i c r e a s o n is t h e w i d e s p r e a d c u l t o f M a r y a m o n g t h e leaders of c o n q u e r i n g expeditions, w h o c a m e f r o m E s t r e m a d u r a o r other Iberian provinces. T h e most famous examples are the brothers P i z a r r o , n a t i v e s o f Trujillo, a n d , in t h e c a s e o f M e x i c o , H e r n a n C o r t e s , w h o c a m e f r o m M e d e l l i n . T h e first C h r i s t i a n i m a g e s g i v e n t h e I n d i a n s w e r e S a i n t J a m e s , w h o a p p e a r e d to t h e m as a f o r m i d a b l e g o d o f w a r a n d of t h u n d e r , a n d t h e Virgin Mary, w h o s e a p p e a r a n c e , by contrast, m u s t have consoled the v a n q u i s h e d . T h i s i n t r o d u c t i o n of t h e M a r i a n c u l t i n t o t h e I n d i e s was s o o n r e i n f o r c e d by t h e a r r i v a l o f t h e first m i s s i o n a r i e s , especially t h e F r a n c i s c a n r e l i g i o u s , w h o w e r e e s p e cially d e v o t e d t o t h e V i r g i n M a r y . T h u s , t h e Iglesia Indiana, o f w h i c h t h e F r a n c i s c a n J e r o n i m o d e M e n d i e t a d r e a m e d , first b o r e t h e visage o f M a r y . B y t h e last q u a r t e r o f t h e s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y t h e m i l l e n a r i a n f e v e r h a d s u b s i d e d , yet t h e cult of t h e Virgin Mary enjoyed a n e w u p s u r g e . T h e Jesuits placed a special stress o n t h e I m m a c u l a t e C o n c e p t i o n , a n d t h e M a r i a n b r o t h e r h o o d s which they c r e a t e d c o n t r i b u t e d mightily to t h e g r o w t h o f t e m p l e s a n d o f t h e c u l t itself. B u t t h e F r a n c i s c a n s h a d a n t i c i p a t e d t h e J e s u i t s in m o v i n g in t h a t d i r e c t i o n . T h e T h i r d M e x i c a n P r o v i n c i a l C o u n c i l , a s s e m b l e d in 1 5 8 5 , d e c l a r e d t h e feast o f t h e I m m a c u l a t e C o n c e p t i o n o b l i g a t o r y , o n p a i n o f m o r t a l sin. I n S p a i n a n d its e m p i r e t h e c u l t o f t h e Inmaculada a s s u m e d the p r o p o r t i o n s of a national i n t e r e s t ; a j u n t a o f t h e I m m a c u l a t e C o n c e p t i o n , c r e a t e d a t t h e instance of t h e Spanish m o n a r c h y , m e t f r o m time to time b e t w e e n 1616 a n d 1 7 7 0 w i t h a view to s e c u r i n g p r o m u l g a t i o n o f t h e d o g m a o f t h e Immaculate Conception. This j u n t a did not disappear until about 1820. I n t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y , t h e c u l t o f t h e Inmaculada r e a c h e d its a p o g e e in t h e H i s p a n i c w o r l d (as d i d t h e c u l t o f G u a d a l u p e in M e x i c o )
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b u t t h e p a p a c y d r a g g e d its f e e t a n d r e a c h e d n o c o n c l u s i o n . T h e j u n t a h a d e s p e c i a l l y s o u g h t t o o b t a i n in 1 6 6 5 " t h a t t h e P o p e i n s t i t u t e t h e feast o f t h e P a t r o n a g e o f t h e V e r y H o l y V i r g i n M a r y o v e r S p a i n a n d h e r p o s s e s s i o n s . " T h i s p r e c e d e n t is i n t e r e s t i n g a n d s u g g e s t s t h e c l i m a t e in w h i c h t h e M e x i c a n C r e o l e s o f t h e n e x t c e n t u r y f o u g h t f o r recognition of "the universal p a t r o n a g e " of G u a d a l u p e of Tepeyac. To t h e " S p a n i s h c h a l l e n g e , " r e p r e s e n t e d a t t h i s d a t e by t h e V i r g i n o f Pilar r a t h e r t h a n b y t h e G u a d a l u p e o f E s t r e m a d u r a , t h e r e w a s a d d e d in t h e N e w World t h e " P e r u v i a n challenge," for Saint Rose of L i m a was t h e n r e c o g n i z e d as t h e " U n i v e r s a l P a t r o n e s s " o f t h e I n d i e s . T h e e x t r a o r d i n a r y u p s u r g e o f t h e M a r i a n c u l t in g e n e r a l a n d o f t h e I m m a c u l a t e C o n c e p t i o n in p a r t i c u l a r is p a r t l y e x p l a i n e d b y t h e c l i m a t e o f t h e Catholic C o u n t e r - R e f o r m a t i o n (after t h e Council of T r e n t ) , w h o s e great c h a m p i o n s were the Jesuits. T h e new Protestant confessions h a d k e p t t h e i r d i s t a n c e w i t h r e g a r d to t h e c u l t o f M a r y . T h e e s c h a t o l o g i c a l e x p e c t a n c y o f t h e m e n d i c a n t o r d e r s , in p a r t i c u l a r , f o l l o w e d b y t h e a n g u i s h o f sin ( w h i c h h a d a n e n d u r i n g i n f l u e n c e o n L u t h e r a n i s m ) f o u n d in M a r y t h e I m m a c u l a t e a s h e e t a n c h o r . T h e V i r g i n , t h e o n l y m o r t a l t o e s c a p e t h e u n i v e r s a l stain o f t h e l i n e o f A d a m , c a r r i e d t h e p r o m i s e o f r e d e m p t i o n . A p p l y i n g a k i n d o f dialectic to t h e i m p e n e t r a b l e d e s i g n s o f G o d , t h e r e l i g i o u s , like S a h a g u n , c o n c l u d e d t h a t w h e r e sin h a d a b o u n d e d m o r e t h a n e l s e w h e r e ( a m o n g t h e I n d i a n s h e l d in t h e b o n d a g e o f i d o l a t r y f o r c e n t u r i e s ) g r a c e s h o u l d h e n c e f o r t h a b o u n d . M e s t i z o s a n d C r e o l e s , t r e a t e d w i t h t h e s a m e s c o r n as t h e I n d i a n s b y t h e gachupines, felt t h e w e i g h t o f c e n t u r i e s o f i d o l a t r y a n d m o r t a l sin. T h e V i r g i n M a r y b r o u g h t t h e m g r a c e a n d d i g n i t y in t h e f o r m o f " p r o d i g i o u s " a p p a r i t i o n s , a l m o s t all o f w h i c h o c c u r r e d in t h e last q u a r t e r o f t h e s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y a n d t h e first q u a r t e r o f t h e s e v e n t e e n t h . T h u s t h e M o t h e r o f C h r i s t c a m e t o signify t h e s a l v a t i o n o f t h e N e w W o r l d , a w o r l d c h o s e n t o b e t h e site o f a r e n e w e d C h r i s t e n d o m — r e n e w e d e v e n if n o t c o m p l e t e l y n e w , f o r o n t h a t p o i n t t h e climate of o p i n i o n h a d c h a n g e d . T h e cult of M a r y a p p e a r e d m o r e a n d m o r e inseparable from the cult of the I m m a c u l a t e Conception, well b e f o r e t h e p r o c l a m a t i o n o f t h e d o g m a by t h e s o v e r e i g n pontiff. 35
T h e A m e r i c a n legends of the "apparitions" b e a r a curious res e m b l a n c e to e a c h o t h e r . In substance, they a r e b o r r o w i n g s f r o m t h e E u r o p e a n Middle Ages; nevertheless, they are profoundly American. T h e s h e p h e r d o f t h e S p a n i s h t r a d i t i o n s is r e p l a c e d b y a n I n d i a n . We see i m m e d i a t e l y t h e a d v a n t a g e o f t h i s i n d i g e n o u s v e r s i o n . T h e I n d i a n s r e d i s c o v e r e d in t h e n e w r e l i g i o n t h e m o t h e r - g o d d e s s o f t h e i r o l d f a i t h . (I h a v e a l r e a d y n o t e d S a h a g u n ' s s e m a n t i c r e s e r v a t i o n s o n this p o i n t . ) I n P e r u , t h e s a m e p h e n o m e n a d e v e l o p e d w i t h t h e V i r g i n of C o p a c a b a n a ; the Indians spontaneously gave the Virgin the n a m e
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of P a c h a m a m a , t h e m o t h e r - g o d d e s s , m o t h e r of t h e peoples. F o r t h e rest, these images of t h e Virgin h a d b r o w n I n d i a n skins a n d w e r e p r o m p t l y styled inditas ( " I n d i a n w o m e n " ) . T h e g r e a t p o p u l a r i t y t h a t these images, miraculous o r n o t (some were n o t proclaimed to be s u c h ) i m m e d i a t e l y g a i n e d a m o n g t h e I n d i a n s is l a r g e l y e x p l a i n e d b y factors I have already discussed. M u c h m o r e complex, o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , a r e t h e c a u s e s o f t h e r e l a t i v e a b a n d o n m e n t b y t h e Creoles o f t h e first A m e r i c a n i m a g e s o f M a r y , s u c h a s t h a t o f R e m e d i o s . N o d o u b t t h e a n t a g o n i s m b e t w e e n t h e Creoles a n d t h e p e n i n s u l a r b o r n S p a n i a r d s w h o c a m e a s officials t o t h e I n d i e s m u s t h a v e p l a y e d a l a r g e r o l e in t h i s a b a n d o n m e n t . T h e S p a n i a r d s r e n d e r e d h o m a g e t o t h e t r a d i t i o n a l i m a g e s o f M a r y , t h a t is t o say, t o r e p l i c a s o f t h o s e w h i c h existed in Spain, in their native provinces. M o r e o v e r , m a n y m u s t have felt r e p u g n a n c e a t t h e i d e a o f m i n g l i n g w i t h t h e Indiada, t h e m u l t i t u d e o f I n d i a n d e v o t e e s o f G u a d a l u p e , f o r e x a m p l e . T h e Creoles, o f S p a n i s h stock b u t b o r n in t h e N e w W o r l d m u s t h a v e s h a r e d this r e p u g n a n c e , b u t h o w could they b e insensible to t h e prodigies which d e s i g n a t e d t h e i r patria a s t h e c h o s e n h o m e o f t h e V i r g i n M a r y ! Creoles, mestizos, a n d I n d i a n s of N e w Spain soon f o u n d themselves gathered u n d e r t h e b a n n e r of G u a d a l u p e ; t h e process must have b e e n a t least well u n d e r w a y b y t h e t i m e A r c h b i s h o p M o n t u f a r b e g a n his f a m o u s i n q u i r y i n t o G u a d a l u p e i n 1 5 5 6 . T h e s k e p t i c i s m o f t h e gachupines w i t h r e g a r d t o t h e a p p a r i t i o n s o n l y s t r e n g t h e n e d t h e u n i t y of t h e A m e r i c a n devotees a n d effaced t h e caste differences t h a t separated t h e m , b r i n g i n g t h e m together, united by t h e same religious a n d n a t i o n a l f e r v o r , in a c o m m o n f r o n t a g a i n s t t h e a g e n t s o f p e n i n s u l a r domination. T h e c h a r i s m a with which t h e Mexicans believed themselves e n d o w e d by t h e "apparitions" o f t h e Virgin Mary at Tepeyac, which t r a n s f o r m e d t h e i r c o u n t r y i n t o a " W e s t e r n P a r a d i s e , " is n o t a u n i q u e e x a m p l e ; it s i m p l y h a p p e n s t o b e t h e o n e r i c h e s t i n sociopolitical implications. Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, a n d o t h e r provinces were s t r e w n w i t h s a n c t u a r i e s o f t h e V i r g i n M a r y t h a t w e r e so m a n y c e n t e r s o f r e g i o n a l s p i r i t . W e also o b s e r v e a c e r t a i n p r o c e s s o f g e m i n a t i o n o r d u p l i c a t i o n , n o t a b l y in t h e c a s e o f G u a d a l u p e . H e r i m a g e w a s c o p i e d and transported to o t h e r places. L o n g b e f o r e t h e p a p a c y recognized—not without hesitation a n d mental reservations—the pat r o n a g e o f M a r y o f G u a d a l u p e o v e r all M e x i c o i n t h e m i d d l e o f t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y , c h u r c h e s , c o n v e n t s , a n d colegios h a d b e e n p l a c e d u n d e r h e r p a t r o n a g e in t h e principal towns of N e w Spain. T h e s a m e h a p p e n e d with t h e Virgin of C o p a c a b a n a in P e r u , a n d t h e great S p a n i s h d r a m a t i s t P e d r o C a l d e r o n d e la B a r c a e v e n w r o t e a s a c r a m e n t a l auto e n t i t l e d La aurora en Copacabana, i n w h i c h , i n t h e m a n n e r
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Holy Mary and
Tonantzin
o f m e d i e v a l a l l e g o r i e s , i d o l a t r y a p p e a r s o n t h e s t a g e a n d yields h e r p l a c e in t h e h e a r t s o f t h e I n d i a n s to M a r y t h e I m m a c u l a t e . T h e r e semblances a n d differences between the two traditions, that of G u a d a l u p e in N e w Spain a n d t h a t of C o p a c a b a n a in P e r u , a r e very instructive. B o t h assigned to a n I n d i a n t h e role of initiating t h e cult, a n d this fact, it s e e m s , w a s t h e p r i n c i p a l c a u s e o f t h e i r l a t e r n o t a b l e development. By c o n t r a s t w i t h t h e i m a g e o f G u a d a l u p e , c l a i m e d t o b e m i r a c u l o u s , t h a t of t h e V i r g i n of C o p a c a b a n a h a d a p u r e l y h u m a n origin, accordi n g to t h e t r a d i t i o n ; it was s u p p o s e d l y s c u l p t u r e d by a n I n d i a n , T i t o Y u p a n q u i , n a t i v e o f a village s i t u a t e d o n t h e b a n k s o f L a k e T i t i c a c a , c a l l e d C o p a c a b a n a f r o m t h e n a m e o f a n I n c a idol w h o h a d his s a n c t u a r y t h e r e . H e r e , as in t h e c a s e o f T e p e y a c ( t h e a n c i e n t s a n c t u a r y o f T o n a n t z i n ) , w e find t h e n e w r e l i g i o n a p p r o p r i a t i n g a n a n c i e n t p a g a n center of pilgrimage. T h e apparition of the Virgin of C o p a c a b a n a c a m e a f t e r t h e c r e a t i o n o f h e r effigy a n d b r o u g h t c o n f i r m a t i o n of t h e d i v i n e will t h a t t h e n e w s a n c t u a r y s h o u l d p r o s p e r . I n b o t h cases—in t h e case of J u a n Diego for G u a d a l u p e a n d t h a t of T i t o Y u p a n q u i for C o p a c a b a n a — t h e I n d i a n origin was clearly m o r e i m p o r t a n t than the prodigious origin of the image. This autochtonous aspect of t h e cult of purely A m e r i c a n images of t h e Virgin was of c a p i t a l i m p o r t a n c e ; it w a s o n e o f t h e w a y s in w h i c h t h e s e n t i m e n t o f A m e r i c a n p a t r i o t i s m c o u l d find m o r e o r less c o n s c i o u s e x p r e s s i o n at a t i m e o f p e r v a s i v e d i s t r u s t o f t h e S p a n i s h m o n a r c h y a n d f e a r o f its capacity for r e p r e s s i o n . T h e creole cult of I n d i a n images of t h e Virgin is a n a s p e c t o f a l a r g e r p h e n o m e n o n , t h e c r e o l e elite's i m a g i n a t i v e r e h a b i l i t a t i o n o f t h e I n d i a n p a s t , w h i c h in t u r n i m p l i e d t h e n e e d f o r r e v i s i o n o f t h e official h i s t o r i o g r a p h y o f t h e S p a n i s h C o n q u e s t . We m a y p r o v i s i o n a l l y c o n c l u d e , t h e r e f o r e , t h a t t h e c u l t o f G u a d a l u p e , a l t h o u g h specifically M e x i c a n in c o n t e n t , p r e s e n t s a broadly A m e r i c a n configuration. T h e comparisons I have m a d e with t h e V i r g i n o f C o p a c a b a n a in P e r u a r e o n l y especially c h o i c e e x a m p l e s . We o b s e r v e t h a t t h e V i r g i n o f G u a p u l o , in E c u a d o r , w a s a r e p l i c a o f t h e G u a d a l u p e of E s t r e m a d u r a , a Virgin with child, a n d was t r a n s p o r t e d w i t h g r e a t p o m p f r o m Q u i t o ( w h e r e s h e h a d first b e e n installed b y a c o n f r a t e r n i t y o f m e r c h a n t s ) t o G u a p u l o , a village o f C h i b c h a I n d i a n s , p r o b a b l y in 1 5 8 7 . T h i s i m a g e , like t h a t o f G u a d a l u p e , w a s c a r r i e d in p r o c e s s i o n t h r o u g h o u t t h e c o l o n i a l p e r i o d at times of g r e a t public calamities, a n d m u l t i t u d e s of I n d i a n s m a d e pilgrimages to h e r sanctuary. T h e Virgin of C a a c u p e of P a r a g u a y (like t h a t o f C o p a c a b a n a ) h a d a l l e g e d l y b e e n s c u l p t u r e d by a n I n d i a n who, t h r e a t e n e d with d e a t h , h a d invoked the aid of the Virgin a n d vowed to carve h e r i m a g e f r o m t h e t r u n k of t h e tree t h a t concealed
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h i m f r o m a t r o o p of savage I n d i a n s of t h e Mbya tribe. C o m p a r e d with t h e s e i m a g e s , t h e i m a g e o f G u a d a l u p e r e t r o s p e c t i v e l y a p p e a r s as t h e o n e b e s t q u a l i f i e d to i n s p i r e a r d e n t d e v o t i o n in h e r f o l l o w e r s . S h e h a d the a d v a n t a g e of having a s u p e r n a t u r a l origin, a n d the initiator of h e r c u l t w a s a h u m b l e village I n d i a n c h o s e n b y t h e V i r g i n M a r y ( w h o a p p e a r e d t o h i m five t i m e s in s u c c e s s i o n ! ) as h e r m e d i a t o r w i t h t h e a r c h b i s h o p . T h e s e w e r e facts c a l c u l a t e d t o p u r g e o f sin t h a t sinful land that ancient Mexico was s u p p o s e d to have b e e n . S u c h a striking m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f t h e g r a c e o f M a r y w a s , as it w e r e , a collective b a p t i s m o f t h e p e o p l e o f N e w S p a i n , i n c a r n a t e d f o r t h e o c c a s i o n in o n e o f its humblest representatives, the Indian J u a n Diego, a n e o p h y t e conv e r t e d b y t h e F r a n c i s c a n s . I n t h a t m o v e m e n t o f c o n v e r s i o n , sanctified b y p r o d i g i e s , t h e V i r g i n M a r y t o o k a decisive p a r t , w i t h h e r a m b i g u ous personality, c o m p o u n d e d of the W o m a n of Revelation, ann o u n c e r of the Parousia, a n d the M o t h e r of Christ, intercessor for m a n k i n d with God. In that d o u b l e sense, G u a d a l u p e indisputably p r o l o n g e d t h e E u r o p e a n M a r i a n t r a d i t i o n ; t h i s w a s well u n d e r s t o o d b y t h e S p a n i a r d s w h o , h a v i n g first r e j e c t e d G u a d a l u p e as d o u b t f u l a n d apocryphal, later s o u g h t to a p p r o p r i a t e h e r for themselves. T h a t e f f o r t c o n t i n u e s in o u r o w n t i m e w h e n G u a d a l u p e is d e s c r i b e d as " Q u e e n o f Hispanidad," a n o t i o n t h a t d o u b t l e s s reflects political d e signs r a t h e r t h a n spiritual fervor.
The Infancy of Guadalupe
The Name and the Image: Troubling
Contradictions
W h y d o e s t h e i m a g e o f t h e V i r g i n M a r y v e n e r a t e d n e a r M e x i c o City o n t h e hill o f T e p e y a c (called b y t h e Creoles Tepeaquilla), a n i m a g e so different f r o m that of G u a d a l u p e of E s t r e m a d u r a , b e a r h e r n a m e ? H i s t o r i a n s h a v e o f t e n a s k e d t h a t e m b a r r a s s i n g q u e s t i o n , w i t h o u t givi n g a s a t i s f a c t o r y a n s w e r . S i n c e G u a d a l u p e w a s a t o p o n y m , its t r a n s f e r t o N e w S p a i n , to a p l a c e w h i c h a l r e a d y h a d a n a m e l o n g a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e site o f a r e l i g i o u s s a n c t u a r y , a p p e a r s a n e n i g m a . T h e s o l u t i o n o f f e r e d b y F a t h e r V a r g a s U g a r t e in his classic h i s t o r y o f t h e M a r i a n c u l t in H i s p a n i c A m e r i c a c a n n o t satisfy a critical spirit. L e t t h e r e a d e r j u d g e for himself: " O n e m u s t c o n c l u d e t h a t t h e n a m e was given by a kind of association of ideas, u n d e r s t a n d a b l e u n d e r t h e circumstances, o r , m o r e likely, b e c a u s e t h a t w a s t h e V i r g i n ' s wish w h e n s h e a p p e a r e d . " If w e d i s m i s s t h e s e c o n d s o l u t i o n , c l e a r l y t h e p r o d u c t o f a n act o f faith, a n d t u r n t o t h e first s o l u t i o n p r o p o s e d b y t h e l e a r n e d Jesuit, we discern a possible a v e n u e of investigation. A l t h o u g h t h e J e r o n y m i t e s d i d n o t p a r t i c i p a t e d i r e c t l y in t h e c o n v e r s i o n o f M e x i c o , the i m a g e of the Virgin of G u a d a l u p e of E s t r e m a d u r a c o m m a n d e d t h e loyalty o f t h e c o n q u i s t a d o r s . T h i s w a s d u e t o h e r r o l e as s y m b o l o f H i s p a n i c C h r i s t i a n i t y in its s t r u g g l e a g a i n s t t h e M o s l e m s a n d , by a p r o c e s s o f a s s o c i a t i o n , in t h e w a r s a g a i n s t t h e p a g a n s o f t h e N e w World. Let m e again recall t h a t G o m o r a r e g a r d e d t h e A m e r i c a n conq u e s t s as a n a t u r a l p r o l o n g a t i o n o f t h e Reconquista. M o r e o v e r , t h e regional origins of C o r t e s a n d m a n y of his c o m p a n i o n s , w h o w e r e extremehos like h i m , i n e v i t a b l y f a v o r e d t h e d e v e l o p m e n t in N e w S p a i n of t h e cult of an i m a g e of t h e Virgin, t h e h o n o r of E s t r e m a d u r a . O n this e m i n e n t l y p r o p i t i o u s soil w a s t o s p r o u t t h e n e w M e x i c a n c u l t o f a Virgin of G u a d a l u p e w h o presented, however, the disconcerting peculiarity of b e i n g completely different from h e r p r e s u m e d peninsular m o d e l . 1
Sixteenth-century witnesses w h o could shed light o n the origins of t h e i m a g e o f T e p e y a c w e r e few in n u m b e r , a n d all c l e a r l y o f l a t e r d a t e
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t h a n 1 5 3 1 , r e g a r d e d b y t h e d e v o u t since 1 6 4 8 as t h e d a t e o f t h e a p p a r i t i o n s . T o t h e b e s t o f m y k n o w l e d g e , t h e o l d e s t t e s t i m o n y is t h a t o f a c r e o l e i n t e r r o g a t e d in t h e c o u r s e o f a n i n q u i r y o r d e r e d b y A r c h b i s h o p M o n t u f a r in 1 5 5 6 a f t e r t h e F r a n c i s c a n p r o v i n c i a l , F r a y F r a n cisco d e B u s t a m a n t e , h a d d e l i v e r e d a s e r m o n a g a i n s t G u a d a l u p e . T h i s witness attributed to the Franciscan the following c o m m e n t , which h e m u s t h a v e m a d e in h i s s e r m o n : " T o say t o t h e I n d i a n s n o w , t h a t a n i m a g e p a i n t e d by a n I n d i a n w o r k e d miracles, w o u l d cause g r e a t t u r m o i l a m o n g t h e m . " T h i s is a n i n t e r e s t i n g p i e c e o f e v i d e n c e , a l t h o u g h it d o e s n o t a n s w e r t h e q u e s t i o n o f t h e i c o n o g r a p h i c m o d e l o f t h e i m a g e o f T e p e y a c . We k n o w t h a t a b o u t t h e s a m e t i m e a n I n d i a n b y t h e n a m e o f M a r c o s h a d a g r e a t r e p u t a t i o n as a p a i n t e r . I t is n o t a t all unlikely, therefore, that an I n d i a n painted t h e image of Tepyac. T h e l a t e r t e s t i m o n y o f Davilla P a d i l l a c o n c e r n i n g t h e I n d i a n c u s t o m o f h a n g i n g p i o u s i m a g e s m a d e o f flowers o n c h u r c h walls t e n d s t o s t r e n g t h e n this possibility. T h e t e s t i m o n y o f t h e F r a n c i s c a n A l o n s o d e la R e a , a l m o s t e x a c t l y c o n t e m p o r a r y w i t h t h e first G u a d a l u p a n " g o s pel" of Miguel Sanchez, deals with the Tarascans of Michoacan a n d images of Christ, b u t may h e l p to illuminate the origin of the " p r o d i g i o u s " effigy o f T e p e y a c . L a R e a w r i t e s o f t h e T a r a s c a n s : " T h e y a r e s u c h g o o d p a i n t e r s , p o s s e s s i n g s u c h d e l i c a c y a n d e l e g a n c e o f style, t h a t all t h e c h u r c h e s o f this p r o v i n c e a r e o r n a m e n t e d w i t h p a i n t i n g s o n c l o t h a n d w o o d m a d e b y I n d i a n p a i n t e r s ; t h e y a r e n o t a t all inferior to t h e p a i n t e r s of R o m e . " R e a d e r s familiar with t h e s p e c i m e n s o f p r e - C o l u m b i a n a r t w h i c h fill o u r m u s e u m s k n o w t h a t t h e F r a n c i s c a n c h r o n i c l e r d o e s n o t e x a g g e r a t e . W e k n o w , t h e n , t h a t it w a s a c u s t o m in N e w S p a i n (in p a r t i c u l a r , b u t n o t e x c l u s i v e l y , in M i c h o a c a n ) , t o h a n g i m a g e s p a i n t e d b y I n d i a n s o n c h u r c h walls. I n a d d i t i o n t o p a i n t e d i m a g e s (lienzos) a n d i m a g e s m a d e o f flowers, examples of the ancient art of featherwork were displayed; a p r o p o s o f t h i s last a r t , L a R e a m a k e s a p o i n t w i t h w h i c h e v e r y s t u d e n t o f p o s t - C o n q u e s t M e x i c a n r e l i g i o u s a r t will a g r e e : " A l t h o u g h t h e F r a n ciscans naturally gave t h e d e s i g n of t h e i m a g e to t h e Tarascans, t h e fineness o f t o u c h w h i c h d i s t i n g u i s h e s t h e w o r k w a s c o n t r i b u t e d b y t h e I n d i a n s . " L a R e a a n d Davilla P a d i l l a i n d i r e c t l y t e n d t o c o n f i r m t h e s t a t e m e n t of their predecessor B u s t a m a n t e with r e g a r d to t h e I n d i a n o r i g i n o f t h e i m a g e o f T e p e y a c ; it is t h e w o r k o f a n I n d i a n a r t i s t , evidently based on a m o d e l of E u r o p e a n origin. 2
3
4
A d e c a d e a f t e r B i s h o p M o n t u f a r ' s i n q u i r y , j u d g i n g b y t h e fact t h a t B e r n a l D i a z d e l Castillo finished h i s h i s t o r y in 1 5 6 8 , t h e c h r o n i c l e r o f the C o n q u e s t r e f e r r e d to "the holy h o u s e of O u r Lady of G u a d a l u p e at Tepeaquilla, w h e r e G o n z a l o d e S a n d o v a l established his c a m p w h e n w e c a p t u r e d T e n o c h t i t l a n . " A l t h o u g h t h i s p a s s a g e f r o m t h e Historia 5
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The Infancy
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verdadera s h e d s n o l i g h t o n t h e o r i g i n o f t h e i m a g e , it o f f e r s a c l u e t o t h e p r o b a b l e o r i g i n o f t h e n a m e o f G u a d a l u p e , f o r it a s s o c i a t e s t h e h e a d q u a r t e r s of a captain of the C o n q u e s t with the sanctuary of t h e V i r g i n M a r y . It d o e s n o t say t h a t S a n d o v a l w a s a d e v o t e e o f G u a d a l u p e o r t h a t h e p l a c e d h e r p r o t e c t i v e i m a g e t h e r e , b u t this w o u l d follow f r o m w h a t w e k n o w , f r o m t h e c h r o n i c l e s o f t h e C o n quest, a b o u t t h e religious b e h a v i o r of t h e S p a n i s h c o n q u e r o r s of A m e r i c a . T o b e s u r e , t h i s is o n l y a h y p o t h e s i s . We m u s t n o w t u r n t o t h e only explicit d o c u m e n t o n t h e subject (aside f r o m t h e r e c o r d of M o n tiifar's i n q u i r y ) , a l e t t e r o f V i c e r o y M a r t i n E n r i q u e z , d a t e d S e p t e m b e r 2 5 , 1 5 7 5 : " T h e y g a v e this s t a t u e t h e n a m e o f O u r L a d y o f G u a d a l u p e , saying that she resembled the image of the monastery of G u a d a l u p e of S p a i n . " T h e s e a r e t h e viceroy's w o r d s ; they a r e q u i t e inapplicable t o t h e k n o w n i m a g e o f T e p e y a c . We h a v e n o r e a s o n t o s u p p o s e t h a t V i c e r o y E n r i q u e z w r o t e c a r e l e s s l y ; f o r t h e r e s t , it is difficult t o see w h a t i n t e r e s t h e c o u l d h a v e in falsifying t h e t r u t h . T h e d a t e o f his l e t t e r ( S e p t e m b e r 25) is a n a d d i t i o n a l i n d i c a t i o n in f a v o r o f t h e E s t r e m a d u r a n origin of t h e image of Tepeyac. 6
W e r e c a l l t h a t t h e feast o f G u a d a l u p e o f E s t r e m a d u r a w a s c e l e b r a t e d o n S e p t e m b e r 8 a n d t h a t as l a t e as 1 6 0 0 t h e c a t h e d r a l c h a p t e r of Mexico City d e c i d e d t h a t t h e Nativity of t h e V i r g i n w o u l d be celeb r a t e d S e p t e m b e r 10 a t t h e c h a p e l o f G u a d a l u p e d e T e p e y a c , b e c a u s e t h a t was h e r invocation. I have n o t b e e n able to d e t e r m i n e exactly w h e n t h e feast o f t h e M e x i c a n G u a d a l u p e was m o v e d f r o m S e p t e m b e r 8 o r 10 to D e c e m b e r 12 ( t h e p r e s e n t d a t e ) ; b u t o n e is s t r u c k by t h e p a r a l l e l i s m o f t h e c h a n g e o f t h e c a l e n d a r a n d t h e c h a n g e in t h e i m a g e . B o t h r e v e a l a n i n t e n t i o n t o e s t a b l i s h a d i s t a n c e vis-a-vis t h e m o t h e r i m a g e a n d h e r cult, t o d i s t i n g u i s h totally t h e M e x i c a n G u a d a l u p e from the G u a d a l u p e of Estremadura, whose n a m e alone w a s p r e s e r v e d . All t h a t w e k n o w f o r c e r t a i n is t h a t t h e s u b s t i t u t i o n o f t h e i m a g e t o o k p l a c e a f t e r 1 5 7 5 a n d t h e c h a n g e o f t h e feast d a y c a l e n d a r after 1600. T h e r e a r e g o o d r e a s o n s to believe t h a t these two d e c i s i v e s t a g e s in t h e M e x i c a n i z a t i o n o f a c u l t so specifically t i e d t o t h e c o n q u i s t a d o r s c o i n c i d e d m o r e o r less w i t h t h e p u b l i c a t i o n o f t h e b o o k of Miguel Sanchez, which, by a t t a c h i n g t h e i m a g e of Tepeyac to t h e p r o p h e t i c vision o f J o h n in R e v e l a t i o n , g a v e t h e c u l t a u n i v e r s a l d i mension. A q u e s t i o n n a t u r a l l y a r i s e s : w h y d i d t h e I n d i a n s , o r t h e Creoles, t h e i r r e l i g i o u s g u i d e s , feel so e a r l y t h e n e e d t o d i s t i n g u i s h t h e i r G u a d a l u p e f r o m t h a t o f E s t r e m a d u r a ? T h e q u e s t i o n is i m p o r t a n t , f o r the event correlates with the birth of a tradition of " a p p a r i t i o n s " w h o s e r a i s o n d ' e t r e w a s t h a t s a m e d e s i r e t o e s t a b l i s h a d i s t a n c e vis-avis S p a i n , as well as t h e d e s i r e t o b e g e o g r a p h i c a l l y c l o s e r t o t h e site o f
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miracles, thereby relieving pilgrims from having to m a k e t h e "great v o y a g e " ( G o m e z M o r e n o ) to a d i s t a n t s a n c t u a r y . T o a t t e m p t t o a n s w e r t h a t q u e s t i o n is t h e v e r y o b j e c t o f this b o o k . L e t m e b e g i n b y s a y i n g t h a t t h e c h a n g e o f i m a g e s w a s t h e first f o r w a r d s t e p o f M e x i c a n n a tional consciousness. B u t we m u s t seek i m m e d i a t e causes a n d c o m m e n c e o u r inquiry o n a m o r e m o d e s t level, t h a t o f d e v o u t p r a c t i c e a n d t h e r e l i g i o u s c o m m e r c i a l life o f C h r i s t i a n s a n c t u a r i e s in t h e s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y . A r e c e n t p u b l i c a t i o n b y t h e F r a n c i s c a n F r a y A r t u r o Alvarez is h e l p f u l ; it is h i s e d i t i o n o f t h e t r a v e l d i a r y o f a J e r o n y m i t e r e l i g i o u s o f G u a d a l u p e , F r a y D i e g o d e O c a f i a , w h o t r a v e l e d in S o u t h A m e r i c a b e t w e e n 1599 a n d 1605. His mission was c o n t e m p o r a n e o u s with t h e official r e c o g n i t i o n o f t h e c u l t o f G u a d a l u p e o f M e x i c o City. O n a r rival a t P o t o s i , t h e f a m o u s P e r u v i a n m i n i n g c e n t e r o f P e r u , F r a y D i e g o w r o t e d o w n a n a i v e a c c o u n t o f h i s m i s s i o n . " W i t h m u c h zeal I set a b o u t p a i n t i n g in oils, s o m e t h i n g I h a d n e v e r d o n e in m y life . . . a n d t h e V e r y H o l y V i r g i n g u i d e d m y b r u s h so t h a t I d r e w s u c h a p e r f e c t i m a g e , o f t h e s a m e size as t h a t o f S p a i n , t h a t t h e w h o l e city was t r a n s p o r t e d with d e v o u t fervor. D u r i n g t h a t t i m e I sent M o n s i g n o r t h e B i s h o p o f C h a r c a s a c o p y o f t h e cedula o f t h e k i n g o u r l o r d , t o g e t h e r w i t h a r e q u e s t f o r a u t h o r i z a t i o n t o collect a l m s a n d m e m b e r s h i p s in t h e c o n f r a t e r n i t y o f O u r L a d y o f G u a d a l u p e , b o t h in this city a n d t h r o u g h o u t t h e b i s h o p r i c ; h e p r o m p t l y g a v e h i s p e r m i s s i o n , f o r h e c o m e s f r o m E s t r e m a d u r a a n d is a v e r y d e v o u t s u b j e c t o f O u r L a d y . " H e r e w e see h o w t h e e x p o r t o f t h e a r t o f i l l u m i n a t i o n (which was the glory of the m o n a s t e r y of E s t r e m a d u r a ) , a i d e d by t h e r e g i o n a l s o l i d a r i t y b e t w e e n t h e r e l i g i o u s a n d t h e b i s h o p , r e s u l t e d in t h e c r e a t i o n a t P o t o s i ( a n i d e a l p l a c e f o r t h e c o l l e c t i o n o f alms!) o f a s e c o n d a r y s a n c t u a r y o f G u a d a l u p e o f E s t r e m a d u r a . B y s u c h initiatives t h e S p a n i s h J e r o n y m i t e s , a b s e n t f r o m t h e w o r k o f c o n v e r s i o n , which h a d b e e n e n t r u s t e d to the m e n d i c a n t o r d e r s , secured t h r o u g h the establishment of Marian confraternities a spiritual influence a n d a p r o m i s i n g s o u r c e o f r e v e n u e s in t h e N e w W o r l d . U n d o u b t e d l y t h i s w a s t h e o b j e c t o f t h e m i s s i o n e n t r u s t e d to F r a y D i e g o d e O c a f i a ; listen t o h i s r e f l e c t i o n s o n t h e S e p t e m b e r d a y t h a t saw t h e i n s t a l l a t i o n o f his image of G u a d a l u p e , a large illuminated drawing: "At that m o m e n t w e set u p a c o u n t e r a t t h e d o o r o f t h e c h u r c h . . . . A n d I b e g a n t o e n r o l l i n t h e c o n f r a t e r n i t y all w h o w i s h e d t o e n r o l l , a n d b y t h i s m e a n s in e i g h t d a y s I a m a s s e d f o u r t h o u s a n d silver p e s o s . B u t if I h a d n o t painted that image of t h e Virgin, I would not have collected 4 0 0 0 r e a l e s . . . , a n d if I h a d n o t p a i n t e d t h a t i m a g e , as s o o n as I left t h e place, t h e whole business would have c o l l a p s e d . . . . I m u s t complain 7
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o f t h e n e g l i g e n c e o f t h e c o n v e n t o f G u a d a l u p e , w h i c h failed t o s e n d m e c e r t a i n t h i n g s f o r w h i c h I a s k e d , e s p e c i a l l y t h e e n g r a v i n g s , f o r if I h a d h a d t w e n t y o r t h i r t y t h o u s a n d e n g r a v i n g s [of t h e V i r g i n o f G u a d a l u p e ] o n t h e t a b l e in f r o n t o f m e , I c o u l d h a v e d i s p o s e d o f t h e m all, f o r e v e r y o n e w o u l d h a v e w a n t e d o n e f o r his r o o m ; a n d t h e least I c o u l d h a v e g o t t e n f o r a n e n g r a v i n g w a s a silver p e s o , w h i c h is w o r t h eight reales." 8
I s u s p e c t t h a t if a n o t h e r J e r o n y m i t e , o n e as z e a l o u s a n d a b l e as D i e g o d e O c a f i a , h a d b e e n s e n t t o M e x i c o City a n d t r i e d t o m a k e profits for t h e m o t h e r h o u s e of t h e n a s c e n t cult of T e p e y a c , h e w o u l d h a v e e n c o u n t e r e d s t r o n g c r e o l e hostility. A r o y a l cedula w a s e x p l i c i t o n this p o i n t : a l m s c o l l e c t e d b y m e a n s o f r e p l i c a s m u s t b e p a i d t o t h e original image. T h e substitution for the pristine image of Tepeyac of t h e i m a g e w h i c h has since c o n q u e r e d t h e whole H i s p a n i c world p r o b ably r e s u l t e d f r o m t h e d e s i r e t o k e e p t h e a l m s in N e w S p a i n ; t h e c h a n g e in t h e feast c a l e n d a r a n d t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f a t r a d i t i o n o f " a p p a r i t i o n s " in w h i c h a n I n d i a n c o n v e r t p l a y e d t h e l e a d i n g r o l e w e r e d u e a t least in p a r t t o t h e s a m e c a u s e . I a m t h e m o r e i n c l i n e d t o a d o p t this e x p l a n a t i o n b e c a u s e t h e s i l e n c e o f t h e o l d h i s t o r i a n s o n this p o i n t , their very e m b a r r a s s m e n t , suggests motives which could hardly be a v o w e d in so d e v o u t a q u e s t i o n . S o m e v e r i f i c a t i o n o f this h y p o t h e s i s is p r o v i d e d b y a n e i g h t e e n t h century writer, Fray Francisco d e San Jose, f o r m e r prior of G u a d a l u p e d e E s t r e m a d u r a . I n his Historia universal de la primitiva y milagrosa Imagen de Nuestra Seiiora de Guadalupe, F r a y F r a n c i s c o s o u g h t by e v e r y p o s s i b l e m e a n s t o a t t a c h t h e i m a g e o f T e p e y a c , w h i c h w a s t h e n g a i n i n g recognition a n d i m p o r t a n c e , to t h e S p a n i s h sanctuary. T h i s apologist a c c e p t e d t h e M e x i c a n t r a d i t i o n of t h e Virgin's " a p p a r i t i o n s , " b u t c l a i m e d t o see in a n i m a g e o f t h e V i r g i n in t h e c h o i r o f t h e basilica o f E s t r e m a d u r a t h e m o d e l o f t h e i m a g e o f T e p e y a c . B u t h e m a d e n o e f f o r t to e x p l a i n t h e c h o i c e o f s u c h a m a r g i n a l m o d e l , d i s p o s ing of the question with a r e f e r e n c e to t h e inscrutable designs of P r o v i d e n c e : " W h e n t h e V i r g i n r e s o l v e d t o give t h e n a m e o f G u a d a l u p e t o h e r effigy o f M e x i c o City, w h y w o u l d s h e h a v e it c o p i e d f r o m t h a t o f t h e c h o i r o f o u r basilica, a n d n o t f r o m t h e f a m o u s , v e r y ancient, a n d very noble b e a r e r of that appelation? T h i s pertains to t h e designs of G o d , which we m u s t n o t try to f a t h o m , b u t only v e n e r a t e h u m b l y . " D e s p i t e his a v o i d a n c e o f t h e t r o u b l e s o m e p r o b l e m o f m o tives, F r a y F r a n c i s c o ' s d i s c u s s i o n h a s t h e v a l u e o f p u t t i n g u s o n t h e track of a possible origin of t h e n e w i m a g e of G u a d a l u p e . T h e i m a g e of t h e c h o i r d o e s p r e s e n t striking similarities with t h e G u a d a l u p e of T e p e y a c . I n this c o n n e c t i o n , F a t h e r G e r m a n R u b i o o b s e r v e s t h a t 9
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" n e i t h e r t h e c r o w n n o r t h e c a n o p y that c o m p l e t e h e r today a r e original a n d r a t h e r m a s k certain details t h a t accentuate t h e r e s e m b l a n c e with the Mexican G u a d a l u p e . " If w e a c c e p t t h e e x p l a n a t i o n t h a t I find m o s t p l a u s i b l e f o r t h e s u b stitution of t h e i m a g e of Tepeyac, we immediately perceive t h e cleverness of the m a n e u v e r : replace the "universal" G u a d a l u p e with an i m a g e o f M a r y also h o u s e d in t h e f a m o u s m o n a s t e r y a n d , t o foil a n y p o s s i b l e e f f o r t a t a n n e x a t i o n b y t h e J e r o n y m i t e s o f S p a i n , m o d i f y this s e c o n d a r y i m a g e in o n e , v e r y visible p o i n t . T h e V i r g i n o f t h e c h o i r is a V i r g i n w i t h c h i l d , t h a t o f T e p e y a c is t h e t r a d i t i o n a l inmaculada. L e t m e also n o t e t h a t o n e o f t h e a n t i p h o n a l s o f t h e c h o i r o f G u a d a l u p e o f E s t r e m a d u r a , d a t i n g f r o m t h e fifteenth c e n t u r y , is i l l u s t r a t e d w i t h i l l u m i n a t e d d r a w i n g s t h a t i n c l u d e a n inmaculada who could have s e r v e d as m o d e l f o r t h a t o f T e p e y a c . F o r t h e r e s t , t h e r e is n o t h i n g u n u s u a l a b o u t t h e i m a g e . T h a t o f t h e c h o i r o f t h e m o n a s t e r y o f Est r e m a d u r a d a t e s f r o m 1 4 9 9 ; t h e r e is a n o t h e r , p a i n t e d o n w o o d e n d o o r s separating the parish c h u r c h from the enclosure of the convent o f t h e n u n s o f St. C l a r e o f M o g u e r ( p r o v i n c e o f H u e l v a ) , d a t i n g f r o m t h e s a m e e p o c h a n d also r e s e m b l i n g t h e i m a g e o f T e p e y a c , b o t h in its c o m p o s i t i o n a n d its s y m b o l i c a t t r i b u t e s . 1 0
T h e p r o b l e m of t h e original image of G u a d a l u p e of T e p e y a c — t h e i m a g e t h a t d i s a p p e a r e d — a n d o f t h e p r e s e n t i m a g e is i n s e p a r a b l e f r o m t h e g e n e r a l q u e s t i o n o f a r t i s a n m a n u f a c t u r e o f p i o u s i m a g e s in t h e m o n a s t e r y o f t h e S i e r r a d e las V i l l u e r c a s a n d o f t h e i r d i f f u s i o n . F r a y A r t u r o Alvarez r e m i n d s u s t h a t Q u e e n I s a b e l l a h a d c h a r g e d t h e J e r o n y m i t e s o f E s t r e m a d u r a w i t h i l l u m i n a t i n g h e r Flos Sanctorum; a n d visitors t o t h e m o n a s t e r y c a n still a d m i r e t h e e i g h t y - n i n e c o d i c e s ill u m i n a t e d by t h e old m o n k s . T h e c o m p l a i n t s of Fray D i e g o d e Ocafia at Potosi p r o v e t h a t t h e friars p r i n t e d o r d r e w with b r u s h e s replicas of t h e s a c r e d i m a g e , in c o n s i d e r a b l e q u a n t i t i e s if n o t o n a n i n d u s t r i a l scale. W e m u s t d i s t i n g u i s h t h e e n g r a v i n g s d e s t i n e d f o r i n d i v i d u a l d e v o t i o n in a r o o m , f r o m t h e effigies d e s i g n e d f o r s a n c t u a r i e s a n d t h e like; w e k n o w less a b o u t t h e l a t t e r . F r a y F r a n c i s c o d e S a n J o s e i n f o r m s u s i n h i s Historia t h a t " t h e v e r y n o b l e t o w n o f J e r e z d e la F r o n t e r a possesses a statue of the M o t h e r of G o d which bears the n a m e of O u r L a d y o f G u a d a l u p e , " b u t h e d i s p u t e s t h e local t r a d i t i o n t h a t m a k e s it g o b a c k t o t h e t i m e o f K i n g A l f o n s o t h e W i s e , for, h e w r i t e s , G u a d a l u p e a p p e a r e d in 1 2 8 4 in t h e s i e r r a d e las V i l l u e r c a s , f o r t y years after the d e a t h of King Alfonso the W i s e . We note that the G u a d a l u p e of J e r e z was d e p o s i t e d in t h e c h u r c h of Saint L u k e , d o u b t less b e c a u s e o f t h e t r a d i t i o n t h a t a t t r i b u t e d t h e o r i g i n a l s t a t u e t o t h e a p o s t l e S a i n t L u k e . T h i s r e p l i c a o f t h e d a r k V i r g i n d e las V i l l u e r c a s is n o t t h e o n l y o n e in S p a i n . T h e r e is a n o t h e r s e v e r a l l e a g u e s f r o m t h e 1 1
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t o w n o f U b e d a ( p r o v i n c e o f J a e n ) , o f w h i c h s h e is p a t r o n e s s ; e a c h y e a r , in M a y , s h e is c a r r i e d in p r o c e s s i o n ; t h e t r a d i t i o n o f h e r a p p a r i t i o n is in all r e s p e c t s a n a l o g o u s t o t h a t o f las V i l l u e r c a s . T h e a r c h i t e c t u r e a n d the plan of the h e r m i t a g e which houses the holy image s u g g e s t s t h a t it w a s o c c u p i e d by s o m e r e l i g i o u s a t t h e p e r i o d o f its c o n s t r u c t i o n , w h i c h m a y g o b a c k t o t h e e n d o f t h e fifteenth c e n t u r y . T h e rise of s e c o n d a r y c e n t e r s of t h e cult of t h e Virgin of G u a d a l u p e o f t h e p r o v i n c e o f C a c e r e s a n d its p o l a r i z a t i o n a r o u n d t h e s e c e n t e r s s e e m s t o b e e x p l a i n e d b y t h e n e e d o f p i l g r i m s f r o m t h e cities t o m a k e t h e j o u r n e y o u t t o t h e s a n c t u a r y a n d b a c k h o m e o n foot, b e t w e e n d a y b r e a k a n d n i g h t f a l l . I n a n y case, t h a t c o n d i t i o n w a s satisfied b y t h e s a n c t u a r y o f U b e d a , o f M e x i c o City, a n d t h e s a n c t u a r y o f M a n i l a , c o n t e m p o r a r y w i t h t h a t o f M e x i c o City. A n A u g u s t i n i a n in t h e P h i l i p p i n e s , F r a y G a s p a r d e S a n M a r t i n , i n f o r m s u s in his Conquistas de las Islas Philipinas, p u b l i s h e d at t h e e n d o f t h e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y , t h a t " I n 1 6 0 1 , f r o m d e v o t i o n f o r t h e M i r a c u l o u s I m a g e t h a t is v e n e r a t e d in S p a i n u n d e r t h e i n v o c a t i o n o f G u a d a l u p e , t h e r e was b r o u g h t f r o m this k i n g d o m [ S p a i n ] a s t a t u e , c o p i e d f r o m a n d closely r e s e m b l i n g t h a t w h i c h is v e n e r a t e d in E s t r e m a d u r a , a n d a c h u r c h a n d a c o n v e n t w e r e b u i l t in a d r y a n d r o c k y s i e r r a , t w o l e a g u e s f r o m t h e t o w n o f Manila, u p s t r e a m from the river Passig." 12
T h e existence—before or c o n t e m p o r a r y with the image of Tepeyac—of outlying sanctuaries of O u r Lady of G u a d a l u p e that dep e n d e d o n t h e m o t h e r h o u s e materially ( t h r o u g h provision of a copy o f t h e o r i g i n a l s t a t u e s c u l p t u r e d in t h e w o r k s h o p s a t t a c h e d t o t h e m o n a s t e r y o f G u a d a l u p e ) a n d s p i r i t u a l l y ( d u e t o t h e fidelity o f t h e c o p y , w h i c h r e q u i r e d t h e t r a n s f e r o f legacies a n d a l m s t o E s t r e m a d u r a ) , suggest t h a t t h e original i m a g e of G u a d a l u p e of T e p e y a c was also a s t a t u e (imagen de bulto) i m p o r t e d f r o m S p a i n . T h e E n g l i s h t r a v e l e r Miles P h i l l i p s d e s c r i b e d it i n 1 5 8 2 as a life-size s t a t u e o f g i l d e d silver. T h a t t h e q u e s t i o n o f l e g a c i e s a n d a l m s f o r m e d t h e b a c k g r o u n d o f t h e c h a n g e t h a t t o o k p l a c e in t h e first h a l f o f t h e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y b o t h in t h e s a c r e d c a l e n d a r a n d in t h e m i r a c u l o u s t r a d i t i o n (it w a s n o t m i r a c u l o u s b e f o r e ) o f t h e G u a d a l u p e o f T e p e y a c is f u r t h e r c o n f i r m e d b y t h e official Historia univeral o f F a t h e r F r a n c i s c o d e S a n J o s e . T h i s a u t h o r , w h o w r o t e in 1 7 4 3 , c o u l d n o t a v o i d m e n t i o n o f t h e m a t t e r o f a l m s , still p e n d i n g u n d e r P h i l i p V . A f t e r a d m i t t i n g t h a t "Divine m e r c y has b e e n very liberal to t h e Mexicans," h e a d d e d that "Mexicans w h o o n their d e a t h b e d s wish to favor t h e M o t h e r of G o d of G u a d a l u p e , w h o m t h e y call la Extremena, t o d i s t i n g u i s h h e r f r o m t h e M e x i c a n Virgin, leave a certain s u m of m o n e y to o u r H o l y H o u s e , by a l e g a c y b i n d i n g o n all t e s t a t o r s . . . a n d a l t h o u g h d i v e r s e o p i n i o n s h a v e b e e n e x p r e s s e d in r e c e n t y e a r s o n t h e s u b j e c t o f t h e s e o b l i g a t o r y
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legacies, o u r Catholic m o n a r c h d e c r e e d by a royal d e c r e e of 1700 t h a t t h e s e legacies m u s t p a s s to o u r s a n c t u a r y . " T h u s n o t h i n g e s c a p e d t h e r e a c h o f c o l o n i a l e x p l o i t a t i o n ; t o t h e r o y a l fifth (quinto) a n d all t h e e x t r a o r d i n a r y c o n t r i b u t i o n s (donativos) w i t h w h i c h t h e M e x i c a n s w e r e t a x e d , w e r e a d d e d t h e d r a i n o f legacies a n d a l m s m a d e o b l i g a t o r y b y a r o y a l d e c r e e o f 1 7 3 6 . U n d e r t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s , it is c l e a r w h y t h e G u a d a l u p e d e Tepeyac could know no peace until she h a d c h a n g e d h e r a p p e a r a n c e a n d b e c o m e b e y o n d t h e s h a d o w o f a d o u b t t h e "little I n d i a n " (Indita) b o r n o f p o p u l a r d e v o t i o n . 1 3
Guadalupe, Apple of Discord between the Archbishop of Mexico and the Franciscans
(1556)
S o m e y e a r s b e f o r e F r a y B e r n a r d i n o d e S a h a g u n r e c o r d e d in his Historia general his g r a v e d o u b t s a b o u t t h e c u l t o f G u a d a l u p e , a n o t h e r F r a n c i s c a n voice w a s r a i s e d t o d e n o u n c e t h e n e w cult. I n a s e r m o n d e l i v e r e d o n S e p t e m b e r 8, 1 5 5 6 , o n t h e o c c a s i o n o f t h e N a t i v i t y o f t h e V i r g i n , F a t h e r F r a y F r a n c i s c o d e B u s t a m a n t e p u b l i c l y p r o t e s t e d in t h e p r e s e n c e o f t h e civil a u t h o r i t i e s a g a i n s t t h e n e w a n d a l r e a d y p o p u l a r cult of t h e i m a g e of the Virgin Mary of G u a d a l u p e , whose very n a m e h e d i s p u t e d , " t o w h i c h t h e y h a v e g i v e n t h e title o f G u a d a l u p e . " The a u t o g r a p h m a n u s c r i p t of the s e r m o n has n o t b e e n p r e s e r v e d ; we k n o w its c o n t e n t s f r o m t h e r e c o r d o f a n i n q u i r y o r d e r e d b y t h e a r c h b i s h o p o f M e x i c o City, F r a y A l o n s o d e M o n t u f a r , w h o m t h e p r e a c h e r d i d n o t h e s i t a t e to criticize. O n e o f t h e r e a s o n s f o r t h e o b s c u r i t y o f t h e o r i g i n s o f G u a d a l u p e is t h e fact t h a t s h e w a s t h e s t a k e in a q u a r r e l b e t w e e n t h e m o s t p o w e r f u l o f t h e m e n d i c a n t o r d e r s in N e w S p a i n a n d t h e secular clergy or, m o r e precisely, a n a r c h b i s h o p w h o , s u c c e e d i n g a Franciscan, Z u m a r r a g a , s o u g h t to d i m i n i s h t h e h i t h e r t o u n d i s p u t e d sway o f t h e m i s s i o n a r y f r i a r s . A r c h b i s h o p M o n t u f a r f a v o r e d t h e n e w cult, w h i l e t h e F r a n c i s c a n p r o v i n c i a l d e n o u n c e d its p e r n i c i o u s effects. I t will b e r e c a l l e d t h a t f r o m t h e first t h e F r a n c i s c a n s h a d p r a c t i c e d a policy o f decisive b r e a k w i t h t h e I n d i a n b e l i e f s ; t h e F r a n c i s c a n p i o n e e r s b e l i e v e d t h e d a n g e r o f c o n f u s i o n o f t h e m y t h i c a l figure o f T o n a n t z i n w i t h t h e V i r g i n M a r y h a d t o b e a v o i d e d a t all cost. F r a n c i s c a n hostility t o t h e n e w c u l t w a s all t h e s t r o n g e r b e c a u s e t h e i r f o r e r u n n e r s m a y h a v e i n s t i t u t e d t h e c u l t o f t h e V i r g i n o f T e p e y a c in o r d e r t o c o m b a t t h e o l d c u l t o f T o n a n t z i n , v e n e r a t e d in this s a m e place. 1 4
F a t h e r Bustamante's protest illuminates the E r a s m i a n purity of the F r a n c i s c a n f a i t h in M e x i c o a t a t i m e w h e n E r a s m i a n i s m h a d a l r e a d y c o m e u n d e r v i o l e n t a t t a c k in t h e P e n i n s u l a . T h e r e l i g i o u s p a s s i o n a t e l y
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a f f i r m e d t h a t " n o t h i n g was b e t t e r c a l c u l a t e d to k e e p t h e I n d i a n s f r o m b e c o m i n g g o o d Christians t h a n t h e cult of O u r Lady of G u a d a l u p e . Ever since t h e i r conversion they have b e e n told they s h o u l d n o t believe in idols, b u t o n l y in G o d a n d O u r L a d y . . . . T o tell t h e m n o w t h a t a n i m a g e p a i n t e d b y a n I n d i a n c o u l d w o r k m i r a c l e s will u t t e r l y c o n f u s e t h e m a n d t e a r u p t h e v i n e t h a t h a s b e e n p l a n t e d . O t h e r cults like t h a t o f O u r L a d y o f L o r e t o h a d g r e a t f o u n d a t i o n s , so it is a s t o u n d i n g to see t h e c u l t o f G u a d a l u p e a r i s e w i t h o u t t h e least f o u n d a t i o n . " T h i s a p p e a l t o a n e s s e n t i a l C h r i s t i a n i t y , f r e e f r o m all i d o l a t r y , s t r u c k a c h o r d t h a t w o u l d s h o r t l y c e a s e t o s o u n d in N e w S p a i n . W e o b s e r v e t h a t n o m e n t i o n w a s m a d e o n this o c c a s i o n o f a " p r o d i g i o u s a p p a r i t i o n " o f t h e h o l y i m a g e , o n l y o f its m i r a c u l o u s i n t e r c e s s i o n . H a d t h e r e t h e n e x i s t e d a t r a d i t i o n s i m i l a r to t h e e i g h t e e n t h - c e n t u r y t r a d i t i o n o f an " a p p a r i t i o n " of the Virgin, F a t h e r B u s t a m a n t e w o u l d have cert a i n l y m e n t i o n e d it, in o r d e r t o a t t a c k it. B u t h e d o e s n o t a l l u d e t o it, expressly stating that the Virgin of G u a d a l u p e of Tepeyac h a d b e e n p a i n t e d by a n I n d i a n . A n o t h e r witness d e c l a r e d t h a t h e h a d h e a r d "that the religious h a d s o u g h t to m a k e t h e natives u n d e r s t a n d t h a t O u r L a d y w a s n o t G o d " a n d " t h a t , if t h e p r e s e n t s i t u a t i o n was n o t r e m e d i e d , he [Bustamante] would forever r e n o u n c e preaching to the I n d i a n s . " A third witness attributed to t h e Franciscan the c o m m e n t t h a t "a h u n d r e d l a s h e s s h o u l d h a v e b e e n g i v e n t o t h e first p e r s o n w h o said t h a t this i m a g e o f G u a d a l u p e p e r f o r m e d m i r a c l e s . " 1 5
1 6
T h e v i g o r o f t h e F r a n c i s c a n p r o t e s t is e x p l a i n e d by t h e i r b e l i e f t h a t to tolerate the new cult "would be the r u i n of the missionary e f f o r t . " W h e n w e r e c a l l t h a t F r a y B e r n a r d i n o d e S a h a g u n w r o t e his Historia general in o r d e r to i n s t r u c t c u r a t e s o f I n d i a n p a r i s h e s h o w t h e y m i g h t discover ancient religious practices h i d d e n u n d e r Catholic ritual, the f e a r t h a t t h e n e w c u l t i n s p i r e d in t h e F r a n c i s c a n s is u n d e r s t a n d a b l e . G u a d a l u p e - T o n a n t z i n , female image of t h e universal d u a l principle, m u s t i n e v i t a b l y a p p e a r t o t h e I n d i a n s as " G o d . " F r o m this initial a m biguity was to arise t h e M e x i c a n cult of G u a d a l u p e , a n original f o r m o f C h r i s t i a n i t y in w h i c h t h e V i r g i n M a r y , in h e r I m m a c u l a t e C o n c e p t i o n , is M e x i c a n . T h u s t h e F r a n c i s c a n p i o n e e r s s e n s e d , w i t h r e m a r k a b l e c l a i r v o y a n c e , t h a t t h e s u d d e n rise o f t h e c u l t o f T e p e y a c was t h e b e g i n n i n g of a n effort to d e m o l i s h t h e " I n d i a n C h u r c h " w h i c h they h a d t r i e d to e r e c t in M e x i c o . T h i s e x p l a i n s t h e f a v o r w h i c h t h e s e c u l a r c l e r g y a c c o r d e d to t h e n e w c u l t , w h o s e success w o u l d signify a r e p u d i ation of the Franciscan pioneers a n d diminish their ascendancy over t h e I n d i a n s as well as t h e Creoles. B e n e a t h t h e r i v a l r y b e t w e e n t h e r e g u l a r s , f o u n d e r s o f t h e Iglesia indiana, a n d t h e s e c u l a r s w h o s o u g h t to s u p p l a n t t h e m , we perceive a struggle between two conceptions of 1 7
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E u r o p e a n Christianity. O n e , of E r a s m i a n inspiration, distrusted images a n d cults; the o t h e r w o u l d d o m i n a t e t h e C o u n t e r - R e f o r m a t i o n a n d a s s i g n a l a r g e p l a c e to t h e s a c r a m e n t s , t o f r e q u e n t c o m m u n i o n , t o t h e d i s p l a y o f c u l t s . A r r i v i n g in M e x i c o in 1 5 7 2 — o n l y a few y e a r s after Fray Francisco's s e r m o n — t h e Jesuits were the chief artisans of this m e t a m o r p h o s i s o f t h e " I n d i a n C h u r c h , " w h i c h b e c a m e e v e r m o r e " c r e o l e . " I n s a c r e d e l o q u e n c e as in a r c h i t e c t u r e — i n t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of e p h e m e r a l t r i u m p h a l arches a n d temples built for the ages—a b a r o q u e l u x u r i a n c e carried a l o n g pell-mell a n t i q u e h e r o e s a n d t h e g o d s o f M e x i c a n p o l y t h e i s m in a e u h e m e r i s t i c o p t i m i s m t h a t was t h e v e r y o p p o s i t e o f t h e " r u p t u r e " w i t h t h e a n c i e n t beliefs u p h e l d b y t h e Franciscan founders. B u t in 1 5 5 6 t h e y a l o n e f o r e s a w t h e d a n g e r s p r e s e n t e d t o t h e p u r i t y of t h e faith of their I n d i a n c o n v e r t s by t h e cult which w o u l d r u i n t h e i r missionary effort. C o n s i d e r a t i o n s of morality a n d a parochial spirit i n f l u e n c e d t h e p a r t i s a n s o f t h e n e w cult. O n e o f t h e w i t n e s s e s q u e s t i o n e d in t h e c o u r s e o f t h e i n q u i r y o r d e r e d by t h e a r c h b i s h o p testified: " H e is o f o p i n i o n t h a t this c u l t s h o u l d b e f a v o r e d a n d p r o m o t e d , t h e m o r e b e c a u s e n o o t h e r c u l t in t h i s c o u n t r y is so p o p u l a r . T h a n k s t o this h o l y f e r v o r , m a n y p e o p l e h a v e s t o p p e d g o i n g i n t o t h e w o o d s a c c o r d i n g to the f o r m e r c u s t o m of t h e country. T h e y have a b a n d o n e d t h i s a n d s i m i l a r p l e a s u r e s a n d n o w g o w h e r e t h e y find o n l y t h e p u r e p l e a s u r e o f p i o u s c o n t e m p l a t i o n , j u s t as in M a d r i d t h e y go to the convent of o u r Lady of A n t o c h a . " Readers who have w a l k e d o f a S u n d a y in t h e p a r k o f C h a p u l t e p e c will i m m e d i a t e l y u n d e r s t a n d t h e r e f e r e n c e to w a l k i n g in t h e w o o d s a n d " s i m i l a r p l e a s u r e s " o f M e x i c a n life in t h o s e d i s t a n t t i m e s . A d i s t i n g u i s h e d c o n t e m p o r a r y , Z u m a r r a g a , first b i s h o p o f M e x i c o City, h a d d e n o u n c e d in his Doctrine breve t h o s e " p r o f a n e festivals." G u a d a l u p e g a v e a p r o v i d e n t i a l p u r p o s e a n d a pious justification to t h e S u n d a y p r o m e n a d e s of t h e M e x i c a n s . It also e n d o w e d t h e c a p i t a l o f N e w S p a i n , rival o f M a d r i d , w i t h its o w n s h r i n e . F r o m t h e first, t h e c u l t o f G u a d a l u p e t h u s figured as a s o u r c e o f p r e s t i g e f o r M e x i c o City in its i n c i p i e n t r i v a l r y w i t h t h e c a p i t a l o f s p a i n , a r i v a l r y w h i c h in t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y a s s u m e d t h e f o r m o f a n a t t i t u d e o f s u p e r i o r i t y o n t h e p a r t o f M e x i c a n Creoles. A less l a u d a b l e m o t i v e (if w e m a y b e l i e v e t h e a n g r y B u s t a m a n t e ) a n i m a t e d B i s h o p M o n t u f a r ; this w a s his c o n c e r n f o r t h e a l m s a n d l e g a c i e s t h a t t h e c u l t o f G u a d a l u p e m u s t i n e v i t a b l y b r i n g i n ; if this w a s really t h e archbishop's h o p e , t h e f u t u r e was to p r o v e h i m right. C l e a r l y , faith p l a y e d a s m a l l p a r t in all this. T h e d e v o t e e s s e e m t o h a v e b e e n chiefly a t t r a c t e d b y t h e i m a g e ' s " m i r a c u l o u s r e p u t a t i o n " a n d b r o u g h t t h e i r sick c h i l d r e n t o b e h e a l e d : " H e said t h a t h e w e n t t o O u r 1 8
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Guadalupe 1 9
L a d y o f G u a d a l u p e b e c a u s e h e h a d a d a u g h t e r sick w i t h t h e c o u g h . " B u t a d e c i s i v e f a c t o r in t h e success o f t h e n e w c u l t a m o n g t h e I n d i a n s ( a s i d e f r o m t h e t o p o g r a p h i c c o i n c i d e n c e w i t h t h e s a n c t u a r y o f Toci, d e n o u n c e d b y S a h a g u n ) , was t h e " I n d i a n " c h a r a c t e r o f t h e i m a g e . O n this p o i n t , a t least, t h e r e w a s a g r e e m e n t o n t h e p a r t o f t h e d e v o t e e s o f G u a d a l u p e a n d t h e e n e m i e s o f a n e q u i v o c a l cult. O n e of the witnesses expressly recalled B u s t a m a n t e ' s c o m m e n t : " B e c a u s e it w a s a p a i n t i n g m a d e by M a r c o s , a n I n d i a n p a i n t e r . " B e r n a l Diaz d e l Castillo cites a c e r t a i n M a r c o s d e A q u i n o as o n e o f t h r e e c e l e b r a t e d I n d i a n p a i n t e r s o f M e x i c o City at t h a t p e r i o d . B u t t h e i m a g e o f G u a d a l u p e o f M e x i c o d o e s n o t p r e s e n t a n y typical I n d i a n f e a t u r e , e x c e p t , p e r h a p s , f o r t h e t r a i t t h a t d i s t i n g u i s h e s it f r o m its p r o b a b l e m o d e l at t h e s h r i n e o f E s t r e m a d u r a — t h e a b s e n c e o f t h e c h i l d J e s u s . T h e v e r y n a m e o f G u a d a l u p e w h i c h m a y h a v e b e e n ass i g n e d t o it o n this a c c o u n t w a s d i s p u t e d b y a n o t h e r F r a n c i s c a n o f M e x i c o City, F r a y A l o n s o d e S a n t i a g o , w h o said, a c c o r d i n g t o o n e w i t n e s s : "it s h o u l d n o t h a v e b e e n c a l l e d O u r L a d y 'of G u a d a l u p e , ' b u t 'of T e p e a c a ' o r ' T e p e a q u i l l a , ' b e c a u s e O u r L a d y o f G u a d a l u p e in S p a i n h a s t h a t n a m e b e c a u s e t h e village itself is named 'Guadalupe.'" 2 0
2 1
T h i s is t h e e s s e n t i a l c o n t e n t o f t h e o l d e s t a u t h e n t i c d o c u m e n t r e g a r d i n g t h e M e x i c a n c u l t o f t h e i m a g e o f T e p e y a c . I n his s e r m o n F a t h e r B u s t a m a n t e d e s c r i b e d t h e c u l t as nueva, " n e w " ; this m e a n t t h a t h e d i d n o t r e g a r d it as a c r e a t i o n o f t h e first m i s s i o n a r i e s . T h e v i g o r o f t h e Franciscan protest suggests that t h e vigilant religious would n o t h a v e w a i t e d f o r y e a r s t o d e n o u n c e a c u l t t h e y r e g a r d e d as so h a r m f u l to t h e i r I n d i a n c o n v e r t s . T h e e x p r e s s i o n a p p l i e d b y F a t h e r B u s t a m a n t e to t h e i m a g e of T e p e y a c — " p a i n t e d the day before by a n I n d i a n " — c o n f i r m s t h e r e c e n t origin of t h e i m a g e in 1556. I n t h e 1550s, news of m i r a c u l o u s healings inspired a s h a r p u p s w i n g of s u p p o r t for the cult of the Virgin of Tepeyac. 22
S u c h , in its b r o a d l i n e s , is t h e e a r l y h i s t o r y o f t h e M e x i c a n c u l t o f G u a d a l u p e . W h a t I said b e f o r e c o n c e r n i n g t h e M a r i a n cults in H i s p a n i c A m e r i c a a n d especially a b o u t O u r L a d y o f C o p a c a b a n a s u p ports the testimony of the d o c u m e n t s of 1556. T h e image of Tepeyac a n d t h e initial u p s u r g e o f t h e I n d i a n a n d C r e o l e c u l t p r e s e n t t r a i t s typical o f t h e p r i n c i p a l m a n i f e s t a t i o n s o f t h e M a r i a n c u l t in t h e N e w World. H o w e v e r , the e m e r g e n c e of the Mexican cult of G u a d a l u p e a p p e a r s a p r e c o c i o u s p h e n o m e n o n by c o m p a r i s o n w i t h s i m i l a r c u l t s i n S o u t h America. (Peru, i n v a d e d ten years later t h a n Mexico, t h e n rava g e d b y civil w a r s a n d G o n z a l o P i z a r r o ' s r e v o l t , d i s p l a y s r e t a r d e d d e v e l o p m e n t in all fields.) A n i n t e n s e e a r l y e v a n g e l i z a t i o n , a v i g o r o u s
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u r b a n colonization, a n d a native p o p u l a t i o n issued from a powerful e m p i r e a r e s o m e of t h e factors that h e l p to explain t h e p r i o r a p p e a r a n c e o f a n o r i g i n a l M a r i a n c u l t in N e w S p a i n .
The "Invention' of Guadalupe by the B a c h i l l e r The Woman of Revelation (1648)
Sanchez:
A S p a n i s h friar, F a t h e r D i e g o d e Ecija, h a d w r i t t e n , p r o b a b l y i n t h e first q u a r t e r o f t h e s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y , t h e Libro de la invention de Santa Maria de Guadalupe. T h i s J e r o n y m i t e h a d a rival in t h e p e r s o n o f t h e M e x i c a n bachiller M i g u e l S a n c h e z , w h o p u b l i s h e d i n 1 6 4 8 a w o r k e n t i t l e d Imagen de la Virgen Maria Madre de Dios de Guadalupe milagrosamente aparecida en Mexico. A b o u t a c e n t u r y s e p a r a t e d the two b o o k s , t h e first o f w h i c h d e a l t w i t h t h e V i r g i n o f E s t r e m a d u r a , t h e s e c o n d w i t h t h e V i r g i n o f T e p e y a c . Yet, mutatis mutandis, t h e p r o c e s s o f " i n v e n t i o n " w a s t h e s a m e in b o t h cases. I n b o t h m o r e t h a n a c e n t u r y separates the traditional date of the apparition from the oldest known w r i t t e n a c c o u n t o f t h e t r a d i t i o n . I t w a s in 1 5 3 1 t h a t t h e " p r o d i g i o u s i m a g e " o f G u a d a l u p e ( M i g u e l S a n c h e z w a s t h e first t o d e s c r i b e it as p r o d i g i o u s ) is s u p p o s e d t o h a v e a p p e a r e d in M e x i c o . B e t w e e n 1 5 5 6 a n d 1648, one may suppose, the Franciscans had either a b a n d o n e d t h e i r o p p o s i t i o n t o t h e cult, o r p o p u l a r f e r v o r h a d o v e r w h e l m e d t h e i r r e s i s t a n c e . T h e n , t o o , t h e F r a n c i s c a n s h a d b e c o m e " c r e o l i z e d , " as t h e A u g u s t i n i a n C a l a n c h a a t t e s t s f o r P e r u a n d t h e visitador F r a y A l o n s o P o n c e f o r N e w S p a i n , in 1 5 8 4 . We r e c a l l t h a t t h e c u l t h a d b e e n officially e n c o u r a g e d b y B i s h o p M o n t u f a r , w h o f o u n d e d t h e first basilica o f G u a d a l u p e in 1 5 5 5 ; t h i s p r o v o k e d t h e s c a n d a l d e s c r i b e d a b o v e . T h e d e a t h o f t h e last F r a n c i s c a n p i o n e e r s ( M o t o l i n i a in 1 5 6 9 , O l m o s in 1 5 7 1 ) , t h e a r r i v a l o f t h e first J e s u i t s in 1 5 7 2 , t h e a c c e s s i o n o f A r c h b i s h o p P e d r o Moya d e C o n t r e r a s that same year, h a d r e n e w e d t h e s p i r i t u a l c l i m a t e o f N e w S p a i n . A l t h o u g h F a t h e r S a h a g u n lived u n t i l 1 5 9 0 , t h e m a n u s c r i p t s o f his Historia h a d b e e n c o n f i s c a t e d in 1 5 7 7 , a n d t h e T h i r d M e x i c a n P r o v i n c i a l C o u n c i l , a s s e m b l e d in 1 5 8 5 , h a d consecrated the p r e e m i n e n c e of the archbishop a n d the bishops over the mendicant orders. T h e Jesuits, who m o r e and m o r e took over t h e evangelizing mission of t h e Franciscan pioneers, w e r e m u c h m o r e receptive to those religious manifestations which t h e Francisc a n s h a d d e s c r i b e d as i d o l a t r o u s . Finally, t h e c u r a t e s c o m e f r o m S p a i n w e r e a c c u s t o m e d t o local c u l t s o f t h e V i r g i n M a r y , w i t h t h e i r a c c o m p a n y i n g a d v a n t a g e s for the clergy, a n d naturally e n c o u r a g e d the cult o f a n " i m a g e " o f G u a d a l u p e , e v e n if s h e w a s " I n d i a n . " 23
T h e r e is e v e r y r e a s o n t o s u p p o s e , t h e r e f o r e , t h a t t h e G u a d a l u p a n f e r v o r o f t h e I n d i a n s ( w h o d o u b t l e s s saw t h e o l d Toci b e n e a t h t h e
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f e a t u r e s o f t h e V i r g i n M a r y ) a n d o f t h e Creoles w h o w a n t e d t o h a v e t h e i r o w n p a t r o n e s s , w i t h r o o t s i n t h e soil o f t h e i r n e w patria, i n creased after 1556. I n his letter of 1575, Viceroy Martin Enriquez noted the existence about 1555 of the chapel of G u a d a l u p e of Tepeyac a n d d e c l a r e d t h a t " t h e cult b e g a n t o grow b e c a u s e a cattle d e a l e r l e t it b e k n o w n t h a t h e h a d r e g a i n e d h i s h e a l t h b y m a k i n g a pilgrimage to this c h a p e l / ' T h i s c o r r o b o r a t e s t h e testimony of Fray Francisco d e B u s t a m a n t e , twenty years earlier. I n 1585, Fray Alonso P o n c e r e p o r t e d i n h i s f a m o u s Viaje t h a t t h e S p a n i a r d s ( h e d o u b t l e s s m e a n t S p a n i a r d s a n d Creoles as o p p o s e d t o m e s t i z o s a n d I n d i a n s ) j o u r n e y e d t o t h e basilica o f G u a d a l u p e , a t T e p e y a c , t o a t t e n d m a s s said b y a p r i e s t a p p a r e n t l y a t t a c h e d t o t h e c h a p e l o f G u a d a l u p e . T h e acts o f t h e ecclesiastical c h a p t e r o f M e x i c o City, a s s e m b l e d A u g u s t 2 9 , 1 6 0 0 , d e c l a r e t h a t o n S e p t e m b e r 10 t h e N a t i v i t y o f t h e V i r g i n w o u l d b e c e l e b r a t e d " a t t h e c h a p e l o f G u a d a l u p e , b e c a u s e it is u n d e r h e r i n v o c a t i o n . " W e r e c a l l t h a t S e p t e m b e r 8 w a s t h e feast d a y o f G u a d a l u p e o f E s t r e m a d u r a . T h e M e x i c o City c h a p t e r still v i e w e d t h e c h a p e l o f T e p e y a c as o n e s h r i n e o f t h e Virgin M a r y a m o n g o t h e r s in N e w S p a i n ; t h e r e is n o r e f e r e n c e t o t h e " p r o d i g i o u s " c h a r a c t e r o f t h e i m a g e . I n a w o r k o f M a r i a n d e v o t i o n p u b l i s h e d i n 1621 b y t h e M e r c e d a r i a n F r a y L u i s d e C i s n e r o s , t h e c u l t o f G u a d a l u p e o f T e p e y a c is s i m ply m e n t i o n e d i n v a g u e t e r m s as o l d , " d a t i n g a l m o s t f r o m t h e c o n q u e s t o f t h e c o u n t r y . " B u t a t t h a t d a t e t h e 1 5 5 0 s m a y h a v e s e e m e d like t h a t d i s t a n t p e r i o d w h e n M e x i c o , o r a t least t h e valley o f M e x i c o , w a s c o n q u e r e d a n d colonized. A l t h o u g h t h e Dominican Martin d e Leon in 1 6 1 1 r e v i v e d S a h a g u n ' s a r g u m e n t s a g a i n s t t h e c u l t o f G u a d a l u p e , t h e a r c h b i s h o p r i c h a d n e v e r t h e l e s s c o n t i n u e d t o e n c o u r a g e it since M o n t i i f a r ' s t i m e , a n d i n 1 6 2 2 A r c h b i s h o p J u a n d e la S e r n a c o n s e c r a t e d a n e w basilica o f G u a d a l u p e a t T e p e y a c . 2 4
2 5
B e f o r e t h e bachiller M i g u e l S a n c h e z , n o o n e h a d explicitly r e f e r r e d t o a n " a p p a r i t i o n " o f t h e i m a g e o f T e p e y a c . F a t h e r C u e v a s cites a passage from Suarez d e Peralta, whose work c a n n o t be later than 1 5 8 9 , b u t it is n o t c o n v i n c i n g . T h e c r e o l e c h r o n i c l e r , p r o b a b l y a d e v o t e e o f O u r L a d y o f G u a d a l u p e , w r o t e r e g a r d i n g a visit o f t h e vicer o y t o t h e s h r i n e : " T h i s is a v e r y h o l y i m a g e w h i c h is f o u n d t w o l e a g u e s f r o m M e x i c o City a n d h a s p e r f o r m e d m a n y m i r a c l e s " (something we already knew from Montufar's inquiry), a n d a d d e d l a c o n i c a l l y : " S h e a p p e a r e d a m o n g t h e r o c k s a n d t h e w h o l e c o u n t r y is devoted to h e r . " S i n c e S u a r e z d e P e r a l t a left N e w S p a i n in 1 5 7 0 , F a t h e r C u e v a s c o n c l u d e d t h a t b y t h a t d a t e , a t latest, t h e t r a d i t i o n o f t h e a p p a r i t i o n s o f T e p e y a c h a d b e e n g e n e r a l l y a c c e p t e d in N e w S p a i n . B u t if I i n t e r p r e t c o r r e c t l y t h e c i t a t i o n f r o m S u a r e z d e P e r a l t a , it m e a n s t h e following. 2 6
2 7
1. O n h i s a r r i v a l i n M e x i c o , V i c e r o y M a r t i n E n r i q u e z p a i d a visit t o
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T e p e y a c . T h i s i n f o r m a t i o n is i n t e r e s t i n g , f o r i n t h e s e q u e l all v i c e r o y s a n d a r c h b i s h o p s of Mexico City w o u l d profess a n ostensible d e v o t i o n f o r t h e i m a g e o f T e p e y a c as a p r i m a r y c o n d i t i o n f o r e n j o y i n g t h e confidence of t h e Mexican p e o p l e . 2. T h e r e p u t a t i o n w h i c h G u a d a l u p e h a d a c q u i r e d in 1 5 5 6 f o r its m i r a c u l o u s c u r e s h a d lost n o n e o f its f o r c e , b u t q u i t e t h e c o n t r a r y ; t h e single c u r e h a d b e c o m e " m a n y miracles." 3. T h e c u l t o f G u a d a l u p e h a d s p r e a d t h r o u g h o u t t h e r e g i o n ( t h e valley o f M e x i c o ) . T h e r e is n o t h i n g t h a t w e d o n o t a l r e a d y k n o w o r t h a t c o u l d n o t b e r e a s o n a b l y f o r e s e e n o n t h e basis o f t h e facts f u r n i s h e d b y M o n t i i f a r ' s i n q u i r y . All o f F a t h e r C u e v a s ' a r g u m e n t s in f a v o r o f a n " a p p a r i t i o n " is f o u n d e d in t h i s p h r a s e : " s h e a p p e a r e d a m o n g t h e r o c k s . " N o w , w e k n o w f r o m all l a t e r G u a d a l u p a n l i t e r a t u r e t h a t m e n t i o n o f t h e a p p a r i t i o n w a s always f o l l o w e d b y a t r a i n o f a d v e r b s , u s u a l l y t h e q u a l i f i e r s " p r o d i g i o u s l y a n d m i r a c u l o u s l y . " If S u a r e z d e P e r a l t a t h o u g h t t h a t the image of Tepeyac h a d a p p e a r e d miraculously, h e would have c e r t a i n l y s t r e s s e d t h e fact a n d w o u l d n o t h a v e b e e n c o n t e n t w i t h a d r y a n d almost furtive r e f e r e n c e ; h e w o u l d n o t have given p r o m i n e n c e to t h e " m a n y miracles" (healings), petty t h e r a p e u t i c miracles by c o m p a r i s o n w i t h t h e Mariophany o f T e p e y a c p r e s e n t e d b y a l a t e r t r a d i t i o n . Moreover, a considerable n u m b e r of images of the Virgin Mary vene r a t e d in S p a i n h a d " a p p e a r e d , " t h a t is, h a d b e e n d i s c o v e r e d b y d e v o t e e s . I m i g h t cite t h e e x a m p l e o f G u a d a l u p e o f E s t r e m a d u r a , w h o s e ties t o t h e M e x i c a n G u a d a l u p e I h a v e s h o w n . O n e c o u l d also cite t h e case o f t h e V i r g i n o f M o n t s e r r a t , i n C a t a l o n i a , a n d m a n y - o t h e r s . B e t w e e n t h e " d i s c o v e r y " o f t h e i m a g e o f T e p e y a c (in t h i s r e s p e c t c o m p a r a b l e t o t h a t o f R e m e d i o s , a little s t a t u e f o u n d o n a m a g u e y p l a n t by a Christian cacique) to which S u a r e z d e Peralta refers, a n d w h i c h s e e m s t o reflect p o p u l a r b e l i e f a b o u t 1 5 7 0 , a n d t h e " A p p a r i t i o n " c h a m p i o n e d by M i g u e l S a n c h e z in 1 6 4 8 , a l m o s t e i g h t y y e a r s w e n t by. I n 1 5 5 6 n o w i t n e s s h a d m e n t i o n e d s u c h a m i r a c u l o u s a p p a r i tion, not even a "discovery" of the image of Tepeyac " a m o n g the Creoles." I n 1 5 7 0 , possibly, m o r e likely in 1 5 8 7 , t h e d a t e a t w h i c h Suarez d e Peralta wrote, t h e idea of a discovery of G u a d a l u p e " a m o n g t h e r o c k s " o f T e p e y a c w a s e x p r e s s e d f o r t h e first t i m e , b y a M e x i c a n c r e o l e w h o h a d lived i n S p a i n f o r s e v e n t e e n y e a r s . S u a r e z d e P e r a l t a thus h a d every o p p o r t u n i t y for learning the tradition of the original G u a d a l u p e , d i s c o v e r e d in t h e h o l l o w o f a r o c k in a s i e r r a o f E s t r e m a d u r a . H e r e a r e hints of a possible c o n t a m i n a t i o n of t h e nascent M e x i c a n t r a d i t i o n by a n a l r e a d y e s t a b l i s h e d S p a n i s h t r a d i t i o n . T h e "invention" of t h e Mexican G u a d a l u p a n tradition was t h e w o r k o f M i g u e l S a n c h e z , a f a m o u s p r e a c h e r a n d t h e o l o g i a n , in a b o o k
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e n t i t l e d Image of the Virgin Mary, Mother of God, of Guadalupe, Celebrated in Her History by the Prophecy of Chapter Twelve of Revelation. Let m e r e c a l l t h e first l i n e s o f R e v e l a t i o n 12, w h i c h i m m e d i a t e l y call t o m i n d t h e i m a g e o f G u a d a l u p e o f T e p e y a c as t h e plastic e x p r e s s i o n o f t h e W o m a n of t h e Apocalypse: 28
A n d t h e r e a p p e a r e d a g r e a t w o n d e r in h e a v e n ; a w o m a n c l o t h e d w i t h t h e s u n , a n d t h e m o o n u n d e r h e r feet, a n d u p o n h e r h e a d a c r o w n of twelve s t a r s . . . . T h e " p r o d i g i o u s " i m a g e v e n e r a t e d o n t h e hill o f T e p e y a c is t r u l y a w o m a n " c l o t h e d w i t h t h e s u n " ; a c r e s c e n t m o o n is u n d e r h e r feet. S h e n o l o n g e r h a s a c r o w n o f s t a r s , b u t d i d at least u n t i l t h e n i n e t e e n t h century, a n d h e r n u m e r o u s ancient Mexican replicas are crowned. D o u b t l e s s t h i s c r o w n m a y b e i n t e r p r e t e d as t h a t o f t h e V i r g i n M a r y , " Q u e e n of H e a v e n " ; nevertheless, t h e very a b u n d a n t G u a d a l u p a n i c o n o g r a p h y p r e s e n t s a series of f e a t u r e s b o r r o w e d f r o m t h e W o m a n o f t h e A p o c a l y p s e . I n t h i s r e s p e c t , v e r s e 14 o f R e v e l a t i o n 12 o f f e r s a valuable clue: A n d to t h e w o m a n w e r e given two wings of a great eagle, that s h e m i g h t fly i n t o t h e w i l d e r n e s s , i n t o h e r p l a c e , w h e r e s h e is n o u r i s h e d f o r a t i m e , a n d t i m e s , a n d h a l f a t i m e , f r o m t h e face o f the serpent." R e a d e r s will easily r e c o g n i z e h e r e t h e s y m b o l i s m o f t h e A z t e c t r a d i t i o n , in w h i c h t h e e a g l e t r i u m p h s o v e r t h e s e r p e n t . A s c o n c e r n s t h e l u n a r s y m b o l i s m in G u a d a l u p a n i c o n o g r a p h y , w e m u s t d i s t i n g u i s h t h e l u n a r e p i p h a n i e s so c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h e I n d i a n r e l i g i o n s f r o m t h e E a s t e r m o o n w i t h its t r a i n o f a n t i q u e s y m b o l s assimilated by Christianity, notably by Saint Paul a n d Saint A m b r o s e . Doubtless t h e crescent m o o n of G u a d a l u p e o w e d m u c h m o r e to t h e ancient E u r o p e a n a n d N e a r E a s t e r n tradition t h a n to the Mexican past. F r a n c i s c o d e la M a z a cites his p r e f a t o r y n o t e o f t h e bachiller J e r o n i m o d e Valladolid to the b o o k of t h e Jesuit Florencia: " T h e W o m a n o f R e v e l a t i o n a p p e a r e d as a s u p e r n a t u r a l s i g n o f t h e b i r t h a n d flowering of the primitive C h u r c h of E u r o p e ; a n d G u a d a l u p e app e a r e d as t h e s u p e r n a t u r a l s i g n o f t h e b e g i n n i n g s a n d p r o g r e s s o f t h e primitive C h u r c h of o u r A m e r i c a . " R e v e l a t i o n — a t least R e v e l a t i o n 1 2 — w a s t h u s t r a n s f o r m e d b y a d a r ing exegesis into w h a t m i g h t b e called a Mexican p r o p h e c y . I n t h e p r e f a t o r y a p p r o b a t i o n o f The Translation of the Church to Guadalupe ( 1 7 4 8 ) , w e r e a d : " I n C h a p t e r 12 o f R e v e l a t i o n , w h i c h so truthfully describes the miraculous apparition of o u r Lady of 2 9
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G u a d a l u p e , f o l l o w i n g t h e e v a n g e l i s t ' s ecstatic vision o f t h i s p r o d i g y , t h e celestial w o m a n . . . . " I n t h e essay o f t h e bachiller S a n c h e z t h e M e x i c a n G u a d a l u p a n t r a d i t i o n first a p p e a r s w i t h t h e f e a t u r e s t h a t h a v e r e m a i n e d p e c u l i a r l y its o w n d o w n t o o u r t i m e — t h e p r o p h e t i c r o o t s a n d t h e p a t r i o t i c i m p l i c a t i o n s t h a t c o n s t i t u t e its o r i g i n a l i t y . F r a n c i s c o d e la M a z a ' s a n a l y s i s o f t h e s u b j e c t e x c u s e s m e f r o m d u p l i c a t i n g his e f f o r t . I r e s u m e m y i n q u i r y w h e r e M a z a l e a v e s off, w h e n he writes: "Miguel Sanchez accepts the G u a d a l u p a n tradition a n d d e v e l o p s it by p r o v i d i n g it w i t h a t h e o l o g i c a l f o u n d a t i o n , w i t h o u t w h i c h it w o u l d h a v e r e m a i n e d a f o r m l e s s l e g e n d . " O f t h e t r a d i t i o n w h i c h m a y h a v e i n s p i r e d t h e bachiller, t h e "first e v a n g e l i s t o f G u a d a l u p e , " we know only those aspects o n which Montiifar's inquiry t h r o w s l i g h t . We m u s t c o n c l u d e , t h e r e f o r e , e i t h e r t h a t M i g u e l S a n c h e z i n v e n t e d a l m o s t t h e w h o l e t r a d i t i o n , o r else t h a t it g r e w u p in t h e c o u r s e o f t h e y e a r s — a little less t h a n a c e n t u r y — t h a t s e p a r a t e B u s t a m a n t e ' s protest f r o m the apologia of Sanchez. 3 0
31
3 2
T h e first h y p o t h e s i s is m o s t u n l i k e l y , a l t h o u g h e n e m i e s o f t h e a p p a r i t i o n h a v e a d v a n c e d it. T h e s e critics b a s e t h e m s e l v e s o n t h e l e t t e r a d d r e s s e d t o M i g u e l S a n c h e z b y L u i s L a z o d e la Vega, " v i c a r o f t h e h o l y c h a p e l o f G u a d a l u p e , " a f t e r h e h a d r e a d his b o o k . T h e vicar o f G u a d a l u p e w r o t e , in effect: "All m y p r e d e c e s s o r s a n d I h a v e b e e n s l u m b e r i n g A d a m s , t h o u g h all t h e w h i l e w e p o s s e s s e d this n e w E v e in t h e p a r a d i s e o f h e r M e x i c a n G u a d a l u p e . " T o b e s u r e , t h i s is a d i s t u r b i n g a d m i s s i o n ; it s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e p r i e s t s a t t a c h e d t o t h e service o f t h e basilica o f G u a d a l u p e s i n c e its f o u n d a t i o n , w h i c h w e n t b a c k t o 1622, h a d b e e n u n a w a r e of the tradition of the " a p p a r i t i o n s " a n d the " p r o d i g i o u s i m a g e , " u n t i l t h e p u b l i c a t i o n o f M i g u e l S a n c h e z ' b o o k in 1 6 4 8 . H o w e v e r , w e m u s t p l a c e this s t a t e m e n t in its c o n t e x t a n d m a k e a l l o w a n c e f o r h y p e r b o l e . L a z o d e la V e g a (a n e w S a i n t P a u l f o l l o w i n g the evangelist Sanchez) writes immediately after: " B u t now I have the p r i v i l e g e o f b e i n g A d a m a w a k e n e d to see h e r in t h e i m a g e a n d in t h e a c c o u n t o f y o u r History: t o see h e r e n t i r e , yet in h e r d i f f e r e n t a s p e c t s , in t h e p r o d i g y o f t h e m i r a c l e , in t h e e v e n t o f h e r A p p a r i t i o n , i n t h e m y s t e r i e s t h a t h e r p a i n t i n g signifies. . . . T r u l y , I c o u l d say w h a t A d a m said." I n the context of a letter of t h a n k s to the a u t h o r , w h o h a d offered his b o o k t o h i m , t h i s is n o t h i n g m o r e , I b e l i e v e , t h a n a h y p e r b o l i c e u l o g y o f a d e v o t e e o f G u a d a l u p e , s u c h as a p r i e s t d e v o t e d t o h e r i m a g e o f T e p e y a c m u s t h a v e b e e n . A t t h e s t a r t o f his l e t t e r L a z o d e la V e g a w r o t e : " t o m e , e n t r u s t e d w i t h t h e s o v e r e i g n relic o f t h e m i r a c u lous I m a g e of t h e Virgin Mary, w h o m t h e angels alone m e r i t to h a v e for their c o m p a n i o n , that they m i g h t serve h e r . " T h u s , even before h a v i n g r e a d M i g u e l S a n c h e z , L a z o d e la V e g a k n e w t h a t h e s e r v e d " a 3 3
3 4
3 5
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r e l i c " a n d a " m i r a c u l o u s i m a g e " ; w h a t h e f o u n d in M i g u e l S a n c h e z was a n o r d e r i n g (formada) o f t h e e l e m e n t s o f t h e t r a d i t i o n , clarity in its e x p o s i t i o n (compuesta), a n d a b o v e all a d e c i p h e r i n g o f t h e G u a d a l u p a n s y m b o l in t h e l i g h t o f R e v e l a t i o n 12, w h i c h c o n f e r r e d a n e w p a t r i o t i c a n d t r a n s c e n d e n t s i g n i f i c a n c e u p o n t h e Mariophany, o r n e w e p i p h a n y of Tepeyac. Miguel Sanchez o r d e r e d and interpreted, or rather "deciphered," the factual o r anecdotal e l e m e n t s of the m i r a c u l o u s tradition of G u a d a l u p e in t h e l i g h t o f S c r i p t u r e , b u t w h e r e d i d h e find t h e m ? W e c a n n o t a v o i d this q u e s t i o n , o n c e w e a g r e e t h a t t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n o f t h e bachiller S a n c h e z w a s e x e g e t i c r a t h e r t h a n d o c u m e n t a r y . H a d it b e e n o t h e r w i s e , h i s b o o k w o u l d c e r t a i n l y h a v e p r o v o k e d a s c a n d a l , as always h a p p e n e d w h e n s o m e o n e t a m p e r e d w i t h a p i o u s t r a d i t i o n . It is a t least p l a u s i b l e , as F r a n c i s c o d e la M a z a b e l i e v e s , t h a t S a n c h e z b o r r o w e d his e d i f y i n g a c c o u n t o f t h e successive " a p p a r i t i o n s " o f M a r y f r o m t h e i r d e p i c t i o n in t h e a l r e a d y n u m e r o u s e x - v o t o s o f t h e basilica a n d , o n e m i g h t a d d , f r o m o r a l t r a d i t i o n . F r a n c i s c o d e la M a z a h a s s h e d l i g h t o n t h e l i n k s b e t w e e n t h e bachiller S a n c h e z a n d t h e vicar L a z o d e la V e g a . O n e y e a r l a t e r L a z o d e la V e g a p u b l i s h e d , in N a h u a t l , a v e r s i o n o f t h e p i o u s l e g e n d f o r t h e u s e o f t h e I n d i a n s : Huey Tlamahuicoltica omonexiti in ilhuicac Tlatoca cihuapilli Santa Maria,— Iotlaconantzin Guadalupe in nican huei altepenahuac Mexico itocayocan Tepeyacac 36
T h i s b o o k h a s g i v e n r i s e to c o n t r o v e r s y ; f o r s o m e , like J o a q u i n G a r c i a I c a z b a l c e t a , it r e p r e s e n t s a n a d a p t a t i o n f o r a m o r e n a i v e p u b l i c o f t h e e x e g e t i c a u d a c i t i e s o f bachiller S a n c h e z ; o t h e r s see it as a b o r rowing from a n older I n d i a n chronicle, the work of a certain A n t o n i o V a l e r i a n o . A g a i n I r e f e r t h e r e a d e r t o t h e s t u d y o f F r a n c i s c o d e la M a z a , w h o d i s m i s s e s this h y p o t h e s i s . We h a v e a l r e a d y s t u d i e d a c o m p a r a b l e p r o b l e m , t h a t of t h e g r o u p of histories by Fray Diego D u r a n , J u a n d e Tovar, a n d Tezozomoc, w h o , according to certain a u t h o r s , d e r i v e d f r o m a c o m m o n s o u r c e (called Cronica X by R o b e r t B a r l o w ) , a n I n d i a n c h r o n i c l e . I n t h e c a s e o f L a z o d e la V e g a , w e o b s e r v e t h a t in his preface h e declares t h r e e times t h a t h e w r o t e d o w n t h e m i r a c u l o u s t r a d i t i o n in N a h u a t l a n d p r o t e s t s his i n s u f f i c i e n t k n o w l e d g e o f t h a t l a n g u a g e : " W o u l d t h a t I h a d e n o u g h m a s t e r y o f t h a t fiery N a h u a t l l a n g u a g e to describe the g r e a t miracle of h e r a p p a r i t i o n to those p o o r n a t i v e s . " I n t h e a b s e n s e o f valid r e a s o n s f o r c h a r g i n g L a z o d e la V e g a w i t h a l i t e r a r y h o a x , I a s s u m e t h a t h e is t h e a u t h o r of Huey Tlamahuicoltica; if a h o a x h a d t a k e n p l a c e , its m o s t likely o b j e c t w o u l d h a v e b e e n t o p a s s t h e b o o k o f f as a n a t i v e w o r k . 3 7
I t a p p e a r s t h a t t h e first e f f o r t t o b a s e t h e G u a d a l u p a n t r a d i t i o n o n native N a h u a t l sources was t h e m u c h later effort of B o t u r i n i , w h o
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d e v o t e d t h e last c h a p t e r s ( 2 4 - 2 6 ) o f his Catalogo del Museo Histbrico Indiano t o G u a d a l u p e . T h e c a t a l o g e n d s w i t h this p r o f e s s i o n o f f a i t h : Laus Deo, et Virgini Guadalupensi per injmita saeculorum saecula. Amen. ("Praise b e to G o d , a n d to t h e V i r g i n of G u a d a l u p e , for ever a n d ever. Amen.") B o t u r i n i a f f i r m s t h a t t h e h i s t o r y o f L a z o d e la V e g a "is n o t a n d c a n n o t b e t h e w o r k o f t h a t a u t h o r " b u t gives n o r e a s o n s f o r t h i s c a t e g o r i c a l s t a t e m e n t . H e i n t e n d e d t o p r o v e t h a t its a u t h o r w a s A n tonio Valeriano o r s o m e o t h e r Indian, a s t u d e n t of the colegio "of Santiago Tlatelolco, a c o n t e m p o r a r y of the miracle of those a p p a r i t i o n s . " U n f o r t u n a t e l y , t h e history of O u r Lady of G u a d a l u p e which B o t u r i n i p r o p o s e d t o w r i t e a n d in w h i c h h e i n t e n d e d t o p r o v e all h e h a d a f f i r m e d in his Catalogo n e v e r saw t h e l i g h t o f d a y , as a r e s u l t o f t h e c o n f i s c a t i o n o f his l i b r a r y a n d his e x p u l s i o n f r o m N e w S p a i n . O n e c a n n o t s e r i o u s l y b e l i e v e t h a t t h e R o m a n cavaliere m a d e u p o u t o f w h o l e c l o t h t h e G u a d a l u p a n m a n u s c r i p t s in N a h u a t l o f w h i c h h e gives a list a n d a v e r y s u c c i n c t analysis in his Catalogo. T h e r e is t h e less r e a s o n t o d o u b t t h e e x i s t e n c e o f t h e s e d o c u m e n t s b e c a u s e a n illustrio u s s o n o f P u e b l a , M a r i a n o F e r n a n d e z d e E c h e v e r r i a y Veitia, w h o i n h e r i t e d B o t u r i n i ' s w r i t i n g s , u t i l i z e d t h e m in p r e p a r i n g h i s o w n v e r sion of t h e m i r a c u l o u s tradition of G u a d a l u p e ; b u t B o t u r i n i a n d Veitia w r o t e a t t h e e n d o f t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y . 3 8
The Patriotic
Significance
of
Guadalupe
T h e question of the authenticity of the missing Nahuatl sources m e n t i o n e d b y B o t u r i n i t o b u t t r e s s t h e G u a d a l u p a n t r a d i t i o n is n o t r e a l l y very i m p o r t a n t f r o m the viewpoint of this book. For the historian of M e x i c o , G u a d a l u p e " a p p e a r e d " n o t so m u c h in 1 5 3 1 , t h e d a t e g i v e n by t h e p i o u s t r a d i t i o n , n o r e v e n in 1 5 5 6 , w h e n M o n t i i f a r ' s i n q u i r y c o n f i r m e d t h e e x i s t e n c e o f a n e w c u l t , b u t a b o v e all in 1 6 4 8 a n d 1 6 4 9 . T h e t w o G u a d a l u p a n essays o f M i g u e l S a n c h e z a n d L a z o d e la V e g a a p p e a r e d a year apart. T h e two books could pass for two m o r e of the m a n y w o r k s o f d e v o t i o n p u b l i s h e d in N e w S p a i n i n t h a t p e r i o d . B u t t h e y h a d a s p e c i a l m e a n i n g , a t least in t h e l o n g r u n , f o r t h e y w e r e t h e first s t e p t o w a r d r e c o g n i t i o n o f G u a d a l u p e as t h e M e x i c a n n a t i o n a l s y m b o l . W e n o t e d a b o v e t h e s t r o n g i m p r e s s i o n m a d e o n L a z o d e la V e g a by M i g u e l S a n c h e z ' s G u a d a l u p a n essay: L a z o d e la V e g a f o u n d it a t r u e r e v e l a t i o n . I f a p r i e s t d e v o t e d t o G u a d a l u p e , s e r v i n g in h e r basilica o f T e p e y a c , h a d b e e n a " s l u m b e r i n g A d a m " u n t i l t h e d a y h e r e a d t h e b o o k , it w a s b e c a u s e t h a t b o o k m e t a m o r p h o s e d t h e " m i r a c u lous r e p u t a t i o n " of t h e i m a g e of Tepeyac into a t r a n s c e n d e n t event. W h a t was the contribution of Miguel Sanchez to the oral tradition
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a n d its n a i v e d e p i c t i o n in t h e e x - v o t o s ? M o s t i m p o r t a n t o f all, h e g a v e it p r o p h e t i c r o o t s w h o s e e s c h a t o l o g i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e w o u l d fully e m e r g e a c e n t u r y later, w h e n the millenarian fever was r e b o r n . O v e r the bridge thus t h r o w n between Tepeyac a n d the Revelation of J o h n , t h e e i g h t e e n t h - c e n t u r y p r e a c h e r s , followed by t h e n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y r e v o l u t i o n a r i e s w o u l d b o l d l y a d v a n c e . B u t f o r t h e m o m e n t let u s stay in t h a t s e v e n t e e t h - c e n t u r y m i l i e u in w h i c h c r e o l e N e w S p a i n s e a r c h e s f o r its d e s t i n y in S c r i p t u r e . T h e first c h a p t e r o f S a n c h e z ' s b o o k m a k e s t h e title, w h i c h a l r e a d y m e n t i o n s t h e p r o p h e c y o f R e v e l a t i o n 12, m o r e explicit: " P r o p h e t i c O r i g i n a l of t h e H o l y I m a g e Piously F o r e s e e n by t h e E v a n g e l i s t S a i n t J o h n , in C h a p t e r T w e l v e o f R e v e l a t i o n . " T h u s , a c c o r d i n g t o S a n c h e z , t h e first t o " s e e , " p r o p h e t i c a l l y , t h e celestial o r i g i n a l o f G u a d a l u p e was t h e a p o s t l e S a i n t J o h n , f o r his d e s c r i p t i o n of the W o m a n of the Apocalypse c o r r e s p o n d s to t h e image of Tepeyac. B a s i n g himself o n Saint A u g u s t i n e , for w h o m t h e m o s t faithful i m a g e o f G o d in this w o r l d w a s t h a t o f t h e V i r g i n M a r y , t h e a u t h o r w e n t o n to a f f i r m t h a t G u a d a l u p e , " s o m i r a c u l o u s b y r e a s o n o f t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s o f h e r a p p a r i t i o n , a n d so r e v e r e d in t h i s l a n d , " is t h e m o s t p e r f e c t r e p l i c a o f t h e V i r g i n . H e d e d u c e d this c o n c l u s i o n w i t h t h e a i d o f syllogisms. " I t follows, t h e n (for I h a v e a l w a y s l o v e d t h e syllogistic style o f t h e l o g i c i a n s ) . . . t h a t G o d e x e c u t e d his a d m i r a b l e d e s i g n in t h i s M e x i c a n l a n d , c o n q u e r e d f o r s u c h g l o r i o u s e n d s , g a i n e d in o r d e r t h a t a m o s t d i v i n e i m a g e m i g h t a p p e a r h e r e . " Make no m i s t a k e , t h e s e w o r d s signified a t r u e r e v o l u t i o n . 3 9
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T o b e s u r e , t h e c r e o l e bachiller c o m p a r e d t h e k i n g o f S p a i n t o t h e s u n , b u t h e also i n v o k e d t h e a u t h o r i t y o f t h e p r o p h e t D a v i d in P s a l m 4 7 in s u p p o r t o f his o p i n i o n t h a t if M a r y lived o n M o u n t Z i o n , " w e c a n r i g h t l y give t h e s a m e n a m e t o t h e hill o f G u a d a l u p e . " If T e p e y a c is a n e w M o u n t Z i o n , it is b e c a u s e t h e " t r a n s l a t i o n " o f t h e V i r g i n M a r y t o h e r s h r i n e of G u a d a l u p e , which a c e n t u r y later b e c a m e the subject of a f a m o u s s e r m o n , is a l r e a d y a n a c c e p t e d i d e a . M o r e o v e r , M a r y " s h o w e d h e r s e l f t o J u a n D i e g o j u s t as R e b e c c a s h o w e d h e r s e l f t o h e r son J a c o b . " Behold t h e h u m b l e I n d i a n convert t r a n s f o r m e d into J a c o b ' s rival. A g a i n , t h e s t r o n g w o m a n o f P r o v e r b s " v e r y c l e a r l y p r o p h e s i e d t h e V i r g i n M a r y in h e r d o m a i n o f G u a d a l u p e , w h e r e s h e f o u n d e d h e r c h a p e l . " O n e p r o b l e m c o n f r o n t e d t h e d e v o u t bachiller: t h e V i r g e n d e los R e m e d i o s , a n i n e v i t a b l e rival o f G u a d a l u p e w h o s e t r a d i t i o n c i r c u l a t e d in p r i n t (in a w o r k b y J u a n d e Grijalva) s i n c e 1 6 2 4 . W h y should the Virgin Mary n o t have chosen h e r image "of the R e m e d i e s , " so n e a r t h e sick I n d i a n ' s h o u s e , t o r e s t o r e h i m t o h e a l t h ? T h e e x a m p l e of R u t h a n d N a o m i offered t h e apologist a c o m p r o m i s e solution. N a o m i being a "creole of B e t h l e h e m , " R u t h h a d c o m e from h e r c o u n t r y o f M o a b t o a c c o m p a n y N a o m i . J u s t so t h e V i r g e n d e los 4 2
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R e m e d i o s , " w h o c a m e f r o m Spain in t h e c o m p a n y of t h e conquist a d o r s , " w a s as w o r t h y o f v e n e r a t i o n as t h e n e w N a o m i , " t h e c r e o l e V i r g i n o f G u a d a l u p e , w h o a p p e a r e d in M e x i c o . " T h e d e v o t e e s o f R e m e d i o s thus h a d n o r e a s o n to c o m p l a i n a b o u t t h e votaries of G u a d a l u p e . W h a t is r e m a r k a b l e h e r e is t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f M e x i c a n r e a l i t y w i t h t h e H o l y L a n d a n d t h e p r o p h e t i c b o o k s . We r e c o g n i z e h e r e t h o s e conceptos predicables o f w h i c h F a t h e r A n t o n i o V i e i r a w a s t h e n t h e m a s t e r in t h e L u s o - B r a z i l i a n w o r l d , c o n c e i t s in w h i c h t e x t a n d s e n s u o u s reality b e c a m e i n t e r c h a n g e a b l e . I n t h e e i g h t e e n t h cent u r y t h e D o m i n i c a n M i e r w o u l d p o k e fun at t h e fantasies of t h e preacher Sanchez. 4 5
M i g u e l S a n c h e z w e n t so f a r as t o c l a i m t h a t t h e i m a g e o f G u a d a l u p e was " t h e first c r e o l e w o m a n , a n a t i v e o f this l a n d . " O n t h e p r o p h e t i c level, h i s t o r i c t i m e is a b o l i s h e d . G u a d a l u p e h a s b e e n M e x i c a n , criolla, f o r all t i m e — w a s it n o t h e r t h a t J o h n saw a t P a t m o s ? A s f o r t h e M e x i c a n Creoles, d e s c e n d a n t s o f S p a n i a r d s b u t b o r n in t h e l a n d o f A n a h u a c , t h e y a r e n o t h i n g less t h a n " s o n s o f t h e V i r g i n o f G u a d a l u p e " (hijos de la Virgen de Guadalupe). F o r M i g u e l S a n c h e z all shrines of the Virgin Mary resemble each other except one, Tepeyac, " a n e w p a r a d i s e , set a s i d e , s u r e , a n d p r o t e c t e d . " T h e m y t h o f t h e "Western P a r a d i s e , " principally k n o w n t h r o u g h a later w o r k by o n e of New Spain's greatest authors, Carlos d e Siguenza y Gongora, received a solid f o u n d a t i o n . L a t e r S o r J u a n a I n e s d e la C r u z a n d S i g u e n z a y G o n g o r a , followed by t h e p r e a c h e r s of t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y , w o u l d o n l y h a v e to gloss, d e v e l o p , a n d e m b e l l i s h t h i s p r o p h e t i c a n d idyllic vision o f t h e M e x i c a n c r e o l e patria, p r e s e r v e d b y G u a d a l u p e f r o m all evils ( t h e d r a g o n o f R e v e l a t i o n ) . M i g u e l S a n c h e z t h u s e m e r g e s as t h e t r u e f o u n d e r o f t h e M e x i c a n patria, f o r o n t h e e x e g e t i c b a s e s w h i c h h e c o n s t r u c t e d in t h e m i d - s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y t h a t patria w o u l d f l o w e r u n t i l s h e w o n h e r political i n d e p e n d e n c e u n d e r t h e b a n n e r of G u a d a l u p e . F r o m t h e day t h e Mexicans b e g a n to r e g a r d t h e m selves as a c h o s e n p e o p l e , t h e y w e r e p o t e n t i a l l y l i b e r a t e d f r o m S p a n i s h tutelage. 4 6
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Was M i g u e l S a n c h e z s i m p l y a d e v o t e e o f G u a d a l u p e w h o k n e w S c r i p t u r e better t h a n a m u l t i t u d e of others, o r was h e a patriot cons c i o u s o f t h e s u b v e r s i v e p o t e n t i a l o f his p i o u s b o o k ? If w e a s s u m e t h e l a t t e r , w e m u s t view as b a s e o r h y p o c r i t i c a l t h e p a s s a g e d e v o t e d t o t h e "Catholic S u n of t h e Spains" which illuminated Mexico, t h a n k s to t h e Conquest. T h i s would be unfair. Miguel Sanchez' interpretation of P s a l m 6 1 m a k e s S p a i n t h e s u n a n d M e x i c o t h e m o o n ; t h i s is fully in the tradition of historico-allegorical exegesis. T o m a k e Miguel Sanchez a p r e m a t u r e Mexican revolutionary would be an anachronism. B u t h e w a s c e r t a i n l y a c r e o l e p a t r i o t , fully c o n s c i o u s o f b e i n g o n e , as
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t h e final a d d r e s s o f his b o o k o n G u a d a l u p e a t t e s t s : " I h a v e w r i t t e n it f o r m y patria, f o r m y f r i e n d s a n d c o m r a d e s , f o r t h e citizens o f this n e w w o r l d . " I t w a s t h e M e x i c a n patria w h i c h i n s p i r e d t h e bachiller t o w r i t e his d e v o u t b o o k . A final a p o s t r o p h e t o t h e a p o s t l e S a i n t J o h n (willynilly b e c o m e a c r e o l e a p o l o g i s t ) m a d e c l e a r t h a t t h e b o o k w a s w r i t t e n t o p r o m o t e : " t h e h o n o r o f M e x i c o City . . . t h e g l o r y o f all t h e f a i t h f u l w h o live in t h i s N e w W o r l d . " T h e a p o c a l y p t i c seal affixed by M i g u e l S a n c h e z to h i s patrias h i s t o r i c d e s t i n y s i m u l t a n e o u s l y c h a r g e d it w i t h a m e s s i a n i c e x p e c t a t i o n a n d c o n f e r r e d o n its p e o p l e t h e h o n o r o f b e i n g a chosen people. M o r e particularly, the exegetic d a r i n g of the creole bachiller d e m o l i s h e d t h e t r a d i t i o n a l i d e a t h a t t h e S p a n i a r d s , a n e w c h o s e n p e o p l e , h a d b e e n d e s i g n a t e d by p r o v i d e n c e to b r i n g t h e Gosp e l t o t h e g e n t i l e s o f t h e N e w W o r l d . S a n c h e z h a d d e d u c e d "by syll o g i s m , " w e recall, t h a t t h e c o n q u e s t o f M e x i c o , t h e l a n d o f G o d , " g a i n e d in o r d e r t h a t a m o s t d i v i n e i m a g e m i g h t a p p e a r h e r e , " h a d b e e n a c c o m p l i s h e d f o r " g l o r i o u s e n d s . " T h i s w a s n o t h i n g less t h a n a Copernican revolution. 4 8
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Sanchez h a d advanced a new providential interpretation of the C o n q u e s t t h a t was i n c o m p a t i b l e with t h e prevailing o n e . A l t h o u g h t h e S p a n i s h c o n q u i s t a d o r s still a p p e a r as i n s t r u m e n t s o f G o d , t h e y n o l o n g e r h a v e t h e l e a d i n g r o l e , w h i c h h a s d e v o l v e d u p o n t h e first creole w o m a n , the Virgin of G u a d a l u p e . Consequently the historiogr a p h y of the C o n q u e s t m u s t be revised. More, the p r e - C o n q u e s t Ind i a n p a s t , a n d e v e n t h e h i s t o r y o f C h r i s t e n d o m as it m a r c h e d t o w a r d its c o n s u m m a t i o n , t h a t is, t h e p r o v i d e n t i a l u n f o l d i n g o f t h e h i s t o r y o f humanity, o n which the G u a d a l u p a n interpretation of the apocalyptic vision o f J o h n cast a n e w l i g h t , m u s t also b e r e v i s e d . A l o n g t h e r o a d that Miguel Sanchez h a d o p e n e d u p , c o m i n g creole generations were to m a r c h , without questioning the p r o p h e t i c a n d patriotic revelations of t h e spiritual father of the Mexican nation. Were Sanchez' immediate c o n t e m p o r a r i e s conscious of the import a n c e o f his b o o k ? D i d t h e y c a l c u l a t e t h a t t h e r e v e l a t i o n o f a b o n d b e t w e e n the messianic h o p e s of C h r i s t e n d o m a n d t h e creole cult of G u a d a l u p e w o u l d m a k e M e x i c o a n e w H o l y L a n d a n d its i n h a b i t a n t s a n e w c h o s e n p e o p l e ? A t least s o m e u n d e r s t o o d it, like a c e r t a i n s u b s t i t u t e p r o f e s s o r o f t h e P r i m e c h a i r in t h e o l o g y a t t h e u n i v e r s i t y a n d " p r e b e n d a r y of t h e holy m e t r o p o l i t a n C h u r c h of Mexico City." B r e a k i n g w i t h t h e c u s t o m o f c o m p l i m e n t in v e r s e , h e w r o t e a l e t t e r b y w a y o f a p r e f a c e t o M i g u e l S a n c h e z ' essay. T h i s D o c t o r F r a n c i s c o d e Siles d e c l a r e d t h a t h e s p o k e f o r all his c o m p a t r i o t s : " I s p e a k a n d w r i t e in t h e n a m e o f t h e w h o l e patria, w h i c h r e c e i v e d y o u r h i s t o r y as t h e l e t t e r s p a t e n t of its g r a n d e u r . " C l e a r l y , S a n c h e z ' h i s t o r y is t h e " l e t t e r s p a t e n t " o f M e x i c a n g r a n d e u r , t h a t is, a d o c u m e n t w h i c h 51
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c o n f e r r e d a t i d e o f n o b i l i t y o r a r o y a l f a v o r , b u t it was G o d h i m s e l f w h o g r a n t e d t h a t f a v o r . W h a t t h e k i n g h a d so p a r s i m o n i o u s l y d o l e d o u t t o the Creoles, G o d lavished u p o n t h e m t h r o u g h the intercession of t h e V i r g i n M a r y in h e r p r o d i g i o u s i m a g e o f T e p e y a c . W h a t w o u l d t h e "letters p a t e n t " o f t h e S p a n i s h k i n g h e n c e f o r t h m e a n to t h e Mexicans? S a n c h e z a n d t h e w r i t e r o f t h e p r e f a c e a r e c a r e f u l n o t t o spell o u t t h e p o i n t b u t t h e i r r e a d e r s w o u l d h a v e n o difficulty i n g r a s p i n g it f o r t h e m s e l v e s . Recall t h a t C o r t e s h i m s e l f h a d t o b e g f o r r o y a l " f a v o r s , " t h a t h e w a s o n e o f t h e v e r y few c o n q u i s t a d o r s t o o b t a i n a title o f marques, t h a t h e was q u i c k l y s t r i p p e d o f h i s g o v e r n i n g p o w e r s , t h a t his marquesado a n d t h e p r i v i l e g e s a t t a c h e d t o it w e r e d i s p u t e d a n d a m p u t a t e d . All t h e l i t e r a t u r e o f t h e v i c e r o y a l t y , civil a n d r e l i g i o u s , e c h o e s the grievances of the Creoles—whether descendants of conquistadors o r n o t — d i s a p p o i n t e d in their ambition for r e v e n u e s a n d h o n o r s , p o w e r a n d dignity. Miguel Sanchez supplied t h e m with a dazzling metaphysical compensation, "for you have introduced into the sacred a s y l u m o f t h e d i v i n e V i r g i n M a r y all w h o w e r e b o r n in t h i s c o u n t r y , " as D o c t o r Siles w r i t e s ; el sagrado, i n o t h e r w o r d s t h e i n v i o l a b l e a s y l u m w h e r e G u a d a l u p e , " a n e w E s t h e r , o u r c h i e f a n d q u e e n , " will p r o t e c t t h e M e x i c a n s f r o m all a t t a c k s . L e t m e n o t e in p a s s i n g t h a t G u a d a l u p e a p p e a r s h e r e f o r t h e first t i m e as " Q u e e n o f t h e M e x i c a n s , " a n o t i o n w h i c h was to h a v e a large historical f u t u r e . 5 3
T h e h i s t o r y o f G u a d a l u p e as t o l d b y S a n c h e z , w r o t e D o c t o r Siles, e n s u r e d t h a t in t h e f u t u r e "all o u r c o m p a t r i o t s , like o t h e r s , will h a v e l e t t e r s a n d l e g a l p o w e r s . . . t h a t will s e r v e all w h o a r e b o r n i n t h i s N e w W o r l d as l e t t e r s o f c r e d e n c e , s a f e - c o n d u c t , a n d s e c u r i t y i n e v e r y p a r t o f t h e w o r l d . " We s e e h e r e a r e f l e c t i o n o f c r e o l e r i v a l r y w i t h p e n i n s u l a r S p a n i a r d s , t h e gachupines, w h o l a n d e d in N e w S p a i n k n o w i n g n o t h i n g o f t h e c o u n t r y a n d its i n h a b i t a n t s ( w h o m t h e y t o o k a p r i o r i f o r b a r b a r i a n s ) , b u t p r o v i d e d by t h e k i n g a n d t h e C o u n c i l of t h e I n d i e s w i t h " l e g a l p o w e r s " (provisiones selladas), always b e a r i n g a seal, w h i c h t h e y u s e d f o r t h e i r p r o t e c t i o n a n d a d v a n c e m e n t . By r a i s i n g t h e c o m p e t i t i o n t o t h e s u p e r n a t u r a l level, M i g u e l S a n c h e z m a d e it p o s s i b l e f o r his c o m p a t r i o t s t o t r i u m p h " m a g i c a l l y " o v e r t h e gachupines, those " o t h e r s " t o w h o m D o c t o r Siles r e f e r s in v e i l e d t e r m s . 5 4
H e n c e f o r t h t h e M e x i c a n C r e o l e s w o u l d b e p r o v i d e d , like t h o s e "others," with letters a n d powers. Since the king h a d n o t wished to g r a n t t h e m , G o d h i m s e l f h a d p e r f o r m e d t h a t act o f g r a c e . G u a d a l u p e w o u l d b e f o r e v e r a n d e v e r , saecula saeculorum, t h e " l e t t e r s p a t e n t " w h i c h e n n o b l e d t h e M e x i c a n p e o p l e . We s h o u l d n o t u n d e r e s t i m a t e t h e r o l e o f D o c t o r Siles i n t h e f o r m a t i o n o f M e x i c a n n a t i o n a l c o n sciousness, for h e f o r m u l a t e d m o r e clearly a n d boldly t h a n Miguel
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S a n c h e z h i m s e l f t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s f o r his patria o f t h e bachiller's l u c u brations. Later, b e c o m e principal c a n o n of the c a t h e d r a l of Mexico City, D o c t o r F r a n c i s c o d e Siles w r o t e t h e H o l y S e e in 1 6 6 3 t o solicit f r o m t h e C o n g r e g a t i o n o f Rites a special office o n D e c e m b e r 12 in h o n o r of G u a d a l u p e . H e t h u s initiated a series of r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s to t h e H o l y S e e w h i c h d i d n o t g a i n t h e i r o b j e c t u n t i l 1 7 5 4 . Siles h a d a t t a c h e d to his l e t t e r a c o p y o f M i g u e l S a n c h e z ' p i o u s h i s t o r y . T h e f a i l u r e o f t h i s initiative s t i m u l a t e d t h e l a t e r p u b l i c a t i o n o f G u a d a l u p a n apologias, notably the books of Becerra Tanco a n d Father Florencia. M o r e i m m e d i a t e l y , C a n o n Siles t o o k t h e initiative o f l a u n c h i n g a n e w i n q u i r y i n t o t h e G u a d a l u p a n t r a d i t i o n w h i c h y i e l d e d t h e Informaciones o f 1 6 6 6 , g a t h e r e d o n e c e n t u r y a f t e r t h e i n q u i r y o f B i s h o p Montufar.
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The Dispute of the Apparitions
The Little War of the Supernatural
Coats of Arms
A l t h o u g h t h e r o y a l t y o f G u a d a l u p e w a s r e c o g n i z e d in N e w S p a i n b e f o r e its a c k n o w l e d g m e n t in R o m e a n d M a d r i d , e v e n t h e r e its s u p r e m a c y was n o t a c c e p t e d w i t h o u t a struggle. W h e n we a t t e m p t to r e t r a c e t h e s t a g e s o f e v o l u t i o n o f t h e M e x i c a n G u a d a l u p a n cult, t w o d a t e s e m e r g e as especially i m p o r t a n t . T h e y e a r 1 6 2 9 , first o f all; t h e n it w a s , as F a t h e r F l o r e n c i a recalls, t h a t t h e s a c r e d i m a g e , c a r r i e d in p r o c e s s i o n f r o m T e p e y a c t o M e x i c o City, d e l i v e r e d t h e c a p i t a l f r o m t h e m e n a c e o f floods. G u a d a l u p e w a s t h e n p r o c l a i m e d t h e city's "principal protectress" against inundations. R e m e m b e r i n g that from A z t e c t i m e s M e x i c o - T e n o c h t i t l a n lived u n d e r t h e s h a d o w o f this seasonal t h r e a t ( r e p e a t e d almost every S e p t e m b e r ) , we can u n d e r s t a n d h o w d e e p l y felt w e r e t h e p r a y e r s a n d v o w s d e s i g n e d t o a v e r t it. M e x i c o City h a d b e e n slowly w o n f r o m t h e l a g o o n s ; t h e A z t e c e m p e r o r s h a d b e g u n i m p o r t a n t d r a i n a g e w o r k s w h i c h w e r e c o n t i n u e d by C o r t e s , l a t e r by P o r f i r i o Diaz. I t is a n a g e - o l d p r o b l e m w h i c h m o d e r n technology has n o t completely solved. F o r s e v e n t e e n t h - c e n t u r y Mexic a n s , o n l y d i v i n e i n t e r v e n t i o n c o u l d d a m u p t h e floods. I n 1 6 2 9 , b y d i s p l a y i n g its efficacy in a d e s p e r a t e s i t u a t i o n , t h e i m a g e o f T e p e y a c a c h i e v e d s u p r e m a c y o v e r t h e o t h e r p r o t e c t i v e effigies o f t h e city. A l t h o u g h f l o o d i n g w a s t h e m o s t a n c i e n t s c o u r g e o f M e x i c o City, since t h e S p a n i s h C o n q u e s t a n e w periodic s c o u r g e b r o u g h t d e a t h to a c o n s i d e r a b l e p o r t i o n o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n , n o t a b l y t h e I n d i a n s ; this w a s t h e s c o u r g e o f e p i d e m i c s (pestes). T h e m o s t d e s t r u c t i v e c a m e in 1 5 4 5 , f r o m 1 5 7 6 t o 1 5 7 9 , a n d in 1 5 9 5 in t h e valley o f M e x i c o ; i n t h e c o u r s e of t h e seventeenth c e n t u r y several attacked different regions of N e w Spain; a n epidemic of measles caused great ravages b e t w e e n 1725 a n d 1 7 2 8 . W o r s e in o n e s e n s e t h a n t h e f l o o d s — w h i c h it o f t e n f o l l o w e d — b y r e a s o n o f its u n e x p e c t e d a p p e a r a n c e a n d m y s t e r i o u s o r i g i n , t h e p l a g u e (cocoliztli) i n s p i r e d a f e e l i n g o f h e l p l e s s n e s s a n d t e r r o r ; collective c o n j u r a t i o n o f s u p e r n a t u r a l p o w e r s a p p e a r e d t o b e t h e o n l y p o s sible r e m e d y . A c c o r d i n g t o t h e J e s u i t A l e g r e , i n his Historia, the 254
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e p i d e m i c o f 1 7 3 6 c a u s e d a t least 4 0 , 0 0 0 d e a t h s in M e x i c o City ( t h e city h a d 1 5 0 , 0 0 0 i n h a b i t a n t s at m o s t a t t h a t d a t e ) . P r a y e r s w e r e i n v o k e d t o s a v e t h e c o u n t r y a n d n o t j u s t M e x i c o City, f o r t h e e p i d e m i c w a s e v e n m o r e d e s t r u c t i v e at P u e b l a a n d Q u e r e t a r o ; i m a g e s o f t h e g r e a t biblical cataclysms a n d the catastrophic e n d of the Aztec suns m u s t have obsessed t h e p o p u l a t i o n , w h e t h e r I n d i a n o r creole. I t w a s in this e n d - o f - t h e - w o r l d a t m o s p h e r e t h a t t h e i m a g e o f G u a d a l u p e o f T e p e y a c d i s p l a y e d its t h e r a p e u t i c efficacy (well k n o w n f r o m t h e b e g i n n i n g s o f t h e cult) o n a scale t h a t p r o m o t e d h e r a t o n c e f r o m p r o t e c t r e s s o f h e r i n d i v i d u a l d e v o t e e s t o s a v i o r o f t h e social b o d y as a w h o l e . T h e a s p i r a t i o n f o r s a l v a t i o n , n o t in t h e b e y o n d b u t in t h i s life first o f all, t h e t h i r s t f o r s u r v i v a l , w a s t h e t r u e o a t h o f a l l e g i a n c e o f all M e x i c a n s to t h e p r o t e c t i v e i m a g e o f G u a d a l u p e . T h i s s o l e m n o a t h , t a k e n b y t h e m u n i c i p a l m a g i s t r a t e s a n d t h e civil a n d ecclesiastical c h a p t e r s in t h e n a m e o f t h e w h o l e M e x i c a n n a t i o n , u n i t e d in a c o m m o n destiny, h a d a n i m p o r t a n c e for t h e unity of Mexico c o m p a r a b l e to t h a t of t h e F e d e r a t i o n of 1790 for t h e unity of r e v o l u t i o n a r y F r a n c e . A t M e x i c o City in 1 7 3 7 , a s a c r e d b o n d w a s c r e a t e d b e t w e e n all Mexicans, w h o a c k n o w l e d g e d themselves to be "serfs of G u a d a l u p e " ; a c c o r d i n g t o r e l i g i o u s u s a g e , this g e s t u r e o f t h e civil c o m m u n i t y m e a n t t h a t its m e m b e r s c o n s e c r a t e d t h e i r lives to t h e i m a g e o f T e p e y a c in r e c o g n i t i o n o f h e r r e d e e m i n g p r o d i g y , h e r v i c t o r y o v e r t h e e p i d e m i c t h a t was a perfect replica of t h e victory over t h e Beast of t h e Apocalypse. H e n c e f o r t h M e x i c a n art a n d l i t e r a t u r e w o u l d b e a n int e r m i n a b l e act o f t h a n k s , a p r o t e a n a n d b a r o q u e collective e x - v o t o in w h i c h t h e r i t u a l d a n c e s (mitotes) o f t h e I n d i a n s a n d t h e legacies o f t h e m i n e o w n e r s (mineros), t h e s e r m o n s o f t h e r e l i g i o u s a n d t h e t h e s e s o f t h e theologians, t h e m a s t e r p i e c e s of t h e p a i n t e r s a n d t h e architects, t h e t h o u s a n d p r o d u c t s of t h e p o p u l a r crafts a n d e v e n of t h e confect i o n e r ' s s h o p c e l e b r a t e d t h e i m a g e o f G u a d a l u p e a n d its p i o u s l e g e n d . To u n d e r s t a n d how Guadalupe became the Mexican national e m b l e m at t h e t i m e o f t h e W a r s o f I n d e p e n d e n c e w e m u s t r e v i e w t h e p r e v i o u s s t a g e s o f G u a d a l u p a n i c o n o g r a p h y . I call t h e r e a d e r ' s a t t e n t i o n t o t h e s e v e n t h p l a t e o f F r a n c i s c o d e la M a z a ' s El guadalupanismo mexicano, w h e r e t h e A z t e c c o a t - o f - a r m s , t h e e a g l e d e v o u r i n g a s e r p e n t o n a p r i c k l y p e a r p l a n t (nopal) a p p e a r s as a s u p p o r t f o r t h e i m a g e o f T e p e y a c . T h e a n g e l w h o s e a r m s h o l d a p a r t t h e e n d s of Mary's r o b e curiously rides astride the Aztec eagle. At the four corners of the tableau, medallions r e p r e s e n t t h e " a p p a r i t i o n s " of t h e Virgin to J u a n Diego, t h e n to A r c h b i s h o p Z u m a r r a g a ; the association of the Aztec eagle a n d t h e Virgin ( p e r h a p s c o n s i d e r e d d a n g e r o u s l y syncretic) d o e s n o t occur again to my k n o w l e d g e . O n the o t h e r h a n d , c o m b i n a t i o n o n t h e s a m e cloth (or e n g r a v i n g ) of the i m a g e of G u a d a l u p e a n d t h e 1
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e v e n t s o f h e r p r o d i g i o u s m a n i f e s t a t i o n s , p a i n t e d o n m e d a l l i o n s in t h e f o r m of edifying tableaux, was to b e c o m e traditional; this was t h e f o r m in w h i c h t h e M e x i c a n G u a d a l u p e w a s p o p u l a r i z e d , first in M e x i c o , t h e n in S p a i n a n d o t h e r c o u n t r i e s o f H i s p a n i c A m e r i c a . O n e is s t r u c k by t h e p r o m i n e n t p l a c e a s s i g n e d t o G u a d a l u p e i n t h e C h u r c h S a n t a Prisca of Taxco, built a b o u t 1754 (the year of t h e pontifical bull i n s t i t u t i n g t h e office o f D e c e m b e r 12 in h o n o r o f G u a d a l u p e ) ; h e r e G u a d a l u p e h o l d s t h e p l a c e o f h o n o r . T h e b a r o q u e m a i n a l t a r is s u r m o u n t e d b y a r e t a b l o in t h e c e n t e r o f w h i c h a s h r i n e c o n t a i n s t h e i m a g e of Tepeyac. A choir of c h u b b y angels point o u t to t h e d e v o u t t h e s h r i n e w h i c h t h e y s u p p o r t . T o t h e r i g h t o f G u a d a l u p e is a n i m a g e o f S a n t a Prisca, v i r g i n a n d m a r t y r ; a l t h o u g h t h e c h u r c h is n a m e d a f t e r h e r , s h e o c c u p i e s a s e c o n d a r y p o s i t i o n . T o t h e left o f t h e t r a n sept, a second retablo r e p r e s e n t i n g G u a d a l u p e , to the r i g h t a Virgin w i t h c h i l d . O n t h e aisles, d i s p o s e d like s t a t i o n s o f t h e C r o s s , g r e a t m e d a l l i o n s e v o k e t h e successive " a p p a r i t i o n s " o f G u a d a l u p e . S i m i l a r o b s e r v a t i o n s c a n b e m a d e in c h u r c h e s in d i f f e r e n t p a r t s o f M e x i c o . For e x a m p l e , at San Antonio,' Texas, t h e c h u r c h of t h e mission of S a i n t J o s e p h , f o u n d e d b y t h e b l e s s e d A n t o n i o M a r g i l d e J e s u s , still d i s p l a y s in t h e c e n t e r o f t h e t y m p a n u m , d o m i n a t i n g a n a d m i r a b l e b a r o q u e portal, t h e i m a g e of G u a d a l u p e . T h e Jesuit missionaries of California (the n a m e s of Fray J u n i p e r o S e r r a a n d F a t h e r Kino have m o r e t h a n o n e claim to fame) created a t o w n o f G u a d a l u p e in t h a t d e s e r t w h i c h t h e y p r o p o s e d to i n t e g r a t e into N e w Spain. A n t o n i o Margil, an illustrious Franciscan missionary, h a d c o m e o u t o f t h e a p o s t o l i c colegio de Propaganda fide o f Z a c a t e c a s , p l a c e d u n d e r t h e i n v o c a t i o n o f G u a d a l u p e . F o u n d e d in 1 7 2 1 , t h e colegio of G u a d a l u p e trained m o r e t h a n seven h u n d r e d missionary f r i a r s ; it is n o e x a g g e r a t i o n t o say t h a t t h e r e v i v a l o f m i s s i o n a r y e x p a n sion in N e w S p a i n in t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y h a d its b a s e t h e r e . S u p p o r t e d b y a m i n i n g c e n t e r like Z a c a t e c a s , w i t h G u a d a l u p e as its p a t r o n e s s , this e x p a n s i o n was a truly M e x i c a n e n t e r p r i s e , originally t h e w o r k o f c r e o l e F r a n c i s c a n s , c o n t i n u e d by t h e J e s u i t s , t h e n a g a i n e n t r u s t e d t o F r a n c i s c a n s a f t e r t h e e x p u l s i o n o f t h e Society o f J e s u s . P o p u l a r o p i n i o n c e r t a i n l y r e g a r d e d t h e i m a g e o f T e p e y a c as t h e national coat of a r m s f r o m t h e time of t h e Virgin's victory over t h e floods o f 1 6 2 9 , b u t official r e c o g n i t i o n d i d n o t c o m e u n t i l 1 7 3 7 , w h e n h e r p a t r o n a g e o v e r t h e capital was p r o c l a i m e d . I n this respect, t h e f a m o u s w o r k o f C . C a b r e r a y Q u i n t e r a m a r k s a m i l e s t o n e in t h e h i s t o r y o f t h e M e x i c a n c u l t o f G u a d a l u p e . It w a s w r i t t e n in 1 7 3 8 , t h e y e a r w h i c h f o l l o w e d t h e t a k i n g o f t h e s o l e m n o a t h : The Coat of Arms of Mexico: Celestial Protection of this very noble City, of New Spain, and almost all the New World, Holy Mary in Her Prodigious Image of Guadalupe of
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Mexico City, who Appeared Miraculously in the Archepiscopal Palace in 1531 and Was Sworn the Principal Patroness of Mexico City the Past Year, 1537, Amid the Anguish Inspired by the Epidemic Which, Having Especially Struck at the Indians, Mitigated Its Fury Because of the Great Shade Cast by Mary. T h i s title o f a w o r k b y a p r i e s t o f t h e a r c h d i o c e s e o f M e x i c o City, a n a u t h o r i z e d s p o k e s m a n of the creole a r c h b i s h o p J. A. d e V i z a r r o n y E g u i a r r e t a , e x p r e s s e s t h e principal aspects of t h e G u a d a l u p e cult at t h e t i m e w h e n it b e c a m e n a t i o n a l . G u a d a l u p e is p r e s e n t e d as t h e r a d i a n t c o a t o f a r m s o f t h e i m p e r i a l city; h e r d e v o t e e s a l r e a d y a s p i r e to m a k e h e r the "universal Patroness" of the New World. O f the successive a p p a r i t i o n s , o n l y t h e last is m e n t i o n e d , t h e o n e w h i c h s u p p o s e d l y o c c u r r e d in M e x i c o City itself, in t h e a r c h e p i s c o p a l p a l a c e . T h i s a p p a r i t i o n h a s always b e e n c o n t r o v e r s i a l , e v e n f o r d e v o t e e s o f G u a d a l u p e , b u t it w a s i m p o r t a n t f o r t h e first h e a d o f a M e x i c a n n a t i o n a l c h u r c h ( t h a t r e s u r g e n c e o f M e n d i e t a ' s Iglesia indiano), t h a t at its v e r y b i r t h a n d in t h e p r e s e n c e o f its first b i s h o p , it s h o u l d h a v e r e c e i v e d this s i g n o f t h e f a v o r o f G o d . T h e m i r a c u l o u s i n t e r v e n t i o n o f G u a d a l u p e against t h e e p i d e m i c took place almost exactly two centuries after the " a p p a r i t i o n s . " T h i s c i r c u m s t a n c e was calculated to fascinate creole m i n d s h a u n t e d by m i l l e n a r i a n i s m a n d I n d i a n m i n d s d o m i n a t e d b y a cyclical c o n c e p t i o n o f t h e i r h i s t o r y . T h e a r c h b i s h o p t h e r e f o r e e n t r u s t e d C a b r e r a y Q u i n t a n a with writing a w o r k of G u a d a l u p a n a p o l o g e t i c s w h i c h w a s p u b l i s h e d in a first e d i t i o n o f e i g h t h u n d r e d c o p i e s (a l a r g e p r i n t i n g , c o n s i d e r i n g t h e n u m b e r o f p r o s p e c tive b u y e r s a n d p o t e n t i a l r e a d e r s ) . T h e m u n i c i p a l c o u n c i l , w h i c h w i s h e d to p e r p e t u a t e t h e s o l e m n o a t h o f " p a t r o n a g e , " a s s u m e d t h e costs o f p u b l i c a t i o n . T h e e x a m p l e o f t h e c a p i t a l w a s s o o n f o l l o w e d b y the principal towns of New Spain, which recognized a n d "swore" Guadalupe to b e their "principal protectress" against the e p i d e m i c s — s c o u r g e s which t h r e a t e n e d t h e very existence of w h a t was already a c o m m u n i t y of faith b u t n o t yet a M e x i c a n n a t i o n . 2
We m u s t n o t lose s i g h t o f t h e fact, h o w e v e r , t h a t in t h e b a c k g r o u n d o f t h e t r i u m p h a n t c u l t o f G u a d a l u p e t h e r e w a s all t h e s p i r i t u a l s e d i m e n t o f t h e c u l t o f t h e V i r g i n in S p a i n a n d in t h e N e w W o r l d . ( F a t h e r C o n s t a n t i n o B a y l e , in his b o o k Santa Maria en Indias, a n d F a t h e r V a r gas U g a r t e , in his Historia del culto de Maria en Iberoamerica, give a m u c h m o r e c o m p l e t e p i c t u r e o f this p h e n o m e n o n t h a n m y s k e t c h in a p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r ) . L e t m e recall, t o o , t h a t t h e J e s u i t s o f N e w S p a i n greatly favored t h e cult of t h e rosary a n d the creation of M a r i a n c o n f r a t e r n i t i e s , e s s e n t i a l e c o n o m i c a n d sociological s u p p o r t s o f t h e c u l t o f t h e V i r g i n . T h e c o n f r a t e r n i t i e s w e r e in N e w S p a i n — a s t h e y still a r e in o l d S p a i n — t h e t r u e cells o f r e l i g i o u s a n d m u n i c i p a l life, o r o f c o m m u n a l life in t h e c a s e o f t h e I n d i a n a g r a r i a n c o m m u n i t i e s . T h e
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V i r g i n M a r y a p p e a r e d f r o m t h e first in t h e c o a t o f a r m s o f t h e N e w World, for h e r b a n n e r was the b a n n e r of C h r i s t o p h e r C o l u m b u s . G u a d a l u p e , b e c o m e t h e e m b l e m o f N e w S p a i n in N o r t h A m e r i c a , a p p e a r s r e t r o s p e c t i v e l y as a specific r e g i o n a l a s p e c t o f t h e i m a g e o f M a r y , n o t as a n effigy o n t h e field o f a z u r e o f A m e r i c a ' s c o a t o f a r m s . J u a n A . M a r a v a l l , like W e i s b a c h , h a s c a l l e d a t t e n t i o n t o t h e i m p o r tance of symbolic e x p r e s s i o n in t h e p a i n t i n g b o r n of t h e spiritual climate of t h e Catholic C o u n t e r - R e f o r m a t i o n . Saint I g n a t i u s Loyola a t t a c h e d a g r e a t i m p o r t a n c e t o t h e i m a g i n a t i v e activity o f t h e s e n s e s . T h e m o v i n g b e a u t y of t h e i m a g e of Tepeyac was a n i m p o r t a n t factor in its s u c c e s s . T h e s y m b o l i c v a l u e o f c o l o r s in t h e r e l i g i o u s p i c t u r e s o f the I n d i a n s reinforced the a c c u m u l a t e d sacred p o w e r r e p r e s e n t e d by t h e effigy o f t h e V i r g i n M a r y , c o n f o u n d e d w i t h t h e W o m a n o f R e v e l a tion. I n d e e d , the blue of Mary's m a n t l e could n o t be distinguished from the j a d e blue of Quetzalcoatl, a f u n d a m e n t a l color of the Mexic a n r e l i g i o n . T h e j a d e i t e (chalchihuitl) f r o m w h i c h t h e l a b r e t o f t h e s u p r e m e p r i e s t w a s c a r v e d w a s b l u e - g r e e n in c o l o r ; t h e N a h u a t l l a n g u a g e u s e d a single adjective to d e s i g n a t e t h e blue a n d t h e g r e e n . E v e n m o r e i m p o r t a n t , f r o m t h e p o i n t o f view o f M e x i c a n c r e o l e s p i r i t u a l i t y , all t h e t h o u g h t t h a t w e d e s c r i b e as " b a r o q u e , " f o r w a n t o f a b e t t e r t e r m , w a s e m b l e m a t i c . T h e c o n v e r g e n c e in N e w S p a i n o f t h e d y i n g seventeenth century a n d the eighteenth century, of conceptism a n d culteranismo o n t h e l i t e r a r y p l a n e , o n t h e o n e h a n d , a n d o n t h e o t h e r o f J e s u i t religiosity, w h i c h a c c o r d e d a s p e c i a l p l a c e in s p i r i t u a l exercises to s e n s u o u s r e p r e s e n t a t i o n , c o n f e r r e d a new i m p o r t a n c e o n the religious emblem. A s i m p l e listing o f t h e titles o f a p o l o g e t i c w o r k s , s e r m o n s , o r t h e r e a d i n g of c o n t e m p o r a r y p o e m s d e d i c a t e d to G u a d a l u p e o r o t h e r pious subjects, reveals t h e o v e r w h e l m i n g p r e p o n d e r a n c e of t h e e m b l e m . T h e title t h a t C a b r e r a y Q u i n t a n a g a v e his G u a d a l u p a n t r e a t i s e , Coat of Arms, c l e a r l y s t r e s s e s t h e e m b l e m a t i c i n t e n t i o n , b u t o n e c o u l d cite m a n y o t h e r e x a m p l e s : Sacred Palladium; Polar Star; Seal of Miracles; Tree of Life; Eclipse of the Divine Sun; Flower of Miracles; Celestial Iris; Guadalupan Zodiac; New Jerusalem; Column ofAmerica . All t h e s e titles o f p i o u s w o r k s i n s p i r e d by t h e c u l t o f G u a d a l u p e l e n d t h e m s e l v e s easily t o plastic r e p r e s e n t a t i o n . T h e p e r f e c t e m b l e m as d e f i n e d b y O r o z c o y C o v a r r u b i a s r e q u i r e s a c o m p o s e d figure a n d a l e g e n d ; the image of G u a d a l u p e lacked a l e g e n d until t h e inspired c i t a t i o n f r o m P s a l m 147 b y F a t h e r F l o r e n c i a w h i c h s u b s e q u e n t l y r e m a i n e d a t t a c h e d t o t h e s a c r e d i m a g e : " H e h a s n o t d o n e t h e like f o r a n y o t h e r n a t i o n . " T h u s by t h e e n d o f t h e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y t h e M e x i c a n n a t i o n a l e m b l e m h a d b e e n p e r f e c t e d ; it w a s p e r f e c t e v e n f r o m t h e viewpoint of t h e chivalric definition which d i s t i n g u i s h e d t h e 3
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Apparitions
e m b l e m f r o m the allegory, t h e f o r m e r evoking a n exploit of t h e k n i g h t , w h o b o r e it o n his c o a t o f a r m s . T h e i m a g e o f G u a d a l u p e , s u r r o u n d e d by medallions recalling t h e a p p a r i t i o n s a n d b e a r i n g h e r charismatic device, was the most r a d i a n t coat of a r m s to which a c h i v a l r i c city c o u l d a s p i r e . T h e c r e o l e Utopia o f t h e Indian Spring c u l m i n a t e s in t h i s m a s t e r p i e c e o f r e n o v a t e d e m b l e m a t i c a r t . W h e n t h e e m b l e m , a symbolic f o r m , has a religious instead of a c h i v a l r i c m e a n i n g , it easily a s s u m e s t h e h e r m e t i c f o r m o f a h i e r o g l y p h o r a n e n i g m a . T h e g e n i u s o f t h e e p o c h c a l l e d b a r o q u e s o u g h t plastic b e a u t y f o r its o w n s a k e as well as f o r t h e concepto; c o n s e q u e n t l y w e observe the luxuriant proliferation of a whole esoteric l a n g u a g e of cabbalistic o r a l l e g o r i c a l o r i g i n a b o u t t h e c e n t r a l f i g u r e s o f C h r i s t i a n religious symbolism. I a l l u d e d to t h e symbiosis that took place between Mexican hieroglyphs a n d Christian symbols, already associated w i t h t h e s y m b o l s o f classic a n t i q u i t y , w h e n I d i s c u s s e d t h e w o r k o f Siguenza y G o n g o r a . If the Aztec eagle was c o n f o u n d e d with t h e eagle o f P a t m o s so t h a t it c o u l d b e a r t h e V i r g i n M a r y o n its w i n g s t o M o u n t Tepeyac, t h e i c o n o g r a p h y of t h e a p o c r y p h a l Gospels reinforced t h e a p p a r e n t o r t h o d o x y o f t h e s o l a r a n d s e l e n i c s y m b o l i s m . We n o t e t h a t t h e s t a r w h i c h a n n o u n c e d t h e D a v i d i c M e s s i a h , b u t w h i c h also r e c a l l e d o n e of t h e avatars of Quetzalcoatl, t h e M o r n i n g Star, was p r e s e n t o n the doubly a z u r e m a n t l e of G u a d a l u p e . It should cause n o surprise t h a t his " I m m a c u l a t e M o o n " c o n q u e r e d t h e " d i v i n e S u n , " t h a n k s t o a n enigmatic victory of the n e w Mexican coat of a r m s over the Spanish m o n a r c h y , m i s t r e s s o f a n e m p i r e o v e r w h i c h t h e s u n n e v e r set. I t w o u l d b e v a l u a b l e to e s t a b l i s h a M e x i c a n e m b l e m a t i c c o r p u s o f t h e seventeenth a n d e i g h t e e n t h centuries a n d to a t t e m p t a typological analysis p r e l i m i n a r y t o a g e n e r a l d e c i p h e r i n g . S u c h a s t u d y w o u l d b e inseparable from an inquiry into the emblematic (and often enigmatic) e x p r e s s i o n o f c r e o l e a s p i r a t i o n s vis-a-vis S p a i n . T h e a p p a r i t i o n , c o n j o i n t w i t h t h a t o f t h e V i r g i n M a r y , o f a b e i n g in w h o m s o m e saw t h e a n g e l G a b r i e l a n d o t h e r s t h e a r c h a n g e l S a i n t M i c h a e l , i n s p i r e d f l o o d s o f s a c r e d e l o q u e n c e w h i c h s o u g h t to m o v e t h e a u d i t o r a n d r e a d e r by m e a n s o f a t u r g i d style c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h a t of c o n t e m p o r a r y s c u l p t u r e : " T h e greatest glory of t h e highest celestial s p i r i t s , o f t h e first o f t h e g r e a t e s t p r i n c e s , t h e a r c h s e r a p h L o r d S a i n t M i c h a e l , r e v e a l e d in his d i s t i n g u i s h e d a p p a r i t i o n a t M e x i c o City, a t t h e s o v e r e i g n f e e t o f M a r y , o u r v e n e r a t e d Q u e e n o f G u a d a l u p e . " T o t h e allegorical a n d m e t a p h o r i c a l proliferation c o r r e s p o n d e d t h e f l o w e r i n g o f t h e e m b l e m a t i c i m a g i n a t i o n . I n P a r t 1,1 g a v e a sketch of t h e m u l t i t u d e of pious images, often r e p u t e d to be p r o d i g i o u s a n d a l w a y s c o n s i d e r e d t o b e c a p a b l e o f w o r k i n g m i r a c l e s . I n his history, the J e r o n y m i t e Fray Gabriel d e Talavera, of the monastery 4
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GUADALUPE, OR THE N E W EPIPHANY
of G u a d a l u p e of E s t r e m a d u r a , h a d already affirmed: "It does not diminish the credit of the miracles which a r e told of this great Lady t h a t they a r e n o t r e p o r t e d by very a n c i e n t a u t h o r s . " T h e miracles w o r k e d in t h e r e c e n t p a s t by t h e M e x i c a n G u a d a l u p e , like t h o s e w o r k e d b y t h e G u a d a l u p e o f S p a i n , sufficed t o c o n f i r m t h e a u t h e n t i c ity o f t h e t r a d i t i o n o f h e r " a p p a r i t i o n s . " T h i s d o c t r i n e a l s o h e l d g o o d f o r t h e n u m e r o u s i m a g e s o f M a r y a n d t h e " h o l y C h r i s t s " v e n e r a t e d in the different dioceses of N e w Spain; accordingly n o n e of t h e miracul o u s V i r g i n s o f t h e c o u n t r y w a s r e a d y t o yield p r e c e d e n c e t o t h e n e w s t a r , G u a d a l u p e , c o a t o f a r m s o f t h e c a p i t a l . I n M e x i c o City itself, f o u r p r o t e c t i v e i m a g e s o f t h e V i r g i n M a r y at first d i s p u t e d t h e " P a t r o n a g e , " as s u g g e s t e d b y a d e v o t i o n a l w o r k b y a n a u t h o r o f c a p i t a l i m p o r t a n c e f o r o u r subject. T h i s w a s t h e Bastions of Mexico City. Historical Relation of Four Sacred and Miraculous Images of Our Lady, the Virgin Mary, Venerated Outside the City Walls, and Description of Their Temples, b y M . F e r n a n d e z d e E c h e v e r r i a y Veitia. T h i s b o o k w a s n o t p u b l i s h e d u n t i l 1 8 2 0 , in M e x i c o City, b u t m u s t h a v e b e e n w r i t t e n b e f o r e 1 7 8 0 , t h e year of t h e author'sL d e a t h . I n t h e second half of the e i g h t e e n t h cent u r y , t h e p r e e m i n e n c e o f G u a d a l u p e o v e r h e r rivals w a s n o l o n g e r d i s p u t e d , a n d it is significant t h a t E c h e v e r r i a y V e i t i a d e v o t e d t w o t h i r d s o f his b o o k t o t h e V i r g i n o f T e p e y a c , b a r e l y o n e - t h i r d t o t h e V i r g i n d e los R e m e d i o s , a n d o n l y s e v e n p a g e s e a c h t o N u e s t r a S e f i o r a d e la P i e d a d a n d N u e s t r a S e f i o r a d e la Bala. T h e s e last t w o effigies o f t h e V i r g i n M a r y a r e n o w f o r g o t t e n by c o m p a r i s o n with t h a t of G u a d a l u p e , t h e o b j e c t o f a n a t i o n a l a n d e v e n i n t e r n a t i o n a l cult, o r w i t h t h a t o f R e m e d i o s , e m b l e m o f t h e gachupin p a r t y d u r i n g t h e W a r s of I n d e p e n d e n c e . Mexicans could divide their fervor between G u a d a l u p e a n d R e m e d i o s . B u t R e m e d i o s w a s l i n k e d d i r e c t l y to a d r a m a t i c e p i s o d e o f t h e C o n q u e s t , t h e " S a d N i g h t , " in t h e c o u r s e o f w h i c h t h e f l e e i n g S p a n i a r d s s u f f e r e d a d i s a s t r o u s loss o f life. G u a d a l u p e , o n the o t h e r h a n d , a c c o r d i n g to the legend, h a d lavished h e r g r a c e o n a p o o r I n d i a n c o n v e r t a n d his family. T o t h e d e g r e e t h a t t h e Creoles v a g u e l y s e n s e d t h e n e e d f o r a n a t i o n a l u n i t y o f faith, G u a d a l u p e better symbolized the c o m m o n hope. 5
6
T h e "first e v a n g e l i s t " o f G u a d a l u p e , M i g u e l S a n c h e z , skillfully b a l a n c e d t h e t w o i m a g e s t o t h e d e t r i m e n t o f n e i t h e r . I n h i s Novenas of the Virgin Mary de los Remedios and of the Virgin Mary of Guadalupe h e o f f e r s us his p r e p a r a t o r y "spiritual meditations"; the m e d i t a t i o n for Saturd a y , " O f t h e C h o i r o f t h e T h r o n e s , " d e s e r v e s s u m m a r y h e r e . It is a n a l l e g o r i c a l e x e g e s i s o f P s a l m 8 8 o f D a v i d : " H i s t h r o n e will b e like t h e S u n a n d t h e M o o n in m y p r e s e n c e . . . . " I gloss t h e t w o w o r d s w h i c h r e f e r t o t h e V i r g i n . T h e first is t h e t h r o n e like t h e m o o n , t h e c o n q u e r ing i m a g e of R e m e d i o s , in which a r e s h o w n t h e p r o p e r t i e s a n d n a m e s
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of t h e m o o n : " B e a u t y o f t h e n i g h t " (torch), "in t h e g r e a t [sad] N i g h t , " "Diana, c o m p a n i o n of h u n t e r s , " " s h e wished to a p p e a r in a wood," " m o t h e r of t h e d e w , " " m o t h e r of t h e rains, R e m e d y for great droughts." T h e t h r o n e t h a t is like t h e S u n is r e p r e s e n t e d b y t h e d i v i n e I m a g e o f G u a d a l u p e , w h o is d e p i c t e d i n t h e m i d d l e o f a s u n . . . . " O r j u s t a s the M o o n , in t h e f o r m of R e m e d i o s , brings t h e rains in p e r i o d s of d r o u g h t , so t h e S u n o f G u a d a l u p e d r i e s t h e w a t e r s i n t h e p e r i o d o f floods, as s h e d i d a f t e r t h e g r e a t e s t flood t h a t w a s e v e r s e e n . " A l l e g o r ical e x e g e s i s w a s a s p r i n g b o a r d f r o m w h i c h M i g u e l S a n c h e z v a u l t e d t o the peaks of creole syncretic spirituality: " F o r t h e apparitions of h e r t w o i m a g e s t h e V i r g i n c h o s e t w o n e i g h b o r i n g hills w h i c h , e v e r c o n f r o n t i n g e a c h o t h e r , c o n t e m p l a t e e a c h o t h e r in t h e i r g l o r y , like t h e two miraculous m o u n t a i n s of T h a b o r a n d H e r m o n . . . . T h e two I n d i a n s , b r o t h e r s in r a c e a n d i n t h e i r c o m m o n n a m e o f J o h n ; t h e p l a n t , the maguey, was t h e same. It was a maguey o n which t h e image of R e m e d i o s first a p p e a r e d ; f r o m t h e fiber o f t h e s a m e p l a n t w a s w o v e n t h e h u m b l e m a n t l e o n which was miraculously i m p r i n t e d t h e i m a g e o f G u a d a l u p e . " I f m e d i t a t i o n s o f this k i n d h a d r e a c h e d I n d i a n e a r s , what echoes might they not have awakened? O n e Virgin appears o n a m a g u e y , a n o t h e r is m i r a c u l o u s l y i m p r i n t e d o n a c l o t h o f m a g u e y fiber; o n e b r i n g s t h e r a i n s , like T l a l o c , a n d t h e o t h e r is a u r e o l e d w i t h t h e s u n , like T o n a t i u h . T h r o u g h t h e m e t a m o r p h o s i s o f beliefs t h e Mexicans rediscovered their solar e m b l e m , o b s c u r e d by t h e C o n q u e s t . T h e r e , p e r h a p s , is o n e o f t h e s e c r e t s o f t h e e n i g m a t i c f i g u r e o f Tepeyac. 7
8
T h e c o a t o f a r m s o f M e x i c o City, g r a n t e d b y C h a r l e s V , o n l y r e c a l l e d t h e e x p l o i t o f t h e C o n q u e s t a n d w a s n o t a s u p e r n a t u r a l sign. I n t h i s r e s p e c t a n o t h e r " i m p e r i a l " city ( a n a p p e l a t i o n c o n f e r r e d a s a p r i v i l e g e o n a s m a l l n u m b e r o f cities) o f N e w S p a i n , w a s m u c h m o r e favored. T h e coat of a r m s of Puebla evoked t h e prophetic d r e a m of the Franciscan b i s h o p of Tlaxcala, Fray J u l i a n Garces; in that d r e a m h e saw angels s u r v e y i n g t h e t e r r a i n a n d d e l i m i t i n g t h e b o u n d s o f t h e n e w c o l o n y . (A puebla i n m e d i e v a l S p a i n w a s a n e w city, like t h e bastides o f m e d i e v a l F r a n c e . ) " L a P u e b l a d e los A n g e l e s , " b o r n o f a n i n s p i r e d vision, w a s a Utopian c r e a t i o n , s y m b o l i c a l l y a c h i e v e d b e s i d e a g r e a t s a n c t u a r y o f i d o l a t r y , C h o l u l a , t h e h o l y city o f Q u e t z a l c o a t l . T h e Creoles s a w i n this c i r c u m s t a n c e a d e s i g n o f d i v i n e p r o v i d e n c e . A t t h e summit of t h e great pyramid of Quetzalcoatl, often c o m p a r e d to t h e Tower of Babel, t h e religious h a d constructed a chapel dedicated to t h e V i r g i n d e los R e m e d i o s . T h u s P u e b l a w a s t h e o n l y city o f N e w S p a i n t h a t c o u l d d i s p u t e M e x i c o City's p r i m a c y i n g r a c e . W h e n t h e Mexicans, by reason of t h e a c k n o w l e d g m e n t of t h e p a t r o n a g e of
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GUADALUPE, OR THE N E W EPIPHANY
G u a d a l u p e o v e r Mexico City (an e x a m p l e followed by o t h e r towns), r e p l a c e d their chivalric coat of a r m s , g r a n t e d by the e m p e r o r , with t h e e m b l e m g i v e n b y h e a v e n , la P u e b l a d e los A n g e l e s felt t h a t it h a d b e e n o u t c l a s s e d in t h e o r d e r o f h i e r o g l y p h i c s y m b o l s . M e x i c o City h a d j u s t s e c u r e d f o r itself first p l a c e a m o n g t h e cities o f N e w S p a i n in t h e o n e d o m a i n in w h i c h s h e h a d n o t e x c e l l e d b e f o r e ; h e n c e f o r t h s h e was " p r o t e c t e d , d i s t i n g u i s h e d , a n d m a r k e d w i t h t h e seal o f t h e M o s t H i g h . " T h e refusal of t h e m a s t e r of c e r e m o n i e s of t h e c a t h e d r a l of P u e b l a t o b e n d t o t h e c a n o n i c a l d e c r e e i s s u e d in f a v o r o f G u a d a l u p e "by virtue of b e i n g t h e elected a n d s w o r n P a t r o n e s s " was only a n impotent protest; the "disputed patronage" could no longer be denied to G u a d a l u p e of Tepeyac, n o r , by the s a m e token, could o n e q u e s t i o n t h e p r e e m i n e n c e o f M e x i c o City, w h i c h h e n c e f o r t h p o s sessed divine letters of nobility. 9
1 0
The Persecuted Miefs Sermon
Champions (1794)
of
Guadalupe:
T h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e c u l t o f O u r L a d y o f G u a d a l u p e in M e x i c a n s p i r i t u a l life, w i t h its n u m e r o u s i n t e l l e c t u a l a n d artistic r e p e r c u s s i o n s , was only equalled by t h e w e a k n e s s of t h e pious tradition's historical f o u n d a t i o n s . I n this c o n t r a d i c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e u n c o m m o n p o w e r o f expansion of the cult of G u a d a l u p e a n d the weakness of the "proofs" resides the explanation of the interminable "quarrel of G u a d a l u p e " ( w h i c h h a s n o t yet e n d e d ) . T h i s d o u b l e a t t r a c t i o n : t h e e l a n o f t h e c u l t a n d t h e p a s s i o n a t e s e a r c h f o r its h i s t o r i o g r a p h i c f o u n d a t i o n s , w a s felt a l m o s t f r o m his l a n d i n g in M e x i c o b y a M i l a n e s e g e n t l e m a n n a m e d L o r e n z o B o t u r i n i B e n a d u c c i . H e a r r i v e d in N e w S p a i n in F e b r u a r y 1736, sent by t h e C o u n t e s s of Santiesteban, d e s c e n d a n t of Moct e z u m a , a n d o n e c o u l d say t h a t t h e s h a d o w o f M o c t e z u m a h u n g o v e r his M e x i c a n c a r e e r . F a t h e r D i a z d e la V e g a w r o t e a b o u t h i m in 1 7 8 3 : " A m o n g t h e a u t h o r s I h a v e c o n s u l t e d , t h e m o s t f a v o r a b l e t o t h e In* d i a n s is t h e cavaliere D o n L o r e n z o B o t u r i n i . " W h a t I d a r e n o t a n a c h r o n i s t i c a l l y call his " I n d i a n i s m " t o o k t h e d e v o u t f o r m a p p r o p r i a t e t o t h a t society. H e w r i t e s : " H a r d l y h a d I a r r i v e d [in M e x i c o ] w h e n I felt myself d r i v e n by a n invincible attraction to u n d e r t a k e r e s e a r c h into t h e p r o d i g i o u s miracle of the a p p a r i t i o n s of O u r Lady of G u a d a l u p e ; I d i s c o v e r e d t h a t its h i s t o r y w a s b a s e d o n a s i n g l e t r a d i t i o n a n d t h a t it was n o t k n o w n w h e r e o r into w h o s e h a n d s t h e written proofs of such a g r e a t p r o d i g y h a d f a l l e n . " H i s p o i n t o f view r e m a i n e d f u n d a m e n tally t h e s a m e as t h a t o f h i s p r e d e c e s s o r s , t h e c r e o l e r e l i g i o u s w h o h a d sought for traces of the apostle Saint T h o m a s . M e n did not d o u b t the p r e a c h i n g o f S a i n t T h o m a s , n o r t h e a p p a r i t i o n s o f G u a d a l u p e ; all 1 1
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t h a t w a s n e c e s s a r y w a s t o o r g a n i z e a k i n d o f r a c e t o find t h e d o c u m e n t a r y t r e a s u r e . T h e c o d i c e s a s s e m b l e d by B o t u r i n i , w h o s e e n s e m b l e c o n s t i t u t e d t h e Museo Histbrico Indiano, i n s p i r e d in t h e u n f o r t u n a t e c o l l e c t o r this r e f l e c t i o n : " I t [ t h e I n d i a n m u s e u m ] m a y b e c o n s i d e r e d o n e of the greatest treasures of t h e I n d i e s . " T o disinter the I n d i a n p a s t (la gentilidad) and provide an incontrovertible documentary f o u n d a t i o n for the tradition of G u a d a l u p e were two c o m p l e m e n t a r y aspects of a single e n t e r p r i s e . 1 3
B u t t h a t e n t e r p r i s e was gravely c o m p r o m i s e d by a n excess of p i o u s zeal o n t h e p a r t o f t h e cavaliere. H a v i n g o b t a i n e d f r o m t h e H o l y S e e i n 1740 the canonical authorizations necessary for a public c o r o n a t i o n of t h e i m a g e of Tepeyac, B o t u r i n i did n o t t r o u b l e to seek a u t h o r i z a t i o n f r o m t h e C o u n c i l o f t h e I n d i e s . W o r s t o f all, h e h a d b e e n i m p r u d e n t e n o u g h to o r g a n i z e a collection to cover t h e e x p e n s e s of his d e v o u t project, soliciting c o m m u n i t i e s a n d individuals. T h e C o n d e d e F u e n clara, t h e newly a r r i v e d viceroy, h a d h i m a r r e s t e d a n d b r o u g h t to trial. T h e c h a r g e s a g a i n s t h i m c a m e d o w n t o t h i s : h e w a s a f o r e i g n e r in N e w S p a i n w i t h o u t p e r m i s s i o n , h e h a d m e d d l e d i n d i s c r e e t l y in a S p a n i s h n a t i o n a l q u e s t i o n . G u a d a l u p e w a s q u i t e literally a n a f f a i r o f s t a t e ; t h e trial o f B o t u r i n i in 1 7 4 8 implicitly a c k n o w l e d g e d t h e fact. T h e i m p r u d e n t cavaliere w a s e x i l e d t o S p a i n a n d his d o c u m e n t s w e r e confiscated. T o b e sure, h e was rehabilitated s o m e years later a n d n a m e d official h i s t o r i o g r a p h e r o f t h e I n d i e s , b u t h e r e m a i n s t h e first illustrious m a r t y r of t h e Mexican G u a d a l u p a n m o v e m e n t . Yet his w o r k w a s u s e f u l ; in a d d i t i o n t o t h e s a l v a g e o f n u m e r o u s d o c u m e n t s , it b r o u g h t t o g e t h e r t h e o n l y m a n u s c r i p t s i n N a h u a t l r e l a t i n g t o t h e " a p p a r i t i o n s " o f G u a d a l u p e . I n t h e Catalogo del Museo indiano t h e r e figures in p a r t i c u l a r t h e t e s t a m e n t o f t h e I n d i a n c a c i q u e Francisco V e r d u g o Quetzalmalitzin, the most ancient d o c u m e n t a r y trace of the existence of a cult of t h e Virgin of G u a d a l u p e at Tepeyac. A l t h o u g h t h e " H i s t o r y of G u a d a l u p e " p r o j e c t e d by B o t u r i n i n e v e r saw t h e l i g h t o f d a y , his Prblogo galeato p r o m i s e d t o s u p p l y t h i r t y - o n e p r o o f s for t h e t r a d i t i o n of t h e a p p a r i t i o n s . W h a t was new, a n d w o u l d e s t a b l i s h a s c h o o l , w a s h i s view o f t h e I n d i a n c o d i c e s a n d h y m n s as historical d o c u m e n t s w o r t h y of faith a n d n o t simply "fables"— d o c u m e n t s t h a t c o u l d b e u s e d in d e t e r m i n i n g t h e a u t h e n t i c i t y o f a Christian religious tradition. I n o t h e r w o r d s , B o t u r i n i qualified t h e I n d i a n s as w i t n e s s e s r e g a r d i n g p i o u s t r a d i t i o n s , w h e r e a s t h e i r t e s t i m o n y w a s r e j e c t e d in c o u r t trials, s i n c e S p a n i s h law r e g a r d e d t h e m as m i n o r s . W e n o t e , t o o , t h a t B o t u r i n i w a s c h a r g e d w i t h h a v i n g s o u g h t to place over the crown h e i n t e n d e d for G u a d a l u p e s o m e o t h e r e m b l e m t h a n t h e r o y a l c o a t o f a r m s . F o r all t h e s e r e a s o n s , B o t u r i n i ' s pious designs were resented by the Mexican authorities (and doubtless
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by t h e Creoles, w h o d i d n o t g r a n t h i m t h e financial s u p p o r t h e h a d h o p e d for) as p r o f a n a t i o n by a f o r e i g n h a n d , n o m a t t e r h o w well intentioned, of a national sanctuary. V e r y d i f f e r e n t , in t h i s r e s p e c t , w a s t h e s i t u a t i o n o f t h e D o m i n i c a n Fray S e r v a n d o Teresa d e Mier, a son of t h e creole aristocracy w h o h a d t a k e n h i s d e g r e e s a t t h e R o y a l a n d Pontifical U n i v e r s i t y o f M e x i c o City, a p r e a c h e r w h o e n j o y e d e n o u g h o f a r e p u t a t i o n t o b e i n v i t e d t o d e l i v e r t h e s e r m o n in t h e basilica o f T e p e y a c , D e c e m b e r 12, 1 7 9 4 , t h e feast d a y o f G u a d a l u p e . N o w , h a l f a c e n t u r y a f t e r B o t u r i n i , M i e r also b e c a m e a victim o f a n i n d i s c r e e t zeal in t h e service o f G u a d a l u p e . It is a r e m a r k a b l e fact t h a t t h e s e r m o n t h a t cost F r a y S e r v a n d o a l o n g exile h a d t h e s a m e o r i g i n as t h e h i s t o r i c a l p r o j e c t s o f h i s M i l a n e s e f o r e r u n n e r . M i e r , like B o t u r i n i , felt t h e w e a k n e s s o f t h e p i o u s t r a d i t i o n a n d s o u g h t t o a t t a c h it t o t h e I n d i a n p a s t so as t o give it a n u n s h a k a b l e f o u n d a t i o n . B u t , b e i n g less s c h o l a r l y a n d m o r e s p e c u l a t i v e t h a n B o t u rini, h e followed t h e e x a m p l e of t h e licentiate B o r u n d a in a t t e m p t i n g a n a l l e g o r i c a l e x e g e s i s o f t h e n a t i v e h i e r o g l y p h s . T h e s e r m o n in w h i c h h e e x p o u n d e d his views o n t h e G u a d a l u p a n t r a d i t i o n p r o v o k e d a n inquisitorial reaction on the p a r t of A r c h b i s h o p H a r o y Peralta, himself a d e v o t e e o f t h e V i r g i n o f T e p e y a c . I n effect, M i e r w a s b r o u g h t b e f o r e t h e t r i b u n a l o f t h e I n q u i s i t i o n (of w h i c h his u n c l e h a d b e e n p r e s i d e n t ) a n d w a s c a l l e d o n t o r e p u d i a t e his t h e s e s . A s h a p p e n e d t o B o t u r i n i b e f o r e h i m , a n d t o Veitia ( p o s t h u m o u s l y ) , h i s l i b r a r y w a s c o n f i s c a t e d . L i k e t h e M i l a n e s e , s e v e r a l y e a r s l a t e r h e was r e h a b i l i t a t e d b y t h e C o u n c i l o f t h e I n d i e s . By c o n t r a s t w i t h his f o r e r u n n e r B o t u r i n i , F r a y B e r n a r d o w a s a c r e o l e like Veitia, w h o s e r v e d as his b o n d s m a n . Veitia p l a y e d a n o t a b l e r o l e in t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e p i o u s t r a d i t i o n of creole Mexico; h e was d e n i e d p e r m i s s i o n to publish his m a n u s c r i p t s in N e w S p a i n , b u t t h e y w e r e u s e d b y F r a y S e r v a n d o T e r e s a d e M i e r . H i s Bastions of Mexico City, which assigns t h e p r e m i e r place to t h e V i r g i n o f G u a d a l u p e , w a s w r i t t e n in 1 7 7 5 b u t n o t p u b l i s h e d u n t i l 1 8 2 0 , a n d his m o n u m e n t a l Historia antigua de Mexico d i d n o t a p p e a r until 1 8 3 6 . A n o t h e r w o r k which m i g h t be called, by analogy with t h e c o d i c e s o f t h e V a t i c a n a n d R h e i m s , t h e Codex Veitia, a series of plates d e s i g n e d to s e r v e as i l l u s t r a t i o n s to t h e Historia Antigua, d i d n o t s e e t h e l i g h t o f d a y u n t i l 1 9 4 5 . O n h i s d e a t h , his c o n f i s c a t e d m a n u s c r i p t s w e r e s e n t t o t h e r o y a l l i b r a r y , w h e r e J u a n B a u t i s t a M u f i o z first u s e d t h e m . A s t h e basis f o r h i s Discurso historico-critico a g a i n s t t h e m i r a c u l o u s t r a d i t i o n o f G u a d a l u p e , M u f i o z e m p l o y e d Veitia's v e r s i o n , a c a u t i o u s s y n t h e s i s of p r e v i o u s w r i t i n g s . Veitia's p o s t h u m o u s w o r k a l s o i n c l u d e d an i m p o r t a n t Historia de la fundacibn de la Puebla de los Angeles a n d Tablas chronologicas para ajustar el calendario tulteca con el nuestro. T h e s e writings constitute a veritable c o r p u s d e v o t e d to the principal aspects 14
1 5
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of the religious a n d cultural history of ancient a n d colonial Mexico. ( T h e last t w o m e n t i o n e d w o r k s a r e in v o l u m e s 3 a n d 5 o f t h e m a n u s c r i p t s o f t h e M u f i o z c o l l e c t i o n o f t h e B i b l i o t e c a d e la R e a l A c a d e m i a d e la H i s t o r i a , in M a d r i d , w h e r e I c o n s u l t e d t h e m . ) M a r c e l B a t a i l l o n has rightly o b s e r v e d to m e t h a t a study of Veitia's w o r k s — a t r u e crossr o a d s o f M e x i c a n c r e o l e h i s t o r i o g r a p h y a n d t h e S p a n i s h critical r e s p o n s e — w o u l d f o r m a valuable s u p p l e m e n t to the p r e s e n t work. A c o r r e s p o n d e n t o f t h e e x i l e d C l a v i j e r o , Veitia, b o r n in t h a t c i t a d e l o f criollismo, t h e b i s h o p r i c of Puebla, was a n apologist b o t h for G u a d a l u p e a n d Saint Thomas-Quetzalcoatl. M i e r , w e k n o w , p r o p o s e d to i d e n t i f y t h e a p o s t l e S a i n t T h o m a s w i t h t h e M e x i c a n d i v i n i t y Q u e t z a l c o a t l . By his o w n a d m i s s i o n , t h e i d e a w a s n o t n e w , b u t h e e n r i c h e d it w i t h a t r u l y n e w h y p o t h e s i s . H i t h e r t o h i s t o r i a n s o f t h e C o n q u e s t , i n s p i r e d b y a p r o v i d e n t i a l spirit, h a d r e a s o n e d as follows: " N o t w i t h o u t a P r o v i d e n t i a l d e s i g n d i d t h e infinite W i s d o m p r e p a r e t h e n a t u r a l t h r o n e t h a t is t h e hill o f C h o l u l a i n t h i s N o r t h A m e r i c a , t h a t it m i g h t b e c o m e t h e T h r o n e o f n e w c u l t s a n d t h e R e m e d y of t h e afflicted.. . . S o m e claim t h a t t h e I n d i a n s in t h e t i m e of t h e i r p a g a n i s m v e n e r a t e d t h e r e a g o d d e s s t o w h o m t h e y o f f e r e d sacr i f i c e s . " J u s t as t h e p y r a m i d o f Q u e t z a l c o a t l a t C h o l u l a h a d b e e n m y s t e r i o u s l y c o n s t r u c t e d t o s e r v e as a b a s e f o r t h e f u t u r e basilica o f t h e V i r g e n d e los R e m e d i o s , so t h e s h r i n e o f T o n a n t z i n o n M o u n t Tepeyac, center of pilgrimages, h a d b e e n a "teething ring" for O u r Lady of G u a d a l u p e . Taking a position against a historiography which still r e f l e c t e d t h e policy o f " r u p t u r e " o f t h e F r a n c i s c a n p i o n e e r s a n d also d r e w i n s p i r a t i o n f r o m S a i n t A u g u s t i n e , F r a y S e r v a n d o s u g g e s t e d a p u r e a n d simple assimilation of I n d i a n polytheism into Christianity. I n h i s Apologia h e j u s t i f i e d t h e l a n g u a g e o f h i s s e r m o n : " W h o w a s t h i s Tzenteotinantzin or Tonantzin, w h o m Quetzalcoatl taught the Indians to k n o w a n d w h o f r o m those r e m o t e times h a d b e e n v e n e r a t e d o n t h e hill o f T e p e y a c , w h i c h w a s n a m e d T o n a n t z i n a f t e r h e r ? T o k n o w t h e a n s w e r it is e n o u g h t o r e a d T o r q u e m a d a a n d C a b r e r a . S h e w a s a V i r g i n c o n s e c r a t e d t o G o d , in t h e s e r v i c e o f t h e T e m p l e , w h o b y t h e will o f H e a v e n c o n c e i v e d a n d b o r e — w i t h o u t loss o f h e r virginity—the L o r d with t h e C r o w n of T h o r n s o r T e o h u i t z a h u a c , w h o p a r t o o k b o t h o f h u m a n a n d d i v i n e n a t u r e , w a s b o r n a fully g r o w n m a n . . . a n d at b i r t h d e s t r o y e d a s e r p e n t t h a t was p u r s u i n g his mother.... 17
" T h i s L o r d o f t h e C r o w n o f T h o r n s , w h o m t h e I n d i a n s also d e p i c t e d n u d e , h o l d i n g i n h i s h a n d a c r o s s c o m p o s e d o f five t u f t s o f f e a t h e r s , was a l s o c a l l e d M e x i . " H e r e w a s d a m n i n g e v i d e n c e , m o r e t h a n e n o u g h t o s e n d F r a y S e r v a n d o t o t h e s t a k e . B u t in t h e s p i r i t u a l climate of eighteenth-century N e w Spain the s e r m o n might have g o n e 1 8
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u n n o t i c e d if t h e i m p r u d e n t p r e a c h e r h a d n o t a t t e m p t e d t o r e v i s e t h e G u a d a l u p a n tradition. W h a t s e e m e d heretical (heretical in relation to a G u a d a l u p a n o r t h o d o x y w h o s e c u s t o m a r y c a n o n law was m o r e r i g o r o u s t h a n t h e w r i t t e n law o f t h e C o n g r e g a t i o n o f Rites) w a s M i e r ' s critical a t t i t u d e t o ward the "apparitions." Evidently drawing inspiration from the a p o l o g e t i c t r a d i t i o n o f t h e V i r g i n o f P i l a r (as r e c o u n t e d b y M a r i a n a a n d r e s t a t e d by Peralta y B a r n u e v o , w h o p u t t h e Virgin's a p p e a r a n c e back to the time of the evangelization of Spain by t h e apostle Saint J a m e s ) , Mier got t h e idea of linking the evangelization of Mexico by t h e a p o s t l e S a i n t T h o m a s to t h e i m a g e o f T e p e y a c . B u t h e s t o p p e d m i d w a y , f o r h e d e c i d e d t h a t t h e s u p p o s e d l y d i v i n e ayate, o r c l o t h o f m a g u e y fiber, w a s s i m p l y a n a n c i e n t M e x i c a n p a i n t i n g . M i e r ' s u s e o f e x t e r n a l c r i t i c i s m , b a s e d o n his k n o w l e d g e o f t r a d i t i o n a l A z t e c p a i n t i n g t e c h n i q u e , t h u s r e f u t e d t h e official p h y s i c i a n s — t h e protomedicos—who d u r i n g the inquiry of 1666 h a d solemnly affirmed the " p r o d i g i o u s r e n o v a t i o n " o f t h e s a c r e d i m a g e . Still l a t e r , in his Apologia, F r a y S e r v a n d o w e n t so f a r as t o w r i t e t h a t " t h e i m a g e o f t h e village o f T e c a x i c [ C a l i x t l a h u a c a ] is i d e n t i c a l as a p a i n t i n g a n d as c l o t h w i t h O u r L a d y o f G u a d a l u p e . N o o n e c l a i m s o n t h a t a c c o u n t t h a t it is p a i n t e d o n t h e c l o a k o f a n I n d i a n , a l t h o u g h t h e r e , t o o , t h e y tell o f a n a p p a r i t i o n . T h e r e w e r e i n n u m e r a b l e s u c h p a i n t i n g s in N e w S p a i n right after the Conquest. T o r q u e m a d a relates that the I n d i a n s painted m a n y i m a g e s t h a t t h e y b r o u g h t t o t h e c h u r c h e s a n d left t h e r e , so t h a t n e w o n e s w e r e f o u n d daily, a n d n o n e k n e w w h o h a d b r o u g h t t h e m . " T h e Dominican t h u s d e m o l i s h e d the principal elements of the pious t r a d i t i o n , o f f e r i n g r a t i o n a l e x p l a n a t i o n s f o r all t h e t h i n g s t h a t t h e apologists of G u a d a l u p e h a d tried for o n e a n d a half centuries to pass o f f as s u p e r n a t u r a l m a n i f e s t a t i o n s . M i e r a l s o n o t e d t h a t t h e I n d i a n s , u n l i k e t h e Creoles, c o n t i n u e d t o c e l e b r a t e t h e feast d a y o f G u a d a l u p e o n S e p t e m b e r 8, n o t D e c e m b e r 12, a n d r e c a l l e d t h a t a c c o r d i n g t o T o r q u e m a d a "all t h e p i o u s i m a g e s v e n e r a t e d d o w n t o his t i m e o n t h e r e t a b l o s o f N e w S p a i n h a d b e e n p a i n t e d in b a c k o f t h e c o n v e n t o f S a n F r a n c i s c o in t h e p a i n t i n g w o r k s h o p t h a t t h e F l e m i s h lay b r o t h e r P e d r o o f G h e n t i n s t a l l e d f o r t h e I n d i a n s . " T h e i c o n o c l a s t i c M i e r exp l a i n s e v e r y t h i n g ; h e w a s t h e first t o w r i t e t h a t M i g u e l S a n c h e z "invented" the tradition of the apparitions. 1 9
2 0
S t r a n g e as it m a y s e e m , F r a y S e r v a n d o ' s sole i n t e n t w a s t o e s t a b l i s h t h e cult of G u a d a l u p e o n u n s h a k a b l e f o u n d a t i o n s . H e later boasted t h a t h e h a d g a i n e d t h e s u p p o r t o f t h e official h i s t o r i o g r a p h e r o f t h e Indies, J u a n Bautista Mufioz: " H e analyzed m y s e r m o n a n d d e m onstrated that my system offered the only m e a n s of answering the a r g u m e n t s against the tradition of G u a d a l u p e . . . . " Fray S e r v a n d o 2 1
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Apparitions
offered t h e G u a d a l u p a n tradition a way o u t of t h e impasse by p r o p o s i n g t h a t t h e ayate o f T e p e y a c was n o t t h e c l o a k o f t h e I n d i a n J u a n D i e g o b u t o f t h e a p o s t l e S a i n t T h o m a s ; t h e A r c h b i s h o p o f M e x i c o City ( w h o s p o k e f o r all t h e d e v o u t , n o m a t t e r w h a t M i e r m i g h t say) r e j e c t e d t h e s o l u t i o n . T h e D o m i n i c a n ' s i n q u i s i t o r i a l trial r e m a i n s t h e official r e c o r d of a heretical deviation from t h e o r t h o d o x y of t h e Mexican G u a d a l u p a n faith, t h e o n l y faith j e a l o u s l y p r o t e c t e d in t h e " N e w R o m e , " M e x i c o City.
The D i s c u r s o h i s t o r i c o - c r i t i c o of Mufioz, Real Academia de la Historia (1794)
the Judgment
of the
I n view o f t h e g r o w i n g i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e M e x i c a n c u l t o f G u a d a l u p e , a c c o m p a n i e d b y a flood o f s a c r e d o r a t o r y a n d a b u r g e o n i n g G u a d a l u p a n a p o l o g e t i c a l l i t e r a t u r e in N e w S p a i n , t h e s u p r e m e t r i b u n a l o f S p a n i s h h i s t o r i o g r a p h y , t h e R e a l A c a d e m i a d e la H i s t o r i a , c o u l d n o t r e m a i n silent o n t h e s u b j e c t w i t h o u t b e i n g d e r e l i c t in its d u t y . I t finally s p o k e t h r o u g h t h e voice o f o n e o f its m e m b e r s , still o n l y a n a s s o c i a t e m e m b e r (miembro supernumerario), b u t superbly qualified to assemble t h e necessary d o c u m e n t a t i o n . I n 1779 D o n J u a n Bautista Mufioz h a d b e e n c h a r g e d b y t h e C r o w n w i t h w r i t i n g a h i s t o r y o f A m e r i c a ; in o r d e r t o facilitate his task, a r o y a l o r d e r o p e n e d u p to h i m all t h e public archives. Mufioz i m m e d i a t e l y u n d e r t o o k to i n v e n t o r y t h e Arc h i v o d e las I n d i a s . " I h a v e d i s c o v e r e d a t r e a s u r e ; t h i s n a m e c o u l d well be given to a mass of original d o c u m e n t s of every k i n d which w e r e b u r i e d t h e r e , a n d o f w h i c h n o t h i n g w a s k n o w n , " h e w r o t e in t h e first v o l u m e o f h i s Historia del Nuevo Mundo ( 1 7 9 3 ) . T h i s w a s t h e o n l y published v o l u m e of a w o r k which p r o m i s e d to be a m o n u m e n t a l contribution to the historiography of t h e Indies, a n d which would h a v e h e l p e d to d i s p e l t h e h e a v y s h a d o w cast o n S p a i n ' s w o r k i n A m e r i c a by t h e A b b e R a y n a l in his Histoire philosophique et politique . . . des Europeens dans les deux Indes. Mufioz clearly defined his h i s t o r i c a l m e t h o d in t h e p r o l o g u e t o his Historia. " T h e s u b j e c t m a t t e r , o r g a n i z a t i o n , a n d style w e r e left e n t i r e l y t o m y f r e e c h o i c e . . . , " "I a s s u m e d a n a t t i t u d e o f r a d i c a l d o u b t w i t h r e g a r d t o all t h a t h a d b e e n p u b l i s h e d o n t h e s e m a t t e r s , w i t h t h e firm i n t e n t i o n o f v e r i f y i n g t h e facts b y r e f e r e n c e t o a u t h e n t i c a n d i r r e f u t a b l e d o c u m e n t s . " I n this s a m e spirit, t h e n e x t y e a r h e b e g a n his i n q u i r y i n t o t h e M e x i c a n t r a d i t i o n o f G u a d a l u p e , d e t e r m i n e d , as h e w r o t e in t h e p r o l o g u e t o t h e Historia, t o b r i n g o u t "all t h e i m p o r t a n t t r u t h s , w i t h out concealing any from r e g a r d for what the world may t h i n k . " As c o n c e r n s his d o c u m e n t a t i o n o n t h e subject, w e k n o w t h a t a l a r g e p a r t o f it w a s a l r e a d y a s s e m b l e d f o r t h e p u r p o s e o f w r i t i n g t h e Historia del 2 2
2Z
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GUADALUPE, OR THE N E W EPIPHANY
Nuevo Mundo; t h e p r o o f is in t h e f o r m o f m a n u s c r i p t s o f t h e M u f i o z c o l l e c t i o n p r e s e r v e d in t h e A c a d e m i a d e la H i s t o r i a . I n a l e t t e r d a t e d D e c e m b e r 2 9 , 1 7 8 3 ( t h a t is, e l e v e n y e a r s b e f o r e t h e r e a d i n g b e f o r e t h e A c a d e m y o f t h e Discurso historico-critico) t h e archivist of Simancas w r o t e Mufioz to i n f o r m h i m of t h e d i s p a t c h "by special courier, of a series of d o c u m e n t s of t h e archives," with express m e n t i o n of "inform a t i o n t o u c h i n g O u r L a d y of G u a d a l u p e of Mexico C i t y . " By virtue o f h i s h i s t o r i c a l m e t h o d , his office o f h i s t o r i o g r a p h e r o f t h e I n d i e s , a n d t h e d o c u m e n t s a t his d i s p o s a l , J u a n B a u t i s t a M u f i o z w a s c e r t a i n l y t h e best qualified m a n in Spain to elucidate t h e t h o r n y q u e s t i o n of t h e Mexican G u a d a l u p a n tradition. 27
T h e essay p u b l i s h e d in v o l u m e 5 o f t h e Memorias de la Real Academia de la Historia, i n 1 8 1 7 , w i t h t h e title Memoria sobre las apariciones y el culto de Nuestra Sefiora de Guadalupe de Mexico, * h a d b e e n originally e n t i t l e d b y t h e a u t h o r Discurso historico-critico sobre las apariciones y el culto de Nra. Sehora de Guadalupe de Mexico ® T h e e x p r e s s i o n discurso historico-critico d e f i n e s p r e c i s e l y t h e s p i r i t o f t h i s c o m m u n i c a t i o n t o t h e A c a d e m i a r e a d b y M u f i o z A p r i l 18, 1 7 9 4 , a n d s u b m i t t e d t o t w o r e v i e w e r s e s p e c i a l l y a s s i g n e d t o t h e t a s k b e f o r e b e i n g a p p r o v e d by t h e g e n e r a l a s s e m b l y o f t h e A c a d e m i a a n d finally p u b l i s h e d . T h e " a p p r o p b a t i o n " of the A c a d e m y , following t h e r e p o r t of t h e two censors, m a k e s t h e Discurso historico-critico a p p e a r t o b e t h e official e x p r e s s i o n a n d e v e n (in view o f t h e p o l e m i c a l a t m o s p h e r e s u r r o u n d i n g M i e r ' s s e r m o n ) t h e " s e n t e n c e " o f a b o d y w h o s e m i s s i o n was p r e c i s e l y to define and protect historiographic orthodoxy. 2
2
T h e Discurso historico-critico b r i n g s i n t o p l a y all t h e d o c u m e n t s a n d all t h e m a j o r a r g u m e n t s t h a t w o u l d h e n c e f o r t h s u p p o r t t h e " a n t i a p p a r i t i o n " h i s t o r i o g r a p h y . T h e a u t h o r b e g i n s b y d i s t i n g u i s h i n g t h e canonical miracles (attested by S c r i p t u r e o r t h e Acts of t h e Apostles) t h a t e v e r y C a t h o l i c w a s o b l i g e d t o b e l i e v e , f r o m t h e m i r a c l e s b e l i e f in w h i c h w a s left t o i n d i v i d u a l j u d g m e n t . A m o n g t h e l a t t e r , s o m e w e r e a l t o g e t h e r d o u b t f u l . "Finally, t h e r e a r e s o m e w h i c h a r e n o t so g r o u n d less as t h e a b o v e , n o r so c e r t a i n as t h o s e a b o u t w h i c h o n e c a n safely p r o n o u n c e a favorable j u d g m e n t . " Mufioz t h e n poses t h e q u e s t i o n as t o w h i c h o f t h e s e t h r e e c a t e g o r i e s t h e a p p a r i t i o n s o f O u r L a d y o f G u a d a l u p e c a n b e a s s i g n e d , b u t is c a r e f u l n o t t o r e p l y t o t h e q u e s t i o n a t o n c e . I n its b r o a d l i n e s , t h e a r g u m e n t o f M u f i o z r u n s as follows. 3 0
1. H e t a k e s f o r h i s basis o f d i s c u s s i o n t h e r e l a t i o n o f F e r n a n d e z d e E c h e v e r r i a y Veitia, w h i c h h e r e g a r d s as t h e m o s t r e p r e s e n t a t i v e c o n t e m p o r a r y s y n t h e s i s o f all t h a t h a d b e e n p u b l i s h e d o n t h e a p p a r i t i o n s . " T h i s r e l a t i o n o f Veitia is a n a l o g o u s in s u b s t a n c e t o t h a t w h i c h L i c e n t i a t e M i g u e l S a n c h e z , t h e first h i s t o r i a n o f t h o s e a p p a r i t i o n s , p u b l i s h e d in t h e m i d d l e o f t h e last c e n t u r y , t o t h a t w h i c h t h e bachiller L u i s
269
The Dispute of the Apparitions
B e c e r r a T a n c o , p r o f e s s o r o f l a n g u a g e s a n d m a t h e m a t i c s , w r o t e in 1666, a n d to t h e histories of the s a m e t e n o r written by t h e celebrated D o n Carlos d e S i g u e n z a y G o n g o r a , his imitator Gemelli C a r r e r i , Father Francisco d e Florencia, D o n Cayetano Cabrera, a n d some others." 3 1
M u f i o z t h u s listed t h r e e o f t h e f o u r " e v a n g e l i s t s " o f G u a d a l u p e ; h e o n l y o m i t t e d t h e a u t h o r w h o d i f f u s e d t h e t r a d i t i o n in N a h u a t l , L a z o d e la V e g a o r w h o e v e r w r o t e t h e Huey tlamahuicoltica. 2. H e cites a g a i n s t t h e t r a d i t i o n o f t h e a p p a r i t i o n s t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y a n d s u b s e q u e n t h i s t o r i o g r a p h i c s i l e n c e o n t h e subject. " T h e sil e n c e o f F a t h e r T o r q u e m a d a is e s p e c i a l l y w e i g h t y e v i d e n c e . . . . O n e c o u l d say t h e s a m e o f t h e silence o f F a t h e r L u i s d e C i s n e r o s . " A s f o r t h e r e l a t i o n c o p i e d b y A l v a I x t l i l x o c h i t l , a c c o r d i n g to S i g u e n z a y G o n g o r a , " L e t it b e b r o u g h t t o l i g h t . " 3. M u f i o z cites u n p u b l i s h e d d o c u m e n t s , e a r l i e r t h a n all t h o s e a d v a n c e d b y t h e s u p p o r t e r s o f t h e " a p p a r i t i o n s " ( h e s u s p e c t s t h a t all these d o c u m e n t s were fabricated after the publication of Miguel Sanchez' work, for the g o o d of t h e cause.) T h e n e w d o c u m e n t s , so o f t e n c i t e d a t t h e t i m e a n d s i n c e , a r e t h e letter of Viceroy Martin Enriquez, d a t e d S e p t e m b e r 25, 1575, a n d the p a s s a g e f r o m t h e Historia General o f S a h a g u n ( t h e n u n p u b l i s h e d ) , c o n c e r n i n g t h e sanctuary of T o n a n t z i n of Tepeyac. W i t h t h e aid of these irrefutable d o c u m e n t s , Mufioz u n m a s k s M i g u e l C a b r e r a , w h o c i t e d S a h a g u n i n c o r r e c t l y , a n d d e n i e s all a u thenticity to the t e s t a m e n t of J u a n a Martin, which Boturini r e g a r d e d as " a d o c u m e n t o f t h e g r e a t e s t i m p o r t a n c e . " 4 . T h u s f a k e d d o c u m e n t s p l a y e d a p a r t in t h e g e n e s i s o f t h e M e x i can G u a d a l u p a n tradition, a c c o r d i n g to Mufioz, w h o s o u g h t to r e c o n s t r u c t t h e s p i r i t u a l c l i m a t e in w h i c h t h e p i o u s l e g e n d a p p e a r e d . T h i s is t h e m o s t v a l u a b l e p a r t o f t h i s little m a n u s c r i p t n o t e b o o k o f s o m e t w e n t y p a g e s : " T h i s is t h e w a y in w h i c h fables a r e b o r n , a n d i n s i m i l a r w a y s t h e y g r o w a n d t a k e s h a p e . A p a i n t e r , let u s say, r e p r e s e n t e d O u r L a d y o f G u a d a l u p e o n h e r hill o f T e p e y a c t o g e t h e r w i t h a d e v o t e e o n his k n e e s , p r a y i n g . A s i m p l e I n d i a n m i g h t c o n c l u d e f r o m t h i s t h a t t h e Virgin h a d a p p e a r e d to o n e of h e r followers. A n o t h e r I n d i a n , h a v i n g h e a r d t h i s s t o r y , p a s s e s it o n as a c e r t a i n fact. R u m o r s p r e a d s t h e t a l e a n d , w i t h t h e d a i l y a d d i t i o n o f n e w d e t a i l s , t h e w h o l e l e g e n d finally e m e r g e s . T h i s is o n e o f t h e t h o u s a n d w a y s in w h i c h t h i s s t o r y c o u l d have a r i s e n . . . . 3 2
3 3
"As for t h e time a n d t h e occasion which gave rise to t h e s t o r y . . . , I s u s p e c t t h a t it w a s b o r n in t h e I n d i a n m i n d i n t h e y e a r s 1 6 2 9 1634. D u r i n g this whole p e r i o d t h e i m a g e of G u a d a l u p e r e m a i n e d in t h e capital b e c a u s e of a terrible flood, a n d b e c a m e t h e object of
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e x t r a o r d i n a r y d e m o n s t r a t i o n s , w h i c h m a d e C a b r e r a say t h a t ' M e x i c o City b r o k e t h e d i k e s o f h e r d e v o t i o n ' . . . ; t h e p o p u l a r f e r v o r f o u n d e x p r e s s i o n in d a n c e s , d i a l o g u e s , I n d i a n s o n g s in w h i c h t h e h i t h e r t o u n k n o w n apparitions were m e n t i o n e d ; copies of the image, previously very rare, multiplied infinitely." T h e r e t r e a t o f t h e w a t e r s f r o m t h e f l o o d e d c a p i t a l c a u s e d t h e flowe r i n g of t h e m i r a c u l o u s roses of t h e i m a g e of G u a d a l u p e . " F r o m that m a r v e l o u s flowering, I believe, was b o r n t h e fruit of t h e a p p a r i t i o n s . W h a t will t h e I n d i a n i m a g i n a t i o n , h e a t e d a n d f e r t i l i z e d b y s u c h e n thusiasm, not p r o d u c e ? " 5. T h e a u t h o r t h e n t r a c e d t h e p r o g r e s s o f t h e c u l t o f G u a d a l u p e , stressing t h e g r o w i n g p r o s p e r i t y of t h e sanctuary t h a n k s to t h e influx of alms, until the erection of t h e n e w collegiate c h u r c h of G u a d a l u p e by A r c h b i s h o p R u b i o y S a l i n a s in 1 7 4 9 . " T h e w h o l e edifice cost 4 8 2 t h o u s a n d p e s o s , c o l l e c t e d in t h e f o r m o f a l m s . " M u f i o z also o b s e r v e d t h a t t h e h e i r s o f t h e p r i n c i p a l d o n o r , A n d r e s d e Palencia, gave a n additional 293,000 pesos, a n d a d d e d , "This s u m a n d its a c c u m u l a t e d i n t e r e s t f o r m e d a c a p i t a l o f 5 2 7 , 8 3 2 p e s o s , w h i c h t h e k i n g t o o k , a n d its i n t e r e s t a t 5 % w a s a s s i g n e d t o t h e r o y a l n i n t h s o f t h e t i t h e s o f t h e d i o c e s e s o f M e x i c o City a n d P u e b l a d e los A n g e l e s . " N o t e the considerable wealth of the Mexican sanctuary of G u a d a l u p e , t h e lion's s h a r e t h a t w e n t to t h e king, a n d t h e effort to m a i n t a i n a n e q u i l i b r i u m b e t w e e n t h e a r c h b i s h o p r i c o f M e x i c o City, h i t h e r t o t h e only beneficiary of t h e cult of G u a d a l u p e , a n d t h e b i s h o p r i c o f P u e b l a , d o u b l y i n j u r e d , b u t w h i c h a t last r a l l i e d t o t h e n a t i o n a l cult. 6. T h e official h i s t o r i a n o f t h e I n d i e s d i p l o m a t i c a l l y c o n c l u d e d t h a t t h e c u l t o f G u a d a l u p e is " a v e r y r e a s o n a b l e a n d j u s t cult, w i t h w h i c h individual o p i n i o n o n t h e subject of t h e a p p a r i t i o n s has n o t h i n g to do." I t is i n t e r e s t i n g t o n o t e t h a t J u a n B a u t i s t a M u f i o z a t M a d r i d a n d F r a y S e r v a n d o T e r e s a d e M i e r a t M e x i c o City, o n l y s e v e r a l m o n t h s apart, without any e x c h a n g e of d o c u m e n t s , r e a c h e d identical conclus i o n s a b o u t t h e fragility o f t h e G u a d a l u p a n t r a d i t i o n . B u t F r a y S e r v a n d o w a s a c r e o l e f r i a r w h o s h a r e d w i t h his b r e t h r e n t h e a s p i r a t i o n o f e n d o w i n g h i s patria w i t h a h o l y p l a c e a n d a c o m p l e m e n t a r y r e l i c , s i g n s o f d i v i n e f a v o r . T h a t is w h y h e s o u g h t in B o r u n d a ' s c l o u d y speculations t h e m e a n s of r e f a s h i o n i n g t h e pious tradition, in o r d e r to s t r e n g t h e n it. We k n o w t h e s e q u e l : t h e s c a n d a l o f t h e d e v o t e e s , t h e e x i l e o f F r a y S e r v a n d o . . . . N o w , t h e D o m i n i c a n i n f o r m s u s in h i s Memorias t h a t B o r u n d a h a d w r i t t e n o n M e x i c a n a n t i q u i t i e s a t t h e invit a t i o n o f t h e A c a d e m i a d e la H i s t o r i a , w h i c h m a y h a v e t a k e n t h i s i n i t i a t i v e a t t h e i n s t i g a t i o n o f M u f i o z , a w a r e o f his o w n i n a d e q u a t e 34
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k n o w l e d g e of t h e M e x i c a n past a n d t h e significance o f t h e codices, as h e h i m s e l f m o d e s t l y o b s e r v e s . I n his Apologia M i e r c i t e d a s a w e i g h t y a r g u m e n t i n f a v o r o f his h e r e t i c a l t h e s e s t h e fact t h a t " t h e c h r o n i c l e r []. B . Mufioz] c o m p o s e d a n elegant dissertation in which h e u n d e r t o o k t o s h o w t h e h i s t o r y o f G u a d a l u p e is a f a b l e . " B u t t h e m i l i e u s a n d a u d i e n c e s o f F r a y S e r v a n d o a n d J . B . M u f i o z w e r e as d i f f e r e n t a s could be. T h e academicians applauded the luminous argumentation of the historiographer of t h e Indies. T h e devotees of G u a d a l u p e a n d t h e a r c h b i s h o p o f M e x i c o City r o s e in i n d i g n a t i o n a g a i n s t t h e a l l - t o o i n g e n i o u s p r e a c h e r . T h i s m e a n i n g f u l coincidence shows t h a t in 1794 the subject of t h e Mexican cult of G u a d a l u p e was in t h e air o n b o t h A t l a n t i c s h o r e s , i n S p a i n a n d i n N e w S p a i n . O n e c o u l d e v e n say, m o r e precisely, that c o n c e r n with t h e Mexican G u a d a l u p a n tradition, w h e t h e r for o r against, was a n aspect o f t h e a g e l o n g d i a l o g u e b e t w e e n Creoles a n d S p a n i a r d s , i n t h e last p h a s e o f t h e c o l o n i a l d o m i n a t i o n . 3 9
Forty Years of Polemic: Mexican Replies to Mufioz T h e controversy whose high points w e r e t h e s e r m o n of Fray Serv a n d o a n d t h e Discurso o f M u f i o z h a d its r e p e r c u s s i o n s . O n t h e e v e o f I n d e p e n d e n c e t h e M e x i c a n Creoles p i c k e d u p t h e g a u n t l e t t h r o w n d o w n by Mufioz; their s p o k e s m a n was a n O r a t o r i a n friar of Mexico City w h o w r o t e zDefensa guadalupana . . . contra la disertacion de D.Juan Bautista Mufioz. T h i s was in 1819, a n d t h e reply m a y seem belated, b u t it is likely t h a t t h e essay o f M u f i o z w a s n o t k n o w n i n M e x i c o City b e f o r e its p u b l i c a t i o n , i n 1 8 1 7 , i n t h e A c a d e m i a d e la H i s t o r i a ' s Memorias, w h o s e r e a l a p p e a r a n c e w a s c e r t a i n l y l a t e r t h a n t h e y e a r t h a t v o l u m e 5 b e a r s . T h e a u t h o r o f t h e Defensa d i d n o t r e f u t e M u f i o z p o i n t by p o i n t ( h e w o u l d h a v e b e e n a t a loss f o r a n a n s w e r ) b u t r e s o r t e d t o t h e a r g u m e n t o f F l o r e n c i a : t h e f o r c e o f t r a d i t i o n . H e also i n v o k e d t h e "very n u m e r o u s a n d irrefutable d o c u m e n t s " of t h e apologists. H e skillfully a t t a c k e d M u f i o z o n w h a t w a s c l e a r l y h i s w e a k p o i n t , M e x i c a n a n t i q u i t i e s ; Creoles h a d i n v o k e d t h i s a r g u m e n t , " k n o w l e d g e o f t h e c o u n t r y , " a g a i n s t t h e gachupines s i n c e t h e s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y . " I f D o n J u a n B a u t i s t a M u f i o z h a d s t u d i e d t h e m a t t e r w i t h i m p a r t i a l i t y , a n d if he h a d known the language, t h e characters, a n d the ancient writing of the Mexicans, h e would n o t have committed t h e e r r o r of scorning those precious d o c u m e n t s [the pictographic codices], n o r would h e h a v e l e t h i s p e n r u n so freely o n a s u b j e c t so i m p o r t a n t f o r t h e w h o l e k i n g d o m . " Observe t h e exaltation of the written m o n u m e n t s of t h e I n d i a n p a s t , a c o n s t a n t t h e m e i n t h e w r i t i n g s o f M e x i c a n Creoles s i n c e t h e t i m e o f S i g u e n z a y G o n g o r a , a n d especially t h e charismatic feeling 40
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r e f l e c t e d in t h e c l a i m t h a t t h e w h o l e H i s p a n i c w o r l d a d d r e s s e d its p r a y e r s t o t h e i m a g e o f T e p e y a c . "All t h e k i n g d o m s o f t h e S p a n i s h C r o w n , yes, all in t i m e o f n e e d a n d affliction, s u s t a i n e d b y t h i s belief, d i r e c t t h e i r p r a y e r s t o G u a d a l u p e o f T e p e y a c . " T h u s w e find in 1 8 1 9 , e x p r e s s e d by t h e p e n o f t h e O r a t o r i a n f r i a r M a n u e l G o m e z M a r i n , t h e essence of t h e a r g u m e n t of F a t h e r Florencia in 1668: tradition a n d national interest. 4 2
H o w e v e r , t h e d e b a t e was n o t closed, a n d twenty-two years after Mexican I n d e p e n d e n c e another adversary accepted the challenge t h r o w n d o w n by Mufioz, t h e challenge of M a d r i d . Licentiate Carlos M a r i a d e B u s t a m a n t e , o n e o f t h e official h i s t o r i a n s o f M e x i c o a t t h e t i m e , p u b l i s h e d in 1 8 4 3 The Apparition of Guadalupe at Mexico City, Vindicated from the Defects Attributed to It by Dr. Don Juan Bautista Munoz in the Dissertation That He Read in the Academia Real de La Historia of Madrid. Bustamante's refutation naturally reflected the separation f r o m S p a i n t h a t h a d t a k e n p l a c e s i n c e t h e p u b l i c a t i o n o f t h e essay o f F a t h e r G o m e z M a r i n . I n t h e m a n n e r o f M i e r in t h e Historia de la Revolution de Nueva Espana, B u s t a m a n t e d e n o u n c e d t h e c o l o n i a l hist o r i o g r a p h y , c l a i m i n g t h a t f e a r o f r e p r i s a l h a d k e p t it f r o m t e l l i n g t h e t r u t h . I n view o f t h e t r i b u l a t i o n s w h i c h S a h a g u n ' s Historia h a d suff e r e d , w h a t c r e d i t c o u l d b e g i v e n t o it? If T o r q u e m a d a h a d n o t s p o k e n o f t h e a p p a r i t i o n s o f G u a d a l u p e , it w a s b e c a u s e h e w a s c o n s t r a i n e d , like h i s c o n t e m p o r a r i e s , p o t e n t i a l victims o f gachupin t y r a n n y , t o p r a c tice s e l f - c e n s u r e . F o r B u s t a m a n t e t h e first a n d d e c i s i v e p r o o f is t h i s : "We k n o w t h a t J e s u s C h r i s t , t h e s e c o n d celestial A d a m , w a s t i e d so closely in all r e s p e c t s t o t h e s e c o n d E v e , M a r y H i s m o t h e r , . . . t h a t h e d i d n o t w i s h t o r e t i r e to t h e s i d e o f H i s F a t h e r , n o r e n t e r i n t o H i s G l o r y , w i t h o u t h a v i n g left h i s m o s t h o l y m o t h e r c o m m e n d e d t o t h e recently b o r n C h u r c h . " D i d B u s t a m a n t e r e a l l y b e l i e v e in t h e c o g e n c y o f so g e n e r a l a n a r g u m e n t ? It is difficult t o say, b u t h i s c o n t e m p o r a r y L o r e n z o d e Z a v a l a , s p e a k i n g o f his Cuadro Histbrico, c a l l e d it " a f a r r a g o o f false, a b s u r d , a n d r i d i c u l o u s s t a t e m e n t s . " 43
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F o r B u s t a m a n t e t h e n , t h e h i s t o r i o g r a p h i c silence of t h e c e n t u r y a n d m o r e t h a t f o l l o w e d t h e a p p a r i t i o n s o f 1 5 3 1 is t o b e e x p l a i n e d b y c o l o n i a l o p p r e s s i o n . T h e r e s t o f his d i s c o u r s e r e v e a l s h o w m u c h his i d e a s o w e d t o M i e r . R e c a l l i n g t h a t t h e V i r g i n M a r y h a d s e r v e d as g u a r d i a n o f t h e a p o s t l e s , n o t a b l y o f S a i n t J a m e s in S p a i n , h e a d d e d : " W h o k n o w s w h a t M a r y m a y h a v e d o n e f o r T h o m a s , if it is t r u e t h a t this a p o s t l e w a s c h a r g e d w i t h s p r e a d i n g t h e L i g h t in t h e E a s t I n d i e s ? " To which B u s t a m a n t e a p p e n d e d this f o o t n o t e : "Today t h e r e is n o t t h e s l i g h t e s t d o u b t t h a t t h e G o s p e l w a s a n n o u n c e d i n o u r A m e r i c a to t h e a n c i e n t I n d i a n s by a n apostle, s h o w n by F a t h e r M i e r to h a v e b e e n S a i n t T h o m a s , k n o w n by t h e n a m e o f Q u e t z a l c o a t l . " 4 6
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Apparitions
T h e r e follows a n a c c o u n t o f t h e gift o f Q u e t z a l c o a t l ' s r i t u a l f i n e r y t o C o r t e s a n d o f t h e C o n q u e r o r ' s r u s e , a c c o m p a n i e d by a r e f l e c t i o n t h a t reveals the c o n t e m p o r a r y climate of o p i n i o n : "A criminal, ridiculous illusion, [ t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f C o r t e s w i t h Q u e t z a l c o a t l ] , w i t h o u t w h i c h Moctezuma would have never received him n o r m a d e presents to h i m ; b u t f o r t h a t illusion, t h e S p a n i s h a r m y w o u l d p r o b a b l y n e v e r h a v e p e n e t r a t e d t h e i n t e r i o r . " F o r t h e s p a c e o f a m o m e n t , in t h e i m a g i n a t i o n o f t h e a u t h o r a n d h i s r e a d e r s , t h e C o n q u e s t itself h a s b e e n a b o l i s h e d , t h e S p a n i a r d s d r i v e n i n t o t h e sea; t r e a c h e r y a l o n e could h a v e given t h e m victory o v e r t h e Mexicans. T h e a t m o s p h e r e of o p e n w a r w h i c h t h e n c h a r a c t e r i z e d S p a n i s h - M e x i c a n r e l a t i o n s ins p i r e d a n e w r e v i s i o n o f t h e h i s t o r i o g r a p h y o f t h e C o n q u e s t , as s h o w n b y o t h e r c o n t e m p o r a r y G u a d a l u p a n d o c u m e n t s . T h e Manifiesto de la junta guadalupana, p u b l i s h e d in 1 8 3 1 , o n t h e o c c a s i o n o f t h e t r i c e n t e n a r y o f t h e " a p p a r i t i o n s , " c o n t a i n e d a Disertacibn historico-critica sobre la aparicion, ( a g a i n by B u s t a m a n t e ) w h o s e title w a s b o r r o w e d f r o m M u f i o z . I n t h i s " D i s s e r t a t i o n " B u s t a m a n t e r e c a l l e d t h a t in 1 8 2 9 h e h a d p u b l i s h e d B o o k 12 o f S a h a g u n , " a s m a l l w o r k w h i c h I p u b l i s h e d to show t h e cruelties of t h e S p a n i a r d s , a n d to m a k e t h e Mexicans u n d e r s t a n d t h a t t h e fate o f C o r t e s ' v i c t i m s a w a i t e d t h e m if t h e S p a n i s h e x p e d i t i o n w h i c h was t h e n b e i n g p r e p a r e d a n d w h i c h l a n d e d t h e following year at T a m p i c o , u n d e r t h e o r d e r s of G e n e r a l I s i d r o B a r r a d a s , s u c c e e d e d in p e n e t r a t i n g t h e c o u n t r y . " I n a n Informe critico-legal. . . para el reconocimiento de la Imagen de Nra. Sefiora de Guadalupe, o r d e r e d b y t h e c h a p t e r o f t h e c a t h e d r a l o f M e x i c o City, in 1 8 3 5 , w e also r e a d : " T h e S p a n i a r d s t r a c e e v e r y t h i n g b a c k t o Spain . . . without reflecting o n the essential difference b e t w e e n i m a g e a n d i m a g e , o v e r l o o k i n g t h e fact t h a t t h e M e x i c a n i m a g e is original." T h e f o l l o w i n g y e a r , 1 8 3 6 , a p p e a r e d El gran dia de Mexico (its d a t e , D e c e m b e r 10, r e v e a l s a t o n c e t h a t it h a s t o d o w i t h t h e a p p a r i t i o n s o f t h e V i r g i n o f G u a d a l u p e ) . H e r e w e r e a d t h a t M a r y w i s h e d in 1 5 3 1 " t o c o n s o l e t h a t afflicted p e o p l e [ t h e I n d i a n s ] . . . . T h e A r c h b i s h o p , D o n F r a y J u a n d e Z u m a r r a g a , w a s o b l i g e d t o c o n c e a l t h e e v e n t , lest it b e c o m e a new motive of persecution of the u n h a p p y people w h o h a d received [that gift]." Clearly, Spanish cruelty a n d the oppression t h a t r e i g n e d in Mexico w e r e t h e only reasons for t h e absence of aut h e n t i c t e s t i m o n y f o r t h e " a p p a r i t i o n s " o f G u a d a l u p e . I n t h e critical y e a r s d u r i n g w h i c h M e x i c a n s lived u n d e r t h e t h r e a t o f a m i l i t a r y r e c o n q u e s t b y t h e S p a n i a r d s ( t h e d i s p a t c h o f C o u n t C a l d e r o n d e la B a r c a as t h e first a m b a s s a d o r o f S p a i n in 1 8 4 0 m a r k e d t h e b e g i n n i n g of a detente), the polemic c o n c e r n i n g the apparitions of G u a d a l u p e i n i t i a t e d h a l f a c e n t u r y b e f o r e by J u a n B a u t i s t a M u f i o z w a s still o n e o f the forms of the creole challenge to Spain. 4 8
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Guadalupe, a Mexican National Emblem
The Burgeoning and of the Cult
of the Sanctuary (1555-1831)
(Tepeyac)
I n 1 5 5 5 A r c h b i s h o p M o n t u f a r f o u n d e d t h e first basilica o f G u a d a l u p e , a m o d e s t s t r u c t u r e , f o r n o t u n t i l 1 6 0 9 w a s t h e first " t e m ple in vaulted m a s o n r y " built at Tepeyac. C o n s t r u c t i o n of this n e w s a n c t u a r y was m a d e possible by a public subscription, e v i d e n c e t h a t the cult of G u a d a l u p e of Tepeyac already h a d e n o u g h devotees to collect t h e f u n d s n e c e s s a r y t o b u i l d a n edifice a t a t i m e w h e n a n u p s u r g e o f c o n s t r u c t i o n in M e x i c o City m o b i l i z e d t h e a v a i l a b l e w o r k f o r c e a n d i n e v i t a b l y b r o u g h t a s h a r p rise in c o n s t r u c t i o n c o s t s . W e also k n o w t h a t t h e first c h a p e l (hermita) w a s b u i l t w i t h t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n s o f d e v o t e e s . A c c o r d i n g t o a d o c u m e n t c i t e d by F a t h e r C u e v a s , b y 1 5 7 0 t h e basilica a l r e a d y h a d "six o r e i g h t t h o u s a n d p e s o s in r e v e n u e . " T h e t e m p l e , w h o s e first s t o n e w a s l a i d i n 1 6 0 9 , w a s finished t h i r t e e n y e a r s later, a n d t h e sacred i m a g e was installed t h e r e by A r c h b i s h o p J u a n d e la S e r n a , in 1 6 2 2 . S i n c e t h e m u l t i t u d e o f p i l g r i m s c o n s t a n t l y g r e w , a n d t h e c u l t o f G u a d a l u p e h e l d a n e v e r m o r e official p l a c e in t h e life o f N e w S p a i n , it w a s d e c i d e d in 1 6 9 4 t o u n d e r t a k e t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a n e w basilica, l a r g e r t h a n its p r e d e c e s s o r . T h i s is t h e p r e s e n t s t r u c t u r e , w h i c h is t h r e a t e n e d w i t h r u i n as a r e s u l t o f t h e s i n k i n g o f t h e g r o u n d . T h i s c h u r c h m e a s u r e s 77 m e t e r s in l e n g t h , 3 7 m e t e r s in w i d t h , a n d 3 0 m e t e r s i n h e i g h t ; t h e s e facts give u s a n i d e a o f its size r e l a t i v e t o t h a t o f t h e c a t h e d r a l o f M e x i c o City a n d t h e o t h e r c a t h e d r a l s o f N e w S p a i n . T h e first basilica, c a l l e d " o f t h e I n d i a n s , " h o u s e d t h e v e n e r a t e d i m a g e d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d of c o n s t r u c t i o n of t h e p r e s e n t t e m p l e , which was b u i l t o n t h e e x a c t site o f its p r e d e c e s s o r ( r e m i n d i n g u s o f t h e a n c i e n t Mexican ritual practice of c o n s t r u c t i n g new p y r a m i d s over t h e old ones). B e g i n n i n g in 1 6 9 4 — o r , in a n y c a s e , i n 1 7 0 9 — t h e s a n c t u a r y o f T e p e y a c t h u s w a s d i s t i n g u i s h e d f r o m o t h e r M a r i a n s a n c t u a r i e s in N e w S p a i n b y t h e size o f its basilica, w h i c h m a d e it c o m p a r a b l e t o a p r o v i n cial c a t h e d r a l , s i t u a t e d o u t s i d e M e x i c o City. R o b l e s , i n h i s Diario, 274
275
Guadalupe,
a Mexican
National
Emblem
r e p o r t s that in 1675 (almost twenty years before t h e establishment of t h e n e w c o l l e g i a t e c h u r c h ) " w o r k was b e g u n o n t h e h i g h w a y t o O u r L a d y o f G u a d a l u p e . . . ; a l o n g t h e w a y a r e fifteen c h a p e l s c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e fifteen m y s t e r i e s o f t h e R o s a r y . " T h i s e n t r y s h o w s t h e i m p o r t a n c e that t h e viceroy m u s t have attached to the sanctuary of T e p e y a c , t o l i n k it t o M e x i c o City b y a h i g h w a y w i t h fifteen c h a p e l s . T h e s a m e e n t r y tells u s t h a t t h e c u l t o f G u a d a l u p e was a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e c u l t o f t h e r o s a r y , D o m i n i c a n i n its o r i g i n b u t l a t e r b e c o m e a typical asp e c t o f J e s u i t religiosity. D e c e m b e r 12, 1 6 7 8 , feast d a y o f t h e i m a g e , " w a t e r r a n i n t o t h e h o l y w a t e r b a s i n o f G u a d a l u p e b y o r d e r o f his E x c e l l e n c y a n d a t h i s e x p e n s e . " R o b l e s r e p o r t s t h a t o n S u n d a y , A u g u s t 1, 1 6 9 4 , c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e n e w basilica h a v i n g b e g u n , " t h e c u r a t e s o f S a i n t F r a n c i s b e g a n t o collect a l m s f o r t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e c h u r c h o f O u r L a d y o f G u a d a l u p e ; t h e first gift w a s o f 5 0 , 0 0 0 p e s o s g i v e n b y D o n P e d r o Ruiz d e Castafieda, a rich m e r c h a n t , a n d by licentiate D o n 3 V e n t u r a M e d i n a , c u r a t e , b o t h Creoles." T h e m o s t v e n e r a b l e c o n v e n t o f M e x i c o City a p p e a l e d t o t h e d e v o u t t o s u p p l e m e n t t h e l a r g e i n i d a l s u m d o n a t e d by t w o b e n e f a c t o r s , b o t h Creoles, as R o b l e s is c a r e f u l t o point out. Robles obviously w a n t e d to m a k e clear that t h e cult of G u a d a l u p e w a s t h e p r o p e r t y o f h i s c r e o l e c o u n t r y m e n , implicitly d i s t i n g u i s h e d f r o m t h e gachupines. 1
2
To this material flowering—the construction of ever l a r g e r a n d m o r e s u m p t u o u s basilicas, t h r e e b e i n g b u i l t in a c e n t u r y a n d a half, a n d a n access h i g h w a y f r o m M e x i c o C i t y — n a t u r a l l y c o r r e s p o n d e d t h e g r o w i n g b r i l l i a n c e o f t h e s a c r e d feast d a y s a n d t h e m a r k s o f official d e v o t i o n . I n O c t o b e r 1 6 0 3 t h e c o r r e g i d o r o f M e x i c o City " s a i d t h a t , as t h e t o w n c o u n c i l k n o w s , t h e M a r q u e s a n d his l a d y h a v e r e q u e s t e d t h e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t w o plays [comedias] a t G u a d a l u p e , a n d t o this e n d h e [ t h e c o r r e g i d o r ] c o n t r a c t e d w i t h V e l a s q u e z a n d his t r o u p e t h a t t h e y s h o u l d twice a p p e a r in t h e c h a p e l o f G u a d a l u p e a n d t h e r e give t h e plays for t h e i r Excellencies. T h e price a g r e e d o n was two h u n d r e d gold p e s o s . " We h a v e s o m e indications t h a t Tepeyac early b e c a m e a p l a c e w h e r e d e v o t e e s w e n t t o m e d i t a t e a t critical j u n c t u r e s in t h e i r lives. G u i j o r e p o r t s t h a t in 1 6 6 1 t h e d u k e o f A l b u q u e r q u e , t h e d e p a r t i n g v i c e r o y w h o h a d b e e n s u b j e c t e d to a s e v e r e juicio de residencia "left this t o w n o n S a t u r d a y , M a r c h 2 6 , a t 2 P . M . , a m i d all t h i s u n p l e a s a n t n e s s , f o r t h e c h a p e l o f G u a d a l u p e ; t h e v i c e r o y , his wife, a n d s o m e c o u r t i e r s a c c o m p a n i e d h i m o n t h i s j o u r n e y . " It also s e e m s t h a t it b e c a m e a n e s t a b l i s h e d c u s t o m a t t h e v i c e r e g a l c o u r t t o g o o u t as f a r as Tepeyac to m e e t distinguished guests a n d to a c c o m p a n y t h e m , o n t h e i r d e p a r t u r e , as f a r as t h e basilica o f G u a d a l u p e . R o b l e s w r i t e s i n his Diario t h a t D e c e m b e r 2 9 , 1 6 8 1 , " M o n s i g n o r t h e B i s h o p o f M i c h o a c a n e n t e r e d G u a d a l u p e in t h e a f t e r n o o n , a n d t h e city c o u n c i l 4
5
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GUADALUPE, OR THE N E W EPIPHANY
[of M e x i c o City] w e n t t o s e e a n d r e c e i v e h i m , b u t h e h a d a l r e a d y left t h e c h u r c h w h e n they a r r i v e d . " W h e n t h e viceroy, C o n d e d e Galve, left f o r S p a i n o n M a y 10, 1 6 9 8 , " t h e A u d i e n c i a , t h e t r i b u n a l s , a n d t h e n e w v i c e r o y a c c o m p a n i e d h i m as far as O u r L a d y o f G u a d a l u p e . " Again, o n J a n u a r y 25, 1702, "the O i d o r e s a n d m a n y o t h e r persons w e n t to G u a d a l u p e t o visit t h e P r e s i d e n t o f G u a t e m a l a , w h o is t h e r e t o m a k e a n o v e n a t o O u r L a d y b e f o r e c o n t i n u i n g his j o u r n e y , a n d h e d i d n o t c o m e t o M e x i c o City so as t o a v o i d h a v i n g t o p a y official v i s i t s . " A f u t u r e a s y l u m f o r all C h r i s t e n d o m o n t h e d a y o f j u d g m e n t , T e p e y a c w a s also a r e f u g e f r o m t r i b u l a t i o n s , t h e p l a c e f o r s a y i n g f a r e w e l l t o v i c e r o y s w h o h a d c o m e t o t h e e n d o f t h e i r t e r m s o f office, a n d a k i n d o f celestial e m b a s s y , e n j o y i n g t h e p r i v i l e g e o f e x t r a t e r r i t o r i a l i t y a b o u t a l e a g u e a n d half to the n o r t h of the capital. T h i s c h a r a c t e r of Tepeyac is c o n f i r m e d b y a n o t h e r fact c i t e d b y G u i j o in his Diario: " T h u r s d a y , J u l y 2 2 , 1 6 6 0 , d i e d G a r c i Tello d e S a n d o v a l , f o r m e r c o r r e g i d o r o f this city; h e h a d b e e n s u s p e n d e d f r o m office J u n e o f last y e a r ; h e d i e d l e a v i n g m a n y d e b t s , a n d his wife b r o u g h t h i s b o d y t o t h e c h a p e l o f G u a d a l u p e , w h e r e h e was b u r i e d the same d a y . " 6
7
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T h u s T e p e y a c h a d b e c o m e a s a c r e d a s y l u m f o r t h e d e a d as well as t h e living, a n d a p l a c e o f r e t r e a t f o r n o t a b l e s ; t h e h i g h w a y b u i l t in 1 6 7 5 w a s , as it w e r e , a g r a n d d r i v e w h i c h e n d e d a t t h e v i c e r e g a l p a l a c e a n d a t r i u m p h a l a v e n u e l e a d i n g t o M e x i c o City. T h e s e w e r e so m a n y s e m i p r o f a n e m a r k s of devotion. T h e a c c u m u l a t i o n of sacred p o w e r r e p r e s e n t e d by t h e i m a g e of G u a d a l u p e early inspired great pilgrimages a n d o t h e r mass cult manifestations. T h e pilgrimages of twentieth-century I n d i a n s to Tepeyac give s o m e i d e a o f t h e vast e n c a m p m e n t s t h a t a r o s e o n t h e a p p r o a c h e s t o t h e s a n c t u a r y in p a s t c e n t u r i e s , s e a s o n a l m i g r a t i o n s t h a t b e g a n a t t h e a p p r o a c h of S e p t e m b e r 8 in colonial times a n d p r o b a b l y Dec e m b e r 12 a f t e r I n d e p e n d e n c e . T h e collective m a n i f e s t a t i o n s o f t h e I n d i a n f a i t h — t h e mitotes o f I n d i a n s o r n a m e n t e d w i t h f e a t h e r s , d a n c i n g w i t h w o o d e n bells a t t a c h e d t o t h e i r a n k l e s a n d w r i s t s ; t h e s a c r a m e n t a l p l a y s in N a h u a t l , i m i t a t i n g t h e m y s t e r y plays i n t r o d u c e d b y t h e missionaries, a n d r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e a p p a r i t i o n s of G u a d a l u p e to J u a n D i e g o — c o m p o s e d a colorful fresco t h a t c o n t i n u e d t h e sacred dances of the ancient polytheism a n d the Christian mysteries of m e d i e v a l S p a i n . I n d i a n f a i t h c o n t i n u e d t o e x p r e s s itself in A z t e c r i t u a l ; t h e d e v o t e e b u r n e d i n c e n s e (copal) in a little clay v a s e a n d o f f e r e d flowers o r e a r s o f m a i z e t o t h e h o l y i m a g e ; h e j o i n e d t o t h e s e i m m e m o r i a l gestures t h e signs of t h e cross a n d t h e genuflections of C a t h o l i c r i t u a l . T h e d e v o t e e r e g a r d e d his p r a y e r , in t h e c a s e o f a M a r i a n litany, as a c o n j u r a t i o n ; it w a s n o r m a l l y a c c o m p a n i e d b y a p r a y e r r e q u e s t i n g t h e Virgin's b o u n t y . I n e x c h a n g e for his offering,
277
Guadalupe,
a Mexican
National
Emblem
t h e I n d i a n s o u g h t to m a k e t h e divine spirit i n t e r v e n e in his favor; f a i l u r e o f t h e p r a y e r t o a c h i e v e its p u r p o s e m i g h t c a u s e t h e d e v o t e e t o g r o w a n g r y a n d c u r s e t h e s a c r e d i m a g e . T h a t t h e t r a d i t i o n a l b e l i e f in T o n a n t z i n o f I n d i a n p i l g r i m s t o T e p e y a c r e m a i n e d basically t h e s a m e is a t t e s t e d b y S a h a g u n in t h e s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y , by T o r q u e m a d a in t h e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y , by F r a y S e r v a n d o T e r e s a d e M i e r i n t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y . E x p l i c i t t e s t i m o n y by t h e a r c h e p i s c o p a l a u t h o r i t y confirms that t h e n a t u r e of t h e cult of t h e I n d i a n pilgrims of Tepeyac was n o t " a m b i g u o u s , " as it h a s o f t e n b e e n d e s c r i b e d , b u t c l e a r l y foreign to Christianity. I n 1753 A r c h b i s h o p R u b i o y Salinas d e c l a r e d t h a t h e h a d c r e a t e d s c h o o l s in his d i o c e s e f o r t h e t e a c h i n g o f S p a n i s h to t h e I n d i a n s in c o m p l i a n c e w i t h t h e law, b u t h e d e p i c t e d t h e s i t u a t i o n , b a s i n g h i m s e l f o n a r e p o r t p r e s e n t e d b y t h e a b b o t a n d t h e can o n s o f t h e c o l l e g i a t e c h u r c h o f G u a d a l u p e , as follows: " A m o n g t h e I n d i a n s w h o frequently c o m e to t h e s a n c t u a r y a n d to the collegiate c h u r c h of G u a d a l u p e , a great n u m b e r are completely ignorant of C a s t i l i a n . . . . T h a t m a y b e t h e r e a s o n w h y t h e s e I n d i a n s d o n o t ask f o r t h e s a c r a m e n t s a n d stay a w a y f r o m t h e s e r m o n s . . . a n d since a t t h e collegiate c h u r c h t h e r e are n o clergy w h o k n o w t h e native languages, t h e I n d i a n s f r e q u e n t l y l e a v e , b e c a u s e t h e y c a n find n o o u t l e t f o r t h e i r devotion." 1 0
T h e S p a n i s h n a m e o f " G u a d a l u p e " w a s still u n k n o w n t o t h e m a j o r ity o f t h e I n d i a n p i l g r i m s t o T e p e y a c — w h e t h e r t h e y s p o k e N a h u a t l , the l a n g u a g e of t h e majority, O t o m i , o r s o m e o t h e r t o n g u e — i n t h e m i d - e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y , at t h e very t i m e w h e n t h e H o l y See gave a n indirect a c k n o w l e d g m e n t of t h e tradition of the apparitions of Tep e y a c , a t r a d i t i o n w h o s e m o s t solid f o u n d a t i o n s w e r e t h e N a h u a t l d o c u m e n t s c i t e d by B e c e r r a T a n c o , a n d e s p e c i a l l y by B o t u r i n i . F o r t h e R o m a n d o c t o r s it was b u t o n e m o r e i m a g e o f M a r y t h e I m m a c u l a t e , f o r t h e S p a n i a r d s it w a s a c o p y o f t h e G u a d a l u p e o f E s t r e m a d u r a , b u t in t h e e y e s o f t h e I n d i a n s it w a s t h e m o t h e r - g o d d e s s o f t h e A z t e c s , T o n a n t z i n , w h o h a d always d w e l l e d at T e p e y a c . O n e w o u l d like t o k n o w t h e e t h n i c c o m p o s i t i o n o f t h e s o l e m n p r o c e s s i o n o f D e c e m b e r 12, w h i c h R o b l e s briefly m e n t i o n s . " M o n d a y t h e e l e v e n t h , in t h e a f t e r n o o n , t h e p r o c e s s i o n o f O u r L a d y o f G u a d a l u p e left f r o m t h e c o n v e n t d e la M e r c e d . " H e h a s m o r e t o tell a b o u t t h e e n d o f t h e feast d a y s at T e p e y a c , D e c e m b e r 3 1 : " O n t h e 3 1 s t t h e c u p o l a of t h e n e w c h u r c h of O u r L a d y of G u a d a l u p e was c o m p l e t e d ; t h e I n d i a n s lit m a n y fires a n d t w o p l a y s w e r e s t a g e d , a n d t h e r e was a f e a s t w i t h a m a s s s u n g as a t h a n k s g i v i n g . " T h i s was in 1 7 0 2 , a n d b y t h a t d a t e t h e c u l t o f G u a d a l u p e h a d b e e n a c o m p l e t e l y official c u l t ( a n d n o t s i m p l y a p o p u l a r I n d i a n cult) f o r a l m o s t h a l f a c e n t u r y . T h e y e a r 1 7 0 3 w a s m a r k e d b y a G u a d a l u p a n festival a t M e x i c o City, 1 1
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in o n e o f t h e m o s t f a m o u s c o n v e n t s o f t h e c a p i t a l : " W e d n e s d a y , D e c e m b e r 12, t h e r e w a s c e l e b r a t e d a t t h e c o n v e n t d e la M e r c e d w i t h g r e a t p o m p t h e feast o f O u r L a d y o f G u a d a l u p e a n d t h e d e d i c a t i o n o f h e r cloister; a g r e a t m a n y p e o p l e a t t e n d e d . " T h e diary of A n t o n i o d e R o b l e s , l i c e n t i a t e in c a n o n law, c o m m i s s a r y o f t h e I n q u i s i t i o n , is l a c k i n g in w a r m t h ; it is little m o r e t h a n a s e r i e s o f d r y n o t a t i o n s o f d e a t h s a n d civil o r ecclesiastical n e w s . R o b l e s m e n t i o n s R e m e d i o s m u c h m o r e o f t e n t h a n G u a d a l u p e ; t h e l a t t e r cult, p o p u l a r i n o r i g i n , is m e n t i o n e d in his j o u r n a l o n l y w h e n it h a s official r e c o g n i t i o n . R o b l e s w a s c h a r y o f adjectives a n d e x p r e s s i o n s o f s u r p r i s e ; this l e n d s a s p e c i a l weight to his r e f e r e n c e to t h e " g r e a t solemnity" a n d t h e g r e a t conc o u r s e o f p e o p l e o n t h a t D e c e m b e r 12, 1 7 0 3 . P e r h a p s a b a r o q u e a n d d e t a i l e d a c c o u n t o f t h e e v e n t lies in s o m e a r c h i v a l r e p o s i t o r y . O t h e r e v i d e n c e o f t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y p o p u l a r i t y o f G u a d a l u p e is p r o v i d e d b y t h e t e s t a m e n t a r y executors of A n d r e s d e Palencia, w h o wrote t h e C o u n c i l o f t h e I n d i e s i n 1 7 1 7 t h a t " t h e y c o u l d n o t o v e r l o o k t h e fact t h a t t h e sanctuary of O u r L a d y of G u a d a l u p e was t h e principal c e n t e r o f d e v o t i o n , n o t o n l y o f M e x i c o City, b u t o f all t h e k i n g d o m s o f N e w S p a i n , a n d t h a t w h i l e t h e edifice w a s i m p o s i n g a n d s u m p t u o u s , its r e v e n u e s w e r e as m e a g e r as t h e n u m b e r o f its p r i e s t s a n d t h e a m o u n t of their p r e b e n d s . " 1 2
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A m o r e p e r s o n a l f o r m o f d e v o t i o n w a s t h a t o f n u m e r o u s Creoles, c l e r g y , a n d l a y m e n . T h e J e s u i t F l o r e n c i a l o v i n g l y d e s c r i b e d t h e effigy o f G u a d a l u p e : " I feel as if h e a r t a n d s o u l s t r a i n t o r u s h o u t t o l o o k a t h e r , a n d l o o k a g a i n , a n d love t e n d e r l y . " I n t h e a t m o s p h e r e i n w h i c h A m e r i c a n b a r o q u e a r t flourished, this o u t b u r s t s h o u l d cause n o surp r i s e ; p i e t y a n d t h e d i v i n e m y s t e r i e s w e r e d i f f u s e d b y plastic b e a u t y a n d t h e enigmatic agency of religious symbolism. However, Florencia w a s a d e v o t e e r a t h e r t h a n a n i n s p i r e d e x e g e t e , a n d it w a s t h e m o d e s t visage, t h e inexpressible serenity of t h e Virgin of Tepeyac, that t o u c h e d his h e a r t . W e m a y also r e g a r d as a t y p i c a l — i f e x t r e m e — c a s e o f G u a d a l u p a n d e v o t i o n t h e s t o r y t o l d by F a t h e r I s i d o r o Felix d e E s p i n o s a a b o u t his t e a c h e r F r a y F r a n c i s c o F r u t o s (a F r a n c i s c a n o f S a n D i e g o ) . T h e e x a m p l e o f F a t h e r F r u t o s is all t h e m o r e significant b e c a u s e h e w a s n o t c r e o l e ; it testifies t o t h e f a s c i n a t i o n t h a t t h e i m a g e o f Tepeyac exerted o n men's minds, i n d e p e n d e n t l y of t h e patrioticc h a r i s m a t i c s e n t i m e n t t h a t w a s m i n g l e d w i t h this i n f l u e n c e i n t h e c a s e of t h e Mexicans. 1 4
Fray Francisco Frutos h a d come from the convent of San Diego d e Alcala, in C a s t i l e ; Felix d e E s p i n o s a i n f o r m s u s t h a t h e w a s a g r e a t r e a d e r o f S a i n t T e r e s a d e Avila, o f J u a n d e la C r u z , a n d o f t h e V e n e r a b l e M a r i a d e la A n t i g u a . H e felt a g r e a t d e v o t i o n f o r O u r L a d y o f G u a d a l u p e of Tepeyac. H a v i n g suffered a n intestinal occlusion, h e
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w a s r e g a r d e d by p h y s i c i a n s as b e i n g in a d e s p e r a t e s t a t e , a n d d e c i d e d t o m a k e a p i l g r i m a g e t o G u a d a l u p e . C o n t r a r y t o all e x p e c t a t i o n s , h e w a s c u r e d a f t e r s e v e r a l d a y s , " s o t h a t t h e p h y s i c i a n s a c k n o w l e d g e d it was a m i r a c u l o u s c u r e . " T h e o b j e c t o f t h e m i r a c l e i m m e d i a t e l y w e n t o n foot f r o m the c o n v e n t De P r o p a g a n d a Fide of Santa C r u z d e Q u e r e t a r o , w h e r e h e t h e n was, t o t h e s a n c t u a r y o f T e p e y a c . T h e r e h e h a d the excellent p a i n t e r J u a n C o r r e a execute an exact replica of "the i m a g e p a i n t e d b y t h e a n g e l s w i t h f l o w e r s , " w i t h h i m s e l f s t a n d i n g in p r a y e r b e s i d e t h e artist, t h e t r a d i t i o n a l a t t i t u d e o f d o n o r s o n t h e r e tablos. H e also h a d a m i n i a t u r e of t h e i m a g e p a i n t e d o n a cockleshell which h e always k e p t o n his p e r s o n . H e w o u l d show this i m a g e to o t h e r s , a s k i n g t h e m to r e c i t e t h e r o s a r y a n d s i n g l i t a n i e s b e f o r e it. H a v i n g r e t u r n e d t o his c o n v e n t , F r a y F r a n c i s c o s o u g h t a n d o b t a i n e d p e r m i s s i o n t o p l a c e in t h e c h u r c h a c o p y o f G u a d a l u p e , o f t h e s a m e size as t h e o r i g i n a l , a n d daily c e l e b r a t e d m a s s in f r o n t o f t h e s a c r e d image. H e w e n t a b o u t the c o u n t r y asking for alms of candles to d e c o r a t e t h e altar of G u a d a l u p e , a n d " p e o p l e gladly gave t h e m for h e t o l d t h e m it w a s f o r t h e s a k e o f ' g o o d g r a n d m o t h e r G u a d a l u p e ' [la abuelita]." T h i s account sheds light o n t h e f o r m s a s s u m e d by the cult a m o n g r e l i g i o u s a n d l a y m e n ; it also r e v e a l s t h a t b y t h e m i d - e i g h t e e n t h century the cult of G u a d a l u p e h a d b e c o m e country-wide. 1 5
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F a t h e r F r u t o s b e c a m e a n active p r o p a g a n d i s t f o r t h e i m a g e o f G u a d a l u p e . Felix d e E s p i n o s a r e p o r t s t h a t h e collected copies of t h e s a c r e d effigy a n d " w a n t e d e v e r y h o m e t o h a v e this i m a g e o f O u r L a d y " ; if h e d i d n o t find o n e , h e o p e n l y c o m p l a i n e d , " W h y is t h e g o o d little g r a n d m o t h e r G u a d a l u p e n o t h e r e ? " ( T h e d e s c r i p t i v e p h r a s e abuelita m a y b e a S p a n i s h t r a n s l a t i o n o f tonantzin, a t e r m w h i c h F a t h e r F r u t o s m a y h a v e used for O u r L a d y w h e n s p e a k i n g to Indians.) W h e n h e d i e d ( s h o r t l y a f t e r t h e a r r i v a l o f F r a y A n t o n i o M a r g i l as g u a r d i a n o f his c o n v e n t ) a g r e a t l i g h t a p p e a r e d in t h e sky, a c c o r d i n g t o h i s b i o g r a p h e r . H e d i e d w i t h his e y e s fixed o n t h e i m a g e o f G u a d a l u p e a n d called o n H o l y M a r y w i t h h i s last b r e a t h . T h i s e d i f y i n g e n d a t t h e a g e of forty-six shows h o w h a g i o g r a p h i c traditions a n d m i r a c u l o u s i m a g e s p l a y e d i n t o e a c h o t h e r ' s h a n d s . T h e life o f F a t h e r F r u t o s , d e v o t e d to G u a d a l u p e , served t h e e x p a n s i o n of t h e cult of T e p e y a c ; r e c i p r o c a l l y , t h e p r o d i g i e s w o r k e d in h i s f a v o r by t h e s a c r e d i m a g e w e r e t h e first s t e p s i n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f a h a g i o g r a p h i c l e g e n d w h i c h c o u l d h a v e l e d t o his u l t i m a t e b e a t i f i c a t i o n . 1 7
T h e c u l t o f G u a d a l u p e r a i s e d t h e M e x i c a n Creoles t o a p i t c h o f e x a l t a t i o n c o m p a r a b l e in S p a n i s h r e l i g i o u s h i s t o r y t o t h a t o f t h e S p a n i a r d s w h o in t h e g r e a t d a y s o f t h e R o a d o f S a i n t J a m e s p r o p o s e d to t r a n s f e r t h e capital of t h e c h u r c h f r o m R o m e to t h e t o m b of t h e a p o s t l e a t C o m p o s t e l a in Galicia. The Translation of the Church to
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Guadalupe w a s p r e a c h e d by t h e J e s u i t C a r r a n z a in t h a t s a m e city o f Q u e r e t a r o w h e r e , s o m e y e a r s e a r l i e r , t h e F r a n c i s c a n F r u t o s (if M i g u e l S a n c h e z w a s t h e S a i n t J o h n o f G u a d a l u p e , F r u t o s w a s h e r local S a i n t P a u l ) h a d s p r e a d t h e G u a d a l u p a n G o o d W o r d , a u t h e n t i c a t e d by t h e m i r a c l e w h i c h a n s w e r e d his a p p e a l t o G o d . W h e n , a half-century later, Mexican i n d e p e n d e n c e was w o n u n d e r t h e b a n n e r of G u a d a l u p e , she was again consecrated Protectress of Mexico. T h e project of a m e d a l to be struck a n d issued to r e w a r d the w i n n e r s o f " t h e s e c u l a r g a m e s in h o n o r o f t h e m i r a c u l o u s a p p a r i t i o n of o u r Lady of G u a d a l u p e , " o r g a n i z e d o n the occasion of G u a d a l u p e ' s t r i c e n t e n a r y in 1 8 3 1 , e x a c t l y t e n y e a r s a f t e r t h e w i n n i n g o f I n d e p e n d e n c e , r e a d s as follows: T h e prizes could consist of e n g r a v e d m e d a l s . . . O n t h e obverse A m e r i c a c o u l d b e r e p r e s e n t e d as a y o u n g w o m a n d r e s s e d in t h e m a n n e r of t h e ancient I n d i a n nobles, pointing with h e r right h a n d to the i m a g e of O u r L a d y of G u a d a l u p e d e s c e n d i n g f r o m t h e sky, a n d w i t h t h e left t o b r o k e n c h a i n s , b a r s o f p r e c i o u s m e t a l , a n d a c o r n u c o p i a lavishing every kind of fruit u p o n the earth. T h e u p p e r p a r t c o u l d d i s p l a y t h i s m o t t o : Cunctis Prcetiosior ilia, w h i c h m e a n s in C a s t i l i a n " N o n e c o m p a r e s w i t h h e r . " T h e r e v e r s e c o u l d d i s p l a y this i n s c r i p t i o n : " M e x i c o — T o h e r d i v i n e Protectress—Maria d e G u a d a l u p e — F o r three centuries of benefits—In the year 1 8 3 1 . " 1 9
Guadalupe,
Queen of the
Mexicans
T h e c o n q u e s t o f M e x i c a n r e l i g i o u s life in t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y by t h e c u l t o f t h e " p r o d i g i o u s i m a g e " o f T e p e y a c h a d s e c o n d a r y effects in m o s t a s p e c t s o f social life. O n e o f t h e m o s t o r d i n a r y o f t h o s e effects, in a s e n s e , y e t v e r y significant, w a s t h e v o g u e o f G u a d a l u p e as a g i v e n n a m e in N e w S p a i n ( a n d l a t e r in i n d e p e n d e n t M e x i c o , d o w n t o t h e p r e s e n t ) . I t a p p e a r s ( a l t h o u g h i n t e n s i v e r e s e a r c h in s u r v i v i n g p a r i s h a r c h i v e s w o u l d b e n e c e s s a r y t o c o n f i r m it) t h a t t h e g i v e n n a m e o f G u a d a l u p e ( g i v e n t o m e n as well as w o m e n ) d i d n o t a p p e a r in N e w S p a i n b e f o r e t h e s e c o n d h a l f o f t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y , t h a t is, l o n g after O u r Lady of G u a d a l u p e h a d b e e n sworn patroness of Mexico City a g a i n s t floods a n d t h e w o r k o f M i g u e l S a n c h e z h a d c e r t i f i e d t h e l e g e n d o f t h e " a p p a r i t i o n s . " S o r J u a n a I n e s d e la C r u z m e n t i o n s a " D o n a M a r i a d e G u a d a l u p e A l e n c a s t r e , " b u t she was a lady of t h e v i c e r o y ' s c o u r t , p r o b a b l y b o r n in S p a i n , w h o b e l o n g e d t o a n o b l e p e n i n s u l a r family a n d w a s t h e r e f o r e b a p t i z e d w i t h t h e n a m e o f G u a d a l u p e o f E s t r e m a d u r a . T h a t w a s in t h e m i d d l e o f t h e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y . M i e r i n d i r e c t l y r e v e a l s t h a t it w a s f a s h i o n a b l e in
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M e x i c o City a t t h e e n d o f t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y t o n a m e o n e ' s d a u g h t e r " G u a d a l u p e " ; c r i t i c i z i n g a gachupin f o r p r e t e n d i n g t o love M e x i c o , h e w r o t e : " T h i s b a n d i t o f a B r a n c i f o r t e n a m e d his d a u g h t e r ' G u a d a l u p e ' for this reason, b u t n o s o o n e r h a d h e r e t u r n e d to Spain than he changed her n a m e . " 2 0
W h a t e v e r t h e t r u t h o f M i e r ' s c h a r g e , this is e v i d e n c e o f social p r e s s u r e in f a v o r o f t h e g i v e n n a m e " G u a d a l u p e . " A t t h a t p e r i o d , i n t h e H i s p a n i c w o r l d , t h e c h o i c e o f a g i v e n n a m e w a s a r e l i g i o u s act; t o n a m e a child " G u a d a l u p e " was equivalent to d e v o t i n g h e r to that s a c r e d i m a g e ; it c r e a t e d a b o n d o f a l l e g i a n c e a n d p r o t e c t i o n . T h e c h o o s i n g of t h e n a m e " G u a d a l u p e " by a p e r s o n t a k i n g religious vows is still m o r e p e r s u a s i v e , f r o m this p o i n t o f view; I c a n cite a t least o n e , p r e s e r v e d in t h e title o f a s e r m o n o f a c a n o n o f G u a d a l a j a r a . O n J a n u a r y 15, 1 7 9 7 , a c e r t a i n D o n a J u a n a M a r i a J o s e f a S a n c h e z L e n e r o t o o k t h e veil in t h e D o m i n i c a n c o n v e n t o f S a n t a M a r i a d e las G r a c i a s d e Guadalajara, u n d e r the n a m e of Sor J u a n a Maria d e G u a d a l u p e . T h i s c a s e is c o m p l e t e l y a n a l o g o u s t o t h a t o f t h e m a n y r e l i g i o u s w h o a t t h e s a m e p e r i o d in N e w S p a i n t o o k t h e r e l i g i o u s n a m e " F r a n c i s X a v i e r " o r o f t h e n u n s w h o , like S o r J u a n a I n e s d e la C r u z , b o r n J u a n a d e Asbaje, chose t h e n a m e of "Santa I n e s , " the object of a w i d e s p r e a d cult. T h e " G u a d a l u p e n i z a t i o n " of N e w Spain e x t e n d e d to t o p o n y m s . I n his Diccionario geogrdfico-historico de las Indias Occidentales o America, p u b l i s h e d in M a d r i d in 1 7 8 7 , A l c e d o m e n t i o n s u n d e r t h e r u b r i c " G u a d a l u p e " ( b e s i d e s t h e i s l a n d o f t h e L e s s e r A n t i l l e s ) fifteen t o w n s o r villages a n d t w o r i v e r s . U n f o r t u n a t e l y h e d o e s n o t i n d i c a t e t h e p r e c i s e o r i g i n o f e a c h a p p e l l a t i o n , o r t h e d a t e . (A h i s t o r y o f t h e n a m e s o f M e x i c a n villages, o r r a t h e r o f t h e i r c h a n g e s o f n a m e , c o u l d s h e d l i g h t o n t h e intrahistory o f M e x i c o ; o n l y o u r i n e p t i t u d e p r e v e n t s u s f r o m s e e i n g its visible signs.) T h e m a j o r i t y o f G u a d a l u p e s listed b y A l c e d o ( h e m u s t h a v e o v e r l o o k e d s o m e ) w e r e in N e w S p a i n . A G u a d a l u p e o f P e r u , in t h e b i s h o p r i c o f T r u j i l l o , o w e d its n a m e t o t h e i m a g e o f E s t r e m a d u r a ; a n o t h e r in N e w G r a n a d a a n d a t h i r d i n t h e i s l a n d o f G u a d e l o u p e a r e c e r t a i n l y l i n k e d t o t h e p e n i n s u l a r cult. T h e c a s e s o f t w o villages in t h e J e s u i t m i s s i o n s o f E c u a d o r a r e m o r e difficult; I l e a n t o w a r d t h e M e x i c a n G u a d a l u p e as t h e o r i g i n o f t h e i r n a m e s . Finally, t h e r e is a G u a d a l u p e in t h e s t a t e o f P e r n a m b u c o i n Brazil which m a y b e c o n n e c t e d with a s e c o n d a r y P o r t u g u e s e s a n c t u a r y s i t u a t e d in t h e A l e n t e j o . W e m a y safely c o n c l u d e t h a t o f t h e villages o f t h e I n d i e s w h i c h b o r e t h e n a m e of G u a d a l u p e at t h e e n d of t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y , twot h i r d s o w e d t h a t n a m e to t h e Mexican i m a g e of G u a d a l u p e . A m o n g t h e s e , s e v e n w e r e m i s s i o n villages o f N e w S p a i n , t w o w e r e J e s u i t
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m i s s i o n villages o f S o u t h A m e r i c a ; a t t h e h e a d o f t h e list c o m e s G u a d a l u p e of Tepeyac, which grew u p beside the sanctuary. T h e m e a n i n g o f t h e J e s u i t a p o s t o l a t e in C a l i f o r n i a , in t h e T a r a h u m a r a , a n d in S i n a l o a , like t h a t o f t h e F r a n c i s c a n m i s s i o n s o f N e w M e x i c o a n d N e w Biscay, is c o n f i r m e d h e r e by t o p o n y m y . T h e m a j o r i t y o f t h e s e villages h a d b e e n r e c e n t l y f o r m e d w h e n A l c e d o c o m p o s e d his g a z e t e e r ; t h e y w e r e as o l d as t h e m i s s i o n a r y b e g i n n i n g s in t h e N o r t h a n d West, t h a t is, as o l d as t h e c u l t o f T e p e y a c itself. T h e first villages r e n a m e d b y t h e S p a n i a r d s in t h e y e a r s f o l l o w i n g t h e C o n q u e s t all h a d a d o u b l e n a m e which associated the N a h u a t l t o p o n y m y with t h e n a m e o f t h e C a t h o l i c s a i n t c h o s e n as p a t r o n , f o r e x a m p l e S a n J u a n G u e l a c h e , S a n P e d r o G u e l a t a o , S a n t i a g o d e G u e y a p a , a n d so o n . T h e n a m e " G u a d a l u p e , " g i v e n b y t h e J e s u i t a n d F r a n c i s c a n m i s s i o n a r i e s in t h e s e v e n t e e n t h a n d e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s t o t h e villages t h e y f o u n d e d in r e g i o n s u s u a l l y o c c u p i e d b y n o m a d i c I n d i a n s , a t t e s t e d t o t h e p a t r o n a g e of O u r Lady of G u a d a l u p e over the missionary enterprise a n d t a u g h t t h e c o n v e r t s t h e n a m e o f a n i m a g e in w h o s e g u i s e t h e V i r g i n M a r y h a d c h o s e n t o a p p e a r in o r d e r t o r e v e a l t o t h e M e x i c a n Indians that she h a d b e c o m e their e m i n e n t protectress. For those fishers o f souls, t h e m i s s i o n a r i e s , G u a d a l u p e w a s a s i g n o f d i v i n e g r a c e d i s p e n s e d to t h e n e w c o n v e r t s a n d t h e r e f o r e to t h e m i s s i o n a r i e s , a sign t h a t was d o u b l y m e a n i n g f u l . A l t o g e t h e r d i f f e r e n t w a s t h e o r i g i n o f t h e n a m e o f t h e village t h a t h a d n a t u r a l l y d e v e l o p e d in t h e s h a d o w o f t h e s a n c t u a r y , o n w h i c h its e x i s t e n c e totally d e p e n d e d . T h e village o f G u a d a l u p e , s i t u a t e d o n t h e a p p r o a c h e s to T e p e y a c , c o u l d h a v e n o o t h e r n a m e ; h u m a n will d i d n o t e n t e r i n t o t h e c h o i c e o f t h a t n a m e , as w a s t h e c a s e w i t h t h e m i s s i o n a r y villages. I t is i n t e r e s t i n g t o s e e t h e i m p r e s s i o n t h i s village m a d e o n A l c e d o , a g u a r d s colonel, a b o u t 1785, at t h e a p o g e e of e n t h u s i a s m f o r G u a d a l u p e . " T h i s s a m e n a m e is b o r n e b y a village o f N e w S p a i n , s i t u a t e d in t h e j u r i s d i c t i o n o f M e x i c o City, o n a n a r i d hill, c e l e b r a t e d f o r its m a g n i f i c e n t t e m p l e a n d t h e s a n c t u a r y o f O u r L a d y of G u a d a l u p e , w h o a p p e a r e d to t h e Mexican I n d i a n J u a n Diego, in 1 5 3 1 , p a i n t e d o n a n ayate o r c l o a k ; this t e m p l e is o f b e a u t i f u l c o n s t r u c t i o n a n d v e r y r i c h l y e n d o w e d , b e c a u s e it is t h e f a v o r i t e c u l t o f t h e w h o l e k i n g d o m ; t h e p o p u l a t i o n o f t h i s village c o n s i s t s o f sixty S p a n i s h a n d m e s t i z o families, a n d o n e h u n d r e d I n d i a n f a m i l i e s ; it is s i t u a t e d o n e l e a g u e f r o m M e x i c o City a n d is c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e city b y a p a v e d h i g h w a y o n e vara h i g h . " 2 1
A l c e d o r e m e m b e r e d t h e a r i d i t y o f t h e site, t h e d a t e o f t h e a p p a r i tions a c c o r d i n g to t h e tradition diffused by t h e a b u n d a n t G u a d a l u p a n aplogetic literature, t h e p o p u l a r i t y of t h e cult—"the favorite cult of t h e w h o l e k i n g d o m . " H e describes precisely t h e highway l e a d i n g f r o m
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a Mexican
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M e x i c o City to T e p e y a c a n d e x t o l l s t h e a r c h i t e c t u r a l b e a u t y a n d w e a l t h o f t h e n e w basilica. H i s m o s t v a l u a b l e c o n t r i b u t i o n is his acc o u n t o f t h e e t h n i c c o m p o s i t i o n o f t h e village o f G u a d a l u p e , w h e r e t h e t h r e e p r i n c i p a l g r o u p s o f c o n t e m p o r a r y M e x i c a n society w e r e r e p r e s e n t e d . A l c e d o ( h e r e i n h e d i s p l a y s h i s gachupin c h a r a c t e r ) u n f o r t u n a t e l y d o e s n o t d i s t i n g u i s h m e s t i z o s f r o m Creoles, b u t a t J i a t d a t e t h e r e m u s t h a v e b e e n m o r e m e s t i z o s t h a n p u r e - b l o o d e d S p a n i a r d s in t h e village o f G u a d a l u p e . T h e n u m e r i c a l p r o p o r t i o n s o f t h e i n h a b i t ants of white o r mestizo descent, o n t h e o n e h a n d , a n d the Indians, o n t h e o t h e r , i l l u s t r a t e t h e fact t h a t t h e V i r g i n h a d a p p e a r e d t o a n I n d i a n a n d t h a t " t h e I n d i a n n a t i o n " felt itself m o s t f a v o r e d . I n d i a n s n a t u r a l l y c o m p o s e d t h e g r e a t m a j o r i t y in villages o f p r e - C o n q u e s t o r i g i n , b u t its i n h a b i t a n t s m u s t h a v e c h o s e n t o c o m e t o a village like G u a d a l u p e o f T e p e y a c , w h i c h h a d a r i s e n in a n a r i d d e s e r t as a s o c i o e c o n o m i c d e r i v a t e o f t h e s a n c t u a r y a n d a b y - p r o d u c t o f t h e cult. T h e n u m b e r o f I n d i a n f a m i l i e s w a s a l m o s t d o u b l e t h a t o f w h i t e a n d m e s t i z o families, 110 to 60. T h i s o b s e r v a t i o n calls o u r a t t e n t i o n to t h e I n d i a n , o n e m i g h t say "indigenist," aspect of the cult of O u r L a d y of G u a d a l u p e . T h i s aspect a p p e a r s w i t h special clarity in t h e Memorias piadosas de la nation Indiana, recogidas de varios autores b y t h e F r a n c i s c a n D i a z d e la V e g a . T h e s e m e m o i r s , c o n t e m p o r a r y w i t h A l c e d o ' s Diccionario, w e r e c o m p o s e d in 1 7 8 2 a n d r e m a i n u n p u b l i s h e d t o this d a y . T h e a u t h o r d o e s n o t say w h o w e r e t h e " v a r i o u s a u t h o r s " f r o m w h o m h e b o r r o w e d his p i o u s l e g e n d s , b u t it is easy to s u r m i s e w h o t h e y w e r e . S o m e , w h o m h e cites o c c a s i o n a l l y , w e r e c h r o n i c l e r s c h a r g e d w i t h w r i t i n g t h e h i s t o r y o f their religious province, others were d e v o u t apologists. B u t these aut h o r s , like F a t h e r Diaz d e la V e g a h i m s e l f , h a d d r a w n t h e m a t e r i a l o f t h e pious traditions (directly o r indirectly) f r o m I n d i a n h y m n s a n d r e l i g i o u s p l a y s . T h e h y m n s w e r e t h e r e p o s i t o r y o f t h e collective I n dian m e m o r y , which preserved only those past events c h a r g e d with e s c h a t o l o g i c a l significance o n t h e level o f t h e e t h n i c g r o u p . T h a t is w h y t h e " p i o u s m e m o i r s " c o n t a i n a t least as m a n y a p p a r i t i o n s o f t h e V i r g i n M a r y as t h e r e w e r e I n d i a n t r i b e s in C e n t r a l M e x i c o . C h a p t e r 5 is d e v o t e d t o t h e " V e r y S p e c i a l G r a c e o f H e a v e n t o t h e I n d i a n N a t i o n , in t h e F o r m o f t h e P r o d i g i o u s A p p a r i t i o n o f H o l y M a r y in H e r C e l e s tial I m a g e o f G u a d a l u p e . " O u r L a d y o f G u a d a l u p e b e c a m e t u t e l a r y d i v i n i t y o f t h e " M e x i c a n " (Aztec) I n d i a n s in a p e r i o d w h i c h c o u l d b e called " t h e S u n of Mary," t h e r e b y a d o p t i n g t h e traditional native c h r o n o l o g y in o r d e r to p e r m i t t h e i n t e g r a t i o n of the Aztecs into t h e new transcendent order. T h e mythical image of G u a d a l u p e played t h e s a m e r o l e i n t h e I n d i a n m i n d o f t h e a n c i e n t T e n o c h c a as was played by t h e i m a g e of the e p o n y m i c h e r o T e n o c h d u r i n g t h e " S u n of 2 2
2 3
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H u i t z i l o p o c h t l i , " t h e last A z t e c s u n b e f o r e t h e S p a n i s h C o n q u e s t . T o b e s u r e , t h e V i r g i n h a d " a p p e a r e d , " a c c o r d i n g t o a n o t h e r l e g e n d , in h e r i m a g e o f O c o t l a n , t o a T l a x c a l a n I n d i a n ; s h e h a d also " a p p e a r e d , " in h e r aspect of R e m e d i o s , to an O t o m i I n d i a n . T h u s the t h r e e ethnic g r o u p s whose history h a d most p r o f o u n d l y m a r k e d t h e p r e - C o l u m b i a n history of central M e x i c o — t h e old r u r a l O t o m i population base, the Mexican conquerors, the u n v a n q u i s h e d T l a x c a l a n s — w e r e e n d o w e d by l e g e n d with a protective i m a g e of t h e Virgin Mary. Meanwhile, the Most Holy Cross of Q u e r e t a r o guaranteed t h e Chichimecs t h e benefits of divine grace, while the Cross of T e p i c a s s u r e d a like f a v o r t o t h e T a r a s c a n s . F o r t y y e a r s b e f o r e F a t h e r Diaz d e la V e g a c o m p o s e d his b o o k , l i c e n t i a t e M o t a y P a d i l l a h a d w r i t t e n : " A l t h o u g h t h e w h o l e w o r l d m a y e n v y M e x i c o City its g o o d f o r t u n e in h a v i n g t h e a p p e a r a n c e o f a S i g n as g r e a t as H o l y M a r y , w h o p r o t e c t s it, t h e S i g n w h i c h casts its s h a d e o v e r N u e v a Galicia a n d p r o t e c t s it is also a v e r y g r e a t S i g n ; b o t h a r e s i g n s o f g r e a t g o o d f o r t u n e . " T h e signs o f d i v i n e g r a c e m u s t also b e e q u a l l y d i s t r i b u t e d a m o n g t h e diverse I n d i a n ethriic g r o u p s of Mexico, a n d t h e I n d i a n s h a d t o r e j o i c e t h e r e a t , as t h e y w e r e i n v i t e d t o d o b y F a t h e r D i a z d e la V e g a : " L e t t h e I n d i a n s in g e n e r a l , i n all t h e i r n a t i o n s , r e j o i c e a n d r e j o i c e a g a i n , f o r in t h e c a p a c i t y o f H o l y M a r y ' s c h o s e n c h i l d r e n t h e y will h a v e h e r special p r o t e c t i o n , p r o m i s e d at T e p e y a c , a t O c o t l a n , a t Otoncapulco." Mythical invention carried the c o n c e r n with symm e t r y a n d e q u a l i t y a m o n g t h e d i f f e r e n t e t h n i c g r o u p s so f a r t h a t t h e " t h r e e I n d i a n s t o w h o m M a r y w i s h e d to c o n s i g n in t u r n h e r m o s t h i g h d e s i g n s , t h e first g l o r i o u s w i t n e s s e s o f h e r a p p e a r a n c e a t M e x i c o City a n d of h e r discovery at Ocotlan a n d at O t o n c a p u l c o , " w e r e all n a m e d J o h n . I have already n o t e d the fascination e x e r t e d o n religious m i n d s by t h e h o m o n y m y b e t w e e n J o h n t h e Evangelist, J u a n Diego (the I n d i a n witness of t h e apparitions of Tepeyac), a n d t h e a r c h b i s h o p o f M e x i c o City, t h e F r a n c i s c a n J u a n d e Z u m a r r a g a . I n t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y t h e " J u a n s " b e c a m e a pleiad of visionaries of Mary. O n o m a s tic e s o t e r i c i s m w e n t h a n d in h a n d w i t h t h a t o f c h r o n o l o g y . W h a t s h o u l d o n e t h i n k o f t h e fact t h a t t h e a r c h a n g e l S a i n t M i c h a e l h a d a p p e a r e d t o a T l a x c a l a n I n d i a n in 1 5 3 1 , t h e e x a c t y e a r o f t h e a p p a r i tions of t h e Virgin at Tepeyac? T h i s o t h e r privileged n e o p h y t e was n o t s i m p l y c a l l e d J u a n , like t h e o t h e r s , b u t J u a n D i e g o , like t h e J u a n D i e g o o f T e p e y a c . O n e is s e i z e d w i t h a k i n d o f v e r t i g o o b s e r v i n g t h i s g a m e o f m u s i c a l c h a i r s o f s u p e r n a t u r a l signs, w h i c h a r e r e p e a t e d w i t h a r i g o r o u s a n d disconcerting s y m m e t r y from o n e sanctuary to another. 2 4
2 5
2 6
I n t h e b a c k g r o u n d of this esotericism of n a m e s a n d n u m b e r s l u r k a n c i e n t t r i b a l r i v a l r i e s , as F a t h e r Diaz d e la V e g a u n c o n s c i o u s l y
285
Guadalupe,
a Mexican
National
Emblem
c o n f i r m s : " C h a p t e r 6: H o l y M a r y a p p e a r s t o a n o t h e r J u a n D i e g o in t h e P r o v i n c e o f T l a x c a l a . " S i n c e this d u p l i c a t i o n o f J u a n D i e g o o f T e p e y a c was calculated to surprise even c o n t e m p o r a r y r e a d e r s , t h e Franciscan w r i t e r gave t h e r e a s o n s for this o c c u r r e n c e . " T h e very n o b l e a n d f o r t u n a t e p r o v i n c e o f T l a x c a l a b e i n g t h e first o n w h o s e h o r i z o n r o s e t h e d i v i n e S u n o f J e s u s C h r i s t . . . , it w a s i n e v i t a b l e t h a t f r o m t h e v e r y d a w n o f C h r i s t i a n i t y t h e beneficial i n f l u e n c e o f its v e r y p u r e m o t h e r , M a r y , t h e m o s t h o l y d a w n , s h o u l d s h i n e r e s p l e n d e n t in o r d e r t o e n n o b l e t h e p r o v i n c e o f T l a x c a l a by h e r e m i n e n t p r o t e c tion." T h e T l a x c a l a n s , allies o f C o r t e s w h o g r e a t l y a i d e d in t h e Spanish c a p t u r e of Mexico-Tenochtitlan, h a d b e e n almost from t h e first o n t h e s i d e o f t h e c o n q u e r o r s . By v i r t u e o f t h a t fact, t h e y c o u l d n o t h a v e b e e n t r e a t e d w o r s e in t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f d i v i n e f a v o r s t h a n the vanquished of the Conquest, their agelong enemies, the Mexicans o r Mexica. 2 7
T h i s brief incursion into the pious traditions of most direct I n d i a n o r i g i n d e e p e n s o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e local r i v a l r y b e t w e e n M e x i c o C i t y a n d P u e b l a ( t h e l a t t e r b e i n g i n s e p a r a b l e f r o m T l a x c a l a , t h e first s e a t o f its b i s h o p r i c ) ; t h e i r c o m p e t i t i o n o n t h e e m b l e m a t i c level o f c o a t s o f a r m s h a d its r o o t s in t h e M e x i c a n i n t e r t r i b a l p a s t . W e m a y say t h a t all t h e p h e n o m e n a t h a t d e t e r m i n e d t h e s p i r i t u a l e v o l u t i o n o f N e w S p a i n a n d its social h i s t o r y in g e n e r a l e m a n a t e d m o r e o r less d i r e c t l y f r o m t h e I n d i a n s . E v e n in H u m b o l d t ' s t i m e t h e I n d i a n s c o n stituted almost half of the p o p u l a t i o n of N e w Spain; their ancestral beliefs w e r e t h e s e e d b e d , so t o s p e a k , in w h i c h t h e c r e o l e c u l t s g e r m i n a t e d . H o w e v e r , G u a d a l u p e , i m a g e o f t h e V i r g i n M a r y , fully b e l o n g s t o t h e g r e a t s p i r i t u a l flood o f M a r i a n d e v o t i o n w h i c h w a s h e d o v e r Western C h r i s t e n d o m from the beginning of the seventeenth century. I f w e s e e m t o find t h e i n f l u e n c e o f h i e r o g l y p h i c w r i t i n g in t h e associat i o n o f t h e p r i c k l y p e a r (nopalli), t h e g l y p h o f M e x i c o - T e n o c h t i t l a n , w i t h t h e effigy o f t h e V i r g i n , w h a t shall w e say o f t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y Parisian p r i n t s which d e p i c t e d M a r y o n t h e b a r k of L u t e t i a — t h e coat o f a r m s o f P a r i s ? U n d e r all skies t h e r o a d s o f h e r a l d r y a n d e m b l e m a tics h a v e c r i s s c r o s s e d b e c a u s e o f t h e i n h e r e n t l i m i t a t i o n s o f s y m b o l i c writing and the mythifying invention. T h e c u l t o f O u r L a d y o f G u a d a l u p e o f T e p e y a c o w e d p a r t o f its g r e a t i m p o r t a n c e i n N e w S p a i n t o its i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h t h e I m m a c u l a t e C o n c e p t i o n . T h e slow c a n o n i c a l p r o g r e s s o f t h e d o c t r i n e f r o m t h e t i m e o f its a p p r o v a l b y P o p e S i x t u s I V in 1 4 7 6 , a n d t h e p r o l o n g e d efforts of t h e Spanish m o n a r c h y to s e c u r e p a p a l p r o m u l g a t i o n of a d o g m a a n d t h e i n s t i t u t i o n o f a r i t e o f t h e first class, n o t a c h i e v e d u n t i l t h e t i m e of L e o X I I I , reveal t h e t r u e eschatological significance of t h e image of G u a d a l u p e . Karl R a h n e r has p e n n e d a phrase that illuminates
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GUADALUPE, OR THE N E W EPIPHANY
t h e w h o l e h i s t o r y o f t h e M a r i a n c u l t : " t h e h u m a n p e r s o n w e call M a r y is, as it w e r e , t h e p o i n t in t h e h i s t o r y o f S a l v a t i o n o n w h i c h t h e s a v i n g r a d i a n c e o f t h e l i v i n g G o d falls p e r p e n d i c u l a r l y , t h e p o i n t w h e n c e it e x t e n d s t o all m a n k i n d . " A c r e o l e p r e a c h e r , F a t h e r B a l t a s a r d e A r i z m e n d i (a d i s c a l c e d F r a n ciscan), e x p r e s s e d t h e e s c h a t o l o g i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e M e x i c a n G u a d a l u p e c u l t m o s t explicitly i n a s e r m o n p r o n o u n c e d a t G u a n a j u a t o in 1 7 9 7 : " F o r this is c e r t a i n , t h a t if, b y a d e c r e e o f p r o v i d e n c e a n e w sky, a n e w e a r t h , a n d n e w c r e a t u r e s w e r e t o a p p e a r in this N e w W o r l d , t h a t e v e n t c o u l d o n l y b e d e f e r r e d u n t i l t h e d a y t h a t M a r y c a m e t o visit u s . " T h i s M a r i a n v i r t u e o f b e i n g t h e d i s p e n s e r o f all g r a c e s flows n a t u r a l l y f r o m h e r p l a c e , n o t i n t h e h u m a n o r d e r , n o r e v e n in t h a t o f g r a c e , b u t in t h e h y p o s t a t i c o r d e r w h i c h infinitely s u r p a s s e s t h e t w o o t h e r s . L e t a m o d e r n t h e o l o g i a n s p e a k o n this p o i n t : " M a r y , b y v i r t u e o f h e r d i v i n e m a t e r n i t y , is p a r t o f t h e h y p o s t a tic o r d e r , s h e is a n i n d i s p e n s a b l e e l e m e n t — i n t h e a c t u a l e c o n o m y o f divine Providence—in t h e I n c a r n a t i o n of t h e W o r d a n d t h e Salvation of m a n k i n d . " 2 8
2 9
It w a s t h e i n c a r n a t i o n o f t h e W o r d a n d t h e s a l v a t i o n o f m a n k i n d t h a t w a s a t s t a k e in t h e c u l t o f G u a d a l u p e ; listen t o t h e J e s u i t F r a n c i s c o Javier C a r r a n z a : "Saint Matthew counts fourteen generations from A b r a h a m to David; f r o m David to t h e t r a n s m i g r a t i o n of Babylon a n o t h e r fourteen generations; from t h e transmigration of Babylon to the birth of Christ f o u r t e e n m o r e generations. . . . T h e W o r d a p p e a r e d in roses o n t h e f o u r t e e n t h d a y of t h e acute fever of J u a n B e r n a r d i n o , whose miraculous healing was t h e second testimony of that m a r v e l o u s apparition. W h a t h a d b e e n allegory, h e r e was m a d e reality. T h e r e s h e a p p e a r e d to a whole world, h e r e to a single p a r t of t h e w o r l d . . . . T h e W o r d , i n c a r n a t e in o r d e r t o e s t a b l i s h t h e e t e r n i t y o f His K i n g d o m , h e a l e d t h e perilous sickness of f o u r t e e n centuries in o r d e r t o f o u n d t h e p e r m a n e n c e o f H i s C h u r c h . O u r L a d y of G u a d a l u p e , almost two centuries after h e r apparition, healed t h e p e r i l o u s p l a g u e o f matlazahuatl t h a t h a d r a g e d f o r f o u r t e e n centuries." 3 0
H e r e is a c o m p l e t e e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h e " m a r i o p h a n y " o f M o u n t T e peyac: in t h e e c o n o m y o f salvation t h e miracle of G u a d a l u p e a p p e a r e d as t h e s e c o n d i n c a r n a t i o n of t h e divine W o r d . T h e M e x i c a n p a t r i o t i c a n d c h a r i s m a t i c s e n t i m e n t also h a d its r o o t s h e r e , f o r w e have read (Father Carranza's audience heard those words on Dec e m b e r 12, 1 7 4 8 ) : " H e r e it w a s m a d e r e a l i t y . " T h e o r a t o r s p o k e o n tologically, n o t b y w a y o f m e t a p h o r . W h e r e a s in t h e first I n c a r n a t i o n , t h a t o f J e s u s , t h e W o r d h a d c o m e to r e d e e m m a n k i n d , this second I n c a r n a t i o n , that of Mary at Tepeyac, only b r o u g h t salvation to
287
Guadalupe,
a Mexican
National
Emblem
f o r t u n a t e M e x i c o City. W h o c o u l d d e n y t h a t t h e M e x i c a n G u a d a l u p a n c u l t w a s a r e s u r g e n c e o f t h e call o f A b r a h a m ? I h a v e a l r e a d y c a l l e d att e n t i o n t o t h e c r e o l e a m b i t i o n t o s e e t h e N e w J e r u s a l e m in M e x i c o City; I c i t e d I t a y P a r r a : " T h e I n d i a n [Indiana, m e a n i n g t h e Creoles a n d I n d i a n s ] n a t i o n e c l i p s e s a n d s u r p a s s e s n o t o n l y I s r a e l b u t all t h e n a tions of the w o r l d . " A m o d e r n Catholic theologian, probably u n f a m i l i a r w i t h M e x i c a n r e l i g i o u s h i s t o r y , t h u s d e f i n e s t h e call o f A b r a h a m : " T h e call o f A b r a h a m is a totally n e w i n t e r v e n t i o n o f G o d . . . . A s K i n g a n d L o r d o f all t h e e a r t h h e s i n g l e s o u t a m o n g all t h e p e o p l e s of t h e e a r t h a p e o p l e to be His holy p r o p e r t y a n d royal d o m a i n . . . . T h a n k s t o this call, I s r a e l , a b a c k w a r d p e o p l e in o t h e r r e s p e c t s , excells b y far all o t h e r p e o p l e s . I s r a e l a l o n e is e l e v a t e d t o t h a t h e i g h t . " T h e t e x t o f this r e s u m e c o u l d b e a p p l i e d w i t h o u t a c h a n g e of m e a n i n g to t h e spiritual history of Mexico; simply r e p l a c e A b r a h a m by G u a d a l u p e a n d Israel by Mexico. Again, Ita y P a r r a writes: " M a r y e n t i r e belongs to t h e A m e r i c a n s , a n d by a m y s t e r i o u s r e c i p r o c i t y , all A m e r i c a n s a r e c o n s e c r a t e d t o Mary." All t h e m a n i f e s t a t i o n s o f t h e M e x i c a n c u l t o f G u a d a l u p e flow as if f r o m a s i n g l e s o u r c e f r o m t h e call of Guadalupe. G u a d a l u p e , b o t h queen a n d mother o f t h e M e x i c a n s ; in t h e first c a s e t h e y a r e t h e " s l a v e s " o f Mary, in t h e second h e r "sons." T h e s e a r e the two ways of the perfect consecration to Mary, a c c o r d i n g to Saint Louis Marie G r i g n o n d e M o n f o r t : " I t consists in g i v i n g o n e s e l f c o m p l e t e l y , like a slave, t o M a r y a n d t o J e s u s t h r o u g h H e r , a n d in d o i n g e v e r y t h i n g by M a r y , w i t h M a r y , in M a r y , a n d f o r M a r y . " T h e Mexicans w e r e a p e o p l e "consecrated to Mary of G u a d a l u p e " in t h e t w o w a y s o f t h e M a r i a n cult. T h e y h a d b u t to r e c i t e t h e l i t a n y o f O u r Lady of L o r e t o , in the d e s c e n d i n g o r d e r of c r e a t u r e s , mentally r e p l a c i n g L o r e t o by G u a d a l u p e : Q u e e n of the Angels Q u e e n of the Patriarchs Q u e e n of the Prophets Q u e e n of t h e Apostles Q u e e n of t h e Martyrs Q u e e n o f t h o s e w h o c o n f e s s h e r faith Q u e e n of the Virgins Q u e e n o f all t h e s a i n t s Q u e e n c o n c e i v e d w i t h o u t sin Q u e e n raised to H e a v e n Q u e e n of the Most Holy Rosary Q u e e n of Peace a n d finally " Q u e e n of t h e M e x i c a n s " 3 1
3 2
3 3
3 4
288
GUADALUPE, OR THE N E W EPIPHANY
I h a v e e m p h a s i z e d t h a t G u a d a l u p e w a s first of all " m o t h e r o f t h e I n d i a n s " : " M y c l e m e n c y full o f l o v e a n d t h e pity I h a v e f o r t h e n a tives," F a t h e r Diaz d e la V e g a h a s h e r s a y . T h e M e x i c a n Creoles c l a i m e d t h e i r p a r t o f t h e g r a c e d i s p e n s e d to t h e nation Indiana. T h e s e m a n t i c e v o l u t i o n o f t h e n a m e " M e x i c a n , " w h i c h w e s t u d i e d in Clavij e r o , reflects a n e f f o r t at a p p r o p r i a t i o n o f t h e mexicayotl— "Mexicanness"—by the minority of E u r o p e a n origin. A l t h o u g h G u a d a l u p e was the m e d i a t o r b e t w e e n G o d a n d m e n , b e t w e e n G o d a n d t h e Mexicans, h e r m e d i a t i o n did n o t s t o p t h e r e . S h e was m e d i a t o r b e t w e e n t h e k i n g a n d t h e " A m e r i c a n s , " as I t a y P a r r a also said. T h i s r o l e , w h i c h c o u l d b e c a l l e d " p o l i t i c a l , " w a s less i m p o r t a n t t h a n t h e s p i r i t u a l c u r r e n t w h i c h r a n t h r o u g h a society as d i v i d e d as w a s t h a t o f N e w S p a i n . A V i r g i n w i t h a n olive c o m p l e x i o n w h o first a p p e a r e d t o a n I n d i a n , G u a d a l u p e m a d e Creoles, m e s t i z o s , a n d I n d i a n s a s i n g l e p e o p l e u n i t e d by t h e s a m e c h a r i s m a t i c faith. T h e d i a l o g u e o f t h e c u l t u r e s d i d n o t r e a l l y c o m e alive ( g o i n g b e y o n d q u e s t i o n s o f r i g h t s a n d interests) until the m o m e n t w h e n the G u a d a l u p a n apologetic b e c a m e its p r i n c i p a l subject. All t h e M e x i c a n c h a m p i o n s w h o , in t h e n a m e o f t h e M e x i c a n patria, t o o k u p t h e c h a l l e n g e t h r o w n d o w n b y S p a i n a n d b y all E u r o p e w e r e g r e a t d e v o t e e s o f G u a d a l u p e : S i g u e n z a y G o n g o r a a n d F l o r e n c i a in t h e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y ; E g u i a r a y E g u r e n , C l a v i j e r o , M i e r in t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y ; L i z a r d i (El Pensador Mexicano) in t h e n i n e t e e n t h . We n o t e d t h e p o l e m i c u n l e a s h e d b y t h e r a s h j u d g m e n t o f D e a n M a r t i , o f Valencia, a n s w e r e d b y the Bibliotheca of E g u i a r a . T h e c h a r g e of " A m e r i c a n inferiority" leveled by C o r n e l i u s d e P a u w p r o v o k e d t h e r e p l y o f t h e e x - J e s u i t C l a v i j e r o . T h e Discurso historico-critico o f J u a n B a u t i s t a M u f i o z , w h o h a d c r i t i c i z e d t h e c e n t r a l t h e m e o f c r e o l e religiosity, t h e c u l t o f G u a d a l u p e , b r o u g h t a n u n i n t e r r u p t e d series of creole c o u n t e r a t t a c k s f r o m 1794 to 1843. M e d i n a i n f o r m s u s t h a t t h e Defensa guadalupana o f t h e O r a t o r i a n f r i a r G o m e z M a r i n , a m e d i o c r e r e f u t a t i o n o f M u f i o z , sold f o r six r e a l e s in t h e s h o p o f D o n A l e j a n d r o V a l d e s a t M e x i c o City. T h i s G u a d a l u p a n p r o p a g a n d a t r a c t was t h u s w i t h i n t h e r e a c h o f e v e r y p u r s e a n d w a s o n e f o r m o f t h e m u t e d s t r u g g l e w a g e d by M e x i c a n p a t r i o t s a g a i n s t S p a i n in 1 8 1 9 - 2 0 . 3 5
G u a d a l u p e naturally became the b a n n e r of the insurgents w h e n H i d a l g o i s s u e d t h e " c r y o f D o l o r e s " in 1 8 1 0 . T e n y e a r s e a r l i e r , a g r o u p o f c o n s p i r a t o r s w e r e c a l l e d Los Guadalupes, a n d f r o m t h e p r o c e e d i n g s o f t h e i r trial, w e l e a r n t h a t t h e s e y o u n g m e n , w i t h o u t m e a n s , r e a l l y i n c a p a b l e o f p o s i n g a t h r e a t t o t h e political s e c u r i t y o f t h e viceroyalty, e n t r u s t e d t h e i r subversive e n t e r p r i s e to O u r L a d y of G u a d a l u p e . O n e of t h e m , a goldsmith, h a d fashioned a n insignia, " e x p l a i n i n g t h a t t h e h o l e in t h e f o r m o f a c r e s c e n t m o o n w a s d e s i g n e d t o r e c e i v e t h e i m a g e o f O u r L a d y o f G u a d a l u p e . " T h e y failed; b u t i n 3 6
289
Guadali^pe,
a Mexican
National
Emblem
the h o u r of t r i u m p h of the armies of I n d e p e n d e n c e , the "sentiments of the nation ' h a d already received unequivocal expression: "Let a c o n s t i t u t i o n a l law e s t a b l i s h t h e c e l e b r a t i o n o f D e c e m b e r 12 in all t h e villages as a feast d a y c o n s e c r a t e d t o t h e P a t r o n e s s o f o u r L i b e r t y , Holy Mary of G u a d a l u p e . " 1
L e t m e a l s o recall t h e p r o c l a m a t i o n o f M o r e l o s , r e q u i r i n g t h a t " e v e r y m a n a b o v e t h e a g e o f t e n c a r r y in his h a t a c o c k a d e w i t h t h e national colors, namely, white a n d blue, a device consisting of a r i b b o n o r b a n d , o f c l o t h o r p a p e r , w h i c h will p r o c l a i m h i m a d e v o t e e o f t h e i m a g e of G u a d a l u p e , soldier a n d d e f e n d e r of h e r c u l t . " T h u s , o n March 11, 1813, from the c a m p of O m e t e p e c , an o r d e r was l a u n c h e d that affirmed t h e spiritual p e r m a n e n c e of t h e real M e x i c o a g a i n s t t h e legal M e x i c o ( N e w S p a i n ) . G u a d a l u p e h a d b e c o m e t h e s t a n d a r d o f a political s t r u g g l e . T h i s m e t a m o r p h o s i s w a s a c h i e v e d u n k n o w n t o t h e d e v o u t p a t r i o t s , w h o b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e last t i m e s — c a l l e d in a n e w l a n g u a g e " t h e D a y o f G l o r y " — h a d a r r i v e d . B u t d i d n o t this gloria, b o r r o w e d d i r e c t l y f r o m t h e F r e n c h R e v o l u t i o n , h a v e a m o r e r e m o t e s o u r c e , t h e s a m e J u d e o - C h r i s t i a n s o u r c e as t h e W o m a n o f t h e A p o c a l y p s e ? T h a t s a m e w o m a n w h o b e s t r i d e s t h e d r a g o n in t h e b o o k of B e a t u s of L i e b a n a a n d w h o , for h e r devotees of medieval Spain, t r a m p l e d u n d e r f o o t the half m o o n of t h r e a t e n i n g Islam, transl a t e d t o a d i s t a n t M e x i c o , s y m b o l i z e d t h e c h u r c h a n d t h e patria b a t tling against a mythical Antichrist, N a p o l e o n B o n a p a r t e , whose a g e n t s t h e gachupines a p p e a r e d t o b e . T h e c h o i c e o f M a r y ' s c o l o r s as t h e n a t i o n a l c o l o r s , a n d o f G u a d a l u p e as s y m b o l o f t h e n a t i o n a l u n i t y , consecrating the patriot blood that h a d b e e n shed, was a c o n s e q u e n c e o f h e r a g e l o n g r o l e as p r o t e c t r e s s o f M e x i c o . T h e first P r e s i d e n t o f t h e Mexican Republic bore the p r e d e s t i n e d n a m e of G u a d a l u p e Victoria. 3 7
All h a d b e g u n w i t h t h e sign t h a t G u a d a l u p e h a d g i v e n t o t h e M e x i c a n s , t h e s i g n o f t h e bachiller M i g u e l S a n c h e z t o his c o m p a t r i o t s , w h o s e m e a n i n g C a n o n Siles h a d b e e n t h e first t o g r a s p i n t h e m o n t h o f J u n e 1 6 4 8 a n d w h i c h was t o b e t r a n s m i t t e d a n d r e p e a t e d e n d l e s s l y in t h e c o u r s e o f t h e c e n t u r i e s by M e x i c a n h a n d s . Signum:
S i g n , M i r a c l e , S t a n d a r d , I m a g e , Seal, G o a l ,
3 8
M i g u e l S a n c h e z h a d w r i t t e n , in t h a t e m b l e m a t i c l a n g u a g e w h i c h invites g l o s s i n g . L i k e t h e Names of Christ o f t h e b l e s s e d L u i s d e L e o n , t h e names of Guadalupe h a v e s i g n i f i c a n c e f o r t h e e x e g e t e . I d o n o t b e l i e v e I betray t h e h o p e s of t h e bachiller Sanchez o r historical t r u t h w h e n I h a z a r d the following interpretation: Sign: p a s s w o r d o f t h e M e x i c a n p a t r i o t i c c o n s p i r a c y . Miracle: T h e m i r a c l e o f a c c o m p l i s h e d n a t i o n a l u n i t y .
290
GUADALUPE, OR THE N E W EPIPHANY
Standard: S t a n d a r d o f t h e W a r s o f I n d e p e n d e n c e . Image: I m a g e o f t h e M e x i c a n p e o p l e . Seal: I n d e l i b l e seal o f t h e t w o c u l t u r e s c o n f r o n t i n g a t h i r d c u l t u r e . Goal: T h e h i s t o r i c a l s a l v a t i o n o f t h e M e x i c a n p e o p l e , t h e m y s t e r i o u s g o a l o f t h e G u a d a l u p a n cult. The Old and the New Guadalupe
before
History
T h e k e y i t e m in t h e d o s s i e r c o m p o s e d by C a n o n Siles a n d t r a n s m i t t e d b y h i m t o t h e C o n g r e g a t i o n o f Rites w a s t h e d o c u m e n t a r y r e c o r d o f t h e i n q u i r y o f 1 6 6 6 . I n fact, t h i s d o s s i e r d i d n o t r e a c h R o m e , f o r t h e c a n o n o f Seville, M a t e o d e B i c u n i a , w h o h a d b e e n c h a r g e d w i t h p r e s e n t i n g t h e p e t i t i o n , d i e d b e f o r e h e c o u l d a c c o m p l i s h his m i s s i o n . T h i s c i r c u m s t a n c e a l o n e w o u l d e x p l a i n its f a i l u r e , b u t t h e c r e o l e J e s u i t F r a n c i s c o d e F l o r e n c i a e x p o s e d t h e c a n o n i c a l difficulties o f t h e p r o b l e m in h i s f a m o u s w o r k , La Estrella del Norte de Mexico . .. Nuestra Sefiora de Guadalupe, o f 1 6 8 8 . T h e r e s u m e g i v e n b y F l o r e n c i a m a k e s u n necessary a detailed analysis: " T h e inquiry was very conclusive a n d very complete. A l t h o u g h eyewitnesses could not be found, because o n e h u n d r e d a n d thirty-five y e a r s h a d e l a p s e d s i n c e t h e e v e n t , t h e r e were eight native witnesses w h o gave hearsay testimony of t h e miracle, o b t a i n e d f r o m c o n t e m p o r a r i e s w h o h a d k n o w n J u a n D i e g o , J u a n B e r n a r d i n o , and Monsignor Bishop Fray J u a n d e Z u m a r r a g a , the p r i n c i p a l p e r s o n a g e s in t h a t m i r a c u l o u s a p p a r i t i o n . . . . A n d t h e d e p o sition o f L i c e n t i a t e L u i s B e c e r r a T a n c o cites f o u r S p a n i s h w i t n e s s e s , t h r e e of w h o m w e r e priests a n d t h e fourth a n i n t e r p r e t e r for t h e ecclesiastical I n d i a n c o u r t , w h o h a d k n o w n w i t n e s s e s o f t h e m i r a cle. . . . It t h e r e f o r e a p p e a r s t h a t t h e i n q u i r y w a s p e r f e c t l y p r o p e r . " 3 9
F a t h e r Florencia's a r g u m e n t s e e m s to c o m e d o w n to t h e Latin a p h o r i s m : Traditio est, nihil amplius quaeras ("It is t r a d i t i o n , t h e r e f o r e ask n o t h i n g m o r e " ) . F l o r e n c i a s o u g h t t o d e m o n s t r a t e t h e a u t h e n t i c i t y o f t h e p i o u s t r a d i t i o n by its effects: " T h e fact t h a t t h i s is a u n i v e r s a l a n d well-established tradition, t h e influx of p e o p l e to t h e s a n c t u a r y f r o m all M e x i c o City w h o c o m e t o i n v o k e O u r L a d y t h r o u g h h e r h o l y i m a g e of G u a d a l u p e , t h e d e v o t i o n a n d v e n e r a t i o n a c c o r d e d to t h e i m a g e , t h e s u m p t u o u s t e m p l e t h a t w a s b u i l t sixty-six y e a r s a g o , t h e v e r y v a l u a b l e gifts a n d o f f e r i n g s , t h e f a v o r s r e c e i v e d b y h e r i n t e r c e s sion, t h e m i r a c l e s t h a t t h e M o s t H o l y V i r g i n h a s w o r k e d : t h e s e a r e t a n g i b l e p r o o f s . " A s f o r d o c u m e n t a r y p r o o f s , t h e Sufragio o f L u i s B e c e r r a T a n c o , w h i c h a c c o m p a n i e d t h e file d r a w n u p by Siles i n 1 6 6 6 , s e e m e d t o h i m sufficient. 4 0
M o d e r n m e t h o d s of historical inquiry d o not consider oral tradition a d m i s s i b l e e v i d e n c e w h e n it c o m e s t o e s t a b l i s h i n g facts. T h i s e x p l a i n s t h e clear-cut position of t h e Mexican scholar J o a q u i n Garcia Icazbalceta, w h o r e g a r d e d t h e statements u n d e r o a t h of creole priests a n d
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Guadalupe, a Mexican National Emblem
n o t a b l e s q u e s t i o n e d in 1 6 6 6 as i n d i c a t i o n s o f senility. T h e s c h o l a r w h o m a y b e r e g a r d e d as t h e f o u n d e r o f t h e h i s t o r y o f c o l o n i a l M e x i c o c i t e d by way of r e f u t a t i o n t h e silence of A r c h b i s h o p Z u m a r r a g a , t h e principal witness of the miracle, according to the pious tradition, a n d t h e g e n e r a l s i l e n c e o f M e x i c a n a p o l o g i s t s like B e r n a r d o d e B a l b u e n a , w h o , w r i t i n g a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y , m e n t i o n s all t h e s a n c t u a r i e s a n d c u l t s o f a n y i m p o r t a n c e in M e x i c o City w i t h o u t breathing a w o r d about the G u a d a l u p e of Tepeyac. T h e writings of S a h a g u n , o f T o r q u e m a d a , a n d t h e i n q u i r y o f M o n t u f a r , a b o v e all, fatally u n d e r m i n e d t h e t r a d i t i o n . T h e a m b i g u i t y o f F l o r e n c i a ' s p r o o f a r i s e s f r o m t h e fact t h a t h e c o n s i d e r e d t h e d e v o u t c o n s e n s u s c o n c l u sive e v i d e n c e . B u t t h e c o n s e n s u s o n l y p r o v e s t h e e x i s t e n c e o f a cult, n o t t h e m i r a c u l o u s o r i g i n o f its o b j e c t . T h e r e s i s t a n c e o f t h e C o n g r e g a t i o n o f R i t e s , it s e e m s , s t e m m e d n o t so m u c h f r o m t h e s u s p e c t c h a r a c t e r o f t h e p r o o f s a s s e m b l e d b y t h e i n q u i r y , as f r o m a d m i n i s t r a tive c o n c e r n w i t h a v o i d i n g a p r e c e d e n t . O n e g a t h e r s t h i s f r o m a l e t t e r o f C a r d i n a l R o s p i l l o z i , c i t e d a n d s u m m a r i z e d b y F l o r e n c i a : " [ t h e r e is] a very sage rule, observed b o t h by t h e sovereign pontiff a n d the C o n g r e g a t i o n o f Rites, n o t t o c a n o n i z e t h e m i r a c u l o u s i m a g e s w i t h w h i c h C h r i s t e n d o m a b o u n d s , f o r if o n e c r e a t e s a p r e c e d e n t , o n e c a n n o t say n o t o all t h e o t h e r s . " 4 1
E x p l a i n i n g its p o s i t i o n , t h e p a p a l r e s p o n s e c a l l e d a t t e n t i o n t o c e r tain aspects of t h e cult of G u a d a l u p e at T e p e y a c which shed light o n its e n i g m a t i c i m a g e . T h e M e x i c a n s h a d r e q u e s t e d a c a n o n i c a l p r a y e r (rezo propio) o n D e c e m b e r 12, t h e d a t e o f t h e a p p a r i t i o n , a c c o r d i n g t o t r a d i t i o n . T h i s d a t e o f D e c e m b e r 12 b e i n g t h e f o u r t h d a y o f t h e octave of t h e I m m a c u l a t e C o n c e p t i o n , t h e C o n g r e g a t i o n of Rites r e plied: "Since t h e i m a g e was of t h e C o n c e p t i o n a n d t h e a p p a r i t i o n took p l a c e d u r i n g o n e d a y o f h e r o c t a v e , it s e e m e d u n n e c e s s a r y t o give h e r a canonical p r a y e r separate from that which the C h u r c h m a d e to O u r Lady on that day." In short, R o m e r e g a r d e d the Mexican G u a d a l u p e as a r e p l i c a , o n e a m o n g m a n y s u c h in t h e H i s p a n i c w o r l d , o f t h e Inmaculada. A s a c o n s o l a t i o n t o C a n o n Siles, a b r i e f g r a n t e d a "plenary indulgence for that d a y " ; u n f o r t u n a t e l y , t h e pontifical b r i e f h a d r e p l a c e d t h e d a t e o f D e c e m b e r 12 w i t h t h a t o f S e p t e m b e r 12. T h i s lapse of t h e C o n g r e g a t i o n of Rites t e n d s to confirm that at t h e e n d o f t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y R o m e still r e g a r d e d t h e G u a d a l u p e o f M e x i c o City as a r e p l i c a o f t h e G u a d a l u p e o f E s t r e m a d u r a , w h o s e feast d a y c a m e i n S e p t e m b e r ( S e p t e m b e r 8). T h e r e a s o n s t h a t F l o r e n cia a d v a n c e d t o e x p l a i n t h i s " e r r o r " ( p r o b a b l y i n t e n t i o n a l ) o f t h e C o n g r e g a t i o n of Rites, while u n c o n v i n c i n g , d o s h e d light o n the question o f t h e c h a n g e o f t h e c a l e n d a r in t h e c u l t o f G u a d a l u p e a t T e p e y a c . T h e J e s u i t a t t r i b u t e d t h e e r r o r t o t h e fact t h a t " s o m e o n e m u s t h a v e 4 2
4 3
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GUADALUPE, OR THE N E W EPIPHANY
r e a d t h a t t h e feast d a y o f O u r L a d y is h e l d i n S e p t e m b e r , a s is i n fact t h a t c a s e , a n d m u s t h a v e c o n f u s e d t h e feast d a y o f S e p t e m b e r (celeb r a t e d a t t h a t t i m e b e c a u s e t h e h o l y i m a g e is p a t r o n e s s a g a i n s t t h e f l o o d s o f M e x i c o City, a n d S e p t e m b e r is t h e m o n t h w h e n t h e d a n g e r o f f l o o d i n g is g r e a t e s t a n d it w a s i n t h a t m o n t h t h a t t h e m e m o r a b l e i n u n d a t i o n o f 1629 took place, o n which occasion t h e holy i m a g e o f G u a d a l u p e w a s b r o u g h t t o M e x i c o City t o c o m b a t it) w i t h D e c e m b e r 1 2 , t h e d a t e o n w h i c h t h e m i r a c u l o u s a p p a r i t i o n is c e l e b r a t e d b e c a u s e it t o o k p l a c e o n D e c e m b e r 1 2 . " 4 4
T h i s makes quite clear that t h e original image of Tepeyac was c o p i e d f r o m t h e G u a d a l u p e o f E s t r e m a d u r a , w h o s e feast d a y c o i n c i d e d p r o v i d e n t i a l l y w i t h t h e p e r i o d o f g r e a t r a i n s i n t h e valley o f M e x i c o . T h e i n t e r c e s s i o n o f G u a d a l u p e h a d p r o v e n efficacious, n o t a bly i n t h e c o u r s e o f t h e t e r r i b l e floods o f 1 6 2 9 . T h a t t h i s c i r c u m s t a n c e w a s p r e s e n t i n t h e m e m o r y o f t h e M e x i c a n Creoles thirty-five y e a r s l a t e r is c e r t a i n ; it is m u c h less likely t h a t it was k n o w n in R o m e . A t t h e t i m e w h e n F l o r e n c i a w r o t e h i s essay t h e t w o feast d a y s o f G u a d a l u p e w e r e i n c o m p e t i t i o n : t h e o r i g i n a l feast d a y o f S e p t e m b e r 1 2 , a h e r i t a g e f r o m t h e G u a d a l u p e o f E s t r e m a d u r a , r e i n f o r c e d b y t h e cycle o f r a i n s ( i m p o r t a n t i n t h e beliefs o f M e x i c a n p o l y t h e i s m a n d a s o u r c e o f p e r i o d i c a n g u i s h f o r t h e Creoles o f M e x i c o City) a n d t h e n e w feast d a y of D e c e m b e r 12, which t h e apologists f o r t h e a p p a r i t i o n s o u g h t t o m a k e p r e v a i l . H a d t h e d a t e o f D e c e m b e r 12 b e e n m a d e a n o b l i g a t o r y feast d a y b y t h e C o n g r e g r a t i o n o f R i t e s , it w o u l d h a v e c r o w n e d t h e process of "Mexicanization" of the image of Tepeyac, which would thus h a v e b r o k e n its c a l e n d r i c a l ties ( a f t e r b r e a k i n g its i c o n o g r a p h i c c o n n e c t i o n ) w i t h t h e S p a n i s h G u a d a l u p e . T h e office o f D e c e m b e r 1 2 , f o r t h e r e s t , w o u l d h a v e implicitly c o n f i r m e d t h e " a p p a r i t i o n , " h a p p i l y situated in t h e octave of t h e I m m a c u l a t e Conception, t h e n a flowering c u l t i n H i s p a n i c C h r i s t e n d o m . Finally, t h o s e r o s e s o f D e c e m b e r o f which t h e i m a g e of T e p e y a c was c o m p o s e d , a d m i r a b l y symbolized t h e s i t u a t i o n o f t h e Indiada—the I n d i a n masses—left in such d e s p e r a t e plight by defeat, a n d saved by Mary's r e d e e m i n g grace. T h e cult o f G u a d a l u p e of E s t r e m a d u r a h a d d e v e l o p e d in a comp a r a b l e historical climate, a c c o r d i n g to tradition. M o r e o v e r , t h e miracles o f t h e G u a d a l u p e of M a n i l a , r e p o r t e d b y F r a y G a s p a r d e S a n A g u s t i n i n h i s Conquistas de las islas Philipinas ( 1 6 9 8 ) , c i t e d p r e v i o u s l y , h a v e in c o m m o n with those of t h e Virgin of T e p e y a c that they b e n e fited t h e n a t i v e s o f L u z o n . A l t h o u g h t h e i m a g e o f M a n i l a w a s n o t r e p u t e d t o b e m i r a c u l o u s , like t h a t o f T e p e y a c , it h a d t h e f a m e o f p r o d u c i n g healing miracles, a m o n g others t h e resurrection of a T a g a l o g c h i l d o n e y e a r o l d . I n a c o n t e m p o r a r y r e l a t i o n w e find t h e following account of t h e history of t h e origins of t h e image of G u a d a l u p e of Manila:
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Guadalupe,
a Mexican
National
Emblem
A t first, i n 1 6 0 1 , t h i s b e a u t i f u l c h u r c h w a s d e d i c a t e d t o O u r L a d y d e las G r a c i a s , a w o o d e n s t a t u e v e r y s i m i l a r t o t h a t w h i c h is v e n e r a t e d in E s t r e m a d u r a o f S p a i n u n d e r t h e s a m e i n v o c a t i o n . A f t e r t h r e e y e a r s , in 1 6 0 4 , a t t h e r e q u e s t o f t h e S p a n i a r d s w h o t h e n lived in M a n i l a , t h e n a m e o f O u r L a d y d e las G r a c i a s w a s c h a n g e d to that of O u r L a d y of G u a d a l u p e , in o r d e r that t h e Philippines m i g h t h a v e a c h u r c h d e d i c a t e d to t h e Q u e e n of H e a v e n a n d E a r t h in h e r i m a g e o f N e w S p a i n , so v e n e r a t e d a n d so r i c h in o f f e r i n g s . 4 5
T h e r o l e o f t h e A u g u s t i n i a n s in t h i s t r a n s f e r o f t h e i m a g e o f T e p e y a c to t h e Philippines (the Philippines w e r e u n d e r t h e jurisdiction of t h e r e l i g i o u s p r o v i n c e s o f N e w S p a i n ) , w a s c e r t a i n l y decisive. B u t it is d o u b t f u l t h a t t h e r e f e r e n c e is t o t h e G u a d a l u p e o f T e p e y a c . M o r e likely it is t o t h e G u a d a l u p e o f E s t r e m a d u r a , especially s i n c e in t h o s e years t h e r e was discovered in a river of t h e island of L u z o n a replica of Nra. Sra de la Pena de Francia, a n o t h e r b r o w n (morenica) V i r g i n v e n e r a t e d in E s t r e m a d u r a . T h e e x t r a o r d i n a r y f l o w e r i n g o f t h e c u l t o f G u a d a l u p e of Mexico in the e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y would lead to a refashi o n i n g o f t h e P h i l i p p i n e t r a d i t i o n , u n d e r s t a n d a b l e in view o f t h e fact that the islands were a religious, administrative, a n d economic a n n e x of N e w Spain. W h a t is n o t e w o r t h y , i n a n y c a s e , is t h e s u b s t i t u t i o n o f o n e i m a g e o f t h e V i r g i n M a r y f o r a n o t h e r , w i t h t h e n e w o n e s o o n p r o v i n g its g r e a t e r efficacy by m e a n s o f m i r a c l e s . T h e possibility o f a t r a n s f e r o f the sacred virtues of the original G u a d a l u p e of Villuercas (Caceres) to its c o p i e s w a s a n e s s e n t i a l a s p e c t o f t h e c u l t a n d o f t h e p i l g r i m a g e s . F a t h e r F r a n c i s c o d e S a n J o s e in h i s p r e v i o u s l y c i t e d Historia ( 1 7 4 3 ) o f t h e first i m a g e o f G u a d a l u p e ( t h a t o f E s t r e m a d u r a ) , w r i t e s : " S h e a p p e a r s as m i r a c u l o u s in h e r c o p i e s as in t h e o r i g i n a l i m a g e . . . , a n d i n n u m e r a b l e p r o d i g i e s a r e said t o h a v e b e e n p e r f o r m e d b y t h e m e d als, a n d p o r t r a i t s o n c l o t h a n d p a p e r , o f t h e V i r g i n o f G u a d a l u p e . I c o u l d cite m a n y s u c h c a s e s . " T h e r e l i g i o u s a d d e d t h a t in t h i s r e s p e c t t h e V i r g i n r e s e m b l e d t h e s u n , w h i c h c o m m u n i c a t e d its l i g h t t o t h e o b j e c t s o n w h i c h it s h o n e . R e c a l l i n g t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f l u n a r s y m b o l i s m in t h e M e x i c a n i m a g e o f G u a d a l u p e , o n e c o u l d t r a n s l a t e t h e symbolic relations b e t w e e n t h e s u n of G u a d a l u p e of Villuercas a n d the m o o n of G u a d a l u p e of Tepeyac into astronomical p h e n o m e n a . F r o m t h i s p o i n t o f view, t h e M e x i c a n t r a d i t i o n o f t h e " a p p a r i t i o n s " becomes unnecessary to explain the miracles of Tepeyac. 4 6
A l t h o u g h t h e t e r m s o f t h e b u l l Non est equidem ( 1 7 5 4 ) w e r e c a u tiously p h r a s e d w i t h r e g a r d t o t h e a u t h e n t i c i t y o f t h e a p p a r i t i o n s o f G u a d a l u p e — " I t is r e p o r t e d t h a t in 1 5 3 1 a m i r a c u l o u s l y p a i n t e d i m a g e o f t h e M o t h e r o f G o d a p p e a r e d in M e x i c o C i t y " — i t n e v e r t h e l e s s m a d e u p f o r t h e d e f e a t o f 1 6 6 6 . F l o r e n c i a ' s t r a c t , La Estrella del Norte
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de Mexico ( 1 6 8 8 ) , h a d a d e c i s i v e effect o n t h e h i s t o r y o f t h e M e x i c a n c u l t o f G u a d a l u p e . T h e J e s u i t a l s o d e v o t e d a n e s s a y t o t h e rival i m a g e o f R e m e d i o s , b u t it w a s La Estrella del Norte t h a t w a s r e p u b l i s h e d in 1 7 4 1 , i n S p a i n , a f t e r t h e d e a t h of. F a t h e r F l o r e n c i a , p e r h a p s a t t h e initiative of a n o t h e r g r e a t M e x i c a n creole d e v o t e e of M a r y , Francisco J a v i e r L a z c a n o . T h e l a t t e r h i m s e l f p u b l i s h e d a t V e n i c e a t r e a t i s e De principatu Marianae gratiae, a n d a t R o m e a n essay, Brevis notitia Apparitionis mirabilis B. Mariae Virginis de Guadalupe, t h e first i n 1 7 5 5 a n d t h e l a t t e r in 1 7 5 6 ; t h e s e d a t e s c o i n c i d e w i t h t h e p o n t i f i c a l r e c o g n i t i o n o f t h e p a t r o n a g e o f G u a d a l u p e o v e r N e w S p a i n . I n his b o o k F l o r e n c i a h a d advised concerning the a p p r o a c h to be m a d e to the Congregation o f R i t e s ; I t s e e m s t h a t t h e e i g h t e e n t h - c e n t u r y J e s u i t s p r o f i t e d b y his counsels. I n reality, t h e dossier of t h e G u a d a l u p e of T e p e y a c m u s t h a v e s e e m e d t o R o m e n o w o r s e a n d n o b e t t e r t h a n a n y o t h e r o f its k i n d . O n e is s t r u c k b y t h e s i m i l a r i t y w i t h t h a t o f t h e G u a d a l u p e o f E s t r e m a d u r a as p r e s e n t e d a little m o r e t h a n a c e n t u r y b e f o r e b y t h e p r i o r of the J e r o n y m i t e m o n a s t e r y of Villuercas, Fray Gabriel d e T a l a v e r a . T h e a r g u m e n t s h e a d v a n c e d in f a v o r o f t h e a u t h e n t i c i t y o f the Villuercas tradition are identical with those the Jesuit Florencia u s e d to s u p p o r t t h e Mexican tradition: 4 7
GUADALUPE DE LAS VILLUERCAS
(Spain)
G U A D A L U P E OF T E P E Y A C
(New Spain)
Image S c u l p t u r e d by t h e Apostle L u k e . Painted by the angel Gabriel. Miraculous preservation. T h e " c o n t i n u o u s m i r a c l e " o f its preservation. Site of the A m o u n t a i n , a m o n g rocks, n e a r a river with steep banks.
Apparition A hill, a m o n g r o c k s , n e a r a spring.
Circumstances of the Apparition Incredulity of the clergy of t h e Incredulity of the clergy of t h e provincial capital. capital. Repetition of the apparition, the Repetition of the apparition, t h e Virgin's wish to have h e r Virgin's wish to h a v e h e r s a n c t u a r y e s t a b l i s h e d a t t h e site sanctuary established at the of the apparition. site o f t h e a p p a r i t i o n . R e s u r r e c t i o n o f a close r e l a t i v e o f R e s u r r e c t i o n o f a close r e l a t i v e o f the witness of the apparition. a witness of the apparition. E n l i g h t e n m e n t of t h e clergy, w h o E n l i g h t e n m e n t of the archorganize a procession and b i s h o p ; h e installs t h e i m a g e i n inaugurate the sanctuary. a new sanctuary.
295
Guadalupe,
a Mexican
National
Emblem
I m m e d i a t e massive p o p u l a r support. A time of disarray for the Christian c o m m u n i t y after the Moslem invasion.
Massive p o p u l a r s u p p o r t (especially a m o n g t h e I n d i a n s ) . A time of disarray for I n d i a n converts after the Spanish C o n q u e s t , followed by great epidemics.
Development H i s t o r i o g r a p h i c silence f r o m 1322, t h e p r e s u m e d d a t e of the apparition, until 1440, d a t e of t h e first G u a d a l u p a n a p o l o g e t i c manuscript. F o u n d a t i o n of the m o n a s t e r y of G u a d a l u p e i n 1 3 4 0 by K i n g A l f o n s o X I as a t h a n k s g i v i n g for the victory of Salado over the Moors.
of the Cult H i s t o r i o g r a p h i c silence f r o m 1531, p r e s u m e d date of the apparition, to 1648, date of t h e first G u a d a l u p a n a p o l o g e t i c work. C o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e first sanctuary of Tepeyac, by public subscription, eighty years, after the date of the apparition a c c o r d i n g to the tradition (1609). O u r Lady of G u a d a l u p e of T e p e y a c is s w o r n " p r i n c i p a l P a t r o n e s s " o f M e x i c o City t w o centuries after the apparition ( 1 7 3 7 ) . Pontifical r e c o g n i t i o n o f the Guadalupan tradition and the "universal P a t r o n a g e " of G u a d a l u p e o v e r all M e x i c o (from 1754).
O u r L a d y o f G u a d a l u p e d e las V i l l u e r c a s is t h e m o s t f a v o r e d sanctuary of t h e peninsula, f r o m Alfonso XI to the Catholic k i n g s , r e a c h i n g its a p o g e e a t t h e e n d of the Reconquista a n d d u r i n g the conquest of America — e n d o f t h e fifteenth a n d beginning of the sixteenth centuries. Multiplication of healing m i r a c l e s in t h e b e g i n n i n g , t h e n a role of supernatural protection with respect to the national community (Reconquest).
Multiplication of healing m i r a c l e s in f a v o r o f I n d i a n s , at first, t h e n t h e s a l v a t i o n o f t h e e n t i r e c o m m u n i t y (floods 1 6 2 9 ; e p i d e m i c 1737).
Father Talavera devotes a whole dissertation to proving the force of t r a d i t i o n in g e n e r a l . "We k n o w t h e c r e d i t t h a t t h e C h u r c h gives t o c u s t o m , t h e i m p o r t a n c e t h a t S a i n t P a u l a s s i g n s t o it, a n d w h a t a u t h o r ity it e n j o y s a m o n g t h e l e a r n e d . " P o p e J u l i u s I I h a d i s s u e d a b u l l recognizing the sanctuary of O u r Lady of Loreto, without o t h e r p r o o f t h a n t r a d i t i o n . "We m a y t h e r e f o r e say t h a t i n t h i s c a s e , w h i c h is p u b l i c k n o w l e d g e , t h e u n a n i m o u s voice o f t h e p e o p l e is t h e voice o f G o d . " Since t h e oral tradition h a d c o n t i n u e d u n i n t e r r u p t e d l y , historiog r a p h i c silence d i d n o t w e a k e n the force of t h e pious l e g e n d ; t h e a u t h o r invoked the p r e c e d e n t of the Gospels, whose originals were 4 8
4 9
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GUADALUPE, OR THE N E W EPIPHANY
lost b u t w h o s e c o p i e s d i d n o t lose a n y o f t h e i r a u t h o r i t y o n t h a t acc o u n t . F r a y A l o n s o d e O r o p e s a , p r i o r o f G u a d a l u p e , c a u s e d t h e first r e l a t i o n t o b e w r i t t e n in 1 4 5 5 . T h e n " w a s c o m p o s e d t h e f a m o u s h i s t o r y o f G u a d a l u p e ; a n d its a u t h o r s a c k n o w l e d g e d t h a t t h e y h a d t a k e n it f r o m a n c i e n t b o o k s , w r i t t e n a t a t i m e w h e n t h e r e still lived m a n y w i t n e s s e s o f t h e m i r a c l e s a n d p r o d i g i e s o f its w o n d e r f u l d i s c o v e r y . " A c c o r d i n g t o F a t h e r T a l a v e r a , if t h e r e h a d b e e n d e c e p t i o n o n t h e p a r t o f t h e first f r i a r - h i s t o r i a n , t h e s u r v i v i n g w i t n e s s e s w o u l d h a v e d e n o u n c e d t h e f r a u d a n d t h e t r a d i t i o n w o u l d h a v e i m m e d i a t e l y lost its s u p p o r t . I f t h e c o n t e m p o r a r i e s o f t h e m i r a c l e d i d n o t r e c o r d it in w r i t i n g , it w a s b e c a u s e o f t h e w e l l - k n o w n S p a n i s h c a r e l e s s n e s s , " s o m e b e i n g busy with t h e t r a d e of war, o t h e r s with g o v e r n m e n t , a n d o t h e r s w r a p p e d u p in t h e i r o w n a f f a i r s . " T h e m o s t a n c i e n t d o c u m e n t s h a d d i s a p p e a r e d "in the d i s o r d e r t h a t wars e n g e n d e r . " W h a t r e m a i n e d as final p r o o f w a s t h e " u n i v e r s a l d e v o t i o n , " c o n f i r m e d b y i n n u m e r a b l e miracles. 50
5 1
O n e of t h e most a s t o u n d i n g miracles, p e r h a p s , was "the preservat i o n o f t h e h o l y i m a g e f o r m o r e t h a n six c e n t u r i e s in a d a m p site s i t u a t e d n e a r t h e r i v e r . " T h i s fact recalls ( o r p r e f i g u r e s ) " t h e s p o n t a n e o u s restoration" of t h e i m a g e of Tepeyac, duly attested by painters a n d physicians, t h e subject of Miguel Cabrera's b o o k . The m i r a c u l o u s p r e s e r v a t i o n of sacred images, far f r o m b e i n g a special a t t r i b u t e o f t h e d i v i n e ayate o f T e p e y a c , s e e m s t o b e a c l i c h e o f p i o u s t r a d i t i o n s . I n his Journey to Covadonga, A m b r o s i o d e M o r a l e s , a p r i e s t sent to t h e s a n c t u a r y by K i n g Philip to i n q u i r e into t h e tradition, w r o t e : " I t is said t h a t t h i s c h u r c h w a s f o u n d e d b y K i n g A l f o n s o t h e C h a s t e , a n d t h a t it h a s r e m a i n e d m i r a c u l o u s l y in t h e s a m e s t a t e e v e r s i n c e , w i t h o u t a n y d e c a y o f its w o o d . " M o r a l e s w a s s k e p t i c a l a n d saw "clear signs of n e w c o n s t r u c t i o n " ; b u t h e a c c o m p a n i e d his d o u b t with t h e r e f l e c t i o n , w h i c h recalls F a t h e r T a l a v e r a : " G o d c a n p e r f o r m t h e g r e a t e s t m i r a c l e s . " R e v e r e n c e f o r t h e d i v i n e p o w e r is t h e c o m m o n d e n o m i n a t o r of Morales's incredulity a n d Talavera's credulity. W h e n h e r e p o r t s t h e d i s c o v e r y o f a n i m a g e o f t h e Ecce homo a t Z e b u b y a s o l d i e r w h o w a s d i g g i n g t h e f o u n d a t i o n s f o r his h o u s e , F r a y G a s p a r d e S a n A g u s t i n d e s c r i b e s t h e e v e n t as a " m i r a c u l o u s d i s c o v e r y , " a n d a c c o m p a n i e s his a c c o u n t with this reflection: "A very holy i m a g e of a n Ecce homo h a s b e e n f o u n d , a w o o d e n s c u l p t u r e v e r y well p r e s e r v e d f o r h a v i n g l a i n so m a n y y e a r s in s u c h a p l a c e . " 5 2
5 3
5 4
5 5
A n o t h e r trait c o m m o n to t h e i m a g e of Villuercas a n d that of T e p e y a c : t h e h u m b l e condition of t h e witness of t h e " a p p a r i t i o n " — a s h e p h e r d i n S p a i n , a n I n d i a n macehual o r p e a s a n t i n M e x i c o . T h a n k s t o t h e lowly s t a t e o f t h e elect, t h e g r a c e r e c e i v e d t o u c h e d t h e entire c o m m u n i t y . For the s a m e reason the priests of Caceres, a n d
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Guadalupe,
a Mexican
National
Emblem
A r c h b i s h o p Z u m a r r a g a , later on, were incredulous; the Virgin herself h a d to intervene to gain recognition of the p r o d i g y a n d construction o f t h e basilica a t t h e n e w p l a c e o f p i l g r i m a g e ; s u c h , at least, is t h e t r a d i t i o n . I shall n o t d w e l l o n t h e t o p o g r a p h i c c o n s t a n t s ( d i s t a n c e f r o m t h e city, h e i g h t , a n e a r b y f o u n t a i n o r r i v e r ) , b u t I m u s t s t r e s s t h e p o p u l a r c h a r a c t e r o f all t h e s e t r a d i t i o n s . C o m e f r o m t h e p e o p l e , p r o n o u n c e d b y t h e voices o f f r i a r s w h o h a d i s s u e d f r o m t h e p e o p l e , t h e p i o u s l e g e n d s ( t h e M a r i a n l e g e n d s in p a r t i c u l a r ) e n c o u n t e r e d t h e r e sistance of l e a r n e d bishops w h o f o u n d t h e m suspect. Later, t h e f a m e of t h e miracles c a u s i n g n e w miracles to occur, the state could n o t disavow a cult which attracted pilgrims a n d h a d n o o p t i o n b u t to try to a t t a c h t h e m e a n i n g o f a s a n c t u a r y t h a t w a s a b o v e all c h t h o n i c t o t h e u n i v e r s a l t r a n s c e n d e n c e o f C h r i s t i a n i t y . T h e pontifical r e f u s a l t o a c k n o w l e d g e t h e m i r a c u l o u s o r i g i n o f a n y p a r t i c u l a r local i m a g e w a s i n s p i r e d b y a d e s i r e t o m a i n t a i n t h e l i n k w h i c h u n i t e d all t h e c u l t s t o o n e C a t h o l i c c u l t o f t h e V i r g i n M a r y in h e r I m m a c u l a t e C o n c e p t i o n . T h e fact t h a t t h e i m a g e o f T e p e y a c w a s p a i n t e d , n o t s c u l p t u r e d , d i d n o t m a k e it u n i q u e ; F r a y D i e g o d e Ocafia, t h e f r i a r s e n t f r o m t h e m o n a s t e r y of E s t r e m a d u r a to S o u t h A m e r i c a , in 1602 p a i n t e d for t h e c a t h e d r a l o f S u c r e a r e p l i c a o f t h e G u a d a l u p e d e las V i l l u e r c a s " o n c l o t h , " a n d p r o c l a i m e d t h a t " t h e r e is n o t a n o t h e r i m a g e o f this k i n d i n t h e w h o l e w o r l d , f o r t h e p a i n t i n g is so s p l e n d i d t h a t it d a z z l e s all w h o see it." It m a y b e r e c a l l e d t h a t t h e J e r o n y m i t e , b y his o w n a d m i s s i o n , h a d only vague notions of the technique of illumination, for h e a d d s that "I, too, was stupefied at m y o w n t a l e n t . . . evidently d u e to t h e aid of t h e Most H o l y Virgin of G u a d a l u p e . " T h e r a p t u r e of devotees before t h e s u p e r h u m a n beauty of t h e i m a g e was a n a l o g o u s to that w h i c h p i l g r i m s felt a t t h e s i g h t o f t h e G u a d a l u p e o f T e p e y a c . O n l y a s u p e r n a t u r a l intervention could explain such beauty. A Mexican tableau of the e i g h t e e n t h century r e p r e s e n t e d the Holy Spirit painting t h e i m a g e of T e p e y a c ; o n e a u t h o r attributes t h e tableau to t h e archangel Saint Michael, a n o t h e r to G a b r i e l . . . . T h e m o s t a r d e n t e n t h u s i a s t s a f f i r m e d t h a t t h e V i r g i n M a r y h e r s e l f , o n h e r o w n initiative, h a d i m p r i n t e d h e r i m a g e o n t h e tilma o r c l o a k o f t h e I n d i a n c o n v e r t J u a n Diego. T h e p r e c e d e n t of t h e m a r b l e c o l u m n o n which t h e V i r g i n h a d a p p e a r e d , at Zaragoza, b e f o r e t h e eyes of t h e apostle Saint J a m e s a u t h o r i z e d a n e w s e l f - p o r t r a i t o f M a r y a t M e x i c o City. 5 6
I n all r e s p e c t s — t h e a n e c d o t a l d e t a i l s o f t h e p i o u s l e g e n d , t h e t o p o g r a p h i c conditions of t h e sanctuary, t h e " s p o n t a n e o u s " p o p u l a r origin of t h e cult, t h e resistance of t h e c h u r c h , t h e h i s t o r i o g r a p h i c silence of m o r e t h a n a c e n t u r y , t h e b e l a t e d flowering o f a n a p o l o g e t i c a l l i t e r a t u r e , t h e g r o w i n g influx of p i l g r i m s — t h e cult of T e p e y a c a p p e a r s to be a repetition of t h e cult of E s t r e m a d u r a . T h i s does n o t m e a n that
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the f o r m e r s h o u l d be c o n s i d e r e d a simple reflection of t h e latter. We c a n o n l y say t h a t in t h e c a s e o f t w o p e o p l e s , i n h a b i t i n g t h e s a m e s p i r i t u a l w o r l d , c o m p a r a b l e h i s t o r i c a l o r d e a l s , t h r e a t e n i n g t h e existe n c e of t h e c o m m u n i t y , i n s p i r e d t h e rise of a n a l o g o u s mythical res p o n s e s a t a n i n t e r v a l o f m o r e t h a n t w o c e n t u r i e s . T h e h i s t o r i a n also n o t e s t h e fact o f e m i g r a t i o n f r o m t h e o l d p l a c e s o f p i l g r i m a g e ; t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t they p r o m i s e salvation to t h e c o m m u n i t y , t h e gods a r e f o u n d a c c o m p a n y i n g m e n in t h e i r m i g r a t i o n s . T o N e w S p a i n , w i t h t h e d e l a y o f m o r e t h a n a c e n t u r y t h a t is n o r m a l in t h e t r a n s f e r o f a h o l y p l a c e , c a m e t h e " N e w G u a d a l u p e , " like a r e s e r v e o f s p i r i t u a l o x y g e n n e e d e d b y t h e n e w society t o a f f i r m its i d e n t i t y a n d s t i m u l a t e its d e v e l o p m e n t . C o n s i d e r i n g , as A . D u p r o n t n o t e s , t h a t it t o o k a t h o u s a n d y e a r s a n d s e v e r a l fruitless c r u s a d e s t o a c h i e v e t h e t r a n s f e r o f t h e h o l y p l a c e s f r o m P a l e s t i n e t o W e s t e r n E u r o p e (specifically t o S a n t i a g o d e C o m p o s t e l a ) , w e o b s e r v e , b e g i n n i n g in t h e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y in A m e r i c a , a n a c c e l e r a t i o n o f h i s t o r y , a t least o f t h o s e s p i r i t u a l p r o c e s s e s t h a t s e r v e as b e a c o n s m a r k i n g its c o u r s e .
Epilogue: Guadalupe Today
Guadalupe
Today
T h e essential p r o b l e m r e m a i n s t h e p r o b l e m of w h a t was early d e s c r i b e d as t h e M e x i c a n " M a r i o p h a n y . " T h e t e r m is a p p r o p r i a t e , f o r it truly describes a new epiphany. Because the image of G u a d a l u p e has b e e n i n t e r p r e t e d as a n e w e p i p h a n y e v e r s i n c e t h e Historia o f M i g u e l S a n c h e z , p u b l i s h e d in 1 6 4 8 , it i n s p i r e d a l a r g e d e v o u t l i t e r a t u r e f r o m that time d o w n to the n i n e t e e n t h century, with a belated r e s u r g e n c e in t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y , m a r k e d e s p e c i a l l y by t h e p u b l i c a t i o n o f t h e Album guadalupano del IV centenario o f t h e J e s u i t F a t h e r M a r i a n o C u e v a s , in 1 9 3 1 . D r a w i n g i n s p i r a t i o n f r o m M a r c B l o c h , I m a y e x p r e s s m y p o s i t i o n as follows: t h e q u e s t i o n is n o t w h e t h e r t h e i m a g e o f O u r L a d y o f G u a d a l u p e , v e n e r a t e d o n M o u n t T e p e y a c , is t h e r e s u l t o f a m i r a c l e o r t h e w o r k o f a n a t i v e artist. " T h e p r o b l e m is t o u n d e r s t a n d h o w it h a p p e n e d t h a t so m a n y m e n b e l i e v e d a n d still b e l i e v e " (in a M e x i c o in w h i c h t h e r e t r i u m p h e d a r e v o l u t i o n o f positivist i n s p i r a tion, followed by a r e v o l u t i o n u n d e r Marxist influence) in t h e miraculous character of the image of Tepeyac. 1
T h e c u l t o f G u a d a l u p e is t h e c e n t r a l t h e m e o f t h e h i s t o r y o f c r e o l e consciousness o r Mexican patriotism. Every study of that subject m u s t i n e v i t a b l y l e a d t o t h a t c u l t o r t a k e it as its p o i n t o f d e p a r t u r e . T h e M e x i c a n M a r i o p h a n y I r e g a r d as a patriotic epiphany in w h i c h o n e of t h e most p e r m a n e n t c u r r e n t s of Christianity, t h e cult of M a r y t h e I m m a c u l a t e , a n d o n e o f t h e f u n d a m e n t a l beliefs o f t h e a n c i e n t Mexican religion, the d u a l principle, converge. T h i s p h e n o m e n o n i l l u m i n a t e s t h e h i s t o r y o f t h e M e x i c a n p e o p l e in t h e d e g r e e t h a t , w i t h i n a c e r t a i n e t h i c a n d a s y s t e m o f t h o u g h t w h i c h is n o l o n g e r t h a t o f o u r t i m e s , it w a s , in t h e h a p p y p h r a s e o f F r a n c i s c o d e la M a z a , t h e " m i r r o r " of t h e national consciousness. For Maza " t h e cult of G u a d a l u p e a n d b a r o q u e art are the only authentic creations of the Mexican past." T h e cult of G u a d a l u p e was t h e spiritual aspect of t h e p r o t e s t a g a i n s t t h e c o l o n i a l r e g i m e . Well b e f o r e J u s t o S i e r r a a n d A n t o n i o C a s o , t h e r e a p p e a r e d in M e x i c a n h i s t o r y t h e p e r m a n e n t s e a r c h 2
299
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f o r i d e n t i t y , f o r Mexicanidad. S i n c e t h e s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y t h i s p a s s i o n a t e q u e s t f o r t h e n a t i o n a l s o u l ( t h e Mexicayotl o f t h e a n c i e n t s ) h a s b e e n inseparable from a thirst for the acquisition of grace a n d the miracles t h a t a r e its m a n i f e s t a t i o n ; t h u s , m u c h l a t e r , J u s t o S i e r r a w a n t e d t o " m e x i c a n i z e k n o w l e d g e , " t h a t is, s c i e n c e , t h a t g r a c e o f positivist times. At different m o m e n t s of Mexican history, t h e m i r r o r of t h e national consciousness has b e e n called Saint T h o m a s - Q u e t z a l c o a t l , T o n a n t z i n - G u a d a l u p e , o r by s o m e o t h e r n a m e . T h e first c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e h o u r o f t h e p r i m i t i v e e v a n g e l i z a t i o n , a n d its m i s s i o n w a s t o f r e e t h e I n d i a n s , in a way, f o r m a C h r i s t i a n i t y w h i c h t h e y w e r e n o t yet r e a d y t o a c c e p t , b u t a b o v e all f r o m s i x t e e n c e n t u r i e s o f s p i r i t u a l d a r k ness which delivered t h e m b o u n d h a n d a n d foot to t h e E n e m y of m a n k i n d . T h e identification of Quetzalcoatl with Saint T h o m a s a m o u n t e d t o mexicanizing Christianity, t o p a r a p h r a s e J u s t o S i e r r a . T h e r e l a t i v e l y b e l a t e d u p s u r g e o f t h e c u l t o f G u a d a l u p e (it t o o k m o r e t h a n a c e n t u r y a f t e r t h e s u p p o s e d a p p a r i t i o n o f 1 5 3 1 f o r t h e first " g o s p e l " of G u a d a l u p e to a p p e a r ) coincided, we have seen, with the favor that t h e c u l t o f t h e I m m a c u l a t e C o n c e p t i o n t h e n e n j o y e d . H e r e a g a i n , it was a q u e s t i o n o f mexicanizing the Immaculate Conception. I n b o t h cases, t h e collective a s p i r a t i o n t e n d e d t o w a r d t h e u n i v e r s a l t h r o u g h t h e n a t i o n a l , t o w a r d t h e r e c o g n i t i o n o f n a t i o n a l d i g n i t y in t h e c o n c e r t o f nations. C e n t u r i e s before S a m u e l R a m o s , Mexico elaborated at each m o m e n t o f its h i s t o r y a p h i l o s o p h y t h a t was t h e e x p r e s s i o n o f t h e " c i r c u m s t a n c e , " in t h e s e n s e in w h i c h O r t e g a y G a s s e t h a s d e f i n e d t h a t w o r d . T h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e civic c u l t o f t h e y o u n g f o r e b e a r (joven abuelo) C u a u h t e m o c p l a y e d t h e s a m e r o l e a f t e r t h e t r i u m p h o f t h e Mexican revolution, at a time w h e n a n indigenist c u r r e n t rehabilitated t h e I n d i a n , r e g a r d e d as t h e n u c l e u s o f M e x i c a n i d a d . I n t h i s c o n n e c tion, Alfonso Reyes has rightly cited the poetess Victoria O c a m p o : o u r a n c e s t o r s , s h e w r o t e , felt t h e m s e l v e s t o b e " p o s s e s s o r s o f a s o u l w i t h o u t a p a s s p o r t " ; t h e e x p r e s s i o n s u g g e s t s a c o n s t a n t o f M e x i c a n hist o r y . T h e M e x i c a n Creoles m a n i f e s t e d a f e r v e n t a n d p o s s e s s i v e att a c h m e n t for t h e Virgin M a r y in h e r p r o d i g i o u s i m a g e of G u a d a l u p e , " t h i s celestial t r e a s u r e " (este Celestial Tesoro), f o r s h e w a s t h e " p a s s p o r t " o f t h e i r sinful s o u l s a n d t h e i r s u b j u g a t e d patria. 3
4
I n the age of speed, G u a d a l u p e has b e c o m e the tutelary i m a g e of t h e t r u c k d r i v e r a n d t h e a i r p l a n e pilot. P l a c e d o n t h e d a s h b o a r d o f all t h e t a x i s o f M e x i c o City, a c c o m p a n i e d b y t h e e l o q u e n t m o t t o " H o l y V i r g i n , p r o t e c t m e ! " t h e p r o t e c t i v e i m a g e is w a t c h e d o v e r b y a little red light that has replaced the candles of yesteryear. H e r "Universal p a t r o n a g e , " diversified a n d e n l a r g e d t o g e t h e r with t h e e m p i r e of techniques, n o w e x t e n d s to t h e n e w perils of the twentieth century.
Perspectives
The Spains and
Beyond
T h e central p h e n o m e n o n of the formation of Mexican national cons c i o u s n e s s m a y b e c a l l e d t h e dialogue of the cultures. Its effects a r e visible t h r o u g h o u t t h e h i s t o r y o f N e w S p a i n , b u t it is n e c e s s a r y t o d i s t i n g u i s h its d i f f e r e n t levels. O n t h e t e c h n o l o g i c a l level, it is c o m posed of e x c h a n g e s a n d loans; for e x a m p l e , the E u r o p e a n image of t h e V i r g i n o f G u a d a l u p e w a s p a i n t e d o n a c o a r s e t i s s u e o f a g a v e fiber (ayatl), w h i c h w a s u s e d b y t h e I n d i a n s t o m a k e c l o a k s (tilmatli). O n t h e level o f b e l i e f s t h e q u e s t i o n c l e a r l y is m o r e c o m p l e x , b u t w e find h e r e t h e s a m e k i n d of e x c h a n g e s : r e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of T o n a n t z i n ; t h e creole c h a l l e n g e to Spain t h r o u g h t h e cult of G u a d a l u p e of T e p e y a c ; imitation of t h e apologetic of Saint J a m e s of C o m p o s t e l a by creole apologists for Saint T h o m a s - Q u e t z a l c o a t l . I n t h e latter case, t h e creole spirit resorts to conscious imitation of Spain. T h e M e x i c a n wish to b r e a k with Spain does not p r e v e n t mimicry with respect to the S p a n i s h l a n g u a g e a n d beliefs. A t t h e v e r y h e i g h t o f t h e c o n t r o v e r s i e s w h i c h o p p o s e d E g u i a r a y E g u r e n to D e a n M a r t i , a n d J u a n B a u t i s t a Murioz to several Mexican a u t h o r s , the dialogue b e t w e e n Hispanic culture a n d Aztec culture continued without interruption. T h e creation of new mythical images associating Iberian contributions with A m e r i n d i a n h i e r o g l y p h i c signs was t h e m o s t p r o f o u n d f o r m of this s y m b i o s i s . T h e e n i g m a t i c e x p r e s s i o n o f h y b r i d m y t h s in c r e o l e emblematic l a n g u a g e represents the m a x i m u m interiorization of the fusion of cultures; i n d e e d , t h e existence of n e w m y t h s a n d their origin a l e x p r e s s i o n is t h e b i r t h certificate o f a n e w c u l t u r e . B u t if M e x i c a n civilization a p p e a r e d e a r l y , i s s u i n g f r o m t h a t v i o l e n t e f f o r t w h i c h Wigberto J i m e n e z M o r e n o has described, the two m o t h e r cultures c o n t i n u e d t o e x p r e s s t h e m s e l v e s , e a c h in its o w n l a n g u a g e . M e x i c a n p i c t o g r a p h i c e x p r e s s i o n was t r a n s f o r m e d a n d e n r i c h e d w i t h h i e r o glyphs of a new kind, a necessary consequence of the n e e d to express Christian symbols a n d concepts. T h e studies of J o a q u i n Galarza o n t h e d e v i c e s u s e d t o e x p r e s s C h r i s t i a n s y m b o l i s m in t h e p o s t - C o n q u e s t 1
301
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c o d i c e s give a g o o d i d e a o f t h e s y n c r e t i c r i c h n e s s o f t h o s e d o c u m e n t s . We k n o w less a b o u t t h e e v o l u t i o n u n d e r g o n e by t h e r i t u a l s o n g s a n d d a n c e s of t h e Mexican I n d i a n s , songs a n d d a n c e s which retain to t h e p r e s e n t t h e m o s t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c m e a n s o f e x p r e s s i o n o f t h e i r faith. B u t w e a r e n o t m u c h b e t t e r i n f o r m e d a b o u t t h e b o r r o w i n g o f c r e o l e sac r e d e l o q u e n c e f r o m S p a n i s h conceptism, carried to abusive e x t r e m e s by F r a y G e r u n d i o d e C a m p a z a s . T h e r e m o d e l i n g of the Mexican pious traditions according to the traditional patterns of Iberian hagiography, the directions b o r r o w e d by t h e M e x i c a n wait f o r t h e S e c o n d C o m i n g , i n d i s p u t a b l y s h o w N e w S p a i n ' s c o m p l e t e i n t e g r a t i o n i n t h e H i s p a n i c vividura o r " m o d e o f b e i n g . " T h e v e r y t r a i t w h i c h d i s t i n g u i s h e s N e w S p a i n ' s s p i r i t u a l life, t h e r e s u r g e n c e o f t h e call o f A b r a h a m in t h e n e w f o r m o f t h e call of Guadalupe, is c l e a r l y a l o a n f r o m a H i s p a n o - P o r t u g u e s e C h r i s t i a n i t y saturated over long centuries with J u d a i s m . A study of the mentality o r g e n e r a l h i s t o r y o f N e w S p a i n w o u l d n o t b e c o r r e c t l y o r i e n t e d if it did not center on the existence of intimate and p e r m a n e n t b o n d s with S p a i n . I n effect, it was f r o m S p a i n t h a t M e x i c o d r e w its s u b s t a n c e ; if t h e S p a n i a r d s abusively exploited the p r o d u c t i v e forces, t h e m i n e r a l a n d a g r i c u l t u r a l r e s o u r c e s o f M e x i c o , it w a s S p a i n — h o w e v e r u n w i l l i n g l y — t h a t m a d e M e x i c o a n a t i o n . T h e v e r y style o f t h e M e x i c a n W a r o f I n d e p e n d e n c e was t h a t o f t h e S p a n i s h W a r o f I n d e p e n d e n c e . W h o knows w h e t h e r t h e Mexicans would have taken a r m s to l i b e r a t e t h e m s e l v e s f r o m S p a n i s h t u t e l a g e if t h e S p a n i s h p e o p l e — t h e gachupines—had n o t o f f e r e d a n e x a m p l e ( w h i c h w a s also a c h a l l e n g e ) by r i s i n g u p a g a i n s t t h e F r e n c h i n v a d e r s ? A n analysis o f S p a n i s h revolutionary literature a n d the proclamations of the Mexican l i b e r a t o r s r e v e a l s a s t r i k i n g s i m i l a r i t y o f i d e a s . H e r e is a r i c h field f o r s t u d y in w h i c h t h e m a r r i a g e o f t h e E n l i g h t e n m e n t w i t h t h e J u d e o C h r i s t i a n h e r i t a g e could teach us m u c h a b o u t t h e origins of t h e i d e o l o g i e s o f p r o g r e s s a n d t h e i r l i n k s to t h e m e s s i a n i c wait. T h e m e t h o d s o f S p e r b e r a n d G u i r a u d (to w h i c h A . D u p r o n t h a s d r a w n t h e a t t e n t i o n o f h i s t o r i a n s ) , f u r n i s h v a l u a b l e tools f o r r e s e a r c h o f this nature. 2
3
W e w o u l d o v e r s i m p l i f y M e x c i a n r e a l i t y if w e r e d u c e d t h e d i a l o g u e of t h e cultures to a n e x c h a n g e b e t w e e n the ancient d o m i n a n t Aztec culture a n d the new d o m i n a n t Hispanic culture. Rich a n d very new studies could b e m a d e of Michoacan. Far from t h e r a d i a n t c e n t e r of M e x i c o City, t h e T a r a s c a n s , w h o m a i n t a i n e d t h e i r f r e e d o m f r o m t h e A z t e c d o m i n a t i o n , d e v e l o p e d a n o r i g i n a l c u l t u r e a n d beliefs in t h e marginal zone which they occupied, a zone which, we know, played a d e c i s i v e r o l e in t h e W a r s o f I n d e p e n d e n c e . I h a v e c a l l e d a t t e n t i o n m o r e t h a n once to the i m p o r t a n t role of the Tlaxcalan tribe, c o m p o s ing almost the whole p o p u l a t i o n of t h e diocese of Puebla. Blacks a n d
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m u l a t t o e s also c r e a t e d in M e x i c o , as in o t h e r r e g i o n s o f A m e r i c a , a n e m b r y o n i c c o u n t e r c u l t u r e o f w h i c h t h e d i a r y o f R o b l e s o f f e r s a t least s o m e e v i d e n c e . H o w e v e r , t h e s e a r e r e g i o n a l p h e n o m e n a w h o s e effects o n t h e f o r m a t i o n o f t h e M e x i c a n n a t i o n h a v e b e e n l i m i t e d o r o c c a s i o n a l . T h e o r i e n t a t i o n o f N e w S p a i n ' s s p i r i t u a l life a n d t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f M e x i c a n n a t i o n a l c o n s c i o u s n e s s h a v e b e e n a b o v e all regional variants of the evolution of the Hispanic world. 4
T h e m o s t r e m a r k a b l e e x a m p l e o f t h i s is t h e a p o l o g e t i c l i t e r a t u r e a b o u t Saint ThomasrQuetzalcoatl. T h e apostolic evangelization of the I n d i a n s w a s s u p p o s e d t o h a v e m a d e " o l d C h r i s t i a n s " (cristianos viejos) o f t h e m a n d t o h a v e w a s h e d t h e m c l e a n f r o m t h a t n e w o r i g i n a l sin i n v e n t e d b y t h e C h r i s t i a n c o m m u n i t i e s o f S p a i n , t h e sin o f b e i n g " n e w C h r i s t i a n s . " B y a n e a s y a n a l o g y t h e I n d i a n s w e r e m o r e o r less e x pressly assimilated to t h e J e w s a n d M o o r s . T h e i r protectors, t h e missionary friars, k n e w only o n e way of saving t h e I n d i a n s f r o m t h e i n d i g n i t y o f t h o s e s e c o n d - c l a s s subjects o f t h e k i n g o f C a s t i l e : t o p r o v e the apostolic conversion of the N e w World. T h i s effort differed n o t at all f r o m t h e "false c h r o n i c l e s " (falsos cronicones) c o m p o s e d in t h e s a m e period by apologists for the G r a n a d a n Moriscos a n d the J e w s conv e r t e d b y f o r c e . I n a society in w h i c h i n d i v i d u a l s a d o r n e d t h e m s e l v e s with b o r r o w e d genealogies attesting to their " p u r i t y of b l o o d " (the o n l y w a y o f r e c o v e r i n g social d i g n i t y a n d g a i n i n g access t o h o n o r s ) , t h e e t h n i c g r o u p s r e g a r d e d as " i g n o b l e " also r e s o r t e d t o a b l e h i s t o rians to c o m p o s e for t h e m a past of "old Christians." T h e skepticism o f t h e official S p a n i s h h i s t o r i o g r a p h e r s w a s t h e first c h a l l e n g e t h r o w n d o w n to the creole apologists. T o d e n y the identity of Quetzalcoatl with the apostle Saint T h o m a s , to d e n y the authenticity of the a p p a r i t i o n s o f t h e V i r g i n M a r y a t T e p e y a c , w e r e so m a n y w a y s o f r e d u c i n g t h e I n d i a n s ( a n d t h e C r e o l e s a f t e r t h e m ) t o t h e i g n o b l e s t a t e o f infidels a n d idolaters. C o n s e q u e n t l y t h e aspiration to dignity (dignification) b e c a m e a c o n s t a n t in t h e H i s p a n i c - A m e r i c a n societies. It s u r v i v e d l o n g a f t e r I n d e p e n d e n c e , as p r o v e d b y t h e success in A r g e n t i n a o f PeronistJusticialismo, w h o s e s l o g a n w a s : " P e r o n k e e p s his w o r d , E v i t a gives y o u b a c k y o u r d i g n i t y {Peron cumple, Evita dignifica)." T h e t h i r s t f o r j u s t i c e a l s o b l e n d e d w i t h t h e h o p e f o r t h e c o m i n g o f C h r i s t o r its Mexican variant, the reign of G u a d a l u p e or that of Quetzalcoatl (the first p o i n t i n g t o t h e f u t u r e , t h e s e c o n d t o t h e p a s t ) . 5
6
T h e g r e a t s p i r i t u a l c u r r e n t s w h i c h flowed a c r o s s W e s t e r n C h r i s t e n d o m b e t w e e n t h e e n d of the sixteenth a n d the n i n e t e e n t h centuries ( n o t to s p e a k o f t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y w h e n S p a n i s h e m i g r a t i o n p l a y e d a c a p i t a l i d e o l o g i c a l r o l e in M e x i c o ) r e a c h e d M e x i c o b y w a y o f S p a i n . T o b e g i n w i t h , t h e c l i m a t e o f t h e m a r v e l o u s in w h i c h t h e c o n q u e r o r s of t h e N e w World w e r e b a t h e d was directly i n h e r i t e d f r o m t h e g r e a t C r u s a d e s o r r a t h e r t h e i r s p i r i t u a l a f t e r m a t h , a b o v e all t h e
304
GUADALUPE, OR THE N E W EPIPHANY
c r u s a d i n g s p i r i t w h i c h w a s t o m a r k so p r o f o u n d l y t h e W e s t e r n c h u r c h . T h e c r e o l e c h a r i s m a t i c s p i r i t h a d its r o o t s i n t h a t m o m e n t ; t h e C o n q u i s t a d o r s , like t h e c r u s a d e r s b e f o r e t h e m , felt t h e m s e l v e s t o b e G o d ' s chosen. I n an a n o n y m o u s relation of the Crusades which Emile Brehier published, we see saints m o u n t e d o n white horses c o m i n g to t h e aid o f c r u s a d e r s a g a i n s t t h e T u r k s , s e v e r a l c e n t u r i e s b e f o r e S a i n t J a m e s , killer o f M o o r s (Santiago matamoros) c a m e t o p u t t h e I n d i a n s t o rout. I n e e d n o t again stress t h e i m p o r t a n c e of t h e spirit o f poverty which o n t h e p a r t o f t h e "Twelve" w e n t h a n d in h a n d with t h e expect a t i o n o f t h e S e c o n d C o m i n g . T h e I n d i e s w e r e s i m u l t a n e o u s l y t h e last r e f u g e of t h e feudal spirit of t h e Peninsula a n d of t h e spirit of evangelical r e n o v a t i o n of t h e m e n d i c a n t o r d e r s — a spirit soon to b e c o m e s u s p e c t in S p a i n . A Utopian S p a i n in its b e g i n n i n g s , N e w S p a i n w o u l d r e m a i n s u c h u n t i l a n d e v e n a f t e r h e r political i n d e p e n d e n c e ; a n d h e r c o n s t a n t rivalry with Spain, n o u r i s h e d by t h e d e b a t e relative t o Q u e t z a l c o a t l a n d G u a d a l u p e , w a s d u e a b o v e all t o t h e M e x i c a n f e e l i n g t h a t t h e i r patria w a s a p r o m i s e d l a n d . If t h e Second C o m i n g was t h e p e r m a n e n t horizon of Mexican s p i r i t u a l i t y , b y t h e j o i n t effect o f C h r i s t i a n e s c h a t o l o g y since t h e evangelical r e n o v a t i o n a n d J u d a i c messianism, t h e n e w Mexican cosm o g o n i c s p a c e w a s totally t r i b u t a r y t o t h e C r u s a d e s . A f t e r t h e fall o f J e r u s a l e m , W e s t e r n religiosity a s s u m e d f o r m s t h a t w e r e a f t e r a f a s h ion c o m p e n s a t o r y : pilgrimages, t h e cult of relics. H e r e was a n ast o u n d i n g fact: t h e m y t h i c a l O r i e n t set in m o t i o n , b e g i n n i n g a slow r e v o l u t i o n t o w a r d t h e U l t i m a T h u l e . O n e o f t h e first s t a t i o n s o f t h e New J e r s a l e m took place at Santiago d e Compostela, h e a r t of Western C h r i s t e n d o m d u r i n g t h e c e n t u r i e s w h e n it w a s r e b o r n a f t e r s u f f e r i n g t h e h e a v y d e f e a t o f t h e C r u s a d e s a n d p a s s i n g t h e c a p e o f t h e first m i l l e n n i u m . T h e c o n q u e s t o f A m e r i c a w a s like a n e w d e p a r t u r e o f t h e y o u t h f u l f o r c e s o f E u r o p e o n a n e w c r u s a d e , t h i s t i m e t o t h e West. I t was as if, h a v i n g failed t o r e c o n q u e r a n d r e t a i n t h e h i s t o r i c a l J e r u s a l e m , t h e n e p h e w s of the C r u s a d e r s h a d d e p a r t e d (knights err a n t i n s e a r c h " o f t h e d i v i n e , " S a i n t T e r e s a d e Avila w o u l d h a v e said) to build a N e w J e r u s a l e m at t h e antipodes of t h e Old. T h i s supern a t u r a l a d v e n t u r e w a s a u t h e n t i c a t e d b y signs, i n t h e first p l a c e t h e apparition of t h e Virgin Mary at Tepeyac, which p r o m o t e d t h e Mexican sanctuary to t h e r a n k of a new, sacred N o r t h Star of Hispanic Christendom. 7
History as Hermeneutics
and as
Catharsis
T h e h i s t o r y w r i t t e n in t h e C h r i s t i a n West f r o m t h e t i m e o f G r e g o r y o f T o u r s d o w n to t h e F r e n c h Revolution was essentially d e r i v e d f r o m t h e
305
Perspectives
e c o n o m y o f s a l v a t i o n . A d o c u m e n t like t h e Tablets chronologicas o f J . E . N i e r e m b e r g , published at t h e e n d of t h e e i g h t e e n t h century, m a k e s t h i s fact q u i t e c l e a r f o r t h e H i s p a n i c w o r l d . T h e Historia de Espana vindicada ( p r e v i o u s l y c i t e d ) , f o l l o w i n g M a r i a n a ' s Historia, organizes t h e e v e n t s o f S p a n i s h h i s t o r y in t h e i r r e l a t i o n t o t h e I n c a r n a t i o n a n d assigns a capital i m p o r t a n c e to events which h a d a n eschatological i m p o r t a n c e , like t h e p r e a c h i n g o f t h e A p o s t l e S a i n t J a m e s in t h e I b e rian peninsula, t h e a p p a r i t i o n of t h e Virgin Mary at Pilar d e Z a r a g o z a , t h e d i s c o v e r y o f t h e relics o f t h e a p o s t l e . T h e C h r i s t i a n m e n o l o g y c o m p l e t e d this vision o f t h e H i s p a n i c p a s t . T h e s e c h a r a c teristics o f h i s t o r i o g r a p h y h a d b e e n fixed l o n g b e f o r e , f o r t h e y flowed f r o m R e v e l a t i o n itself. " C a n t i c l e o f g l o r y , h i s t o r y t o o k its p l a c e i n t h e i m m e n s e l i t u r g y w h i c h t h e m o n a s t e r i e s o f f e r e d as a n e x a m p l e o f p e r fect life a n d d i s p l a y e d as a p r e f i g u r a t i o n o f celestial j o y s . Finally, h i s t o r y m a d e it p o s s i b l e t o d i s c e r n m o r e clearly, w i t h i n t h e f r a m e w o r k o f t i m e , t h e r o a d s o f h u m a n i t y o n t h e m a r c h t o w a r d salvat i o n . . . . H o l y S c r i p t u r e , w h i c h is n o o t h e r t h a n h i s t o r y , d e s c r i b e d it a s a progressive ascent in t h r e e T i m e s . " T h e s e lines by G e o r g e D u b y , dealing with the friar-historians of t h e eleventh century, could b e applied without c h a n g e to t h e historiography of t h e Indies. 8
9
Two c o m p e t i n g c u r r e n t s of historical h e r m e n e u t i c s c o n f r o n t e d each o t h e r t h r o u g h o u t t h e history of N e w Spain. T h e providential historiography of the Conquest, of which the work of Acosta a n d that o f S o l o r z a n o P e r e i r a o f f e r g o o d e x a m p l e s , p r e s e n t e d this c o n q u e s t as a holy act r e s e r v e d by p r o v i d e n c e for t h e elect of G o d , for C o l u m b u s a n d C o r t e s a b o v e all, b u t also f o r t h e S p a n i a r d s in g e n e r a l ( i n d e e d , f o r t h e A r a g o n e s e i n p a r t i c u l a r ) . A s R o b e r t B . T a t e c l e a r l y saw, " t h e political rise o f S p a i n w a s a c c o m p a n i e d b y a flowering o f m y t h o l o g i c a l hist o r y . " T o t h i s p r o v i d e n t i a l vision t h e M e x i c a n Creoles, w i t h t h e h e l p of s e r m o n s o r tracts of G u a d a l u p a n apologetics, o p p o s e d a n o t h e r p r o v i d e n t i a l vision. A c c o r d i n g t o t h e l a t t e r , t h e C o n q u e s t w a s r e a l i z e d to p e r m i t t h e n e w i n c a r n a t i o n of t h e W o r d at T e p e y a c ; consequently, t h e elect w e r e n o t t h e S p a n i a r d s b u t t h e I n d i a n s a n d t h e c r e o l e r e s t o r ers of t h e ancient Mexican s p l e n d o r . T h e whole historical p r o b l e m was t h u s r e d u c e d to a question of exegesis, which explains t h e constant p r e o c c u p a t i o n of t h e h i s t o r i o g r a p h e r s with chronology. T h e Last T i m e s , t h e climax of h u m a n i t y ' s s u p e r n a t u r a l a d v e n t u r e , have always b e e n a n x i o u s l y a w a i t e d as t h e m o m e n t w h e n t h e g a t e s o f g l o r y w o u l d o p e n , b u t a l s o a w a i t e d w i t h a s a c r e d t e r r o r . H i s t o r y h a d f o r its o b j e c t t o r e a s s u r e t h e n a t i o n s o n this p o i n t ; t h e s u r e s t m e a n s w a s t o p e r s u a d e t h e m t h a t t h e y w e r e t h e elect o f G o d . H e n c e t h e e s o t e r i c jugglings with coincidences of dates a n d n u m b e r s with which t h e p i o u s a n d h a g i o g r a p h i c l i t e r a t u r e o f N e w S p a i n is so r e p l e t e . T h e 1 0
306
GUADALUPE, OR THE N E W EPIPHANY
s e a r c h — o n e is t e m p t e d t o say " t r a c k i n g d o w n " — o f t h e visible signs o f divine grace, p r o m i s e of t h e glory to c o m e , was o n e of t h e essential objects of history. T h e history o f Israel h a d t h e value of a n a r c h e t y p e a n d o f p r o v i d i n g a m o d e l f o r h i s t o r i c a l w r i t i n g . T h e facts o f c o n t e m p o r a r y history w e r e routinely illuminated by o n e o r a n o t h e r e p i s o d e o f s a c r e d h i s t o r y . E a c h n a t i o n a l h i s t o r y w a s v i e w e d as a r e f l e c t i o n o f t h e h i s t o r y o f I s r a e l , t h e m o r e so b e c a u s e e a c h r e g i o n o f H i s p a n i c C h r i s t e n d o m felt itself c a l l e d t o a C o v e n a n t . T h e c o n t r o v e r s i e s a m o n g Spanish a n d creole historians of the N e w World would seem vain were they n o t constantly i l l u m i n a t e d by their eschatological b a c k g r o u n d . T h a t is w h y I first p l a n n e d t o r e t a i n as t h e s u b t i t l e o f t h i s w o r k Eschatology and History, b e f o r e a d o p t i n g t h e m o r e e x p l i c i t title o f The Formation of Mexican National Consciousness. It was by seeking to imp o s e a n e w p r o v i d e n t i a l v e r s i o n o f its h i s t o r y t h a t N e w S p a i n d e f e a t e d S p a i n in t h e lists o f h e r m e n e u t i c s , a c h i e v i n g its s p i r i t u a l e m a n c i p a t i o n , t h e n e c e s s a r y p r e l u d e t o its political i n d e p e n d e n c e . 11
B u t if M e x i c a n h i s t o r i o g r a p h y w a s in its o r i g i n s a s a c r e d h e r m e n e u tics, it w a s a t t h e s a m e t i m e a c a t h a r s i s . I h a v e a l r e a d y o b s e r v e d t h a t t h e i m a g e o f its p a s t t h a t a society gives itself is m o r e r e v e a l i n g o f t h e s t a t e o f its c o n s c i o u s n e s s t h a n t h e Utopian f o r m u l a t i o n o f t h e f u t u r e t o w h i c h t h a t society a s p i r e s . I n r e a l i t y , t h e t w o a s p e c t s a r e c o m p l e m e n t a r y , b u t t h e c a t h a r t i c vision is m o r e intelligible f o r t h e h i s t o r i a n . T h e image of the national future reveals shortcomings: the Mexican creole a s p i r e d t o dignity. T h e i m a g e o f t h e n a t i o n a l p a s t is n o t t h e p r o d u c t o f u n r e s t r a i n e d i m a g i n a t i o n ; it m u s t t a k e i n t o a c c o u n t t h e r e a l i t y p r e s e r v e d by t h e c h r o n i c l e s a n d in t h e g i v e n c a s e t h e p i c t o g r a p h i c c o d i c e s a n d m a n u s c r i p t c o m m e n t a r i e s of t h e missionary friars o r their native s t u d e n t s . I n o r d e r t o fulfill satisfactorily its f u n c t i o n o f c a t h a r s i s , h i s t o r y m u s t s o r t o u t t h e facts o f t h e c h r o n i c l e s . T h u s w e h a v e s e e n t h e S p a n i s h c h r o n i c l e r s (gachupines) describe with complacence the h u m a n sacrifices a n d r i t u a l s p r e e s (borracheras) o f t h e A z t e c r e l i g i o n , w h i l e c r e o l e a u t h o r s c o m p a r e d t h e M e x i c a n tlatoani w i t h t h e e m p e r o r s of ancient R o m e a n d d e n o u n c e d t h e t r e a c h e r v of Cortes, which they considered the only cause of the Mexican d e f e a t . Omission or, contrariwise, a prolix insistence, are the most obvious techniques of a history d e s i g n e d to dress u p a d e a d fatherland. T h e r e are m o r e subtle m e a n s w h i c h o n e c a n n o t e v e n d e s c r i b e as t e c h n i q u e s , f o r t h e h i s t o rians u n d o u b t e d l y w e r e unconscious of using t h e m . T h e m s e l v e s m e m b e r s o f t h e society o f N e w S p a i n , t h e y w e r e b u t m e d i a t o r s b e t w e e n t h e vision of a past a l r e a d y h a l o e d with a n epic a n d m a r v e l o u s l i g h t in t h e e a r l y c h r o n i c l e s , a n d r e a d e r s a v i d t o r e a d t h e c o n f i r m a t i o n o f t h e i r c h a r i s m a t i c c e r t i t u d e . T h a t is w h y h i s t o r y s o m e t i m e s a p p e a r s as a n i n c i d e n t i n t h e t r i u m p h a l d i s c o u r s e o f t h e p i o u s l i t e r a t u r e , 1 2
307
Perspectives
s o m e t i m e s as a n I n d i a n i s t a p o l o g i a . T h e l a t t e r is m e a n i n g f u l only as a function of a h e r m e n e u t i c : t h e I n d i a n s a r e p a r t of t h e line of A d a m , t h e y w e r e c o n v e r t e d by a n a p o s t l e , t h e i r p r o p h e t s h a d a n n o u n c e d t h e C o n q u e s t , t h e i r c o n v e r t s r e c e i v e d signs o f G o d ' s f a v o r . I n t h e f r e e u n i v e r s e o f a h i s t o r y w h i c h d r e w its s u b s t a n c e f r o m S c r i p t u r e r a t h e r t h a n f r o m t h e national past, t h e creole creative fantasy could take a b r i l l i a n t r e v e n g e o v e r t h e gachupines, p r o t e c t e d as it w a s by t h e d o u b l e r a m p a r t of historical " t r u t h " a n d the t r u t h of Scripture. H e r m e n e u t i c o n b o t h t h e creole a n d t h e S p a n i s h sides, t h e h i s t o r i o g r a p h y of t h e I n d i e s w a s a b o v e all a l i b e r a t i n g c a t h a r s i s f o r t h e A m e r i c a n Creoles. I t w a s in h i s t o r i o g r a p h i c d i s c o u r s e t h a t t h e d i a l o g u e o f t h e c u l t u r e s a p peared most prominently.
Suggestions for an "Introhistoric" History of
13
Mexico
T h e p r e s e n t study d o e s not claim to e x h a u s t t h e material offered by t h e two subjects of Quetzalcoatl a n d G u a d a l u p e . I n reality they have only b e e n a m e a n s of illuminating Mexican history, a p p r o a c h e d f r o m a r e l i g i o u s p o i n t o f view. T o a c h i e v e t h e w i s h e x p r e s s e d b y A l f o n s o R e y e s would have r e q u i r e d a large anthropological inquiry that only a n u m b e r of teams of investigators could have carried out. H e r e I have indicated e n o u g h l a n d m a r k s to p r o v e t h e p r i m o r d i a l i m p o r t a n c e o f r e l i g i o u s beliefs in t h e f o r m a t i o n o f t h e M e x i c a n n a t i o n . I f t h e r e w a s n o t , p r o p e r l y s p e a k i n g , a Mexican geographic space t h a t f r o m t h e first d e f i n e d t h e n a t u r a l b o r d e r s o f m o d e r n M e x i c o , t h e r e e x i s t e d , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , a sacred space w h o s e e x i s t e n c e o r d e r e d t h e n a t i o n a l p o t e n t i a l i t i e s o f t h e societies o f N e w S p a i n as a field o f f o r c e s . S t u d y o f t h e p r o f o u n d c o n t i n u i t i e s w h i c h c h a r a c t e r i z e t h e d e v e l o p m e n t , flowe r i n g , a n d d e c l i n e o f t h e g r e a t n a t i o n a l m y t h i c i m a g e s r e v e a l s t h e slow p r o c e s s e s o f social t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f N e w S p a i n . C o r r e l a t i v e l y , t h e j o l t s o f a h i s t o r y so o f t e n t r o u b l e d by n a t u r a l d i s a s t e r s a n d political u p h e a v a l s m o r e t h a n o n c e c o n t r i b u t e d to a s u d d e n u p s u r g e of nat i o n a l c o n s c i o u s n e s s . T h e i m p o r t a n c e o f seismic, e p i d e m i c , o r political a c c i d e n t s in t h e h i s t o r y o f a society v a r i e s a c c o r d i n g t o t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h o s e e v e n t s t h a t is o f f e r e d t o m e n o r t h a t t h e y s p o n t a n e o u s l y f o r g e f o r t h e m s e l v e s . A s t u d y o f r e a c t i o n s t o a n e v e n t in N e w S p a i n can be a t t e m p t e d o n the base of the dispersed evidence which has b e e n p r e s e r v e d . J a v i e r O c a m p o h a s successfully c a r r i e d o u t a n e t f o r t of this kind for t h e p e r i o d of I n d e p e n d e n c e ; I h a v e sketched a p o r t r a i t o f t h e M e x i c a n p u b l i c r e s p o n s e t o a decisive crisis, t h e e x p u l s i o n of the Jesuits. T h e history of what Alfonso Reyes s o m e w h a t romantically c a l l e d t h e " n a t i o n a l s o u l " (alma national) o f M e x i c o , r e m a i n s t o b e written. I have only s o u g h t to show that the avatars of t h e m y t h of 1 4
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Q u e t z a l c o a t l in t h e c r e o l e a p o l o g e t i c s , a n d t h e c u l t o f G u a d a l u p e , h a v e b e e n a m o n g t h e most characteristic aspects of this Mexican "nat i o n a l soul'.' in t h e p r o c e s s o f f o r m a t i o n , f r o m t h e s i x t e e n t h t o t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y . B u t o t h e r m y t h i c a l figures, o t h e r beliefs, w o u l d reveal t h e s a m e t e x t u r e . E a c h s a n c t u a r y could be t h e object of a study in d e p t h , b e g i n n i n g w i t h t h a t o f T e p e y a c , w h i c h I h a v e o n l y s k e t c h e d , n o t h i n g m o r e . T h e Christ of C h a l m a , t h e Cross of Tepic, t h e Virgin o f O c o t l a n , a n d so o n , a r e so m a n y r e g i o n a l c o m p o n e n t s o f t h e f o r m a tion of a Mexican national consciousness, whose affirmation r e q u i r e d the integration of a n e x t r a o r d i n a r y ethnic diversity. T h e r e is t r u l y t h e h e a r t o f t h e p r o b l e m . If it is t r u e , as R o g e r B a s t i d e h a s w r i t t e n , t h a t "all f o l k l o r e is a s y m b o l i c m e d i a t i o n b e t w e e n individuals and groups, and between g r o u p s , " Mexican folklore, s t u d i e d in all p o s s i b l e w a y s ( i n q u i s i t o r i a l a r c h i v e s o f M e x i c o City, w h o s e s u r f a c e I h a v e o n l y s k i m m e d ; r e s e a r c h o n t h e s p o t , still v e r y f r a g m e n t a r y ) is t h e c h o i c e t e r r a i n o f t h e e t h n o h i s t o r i a n . I m a y cite h e r e , g i v i n g it t h e b r o a d e s t p o s s i b l e m e a n i n g , t h e j u d g m e n t o f C l a u d e L e v i - S t r a u s s : " E v e r y w o r k o f h i s t o r y is i m p r e g n a t e d w i t h e t h n o l o g y . " T h e notion of cultural challenge, whose i m p o r t a n c e has b e e n r e v e a l e d in sociology in c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e s t u d y o f A f r o - A m e r i c a n c u l t u r e s , u n d e r l i e s t h e p h e n o m e n a w h i c h I h a v e d e s c r i b e d as s y n c r e tic. T h e s u b s t i t u t i o n s a n d r e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f beliefs b o r r o w e d f r o m t h e d o m i n a n t c u l t u r e b y t h e d o m i n a t e d c u l t u r e in t h e last analysis r e p r e s e n t efforts at salvaging t h e latter. T h e cult of T o n a n t z i n was p r o l o n g e d f o r c e n t u r i e s in t h e s h e l t e r o f a s a n c t u a r y o f t h e V i r g i n Mary. S i d e b y s i d e w i t h t h e p e r m a n e n c e o f s a n c t u a r i e s a n d t h e revitalizat i o n o f m y t h i c a l i m a g e s in a n e w r e l i g i o u s c o n t e x t , w e o b s e r v e t h e c r e a t i v e activity o f t h e collective m e m o r y . A p o p u l a r g e n r e like t h e corrido ( p o e t r y m o s t o f t e n c o m p o s e d o f o c t o s y l l a b l e s like t h e S p a n i s h romance o f w h i c h it is t h e A m e r i c a n o f f s h o o t ) , t h e e p i c a n d lyrical b r e a t h o f t h e M e x i c a n n a t i o n , w o u l d yield t o u s , t o g e t h e r w i t h its o r i g i n a l flavor, t h e f e a r s a n d a s p i r a t i o n s o f t h e " n a t i o n a l s o u l , " if w e h a s t e n t o s o u n d - r e c o r d it (as well as p r e p a r e a p r i n t e d c o r p u s ) b e f o r e it is e x t i n g u i s h e d in its t u r n . O n e c o u l d say, i m i t a t i n g Melville Herskovits, t h a t o n e of the essential aspects of t h e Mexican national consciousness has b e e n " T h e M y t h of t h e I n d i a n P a s t . " T h e i m a g e o f t h e p r e - C o l u m b i a n I n d i a n is i n s e p a r a b l e f r o m t h e s i g n s o f t h e g r a c e w h i c h h e w a s s u p p o s e d t o h a v e r e c e i v e d in a p o s t o l i c t i m e s ( t h e evangelization of Saint T h o m a s - Q u e t z a l c o a t l ) o r after the Spanish C o n q u e s t (apparitions of the Virgin of G u a d a l u p e , of Ocotlan; the m i r a c u l o u s c r o s s o f T e p i c , a n d t h e like). T h e h i s t o r y o f t h e b i r t h a n d the evolution of a mythical image of the Indian, resulting from a 1 5
1 6
1 7
1 8
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Perspectives
creole r e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of the native pictographic codices (preserved i n t h e p i c t o g r a p h i c c o d i c e s a n d t h e h y m n s ) is a p o s s i b l e g u i d e l i n e f o r a history of t h e Mexican nation. I h a v e tried to show t h e i m p o r t a n c e of a u t h o r s like S i g u e n z a y G o n g o r a a n d C l a v i j e r o ( w h o h a d a l r e a d y d r a w n t h e a t t e n t i o n o f M e x i c a n h i s t o r i a n s in t h i s r e s p e c t ) f r o m t h a t p o i n t o f view, b u t t h e i n q u i r y s h o u l d b e e n l a r g e d b e y o n d t h e a u t h o r s t o t a k e in t h e collective c o n s c i o u s n e s s . W h a t G u i j o t h o u g h t o f t h e I n d i a n s in h i s Diary, h o w t h e I n d i a n a p p e a r e d t o s u c h a n d s u c h a w i t n e s s in a trial, t o a m i s s i o n a r y f r i a r in a g i v e n r e g i o n , t o B i s h o p P a l a f o x , a r e so m a n y v a l u a b l e c l u e s . T h e c o r r e l a t i v e q u e s t i o n , t h a t o f t h e origin of t h e A m e r i c a n I n d i a n s , whose spiritual implications at t h e b e g i n n i n g of the seventeenth century I have already suggested, cont i n u e d to b e t h e object of publications a n d controversies, in E u r o p e a n d in t h e A m e r i c a s , i n t o t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y — n o t t o s p e a k o f t h e t w e n t i e t h . T h i s vast q u e s t i o n d e s e r v e s t o b e r e e x a m i n e d . T h e r e is o n e q u e s t i o n w h o s e i m p o r t a n c e h a s yet n o t b e e n r e c o g n i z e d , as f a r as I c a n tell: t h e s t u d y o f e m b l e m a t i c e x p r e s s i o n . I h a v e b a r e l y b r o a c h e d t h e s u b j e c t in r e f e r e n c e t o t h e titles a n d t h e i m a g e s o f t h e G u a d a l u p a n apologetic literature a n d t h e coat of a r m s of Mexico City. T h e M e x i c a n c u l t s o f p r o t e c t i v e i m a g e s (cults t h a t w e r e b o t h r e l i g i o u s a n d p a t r i o t i c ) w e r e e x p r e s s e d , o n t h e i r h i g h e s t level o f e l a b o r a t i o n , t h r o u g h t h e voices o f p r e a c h e r s . I t is n o t e n o u g h t o s p e a k of b a r o q u e e x u b e r a n c e , of b o m b a s t a n d i n c o h e r e n c e ; I have tried to show that we have to d o with a n original m o d e of expression, a language. W h e t h e r w e like it o r n o t , t h e e n i g m a t i c l a n g u a g e o f t h e p r e a c h e r s is t h e l a n g u a g e in w h i c h t h e M e x i c a n n a t i o n a l c l a i m s w e r e first f o r m u l a t e d . T h e m i n g l i n g o f m y t h o l o g i c a l i m a g e s f r o m classic a n t i q u i t y , f r o m t h e M e x i c a n p a s t , a n d f r o m t h e biblical t r a d i t i o n , a c c o r d i n g t o t h e p r i n c i p l e s o f t h e c o n c e p t i s m t h e n a t its h e i g h t in S p a i n , f o r m e d the t e x t u r e of a l a n g u a g e whose semantic c o n t e n t r e m a i n s to be discovered. Mexican b a r o q u e writings c a n n o t be dissociated from t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y plastic e x p r e s s i o n o f t h e s a m e r e l i g i o u s - p a t r i o t i c s e n t i m e n t s a n d in p a r t i c u l a r f r o m a h e r a l d r y r e n e w e d a c c o r d i n g t o t h e needs of a pious a n d hagiographic apologetics. 19
In a different form, the p o p u l a r ex-votos were the naive l a n g u a g e of d e v o t i o n in N e w S p a i n ; they h a v e a l r e a d y f o r m e d t h e object of s t u d i e s in M e x i c o , b u t e a c h p a s s i n g y e a r m a k e s m o r e difficult t h e discovery of a n ex-voto of i n d i s p u t a b l e authenticity. Beside these immobile testimonies, we m u s t m a k e a large place for d r a m a t i c r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s o f p i o u s i n s p i r a t i o n a n d t h e h y m n s (cantares) a c c o m p a n i e d by d a n c e s . T h e b o r r o w i n g o f g e s t u r a l o r m u s i c a l d i s c o u r s e f r o m H i s p a n i c c u l t u r e , itself o f t e n b o r n o f t h e f u s i o n o f d i f f e r e n t b o r r o w i n g s (from Celtiberian, A r a b o - M a g h r e b i a n , Visigothic, Latin, J u d a i c
310
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s o u r c e s ) r a r e l y t a k e s p l a c e w i t h o u t s e m a n t i c c h a n g e s ; t h e s a m e is t r u e of A m e r i n d i a n components, taken over apparently intact. N e w studies can e n l a r g e o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e history of N e w S p a i n , b u t t h e y w o u l d r e m a i n i n c o m p l e t e if t h e y w e r e n o t p r o l o n g e d t o w a r d m o d e r n M e x i c o . T h e s t u d y o f J e a n M e y e r , La Cristiada I. La guerra de los cristeros (Siglo X X I , 1 9 7 3 ) , is a c o n t r i b u t i o n o f g r e a t i n t e r est t o t h e h i s t o r y o f M e x i c a n n a t i o n a l c o n s c i o u s n e s s , w h o s e e v o l u t i o n f r o m t h e sixteenth to t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y I a t t e m p t e d to illuminate. B e g i n n i n g with the period of I n d e p e n d e n c e , we observe a c h a n g e in t h e i m a g e o f G u a d a l u p e ; f r o m t h e p r o t e c t r e s s a g a i n s t e p i d e m i c s t h a t s h e h a d chiefly b e e n , s h e b e c o m e s t h e " g o d d e s s o f v i c t o r y " a n d l i b e r t y . T h u s e a c h h i s t o r i c a l m o m e n t is c a p a b l e o f g i v i n g a s a c r e d " r e c h a r g e " t o a p i o u s i m a g e , b y e n d o w i n g it w i t h a n e w p o w e r a d a p t e d t o n e w a s p i r a t i o n s . T h i s e n r i c h m e n t w a s c o n t a i n e d in t h e n o t i o n o f a " u n i v e r s a l P a t r o n a g e , " t h a t is, o n e t h a t w a s p o l y v a l e n t a n d n o t specifically l i m i t e d t o floods a n d e p i d e m i c s . L a t e r , by a s o r t o f shift o f a t t r i b u t i o n s , t h e V i r g i n o f G u a d a l u p e will a p p e a r as t h e s y m b o l o f t h e C o n s e r v a t i v e party,- t h e L i b e r a l p a r t y h a v i n g s o u g h t , so t o s p e a k , t o s u b s t i t u t e t h e m a g i c a l effect o f a n i d e o l o g y o f p r o g r e s s f o r t h e sacred p o w e r of the p r o d i g i o u s i m a g e . T h e tenacious h o l d of t h e cult o f G u a d a l u p e i n a M e x i c o t h a t is p r o f o u n d l y d e - C h r i s t i a n i z e d (at least in its u r b a n m i l i e u ) d e s e r v e s t h e a t t e n t i o n o f s t u d e n t s o f r e l i g i o u s sociology. N o less i n t e r e s t i n g is t h e q u e s t i o n o f t h e p r o f o u n d m e a n i n g , f r o m t h e p o i n t o f view o f t h e n a t i o n a l c o n s c i o u s n e s s , o f t h e Q u e t zalcoatl m y t h as a l i t e r a r y t h e m e . T h e p o e t s in p a r t i c u l a r h a v e b e e n f a s c i n a t e d b y this m y t h i c a l i m a g e o f t h e I n d i a n p a s t : b e s i d e s M e x i c a n s like G a r c i a P i m e n t e l , A g u s t i B a r t r a , C a r l o s F u e n t e s , w e find t h e C h i l e a n poetess Gabriela Mistral a n d D. H . L a w r e n c e . W i t h o u t seeki n g t o a n t i c i p a t e t h e c o n c l u s i o n s o f a s t u d y t h a t m a y cast a s u r e r l i g h t o n t h e " M e x i c a n s o u l , " t h a t is, o n M e x i c a n society, I m a y o b s e r v e t h a t t h e l i t e r a r y r e n a i s s a n c e o f Q u e t z a l c o a t l is c o n t e m p o r a n e o u s w i t h t h e r i s e o f t h e i n d i g e n i s t m o v e m e n t in t h e 1 9 2 0 s a n d 3 0 s . 2 0
2 1
2 2
I f w e a c c e p t t h e j u d g m e n t o f a p s y c h o l o g i s t o f p e n e t r a t i n g vision, a c c o r d i n g t o w h o m , " T h e h i s t o r y o f c u l t u r e s is s u m m e d u p in t h e process of the creation of mythical images, their dogmatization, a n d their d e s t r u c t i o n , " we m u s t a d m i t that the viceregal culture inheri t e d f r o m N e w S p a i n is b r e a t h i n g its last in m o d e r n M e x i c o . S o m e d a y G u a d a l u p e will b e c o m e a n e x t i n c t s t a r , like t h e m o o n , w i t h w h i c h s h e is a s s o c i a t e d ; it w o u l d b e f a s c i n a t i n g t o s t u d y t h e e m e r g e n c e o f t h e m y t h i c a l i m a g e t h a t will r e p l a c e h e r . Q u e t z a l c o a t l , by c o n t r a s t , m o r e closely l i n k e d t o M e x i c a n p o l y t h e i s m , a n d n o w d e t a c h e d f r o m his t e m p o r a r y twin, Saint T h o m a s , seems to have a better c h a n c e of a f u t u r e s a c r e d " r e c h a r g e " in a laicized society like t h a t o f p r e s e n t - d a y 2 3
311
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M e x i c o . If t h e m y t h o f Q u e t z a l c o a t l h a s r e t a i n e d its vitality t h r o u g h o u t its successive a v a t a r s , in c o l o n i a l a n d i n d e p e n d e n t M e x i c o alike, it is b e c a u s e h e is t h e s y m b o l i c e x p r e s s i o n o f t h e I n d i a n p a s t w h i c h t h e c r e o l e c o n s c i o u s n e s s s o u g h t t o r e v i v e f r o m its a s h e s so as t o b u i l d u p o n it t h e c l a i m o f M e x i c a n i n d e p e n d e n c e . E v o k i n g t h e o r i g i n s o f t h e Mexican revolution, J o s e Vasconcelos wrote that "QuetzalcoatlM a d e r o w o n a victory w i t h o u t p r e c e d e n t . " After M a d e r o , t h e Mexic a n p e o p l e b e l i e v e d t h a t it saw in Q u e t z a l c o a t l - C a r d e n a s t h e n e w i n c a r n a t i o n of t h e I n d i a n messiah c o m e f r o m t h e d e p t h s of t h e ages, a P h o e n i x w h o is r e b o r n w i t h e a c h n e w " s u n " f r o m t h e a s h e s o f t h e p r e c e d i n g s u n . L i k e t h e a s p i r a t i o n f o r j u s t i c e , Q u e t z a l c o a t l is i m p e r i s h a b l e ; n o s o o n e r h a s h e b e e n d r i v e n a w a y o r , like M a d e r o , assass i n a t e d by a m o d e r n T e z c a t l i p o c a , t h a n h e is r e a d y t o b e r e i n c a r n a t e d in t h e f o r m o f a n e w political chief. M e x i c o is s i m u l t a n e o u s l y a s a c r e d space, t h e l a n d of t h e "children of G u a d a l u p e , " a n d , in time, a nostalgic y e a r n i n g f o r t h e lost p a r a d i s e o f Q u e t z a l c o a t l , a f l o a t i n g m y t h e v e r r e a d y t o a l i g h t o n t h e Elect. 2 4
Notes
A Historian's
Profession
of Faith
1. W i l h e l m M u h l m a n n , Messianismes revolutionnaires du tiers monde, Paris, Gallimard, 1968 (original e d . , Chiliasmus und natiwsmus, Berlin, 1961). 2. Francisco d e la Maza, El guadalupanismo mexicano, M e x i c o City, 1 9 5 3 .
3. Marc Bloch, Apologie pour Vhistoire ou metier d'historien (1941), Paris, 1 9 5 9 (3d ed.), p. 1 0 1 . 4. Fray S e r v a n d o Teresa d e Mier [Jose Guerra], Historia de la revolution de Nueva Espana, antiguamente Anahuac, L o n d o n , 1 8 1 3 (repr. M e x i c o City, 1922).
5. J o s e M. Cuevas Album histbrico guadalupano del IV centenario, M e x i c o City, 1930, p. 229.
6. George Dumezil, Mythe et Epopee. Uideologie des trois fonctions dans les epopees des peuples indo-europeens, Paris, Gallimard, 1968. 7. Claude Levi-Strauss, Anthropologie structural,
Paris, Plon, 1958; Magie et religion,
pp. 2 2 7 - 5 5 . 8. Marcel Bataillon a n d E d m u n d o O ' G o r m a n , Dos concepciones de la tarea historica con motivo del descubrimiento de America, M e x i c o City, 1 9 5 5 (Bataillon's letter to O'Gorman, p . 96). 9. A m e r i c o Castro, La reahdad historica de Espana, M e x i c o City, 1 9 6 2 (enlarged e d . ) , p p . 1 0 9 - 1 0 a n d 117ff. 10. Charles Moraze, La logique de Vhistoire, Paris, Gallimard, 1967.
11. Bloch, Apologie pour Vhistoire, p. 7. 12. T h e present work is a revised a n d c o n d e n s e d version o f a doctoral dissertation (these de doctorat d'Etai) p r e s e n t e d to the University o f Paris with t h e title Quetzalcoatl et
Guadalupe, Eschatologie et histoire au Mexique, Bibliotheque d e la S o r b o n n e W 1971 (52), 1-4 (4 vols.), 9 3 2 p p . + tables, i n d e x , maps, a n d illustrations.
Chapter 1 1. J u a n d e S o l o r z a n o Pereira, Politica Indiana, Madrid, 1 6 4 8 , p. 244a.
2. P e d r o d e Bolivar y d e la R e d o n d a , Memorial, informe y discurso legal, histbrico y
politico al Rey Nuestro Senor en su Real Consejo de Cdmara de las Indias, en favor de los Espanoles, que en ellas nacen, estudian y sirven, para que sean preferidos en todas las provisiones eclesidsticas, y seculares, que para aquellas partes se hiciesen, Madrid, 1667. 3. Dr. J u a n d e Cardenas, Problemas y secretos maravillosos de las Indias, M e x i c o City, 1 5 9 1 , p. I77r.
4. Gemelli Carreri, Viaje a la Nueva Espana (Mexico a fines del siglo XVIII),
preface by
F e r n a n d o B. Sandoval, 2 vols. M e x i c o City, 1 9 5 5 , II, 2 3 2 .
5. Fray A g u s t i n d e Vetancurt, Teatro mexicano, Descripcibn breve de los sucessos exemplares de la Nueva Espana ( M e x i c o City, 1696), 4 vols., Madrid, 1 9 6 0 , II, 3 0 5 - 6 .
313
314
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N O T E S TO PAGES 1 2 - 3 1
2
1. Gemelli Carreri, Viaje a la Nueva Espana, I, 45. 2. Ibid. 3. " P r o v i s i o n . . . ario de 1530," in Cedulario indiano, ed. by Diego de Encinas (Madrid, 1596), p. 135.
Chapter
3
1. Libro primero de votos de la Inquisicion de Mexico (1573-1600), Mexico City, 1949, Appendix: "Instrucciones del cardenal D. Diego de Espinoza a los Inquisidores de Mexico, agosto de 1570"; "rubr. 34: Item, se os advierte que por virtud de nuestros poderes no habeis de proceder contra los indios del dicho vuestro d i s t r i t o . . . . " p. 297. 2. Procesos de Indios idblatras y hechiceros, Publicaciones del Archivo General de la Nacion, vol. I l l , Mexico City, 1912. "Proceso del Santo Oficio contra Martin Ucelo, indio, por idolatra y hechicero," pp. 17-51. 3. Ibid., p. 29. 4. Ibid., p. 3 1 . 5. Ibid., pp. 22-23. 6. Ibid., p. 58. 7. Ibid., p. 178. 8. Libro primero de votos, pp. 129-30. 9. Ibid., p. 269. 10. Ibid. 11. Ibid., p. 270. 12. J. Toribio Medina, Historia del Tribunal del Santo Oficio de la Inquisicion en Mexico, Mexico City, 1952, ed. by J. Jimenez Rueda, p. 259b. 1. T h e r e shall be no tributes or taxes and contracts shall be free of duty; 2. He grants freedom to all slaves; 3. H e promises rewards to the descendants of conquistadors and their sons; 4. T h e right of presentation to the bishops, and the grant of prebends and benefices shall pertain to him; 5. Indian parishes shall be r e t u r n e d to the religious and will be theirs in perpetuity; 6. He promises to create titles of nobility and grandees in this kingdom; 7. H e promises to assign revenues to the convents; 8. H e promises to give dowries each year to one h u n d r e d maidens; he ends with a long protestation of the great service that he renders to God and this realm by throwing off the tyrannical yoke of the kings of S p a i n . . . . 13. Ibid., pp. 325-26. "Edicto del Tribunal de la Inquisicion de Nueva Espana, de 26 de febrero, ano de 1735." "They say he has made many prophecies, a m o n g them that the Antichrist has certainly been born, that the Day of J u d g m e n t is very near, but first the evil world must end and the good begin."
Chapter
4
1. Robert Ricard, La "Conquete spirituelle" du Mexique. Essai sur I'apostolat et les methodes missionaires des ordres mendicants en Nouvelle-Espagne, de 1523-24 a 1572, Paris, Institut d'Ethnologie, 1933. 2. Divini abbatis Joachim Liber Concordie Novi ac Veteris Testamenti, nunc primo impressus et in lucem editus, opere equidem divinum ac aliorum fere omnium tractatum suorum fundamentale, divinorum eloquiorum obscura elucidens, archana referans necnon eorundem curiosis
315
Notes to Pages
31-50
sitibundisque mentibus non minus satietatem afferens. Venice, 1519. 3. Joachim of Floris, Liber introductorius in expositionem in Apocalipsim, in VEvangile kernel, first French translation preceded by a biography by Emmanuel Aegerter, Paris, Rieder, 1928, vol. ii, p. 96. 4. Ibid., p. 50. 5. Ibid., p. 111. 6. Ibid., p. 92. 7. Ibid., pp. 117-18. 8. Ibid., p. 106. 9. Fray Bernardino de Sahagun, Historia General de las cosas de la Nueva Espana, 4 vols. Mexico City, Porrua, 1956, I, 90, 95. 10. Francisco Lopez de Gomora, Hispania Victrix, Primera y segunda parte de la historia general de las Indias . . . (hereafter cited as Historia general de las Indias), in Historiadores primitvos de Indias, biblioteca de Autores Espanoles, Madrid (hereafter cited as BAE), vol. XXII, p. 156. 11. Codice 55, Madrid, Archivo Historico Nacional, fol. 6r. 12. Gomora, Historia general de las Indias, p. 156. 13. Gregorio Garcia, Origen de los indios del Nuevo Mundo, e Indias occidentales, averiguado con discurso de optniones por el Padre Presentado Fray Gregorio Garcia de la Orden de Predicadores, book I, ch. i, Valencia, 1607. 14. Ibid., n.35. 15. Ibid., ch. iii, p. 2. 16. Ibid., ch. viii. 17. Ibid., book II, ch. i, p. 4. 18. Ibid., n.17. 19. Ibid., ch. ii. 20. Ibid., n.19. 21. Ibid. 22. Ibid., book III, ch. i. 23. Ibid., ch. ii. 24. Ibid., n.23. 25. Ibid. 26. Ibid., "Proemio al lector." 27. Sahagun, Historia General, IV, 18. 28. Fray Antonio de la Calancha, Cronica moralizada de la Orden de San Agustin en el Peru, Barcelona, 1639, p. 311. 29. Ibid., p. 312. 30. Ibid., n.29. 31. Francisco de Florencia, SJ, Historia de la Provincia de la Compania de Jesus de Nueva Espana, Mexico City, 1694; idem, "Parecer que dio el M. R. P. Francisco de Vera . . .," in ibid.; Joshua II, 14, 15. 32. Florencia, Historia, book I, ch. i. 33. Pedro S. de Achiitegui, SJ, La universalidad del conocimiento de Dios en los paganos segun los primeros teblogos de Compania de Jesus (1534-1648), part II, "Extension e interpretation que d a n nuestros autores al texto Rom. I, 18-23 y Sap. I, 31-9, en relation con la universalidad del conocimiento de Dios en los paganos," Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientificas, Delegation de Roma, 1951. 34. Solorzano Pereira, Politica indiana, p. 20b. 35. Ibid., p. 30a. 36. Ibid., p. 29b. 37. Ibid., p. 29a.
316
NOTES TO PAGES 5 1 - 8 3
Chapter
5
1. Fray J e r o n i m o de Mendieta, OFM, Historia Eclesidstica Indiana (1596), Introduction by J. Garcia Icazbalceta, Mexico City, 1945. 2. B e r n a r d o de Balbuena, Siglo de Oroy grandeza Mejicana, Real Academia Espanola, Madrid, 1831, p. 37. 3. Ibid., p. 60. 4. Ibid., p. 35. 5. Ibid., p. 59. 6. Ibid. 7. Ibid., p. 65. 8. Ibid., p. 54. 9. Ibid., pp. 54-55. 10. Ibid., p. 79. 11. Ibid., p. 55. 12. Ibid., p p . 6 1 , 65. 13. Carlos de Siguenza y Gongora, Primavera Indiana, Mexico City, 1945, p. 4 1 . 14. Ibid., p. 31. 15. Ibid., p. 19. 16. W. Jimenez Moreno, Estudios de historia colonial, Mexico City, 1958, p. 128. 17. Siguenza y Gongora, Teatro de virtudespoliticas . .., Medina, 1216. 18. Siguenza y Gongora, Piedad heroyca de Don Fernando Cortes, Jaime Delgado, ed., Madrid, 1960, p. 57. 19. Siguenza y Gongora, Paraiso Occidental, Mexico City, 1648, pp. 4 7 - 4 8 . 20. Siguenza y Gongora, Alborotoy motin de Mexico del 8 dejunio de 1692, ed. Irving A. Leonard, Mexico City, 1932, p. 65. 21. Ibid. 22. Sor J u a n a Ines de la Cruz, Los empenos de una casa, J o r n a d a la, esc. Ha, verses 321-32, in Obras completas, ed. Mendez Plancarte, 4 vols., Mexico City, 1951-57, IV, 37-38. 23. Ibid., pp. 4 3 - 4 4 . 24. Ibid., p. 44. 25. Gemelli Carreri, Viaje a la Nueva Espana, I, 45. 26. Sor J u a n a Ines de la Cruz, El Divino Narcisco, scene I, in Obras completas, vol. iii. 27. Francisco Bramon, Los sirgueros de la Virgen sin originalpecado (1620), Mexico City, 1943, p p . 109-11. 28. Robert Ricard, Une poetesse mexicaine duXVII siecle, Sor Juana Ines de la Cruz, Paris, 1954, H e legon. 29. Ibid., p. 38. 30. Sor J u a n a Ines de la Cruz, Obras completas, I I I , 107. 31. Ibid., p. 143. 32. J. T. Medina, Imprenta en Mexico, no. 4, 310. 33. Sor J u a n a Ines de la Cruz, Obras completas, II, 182. 34. Fama y obras posthumas del Fenix de Mexico, Madrid, 1714, p. 39. e
Chapter 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
6
1746, 1729, 1733, 1738, 1743,
Medina Medina Medina Medina Medina
3752. 3098. 3296. 3510. 3653, 3654.
317
Notes to Pages
83-97
6. 1746, Medina 3785. 7. 1749, Medina 3953. 8. 1750, Medina 4001. 9. 1751, Medina 4058. 10. 1753, Medina 4111. 11. 1758, Medina 4464, 1759, 4542. 12. 1756, Medina 4352. 13. Medina 4033. 14. Francisco Javier Alegre, Historia de la Provincia de la Compania de Jesus de Nueva Espana, ed. E. J. Burrus and F. Zubillaga, 4 vols., IV, 379-80, Rome, 1956-1960. 15. 1741, Medina 3566. 16. 1742, Medina 3606. 17. 1750, Medina 3991. 18. B. F. de Ita y Parra, Elcirculo del amor, 1747 (New York Public Library microfilms, Medina 3837). 19. Fr. Agustin de Bengoechea, La Gloria de Maria, 15 de mayo de 1768, Mexico City, Ziiniga y Ontiveros, 1768 (John Carter Brown Library microfilms, Medina 5224). 20. Compendio breve de las indulgencias y jubileos . . . de Nuestra Santissima Madre la Virgen Maria de la Merced, Mexico City, Joseph B e r n a r d o de Hogal, 1731. 21. 1739, Medina 3552. 22. Ita y Parra, El circulo del amor. 23. 1749, Medina 3931. 24. 1735, Medina 3381. 25. Medina 3742, J o h n Carter Brown Library, HA-M 51-19. 26. Medina 4474. 27. 1749, Medina 3931. 28. R. P. F. ThomaelMalvenda setabitani ord. Praedicatorum/Sacrae Theologiae Magistri/de AntickristolTomus Primus/m quo Ahtichnsti Praecursores, adventus ... LugduniJMDCXLVH, ed. princ. Rome, 1604 (Biblioteca Nacional, Madrid, 3/24 801). 29. 1749, Medina 3931, " P a r e c e r . . . " (New York Public Library). 30. 1749, Medina 3931, " A p r o b a c i o n . . . . " 31. Medina 3641. 32. 1750, Medina 4029. 33. Ibid., n.32. 34. 1731, Medina 4147. 35. 1753, Medina 4147. 36. Francisco de la Maza, El guadalupanismo mexicano, Mexico City, 1953, p. 107. 37. 1735, Medina 3381. 38. 1750, Medina 3391. 39. Fr. Manuel de Bocanegra y Cantabrana (El circulo del amor, 1746, "Parecer . . . " ) : "A Jesuit swan sang its glories, so that this second Rome might not lack its Virgil." 40. 1758, Medina 4487. 4 1 . Bocanegra y Cantobrana, El circulo del amor. 42. Alexander von Humboldt, Essai politique sur le royaume de la Nouvelle-Espagne, 5 vols., Paris, 1811, II, 11, 13. 43. Fray Servando Teresa de Mier, "Relation de lo que sucedio en E u r o p a al Dr. Mier," in Memorias, Mexico City, 1946, vol. II, writes: "In Spain and E u r o p e generally there is no devotion for our Virgin of Guadalupe; all they love is hard cash [pesos duros]" (p. 198). 44. Codice d e 1440, Archivo Historico Nacional, Madrid, cod. no. 555, fol. 6r. 45. Francisco Xavier Carranza, SJ, La transmigracion de la Iglesia a Guadalupe, Mexico City, 1749, p. 24 (Medina 3931).
318
N O T E S TO PAGES 9 9 - 1 1 2
Chapter 7 1. Beatriz Ramirez Camacho, "Breve relation sobre la expulsion de los jesuitas de Nueva Espana," Boletin del Archivo General de la Nacibn, II series, vol. VII, no. 4, Mexico City, 1966, p. 885. 2. J. T. Medina, Imprenta en Mexico, vol. v, no. 3, 885. 3. Ramirez Camacho, "Breve relation," p. 883. 4. Ibid., pp. 883-84. 5. Ernest J. Burrus, "A Diary of Exiled Philippine Jesuits (1769-1770)." Archivum Historicum Societatis Iesu, vol. XX, 1951, p. 298. 6. Ibid., p. 299. 7. Charles II et les jesuites de ses etats d'Europe et d'Amerique en 1767. Documents inedits publies par le P. Auguste Carayon (SJ), Paris, 1868, p. 374. 8. Ibid., p. 377. 9. Ibid., pp. 377-78. 10. Ibid., p. 380. 11. Ibid., p. 381. 12. Miguel Batllori, SJ, El abate Viscardo. Historia y mito de la intervention de los jesuitas en la independencia de Hispano-america, Caracas, 1953. 13. These causes are not well understood but are linked to the disfavor into which the Society fell in several E u r o p e a n courts. T h e expulsions of the Jesuits from the kingdoms of Spain, Portugal, and France came only a few years apart; shortly afterward the pope himself decreed the dissolution of the Society of Jesus. In the specific case of the Indies and especially of Mexico, it seems that the influence of the Jesuits over the creole elite of the towns and the Indians of the missions was regarded as an obstacle to the autocratic reformist program of an enlightened despot like Charles III. Conflicts of authority were frequent between the military entrusted with the presidios a n d the missionaries of the "Internal Provinces" whose security was a constant source of concern to the viceroys in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Finally, their able management of vast domains (real estate in the towns and haciendas in the most prosperous rural regions) had made the Society the leading capitalist company of New Spain. 14. Miguel Batllori, SJ, La cultura hispano-italiana de los jesuitas expulsos, Madrid, 1966, p. 578. 15. Francisco Javier Clavijero, Historia antigua de Mexico, 4 vols., Mexico City, 1958, I, 1-4. See Jacques Lafaye, "Conciencia nacional y conciencia etnica en la Nueva Espana," in Acts of the IVth International Congress of Mexican Studies (UCLA, California), 1973. 16. Clavijero, Historia antigua de Mexico, I, p. 7. C o m p a r e J. Jose de Eguiara y Eguren, Biblioteca Mexicana, ed. A. Millares Carlo, Mexico City, 1944, "Prologo XX": "It should be understood that the persons I call 'Mexicans' are those who were born in America, unless I expressly say that they were born of Indian parents" (p. 211). 17. Coleccion de obras y opusculos . .. de Nuestra Sefiora de Guadalupe, Madrid, 1785, p. 798. 18. Clavijero, Historia antigua de Mexico, III, 291-93. 19. Batllori, La cultura hispano-italiana, p. 577. 20. Der Teutsche Merkur, Weimar, July 1786, vol. 1, "Des H e r r n Abts Clavigero A b h a n d l u n g . . . , " pp. 3-52; August 1786, pp. 154-81; October 1786, pp. 4 4 - 5 7 . 21. Humboldt, Essai politique, I, 217. 22. Manuel Pay no, Compendio de la historia de Mexico para el uso de los establecimientos de Instruccion publica de la Republica Mexicana (7th ed.), Mexico City, 1883, p p . 120-21.
319
Notes to Pages
113-136
23. "Bosquejo de la anarquia de America . . . , " Biblioteca Nacional, Madrid, MS 3 049. 24. Lorenzo de Zavala, Ensayo histbrico sobre las revoluciones de Nueva Espana, Mexico City, 1949, p. 71. 25. Ernesto de la Torre Villar, La constitution de Apatzingan y los creadores del Estado mexicano, Mexico City, 1964, Document 10—"Proclama del cura Hidalgo a la nation mexicana" (1810), pp. 203-4. 26. Ibid., Document 3, p. 112. 27. Ibid., p. 131. 28. Zavala, Ensayo histbrico, p. 63. 29. Xavier Tavera Alfaro, Dos etapas de la Independencia (Documentos), Universidad Michoacana de San Nicolas de Hidalgo, 1966, "Discurso pronunciado por Morelos en la a p e r t u r a del congreso de Chilpancingo, 14 de septiembre de 1813," p. 49. 30. Ibid., p. 50. 31. Ibid., p. 52. 32. Torre Villar, La constitucibn de Apatzingan, n.7, Document 74, p. 358. 33. Tavera Alfaro, Dos etapas de la Independencia, p. 54, n.27. 34. E. Lemoine Villicana, "Zitacuaro, Chilpancingo y Apatzingan, tres grandes momentos de la insurgencia mexicana," Boletin del Archivo General de la Nacibn, II Series, vol. IV, no. 3, Mexico City, 1963, pp. 711-30; Villar, Constitucibn de Apatzingan, article 65. 35. Lemoine Villicana, "Zitacuaro, Chilpancingo y Apatzingan," p. 600. 36. Tavera Alfaro, Dos etapas de la independencia, "Decreto del Tribunal de Inquisition," p. 108. 37. Ibid., "Respuesta al capitulo 10," pp. 105, 115. 38. Ibid. 39. Ruth Wold, El "Diario de Mexico," primer cotidiano de Nueva Espana, Madrid, 1970, p. 168. 40. E. Lemoine Villicana, "Apoteosis de los martires de la guerra de Independencia Mexicana en 1823," Boletin del Archivo General de la Nacibn, II Series, vol. VI, no. 2, Mexico City, 1965, p. 239. 4 1 . Carlos Maria de Bustamante, Diario histbrico de Mexico (16 de septiembre de 1823), Mexico City, 1896, vol. I, cited in Lemoine Villicana, "Apoteosis de los martires," p . 228. 42. Humboldt, Essai politique, II, 304. 43. Javier Ocampo, Las ideas de un dia (El pueblo mexicano ante la consumacibn de su Independencia), Mexico City, 1969, p. 82. 44. Ibid., p. 87. 45. Fray Cesareo de Armellada, OFM, La causa indigena americana en las Cortes de Cadiz, Madrid, 1959, p. 86. 46. Mier, Historia de la Revolucibn, London, 1813, vol. II, p. 285. 47. Ibid., p. 318. 48. Ibid. Fray Servando deplored the abolition of the Inquisition, whose victim he had been, for he attributed all his difficulties to the gachupin archbishop of Mexico City. H e wrote: "Consider what is happening to Spain because they have put out the fires of the Inquisition" (ibid., p. 320). 49. Mier, Memorias, vol. II, , pp. 15, 139. 50. Mier, "Apologia del Doctor Mier," in his Memorias, vol. I, p. 19. 51. Mier, Historia de la Revolucibn, vol. II, p. 320. 52. Mier, "Carta a Don Miguel Ramos Arizpe, chantre de Puebla," May 14, 1823, University of Texas Library, MS 1319, no. 629.
320
N O T E S TO PAGES 1 4 0 - 1 5 0
Chapter
8
1. Motolinia, Memonales, ed. Luis Garcia Pimentel, Mexico City, 1903, p. 67. 2. Ibid., p. 68. 3. Ibid. 4. Ibid., "Epistola proemial," p. 13. 5. Ibid. 6. Ibid., p. 81. 7. Ibid., p. 77. 8. Ibid., p. 54. 9. Ibid., p. 56. 10. Ibid., p. 57. 11. Motolinia, Historia de los Indios de la Nueva Espana (1956 ed.), p p . 9-10. But we find a contradictory statement in the Memorials, "Epistola proemial," p. 13. 12. Fray J e r o n i m o Roman y Zamora, Republicas de Indias (1575), Madrid, 2 vols., 1897, I, 170. Roman had borrowed this information from Las Casas, Apologetica historia . . . (BAE, vol. CVI, p. 140a). 13. T h e principal sanctuaries (archaeological sites) of Quetzalcoatl in Mexico: Calixtlahuaca (State of Mexico) Teayo (Veracruz) Cholula (Tlaxcala) Coatepec Chalco (Mexico) Ecatepec (Mexico) Tenayuca (Mexico) Teotihuacan (Mexico) Tepoztlan (Morelos) Toluca (Mexico) Tula (Hidalgo) Xochicalco (Morelos) 14. Sahagun, Historia general, I, 279. 15. Ibid., p. 291. 16. Ibid., II, 3 3 0 - 3 1 . 17. Ibid., I l l , 188. 18. Ibid., I, 45. 19. Ibid., p. 90. 20. Ibid., I l l , 358. 21. Ibid., p. 359 22. Histoyre du Mechique, ed. E. de J o n g h e , in Journal de la Societe des Amerkanistes, n.s., vol. II, no. 1, Paris, 1905, p. 35. 23. Ibid. 24. Ibid., p. 36. 25. Ibid., p. 37. 26. Ibid. 27. Ibid., p. 38.
Chapter
9
1. Sahagiin, Historia general, I, 90. 2. Bernal Diaz del Castillo, Historia verdadera de la conquista de la Nueva Espana, ed. J. Ramirez Cabanas, 2 vols., Mexico City, 1966, I, 266.
321
Notes to Pages
150-165
3. H e r n a n Cortes, Cartas de relation, "Segunda Carta" (BAE, vol. XXII, p. 30a and b) and also the first speech of Moctezuma (ibid., p. 25b). 4. Sahagun, Historia general, IV, 86. 5. Fray Diego Duran, OP, Historia de las Indias, 2 vols, and adas, Mexico City, 186780, II, 118. 6. Sahagun, Historia general, IV, 25. 7. Codex Vaticanus 37-38, fig. 9, commentary. 8. Fray Bartolome de Las Casas, OP, Historia de las Indias, book I, ch. x (BAE, vol. XCV, p. 41b). 9. Sahagun, Historia general, IV, 23-24. 10. Las Casas, Apologetica historia, ch. cxxii (BAE, vol. CV, p. 425a). 11. Codex Vaticanus 37-38, fig. 9, commentary. 12. Diaz del Castillo, Historia verdadera, I, 48. 13. Diego Lopez Cogolludo, OFM, Historia de Yucatan (1688), Mexico City, 1957, pp. 95-96, 99. 14. Sahagun, Historia general, III, 358-59. 15. Codex Telleriano remensis, fifth Tercena, Cielo, cana, p. 24. 16. Codex Vaticanus 37-38, fig. 21, p. 22. 17. Duran, Historia de las Indias, I, 18. 18. Ibid., II, 71. 19. Ibid., p. 72. 20. Ibid., p. 118. 21. Ibid. 22. Ibid., p. 73. 23. Ibid., I, 73. 24. Ibid. 25. Ibid. 26. Las Casas, Apologetica histond, ch. cxxii (BAE, vol. CV, p. 424a and b). 27. Duran, Historia de las Indias, II, ch. lxxix. 28. Ibid., p. 75. 29. Ibid., p. 76. 30. Ibid. 31. Ibid., Introduction of A. M. Garibay, I, 13-15. 32. Ibid., 1. 33. Ibid., 18. 34. Joaquin Garcia Icazbalceta, Don Fray Juan de Zumarraga, 4 vols., Mexico City, 1947, IV, 89-95. 35. Manuscrit Tovar. Origines et croyances des Indiens du Mexique, ed. Jacques Lafaye, Collection UNESCO d'oeuvres representatives, Akademische Druk und Verlagsanstalt, Graz, 1972, p. 69. 36. Ibid., p. 70. 37. Ibid., p. 73. 38. Ibid. 39. Duran, Historia de las Indias, II, 73. 40. Manuscrit Tovar, p. 73. 41. Ibid. 42. Ibid. 43. Jose de Acosta, SJ, Historia natural y moral de las Indias (BAE, vol. LXXIII, p. 231): "All is shown in the form of paintings in the Mexican annals. This book is in Rome, deposited in the Vatican Library, where a Father of o u r Society, who had come from Mexico, saw it with other histories and explained their meaning to the librarian of
322
N O T E S TO PAGES 1 6 6 - 1 7 8
His Holiness. T h e librarian was much pleased to understand this book, which he had never been able to understand." 44. Codex Telleriano remensis, p. 22. 45. Ibid., p. 23. 46. Ibid., p. 26. 47. Ibid., p. 23. 48. Ibid., p. 24. 49. Codex Vaticanus, 37-38, pi. XXI. 50. Ibid., pi. VII, verso. 51. Ibid., pi. IX, verso. 52. Ibid., pi. IX. 53. Acosta, Historia natural, p. 25b. 54. Ibid., p. 26a. 55. Ibid., p. 150b. 56. Ibid., p. 236a. 57. Ibid., p. 246b. 58. Ibid., p. 237b. 59. Ibid. 60. Cedulario indiano, book I, p. 23. 61. Las Casas, Historia de las Indias, ch. i (BAE, vol. XCV, p. 19b). 62. Las Casas, Apologetica historia, ch. cxxvii (BAE, vol. CV, p. 438a). 63. Fray J u a n de Torquemada, Monarquia Indiana, 3 vols., (Madrid, 1723), I, 162: "They had a great feast, and at this feast they slew and sacrificed these 1,200 Cuetlaxtecans, which greatly rejoiced the d e m o n Quetzalcohuatl." 64. Ibid., p. 255. 65. Ibid., p. 281. 66. Ibid., II, 50. 67. Ibid., II, 49. 68. Ibid., I, 380. 69. Ibid., II, 222-23. 70. Ibid., I, p. 255. 71. Ibid. 72. Ibid., II, 48. 73. Ibid., I, 381. 74. Ibid., p. 380. 75. Ibid. 76. Ibid., II, 48. 77. Ibid., p. 50. 78. Ibid., pp. 79-80.
Chapter
10
1. Alfonso Vath, SJ, "P. F. Antonio Caballero de Santa Maria liber die Mission der Jesuiten u n d a n d e r e r O r d e n in China," Archwum Historicum Societatis Iesu, anni I, July-December, Rome, 1932. 2. Sinica Franciscana, "Ad Claras Aquas," Florence, 1933, vol. II, part iv, p. 206. 3. Ibid, p. 790. 4. Ibid., vol. I, "De cultu post Diluvium," p. 544. 5. Mylapore has since become a district of the m o d e r n town of Madras, a great port on the Coromandel coast. 6. Marco Polo, La description du monde, Paris, 1955, pp. 264-66.
323
Notes to Pages
179-196
7. Saint Paul, cited by J e a n de Lery, Histoire d'un voyage fait en la terre de Bresil, 1957, p. 343, and Psalm 19, Matthew 28. 8. Marcel Bataillon, course taught at the College de France in 1952-53, unpublished manuscript (cf. Annuaire d u College de France, 1953), pp. 277-86. 9. Monumenta Brasiliae Societatis Iesu, vol. I (1538-53), p. 117. 10. Saint Ignatius Loyola, "Autobiografia," in Obras completas, Biblioteca de Autores Cristianos, Madrid, 1952, p. 59. 11. Monumenta Brasiliae Societatis Iesu, book V, ch. i, n. 18. 12. Ibid., p. 154. 13. Ibid., p. 389. 14. Claude d'Abbeville, C a p u c , Histoire de la mission . . . en Vile de Maragnan, Paris, 1614 (repr. by Alfred Metraux and Jacques Lafaye, Graz, 1963), p. 70r. 15. Ibid., "Histoire d'un certain personnage qui se disait descendu du Ciel," pp. 76-78. 16. Giuseppe Rosso, "Nicolo Mascardi Missionario Gesuita esploratore del Cile e della Patagonia (1624-1674)," Archwum Histoncum Societatis Iesu, anno XIX, fasc. 37-38, Rome, 1950, p. 57. 17. Garcia, Origen de los Indios, "Proemio al lector." 18. J e a n de Lery, Voyage fait en la terre de Bresil (Geneva, 1957), Paris 1957, p. 343. 19. Calancha, Cronica morahzada, p. 312. 20. Fray Gregorio Garcia, Predication del Evangelw en el Nuevo Mundc vwiendo los Apostoles, Baeza, 1625. 21. Calancha, Cronica morahzada, p. 312. 22. Ibid., p. 311. 23. Ibid., p. 312, n.14. 24. Menasseh Ben Israel, Origen de los Americanos, esto es esperanza de Israel (Amsterdam, 1650), Madrid, 1881, pp. 30, 4 1 , and ch. xx., passim. 25. Calancha, Cronica morahzada, p. 316. 26. Cedula of King Philip II to the viceroy of New Spain, April 22, 1577. 27. Nicolas Leon, Bibhografia mexicana del siglo XVIII, Mexico City, 1902-8, "Pluma rica," p. 506. 28. Ibid., p. 514. 29. Lorenzo Boturini Benaducci, "Catalogo del Museo Historico Indiano," in Idea de una nueva historia general de la America septentrional, Mexico City, 1871, p. 283. 30. Leon, Bibhografia mexicana, "El Apostol Santo Tomas," p. 525. 31. Ibid., p. 500. 32. "Discurso de Fr. S. T. de Mier al formular la protesta de lay como diputado en el primer Congreso constituyente, July 15, 1822," in E d m u n d o O'Gorman, Fray Servando Teresa de Mier, Mexico City, 1945. 33. Mier. Historia de la Revolucibn. 34. Mier, "Disertacion," in Leon, Bibhografia mexicana, p. 548. 35. Ignacio Borunda, Clave general de geroglificos americanos, in Leon, Bibhografia mexicana, pp. 196-351. 36. Boturini, Historia General de la America Septentrional, por el caballero Lorenzo Boturini Benaducci, Madrid, 1948, p. 352. 37. Mier, "Disertacion," in Leon, Bibliografia mexicana, p. 544. 38. Ibid., p. 556. 39. Ibid. 40. Escritos ineditos del Dr. Mier, Mexico, 1944, "Manifiesto apologetico del Dr. Mier," p. 140: " T h e preaching and prophecies of Saint T h o m a s concerning the coming of people of his religion from the East—people who would become masters of all—is the true key to the Conquest of both Americas, and as long as this is not accepted as the true
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N O T E S TO PAGES 1 9 6 - 2 0 8
foundation of the Conquest, men will continue to write absurdities and follies about it." 41. Mier, "Disertacion," in Leon, Bibliografia mexicana, p. 539. 42. Ibid., p. 556. 43. Ibid. 44. Torquemada, Monarquia Indiana, "Proemio a esta segunda impresion de la Monarquia Indiana," p. 4. 45. Mier, "Disertacion," in Leon, Bibhografia mexicana, p. 543. 46. Ibid., p. 544. 47. Liber Sancti Jacobi (Codex Cahxtinus), Santiago de Compostela, 1951, p. 259. 48. Antonio de Remesal, OP, Historia de la Provincia de San Vicente de Chiapa y Guatemala, Madrid, 1619, p. 2. 49. Francisco Lopez de Gomara, Historia de la conquista de la Nueva Espana, p. 309b. 50. Mier, Memorias, Mexico City, 2 vols., 1946, I, 5. 51. Ibid., p. 8. 52. Ibid., pp. 2 7 0 - 7 1 . 53. Ibid., pp. 156-57. 54. Ioannis Marianae e Societatis Iesu Tractatu VII. I De Adventu B. Jacobi Apostoli in Hispania, Coloniae Agrippinae, 1609, p. 9b. 55. Ibid. 56. Ibid., p. 11a: "De adventu Apostoli siluisse non miror, nullus enim nostrorum illius etatis historicus extat." 57. Ibid., chs. xi, xiv. 58. Pedro de Peralta y Barnuevo, Historia de Espana vindicada, Lima, 1730. 59. Ibid., "Prologo." 60. Ibid. 61. Ibid., p. 683ff. 62. Ramon Otero Pedrayo, Historia de Galiza, 2 vols., Buenos Aires, 1962,1, 363, 365. 63. Peralta y Barnuevo, Historia de Espana vindicada, p. 700. 64. Ibid., p. 396. 65. Americo Castro, Santiago de Espana, Buenos Aires, 1958, pp. 135-37. 66. J u a n de Nuix y Perpina, Reflexiones imparciales sobre la humanidad de los espanoles en Indias, Cervera, 1783, "Reflexion quinta," p. 499. 67. Codex Calixtinus, p. 408. 68. Antonio de Leon Pinelo, ElParaiso en elNuevo Mundo, 2 vols., Lima, 1943,1, 330. 69. Antonio Ruiz de Montoya, SJ, Conquista espiritual... del Paraguay, Parana, Uruguay y Tape, Bilbao, 1392, ch. xxii.
Chapter
11
1. B r a s s e u r d e Bourbourg, Relation des choses de Yucatan, Lyon-Madrid, 1864, p. 105. 2. Luis Villoro, La Revolucibn de Independencia, Mexico City, 1953, ch. iii. 3. E. Beauvois, "Pratiques et institutions religieuses d'origine chretienne chez les Mexicains du Moyen-Age," Revue des Questions Scientifiques, July-October 1896, 2d series, vol. X, Louvain, 1896. 4. Jose Diaz Bolio, La Serpiente emplumada—eje de culturas, Merida, Yucatan, 1957. 5. Fernando Diaz Infante, Quetzalcoatl (Ensayo psicoanalitico del mito nahua), Xalapa, 1963. See, for an essay of the same tendency, J o r g e Carrion, "Ruta psicologica de Quetzalcoatl," Cuadernos americanos, no. 5, September-October 1949, vol. VIII, pp. 98-112. 6. Pierre H o n o r e (pseud.), Ich fand den weissen Gott, Frankfurt am Main, 1962 (French ed.,J'ai decouvert le Dieu blanc dAmerique, Paris, 1962).
325
Notes to Pages
208-224
7. In Politico,, vol. I, no. 8, August 15, 1960, Mexico. 8. Sahagun, Historia general, I, 358.
Chapter
12
1. Sahagun, Historia general, I, 46. 2. Ibid. 3. Ibid., I l l , 352. 4. Torquemada, Monarquia Indiana, II, 245b. 5. Clavijero, Historia antigua de Mexico, II, 82. 6. Sahagun, Historia general, III, 352-54. 7. Duran, Historia de las Indias, ed. A. M. Garibay K., 2 vols., Mexico City, 1967, I, 125. 8. Sahagun, Historia general, I, 46. 9. Duran, Historia de las Indias, I, 130. 10. Ibid., pp. 126, 131. 11. Sahagun, Historia general, I, 118. 12. Duran, Historia de las Indias, I, pp. 126-27. 13. Sahagun, Historia general, I, 46. 14. Miguel Leon-Portilla, Ritos, sacerdotes y atavios de los dioses, Mexico City, 1958, pp. 156-58. ciua covatl: in nantzin in teteu teteumnan: idem Iztac ciuat: idem 15. Miguel Leon-Portilla, La filosofia nahuatl estudiada en susfuentes, Mexico City, 1959, p. 184. 16. Ibid., n.13. 17. Francisco Mateos, SJ, "Constituciones para indios del primer concilio limense," Missionaha Hispanica, vol. VII, no. 19, 1950, p. 554. 18. Torquemada, Monarquia Indiana, II, 245b and 246a. 19. Sahagun, Historia general, I, 46. 20. Ibid.. I l l , 352. 21. Ibid., p. 353. 22. Ibid. 23. Ibid., p. 354. 24. Ibid., p. 352. 25. T h e sanctuary of Estremadura, abandoned by the Jeronymites in 1835, was not again entrusted to religious (Franciscans) until 1908. It is regrettable that the manuscripts relating to the Milagros de Nra. Sra de Guadalupe, anterior to 1564, which are preserved there, are not accessible to researchers, although their existence is attested to by the Guia de fuentes para la historia de Ibero-Amenca (vol. II, p. 528), published in 1966 u n d e r the auspices of Unesco and the International Council of Archives. 26. P. Diego de Ecija, Libro de la mvencibn de Santa Maria de Guadalupe, ed., Fr. A Barrado Manzano, OFM, Caceres, 1953. 27. Codice 555, Madrid, Archivo Historico Nacional, fol. 6r-8r. 28. Ibid., fol. 5v. 29. Ibid., fol. 6r. 30. "Manuscrito 1176," Madrid, Biblioteca Nacional, fol. 2v. 31. Monasteno de Guadalupe, vol. VI, February 1922. no. 121, p. 27. 32. Fray German Rubio, OFM, Historia de Nra. Sra. de Guadalupe, Barcelona, 1926, pp. 223-24.
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N O T E S TO PAGES 2 2 4 - 2 4 5
33. A citation from Psalm 147, originally quoted by Francisco de Florencia and again by the pope in 1756. 34. Francisco de Florencia, SJ, Historia de la milagrosa imagen de Maria Stma. de Guadalupe, escnta en el siglo XVII..., Guadalajara, 1895, p. 26. 35. Archivo Ibero-Americano, Vol. XV, January-June 1955, nos. 57-58 (special issue on the subject of the Inmaculada), p. 626ff. O n July 7, 1664, the brief Quae inter praeclara gave a canonical character to the office and mass of the Immaculada, con octava; this represented a partial success for the j u n t a .
Chapter
13
1. Ruben Vargas Ugarte, SJ, Historia del culto de Maria en Iberoamerica, 2d ed., Buenos Aires, 1947, p. 189. 2. "Information del Excmo. Sr. Montufar," 1556, Ms, fol. 5r, Archivo de Cabildo de la Catedral de Mexico. 3. Alonso de la Rea, OFM, Cronica de la Orden de N. Serdpco P. S. Francisco. . . de Mechoacan en la Nueva Espana, Mexico City, 1643, ch. ix, "Del ingenio del Tarasco, de la eminencia en sus obras. . . . " 4. Ibid. 5. Diaz del Castillo, Historia verdadera (BAE, vol. XXVI, p p . 311b-312a). 6. Cartas de Indias, Madrid, ed. del Ministerio de Fomento, p. 310; Francisco de la Maza, El Guadalupanismo mexicano, Mexico City, 1953, p. 14: "With all d u e respect for tradition, I believe the reason why the image was called Guadalupe is that originally an image of the Virgin of Guadalupe of Estremadura was installed in the hermitage." 7. Fray Diego de Ocana, Jeron., Un viaje por la America, Madrid, 1969, p. 168. 8. Ibid., p. 175. 9. Fray Francisco de San Joseph, Jeron., Historia universal de la primitiva y milagrosa Imagen de Nuestra Senora de Guadalupe, Madrid, 1743, p. 146a. 10. Rubio, Historia de Nra. Sra. de Guadalupe, pp. 228-29. 11. Francisco de San Joseph, Historia universal, p. 131a. 12. Fray Gaspar de San Agustin, August., Conquistas de las islas Philipinas: la temporal por las armas del senor don Phelipe segundo el prudente; y la espiritual, por los religiosos del orden de Nuestro Padre San Augustin, Madrid, 1698, p. 498b. 13. Francisco de San Joseph, Historia universal, pp. 147b-148a. 14. Fray A. de Montufar, Information . . . Investigation Historica y documental (1st ed., Mexico City, 1888-1890), Mexico City, 1952, p. 92. 15. Ibid. 16. Ibid., p. 135. 17. Ibid. 18. Ibid., p. 129. 19. Ibid., p. 131. 20. Ibid., p. 123. 21. Ibid., p. 121. 22. Ibid., p. 135. 23. Miguel Sanchez, Imagen de la Virgen Maria Madre de Dios de Guadalupe milagrosamente aparecida en Mexico, Mexico City, 1648. 24. Cartas de Indias, p. 36. 25. Fray Luis de Cisneros, Historia de Nuestra Senora de los Remedios, Mexico City, 1621. 26. Cuevas, Album Histbrico guadalupano, p. 84. 27. Ibid. 28. Sanchez, Imagen de la Virgen Maria.
327
Notes to Pages
245-260
29. Francisco de la Maza, El Guadalupanismo mexicano, p. 62. 30. Carranza, La transmigration, Medina 3931. 31. Sanchez, Imagen de la Virgen Maria. 32. Francisco de la Maza, El Guadalupanismo mexicano, p. 50. 33. Luis Lazo de la Vega, "Carta al Autor," in Sanchez, Imagen de la Virgen Maria, p. 38. 34. Ibid., p. 38. 35. Ibid., p. 37. 36. Lazo de la Vega, Huey Tlamahuicoltica, (Mexico City, 1649), ed. Primo Feliciano Velazquez, Mexico City, 1926. 37. Ibid., p . 23. 38. Boturini Benaducci, "Catalogo del Museo Historico Indiano," p. 312. 39. Sanchez, Imagen de la Virgen Maria, title page and pp. 41-46. 40. Ibid., p. 49. 41. Ibid. 42. Ibid., p. 181. 43. Ibid., p. 184. 44. Ibid., p. 194. 45. Ibid., p. 195. 46. Ibid. 47. Ibid., p. 206. 48. Ibid., p. 209. 49. Ibid., p. 214. 50. Ibid., p. 49. 51. Ibid., Francisco de Siles, "Dedic. a M. Sanchez," p. 31. 52. Ibid., p. 32. 53. Ibid., p. 33. 54. Ibid., p. 34.
Chapter
14
1. Francisco de la Maza, El Guadalupanismo mexicano, pi. 7. 2. Cayetano Cabrera y Quintero, Escudo de armas de Mexico, Mexico City, 1746 (Medina 3752). It is significant that this apologist for the Guadalupan tradition also endorsed the tradition of an apostolic evangelization of Mexico by Saint Thomas, whom he described (in his dedication to King Charles III) as the "original Conquistador of these realms." 3. Medina, Imprenta en Mexico, passim. (I have prepared a bibliography of O u r Lady of Guadalupe, from 1648 to 1831, which will appear separately, accompanied by a study of the symbolism and an effort at formal analysis of the Guadalupan literature.) 4. Fray Antonio Claudio de Villegas, OP, La mayor gloria del mdximo de los celestiales espiritus, del primero de los mayores principes, el archiseraphm Sr. San Miguel, Declarada en su Insigne Aparicion en Mexico a las Soberanas plantas de Maria Nuestra Reyna, que se venera en Guadalupe, Mexico City, 1751 (Medina 4064). 5. Fray Gabriel de Talavera, Jeron., Historia de Nuestra Senora de Guadalupe, Toledo, 1597, p. 4 6 1 . 6. M. Fernandez de Echeverria y Veitia, "Baluartes de Mexico. Relation historica de las cuatro sagradas y milagrosas Imagenes de Nuestra Senora la Virgen Maria, que se veneran en sus extramuros, y description de sus templos.," Manuscritos de America, no. 375, signatura 27 75, Biblioteca de Palacio, Madrid; Palau, Manual del Librero hispano-americano, no. 88423.
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N O T E S TO PAGES 2 6 1 - 2 6 8
7. Miguel Sanchez, Novenas de la Virgen Maria ... de los Remedios y Guadalupe (1665), in Coleccion de obras y opusculos pertenecientes a la milagrosa aparicibn de la bellisima imagen de nuestra Senora de Guadalupe que se venera en su santuario extramuros de Mexico, reimpresas todas juntas, Madrid, 1785, pp. 241-43. 8. Ibid., pp. 170-71, n.7. 9. Matias de la Mota y Padilla, Historia de la Conquista del Reino de la Nueva Galicia (1742), Guadalajara-Mexico City, 1920, p. 258. 10. A. Bera Cercada [C. Cabrera y Quintero], El patronato disputado, Disertacion apologetica, por el voto, eleccibn, y juramento de Patrona, a Maria Santisima, venerada en su Imagen de Guadalupe de Mexico, e invalidado para negarle el rezo del comun (que a titulo de Patrona electa, yjurada, segun el decreto de la Sagrada Congregation de ritos se le ha dado en esta Metrbpoli), por el Br. Don Juan Pablo Zetina Infante, Mro. de ceremonias en la Catedral de Puebla, en el smgularisimo dictamen, y parecer, que sin pedirselo did en aquella y quiso extender a esta ciudad, a corregir al que le parecib arrojo de esta Metropolitans . . ., Mexico City, 1741 (Medina 3566). 11. Fray Joseph Diaz de la Vega, OFM, "Memorias piadosas de la nation indiana recogidas de varios a u t o r e s . .-. , ano de 1782," ch. viii, fol. 62, in Coleccion Boturini, signatura A/153, 9/4886, Academia de la Historia, Madrid. 12. Boturini Benaducci, Idea de una nueva historia general de la America Septentrional, Madrid, 1746, dedication to the king. 13 Ibid. 14. Manuscritos de America, Biblioteca de Palacio, Madrid, no. 375 in J. D. Bordona, Manuscritos de America (Madrid, 1935). 15. Coleccion Mufioz, MS A/31, Real Academia de la Historia, Madrid. 16. Manuscritos de America, Biblioteca Palacio, Madrid, no. 371 in J. D. Bordona. Manuscritos de America. 17. Fray Francisco de Ajofrin, C a p u c , "Alocucion sobre la imagen de Nuestra Senora de los Remedios, venerada en un cerro de la ciudad de Cholula, a dos leguas de la Puebla de los Angeles" (n.d.), in J. D. Bordona, Manuscritos de America, signatura 20 419 33, Biblioteca Nacional, Madrid; and Luis Becerra Tanco, Felicidad de Mexico en el principio, y milagrosa origen, que tubo el santuario de la Virgen Maria N. Senora de Guadalupe, extramuros . . . , Mexico City, 1675 (develops the idea that the Virgin drove away the Tonantzin) (Medina 1121). 18. Mier, "Apologia del Dr. Mier," Memorias, I, 37-38. 19. Ibid., p. 49. 20. Ibid., p. 65. 21. Ibid., p. 273. 22. J u a n Bautista Mufioz, Historia delNuevoMundo, vol. I, Madrid, 1793, Prologue, p. iv. 23. Guillaume T h o m a s Raynal, Histoire philosophique et politique des etablissements et du commerce des Europeens dans les deuxlndes, Amsterdam, 1770 (seventeen editions between 1770 and 1786, the majority at Amsterdam, T h e Hague, and Geneva). 24. Mufioz, Historia, p. ii. 25. Ibid., p. v. 26. Ibid., p. xxvi. 27. "Carta de Larranga a d. J u a n Bautista Munoz . . . Simancas 29 d e D i z de 1783," Coleccion Munoz, vol. 9 1 , MS A/118 9/4853, fol. 138, Real Academia de la Historia, Madrid, Catalogo de la Coleccion Munoz, vol. II, p. 455. 28. "Memoria sobre las apariciones y el culto de Nuestra Senora de Guadalupe de Mexico. Leida en la Real Academia de la Historia por su individuo supernumerario Don J u a n Bautista Munoz," Memorias de la Real Academia de la Historia, vol. V, Madrid, 1817, pp. 205-24. 29. "Discurso historico-critico sobre las apariciones y el culto de Na. Senora de bre
329
Notes to Pages
268-276
Guadalupe de Mexico, trabajado y leido en la Real Academia de la Historia por su individuo s u p e r n u m e r a r i o D. J u a n Bautista Munoz 18 abril 1794," MS 11/8235, Real Academia de la Historia, Madrid. 30. Munoz, Memona, p. 206. 31. Ibid., p. 211. 32. Ibid., pp. 212-13. 33. Ibid., p. 219. 34. Ibid., pp. 219-20. 35. Ibid., p. 220. 36. Ibid., p. 222. 37. Ibid., p. 224. 38. Ibid. 39. Mier, Memorias, I, 19. 40. Manuel Gomez Marin, Defensa Guadalupana escritapor el P. Dr. y Mtro, Manuel Gomez Marin, presbitero del Oratorio de S. Felipe Neri de Mejico, contra la disertacion de D.Juan Bautista Munoz, Mexico, 1819 (The University of Texas Library, G. 265). 41. Ibid., "Corolario," pp. 5 4 - 5 5 . 42. Ibid. 43. Carlos Maria de Bustamante, La Aparicibn guadalupana de Mexico, vindicada de los defectos que le atribuye el Dr. Juan Bautista Munoz en la Disertacion que ley6 en la Academia de la Historia de Madrid en 18 de abril de 1794, Mexico City, 1843 (The University of Texas Library, G. 265). 44. Ibid., pp. 65-66. 45. Lorenzo de Zavala, Umbral de la Independencia, Mexico City 1949, p. 11. 46. Bustamante, La Aparicibn guadalupana, p. 66. 47. Ibid. 48. Ibid. 49. Manifesto de la Junta guadalupana a los Mexicanos, y disertacion historico-critica sobre la aparicibn de Nuestra Senora en Tepeyac: escrita por el Licenciado Don Carlos Maria de Bustamante, diputado al Congreso de la Union, por el Estado hbre de Oaxaca, Mexico City, 1831 (The University of Texas Library, G. 265). 50. Ibid., p. 11. 51. Informe critico-legal, dado al muy ilustre y venerable cabildo de la Santa Iglesia Metropolitan de Mexico, por los comisionados que nombrb para el reconocimiento de la Imagen de Nra. Sra. de Guadalupe de la Iglesia de San Francisco, pintada sobre las tablas de la mesa del Illmo. Sr. Obispo D. Fr. Juan de Zumarraga, Mexico City, 1835 (The University of Texas Library, G. 265). 52. Ibid., p. 10. 53. El gran dia de Mexico, 10 de diciembre de 1836 (anonymous) (The University of Texas Library, G. 265).
Chapter
15
1. Antonio de Robles, Diario de sucesos notables (1655-1703), Mexico City, 3 vols., 1946, I, 189. 2. Ibid., p. 254. 3. Ibid., II, 308. 4. Adas de Cabildo de Mexico, vol. XV, p. 250. 5. Gregorio M. de Guijo, Diario, Mexico City, 2 vols. 1953, II, 145. 6. Robles, Diario, I, 307. 7. Ibid., I l l , 45. 8. Ibid., I l l , 196; see also the entry for November 22 of the same year (1702):
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NOTES TO PAGES 2 7 6 - 2 8 7
"Wednesday, the 22nd, in the morning, the Lord Archbishop went to Guadalupe; the viceroy came the same day, and they dined together; His Lordship gave the dinner, which was served in the house of La Sosa, and more than thirty Indians b r o u g h t it to Guadalupe" (p. 238). 9. Guijo, Diario, II, 136. 10. "El arzobispo . . . informa por medio del escrito adjunto que el abad y Canonigo de la Colegiata de Nra. Sra. de Guadalupe le p r e s e n t a r o n . . . ; de ver la mitad de los canonigos y racioneros instruidos en la lengua de los Indios, que alii concurren,"' Mexico City, November 28, 1753 (Mexico City, MS 2607, Archivo General de Indias, Seville). 11. Robles, Diario, III, 245, 250. 12. Ibid., p. 303. 13. "Manda de Don Andres de Palencia para fundar en Mexico un convento de Religiosas Agustinas de Sta. Monica o un Colegio en el santuario de Na. Sa. de Guadalupe—en 17 febrero de 1717.—El Consejo se conformo con la Colegiata" (Manuscritos de America, signatura 195 12, fol. 368 r-v, Biblioteca Nacional, Madrid). "Noticias de la ciudad Mexico*..." (Memorias de Mexico, vol. XIX, MS A/135 9/4870, Academia de la Historia, Madrid): "A noble and pious gentleman, Don Andres de Palencia, died in Mexico City in 1707, leaving in his testament 100,000 p e s o s . . ." (fol. 50 v). King Philip V decided on October 26, 1708, to assign this legacy to the collegiate church of Guadalupe. T h e Holy See delayed issuance of the necessary bulls until February 9, 1725. 14. Francisco de Florencia, SJ, LaEstrella del Norte, Guadalajara, 1895 (cited by Francisco de la Maza, El Guadalupanismo, p. 65). 15. Fray Isidro Felix de Espinosa, OFM, Chronica apostblica serdphica de todos los colegios de Propaganda Fide de esta Nueva Espana, part I, Mexico City, 1746, p. 296b. 16. Ibid., p. 297b. 17. Ibid. 18. Carranza, La transmigracwn, Medina 3931. 19. "Convite a los mexicanos para unos juegos seculares en honor de la milagrosa aparicion de Ntra. Sra. de Guadalupe, 1831." Manuscritos de America, sign. 20427, Biblioteca Nacional, Madrid. 20. Mier, Memorias, II, 197. 21. Antonio de Alcedo, Diccionario geogrdpco-historico de las Indias Occidentales o America . . . escrito por el Coronet Don Antonio de Alcedo, Capitdn de Reales Guardias Espanolas. Madrid, Manuel Gonzalez, 1787, pp. 251-53. 22. Diaz de la Vega, "Memorias piadosas," fol. 23. Ibid. 24. Mota Padilla, Historia de la Conquista, p. 258a. 25. Diaz de la Vega, "Memorias piadosas," fol. 49. 26. Ibid.: "Premia Dios la humildad, y sencilles de la Nation Indiana en la parcialidad de los Otomites con la Aparicion de Nuestra Senora de los Remedios, y su inbencion feliz" (fol. 48ff.). 27. Ibid.: "Apareze Maria Santissima, a otro Yndio, J u a n Diego, en la Prov. de Tlaxcalan y honra a la Nation Indiana, con su celestial Ymagen de Ocotlan" (fol. 40ff.). 28. Fray Baltasar de Arizmendi, "Sermones en las festividades de Maria Santisima predicados en diversos lugares," vol. I, fol. 440, Manuscritos de America, sign. 124 59, Biblioteca Nacional, Madrid. 29. Antonio Royo Marin, OP, La Virgen Maria. Teologia y espiritualidad marianas, Madrid, 1968, p. 71. 30. Carranza, La transmigracwn, p. 4. 31. Ita y Parra, El circulo del amor.
331
Notes to Pages
287-300
32. Henricus Renckens, Creacibn, paraiso y pecado original (original ed., T h e Hague, 1960) Madrid, 1969, p. 4 1 . 33. Ita y Parra, El circulo del amor. 34. Saint Louis Marie Grignon de Montfort, Traite de la veritable devotion a la Sainte Vierge, (beginning of the seventeenth century), cited by A. Marin, La Virgen Maria, pp. 367, 398. 35. Diaz de la Vega, "Memorias Piadosas," ch. vi": " . . . celestial Ymagen de Ocotlan." 36. Autos formados con motivo de la conjuration intentada en la Ciudad de Mexico por Criollos contra los Europeos, October 27, 1800 (Consejo, leg. 21 061, no. 458, fol. 25, Archivo Historico Nacional, Madrid). 37. "Sentimientos de la Nation," Boletin del Archivo General de la Nacibn, II series, vol. IV, no. 3, Mexico City, 1963 (n.p.); "Proclama de D.Jose Maria Morelos, II de marzo de 1813," in Album Histbrico Guadalupano del IV Centenario, Mexico City, 1930, p. 229. 38. Sanchez, Imagen de la Virgen Maria, pp. 117-30. See also Vetancurt, Teatro Mexicano, III, 3 5 1 : "fue [ J u a n Diego] al Senor Obispo, que para certificarse le pidio serial volvio J u a n Diego . . . diciendo que . . . le pedia serial cierta para su credito . . . la Senora [Guadalupe] dandole por senas aquellas flores. . . ." 39. Florencia, La Estrella del Norte, p. 70. 40. Ibid., p. 77. 4 1 . Ibid., p. 7 1 . 42. Ibid. 43. Ibid., p. 72. 44. Ibid. 45. Gaspar de San Agustin, Conquistas de las islas Phihpinas, p. 948b. 46. Francisco de San Jose, Jeron., Historia universal de la pnmitwa y milagrosa imagen de Nuestra Senora de Guadalupe, p. 130a. 47. Florencia, La Estrella del Norte, ch. xii: "Pero advierto, que si esta materia se hubiese de reproducir en Roma, sea yendo persona de por aca, inteligentte, que la trate con e m p e n o y viveza" (p. 73). 48. Talavera, Historia de Nuestra Senora de Guadalupe, p. 325. 49. Ibid., p. 333. 50. Ibid., p. 336. 51. Ibid., pp. 340, 344. 52. Ibid., p. 355. 53. Miguel Cabrera, Maravilla americana, y conjunto de raras maravillas, observadas con la direccibn de las reglas de el arte de la pmtura en la prodigiosa imagen de Nuestra Senora de Guadalupe de Mexico por Don Miguel Cabrera, pintor, Mexico City, 1756. 54. Ambrosio de Morales, Viage .. . por orden del Rey D. Phelipe II a los Reynos de Leon, Galicia y prmcipado de Asturias, para reconocer las reliquias de Santos, sepulcros reales, y hbros manuscritos de las cathedrales, y monasterios, Madrid, A. Marin, 1765 (in Appendix to Luis Menendez Pidal, La cueva de Covadonga, Oviedo, 1958, p. 111). 55. Gaspar de San Agustin, Conquistas de las islas Philipinas, p. 273. 56. Fray Diego de Ocana, Viaje por la America meridional (1599-1606), Madrid, 1969, p. 354.
Chapter
16
1. Bloch, Apologie pour Vhistoire, p. 5. 2. Francisco de la Maza, El guadalupanismo mexicano, p. 9. 3. Justo Sierra, "Discurso inaugural de la Universidad de Mexico" (1910), in Obras completas, Mexico City, 1948, vol. V, pp. 447-62.
332
NOTES TO PAGES 3 0 0 - 3 1 1
4. Alfonso Reyes, "Notas sobre la inteligencia americana," in Obras completas, vol. XI, Mexico City, 1960, p. 89.
Chapter
17
1. Wigberto Jimenez Moreno and A. Garcia Ruiz, Historia de Mexico, una sintesis, Mexico City, 1962, p. 3 1 . 2. Jacques Lafaye, "Le Messie dans le m o n d e iberique: apercu," Melanges de la Casa de Velazquez, vol. VII, 1971, pp. 163-85. 3. A. Dupront, "Langage et histoire," X I I P Congres international des Sciences historiques, Moscow, 1970, p. 48ff. 4. Robles, Diario III, 228. 5. Antonio Dominguez Ortiz, La close social de los conversos en Castilla en la edad moderna, Madrid, 1955, p. 214ff. 6. Jacques Lafaye, "L'utopie mexicaine," Diogene, no. 78, April-June 1972, pp. 20-39. 7. Paul Alphandery and A. Dupront, La Chretiente et I'idee de croisade, Paris, 1954. 8. J u a n E. Nieremberg, Tablas chronolbgicas. .. de los descubrimientos, conquistas, Zaragoza, 1676. 9. Georges Duby, Adolescence de la chretiente occidentals, Geneva, 1967, p p . 181-82. 10. Robert B. Tate, Ensayos sobre la historiografia peninsular del siglo XV, Madrid, 1970, p. 28. 11. Jacques Lafaye, Quetzalcoatl et Guadalupe, Eschatologie et histoire au Mexique. 12. Clavijero, Historia'antigua, passim. 13. Miguel de U n a m u n o , "En torno al casticismo," in Ensayos, Madrid, 1945, vol. I, pp. 4 0 - 4 9 . 14. Alfonso Reyes, La X en la /rente, Mexico City, 1952, pp. 87-88. 15. Roger Bastide, "Etat actuel et perspectives d'avenir des recherches afroamericaines/'Jowma/ de la Societe des Americanistes, vol. LVIII, Paris, 1971, p. 26. 16. Claude Levi-Strauss, L'Anthropologie structurale, Paris, 1958, p. 3 1 . 17. A. Maria y Campos, La Revolucibn mexicana a traves de los corridos populares, 3 vols., Mexico City, 1962; Vicente T. Mendoza, Lirica narrativa de Mexico (el corriao), Mexico, 1964; Catalogo de grabaciones del laboratono de sonido del Museo Nacional de Antropologia e Historia, Mexico, 1968; Nicole Giron, Her actio Bernal: bandit, "cacique" ouprecurseur de la Revolution (1855-1888), Paris, 1973 (these de I I P cycle, Universite de Paris III). 18. Melville J. Herskovits, The Myth of the Negro Past, New York, 1941. 19. Jacques Lafaye, La Bibliographie devote de Notre-Dame de Guadalupe, 1648-1831; Essai d'analyse formelle (forthcoming). 20. Paulo de Carvalho Neto, History of Iberoamerican Folklore (Mestizo Cultures), Anthropological Publications, Oosterhout, 1969. 21. M. A. Asturias, Cuculcan, Leyendas de Guatemala, Madrid, 1930; Alfredo Chavero, Quetzalcoatl; Mexico City, 1877 (play); J. Garcia Pimentel, El Senuelo del Sacrificio, Coloquio de la Derrota y Triunfo de Quetzalcoatl, Mexico City, 1939 (play); E. Abreu Gomez, Quetzalcoatl, sueno y vigilia, Mexico City, 1947 (poetry); Agusti Bartra, Quetzalcoatl, Mexico City, 1960 (poetry); Ramon J. Sender, Jubileo en el Zbcalo, Barcelona, 1966; Carlos Fuentes, Todos los gatos son pardos, Mexico City, 1970 (play). 22. D. H. Lawrence, The Plumed Serpent, New York, 1926. 23. Paul Diel, La Divinite, Paris, 1949, p. 18. 24. Jose Vasconcelos, Ulises criollo, 13th ed., Mexico, 1969, p. 266.
Index
Abraham, call of, 287, 302 Acculturation, 160 Acosta, Jose de, 169-71, 196 Acta Thomae, 177, 185 Alcedo, Antonio de, 281-82 Allegorical exegesis, 91-92 Anahuac, 58, 120-21, 123 Analogies, ritual and mythical, 153-56, 164, 167, 174, 179, 186, 190, 194, 197 Anarchy, 129-30 Antichrist, 9 0 - 9 1 , 93 Apocalypse, 28, 74, 97, 121. See also Woman of the Apocalypse Apparitions, 246, 254-67, 273, 282, 284, 294, 303 Aztec calendar, 141, 165 Aztec "coat of arms," 255 Aztec codices, 157, 165-68, 194, 301 Aztec divinities, 33, 87, 213. See also under specific names Balbuena, B e r n a r d o de, 5 1 - 5 9 , 6 1 , 6 9 , 70, 291 Becerra Tanco, Luis, 268-69, 290 Bible, as prophecy, 47, 156, 169 Boturini Benaducci, Lorenzo, 96, 195, 247-48, 262-65 Bustamante, Carlos Maria de, 272-73 Bustamante, Fray Francisco de, 232, 238-39 Cabrera, Miguel, 75 Cabrera y Quintero, Cayetano, 82-83, 256-57 Camaxtli, 139-41 passim, 145 Carthaginians, in New World, 4 0 - 4 1 , 184 Catholicism, in New Spain, xv, 27,29,240; creole clergy, 79, 196; cults, 85, 86, 199, 275, 304 (see also Marian cults; Virgin
of Guadalupe at Tepeyac, cult of); heterodoxy, 18, 106, 125; orthodoxy, 121 Censorship, 80-81 Centeotl, 212 Cholula, 140, 150 Chosen people: Creoles as, 94, 125; Indians as, 197; Jews as, 184; Spaniards as, 50, 61 Christ of Itzmiquilpan, 83 Christianization of Indians, 17, 1 8 , 2 0 , 2 1 , 24, 25, 45, 48, 49, 239, 265 Cihuacoatl, 211-15 passim Clavijero, Francisco Javier, 107-12, 288 Coat of arms, supernatural, 254-56 Codex Telleriano remensis, 165-68 Codex Vaticanus 37-38, 165, 167-68 Conquest, omens of, 163 Constitution, Mexican, 117-18, 121, 122, 127, 132 Conventual orders, reform of, 114-15 Cortes, H e r n a n , 3 1 , 149-50 Creoles, xvi-xvii, 7-10, 195-96; prosperity, 52-53; renaissance, 55-56, 61; revolt, 196; rights, 132; sons of Virgin of Guadalupe, 250, 255 Cross of Queretaro, 284 Crosses, religious significance of, 153, 190 "Cry of Dolores," 112, 114, 126, 288 Cuauhtemoc, 152, 300 Culture, 52-53 "Diabolical parody," 171-74, 196-97 Dialogue of cultures, 301-2 Diaz de la Vega, Fray Jose, 283-85, 288 Duarte, Manuel, 187, 188-89, 190 Duran, Fray Diego, 151, 157-61, 168 Eagle symbolism, 9 1 , 245, 259 Ecclesiastical tithes, 122
333
334
INDEX
Ehecatl, 147, 186 Epidemics, 15-16, 86, 97, 254-55, 257 Eurocentrism, 207-8 Evangelization, of Mexico: apostolic, 4 4 50,135-36,153-56,161,164,176,17980, 182-86, 189, 200, 216, 266, 272, 303; pre-Conquest, 193-94, 196 Eve, 215 Feast days, 141, 275-78, 289, 291-92 Fernandez de Echeverria y Veitia, Mariano, 264-65, 268 Flood, myths of, 167 Florencia, Francisco de, 2 9 0 - 9 1 , 292, 293-94 Franciscans, 30, 32-33, 34, 100-101, 13948, 216, 238-39, 242 Frutos, Fray Francisco, 278-80 Funerary rites, 124-25 Gabriel de Talavera, 294-96 Gachupines, 7-10, 183, 193, 195-96, 201 Gemelli Carreri, Giovanni, 72, 269 Geography, 16th century, 178-79 Golden Age, return of, 150 Grace: problem of, 78, 182; signs of, 284 Grandeza Mexicana, 51-59, 6 1 , 69 Guadalupan iconography, 245, 258 Guadalupan orthodoxy, 266-67 Guadalupan symbolism, 261 Guadalupe: as personal name, 2 8 0 - 8 1 ; as place name, 281-82 Guadalupe-Tonantzin. See TonantzinGuadalupe Guadalupe, Virgin of. See Virgin of Guadalupe at Tepeyac Guerrilla warfare, 128 Heresy, 28-29, 123, 196-97 Hidalgo y Costilla, Miguel, 112-29, 198, 288-89 History: Catholic concept of, 35-36, 182; interpretation of, 157; philosophy of, ix-xi, 304-7 History, Mexican, 96; chronology of, xxv-xxx Histoyre du Mechique, 145-49 Identification, of Mexico with Holy Land, 251 Identity, creole, 191-92, 198, 201
Idolatry, 6 1 . See also Polytheism; Quetzalcoatl Iglesia Indiana, 32, 54, 88, 106, 192, 226, 239, 257 Immaculate Conception, cult of, 226, 239, 285, 291, 300 Independence, Mexican, 27, 28, 79-80, 89, 104-5, 113, 117, 120-21, 124, 125, 126-27, 128, 129, 197-98, 280 Independence, War of, 125-29, 134, 289, 302 Indians: control of, 14, 22, 68; humanity of, 38-39; as lost Jews, 43, 49, 161, 167-68, 173, 184, 196, 207; martyrs, 100, 103; messianic movement among, 29, 144, 152; origin of, 37-43, 44, 173; original sin in, 3 9 , 7 1 ; religion of, 2 0 , 2 3 , 2 4 , 4 5 , 4 8 - 4 9 , 1 6 8 (see also Quetzalcoatl); uprisings, 100-102 Indian Spring, 51-76, 120, 259. See also Mexican paradise; Utopia Indigenist sentiment, 6 5 , 6 8 , 1 9 1 , 2 8 3 , 3 0 0 Inquisition, 18-29, 42, 88, 105, 122, 127, 264 Iturbide, Augustin de, 127-30 Jeronymites, 219, 236, 297 Jesuits, 60-6U, 85-86, 99, 101-2, 110-11, 226, 242, 257; expulsion of, 85-86, 9 9 112, 115 Joachim of Floris, 30-34, 36, 42, 179, 225 J u a n Diego, 249, 255, 284-85 J u a n a Inez de la Cruz, Sor, xiii-xv, 60, 68-76, 85, 109, 250, 280 Judaism, 25-26, 42, 43, 302 La Maza, Francisco de, 255, 299 Las Casas, Bartolome de, 152 Lazcano, Francisco Javier, 294 Lazo d e la Vega, Luis, 247-48, 269 Legalism, Mexican revolutionary, 132-34 L u n a r symbolism, 261, 293 Marco Polo, 177, 178 Marian cults, 63, 64, 73, 85, 86, 92, 102, 103, 183, 215, 218, 224, 225-26, 2 2 9 30, 234, 241, 257, 285, 286-88, 299. See also Virgin of Guadalupe at Tepeyac, cult of Mariophany, 299 Marvels, 75, 83, 84, 226, 255. See also
335
Index
Miracles; Prodigious images Messianic hopes: Indian, 29, 144, 152; Mexican, 98, 104, 114, 196, 201; missionary, 61 Mestizos, xvi-xvii, 12-14 Mexican national consciousness, 1-3, 10, 60, 62, 64, 74, 77, 89, 107-10, 301, 303, 308 Mexican history. See History, Mexican Mexican Constitution. See Constitution, Mexican Mexican paradise, 57-58, 71, 250. See also Indian Spring Mexicanization, 62, 107, 233, 288, 292, 299-300. See also Spiritual hybridization Mexico: material wealth, 94-96; writings about, 110-11, 162-65, 169-72 Mexico City: historical destiny of, 251; as New Jerusalem, 92-98, 110, 287; patronage of Virgin of Guadalupe, 260; rivalry with Madrid, 131; rivalry with Puebla, 285 Mier, Fray Servando Teresa de, 128, 13036, 192-98, 200-202, 262-66, 270, 2 8 0 - 8 1 , 288 Military: role of, 116, 130; privilege, 116 Millenarianism, 28, 30, 32-36, 45-46, 50, 63, 97, 120, 134, 161, 184 Mina, Francisco Xavier, 128 Mines, 94 Miracles, 83-84, 93, 96, 239, 240-41, 243, 244, 254, 257, 260, 279, 286, 297. See also Marvels; Prodigious images; Virgin of Guadalupe at Tepeyac Missionaries, 48, 6 1 , 144. See also Franciscans; Jesuits Mixcoatl, 140 Moctezuma, 149-50 Morality: Catholic, 23-26; natural, 141 Morelos y Pavon, Jose Maria, 112-29,198, 288-89 Mother-goddess, 213. See also Tonantzin Motolinia, Fray Toribio de Benavente, 139-42 Munoz, J u a n Bautista, 266, 2 6 7 - 7 1 , 288 Museo Historico Indiano, 263 Mythification, of pre-Hispanic past, 65-66, 300. See also Indigenist sentiment; Mexicanization Nahuatl language, 17, 73, 277
Nationalism, xiii, xvi, xxi, 94, 96, 107-9, 197 New Spain, xi, xiv, xv, xvi, xviii, 8, 96 New World, discovery and exploration of, 38 Noche Triste, xviii, 225, 260 Olmos, Fray Andres de, 139, 145-46 Ometeotl, 146, 199, 213 Phoenix symbolism, 68-76 Pilgrimages, 276-77 Pious writings, 81-84. See also Virgin of Guadalupe at Tepeyac Political independence. See Independence, Mexican Political legitimacy, xxi, 132-34, 151 Political power, of common people, 120, 132 Polytheism, 20, 22, 24, 87, 265, 292. See also Aztec divinities; Indians, religion of Population, urban, 11-13 Pre-Hispanic civilization, xii, xiii, 44, 65, 145, 161-76 Press, freedom of, 127. See also Censorship Prodigious images, 83-84, 86, 93, 226, 232, 245, 262, 266-67. See also Marvels; Miracles; Virgin of Guadalupe at Tepeyac Prophecy, 22, 28, 47, 88, 90, 150-52, 174 Provincialism, intellectual, 110 Publishing, in New Spain, 81-84, 85, 93 Puebla, 10, 261-62, 285, 302 Quetzalcoatl, xx, xxi, 1, 3, 104, 139, 1404 1 , 142-48, 149-52, 158, 165-66, 186, 187-208, 213, 214, 261; as Caucasian, 172, 181; as Christian, 158, 163, 168; a n d conquistadors, 149-51; and Cortes, 273; as demon, 168, 171-73; as Egyptian god T h o t h , 207; as messiah figure, 168, 174; myths and legends of, 140-48, 165-70, 172, 175, 200; origin of, 168; prophecy of, 162, 170, 1,73, 175; as virtuous man, 171, 175; writings about, 187 Quetzalcoatl-Saint Thomas, xix, xx, 1, 2, 29, 64, 134, 141, 144, 147, 156-57, 158-60, 161, 164, 174, 187, 191-92, 194-95, 200, 205, 265, 272, 300, 3 0 1 , 303
336
INDEX
Renaissance, Creole, 55-56; literary, 53 Revelations, Woman of. See Woman of the Apocalypse Revolution, 113-14, 117, 127, 133 Rios, Pedro de los, 167-68 Sahagun, Fray Bernardino de, 142-45, 189 Saint James, 86, 198-206, 222, 226, 272, 297, 301, 304; cult of, 199-200, 204 Saint J o h n the Apostle, 74, 88, 250 Saint J o h n the Baptist, 217 Saint Peter, 91 Saint T h o m a s the Apostle, 45, 177-87, 189, 190, 198-206; footprints of, 18081, 190, 202; Indian myths about, 181. See also Quetzalcoatl-Saint T h o m a s Saint T h o m a s of Mylapore, 193, 197 Sanchez, Miguel, 74, 242-47, 248-52 passim, 260, 266, 268, 289, 299 Sierra, Justo, 299-300 Sigiienza y Gongora, Carlos de, xvii-xviii, 55,57,59-68,91,109,187-89,194,250, 269, 288 Siles, Francisco de, 251-53, 290, 291 Solar symbolism, 261 Sorcery, 20-22 Spiritual conquest, of Mexico, 88, 90 Spiritual emancipation, 77-98, 193, 200 Spiritual hybridization, 67, 191. See also Mexicanization Star symbolism, 259 Suffrage, 122 Symbolism, Indian religious, 9 1 , 153, 190, 194, 245, 259, 261, 293, 301 Symbolism, Christian, 227-28, 245, 259, 261, 272, 277 Syncretism, xv, 1 8 , 2 1 , 2 3 , 2 9 , 6 1 , 1 4 4 , 1 4 7 , 149, 160, 185, 186, 199, 215, 216, 217, 238-39, 261, 265, 302 Tepeyac, 211, 214, 250; sanctuary at, 274-80, 283, 286. See also Virgin of Guadalupe at Tepeyac Tezcatlipoca, 146, 217 Tlauizcalpantecuhtli, 141, 186 Toci, 87, 242, 243 Tonantzin, 211-30, 265, 277, 301 Tonantzin-Guadalupe, xix-xx, 2, 215-30, 238-39, 300 Topiltzin, 141, 158-59, 163-64, 166, 186.
See also Quetzalcoatl Torquemada, Fray J u a n de, 171-76 T o v a r , J u a n de, 161-65, 187 Translation to Guadalupe de Tepeyac: of Church, 9 0 - 9 1 , 97, 279-80; of Virgin, 88-89, 199, 249 Utopia, 51-76, 120, 261, 304: See also Indian Spring; Mexican paradise Virgin of Copacabana, 228-29 Virgin of Guadalupe of Estremadura, 35, 97, 217-24, 229, 231, 233-38, 242, 277, 291-97 passim Virgin of Guadalupe at Manila, 292-93 Virgin of Guadalupe at Tepeyac, 13, 29, 55, 58-59, 6 1 , 62, 64, 75, 78, 87-90, 9 1 , 96, 124, 134, 144, 191, 193, 198, 205, 214,224-25,227, 228,231-33,235-53, 254-300, 301; apologetic writings about, 8 1 - 8 2 , 2 4 0 , 2 4 2 - 4 8 , 2 4 9 - 5 3 , 2 5 8 , 262-67, 268-69, 2 7 1 - 7 3 , 309; apparitions of, 246, 254-67, 273, 282, 284, 294, 303; critical writings about, 2 6 7 71; historical writings about, 257, 260; as Mexican national emblem, 255, 2 7 4 98; mythical image of, 283; patriotic significance of, 248-53, 289; "Queen of Mexicans," 252, 280-89 Virgin of Guadalupe at Tepeyac, cult of, xviii, 64, 70, 74, 75, 86, 88, 89, 90, 92, 95-97, 99, 102, 103 183, 200, 216, 217, 225, 238, 239, 2 4 0 - 4 1 , 243-44, 251, 269-70, 274-80, 283, 285, 287, 291, 293, 295, 297, 299-300, 301; Creoles as "sons of," 250, 255 Virgin of Loreto, 239, 287, 295 Virgin of Pilar de Zaragoza, 89, 90, 183, 203, 205, 266 Virgin of the Remedies (Virgen de los Remedios), 2 2 5 , 2 4 4 , 2 4 9 , 2 6 0 , 2 6 1 , 2 6 5 , 294 r
White god, myths of, 181 Woman of the Apocalypse, 74, 87, 90, 93, 225, 242, 245-46, 249, 258, 289 Xilonen, 212 Zumarraga, J u a n de, 19, 255, 284, 291, 297
