Pure Pragmatics and Epistemology Wilfrid Sellars Philosophy of Science, Vol. 14, No. 3. (Jul., 1947), pp. 181-202. Stable URL: http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0031-8248%28194707%2914%3A3%3C181%3APPAE%3E2.0.CO%3B2-B Philosophy of Science is currently published by The University of Chicago Press.
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PURE PRAGMATICS AND EPISTEMOLOGY WILFRID SELLARS
The attempt to draw a clear distinction between Philosophy and the empirical sciences can almost be taken as the defining trait of the analytic movement in contemporary philosophical thought. The empirical science that has most frequently threatened to swallow up questions of particular interest to philosophers since the time of Descartes has been psychology. Characteristic, then, of analytic philosophy has been the rejection of what it terms psychologism, that is to say, the mistake of identifying philosophical categories with those of psychology, whether introspective or behavioristic. I t is clear that to launch an attack on psychologism, thus conceived, presupposes that one has a list of philosophical categories which one is able to identify as such; and this in turn presupposes an ability to sketch, a t least in a general way, a distinctly philosophical account of these concepts, although a systematic account along non-psychologistic lines may be a distant and ill-defined goal. The analytic movement in philosophy has gradually moved towards the conclusion that the defining characteristic of philosophical concepts is that they are formal concepts relating to the formation and transformation rules of symbol structures called languages. Philosophy, in other words, tends to be conceived of as the formal theory of languages.' From this standpoint, consequently, psychologism is conceived of as the psychological treatment of concepts which are properly understood as formal devices defining a mode of linguistic structure. Today, then, the analytic philosopher establishes his right to attack psychologism with respect to a given concept if he is able to show that it is capable of treatment as a concept the nature and function of which is constituted by its role in rules definitive of a broader or narrower set of calculi. The issue was joined first over the concepts of formal logic and pure mathematics, and it can be said with confidence that the attack on factualistic and, in particular, psychological accounts of these concepts rest on solid ground. Logic and mathematics are not empirical sciences nor do they constitute branches of any empirical science. They are not inductive studies of symbol formation and transformation behavior. (And if, a t a later stage in our argument, we shall find formal science dealing with language facts, it will not be because logic is discovered by a more subtle analysis to belong to empirical science after all, but rather because of a less naive analysis of the relation of language to fact.) This first battle mas won because of the development of pure syntax. The concepts of formal logic and pure mathematics were clarified through being identified with concepts which occur in the formation and transformation rules definitive of calculi. These rules constitute a logic of implication and deducibility. In this stage of the battle against psy1 We shall draw a distinction, perhaps sharper than t h a t usually drawn, between the formal theory of languages, and the empirical study of historical language-behavior. See below, note 10.
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chologism, an apparently clear-cut distinction arose between symbol-behavior and formal system, a distinction sometimes summed up as that between inference as fact and deducibility as norm. UTehave preferred to say that pure syntax is concerned with rules defining the formal structure of calculi rather than languages, for syntax, as the term has come to be used, makes no use of the concepts of designation and truth, not to say verifiability and meaningfulness. There has, however, arisen the notion of a structure of rules which define the formal features not of calculi in general, but of a special set of calculi in connection with which the term 'language' is more appropriately used. Such systems of rules are studied in pure semantics. They are richer than those formulated in pure syntax, for besides in a sense covering the same ground, they add a new dimension to the manipulation of the systems they define. Of what assistance t o the analytic philosopher has been the development of this new branch of linguistic analysis? I t would be encouraging if we could say that as a result of this new development, philosophers of the analytic school are agreed in attacking psychologistic and, in general, factualistic accounts of the additional concepts which make their appearance in the rules of pure semantics. Thus we should expect a clear-cut distinction between 'meaning' as a term in empirical psychology definable in terms of goal behavior, and the semantical concept of designation; and similarly, between constructed empirical relationships, howeyer subtle, and the semantical concepts of truth and falsity. Unfortunately, not only have analytic philosophers not made proper use of the new tools made available to them, not only have they not pressed on to new victories in the battle against psychologism and factualism; ground has actually been lost! I n the syntactical stage of analysis, logical syntax was used as a Procrustean bed, and if the concepts admitted to philosophy were often sorely maimed, factualism, a t least, was kept a t bay. Semantics, to continue ~ ~ i t h metaphor, instead of providing a gentler bed, has been functioning as a Trojan horse. As a result, factualism and psychologism are flourishing in analytic philosophy, and by no means on the fringes only. The invasion stems in part from a carry-over from the psychologism that characterized much of the controversy over sense-perception in the 'teens and twenties; but in part also, and this is indeed the decisive factor, to the incompleteness of semantics (at least as a t present constituted) as a foundation from which t o launch a decisive attack against these enemies of philosophy. I am now in a position to define the topic of this paper. If an analytic philosopher wishes to attack psychologism in epistemology, what fundamental concepts should he claim to be mistakenly treated as psychological or, in general, factual concepts? In other words, from the stand-point of analytic philosophy, which concepts of those traditionally classified as epistemological properly belong t o philosophy? This we have interpreted to mean, which of the concepts traditionally classified GS epzs~emologicalcan be interpreted as concepts of which the ftcncfion and essence is to serve in rules definitive of a type of object calculus? I shall argue that of the traditional concepts which can be so interpreted, the fundamental ones are trup, false, designates (or means), verifiable, con$rmable, verified, confirmed, and
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meaningful. I shall argue that psychologico-factualism lingers on with respect t o the first three, because analytic philosophy has not yet achieved a formal treatment of the latter five. I shall argue that 'true,' 'false,' and 'designates' still receive factualistic treatment a t the hands of analytic philosophers, in spite of a metalinguistic treatment of these terms obviously incompatible with a factualistic analysis, because these terms gear in with 'verifiable,' 'confirmable,' 'verified,' 'conJimned,' and 'meaningful,' and a formal, or metalinguistic analysis of these latter terms does not yet exist. Unrestrained factualism with respect to the latter has tarred the former with the same brush. But is it true that factualism and psychologism predominate in current treatments of the latter terms? Analytic philosophers take one of two courses, (1) verifiable and confirmable sentences are distinguished in terms of a psychological criterion of evidence, (2) the difference between verifiable and confirmable sentences is either held to be one of degree, or else is defined with respect to the status (defined or primitive) of the predicates of these sentences in the language in which they are formulated. Course ( I ) is obviously psychologism. What of (2)? Here the crucial test is to ask: "What about 'confirmed' (as opposed to 'confirmable') and 'verified' (as opposed to 'verifiable')?" If the answer amounts to a denial that these are philosophical concepts, then it is clear than an account has not been given of verifiable and confirmable as philosophical concepts, for as such the latter make sense only as related to verified and confirmed. But where we do find verified and confirmed taken into the philosophical fold, it invariably turns out that such psychological or socio-psychological notions as 'accepted' or 'belonging to a (specified) domain of opinion' are given as the core of the meaning of these terms. I shall be asked, "Since you are making an accusation of psychologism against current treatments of these concepts, are you not, according to your opening discussion, presupposing that they are capable of formal treatment? Must you not be able to show that 'verifiable,' 'confirmable,' 'verified,' 'confirmed,' and 'meaningful' have a status akin to that of currently recognized syntactical and semantical concepts? that they belong in rules definitive of a type of object calculus? It is by justifying an affirmative ansJver to these questions that I hope to indicate the lines along which analytic philosophy must advance in order to regain the ground that has recently been lost. Thus, I shall explore the possibility that the assignment of the above predicates to the expressions of an object calculus can be clarified by the recognition of a class of meta-linguistic rules which figure in neither pure syntax, nor in pure semantics as at present conceived; rules which define a new dimension of calculus structure, a dimension which alone entitles them to be called Eangz~agesin a genuinely epistemological sense of the term. I have elsewhere2suggested that the term 'pragmatics' be rescued for philosophy through the assignment of the title 'pure pragmatics' to that branch of the 2
"Realism and the Xew Way of Words," Philosophy and Phenomenological Research,
forthcoming.
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pure theory of language which deals with the above predicates, and clarifies their relation to this new dimension of calculus structure. Rut since, as we shall see, the concepts of pure semantics themselves can receive adequate treatment only in terms of this new dimension, it may be preferable to extend the tern1 'semantics' rather than propose a new one. In spite of the terminology I shall adopt in the present paper, I wish to leave this question open. The use of the 'pragmatics' in connection with verification, confirmation, and meaningfulness is now an established one, though these items are but a small part of what is now included under this heading. Shall lye as philosophers extend the term 'semantics' or narrow the term 'pragmatics?' In any case, it is only if there is a pragmatics that is not an empirical science of sign-behavior; a pragmatics which is a branch of the formal theory of language, that the term is rescued for philosophy. And it is only if there is such a new dimension of calculus structure, whether its analysis be called 'Pure Pragmatics' or 'Pure Semantics' that the analytic philosopher can hope to give a non-psychologistic account of the key concepts of traditional epistemology. I t will be helpful to work our way into pure pragmatics by means of a problem the formulating of which will serve two purposes, that of introducing a key concept in Linguistic analysis, and that of weakening the grip of naive realism in a way that ~villmake our argument more easy to follow. Let us draw an implication of the statement that formal predicates, whether syntactical, semantical, or pragmatic, are meta-linguistic predicates. Our usual state of mind consists in being torn in two directions. On the one hand, we find it necessary t o say that syntactical predicates (for example) have as their domain expressions in a calculus which is a model or norm for symbol-behavior. (The terms 'model' and 'norm' are here used to suggest a problem, rather than indicate a solution). We should point out that the decidability of syntactical predicates with respect t o these expressions, and, in general, the properties to which the calculus owes its status as a norm for symbol-behavior, are due to the fact that it is constituted by formation and transformation rules. We should recognize that it is nonsense to say that human symbol behavior is constituted by syntactical formation and transformation rules. On the other hand, if we are asked, "Isn't it absurd to say that syntactical properties do not apply to symbol behavior?", we should find it extremely difficult not to agree. How, indeed, can we characterize an inference, for example, as valid, unless it makes sense to attribute syntactical properties to symbolbehavior in the world of fact? If we say that syntactical properties belong in the first instance to expressions in a calculus or language which is a model or norm for symbol behavior, can we then go on to say that in the second instance they belong to language as behaaioralfact? But to say this would be to put metalinguistic predicates into the object-language. Is there, then, no way out of our dilemma? Must we hold either that syntactical predicates are object-language predicates, or that syntactical predicates are not applicable to language as behavioral fact? Perhaps we can find a way out by drawing a distinction between langiage as behavior (that is, as the subject-matter of empirical psychology),
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and language behavior to the extent that it conforms, and as conforming, to tne criteria o f language as norm; or, in the terminology we shall adopt, between language behavior qua behavioral fact, and language-behavior qua tokens of language as type. It will be part of our later purpose to clarify this distinction between token and type. Our present concern is to note that if the above distinction is to be of assistance, language behavior as tokens must be the subject-matter of a metalanguage; for only in this way can it be eligible for syntactical characterization. But this seems to throw us back into the fire, for if it i s the subject-matter of a meta-language, how can it be jactual language behavior? Is not fact the subjectmatter of a first-level (as opposed to a meta-) language? T o recapitulate: the solution of our dilemma appears to require a three-fold distinction between (I) language as norm or type, ( 2 )language as behavioral fact, and (3) items in the second class which token, and as tokening, items in the first class. In doing this i t requires that the language-behavior of (3) belongs to both the domain of fact, and the domain of language as norm. This is only possible if the domain of fact, and the domain of language as n m m turn out to be the same. But language as norm is such as being posited by metalinguistic rules. We have consequently been led from a problem to a paradox. The attempt t o clarify the applicability of syntactical predicates to language behavior has led us to the curious conception of fact and object-language as type as both alike constituted by metalinguistic rules, or, to put it more loosely, by metalinguistic construction. Can such a conception be defended? The answer is to be found in the argument which follows; for it is in pure pragmatics as defined below that the lingering ghost of naive realism (as a philosophical perspective) is finally exorcized, and Kant's Copernican revolution receives its non-psychologistic fruition. The historical reference a t the conclusion of the preceding paragraph requires a word of explanation. There is no question of introducing a quasi-Kantian doctrine of synthetic a priori knowledge. The following argument belongs in the stream formed by the merging of left-wing empiricism with modern logic. The mention of Kant is intended to suggest that the linguistic tools shaped in pure pragmatics will make possible, indeed necessitate, a return to the Aujbau stage of Logical Empiricism, but with a conception of Aujbau which is as much richer than that of the learly thirties, as the psychologism of Kant is richer than that of Hume. If it be asked, "How can a world of fact be a metalinguistic construction, particularly since the constructing itself as fact belongs in the world?", I must point out that the clarification of the status of formal systems is the culminating task of a philosophy of language, and must be treated a s such. If the question is put too soon, the answer mill inevitably be empirical in a bad sense, in a word, scientism. If it is asked, ",4re you consistent in calling your position a form of Logical Empiricism? How can philosophy, which on your interpretation is a purely formal science, give an empirical answer to the above or any other question?", it may suffice for the moment to point out that an empiricist answer need not be an empirical (as being factual) answer. Indeed, as we shall see-p. 22 below-the thesis of empiricism is a formal rather than a
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factual truth, and by no means in the trivial sense of a definitional cut in a field of wider possibilities. The realization that philosophical truths could not be factual truths, combined with too narrow a conception of the formal has led t o the Wittgensteinian contention that there are no philosophical propositions. I hope to make clear that this is a mistake, while granting that in a sense the Wittgensteinians have the last word. I1
I n the above discussion of the applicability of syntactical predicates to behavioral fact, we introduced the concept of language a s token. The first task of pure pragmatics is to clarify this concept, for it is involved in the definition of all pragmatic predicates. Yet this concept is one that is capable of a t least a provisional definition in terms of the equipment available in pure semantics. 'Token' is a metalinguistic predicate, and it is used properly when it is said that the designatum of one expression in a language is a token of another (perhaps the same) expression in the language. The formal significance of this concept is the role it plays in the following rule: If 'p' designates p, and p i s a token of 'q,' then all the metalinguistic predicates that apply to 'q' apply also to p. This notion can be made concrete by the following: Suppose that psychology has classified all auditory sensations, however complex, into classes. Let one of the class-terms be 'a,' and suppose that i t designates the class of complex sounds heard when people say that i t is raining. Consider the sentence 'p' which says 'a(there-then),' and the sentence 'q' which says "It is raining." Consider next the semantic sentences, " 'p' designates p" and " 'q' designates q." Finally consider the sentence, " 'p' designates p, and p is a token of 'q.' " It says, roughly, that a particular auditory sensation is a token of the sentence "it is raining."
Since we are introducing a rule according to which metalinguistic predicates can be associated with expressions belonging on either side of the 'designates' in a semantic designation-sentence, we must be careful to remember that all the e x p ~ e s s w n sin a semantic sentence belong to the semantic metalanguage. Thus, if p is a token of 'q,' and accordingly it can be said that p designates q, the latter 'p' and 'q' must not be confused with object-language expressions. It will be convenient to introduce the term 'type' as follows, if p is a token of 'q,' we shall say that 'q' is the type of which p is a token. This will enable us to distinguish between metalinguistic sentences in which metalinguistic predicates are associated with expressions ultimately belonging on the left hand side of designation sentences, from those in which they are associated with expressions ultimately belonging on the right hand side of designation sentences. We shall say that the former attribute metalinguistic predicates to language expressions as types, and the latter attribute these predicates to language expressions as tokens. It is worth calling attention once more to the fact that the primary use of metalinguistic predicates is in connection with language as type. That is to say, the metalinguistic sentence "p designates q," presupposes the metalinguistic sentences " 'p' designates p," " 'q' designates q," and "p is a token of 'q.' " Similarly, "p is true," presupposes " 'p' designates p," "p is a token of 'q' "
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and " 'q' is true." This will be of importance later on when we are concerned to point out that the relation of type to token as we are using these terms is not the same as that between the class of marks the and a member of the class of marks the. Another concept which is made available through the resources of pure semantics, but which also fails to reach its full stature within its confines, is that of P-lawfulness. The concept is not a decisive one for pure semantics, for while semantic rules can define calculi which involve P-lawfulness, a calculus defined by a set of semantic rules need not have this characteristic. Pure semantics is indifferent to the presence or the absence of P-lawfulness in object-language structures. In this respect, pure pragmatics will differ from pure semantics. We shall return shortly to this topic, and attempt to sketch the lines along which pragmatics must analyze the notion of P-lawfulness. Our present purpose has been to set the stage for the introduction of the distinguishing concept of pure pragmatics. The concepts of linguistic token and P-lawfulness are essential to pure pragmatics, but do not suffice to distinguish it from semantics. What, then, is the concept the introduction of which makes possible the elaboration of a set of rules which define a type of object-calculus to the expressions of which pragmatic predicates ('verifiable', 'confirmable', 'verified', 'confirmed', 'meaningful', etc.) are assignable under formally specifiable conditions? The answer is that pragmatic rules require any object-calculus to contain an irreflexive, symmetrical and transitive two place predicate for which we shall use the term 'co-ex'. The model for this predicate is the common sense expression 'is-present-to-consciousness-along-with". It should not be necessary to point out, though it is wise to do so, that the fact that pure pragmatics lays down such a requirement on any calculus to the expressions of which pragmatic predicates can be applied, does not mean that in pure pragmatics we add psychology, in whole or in part, introspective or behavioristic, to pure semantics. We have not even added the psychological concept of being present to consciousness along with. Whatever we may have our eye on in constructing the science of pure pragmatics, (and it is not the psychology of belief, or expectation, or puzzle-solving, or persuasion, or any of the other detailed psychology that has been smuggled into philosophy under the heading 'pragmatics') the fundamental concept of pure pragmatics is that of a certain formal restriction on the calculi to the expressions of which pragmatic predicates are assignable. If we were putting the matter in a non-technical way, we would say that the m i n i m u m formal requirement which a formal system must Jill in order to be a candidate for the position of empirically meaningful language i s that it be capable o j being 'about' a world in which it i s used. This statement should be kept in mind as the key to the argument which follows, for its aim can be summarized as the atfempt to give a formal reconstruction of the common sense notion that a n empirically meaningjul language i s one that i s about the world in which it i s used. By requiring any constructed calculus to contain such a predicate (which we
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shall symbolize by 'Coex,' short for 'co-experienced with'), and with the aid of the inetalinguistic predicate 'token,' we can introduce the predicate 'verifiable sentence' in the follo~vingway: 'p' is a verifiabIe sentence in C, if C includes a sentence 'q' and a sentence 'r' such t h a t 'q' designates r coex p, and r is a token of 'p.'
The sentences 'q' and 'r' will be called the experiential tie of 'p.' This concept of a n experiential tie is, consequently, a purely formal one. It is the philosophical concept which has been sought mistakenly in the psychological object language. As a crude aid to the understanding of the above definition, consider the following: 'Jones is seeing red' is a verifiable sentence in C, if C includes a sentence 'q' and a sentence 'r' such that 'q' designates Jones' imaging Jonz-iz-ceeing-redd coez Jones seeing red, and Jones' imaging Jonz-zz-ceeing-redd is a token of 'Jones is seeing red.'
At this stage, we should note that in addition to the requirement specifying an empirical tie, our definition has limited verifiable sentences to sentences which fulfil the formal requirements of "sentences about particular states of affairs." The predicate 'verifiable sentence' does not apply to sentences involving unrestricted general operators. We shall consider later the applicability of this predicate to sentences involving definite descriptions. Before we introduce further fundamental concepts of pure pragmatics, we must indicate the general lines along which the pragmatic concept of a P-lawful system is to be clarified. MTe shall introduce this notion in terms of objectcalculi the elementary expressions of which are explicitly listed sets of primitive relational and non-relational predicate-constants, and an explicitly listed set of individual-constants; and the elementary sentences of which consist of a conjoining of these predicates with the appropriate number of individual-constants. Later we shall examine the pragmatic importance of calculi in which variables play a nontrivial role. S o w the pragmatic concept of a P-lan-ful system turns out, on examination, to have a negative and a positive phase. The former consists in a certain type of restriction on the predicates of the calculus in which such a system can be formulated; in Leibnitzian terms, a principle of compossibility; while the positive phase may, perhaps, be compared to his principle of plenitude. The following discussion is a tentative and summarizing survey of a line of thought that requires detailed and rigorous development to constitute a solid chapter in the pure theory of language. The purpose of the present paper will be amply fulfilled if it provides a general framework in terms of which specific problems of formulation and argument in epistemology can be discriminated from questions relating to matters of fact, and their status as capable of definitive solution clarified. As a concept in the pure theory of language, the negative element in the concept of a P-la~vfulsystem might better be called a principle of conformation, than one of compossibility, though, as we shall see, the designata of a conform-
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able set of sentences may be said to be compossible. A still more suggestive title might be "the principle of the internality of primitive relational predicates," for the conformation rules of a calculus, the expressions of which can qualify for pra,gnatic predicates, specify for each non-relational predicate in the calculus, the relational predicates which can participate in sentences with one and the same individual constant which i s conjoined in a sentence with the non-relational predicate in question. set of such rules provides what may be called the "P-restrictions" of the calculus. Kote that they are metalinguistic in character, and that the general propositions which correspond to them in the objpci-language are to be distinguished from "contingent" generalizations, even though they are not, in the uszcaZ syntactical sense, analytic. We have not yet brought out the full extent of our indebtedness to Leibnitz. The apparatus which defines a calculus to the expressions of which pragmatic predicates are applicable must include a principle of the identity of indiscernibles. This principle specifies that two espressions in the object-calculus which differ solely with respect to the individual-constants they contain (it will be remembered that the calculi we are discussing do not contain variables), and which are not parts of more inclusive expressions, are synonymous. Thus, if 'Prl(a)' and 'Prl(b)' are two expressions in such a calculus. 'a' designates not only a , but also b; and 'b' designates not only b, but also a , that is to say, a and b are identical. Note that synonymity does not entail mutual substitutability in more inclusive expressions. This is necessary, otherwise if the inclusive expression already contained an individual constant appearing in the expression that was going to be substituted for a part of it, one might run up against a conformation rule.3 We are now in a position to give a tentative account of the positive phase of the pragmatic concept of a, P-lax-rful system. -1set of sentences in a calculus with a given set of P-restrictions (conformation rules) and for which there is identity of indiscernibles, will be called a text, if (1) every individual constant appearing in the set appears in both a non-relational and a t least one relational sentence of the set; and (2) no sub-set of the set fails to contain at least one individual constant which appears jointly in a relational sentence with a least one individual constant not appearing in the sub-set. If ~ v eleave aside current technical associations of the term 'connected,' it might be helpful to characterize a text as a connected set of conformable elementary sentences. A text will be 3 I n "Realism and the New Way of Words" I have formulated this point more generally a s follows: "Since the meaning and the meaningfulness of symbols alike are defined in a purely formal manner, we can say t h a t the i d e n t i t y of formally indisccrnibles is fundamental t o the pure theory of languages. Thus, predicates are differentiated only in terms of conformation rules, individual constants only in terms of the predicates with which they are associated. Formal science makes use of empirical ntarks, but this is a n empirical fact about formal science, and i t would be a mistake t o suppose t h a t the empirical difference of mark from mark is reflected necessarily in a difference of formal status. Thus, in the absence of 8 formal distinction between '@' and '$', " '4' designates is not formally different from " '@'designates 4". The Leibnitzian conception of identity is merely a n application of this insight t o individual constants. Where we refuse this identity without explicit formal differentiation, i t can be understood t o be implicitly assumed."
+"
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said to be a complete text, if all texts formulable in the calculus which include it are synonymous with it. A jix can be defined as a text, all the complete texts containing which are synonymous. Afix wiil be called a reciprocal fix, if a complementary text which builds it into a complete text, is also a fix. It is clear that these definitions are a t best indicative. We have not attempted to specify the circumstances under which a calculus must peimit the formulation of a complete text, or of a text a proper sub-text of which is a fix. These are problems of a highly technical nature in formal science. Our aim is rather to point them out, for their solution is vital to pure pragmatics. We have been preparing for the introduction of the following definitions: A complete text which includes a reciprocal fix consisting of verifiable sentences, and which also includes for each verifiable sentence the sentences which make up its empirical tie, will be called a story. A reciprocal fix consisting of verifiable sentences will be called a oerification basis of the story i n which i t appears. A verifiable sentence belonging t o a Story, S, will be said t o be verified-in-S. A calculus in which a story can be formulated will be said t o be a language. Any sentence formulable in a language L which is neither analytic nor self-contradictory, will be said t o be a conjirmable sentence of L. A confirmable sentence belonging t o a story S, will be said t o be confirmed-in-S. A sentence which is confirmed-in-S m a y also be verified-in-S, but need not be a s far a s these definitions are concerned.
In comment on these definitions, the first thing to note is that if a calculus permits the formulation of one story, it normally permits the formulation of a set of non-synonymous stories. Consequently, it could no more be determined with respect to a language alone whether or not a given sentence was in the privileged position implied by the terms "confirmed' or 'verified,' than it can be determined with reference to a language alone whether or not a given sentence is factually true. Consider, however, the predicates we have defined above, namely, 'verified-in-S' and 'confirmed-in-S.' These predicates are decidable on Sentences assigning these predicates to expressions in an obformal g r o ~ n d s . ~ ject-language, are either analytic or self-contradictory. I t is for this reason, 4 Since writing the above, I have come t o the conclusion t h a t the terminology of the argument can be improved as follows: A calculus with resources which permit the formulation of expressions E, with respect to which the function 'world-story (E,)' is decidable in view of the conformation rules of the calculus, will be called a n empirical language form. As we have pointed out (note 3 above) the predicates of a calculus have determinate meaning (in a non-psychological sense) only by virtue of the conformation or combining rules relating t o them. But an empirical language must be determinate in meaning not only with respect t o its predicates but also with respect to its individual constants. This determinate meaning involves the functioning of these constants in one story. Thus we shall define an empirical language as a n empirical language form, the formal status (and hence the 'meanings') of the individual constants of which is fixed in relation t o one of the world stories formulable in it. This definition clarifies in a non-psychologistic way the notion that the primary non-logical expressions of a language must have determinate meaning. I n terms of these definitions, where I use the expressions 'verified-in-S', 'true-in-S' etc., I could also say, 'verified sentence of L', 'true sentence of L' etc., where S is the meaning basis of L.
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and this reason alone, that these concepts, and the family of concepts that are deJinable i n terms of them, are philosophical concepts. Consider, now, the semantic predicate 'true.' I n semantics this concept is defined by means of the formal equivalence, '"p' is true if and only if p." Note that the predicate 'true' is not decidable with respect to an object-calculus (though the predicate 'true or false,' i.e., 'factual' is so decidable), because 'p' and its designatum p have no privileges over 'not-p' and its designatum not-p. This, however, is not the case with respect t o a story; the predicate 'true-in-S' is a decidable predicate. Consequently, it is only in pragmatics that the concept of truth receives the final installment of the philosophical clarification initiated in existing semantic analysis. A philosophical concept must be decidable on purely formal grounds. If it be asked, "HOW can a concept which is decidable on formal grounds be the clarification of the concept of factual truth?", the answer must be postponed until we have discussed the relation of stories as we have defined them to "the language we actually speak." Perhaps it will temporarily soften the paradox if we say that philosophical concepts must be in principle decidable on formal grounds. The expression 'in principle9has proved soothing on other occasions. Another question may well be raised a t this point. "Does not the above account so merge the concepts confirmed, neri$ed, and true, that it is difficult to see what distinction, if any, remains?" Thus let us consider the following two theorems in pure pragmatics : (1) "'p' is verified-in S" entails "'p' is true-in-S." (2) "'p' is confirmed-in-S" entails '"p' is true-in-S." These two propositions bring out the fact that verified-in-S and confirmed-in-S are properties that do not admit of degrees. To say this, however, is not t o say that a concept conJirmed-to-degree-n-with-respect-t0-S cannot be introduced as a formally decidable concept in pure pragmatics. What we are saying is that such a concept would be a defined pragmatic concept of considerable complexity relating to the clarification of the concept of probability, whereas we are using the terms 'verified' and 'confirmed' to clear up the epistemological contrast between "sentences checked against the facts they assert" (verified sentences) a n d "sentences checked only indirectly" (confirmed but not verified sentences), where in both cases the sentences in question concern particular states of affairs. A derived pragmatic concept confirmed to degree-n-with-respect-to-S might be introduced as a predicate applicable to expressions in a language L, and defined in terms of the ratios in which the individual terms (appearing in a story S formulated in L) which fulfilled one propositional function, also fulfilled other (specified) propositional functions. Such a predicate would admit of mathematical treatment, tying in with statistics and the theory of samples. I t would be formally decidable with respect to expressions in L, but "'p' is confirmed-todegree-n-with-respect-to-S," unlike "'p' is confiimed-in-S," would not entail "(p' is a sentence of S" and hence "'p' is true-in-S." Note, however, that this pragmatic concept of degree of confirmation u-ould have nothing to do with the P-restrictions of the language, though i t might apply to universal propositions in L.
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It will come out as we proceed, that the concepts of language and story, as we are defining them, are in some sense ideal frames of reference, in terms of which our choice of a "language" can be criticized. From this point of view, whether we choose to regard a given generalization as empirical, or as a consequence of a metalinguistic P-restriction on our "language" is an open matter, to be decided in terms of the ideal standard of a calculus defined by P-restrictions sufficient to constitute it a language. In the present paper, we are concerned with pragmatic concepts which first make it possible to define the framework within which derived pragmatic concepts (e.g., degree of con$rmation) can receive formal, that is, philosophical, treatment. Let us therefore return to the problem with which we began the preceding paragraph. If neither verified-in-S nor con$rmedin-S admit of degrees, and if both entail true-in+, where is the difference? Once worry about degree of confirmation has been side-tracked, it is clear from the definitions of the corresponding terms that the distinction rests on the formal circumstance that a sentence that is verified-in-S is one that has an empirical tie in S, whereas a sentence that is confirmed-in-S need not have an empirical tie in S, its being confirmed-in8 consisting merely in the fact that it occurs in S, that is to say, in a complete text with a verification base. A theorem that will be of assistance in claryifying a familiar epistemological controversy5 is the following: (3) "'p' belongs to a verification base of S" entails " 'p' is true-in-S." The clarification rests in part on noting that (4) " 'p' is any sentence in S" entails " 'p' is true-in-S." The only kind of indubitability that plays a role in epistemology is analyticity, and in this respect (3) above is on a par with any tautology. The only kind of indubitability that language behavior has as behavioral fact, would be that designated by 'indubitable' as a predicate of empirical psychology; such a predicate, if there is any need for it, would be an object-language predicate, having as such no relation to the predicate 'true'. We shall now introduce two additional concepts which belong to the foundations of pure pragmatics. The first underlies the clarification of the family of pragmatic terms relating to meaningfulness. (5) To say that 'Pr' is meaningful-in8 is equivalent (definition) to saying that S contains a t least one sentence involving 'Pr.' Before commenting on this definition, it must be pointed out once more that all the predicates, which appear in a story as we have defined this term, are primitive predicates, and that meaningfulness in the fundamental sense we are now considering relates to primitive predicates alone. Let us classify the predicates which appear in a story, S, into those which occur a t least once in sentences which are verified-in-S, and those which do not; the former being called 'predicates verified-in-S,' and the latter, if there can be suck, 'predicates (merely) confirmed-in-S.' I t is essential not to confuse the following: 'primitive predicate in S,' 'predicate meaningful-in-S' and 'predicate verified-in-S,' even if one 6
I refer to the debate concerning the indubitability of protocol sentences or KonstatieSee below, pp. 32-3.
qqen.
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hopes to show either that these terms must be co-extensive, or, more modestly, that they are "in point of fact" co-extensive "with respect to the language we speak." The Lockean principle that simple ideas are formed by abstraction from particulars with which we are acquainted, and that all other ideas are compounded from them, was a distinct gain for empiricism in so far as it was an attack on innate ideas; but the gain consisted in replacing one form of psychologism by a less obnoxious form. The Lockean principle lingers on in current empiricism under the guise of a 'principle of acquaintance.' In our terminology, this principle amounts to giving verified primitive predicates a privileged status with respect to primary meaningfulness. To justify such a status, one would either have to prove that all predicates appearing in a story must appear in a t least one verifiable sentence belonging to the story; or else argue that such a restriction is characteristic of "the language mTespeak." I have argued elsewhere6 that the current insistence on the epistemological priority of sense-datum predicates, that is to say, of a sense-datum language, rests on a confusion between two propositions, (I). The primitive predicates of a meaningful language must be datum-predicates (which is false, since there is no such theorem in pure pragmatics) and (2). h meaningful language is such in relation to a sentence-system formulated in that language which includes a verification base consisting of datum-sentences (which is true, as being a theorem in pure pragmatics). Our interest in the present paper will be focused on the fact that if (I) is not a theorem in pure pragmatics, then the question as to whether the primitive predicates of "the language we speak" are without exception datum-predicates, would seem to be in some sense a factual one. But how can philosophy as a formal science make factual statements? Is there such a thing as the philosophical criticism of the language we speak? (Is there such a thing as the mathematical criticism of the calculations of Jones, age 6?) The closest, then, that pure pragmatics comes to a principle of acquaintance is in its requirement that a story have a verification base. I t is this requirement that constitutes empiricism as a proposition in philosophy, for it is in this sense that empiricism as a meaningfulness-criterion is a formal truth in pure pragmatics. If, in addition, it is an analytic truth that a story contains both sentences which are eonjirmed-in-S and sentences which are oer$ed-in-S, this does not mean that a story must contain sentences which are not veri$ed-in-S, since verifiable sentences are a sub-class of confirmable sentences.' Whether or not a story contains such sentences, and if so, whether it contains predicates which are merely eonfirmed-in-S, depends on the conformation rules of the language in which it is formulated. Consequently, whether or not a given language permits or requires a story, S, formulated in that language to include primitive predicates not ap"Realism and the New Way of Words.'? If it were a theorem in pure pragmatics t h a t a story must contain a t least one sentence t h a t is confirmed in S but not verified in S, then a n essential though minimal thesis of realism would be a philosophical tautology. If, on the other hand, i t could be proved t h a t a story can contain no such sentence, realism would be a self-contradictory position in philosophy. 8
7
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pearing in sentences verijied-in-S, 'predicate verified-in-S' and 'predicate (merely) confirmed-in-S,' that is, (roughly) 'primitive d a t u m predicate' and 'primitive non-datum predicate,' would be on a par with respect to 'meaningful' as a philosophical term. This need not be the case with psychological terms that can easily be confused with the above. The philosophical distinctions we are drawing are not those of genetic psychology. The second fundamental concept to be introduced is that of existence as a pragmatic concept. As we shall see, pure pragmatics permits a clarification of the term 'exists' which supplements the fruits of the Russellian analysis. Part of this clarification comes with the account that remains to be given of logically proper names. Now we are concerned with the existence of classes. Thus (6) The class P r will be said t o exist-in-the-world-designated-by-S, if 'Pr' is meaningful in-S.
The concept of a world is one that will be introduced later in the argument. For this reason the above definition is necessarily provisional. As the formulation itself suggests, it claims to be a clarification of the platonizing demand for the 'real7 existence of classes; a clarification which grants the demand, but not the P l a t o n i ~ m . ~The existence of a class is, of course, to be distinguished from the existence of members of a class. This distinction is necessary even in the case of the primitive predicates appearing in a story (which are all that are covered by the above definition), even though in their case each corresponding class must have a t least one member in the world designated by the story. Defined object-language predicates are in a different position. The primary problem involved in the pragmatics of the latter, it is interesting to note, is that of clarifying the nature of defined factual predicates, and correspondingly, of complex individual^.^ Our concern in this paper is with the most general topics that arise 8 I n "Realism and the New Way of Words" I have formulated this point more generally a s follows: "By the enlarged conception of the formal mode of speech as including pragmatic statements, we are enabled t o clarify certain perennial problems relating t o eristence. The term 'exists' a s ordinarily used has a sense consisting of syntactical, semantical a n d pragm a t i c elements. The last of these is t h e key t o the Platonism issue, for i t is t o Platonism t h a t a factualistic interpretation must lead. The pragmatic element is suggested by the statement, "to say t h a t a n individual or class exists is t o say that the corresponding individual or class term is meaningful." Since existence in this sense is (on our interpretation) a s non-factual a notion as t h e syntactical sense t h a t was clarified a t Cambridge, one can admit, nay, insist, t h a t classes exist without swallowing a two-storied world. Needless t o say, the question a s t o the existence of the class lion, is t o be distinguished from t h a t a s t o the existence of lions. For the latter, given a meaningful language, t h e analysis of Russell is adequate. I t is essential t o note t h a t the pragmatic sense of existence applies only t o the designata of t h e factual terms of the object-language, (e.g. a e z i s t s is equivalent t o 'a' designates a and 'a' i s m e a n i n g f u l ; red e z i s t s is equivalent t o 'red' i s a class t e r m , 'red' designales R E D , a n d m e a n i n g f u l ('red') ." An exploration of this issue would lead t o a n examination of t h e pragmatic structure of temporal stories; t o a n analysis of the substance-mode relationship, and of t h e concept of dispositional property; t h a t is t o say of the syntax of thing, property and event words. I have sketched the direction such a n analysis might take in t h e "Realism" paper.
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a t the very foundations of pure pragmatics, that is to say, with the formal features common to all languages the expressions of which qualify for characterization by pragmatic predicates and in the present context it is important to note that existence in the pragmatic sense applies only to classes designated by objectlanguage predicates. I n the pragmatic sense of existence, formal systems a s formal systems do not exist. The distinction of the pragmatic from the syntactical sense of 'exists' i s thus a dejtnite gain for empirical philosophy.
We have pointed out that the sentences appearing in a verification base of a story, and indeed all the sentences of a story must have the logical characteristics of sentences "about individual states of affairs." In the languages we have been considering, such sentences are formed by joining individual- and predicateconstants. What of the use of variables and definite descriptions? Let us consider two types of object-calculi in relation to the pragmatic predicates we have been considering, (1) calculi of which the variables (individual and predicate) are defined in terms of explicit lists of constants (individual and predicate), and (2) calculi the variables of which do not have cash value in terms of such lists. Since the calculi with which pragmatics is concerned are languages, we shall call the first type languages proper, and the second, language schemata. Although schematicity can, and usually does, concern predicate terms as well as individual terms, the fundamental difference between these two types of calculi comes out most clearly when we consider the relation of general statements t o statements "about individuals." In a language proper, general statements are equivalent to explicit and specified conjunctions or disjunctions of statements that do not involve individual-variables. In a language schema, this is not the case, and. the concept of a general-statement (and therefore of a variable) is given content not within the system, but through the non-formal fact that an eye is kept on a miniature language proper, the role of general statements within which serves as a model for the role of general statements within the language schema that is being considered. This function is usually performed by the use of a short string of disjunctions or conjunctions involving the early letters of the alphabet. On the other hand, the fact that this function is performed by these strings is then promptly obscured by following them with 'etc.' or '&' or '. . . ' for these suggest that instead of a non-formal reference t o a model, a formal definition of general operators in their relation to individual statements is being given. A language schema, then, is a language proper with blanks instead of individual constants and/or blanks instead of predicate-constants. This gappiness is overcome, to the extent that it can be overcome, by the use of two devices, (1) a device for indicating which blanks would be filled by the same constant if it were a language proper, and (2) a device for indicating which blanks could be filled by only one constant, if it were a language proper. The latter device is that of the depnite description. It is of particular interest to pragmatics. The general
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moral to he drawn a t this tinie is that langz~ageschemata and statements within language schemata are intelligible only with refere?xe to model languages proper, and statements within model langz~agesproper. Let us introduce the predicate 'logically proper name.' An individual constant in a language proper, LP, ~villhe said to be a logically proper name in a story, S, formulated in LP, if it appears in a sentence of S. So\v a language proper can make use of variables and definite descriptions, but the pragmatic predicates \ve have been considering are decidable with respect to such statements by virtue of their translatability into sentences involving no variables, but only logically proper names and predicate-constants. In a language proper, then, pragmatic predicates are decidable with respect to sentences involving definite descriptions by virtue of their relation t o a story, a structure for which P-indiscernibility entails semantic identity. (In this respect a story can be compared t o a Leibnitzian world.) Xow we have noted that statements involving definite descriptions are the closest one can come with the resources of a language schema t o statements "about individuals." How close is t h a t ? Under what circumstances would the pragmatic predicates we have been considering be decidable with respect t o statements involving definite descriptions in a language schema? They would be decidable only if these statements belonged to a system of statements which had this Leibnitzian property. In other words, they urould be decidable only with respect t o state~nentsbelonging to such a set as one ~vould have if one began with a story in a language proper involving the same predicates and P-restrictions, and transformed every statement involving logically proper names into a statement involving definite descriptions. A mornent's reflection on the complexity the latter statements would have sho~vsthat these predicates would he decidable only with respect to a set of sentences which do in a complicated way that which could be done in a si~nplern-ay with the same resource of explicit symbols, by the use of logically proper names in a language proper. This makes i t clear that a language, -\vliichis schematic xvith respect t o individual constants, has exactly the same motive for being schematic with respect to the for~naldevices for circumventing this schematicity, that is to say, for indicating and manipulating its variables. I n general, schematicity is a pervasive feature of a language system. Schematicity in an object-language penetrates the hierarchy of mcta-languages of which it is the base. We shall return to this point later on. These considerations make it clear that the type of calculus, that would be the (re)co~istructedmodel or norm of our empirical symbol behavior, is a language schema, and a crude and incomplete language schema a t that. It seems natural, then, to say that as language schema, its nature is to be clarified and criticized with reference t o the standard pro^-ided by a language proper; and as language schen~a,its nature is to be clarified and criticized with reference to languages proper, that is to say, calculi proper which are object-calculi of pragmatic n ~ e t a languages. W e are tempted to say that the formation, transformation, and co7zjormat w n rules governing the language schema which i s the m d e l of our empirical languoge behavzor are such in so far as they belong to the same class as do rules which
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relate to the construction of a story in a language proper. But such a statement, though of great clarificatory value, is misleading. It suggests that to criticize the empirical language is to confront it with a language proper. B u t it i s quite obvious that we are not in a position to construct a miniature language proper to the expressions of which pragmatic predicates arc applicable. The only thing we can confront the empirical language with, it would seem, is another language schema. But what of the notion of a story in a language proper, which we have been a t such pains to develop? Haven't we just admitted that it is beyond our power to formulate a story in even a miniature language proper? Is not pragmatics, on our own testimony, limited to schematic statements, and is it not a formal contradiction to speak of a schematic language (of whatever level) being about nonschematic subject-matter? Then how can schematic propositions be about "stories in languages proper?" Here is indeed something to be cleared up before n7e can explain what is meant by "philosophical criticism of the empirical language." Let us raise the question, "In what language does the statement 'L is a language schema' belong?" If 'language-schema' and 'language proper' are formal predicates, it is clear that they do not belong in L. Do they belong to the metalanguage which constitutes L? No, for in view of what we said a t the time of introducing these terms, it is clear that if they concern formal features of language, it is the rules relating to language-schemata and languages proper that are being compared. We are thus forced to the conclusion that if these predicates are formal predicates, they belong in a language two levels above their ostensible subject-matter. They must be disguised versions of predicates applying to rules. But the latter predicates must surely be 'schematic rule' and 'rule proper,' and a moment's reflection shows that the same difficulty breaks out all over again. 'Language schema' and 'language proper' are not formal predicates, and 'language' as a term with which they can be associated i s a psycho-sociological term, rather than one belonging to formal science. The problem we were worrying about in the final sentences of the preceding paragraph is a pseudo-problem. T o talk about a story consisting of a P-complete set of atomic sentences i s formally consistent even though from the standpoint of behavioral science the person so talking i s talking a language-schema. It is an important psychological fact that the formal devices of language-schemata regarded as spatio-temporal facts, function as adequate cues for symbol-formation and -transformation behavior, for which the complete cues would be given only by devices belonging to a language proper. It is this psychological fact and what it involves that makes any other than the most rudimentary formal manipulations possible, and hence makes possible mathematical activity and philosophical activity. From the standpoint of behavioral science, all but the most trivial and miniature formal systems are schemata.
Returning, then, to formal considerations (even though from the standpoint of behavioral science vie are talking schematically), me must come to a final
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reckoning with naive realism. This reckoning will consist in a clarification of the relation between an object-language and "the world it is about." The usual temptation has been to argue that if a language is meaningful, then its expressions mean items and classes of items in the world; while if the language is meaningless, then there is no problem as to what its expressions mean. Reasoning of this type is a perfect illustration of the way in which a factualistic interpretation of 'meaningful' inevitably leads to factualism in semantics, for it implies that all semantic statements are false except those relating to "the empirically meaningful language." Let us approach the matter from a different direction. Reflection shows that any statement concerning the relation of a language as formal system to "the world" must be a metalinguistic statement. The question immediately arises, "How can a statement have as its subject-matter two such disparate areas as (1) a language as formal system, and (2) the world?" It would appear that it can have either but not both, and that if its subject-matter falls in (1) it is in the meta-language; while if the subject-matter belongs in (2) the statement is in the object-language. Must we then say that it is impossible to talk about the relation of a language as formal system to the world? Would not such an admission constitute a surrendering of the fruits of semantic analysis? The answer to the first of the above questions is 'yes'; but t o the second 'no'! I t is impossible to talk about the relation of language to the world, for the simple reason that 'designates' is not an object-language predicate. It must be understood once and for all that talking about the designata of object-language expressions is, and i s only, a n essential ingredient in the formal devices which specify the decidabilitg of semantic and pragmatic predicates with respect to these expressions. Thus, in the sentence " 'p' designates p," the letter p without quotes, and the letter p with quotes belong to the same frame of reference; the predicate 'designates' and the letter p without quotes (in this context) have as their be-all and end-all the gearing in with semantical and pragmatic rules relating to the decidability of " 'p' is true," " 'p' is verified-in-S," and so on. There is thus no sense to the notion of one privileged language or group of languages "really designating" whereas other ("meaningless") languages somehow "merely go through the motions." All 2anguages (in the formal-pragmatic, as opposed to the factual behavioral sense of the ternzlO)are formal systems, the expressions 10 One of t h e central theses of this paper concerns the terms 'language' and 'meta-language.' We have insisted t h a t two irreducibly different usages of the term llanguage' must be distinguished, namely, the factual and the formal, or, more suggestively, the descriptive and the constitutive. I n the factual-descriptive usage, a language is a set of socio-psychologico-historical facts. I n this context, the concepts in terms of which we describe a language are factual concepts, such as goal-behavior, substitute stimuli, etc., together with a strong dose of statistics. The "meta-language" i n terms of which we describe a language thus understood is a "meta-language" in a purely factual sense; from the formal standpoint i t is no more a meta-language than is language about non-linguistic socio-psychologicohistorical states of affairs. As long as we are dealing with languages i n the factual sense, we are not making use of the concepts of t h e format theory of language, even when we talk
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of which designate if and what the meta-language constituting the language says they do. T o p u t i t bluntly, there are, from the standpoint of pragmatics, as m a n y desigmted worlds as there a r e designating stories. For (I) the constitution of a story involves the use of designation sentences; (2) "Story S designates world W" is a suitcase way of saying " 'p' designates p, 'q' designates q . , ., and Story ('p,' 'q,' . . .)"; and (3) "S1 designates W," is quite compatible with "Sz designates W2." Thus any collection of expressions which is formulated in accordance with the requirements which define a story is "about a world," for this is merely another way of saying that designation sentences are part of the mechanism of constructing a story. Furthermore, pragmatic predicates are decidable with respect t o the sentences of a n y story, and on purely formal grounds. Thus, epistemological predicates, even 'veriJied' and 'confirmed' have n o intrinsic tie with a n y single world, with "THE" world. They a r e purely formal predicates, and do not discriminate among formal systems (stories) provided that a l l the systems alike conform to the rules which make these predicates applicable. This principle of indifference
could be discarded only if something analogous t o the ontological argument could be formulated in pure pragmatics. about sentences, meaning, and having the same meaning as. I n such a context, the latter concepts are purely faotual. What, then, would i t be t o talk formally about an historical language such as French? T o talk about a language, in the formal sense of the term 'language' is, as we have seen, t o posit the language, that is t o say (schematically) t o constitute the language-cum-story-of-aworld-in-which-it-is-used. It is nonsense, however, to talk about positing French as a n historical language. Does this mean that one who is talking formally about (positing) a language, cannot be talking formally about, say, French? The answer consists in drawing a distinction; or, better, in introducing a new sense t o the expression "talking about a language." The schematic formal language-behavior (positing) of a logician Jones will be said t o be about the French language, if a stratum of that behavior conforms t o the verbal habits of French speaking people. This account is clearly an over-simplification; yet in terms of i t we are able t o clarify the customary distinction between 'pure' and 'applied' semiotic. After one has made the fundamental distinction between formal linguistics and socio-psychologico-historical linguistics, we turn our attention to the former, and classify the activities of the formal student of language according to whether or not a stratum of his utterances gears in with our own language habits, or those of a recognizable historical group of individuals. Although the activities are equally formal and pure in both cases; i t is useful, though misleading, t o refer to the case where there is this gearing in as "applied semiotic." The important thing i s to avoid confusing "applied semiotic" in this sense with socio-phychologico-historical linguistics. The following analogy may be helpful; The theory of chess is a branch of the pure theory of "capture" games; as such a branch i t must be carefully distinguished from the descriptive study of historical chess games. Note that the pragmatic formal mode of speech of whatever metalinguistic level clarifies the relation of the factual to the formal elements in a "world." I n this sense, 2heformal mode bends back o n itselj. As fact, a metalanguage of this level can be described in psychological terms. However, as formal mode of speech, i t must "itself" be constituted in a more complex metalanguage. This new constituting is autonomous, and is "about" the former only in this factual-descriptive sense that the manipulations of the former are glimpsed i n its manipulations. See also footnote 11 below.
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We are now in a position to characterize the pragmatic concept of a story in a way which brings out the status of this concept as a regulative idea. Using the terminology we have just introduced, we can see that the requirement that a story contain a verification base amounts to the requirement that the world designated by the story include items which are tokens of sentences in the story, which tokens are co-experienced with the items designated by the sentences they token, which latter items they themselves also designate as being tokens of these sentences. These tokens are the clarified equivalent of the Konstatierungen or Protokolsaetze of that stage of Logical Positivism which came as close as can any theory of psychological evidenz to the view that epistemological predicates have the same type of decidability as do those of pure mathematics. The constituting of a story, S, thus involves (a) the story as type; (b) the world designated by the story (no naive realism, please!); and (c) items in (b) which token the sentences verified-in-S. Consequently, the constituting (by what from the behavioral standpoint is schematic symbol behavior) of a story-cumworld, is the constituting of a story-cum-world-in-which-the-veriJicatthe-story-are-tokened. This means that we have made some progress in our attempt to formalize the notion of a language as the sort of thing that is about the world in which it is used. That it is only a beginning will be emphasized in a moment. What concerns us now is the fact that in the case of certain sentences in a story it is an analytic proposition that such and such items in the world designated by the story are tokens of them, and as such qualify for the same syntactical, semantical, and pragmatic predicates as do the types of which they are tokens. (Note that a type expression is not a class of token expressions; the difference in status between type and token goes back to the difference between the left hand and the right hand sides of the designation sentences involved in constituting the story.) If we look a t the matter from the other end, we see that to characterize certain items in a world in terms of meta linguistic predicates is to talk in a pragmatic meta-language about them as tokens of sentences in a story designating that world; or, more accurately, since this would be true only of the most elementary pragmatic predicates, as tokens of expressions in the language in which the story is formulated, which expressions are related in certain formally defined ways to sentences of the story. The importance of the above analysis consists in the fact that it enables us t o clarify the notion of one fact in a world being about another fact in the same world, in a formal as opposed to psychologico-factual sense of 'about.' But we must clarify also the notion of a "world in which statements are made attributing pragmatic (hence also semantic, syntactic) predicates to empirical language expressions. " We are led to distinguish between stories-cum40rlds belonging to higher and lower constitutive levels, for the above notion turns out to be that of a world which includes not only items which are tokens of first-level sentences, but also items which are tokens of pragmatic meta-sentences. Such a world cannot be constituted in a pragmatic meta-language. It must be constituted in a metameta-language which pictures both a pragmatic meta-language and its first-level language, just as a pragmatic meta-language contains the picture of a first-level
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language." I t may not be too misleading to say that the concept of a storycum-world as constituted in such a meta-meta-language is the schematic (from the psychological stand-point) concept of a story-cum-world-containing-at-leastone-confirmer-of-the-story, that is to say, of a story about a world ccmtuining an omniscient knower of the world designated by the story.12 It is in terms of such a structure that the "attribution of metalinguistic predicates to language as fact" (see pp. 7ff) is to be clarified. Notice, again, that what can be clarified is the notion of one item in a world being in a formal sense about another item in the same world, which in turn has some direct or indirect relation to the same world. It is a matter of the same world as, and not of the world toul court. If it is asked, "are you not suggesting an infinite hierarchy of pragmatic structures?", the answer consists in pointing out the following: (1) Pragmatic predicates (and hence semantic predicates in the full sense in which they gear in with pragmatic predicates and concern the relation of empirical language expressions to a world) make sense only with the names of expressions in an empirical language. It makes no sense to speak of a pragmatic meta-metalanguage if by it is meant a meta-meta-language in which pragmatic predicates (e.g. 'verified') are applied to pragmatic meta-sentences. I t is, however, permissible to characterize a meta-meta-language which contains a picture of a pragmatic meta-language as itself pragmatic, provided this confusion is avoided. (2) Above the levels in which we clarify the use of an empirical language in its world, and the use of pragmatic (and hence semantic, syntactic) predicates in the same world, the constitutive hierarchy becomes trivial. It is the tokening of sentences involving the "same" syntactical predicates which is clarified in higher and higher constitutive levels. Thus, the statements of Pure Pragmatics itself are statements in which the predicates are 'theorem', 'analytic', etc., and in considering the occurrence of philosophical statements in a world, we pass to the general problem concerning the place of analytic systems in a world of fact. If philosophical propositions are propositions in the pure theory of languages (the pure syntax of pragmatic meta-languages), in hat sense is there a philo11 The point we have been making concerning the nature of a meta-language (see p. 32 above) can be generalized. All t h e expressions of a language of whatever level belong t o t h a t level, even should they be, for example, meta-meta-language expressions "about the relation of its immediate object-language (a meta-language) t o a first-level language." It is clear t h a t this irreducible stratification of languages can be transcended only by abandoning formal categories and talking in psychological terms regarding symbol-behavior, and symbol-behavior "about" symbol behavior, where only psychological categories are involved, and even "about" (not t o be confused with the semantic term 'designates') is a factual predicate. There is no formal elevator t h a t takes us from one meta-linguistic level t o another. Each level formally "reconstructs" the lower levels. I t is clear from this t h a t the notion of reconstruction is a factual one, a s is the notion of levels in this context. l2 As s first approximation, t h e notion of a world which includes a confirmer of the designating story (which, of course, has no theological implications) can be characterized a s a set of co-experiences which token (I) all sentences of the story, a s well a s (2) the meta-sentences which assign pragmatic predicates t o the type sentences making up the story. The next step would be the clarification of the notion of a world which contains items which are tokens of sentences characterizing the assignment of pragmatic predicates as analytic or self-contradictory.
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WILFRID SELLARS
sophical criticism of "the empirical language?" We have seen that from the stand point of formal analysis, there is no such thing as the language. Consequently, if it consists of philosophical statements, philosophical "criticism" could only be the formulation of theorems in the pure theory of language, and could not be in a formal sense about "the empirical language". Such "criticism" would be comparable to criticizing Johnny's "2 plus 2 equals 5" by demonstrating that "2 plus 2 equals 4". On the other hand, from the standpoint of behavioral science, the philosopher is one who, like the mathematician, has developed a highly integrated system of formation and transformation habits,-habits which stand over and against the habits which are the various strata of the empirical language. From this standpoint, to say that a philosopher is philosophizing about the empirical language is to make factual statements to the effect that the habits, which are the empirical language from the standpoint of psychology, are embedded in his philosophical habits of symbol-behavior. Tlze concept of philosophical criticism and clarification is a factual concept. Notice that we are now talking about habits and behavior, rather than about rules, types and tokens. In this frame there is confrontation of habit with habit; of a confused set of habits relating to the assignment of pragmatic predicates (the pragmatic meta-language of commonsense) with the corresponding habits of the philosopher; of a confused set of habits with respect to "known for certain" with the formalist's use of "theorem". The habits of any formal scientist, like those of the mathematician in particular are tautology-habits.13 We can urge their adoption; we can point to the practical consequences of not adopting them. The same is true of justifiatwn. Thus, a "justification of induction" is either a tautology in pragmatics; or else it is a recomrncndation of a set of tautology-habits for "law," "confirmed-to-degree-n," "evidence," etc. "Are you not saying that, after all, the pragmatist has the last word?", I shall be asked. In a sense this is true. But the pragmatist must take the bitter along with the sweet; for the "last word" is not a philosophical proposition. Philosophy is pure formalism; pure theory of language. The recommendation of formalisms for their utility is not philosophy. Hume's scepticism was a consequence of his mistake in supposing that the philosophical questions he asked in ehe study were sweeping questions of fact, and that therefore outside the study he took an unquestioning attitude towards factual propositions questioned in the study. The truth of the matter, and I speak in the tradition of Hume, is very opposite. There are no factual statements which become philosophical in the study (though there are non-factual statements which are philosophical outside the study) ;and in philosophy, scepticism is a self-contradictory position. University of Minnesota, Minneapolis 18 The term 'tautology-habit' is clearly not a term in formal science. As I am wing the term, it stands to the 'tautology' of formal science as the 'language' of descriptive to the 'language' of formal linguistics (see footnote 10 above). As a descriptive term, 'tautologyhabit' is a dispositional term corresponding to 'tautology-behavior', (roughly) behavior which has the consequences characteristic of "It is raining or it is not raining."
